Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2010 witii funding from NCSU Libraries Iittp://www.arcliive.org/details/georgicalessays04liunt ic GEORGICAL ESSAYS, .0 GEORGICAL S S A Y S: IT J. HUNTER, M, D, F. R. S. L. SC E. NISI UTILE EST QUOD FACIMUS STULTA EST GLORIA. PJucd. VOLUME IV. YORK: Printed by T. Wilson and R. Spence, High Ousegate, FOR THE AUTHOR ; And sold by J. Mawman, Poultry; Ca dell, jun. and Davies, Strand, and B. & J. White, Fleetstreet, London: Wilson and Spence, J.Todd, Sothkran & Son, and J. W olstenholme, York ; A. Constable, Edinburgh ; and J, Akcher, Dublin. 1803. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY I. On the Principles of Vegetation. X HE subject of this inquiry has been an ob- ject of pursuit in every age, and of every civir lized country in the world : not uniformly, and uninterruptedly, indeed, but in propor- tion to the peace and tranquillity of respective states and times. Rome, once the mistrefs of the world, did not shine more in the arts of government and civil polity, than in the culti- vation of her lands ; and we find the same patriotic statesmen, who rendered themselves immortal by their unremitting efforts to sup- port and maintain liberty, were not lefs emi- nent for their patriotic ardour to promote prid encourage the beneficial culture of its soil. Intestine commotipns and civil broils are 6 A3 D. H. HILL LIBRARY North Carolina State College 6 GBORGICAL ESSAYS. ever unfriendly to science and the arts, but to none more fo than to agriculture ; for when the occupier's tenure is rendered precarious by civil disorder, he has little inclination and lefs encouragement to attempt improvement ; and still lefs to plough and sov/, it being un- certain who may reap, indeed whether there will be any thing to reap ; it having too com- monly happened, that whole countries hav6 been ravaged and become desolate by the desperate frenzy of hostile and bloody con- tenders, who too frequently are deaf and blind to the remonstrances of humanity. It is certainly clear, from the average prices of corn and provisions of all kinds for twenty years past, that there is not too much land in cultivation. Prices have been considerably above what has been deemed, and that justly too, the medium standard. As a manufactur- ing and commercial country, it is properly the duty of the legislature to provide, as far as consistently may be with the liberty of the subject, that the price of provisions may be kept as nearly as pofsible to their medium value. This is conceived to be very practi- cable, even so as to be a convenience to the grower as well las the consumer. GfeORGICAL ESSAYS. 7 '''Some writers of great abilities* have sup- posed, that the advance of commodities in price, is rather apparent and nominal, than real. Things are not so much, if at all, ad- vanced in price, say they, as is imagined ; the precious metals are exceedingly increased in quantity, and proportionably fallen in value. Pofsibly there may be some truth in this ob- servation, if we go back some hundred years, and if taken upon a scale that comprehends all Europe j but for the term of twenty or fifty, or even from the time Mr. Locke wrote to the present hour, there is little difference in the value of silver or gold ; an ounce of either being of much the same value now as then. The frequent and sudden changes that take place in the price of corn and other commodities, whidh sometimes are at double -the price one year they were the foregoing, must be owing to some other cause than that above-mentioned, which operates slowly, if at all, and is not perceivable in lefs time than a century* If the quantity of corn and provisions at * Mr. Locke, Baron Montesquieu, &c. A4 % GEORGICAL ESSAYS. market always bore the same proportion to the demand there is for them, the price would be always invariably and unchangably the same. The variation of prices, therefore. Is governed by the variation of the said propor- tion. If the demand be greater, and the quan- tity the samCj or the demand the same, and the quantity lefs, the price must necefsarily advance : and vice versa, if the quantity should increase, and the demand continue the same* the price must as necefsarily fall ; and it is not in the power of man to make it othervvise. But though this. immutable relation is beyond our power to alter, we can by art and industry increase the quantity, and thereby lower the price ; cheapnefs being the infallible con- sequence of plenty^ which is the direct object and effect of an improving cultivation. This is a matter of great consequence to the poor labourer, the manufacturer, and merchant; and no disadvantage to the grower; because what he would lose by the fall of price, he would gain with interest by an increase of quantity. It is not easy to conceive how many and hoviT great the improvements are, which have been made iu this most important of all arts^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 9 In the course of the present century. A pa- triotic spirit of uncommon ardour hath gone forth ; and our nobility and gentry, like the Senators of Rome, have set, as it were, their hands to the plough, and exited their tenants and neighbours to practices of which they had no idea before. They have done more ; they have instituted societies, and made them the receptacles and distributors of useful know- ledge i they have raised subscriptions, and added marks of honour, and pecuniary advan- tages, to the rewards which naturally result from the attention and industry of the inge-^ nious artist. Surely the greatest respect is due to the members of all those institutions, v/hose; motives are — public good and universal use- fulnefs. But it must be allowed, that, although much has been done, there still remains much mor§ to do. Experimenters have not always (per- haps but feldom) entered into the views, and ably seconded the intentions of those valuable institutions. Animated with the hope of ob- taining the premiums held out, by dint of ex- traordinary exertions, expensive manures, and a concurrence of fortunate circumstances, more the eflect of chance than of (iesi^n, they 10 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. "pftcn have been the succefsful adventurerSi though at the same time entirely ignorant to %vhat cause they owed their succefs. We too Dften indeed ascribe effects to causes which are no way connected with them. The prac- tice of such men is more like the nostrums of quacks, than the recipes of a regular physician. The medicine may be good, but being ig- norant of principles, they know not how to accommodnte it, as ' different circumstances mav require. Kow vejretation m^v be carried to the greatest degree of perfection, by nieahs easily practicable, and at the same time the most advantageous to the husbandman, is one of the most important inquiries that the human understanding can be employed in the pursuit of. Some ingenious men, however, have made the following the previous question j " What is that substance, matter, or thing, which is the true and only proper food of plants — which enters into the vefsels appointed by nature to receive it, is afsimilated by, and becomes con- stituent parts of them, augmenting their magnitude, extension, and weight, from an -almost imperceptible atom to the weight of CEORGICAt. ESSAYS. 11 many tons, and to a body of inconceivable dimensions?" This question seems much more curious than useful, and is perhaps of very little con- sequence to the husbandman. The philo- sopher may amuse himself by inquiring after first principles, and the elementary parts of bodies, but the farmer should never be diverted from a profitable practice, until one more so is recommended by the succefs of repeated experiments. Various are the opinions of the learned con- cerning this matter. Some suppose the food of plants to be water ; some earth ; others air, nitrous salts, oil. Sec. &c. perhaps all of them wide enough of the mark. It must be coii- fcfsed, we know nothing of the efsence of things. We are not endued with faculties equal to the curious research. Things are known to us by their properties only. But what are their properties by which they are known to us, but certain powers to affect us in a particular manner, and to imprefs dif- ferent sensations and perceptions on our bodily organs? These different perceptions, indeed, eoable us to distinguish, accurately enough; 12 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. one thing from another; but we are totally ignorant of the nature of those powers, and equally so of the efsence or substratum in which they inhere, and by which they are supported. The great system of the universe is governed by general laws ; which, so far as our know- ledge extends, obtain, universally. Gravitation, attraction, repulsion, cohesion, and perhaps many other principles, affect every por- tion of matter that comes within our know- ledge ; but what supports those powers, in "what their energy consists, or from whence they are derived, we are by no means able to apprehend or conceive. Vegetation also ob- tains universally on this glohe. Wherever there is earth, vegetation takes place ; there- fore the principle (or principles) of vegetation, whatsoever it be, or in whatsoever it consists, must be universal; and all that is nccefsary for the husbandman to do, is to prepare his ground effectually, put in his seed or plants at the proper season, and vegetation will most afsufedly follow. Indeed, so prolific is na- ture, as to clothe the face of the globe with herbs and plants in every region, without the intervention or assistance -of man. The fund GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 1$ or magazine, then, which furnishes the pabu- lum or food of plants, is established and sup- plied by the economy of nature, seeing it ob- tains at all times and every where, unafsisted by art. But how and in what manner nature is to be afsisted, how and by what mean§ vegetation is to be promoted, and carried to its utmost and most beneficial degree of per- fection, is the grand desideratum, the great and important object, of our inquiry. Experiments or observations made on oc- currences w^hich happen in the course of things, are the ground-work of all certainty in this matter. Theories, not built upon and sup- ported by experiments, are matters of mere amusement, and have no existence but in the imagination. Unfortunately, experiments have been published by the thousand, which bear the clearest internal evidence of their never having been made but upon paper. Such writers should be regarded as the sharks of society, who would sacrifice truth, mislead mankind, and impose upon the public, to pocket a little money. But to proceed with our inquiry. The principles of vegetation, and the means 14 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. by which It may be promoted in the most sue* eefsful and beneficial manner, may be fitly divided into three general heads, and distin- guished by the term^s mechanical^ chemical^ and nutritive, Tlie mechanical includes every ope- ration v^'hich tends to break, divide, and pul- verise the soil ; whether it be by ploughing and harrowing, digging and hoeing, or by any other means whatever ; that being the most eligible which most effectually performs thq operation at the least expense. Pulverizing the soil may be truly considered as the first step towards an improving vege- tation ; not as proditciiig the food or nourish-, ment of plants, but of putting the soil into a fit condition for receiving it, from whatever source it may be derived, and giving easy ac- cefs to the roots and fibres which extend themselves every way in quest of the same. Chemical principles produce much the same effects, but in a way we cannot so easily, nor so perfectly, comprehend. The mechanical powers are subservient to our wills, and we can continue the use of them until the desired end is obtained ^ but the effects of chemical operations are not so certain in this businels. CEORGICAL ESSAYS. 1$ as ascertain concurrence of circumstances, not always in our power to procure, is neces- sary to produce the hoped-for succefs. Much depends upon the temperature of the seasons, the state of the air, and many other things not in the power of man to foresee or to govern. Fermentation seems to be the principle agent in promoting vegetation by chemical powers. This divides, attenuates, and subtilizes, by means of an internal motion of the parts, which we cannot clearly conceive. Probably it is on this principle that marl, chalk, shells, and every kind of calcareous earth, are ferti- lizers of land. Not by any matter or sub- stance inherent in them, as constituent parts of the same ; but as absorbent bodies, which attract much more powerfully the principles of vegetation than earth alone could do. We come next to inquire concerning nutri- tive principles. And here we have a field to range in, as capacious, at least, as the earth we inhabit, together with its atmosphere ; per- haps much more, even not lefs than the solar system, as that immense body of fire, which is the centre thereof, gives life and energy to the whole creation ; and annually revives, re- animates, and bestows as it were rejuvines- 16 GEORGICAL ESSAYS, cency on ^e whole animal and vegetablo world. But before we proceed on this inquiry, ife may be proper to make a few observations, the truth of which is self-evident, and con- sonant to the common sense of mankind. By common sense, the writer does not mean common opinion ; for nothing is more vague and liable to error than that \ but those ideas which are the same in all men, as proceeding from identical or similar sensations and pre- ceptions involuntarily imprefsed upon them. Ibis is the true and only defensible meaning of the term common sense, though it is fre- quently made to stand for, and exprefs, prin- ciples which are supposed to be innate in the mind, but in fact have nothing common or identical in them, but are as infinitely diver- sified in different men as are their features. There seems to be a natural relation, con- nexion, and dependence, between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. No part of the ter- raqueous globe that we know of, that is oc- cupied by living creatures of any kind, but is replete with vegetables proper for their suste- pance and support j and it is equally certain.. GEORGICAL ESSAY3. 17 that wherever vegetables grow and flourish, it is stocked with animals in proportion thereto. It is sufficiently obvious, that the animal kingdom is maintained and supported by the vegetable ; for though carnivorous animals eat little or no vegetable food, yet they live upon those which are entirely supported by it ; for they never eat each other, unlefs in cases of famine or great distrefs. It is very jDofsible tbe vegetable kingdom may no lefs depend upon the animal for its sustenance and support^ than the animal doth upon it; and if the writer is not much mistaken, pretty clear and strong evidence may be had, that this is really the case ; so that they reciprocally subsist on aiid are supported by each other. It is not many years since that a surprising discovery was made by that very celebrated in- vestigator of nature. Dr. Priestley, who clearly proved by experiment, that common air, when become feculent and putrid by animal respira- tion and perspiration, so as to be unfit for the common purposes of life, is readily purified and made wholesome by the vegetable kingdom, which imbibes and absorbs those putrid steams that are so deadly noxious to animal life. But Volume IV. B IS GtORGICAL ESSAYS. v/hat is most surprising, instead of growing^ sickly in so impure an air as he expected, he found the plants were invigorated, and their growth promoted thereby; so that they were more fresh, green, and healthy, than those which grew in common wholesome respirable air. This wonderful economy of nature, loud- ly proclaims the wisdom and goodnefs of Providence ; for how great soever might be the fund of common air necefsary to the pur- poses of life, such is its continual waste and consumption, that the whole stock must soon have been exhausted, and animal life become extinct, if no provision had been made to purify and render wholesome the original stock, as daily use might require. But not to insist on a particular instance which mav be thousrhttoo curious to establish a general principle upon, let us inquire hovr far this doctrine may be supported by the con- curring testimony of all mankind, in which there is not a pofsibility of deception ; for if those facts which are agreeable to and sup- ported by the common sense of mankind, can- not be depended upon for certain infallible GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 19 truths, then there is no such thing as certainty attainable by human nature. Is it pofsible to doubt, if that glorious luminary the sun, which dispenses heat, and light, and life, to this lower world, hath any real existence, and is the cause of those sensations ? Surely it is not ; and yet in what does this certainty con- sist, but the common sense of mankind ? I see, feel, perceive, and am affected in a parti- cular manner by the appearance of this foun- tain of life ; all mankind are imprest with identical or similar sensations, perceptions, and affections ; therefore no man doubts, or can pofsibly doubt, of the certainty and reality of the sun's existence. All truths which are derived from common sense, are equally certain with the above ; for if it were pofsible that all men could be de- ceived in any of those sensations, preceptions, and affections, which are common to all men ; tliat is, if they could see, feel, and be affected in any way or manner they could not see, ^tt], and be affected, then truth and certainty, to the human mind, would be an impofsible thing; there being no criteria by which truth might be distinguished from falsehood, nor man in- 3 B 2 20 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. dued with faculties to perceive and mark the difference of things. Tliose things then which are felt, perceived, and produce the same sensations and affections in all men, and every where, may be depended upon as truths infallibly certain, beyond a pos- sibility of deception. Not so experiments made by the most careful and the most candid, till they have been repeated again and again; and the first trial confirmed and duly authen- ticated by subsequent ones. Much more is to be feared from the cunning, the artifice, the prepofsefsion, the prejudice, the vanity, and the interest of designing men, who too fre- quently have been found to warp and bend their accounts, to promote their interested views. It is in the observation of every man, from the illiterate occupier of a cottage to the first gardener of a prince, that all kinds of animal substances, when thoroughly digested and corrupted, are the strongest and most power- ful promoters of vegetation. The hair, the skin, the horns and hoofs, the urine and excre- ments, the flesh, blood, sinews, and even the bones, are all richly replete with matter which GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 21 supports and invigorates vegetation univer- sally. It is therefore undeniably certain, that animal substances contain those principles which are the real and genuine food of plants. It is absurd, therefore, to suppose their food is earth, or water, or air, fire, or heat, or any one simple element or thing whatever. It seems clearly evident, that it is a combination of principles derived from animal substances by the chemistry of nature. "When animal substance has been thoroughly putrihed, al- most the whole becomes volatile, and is so far attenuated, subtihzed, and refined, as to be rendered capable of entering the roots and fibres of the minutest plants. It seems then, that as the animal kingdom is entirely supported by the vegetable, so is the vegetable by the animal ; and each is re- ciprocally the support of, and is supported by the other. The matter of each is efsentially the same J each is indued with the principles of life and augmentation, though appearing un- der very ditfcent forms ; each mutually trans- mutable into the other by the mere unafsisted operations of nature. Hence it seems to appear, that the wisdom 6 B 3 22 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. and goodnefs of Providence have established the means of supporting and upholding the present system of the universe, till time shall be no more, by constant, uniform, uninter- rupted powders or laws, which act unceasingly for the mutual conservation of the whole. Every atom of matter, whether animal or vesretable, seems to teem with Jife, yet contains within itself the seeds of corruption and decay. In that state it enters into a new system of organization, and becomes the principle of regeneration and rejuvenescence, which an- nually returns at the appointed seasons, when all appears charming, sprightly, and gay. To this theory it may be objected, that vegetation may be succefsfully promoted by vegetable manures, without the least afsist- ance from animal substance of any kind. Every one knows that it is common to manure the ground by ploughing in green vegetables, such as buck or French wheat, clover, vetches, &c. which often succeed well without any other help whatever. This objection falls short of its object ; it only proves, that profit- able crops may be obtained without the cul- tivator's using animal substances under that form: but the theory supposes, that every GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 25 vegetable is replete with principles derived from animal substances, and only differs from them in being more subtilized and refined. It is equally certain, that vegetation may be powerfully promoted, without laying on or providing any manure at all. The new or horse-hoeing husbandry depends entirely upon reducing and pulverizing the soil. It cannot be reasonably supposed, however, that the spade and hoe, or plough and harrow, convey any fertilizing principles. These operations, which are found to render our lands so sur- prisingly fertile when judiciously performed, only prepare the soil for the easy entrance of those fertilizing principles, with which the at- mosphere is abundantly replete. The atmos- phere is the grand magazine, the great recep- tacle of putrid exhalations, which incefsantly fly off" from all animal substances, the living as well as dead ; and by their specific levity mount up into the air, from whence being condensed, they return in dews, rain, snow, Szc. and impregnate the soil as ^eep as it hath been duly pulverized. It seems very evident then, that whether the husbandman manure his field from the dung-heap, or by ploughing in green vege- 24 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. tables, or by duly exposing it to the unceasing influence of the atmosphere j the principles of vegetation, which he bestows in either case, are efsentially and substantially the same. They all equally originate from putrid anirnal substances. That from the dung-heap is indeed by far the strongest, it having not gone through its last stage of digestion and putre- faction i in this grofs and impure state, it sometimes poisons and kills, and thereby de- feats its intended purpose. It in general, however, when discreetly used, gives great luxuriance, and an enlarged size to the stalks and blades ; but luxuriance is not fruitfulnefs ; indeed they are seldom, if ever, compatible. This holds good in all kinds of grain as well as fruits. Manure imperfectly digested, or used in too great abundance, often defeats the views and hopes of the farmer : he may reap a great burden of straw and very little corn. The same thing may happen from green vege- table manure, unlefs it be ploughed in time enough to undergo a thorough fermentation, and at the last ploughing be intimately blend- ed with the soil. But of this there is no danger in the last-mentioned method of culti- vation ; for the principles of vegetation de- rived from the atmosphere, by thoroughly pulverizing the soil, are so perfectly digested^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 25 subtilized, and refined from the impurities of the former, that unhealthinefs or a surfeit is not to be apprehended ; especially as it is not given all at once like the former, but admi- nistered from time to time as the skilful husbandman may see necefsary. I shall now proceed to consider of the easiest and most effectual means of promoting vegetation, in support of, and consistent with the above principles, I have thus attempted to show that there is a natural relation or connexion between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. That as the animal kingdom lives on, and is wholly sub- sisted by, the vegetable ; so is the vegetable no lefs maintained and supported by the ani- mal. Each by turns being mutually the sup- port of and supported by the other. If this theory be just, animal substance, from whatever subject it is derived, or under what- ever form it may appear, when it is perfectly digested and putrified, subtilized, and become volatile, is the true, genuine, and sole aliment of plants. The dunghill, which consists chiefly of animal excrements, contains the greatest quantity of nutritive principles of any 26 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. substance whatever of equal dimensions, the constituent parts of animals only excepted. The dunghill, therefore, is the greatest and most powerful fertilizer of land; and could the farmer acquire as much of it, upon mode- rate terms, as he chose, he might soon make his land as fertile as the climate would admit, or he could desire. But in most situations, the quantity to be got, as every one knows, bears a very small proportion, indeed, to the quantity wanted. As a substitute and succedaneum to the dung-heap, ploughing in green vegetables has been adopted with succefs. This practice is a kind of improved fallowing : for though the land be cropped, its produce at a proper sea- son is ploughed in, and no present profit is derived from it. The land therefore may be properly said to be under fallow, until by future culture it is in fit condition to receive the seed of a future crop. But the more general practice is, when the land has been exhausted by having been too frequently cropped, and is become foul and full of weeds, to give it a year's fallow ; or sometimes two winters and a summer's fallow, which is often necefsary to eradicate the weeds. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ST thoroughly pulverize the soil, and render it sufficiently fertile to bear a crop of wheat. But when a man enters upon a farm that has been racked out by the former tenant, and the whole of it left in the sad condition above represented, to give it a year's fallow, without receiving any beneficial return, would to most prove a severe trial both to their patience and their pockets. Mr. Tull, to whose memory the most grate- ful tribute of respect is due, has in a great variety of instances shown to what an amazing degree of fertility even very poor land may be brought by repeated and frequent breaking, dividing, and pulverizing the soil. The truth and propriety of his principles are generally allowed, and indeed cannot be well contro- verted, how much soever the mode he adopted, and his method of applying them, may be de- cried by some, and, by the peculiar circum- stances of the land of others, rendered imprac- ticable. The soil of his estate was in general light and fragile, and, in all respects, pecu- liarly suitable to his mode of practice. AH land, whatever may be its temperature, may be fertilized and improved by frequent plough- ing and harrowing, if they are well timed ; but 28 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. all land is not equally suitable to the drill and horse-hoeing culture ; and some, though, per- haps, comparatively little, not at all so. Hilly countries, land that is rocky, or abounding with large loose stones, or that consists of a strong, moist, adhesive clay, is not, in general, suit- able to the drill culture ; but the land that is not suitable, I apprehend, bears no great pro- portion to that which is. The intelligent husbandman, who is convinced of the truth of the principles, will readily vary the applica- tion of them as circumstances may require. When land is exhausted, quits out of tilth, and overrun with the strongest and most noxious weeds, it is absolutely necefsary to eradicate them, to clean and pulverize the soil ; otherwise the seed, whatever it may be, might as well be thrown on the highway, as sown in land in that condition. It is a question of great importance, how and by what means land may be fertilized and its vigour restored, the weeds displaced and de- stroyed, consistently with the beneficial cul- ture of a profitable crop growing on the same field at the same time. It will readily occur to the reader, that this is not pofsible to be done in any mode of culture but that of plant* GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ^9 ing in drills, and pulverizing the soil by ploughing and horse-hoeing the intervals during the growth of the crop through the whole summer. Mr. Tull rightly advised well-timed ploughing and harrowing, till the land was thoroughly pulverized and weJl cleaned of weeds ; for the grain and plants, which were chiefly the subjects of his culture, would, by no means, admit of being sown in an exhausted soil, overrun with weeds, witli the least prospect of a crop, though it may be ever so certain that the growth of the several articles he cultivated, was promoted in the most beneficial manner, by the dqe use of the horse-hoe, or hge-plough, Wheat, turnips, lucern, and sainfoin, and indeed every other kind of plant, when well fixed and establibhed in the ground, may be greatly promoted in their growth^ by the dis- creet use of the hoe-plough ; but previous to the use of this instrument, thev must have ar- rived to a certain stage of their growth, other- wise the hoe-plough would entirely displace and totally destroy them. It is, therefore, ab- solutely necefsar}^, that the land in which these articles are to be sowed, should, at least, be moderately fertile, and very clean from 30 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. weeds, which can be effected only by bemg thoroughly pulverized previous to its being sown. Turnips, lucern, sainfoin, clover, and many others, are very precarious articles, even when skill has been used, and great pains taken, to insure a crop. Land is sometimes sowed with turnips, three or four times to no purpose, and many other crops frequently miscarry, through circumstances which human sagacity cannot foresee, or human prudence remedy. The failure of these articles is generally imputed to the ravages of the fly ; and true it is, that they prey upon them by millions ; but if my ob- servations are just, the evil does not begin there. It is common for the seeds of the above-mentioned plants to come up finely and look healthy ; but heat and drought coming on, the juices of the young plants thicken and stagnate, circulation is stopped, they wither, and are suddenly destroyed by the fly. It is very common to see whole fields in this con- dition, excepting under the shadow of the hedges, which, in some measure, retain the dews of the nights, and screen the young plants from the scorching sun-beams. We frequently see very flourishing plants under GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 31 hedges, when the crop of the rest of the field is entirely destroyed; and I am clearly of opi- nion, the same disappointment would happen in every poor soil, if the appearance of the plants were immediately followed by a few dry hot scorching days, though there should not be a fly to prey upon them. The best means to guard against such a disappointment, when any of these articles are to stand for a crop in the place they are sowed, is thoroughly to cleanse the ground, duly break, divide, and pulverize the soil, and drefs it with a well- prepared artificial compost, which, if the season should not prove singularly unfavour- able, would, most probably, give a degree of vigour to the young plants, which would to- tally defeat the ravages of the fly; and if the land were to be sown in drills, a very mode- rate quantity of the compost being regularly spread in the path of the drill, previous to the sowing the seed, would be sufficient for the purpose. A plentiful crop of turnips, or of artificial grafses, is a matter of very great importance to a farmer who has a large stock of cattle to feed ; it therefore merits his most serious atten- tion, how and by what means he may render 32 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the growth of those articles more constant and certain, which in the common courfe of prac- tice are very precarious, and not to be de- pended upon. For this purpose, I would ad- vise him to keep twenty, thirty, or fifty loads {the quantity proportioned to the extent of his farm) of a good compost always by him, ready prepared, to be used as occasion may require. This may be done at a very moderate expense in the following m.anner: — Of a field that is conveniently situated^ plough and harrow^ the headlands, till the soil be well divided and in fine tilth -, then take a cart-load, or forty bushels, of good strong well- burnt lime, fresh from the kiln, and place it in little heaps, about a bushel in each, along the middle of the said headlands, about four feet distant from each other. This done, with a shovel cover the heaps of lime with four or five times its quantity of pulverized earth, and pat it down close with the back of a shovel, so as to exclude both the rain and the air. In a few days, the moisture of the earth will have difsolved the lime, and reduced it to a powder. A workman, however, should from time to time inspect the heaps, for they will soon begin to heave and sw^ell, and have large GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 33 fifsures in them, which must be carefully filled up by having more earth thrown upon them, and patted down close. This must be re- peated as often as occasion may require ; for rain would cause the lime to run into a kind of irreducible calx, and the air would rob it of its fertihzing quality, as it is well known it does of its medicinal virtue. When the Hme is perfectly reduced to a powder, the earth and lime must be chopped down with a spade, ?mrl intimately blended and incorporated to- gether. This is most conveniently done in form of a long bank, or ridge, in the middle of which a large furrow, or opening, must be made sufficient to receive five cart-loads (forty bushels each) of good fat spit dung; then the earth and lime must be thrown over the dun"- so as to cover the whole. In this manner i^t must lie some months, or till the dung is in a state of difsolution, which it-will soon be by means of the lime. When arrived to this state, it must again be turned over, and incorporated as intimately as pofsible, and then formed into a heap to be kept for use. Earth, lime, and dung, thus managed, constitute an unctuous saponaneous mafs of great fertility, and per- haps this is the most beneficial method of manuring with lime of any in use; for at the Volivnc IF. C 34 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. same time that it promotes the growth of the crop, it mcHorates and improves the soil y whereas, in the common way of using it, it is thought by most, that though it may invigorate tor a crop or two, yet it infallibly impoverishes the land. It is true, however, that there is no article in the whole art of husbandry, con- cerning which even practical men are more divided, than about lime. Some declare they have expended large sums of money in the use of it, without deriving the least benefit from it ; with others, it is the sine qua nan of vegetation ; without it, they think they had better not sow their land ; indeed, the prac- tice so far prevails in some counties, that the tenant is tied down by an article in his lease to lay on a certain quantity every third or fourth crop, from sixty to one hundred and sixty bushels an acre. It is not difficult to account for this seeming irreconcileable dif- ference of opinions, but it would require more room and time than can be allowed at pre- sent. I will only add, that a compost formed as above, would make an excellent top-dref- sing to be used in the spring, and if not wanted for the purposes first-mentioned, would be very useful tor the last. But from GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 35 this long digrefsion, let us return to our sub- ject. We will suppose the land we have to cul- tivate is in its nature rather poor and unfertile, and rendered more so by being too frequently cropped, and its culture neglected, and con- sequently overrun with the worst kind of weeds; the question is, what mode of culture will bring such land into proper tilth, and produce a profitable crop at the same time with the least expense? To answer this pur- pose, I have already observed, the crop must be planted in rows with intervals sufficiently wide to admit the free use of the hoc-plough whilst the crop is growing, as often as the growth of the weeds requires it. This will be three, or perhaps four tim.es, in such foul land, during the course of the summer. For this purpose I know only of three or fout ar- ticles which will by any means answer. These are, the diiTerent species of cabbage plants, beans, potatoes, and perhaps peas^'e. I have tried carrots, parfnips, turnips, turnip- rooted cabbage, lucern, sainfoin, and every sort of grain, but without the least succefs; for in spite of every effort, the weeds baffled all attempts, and destroyed the young plants C2 36 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. that arose from seed, before the hoe-plough could be introduced. Cabbages, beans, and potatoes, were all the articles that afforded a profitable return. The field in which I made my experiments is seven acres, and was ex- actly in the poor condition above described. The method 1 pursued to bring thi:5 field into proper tilth is as follows, and I believe a better cannot be devised. As soon as harvest is well over, give the field a clean ploughing in the usual manner. Dragging and harrowing at this season can seldom be of any use; the earth is generally too adhesive to part with the roots which bind it together. As soon as the ploughing is finished, give it another directly acrofs the first; but this must be performed in a manner very different from the former. Begin at the farther end of the field, and with one bout of the plough, make the furrows as deep, and the ridge as narrow and as high as may be. Upon the outvi'ard edge of the outward furrow enter the plough-share, and with another bout of the plough form a second ridge, and so pro- ceed through the whole field. It will then lie in deep open furrows, and high narrow ridges, and consequently exposed to the in- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 37 fluenccs of the atmosphere in the largest extent of superficies that is pofsible. If the winter should prove ever so wet, the ridges will be kept dry by the open furrows; but if it should prove severe, the frost will penetrate quite through the ridges, and impregnate almost the whole soil they contain. U in the latter end of February, or any part of March, the weather should be dry and open, the ridges may be drawn down by the drags, and the field levelled to prepare it for planting. The advantage of this method must needs be evident to every practical man, for nothing in art or nature renders even tlie most adhesive soil so short and friable as exposing it through the winter to the frost. This being the state of the field, we proceed now to prepare it for planting. On the fur- ther side of the field, about a yard distant from the hedge, draw a furrow with the plough from one end of the field to the other, and return the plough again in the same fur- row. This will make it wide, deep, and clean. Then enter the ploughshare about nine inches distant from the cd^e of the furrow, and with one bout of the plough, throw the earth on each side into the middle of the furrow. A 1 C3 58 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. second bout of the plough, performed in the same manner, wijl form a high ridge about three feet wide. It is evident, a ridge thus formed will, under the crown or most elevated part of it, have tzvice the depth of pulverized earth that can be had in common ploughing. The whole field is to be formed into ridges in the same manner as the first. In land that is tolerably clean, and in pretty good tilth, the. intervals between the ranks of plants on the tops of these ridges will be wide enough for the hoe-plough to work, and keep it so. But land in the sad condition above described, might be more conveniently and effectually cleansed and improved by forming the ridges by the bouts of the plough, which would make them about four feet nnd a half wide, and con- sequently there would be intervals of near four feet for the hoe-plough to work in. If the season should prove favourable, and the intervals ploughed three times in the course of the summer, the soil would be reduced al- most to a powder. Let us suppose then the field to be formed into ihrcc-bout i^idges as above, and the time for planting beans arrived ; with a common plough I make a clean furrow on the crown GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 39 of- each ridge, about a foot wide, and four inches deep, going down one riuge and up the next, and so on through the whole field. The beans are then dropped in the furrows, either in two rows, seven or eight inches asunder, or in a single row in the middle of the furrow. If the seed be good, the distance piay be three inches bean from beanj if other- wise, they should be planted closer. This may be performed very conveniently by a small hand-barrel dri]], with which a boy might plant six acres a day; or for want of such an instrument, the beans might be dropped by women, boys, and girls, very expeditiously j as the furrow would be an infallible guide, which they could not mistake either in the rows or depth, though they might somewhat in the distance of the beans , but as the fur- rovv's w^ould remain open for the present, every error would be liable to detection. The beans being planted, they may be very expeditiously covered by a pair of harrows being lashed to a couple of poles at a proper distance to work, on the tops of the ridges, and drawn by a pair of horses; one going in each furrow,, two ridges may be covered at C4 40 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. a tiine, without the horses stepping upon jcither. A drill, which makes the furrows, drops the seed, and covers it at the same time, con- veys an idea of much greater perfection than the method here advised ; but, all things con- sidered, I do not know but in practice this may be the more eligible method of the two, especially for beans and pease ; and for setting potatoes and cabbage plants, I think it greatly preferable to all others. A furrow made, as iibove, is vastly preferable to any channel that can be made with the share of a drill; for though the share be set to a certain depth, at the discretion of the ploughman, from which it cannot deviate, yet if the soil be well pul- verised, as it ought, it will run into the chan- nels, and cause the seed to He at unequal depths ; this in the autumn indeed, may be of no consequence, as at that season there is no danger of v.'anting moisture to make the seeds vegetate ; but in the spring, it is of the utmost consequence to have the seed buried at an equal and proper depth ; to the want of which, the very short crops of barley and oats were almost entirely owing the last summer. The seed that lay three or four inches deep came GEORGICAL E5SAY5. 41 up well, and ripened in good time ; but v.liat lay shallow, either never came up at all, or, ■which was much worse, so late, as not to be any thing near ripe -, it was therefore cut green, and lay so long to wither before it could be safely housed, that what little was ripe and would have been good, was much reduced in its value by laying so long in the field. I am very clearly of opinion, that if the barley last season had been drilled in equally distant furrows of four inches deep, and about a foot from each other, the crop in this country had been three times as great at least, though much lefs than half the seed would have been sufficient ; this would have made a difference of three rents at least to the farmer. The beans being planted, suppose the be- ginning of \rarch, before the end of April a plentiful crop of weeds may be expected, not- withstanding the pains that have been taken to prevent it. 1 hose which arc in or near the rows of beans, should be cut up with the hand-hoc ; and the sooner this is done the better, after the beans are high enough for the hoer^s direction. The weeds in the in- tervals may stand somewhat longer, till the beans are sufficiently estal>libhed in the-ground. 42 CEORGICAL ESSAYS. SO as not to suffer from the free use of the borse-hoe. At this stage of their growth, this instrument should be introduced, and a furrow cut as near one of the ranks as may be with safety, and the earth thrown into the interval ; on its return, it must cut a furrow on the other side of the row, and so on till the whole field be finished. There will then be a furrow on each side of the rows, and high ridges in the middle of the intervals. These should be well harrowed, with an instrument made of a proper width to pafs between the rows, without injuring the beans. Tliis would level the ground, break the clods, and tear out many of the weeds. A plough^ with a double mould-board is then to split the ridges in the middle of the intervals, throwing one half to the right, the other to the left, to earth up the beans. Thus disposed, it may remain for a month or six weeks, or till the weeds appear. Then the hoe-plough should be set to work again, always observing to go as near the rows as may be with safety. The harrow should follow the hoe-plough, and the plough with a double mould-board the harrow ; and this is to be repeated as ofteri as there may ap- pear to be any occasion, which cannot well 6 CEOR.GICAL ESSAYS. 45 jjkD more than three times hi the coarse of the summer. It makes no material diirercnce whether the crop be beans, potatoes, or cabbage. That mode of practice which is beneficial to one, will be equally so to all, A field under this mode of culture, it is evident, v/ould have all the advantages of a year's fallow, together with a beneficial crop. The beans being reaped and carried, the field would be thought by most to be in very good tilth tor a crop of wheat.' Nothing more would be nec^fsary than to plough and harrow the intervals, which might be done with two bouts of the plough in each interval, in which two, three, or four rows of wheat might be drilled, at the discretion of the owner. But 1 should prefer pivin^ it another winter's i-allow, which should be perforrned exactly in the same manner as the former. You may then either have ano- ther crop of beans, or, which I think much better, a crop of potatoes. The land is to be prepared, and to lie fallow through the winter, as before directed for beans. The best season for planting beans is in March, but potatoes ihould not be planted before the middle of 4^ GEOrvGICAL ESSAYS. April at soonest ; but, in most years, the be- ginning of May is safer and better. Last year I planted about three quarters of an acre the 15th and 16th of April j they came np wel], and iooked very fine and vigorous. On the morning of the 2 1st of ^lay, there was a sharp hoar-frost, vv-hich shrivelled up the greens of the potatoes, as if they had been scorched by fire ; the consequence v/as, the stalks died down to the ground, and ap- peared as if all destroyed ; however, in some time "they shot forth again, and produced a better crop, all things considered, than I ex- pected. The produce v.t.s thirtysix sacks and a half on three quarters of an acre, (2401b. to the sack,) which, at 'Is. a sack, (the present price here,) come to 71. 6s. being after the rate of 9l. 1 rS. 8d. per acre. Had this land b?en prepared in the manner above described, I cannot have a doubt but the pro- duce would have been double at least. The land was in wheat the preceding year. I could not get pofsefsion till January 1785, and by reason of snow and hard frost, it could not be ploughed till late in March. It was thrown into narrow ridges, by two bouts of the plough; and the potatoc sets, instead of being planted GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 45 in the furrows made on the crowns of the ridges, as I had directed, were, by a most UnaccountabJe blunder, very injudiciously- dropped on the hard bottoms of the parting furrows between the ridges, I had no re- medy kk to correct this mistake, but by running the plough up each side of the fur- row ; by this means new ridges were formed with the potatoe sets, exactly under the crown of each ridge, and the sets were well covered with mould very w^ell broken; but still they lay on a bed of hard uncultivated earth, which is a very great impediment to vegeta- tion i for thougli the potatoe generally grows above the set, the roots and fibres which fur- i^ish it with nourii^hment penetrate deep, and every way, in a well-prepared soil. Nothing encourages and promotes the growth of all kinds of plants so much asi breaking the soil as deep as the staple of the land will allow ; and it is for this reason that I advise deep clean furrows should be opened, and the crown of the ridges, which are to be planted, should lie exactly over them. The furrows on the tops of the ridges need not be more than four inches deep for beans ; but it must be six, at ttadij for potatoes 3 fQr,;i!raosT ■46 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the whole of their produce is above the origi- nal set, and therefol'e should have six or eight inches to grow in. A field thus planted with potatoes following a crop of beans, if duly cultivated with the hoe-plough, harrow, and plough with a double mould-board, as above-directed, would reduce almost any soil to a perfect tilth. - The inter- vals might be prepared in good time for a crop of wheat, and the seed drilled in, if con- venient, before the potatoes were taken up. Fallowing land has been generally practised to restore its fertility, especially where manure is not to be got in sufficient quantities ; and all experience shews that the practice is right. But none have or can have an adequate idea of the great benefit of keeping the soil in a thorough pulverized state, fxcept those who have paid a close attention thereto. '■•*Ih a very hot and dry season, I have seen cabbage and other plants which were wither- ing and dying, seemingly beyond a pofsibility of recovery, restored iii a very short time to a vigorous state, merely by deep hoeing, and earihiifg- tliem'up well. I will quote one in- CEOttGICAL ESSAYS. 4-1^ Stance in particular, because it is a very re- iTiarkable one : — The field above-mcntiDned of seven acres, I use for a field of experiments. About three quarters of an acre of it I had dug with the spade, in order to mark the difference between that instrument and the plough. A plot of the ground thus dug w^as planted with beans, in rows three feet asunder, and about four inches apart in the rows. It was wheat-stubble, very poor, and full of weeds, and dug but once. The beans came up well, but the season proved most unpromising. AVhen three or four inches high, they appeared to be struck with the blight, and the tops were infested by a great number of insects, not unlike a large bug, which made great havock among them, and threatened the destruction of the whole, for the plants declined fast. I thought a fair opportunity now offered of trying what benefit might be derived from effectual culti- vation. I caused them to be deep and vrell hoed, and the earth drawn up to the stems of. the plants ; the good effects of this Were soon visible, their verdure returned, and they tii- lered out afresh ; the weeds too came up very;, thick and strong, and grew apace. .1 then; 48 GEORCICAL ESSAYS. had the intervals dug full ten inclies deep, and the weeds in the rows pulled up. This ^ave fresh vigour to the plants, they kidded finely, ;ind totally overpowered the weeds for th^t season. A few rows of these beans were gathered green for the use of the family, the remainder stood for seed. Many of them, especially those that were gathered green, put up fresh shoots from the roots, grew very strons:, and even as full of bloom before win- ter as they had been in the summer. Many of them filled very well, and we had two or three drefsings as good and as well flavoured as any of the summer. To have two crops of beans from the same roots, is, I believe, a very un- common instance of vegetation, and certainly was owing to nothing but well-timed and effectual hoeings and digging the intervals. The remainder of the plot stood for seed -, the season for c:ettino; them in bein^j^ rather un- favourable, some of the pods opened, and the beans dropped. As soon as they were housed, the ground was well dug to prepare it for a winter crop. The beans that were scattered, were dug in unnoticed, and before the end of November were shot up two f^et high, very strong and luxuriant. I took up several ot^ them carefully, to observe the progrefs of their CEORGICAL ESSAYS. 49 growth. The beans from which they shot firmly adhered to the stalk, from whence it appeared, that in digging the ground some of them had been buried seven or eight inches deep, it being so much from the bean to the surface of the ground, and this, instead of a staJk, had put on the appearance of a root, and was full of lateral branches and fibres the whole length. Below the bean the root had pene- trated, in some eleven, in others twelve inches. How much of the fine fibres mjcrht be broken o off cannot be knovi^n. Certain it is, however, that the perpendicular growth of these roots was from eighteen to twenty inches ; whereas those that were planted in the spring on the same soil, much out of condition, very foul, and but once dug, had struck only about three . inches deep at most. Here then we have ocular demonstration of the surprising eflects which breaking, dividing, and pulverizing the soil, can produce, it done effcctuaJly, and in proper season. How amazingly great must be the luxuriance of a plant whose root is twenty inches long, and full of fibres the whole length, if compared with one of the same kind whose root is only three inches long, and pro- portionably small ! Volumcir. D 50 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Another plot of the same field I planted with egg pease ; they came up well, but when a few inches high, were struck with the blight, and devoured by insects down to the ground. I began to dig them up, in order to plant something else in their room s but observing the roots had begun to put out fresh shoots, I took the man off digging, and set him to hoe- ing the intervals very deep. They soon showed the good effects of this operation, they shot up vigorously, and produced not a large crop in- deed, but very fine large pease. When they were nearly spent, I had the ground well dug again, and planted some hundreds of cabbage plants of different kinds. To these I gave two or three good hoeings, and in October had the finest cabbages in the neighbourhood. Perhaps many might be larger and heavier, the average weight of mine being from six and a half to seven pounds ; but nothing could exceed them in sweetnefs and goodnefs. What makes this the more remarkable is, the farmer who last occupied the land told me it would not bear a cabbage, the soil was sq shallow, poor, and liable to burn. As soon as the cabbages were cut, I had it dug again, and planted it with brocoli j the >plants gr^ew luxuriantly, and were as health/ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 61 and fine as ever was ^een, till the severe frosts the beginniog of January, 1786, gave them a Severe blow. Before the snow fell, they dropped their leaves, and seemed much hurt j whether they will recover, as I hope, will ap- pear hereafter 3 they are now covered with snow. The condition as well as complexion of this part of the field (three quarters of an acre) is very much altered for the better ; it has now the appearance of good garden mould, is light, easy to dig, and crumbles witli great ease. This improvement of the soil is wholly owing to the culture bestowed upon it. In the course of twelve months it has been dug three times, and hoed or dug with a dung-fork with four tines (which is the best instrument I know of for shaking the weeds out of the soil) at least four times, but it never had a grain of manure of any kind whatever ; that I pur- posely withheld in order to prove to what de- gree of improvement land might be brought by the force of cultivation solely. Hitherto the succefs has greatly exceeded my expecta- tion ; if the succefs of another year upon this same part of the field should prove superior, or even equal to the last, the fact will be D 2 52 Gi:OilGICAL i:*SAYS. establishcl beyond the pofsibility of a doubt, that land in its n^ure rather unfertile, im- poverished, and made very foul by bad ma- nagement, may, by the proper use of the spade and hoe, or the plough and harrow, be made fertile, and to bear profitable crops, without the least aid from manure of any kind what- ever. It has been observed by Mr. Tull, and by others since his time, that frequent ploughing and harrowing, and reducing the soil to a per- fect tilth, increase and extend the pasture of plants j but this could be of no great use, if the matter or substance, which constitutes their aliment were not increased also. During the course of these experiments, I made several observations, which clearly explain to my own satisfaction, how dividing and pul- verizing the soil becomes the proper mode of conveying the aliment, prepared by nature for the sustenance of plants, into the bosom of the earth. One observation I will mention, as it is directly to the purpose : one evening, near the time of the men's leaving work, a smart shower of rain came on, which drove them ofF. They were digging one of the plots where the beans had grown. The shovv'er did not last GEORGICAL 1 .^..A vs. 5" above half an hour. The next morr.ing as the men were digging, I observed the rain had not penetrated above hah an inch into the ground at most, I ordered one of them to dig two or three spits of the ground that had been dug the day before ; it clearly appeared tliat tlie rain in the new-dug ground had gone as deep as the spade, which was full tw^elve inches. Here then, we clearly see how, and by what means, the principles of vegetation are ac- quired, by keeping the land in thorough culti- vation. Rain, hail, snow, dews, hoar-frost, and all the exhalations which occupy the atmosphere, sink into and are absorbed by the earth when it is kept in a loose, light,. pulverized state ; whereas the same principles on a compact hard soil reach no farther than the surface, and are exhaled by the sun and wind, with Jittle or no benefit to the soil they fall on. From hence also v.e may learn the 77iochs operandi, by whicli plants in a growing state may be invigorated and rendered luxuriant. If plants of any kind were planted in rows, ac- cording to the practice oi" the new husbandry, and the intervals horse-hocd two or three times ^ ■ D3 54 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. in the summer ; every shower of rain, evei| the dews of the nights, would be freely im- bibed by the well-pulverized soil, and the ali- ment it contains directly conveyed to th« roots and fibres of the plants which occupy the in- tervals. That the true aliment of plants is derived from animal substances, difsolved and vola- tilized by fermentation and putrefaction ; that the atmosphere is the grand receptacle of all putrid effluvia ; that this subtilized matter enters into, and helps to constitute, the clouds and other meteors ; that it attracts, and is at- tracted by, hail, rain, snow, &c. and by that means returned to replenish and fructify the earth ; the writer himself is fully convinced. But supposing his theory, respecting the prin- ciples of nutrition be ever so erroneous, it is of no consequence to the practical husbandman ; it is sufficient for him to know and to be well acquainted with a mode of practice which will infallibly render h's fields fertile, and capable of producing profitable crops, by means easily practicable and within his own power, be the situation and condition of the soil whatever it may, total barrennefs excepted. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 55 That fallowing ^ives fertility to the earth, is a fact confirmed by universal experience, and well known to every husbandman : but the ex- tent of its power has been considered by few, and attempted to be carried to jts utmost pitch perhaps by nobody. ESSAY II. On the Oak. O ^ all the trees of the forest, the Oak de- mands our first attention, whether we consider the dignity of its station, or the variety of uses to which it is applied Being a native of our island, it adapts itself in a wonderful manner to almost every soil -, and, if well defended in its intancy, there are few places in which it will not grow to a national advantage. This tree naturally delights in a rich, deep, and loamy soil ; but lands of that quality are now more pro fitably employed in pasture and tillage. How- ever, there are large portions of land in this P4 56 GEOPvGTCAL ESSAYS. kingdom which yield but a small profit to the owners. Such wastes, if situated near rivers, or navigable canals, are nobly calculated for raising Oaks, which, at some distant period, may launch themselves into the ocean, Guardians of Liberty and Commerce. Dr. Martyn, in his beautiful edition of Mr. ^liller's dictionary, enumerates twenty-six species of Oak, but I shall only mention fourteen, of which number nine are deciduous, and five evergreen, I. QuERcus (rohur) foliis deciduis ob- longis superne latioribus, sinubus acutioribus : angulis obtusis. Lin. Sp. Plant. 1414. Oak xcith oblong deciduous leaves^ broader toward the top, havuig accute indentures with obtuse angles. The Common Oak. This is the common English Oak, which, for ship- building and other economical uses, far excels all tiie kinds in the known world. The folloirine is a variety, but ^Ir. Miller considers it as a distinct species under the title of QuERcus (fcemina) foliis deciduis oblongis obtusis, pinnato-sinuatis petiolis brevifsimis, pedunculis glandorum longifsimis. Oak ziith oblong, obtuse^ deciduous leaves, which are winged, sinuated, and have very short foot-stalks. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 57 with the. fruit grow big upon long foot- stalks. — The Female Oak. ,' Mn' ^'li'Uer observes that this sort is not so common as the fir$t, .and he informs us, that in tlie Wilds of Kent and Sufsex tlicre may be seen many large threes of this kind. According to him, the leaves are not so deeply sinuated as those of the coumion Oak, nor arc they so irregular, the indentures being opposite, like the lobes of winged leaves ; these have scarce any footstalks, but sit close to the branches; the acorns stand upon very long foot-stalks. The liuibcr of thrs kind is accounted, by some, better than that of the lirst, and the trees, when growing, have a more Icily appearance. 2. QuERGUs (cerrisj foliis oblbngis lyrato- pinnatifidis, laciniis transversis acutis, subtus subtomentosis. Lin. Sp. Plant. 1415. Oak with oblong leaves xvhich are lyre-shaped, wing- pointed, and have transverse acute jags, zvhich are doivny on their under-side. Que reus calyce hispido, glande minore. C. B. P. 420. Oak with a prickly cup and smaller acorn. — Smaller prickly- cupped Spanish Oak. This grows natufally in Spain. Tiie K-aves are ob- Jong and pointed, and frequently indented in the mid- dle like a lyre; they are jagged and acute-pointed, a little hoary on their under side, and stand upon slen- der foot-stalks. The acorns are small, and have rougU prickly cups. 58 GEORCrCAL ESSAYS. S. Ql'ERcus fesculus) foliis pinnato-sinuatis laevibus, fructibus sefsiJibus. Lin. Sp. Plant. 141 4-. Oak zvitli smooth zving-indented leaves, and fruit sitting close to the branches. Quercus pan'a sive Phagus Grsecorum et Esculus Plinii. C. B. P. The small Oak, or Phagus, of the Greeks, and the Esculus of Pliny. The cut- leaved Italian Oak. This sort gro\^-s naturally in Spain and Italy ; the leaves are smooth, and deeply sinuated like winged leaves ; some of the sinuses are obtuse, and others end in acute points ; tlie}' have very short foot-stalks ; the branches are covered with a purplish bark when young; the acorns are long and slender, the cops rough and a little prickly, sitting close to the branches. The acorns are sweet, and are frequently eaten by the poor in the south of France, who, in times of scarcit}', grind them and make bread with the flour. Of this species of Oak the Romans made their Civic Crowns. *' Civica iligna primo fuit, postea magis placuit ex Exculo Jovi sacra." plin. 4. QrERCus [(ggilops) foliis ovato-oblongis, glabris, serrato dentatis. Lin. Sp. Plant. 1414. Oak ivith ohlong, oval, smooth, saived, indentecC leaves. Quercus calyce echinato, glande ma- jore. C. B. P. 420. Oak zcith a prickly cup and larger acorn* The large prickly- cupped- Spanish Oak. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 59 This species grows naturally in Spain. The trunk rises nearly as higk as the common Oak \ the branches extend very wide on every side, and are covered with a greyish bark, intermixed with brown spots; the branches are closely garnished with oblong oval leaves, about three inches long, and almost two broad, which are deeply sawed on their edges ; most of the saws or teeth turn backward, and terminate in acute points. The leaves are stiff, of a pale green on their upper i^idc, and dov/ny oa their under ; the acorns have very large scaly cups which almost cover them ; the scales are ligneous and acute-[TOinted, standino- out a quarter of an inch; some of the cups are as large as middling apples. 5. QuERCUs (ruhra) foliis obtuse sinuatis setaceo-mucronatis. Lin. Sp. Plant. 1413. Oak ivith obtuse sinuaied leaves, terminated by bristly points. Quercus Esculi divisura, foliis amplioribus aculeatis. Pluk. Aim. 309. tab. 54. fig. 4. Oak with broad spiny leaves, zvhick ai^c divided like the Escuhis. The Red Oak. This sort grows naturally in Virginia, and in other parts of North America. It arrives at a large size in the countries where it naturally grows ; the bark is smooth, and of a greyish colour, but that on the younger branches is darker; the leaves are six inches long, and two and a half broad in the middle ; they fire obtusely sinuated, each sinus ending with a bristly point, of a bright green, standing upon short foot-, 60 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. stalks. The leaves continue their verdure very late in autumn, so that, unlcfs hard frost comes on early, they do not fall till near Christmas, before which time they change their colour and become red. The acorns of this sort are a little longer, but not so thick as those of the common Oak. 6. QuERCus (priniis) foliis obovatis utrin- que acuminatis sinuato-serratis, dcnticulis ro- tundatis uniformibus. Lin. Sp- Plant. 1413. Oak liith oblong oval leaves ^ xchich are pointed on both si'desj and have saiced sinuseSy with uni- form roundish indentures. Quercus castaneae foliis procera arbor Virginiana. Piuk. Aim. 509. The Chesnut-Leavcd Oak, This grows naturally in T^orth America, of which there seems to be two kinds; one grows to a much larger size than :hc other, though this may be oc- casioned by the soil in which they grow. The largest sort grows in the rich lev lands, where it becomes the largest tree of any of the Oaks in those countries : the ■wood is not of a fine grain, but is very serviceable ; the I bark is grey and scaly ; the leaves are five or six inches long, and two inches and a half broad in the middle, indented on the edges, and have many transverse veins running from the midrib to the borders ; they are of a bright green, and so nearly resemble the leaves of the Chesnut-tree, as scarcely to be distinguished frojn them. The acorns of this sort are verv larere, and have short cups. The leaves of the other are not so GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 61 large, nor so strongly veined, and the acorns are smaller and a little longer, which may arise from the soil. 7. QuERcus (nigra) foliis cuneiformibus obsolete trilobis. Lin. Sp. Plant. 14l3.-tr, Oak with wedge-shaped leaves, having three worn-out lobes. Quercus folio non serrato in summitate quasi triangulo. Catesb. Car. 1. p. 20. The Black Oak. This grows naturally on poor land in most parts of North America, where it never comes to a large size ; the wood is of little value. The bark is of a dark brown colour ; the leaves are very broad at the top, where they have two waved indentures, which divide them almost into three lobes; they diminish gradually to their base, where tliey are narrow; they are smootli, of a lucid green, and have short foot-stalks. The acorns are smaller than those of the common Oak, and have short cups. Of this species we have a variety or two, one particularly with trifid leaves, and* another slightly trilobate, called the Black Oak of the Plains. 8. Quercus (alba) foliis oblique pinnatifi- dis, sinubus angulisque obtusis. Lin, Sp. Plant. 1414. Oak zvith oblique jnany -pointed leaves, having obtuse sinuses and angles. Quer*- cus alba Virginiana. Catesb. Car. 1. p. 21, tab. 21. The IV kite Oak. 63 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. This sort grows naturally in North America, where the wood is esteemed preferable to any of their other ' sorts for building, being much more durable. The ' bark of this tree is greyish, the leaves are of a light green, six or seven inches long, and four broad in the middle ; they are regularly indented almost to the midrib. The indentures are obtuse. Tlie leaves have short foot-stalks. The acorns greatly resemble thosfe of the common Oak. 9. Qtjercus (phellos) foliis lanceolatis inte- gerrimis glabris. Lin. Sp. Plant. 1412. Oak with spear-shaped, entire smooth leaves. Quer- cus sive Ilex Marilandica, folio longo angusto Salicis. Catesb. Car. 1. p. 17. The JVilloiv- Leaved Oak. This species is a large timber tree, and a native of North America. The leaves are long and narrow, re- sembling those of our common Willow. Hence its name. Of this sort there are several varieties, which are all included under the appellation of Willow-leaved Oaks. 10. QuERcus filexj foliis ovato-oblongis indivisis serratisque petiolatis subtus incan-is, cortice integro. Lin. Sp. Plant. 1412. Ilex oblongo serrato folio. C. B. P. 424. Ilex arborea. Bauh. hist. The Ilex, or .Ever- ^recn Oak. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 63 This species is generally known by the title of Ilex or Ever-green Oak ; of which there are several vari- eties, differing greatly in the size and shape of their leaves ; but they all arise from acorns of the same tree, as Mr. Miller observes; nay, the lower and upper branches of the same tree are frequently garnished with leaves, very different in size and shape from each other; those on the lower branches being much broader, rounder, and their edges indented and set ■with prickles, but those on the upper are long, narrow, and entire. The leaves of this tree are from three to four inches long, and one broad near the base, gra« dually lefsening to a point ; they are of a lucid green on their upper side, but whitish and downy on their under, and are entire, standing upon pretty long foot- stalks; these remain green all the year, and do not fall till they are thrust off by the young leaves in the spring. The acorns are smaller than those of the common Oak, but of the same shape. 11. QuERcus (gramuntia) foliis oblongo- ovatis sinuato-spinosis sefsilibus subtus tomen- tosis, glandibus pedunculatis. Lin. Sp. Plant;' 1412. Ever-green Oak ivith oblong, oval, prickly, mdented leaves, zvhi'ch are zvoolly on their under side, and bear acorns zoit/i foot- stalks.— Ilex foliis rotundioribus et spinosi?, e luco Gramuntio. Bot. Monsp. 140. Thf Holly-Leaved Ever-green Oak. 64 GEOkGICAL ESSAYS. Linnaeus has niacie this tree a distinct species, but Mr. Miller seems to think it only a variety of the for^ mer. The leaves are prickly and shaped like the Holly. Hence its name. It grows naturally about Montpelier. 12. Q.UERCUS (cocci/era) foliiso'vatis" ilidi- vlsis, splnoso dentatis glabris. Lin. Sp. Plant. 1413. Oak with oval, undkidedy stnooth leaveSy which are pricklij and indented. Hex aculeata, cocciglandifera. C. B. P. 425. The Kermes Oak. Tliis kind of Cak grows plentifully in Spain, Pro- vence, Lauguedoc, and along the Mediterranean coast. It is a <;ree of small growth, seldom rising above t\Yelve feet. The leaves are oval and undivided; they are smooth on their surface, but indented on their edges, which are armed with prickles like those of the Holly. It is feathered to the bottom, which gives it tlie ap- pearance of a bush}' Slu'ub. The acorns are smaller than those of the common Oak. From this tree are gathered the Kermes, with wiiich the amients used to die tlieir garments of that beautiful colour called Coc- cineus, or Cocceus, being dificrent from the Purpura of the Phujuicians obtained from the testaceous fish called ilurex. In course of time the Murex became neglected, and the Kermes, we are now speaking of, was introduced. This supported its reputation till the discovery of America, when it gave place to the Cochineal, an insect found in the Mexican woods upoa a plant named by Linno-us, Cactus Cocliinillifer. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 65 Both antients and moderns seem to have had con- fused notions concerning the origin and nature ot the Kermes ; some considering it as a fruit, without a just knowledge of the tree which produced it ; others taking it for an excrescence formed by the puncture of a particular fly, the same as the common gall pro- duced upon the Oak. Tournefort was of this num- ber.— Count Marsigli, and Dr. Nisole, a physician of Montpelier, made experiments and observations, with a view to further discoveries, but did not per- fectly succeed. Two other ph3-sicians at Aix in Pro- vence, Dr. Emeric and Dr.Garidel, applied themselves about the same time, and with greater succefs, having finally discovered that the Kermes is the body of an insect, after having undergone several transformations. The progrefs of these transformations must be con- sidered at three different seasons. In the first stage, about the beginning of March, an animalcule, no larger than a grain of millet, is perceived sticking to the branches of the tree, where it fixes itself, and soon becomes immoveable; at this period it grows the most, and swells with the sustenance that it draws in: this state of I'est seems to have deceived the curious ob- server, it then resembling an excrescence of the bark ; during this period of its growth, it appears to be co- vered Avith a down, extending over its whole body like a net, and adhering to the bark; its figure is convex, not unlike a very small Sloe; in such parts as are not quite hid by this soft garment, many bright specks are perceived of a golden colour, as well as stripes running acrofs the body from one place to Folume IF. E 66 CEORGICAL ESSAYS. anotiier. At the second stage, in April, its growth is completed, when it becomes round resembling a pea in slnipe. It has then acquired more strength, and its down is changed into dust, and seems to be nothing but a husk or a capsule, full of a reddish juice, not unlike discoloured blood. Its third state is to- ^Vtirds the end of May, a little sooner or later accord- ing to the warmth of the climate. The husk appears full of small eggs, leis than the seeds of a poppy. They are properly ranged under the belly of the insect progrcfsively placed in the nest of down that covers its body, which it withdraws in proportion to the number of eggs: after this work is performed, it soon dies, though it still adheres to its position, ren- dering a further service to its progeny, and shielding them from the inclemency of the weather, or the hostile attacks of an enemy. In a good season they niultipl}' exceedingly, having from 1800 to 2©00 eggs, which j^roduce the same number of animalcules. V/hen observed by the microscope in July or August, that which appeared as dust, are so many eggs or open capsules, as white as snow, out of Avhich ifsues a gold-coloured animalcule, of the shape of a cockroach, w'nh two horns, six feet, and a forked tail. In Languc- doc and Provence the poor are employed to gather the Kernies, the women letting their nails grow for that purpose, in order to pick them off with greater facility.* The custom of lopping off the boughs is very inju- dicious, as by that meai5S the next 3'ear's harvest is destroyed. Some women will gather two or three pounds a d.iy ; the great point bcijig to know where GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 67 they are most likely to be found in any quantity, and to gather them early Avith the morning dew, as the leaves are more pliable and tender at that time than after they have been dried and parched by the rays of the sun. Strona; dews will make them fall from the trees sooner than usual. When the proper season pafses, they fall oft" of themselves, and become food for birds, particularly pigeons. Sometimes there will be a second production, which is commonly of a lefs size with a fainter tinge. The first is generally found adhering to the bark, as well as on the branches and stalks; the second is principally on the leaves, as the ■worms choose that part where the nutritious juice preserves itself the longest, is most abundant, and can be most easily devoured in the short time that remains of their existence, the bark being then drier and harder than the leaves. Those Avho buy the Kcrmes to send lo foreign parts, spread it on linen, taking care to sprinkle it Avjth vinegar, to kill the worms that are within, which pro- duces a red dust, which in Spain is separated from the husk. Then they let it dry, pafsing it through a scarce, and make it up into bags. In the middle of each, its proportion of red dust is put into a little leather bag, and belongs to the buyer; it is then ready for transportation, being always in demand on the African coast. The people of liinojos, Bunares, Villalba, and other parts of the kingdom of Seville, dry it on mats in the sun, stirring it about, and se- parating the red dust. This is the finest part, and E2 6,8 GEORGICAL ESSAY9. beinj^ mixed with vinegar goes by the name of Pastel. The same is done with the husks; but ti>ese are but of half the value of the dust. The Kermes of Spain is preferred on the coast of Barbary, on account of its superior goodnefs. The people of Tunis mix it with that of Tetuan, for dying these scarlet caps so much used in the Levant. The Tunesians export every year above 150,000 dozen of these caps, Avhich yields to the Dey a revenue of 150,000 hard dollars (33,750l.) per annum for duties; so that, exclusive of the uses of the Kermes in medicine, it appears to be a very valuable branch of commerce. — In some years it has produced 30,000 dollars (50001.) to the inhabitants of Xixona in Spain. The first Avho has spoken of these insects with any accuracy is Peter Quiqueran, Bishop of Senez, in his book de Laudibus Provincice, 1550. 13. QuERCus (suher) foliis ovato-oblongis indivisis serratis subtus tomentosis, cortice ri- moso fungoso. Lin. Sp. Plant. 1413. Oak •with oval, oblong, undivided leaves, sawed and woolly on their under side, and a fimgous clcjt hark. Suber latifolium perpetuo virens. — C. B. P. 424. rhe Cork-Tree. The leaves of this useful species are entire, of an oblong oval, about two inches long, and one and a quarter broad, sawed on their edges, and have a little down on their under sides ; their foot-stalks are very short ; the leaves continue green through the winter till the middle of May, when they generally fall off just GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 69 before the new leaves come out, so that the trees are very otten uhiiost bare ibr a short time. The ucorns are very like those of tlie common Oak. The exterior bark of this tree is the cork, which is taken off from the trees every eight or ten years; but there is an in- terior bark vvhicii nourishes the trees, so that the stripping off the outer is so ftir from injuring them, tliat it ratlier prolongs their life ; for those whose bark are not taken off", seldom last longer than fifty or sixty years in health; whereas the trees which are barked every eight or ten years, will live a hundred and fifty years and more. The bark of the young tree is porous and good for little ; however it is ne- cefsary to take it off Avhen the trees are twelve or fifteen years old, without which the bark will not be good, and after eight or ten years the bark will be fit to take off again ; this second peeling is of little use, but at the third peeling the bark is in perfection, and Avill continue so many years, the best cork being taken from the old trees. The month of July is the time for stri{)ping off this bark, when the sap flows plentifully ; this operation is performed with an in- strument similar to that for disbarking Oak. Of this species there is a variety called the Narrow-leaved Cork Tree. 14. QuERcus fvirgmia?iaj foliis lanceolato- ovatis integerrimis petiolatis scmpcrvirentibus. Oak ivilli spear-shaped^ oval, entire leaves, zchick are £ver-gree?ij and have foot-stalks. — Quercus E3 70 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. sempervirens foliisoblongisnonsinuatis. Banist. Ever-green Oaky with oblong leaves zvhich are not sinuated. Tlie Live Oak. 'Willis species grows naturally in Carolina and Vir- ginia, where it rises to the height of forty feet. The grain of the wood is hard, tough, and coarse ; the bark is of a grey colour. The leaves are oval and spear-shaped, about three inches long, and one and a half broad, entire, and of a dark green, standing upon short foot-stalks. They are of a thick con- sistence, and continue green all the Aear. The acorns are oblong and small, and are eaten by tlje Indians, who lay them up in store for the winter. They also draw from them an oil which is very good. The Oak, in the Linnaen system, is ranked in the clafs and order Monoecia Polyandria, v/hich comprehends such plants as have male and female flowers on the same plant ; the male flowers having numerous stamina. The Oak. Plate 1. a. A male Catkin. h. c. The Calyx. In some flowers it is divided into four J in others, into five segments. B. c. Ditto, magnified, d. An entire Flower. D. Ditto, magnified, showing the situation of the stamina, e. A single stamen, f. Ditto, mag- nified, f. A female Flower, f. Ditto, mag- 1 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 71 nified. g. The Acorn, or Nut, as it sits in its permanent Calyx, fi. Ditto, separated from the Calyx. /. The Cup, or permanent Calyx, The common Oak flowers in the spring, though there is no exact time for the o})cning of the flowers or leasees j these circumstances depend on the backwardnefs or forwardnefs of the season, or the difference of the situation or soil on which the trees stand. We often observe one Oak in full leaf, and at the same lime another, standing near it, without any such appearance, owing to the coldnefs or poverty of the stratum on which it stands, and which would have been unperceived, had not the tree shown it. But notwithstanding this, observation and experience teach us, that tliese differences arc very inconsiderable, and that the Oak which is most backward in putting forth its leaves, generally retains its verdure the longest in the autumn. In general, the flowers, vvhich are of a yellowish hue, begin to open about the seventh of April ; about the 18th the leaves appear, at which time the flowers are in full bloom ; and about the 6th of May the leaves will be quite out, and re- main until the autumnal frosts come on. El. 72 GEORCICAL ESSAYS. Oaks are generally raised in vast quantities together, called woods, where they thrive best, and arrive to a greater height than in hedge- rows. We seldom see a good oak in a hedge- row : they generally throw out large lateral branches, and form a spreading and beautituj head, but the trunk is for the most part very short J whereas in woods they draw one ano- ther up, and thus sociably aspire to such a height, as to be sufficient to 'answer any pur- poses in use. Various are the opinions of mankind about the raising an Oak wood. Some think the plants should never be removed, but remain where the 'acorn was first sown ; others, again, believe that a wood should be raised by plants taken from a nursery. As each of these methods has its advantages, I shall, therefore, endeavour to show the best mode of proceed- ing in raising an Oak wood both ways, that every one may choose that which he likes the best. And, first, to raise a wood from acorns sown in the Seminary. Let a proper spot in the seminary be pre- GEORGICAL ESSAY?. 73 pared against the time the seeds are ripe. The soil should be loamy, fresh, and in good heart ; and should be prepared by digging it well, breaking all clods, and clearing it of weeds, roots, large stones, &;c. The acorns should be gathered from the straightest, most thriving, and beautiful trees; and if they re- main until they fall off of themselves, they will succeed the better. Having a sufficient quantity of vvcll-ripened acorns for your purpose, proceed to prepare your beds in the ground that is just got ready for their reception. Mark out the beds with a line, four feet broad, and let there be an alley between each bed two feet wide ^ rake the earth out of the bed into the spaces de- signed for the alley, until the bed be sunk about two inches deep , then sow your acorns in the bed, about three inches afsunder, and gently prefs them down with the spade, or, if more agreeable, they may be set in rows, the lines for that purpose being marked out with a sharp-pointed stick. Throw the earth that has been raked into the alleys, over the acorns, and, after having drefsed up the bed, and gently prefsed it down with the back of the spade, proceed to the next bed, and so on until the whole be finished. This work is 74 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. best performed in February, though some pre- fer the autumnal months. In about six weeks the plants will appear above ground ; and in these beds they may remain two years, without any further trouble or care, than keeping them clean from weeds, and now and theu retreshing them with water in very dry seasons. When the trees are two years old, they will be of a proper size for planting out. Let us now see in what manner we are to prepare the ground for their reception. The best way is by trenching, or double digging, as deep as the soil will admit of : but as this is a very expensive proceeding, and conse- quently can only be practised upon a small scale, I shall recommend another good method of preparing the ground. This is to be done by proper ploughing ; and, if agreeable, the year before the land is planted, it mav bear a crop of oats, rape, or turnips. By this means the sward will be effectually destroyed. After the crop is off, let the ground be trench- ploughed, and then harrowed with heavy harrows to break the clods : about the end of October let it be again ploughed crofs ways. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 75 and harrowed as before. This is the season for planting the sets ; tor the ground by being thus crofs-ploughcd and well harrowed, will be in proper order for their reception. The manner of planting the sets is as follows : First, carefully take the plants out of the seed-bed, shorten the tap-root, and take off part of the side-shoots, that there may be an equal proportion of strength between the stem and the root. If the wood is designed to be but small, ten, twenty, or thirty acres, then lines may be drawn, and the trees planted in rows, four feet distant from each other, and the trees two feet asunder in the row : each line must have a man and a boy for planting. The ground being made light and pliable by croft; ploughing and harrowing, the man strikes his spade into the earth close to the line ; he then takes it out and gives another stroke at right angles with it ; then the boy, having a parcel of plants under his left arm, takes one with his right hand, and readily })uts it into the crevice made by the spade at the second stroke : after this the man gently prefses the mould to it with his foot, and thus the young Oakling is planted. He proceeds in the same manner to the next, and so on 76 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. till all is finished. An active man will, with his boy, plant 1500 or 2000 in a day; and while they are planting, others should be emploved in taking up fresh sets from the seed-bed, sorting them and preparing their roots. In short, a sufficient number of hands should be set to every part of this work, that the whole may be.'carried on with despatch and regularity, for the ground cannot be too soon furnished with its plants, after it is in readinefs to receive them; neither can the plants be put too early into the ground, after they are taken up from the seminary. Those plants which are nearly of the same size should be made to occupy a large quarter together, and the weakest should be left in the seminary a year longer to gain strength. Tlie trees, either for small or large planta- tions, being in the ground, the first care should be to fence them well from cattle, and even, if pofsible, from rabbits and hares. The next should be, to keen them clear from weeds, that tliev may not be incommoded in their growth. In all lands, weeds must be carefully watched, and destroyed at their first appearance. In small plantations hoeing may do ; but where th.Q plantations are large and noble, a double- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 77 shelving plough should be provided ; and when the weeds are got two or three inches high, this must be drawn exactly down the middle of each row by horses with their mouths muzzled, somebody leading the fore- most horse : this plough will effectually throw a ridge each way, so that the edge of it will be almost contiguous to the plants on both sides. Iliis being done, the vvhole surface of th^.^ ground will be changed, and the weeds all buried, except a few about the stems of the plants, which a man following the plough should cut or pluck up. In this manner the ground may lie until a fresh crop of weeds present themselves ; when these are about three inches high, a common plough should be pro- vided to go up one side' of the row and down the other, to plough the ridges made by the double-shelving plough, into their former places ; men following with hoes to destroy such weeds as are near the stems of the trees. Thus will the whole scene be changed again ; the ground will appear as new tilled ; and in this condition it may remain until the weeds call for the double-shelving plough a second time, which must also be followed alternately with the common plough as occasion may re- quire. By this means the ground v/ill not only 78 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. be kept clean of weeds, but the earth, by con- stant stirring, will be more replete with nou- rishing juices, the gentle powers will produce their sood effects, the sun will have his in- fiuence, and all the powers of vegetation will combine to nourish and set forward the intant Oak. This work must be repeated even*" year, until the Oaks are of a height sufficient to de- strov the weeds, which may be, perhaps, in three or four vcars, accordinjr to the jroodnefs of the ground in which they are planted. AVhen it is thought advisable to raise an Oak wood from the acorn, let the following directions be observed. Having the ground prepared, as before di- rected, for the reception of the young Oak plants, and having a sufficient quantity of acorns, all gathered from the most vigorous, healthy, and thriving trees, proceed to their setting in the following manner : In the months of February and March, let lines be drawn acrofs the ground for the rows, at the distance of four feet from each other 3 but if this be thought too great an intcrv^al, the rows may be made at three feet, in which case the acorns must be put down at a greater distance GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 79 tVom each other. Then having sticks proper- ly rounded to make the holes, plant the acorns by the side of the lines, at the distance of ten inches afsunder : let them be put down about two inches below the surface, and see that the earth be properly closed by the planting stick, to prevent the mice, or crows, from injuring the seed. In some places it is customary to sow the acorns after the plough- but where the ground happens to be stiff, great care should be taken not to cover the seed with too thick a furrow. As in this manner of sowing, the plants will come up very irregular, the mode of thinning must be left to the dis- cretion of the planter. The first year after planting the acorns, the weeds must be kept down by hoeing and hand-weeding ; and this must be done early in the spring before the weeds get so strong as to hide the tender plants, which would oc- casion many of them to be destroyed in cleaning. It is also the cheapest, as well as the neatest husbandry, to take weeds down before they grov/ too large ; for though the ground may require an additional hoeing in the spring, yet the weeds being hoed down when young, a man may hoe over a great S6 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. quantity of ground in a day : weeds cut in their tender state immediately die ; whereas w^hen they are suffered to grow old and strong, they frequently grow again, especially if rain falls soon after, perfect their seed in a short time, and thereby poison the soil of the whole plantation. Tlie second year of their growth, in extensive plantations, the double-shelving and common plough may be made use of, as before di- rected, to cultivate and keep the ground clean ; and this culture should be attended to until the plants are become so large that it will not be in the power of the v/eeds to in- jure them. As plantations of Oaks from the acorn are rather precarious, it will be right to form a small seminary in the same field, to repair the intervals that may have miscarried. And here it may be necefsary to observe, that tliis seminary should be taken from the best part of the field, and in the warmest situation, in order that the young plants may have good roots, without which they would make but an indifferent progrcfs when planted out. Having thus given directions for the raising cf vroods, both by young sets and from acorns. iGEORGICAL ESSAYS. ^l I now proceed to their future management, Tvhich must be the same in both. And first, the rows being four feet afsunder, and the plants two feet distant in the rows, they may stand in this manner for twelve or fourteen years, when every second plant may be taken out and sold for hoops or small poles. Now, though I sav in twelve or fourteen vears the plants will be of use for these purposes, yet this is only a general rule, -as the different goodnefs of the land will make a great varia- tion in the growth of the plants j and conse- quently, if the trees take to growing well, they will want thinning sooner. This busi- nefs, therefore, should be left to the discretion of the person intrusted with the care of the plantation. After every second plant is taken away, let the roots be grubbed up, not only because they will pay for their grubbing as fire-wood, but that there may be more room given for the standing plants freely to extend their roots. The plants being now fourfeet afsunder each way, they will require no more thinning for seven or eight years, when the healthiest and Volume IV. r 82 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. best thriving trees must be marked to stand for timber, and the others cut down for poles, and their roots left to produce future under- wood. In this manner the rows filled with plants from the nursery must be managed, in which case we can speak with precision with regard to thinning. The same husbandry must be applied to the roivs under cultivation from the seed ; but the planter in this last method must be left to form his own ideas in respect to thinning, as no human knowledge can deter- mine, before hand, how thick the seedling plants will appear in the rows. In rocky and mountainous soils, the plants or acorns must be put down irregularly by the spade, and the planter must be directed in this ope- ration by the particular circumstances of the soil and situation. In all cases of planting, shelter and warmth are particularly required. Where the planta- tions are flat, it may be advisable to skirt the wood with Scotch Fir, which being a hardy and quick-growing tree, is well calculated for this purpose. Et comitem quercum Pinus arnica trahii. — Claud. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 8S Birch is sometimes put between the rows of Oaks, and in mountainous situations this is a good method ; others recommend the Fir for this purpose, but it is apt to vegetate too fast and overtop the Oaks. 1 shall now consider our plantations as far advanced, in which case a particular attention should be paid to the trees left for timber. These should stand from twenty to thirty feet distant from each other, which will not be too near where the trees thrive w^ell ; in which case their heads v^411 spread, so as to meet in about thirty or thirty-five years , nor will this "distance be so great as to impede the upright growth of the trees. This distance is recom- mended, that the trees may enjoy the whole benefit of the soil ; therefore, after one crop of the under-wood, or at the most two crops are cut, I would advise the stubbing up the stools, that the ground may be entirely clear for the advantage of the growing timber, which is what should be principally regarded ; but, in general, most people attend more to the immediate profit of the under-wood, than the future good of the timber, and frequently by so doing spoil both ; for if the under- wood be left after the trees have spread so far as that I 2 S-1- GiLORGlCAL ESSAYS. their heads meet, the under-wood will not be of much value ; and yet, by their stools being left, they will draw a great share of nourish- ment from the tim.ber-trees, and retard them in their growth. Such gentlemen as are desirous of raising Oaks to plant out for standards, either in parks or in fields, for clumps, or for avenues, must train them in the following manner : Having raised them in the seed-bed, as before direct- ed, let them remain there two years , after which a piece of good ground must be pre- pared for their reception, where they must grow until they are of a size sufficient to be planted out where they are designed to re- main. This ground mubt be trenched, or double dug ; then taking the plants out of the seed-bed^ as before directed, let a man and boy plant them upon this new double-dug ground, at the distance of two feet row from row, and a foot and a half afsunder in the rows. Every v^'inter, until the plants are taken out of this nursery, the ground should be dug between the rows ; and this is what gardeners call tiirning-in. They will require no other pruning' than taklngoif any unsightly side-shoot ; cr where the tree is mclined to be GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 85 forked, taking off the weakest branch. Xor is any other precaution necefjury until the time for their being planted out to continue, which must be done as follows : First, carefully take the trees out of the nursery, and then prune the roots, which must be done by holding the plant in your left hand, that the stroke of the knife in the right may so cut the bottom of the root that the wound may be downwards ; next, take oiTall bruised ^nd broken parts of the root ; and hav- ing holes prepared, in the figure of a cjrcie, three feet in diameter and a foot and half deep, (the sward being worked and chopped small in the bottom of the holes, and some mould laid to cover it) plant the trees in such a manner that the top of the roots may be nearly level with the surface of the ground. Let the finest of the mould which was under the turf, be preserved to lap the root in ; and after the earth has regularly filled the hole, let it be prefsed down with the foot, to settle it properly to the root. A little litter should be laid over the root, to prevent the wind and sun from drying the mould, and thereby re- tarding the growth of the tree, especially if a r3 ' 86 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the planting be deferred till the spring. The plants vvhich are of a larger size, should be properly staked to secure them from the vio- lence of the winds ; or, if they are planted where cattle or deer can come, they should be properly hurdled. After this, they will re- quire no further care. Oaks will not aspire to such height, or fine- nefs of trunk, when planted in these places, as in woods ; but they will form most beautiful heads, and their shade will be extensive and large : •Behold yon Oak, How stern he frowns, and with his broad brown arma Chills the pale plain beneath hira. MASON. The Oak will grow and thrive upon almost any soil, provided the trees be properly plant* ed, though we cannot suppose that their growth will be equal in all places. A rich deep loamy earth is what Oaks most deligh^ in, though they will grow exceedingly well in clays of all kinds and on sandy soils, in which ^ast the finest grained timber is produced. Many fine trees of this texture may now be GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 87 seen growing upon Nottingham forest, par- ticularly atWelbeck. Having thus given a minute detail of the different methods of raising an Oak wood from the Acorn, the Seed-bed, and the Nursery, we are are now arrrived at a very important and interesting question : which makes the the best timber ? Mr. Evelyn decides for sowing ; and if a careful observer will look into the woods that have been sown^ and at the same time examine such as have been planted, he will not hesitate a moment to de- clare in favour of the excellent Author of the Sylva. The extensive plantations that have been carried on for these many years past, have been made more v;ith a view to shade, shelter, and ornament, than to the propagation of tim- ber ; and, in order to obtain these ends in the most expeditious manner, the ovv^ners have in general followed a mistaken notion, and planted their trees too old ; so that many of these woods, when they come to be felled, will greatly disappoint the expectations of the purchasers, Besides, such advanced trees when drawn from the nursery, unlefs planted in a good soil, will never come to good timber. Qn the contrary, rocky^and poor soils may be F 4 88 CEORGICAL ESSAYS made to produce excellent timber by judici- ously sowing the seeds, and carefully defend- ing the young plants from the browsing of sheep and cattle, or the cropping of hares and rabbits. By this practice, the plants are at- tached to their native earth, and are strangers to the inconveniences that trees taken from a nursery are exposed to. In Scotland, and in some of the northern counties of this kingdom, the practice of sow- ing their w^aste lands with acorns, chesnuts, beech-masts, fir-seeds, ash-kcvs, &c. is much recommended, and there is not the least doubt, but that posterity will enjoy the benefits arising frc^n this judicious practice. The ex- pense attending the sowing an acre of waste land with various seeds of forest-trees, is trifling v^'hen compared with that of planting ; and if all other things were equal, that alone would be decisive. In the neighbourhood of coal and lead mines, and iron forges, such woods will become highly profitable at an early period ; and considering the great de- mand that is constantly made from such places for all kinds of woods, it is matter of surprise that the cheap method of raising w^oods frpii^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 89 seeds and seedling plants has been so long neglected. I have already remarked, that under everj circumstance of sowing or planting, especi- ally the former, the utmost care must be taken to fence off the young plants, lest cattle and sheep should break in and render the pains of the planter abortive. Under some particular circumstances it may be proper to cover rocky and exposed situa- tions with Oaks raised in a nursery. In such cases we should always plant from the seed- bed: and in order to bring up the young Oaks, where the aspect and situation happen to be unfriendly, it should be rccommerided to skirt the wood, to a sufficient thicknefs, yvith Scotch Firs, mixing some of them in the body of the wood. In this manner an ex- posed situation may be made to produce ex- cellent timber; and when the trees are grown to a size sufficient for their own protection, the firs in the centre, which I call the nurses, should be removed, otherwise they will injure the young Oaks: Foster'd thus. The cradled hero gains from female care His future vigour; but, that vigour felt, 90 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. He springs indignant from his nurse's arms, He nods the plumy crest, he shakes the ?pear. And is thai awful thing which heav'n ordain'd The scourge of tvrants, arm his country's pride. Mason, On the judicious thinning and cleaning a young wood, depends much of the plaiiter^s succefs and profit; on which account, all gen- tlemen \\ ho engage deeply in planting, will find it highly necefsary to appoint proper persons, whose office shall be solely confined to the superintendance of the woods. From a neglect in this particular, the hopes of half a century may be thrown away in a period of a few years. It often happens, from natural or accidental causes, that planted Oaks grow stunted and crooked; in such cases they should be cut down at a proper season. In consequence of this judicious practice, a clean leading shoot will be obtained that will soon overtake the cotemporary trees that have not undergone the same operation. But it must be consi- dered that no Oak should be thus headed down till two or three years after planting, or until it has completely root.d it-elf in the ground. Many other kinds of Forest-trees, GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 91 under similar circumstances, may be treated in the same manner^ but we must except all the Pine tribe from this operation, as in them the lofs of the leading shoot is the certain lofs of the tree. An opinion generally prevails, that good lands should always be employed in Meadow; Pasture, and Tillage, and that none but the barren and rocky soils should be planted.— Such an idea is by no means founded on truth, as it may be demonstrated, that good land lying remote from a town, and near a navi- gable river or canal, will yield a better profit when planted, than if it had been employed in pasturage and tillage. There is, I confefs, sojne difference, when we consider that in the one case, the profits are annual and small, and in the other, distant and large, which cir- cumstance must materially affect the inclina- tions of some people; but a true Patriot, and all Planters are Patriots, will forego the pre- sent profits, and rest satisfied with having handed down to posterity a blefsing of in- estimable value. Full of this idea, the Patriot will set apart some good land for the generous purpose of raising timber, which at some future period may be employed in building ships for 92 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the advancement of our commerce, and the security of our island. As a farther encouragement to the generous planter, it may be remarked, that the best lands always produce the cleanest, quickest, and best growing timber^ at the same time, the underwood springs up with an amazing and profitable luxuriancy. To such men the soil is always grateful. When a large tract of land is designed for wood, especially if it be of an indifferent quality, it may be advantageous to attend to the following method which was recom- mended to me by i Gentleman long conver- sant in the practice of raising woods. But it must be observed, that this method can only be complied with in places where the plough can be introduced. Plough the whole in October or November, and in the following spring plough and har- row so as effectually to destrow the turf. Tlie land being reduced to an excellent tilth, sow it with turnip-seed about the third week in June, and when the plants are sufficiently advanced, let them be carefully hoed, which GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 93 Operation must be repeated at a proper inter- val. After this, the crop, if pofsible, should be eaten upon the ground with sheep. Upon the same land another crop of turnips should be taken the succeeding year; after whick the ground will be in clean and excellent condition for receiving the acorns and seeds of Forest-trees. These should be committed to the earth in the following manner. Early in the Spring, upon one ploughing, sow one bushel, or three pecks, of oats, and at the same time sow the necefsary quantity of acorns, chesnuts, ash-keys, beech-mast, fir-seeds, Scc. After this, let the whole be harrowed to cover the seeds. As in all ex- t-ensive tracts there are a variety of soils, ii will be most judicious to sovv' the different seeds upon such parts as are most suitable to their respective natures. Besides, some trees, though they delight in the same sort of soil, do not grow kindly together: so that the planter will do well to consider this, and onlj mix such together as are found, by general practice, to grow friendly to each other. And here I beg leave to remark, that where the turnips are cultivated in drills, and well horse-hoed, the land will be in better condi- 94 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. tion for receiving the acorns, &c. than if the broad-cast method had been pursued. In this manner an extensive wood may be raised at a small expense, as the turnip and oat crops will pay the expense of ploughing, seed, rervt, and incidental charges. The tender plants being nourished, warmed, and pro- tected by the oat stalks, will make vigorous shoots, and, having no weeds to struggle with the first summer, will push forward with amazing: vigour. As the land sown in this manner will be fully stocked with plants, the feet of the reapers employed in cutting down the oats will not materially alTect the seed- ling Oaks, which before the autumn will have made a considerable progrefs. The Firs, from the slownefs of their grov/th, will be se- cure from injury, and the Ashes cannot be hurt, as they do not vegetate > till the second year. In some parts of Xorfolk, where the land, in general, is of a sandy nature, with a bed of clay or marl underneath, it is recom- mended by the author of the above instructions, to raise an Oak wood by sowing the acorns with a crop of spring rye: and I am well informed of the succqCh of that method in onfe instance. A wood raised in this natural CEORGICAL E-SSAYS. 95 manner will not only make the best timber for the uses of the carpenter and ship-builder, but will arrive at maturity many years sooner than one of the same age raised from plants drawn from the nursery. The tap-root of all trees corresponds with the leading shoot ; so that when it is cut off, as in planting from the nursery, the tree is weakened in its leading shoot, but puts out more vigorously in its late- ral ones. An attention to the correspondence between the branches and roots solves many of the phsenomena in pruning and planting. A wood raised in thi^ cheap and easy man- ner may be thinned at proper seasons, leaving the most thrivinjr trees to stand for timber, or (which is the most profitable way) it may be converted into a spring wood, in v/hich case no timber should be left standing, as the copse wood will be retarded in its growth by the over-dripping of the large trees. According to the goodnefs of the land, the spring wood will arrive sooner or later at maturity j and as wood of that kind is a regular and constant income, after a term of years, it becomes a very advantageous method of applying land in all countries where fuel is dear. 96 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. As much depends upon keeping the seed-' ling plants clear from weeds, it might be an improvement to the plan, if, after the oats are harrowed in, drills were drawn with a light plough all over the field at the distance of four feet from each other. Into these let the acorns, chesnuts, and other seeds be sown, after which they may be covered with rakes ; the thicknefs, however, of the covering, and the deepnefs of the drills, must be regulated by the nature of the soil and the seed sown. A wood raised in this manner may be cleaned at a small expense by horse-hoeing the in- tervals, and h'und-hoeing and thinning the rows at proper seasons ; for which necefsarj' operations, consult the directions already given for cleaning Oaks drawn from the nursery, and planted in rows. In Livonia, Courland, and Poland, where the pine and nr grow in abundance, it is the practice to prepare the land as for grain, and then sow it with pine and fir seeds in the month of April. The whole is rJ'terwards left to nature. And thus being sown thick, the strong plants smother the weaker, and the wood advances apace. In consequence of the close standing of the trees, the lower branches drop off soon, which GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 97 clears" the timber of knots. In these countries it is esteemed an injudicious practice to thin the woods till the most vigorous trees are ar- rived at the height of twenty feet, and then the low and smothered plants are removed. When the wood is arrived at maturity, the whole is cut down, and every fifty or sixty yards a pine, or fir, is left standing to stock the land with seeds, the ground being care- fully harrowed at the time the cones of the mother trees begin to open. Others again judge it better to leave a deep skirting of trees round the place cleared of wood, with the same precaution of harrowing the ground at the time when Nature points out her sowing season. The celebrated Marquis of Turbilly, speak- ing of woods raised from seeds, says, " AVoods thus raised out-grow, even in a few years, those that have been planted at the same time, and cultivated by digging and drefsing at a great expense. No trees are taller, straightcr^ and of a finer bark." In this place I judge it neccfsary to remark, that the above directions are drawn from the most approved authors, as well as the private Volume IF, Q 98 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. information of gentlemen well conversant in the practice of planting ; but as all countries differ in a variety of circumstances, I wish to be understood as only laying down rules subject to a necefsary variation. There is nothing so dangerous in planting as obeying too servilely the directions given in books : something must be left to the planter him- self. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 99 ESSAY III. On the Economy necejsanj for Gentlemen entering upon small Estates. In consequence of the great infiux of money into this country, arising from increased trade and manufactures, it is probable that, in the course of a few years, all kinds of necefsaries will become so dear, that the great body of country gentlemen, from 400 to 600 pounds a year, will be under the necefsity of either retiring into towns, or of farming their own estates. This last occupation being of a pe- rilous nature, I have selected the following letter, for the information of such gentlemen as may think themselves within the meaning of it. A. H. " With a small, but increasing family, you have taken pofsefsion of your estate ; which, if I understand you clearly, is of the grofs rental, including the lands in hand, of about 6001. a year j and that the net receipt, every G2 100 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. outgoing paid, is 4601.; this will be your whole dependence j for it cannot be prudent to reckon upon any profit at present from 180 acres of farm which your father occupied, and which you have in occupation. " The best advice I can give you, is to con- sider, with particular attention, how very ne- cefsary a steady and unremitted economy, upon a well-matured system, is for enabling you to live and bring up a family in the clafs of gentlemen upon such an income ; and to ex- plain, as well as I am able, how much, on such a plan, will depend on your husbandry being rendered gradually so benficial as tp make a material object to increase it, as the several farms become vacant of which your estate consists ; a prospect by no means ad- mifsible on any other principle than that of your making 180 acres yield an unquestioned profit before you take any more, and so pro- ceeding with respect to every succefsive farm. " And this observation, as well as all I shall make, ought to rest on your having a just idea of what such an income as 4601. will enable » family, in such times as these^ to effect ^ for GEORGICAL E5SAYS. 101 it is lefs, I doubt, than you conceive. You must remember the many instances of such estates in my knowledge, and, I believe, in your own, which have been difsipatcd by their owners, I might almost say without difsipationy by their not having a due sense of those in- creased expenses of living, not marked so much by the price per pound of necefsaries, as by the more luxurious and elegant ideas which have pervaded every clafs of the people; and which appear in building, fitting up, and furnishing houses ; in gardens, table, equi- page, drefs, pleasures, education, &;c. Nothing but a rigid prudence can keep a man in the clafs he was born in with any estate that ranks with yours. If you think it pofsible for you to afsociate with men of 7001. 8001. or lOOOl. ayear, upon any thing like equal terms, you must either be ruined, or pay too dearly, through a month's uncomfortable restrictions, for the pleasure, mixed with much trouble, of a few days. For want of these reflections, hundreds have been ruined without vices, without any particular extravagance, and merely by a general notion, that they could go on for the last ten or fifteen years as they did for as many preceding. But the fact is, that the increase of taxes, uniting with the increase ©f 6 QS 102 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the luxury of men, with money flowing in from very different sources than any enjoyed by country gentlemen of small estates, have doubled, and in some cases trebled the ex- pense of living; so that if these heavy burdens are not carefully provided for in the first in- stance, distrefs, debts, and ruin succeed. " Let me then most earnestly advise you. In the first year to square all your expenses to only two-thirds of your sure and certain in- come. You cannot deduct lefs than 601. for taxes not attaching to the land 5 there remain 4001.; two-thirds of which are 2661.; on no ac- count spend one shilling more in the first year of house-keeping. " Now you will observe that this is directly the reverse of what we commonly see. The first year a young couple marry, they make an extra shozv; and the first year a man comes to his estate, he usually makes some addition to, or alteration in his house ; or he pulls down walls, throws down yew-hedges, cleans about him, and gets into a train of improvements, which it is pofsiiible he had been meditating before he came to it. Small windows, awk- ward dark pafsages,windy floors, and a hundred GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 103 Other things are nuisances ; and then friends are ever ready with projects and advice. No- thing more palpable ^ the improvement speaks itself! — Mighty well; but turn a deaf ear, though the expense be but five pounds. When the first year is over, and you have the third of your income, or 1331. in pocket, and not a debt upon earth, you may consider what is best to do with it; but to lay out a shilling before you know whether you will have it in a real surplus, is, upon system, the conduct which has sent so many little estates the road I hope yours will not travel. The observa- tion is equally applicable to your agriculture; that is a very pleasant employment, and im- provements and experiments are very pleasant also ; but for one year, at least, go on as your father did without variation : he was a pru- dent man, and did not lose : at least know by trial that you can go on without lofs be- fore you listen to any proposals of improve- ment. " But, perhaps, it will be said, how are you to live upon 2661.? Firmnefs and resolution will do any thing; and when the comfort of your whole life is at stake, I am sure they can never be more powerfully called for. You G 4 104- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. must proceed upon plan. Your own clothes, your wife's clothes, and your children's, so much J servants' wages, and all other pay- ments, not for house-keeping, so much; de- duct these from 2661. and divide the remainder by fifty-two, it gives your weekly income > by paying ready-money for every thing, you will know in seven days if you exceed, and how much, and then can regulate accordingly. Such a systematic method of going on has very little trouble in it, and it is positively safe, which no other way to be devised is. Of all other things, be careful to keep accurate accounts of your expenses under every head, and of your farm; and let them be, in effect as well as theory, the basis of experience ; they will prove so : but remember all is confusion and danger the moment you have bills ; for every thing depends on ready-money transactions of every kind. A prudent man would live on a crust, and go in rags, rather than live on any sort of trick. He who lives at a rate of which he is ignorant, spends he knows not what, he is subject to imposition, he is in difficulties before he dreams of any, and his life becomes imbittered for want of a few grains of reselu- tion at setting out. f^EORGICAL ESSAYS. 105 *' Another point is, to consider consumption as expense. — You have found wine in the cellar, perhaps other things ; if you take out a dozen, nay a bottle, enter it as paid for ; by this you will avoid an obvious fallacy : put the money by itself, it will be ready to replenish. *' Now mark the advantages of such a con- duct : at the end of the year you will have 1331. cash m hand; you have had a year's experience ; you reflect on a very restricted, perhaps uncomfortable way of living; you may then consider v.hether it is better to go on so, and expend such a surplus in such im- provements as you have observed to be most wanting, or whether it will rot be more ad- visable to live better, and keep other things as you found them. You are the master, you can do either; or you may mix the plans — live rather better, and improve a little ; but with such an income the likely result is, that you will find the expenses of living conifortably will leave little for any thing else. ** One thing, however, there is, which ought never to be forgotten — you are a Christian, and I hope a good one, sufficiently to know that the wants of your poor neighbours arc a 106 CEORGICAL ESSAYS. call to which he only can attend who lires 'with economy. It you spend all on yourself and familv, what can you do for others r And though your income is 5mall, yet, compara- tively, it is very great, and this is a demand which ought never to be waved. None can expect God's blefsing, who do not think of this call upon their humanity in the arrange- ment of expenses. *' Let me further urge you most warmly to lay down a plan of expense, at all events, that leaves you some surplus at the end of the year. I do not think that any prudent man should regularly spend more than three- fourths of his net income ; such a saving, not for the purposes of hoarding, or growing in any degree rich, is efsential to his comfort : if he cannot attain one-fourth, let it be one-sixth, or a least one-eighth ; at all events, let it be something : without something free at the year's end, it is impofsible he should ever be in tolerable comfort. *' I have heard a right reverend prelate, of great knowledge and ability, declare, that a country clergyman of 3001. a year could not afford to drink wine .; the afsertion was re- GEORGICAL ESSAYS, 107 cclved with some doubt, not by me, for I be- lieve it is correct, and that calculation would prove it. Your free income of 4001. will admit of no excefs in any thing ; which is easily proved. Suppose we allow 601. for the drefs of yourself and wife, and 201. for that of your children, (being young;) wages of two maids and a boy 15l.; garden labour lOl. ; necefsary repairs of furniture, books, news- paper, stable sundries, garden ditto, 8cc. 15l.; here are 1201.; remain 2801.; this is 51. 8s. a week for house-keeping, medical afsistance, charity, and every unforeseen expense; and this with children that are young. Tiiere is further to be deducted that saving, which, at all events, is to be looked to in the first in- stance, be it but the 8s. *^ Is it not evident, from this account, that such an income must be managed with an economy approaching privation in many ar- ticles, or distrefs must enter. In conversa- tion, an estate of 6001. a year is sometimes talked of in a style that shows the world does not calculate. The grofs income has nothing to do in such accounts ; bring it to the net re- ceipt, taxes, &c. paid, and then you will find ground for very different ideas. But these !08 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. few items arc sufficient to prove, that an estate of 6001. a year will not permit its owner to keep a regular footman, nor any carriage be- yond a whiskey, w'ithout drawing on a farm in hand, or reducing house-keeping to penury rather than economy. From all which it is sufficiently clear, that such a country gentle- man must farm, and with succefs, or he must be deprived of many very efsential comforts of life. " Such accounts explain to us the reason of little estates being every where swallowed up by large ones. Nineteen young men in tw^enty, and many old ones also, that come to small estates, are ruined before they are well turned in their new situation ; and this is for want of calculating their abilities, examining what they can spend per week, and paying ready- money. " As to your husbandry, you are to remem- ber, that this is the only pofsible means you have of bettering your condition in life ; by gradually increasing your farm, (but never doing it without the land already in hand being profitably conducted,) you may very materially improve your income ; and by thus -GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 109 advancing In a branch of industry, you take advantage of that rise of times which crushes people of small incomes, who cannot advance :with the progrefs of others. As you have no particular pursuit to occupy your time, I do not see that you can have a better than this. Your soil is not the most favourable, but it does not demand any very expensive exertions; the tract being small, you are to remember, that great economy and carefulnefs are ne- cefsary ; and this upon principle ; because a very small lofs in labour, for want of attention, by perpetually recurring, will grow into a material object upon the whole year's account. Very many farmers save more than they make; and others, after deducting the value of their own labour, and that of their children, do not make more than a living. Except upon par- ticular soils, farming is not a profitable em- ployment of money, compared w-ith many others ; and I urge this the rather, that you may be afsured it will not answer, unlefs well followed, and judiciously conducted." 110 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY IV. On the Aphides, JL HE Aphis or Blighter, as we now, for the first time, venture to call it, from its being the most general cause of what are termed blights- in plants, forms a highly interesting tribe of insects. In point of number, the individuals of the several species composing it surpafs those of any other genus of this country *. These insects live entirely on vegetables. The loftiest tree is no lefs liable to their at- tacks, than the most humble plant. They pre- fer the young shoots on account of their ten- dernefs, and on this principle often insinuate themselves into the very heart of the plant, and do irreparable mischief before they are discovered. But for the most part they beset * Reaumur, considering each A/ih'ts as bringing forth ninety young, calculates that in five generations the produce from a single one would be five thousand nine hundred and four millions nine hundred thousand. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. IH the foliage, and are always found on the under side of the leaf, which they prefer, not only on account of its being the most tender, but as it affords them protection from the weather, and 'various injuries to which they would otherwise be exposed. Sometimes the root is the object of their choice, which, from the nature of these insects, one would not ct priori expect ; yet have I seen the roots of lettuces thickly beset by them, and the whole crop rendered sickly and of little value : but such instances are rare. They rarely also attach themselves to the bark of trees, like the ApJiis salicis, which being one of our very largest species, and hence pofsefsing superior strength, is enabled to penetrate a substance harder than the leaves themselves. As among Caterpillars we find some that are constantly and unalterably attached to one or more particular species of plants, and others that feed indiscriminately on most sorts of herbage; so it is precisely with the Jphides : some of them are particular, others more gene- ral feeders. As they resemble other insects in the above respect, so do they also in being infinitely more Hi GEORGICAL ESSAYS. abundant some years than others ; and though, \yi:h regard to certain insects, this variatiorx (sometimes wonderful in the extreme, as in the brown-tail moth which ravaged the quickset- hedges in 1782) is not easily accounted for, it is solved without much difficult)- as to the Aphis, as will be shown in the sequel. In the year 1793 they were the chief, and m 1798 the sole cause of the failure of the crop of hops. In 1794, a season almost unparalleled for drought, the hop was perfectly free from them, while peas and beans, especially the former, suffered very much from their depredations. Beans w^ere, in 1798, almost wholly cut off by them ; indeed they suffer more or lefs every year by a black species of Aphis, particularly the latter crops. To potatoes, and even to com, w^e have known them some years prove hio-hlv detrimental, and no lefs so to melons. To plants in stoves, greenhouses, and frames, where, from the warmth and shelter afforded them, a preternatural multiplication takes place, they prove extremely injurious, and many a rare and valuable plant also in the open ground of our botanic gardens, falls a victim to these general depredators. Seeing, therefore, that our necefsaries as well as lux- uries of life, are so materially affected by the GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 113 insects of this genus, an attempt to ascertain some of the curious and important facts re- lative to their history, and to make them more generally known, will not, we trust, be un- acceptable to the public. Such inquiries may pofsibly lead to the means of obviating the injuries they occasion ; and if they fail in this, they may tend at least to correct the erroneous notions entertained of blights, not by the vul- gar and illiterate merely, but even by persons of education, who may frequently be heard to maintain that these insects are brought by the East winds ; that they attack none but sickly plants ; ,\vith other notions, all as false, in fact, as unphilosophical in principle. Locusts and Caterpillars, famed for their devastations, are furnished with strong jaws, by means of which they crop and wholly de- vour the foliage of plants. The ApJiis destroys them in a different way. Instead of jaws and teeth, it is provided with a hollow pointed proboscis or trunk, which, when the animal is not feeding, folds under its breast. "With this instrument it pierces the plant, and im- bibes its juices to support itself; but these juices being efsential to the life of the plant, it follows that, when they are drawn off, the Volume IV. II H4 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. plant, exhausted, flags and perishes, being, in fact, literally bled to death by these leech-like animalcules. Yet, so tenacious of life are plants in a healthy state, that they in general only fall victims to the continued attacks of these insects when in immense numbers. But it most commonly happens, that if they do not wholly destroy a plant, they deface it, and a small number o^ Aphides are sufficient to pro- duce this effect. The leaves of such trees and plants as have a firm texture and strong fibres, though infested with these insects, preserve their form ; but the more tender foliage of others, and flowers in general, cannot bear their punctures without curling up and be- coming distorted J in consequence of which they lose their beauty entirely and irretrievably. The cultivators of plants^ especially in stoves and green-houses, cannot be too much on their guard against the whole tribe of Aphides ; for with what pleasure can a large or choice col- lection be viev.ed, when there is scarcely a plant but what exhibits symptoms of disease occasiotied by vermin ? As the species of this genus are verj' nu- merous and afford but few marks of dis- tinction, Linnaeus has contented himself with giving most of them trivial names, according GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 115 to the particular plant on which they are found : a close attention to them will, how- ever, disclose more distinctive characters than naturalists arc aware ot. Aphides are described, by the best informed authors, as being generally oviparous and vivi- parous at different periods ot the same year. Mons. Bonnet, who had the honour of makins: this discovery in 1740*, says, that in the sum- mer the females are viviparous, but toward the middle of autumn they lay real eggs. De Geer observes, that the females of all the Aphides he had seen, constantly laid eggs, in- tended to preserve the species during winter, and that he is therefore inclined to believe that the same takes place in all Aphides whatever. From the 24th of September to the 6th of December following, during which time Fahrenheit's thermometer had been as low as 29, I found the Aphis salicis to be con- stantly viviparous, though, from the inclemency of the weather, very few of these insects, at the period last-mentioned, remained on the trees, and those few were soon after entirely cut off, by the unusual cold that took place, * Or rallier Mons. Treir.bley. See his Letter ta M. Bonnet from the Hague; Q^uvres de Bonnet. li 2 116 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the thermometer falling to 4 degrees below O. Other Aphides are oviparous or viviparous ac- cording to the temperature of the air to which they are exposed. In very cold weather they are oviparous, for this obvious reason: the eggs are capable of resisting cold more power- fully than the young. On the 22d of Novem- ber, same year as above, I found a considerable number of eggs which had been deposited in some auricula plants by a small green Aphis, which infests plants very generally *, while the same species on a geranium that I kept within doers, produced young. In mild win- ters I have observed, ::i the month of January, the same species of ^phis in great numbers on various species of primula without doors, and all ihe females viviparous. These are facts which prcve that all Aphides are not oviparous and viviparous at the same season, but that some may be wholly viviparous ; that all such as are both oviparous- and viviparous do not lay eggs toward the middle of autumn, nor at * These eggs were Jaid in small, irregular groups, on llic upi)tT as well as on tlie under side of the leaves ; tiiey were of a perfectly biack colour, and very visible to the naked eye. I found afterwards that the eggs, when recently excluded, were green, from which colour they gradually changed to that which rendered them so con- spicuous. They were slightly attached to the leaf. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 117 all during the winter, unlefs a certain degree of cold takes place. Most people will think it a matter of very little moment to mankind whether an Aphis comes into the world with its head or its heels foremost: — it may be so; yet, as nature's historian, it is perhaps incumbent on us to notice this circumstance. The young Aphis then is ushered into the world with its feet foremost, see Tab. V. fig. 1. Linn. Trans. V. 5. and this act of parturition, unimportant as it may appear, serves to display the wisdom of the all-provident Author of Nature. The female Aphis, is usually delivered of its offspring as it sits close to the bark of the tree, but not suddenly and all at once. Two thirds of the body of the young one is quickly protruded. AVhen it gets so far, the power of expulsion ceases, and the delivery proceeds slowly. Time is thus given to the young one to learn the use of its legs, which it soon kicks about briskly, and the first service it employs them in, is to clean away a white substance, the remains, perhaps, of the membrane in which it was enveloped in the womb. But what is of greater consequence is, that it is enabled by their use to cling fast to the bark of the H3 118 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. tree as soon as it is brought forth, and thus to obtain its necessary nutriment. Of some of the circumstances attendant on the propagation of these minute animals, ac- counts are related, deviating so wonderfully from the common course of nature, that they could not be credited, were not the authors of them known to be men of the nicest and most accurate observation and of the strictest ve- racity. On this part of the subject I have little to say from my own observation, but, as some account of so extraordinary a part of their history may be expected in a paper of this sort, I shall state the facts, briefly observing that neither in the Aphis salicis, which at times I have w'atched with great attention, nor in any other species of Jphis, did I ever observe any sexual intercourse to take place. "Whether this has arisen from the extreme infrequency of such a procedure, or from my not having observed these insects at a proper time of the year, I know not : but most undoubtedly, such intercourse does not take place between the different sexes of Jphis as in other insects. Yet Mons. Bonnet, who mav be said to have almost taken up his abode with these insects, informs us that he has frequently noticed such GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 119 connexion, which he describes as taking place at one certain time of the year only j and that, from a female thus impregnated, many suc- cessive generations will be produced without any further impregnation. He took the Jphic/cs as soon as brought forth, and kept each indi- vidual separate. The females of such brought forth abundance of young. He took the young of these and treated them precisely in the same manner. The produce was the same j and thus he proceeded to the ninth generation with the same succefs : and so far from considering that as the utmost extent of the effect, he thinks it might be carried on to the thirtieth generation. In most species of Aphides, both males and females acquire wings at certain seasons ; but in this respect they are subject to great variation, there being some males and some females that never have wings; again, there are some females that become winged, while others of the same species do not. In the quality of the excrement voided by these insects, there is something wonderfully extraordinary. Were a person accidentally to take up a book in which it was gravely asserted H4 ]20 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. that in some countries there were certain animals which voided liquid sugar, he would soon lay it down, regarding it as a fabulous tale, calculated to impose on the credulity of the ignorant ; and yet such is literally the truth. The superior size of the Aphis salicis will enable the most common observer to satisfy him- self on this head. On looking steadfastly for a few minutes at a group of these insects while feeding on the bark of the Willow, one perceives a few of them elevate their bodies and a trans- parent substance evidently drop from them, which is immediately followed by a similar motion and discharge like a small shower from a great number of others. At first I was not aware that the substance thus dropping from these animals at such stated intervals was their excrement, but was convinced of its being so afterwards ; for, on a more accurate exami- nation, I found it to proceed from the extremity of the abdomen, as is usual in other insects. On placing a piece of Vv'riting paper under a mafs of these insects, it soon became thickly spotted J holding it a longer time, the spots united from the addition of others, and the whole surface assumed a glossy appearance, GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 121 I tasted this substance, and found it to be as sweet as sugar. I had the lefs hesitation in doing this, having observed that wasps, ants, flies, and insects without number, devoured it as quickly as it was produced : but, were it not for these, it might no doubt be collected in considerable quantities, and, if subjected to the procefses used with other saccharine juices, might be converted into the choicest sugar or sugar candy. It is a fact also, which appears worthy of noticing here, that, though the wasps are so partial to this food, the bees appear totally to disregard it. In the height of summer, when the weather is hot and dry, and Aphides are most abundant, the foliage of trees and plants (more especially in some years than others) is found covered with, and rendered glossy, by a sweet clammy substance, known to persons resident in the country by the name of Honey - dew ; they regard it as a sweet substance falling from the atmosphere, as its name implies. The sweetnefs of this cxcrementitious sub- stance, the glossy appearance it gave to the leaves it fell upon, and the swarms of insects this matter attracted, first led me to imagine 122 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. that the honey-dew of plants was no other than this secretion, which further observation has since fully confirmed. Others have con- sidered it as an exudation proceeding from the plant itself. Of the former opinion we find the Rev. Gilbert White, one of the latest writers on natural history that has noticed this subject*. But that it neither falls from the atmosphere, nor issues from the plant itself, it is easily demonstrated. If it fell from the atmosphere, it would covtr every thing on which it fell indiscriminately, whereas we never find it but on certain living plants and trees. We find * " June 4th, 1783. Vast honey-dews this week. The reason of these seems to be, that in hot days the effluvia of flowers are drawn up by a brisk evaporation, and then in the night fall down with the dews, wiih which they are entangled. " This clammy substance is very grateful to bees, who gather it with great assiduity j but it is injurious to the trees on which it happens to fall, by stopping the pores of the leaves. The greatest quantity falls in still, close weather ; because winds disperse it, and copious dews dilute it, and prevent its ill effects. It falls mo:?tly in hazy warm weather." See I^Fhite's Naturalist's Calendar^ p. 144. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 123 it also on plants in stoves and green-houses covered with glafs. If it exuded from the l)lant, it would appear on all the leaves gene- rally and uniformly ; whereas its appearance is extremely irregular, not alike on any two leaves of the same tree or plant, some having none of it, and others being covered with it but partially. But the phasnomena of the honey-dew, with all their variations, are easily accounted for by considering the Aphides as the authors of it. That they are capable of producmg an appearance exactly similar to that of the honey-dew, has already been shown. As far as my observation has extended, there never exists any honey-dew but where there are Aphides J such, however, often pafs unnoticed, being hid on the under-side of the leaf. Where- ever honey-dew is observable about a leaf, u^phides will be found on the under-side of the leaf or leav^es immediately above it, and under no other circumstances whatever. If, by ac- cident, any thing should intervene between the Aphides and the leaf next beneath them, there will be no honey-dew on that leaf. I'hus, then, we flatter ourselves to have incon- 124 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. trovertibly .proved that Aphides are the true and only source of the honey-dew. We have found that where the saccharine substance has dropped from Jphides for a length of time, as from the Jphis salicis in particular, it gives to the surface of the bark, foliage, or whatever it has dropped on, that sooty kind of appearance which arises from the explosion of gun-powder, which greatly disfigures the foliage, &c. of plants. It looks like, and is sometimes mistaken for, a kind of black mildew. We have some grounds for believing that a saccharine substance, similar to that of the Aphis, drops from the Cocais also, and is finally converted into the same kind of powder. In most seasons the natural enemies of the Jphides are sufficient to keep them in check, and to prevent them from doing any efsenlial injury to plants in the open air. But seasons sometimes occur very irregularly in- deed, on an average, perhaps, once in four or six years, in which they are multiplied to such an exccfs, that the usual means of diminution fail in preventing them from doing irreparable injury to certain crops. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 125 In severe winters we have no doubt but Aphides are very considerably diminished ; in very mild winters we know they are yery considerably increased ; for they not only exist during such seasons, but continue to multiply. Their enemies, on the contrary, exist, but do not multiply, at least in the open air, during such periods ; and thus the ylpJiis gets the start of them, and acquires an ascendancy, which once acquired is not easily overcome by artilicial means, upon a large scale at least, in the open air. Vain would be the attempt to clear a hop-garden of these pernicious ver- min, or to rescue any extensive crop from their baneful effects. Violent rains, attended with lightening, have been supposed to be very effectual in clearing plants of them ; but in such case more is to be attributed to the plants being refreshed and made to grow by the rain, of which they stood in need, than to any de- struction of the Aphides themselves, which, on an accurate examination, will be found to be as plentiful after such rains, as they were be- fore; nor is wet so injurious to these insects as many imagine, as is evident from the fol- lowing experiment: On the 12th of May, 1799, I immersed in a glafs of water the foot- stalk of a leaf of considerable length, taken 126 GEORGICAL ESSAYS, from a stove plant, beset with yiphides of a dark lead colour, which were feeding on it in great numbers. On immersion they, did not quit the stalk, but immediately their bodies afsumed a kind of luminous appearance from the minute bubbles of air which ifsued from them. They were put under water at a quarter past six in the evening, and taken out at a quarter past ten the next morning, hav- ing continued immersed sixteen hours. On placing them in the sun-shine, some of them almost immediately showed signs of life, and three out of four, at least, survived the im- mersion. One of the survivors, a male, very soon became winged, and another, a female, was delivered of a vounof one, Alanv years before this experiment, with a view to destroy the aphides which infested a plant in my green-house, I immersed one evening the whole plant, together with the pot in which it grew, in a tub of water. In the morning I took out the plant, expecting with certainty to find every Aphis dead ; but, to my great surprise, they soon appeared alive and well : and thus, in addition to the other extraordi- nary phaenomcna attendant on these insects, we find that they are capable of resisting the effects of immersion in water for a great length GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 127 of time. AVhen taken from the plant on which they feed, and kept under water, they do not survive so long ; their struggling in that case perhaps exhausts them sooner. This part of the subject might be pushed much further : it is sufficient for our purpose to have shown that wet is not so hurtful to them as is gene- rally imagined. Though no mode of destroying Aphides will, perhaps, ever be devised on a larger scale in the open air by artificial means, we can ac- complish it most effectually when they infest plants in stoves, green-houses, and frames, or in any situation in which we can envelope them for a certain time in clouds of smoke. Powders, or liquids, however fatal to Aphides, must ever be ineffectual, from the trouble and difficulty of applying them so that they shall come in contact with those insects, situated as they usually are ; but in this respect smoke has every advantage, it penetrates and per- vades their inmost recefses. The smoke of common vegetables, however powerful, is found to be inadequate to their destruction, and hitherto no other than that of tobacco is found to be effectual. That, judiciously ap- plied, completely answers the purpose, without ]28 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. injuring the plant. It mostly happens in well managed houses, that a few plants only are infested with Aphidea : in such a case the smoaking of the whole house is a businefs of unnecefsary expense and trouble ; and we •would recommend to persons who have large collections, to make use of a box ot a commodious form, that shall hold about a dozen plants of various sizes, to be used as a sort of hospital, in which infested plants may be smoaked separately, and the insects more effectually destroyed, because it may be rendered more perfectly smoke tight. To prevent the calamities which would in- fallibly result from the accumulated multi- plication of the more prolific Animals, it has been ordained by the Author of Nature, that such should be diminished by serving as food for others. On this principle, we find that most animals in this predicament have one ©r more natural enemies. The helplefs ApJiis, the scourge of the Vegetable Kingdom, has to contend with many. The principal are the Coccinella, the Jchnewno/i Aphidum, and the Musca-ApJudivora. Such as are unacquainted •with the history of insects will learn with 4 GEORCICAL ESSAYS. 129 some surprise that the Coccinella *, a common insect, well known even to children by the name of the Lady-Bird, is one of the greatest destroyers of the. Aphides, which indeed arc its only food, its sole support, as well in its perfect as in its larva or grub state. During the severity of winter, this insect secures itself under the bark of trees, or elsewhere f . When the warmth of spring has expanded the foliage of plants, the female deposits its eggs on them in great numbers, from whence, in a short time, proceeds the Larva, a small grub of a dark lead-colour, spotted with orange : these may be observed in the summer season running pretty briskly over all kinds of plants; and if narrowly watched, they will be found to devour the Aphides wherever they find them. The same may be observed of the Lady- Bird in its perfect state. As these insects in both their states are very numerous, they con- * All the different species of Coccinella feed on Alihides; the blpunctatay by far the most common, does the most execution. f Many are found in houses; for early in May, 17*)9, I counted on tlic window of my common sitting room, exposed to the sun, nineteen of the Coccinella bipunctata. Volume IV. I 130 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. tribute wonderfully to dimmish the number of Aphides. There is a saying which humanity has put into the mouths of children in favour of this insect *, now rendered more sacred by its great utility, which has happily rendered it a sort of favourite with them, and con- tributes usually to its escape from their dan- jrerous clutches. Another most formidable enemy to the Aphis is a very minute, black, and slender Ichneumon fly, the Ichneumon Aphidinn of Linnaeus. The manner in which this insect proves so destructive to the Aphis, is different from that of the Lady-Bird. The female Ichneumon, of which numbers may be found where Aphides are in plenty, settles on a stalk or leaf, more or lefs covered with them, marches slowly over their bodies, feeling with its antennae as it proceeds for one of a suitable size and agej which having discovered, it pushes forward its body, or abdomen, in an incurved state, and with a fine instrument at its extremity, invisible to the naked eye, punctures, and deposits an egg in the body of the Aphis; which having done, it proceeds, and lays an Q^g in a similar way in the bodies f I.ady-bird, lady-bird, fly away home! — your house is on fire, your children at home." GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 131 of many others. The egg thus deposited quickly hatches, and becomes a small larva, or maggot, which feeds on the substance of the Aphisy and, having eaten the whole of it, the skin excepted, it changes to a piipa, or chrysalis; in which state, when it has re- mained a sufficient time, it becomes an Ich- neumon fly, which eats its way out of the Aphis, leaving the dry inflated skin of the insect adhering to the leaf, like a small pearl. Such may always be found where Aphides are in plenty. We have observed difi'erent species of Aphides to be infested with dif- ferent Ichneumons. In general the torpid Aphis submits quietly to this fatal operation; but we have observed some of them, especially one that feeds on the Sycamore, which is much more a^ile than many of this race, endeavour to avoid the Ichneumon with great addrefs. There is, perhaps, no genus of insects which in their larva, or maggot state, feed on such a variety of food as the Musca, or Fly. There is scarcely a part of nature, either animate or inanimate, in which they are not to be met with. One division of them, called by Linnaeus I2 152 CEORGICAL ESSAYS. MitsCcC ^plddivorcT^ feeds entirely on Aphides. Of the different species of aphidivorous flies, which are numerous, having mostly bodies variegated with transverse stripes, their females may be seen hovering over plants infested with Aphides^ among which they deposit their eggs, on the surface of the leaf. The larva, or maggot, produced from such eggs, feeds, as soon as hatched, on the younger kinds of Aphis; and, as it increases in size, attacks and devours those which are larger. These hnxte arc usually of a pale colour, adhere closely to the leaf, along which they slowly glide, and are formed very tapering towards the head. When fully grown, they change to a pupa, or chrysalis, attached to. the leaf, from whence ifsues the fly. The laj'va; of these flies contribute their full share to diminish, the despoilers of Flora. To these three kinds of insects, which are the chief agents in the hands of Nature for keeping the Aphides within their proper limits, we may add a few others which act a subordinate part in this necefsary businefs of destruction. The larca of the Hemerobius feeds on them in the same manner as that ©f the Musca Aphidivora, and deposits its eggs also on the GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 133 leaves of such plants as are beset with Aphides, The eggs of this Hemerohius stand on long filaments, which are attached by a base to the leaf, and have more the appearance of the filaments of flowers with their anthene than the eggs of an animal. The number of these insects being comparatively very small, they may be considered rather as the casual in- vaders of their existence than the main host of their destroyers. Tlie Earwig, which is in itself no contempt- able enemy to plants, makes some atonements for its depredations by destroying the Aphides ; especially such as reside in the curled-up leaves of fruit-trees, and the purses formed by certain Aphides on the poplars and other trees. Lastly, we may add as the enemies of these creatures, some of the smaller soft-billed birds, which feed generally on insects, and whicli may frequently be seen busily employed in picking them from the plants. Their utility did not escape the observation of the pleasing author of the seasons. We shall quote the whole of what he writes on this subject, pre- suming that none of our readers will think it 13 134 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. too longi remarking, however, that he has fallen into the error of most others in regard to the manner in which these insects are said to be brought by the easterly winds, and that he confounded the mischiefs of caterpillars with those of the Aphis : " For oft engender'd by the hazy north, Myriads on myriads, insect armies warp Keen in the poison'd breeze, and wasteful eat Thro' buds and bark into the blarken'd core Their eager way. A feeble race I yet oft The sacred sons of vengeance, on whose course Corrosive famine waits, and kills the year. To check this plague, the skilful Farmer chaff, And blazing straw, before his orchard burns, Till, all involv'd in smoke, the latent foe From every cranny suffocated falls ; Or scatters o'er the blooms the pungent dust Of pepper, fatal to the frosty tribe ; Or, when the envenom'd leaf begins to curl, With sprinkled water drowns them in their nest j Nor, while they pick them up with busy bill The little trooping birds unwisely scares." When plants assume a sickly appearance, or are disfigured by disease, from whatever cause the disease may arise, they are said to be blighted. Blights originate from a variety of causes, the chief of which are unfavourably weather and insects. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ]35 Two opinions prevail very generally in regard to blights ; the one, that the insects which are the cause of them, are brought from a distance by easterly winds j the other, that they attach themselves to none but plants already sickly. Neither of these opinions, as far as I have observed, is founded in fact. I am induced, from the numerous observations I have made on insects for a series of years, .(in pursuing the cultivation of plants,) to con- sider the Jphis as by far the most general cause of the diseases distinguished by the name of Blights. Other insects, itistrue, more especially the /^rutfof some of the Lepidoptera, as those of the Phalcence Tovtices, disfigure and do infi- nite mischief to plants, by rolling and curling up the leaves. But these, for the most part, confine themselves to certain trees and plants. Their ravages are also of shorter duration, being confined to the growth of one brood, and they are also lefs fatal. It would be no difhcult matter for me to fill a volume with observations, to which 1 have been an eye- witnefs, of the injuries which plants sustain from insects j but that would be foreio-n to my present purpose, which is to show, that the Aphis is the grand cause of these diseases, and to place the modus operandi^ or the manner in * I4 1S6 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. which they effect this businefs, in its true light. We are fully aware,- that certain gregarious insects may, at particular times, rise up in the air, and, if small and light, be impelled by any wind that may chance to blow at the time j and on this principle we account for that shower oi Aphides described by Mr. White to have fallen at Selborn. But certainly this is not the mode in which those insects are usually dispersed over a country. The pha^- nomenon is too unusual, the distribution would be too partial ; for AphideSy while at their highest point of multiplication, do not swarm like bees or ants, and fly off or emigrate in large bodies, but each male or female Aphis ^ at such periods as they arrive at maturity, marches or flies off without waiting for any other. Yet it may happen that, from a tree or plant thickly beset with them, numbers may fly off or emigrate together, being arrived at maturity at the same moment of time. Detaching itself from the plant, each pur- sues a different route, intent on the great busi- pefs of multiplying its species, and settles on GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 137 sudi plants inthe vicinity as are calculated to afford nourishment to its young. The common green Aphis, which is so gene- rally destructive, lives during the winter sea- son on such herbaceous plants as it remained on during the autumn, either in its cg^ or perfect state. If the weather be mild, it mul- tiplies greatly on such herbage ; as the spring advances, in May the males and females of these insects acquire wings : and thus the businefs of increase, hitherto confined, is widely and rapidly extended, as the winged Aphides, by hop-planters called the Fly, may be seen from this period very generally sitting on plants, and floating in the air in all di- rections. The /iphis Salicis is among the largest English species, and is found on the bark both of the trunk and the branches qf the Salix Triandra, Fragilisy and Viminalis^ but mostly on the last. The bodies of these in- sects contain a red liquid, and hence per- sons employed in stripping osiers have their hands rendered apparently bloody, by un- avoidably bruising them. 13S GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Near the end of September, multitudes of the full-grown insects of this species, both winged and others, are observed to desert the willows on which they feed, and to ramble solitarily over every neighbouring object, in such numbers, that we can handle nothing in their vicinity without crushing some of them. Are they retreating to fresh trees, on which to deposit their young, or seeking some warmer situation for the winter season ? Vast numbers of them, mostly in a younger state, still remaia in large mafses on the trees. Though numberlefs insects, wasps in parti- cular, wGYe devouring the sweets they depo- sited, the Lady-bird, (CGCcinella,) was the only one that preyed upon the Aphides them- selves; and those, towards the end of the month, began to relax tbeir depredations, an4 to retreat to their winter quarters. As the season advances, the Aphides are found higher on the trees, proceeding gra- dually upwards in quest of new food. When the young Aphis is brought forth, and is com- pletely disengaged, it insinuates itself under the body of its mother, and places itself close to its elder brother or sister, thus early mani- GEGRGICAL ESSAYS. 139 festing an attachment to that congregated state of society in which it afterwards exists. If, by striking it, you jar the branch of the tree on which the Aphides are placed, or should a wasp, or other large insect, approach them suddenly or rudely, the whole of them, as it were in a mafs, elevate their bodies and hind legs, and put them in motion ; and herein ap- pear to consist their whole powers of defence: in this state their very fine white legs, thus elevated, give them a curious filamentous ap- pearance. We have frequently observed white incrustations adhering to different parts of their legs, wings, and bodies. Towards the middle of October, many pregnant females were ob- served emigrating from the mafs. Upon opening the abdomen, in the month of No- vember, of one of the largest females, I counted sixty young, large and small. 140 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY V. On the Sea Weed of the Island of Jersey. X HE plant named le varech, '* quercus ma- rina," in English, sea ware, or weed, or wreck, is one of the most valuable plants for the purposes of Agriculture. Without it, great part of our lands would remain uncul- tivated, or would yield very scanty crops. We have made use of it time immemorial, con- vinced of its utility. The major part of our labourers lay aside all other occupations, to procure it at the time of cutting it. The varech is considered of so much importance by the legislature, that they have regulated its distribution amongst the inhabitants, and ap- pointed officers to attend to its preservation. It is only permitted to cut it at two periods of the year. The first cutting is in the months of February and March, and serves as manure for pasture land, nurserymen's grounds, and fields sowed with barley. It is not decided upon what ground it suits best. It gives a surprising power of vegetation to plants in every kind of soil. Two cart loads, weighing GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 141 two thousand pounds each, with six carts of stable dung, sufficiently manure a -cergce of land of 1000 feet square. The second cutting of the varech is in the month of July; it is then laid to dry on the sea-shore, after which it is collected and housed for winter's fuel. Exclusive of these two cuttings according to law, it is gathered at all seasons on the sea coast, by people who pick up what the sea throws up. They dry it on the spot where it is gathered ; and though it is inferior to that which is cut, it meets with as certain sale ; in a word, the varech is the cause that we scarcely ever have any poor amongst the coun- try people. The cbimnies in which it is consumed, are much larger than for coal, and are furnished at ditfercnt distances, from six to ten feet, with strong iron bars, to which are suspended pork lately salted, which is fumigated during three weeks or a month, after which it is deposited in a dry place for use. By this method it ac- quires a peculiar flavour and taste, superior to other pork smoked by means of coal or wood. 142 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. It may be preserved during the whole year, and longer. They also smoke beef and fish in the same manner. The ashes of the varech (alkali mixed with marine salt) make an excellent manure, par- ticularly for stiff soils. It is judged that a cabot (half a bushel) strewed over a perch of land, in the winter season, or at the beginning of spring, will be a sufficient manure. Our la- bourers are unanimous in opinion, that it gives a full ear to the corn, and prevents its being laid. In proof of the esteem in which the varech is held, although the island do not fur- nish above half the quantity of corn wanted for its consumption, those who have any verech to sell, may, at all times, get a cabot of wheat, for a quartier, or six bushels of verech. We must not forget to add, on the subject of the varech, that it is generally agreed upon, that what is laid on the soil, by way of ma- nure, has no effect on the ensuing crop, after that for which it is intended. This fact has been acknowledged by the major part of the farmers who have used it, without inves- tigating the reason thereof. This interesting object now engages our attention. We have GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 143 supposed that the varech is composed of parts extremely volatile. It was of consequence to impede its too quick evaporation ; we knew that several other matters evaporate entirely when exposed to the air, such as camphor, &c. but when they were amalgamated with other ingredients, they retained longer their original principles. On these grounds, one of our members has collected a quantity of varech, which he has mixed with other ma- nure, arranged alternately, stratum super stra- tum, which, after having undergone a com- plete putrefaction, adhere, penetrate, and, in a manner, afsimilate themselves with the volatile parts of the varech, to such a degree, that this compost, instead of having merely an annual effect upon the productions of the soil, yields a manure for several years following. Unfor- tunately this procefs, and mode of using the varech, is not generally followed, either from want of being known, or perhaps because old customs, to which our good farmers pay great respect, are different from it. 144 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY VI. On Calcareous Earth, its larious CoDipminds, and thtir application ill Agriculture as Alamires: X Hfi pursuits of philosophy and natural history, furnish an innocent and amusing ex- ercise to the faculties of the human mind. With mere amusement, however, we are not to rest satisfied : the claims of society forbid it : our exertions should not only be active but benevolent 'y and the philosopher in his study should remember that he is still a citi- zen of the world. Though I am persuaded that the applica- tion of Agricultural improvements must ulti- mately rest with farmers of the lower clafs, as constituting the most numerous body of men j yet, for the discovery of these improvements, we naturally look up to men of superior infor- mation. Gentlemen engaged in Agriculture, who have enjoyed the advantages of a good education, and practical farmers of an inqui- sitive turn, are frequently desirous of becoming GfiORGICAL ESSAYS. 145 acquainted with those branches of science which are intimately connected with their favourite pursuit. The acquisition of such knowledge will naturally lead them to reason and think upon agriculture. Not content with viewing the appearances of Nature, they will inquire into that combination of causes, from whence these phaenomena are deducible. This leads to experiment, and after all we must ac- knowledge that experiment is the proper founda- tion of agriculture. A philosophical and practical history of manures is much wanted. Such a work would be highly serviceable to the gentleman- farmer, who has money at command for the purchase of manures, but is ignorant of their qualities, and proper application. The out- lines might be sketched, and circulated through the different counties for receiving information. From such a general mafs of intelligence, a general history, philosophical and practical, might be selected. Viewing the pursuits of agriculture, in the light of an experimental inquiry, a knowledge of the materials, used in these experiments, is certainly of great importance : such elemen- Fohune IV, K 146 GEOKGICAL ESSAYS. tary instruction would constitute a useful preparation for practical agriculture. At pre- sent we have no book on this subject, to which the inquisitive agriculturist might be referred. Different districts are in the habit of using different manures, and perhaps it is in the neighbourhood of London alone, that a com- prehensive list could be obtained. A frequent repetition of experiments is necefsary to esta- blish the character of a manure ; it is of con- sequence, therefore, that what is already known on this subject, should be communi- cated to the public. From the testimony of a number of individuals, facts may be collected and truths established, which we can now only suspect, or suggest, as matter of inquiry. Age frequently disables from active exertions before a man acquires that knowledge which is necefsary to characterize an experienced and enlightened agriculturist. The tedious routine of experiment w^ould be contracted, could we but know what facts have been al- ready ascertained. Hence appears the pro- priety of a national experimental farm. Soon, I flatter myself, the opponents of the Board of Agriculture, will be convinced of the pro- priety of its establishment. From the cha- racters selected, we have every reason to be- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 147 lieve that the confidence of the nation will not be misplaced. A general circulation of agri- cultural knowledge, could it be obtained by their exertions, would sufficiently prove the usefulnefs of the institution. The science of mineralogy, as comprehend- ing the natural history of those bodies with which the farmer is daily conversant, must certainly be a very desirable acquisition. It includes the study of some of our most im- portant manures, such as chalk i marl, and lime. Without going into the chemical analysis of that variety of fofsils which nature presents to our view, 1 shall confine myself only to those which are of use in agriculture, as being connected with the cultivation of the earth. These substances being almost all included under the article of calcareous earth, it will be unnecefsary to enumerate the different fofsils which belong to the other ciafses. The surface of the globe is generally covered with a layer of mould ; the vegetable soil, or the staple of the earth, as it is commonly called. This is a compound of clav, sand, and putrid vegetable and animal substances -, according to the different depths of which, K2 14» GEORGICAL ESSAYS. may be estimated the richnefs or sterility of land. A\'^e observe, on penetrating the bozcels of the earth, that it is either formed into beds or layers, parallel to each other, or into mafses enormous in their size, but regular in their thicknefs and internal structure. The first has been called strata, the second rock, or rock-stone. In stratified matter, the thicknefs and num- ber of strata are generally the same through- out the whole mafs, which enables the work- men, after sinking a shaft into a mine, easily to ascertain the materials they must pafs through, if they sink another at a considerable .distance. All the varieties of earths, however, which are found in strata, rocks, or detached pieces, are considered, by modern minera- logists, as reducible to the following five : The calcareous; — the ponderous, or heavy earth; — the magnesian, or muriatic; the ar- gillaceous ; — the siliceous. The Calcareous Earth. Earths of the calcareous kind have the fol- lowing properties common to them all ; GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 149 1st, They become friable when burnt in the fire, and afterwards fall into a white powder. 2d, Their falling into pow^der is promoted, if, after being burnt, they are thrown into water, whereby a strong heat arises, and a partial solution. 3d, They cannot be melted by themselves into glafs in a close fire, 4th, When burut, they augment the caus- ticity of pot-ashes. 5tb, They are difsojved in acids with eifer- vescence. The calcareous earth is found, 1st, Pure, in the form of powder, and called lac luna. This is of a white colour, and is found in moors, at the bottom of lakes, and in the fifsures of free-stone-quarries, in Oxford- shire and Northamptonshire. In Sweden the colour varies to red and yellow. This is sup- posed to be lime-stone, washed from the rock, and. pulverized by the motion of the w^ter, 6 K3 |50 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. It is found in quantities too small to admit of any application to agriculture. 2d, Calcareous earth is found friable and compact, in the form of chalk. The white chalk is the purest, yet it contains a little sili- ceous, and about 2 per cent, of argillaceous earth. Tliere is more fixed air in chalk, than in any other calcareous earth, generally about 40 per cent. On Chalk, as a Manure. The use of chalk, as a manure, has been universally acknowledged, though the effects are various, which have been ascribed to its operation. Farmers frequently talk of it as an unctuous and oily matter, and from these properties have supposed it to enrich the earth. From its chemical analysis, however, we learn that this is impofsible, as no oil enters into its composition. Its action is either chemical or mechanical. It acts chemically as an absorbent, con- tributing to presence dry those lands which GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 151 are poachy and wet j and, by its attraction for acids, it may hasten the putrefaction of vege- tables. It acts mechanically by entering into the composition and totally altering the nature of clay, converting it, by proper pulverization, into a species of marl ; by insinuating itself between the particles of clay, it destroys their adhesion, thus preventing it from becoming too hard in summer, and too wet in winter, the water more readily sinking through its pores: the clay being kept in this porous state, yields easily to the growing roots of plants, and more readily admits the manure to the vegetating grain. Hence we should suppose that chalk ought to become a constituent part of all manures. We should conclude its action to be most beneficial on clay and loam, as it can incorporate more readily with these than with gravel or sand. Experience warrants this conclusion, as it is observed by Mr. Young, that the same chalk which answers so well on the rich loams about Enfield, is found of no service in the neighbourhood of North Mims, where the soil is a hungry gravel. When united to clay it gives friability to the com- K 4 152 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. pound, hence marl readily falls down in water. 3d, Calcareous earth is found indurated or hard, in the form of limestonCy which contains a small quantity of quartz and argillaceous earth. Tothisclafs belong the Portland and Purbeck stones. They all effervesce with acids, the fixed air entering largely into their composition. They will not give fire with steel. They are found to contain a small quantity of iron. Mr. Kirwan observes, that in a stone found near Bath, the calcareous earth may be detected uncombined with fixed air, which is proved by adding sulphur to a solution of the calcareous earth in water, and applying heat to the mixture. The sulphur is difsolved, and a calcareous liver of sulphur formed. The solubility of the earth in water, likewise proves the absence of fixed air. An infinite variety of substances belong to this clafs, which are all reducible to lime, by the application of heat. Opaque lime-stones, of a close grain, an(J susceptible of a good polish, are called marbles. The black colour of these is commonly owing to a slight mixture of iron. Bergman observes, that all calcareous stones, which grow black GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 165 pr brown by calcination, may be suspected to contain manganese ; in that case, the lime they form is excellent as a cement : and, ac- cording to Rinman, white calcareous stones, that grow black by calcination, contain about 10 per cent, of iron. The same author afserts, that blue and green marbles derive their colour from a mixture of shorl. Lime-stone spars arc found chrystallized in various forms, — rhomboidal, hexangular, tri- angular, &;c. ; but the most common is the rhomboidal, of which sort is the Iceland chrystal, which pofsefses a double refracting power. These spars are found of a variety of colours, from a mixture of metallic particles. The shells of all crustaceous animals, from the coarsest to the coral and the pearl, are all composed of this earth. An animal oil is contained in the various species of litho- phyta. On Quick-Lime. Q,uick-limc has the following properties; 1st, It is entirely soluble in water, with 154 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. which it unites so rapidly, as to occasion con- siderable heat. When exposed to the air, it imbibes moisture. When united with so much water as is sufficient to make it a fluid paste, it is called slaked lime. Quick-lime dis- solves in water, in the proportion of about five grains to a pint. AVater, saturated with quick-lime, is railed lime-zvater. Lime-water, "*l)eing exposed to the atmosphere, attracts from thence particles of fixed air, which float in it j by which means, the quick-lime is rendered mild and insoluble in water, and therefore ap- pears on the surface of the lime-water, or of the slaked lime, where this combination hap- pens, in the state of mild calcareous earth, convertable, by a second calcination, into quick-lime, and is called the cream of lime. 2d, Quick-lime unites with acids, without effervescence ; it neverthelefs saturates as much acid as it would if it had not been cal- cined. 3d, Quick-lime is disposed to unite with sulphur, with which it forms a hepar sulphuri%y similar to that made by sulphur united with an alkali. It is also disposed to unite with oils, and with animal and vegetable matters -, with GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 155 respect to which it discovers a caustic and corrosive property. 4th, Quick-lime, when mixed with sand, forms a mafs which hardens, and is used as a cement, or mortar. 5th, Fixed and volatile alkalis, treated with quick-lime, become deliquefcent, caustic, and capable of acting like solvents on many bodies, especially those of an oily nature, with much more force and activity than in their ordinary state. Quick-lime by thus communicating causticity to alkalis, loses its own causticity, and acquires all the properties of uncalcined calcareous earth. Quick-lime and its solution, lime-water, have not only the taste of acrimony, but like- wise all the other properties of fixed alkalis. Thus quick-lime changes the blue colour of flowers to green, precipitates all metallic so- lutions, and even some salts, with earthy basis, such as alum, and decomposes ammo- niacal salts, from which it disengages the vo- latile alkali. These alkaline saline properties distinguish 156 GEORGICAL ESSAYS, quick-lime from uncalcined calcareous earth; which^ however, in a ven- small degree, pos- seised some of the same properties. On the Action of Lime as a Manure. From the binding quality of Jime, may be explained its beneficial action on sandy land, to which it has been applied, as a manure, with great succefs. But it has been par- ticularly useful, when these lands are first broke up, in their state of health. The vege- table matter is here acted upon, and reduced to manure, by the corrosive power of the lime. On such lands, when thus treated, I have known the first crop of rye more than repay the expenses. Its action on clay may be similar to that of chalk. By its attraction, for water, it renders the land dry. By insinuating itself between the particles of clay, it destroys their adhesion, breaks the stifFnefs of soil, and gives readier accefs to the operation of manures, and to the extension land the experiments made at the same season of the vear, that the influences of the atmos- phere, the nature of the soil, and its state of exhaustion, may be similar. The quantity and value of the materials used should be ac- curately stated, and the effects watched through two or three succefsive crops, that the duration of the manure may be ascer- tained. I have just allotted three acres of wheat land to an experiment on the comparative value of lime, chalk, and dungj the soil, a stiff loam, on a clayey bottom. The field bore this year a crop of grey pease, and the preceding year had produced above three quarters and a half per acre of wheat. The lime and chalk will both be drawn from the same pit, and will be laid on in the following quantities : — Of the lime, 160 bushels per acre, at 6d. delivered; expense 41. Of the chalk, SO loads per acre, at 6s. per load delivered ; the expense 9l. Of the dung, 12 loads per acre, at Os. de* Vohtmt IV. I, 162 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. livered ; the expense 5l. 8s. The distance of the lime, chalk, and dung, about three miles carriage. The land will be ploughed three times, and the wheat got in, as nearly as pos- sible, at the same time. The result of the ex- periment I intend watching through three suc- cefsive crops, before I form any conclusion respecting the specific value of each ma- nure. 4th, Calcareous earth is found united with the vitriolic acid, in the form of gypsum, sele- nite, or plaster of Paris. It does not effervesce with acids, and is, with difficulty, soluble in any. When heated a little below ignition, it undergoes a motion similar to that of ebulli- tion, from the difsipation of its aqueous parts, and falls into powder. If taker) up, when this motion ceases, and sprinkled over with water, it soon concretes, and hardens by rea- son of its sudden crystallization. This property of becoming hard and com- pact, differs from that of quick-lime, which will not unite into a hard mafs, without the addi- tion of sand or cement. It has been applied to a variety of purposes j as nothing can be more convenient than a stone which, in its GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 16S soft state, is capable of receiving imprefsions Vvhich it afterwards preserves for years. Mr. Margraaf observes, that gypsum is en- tirely soluble in water, and that it may be ar- tificially composed by saturating the vitriolic acid with the calcareous earth. Mr. Macquer afserts that the hardnefs of water is owing to gypseoUs selenltes, which are difsolved in it. Gypsum has lately been extolled in several of the foreign publications, as a manure of the highest value, particularly in America^ where, according to Mr. Chancellor Livingston, it has created a new a^ra in asfriculture *. *&' The experiments, however, w^hich have been repeated in England, on this manure^ are by no means decisive in its favour. Sir Richard Sutton and others have tried it, to the amount of six bushels per acre, the quantity recommended, without having been able to trace its good effects. * Vid. Annals cf Jgiiculluye, vol, xx, p. 75. 5 L2 J64 GEORGICAL ESSAYS, Mr. Proctor Anderdon, of Henlade, Sornef- setshire, concludes, from some experiments*, " that on many plants, or in many soils, gypsum powder will have no effect; but that it has some effect on old clover, on a loamy soil; and that a greater effect may reasonably be expected from it, when applied to younger plants of the samiC sort or nature." Clover is the crop supposed to have been principally benefitted by it. Calcareous earth is generally acknowledged to be favourable to the growth of clover, but the addition of the vitriolic acid, a suspected poison in agricul- ture, Vv'ould naturally have induced the agri- cultural chemist to have rejected gypsum as a manure : theory, however, must never be op- posed to experiment ; but the soundest philo- sophy allows us to repeat with care, and to watch with caution, experiments which con- tradict generally received truths. *)th. Calcareous earth is found united with clay in the form of marl. Marls are of three kinds, — shell-marl, clay- marl, and stoney-marl. Anftalsy vol. xvii. p. 297. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 165 Shell-marl is composed of the shells of sbell- nsh and other aquatic animals, which are some- times very entire, and often united with other earthly substances. This may be distinguished into fresh water-marl, and the marl of sea- shells ; but these, having no clay in their com- position, cannot properly be denominated marls. Clay-marls are earths which bear more or kfs resemblance to clay; they vary both in colour and other appearances, and agree only in containing a quantity of clay mixed with calcareous earth. The stoney-marls are harder and more stoncy than the clay-marls; but, upon being exposed to the action of the sun and of frost, they fall down into clay, which is easily mixed with the soil. All these marls effervesce with acids; but as water alone will frequently force a quantity of air from pure clay, when in a dry state, which may occasion it to be mistaken for marl, it will be proper, in trying bodies suj;- pected to be marls, to let them stand a short time in water before they are submitted to the ^ L3 166 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. test of acids. For want of properly attending to this. Dr. Black, of Edinburgh, remarks, that he had frequently received earths, sup- posed to be marls, which, on a strict examina- tion, proved to be pure clay. Marls are fusible in the fire, as are all mix- tures of these tvi^o earths. By lefs heat, if the calcareous earth predominates, they are cal- cinable into a kind of quick-lime; and if the clay prevails, they may be changed by fire into hard mafses, capable of striking sparks from steel. Some authors, as Dr. Hill, comprehend under this name, earths, which contain no calcareous particles, and which are altogether argillaceous. But the word is more properly confined to such compounds as consist of clay and calcareous earth; sand mica, and other earths, may, however, be occasionally inter- mixed. The calcareous and argillaceous earths differ much in their proportions; hence a di- versity in the appearance and properties of marls: the richest marls are found to contain the largest proportion of calcareous earth ; hence arises the importance of ascertaining this pro- portion, in order to decide on the value ©f GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 167 marls. The following method is proposed by Dr. Black : calcareous earth generaUy contains 40 per cent, of fixed airj upon this circumstance the experiment is founded. By saturating the marl with an acid, and by ob- servins: the lofs of weijrht the earth sustains, when the air is expelled, we learn the pro- portion of calcareous eardi which it contains. Put two hundred grains of marl into a vefsel, add a little water, and saturate it with an acid, observe the lofs of weight, if it loses forty, grains, there are then one hundred grains of calcareous earth in the marl, the lofs of weight which it suffers being always about 40 per cent, of the whole, or 42 at most. Some marls contain only one-twentieth, or even one- thirtieth part of their weight in calcareous matter; a farmer, therefore, by knowing the value of a marl, can judge whether it would not answer better to fetch chalk and lime from a greater distance, and at a higher price. The quantity of calcareous earth, contained in marls, may likewise be discovered by solu- tion and precipitation. Let the acid of sea- L4 168 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. salt be gradually added to any given quantity of marl, till no further effervescence ensues upon the addition ; dilute the liquor with water, and pour it into a filtre of grey papery a pure pellucid liquor pafses through, and an earthy substance remains behind at the bottonn of the filtre ; this will be found to be clay, combined with a small portion of sand, and sometimes with flakes of mica; add to the pellucid liquor a solution of salt of tartar, the liquor will become turbid, but will recover its transparency by a copious precipitation of a "white powder; let the alkaline solution be again added and repeated, until no such ap- pearances take place ; the powder, thus pre- cipitated from the acid solution, will be the cal- careous earth contained in the marl ; and when separated by filtration, washed and dried, gives what the clay v»'anted to complete the original weiaht of the marl. Marls differ from other calcareous bodies, in readily falling down into powder, when exposed to the air; this appears to be owing to the clay, which penetrates the substance of the marl, and prevents the con- tact and adhesion of the calcareous particles. Marl is much used in agriculture, to give fertility to soils; great benefit has been derived feEORGICAL ESSAYS. 169 from its application to the poor sands of Nor- folk, where-) fortunately, a stratum of marl is found immediately below the sand. It has 'been laid on, in many places, at an immense expense, from twenty to sixty loads per acre; its duration, as a manure, has been found to be great, but its effects last the longe-t on a stiff soil. Marl has been afserted to clean lands, by proving destructive to weeds. It has been found to form an excellent compost with yard dung. Marl, in common with all absorbent earths, has a strong attraction for oils; hence it may attract and fix the oils which it meets with in the ground. Of all other manures, this seems to be the most favourable to the growth of the white clover, which spreads itself lux- uriantly where the land has been plentifully drefsed with marl. Some are of opinion, that maj-l, instead of acting as a manure itself, re- duces the soil to that state which is most favourable to the action of other manures. The Origin of Calcareous Earth. There is great reason to believe that this earth derives its origin from the calcareous 170 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. matter of shells and lithophyta : relicts of these are found in by far the greatest number of lime-stones and chalks, and those of the finer lime-stones, called marbles. They frequently constitute an entire mafs of madrepores and corallines. The Portland stone consists of round grains united together, which were supposed to be produced from the spawn of fish, but it is plain that they arise from calcareous sand. By a constant agitation, the softer parts are abraded, and the harder parts remain in the form of small particles, which are highly polished, and which are afterwards made to concrete to- gether, by causes of which at present we have no knowledge. If we should find it difficult to conceive how such immense mafses can derive their origin from shells, we should consider that the vari- ous species of corallines are a fruitful source of this kind of earth. "We learn, from the history of a ship sunk in a storm, in the gulph of Mexico, how im- mense must be the growth of these bodies. About thirty years after the vefsel had been GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 171 wrecked, they attempted to dive into it to search for a quantity of silver, but they found great difficulty in getting it, from the ship's being overgrown with coral. Sir Hans Sloane, in his natural history of Jamaica, observes, that the ship-timbers, the iron, and the money, were all concreted by the growth of the cal- careous matter. The quantity of matter thus produced must be immense, when we con- sider the prodigious extent of surface which the bottom of the ocean affords for its pro- duction. 172 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY VII. On his Majesij/s Farm upon Windsor Forest. In the year 1791, the Great Park at Windsor, about 4000 acres, fell into his Majesty's pos- sefsion. It might truly be called a rough jewel. The whole, as a natural object, was grand and beautiful, of a forest appearance ; but the parts were crowded and indistinct. The soil was various, some parts clay and loam, and some sharp gravel or poor sand ; a great part of the former was covered with rushes and molehills, and the latter with fern and mofs. About 1000 acres of the lightest part was separated from the rest at one extremity, and formed what is called the Norfolk Farm ; about 400 acres more, at the other extremity, of a good loamy soil, were separated, and called the Flemish Farm, both being named from the nature of the husbandry meant to be adopted upon them. The rest (about 2400 acres) remains still in GEORGTCAL ESSAYS. H^ plantations and park ; and though so much re- duced, yet, from the improvements which have been made upon it, is now capable of carrying more stock than the whole 4000 acres did before. All the unsound wet parts have been drained by the Efsex mode, so as to be ren- dered firm, and productive of an improved herbage. The molehills have been levelled, chiefly by dragging, and the coarse and mofsy parts fined by repeated harrowing and rolling ; (being one of the first improvements upon park land of this description ;) besides which, a variety of beauty has been laid open, by clear- ing the valleys and low parts, to give a bolder effect to the woody scenes upon the higher ground; and by making judicious openings, so as to break strait lines, and separate parts that were in some places too heavy and same^ ]y: so that the same extent of land has now not only a much larger appearance, but ex- hibits a much greater variety of ground. The truth of this, every impartial person who knew the place before his Majesty caused these im^ provements to be made, must allow. I have only to add, that though prejudice may have taken up an idea that there has been too great a sacrifice of timber in effecting these improve- ments, truth will deny it. There has not been 174 GEORGICAL ESSAYi. a tree cut down, but what was either in decays or removed either to give room for the growth of others, or to set them off to greater ad- vantage in picturesque appearance. I come now to the object in view, as before hinted, which is to state the motives which I am inclined to think induced his Majesty to adopt the farming system upon so Jarge a scale, and next to show the result. These, I con- ceive, were chiefly to create useful labour to the industrious poor in the neighbourhood, and for trying experiments in Agriculture, to ex- cite imitation where succefs might encourage it. The Norfolk Farm borders on that extensive waste called Bagshot-heath, hitherto consi- dered too barren for cultivation, though large tracts of a similar quality have been long iincc rendered useful to the communitv in the south-west part of Norfolk. Arable land of this description is generally managed therfe under a five-course shift i first, wheat; second, turnips; third, barley with seeds, which con- tinue laid two years. But as the seeds turn to very little account after the first year, his Majesty's, which though a five-course shift GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 173 likewise, of one hundred acres in a shift, is upon a much improved course of cropping ; as thus — first, wheat or rye ; second, the irre- gular shift J third, turnips; fourth, barley or oats; fifth, clover. — The irregular shift, which is of great use on a light land farm, may per- haps want a little explanation. It is meant to be partly productive, and partly preparative. Forty acres of it are sown with vetches, to be fed off; forty are sown the latter end of August with rye, for early feed the next spring for the ewes and lambs ; the remaining twenty acres are planted with potatoes, and the whole comes round for turnips the next year. From the advantage of running sheep in the Park, thi^Farm has been brought surprisingly forward, considering the short time it has been cultivated ; and a great part of it, which produced nothing but heath and mofs, and would have been dear at five shillings an acre, to rent, now produces crops worth more than the original fee-simple of the land. Brevity checks me from going farther into a general description ; but the following par- ticulars may deserve notice. 176 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. The comparative advantages of the labouf of horses and oxen, have been for some time under the consideration of the public. His Majesty has unquestionably tried the latter upon a larger scale than any other person, as he does not work lefs than one hundred and eighty oxen upon his different farms, parks, and gardens, and has found them to answer so well, that there is not now a horse kept. — Upon the two farms, and the great park, tw^o hundred are kept, including those coming on and going off. Forty are bought in every year, vising three years, and are kept as succefsion oxen in the Park; one hundred and twenty are under work ; ar^d forty every year are fatted off, rising seven years. The working oxen are mostly divided into teams of six, and one of the number is every day rested, so that no ox works more than five days out of the seven. — This day of ease in every week, besides Sunday, is of great advantage to the animal, as he is found to do better with ordinary keep and moderate labour^ than he would do with high keep and harder labour. In short, this is the first secret to learn concerning him; for an ox will not admit of being kept in condition like a horse^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 177 artificially, by proportionate food to propor- tionate labour. These Oxen are never allowed any corn, as it would prevent their fatting so kindly after- wards. Their food, in summer, is only a few vetches, by way of a bait, and the run of coarse meadows, or what are called ieasov>'s, being rough woody pastures. In winter they have nothing but cut food, consisting of two-thirds hay, and one-third wheat-straw ; and the quantity they eat in twenty-four hours is about twenty-four pounds of hay and twelve of straw ; and on the days of rest, they range as they like in the straw-yards: For it is to be observed, that they are not confined to hot stables, but have operi sheds, under which they eat their cut provender, and are generally left to their choice to go in and out. Under this manage- ment, as four oxen generally plough an acre a day, and do other work in proportion, there can be no doubt but their advantage is very great over horses, and the result to the public higTily beneficial. The oxen which are brought on in suc- cefsion, run the first summer in the Park; and in the leasows and temporary straw-yards in Volume IV. AT 178 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the winter; bv which tcmnorarv straw-yardj, 1 would have it understood, tliat they are made in different places, so that the manure whicli they make may be as near to the spot where it is wanted as pofsible. The iorty oxen which go off, are summered in the best pasture, and finished with turnips liie ensuing winter. — The usual way has been to draw the turnips, and to give them either stalled or in cribs placed in the yard, with plenty of straw to browse and lie upon. But last w^inter an experiment was tried, which answered extremely well, and will be again repeated next winter: this was, penning the oxen by day upon the turnip-land, in the manner that sheep are penned, with this only difference, that the turnips were thrown up into cribs, instead of being left to be trodden into the ground ; and in the nights they were driven into a yard, with a temporary shed well littered with rushes, fern, and leaves, and tur- nips and barley-straw given to them in cribs. They thrived ver}- fast, and every one of them made at least eight loads of good muck in the night-vard, besides the benelit done in treading and dunging on the land in the day-time, which was very great, the soil being ver^f UEORGICAL ESSAYS. 17*^ li^hti — The result of the Ox system is, that charging the ox for his agistment the first year, for the va]ue of the grafs and turnips the Jast year, and putting what he has in three intermediate years as an equivalent for his labour, after every alJowance for risk, each ox will pay at least twenty per cent, profit. — In what instance does a hor'^e produce so much? I do not allow that the Ox can be used on all soils; upon a very stony soil he cannot: nor can the horse in all places be w-holly ex- cluded from husbandry; but every occupier of a large farm may at least use some oxen to very great advantage. They are all worked at Windsor in collars, as their step is found to be much more free than when coupled to- gether with yokes; and they are found to do their work wqth much greater ease in collars than in yokes, which ought every where to be exploded. The different kinds of Oxen are in some measure suited to the soil. — Upon the Norfolk Farm, which is a light soil, the Devonshire .sort are used; upon the Flemish Farm, where the soil is strong and heavy, the Herefordshire ; ISO GEORGICAL ESSAYS. and in the Park, where the businefs is carting, harrowing, and rolling, the Glamorganshire. — They are all excellent in their different sta- tions. It may not be improper to mention a very simple method which has been discovered, of first training them to the collar, which is nothing more than putting a broad strap round their necks, and fastening one end of a cord to it, and the other to a large log of wood, and letting the ox draw it about as he feeds in his pasture, for three or four days, before he is put into harnefs, by which means he is very much brought forward in docility. 1 have before observed, that twenty per cent, may be considered as the average profit of an Ox; stating them to be bought in at lOl. and allowing them to sell for 25l. taking off lOl. for the two years they are not worked: but the last year beans being of little value, they were kept longer than usual, by being stall-fed with bean-meal, which answered very well, as they were brought to an average of nearly 30l.; and one of them, a Glamorgan- Ox, originally bought for 81. and from his compact round make, always called the little GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 1 sS I OX, thrived to such a surprising degree, that he became too fat to be able to travel to Smithfield, and was therefore sold to Air. Charlvvood, a neighbouring butcher for 471. Next to the advantage obtained from Oxen, as much benefit as pofsible has been en- deavoured to be derived from sheep, by means of the fold. — Two ewe flocks are kept, of four hundred each: the soil being light and dry, admits of winter-folding (except when the weather is Avet), upon the young clover; — a practice much to be recommended, as it is productive of a great crop of clever, and pre- pares the land the ensuing autumn for a crop of wheat, without any further afsistance. Another excellent practice is folding upon light land, in dry weather, immediately upon the sowing of the wheat, which may be put forward, or kept back, a fortnight or three weeks, on that account; and it is not amifs to have the fold rather large, and to give the sheep a turn or two round the fold in a morn- ing before they are let out, to tread and settle the land, which does a great deal of good, over and above their dung. A third method of folding has been found 3 ISI 3 182 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. to answer almost beyond description. This was first tried in the winter of 17DS; but from an idea or the shepherd, that it injured the sheep, has been since disubed: but as there is good reason to believe thatthere was no just around for such an ODinion, it is meant to be revived next winter. A dry sheltered spot is selected, and sods of maiden earth, a foot deep, are laid over the space of a very large fold. It is then bedded thinly with rushes, leaves of trees, fern, mofs, short straw, or btubble ; and in hard or wet weather, the flock, instead of being penned upon the clover in the open Helds^ is put into this warmer fold, where the usual quantity of hay is given to them in racks; and every night they are so penned, the fold is fresh littered. AVhen this has been continued, at intervals, during the winter, a layer of lime, chalk, rubble, or ashes, six inches thick, is spread over the whole surface, and when it is heated together, about the month of April, the whole is turned up, and mixed together, and makes the very best manure that can be used for turnips. / I have been particular in describing -the^e GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 185 methods of folding, as they are not common in any place, and in others entirely unknown, and to gentlemen who have parks and large plantations which afford abundance of leaves, this hint mav be the more deserving: attcn- tion. Upon the Norfolk Farm, the land not having been yet marled or clayed, the clover is apt sometimes to fail, which is also the case else- where, upon the same sort of land. AVhen this happens, his Majesty does what every other person in a similar situation should do^ instead of letting the ground remain unpro- ductive, the next year it is sowed with vetches, which are nearly as valuable as the clover, and wheat always grows remarkably kind after them. As to im.plements, the Norfolk plough is chiefly what is used; and upon a light soil, it is certainly preferable to any other. It ploughs a cleaner furrow, by completely moving the whole body of earth, and inverts it much bet- ter than any other plough ; and to establish its superiority over the common ploughs of the neighbourhood, I need only add, that from its construction it is nearly the draught of an ox \\ 4 184 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. easier. There is likewise a Norfolk harrow, very useful for harrowing what is called Brush- turnips, or any other turnips, preparatory to their being hoed. — I must be allowed, like- wise, to mention the drill-roller, which con- sists of cast-iron rings, made at the Norwich Foundery, and slipt on upon a round piece of wood, as an axle-tree. This is one of the best things that ever has been introduced, for the preparation of the land for any sort of corn, where the soil will admit of its being: used. By the corn being so well deposited, it takes better root, and at least one-fourth of the quan- tity usually sown may be saved. The Flemish farm, which I have before mentioned, was so named from an intention, at first, of carrying on a system of husbandry similar to that practised in Flanders, which consists of an alternate crop for man and beast; but the soil being strong and cohesive, upon trial, it has been found to answer best under a four-course shift, more like some parts of Gloucestershire; as thus : — First yCvar, wheat ; second, cabbage or clover; third, oats ; fourth, beans.' — The quantity of arable land on this farm is one hundred and $ixty acres, or forty acres in a shift. There are two things ob- OEORGICAL ESSAYS. i«5 served upon this farm, which may be worth notice . — -The first is the practice which has, tor these two years past, been adopted, by taking off tlie tops ot the beans just as the blofsom is set ; this not only improves the quality, but increases the quantity, and causes them to ripen sooner, which is a considerable advantage, by giving time to get the succeed- ing crop of wheat in perhaps a fortnight earlier. The other is, that of sowing clover early in the spring, among twenty acres or one- half of the wheat, and bush-harrowing and rol- ling it in. This has produced a very fair crop of clover the next year; and the other half, after the wheat, is winter and spring fallowed, and planted with cabbage. There is a double advantage resulting from this; that one-half of this shift, so managed, becomes a summer crop, and the other half a winter crop ; and by ob- serving the next year to change the parts, by sowing the clover where the cabbage was before, the clover and cabbage do not come round upon the same ground but once in eight years. Cabbage has been tried several years, but his Majesty's husbandmen never got into the 1S6 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. "right management till this year, but now the crop is remarkably line. It will not be improper to mention, that the drum-headed cabbage is the best sort; that the seed should be sown in August, the plants first set out in November, and transplanted for good in July. The next thing to be noted is their application : — They are certainly inferior to turnips for fatting, but superior in the in- crease of milk, either of cows or ewes, and therefore they are particularly good where there is a dairy or a breeding flock of sheep -, and I trust his Majesty will, the next yeaning season, try an experiment, of which I have high expectation, which is to slice or quarter the cabbage, and feed the ewes with them upon such of the meadows as want manuring, which I flatter myself will be of inestimable service to the ewes and lambs, and be the means of increasing the next year's crop of hay considerably. The true light of viewing these improve- ments, is to consider them as a sort oi new creation to the public : For, as it is a fact not to be controverted, that the reduced number GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 187 t)f acres in the Park, from their improved state, support as many deer and other cattle as the whole did before, the produce obtained from 'the farms is all clear gain ; and as the crop of wheat and rye from the 140 acres sown, upon the most moderate calculation, may be set at 3360 bushels, and allowing six bushels to a human mouth, this gives a yearly provision in bread for 550 people ; to say nothing of the fattiniT off of forty oxen, the breed of 800 o sheep, and the growth of at least 5000 bushels of oats and beans ; all of which, it must be observed, goes in aid of the public market, as the work is done by oxen entirely. I shall now close my observations upon his Majesty's farms, with a description of his Mill, which I consider as the most benevolent thing that can be done for the poor, and which I most earnestly recommend to all gentlemen of landed property, who have like means of doine it. A small Over-shot Mill is erected, and worked by the waste water from the lake below the Lodge, where a sufficiency of corn, two-thirds wheat and one-third rye, is ground, drefsed, and given to all the labourers, at sixteen-pence per stone of fourteen pounds, in quantities suitable to the size of their families. 188 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. which is the first of all comforts to them, and a saving of at least twenty per cent, from what it would cost them to buy it from the mealmen or shopkeepers. ESSAY VIII. Experiments and concise Agricultural Observations, X HIS Essay contains a selection of such Experiments and short Observations as have made their appearance under respectable Sig- natures. Among them, there are a few Ob- servations that have never before appeared in print. I . To obtain clean Hai/seeds for laying down land *. The best hay-seeds that can be obtained are those from an old pasture, meadow, or marsh, that is known to abound in good kinds * By Mr. Boyse. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 189 of grafs; taking care that the soil, from which the seed is to be saved, is similar to that on which it is to be sown ; for this is following Nature, the husbandman's best guide. The field being selected, instead of cutting the grafs at the usual time for hay, let it stand until the yellow Oat-grafs begins to turn yellow ; by which time, as it is one of the latest sorts, all the others will be come to perfection ; it may then be mown, and, when fully ripe, thrashed out on a sail-cloth in the field, or carried into the barn, to be thrashed in winter. If thrashed in the field, the straw may be stacked as hay, which will make good fodder for lean cattle. About four bushels of this seed, after beins: sifted through a sieve of 1 2 wires to the inch, with 8lbs. of rib-grafs, 4lbs. of white Dutch clover, and 4lbs, of cow-grafs seeds, will be suflicient for an acre of land. On chalky and all dry soils, 4lbs, of yellow trefoil-seed should be added. The seeds should be sown immediately after the corn in the spring, when the land, by harrowing and rolling, should be well pul- verized, and left perfectly smooth. 190 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. If a good pasture be the grand object, with- out any view to the last crop of corn, the grafs seeds may be sown on a well-made summer fallow, about mid-summer, as soon as the seed is thrashed ; after the seeds are well harrowed in, the land should be repeatedly rolledj to make it even for future mowings. The first year, new-made pastures should be lightly fed with young cattle, in order that the grafs may get strength, by which «iany plants' will run to seed, and dropping on the land, will thicken the turf the second summer, when it may be hard stocked with sheep, or mown for hay. If it can be folded or dunged^ it will tend greatly to strengthen and im- prove the turf. 2. A cheap and lasting Paint for Gates, kails, and Palisades. Skimmed Milk, . 2 quarts Fresh slaked lime, . 8 ounces. Boiled Lineseed Oil, 6 olinces. AVhite Burgundy Pitch, 2 ounces. Spanish White, . 3 pounds. Slake the lime by dipping it in water, and then expose it to the air till it falls into GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 191 powder. Then mix it with the fourth-part of the milk, adding the oil, a little at a time. Stir it well with a wooden spatula, adding the remainder of the milk. Lastly, add the Spanish White. The pitch must be previ- ously difsolved in the oil by a gentle heat. When used, to be laid on (two coats) with a painter's brush. The expense about a half- penny a square yard. 3. On Paring and Burning *. Paring should be done early in spring, and the sod, on cultivated lands, cut, from half an inch to an inch deep ; and on uncultivated lands, from an inch to two inches deep ; and the breadth from nine inches to a foot. The length depends on the toughnefs of the sward, and the strength of the workman. If a succefsion of fine weather ensues, the sods need no removing, until they are put upon heaps to be burned ; but if wet weather enfues, it will be necefsary to set them upon their edges, in a semi-circular or angular form, that the wind may blow through them. * Bv Mr. Greenall. 192 GEOIIGICAL ESSAYS. When the sods are dry, they are laid round locks of straw, or faggots of furze, &c. until they are from three to six in thicknefs, ac- cording to their thicknefs, and kind of soil they are taken from. Care should be taken to lay the sods, so that a free circulation of air should pafs between every one, and that the grafs side be downwards. A hole is left to set fire to the furze, &:c. which, as soon as the fire has taken full hold of the sods, should be stopped up, and the fire carefully attended to, and the sods shifted according as the heap burns more on one side than another, which the wind will cause. 4. On forming Composts '*. Too much attention cannot be paid to com- post in its several stages and operations. I have found that tiie differerfce of the value of compost, properly managed, and that made in a common and negligent way, is to a farmer a very serious consideration. The method of managing compost, which I have practised with profit and succefs, is as follows : I pre- viously prepare the materials, and according Bv r\rr. Greenall. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 193 to the quantity of each material, proportion the thicknefs of each layer, not making any one more than six inches, laying first a layer of one material, and then of another, and so on alternately, gradually decreasing the breadth of the heap, until it be reduced to a point at the top, forming an angle. If the materials are likely to be tardy in beginning to ferment, I put a few lumps of quick-lime into each layer, and beat the sides of the hejtp with a spade to keep out the weather. I then attend to its fermentation with as much care as a brewer does to his liquor; and the moment I find the heat begins to abate, I turn the heap over, and chop it very fine, and throw the out- sides and bottoms into the middle, preserving the same form as before, and again beating the sides to keep out the weather. By turning it while hot, a fermentation takes place in the second heap, and by throwing the outsides and bottom of the first heap into the middle of the second, the whole mafs becomes completely putrified ; all weeds and extraneous matters are destroyed by the fermentation, and the compost, after it has lain about two months from the last turning, is in a perfect state, pre- senting a mafs of matter, superior as manure, to any other. Keeping the weather out is A Volume IF. N 1{)4 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. material point; but to keep up the fer- mentation, until the whole mafs has thoroughly partaken of its effects, is the great object to be attended to. 5. Oh converting Chalk-Land arid Downsinto Tillage^. To convert grafs land on this kind of soil into tillage, is one of the most advantageous improvements in Agriculture, if properly con- ducted Old Downs, that are frequently un- productive of any valuable herbage, may, in a very short space of time, and at little expense, be brought to yield the most abundant crops of corn ;— of barley, no land whatever produces better crops, nor finer samples, and when put under a proper system of tillage, good wheat may also be obtained. The method is to pare and burn, in the first instance, a turf as thick as can be cut to burn well j let the burning be finished as soon as pofsible in the spring, the ashes spread, and the land ploughed three or four inches deep ; harrowing and rolling it down smooth im- mediately after the plough to keep in the moisture. In the last week in June, let it be crofs ploughed about five inches deep, to mix * B/ ]Mr. Greenall. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. J95 ^he ashes intimately with the mould -, then sow the land with turnips, if a dry season, by drill- ing, as that mode lets the seed down into the moist earth ; but if the season be rainy, sowing broad-cast will answer the purpose of a quick vegetation nearly as well. The drill system is, however, the best, as it gives a better oppor- tunity of eradicating by the hoe, the seedling weeds, that on these old Downs are generally found j particularly charlock, than which no- thing is more pernicious. Every plant that is left and seen in bloom among the turnips in the autumn, must be drawn out carefully by hand ; as otherwise a little fine weather, in the early part of the winter, vi'ill ripen the seed, and a few frosty days after will shake it out on the land, where it will remain to vegetate in future, a plague to the farmer, and destruc- tion to his crops. The turnips must be eaten off by sheep Hving upon the land night and day, having a quantity set out with hurdles, fresh for them as occasion may requir^^ with a daily allowance of podware or trefoil straw for Jean, and hay for fattening, sheep. Some fod- der is absolutely necefsary, as turnips alone, especially in wet weather, are very unwhole- some. To fatten sheep on turnips with oil- cake, is the greatest improvement ; and, how- N2 i^^ GEORGICAL^ t'^'AVi. ever the farmer may be, in some respects, a loser by feeding sheep in this way, his lofs will certainly be repaid tenfold in his future crops of corn. Instances can be brought in proof, of crops of corn being raised by this means, to be worth sixty times the annual rent of the'land. After the turnips are consumed, the land should be ploughed about four inches deep as speedily as pofsible, and sown with barley, and clover-seed. The sooner the land is ploughed after the month of January, provided the land be not very wet at the time of sowing, the more valuable, in general, will be the pro- duce. Every weed that is seen amongthe barley must be taken out by hand j and if the cultivator has any reason to suppose that there is a great abundance of the seeds of weeds remaining in the soil after the first crop of turnips, a second should be raised the following summer, in- order to get the land completely clean before he ventures upon crops of corn. The crop of clover should be eaten off by sheep laying upon the land, and, if if can be accomplished, the ley may be folded in the end of summer, ploughing it afterwards five inches deep, to be sown with wheat in the month of October, or early in November. Every weed found among the wheat in the month of June, GEORGICAL ESSAYS 197 and early in July, should be carefully taken out by hand j and, as soon as convenient after harvest, the land should be ploughed about five or six inches deep. The land, having by this rotation produced two stout crops of corn, is entitled to a portion of manure equal to what has arisen from it, which, mixed with mould, will ajfFord a tolerable covering for another crop of turnips. These being eaten in the field as before, the land is left in fine order to be returned into grafs, without injury ; indeed so far from injury, these soils v/ill, on the contrary, be highly improved, for every kind of grafs, but more particularly for sainfoin ; abundant crops of which I have frequently raised under this management, on lands of this description. 6. On Hedge-ro-jo Planting'*. It is to be lamented that in new inclosures very little attention has been paid to raising hedge-row timber, which is done at first with no more expense of fencing than the raising of the quick. There is a general prejudice against trees in hedges, as being supposed to * By Robert Lowe, Esq. 5 N3 198 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. injure the land. Whatever may be the case, with regard to cornj which I apprehend to be much exaggerated, it does not appear to do any harm to grafs, and there cannot, in my opinion, be a better or more convenient me- thod, for many purposes, than always to leave a head-land in grafs, as may be seen in many parts of Hertfordshire, under the name of hedge-greens. It is obvious that a great quanr tity of timber may be raised in hedge-rows, which is better for various purposes, than what is raised in woods, particularly compafs tim- ber; as knees, crooks, &C.3 the most valuable pieces in ship building. I believe I may venture to affirm, that trees so planted, are likely, in twenty to forty years, to equal the value of the land ; whilst in their growth, they have taken up no more land from other purposes. 7. On the liuta Bagq^ or Swedish Turnips. The Ruta Baga appears to be superior to the common turnip in many respects, particularly in hardinefs, as it stood the last severe winter without the least injury. It is cat with greed!- * By R. Lowe, Esq. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 199 nefs by all animals, from the horse to the swine ; sheep prefer it to all others ; but the material advantage that is made of it is, the substituting it for corn in the food of ciraught- horses ; in which it has been found to answer the wish of every person who has yet tried it. The turnips are put into a tub, or barrel, and cut small with an instrument like an hoe, with the blade put perpendicularly into the shaft ; in one hour a man will cut as much as six horses can eat in twenty-four hours. The tops and bottoms are previously cut off, and given to the pigs. Horses that are hard worked, look full as well when fed with this turnip, and very little hay, as they formerly did when very high fed with corn. The Swedish turnip should be sown early, from the 15th of May, to the 10th of June. Sheep give so decided a preference to the Ruta Baga, that they will not settle upon the common turnip, while the others are to be had, 8 . On Irrigation *. In this district, nothing of the kind has ever been attempted ^ the great advantage, how- By Edward Wilkinfon, Esq. goo GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ever, of water-meadows, determined me to try bow far irrigation was practicable on a piece of low ground upon my estate. Notwith- standing the supply of water (from a small brook) was insufficient to float altogether the piece allotted for the experiment, without the nfsistance of land floods, I determined on the trial, and began the work in August, 1800. Sensible that the opinion of a profefsional man was preferable to theoretical information, I applied to Mr. Wright, who has published on water-meadows, for such a person, and he sent me Henry Lock, an intelligent prac- titioner, from Gloucestershire. On a view of the premises, he objected to the scantinefs of the stream, and doubted the succefs of the undertaking. Not, however, discouraged, I made him to understand, that the winter rains from many hundred acres ivould supply a sufiiciency of water to irrigate by shifts and breaks, and that our great floods would float the whole at once. On this repre- sentation he began the work. Part of the ground was boggy, and required GEORGICAL ESSAYS. C201 draining ; this proved laborious; for on digging as deep as draining tools could admit, we made no advance. Mr. Elkington's boring rods, however, tapped several springs, and the bog soon became equally sound vs-ith the other parts of the meadow. The main delivering and receiving trenches being laid out, water was thrown over the higher part of the work, and continued until further ground was ready for floating. In this manner we proceeded till the whole thirteen acres (all I could com- mand) was under the direction of the floater. The expense was considerable, owing chiefly to the draining and stubbing of incum- brances. It is with satisfaction I relate, that the improvement has repaid both capital and interest within two years, leaving a permianent rental of four times the former value. The meadow has afforded me this spring excellent pasturage for my ewes and lambs during the month of April, without injuring the crop of bar. 9. A Compost Dunghill *. Mix one hundred loads of earth with ten chaldrons of lime, about the month of May ; * B>- Mr. SJkes. 302 OEORGICAL ESSAYS. let them lie together till the lime is fallen, but not run to mortar, then turn the heap over. Lay seventy loads of stable dung in a heap close to it. When in high putrid heat, which will be perhaps in four months, lay a layer of this and a layer of earth, two thirds of manure to one of earth, and so go through the hill : turn it over in the spring, and lay it on in March or April. Eight loads to an acre on grafs. Another good compost may be prepared by mixing with the above earth and lime, about one third part of the soil from privies and coal-ashes. Upon this plan va- rious composts may be formed, 10. On the Sweepings of Streets*. The value of this manure is well known to farmers in the neighbourhood of great towns, who pay large sums for it yearly, besides the expense of collecting. This manure consists of a mixture of all those substances that are valuable in Agricul- ture, and needs the afsistance of fermentation lefs than any of them to render it fit for use. t By Mr. M. Soni«rvill«. GEOROIGA.L ESSAYS. 203 as it is made up principally of the ofTal of Jiouses, dung of horses and cattle, ashes, and other active materials that render it imme- diately useful. A farmer in the county of Haddington, who had fallowed a large field, but had not dung enough to manure the whole, sowed it with wheat. la the spring, that part of the field, which had received no manure, was very back- ward ; and though there were plants enough in the ground, yet they were weak and un- promising. By that time he had collected a quantity of street dung from the town of Dunbar, which he applied as a top-drefsing upon that part of the field. The effect was astonishing; the wheat immediately began to thrive, and when autumn came, that part which had been drefsed in this way, was greatly superior to what had been dunged when the v/heat was sown. Top-drefsings are the life and soul of husbandry, and cannot be too much attended to. 11. On Weeding Wheat *. In the month of April, I had a field of wheat that was to appearance smothered by * By Mr. Calvert. 204 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. weeds, particular! with what is called harifF, so that very little wheat was to be seen. I ordered it to be harrowed, till I perceived that the harrows drew up more corn. than I wished, and still left many weeds ; the soil was a light silted land. I then desisted, and employed a number of women to creep over the field, with directions to pluck up every weed, if pofsible, however small. They obeyed my directions pretty well, which cost me five shillings per acre; and notwithstanding there scarcely appeared any wheat left after the operation, in about three weeks the crop looked well, and became sufficiently produc- tive, yielding nearly four quarters per acre. The wheat weighed sixty five pounds per Winchester bushel. Besides adding very con- siderably to my crop, I had the satisfaction of seeing the stubble left perfectly clean. 12. On Riifr Weeds*. "River weeds have not hitherto been used as a manure, though some experiments that have been made, entitle them to considerable notice. Their effects upon wheat and the different By Mr. R. Somerville. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 203 sorts of grain, as well as upon turnips, cab- bages, and other green crops, are well ascer- tained, and the facts stated so strong, as to awaken the attention both of farmers and proprietors who have either rivers or lakes upon their lands. In summer, great quantities may be ga- thered, both in the lakes and in those parts of the rivers where the water is deep and has no current, and in all wet ditches. This ar- ticle is used in various ways j sometimes it is laid upon the land green, and ploughed in ; at other times it is mixed with earth and dung. Its effects, when ploughed in green, last only one year, but when used as a compost along with other substances, it is more permanent. The best way of preparing this article for a manure, is to lay it in small heaps for a day or two after it is taken out of the water, in order to drain off the superfluous moisture; for if it contains too much of that, it will not readily ferment, and when fermentation takes place, a considerable portion of its most useful parts will be washed way; having lain two or three days in this state, it should be put into large heaps, containing three or four cart 206 GEOKGICAL ESSAYS. loads eacli, and suffered to remain there till the fermentation is over; each heap should then have about three times the quantity of earth or mud mixed therewith, taking care to incorporate them well, and let them remain for a week or ten days; they should then be turned, and a quantity of hot new slacked lime added, during the turning: In this man- ner a compost may be made ready for use in a month. This manure seems well adapted for thiii light soils, upon which it will always operate well, and from the quantity of rich vegetable earth which it contains, will add som.ething to the staple of the land. Indeed it wnll be found valuable upon whatever soil it is laid, but should never be used in any other shape than as a top-drefsing. By the addition of stable dung, a considerable degree of richnefs and strength may be obtained, which will render the compost fit for general purposes. 13. 0)1 the Tap Root of Oaks -. The tap-root of an Oak plant, of five or six years old, is found to shoot downwards like a • By Mr.'S»iiiuel Kilderbee. feEORGICAt ESSAYS. 207 cirrot; but I am inclined to think, that after a few years it ceases to go on in that direction, and either dies or shoots liorizontalJy. In the autumn of the year, 1795, some hundred Oaks were blown down, from the size of ten, fif- teen, and twenty feet, in a tree, to one, two, and three loads and upwards ; and upon a close examination, not one was found with an appearance of a tap-root, such as the Oak is commonly supposed to have. Some of those trees stood in open fields, and some in woods, upon various soils, upon clay, loam, sand, and some on marsh grounds : most of the trees were healthy, and many of them had large spreading tops. If then it should be true that the tap-root of an Oak, after a few years, ceases to continue in a direct descending line, (and which, from reason and late observations, against the common opinion, I think it does,) the force of the objection against transplanting^ may be thought to be greatly lefsened. 14. On the Su:€epin^s of Reads *". In travelling along the road in summer, vfc are struck with the great quantity of horse * By Mr. R. Somerville. 208 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. dung and other excremental matters that we see upon it, and which if carefully swept together and collected, would be found of great value. If the trustees upon all the great roads, were to appoint p<^ople to sweep tliem during dry weather, and to sell the sweepings to the neighbouring farmers, two material benefits would be derived from the practice ; first a valuable Manure \vould be acquired, which is at present blown away by the winds -, and secondly, an additional sum would arise from the sale of it, for supporting the roads. If either whin-stone or lime-stone has been used for such roads, the sweepings of them will be a good Manure without any addition, but when this calcareous earth is joined to the excremental matters dropped by horses arid cattle, it forms a compost of great value. It is to be hoped, that this part of the subject will in future meet with more attention than it has hitherto done, as we are satisfied that many thousand acres may be manured in this way every year. Perhaps no Manure can be spread more equally as a top-drefsing than this, as its part^ ftre completely seperated, and require only a GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 209 little attention in laying them on. Along many of the roads in England, immense heaps of this excellent Manure are to be seen, which, if pro- perly employed, would enrich the neighbouring fields. 15. On the Quickbeam, or Mountain Ash, called in the North, Rowan-tree *. In former times, this tree was supposed to be pofsefsed of the property of driving away witches and evil spirits ; and this property is recorded in one of the Stanzas of a very ancient Song, called the " Laid ley worm of Spindlestone-Haughs :" Their spells were vain. The hags retum'd To the Queen in sorrowful mood, Crying that witches have no power, Where there is Rown-tree wood. The last line of this Song leads to the true reading of a line in Shakspeare's Tragedy of Macbeth. The Sailor's wife, on the witches requesting some chesnuts, hastily answers, " a Roivn-tree, witch" ; But ail the Editions have it " Aroint thee, v^'itch," which is non- sense, and evidently a corruption. ■ " " ■ ' ' ■■ ■ —— — i^— — »ii i« ■ . * By A. Hunter, M. D. Volume IV, O '210 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. This tree will grow upon almost any soiJy either strong or light, moist or dry. It will flourish on mountains and in woods, and is never affected by the severity of weather, being extremely hardy. When loaded with fruit, it makes a most delightful appearance : Sanguineisque inculta rubentaviaria baccis.— ^Virg. 16. Oji refuse Fish*, All kinds of fish, in a recent state, contain nourishing substances in considerable quan- tities, and upon particular occasions, either •where the quantity caught has been too great for the market, or when there has been a deficiency of salt for curing them, they have been occasionally employed as Manures, even in cases: where the fish have been cured j the oflfal is worth attending to, as it pofsefses a considerable proportion of nutritive principles ; but whether the whole of the fish or only the oflfal is employed, the management will be the same ; both pofsefs too much oil to be useful- as manures, without the addition of some active ingredient. * B^ Mr. Somerville, GEOkGtcAL Essays. 2li The proper way of using fish, seems to be that of mixing them into composts with other substances ; for that purpose, we recomm.end laying them in heaps for eight or ten days, till they begin to corrupt, and then mixing them with a quantity of earth j when they have remained in this state for a couple of weeks, the heap should be turned, and a quantity of chalk, or quick lime, added, in the proportion, of one cart-load of lime to three of the fish ; this should be allowed to remain for a month, and then turned, and as much earth added as will be equal to both the fish and lime. Herrings being the fish that is caught in greatest abun- dance, will be most frequently used in this way : in these situations, therefore, where they are in the greatest abundance, it is of con- siderable importance to be able to use them to advantage. A compost prepared in this way will be found an excellent top-drefsing for any sort of crop, if applied at a proper season. For wheat, if used early in the spring, it will answer well j or for barley, either harrowed in with the seed, or applied upon the young crop. It may likewise be used for drill crops with great ease and accuracy. 5 O2 212 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 17. On the liyfsop of St John, and the Eeed of St. Matthe-jo *. Some critics upon this pafsage of St. John f , taking the Hyfsop of Jud«ea to be the same plant and of the same growth with ours, have conceived, either that the liyfsop was not used as the means of lifting up the sponge, or, that the word Ihjfsop is not the true reading of the text, lliese two opinions have given rise to many ingenious observations and conjectures which it is no part of our businefs to detail. The following remarks, perhaps, may incline the reader to think that the Hyfsop of Judsea, that is, azoiih, was not the same with our Ilyfsop, or, however, of a much superior growth, and therefore that the -KXKauc; of St. Matthew^ J, and the Ctcuttc; of St. John, may- be the same. The Jews reckon four, Kimchi says seven, species of Hyfsop. It appears from the Talmud, that Hyfsop was gathered not only for the use of the table, but also for xvood ; i. e. I suppose, they used it for fiiel^ as the • By the Rev. Newcome Cappe. f John xix; 29, J MaUhew xxvi. 4S. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 213 Egyptians did the reed and the papyrus * : it is mentioned also amono: the reeds and bouq-hs, with which the Jews covered their booths at the feast of Tabernacles. — In the 1 Kingrs iv. 33, Hyfsop of one speciea, though it stands op- posed to the Cedar of I^ebanon, appears to -have been clafsed bv Solomon amono- trees. It is no objection to this remark, that it is -called the Hyfsop that springcth out of the ivall; for the original might, with equal justice, have been rendered that groioeth AGAINST or BY the wall ; and, perhaps, that '^rozueth upon ruinSy viz. out of the rubbish ; .or, that groweth upon or bi/ the rampartSy viz. tjf Jerusalem, or any other city, that is, of iwhich there is abundance without the walls -of the city, or which is known to grow in such situations. It is true that the word which is here translated trees, appears from a pafsage in the book of Joshua f, to comprehend under it the stalks of flax : In this, however, there is no- thing inconsistent with the opinion that the Hjt/fsop of the zvall was an aborescent plant, holding, according to Solomon's arrangement. • Ulplan in Digest, lib. xxxii. leg. 55. sect. 5. Ed. Amst. Corporis juris civilis 1700, p. 573. vol. 1. •f Joshua ii. 5. 2 o a 214 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the lowest place in that clafs, of which the Cedar of Lebanon held the highest : for why may not the flax of Palestine, have been as much a tree, as the mustard of it was ? How- ever, if any thing that was called Hyfsop in the East, was of a growth as great only as that c( our flax, St. John's Jo-o-w^rsc may be the same with the KXKxjaoi of St. Matthew; for it might afford a stalk of length and strength sufficient to raise the sponge to the mouth of a person hanging on the crofs. But there is reason to believe moj^e than this concerning the Hyfsop of the zvall ; for if it had not been a tree pro- perly so called, the Seventy *, ^nd Josephus f , who could not but be acquainted with the ordinary productions of their own country, in translating this pafsagc, could never have ren- dered by the terms ivKov and Iiv\^cy, that Hebrew word OtZf that comprehends both the Cedar and the Hyfsop. To this we may add, that Isaac Ben Oynran J, according to Bochart's Latin version of his Arabic, says, " That the * Greek version of I Kings iv. xxxiii, t Joseph. Antiq. Jud. lib. viii. cap. 2. seci. 5. p. 419. 1 vol. Ed. Haverc. 1 Bochart, Hierozoican. 1 P. lib, ii. cap. 50. p. 590. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 215 dry Hyfsop grows upon the mountains of Je- rusalem, and extends its branches over the ground to the length of a cubit, or near it." Ben Omran was upon the spot ; he speaks from his own knowledge, and I apprehend that his cubit wanted but two or three inches of two Enghsh feet. Christ was crucified upon the mountains where this Hyjsop grew, ^nd there can be no doubt, that if the brmick was not sufficient for the purpose of which St. John speaks, the stem, however, could not hut be so. Suppose the Hyfsop of the East to be the same plant with ours, that it might, nevertheJefs, be of much larger growth, seems probable, from this circum- stance, that the Mustard was. Lightfoot and Tremellius have quoted two pafsages from the Talmud, in one of which we are told of a Mustard-tree, one of the boughs of which covered the tent of a potter : and, in the other, of another tree of the same kind, the ov^-ner of which was wont to climb it, as men climb up a fig-tree. Now, though these stories may deserve no farther credit, yet certainly so much is due to them, as to induce us to believe that the Mustard was a large, tall, strong plant. To have feigned such exaggerations concerning a plant which never had these 04 216 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. characters, could only have discredited and dis- graced both the authors and the propagators of the stor)% Pliny, in the ninth chapter of the nineteenth book of his Natural History, says, that at Rosea, in the country of the Sabines, the hemp plant grows to the height of a tree. And Maldonat, a Spanish Commen- tator, says, that in Spain he has often seen the Mustard used instead of wood for heating; Jarge ovens to bake bread ; that he has seen large woods of Mustard, (magnas sylvas) and birds sitting upon the trees, though he never observed that they built their nests in them. To this wt may add what is said of the Milium^ and the Sesammn by Herodotus *, whose credulity, as to what he heard, is in- deed blamable enough ; but whose veracity, as to what he saw, is not to be called in ques- tion. Speaking of the country 2iho\itBabijloj7, he says, *' How great a tree proceeds from the Milium, and from the Sesamiim, though I know certainly, I will not say, being well per- suaded thit with those who have never been In this country, what I have said of its wheat and barley, will meet with little credit." In- * Herod. Clio. Ed. fol. Gronovii, p. 78, GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 217 numerable instances may be produced to show that soil and climate are capable of •making lliat a large tree in one country, which is, only a shrub in another; and why may not the same law operate with the same force upon the herbaceous vegetable ? Nay, soil alone, in the same climate, produces a wonder- ful diversity of dimension. The Marygold, which in a moist and fat earth, rises two feet high, scarcely exceeds the same number of inches in a dry and gravelly soil. 18. On the beneficial Succefsion of Crops *, This head comprehends improvements of great magnitude and extent. The articles of culture are commonly divided into two clafses, viz. one consists of crops that are said to ex- haust and impoverish the land they grow upon -, the other to ameliorate and improve it. This, however, must be considered in a com- parative sense ; for, properly speaking, there are few, if any vegetables, that are carried off the land they grow on to be consumed elsewhere, but in some measure exhaust and impoverish the soil, and render it lefs fertile. B/ Mr. Joseph Wirapey. 218 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. The first clafs, viz. those which are supposed to exhaust the land most, are fibrous-rooted plants, as wheat, barley, rye, oats, &:c. The ameliorating includes all the leguminous and tap-rooted plants, as beans, pease, vetches, turnips, parsnips, carrots, clover, &c. Modern improvements are much increased by a ju- dicious succefsion of interchanges among these articles. An ameliorating following an ex- hausting crop, prepares the land for another exhausting crop, especially if it be a hoeing one; for, by judicious management, the land may be constantly cropped for many years in succefsion, without the intervention of a fallow every third or fourth year, as was heretofore the practice, 19. 0)1 Sea Weed*. Sea weed is used as a Manure upon almost every part of the coast where it can be ob- tained in sufficient quantity, and wherever the practiceprevails, its effects are distinctly marked bv producing early and luxuriant crops. In several parts of the kingdom, the value of the land has increased in a sixfold proportion, from • By Mr. R. Somerville. CEORGICAL ESSAYS, 219 the circumstance of the occupier having accefs to this Manure j in the county of Haddington particularly, there are several farms that v^^ere formerly let from 10s. to 15s. an acre, which are now rented at £,2. 10s. and three guineas ^ some of these lands are situated upon a dry limestone bottom, and upon these the sea-weed has produced the most surprising effects. The common practice is to spread the weed immediately after it is brought from the shore, either upon the stubbles or grafs-lands. When laid upon the stubble, it is generally ploughed in as soon as pofsible after spreading ; farmers who use much of it, never lay it in heaps to ferment, as they observe that both the quantity and quality are impaired by treating it in this way, so much so, that a load of fresh ware will be of more service, if laid upon the soil im- mediately after it is thrown out by the tide, than two loads when laid in a heap and left to ferment. In this respect sea ware and all marine plants differ from most vegetable and animal Manures ^ to render the latter com- pletely useful, fermentation is indispensible ; the former, on the contrary, producing the greatest benefit in its recent state. 220 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. In most cases, ware may be conveniently used in this wav, for where a farm is under a proper rotation, there will always be ground to lay it upon : during the winter months it may be laid upon the ley and stubble fields, and in the spring upon the bean and barley lands ; during summer, the fallows will require all that can be collected, and by the time these arc sufficiently manured, the clover fields, after the first cutting, will be ready to receive the remainder : through the autumn the stubble fields will require all that can be collected. Thus throughout the whole year this valuable Manure may be used as soon as it is thrown upon the beach, and experience- sufficiently proves that its greatest value is in that state. If, however, it should at any time happen tliat more weed is thrown out than can be conveniently used, it is an object of import- ance to preserve its qualities as much as pos- sible. When it is laid up in heaps by itself, this cannot be done ; for, as we have before observed, the quantity is not only diminished, but its valuable qualities very much impaired. The only probable way of preserving it, seems to be by making it into a compost \\ ith earth, and a small proportion of lime. If the quan- OEORGICAL ESSAYS. 221 tity of earth is great enough to absorb and re- tain the juices and salts of the ware, the pro- portion of Hme moderate, and the whole tho- roughly incorporated, and afterwards protect- ed from heavy rains, it would be found nearly as valuable as in a fresh state, perhaps equally so ; but it must be observed, that if the com- post is placed either upon a declivity, or has an open gravelly bottom, and is at the same time exposed to every shower that falls, its value will be small indeed ; for the alkaline salts and oil being completely difsolved and mixed with the earth, will be readily taken up and washed away by every shower that falls ; and when the farmer comes to use his compost, in place of finding it saturated with these rich principles, it will, upon examination, be found to consist almost entirely of earth ; in short, every one of the precautions recommended in selecting a spot for the scite of an ordinary dunghill, apply with equal, indeed greater, force to the present article, as its salts and oils are so much attenuated, that they difsolve in water more readily than even those of stable dung. After the ingredients are properly mixed and prepared, lay them up in the form of a 222 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ridge, with a pretty sharp angle at top, covered to the depth of two or three inches with earth, well beat with the back of a spade, and after- wards defended from the rains with straw. This compost will be found a good drefsing for young crops of every description, and may be used either at the time of sowing the grain and harrowed in along with it, or after the plants have made some progrefs ; upon wheat it should always be used upon the young crop early in the spring. 2G. On the Lolium Pereiine, or Ray-grafs *• This is an excellent grafs, both for pasture and hav, all sorts of cattle being: fond of it J clean hay of this grafs is particularly pre- ferable for race-horses and hunters, as it does not affect their wind, and blow them, as other hay does j and notwithstanding it runs all to bents, yet the juice is so concentrated in them, as to afford greater nourishment to a horse than twice the quantity of common hay. The celebrated Mr. Ray, and after him ^ Bv Mr. William Sole. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 22S Sir John Hill, both say of this grafs " Locis nonnullis pro jumentorum pabulo seritur, et Rai/-grqfs dicltur; est enim pingue, et pon- derosum adeoque jumentis saginandis aptis- simum." Hilly Flor. Britan, It suits most of the stoney corn-fields about Bath. Mr. Crombe had a fine crop of it last summer, well got in ; and his groom informs me, that the horses are so fond of it, as to give it the preference to corn. 21. On Tanner'' s Bark *. Some writers in Agriculture have recom- mended tanner's bark as a manure. In its raw state it is not found to be of much service, but from some experiments made by the late Mr. John Hunter, it certainly, in procefs of time, is convertable into vegetable mould. When it becomes rotten, and is spread pretty thick, it is found of use upon grafs land. But the most likely way of using it, is that of mix- ing it with lime. An intelligent Agriculturist recommends * By Mr, SomervUle. 224 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the following plan for using this article?. After it is taken out of the tan-pit, let it be mixed with an equal quantity of fresh horse dung, including the litter, and cover it from rain, but let the whole be kept moist. When the heat is gone off, it should be mixed with a fresh quantity of horse dung, and the heat renew^ed : when the heat is again gone off, the whole being made into a compost with chalk, will form as enriching a manure as can be procured. Mr. Blakeley, of Eschal, who first made the experiment, mixed two waggon loads of tan, after it had been used by the tanners, with a wagg^^n load of unshicked lime, which lay togeiher for a week, and being used as a top-drefsing for turnips, and grafs ground, was found to be a most excel- lent manure. 22. On Soot *. Soot is used as a manure in almost every part of the island, when it can be procured in sufficient quantities, and is applied in every different shape, and to all the different crops. Used in its simple state, it answers best upon * By Mr. Soraerville. CEORGICAL ESSAYS. 225 Vip-ht oravel, chalk, or lime-stone soils; if in a compost, the proper proportions are, two loads of soot, the same quantity of lime, and ten loads of earth. The soot and earth should be well incorporated, previous to the application of the lime, and allowed to remain in a heap for a week or ten days, then turned, and the lime added in regular stratums as it is turned over ; in this state it may remain for a month or six weeks, and be again turned, taking care to break every part of it as small as pofsible by working it well with the spade; in a week or two more it will be ready for use. The advantage of preparing soot in this way, is obvious ; by mixing it first with the earth, the operation of the lime is prevented from being too severe, and when the difsolu- tion of the soot does take place, it goes on gradually, and every part of it is absorbed, and retained by the earth with which it is mixed. The lime and volatile alkali will unite and form a caustic volatile salt, which will completely difsolve and separate the oily particles and render them mifsible with water; and the compound, thus prepared, will consist of rich nourishment for plants. This compost may be employed upon every sort of Volume IF, P j226 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. grain, especially for wheat or barley^ and if rain fall soon after it is laid on, it will imme- diately begin to operate. It seems to be a matter of no very great consequence, whether it is harrowed in with the seed, or used as a top-drefsing upon the young crop without harrowing; for wheat it certainly should be reserved till the spring ; as if it is used before winter, the greatest part of it will be washed away, before the plants have any occasion for it. The only risk that attends using it as a top-drefsing without harrovving is, when dry weather immediately follows; when this happens, part of its va- luable qualities will be lost, and the remainder, aided by the heat of the sun, may prove detri- mental to the tender plants. By harrovving it in with the seed, this evil will be avoided, as it will then be incorporated with the soil, which will both prevent the volatile parts from being exhaled, and the heat of the compost from doing any injury to the tender plants. "When soot is sown by the hand, equal parts of soot, lime, and mould, should be used, always taking care to mix the soot and earth first, and to apply the Jime in as active a state as pofsible. For drill crops, this compound GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 227 admits of being used with great facility and precision. 23. Oil Ploughing in of Green Crops*'. All vegetables afford, in different pro- portions, manure of considerable value; the practice of ploughing in green plants for the purpose of enriching the soil, is very ancient, and in particular, is recommended by all the Roman writers in husbandry. Pease, beans, buck-wheat, turnips, and other moist and juicy plants, if ploughed in in lull bloom, at whicli time they abound most in sap, yield a valuable manure. This mode of fertilizing the soil is lefs practised than it deserves. In AVarwickshire, vetches and buck-wheat are sown and ploughed in for manure. It appears from the report of the County of Nottingham, that clover ploughed in as a preparation tor wheat, has been tound to answer. When it is considered at what small expense of prime cost, carriage, and other charges, this species of manure is ob- B)' Mr. Somerviile. P2 228 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. tained, it is to be wondered at that it has not been more generally adopted in this island. It is of all others the most economical, and might, no doubt, be used on many occasions, in place of a complete summer fallow, as a preparation for a crop of wheats in which case the price of the seeds, which is almost the only expense, would be amply repaid by the saving that would take place in the article of labour. The practice of ploughing in green crops might be much improved, by laying on a certain quantity of lime, chalk, or marl, ac- cording to the nature of the soil. This would tend greatly to hasten the fermentation of the green crop ploughed in, and bring the land sooner into a proper state to afford nourish- ment to the succeeding crop of wheat. 24. On Putrid Watei^from the Steeping of Flax and Hemp *. It is stated, in a valuable report laid before the Board of Agriculture, that the land on which flax was spread for drying, after being steeped in water, had been greatly improved by it. A gentleman was thence induced to * By Mr. Billingsley, GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 229 apply the water used in steeping flax, to pas- ture land, by means of carts, similar to those used near London for watering the roads. The effect was astonishing ; having advanced the land in value from 10s. to 50s. per acre. This liquid is much superior to animal urine. In Lincolnshire, where the growing of flax and hemp is much attended to, they find the sediment of the pits, in which flax or hemp have been steeped, a very valuable manure j and considering this circumstance, it would ap- pear that an idea commonly circulated, that flax and hemp ought not to be cultivated in this country, because they are exhausting crops, and return nothing to the soil, is not well founded. It is not yet ascertained to what extent manure from an acre of flax can be obtained, but it is probably considerable. The circumstance above alluded to, na- turally leads to the following observations. 1st, It is well known that flax will grow in almost any part of the country, however ele- vated. In consequence of the rapidity with which it grows, and the short time necefsary for its remaining on the ground, it is hardly 2 P3 230 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ever injured by the frost. If, therefore, any (inantity of flax was raised in the higher parts of our mountainous districts, and kept in ponds or reservoirs of water there, the water miri!ig) so small when ihcy first appear, as not easily to be distinguished from the weed^; oud if no rains fall at that season, some of the seed will not vegetate till late in the summer ; and the few plants that do ap- pear, will scarce pay the expense of cleaning them ; besides, they will never grow to any size, but be sticky or cankered, and conse- quently will be destitute of nutrimental juice; while, on the contrary, those that are sown in the autumn, will be large, free from the defects of the others, and fully answer the expectation of the cultivator. The best soil for parsnips is, a rich deep 250 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Joam, next to this is sandj or they will thrive well in a black gritty soil; but will never pay for cultivating in stone-brash, gravel, or clay soils; and they always are the largest where the earth is the deepest. Dry light land is pleasing to them, but wet, stiff, or hide-bound Jand is destructive. If the soil be proper, they do not require much manure. I have obtained a very good crop for three succefsive years, from the same land, without using any; but when I laid at the rate of about forty cart-loads of sand per acre upon a very stiff Joam, and ploughed it in, I found it answered very well, from which I conclude that a mix- ture of soils may be proper for this root. It is most advisable to sow the seed in drills at about 18 inches distant from each other, that the plants may be the more conveniently hand or horse-hoed; and they will be more luxuriant if they undergo a second hoeing, and are carefully earthed so as not to cover the leaves. If people would, in general, be attentive to the soil, the season for sowing, the cleaning and earthing the plants, and raising their seed from the largest and best parsnips, (which GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 251 should be selected and transplanted for this purpose) there is no doubt but such a crop would answer much better than a crop of carrots; they are equal, if not superior, for fatting pigs, as they make their flesh whiter, and they cat them with more satisfaction. When they are clean washed and sliced among bran, horses eat them greedily. It is reported, that cows and oxen are fond of parsnips; if so, they are certainly well worth a farmer's attention, especially in coun- tries where there is a scarcity of fodder. 37. On Reaping Wheat*. Reaping of wheat so high as to leave it al- most as high as the knee, is unquestionably attended with a considerable lofs of grain ; I should suppose not lefs than from two to three bushels an acre. The experiment was com- paratively made by an experienced farmer of my acquaintance. Two pieces of ground in the same field were cut down by the same gang of reapers, accurately timed by a watch, and the ground carefully measured. The produce of the two patches were separately • By Mr. John Brown. 252 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. thrashed and measured ; even the value of the straw in both were computed. Allowing in every respect, both of wages and victuals, for the difference of expense, by the acre, in the two ways, the advantage was very consider- able in favour of low cutting ; besides the great additional quantity of fodder and manure produced by the latter. Indeed, on even a very slight consideration of the subject, it must be evident, that a considerable number of ears of wheat are always in harvest time bent down almost to the ground, which must necefsarily be left uncut in high reaping. These are not, indeed, altogether lost to the community ; since they are gleaned up, in a great measure, by the poor of the parish. They are, however, in a very great degree, lost to the occupier and the proprietor of the ground, .and may, in some measure, even be consi- dered as a public lofs ^ for I am well con- vinced, that numbers prefer the indolent oc- cupation of gleaning, who are neither too old nor too young for the more laborious and use- ful task of reaping. Not to mention that gleaning leads almost necefsarily into strong temptations of pilfering from the sheaves, and consequently is one help, among infinite num- bers, towards corrupting the morals of the GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 253 Jower clafs of the community. I find the at- tention requisite to keep the gleaners within some tolerable bounds, prevents the pofsibility of giving that marked superintendance which is indispensably nccefsary for keeping the reapers in exact and proper order. 38. On Poor-rates*. The enormous burthen of poor-rates cannot receive too much attention from the Legisla- ture; for no question of tillage, the price o'i provisions, the state of the lower clafses, or in- deed the general state of the kingdom, can become a topic of inquiry, without this most momentous subject being closely connected with it. In proportion to the advance of poor-rates, is the idlenefs and evil habits of the poor, and, with both, their wretchednefs and misery. If some effective cure be not speedily adopted in a new system of support, the industry and morals of the people will suffer to an alarming degree. Rents will rise only to be difsipatedj to encourage ha- bits of reliance that will deprive the lower clafses of the best principles of support; and every clafs will be impoverished for By the Rev, A. Young. 254 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. no other purpose but to difseminate idlenefs, and to perpetuate poverty. Not an hour should be lost in taking this subject into se- lious and deep consideration. 39. On Mortar Rubbish *. From an old house I lately took down, I carted ten loads of the rubbish over five acres of pasture ground. I am of opinion it has done more good, than if I had put on as many loads of old dung. 40. On River Mud f. The river Stour, which empties itself into the sea, by Sandwich, and which admits the tide into its channel some miles, supplies in inexhaustible abundance, a silt of a marshy and saponaceous quality ; im.pregnated, in some degree, with salt. Not doubting but it must be an excellent manure, I bought an old barge to convey the mud to a convenient place, and landed it about a quarter of a mile from whence it was taken, and about the distance of four * By S. Palett, Esq. f By Rt Legrand, Esq. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 255 miles from my farm. It was expended upon a loamy soil ; and an admirable manure it is. 41. To cure Mofsy Grafs *. The best method of curing old hide-bound mofsy grafs, is to harrow it with a common harrow, loaded with a weight ; it requires four horses, and cuts an inch and a half, or two inches deep. It should go lengthways, and acrofs the field. This operation alone will much improve the land ; but if you add a sprinkling of good grafs seeds, and some well rotted manure, it will totally destroy the mofs, and be attended with very great profit. 42. On Laying doivn Land to Grafs \. From the experience of several years, I find- the following to be the best and most profitable method of laying down land to grafs : First pare and burn the old turf; take two crops of turnips in succefsion ; hand-hoe them well, and feed them on the land. Let the second crop of turnips be eaten off by the beginning of February ; then plough the land, • By L. Smelt, Esq. ♦ t B/ A. St. Leger, Esq. 256 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. and let it lie till the end of March ; after that, harrow it once or twice, as iiecefsary : on this tillage plough again, and harrow i;i ba'lev and seeds; 8lb. of white clover; 4lb. of trefoil; and two quarters of clean hay-sesds per acre. The first year, let the land be fed ; it will be a very fine pasture the beginning of Api!, and will yield a large quantity of food throughout the year. A large field, laid in this manner, is now feeding for the second year; and the quantity of cattle maintained, has been very great. 43. yhi improved Method of Laying down Land *- A gentleman, who farms a considerable part of his own estate, which lies in the higher district of the county of Lincoln, has formed a new idea in regard to laying down land for the purpose of feeding sheep. Having discovered that sheep, and almost every grazing animal, were extremely fond of parsley, he justly con- ceived that from its warm and invigorating pro- perty it might be the means of securing his flock from disease. His custom is, after a crop of turnips, to lay down the land with a thin crop of barley ; and instead of using the com- * . ■ — ■ — • By A. Hunter, M. D. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 257 mon hay-seeds, he sows red and white clover, trefoil, and rye-grafs, to which he adds four pounds of curled-parsley seeds, per acre. In consequence of this practice, he finds that his sheep are much lefs subject to what is com- monly called the Red Water. In order to fix the roots of the seeds, his practice is to turn in the sheep for about a month into the field, as soon as the barley is removed ; after which, the pasture is shut up till the spring. 44. On the Parochial Poor *. Many and great mistakes have arisen from partial views of the state and situation of the parochial poor. This numerous body may be clafsed under two grand divisions, — the town, and the country paupers : the former are the most numerous, and at least three-fifths of the amount of the poor rates throughout the king- dom at large, are expended in their relief. Their situation is very different to that of the country paupers, and requires very different treatment : it is among them that profligacy iuid improvidence more generally prcvajl -, and. * B_v J. Wood, Esq. Volipne IF. R 253 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. in consequence, their frauds and impositions are to be guarded against with more vigilance and circumspection. In another respect, the situation of these two clafses differs so materi- ally, that regulations proper for the one, would operate very injuriously to the community, jf extended to the other. Except in extraordi- nary seasons of scarcity, the distrefses of the town poor, do not arise from the scantinefs of their earnings, or the want of work j the large wages paid to manufacturers and miners, ope- rate as a temptation to idlencfs and excefs > and the wages of the artizan and mechanic have been advanced so as to meet the per- manent average advance in the price of neces- saries. But the wages of the labourers nearly continue stationary'. llie country paupers, therefore, may be thought to have a fair claim to some advance in their parochial allowances; but if these advances were to be extended to all the town paupers, it would produce the greatest distrefs, among one of the most de- serving clafses of the community, — the honest and industrious tradesman. The same ground for granting these additional allowances, does not exist among the general body of the town poor ; it w^ould administer additional fuel to their vices, and increase those abuses of the GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 259 parochial fund, already so loudly and justly complained of. 43. On Summer Fallowing *. My opinion of summer fallowing is, that he who, in any situation whatever, makes the most frequent and most perfect summer fal- lows, with ajudicious arrangement of the first and succeeding crops, farms in the best and completest manner. The earth, as well as animals, requires rest. The isle of Thanet, the Eden of East Kent, is rendered what it is, chieiiy by a constant course of summer fallows, and a happy ad- justment of crops. In some parts of the isle, it would be absurd, in the extreme, to put wheat upon the fallow. Under such circum- stances, the following arrangements take place, viz. If the fallow is manured, sprat-barley is sown wnth the common clover ; the next year the clover is depastured till the beginning of June, and laid in for seed, which generally gives a profitable crop ; the next year wheat Bv R- Legrand, Esq. 112 260 CEORGICAL ESSAYS. upon the clover-lay ; the following year (the stubble being early taken off, and the ground immediately ploughed) pease, and then wheat. The soil then having Avell rewarded the farmer, is refreshed again by a summer-fallow, which is considered as the basis of the farmer's best expectations. 46. On sowing Turnips in a dvy season ♦. Plough in the evening, beginning at six o'clock in the afternoon, and leave off at ten. Early next morning, harrow, and drill in the seed, or sow it broad-cast. The moisture im- bibed by the soil during the night, will be suf- ficient to make the seed vegetate ; and when once sprung, the ordinary dews of night will afford sufficient moisture to forward vegretation. In such a season, drilling is greatly preferable to sowing broadcast, as it lodges the seed in the bosom of the earth, where it is sure to find moisture when there is none to be found near the surface. It corresponds with this idea, to sow and harrow in the evening. Plants that are compelled to vegetate with little moisture, always come up with a sickly ap- Bj A. Hunter, M. D. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 261 pcarance ; in which state they are sure to be attacked by the fly, against the ravages of which there is no remedy yet discovered ; a speedy vegetation is the only secarity ; and that is best obtained by having the land in a high state of cultivation. 47. On the Scab in Sheep *. Take one pound of quicksilver. Haifa pound of Venice turpentine. Haifa pint of oil of turpentine. Four pounds of hogs-lard. Rub the quicksilver and Venice turpentine together in a mortar, till the globules of mer- cury disappear, then add the oil of turpentine and hogs-lard. Mix for an ointment. The method of using the ointment is thus f : Beginning at the head of the sheep. * By Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. f Though there does not appear to be any difference between this ointment and the Unguentum Caeruleum of the shops, I have chosen to give the receipt exactly as it was given to me. Some of our graziers begin to use it by rubbing it into the naked part of the thigh and fore leg; a practice much lefs troublesome, but which re- {[uires much more judgment than the above. 2 RS 262 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. and proceeding from between the cars along the back to the end of the tail, the wool is to be divided in a furrow till the skin can be touched ; and as the furrow is made, the finger slightly dipped in the ointment is to be drawn alons: the bottom of it, where it will leave a blue stain on the skin and adjoining wool : from this furrow, similar ones must be drawn down the shoulders and thighs to the legs, as far as they are woolly; and if the animal is much infected, two more should be drawn along each side, parallel to that on the back, and one down each side between the fore and hind legs. Immediately after being drefsed, it is usual to turn the sheep among other stock, without any fear of the infection being communicated ; and there is scarce an instance of a sheep suffer- ing any injury from the application. In a few days the blotches dry up, the itching ceases, and the animal is completely cured : it is ge- nerally, however, thought proper not to delay the operation beyond Michaelmas. The Hippobosca Ovina, called in Lincoln- shire, Sheep Fagg, an animal well known to all shepherds, which lives among the wool, GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 2CS and is hurtful to the thriving of sheep, botli by the pain its bite occasions, and the blood it sucks, is radically destroyed by this applica- tion; and the wool is not at all injured. Our wool-buyers purchase the fleeces on which the stain of the ointment is visible, rather in pre- ference to others, from an opinion that the use of it having preserved the animal from being vexed either with the Scabb or Faggs, the wool is lels liable to the defect of joints 6t knots 3 a fault observed to proceed from every sudden stop in the thriving of the animal, either from w^nt of food, or from disease. This mode of curing was brought into that part of Lincolnshire where my property is situated, about twelve years ago, by Mr. Ste- phenson, of Mareham, and. is now so generally received, that the scab, which used to be the terror of the farmers, and which frequently de- terred the more careful of them from takins: the advantage of pasturing their sheep in the fertile and extensive commons with which that district abounds, is no longer regarded with any apprehension : by far the most of them have their flock anointed in autumn, when they return from the common, whether R4 264- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. they show any symptoms of scab, or not ; and having done so, con-jlude them safe for some time, from either giving, or receiving, infec- tion. There are people who employ them- selves in the businefs, and contract to anomt our large sheep at five shillings a score, insur- ing for that price the succefs of the operation; that is, agreeing, in case many of the sheep break out afresh, torepeatthe operation ^rt/^/V, even some months afterwards. 48. On Twnvip Seed*. It is a fact well understood by every husbandman in Norfolk, that if the seed be gathered repeatedly from untransplanted roots, the plants from that seed will become " course- necked," and " foul-rooted ;" and the flesh of the root itself will become rigid and unpalatable. On the contrar)', if it be gathered, year after year, from transplanted roots, the necks will become too fine, and the fibres too few ; the entire plant acquiring a delicate habit, and the produce, though sweet, will be small. B)' Mr. Marshall. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 265 The farmer has, therefore, two extremes, both of which he ought to endeavour to avoid. In Norfolk, long experience has taught the growers of turnips, that tliese extremes may be avoided by transplanting two, three, or four years, and letting the plants run up the third, fourth, or fifth. This management is found to keep the stock in the desired state. In Norfolk, an experienced farmer has dis- covered, that steeping old turnip-seed in water, and letting it lie a few hours in the sun before sowing, will bring it up much sooner than sowing it dry. The most extraordinary circumstance I have ever met with in the turnip culture, is that of sowing and harrowing in the seed on barley stubble, immediately after the crop was off, zvithout ploughing. Some sheep-feed, in the spring, is all that is expected from this practice, and is not, it seems, unfrequently obtained upon land that is in good heart, and free from weeds. Under particular circumstances, this may be a valu- able expedient upon a sheep farm. 266 G£ORGlCAI. ESSAYS. 43. On ploughing in decayed Turnips*. Some acres of field turnips rotted entirely on the ground, and were ploughed under for barley and clover. The consequence was, not only the barley, the clover, and the succeeding turf, but the oats of last year, showed, to a furrow, how far the turnips were eaten off, and where they were ploughed under. This is an interesting incident; reconir mending turnips, very strongly, as a manure. so. On the Refuse W/iale Blubber , used as a Manure -^^ In the neighbourhood of Whitby, the farmers make the Whale Blubber after the oil is taken from it, into a compost with earth, the sweep- ings of streets, ashes, the scourings of ditches^ and stable dung. This compost should not be used till the Whale flesh is completely dis- solved, which will not be in lefs time than twelve months, requiring to be turned over two or three times during that period. When turned over, the heap should be well coated • By Mr. Marshal!. t By Henr)- Cholmley, Esq. GEORGICAL ESSAYS 267 with earth to preserve the steam, as weil as to prevent the intrusion of pigs and dogs, by whom the blubber is greedily devoured. Too great a quantity of the compost should not be used upon the land, otherwise the grafs will be burnt up, it being esteemed by the farmers to be a very hot manure. It is, therefore, the best way to take off this burning quality, by increasing the quantity of the materials added to the blubber, in forming the compost. It is found, from the observation of some farmers, in the neighbourhood of Hull, that a ton of the blubber is sufficient to make twenty loads of compost ; but of this, every farmer will form a judgment froro the nature of the materials used. By an addition of lime to the compost, it is probable that the difsolution of the animal part of it will be the sooner accomplished. Of the compost, when judiciously made, from six to ten cart loads will be sufficient for an acre of grafs land. This being a new kind of manure, we must consider experience as our best director in the application of it. How- far it may be useful as a top-drefsing for wheat, must be determined by experiment. In every respect, the blubber may be con- sidered as similar to night soil, a species of 26S 6E0RGICAL ESSAYS. manure much used in Flanders, where farming is carried on with great correctnefs. PRICES AT HULL. Grease, . . . 32s. per ton Finks, . . . . 21s. Gums, . . . . 15s. 51. On rubbing posts for Swine *. Having occasion to shift two hogs out of a stye without a rubbing post, into another with one, accidently put up to support the roof, I had a full opportunity of observing its use. The animals when they went in, were dirty, v^'ith broken ragged coats, and with dull heavy countenances. In a few days, they cleared away their coats, cleaned their skins, and became sleeky haired ^ the enjoyments of the post were discernible even in their looks ; and in their livelinefs and apparent contentment. 52. On Folding Sheep f. In Wilts and Hants, sheep are usually folded *By Mr. Marsliall. f By a Somerset farmer. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 259 the whole year. A fold of ewes and lambs, from a good meadow, is extremely valuable, it being the goodnefs of the feed on which depend both the quantity and worth of the dung. Eight hundred couples will cover an acre in a night; which may be fairly estimated at 16s. often 20s. for the ensuing barley crop. The summer dung decreases much in value, till two or three weeks before wheat sowing ; then again it increases ; and where they can sow immediately after the fold^ the dung of 1600 sheep, which are sufficient, at that season of the year, for an acre, is worth as much as the 800 couples were for barley. The value of the manure arising from 200 sheep, may be justly stated at 151. per annum. 53. On Sainfoin Hay*. The celebrated Mr. Coke, of Holkham, makes it an invariable rule never to give his sheep any turnips after March ; from that time he depends entirely on Sainfoin Hay, and sometimes begins sooner : to this food he at- tributes the health of his sheep at that season. Before he practised this husbandry, he had * By A. Young, Esq. 270 GEOKGICAL ESSAYS. great lofses, as well as others, by the flow ot niilk by turnips in the spring ; this hay gives hilly sufficient without that danger. 54. On the choice of Seeds*. When seeds of every kind are sown, it is of the utmost consequence that they be in pos- sefsion of vegetable life. This may be proved by sowing them upon cotton, or flannel, kept moist by v/ater, and placed in a warm room. If the seeds arc good, they will swell, and show to the naked eye a disposition to vegetate. All kinds of small seeds should be made sub- ject to this trial, previous to their being sown upon a large scale. This easy experiment will, with a certainty, detect the fraudulent mixture of old and new seeds. 55. To remove the rancidnefs of Turnip Butter, and the bitternefs of Barkij-Stra'w Butter \. Instead of putting the cream immediately as it is skimmed oif the milk, into the jar or other retaining vefsei, pour it upon hot water, and after standing to cool, skim it off the water. • By A. Hunter, M. D. t By Mr. Marshal!. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 27 t 50. On Uand-lVceding Tiumips*. It often happens that the last hoeing takes place so early as to permit the seeds of weeds to come to perfection. Under such circum- stances, the charlock, which had escaped the hoers, frequently makes its appearance, and which, if not removed, will materially injure the land. The yellow appearance of the field, will discover to the discerning farmer the ab- solute necefsity of calling in the hand-weeders before this destructive weed shall have per- fected its seed. In such a case, the expense will bear no proportion to the advantage gained. 57. On Marlf. The marling of land is one of the most im- portant works of husbandry. Those farmers who have marl in their fields, and do not en- deavour to discover it, are much to be con- demned. The astonishing improvements that this kind of manure has made in Norfolk, Lan- cashire, and Cheshire, ought, long ago, to have roused the generality of farmers from that * By A. Hunter, M. D. I By A. Hunter, M. D. 272 ' GEORGICAL ESSAYS. kind of suplnenefs that too frequently in- fluences their operations. By means of the screw-borer, the different strata of an extensive district may be known at a trifling expense. If marl cannot be found, clay may be dis- covered, which will answer equally well upon lands of too light a nature. At other times a bed of sand may be found, which will answer the purpose of lightening lands of too stiff a texture. Proceeding in this manner, the far- mer will be sure to discover something that he may convert into a profitable use. However, in opposition to this expensive improvement, it must be confefsed, that the want of a lease must for ever operate. Whatever confidence may subsist between landlord and tenant, and whatever arguments may be brought in sup- port of annual leases, I am decidedly of opi- nion, that millions are annually lost to the public in consequence of the refusal of long leases. No spirited and expensive improvement can be effected in lands that are not held under a lease of a reasonable duration. Such an at-^ tempt on the part of a farmer would be con- sidered as an act of insanity, unlefs in the cases when the farmer is both landlord and occupier. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ' 2^S And here I do not wish to be considered as tecommending leases upon farms inclosed, and improved nearly to their extent. In such cases, leases are unnecefsary. But when the farm consists of much waste, boggy, and un- profitable land, with a neglected inclosure, and labouring under other discouraging circum- stances, I dare confidently say, that it would be highly beneficial to the owner and his family, to grant a long lease to a substantial tenant, willing to enter upon it, under the usual Covenants. 58. On feeding Pigs upon unripe Garden Beans*. For this kind of husbandry I selected a four acre field of turnip land, and manured it well. Early in February, I sowed one-third of it with Garden Beans, in rows of three feet from each Other, and in the following manner. In a fur- row made by the plough, the beans were sown by hand, and the ploughings were so conducted that a ridge was formed over the sown beans. When the beans had made a sprout of about an inch in length, and before they appeared upon the surface, I harrowed * By Mr. Matthew Crofs. Volume IV, S 2^74 ' GEORGICAL ESSAYS. down the ridges acrofs, which reduced the field to a level. AVhen the beans were three inches in height, I ploughed a furrow from them, which brought the land to have a ridge be- tween the rows, and this operation answered the purpose of destroying weeds. At this time, the beans were carefully hand-hoed and weeded, so that no weeds w^ere to be seen in the intervals, or in the rows. As soon as the weeds made their appearance in the intervals, I split the ridge, throwing the earth towards the beans. About the end of May, I again ploughed from the beans which made a ridge between the rows, and upon this ridge I drilled tutnip seed, with the Scotch drill, covering the seed wMth a rake. This drill is so light, that it may be drawn by a boy. At a proper season, the turnips were hand-hoed, and at the same time a due attention was paid to the weeds growing among the beans. The land thus disposed, appeared in alternate rows of beans and turnips, so that each row was exactly three feet from that of their own kind, and in con- sequence of this disposition, the whole of the surface was nearly covered. When the beans be^an to lose their flowers and to show a dis- position to pod, they w^ere drawn by hand and given to the pigs, in a fold-yard v.- ell Jittered GEORGICAL ESSAYS. t275 with straw ; and, in order to have a regular supply, the beans were sown at three different times, viz. in February, March, and April, so that the pigs had always plenty of succulent food, in which state the beans were always the most acceptable. The pigs were bought in on the 18th of May, and were kept on clover till the beans were ready. The beans being consumed, the pigs were disposed of on the 18th of September, to the distillers, being in a state fit for their use ; but a few were reserved to be finished, with beans and barley-meal, for bacon. This year four acres maintained 38 pigs, bought in when ten weeks old, and which were sold for forty pounds above the prime cost ; so that estimating the expense for rent, ploughing, seed, &c. at twenty pounds, there was a profit of five pounds an acre, besides the turnips, and forty loads of rich manure, both of which I cannot value at lefs than twenty pounds more. The four acres might still have been rendered more profitable by planting brocoli on the bean stubble.- Next year I mean to improve upon this plan, as well by the purchase of larger pigs, as by making an immediate use of the land left unoccupied in June. At present, I wish this scheme to be considered only as a. Speculation, not unworthy of attention. S2 276 ' GEORGIC*AL ESSAYS. 59. On Urine y as a Manure^. Some years ago, in the lowest part of mj Inn yard, I caused a large reservoir to be dug, twenty feet square, and fourteen deep. The soil in which it was dug being rather porous, I had it lined with wet clay, as if I had been making a fish-pond, and afterwards lined it throughout with bricks, set in terrace mortar. When this was done, I had the drains from all my stables, and my cow-house, conducted to this reservoir, as well as a capital drain from my kitchen and wash-house. The reservoir was covered over with stout beams, and thick oaken planks ; an aperture being left, wherein to iix a strong pump. l^y this contrivance, I preserved the horse- stale made in the stables, which was very con- siderable in quantity, as well as all the pot- liquor, brine, suds, and chamberlye made in my house. This compost, if I may so call it, is my best • By Mr. Margrave. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. manure ; but it requires some little caution in using it. I apply this manure to all my crops indis- criminately, and find it succeed with all; the only danger being the overdoing it. When I lay on this manure, I get the water-cart first half filled with pond-water, and then bring- ing it to the pump above-mentioned, complete the fillins: it with the contents of the reservoir. This I find is a good method of correcting the great heat of the manure in question, which would of itself, in particular seasons, be apt to .burn some crops. I find this manure to be of particular serv^ice :n procuring a large burden of grafs, not only in my upland pastures, and meadows, but in all my grafs-grounds. I begin putting it on immediately after Christmas, and com- plete the drefsing before .the end of February. 1 find this the best season for doing it, on many accounts j particularly as the spring rains, soon succeeding, wash off from the blades of the grafs the saline particles, which wouM otherwise be disgustful to the cattle. "When I drefs my wheat with this manure, 2 S3 278 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. I choose to do it something latere for instance, in the month of April; remembering always to correct thq heat of the manure with water. On my barley, I sprinkle it still later; that is, in May for the most part, and find these methods to succeed well. > I receive great benefit from it in my kitchen garden, where I also refrain from the use of yard-dung, instead of which, when the ground is trenched and thrown up in winter, I give it a thorough drefsing with the manure above^ mentioned. This, by the subsequent digging, when the land comes to be levelled, is well mixed with the soil, which never fails to yield me plen- tiful crops of pulse and other vegetables; and, what is more, my cabbages, beans, pease, &c. are much sweeter than those raised in my neighbour's gardens, which are annually en- riched with abundance of rotten stable dunsr. 'JD' Onions receive superior benefit from this manure ; they conic much earlier, and are l^r^er and sweeter than any I can purchase. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 27-9 60. Oh Lime upon Mofsy SsYtrd-^. 3Last autumn, four chaldrons per acre were •put upon a piece of declining mofsy sward, on a burning sand, in an upland situation. The present state of it is striking. (Sept. 1787) The entire countenance of the land is changed : the sward has acquired a dark- green healthy colour j and the mofs has already mostly disappeared j while the remainder of the piece (the whole eaten with sheep) is covered with a fleece of mofs intermixed with parched, straw-coloured herbage. ^1. On Teasels, as cultivated in the Countij of Somerset f. The head of this plant, w-hich is composed of well-turned vegetable hooks, is used ia •drefsing of cloth, and I believe for no other .purpose. The most favourable soil for this plant is a strong rich clay, or what is generally deno- minated " good wheat land." '* By Mr. Myshall. t By John Billingsley, Esq. S4 280 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Sometimes an old ley is broken up, and sometimes a wheat stubble j the seed is sown, after the rate of two pecks per acre, in the month of April. During the summer the land is worked over three or four times with long narrow spades to dL^stroy the weeds. In the month of November, if the plants are too thick, they are drawn out to fill up vacan- cies, and the plants are set at a foot distance. If, after this thinning, too many plants remain, another field is prepared, into which they are transplanted; but those plants which are never removed, produce the best heads. At the next spring and ensuing summer, the land is worked over three or four times with the narrow spades, by which it is kept thoroughly clean, and the plants earthed up. This is called speddling. In the month of July the uppermost hea^s begin to blofsom, and as soon as the blofsom falls, they are ripe. The gathering is per- formed at three different tim.es. A man, with a knite made for the purpose, cuts the heads which are ripe, and ties them up in handfuls. After a fortnight he goes over the ground again, and at a third cutting the businefs is GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 281 completed. On the day of cutting they are carried into a house, and if the air be clear, they are taken out daily and exposed to the sun till they are completely dry; but great care must be taken that no rain falls on them. The crop is very hazardous. A wet season rots them, particularly when there is much rain at the time of blofsoming. AVhen dry, they are separated into three different parts, called kings, middlings, and scrubs; and are, after that, made into packs, containing of kings nine thousand heads, and of middling twenty thousand. The scrubs are but of little value. The average price is forty shillings per pack; and sometimes the produce is fifteen or sixteen packs an acre, at other times a total blank. There is an amazing: inequality in the produce of different plants; some stocks will send forth one hundred heads, others not more than three or four. Great attention, therefore, should be paid to the selection of seed, namely, by taking it from those plants which appear to be most prolific. This, however, is not done, but the seed is taken indiscrimately from the whole crop. ^2 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. As the goodnefs of the crop chiefly depends .\, 145. And here it may not be improper to remark, that ancient customs are a considerable time before they can be effaced, even in countries that have experienced the calamities of con- quest ; for in France, as Keysler informs us, something of the Druidical ceremonies, relative to the mistletoe, subsists in the province of Aquitain. " In Aquitania quotannis Prid. " Kal. Jan. pueri atque adolcscentes vicns, *' villasque obeunt, carmine stipcm petentes, " sibique, atque aliis pro voto, in exordio novi " anni acclamantes, Au Guy ! L'an neuf !" 67. On the Age of Fruit Trees *. Mr. Bucknall, in his celebrated Treatise on Fruit Trees, has proved to a demonstration, that, by proper management, fruit trees may be continued in full bearing far beyond their usual term; and, indeed, the experiments recorded By John Tweedy, Esq, T3 294 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. by him, prove his afscrtion, " that crooked trees may be made straight, the sterile fruit- ful, and the old hand.^oir.e." In confirmation of part of his practice, I shall mention some circumstances regarding an apple-tree now ( 1 802) growing at Helperby, near Easingwold, Yorkshire. This tree, as is well authenticated, was sown a pippin the year 1 670, and afterwards trans- planted to where it now stands. In the year 17S7, it showed evident signs of age, its fruit being small, speckled, and few in number. It was much in the situation of Spenser's aged tree, " its honour decayed, its branches sere." In the winter of that year, a fold-yard was made near it, and the liquid part of the ma- nure made by the cattle, consequently, found its way to the roots of the tree. In the follow- ing spring it put on the appearance of full ve- getation, sending out youthful shoots from the stem, immediately under the decayed branches. These have ever since borne fruit plentifully, of a proper size, and good flavour. On the old branches, at the top of the tree, the' fruit is small and speckled. Had this tree under- gone the judicious pruning of ^fr. Bucknall, there is not a doubt of its perfect renovation, GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 295 ESSAY IX. On the Ilasel. vJf the Hasel there are only two species : 1. CoRYLUs favellanaj stipulis ovatis ob- tusis. Lhi. Sp. PI. 1417. Hasel N'uty xviLli oval blunt stipidcc. Corylus Sylvestris. — C. B. P. 4 1 8 . Wild Hasel Nut. 2. CoRYLUs (colurna) stipulis linearibus acutis. Lin. Sp. PI. 1417. Hasel Nut ivith narrow acute stipulx. Corylus Byzantina. — H. L. 191. Byzantine Nut. The Corylus, in the Linna;an System, is of the clafs and order Monoecia Polyandria. The flowers begin to open about the twenty-tit'th of January, and in a month's time are in full blow. They are smull, and of a beautiful red colour. The catkins make their appearance about the middle of September. The common HascI grows wild in almost every part of this island, and serves very well for thickening woods. When allowed to grow, T4 296 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ^ it will make poles of twenty feet, but it is usually cut down sooner for walking-sticks, jfishing-rods, withs for fag-gotting, &c. ; for which necefsary purposes it is recommended as a profitable wood. In order to raise a coppice of Hasels, the nuts must be gathered in the autumn. These must be carefully preserved till the montii of February in a moist place, to keep them from growing dry : then, having the ground well ploughed and harrowed, let drills be drawn at one yard distance; into these drop the nuts at about seven inches distance, and let them be covered with two inches of earth. When the young plants appear, they must be kept clear from weeds, in the manner usually ordered for trees planted in rows ; and th; y must re- main under that careful cultivation till the weeds are no longer to be feared. Where the plants stand too thick, they should be properly thinned, and this thinning ought to be continued till the plants are left a yard asunder each way. A Coryletum may also be raised from plants drawn from the semi- nary, when they are a foot or two feet high. These should be planted where they are to re- main at one yard asunder. In twelve years GEORGICAL £SSAYS. 297 they may be cut down for poles; but they will be ready tor a second fall much sooner ; and afterwards may be cut every seventh or eighth year, when the value will be from ten to fifteen pounds per acre. The chief uses to which this wood is applied, is for hurdles, faggots, hoops, and bundles of stakes. Close hurdles sell from six shillings to nine shillings a dozen. Bundles of stakes sell for seven- pence each. Hoopi are worth three shillings and sixpence a bundle of sixty hoops. The Byzantine Nut is distinguished from the other species chiefly by the stipuhe, which are very narrow and acute, whereas those of the com- mon nut are oval and obtuse. It diilers also in the size of its growth, the Byzantine seldom growing higher than four or five feet, hence it got the name of Divarf Nut-tree. In other respects it is like our common nut-tree; it flowers at the same time, and the fruit is pro- duced in clusters. Mr. Miller suspects this and the Barcelona Nut to be the same. The Filbert, or Cory Ins saliva fructu obloiigOy is not a distinct species, but only a variety of the common nut. This can only be kept true to its kind by suckers, or layers, which last are observed to make the best trees. In 298 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. order to form stools, some plants of the best kinds should be procured, and the twigs layered from them should be taken off and planted in the nursery. When well rooted, they may be removed into the ground where they are to remain. In some parts of Kent, plantations of Filberts are much attended to. The trees are never permitted to rise above six feet in height, and are regularly pruned and dished out like gooseberry-bushes. They should stand at the distance of twelve feet, and when full spread, the diameter of the cup formed by the branches should be about six feet. The intermediate spaces should be cul- tivated with beans, turnips, and hoeing crops; for upon the constant stirring of the ground the vigour of the trees principally depends. I am well informed that near a bushel of nuts has been gathered from one tree managed in this manner. In a scarce year. Filberts in the hubk are worth twenty-four shillings per bushel ; — -a great encouragement for plan- tations of this species. Hops are sometimes raised between the Filbert-trees, so that the expectations of the planter may be gratified with one and sometimes two crops. It is an observation of great antiquity, and GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 299 well confirmed, that " a good nut year makes a good wheat year." Virgil speaking of the walnut-tree says. Si superani foetus, pariter frumenta sequentur. GEO KG. i. I have a peculiar pleasure in laying before the public the following letter, received from a srentleman much conversant in the manao-e- •J o ment of Filbert-trees. " When the Filberts " raised from layers are eight inches high, *' there will spring from them several small *' branches. Those in the centre must be cut " out, in order that the tree may be trained in " the form of a punch-bowl. The branches " must not be permitted to exceed six feet in. " height, and all kept of an equal length. " The trees should be planted at the distance " of four yards from each other, and these, if " well trained, will nearly touch in a few " years. It will be necefsary to dig well " about them every year, and every third year " to give them a good drefsing of manure, as " also to top the bearing branches early in " the spring. — Carefully remove all suckers " and shoots about the roots. A tree thus " trained, has been known to produce two f stone of nuts in the husk, and I am credibly 300 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. " informed, that 4001. has been made of the " produce of one acre, sold at thirty shillings " per bushel^ in the London market." ESSAY X. On the proper Husbandry for a Gentleman. W iTH regard to gentlemen occupying large tracts of land, unlefs they sacrifice all other pursuits to their farm, or be uncommonly for- tunate in their choice of a steward, they will find an endlefs trouble in their undertaking, and most probably be glad to quit it with con- siderable lofs. But if a gentleman spends a considerable part of the year in the country, and has a constant family establishment with occasion for some horses ; the expenses both of his house and stables will be considerably reduced by the occupation of about sixty acres of good land, or one hundred acres of an infe- rior quality In the first case, it would be convenient to divide his farm into four arable GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 301 fields, of eight acres each, and four pastures, of seven acres each. Let the arable lands be brought into a course j that there may be every year one field sown with turnips, or planted with cabbages, (as the soil is dry or wet) : one with spring corn, after the turnips or cabbages : one with clover, tares, beans, or pease, after the spring corn (the beans or pease to be kept perfectly free from weeds) ; and one field sown with wheat after the clover, tares, beans, or pease. And let two pastures be mowed, and two fed alternately. If the land is poor and light, it will be proper to have five arable fields of ten acres each, and five pastures of the same size. Let one arable piece be sown with turnips each year; let the turnips be succeeded by spring corn, and clover and rye-grafs sown with it : one field myst lie in a layer of the first year ; one in a layer of the second year ; and the fifth arable piece may be sown with wheat, rye, pease, oats, or barley, after having been a layer two years. And let two of the pastures be mowed in their turn, and three fed. The advantages of ar- ranging the farm in this manner are, that the ploughed fields will produce a regular supply of summer and winter food for the cattle, and corn of different sorts with straw ; the pas- 502 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. tures will afford grafs for the summer, and hay for the winter ; and be kept in good condi- tion by alternate mowing and feeding. And as the preparation for the different crops upon the arable land will be at different times of the year, it may be tilled with the smallest number of cattle pofsible. When the fields are brought into the courses above mentioned, one pair of stout oxen will be sufficient for all the businefs of the farm j and, as they will live upon straw, with turnips or cabbages in the winter, with a little hay at the times of sow- ing, and graze in the pastures during summer, they will be kept at a very moderate expense. Indeed I think it much better to keep two oxen for that purpose, than to do the businefs of the farm with horses occasionally used in a carriage ; because, upon such a system of economy, a prudent man loses the chief con- venience of his equipage, and a thoughtlefs one the best seasons for the work of his farm. But to occupy such a tract of land with only two working beasts, it will be necefsary that the fields are contiguous j and the ploughing, harrowing, &c. must be performed in the me- thod commonly used in Suffolk and Norfolk: and the carting of all sorts must be done with two small carts, one for each ox. The prac- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 303 tlcability of this will appear from a calcula- tion of the time necefsary for the ploughing, harrowing, and rolling, which will show the time left for the other work of the farm. Let us take the annual tillage of the larger quar- tity of land. Four ploughings for ten acres of turnips, give forty acres ; two plough- ings for the ten acres of spring corn, twenty acres j and perhaps it may be advantageous to give two ploughings upon the ten acres of corn sown upon the breaking up the layer, which adds twenty acres more ; and conse- quently there will be eighty acres to be ploughed yearly. We know, from experi- ence, that a pair of oxen will plough six acres in a week ; but, allowing for interruptions by bad weather, and other accidents, let us sup- pose them to plough only five acres weekly. Sixteen weeks, therefore, will be required for the ploughing ; and, to give good allowance for the harrowing and rolling, let us add four weeks more for them j so that, together, they will take up twenty weeks annually; and the re- maining thirty-two weeks will surely be thought sufficient for the carting, and all necefsary work. Indeed I can with more confidence afsert, that a pair of good oxen will do so much, because with four oxen I occupied a farm 304 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. several years, where more than twice as much labour was required ; and where the difficulty was increased, by great part of the arable land being so moist bottomed, that the oxen could work upon those lands only in dry seasons. Tlie following may serve as a sketch of the probable expenses and returns of such a farm. Expenses. Renf, Tithe and town charges, 20 Labour, Smith, wheelwright, and collar-maker. Seed corn, .... Interest of stock. Half the expense of a dairy-maid, as she will have time to do other work, 10 Total expenses, 14-5 Returns. £. £. 50 Spring corn, . . . . 25 20 Corn upon the layer, . 40 40 Grafs or hay, with straw, for six horses, . . . 60 10 Produce of six cows, . 30 10 Profit of hogs and poul- 5 try, 20 Total returns, . . 175 Deduct expenses, 14-5 Profit, 30 You see my estimate of the profit is not so great as that of some calculators ; but perhaps it is nearer to the truth. But I cannot con- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 305 slder pecuniary benefit as a principal object in a plan of this kind. The advantages arising from it to a gentleman will be more material. He will find in it a pursuit very conducive to health, giving constant and interesting em- ployment without anxiety ; with something always to do, and something to expect. The succefsion of the various crops, and prepara- tions for them, will furnish him with "perpe- tual inducements to take the benefit of air and exercise upon his farm ; and he will be freed from the tedious necefsity of riding or walking for iiealth's sake only. Let me add, that he who has acquired a relish for such amusements at home, will have little occasion for that difsi- pation which is too often the resource of those who are, by an affluent fortune, exempt from necefsary attention to any profefsion or trade. It may not be improper to remark, that this plan may be enlarged or contracted as re- quired ; and may often, with advantage, be partially adopted, where it cannot entirely take place. The quantity of land may be increased or diminished, according to the quantity of horses and other stock wanted by the family. Where the soil is unfavourable to the growth of common ";rafs, it would be better to in- f-) Volume Jr. V 306 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. crease the tillage, and rely upon clover, tares, ray-grafs, sainfoin, or lucern, both for summer grazing, and a supply of hay. ESSAY xr. On Hatching Chickens. A- s thirteen eggs are generally placed by house- w ives, under one hen, being as many as she can well cover, it is certain that a great number of hens must be engaged in incubation, in order to supply the vari'jus markets where chickens are brought to be disposed of. And as incu- bation has nothing mysterious in it, requiring only a regular graduation of heat for the space of twenty-one days, with the occasional turn- ing of the eggs, it seems reasonable to suppose that the Egyptian method of raising chickens may be advantageously practised in this coun- tr}'. And as an encouragement to such per- sons as have leisure and perseverance for such GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 507 ti profitable employment, I shall here state the method as practised in Egypt. The art of hatching chickens by means of ovens has long been practised in Egypt ; but it is there only known to the inhabitants of a single village named Bej'me, and to those that live at a small distance from it. Towards the beginning of autumn they scatter themselves all over the country ; where each pcrfon among them is ready to undertake the management of an oven, each of which is of a different sizej but, in general) they are capable of containing from fortv to fourscore thousand cfTo-s, The number of these ovens placed up and down the country is about GBG, and they usually keep them working for about six months : as therefore, each brood takes up in an oven, as under a hen, only 21 days, it is easy in every one of them to hatch eight different broods of chickens. Every Bermean is under the obli- gation of delivering to the person who intrusts him with an oven, only two-thirds of as ni:iny chickens as there have been eggs put under his care ; and he is a gainer by this bargain, as more than two-thirds of the eggs usually produce chickens. In order to make a cal- culation of the number of chickens yearly so 6 V 2 308 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. hcitchcd iir Egypt, it has been supposed that only two-thirds of the eggs are hatched, and that each brood consists of at least 30,000 chickens ; and thus it would appear that the ovens of Egypt give life yearly to at least 92,640,000 of these animals. This useful and advantageous method of hatching eggs has been lately discovered in France by the ingenious Mr. Reaumur ; who, by a number of experiments, has reduced the art to certain principles. He found, by expe- rience, that the heat necefsary for this purpose is nearly ihe same with that marked 32 on his thermometer, or that marked 96 on Fahren- heit's. This degree of heat is nearly that of the skin of the hen, and, what is remarkable, of the skin of all other domestic fowls, and pro- bably df all other kinds of birds. The degree of heat which brings about the developement of the cygnet, the gosling, and the turkey-pout, is the same as that which fits for hatching the canary-songster, and, in all probability, the smallest humming-bird : the difference is only in the time during which this heat ought to be communicated to the eggs of different birds ; it will bring the canary bird to perfec- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 509 tion in 11 or 12 days, while the turkey^pout will require 27 or 28, After many experiments, IVIr. Reamur found, that stoves heated by means of a baker's oven, succeeded better than those made hot by layers of dung : and the- furnaces of o-lafs-houses and those of the mcltcrs of o metals, by means of pipes to convey heat into a room, might, no doubt, be made to answer the same purpose. As to the form of the stoves, no great nicety is required. A chaml>er over an oven will do very well. Nothing more will be necefsary but to ascertain the degree of heat ; which may be done by melt- ing a lump of butter of the cjzc of a walnut, with half as much tallow, and putting it into a phial. This will serve to indicate the heat, with sufficient exactnefs : for when it is too great, this mixture will become as liquid as oil ; and wdien the heat is too small, it will re- main fixed in a lump : but it will flow like a thick syrup, upon inclining the bottle, if the stove be of a right temper. Great attention therefore should be given to keep the heat al- ways at this degree, by letting in fresh air if it be too great, or shutting the stove more close if it be too small : and that all the eggs in the U3 310 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Stove may equally share the irregularities of the heat, it will be necefsary to shift them from the sides to the centre j and thus to imitate the hens, who are frequently seen to make use of their bills, to push to the outer parts those eggs that were nearest to the mid- dle of their nests, and to bring into the middle such as lay nearest the sides. Mr. Reaumur has invented a sort of low boxes, without bottoms, and lined with furs. These, which he calls artificial parents, not only shelter the chickens from the injuries of the air, but afford a kindly warmth, so that they presently take the benefit of their shelter as readily as they would have done under the wings of a hen. After hatching, it will be necefsary to keep the chickens, for some time, in a room artfully heated and furnished with these boxes ; but afterwards they may be safely exposed to the air in the court-yard, in which it may not be amifs to place one of these artificial parents to shelter them if there should be occasion for it. As to the manner of feeding the young brood, they are generally a whole day after being hatched, before they take any food at all^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 311 and then a few crumbs of bread may be given them for a day or two, after which they will begin to pick up insects and grafs for them- selves. But to save the trouble of attending tlicm, capons may be taught to watch them in the same manner as hens do. Mr. Reaumur afsuresus, that he has seen above '200 chickens at once, all led about and defended only by three or four such capons. Nay, cocks may be taught to perform the same office ; which they, as well as the capons, will continue to do all their lives after. A mind harmonized by the contemplation and study of the works of Nature, will receive a considerable degree of pleasure from an at- tention to the progrefs of the chick during incubation, but for this purpose a previous knowledge of the anatomical structure of an eg^ will be required. The containing parts of an egg, are, 1. The shell; 2, A membrane, of a pretty strong texture, lying next the shell ; 3. Another membrane, of a slighter texture, lying over that ; and, 4. A thin membrane, inclosing the yolk, which is twisted at its ex- tremities, and denominated Chalaza? : The U4 312 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. parts contained within these, are, 1. A portion of air between the two membranes at the obtuse end of the egg ; 2. The white -, 3. The yolk ; 4. The cicatricula, in the centre of which is the speck of life. When an egg is placed under the hen, after a few days of incubation, the speck of life becomes red, and sends out its blood vefsels, which are spread over the fine membrane that incloses the yolk. The white forms the nourishment of the chick, but the yolk remains entire during the whole term of incubation, being intended for the nourishment of the chick, after its exclusion from the shell. The two membranes lining the inside of the shell, supply the place of the amnion and chorion, and over their surface the umbilical vefsels are spread, so that they may be considered as forming a placenta, but of a nature very different from that of a viviparous animal. The annexed plate represents an egg on the fourth day of incubation. Fig. 1. The containing and contained parts as they appear pn the removal of the forepart of the shell. Fig. 2. The shell. Fig. 3. The membranes that line the inside of the shell, and inclose the whole contents, a. The shell, b. The inner INSERT FOLDOUT HERE GEORGICAL ESSAYS. GlS membrane. c. The cavity formed by tlie membranes, in which a portion of air is in- closed. Fig. 4. The white, which serves for the nourishment of the chick, during incu- bation, a provision absolutely neccfsary for an animal inclosed in a hard shell. A viviparous animal requires no such provision, its support being derived from the maternal placenta. Fig. 5. The yolk, with the speck of life and its umbilical vefsels. a. The yolk. b. The Cicatricula, containing the speck of life, which at this time appears a mishapen and imperfect animal, c. c. The Chalaza^, or twisted ex- tremities of the membrane that surrounds the yolk. li: we compare these Chalaza? to the extremities of an axis passing through the yolk, that sphere will be found to be composed ot two unequal portions, its axis not passing exactly through its centre. And as the Cica- tricula with the speck of life, is always placed on the side of the smaller portion, it follows, that in all positions of the egg during the early- part of incubation, it must be uppermost, and consequently nearest the hen, for the yolk is a body specifically heavier than the white with which it is surrounded. A viviparous animal has a communication with its mother, by means of a placenta and umbilical vefsels, but Sli' GEOHGICAL ESSAYS. the oviparous animal has no such communica- tion, being confined within a hard, butperspire- able she]]. Contrary to the disposition of the viviparous animal, the umbilical vefsels belong- ing to the chick, pafs through the white of the egg, and spread themselves over the surface of the chorion and amnion, thereby forming an ex- tended placenta, which, besides absorbing the albumen for the nourishment of the animal, appears to subtract something from the atmos- phere, through the pores of the shell. This something may be what the lungs of breathing animals take from the atmosphere for the support of life, and which the viviparous animal, during its uterine confinement, receives from its mother. Similar to what is observed m viviparous animals, the umbilical vefsels of the chick, form a cord, consisting of two arteries and a vein ; but as the animal has no apparent navel, I conceive that the ccrd pafses from the body to the cloaca, after which it spreads its vefsels over the surface of the chorion and amnion, which, as before observed, per- form the office of a placenta. But of this I am doubtful. During incubation, the yolk is not consumed hy the chick, but remains entire within the GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 315 body of the animal, till within a short time of its exclusion from the shell, when it pafses slowly through a small duct, into the small intestines, to serve for nutriment to the chick, at a time when neither its own industry, nor the attention of its mother, could afford a suf- ficient supply. In this manner we observe the attention of Providence to the infancy of animal life, but pur wonder is turned into adoration when we see the same goodnefs continued through all the stages of animal existence. It is in the form of instinct that the finger of God operates during the advanced periods of animal life; a principle that never ceases to act for the continuation of animated nature. Notwitb-r standing the great care that is taken in the preservation of animal life, it is well known that (to answer a wise purpose) it is con- tinually suffered to pafs into difsolution; but that the spirit oi man, so feelingly attached to its Creator, should suffer the same difsolu- tion, is an opinion greatly to be condemned. The comfortable words spoken by Christ to the thief upon the crofs, if received in their plain and obvious sense, cannot but have a good effect upon the morals of mankind. 316 QEORCICAL ESSAYS. The idea of an immediate presence, as it is pleasing and comfortable to a good man, so it must be terrible and alarming to a bad one. And this being the case, it surely is ungenerous in any one to endeavour to shake and overthrow a faith that has a direct ten- dency to make us better. Such disquisitions, however learned, seem to intrude upon the peace of mankind, as they go to the establish- ment of a doctrine that has a manifest ten- dency to damp the hopes of the dying Chris- tian, It is to be lamented that there are some men, who, treading the same ground, carry their speculations beyond this point. Specu- lations that insensibly steal from them those hopes and fears which God has afsigned as the great springs of human conduct, " Till that cruel moment when the grave closes over those we love, we cannot sufficiently admire the excellency of that religion which teaches us to look beyond it. Do they act agreeably to their own principles, who contend for the dignity of human nature, and yet believe that the soul of man — advancing daily in virtue and knowledge — ^aspiring after perfection — longing for immortality — cut off in the midst; GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 317 of its pursuits and wishes — shall share tiie same fate as the meanest reptile that crawls on the face of the earth?" What value can be put upon the sure and certain hopes of immediately falling into the arms of an affectionate wife, or of draw- ing to our embrace a dutiful and affectionate child, sometime gone before us! The con- solation is above all price, and he that robs me of it is as cruel as the man who takes from the sinking mariner the only plank on which he rests his hopes and fears *, * When the latter part of this Efsay was written, the Author was suffering under the keenest sorrow that can prefs upon the human mind. It was no luls than the lively recollection of some circumstances of tha most afflicting nature. To the holy Spirjt of a departed friend, and to the holy Spirits of two amiable young men, cut off" in their prime of life, these reflections belong. A. if. 518 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY XIL On the Cidihation of Parsnips and Beans in the Island of Jersejj. HETHER the cultivation of parsnips, on a Jarge scale, is peculiar to Jersey and Guernsey, we cannot take upon us to say ; but it is a fact, that in no other country in Europe are parsnips so generally cultivated, nor any where is so much use made of them to fatten cattle. It is impofsible to trace the period when the cultivation of this plant was first introduced amongst us. It has been kno\%n for several centuries, and the inhabitants have reaped such benefit therefrom, that for fattening their cattle and pigs, they prefer it to all the known roots of both hemispheres. The cattle fed therewith, yield a juicy and exquisite meat. The pork and beef of Jersey, is incontestibly equal, if not superior, to the best in Europe. We have observed, that the beef in summer is r.ot equal to that in the autumn, winter, and GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 31«l spring periods, when they are fed with pars- nips, which we attribute to the excellency of that root. All animals eat parsnips with avidity, and irt preference to potatoes. Vv^e are ignorant of the reason, having never made any analysis of the parsnip. It would be curious, interesting, and useful, to investigate its characteristic principles ; it is certain that animals are more fond of it, than of any other root, and fatten more quickly. The parsnip pofsefscs, without doubt, more nutritious juices than the potatoe. It has been proved that the latter contains eleven ounces and a half of water, and one gros of earthy substance, in a pound *. There- fore, there only remain four ounces and five gros of nutritive matter. Probably the pars- nip does not contain near so much watery- particles : nevertnelefo they digest very easily in the animal's body. The cows fed with hay and parsnips during winter, yield butter of a fine yellow hue, of a saffron tinge, as ex- cellent as if they had been in the most luxu- riant pasture. French weight is understood. 3.20 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Previous to speaking of the cultivation, per- haps it might be necefsary to give a general idea of our method of ploughing in the island of Jersey. Some labourers plough their lajid three, four, and five years following, others six and seven ; but most of them generally sow beans and parsnips the second year's ploughing, either ailcr wheat or barley. Tliere are three modes of cultivation for beans and parsnips ; Jst, with the spade- 2d, with the plough and the spade; 3d, with the small and the great plough. We shall only speak of this last method, the best and the most economical, and advantageous to the husbandman. It^vas first invented and prac- tised by an intelligent farmer, about fifteen or twenty years ago. This plough, not yet suf- ficiently known, is of the greatest utility, either for grubbing up^thc ground, or plough- ing deeply inwards, either to establish nurseries or plantations. The inventor deserves every thing from his country, and from mankind. If he had lived in ai^ age, wherein merit and talents find protectors and encouragement, he would have received a reward for the inven- tion of a plough, which is," and ever will be, of universal ulilitv. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 321 In the month of September, a slight plough- ing and preparation is given to the field, des- tined for beans and parsnips the ensuing year. In this country, this work is called briser. In the beginning of January, the field is ploughed a second and last time, with the small and the large plough j the first traces a furrow three or four inches in depth, and the second, which follows the same furrow, covers it over with ten or twelve inches of earth, very neatly, insomuch that one would rather think it had been dug with a spade than ploughed. Before they sow, the field is left eight or ten days exposed to the influence of the atmosphere. Straight lines must be drawn from north to south, with a gardener's rake, at four feet and a half distance ; on these straight lines, nine- teen inches in breadth, women plant four or five beans in rows, four inches distant from each other ; when this is done, the sowing of the parsnips begins in broad-cast over the field, after which it must be well harrowed. In five or six weeks the beans shoot out, and soon the ground will appear as if covered by Volume IF. X 322 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. hedges, and similar to paths made for walk- ing ; for the spaces between the lines where the beans were planted, are as many alleys, where women and children weed with great facility. They generally weed the ground twice ; this operation is done with a two- pronged fork, such as is used in gardens. The first weeding is performed at the end of April or beginning of May ; then the plants must be cleared out if they are too thick ; the last weeding must be done about the middle of July. The beans will be ripe in August; they must be immediately plucked up, as it is in this month that the parsnips begin to acquire size ; they have little more than foliage the preceding months, on which account the beans are lefs prejudicial, so that you may have two crops on the same ground. The crop of beans is not always certain. If high winds or fogs prevail when they are in liowcr, the produce will be scanty : but the parsnips in a manner never fail ; they neither dread the inclemency of the weather, nor are affected by the hardest frosts, nor by any of those accidents which at times will instantly destroy a whole crop. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 323 They reckon thirty perches of parsnips, with a little hay, will fatten an ox of three or four years old, though ever so lean ; he eats them in the course of fhre'e months, as follows : they are given at six in the morning, at noon, and at eight at night, in rations of 40lb. each ; the largest slit in three or four pieces ; but not washed, unlefs very much covered with eartli. In the intermediate hours, at nine in the morn- ing, two in the afternoon, and nine at night, a little hay is given. Experience has shown, that when cattle, pigs, or poultry, are fed with parsnips, they are sooner fattened, and are more bulky, than with any other root or vegetable whatever. The meat of such is most delicate and savoury. In spring, the markets are furnished with the best and fattest beef, from their feeding on parsnips. X 2 324 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY XIII. On River Weeds as a Manure. xIlmongst the variety of manures that have been recommended to give a stimulus to the vegetative principle in land, I do not recollect the weeds of rivers to have been mentioned by any writer on agriculture. Sea weeds have been found, by long and repeated prac- tice, to be very efficacious in promoting vege- tation j especially when reduced to putridity by mixing them in compost with lime and earth. But these can only be locally applied. The interior parts of the kingdom receive no advantage from them; but river weeds might be collected, and applied with equal, if not superior, advantage in almost every parish^. Being situated by a river, I had frequently regretted the quantity of weeds impeding the stream, and being the occasion of many little islands forming, which frequently in very rainv seasons caused floods and inundations. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 325 destructive of convenience, and sometimes of life. To prevent this in some measure, it is usual for the weeds in common unnavigable rivers, to be cut twice in the summer months. In this practice, the occupiers of mills and of meadows are interested; the latter from the fear of inundations on the suddennefs of heavy- rains ; the former peculiarly so to open the current, and admit the water below to pafs away freely. But little care is taken to disen- cumber the stream, unlefs in some places to draw the weeds out on the banks, where they are suffered to remain as a nuisance, without any useful or profitable application. Having fre- quently observed this, I determined to try their effect as a manure in their green state. I therefore tried them on some garden ground, and they appeared to answ'cr my expectation. But as this small experiment was not fully decisive, I prevailed on a neighbouring farmer to try them on one acre in a large turnip field then preparing, and on that acre entirely to omit any of the compost with which the rest of the field was manured. This he exactly conformed to, and threw the water weeds into every furrow that was at the next turn filled up by the plough. The consequence 3 X3 S26 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. was, that by the moi:,ture and fermentation of the weeds, the seeds vegetated much sooner than on the rest of the field. The turnips grew quicker, and were superior both in the size of the roots and luxuriance of tlie leaves, so as to render the spot very conspicuous in the field. But impartiality obliges me to remark, that in the succeeding crop, (barley) there was a perceivable inferi(>rity to the rest of the land. Whether this proceeded from the weeds or some other cause, I cannot determine; but the succefs of this trial (with respect to the turnips) being decisively in its favour, induced mc, in the following summer, to collect a considerable quantity of these weeds, and to lay them by the side of a common reservoir of dung, but not to incorporate them with any part of it 3 and when the mafs was removed, it did not appear to have imbibed any of the manure. This I laid on some land of my own, similar to that on which the former experiment was made. It was ploughed in the latter end of October the same year on a pease stubble, and wheat set by hand upon it. The whole iield was a good crop, and the part on which the weeds were laid not at all inferior to the }'cst, on which stable-dung had been spread GEORGICAL ESSAYS. G27 in the usual mode of the Norfolk husbandry. Though this experiment was made as unmixed as pofsible, with a view to ascertain the vege- tative virtue resulting from the weeds singly, (and proved by the crop being equal to those parts of the field which had been dunged) yet, I conceive, they would act with additional energy when mixed in compost with other manures. It would probably quicken their operation, and derive from them a permanency which seems most likely to result from an union of animal and vegetable salts and oils. That the weeds succeeded without mixture on a light sandy soil in the turnip-crop experiment, is evident i and as the time of their first cutting, is that of sowing turnips, it gives opportunity for thus applying them with little trouble or expense. X I 323 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY XIV. O/i the Forest of Shei-wccd. J- HIS Forest is described, in a survey made in 1609, as divided into three parts or districts, called the North Part, the South, and the ^liddle Part. The North Part contains the towns of Carburton, Gleadthorpe, Worsop with Nettle worth, Mansfield Woodhouse,Clip- stone, Ruflbrd, and Edwinstowe, the hays of Birkland and Bilhagh, and the townsof Budby, Thoresby, Paverelthorp or Palcthorp, and Ollerton. The south part contains the towns of Not- tingham, part of Vrijford, Lenton with Rad- ford, Sneinton,Colwick, Stoke, Carlton, Ged- Jing, Burton with Bulcot, Gunthorp, Cay- thorp and Lowdham, Lambley, Arnold, Bas- ford, Bui well, Beskwood Park, AVoodborough, Calverton and Saunterford Manor. The middle part contains the towns of Mansfield with Plefley Hill, Skegby, Sutton^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 229 HuckaaljFullwood, part of Kirkby, Bidworth, Papplewick, Newstcad, part of Linby, and part of Annesley. The whole quantity of ground in the Forest, according to that survey, is as follows: — A. R. p. Inclosures, . . . 44839 1 10 Woods, . • . . 9486 0 24 Wastes, . . . . 35080 2 6 89406 0 0 Clipstone Park, . . 1583 1 33 Beskwood Park, . . 3672 0 0 Bulwell Park, . , . . 326 3 2 Nottingham Park, . . 129 3 9 95118 0 6 Many of the plantations lately made upon this Forest, have names given them, with a view to commemorate the signal victories ob- tained by our gallant Admirals. My excel- lent friend, the Right Honourable Frederic Montague, has shown distinguished patriotism in this way. One of his plantations is named the Howe Plantation. Another is called the Spencer Plantation, in honour of the noble Earl oSO GEORGICAL ESSAYS. who lately presided at the head of the Ad- miralty, and on whose judicious naval ar- ragements too much praise cannot be be- stowed. About a mile from these, on the right-hand side of the road, stands the Kelson Plantation, in honour of the splendid victory obtained over the French fleet at the mouth of the Nile by Lord Nelson. Contiguous to this is the St. Vincent Plantation, in commemora- tion of the signal victory obtained by Earl St. Vincent over the Spanish fleet.' Adjoin- ing is another plantation, in honour of Sir John Borlase Warren's gallant behaviour on the coast of Ireland, and is called the fVarren Plantation. On the right-hand side of the coach-road to Papplewick, from Mansfield, is the Duncan Plantation, in honour of the vic- tory gained by Lord Viscount Duncan over the Dutch fleet. — In these plantations, pillars are erected, with inscriptions. Since this survey, many extensive inclosures have been made, and much waste land has been planted by the Duke of Portland and odier proprietors, to whose patriotism this nation is much indebted. The time will come, when these oaks will be venerated by poste- rity, as monuments of British valour, succefs- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 331 h\]\y exerted in every part of the habitable globe, in defence of the happinefs and liber- ties of mankind. The illustrious Linnaeus styled our happy island the " Punctum Vitae in Vitello Orbis." A compliment that Rome, in the meridian of her glory, never deserved. ESSAY XV. On the Encouragement to be given hij Landlords to their Tenants. X HE advice and premiums given by the Society of Arts in London, together with the honourable exertions made by other societies in the country, have greatly contributed to the advancement of agriculture; and were country gentlemen to exert themselves in giving instruction and encouragement to their own respective tenantry, after the manner of my much respected friend, Thomas Johnes, Esq. of Hafod, in Cardiganshire, we should 332 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. soon see the beneficial effects of such a pro- ceeding even in the most sequestered places of this our happy island. In the year 1800, Mr. Johnes published a small volume con- taining advice to his tenants, with a selection of such Agricultural observations as applied to the parts of husbandry in which his tenants were most deficient. Such a proceeding is worthy of imitation, and is as follows : On Crops. Upon the proper rotation of crops depends^ the well-doing of the farmer. This doctrine I am very anxious to imprint in your minds, for in this country the course of crops is most miserably neglected; or rather there is only one continuation of oats until the ground is completely exhausted. There is scarce an idea of a meliorating green crop, or a proper fallow, between the crops of grain. As I am determined by rewards and other- wise, to put an end to this destructive system, 1 shall very plainly open my mind to you. In all the Leases, I grant there will be a clause to prevent this destructive practice from GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 335 being continued, which shall be religiously- kept; on the contrary, I shall not forget to reward those who follow a better system. I shall not dwell longer on so disagreeable a subject, but point out what I think a good course of crops, which must be varied accord- ing to the difference of the soils. Tl^rnips drilled. Barley with Red Clover. Clover, second crop ploughed in, in the Autumn. Wheat. Pease manured. Oats. TuRNI?S. I consider the turnip crop as efsential to every good farmer, and if sown as recom- mended, in Drills, they will scarce ever fail. You can then horse-hoe them at a trifling ex- pense, and any children can thin them in the rows. The drill method saves three-fourths of manure, and answers more effectually. Estimating the value of a turnip-crop as highly asj do, I shall lay it down as a rule that no tenant shall be entitled to any pre- 3o4 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. mium from me for the management of his farm, who has not first acquired a premium for a turnip-crop. PREMIUMS for TURNIPS on not lefs than Four Acres. For the best Crop of thrice-hoed Turnips, Five Guineas. For the next best. Three Guineas. For the next. Two Guineas. A preference will alw^ays be given to those sown in drills — provided, in other respects, the crops are equal. The fields must be perfectly well fenced. Quality, not quantity, will be looked to; and also to the size af the Farm. These Premiums will be continued every year — and those who intend to apply for them, mu^t give me notice in writing before the 12th of September. Should none of the crops appear deserving of revv^ard, it will be with- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 335 held, and added to the premiums of the year following. — The same tenant not to receive the first premium three succefsive years. THOMAS JOIINES. ESSAY XVT. On the Preparation and Use of Peat Compost. -TTLS a quantity of land in my farm wanted draining, I had occasion for a large main- drain for that purpose ; in the cutting thereof I found a quantity of earth, in a solid bed, re- sembling peat, but of a more solid substance than peat generally is. I threw it Into heaps, and, after the ochery water had left it, mixed it with lime, which appeared to mc to form with it an excellent manure. After this, I fallowed afield of a gravelly soil, drilled it for potatoes, and put the same quantity of this compost into the drills, as I should otherwise 5S6 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. have done of black dung ; and the produce from eight statute acres was 864 loads, of thirteen score to the load. I then ploughed it for wheat, and had a most excellent crop j sowed it with white clover and grafs seeds, and let it lie for grafs ; it has been, and is now, one of the best pastures in the neighbourhood. The land, before the improvement, was worth about ll. 10s. an acre, and, after taking two very great crops from it, is now worth about 31. per acre. The general opinion of the country was against the use of lime, in the setting of potatoes : it has, however, answered beyond expectation 3 and had I been under the necefsit}' of procuring dung for mv pota- toes, instead of this compost, it would have cost me six times as much money. Having made the above experiment with potatoes and wheat, I was inclined to try the same sort ot compost upon grafs-lands. In a Jittle valley between two small hills in my farm, I found a very large bed of peat, com- posed of decayed vegetable substances, which was boggy, and in some places upwards of nine feet in depth. This I drained, and drew oa' tile stagnant water with which it was filled : it appeared to me the whole bed, in gEorgical essays. 357 consequence of being laid dry, had fermented ; for when we afterwards cut it, we found it converted to very fine mould. I caused it to be trenched to the next stratum, which was marl, and mixed with lime hot from the kiln ; but very soon found that I must slack the lime before mixing, or it would have burnt it to ashes, by undergoing a fresh degree of fer- mentation. The quantity I mixed was nine thousand tons, with 1327 horse loads of lime, wdiich cost me about 1601. and I gave one penny per cubic yard for the trenching and mixing : and having about thirty acres of gravelly soil, I begun in October to cover my land with this compost, which, in a very short time, proved advantageous ; for the grafs began to spring as if it had been Aprils and soon produced a very luxuriant pasture of about four acres in extent. This I covered first, and turned into it eight milch cows, about the loth of December. They fed thereon till the 1st of March, and gave me a very great quantity of milk and butter; and the butter was rich and yellow, like spring butter. The cows, while in this pasture, had very little hayj and that during the night, of which they would eat only a very few pounds. Since i took out my cows, I have pastured the land Volume IV. Y # 338 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. with twenty in-lamb ewes, of the large white- faced, or Malham-breed. They are now ])asturing ; and I doubt not but it would feed bheep very fat. I have now covered about twenty-six acres more, which promise to be as succefsful as the otlier, and amounting to, in the whole, thirty acres. This, prior to the im- provements, was worth 2l. 10s. per acre, and is now worth 41. per acre. This compost, is, I believe, equal to the best manure I could obtain, and the advantage arising from peat compost with lime, when laid upon gravel, sandy, or clay soils, is almost invaluable. The quantity of this compost which I have now ready prepared, together with what I have used, amounts to nine thousand tons, whicli has been raised since last summer ; and the total expense is 5301. The quantity per acre is one hundred and forty tons, which cost me about 81. per acre. Had it been dunged the common way, it would have cost me sixteen guineas per acre, and would not have answered so well. The re- mainder of my compost is upwards of four thousand tons ; I have thirty acres more to cover, the greatest quantity of which I intend to plant with potatoes* % the statement GEORGICAL ESIJAYS. ^^^9 nibove, will be seen the annual value of the 'land at present, and what its value was prior ^o those improvements. ESSAY XVII. On Cattle. A HE object that every intelligent farmer ought to have in view, who breeds and main- tains domestic animals, is profit ; consequently he ought to find out, as Bakewell happily exprefsed it, " the best machine for converting herbage, and other food for animalsy into money. ^' For that purpose, it is necefsary to ascer- tain the shape and nature of the animal, which makes the most profitable use of the food it eats; that, however, must depend much on the price of the different articles which the animal produces. For instance, tallow for^ Y2 ::M-0 GEORGICAL ESSAYS, nierly bore a higher price than meat, and con- sequently was a greater object in the breeding of cattle and sheep than at present, when it sells at an inferior price *. Milk, and the va- lious articles produced from it, have become so valuable, as to render a good dairy cow the most profitable of all our domestic animals, and consequently entitled to peculiar atten- tion!. Meat, however, is at present the ob- ject most generally attended to ; and it is certain, that the breeding of cattle and sheep for the shambles was never carried to such ^" It would be a curious and important subject of iii- cjulry, (o endeavour (o ascertain the real price, ^w^/iic iclative value, of beef, tallow, and leather, at different periods, more especially within the last century. It is evidcr.t, that the farmer must always aim at producing those articles wliich will vield him the greatest profit ; and, at present, flesh must be the object ; for my butcher informs me, that on the day on which this note is writ- ten, (2,jth January, 1802,) beef is sold at 9id. per lb. and tallow at 5|d. per lb. or :3s. lid. per stone. Flesh ronscfjuently i?, to tallow, as 38. is to 23. It is th.erefore for the advantage of the farmer, as the market now stands, lo produce flesh rather than tallow. ■\ It is much to be regretted, that the real value of a good dairy-cow is not lYiore generally known. I am a!>;ured by a most respectable country gentleman, (Walter Trcvel'yan, Esq. of Nether Witton, in Northumberland,) GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 3il perfection as It has lately been brought to in England. The cause of this, it may not be improper briefly to explain. Stock, in general, (and this is still the case in a multitude of instances, and must always be so when the breeder has not food at com- mand calculated for fattening, as well as rear- ing his cattle,) was formerly bred by one set of men j fattened, or prepared for the marker. that a well-bred Teeswater cow will give, on an average, 14 quarts at each of two milkings, or '28 cjuarls per day. Some ol theTeeswater breed, according to Culley, (p. 40.) give even to the amount ot 36 quarts jjer day. But cal- culating at '28 quarts, this, at 4-d. per quart, amounts to Ds. 4d. per day, and in six months to S 1-1. Another in- telligent gentleman, (one of the representatives of Ireland in the Imperial Parliament,) who has had great expe- rience in callie-farraing, observes, that any cow, at all calculated for the dairy, will, in seven months milking, pay double her price to the butcher. Take, fur ex- ample, an Irish or Scots cow, calving in May, and value the grafs she eatsaiSl.; if she gives from 10 to J 2 quarts per day, the liirmer will not only be indemnified for at- tendance, rent, &c. but, at the end of the season, lie will have the cow for nothing. Can there be a <^reatej inducement to dairy-farming? Y3 34^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. by a second j and killed by a third *. Whilst these three occupations continued distinct, with only occasional communications or inter- course with each other, no great improvement could be effected. That division of labour, or separation of profefsions, so useful in ma- nufactures, was pernicious to this important branch of agriculture, by preventing the prin- ciples, on which the improvement of our do- mestic animals might be effected, from being ascertained f . A person, however, of strong natural saga- city, (Robert Bake well, of Dishley, in the county of Leicester,) though he did not unite to the extent that his disciple, Culley, has done, the two distinct occupations of breeder and grazier j yet having acquired great skill in grazing, by preserving his breeding-stock '■^ The intermediate occupation of drovers, salesmen, &c. have v.o occasion to acquire any peculiar knowledge, (excepting as to the state of the markets in various parts of the kingdom.) dilferent from that of the other profes- sions above mentioned. t Bat when (he properties efsential in forming a per- fect breed, are fully ascertained, the separation of oc- cupations, above alluded to, will become useful, as one farm may be better calculated for breeding, another for "attening, &c. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Si'S in the highest pofsible condition, and having called in to his aid all the skill and experience Avhich the butcher had acquired, was thus en- abled to ascertain the principles, not only of breeding domestic animals, so as to answer the common expectations of the farmer, but also of bringing them to a degree of perfection, of which, before his time, they were scarcely sup- posed capable : and, by directing the public attention in general, and that of the farmer in particular, to the art of breeding, he has, in various respects, most efsentially benefited his country. By his example, that most important system was very generally estabhshed, of certain breeders directing their whole attention to the rearing of males, and letting them for the season at such prices as would amply indemnify the breeder for all the care and expense he had TDestowed upon them ; a practice which had originally taken place in Lincolnshire, but iiad never been carried to any great height till adopted by Mr. Bakewell. In discufsing the important subject of cattle, it is proper, in the first place, to observe, that a distinct breed of cattle may be formed, ] st, In consequence of the soil of the country, and the vegetables it produces j 2d, From the cli- 5 Y 4 o41- GEORGIC A L ESSAYS. mate, which, in various respects, must afleci the animals living under its influence ; 3d, From a particular shape, size, or colour, becoming fashionable, and consequently in great demand; 4th, From the nature of the animals that maybe imported into it from other counties ; and, oth. From the various crofses which have been made among breeds in some respects distinct, and from which a new variety may arise. It is not proposed, however, to attempt any r>articular enumeration of the various breeds in these kingdoms ; for, though differing in regard to colour, size, &c. they claim, in many respects, the same valuable properties. The great object, therefore, to ascertain, is, what particulars are efsential to form a perfect breed ; because, if these are once pointed out, there 'u no sort that may not be improved by attentive breeders, either by crofsing with other stock, or by selecting the best specimens of the breed itself, so as to acquire the qualities that may be wished for. These particulars may be considered under the following general heads, namelv, 1st, Size. 2d, Shape. 3d, Dis- position. 4th, Hardinefs. 5th, Aptitude to feed. 6th,Earlymaturity. 7th, Milk. 8th, Qua- lity of Flesh. 9th, Fat. 10th, Hide. An^, lastly, Fitnefs for working. r.KORGICAL ESSAYS. 31-5 1st, She. It is difficult to lay down any- general rule for the size: of cattle, as so much must depend on the nature of the pasture, and on the means which the grazier has for ul- timately fattening them ; nor has it yet been proved, by decisive and repeated experiments, whether the large or the small sized pay best for the food they eat. The experiments ought to be made with similar breeds, but of different sizes j and the particulars to ascertain, are, whether it does not require a much greater quantity of food, 1st, to rear a great ox, than a small one ; 2d, to feed him when working ; and, 3d, to fatten him afterwards. A large calf certainly requires more milk than a small one ; but if it pays as well for what it con- sumes, or grows in proportion to what it takes, there is no objection, on that account, on the score of profit ; nor if a large ox eats more, provided he works proportionally more than a small one. In regard to fattening, the expe- riments of Lord Esrremont are rather favour- able to the opinion, that fattening stock do not cat in proportion to their weight, but that a small ox, when kept in a stall, will cat pro- portionally more, without fattening quicker than a large one. 34-6 GEORGIfAL ESSAYS. Without pronouncing decisively on a ques- tion so much contested, as whether Jarge or small cattle ought to be preferred, (which will require, indeed, a great number of experiments finally to determine,) I shall endeavour shortly to sum up tlie arguments made use of on both sides. In favour of small or moderate sized cattle, it is contended, 1st, That a large animal re- quires, proportionally, more food than two smaller ones of the same weight. 2d, That the meat of the large animal is not so fine grained, and consequently does not afford such delicate food. 3d, That large animals are not so well calculated for general consumption as the moderate sized, particularly in hot weather. 4th, That large animals poach pastures more than small ones. 5th, That they are not so active, consequently not so fit for working. 6th, That small cows, of the true dairy sort, give proportionally more milk than large ones. 7th, That small oxen can be fattened with grafs merely, whereas the large require to be stall- fed, the expense of which exhausts the profit of the farmer. 8th, That it is much easier to procure well-shaped and kindly-feeding stock of a small size, than of a large one, 9th, That GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 34-7 small sized cattle may be kept by many persons, ^vho cannot afford cither to purchase, or to maintam large ones. And, lastly. If any ac- cident happens to a small sized animal, the lofs is Icfs material *. In favom- of the larger sized, it is on the other hand contended, 1st, That without de- bating, whether, from their birth till they are slaughtered, the large or the small ox eats most for its size, yet that, on the whole, the large one will ultimately pay the farmer as well for the food it eats. 2d, That though some large oxen are coarse grained, yet that where attention is paid to the breed, the large ox is as delicate food as the small one. 3d, That if the small sized are better calculated for the consumption of private families, of vil- lages, or of small towns, yet that the large 'ox is fitter for the markc:ts of large towns, and in particular of the metropolis. 4th, Even ad- mitting that the flesh of the small sized ox is ■* Tiiere are a number of important observations on the size of cattle, in Dr. Anderson's Recreation*;, vol. iii. p. 1. ; and, on the subject of the dairy p. 161 . 241, 3'2i, ^01. and vol. iv. p. 1, and 81 "84-8 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. better when eaten fresh ; yet the meat of the large sized is unquestionably better calculated for salting ; a most efsential object in a mari- time and commercial country ; for the thickest beef, as Culley justly remarks, (p. 47.) by re- taining its juices when salted, is the best cal- culated for long voyages. 5th, That the hide oi the large ox is of infinite consequence in various manufactures. 6th, That where the pastures are good, cattle will increase in size, without any particular attention on the part of the breeder; which proves that large cattle are the proper stock for such pastures. 7th, That the art of fattening cattle by oil-cake, &c, having been much improved and extended, the advantage thereof would be lost, unlefs large oxen w^ere bred, as small ones can be fattened merely with grafs and turnips. And, lastly. That large cattle are better calculated ioY working than small ones, two large ones being equal to four small ones, in the plough or the cart. Such are the arguments generally made use of on both sides of the question; from which it is evident, that much must depend upon pasture, taste, markets, &;c. But, on the whole, though the unthinking multitude GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 34^ itiay admire an enormous bullock, more re- sembling an elephant than an ox, yet ther intelligent breeder (unlefs his pastures are of a nature peculiarly forcing), ^vill naturally prefer a moderate size for the stock he rears; or, perhaps, may adopt that plan of breeding, according to which, the males are large and strong, and the females of a small size, yet not unproductive to the dairy *. 2d, Shape f . It is extremely desirable to bring the shape of cattle to as much perfection as pofsible; at the same time, profit and utility ought to be more attended to than mere beauty, which may please the eye, but will not fill the breeder's pocket, and which, de- * See Mr. Knight's valuable account of the Hereford- shire Breed : Communications to the Board of Agricul- ture, vol. ii. p. 172. Tlie Herefordshire, Devonshire, and Sufsex, resemble each other much in this respect. f It is a common saying with farmers, ' that all breed gees in at the mouth ; and it is certain, that no animals can be vveli shaped, unlefs they are well fed, both in summer and winter. It is almost incredible, how much the same breed will improve, when they are better taken care of. That, however, ought neither tO prevent selection, nor judicious crofsing. 350 georgicAl essay?. pending much upon caprice, must be often changing. As to the shape of cattle, however, breeders seem to concur, in regard to tlie following particulars, to wit, 1st, That the form ought to be compact, so that no part of the animal should be disproportioned to the other. 2d, That the carcase should be deep. 3d, Broad. And, 4th, That the head, the bones, and other parts of little value, should be as small as pofsible. It is evident, however, that the form ought to be adapted, as much as pofsible, to the wishes of the consumer. For instance, if cattle are to be sold in London, or in other places where beef for rump steaks is much in demand, and sells higher than any other parts of the carcase, that is an object to be attended to in cattle bred for the Smithfield or any- similar market, which would not be efsential in other counties, where no such distinction is made in the meat that is consumed. 3d, Disposition. It is of great importance^ to have a breed distinguished by a tame and docile disposition, without, however, being GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Z5fl deficient in spirit. Such a breed is not so apt to injure fences, to break into other fields, &c.; and, unquestionably, lefs food will rear, support, and fatten them. As tamenefs of disposition is much owing to the manner in which the animal is brought up, attention to inure them early to be familiar and docile, cannot be too much recommended. 4th, Hard'meJ's. In the wilder and bleaker parts of the country, hardinefs of constitution is a most important requisite ; and even where stock is best attended to, it is of efsential con- sequence that they should be as little liable as pofsible to disease, or any hereditary distemper ; as being lyery^ or black-fleshed *, or having yellow fatf, and the like. It is a popular belief, that a dark colour is an indication of hardinefs j and that cattle with light colours arc softer, and more delicate. A rough pile is also reckoned a desirable property in a Hio-h- land breed; and, above all, in ouUwinterers, as they are called, or cattle kept out all winter. * Culley on Live Stock, second edition, p. 4-3. It is singular, that these black tleshed animals have little or no fat, within nor without. t See Middleton's Middlesex, p. 57G. 35J GEORGICAL ESSAYS- those wlio will face the storm, and not these ^vho will shrink from it, are in request *, 5th, Easily maintained. It is well known, in the hiima,n r2ce, that some individuals eat a great deal, and never get fatter; whilst others, with little food, grow immoderately corpulent. As the same takes piece, in regard to cattle and to other animals, it is evident how important it must be to ascertain the cir- cumstances which produce a property so pccu- liaily valuable in them. Bakewell strongly insisted on the advant?, :re of small bones for O that purpose; and the celebrated John Hunter declared, that small bones were generally at- tended with corpulence, in all the various-,^ subjects he had an opportunity of examining. It is probable, however, that a tendency to fatten arises from some peculiar circumstance in the internal structure of the body, of which, small bones is, in general, an indication; and that it is only in this point of view that they ought to be considered efsential; for they often weigh as heavy, and consequently re- * It is rcr.iaiked in the Highlands, that, in bad weather, hardy cattle keep their back bones straight^ whereas soft ones bend them. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 35S cjuire as much nourishment as large ones* Small bones, like those of the blood horse, being compact and heavy : large bones, like those of the common dray, or cart-horse* being extremely porous, and, consequently, light for their apparent bulk. Indeed, cattle ought not only to be easily maintained, in point of quantity, but, in remote and uncul- tivated districts, in regard to the quality also of the food they consume ; and it is certain, that some particular animals will fatten as well on coarse fare, as others will do on the most luxuriant. 5th, Earl^ maturiti/. Arriving soon at per- fection, is a material object for the breeder, as his profit must, in a great measure, depend upon it. This is a circumstance, indeed, not only extremely material to the fanner, but, in a populous country, where the consumption of meat is great, to the public also, as it evi- dently tends to furnish greater supplies to the market. In regard to this point, however, some wish to make a distinction between sheep and cattle; as the latter, they atTirm, might pay for its keep, by working, or by milk. But, is not the farmer indemnified for the expense of maintaining sheep, by the valuable manure Volume IV, 2 354 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. it yields, and the fleece which it annualfy pfo duces, which, when manufactured, is the source of such profit to the community*? 7th, Milk. The dairy is such an object, in many parts of the kingdom, and it is so de- sirable to have a living machine that can con- vert, in abundance and perfection, the food it eats, to so useful, so profitable, and so efsen- tial an article, as milk, that the breed the most distinguished for that property must always be in request. AVhether a particular breed ought to be kept up for that sole purpose, or whether it is preferable to have stock partly calculated for the butcher, and partly for the dairy, is a point well entitled to the most deli- berate discufsion. It is probable, that, by great attention, a breed might be reared, the males of which might be well calculated, in every respect, for the shambles ; and the females of * Both sheep and cattle arrive sooner at maturity, when they are fed iii such a manner as to keep them constantly in a groU'in;^ state : In that way, they make more progrefs in three years, than they usually do in five, when they are half starred during the winter, and their growth checked, which it ceitainly is every v\int€r, in the ordinary way of rearing. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 355 which might, when youn^, produce abundant quantities of good milk, yet, when they reached eight or nine years of age, might be easily fat- tened. This would be the most valuable breed that could be propagated in any country; and, indeed, some of the best English and Scottish breeds have almost reached that point of perfection. 8th, Qualify of Flesh. The quality of the flesh must certainly depend much upon age and sex^ as old cattle must have firmer flesh than young, and heifers must be finer grained than oxen. The excellence of the meat, also, must depend much upon the size of the animal and the food on which it is fattened. On the whole, however, there is no better sign of good flesh, than when it is marbled, or the fat and lean nicely interwoven, and alternately mixed with each other. Some of the Scottish breeds, (the more northerly in particular), when properly fed, and when they arrive at a proper age, enjoy this quality in great perfec- tion ; and hence, there cannot be either whole-? somer food, or more delicious eating. 9th, Fat. The advantages, or disadvantages^ of fattening cattle and sheep, at least to the « Z 2 i56 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. extent usually practised at present, is a point that has, of late, attracted much public atten- tion. But any controversy upon that subject, must necefsarijy arise from want of proper discrimination. Fat meat is generally ac- counted more nourishing than lean j but then none, except persons in the most vigorous state of health, can digest it : consequently, it is unfit for general consumption. Dr. Willich, in his Lectures on diet and regimen, very justly observes, " that though fat meat is more *' nourishing than lean, (fat being the cellular " substance of animal jelly), yet to digest this " oily matter, there are required, on account " of its difficult solubility, a good bile, much "saliva, and a vigorous stomach*." Fat meat also, unlefs prepared with peculiar care, is apt to loose much in cooking ; but there are modes by vi?^hich no lofs is sustained in drefsing it, which remove that objection. For instance, the keelmen of Newcastle purchase great quantities of fat meat. Being generally of * Willich's Lectures on Diet and Regimen, third edition, p, 316. Dr. Stark's experiments go to prove, that three ounces of the fat of boiled beef is equal to a pound of lean. See a tract printed anno 1801, entitled, CEORCICAL ESSAYS. 357 Scottish extraction, they follow the custom so usual in Scotland, of boiling their meat ; the broth of which feeds the family, whilst they themselves eat the meat, generally in a cold state, and in great quantities ; and are thus enabled to go through the heavy labour they usually undergo. In many districts, manufac- turers and others bake their meat with pota- toes under it, and the fat, melted by the fire, falls upon the potatoes, and improves much their taste and the nourishment to be derived from them. In either of these ways, little, if any, of the substance of the meat is lost. But, according to the usual mode of boiling or roasting fat meat, the lofs is considerable, and the meat itself is far from being well calculated for nice or delicate stomachs. The art of fat- tening animals, however, is one that seems fit to be encouraged, as likely to promote useful knowledge ; and although, in the course of trying a number of experiments, some ex- cefses may be committed, yet, on the whole, much advantage must be derived from them. 10th, Hide, It is well known, that ths grazier and the butcher judge of the aptitude Z3 358 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. that any animal has to fatten, from the toucb of the skin. "When its hide feels soft and silky, it strongly indicates a tendency in the animal to take on meat j and it is evident, that a fine and soft skin must be more pliable, and more easily stretched out to receive any extraordi- nary quantity of flesh, than a thick or tough one. At the same time, thick hides are of great importance in various manufactures. Indeed, they are necefsary in cold countries, where cattle are much exposed to the incle- mency of the seasons ; and, in the best breeds of Highland cattle, the skin is thick, in pro- portion to their size, without being so tough as to be prejudicial to their capacity of fat- tening. It appears from Columella's descrip- tion of the best kind of ox, that the advantage of a soft skin is not a new discovery, but was perfectly well known to the husbandmen of ancient Italy. Lastly, Working, It is a most important question, not yet finally ascertained, whe- ther the public, or the individual, gain by working oxen *. It is more than probable, * It is ingeniously remarked, that the working of oxen must necefsarily increase the number, and only sus^enJi GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 359 that the husbandman, who has an incon- siderable capital, and httle work to do, may find it for his interest, as they are cheaper to rear and to maintain, and will always fetch something. But the great farmer, w'ho has constant occupation for his teams, and a sut- ticient capital to act upon, will generally find it advisable, though he may employ oxen tor some purposes, yet, on the whole, to use horses. At the same time, the population of the consumption. In the Survey of Northumberland, by JMefsrs. Bailey and Culley, some calculations will bts found extremely unfavourable to the working of oxen. In fact, it is a general and complicated subject; as the question is not, whether oxen, or horses, can be worked at the least expense, but whether, by working horses, and feeding oxen, more butcher meat will not be sent to the market ? as oxen, when not worked, may be ready for consumption so much earlier than otherwise can pos- sibly be ejected. In favour of oxen, it is to be observed, that a ruminating animal will be served with one-third lels food than another of equal bulk that does not polsels that property. The reason is, that ruminating animals have stronger digestive organs, and every thnig capable of being converted into chyle, or nourishment, is extracted from the food. But a horse's stomach is not fitted for this ; so that a greater quantity of food is neccfsary to extract the same nourishment. See IVhitCy on the Natural Jlislciy of tJie CoWj Manchester Memuirsj Fol, i. /;. 4- V2. Z4 J60 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. a country may increase so much, that the ground must be cultivated either by the hands of man, as in China, or by animals which man will eat ; and the price of beef may become so high, as to cast the balance in favour of oxen. On these grounds, it is desirable that the general breed of cattle in a country should be capable of working. Indeed, as stock ought to produce something, even when rising to their full growth, if oxen are not to be worked, cows ought to be more generally kept, as the produce of their milk is so profitable, unlefs where pasture is of little value, as in Wales, or the mountainous districts of Scotland and Ireland. These short hints contain the substance of what has occurred to me on the principles of breeding cattle j and the result is, that cattle ought to be, 1st, Of a moderate size, unlefs where the food is of a nature peculiarly forcing. 2d, Of a shape the most likely to yield pro> fit to the farmer, 3d, Of a docile disposition, without being deficient in spirit. 4th, Hardy, and not liable to disease, GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 361 5 til. Easily maintained, and on food not of a costly nature. 6th, Arriving soon at maturity. 7th, Producing considerable quantities of milk. 8th, Having flesh of an excellent quality. 9th, Having a tendency to take on fat. 10th, Having a valuable hide ; and Lastly, Calculated (should it be judged jiecefsary) for v\'orking. 562 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY xvm. On the A phis y and Blights oyi Fruit Trees. 1^0 many writers on gardening, and on ge- neral agriculture, have treated on blights, and so many diiferent theories have been offered to the public, that the subject may appear to many to have been already sufficiently inves- tigated. What are usually termed blights, in the vague and extensive signification of that v^'ord, appear to me to originate from three distinct causes : — From insects, from parasitical plants, and from unfavourable seasons. The destructive effects of the Aphis on wall-trees are so well known to every gardener, as scarcely to require description. The leaves curl up, the fruit drops off, and the progrefs of vegetation is almost totally suspended. Aluch ill-applied labour is often used by the gardener to destroy these insects, though they are not very tenacious of life. Another more GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 363 extensive, but lefs fatal disease in plants, the honey-dew, is produced by this insect (as de- scribed by the Abbe Bcifsier de Sauvages). It has, however, been contended, that the honey-dew is not produced by the Aphis, but that it is a morbid exudation from the plant; at least that there are two kinds of it; because the leaves are often covered with honey on trees where the Aphis is not found, and because the Aphis is sometimes found without the honey-dew. But to this it may be objected, that honey, not being a volatile substance, will remain on the leaves, till it be washed off by the rain ; and, when moistened by the dew, will leave the appearance of a recent exudation; and that the Aphis certainly does not afford honey at any period of its existence. I have frequently placed plates of glafs and of talc under the leaves of fruit-trees, on which different species of the Aphis abounded, and I have found these substances to be in a few hours covered with honey : and I have at other times distinctly seen the honey fall from the under-sides of the leaves, where these insects abounded, by the following means. Having placed a small branch, containing a numerous colony of insects, in the window of my study, ^'■here the sun shone strongly upon it, I closed 364- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the shutters so as to exclude all the light, but that which fell directly on the branch. In this situation the descending drops of honey became extremely visible by refraction, and appeared evidently to be emitted from the insect with considerable force. Each drop contained many minute white points, which I considered as the eggs of the Aphis j but as 1 knew that the modes of generation in this singular insect had much engaged the attention of naturalists, I did not examine with sufficient attention to decide that poiat. This species of insect appears to require a previous dis- position in the tree to receive it; and its first attacks may thence be considered as sympto- matic of a previous ill habit in the tree: for I have found that trees which have lately been transplanted, have totally escaped its attacks, when every other tree of the same kind of fruit, growing in the same situation, has been nearly destroyed. And I can afsert, from many experiments, that if every peach and nectarine-tree was to be dug up once in every five or six years, and to be replanted with some fresh mould round the roots, (which should be as little injured as pofsible,) a much larger quantity of fruit, and of very superior quality, would be obtained. It is GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 365 linnecefsary to inform the experienced gar- dener, that the tree should be removed early in the autumn j that its branches should be considerably retrenched, and that it should not be suffered to bear a heavy crop of fruit in the succeeding season. I have never found any species amongst the numerous and prolific genus of the Aphis, which was not readily destroyed on the wall-tree by covering it with a sheet of canvas, and under that introducing the smoke of tobacco. It is, however, neces- sary that the fumigation should be repeated twice or thrice, with intervals of four or five days. I have often seen the addition of sulphur recommended, and have known it tried, but always with fatal consequences to the tree, as well as to the insects. The blofsoms of apple and pear-trees are often said by farmers to be blighted, when they are destroyed by insects, which breed within them, or in their fruit; and the same term is used, when the leaves have been eaten by the caterpillar; but as the insects themselves, as well as the manner in which their depredations are made, are extremely obvious, they do not properly come under our observation when treating of blights. 366 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. The species of parasitical plants which are found in the form of disease on other plants, appear to me greatly to exceed the number of those I have any where seen described by botanical writers. Of these the mildew is the most common and obvious. If a branch, in- fected with this disease, be struck by the hand in calm dry weather, a quantity of white pow- der will be found to fly from it; and if this be received on a plate of talc, or of glafs, and ex- amined by the microscope, it will be found to consist of very numerous oval bodies, evidently organized. There is another plant similar to this in every thing but colour (being of a tawney brov^-n,) which is not unfrequently found on the leaves of young apple-trees. Both these plants appear to me to be evidcntlv species of mucor; and as much the greater number of species of this genus of plants is found to llourish in damp air, and in situations deprived of light, it may b? supposed that the foregoing diseases might be prevented or re- moved, by placing the plants at proper dis- tances: but I have not found this to be the case. They, however, abound most in low and sheltered situations ; but they are not un- frequently seen in those of an opposite kind. The red and white mould on hops, and the GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 36*7 black spots on stalks of wheat, (the rubigo of Virgil,) and many other diseases of plants, will, I think, be found to arise from the at- tacks of minute plants of this genus, which appears to me to pofsefs qualities somewhat similar to the digestive powers of animals. The most common and extensive causes of what are termed blights, remain still to be described, and evidently exist in the defects and sudden variations of our unsteady climate. "Whatever be the cause by which the sap is raised and propelled to the extremities of trees, it is well known that its progrefs is ac- celerated by heat, and that it is checked, or totally suspended, by cold; and it has been ascertained by others, as well as by myself, and indeed is known to every experienced gardener, that a plant, under the most skilful management, does not readily recover its for- mer vigour, when it has been injured by ex- posure, for a few hours, to a temperature much below that to which it has been previously accustomed. It frequently happens in this climate, when the blofsoms of our fruit-trees are just expanding, that a very warm day succeeds a night whose temperature has been some degrees below the freezing point of 868 GEORGICAL ESSAYJ. water. In such a day the evaporation frofri the unfolding leaves and blofsoms will be greatly increased by the agency of heat and light, whilst the supply of nourishment is, in a: great measure, cut off by the ill effects of the preceding night. The blofsoms will never- thelcfs unfold themselves, but will be unpro- ductive, from the want of due nourishment ; whilst the hazy appearance of the air, which almost always accompanies such weather in the spring, will induce the gardener unjustly to infer that the ill effects he observes have arisen from some quality in the air (distinct from excefs of heat and cold,) which he deno- minates a Blight. The best defence against this kind of weather for wall-trees, that I believe has yet been tried, is a covering of a double and triple net ; for by this the tree is, in some de- gree, protected from frost : and the excefs of evaporation, in the succeeding day, is in a very considerable degree prevented. Light- ning is supposed by many to be very highly in- jurious to the blofsoms of trees ; but I believe that the ill effects which appear sometimes to accompany it, may be more justly attributed to excefsive heat. The careful gardener often GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 369 covers his trees with mats, or something of this kind J and by almost totally depriving the tree of light, creates that blight which he is anxious to exclude. As the blofsoms of every tree are formed during the preceding summer and autumn, they will evidently be more perfect in pro- portion as those seasons have been favourable, and as the management of the gardener has been judicious : and as the pov^er of bearing unfavourable weather will be proportional to their vigour, and to the maturity of the an- nual wood, through which the sap pafses to support them, the gardener should be (though he rarely is) extremely attentive to keep his trees in such a state, and the branches at such distances from each other, that they may re- ceive the greatest pofsible benefit from the portion of light and heat which our shadowy climate affords them. It frequently happens in pruning, that too much bearing-wood is left on the tree. Every gardener ought to know, that where a hundred fruits are a sufTicient crop for a tree, he has a better chance to ob- tain that hundred from one thousand blofsoms, to which the whole nourishment of the tree is directed, than when the same quantity of Foliane IV, A a 370 GEORGIGAL ESSAYS- nourishment has to support a hundred thou- sand. In standard fruit-trees, where no advantages' can be derived from covering them, much may be done by the judicious application of the pruning-knife. The branches of a tree of this kind, ought to be much thinned towards their extremities, so that the hght may be admitted into the centre of the tree ; but the internal parts of it should never be so thin as to admit of a free current of air through it. AVhen a tree has been properly pruned, blofsoms and fruit wdll be found on every part of it ; and, in unfavourable seasons, the internal blofsoms will receive protection from the external branches, which will be unfruitful. It is particularly the interest of every planter, to take care that the varieties of fruit which he plants be sufiiciently hardy for the situation in which he places them ; for, if this be not at- tended to, little benefit will be derived from the toregoing observations. GEORGIC.VL ESSAYS. 371 ESSAY XIX. On different sorts of Lime. jL was informed last summer, that in \\\6 neighbourhood of Doncaster, two kinds of lime were employed in agriculture, which Vvere supposed to differ materially in their effects. One of these, which was procured near the town, it was necefsary to use sparingly, and to spread very evenly over the land ; for it was said that a large proportion of it, in- stead of increasing, diminished the fertility of the soil ; and, that wherever a heap of it was left in one spot, all vegetation was prevented for many years. Fifty or sixty bushels upon an acre, were considered to be as much as could be used with advantage. The other sort of lime, which was obtained from a village near Ferry-bridge, though consider- ably dearer, from the distant carriage, was more frequently employed, on account of its superior utility, A large quantity was never found to be injurious ; and the spots A a 2 572 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. which were entirely covered with it, instead of being rendered barren, became remarkably fertile. Tne different properties ascribed to these two kinds of lime were so very distinct^ that it seemed probable they could not be imaginary ; and it therefore appeared to be w^orth the trouble of ascertaining them more fiilly, and of attempting to discover the nature of the ingredients from whence the difference arose. For this . purpose, I procured some pieces of each sort of limestone, and first tried what would be their effect upon vegetables, in their natural state, by reducing them to coarse powder, and sowing in them the seeds of different plants. In both kinds, the seeds grew equally well, and nearly in the same manner as they would in sand, or any other substance which affords no nourishment to vegetables. Pieces of each sort of stone were then burnt to lime : and, after they had been exposed for some weeks to the air, that their causticity m.ight be diminished, some seeds were sown in them. In the kind of lime which was found most beneficial to land, almost all the seeds came up, and continued to grow, as long as they were supplied with watery and the roots of the plants had many fibres, which had penetrated to the bottom- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 373 of the cup in which they grew. Upon ex- amining the composition ot this sort of lime, it proved to consist entirely of calcareous earth. By its exposure to the air for rbout three months, it was found to have absorbed four- fifths of the fixed air required to saturate it. In the other kind, a few only of the bceds grew, and the plants produced from them had hardly any stalks or roots, being foamed al- most entirely of the two seed-leaves, Vv^hich •lay quite loose upon the surface. This sort of lime, being spread upon a garden soil, to the thicknefs of about the tenth of an mcb, pre- vented nearly all the seeds which had been sown from coming up, whilst no injury was occasioned by common lime used in the same manner. Upon examining the composition of this substance, which was so destructive to the plants, it was discovered to contain three parts of pure calcareous earth, and two of magnesia. The quantity of fixed air which it had absorbed, by being exposed for about the same time as the pure lime just men- tioned, was only 42 hundredths of that com- bined with it before it was burnt. As it seemed probable, that the magnesia contained in this lime was the cause of its Q A a 3 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. peculiar properties, the following experi- ments were made, to determine the effects of that substance upon the growth of vegetables. Some seeds, chiefiy of cole-wort, which were preferred from their growing quickly, were sown in uncalcined magnesia ; but though they sprouted, the leaves never rose above the surface, and the plants were entirely without roots : nor did they appear to grow better in. magnesia which had been washed in water containing fixed air. Calcined magnesia was, however, much more destructive, as the seeds would not come up in it. To compare its effects on vegetables with those of lime, each of these earths was mixed, in different pro- portions, with sand, in small cups, in which seeds were then sown. The lime was ob- tained trom marble ; and, before it was put into the sand, was made to fall to powder, by being moistened with water. In a mixture of four ounces of sand with three or four grains of calcined magnesia, it was a long time before the seeds came up, and the plants had hardly any roots or stalks j and with ten grains or more of magnesia, there ■vvas no appearance of vegetation. Thirty or forty grains of lime did not retard the growth of the seeds more t'lan three or four of mag- CEORGICAL ESSAYS. 375 nesia, and the injurious effects were not so lasting. The lime, by absorbing fixed air, soon lost its destructive properties ; so that, after keeping these mixtures four or five weeks, seeds were found to grow in that with forty grains of lime, nearly as well as in pure sand ; but, in that with four grains of magnesia, they produced only the seed-leaves, as was described before. It was necefsary occasionally to break in pieces the sand which had so much lime, as it would otherwise have been too hard to ad- mit the seeds to penetrate through it. Plants will bear a much larger proportion of mag- nesia in vegetable soil than in sand : with twenty grains, however, of calcined magnesia, in as much soil as was equal in bulk to four ounces of sand, the seeds produced only the seed-leaves, witliout roots ; and, with about forty grains, they were entirely prevented from coming up. In countries where the magnesian lime is , employed, it was said, that the barrennefs of any spot on which a heap of it had been laid, ^ would continue for many years. To learn how far it could by time be deprived of its injurious qualities, I procured some pieces of mort-ar made of this species of lime, from two A a 4 ST6 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. hoLiies, one of which bad been built three, and the other eight years : they were taken from the outride of the building, where they had been exposed to the air. After they were reduced to powder, seeds were sown in them. Only a few came up, and even those produced merely the seed-leaves, without any roots. As plants would grow in the limestone from which this species of lime was formed, al- though not in the mortar made from it, I wished to know wdiat proportion of the fixed air originally contained in the limestone, had been absorbed by the mortar. For this pur- pose, a piece of it was finely powdered, to render it of an uniform quality : it was then tried how much of this powder and of the limestone would saturate the same quantity of acid : by this means, T ascertained the pro- portions of limestone and mortar containing equal quantities of the magnesian lime. The fixed air being obtained from them in those proportions, and measured in an inverted ves- sel, with quicksilver, it was found, that the mortar which had been exposed three years had absorbed 43, and that of eight years, only 47 hundredths of the quantity originally con- tained in the limestone. I was not able ta obtain any mortar w^hich had been made GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 577 earlier, though it might deserve to be known how much fixed air it was ultimately capable of absorbing. Common mortar, which had been exposed to the air for a year and three quarters, had regained 63 hundredths of its full quantity of fixed air. As the preceeding experiments were tried during the winter, in a room warmed by fire, perhaps under circumstances more favourable to vegetation, the same quantity of magnesia would not be equally pernicious. Magnesian limestone may be easily dis- tinguished from that which is purely calca- reous, by the slownefs of its solution in acids, which is so considerable, that even the softest kind of the former is much longer in difsolving than marble. From this property of the mag- nesian limestone, there appeared to be reason for suspecting that the kiud of marble which had been called Doloniite, from M. Dolomieu, who first remarked its peculiarity in difsolving- slowly, might also be similar in its compo- sition. An analysis of this substance was late- ly given in tlie Journal dc Physique, but this is probably erroneous ; for, upon examining three specimens, they were found to consist of magr 378 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. nesia and calcareous earth, like the magnesiaii limestone ; so that it ought, no doubt, to be considered as the same species of stone, but in a state of greater purity. The pieces of Dolomite were from different places ; one of them being found among the ruins of Rome, where it is thought to have come from Greece, as many statues of Grecian workmanship are made of it, and no quarries of a similar kind are known in Italy ; the second was said to have been thrown up by !Mount Vesuvius ; and the third was from lona, one of the western islands of Scotland. In many kinds of com- mon marble, small particles and veins may be observed, which are a long time in difsolving. These, upon examination, I discovered to con- tain a considerable proportion of magnesia; but, as they were probably not quite free from the surrounding marble, I did not as- certain the quantity precisely. The crystallized structure which may gene- rally be observed in the magnesian limestone, seems to show that it has not been formed bv the accidental union of the two earths, but must have resulted from their chemical com- bination. The difficulty of difsolving it, may ajso arise from the attraction of the different CEORGICAL ESSAYS. 379 component parts to each other. The mortar formed from this kind of lime, is as soluble in acids as common marble ; and the substances of which it consists are easily separated. The magnesia may be taken from it by boiling it in muriated lime, and lime is precipitated by it from lin:»e-water ; but neither of these ef- fects can be produced by the stone, before it is calcined. Magnesian limestone is probably very abun- dant in various parts of England. It appears to extend for thirty or forty miles, from a little south-west of Worksop, in Nottinghamshire, to near Ferrybridge, in Yorkshire. About five or six miles further north, there is a quarry of it, near Sherburn ; but whether this is a continuation from the stratum near Ferry- bridge,-1 have not learnt. From some spe- cimens which were sent me, I find that the cathedral and walls of York are made of it. I have not been able to learn whether there were any shells in the limestone of the tract of country before mentioned. In Mr. Marshall's account of the Agriculture of the midland counties, he speaks of the lime made at Breedon, near Derby, as destructive to vege- tables, when used in large quantities. I S80 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. therefore procured some pieces of it, and they were discovered to contain nearly the same proportion of magnesia as that before de- scribed. In this quarry, the stone is frequently crystallized in a rhomboidal form ; and petri- fied shells, not calcareous, but similar in com-* position to the stone itself, are sometimes, but very rarely, found in it. This substance seems to be common in Northumberland. In the third volume of the Annals of Agriculture, Dr. Fenwick, of Newcastle, observes, that the farmers of that country divide limes into hot and mild. The former of these is no doubt magnesian, as it has similar effects on the soil ; and he remarks, that it is not so easily dis- solved in acids as the latter. At Matlock, in Derbyshire, the two kinds are contiguous to each other ; the rocks on the side of the river where the houses are built being magnesian, and on the other, calcareous. The magnesian rock appears also to be incumbent upon a cal- careous stratum ; for, in descending a cave formed in this rock, a distinct vein of common limestone may be observed, which contains no magnesia. The latter stratum is very full of shells ; but, though there are some also in the magnesian rock, yet they are very rare. In the following tables, containing the analysis GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 381 of various specimens, some other places are mentioned where this substance is found, but of which I received no further information. After it was known that the magnesiaa marble and limestone consisted of the two earths, their proportion was attempted to be discovered, by trying how much gypsum and Epsom salt could be obtained, by means of vitriolic acid, trom a certam weight of each specimen. When the superfluous vitriolic acid had been evaporated by heat, the Epsom? Salt was separated from the gypsum by water. The result of these trials is exprefsed in the following table. Dry gypsum. Dry Epsom salt 5 grains of limestone from Breedou') 3.9 3.15 gave . . . Matlock . . 3.95 2.9 : Worksop . . 3.8 3.0 York ... 3.8 3.1 3 grains of calcareou jpars, and 1 ") grain of calcined magnesia, gave J As the preceding method of estimating the quantities of magnesia and calcareous earth is liable to consiaerabie error, I afterwards ex- amined them la the following manner, which seems capable of great exactnefs. Twenty- 58^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. five grains of each substance were diisolted by marine acid, in a cup of platina, and, after the solution was evaporated to drynefs, it was made red hot for a few minutes. The mafs remaining in the cup, which consisted of mj- riated lime, and of the magnesia freed front the acid, was washed out wdth water, and poured into a phial. There was then added to it a known quantity of diluted marine acid, somewhat more than was sufficient to re- difsolve the magnesia, and, after the solution, a certain weight of calcareous spar, part of v.hich would be difsolved by the superfluousi acid. By the quantity of spar remaining un- difsolvcd, it was learnt how much acid was required to difsolve the magnesia. The iron and argillaceous earth contained in some spe- cimens, were precipitated by . the spar, and therefore could not occasion any error. The calcareous spar, however, difsolved more slowly where there was argillaceous earth, as it became coated with itj but this incrustation was occasionally removed, and, in all the ex- periments, the spar was left in the solution till it suffered no further diminution. For this purpose, it was necefsary to keep them slightly warm for some days, during which GEORGICAL ESSAYS. time, the, phials were generally closed, to pre- vent any escape of the acid. The first experiment in the following table was made upon known quantities of magnesia and calcareous earth, to try the accuracy of the procefs. For this purpose, also, the second was repeated upon a piece of limestone, pre- viously powdered, to render every part of it of the same quality. The first column shows the quantity of calcareous spar which might have been difsolved by the acid required to take up the magnesia. The second shows the corresponding quantities of magnesia in 25 grains of each substance. The third ex- prefses the quantity of lime. This was in- ferred by subtracting the weight of the mag- nesia, and of the iron and clay, from 13.2 grains, the weight of the whole quantity of earth in 25 grains of limestone. This is probably not very incorrect, as, in two specimens which differed most in the proportion of magnesia and lime, the weight of the two earths was nearly the same. A piece of Dolomite, from Rome, was wrapped in a thin leaf of platina, that no part S84 georgicAl essays. of it might be lost, and, being then exposed to a strong heat, left of earth . 52.9 per cent. Dolomite fromMountVesuvius 52.8 Breedon limestone 52.4 Calcareous spar left of lime . 55.8 In three of the experiments, also, the cal- careous earth was precipitated by mineral alkali ; and the quantity of it being tried by that of the marine acid required to difsolve it, it corresponded very nearly with that put down. A quantity of marine acid which would difsolve 15 grains of calcareous spar, would also difsolve 5.5 of calcined magnesia, and 2.5 grains of spar; so that, 12.5 grains of spar required the same quantity of acid as 5.5 grains of magnesia. The magnesia used was very pure, and made red hot immediately before it was Weighed. GEORGICAL £SSAYS. 386' Quanii!/ot 5p.ir which the acid, le- Substances examined. quiied to iiie up the Quantity ot Qyantitycf Iron and clay. magnesia., magnesia lime. w^iild have difsolved. Mixture of 5.5 grains of mag- nesia and 1+ grains of cal- careous spar, .... 12.5 5.5 7.8 0 25 grains of Breedon lime- stone, previously powder- ed, 11.53 5.071 7.929 .2 25 grains from part of the same powder, .... 11.56 5.082 7.913 .2 25 grains of Dolomite, from Rome, 12.2 5.37 7.73 .1 lona, 10.1 4.4. 7.8 1.0 |l"'^''"^l^ ^ sHbstaiicc. mite, 10.38 ■..565 8.575 .06 A second experiment, from part of the same Vesuvian Dolomite, . , . . . 10.03 4..4.II 6848 .06 25 grains of raagnesian lime- stone, from Wansworth, near Doncaster, . . , 12.75 5.G1 7.34 .25 nPL ^ -- A - 1 I0.S*5 4.8* 7.8 .6 12.5 5.5 7.388 .31 11. 11.6 !1.5 4.84 5.104 5.08 8.26 I 7.496 6 7.56 .56 \\T i i hall, 10.1 4.44 8.37 .4 Volume IF» Bb 386 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY XX. On the yiczv Leicestershire Sheep. X HE following is a description of the superior clafs of individuals of this breed; especially ewes and wethers i in full condition, but not immoderately fat. The head long, small, and hornlefs, with ears somewhat long, and standing backward, and with the nose shooting forward. The neck thin, and clean toward the headj but taking a conical form; standing low, and enlarging every way at the base ; (he fore-aid, altogether, short. The bosom broad, with the shoulders^ ribs, and chine, extraordinarily full. The loin broad, and the back level. The haimches comparatively full toward the GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 387 hips, but light downward: being- altogether small, in proportion to the fore parts. The legs, at present, of a moderate length ; with the bone extremely fine. The bojiey throughout, remarkably light. The carcase, when fully fat, takes a re- markable form, much wider than it is deep ; and almost as broad as it is lonsr. Full on the shoulder, widest on the ribs, narrowing with a regular curve towards the tail ; approaching the form of the turtle, nearer than any othe^; animal. The pelt thin ; and the tail small. The zvool, shorter than long wools in gene- ral J but much longer than the middle wools ; the ordinary length of staple, five to seven inches : varying much in finencfs and weight. Utility of form. — The most distinguishing characteristics of this breed;— tliat which might be considered as its specific character, is the fulnefs, and comparative weight of its fore quarters. i ■ B b 2 388 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. This, however, seems to be contrary to the general principle of improvement, and affords matter of argument to the advocates of the old stock ; who contend, that this form throws the meat upon the least valuable parts ; legs and saddles, not shoulders and breasts, being the favourite joints. The advocates for the new breed argue, in return, that the majority of the eaters of mutton are of the poorer clafs, and that the grand object of the improvement is their supply; arguing farther, that upon a given set of bones, and with a given quantity of other offal, a greater weight of meat may be laid on the fore-quarters, than on the hind ones. Offcil. — Another distinguishing c1«aracter of the modern breed, is the smallnefs of their done, comparatively with that of the old stock, and most other breeds; not of the legs only, but of the ribs and other parts. I have seen & lib of a sheep of this breed contrasted with one of a Norfolk sheep; the disparity was striking; the latter nearly twice the size; while the meat which covered the former was three times the thicknefs; consequently GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 389 the proportion of meat to bone was, in the one, incomparably greater than in the other. The quahty of the flesh of cattle is be^t ascertained when the animal is in a state of lieshinefs, — full of condition, but not fat. In this state, if the flesh be bad, it handles hardy with a degree of harshnefs ; if good, it is soft and mellow, with a degree of " loosenejs,'" or rather supplejiefs, or flexibilitij; which, as the animal acquires a state of fatnefs, gives place to a degree oi Jirmnefs—fastnefs; — a quality so nearly allied to hardnefs, that, without at- tending to the general state and condition of the animal, they might, by the inexperienced at least, be mistaken for each other. But the flesh of sheep is to be judged by somewhat different criterions. These critcrions, however, are not yet fixed. Profefsional men-^ breeders even of the first clafs — differ in their ideas of the subject: a proof that it has not yet been sufficiently studied. It is nevcrthelefs, allowed, by all superior breeders, that loosenefs is a bad quality of the flesh of sheepy when living; as being the cri- terion of coarse-grained, spungy mutton. 6 Bb 3 590 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 0 Bat the criterlons of good flesh are not yet settled. One superior breeder is of opinion, that if the flesh is not loose, it is of course good; holding, that the flesh of sheep is never found in a state of hardnefs, like that of ill-fleshed cattle: — while others make a fourfold dis- tinction of the flesh of sheep; as loosene/s, mellozvnefs^Jirmnefs, hardnefs; considering the first and the last equally exceptionable, and the second and third equally desirable ; a happy mixture of the two being deemed the point of perfection. The degree of fatnefs to which the indivi- duals of this breed are capable of being raised, will, I am afraid, appear incredible, to those who have not had an opportunity of being convinced by their own observation. I have seen wetherS;, of only two shear (two or three years old) so loaded with fat, as to be scarcely able to make a run ; and whose fat lay so much without the bone, it seemed ready to be shook from the ribs, on the smallest agitation. It is common for the sheep of this breed to have such a projection of fat upon the ribs. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 391 immediately behind the shoulder, that it may- be easily gathered up in the hand, as the flank of a fat bullock, ilcnee it has gained, in technical language, the name of the foreflank; a point which a modern breeder never fails to touch, in judging of the quality of this breed of sheep. What is, perhaps, still more extraordinary, it is not rare for the rams, at least, of this breed to be " cracked on the back;" that is, to be cloven along the top of the chine, in the manner fat sheep generally are upon the rump. This mark is considered as an evidence of the best blood. Extraordinary, however, as are these ap- pearances, while the animals are living, the facts are still more striking after they arc slaughtered. At Lichfield, in February, 1785, I saw a fore-quarter of mutton, fatted by Mr. Princep, of Croxall, and which measuredvi^on the x'lhs four inches of fat I Since then, several sheep of this breed have laid six inches of meat on their ribs. ' It is observable, that in sheep of this ex- Bb4 392 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. treme degree of fatnefs, the muscular parts; decrease in thicknefs, as the fatnefs increases, and are so intermingled with fat as to give the whole a fatty appearance ; and this most especially in aged sheep; which, as aged cattle, have more fat in proportion to lean, than younger carcases. A loin of mutton of a sheep (ten shear) of twenty-six pounds a quarter, weighed, when the fat was taken off, only two pounds and a half! These are certainly interesting facts. But i«elilection aptly suggests the question, to what stomach can mutton like this be grateful ? The answer held out is " fat mutton is the poor man's mutton: it goes further than lean, and has, of course, a smaller proportion of bone than lean mutton. A poor man gives eight-pence a pound for bacon, but only five- pence for fat mutton," This semblance, between fat mutton and bacon, is not altogether imaginary. Whea salted, and kept seme time in pickle, even the palate perceives a strong resemblance. Ihe advocates for growing bacon on sheep's bones, jnstgad of producing it, as heretofore., upon GEORGICAL ESSAYS. S93 those of swine, will say, that the art of pre- paring it has already been carried so far, as to deceive the palates, even of connclfseurs ia eating. It is also observable, in this place, that the. breed of sheep under consideration, though they lay so great a qantity of fat upon the bones, seldom, in the butcher's phrase, " die well,'" While the Norfolk sheep, for instance, as seldom " deceive the butcher." The Leicester sheep, however, appear to me to pofsefs a quaHty, which more than counterbalances that deficiency. They weigh above their appearance. They have, likewise Jefs offal (head, feet, and pelt,) and, when fully fat, proportionahhj lefs " inside," than sheep in general. When highly finished, they appear as a solid lump of flesh. Though small to the eye, they will weigh thirty, or perhaps, forty pounds a quarter. Their flesh is, in reality, firmer than that of sheep which collect or Jay up their fat within, while their muscles and their adipose membranes are left pojous and spungy. On the wholcj we may venture to say, that. S94 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. in respect to carcase, the New Leicestershire sheep have a decided preference to most, if not all other breeds i and that the principle of improvemtnt is, thus far, well founded. This breed of sheep, when seen and examined, is not greatly deficient in wool. The wethers generally ran about four to the tod (of 28lb.) the ewes about four and a half; the Heeces of the former weighing six to eight, of the latter five to seven pounds each. Indeed, their cooler advocates argue, and "with some show of reason on their side, that they not only produce more mutton, but more wool, by the acre, than any other breed of sheep. Tlie rams of the modern breed are never sold ; but are pafsed from breeder to breeder, by file season, only. For the purpose of promoting this intercourse, each principal breeder has his show^ of rams ; commencing, by common consent, the 8th of June; and lasting until Michaelm.as, or until the whole are let. During a few weeks after the shows commence, every ram-breeder may be said to keep open house. — Breeders and others. TxEORGICAL ESSAYS. 395 from all parts of the kingdom, as well as the promoters of the breed who reside in the neighbourhood, attend these shows ; going in parties from one to another; some to take; others to see and pafs their judgments. These private exhibitions close with a pub- lic show at Leicester, the 10th of October; when rams of every dcsription, but mostly an inferior sort of the improved breed, are col- lected, being brought in waggons; many of them a considerable distance; some to be sold ; but chiefly to be let. The principal ram-breeders save, annually; twenty, thirty, or perhaps forty ram lambs, castration being seldom applied, in the first instance, to the produce of a valuable ram. For, in the choice of these lambs, they arc led more by blood, or parentage, than by form : on which, at an early age, little dependance can be placed. Their treatment, fiom the time th.ey are weaned, in July or August, un- til the time of shearing, the first week in June, consists in giving them every indulgence of keep : in order to push them forward for the show : it being the common practice to let. $96 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. such as are fit to be let, the first season ; while they are yet yearlings — provincially " shar- hogs.'* Their first pasture, after weaning, is pretty generally, I believe, clover that has been mown early, and has got a second time int» head ; the heads of clover being considered as a most forcing food for sheep. After this goes ofi', turnips, cabbages, colewort, with hay, and, report says, with corn. But the use of tin's the breeders severally/ deny ; though col- kctively they may be liable tq the charge. Such shearlings as will not make up suf- ficiently as to form and fatnefs, are either kept on to another year, to give them a fair chance, or are castrated, or butchered, while shar- hojrs. o Tlie shows of the principal breeders consist, by common consent, of forty rams each ; mostly from one to five shear ; they being seldom found efficient after that age ; some, however, will continue in vigour to the sixtln or seventh year. • But even at these ages, the decay of vigour CEORGICAL ESSAYS. S97 is not natural; but it is brought on prema- turely, by the unnatural state of fatnefs in which they are kept, and of which a varieH* of diseases, as well as a general unwieldinefs of frame, are inevitable consequences. Female sheep are found to be prolific to a greater age It is observable, however, that the femaki;, as well as the males, of the breed under notice, ^nter the stage of decay sooner than those of other breeds. This circumstance is accounted for, in their entering the stage of fatnefs sooner than other sheep; and there may be some truth in the idea. The characteristic difference between what is termed a " ram-getter," and a " wether- getter," or a '^ good grazier's sheep," is that of the former being every where cleaner, finer : the head small, the bone and olTal light, the flesh goo.d, and the form beautiful. The mere grazier likes a ram no worse for having a strength of frame, and is lefs scru- pulous about his form than the ram-breeder, whose great object is finen^fs ; his ewes, and 3^/8 GEORGICAL ESSAVS. tlie natural tendency of the breed, serve to give his offspring size and substance. Some, however, set aside this distinction 5 and, if there be no pofsibility of breeding grazing stock too fine, they are undisputabJy right. There is, however, one general guide, com- mon to them both, and to which the judicious part of both pay some attention, pamely, the imperfections of their ewes. In whatever quality or point they are most deficient, a ram pofsefsing that particular quality or point, ought certainly to be chosen. The breeders of rams, as well as of bulls, find it expedient to reduce them, from the cumbrous state in which they are shown, pre- vious to the season of businefs ; the old rams, in particular, being frequently returned upon their hands non-efBcient. Hence, as they are let, they 'are transferred to private pastures, and moderate keep; it being a pretty general rule not to shozv a ram after he is let. Tlie usual time of beginning to send out, is the middle of September. The means of con- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 599 veyancc, carriages of two wheels, with springs, or hung in slings; some of them being large enough to hold four rams. In these they travel from twenty to thirty miles a day ; being sent in this way, sometimes, two or three hundred miles. Instead of turning the ram loose among the ewes, at large, as heretofore, and agreeably to the universal practice of the island, he is kept apart, in a separate paddock, or small inclosure, with a couple of ewes only, to make him rest quietly ; having the ewes of the flock brought to him singly, and serving each no more than once. By this judicious and accurate regulation, a ram is enabled to serve near twice the num- ber of ewc.s he would do, if turned loose among them, especially a young ram. In the old practice, sixty, or eighty ewes, were esteemed the full number for a ram : in the new, from a hundred to a hundred and twentv are allowed: seven score have been served by one ram, in a season. In the choice of ewes, the breeder is led bv 4^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the same criterions, as in the choice of ramS. Breed is the first object of consideration. Excellency, in any species or variety of live- stock:, cannot be attained with any degree of certainti), \^i the male be ever so excellent, unlefs the female employed, likewise inherits a large proportion of the genuine blood j be the species or variety what iimay. Kext to breed, \s fleshy fat, form ^ and zcool. With ewes pofsefsed of these qualities, in any toleral^ie degree, and with a ram of the same deicription, good wether-getters, at least, m.ay be brcJ, with a degree of certainty: and with those, in a higher degree, accompanied with a supciior drgree of neatnefs, cleannefs, finenefs, arid with a ram of this description, ram-getters may be reasonably expected. After the lambs ^re weaned, the ewes are kept in comiron feeding pieces, at moderate keep : without any alt^ ration of pasture, pre- vious to 'heir tr-king the ram. If, however, double irim^s be des'rei, a flush of keep, at that time, might be eligible. The liiinter treatment consists in kecpino^ bpORGICAL ESSAYS. 401 them well, on grafs, hay, turnips, and cab^ bages : no difFcrcnce, I understand^ being made in their keep, previous to the time of lambing. The ewes of the modern breed, lamb with lefs difficulty, I understand, than those of most other breeds of iong-woolled sheep j the heads of the modern breed being much finer. Their shoulders, I understand, are the most common cause of obstruction. From the time of lambing, to the time of weaning the lambs, the ewes are treated with every indulgence of keep ; not more on ac- count of a general desire to push the lambs forward, than on that of the ewes of this breed being, generally, bad nurses ^ — deficient- in milk. As the modern breed of Alidland cattle " run to beef" — its modern breed of sheep " run to mutton ;" and from the same cause, a natural propensity of extraordinary strength, to a state of fatncfs. The time of weaning is the latter end of July, or the beginning of August. Volume IF. C c 4025 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Previous to the separation, the lambs are, or ought to be, identified by ^ar marking, or otherwise; to guard against accidents, and the imperfections of the memory. 'Die female lambs, on being weaned, are put to good keep, but have not such high in-* dulgence shown them as the males; the pre- vailing practice being to keep them from the ram, the first autumn. At weaning time, or {)reviously to the ad"- mifsion of the ram, the ewes are culled, to make room for the " thaves," or shearlings, whose superior blood and fashion entitle them io a place in the breeding flock. In the work of culling, the ram-breeder and the mere grazier go by somev*'hat different guides. The grazier's guide is principally age; seldom giving his ewes the ram after they are four shear. The ram-breeder, on the con- trary, goes chiefly by merit ; a ewe that has brought him a good ram or two, is continued in the flock, so long as she will breed : there dre instances of ewes having been prolific to ^he tenth or twelfth year^ but, in general. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 403 the 6Wes of this breed go off at six or seven shear. In the practice of some of the principal ram-breeders, the " culling ewes" are never suffered to go out of their hands, until after they are slaughtered : the breeders not only fatting them, but having them butchered on their premises. There are others, however, who sell them^ and, sometimes> at extra- ordinary prices. Cc ^ 404 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ESSAY xxr. On Agricultural Political Arithmetic. JL HEkingdom of England, (excluding'Wales,] contains, by the last edition of Kitchen's maps, published by Saycr, 41,536 square geographi- cal miles, including its whole territor}', in- closed and waste, roads, lakes, and rivers, but in this admeasurement the salt-water creeks, and the mouths of the great rivers are not in- cluded. A geographical mile being, from Norwood's admeasurement, equal to one English mile and 268 yards : a square geographical mile contains 850 English statute acres very nearly, from whence the grofs acres of the kingdom are 35,305,000. In order to ascertain the lofs by roads, I will conceive the whole thrown into a square, and subdivided by roads into square miles, each road 1 1 yards wide, this will give the GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 405 amount of roads or highways equal to 381,750 acres, very nearly. Having no better data to proceed upon re- specting lakes and rivers, I will suppose they occupy an equal space with highways, and that the waste lands, including woods and impracticable land, amount to 8,00^J,000 of acres; and allowing another 1,000,000 of acres for the cities, towns, villages, buildings, and yards, this leaves the cultivated land equal to 25,542,100 acres. In order to estimate the number of people this quantity of cultivated land will employ, and the number it will maintain, let us con- ceive the whole thrown into farms of 240 acres each ; my reason for fixing on this pre- cise number of acres, is, having a farm in my eye of this compafs, and which I conceive contains average land, little better or worse than the average of the kingdom, the produce of which farm I have been well acquainted with for many years. Average a number of people supported by employment on such a farm : Cc 3 406 GEORGICAt ESSAYS. The farmer, his wife, and four children, , 6 Three men servants, and three maid ser- vants, ^ Three labourers, their wives, and four children each, 18 Average number, 30 Besides whpelwright,blacksmith, shop-keeper, tailor, collar-maker, miller, maltster, butcher, shoe-maker, and every other profefsion, liberal or mechanical, connected or depending. To estimate the number of people the produce of such farm would furnish with food, let us suppose it thrown in courses as follows : Acc^s. 1st, Turnips ; 2d, barley ; 3d, clover 4th, wheat j 20 acres each, . . 1st, Oats j 2d, winter tares; 3d, wheat; 4th, barley; 5th and 6th, grafses ; 10 acres each, Meadow and pasture, . , , , 80 60 100 '5'otal account, 240 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. iOl I am far from supposing the before-named a proper course of cultivation for the average of the kingdom ; I know that so large a propor-r tion as one-twelfth of t|ie land of England, cannot, with propriety, be under turnips, but if it be managed in any other way equally productive (as it easily Jliay), h brings the same conclusion. Average Produce of $Hch Farm, The wheat of 30 acres, at 20 bushels per acre increase, i. e. 20 bushels per acre more than the seed sown, 9i- gallons the bushel ; and allowing upon the average of men, women, arid children, 5 such bushels per head, per annum, this will furnish bread for 120 persons. Nine gallons and a half of wheat, the mea- sure of this country, will generally weigh 72lb. and will give 4 stone of tlour, (Hlb. to the stone), and sometimes a little more, and by the above estimate should be sufficient for 10 persons, men, women and children, for one week j and supposing London to contain a million of people, this exactly agrees with the account laid by the cornfactors of London jjefore the l^finister on the late application 6 Cc 4 408 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. from France, that 20,000 sacks of flour was one week's consumption of the metropolis ; for the London sack of fldur is, I believe, 20 stone of 14lb. and should, as above, be sufficient for 50 persons for one week ; and if one sack suffice 50 people, then will 20,000 sacks suffice one million of people. Twenty-four dairy cows, ^vhich is one cow to ten acres, at 21 cwt. per cow per annum, amounts to three tons of cheese ; which, di- vided amom^st 120-Dersons, would be half a hundred weight per annum each person, great and small ; but this is much more than they would consume ; and supposing the object sometimes butter instead of cheese, there is no doubt but 24 cows would supply the above number of persons with cheese, butter, cream, milk, and every thing else of the kind. The pork and bacon consumed by the SO persons supported by employment on such farm, has been about 60 score weight per an- num, and the weight fatted has sometimes very much exceeded four times that quantity, though it may be reasonably supposed, that much more salted meat is consumed in the country than in towns bv the same number GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 409 of people, the inhabitants of towns having much readier accefs to the butchers for fresh meat; the resource for fatting hogs on farm product, is chiefly here boiled potatoes, and o-round tail-end, or damaged barley, beat to- gether. Butcher's meat, I think one pound weight per head per week, taking in children, is a plentiful allowance ; this, for 120 persons, xvould be 6240lb. weight per annum : let us examine whether a farm of the above size will furnish it. 1st, Veal, I will suppose 8 calves an- nually reared, and that allowing for lofses, they will produce 6 in-calf heifers in addition to the 24 dairy cows ; this gives a pofsibility of SO calves, suppose after rearing and lofses one-half only fatted, this gives ■ 15 fat calves, suppose 20lb. per quarter each, this gives w^eight ot veal .... lb. 1200 2d, Beef, 6 cows to go off annually to make way for heifers, suppose 3 only fatted to loOlb. per quarter each, yveigiit of beef . . . 1 800 Carried forward, 3000 4iO GEORGICAL ESSAYJJ. Brought forward, Ib.SOOQ 3d, Mutton, a standing flock of 60 ewes, or as many as will give upon the average 60 lambs, 20 lambs to the butcher, 8lb. the quarter each, . 640 20 ewe lambs kept store, and 20 ewes to the butcher, at 15lb. the quarter each, . . . 1200 20 wether Iambs kept store, and 20 wethers to the butcher, at 18lb. the the quarter, . . . 1440 Total weight, lb. 6280 The standing stock to be as much above 60, as will make lofses good. Malt, I calculate the consumption at four bushels per head, taking in women an4 children, this for 120 persons is 480 bushels per annum ; but the annual produce of such farm will be from 600 to 1000 bushels, a considerable surplus therefore remains for seed, for fattening cattle, for making good any other deficiencies, and for distilleries. To prove whether the bill of fare, as here ^rawn up, be a reasonable allowance, let us GEORGICAL ESSAYS. ^^^ examine what revenue will be sufficient tq n^aintain a family agreeably thereto ; consistm^ of a man, bis wife, and four children : Bread-corn for six, at 5 bushels each perannnm,30bushels,at9igallons each, at 6s. . • • £^ ^ ^ Cheese, butter, milk, &c. for six, the produce of a cow to five, at 5l.addi, . . . . 6 O Q 12 score of pork and bacon, at 4d. 4 p 0 6lb. per week of butcher's meat, for 52weeks, 3121b. at 4d. ..,540 Malt, 24 bushels, at 5s. . . • 6 Q ^ ^30 4 Q To this, when luxuries and miscellaneous articles are added, I fancy it will be found a very plentiful allowance ; such a one as tbe lower clafses of society in general must never expect to obtain -, it is intended as the average allowance, taking in rich and poor. The game, fish, poultry, &c. of a farm, and of the whole kingdom, are thrown in as luxuries, and to make good deficiencies; the idea, therefore, set out with, and which this 412 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. detail attempts to establish, is, that a farm of 240 acres of the average land of England, will maintain 30 persons, by immediate* employ- ment ; and, perhaps SO more, by property, or employment, connected or depending ^ and furnish food for 60 more j making, in the whole, 120 persons, or one inhabitant to every two acres. The enclosed land of England being as above 25,542,100 acres, will consequently em- ploy 6,385,525 persons in agriculture and its connections, and furnish food for 6,385,525 more, to be employed in trade, manufac- tures, and. commerce, and its connections, including the navy and army, as well as women and children, making in the whole 12,771,050 persons, and that in the pre- sent state of its best agriculture ; and sup- posing 5l. per acre employed as capital in stocking such land, then the farming capital of the kingdom would be 127,710,500 sterling. 'o' Let us suppose three-fourths only of the waste lands to be reclaimable, this brings an addition of 6,000,000 of acres, and leaves 2,000,000 for woods and impracticable spots, this addition finds employment for a million gEorgical essays. 413 and a half more people in agriculture and its connections, and furnishes food for a million and a half more, and consequently when the wastes shall be reclaimed, and brought to the state of our present improved land, the king- dom is capable of supporting an addition of 3,000,000 of inhabitants. May be maintained from the pre- sent inclosed lands, . . 12771050 Ditto from the wastes, when im- proved, .... 3000000 Total the whole the kingdom could support in the present state of its best agriculture . . . f 577 1050 But it is very probable, that if a double capital were employed, and a proportionable addition of hands in a more operose culture, and in making every pofsible improvement that the land would admit, that then a greater quan- tity of provision than the above estimated might be raised, even in the proportion at least of two to three ; many improvements might be made in spots apparently the most improved ; some, which I conceive of the greatest national importance, (after the in- closure and improvement of wastes,) are here enumerated. 5 il-i- GEORdlCAL ESSAYS. ist, The embankrtient of rivers, to prevent the destruction of hay : this might probably be effected to a great extent, by solid banks of earth parallel to the river on either side, at a proper distance, with a sufficient number of sluices to let through the water for irriga- tion at pleasure, the land between such em- bankment and the river would be of the same value as at present ; the land without might have every benefit of irrigation, without risk from floods. 2d, Embankments from the sea 5 some ac- counts of great works of this kind I have tead with great pleasure. 5d, The draining of bogs, morafses, marsh land, and every species of springy land by open or hollow drains j much remains to be done in this way. 4th, Irrigation, wherever water can be drawn without injury to mills and other public works. 5th, The marling and claying of all land that can be improved by it, the sanding of clay land, lime, chalk, mud, &:c. wherever it will n«k€ improvement. hich are disorders of the mcst dangerous nature. But should they escape incurring any acute complaint, it is common for them to be effected with a sense of weight and sicknefs at the stomach, which continues several weeks, and is at last relieved by 3 ^e 4 440 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. vomiting; this, however, does not put a pe- riod to the complaint, as it is generally fol- lowed by an itching eruption on the skin iri blotches, in various parts of the body, which proves to be the leprosv — a loathsome and filthy disease, and very difficult of cure ! I have had an opportunity of seeing at the Bath Hospital, a great number of people thus afflicted, and am satisfied that they all, with- out exception, owed their disease to the ap- plication of cold, in some form or other, to the body when in a heated state. Labouring persons are very apt, when they Jeave off any work in which they have been much heated, to remain som.e time at rest in the open air before they put on their clothes. Thii is a very imprudent practice, and fre- quently produces bad effects, especially in bringing on coughs, and other disorders of the breast, which oftener owe their rise among the common people to this than any other cause. Neglect of changing their clothes when wet, is also a great source of disorder among husbandmen. To remain in wet clothes when GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 441 the body is at rest, subjects the person who is so imprudent as to sutler it, to the united bad effects of cold and moisture. Much worse consequences may however be expected, when they who are heated by labour lie down to sleep, as they often do, in their wet clothes. The diminution of the force of the circulation and other powers of lire, which always takes place during sleep, causes the bad effects of cold to operate with much greater danger to health and life. This hazard is much aggravated, if they add to this im- prudence by sleeping on the wet ground. This not only communicates an additional moisture and cold, but is perhaps still more prejudicial from the nature of the exhalation. It is the opinion of a physician of the greatest eminence, that the vapour which arises from moist earth is the cause of the most dangerous fevers. Those, therefore, who put themselves wantonly in the way of such danger, are guilty of little lefs than suicide. Excefsy or IrregidarUi) in Diet, is another source of disorder to people in this way of life. This is common indeed in some measure to all ranks, but in several respects it is par- ticularly applicable to those who are employed 412 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. in husbandry. Air and exercise are well known to sharpen the appetite ; and as these advantages are incident to this way of life, it may be expected that some excefs should now and then take place. The diet of such persons is indeed in general too spare and plain to offer any great incentive to indulgence in point of quantity, but opportunities some- times offer for a more plentiful allowance of food, and more inviting to the palate. On such ocasions the lower ranks of people exert little consideration or prudence. They have scarcely any view beyond the gratification of the present moment ; and if a full indulgence of appetite is not exercised, they deem it a lofs of an opportunity for the enjoyment of so much happinefs. It is needlefs to enumerate in this place all the complaints that excefs in quantity of food may bring on ; it is sufficient to say, that it lias often produced sudden death, and where its violent effects have not been so immediate, has laid a foundation for bad health during the remainder of life. — To this head may be referred the brutal practice of eating enormous quantities for a wager, or out of bravado. It is needlefs to descant upon so odious a sub- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 44S ject, farther than to say, that such things sink men below the level of beasts in grofsnefs and folly, not to mention the scandalous im- morality of such actions. The diet of people employed in husbandry, does not admit of much luxur)^ respecting its quality ; there are, however, some things which come within the reach of these people, and which they regard as gratifications, and of course are apt to take in too great quantity. Of this kind are some of the autumnal fruits, which in some years are produced so largely, as to be of scarcely any pecuniary value. Of these, plums, especially such as are of the coarser and more austere sorts, are the princi- pal. It is a common observation, that, in years whtrein there is an abundance of such fruits, purgings, colicks, and most other complaints of the stomach and bowels, are very common. It is proper here to observ^e, that the incau- tious manner in which these fruits are de- voured, especially at their first coming In, causes many of the stones to be swallowed, a practice extremely hazardous. The history of physic aflbrds many examples of the \\ orst consequences arising from such bodies lodg- ing in the stomach and bowels. Sometimes, 444- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. when the accumulation of them has been con- siderable, they have obstructed the alimentary canal altogether, and produced a miserable death in a short time ; at others, they have made their w^ay through different parts of the body, and caused either a long and painful illnefs, or death, by the hectic fever attending internal suppurations. Pears, if eaten too freely, are apt, as well as the stone-fruits, to disorder the stomach and bowels ; but they are lefs dangerous, and not so often swallowed in such quantities as to be materially prejudicial to life or health. Nuts are, perhaps, upon the whole, the most dangerous of any of the fruits that are likely to fall into the v/ay of this rank of people. When eaten in large quantity, they have been often known to lodge in the stomach, and to be incapable of being removed from thence by any medicine, and of consequence have put a speedy end to life. AVhen taken in lefs quantity, they are found to opprefs the breath- ing, and to produce vomiting and bowel com- plaints. Hoffman observes, that dysen- teric complaints are always most common in those years in which the harvest of nuts is GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 445 jplentiful. Excefs in diet, however, is more frequently committed in liquids than in solids. It is observed of mankind in generalj that they have a natural fondnefs for fermented or spirituous liquors, and a certain proportion appears to be allowable, and even necefsary, for persons who undergo hard labour. But the healthy quantity is apt to be exceeded when opportunity offers, and excefs of this kind is more hurtful than a defect of such gratifications. I need not here enlarge on the consequence of driinkcnne/s to health. Fevers, dropsies, consumptions, apoplexies, and many other miserable disorders, are well known to follow such a course. The wanJ of money among labouring people, indeed^ often prevents the bad effects of a habit of this kind, but occasional opportunities occur, which are laid hold on with great avidity; and it is far from uncommon to find death the immediate follower of such licentious indul- gence. Diet, however, is not the only article which such persons are liable to carry to excefs. It is common to see exertions of a more liberal kind pursued to too great length. The caprice 446 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. of emulation will often produce instances of labour, v.hich duty, and the urgency of cir- cumstances, might in vain solicit. Tlie l.'urst- ing of some blood-vefsels, particularly those of the head, lungs, or stomach, nephritic com- plaints, and intestinal ruptures, have all of them followed such ill-judged and ostenta- tious display of strength and corporeal abi- lities. After the above enumeration of complaints to which persons thus employed are liable, it is proper I should offer something on the sub- ject of their cure or relief. This I shall con- sider in two views ; the first as to what re- gards the prevention of disorders, and the se- cond as to what regards their cure. Persons that work in husbandry are neces- sarily exposed to the weather in both its ex- tremes of temperature. The ill effects, there- fore, of both, it behoves us to counteract. Cold in this climate is most necefsary to be attended to, as its operation is of longer dura- tion ; several months in the year often requir- ing us to be on our guard against cold, whilst excefsive heat scarcely lasts more than a few days. Warmth of clothing is the only method. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 447 exercise excepted, by which those who spend their life in the open air can guard against cold ; and nothing is more necefsary for such persons as are the subjects of the present con- sideration, than a proper regard to this article. The woollen cloths of our own country are perfectly well adapted for these purposes, being warm, without being too heavy, resist- ing moisture in a good measure, and even when wetted, being lefs cold to the touch than any other substance. It appears to me, that some of the coarser and looser woven fabrics are preferable, both in point of warmth and lightnefs, to those of a more even surface, and also give more resistance to the penetration of moisture. Every person who employs men under him in businefs of this nature, ought to be careful, in point of interest, as well as humanity, that his servants have clothing sufficient for the season of the year ; otherwise he may expect a proportionable diminution in the labour he expects to be performed, and the lofs of many valuable opportunities, especially in precarious weather and seasons. 4-ld GEOKGICAL E5S.AYS. The same arguments are applicable to those xvho have the care of the parish poor, vvhoiii it would be far more econoiiiical, as well as humane, to preserve in a good state of health, than to sulfer ihem to become victims of dis- eases which might be prevented. This cau- tion refers particularly to the youth, who, by being nfeglected at that time of lite, often con- tinue burdens on those persons whose ex- penses (had the children's health been duly attended to,) they miglit have contributed to diminish. Friction, properly applied, might prove an excellent preservative against, and even a re- medy for m?.ny of tlio bad eftVcts of cold. Would persons chilled Vv-ith the severity of the weather, rub tht.ir bare limbs with woollen cloths for a considerable time after they return home, it would produce a more equable and genial warmth, and contribute more to sup- port the powers of life, than any artificial heat whatsoever. The same operation would pro- bably prevent many of those painful and re- fractory sores called cb Iblains, which are so apt to affect the extremities, especially in young people. Should any persons in extreme frost have their limbs, or any part of the body GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 449 actually frozen, the utmost caution must be had not to bring them near to any fire. The safest method is said to be, to rub the part frozen first with snow, and to continue the friction till some degree of warmth begins to appear, but not to suffer the accefs of any heat from fire, till the warmth from friction takes place. Even then, the part frozen should not be suddenly exposed to the heat of a fire, but rather be continued to be rubbed till the natural sensation and heat are perfectly re- stored. If the part frozen be exposed to the heat of a fire, whilst in a frozen state, it will undoubtedly mortify. It seldom happens, that the cold is so in- tense in this country, as to destroy those ex- posed to its influence by its direct and im- mediate operation ; yet as great degrees of it now and then take place, it may be proper to caution those who may be in a situation that exposes them for any considerable time to- gether to violent cold, to be cautious how they suffer any propensity to sleep, or drow- sinefs, to steal upon them. A tendency to sleep in a person who is in such a state, is a certain sign that the cold begins to gain ground on the pov/ers of life, and should Volume IF, T f 450 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. therefore excite the strongest efforts to resist it. This may be a difficult task, but is neces- siar\, as life entirely depends upon it. Heat^ though lefs frequently an object of our care in this respect than cold, neverthelels demands our attention. Though seldom of long duration, the heat is sometimes excefsive. I have seen it ia the shade, and in a situation exposed to no reflected heat, raise the ther- mometer to 87 degrees. Such heats, and even considerably lefs, are too great for laborious work even in the shade, and must be still more injurious to those vrho are exposed to the sun's rays, which is of necefsity the case with those who work in the han'est. In such extremities of temperature, it should not be expected, or even permitted, that the unthinking labourer, who has scarcely any views beyond the present moment, should ex- pose himself to such hazard. Economy, as well as humanity, pleads loudly in behalf of kuch indulgence. Inferior, yet still considerable degrees of heat, although they need not preclude work iQ the open air, still have need of some cautions GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 451 respecting them. It is not uncommon to ob^- serve a degree of impatient anxiety which ac- companies some people in every action of Hfe. This prevails among the lower as well as higher ranks of mankind, and often proves a source of fatigue and toil, without expediting labour. Calmnefs and composure are neces- sary to the corporeal as well as the mental operations, and tend greatly to prevent the bad eifects of excefs of stimulus of any kind. As the head is the part principally exposed to the actions of the solar rays, it is particularly necefsary to use some defence for that part. Hats are used for this purpose, but the black colour of which they are generally made* causes them to absorb the heat, and of con-* sequence to accumulate it in the very part on which we should least desire it to falL Hats for working people, in hot weather, should be made of straw, or some light sub- stance of a white or pale colour, and with brims sufficiently wide to shelter both the head and shoulders from the scorching beams of the sun. Even a piece of white paper covering a hat, is no contemptible defence against solar heat. — The eyes should likewise be considered, Vvhich exposure to strong light is so apt to in- « Ff2 452 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. jure. This should be guarded against by the brim of the hat behig made of a sufficient breadth to shade the eyes, and the inside should also be tinged of either a green or blue colour, but by no means either black or a very light hue. I have before mentioned the bad effects of cold applied in any way to the body when violently heated. This should serve as a suf- ficient caution against such imprudencies. It may be useful to add, that as it may be neces- sary to drink frequently, it prevents much of the bad effects of cold liquor, to eat something solid immediately "before any liquid be taken. A few morsels may be sufficient, and the ef- ficacy of the precaution is well known. The mischievous consequences of cold liquors, drunk in such cases, are much aggra- vated when they are, as is too common, swilled down in enormous draughts. Would thirsty people but have a little patience, and drink small quantities at a time, with proper in- tervals, as of a few minutes, the uneasy sen- sation would be more effectually removed, and that without any danger to health. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 455 Another caution liighly necefsary for such persons is, to put on their clothes immediately on their leaving off work, and to do this with- out any regard to the warmth of the weather. Nothing can be more hazardous than for a person who is heated with labour, and in a strong perspiration, to remain exposed to the wind. The exhalation both from the body and the wet linen, produces a sudden and considerable degree of cold, which is not merely transient, but continues as long as the moisture is suffered to exhale freely into the open air. I have before remarked the hazard of la- bouring persons sleeping on the ground during the intervals of their work. This is improper at all times, but particularly dangerous if the ground be any wise moist. Indeed I am of opinion that sleep had better be avoided al- together at such times; as such slumbers pro- duce but little refreshment, and expose the health to unnecefsary risque. The body would be sufficiently rested by the cefsation of labour, and early hours in the evening would afford a sufficient portion of time to be spent in sleep. Moisture is equally necefsary to be con- 1 Ff3 454- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. sidered in this place, with respect to its effects on the health, as heat and cold. This, I have before observed, cannot be always avoided, but the bad effects it sometimes produces may generally be obviated. If those who are "Vvet with showers, would be careful to con^ tinue their motion and labour whilst they remain in the open air, and to change their clothes on their return home, many of the bad coiisequences of wet clothes would be pre- vented. Friction, on such occasions, might be an excellent preservative against the bad effects of cold and moisture : were the body and extremities that have been so exposed, rubbed strongly for a quarter of an hour with a coarse woollen, or linen cloth, immediately on the wet clothes being stripped off, it is probable few bad consequences would follow from the accident. It is indeed extraordinary this should not be oftener practised in such circumstances than it is. Every labouring man knows the necefsity of rubbing horses that have been wet and dirty, and this not only for the pur- pose of cleansing away the filth, but also for that of preserving a due perspiration and regular warmth on the surface of the body^ GEORGICAL ESSAY. 455 Bathing: the feet in warm water would also be an useful precaution on such occasions, especially to those who are subject to purging and other disorders of the bowels. Labouring men are sometimes exposed to moisture of a lefs innocent kind than such as falls from the clouds. Draining marshy ground is a necefsary businefs, and, as I have before said, exposes the workmen to hazard from the nature of the moisture, as well as from simple humidity. The intermittent fever is the prin- cipal, though not the only complaint, work of this kind is liable to bring on, and must be particularly guarded against. It therefore seems proper that such kind of work should, if pofsible, be performed in the spring, or early in the summer, in which seasons these disorders arc not so likely to happen as when the autumn is advanced. And those who work in this way should be sufliciently clothed, and be very cautious to avoid sudden transitions from heat to cold. Intemperance is particularly dangerous under such circumstances. It is highly proper, and even necefsary, that those who perform such kind of labour should have a sufficient, aric} F f 4 456 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. even liberal allowance, in point of diet , but cxcefs of any kind, in spirituous liquors espe- cially, tends to weaken the stomach, and in consequence thereof, the whole vital system, and to render the body more liable to receive contagion of every kind. This is not a caution founded merely on theory or general principles, but a fact in medicine established beyond all doubt. Another caution very necefsary to be attended to is, that none should go to such kind of labour in the morn- ing before they have taken some kind of food. Somewhat warm is most proper, and if it can be had, I should prefer animal food. It is difficult to account for, but true as a fact, that warm victuals are greatly more cordial and strengthening to the body, and of course more fit for the support of those who perform laborious work, than the same food if taken when cold. Cleanlhiefs is an efsential article in such circumstances. Would those who work at such employments be careful to wash their hands and feet at their return from work, and to change their linen and stockings as often as their circumstances would admit, it is probable that the hazard would be greatly lefsened. CEORGICAL ESSAY S. 157 It is necefsary to remark, that the above cautions apply at least equally strong to those who superintend such operations, as to those who actually perform them. It is probable that the labour of body and attention of mind, which occupy those who are at work, is no small preservative against the accefs of con- tagion of every kind. As there is reason to believe, that inter- mittent fevers may, in some cases, be so far infectious as to be communicated from one person to another, it would be proper that when any person should be attacked therewith, such person should be provided with a separate bed during the continuance of his disorder. Cautions of this kind would be the best economy, as disorders might then be checked at their first appearance, and prevented from spreading. Ercefsy or Irregidaritij in Diet^ is the next subject of these cautions. I have before men- tioned some of the disorders likely to be pro- duced hereby, but shall now be more particu- lar. Food may be considered with respect to its quantity and its qualify. The first of these can only be measured by a reasonable atten- 458 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. tlon to the appetite. What may no more than suffice for one man, may be great excefs in another; and in general what the appetite leads to, may be considered as the proper standard. But some ignorant rustics are foolish enough to imagine, that there is a degree of credit annexed to the being able to consume a larger quantity of victuals than is in the power of other men ; and this beastly prejudice, which often produces fatal consequences, should be as much as pofsible discouraged, even by those who practise hospitality among the lower ranks of people. It is certainly mean to offer to entertain any persons, of whatsoever degree they may be, without pro- ducing a sufficient quantity of wholesome provisions ; but it is still more inhospitable to encourage any to make such an use of what is provided for them, as to endanger health or life, not to mention the scandalous waste which must be caused by it. Still more blamable is the practice of encouraging gluttony by wagers, or offers of reward. They w^ho do this, are in fact highly criminal, and in no small degree guilty of the fatal conse- quences which so often follow such brutal displays of appetite. Aloderation is not only pecefsary in what regards the quantity of food. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 459 but also as it regards the time in which it is consumed. It is necefsary to the proper digestion of our food, and of course to the nourishment of the body, that it be taken in gradually, and its texture broken down by chewing. It would scarcely be credited, were it not known as a fact, that the folly of gluttony has prompted wagers not only on the quantity of food, but also on the time in which it should be swallowed , by accelerat- ing which, all the bad effects of an enormous quantity of victuals must be greatly ag- gravated. Meat, thus swallowed, must be of course in large pieces, scarcely acted on by the teeth, and of difficult digestion. The sudden distention of the stomach, by the in- troduction of a large quantity of meat so nearly at the same time, must weaken its tone, by overstretching its fibres ; and this has some- times gone to such a length as to deprive the stomach of all that power of expelling its con- tents, which soon terminated in death. — To these dangers should be added, that of the meat sticking in the pafsage of the gullet, and remaining there without a pofsibility of re- moval, a thing which is not uncommon amidst such excefses. Even the proper temperature p'i food is worthy attention. Rustic folly 460 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. has produced wagers ancj premiums on the eating food nearly boiling hot. It is difficult to preserve any temper in the censure of such outrageous stupidity. The quality of food is necefsary to be con- sidered, as well as its quantity. The stomachs of labouring men arc undoubtedly strong, and able to digest coarse meatj but ill-judged economy should not prompt farmers to set before their servants decayed or indigestible food. Putrid meat is noc merely unwholsome in its remote consequences;, but immediately dangerous to life, as has been often ex- perienced, and should be avoided as care- fully as we would any other poisonous sub- stances. I have before pointed out the bad conse- quences that are apt to result from the free use of some indigestible fruits, particularly plums and nuts. I think it would be a pro- per caution for farmers not to plant any of the former that are of the coarse and austere kind ; for though they generally bear plenti- fully, their fruit is of little value, and likely, on that account, to fall to the share of such people. Hazel plantations are more nc- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 461 cefsary; but still it would be of service to place them as far from farm-houses as might be convenient, that they might afford Icfs temptation for the gathering of their fruit. It is proper to notice here, the danger thoughtlefs people who spend much time in the fields are exposed to, from eating plants and berries with which they are unacquainted. Many plants, commonly met wnth, are well-known to be extremely poisonous, such as the Hen- bane, Deadly-nightshade, Water-hemlock, some species of Drop-wort, several kinds of Mushrooms, and many others. It should be a strict injunction to all who spend their time in the fields, never to taste any plant, fruit, or berry, which they do not know to be safe, and indeed it would be more prudent to dis- courage altogether such usclefs curiosity. It is obvious that this caution is particularly ne- cefsary for children. The danger of excefs in liquids is greater than in solid food. Fermented liquors, taken in moderate quantity, are both proper and necefsary for those who perform laborious work ; but this healthy proportion is apt, when opportunity offers, to be exceeded by people whose gratifications are few in number, and of 462 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. rare occurrence. As it is impracticable to prevent such excefses altogether, I would wish to suggest, that, if they must take place, malt liquor is found by experience to be much lefs injurious to the health and constitution than distilled spirits, however diluted with water. I have been informed that a principal of eco- nomy has induced many farmers to treat their servants, and those with whom they are con- nected, with spirits and w^ater, instead of malt liquor ; but such a practice is by all means to be discouraged, as spirits are rnuch more in- flammatory than malt drinks, and produce more ready obstructions and inflammatory dis- orders, especially of the liver and mesenter}^ The temporary delirium of intoxication that they produce, is said to be much more violent and outrageous, and of course more dangerous than what follows from taking too large a quan- tity of malt liquor. The destructive effects of spirituous liquors were so observable some years ago, as to produce th^ most serious ap- prehensions in a national view, and to attract the notice of the legislature. — The baptisms of London alone are said to have been reduced from twenty thousand annually to fourteen thousand, which was, with reason, ascribed to the use of this pernicious beverage : — This GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 463 fact IS equivalent to a thousand arguments ! On this subject I would wish to say a few words on the debauchery that usually attends county elections, especially such as are con- tested. Much has been said of late years on the subject of instructing Members of Parliament. No condition would be more justifiable than to demand of all the candidates a promise that they would not, by encouraging de- bauchery, ruin the health, destroy the indus- try, and corrupt the morals, of those people for whose interest they profefs such an anxious concern, and to whose service they are so pro- foundly devoted. I believe it will not be thought going too far to affirm, that very few indeed have it in their power to repair, by any political conduct of their own, the mis- chief done by a contested election. No com- bination among the electors could be more truly patriotic, than one which tended to re- fuse support to every candidate that attempted to promote his interest by such means. In the former part of this efsay, I have men- tioned some of the ill effects that follow violent exertions of labour or exercise, which 464 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. I trust are sufficient to show the imprudence of such stramed efforts. I shall only add here, that such trials should not be encouraged by premiums or other means, either by pri- vate persons or public societies. It would be far preferable to encourage constant and per- severing industry and good execution of work, than excefsive labour and fatiguing exertions of strength. I shall conclude this chapter with some pieces of general advice. Those who employ servants in agriculture, should encourage them to be careful of their health, and to make it a point of conside- ration. A proper prudence in this respect is perfectly consistent with industry, and is in- deed the most necefsary circumstance towards the execution of a great quantity of work. — It is common with agricultural societies to give premiums for the greatest number of children ; but this should always be conjoined with another condition, that the children should be healthy, and this last circumstance should preponderate against the other. The situation of farm-houses is a matter of great consequence as it regards health. The greatest care should be taken to place them in GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 465 dry situations with a descent from them every way, and upon a gravelly spot, or at least such a one as is free from springs that rise to, or near to, the surface of the earth. Care also should be taken to place the repositories for dung, and other manure, at some distance from the house, and this caution should also be ex- tended to the hog-styes and poultry-yards. The necefsary attention to the feeding these animals, does not allow the distance to be con- siderable, but still does not require their being so near as we generally see them placed. It is needlcfs to expatiate on such a subject, or to attempt to prove that air, impregnated with such filthy exhalations, must be injurious to health. Even good plans for farm-houses of different sizes, according to the number of inhabitants, would contribute, in no small degree, to general welfare. The bed-chambers in farm- houses are in general too low and confined, and the whole building too small; this occa- sions too many people to be crowded together, a circumstance always very unfavourable to health, and the most common source of con- tagious disorders. Good water is also a cir- cumstance of great moment. If this can be Volume IV. G z 466 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. had from any spring that rises to the surface of the earth, it is commonly preferable to such as is drawn from a considerable depth ; but such a choice is not always in our power. If pond water be used through necefsity, it should be previously put into cisterns, or reser- voirs, covered at the top, and there suffered to settle. Care should be had that the water be taken from a large pond, vvith a stony or gravelly bottom, and not subject to become putrid. Those who drink water of thiskind, should beware of swallowing the eggs or spawn of animals, leeches particularly, which sometime have produced, it is said, disagree- able symptoms. Cleanllnefs of the person is of greater Im- portance to health than is generally imagined, and ought to be particularly encouraged among the lower ranks of people, especially those employed in this way. Nothing seems more likely to contribute to this salutary pur- pose than a due observation of Sunday ; this precept is not only conducive to religion, morals, and civilization, but also to health. — It is well observed by Mr. Addison, that Sunday clears away the rust of the whole week ; — an exprefsion which may be under- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 467 stood to extend to clcanlinefs as well as other considerations, and indeed appears to have been so intended by the amiable author in the pafsage referred to. I now come to the last part of this efsay, which is to speak — Of the Cure of the Diseases to which Agricultural Persons are subject from their way of Life: and here I must remind the reader, that the present treatise is not meant to be a discufsion of the subject at large in a medical way, but only to contain some plain hints and directions of the practical kind, which I believe to be justified by reason and experience. Persons employed in daily labour of a healthy kind, and living on coarse food, na- turally become robust and athletic, of a firm fibre, and dense blood. Hence inflammatory complaints are in such habits more common than those of the putrid kind; and such as are attended with low spirits and other hypo- chondriacal symptoms, are rarely met with. Evacuations may of course be used with more safety among such people, than among the efTeminate inhabitants of populous towns. 3 Gg2 468 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Bleeding, in the fevers that occur among country people, is for the most part necefsary^ especially in such as are attended with local inflammation, as pleurisy, peripneumony, or inflammation of any of the viscera. In such cases, tvi^elve, fourteen, sixteen, or even twenty ounces of blood, may, and often ought, to be drawn at one time. The quantity, however, cannot be determined by any general rule, but must be regulated by the age, strength, sex, and constitution of the patient, but principally by the urgency of the symp- toms. If the internal pain be very acute, the skin hot and dry, and the pulse exceed 110 beats in a minute, a large bleeding is generally necefsary, especially if any other symptom of a fatiguing or dangerous kind, as a violent cough, or shortnefs of breath, be present. It is proper here to remark, that as soon as the nature of the complaint is so far ascer- tained as to prove bleeding to be indicated,- it is of consequence that such operation be performed as soon as pofsible, and that a suf- ficient quantity be drawn at one time. One plentiful bleeding will sometimes subdue a ^lisease at its first appearance, when if half GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 469 the quantity only had been taken, it would have required perhaps to be repeated several times. — It often, however, and indeed gene- rally happens, in fevers attended with local inflammation, that one bleeding, however judiciously managed in respect of quantity, is not sufficient. In such cases we must be governed nearly altogether by the urgency of the symptoms, and when these indicate a farther evacuation to "be necefsary, we must proceed, not indeed without regard to other circumstances, but neverthelefs as considering them subservient only to the principal object. An attention to this circumstance is especially proper, when the parts that are the seat of the complaint are immediately necefsary to life, as in inflammations of the brain, lungsj bowels, or any of the viscera ; in such cases there is no time to be lost, and what many would think bold practice, is indeed the only means of escape. — It is proper indeed to be careful, that the complaint originally be of such a nature as to require bleeding at all; and in this, it must be .conlefsed, even the most acute persons of the protcfsion have been deceived. — The intermittent fever sometimes comes on with such violent symptoms, as to resemble very strongly an inflammatory fever* B G ir 3 470 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. But a little time generally resolves the dif- ficulty, and the succelbive and clear marked stages of cold, heat, and szoeat, are for the most part sufficient to determine the nature of the disorder, even before any intermifsion takes place, and any necefsity of beginning to treat it as a lever of a ditferent kind. Even if it should be mistaken, and some blood drawn, this evacuation has been often tound serviceable in the beginning of intermittents, when the symptoms are violent, and is recom- mended on such occasions by the most judi- cious practitioners. A careful examination of circumstances will, for the most part, enable us to distinguish this disorder at its first appearance. — Moist weather, and a season of the year about either the vernal or autumnal equinoxes, the latter especially, and the fre- quency of the disorder in the neighbourhood, aiford strong presumptions in favour of a fever being of the intermittent kind ; — to which we may add, such observations as may be drawn from the nature of the soil and situation, and the businefs or work in which those attacked with the complaint had been employed, previous to its first coming on. It is an opinion generally received, that if GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 471 bleeding be omitted at the beginning of fevers, it is improper in their advanced state, and this is in some measure true. Fevers that commenced with inflammatory symptoms, often become putrid as they proceed, and bleeding is certainly improper in such cir- cumstances. But I would observe, that this caution holds more strongly with regard to the enfeebled inhabitants of towns, than for robust country men. I apprehend that bleed- ing, though certainly more likely to be of service if tried at the beginning of the disease, is neverthelefs proper at every period when inflammatory symptoms are present. This holds more strongly in cases of fever attended with local inflammation, as in pleurisy, inflam- mations of the viscera, &;c. in which the pro- priety of bleeding at every stage, provided the symptoms are urgent, is universally acknow- ledged. It sometimes happens in robust people, that the common inEammatory fever preserves its original appearance nearly as long as life continues, and its change of type is not to be regarded so much as an indication that points out the propriety of a different method of treatment, as a sign that all our attempts are likely to be in vain. G g 4 472 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Topical bleeding is often of great service in many disorders, as well as general bleeding, especially in the removal of some troublesome and distrefsing symptoms. The head-ache is frequently an attendant on fevers, and often continues when the heat, quicknefs of pulse, thirst, and other symptoms, are much abated; and may be often thus relieved. — One of the easiest and safest methods of partial, or topical bleeding, is by the application of leeches. If 3, 4, 5, or 6 of these, be applied to the temples, in the cases mentioned above, they will often procure almost immediate ease, and are perfectly safe in their application, as the quantity of blood each of them draws is very small. Leeches may often be applied with great succefs in many inflammatory com- plaints that show themselves externally, as rheumatic swellings, particularly those of the face and cheeks, inflammations of the eyes, inner parts of the ear, &:c. In every instance they should be applied as near as pofsible to the part affected. Bleeding, however, though a powerftil remedy, requires some judgment and caution in the application of it. — The fevers that appear among country people, though often inflammatory, are not always so. Putrid fevers, though scarcely natural (if such GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 47S an exprefsion may be admitted) to a country- life, are neverthelefs capable of being com- municated by contagion, and in such cases bleeding is generally hurttul. In some in- stances the putrid and inflammatory symptoms are so combined, as to make it doubtful to which clafs of symptoms we ought principally to attend, and in such cases some experienced person should be consulted ^ but in general the sudden debility of body, and dejection of mind, that usually come on at ihe accefs of the fever, the red watery eye, and the ten- dency to perspiration or other evacuations, sufficiently distinguish this complaint from those of the inflammatory kind. The nervous fever seems to be only an inferior degree of the putrid or malignant. It is principally distinguished by the weaknefs and dejection of mind that attend it. The ulcerated sore throat is another com- plaint that may be found in every situation^ as it is capable of being propagated by con- tagion. The difference of this from the in- o flammatory sore throat is now well under- stood, and generally known ; but there is another complaint that resembles it very much, which requires a very different mode of treat- 474 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. iTient, of which I shall speak hereafter. In both, however, bleeding is improper. — No case requires the use of the lancet more than the common cold, if attended with cough and pain of the breast or side. These symp- toms, if neglected, frequently terminate in consumptions, which might easily have been prevented by some evacuation of this kind, joined to common care, whilst the complaint was recent. An absurd custom prevails among the com- mon people, of letting blood about the spring and fall of the year, whether they have any complaint that requires such evacuation or no i this practice, however, so far from tend- ing to prevent disorders, contributes greatly to produce them. It causes an habitual ple- thora, impoverishes the blood and juices, and w^hen done at the latter end of the year, is apt to dispose the body to intermittent fevers j and, if often repeated, to dropsical complaints. Many other bad effects of this absurd practice might be enumerated, but they are, I think, unnecefsary to mention. Purging is a mode of evacuation, whose consequences in mflammatory complaints are GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 475 often important, though lefs so than bleeding, and I think lefs hazardou§, if misapplied. Almost every inflammatory complaint requires some operation of this kind ; it is, however, in general, proper to be preceded by bleed- ing, which is thought to make it more safe and effectual : but this rule admits of many exceptions, and is not necefsary to be adhered to, except the tendency to inflammation pre- vail pretty strongly. It was formerly thought, that purgative me- cines differ considerably in the nature of the discharge they produced ; some being cal- culated to discharge water, others bile, others phlegm, &C.J but modern practice does not admit of much difference in this respect. All purgatives evacuate the bowels, and, if power- ful and stimulating, produce a watery dis- charge, by the absorption they occasion from the lymphatic system. Notwithstanding this similarity^ in the effects of purgative remedies, they differ considerably with respect to the circumstances that attend their operation. Some purgatives are observed to stimulate the body, and accelerate the pulse during their operation more than others j and this is an important circumstance to direct our choice 476 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. of them, according to the purposes for which they are intended. Those that operate with least irritaflon to the system, especially to the circulation, are preferable in acute com- plaints ; and nothing in such cases is better than a simple solution of the bitter purging salt in water. It is seldom rejected by the stomach, however unpleasant it may be to the taste, and its operation is effectual, and takes place quickly ; a circumstance of great im- portance in such cases. From one to two ounces may be safely taken difsolved in a pint of warm water, in all inflammatory complaints where purging is proper. If it should be ne- xefsary to repeat it in the advanced stages, when the feverish heat begins to subside, it Jnay be taken difsolved in the same quantity of infusion of flowers of chamomile, which will conduce to support the tone of the sto- mach, without obstructing the evacuation. — The same remedy is proper in such fevers as are attended with local inflammtition. If given early in such complaints, it will' generally procure a pafsage, being quick and effectual in its operation, and found, by experience, to be lefs liable to be thrown up than things much more pleasing to the taste. The use of this medicine is not only advisable in continued GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 477 fevers, but also in the beginning of intermit- tents, when the patient is strong enough to bear purging. But of this I shall say more when I come to speak of the use of the Peru- vian bark in that disorder. In the advanced state of all fevers, when the inflammatory disposition begins to abate, and a tendency to putrefaction to prevail, the saline purgatives in general are lefs proper than such as are of a more warm and stimu- lating nature. Rhubarb, in such cases, is more proper, as being warm and aromatic, at the same time that it is purgative. If it be required to be made warmer, one-half, or one-third part of nutmeg, or any other spice, may be added ; from 20 grains to 60 may be given for a dose, but this must vary accord- ing to circumstances. It is a perplexing circumstance attending the giving purgative medicines internally, that we cannot determine the degree of their ope- ration by the proportion or quantity that is taken. It generally happens, that one-half, or two-thirds of the usual dose will have little or no effect; whereas had the full quantity been taken, it would have produced a larger 478 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. discharge than might be desired. In cases, therefore, where some evacuations of the bowels is necefsary, and at the same time we might be apprehensive of any unpleasant effects from a large discharge, it is proper to employ clysters, which have an additional ad- vantage, that their effect takes place in a much shorter time than could be produced by any purgative medicine internally taken. When clysters are administered with this in- tent, there is no great necefsity to be very particular in their composition. A pint of warm gruel or broth, with two spoonfuls of sallad oil, or melted butter, a table-spoonful of common salt, and the same quantity of brown sugar, forms as efficacious and proper a clyster as the most laboured composition. It is proper, while upon this subject, to caution against the practice of giving pur- gative medicines internally, especially such as are of the heating, or stimulating kind, commonly called warm purgatives, to people who complain of pain in their stomach, or bowels ; particularly if this pain be attended with heat, thirst, or other symptoms of fever. It is much the safer practice to inject a clyster of the kind beforementioned, and to repeat it GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 479 if necefsary, and to use external fomentations, than to enter precipitately on the use of pur- gative medicines, which, if they do not take effect, often ai^gravate the mischief, by pro- ducing or increasing a disposition to vomit, and sometimes totally inverting the peristaltic motion of the intestines. If sufficient stools can be procuied by clysters, the danger is generally ovei ; but if that means of relief do not succeed, it is safer to apply to some of the profefsion, w^ho may best determine vvhat method may be pursued. It is of the utmost consequence to mention, that when any complaint of violent pain in the stomach or bowels is made, especially if such pain be not accompanied by stools, we should inquire first about the place in which it is chiefly felt, if that can be pointed out ; and next, if it came on rather suddenly, or soon after performing some laborious work, espe- cially the lifting any great weight, or indeed any considerable exertion of strength. If this be found to be the case, we should carefully examine the belly, especially that part nearest to the seat of the pain ; and if any swelling, or lump, however small, be found, even of the size of a hazel-nut, we may be almost certain. 480 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. that the cause of the complaint originates from thence, and that if it be immediately at- tended to, it may probably be relieved, at least the present danger obviated ; but that if it be neglected, the patient will almost infallibly die. The only remedy on such occasion is, to restore the portion of the intestine, v^^hich is thus protruded and comprefsed between the muscles of the abdomen, again into the cavity of the belly -, and if this be done soon after the accident, it produces no farther injury. But this must be understood of such cases only as have a quick attention paid to them, since if any delay is made, the danger increases very rapidly : even a few hours may determine the interval between safety and death.— If the patient be in the vigour of age and strength, the consequences of neglect are more to be apprehended, than if he were advanced in years, as the probability of inflammation and stricture upon the intestine is greater. The apparent facility and celerity with which this operation is often performed, and its great simplicity, may induce some people to attempt the performance of it, who hav« had no instruction or experience relative thereto j but it is proper to caution against GEORQICAL ESSAYS. 481 such attempts, as much nicety of touch, and addrefs of management, are often requisite; and if the part be rudely, or injudiciously handled, the hazard of the disorder is much increased. The parts where such an accident is most liable to happen, are the navel and the groin, but this rule is by no means universal. It is farther necefsary to remark, that women, who in country businefs are often employed in lifting considerable weights, as of pails of milk, buckets of water, and such like, are more liable to ruptures than men ; and on that account it is highly necefsary that whoever attends women labouring under any acute pains of the abdomen, should make a strict inquiry into the circumstances under which such pains originated, and particularly if there be any tumour in the groin, belly, or pudenda ; and if there be such, to be informed of what nature it is, before he goes any farther, or loses any more.of that time, which in such cases is so very precious. To return now from this rather long, but I hope not uselefs, digrefsion. Emetics are another clafs of medicines of Volume IV. II h 482 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. the evacuatory kind, tliat are* often of' the greatest importance, and whose use requires the particular attention of those who give advice to sick persons. It is not meant here to give a general account of the causes or circumstances in which emetics may be ad- ministered with propriety, but only to give a few hints relative to the cases that are most Jikely to occur in such situations, in which those remedies may be useful. First, then, emetics are indicated in cases \vhere, from imprudence or negligence, any thins has been swallowed, that we have reason to believe would be specifically injurious by- its continuance in the stomach. Thus if any poisonous plant, root, or berry, as of henbane, drop wort, nightshade, or such like, has been incautiously or ignorantly taken, our principal security depends on such poisonous substance being evacuated as soon as pofsible, and this can only be done with safety by means of emetics. A scruple, or half a drachm of pow and inflammation of the bowels. If a suf- ficient dose of tincture of opium» 20 or 30 drops for example, or, what might perhaps be more proper, a grain of unstrained opium in a pill, were to be given as soon as the paia becomes violent, and before any vomiting has come on, it might allay the pain, and make way for the operation of clysters; and would be preferable, in my opinion, to the exhibition of strong purgatives taken by the mouth, which, if they fail of producing au evacuation downwards, as they often do, cause vomiting, and aggravate all the other bad symptoms. If, however, the pain' be violent, and accompanied with heat or thirst, it will be necef^ary to let blood, which is per- fectly compatible with the operation of opmrn. 516 GECRGICAL ESSAYS. This medicine is not only useful on account of its own specific qualities, but also as a cor- rector of those of other medicines. It is not uncommon for the Peruvian bark to act as a purgative, which, in some of the most arduous circumstances in which it is given, as in intermittents, and fevers of a putrid tendency, is apt to disappoint its good effects. In such cases a few drops of tincture of opium, added to each dose, generally pre- vents the bark proving purgative, and of course suffers it to continue in the body long enough to be serviceable. This need not in general be continued long, as after a few doses the bark will usually lose its. purgative quality, and may be taken alone. I shall conclude tliis head with a caution relative to the use of such remedies^ which is, that the taking of them is very apt to insinuate itself, and to become habitual, especially in those who are occasionally subject to painful disorders. If often used, they become almost necefsary, as sleep cannot be procured with- out them. Those, therefore, who are obliged to take opiates occ^ionally, should make it a point of consequence not to use them except GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 5l7 when they are obviously nccefsary, and to leave them off as soon as that necefsity nq longer exists. It may be troublesome at first, but sleep will return in time spontaneously, if the party have but resolution to persevere. The long continuance of opiates requires an increase of the dose, which produces costive- nefs, indigestion, general weakncfs, and a tribe of nervous symptoms, very similar to those which are the consequences of dram- drinking, which the taking of opiates in large quantities very much resembles, I have thus finished what I have to say on the use of the medicines, which are calculated to answer the principal indications of cure. The reader will perceive easily that this ex- tends only to diseases of a certain description, and respects in them only those remedies, the propriety of whose use is obvious to any person of sense and tolerable education, w'ith- out afsistance from profefsional study or in- formation. I hope I have advanced nothing that is liable to mislead, and I trust that what is advised, will tend to make what future me- dical operations may be necefsary more suc- cefsful. Physicians often justly lament, and pften when it is too late, the imprudent mean K. k 3 518 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. sures that have been taken previous to their being employed. To obviate this in some measure, is the principal intention of the present efsay, vs^hich I have put into the present form, as being comprised in smaller compafs than if I had treated of the diseases separately, and as I think more easy to be understood. Some general directions relative to the treatment of Sick Persons ^ which could not so properly be introduced under the several indi- cations, are hetts added. CleanUnefs is a matter of the greatest conse- quence to the cure both of acute and chro- nical disorders. Every person who is indis- posed, ought to wash the face and hands, and feet occasionally, with, at least, equal regu- larity as in health. The ease and comfort this affords to sick persons, those especially who labour under acute diforders, can scarcely be imagined, except by those who have experi- enced it. — Change of linen is a highly necef- sary article. Every perfon ill of a fever ought to have clean linen for the head and body every day, and clean sheets every three days, or oftener, if the perfpiration be large. Many causelefs fears formerly prevailed, and still GEORGICAL ESSAVS. 519 subsist, concerning the airing qf linen. It is necefsary undoubtedly that this should be dry, but this is best insured by its being ex- posed when perfectly clean to a fire, and dried by that means only. Linen that has been worn, or sheets that have been lain in, wirfi a view to airing them, are unfit for sick persons, as they are in reality fouled and damp- ed by such absurd care. The room itself should be swept daily, and every oflTensive thing removed as soon as pofsible, and nothing suffered to remain in the roorn that is not im- mediately necefsary to the patient. What- ever food or drink he does pot consume should be removed immediately after as much as is necefsary be taken, and no person suffered to take food in the rooni except the sick person. It is necefsary that the utmost care be taken that the victuals, and whatever besides be pre- pared for the sick, be drefsed with the greatest regard to cleanlinefs. The stomach, in such cases is always delicate, and it is of the greatest consequence to indulge it in this respect. Change of Air and Coolnefs are nearly con- nected with cleanlinefs, and equally necefsary to be attended to. Every person confined to their bed with any feverish complaint, should ■ > K k 4 520 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. have the door and window of the room open- ed for a quarter of an hour twice, at least, in twenty-four hours. If the weather be very- severe, the curtains may be drawn so as to prevent the current of air from blowing on the sick person j but if the weather be mild or warm, the door and windows should be open through the day and even the night. There cannot be the least necefsity why the air should be warmer for a person ill of a fever than for a person in health, but many reasons why we should wish it cooler. To keep a sick person's chamber well aired, (I mean here not by fires, but by opening the doors and windows) contributes not only to the benefit of the sick person, but to the safety of the attendants. — Many fevers, which were at first simply inflammatory, have become by heat, confinement of air, and other improper treatment, putrid and contagious. It is ob- vious that if the complaint originally be of a putrid tendency, these cautions become doubly necefsary. Tlie proportion of bed-clothes is a circum- stance of great moment. These must be measured partly by the age of the patient and nature of the complaint, but principally by the GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 521 feeling of the sick person. I have often ob- served, that much of the restlcfsnefs attending fevers, which is so troublesome and fatiguing a symptom, and so exhausting of the strength of the patient, is owing to the quantity of bed-clothes. Too much heat naturally pro- duces a desire to change the heated place for one that is cooler ; but if the body were not uneasily hot, no such impatience would take place. Quiet is another important article. Officious curiosity is apt to make many persons intrude upon sick people, who have very little real concern on their account. This should by all means be discouraged, and no more persons admitted to the chamber of the sick than are necefsary to attend him. The admifsion of others tends only to foul the air, increasiJ the heat, and prevent the rest of the sick. The proper administration of food is a matter of the utmost concern. At the begin^ ning of inflammatory complaints, provided the patient be young and robust, some ab- stinence may be proper; but in the advanced state "of all disorders, both acute and chronical, it is necefsary to pay great attention to the article of food. As long as any considerable 522 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. degree of fever remains, it is proper to use a vegetable diet. Milk boiled with bread, bread and rice puddings, roasted apples, and the like, are all proper ; and for drink, toast and water, whey, or (if it be good) small beer : but no stronger liquor, and least of all distilled spirits. A most absurd and unhappy notion still prevails among many of the lower people, that sick persons are in want of some- thing cordial to support their strength, and keep up their spirits ; in consequence of which they often, in spite of any directions to the contrary from those who are better qualified to judge, give them some strong fermented liquor, as ale or strong beer, and sometimes rum, brandy, gin, and the like. It is a me- lancholy reflection, that numbers fall victims to this odious opinion, which, as well as many other instances of impertinent interference with the sick, Cught to be discouraged as much as pofsible. The mode of giving food to a sick person is worthy regard. It should always be in small quantity, and no more should be brought into the patient's sight than it may be expected he will be able to take at a time. This should b? done often in the day, and GEORGICAL ESSAY^. 523 even during the night, and without waiting for its being asked for by the sick person, who is often able to take food when he has not spirits to ask for it. It must not, how- ever, be prefsed with any importunity, which is njore likely to excite disgust than appetite. The support of the spirits of a person labour- ing under disease, is as necefsary towards his cure as the administration of medicines. — Every person that is ill, should be comforted with hopes of recovery, and chee^-ful prospects of life. To foretel a person's death in his presence, who is then ill of an acute com- plaint, has no small influence in verifying the prediction. Even those whose profefsion leads them to recommend religion to others, should be careful of dwelling too much upon gloomy subjects, and giving people dispiriting ideas of their situation. — Repentance and amendment of life, are, no doubt, in many instances necefsary to be advised, but great care must be taken to administer, together with advice, that greatest of all cordials — Hope. I have before mentioned, that an opinion prevailed among the lower ranks of peoples 524 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. that bleeding at certain times of the year was a salutary practice, whether any immediate necefsity appeared to make it proper or not. The same absurd notion prevails with respect to the taking purgative medicines. It is needlefs to say more here, than that surh habits are extremely improper to be commenced, and should be by all means, if pofsible, pre- vented. If, however, they have been begun, we must not precipitately direct them to be omitted, but to diminish the quantity of blood taken, and to omit the purgative, and in time lay them both aside altogether. I am inclined to think, that the almanacks, in which such advice has been for many ages pr^ostcrously inserted, have been the principal causes of such absurd notions being carried into practice for so long a course of years. I see it has been of late omitted in some, and hope the Others will follow the example. A prejudice subsists among many people of the lower ranks, against eye^y remedy that does not operate upon them in some sensible manner as an evacuant. They do not measure its good effects by the change it produces upon the health, but by its increasing their natural d,i^charses. This is an unfortunate prepofsefsion^, GEORGICAL ESSAYS, 525 as several of the most effectual remedies act for the most, part without any sensible alteration in the animal system, save the cefsation of the disorder. Tliis is the case in general with the l^eruvian bark, when given as a cure for the intermittent fever, in which, if medicines of the evacuatory kind were to be joined with the bark, they would, unlefs very gentle in their operation, frustrate the good effects of the principal remedy. It is proper on this account, whenever medicines of this kind are given, to forewarn those to whom they are administered, that they are not to expect from them any other effect than an abatement oi the disorder which they were intended to remedy : a condition sufficient to satisfy any reasonable per:>on. The common people are too apt to estimate the efficacy of medicines, as they do that of other things, by their pecuniary value and their scarcity. They have no idea that Pro- vidence has made the most useful things in " medicine, as well as food, cheap and common, and that expense in such articles is oftencr necefsary to flatter and comply with effeminate delicacy, than to add to the real eliicacy of a remedy. The poor who are in hospitals do ^2^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. hot receive, in proportion to their numbers, lefs relief than the rich in their splendid apart- ments 5 though in the former case nothing be conceded to prejadiccj fancy, and caprice, and in the latter, it rnakes the most important consideration. It is incumbent, therefore, oii all who take the charge of the lower people when sick, to combat this mistaken opinion, and to endeavour, if pofsibJe, to convince them, that the best remedies are in many in- stances the cheapest. Thosd who take the charge of sick persons, should be cautious that the same course of medicines be not continued too long a time together. It should be understood, that me- dicines (at least the greatest part of them) are more calculated to restore health than to pre- serve it. Y/e should therefore be careful to recommend, to persons .in health, to be con- tented with the happinefs they enjoy in that respect, and not to attempt to improve what cannot be amended, but may easily be im- paired. Some ignorant people are prepofsefsed with a notion that it is ivholesomey as it is termed, to drink several infusions of herbs, as of flowers of chamomile, of centaury, and several others*. But such trials are not only GEORGIGAL ESSAYS. .527 unnecefsaty, but likely to be injurious. The taking of bitters in large quantities, for a long time together, hurts the tone of the stomach, instead of mending it, as was found by fatal experience of those who took the Portland Gout Powder, which destroyed nearly all who tried it. This powder was nothing else than such bitter herbs as are commonly drank in tea, or brewed with malt liquor in the form of purl. What is here said, is not meant to in- sinuate that bitters properly and moderately used, are not very useful remedies. It is the excefs only that is censured. Another reason why we should be upon our guard against continuing the use of the same medicines for a long time is, that it is apt to introduce that most destructive of all habits, Dram-drinkhig. Many of the tinctures re- commended in this way are little else than, drams concealed under a medicinal disguise, and as such should be with equal caution, avoided, as far as respects their becoming habitual. I have more than once seen a habit of this odious kind introduced among womeo, particularly by these means. It is not s© Hkely to happen to the lower ratiks, as to those 528 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. who employ them, for whom this caution is principally meant. The last piece of advice I shall offer respects Quackery. Perhaps there is nothing disgraces the police of this country more, than the numerous im- positions of this kind that are daily advertised. Scarcely any one of them has not only a greater certainty of succefs ascribed to it, but Is al- leged to be infallible in a greater variety of disorders than are curable by all the articles of the Materia Medica taken collectively. Some of these boasted remedies are merely frivolous and inert, but others are violent and dangerous in their operation, and highly improper to be trusted to such persons as those who are thus rashly encouraged to take them in an indis- criminate manner. A solution of arsenic is. said to have been the basis of a late specific for fevers, and I am well informed has in several instances destroyed the patient. Tliese instances however, are carefully concealed, whilst every escape is carefully recited as a. cure, owing to the remedy so given. No piece gf humanity would be greater GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 529 than to preserve the ignorant and uneducated ot the lower ranks from sacrificing their health and money to unfeelins: fraud and interested knavery. ESSAY XXV. On the Use' of Salt as a principal Condiment in increas- ing the Appetite of Graminivorous Animals. aIitherto the greatest part of mankind seem to forget, that mere animals have the sense of tasting in as great perfection as man; and are disposed to indulge their appetite for sensual gratifications, without any restraint, wherever circumstances put it in their power. The uses that may be made by man, for his own emolument, of this natural propensity of animals, are very obvious, when adverted to. Yet I know no case in which the general at- tention of men seems to have been strongly Volume IV. I. 1 530 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. turned to that point, unlefs it be in respect to the fattening of calves ; for 1 have met with few persons who have had an extensive prac- tice in this department, who are not sensible that the profit is in proportion to the quantity of milk that the creatures can be induced vo- luntary to take in a given time. This soli- tary fact is known by thousands, who never once think of extending it to any other case of animal existence. But there are not want- ing a few persons, who, in consequence or accurate observation, have discovered the vast importance of studying with care the taste of the creatures they feed, that they may not only furnish them with the kinds of food they like best, but also to vary these from time to time, and to give them exactly in the quantities, and in the way that they find will induce the creatures to eat the most ; having the full ex- perience, that the profit to be drawn from feeding beasts is always proportioned to the increased quantity of food they can get each individual coaxed to consume in a given time. In this branch of rural economics, I have met with no person who has made greater progrefs than a plain practical farmer at Hope, in the neighbourhood of Manchester, who spares no trouble nor expense in procuring such kinds CEORGICAL ESSAYS. ^31 fef food and condiments as he finds best cal- culated to induce his cows to consume, in a given time, the greatest quantity of food pos- sible. The consequence is, that this man makes much money, where his neighbours, who are not in the secret, and more niggard in their outlay than he is, sustain a lofs. Among other condiments, this man has dis- covered, that pure water stands pretty high in the scale ; on which account his beasts are never suffered, far lefs obliged, to taste a drop of water that has ever been sullied by any animal setting a foot into it. With this view, they are always served with running water, which is, for their convenience, received into a long wooden trough, through which it pafses while they are drinking. Such poor beasts as are compelled, through necefsity, to drink out of those muddy stagnant pools, in which other cattle have waded for davs tos:ethcr to cool themselves in hot weather, which are fully impregnated with their dung and urine, feel the inconvenience of this nauseating draughty and the farmer, of course, suffers an abatement of his profit to an astonishing de- gree. Astonishing to him, it may be justly called ; for though he feels the effect, he seems to be ignorant of the cause, and there- Ll 2 532 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. fore suffers it to exist, without an attempt to remove it ; as every attentive person must have observed in many thousand cases. There can be little reason to doubt, that animals which can be induced voluntarily to take an extra quantity of food in a given time, will be quickly fattened by that practice ; but v,e would scarcely be inclined to suspect, that the same effect would be the result where the animals are compelled involuntarily to take a much greater quantity of food than they ever would do, if left entirely to themselves, were we not in pofsefsion of facts which undeniably prove that this is certainly the case. The prac- tice of crawzw/w^ fowls, as it is generally called, establishes this point beyond a doubt. The following method of fattening geese, in Languedoc, in France, while it proves the position here stated, deserves to be generally known, as it will give some hints that may be useful in fattening other animals. After the bird has got Into full Jesh, (i.e. by being well kept upon green food,) it is neces- sary not to delay the fattening of them too long, lest you lose the season entirely. About CEORGICAL ESSAYS. 535 the end of December they enter into rut, aftei^ zohkhiime they will not fatten at all. As soon as the frost has set in, (usually towards the end of November,) they are shut up, to the number of ten or twelve (never more) in a dark still place, where they can never see light, nor hear the cries of those which are kept for lay- ing. They, remain in that prison till they have attained the greatest degree of fatnefs, and are ready for killing: that moment must be seized, otherwise they would very soon turn lean, and at last die. There are two ways of fattening of them.— ,jrhe Jirst is, hy^ giving them a trougli filled with grain, which they call sarde, so that they may eat whenever they please. [I do not know v/hat kind of grain is denoted by the word sarcle. Perhaps it may be. buck- wheat. It does not seem, from what follows, that the eifect of the operation called malting on grain, intended to feed animals, is there known.] The geese fattened on this grain are very delicate. Others, put into the trough grains of maize boiled in Watef: They take care to give them plenty of that food, and to keep the coop clean At the end of two or three weeks, the geese are all fully fattened. 1 l'i 3 534- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. They are then taken out of the coop, and al- lowed to go at large into the water for twenty- four hours. Without that precaution, their flesh would have a disagreeable flavour. The above may be called the natural me- thod of fattening, by enticing them to eat food enough of their own accord. T\\q fecond may be called the artificial method^ and is as follows : The geese are put up in the same manner as before, and are crammed twice a day, by put- ting into their craw, by means of a tinned tube, as much as it will hold, of maize boiled in water. The tube is used, because the bill of the goose being furnished with teeth, the person who should attempt to perform that operation by hand, would soon have it scratched and torn to pieces. By this means, the geese acquire a prodigious fatnefs, so that a pair scrmetimes weigh from fifty to sixty pounds. Their liver weighs from one pound to a pound and a half, — is white and deli- cate y — but has a slight bitternefs to the taste, which the liver of a duck has not. The hearts are large, like a small apple, and when drefsed on the gridiron, they, are excellent .J GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 535 eating. Tlie feet are boiled, after which thej are fried the same as the tongue. Ducks are fattened in the same place, as under : When the ducks are pretty fat by the usual modes of feeding, they are shut up in a dark place. Every morning and even- ing, a servant puts their wings acrofs, and placing them between his knees, opens their bill with his left hand, and with his right fills the craw with boiled maize : they some- times die suffocated ^ but they are not a bit the worse for it, provided care is taken to bleed them directly. The unfortunate animals pafs there fifteen days in a state of opprefsion and suffocation, in consequence of their liver growing large, which keeps them always panting, and almost without breathing. When the tail of the duck spreads out like a faiu they know that it is fat enough ; they are then turned out to bathe in the water, after \vhi;;h they are killed. I have opened two ducks, of which the one had not, and the other had been crammed. The first had a liver of the natural size, the LI 4 536 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. skin equally thick in all places, and the lungs perfectly sound. That which had been crammed, had an enormous liver, which, co- vering all the lower part of the belly, ex- ten dea as far as the anus. The lungs were small, and loaded with blood. The skin of the belly, which covered the liver, was of the thicknefs of a shilling. When the ducks thus crammed, as well as the geese, have been plucked, they seem balls of fat, and none of their members are discernible. There are some inferences, not a little cu- rious, that may be drawn from these facts, in regard to the fattening of other animals. Not only does it confirm the general position as- sumed above, that the more food an animal can be made to take, in a given time, the quicker it vi-ill be fattened: but this rule seems to hold, when it is given even in a huriful quantity, beyond what the animal would na- turally have taken ; and farther, that by cer- tain modes of feeding, w^hen well understood, the size of particular parts of the body can be augmented at pleasure, far beyond their na- tural proportions. Could the quantity of tal- low in quadrupeds be augmented nearly in proportion to the liver, in this case, it 15, GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 537 evident the profit to the owner "would be greatly augmented. There is no substance yet known w^hlch is so much relished by the whole order of gra- miniverous animals, as common salt. The Avild creatures of the desert are so fond of it, that wherever they discover a bank of eardi impregnated with a small proportion of salt, they come to it ever after regularly to lick the saline earth, as they would to a pool of water for drink, were there none other near; so that when a hunter in America discovers such a lick, as such places are there called, he reckons himself sure of obtaining plenty of game, by Iving in wait near it, andj shooting them as they approach it, until the whole beasts that have discovered it are killed. It is also admitted by all those who have tried the experiment, that salt, given along with the food of domestic animals, [except fowls, to which salt is a certain poison,] tends very much to promote their health and ac- celerate their feeding ; and altliough some persons, who have been at a lofs to account for the manner in which this stimulant could act as a nutritious substance, have affected to 538 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. disregard this fact, yet no one has been able to bring the sligheest show of evidence to invalidate the strong proofs that have been adduced in support of it ; though, unfortu- nately for this country, few experiments of this kind have been tried in it. In fact, we have no reason to suppose that salt acts in the smallest degree, as a nutritious substance, or, nf itself y tends to fatten any aijimal ; but that merejy, by acting as a condiment, it whets the appetite, and gives the creature to which it is properly administered, a strong relish for its proper food, so as to induce it to eat in a given time a greater quantity than it would have done, and thus greatly to augment, as has been above explained, its feeding quality beyond what it otherwise could have had. In this way, it is not perhaps an extravagant position to say, that by a proper use of common salt, the same quantity of forage might, on many occasions, be made to go twice as far as it could have gone in feeding animals, had the salt been withheld from them. If so, (and let those who are inclined to withhold their afsent to this position, prove, by a set of ex- periments fairly conducted, that it is erro- neous,) till then, the unvarying testimony of the few who have tried it, confirming the CEORGICAt ESSAYSf 535 posklon, ought to be relied on. If so, then, (I still say,) \vc have here laid open to our yiew an easy mode of augmenting the produce pf our fields to an amazing extent : for, if the same quantity of forage can be made to go, not twice as far, but one-ticenticth part only farther than it now does, it would be the same thing as adding one-twentieth part to the ag- gregate produce of meat for beasts throughout the whole kingdom. But, according to the estimate of the President of the Board of Agri- culture, there are upwards of fifty millions of acres of cultivated land in this island ; the value of that forage produced by which, cannot, on an average, be rated so low as twenty shillings per acre ; but even at that low rate, the addition of one-twentieth would amount to 2,550,0001. per annum ; a sum so great, that when viewed in the aggregate, it is diffi- cult to bring the mind to believe that such an improvement is actually practicable j yet, wheji the particulars are considered in derail, it seems to be impofsiblc not to admit that the amount of the improvement must be greatly above what is here stated. This improvement, however immense as it must appear to be, in whatever way it can be 540 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. viewed, is entirely prevented from taking place in" this island, by reason of the salt laws : for while these shall be continued on the footing they now stand, it is vain to think ever to itiduce farmers even to try the ex- periments that are necefsary for elucidating the facts here wanted : and other persons are, for obvious reasons, incapable of making the experiments ; nor, if they could make them with the utmost accuracy, could they ever convince farniers in general, while the duties shall be allowed to continue as they now are, so far as to induce them to make a copious use of salt for their beasts in their general practice. Considered under this point of view, 'as well as many others, the duty on salt must be accounted one of the most impolitic taxes that ever was imposed in. any country 3 as it tends to retard the prosperity of the nation in a thousand Vvays, to an amount that no person, who has not considered the subject with the sam.e attention I have done, could ever believe to be pofsiblc. — Better were it for the inha* bitants of this country to pay an hundred times the amount of the free produce of the duties on sa-lt, if levied in any one of a variety c>f ways that might easily be suggested, which do not bind up the hands of industry as this GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 641 does. But so long as party cabals shall oc- cupy the minds of the leading men in the legislative and executive departments of go- vernment, to the exclusion of every object from their serious- thoughts, that cannot be immediately connected with them, it is in vain to think that observ^ations which tend to promote merely useful measures, which might perhaps affect the interest, and tend to disgust some powerfnl supporters of either party, or their adherents, will ever command the atten- tion of either party. i:2 iatOKtlCAL ESSAYS. ESSAY XXVL On Fann-Yard Compost. XiS a farm, in most situations, chiefly depends- on the above for its improvement, no attention should be spared to make the heap as large and as rich as pofsible. Ilie management of most common farmers is, in this respect, ex- ceedingly deficient J they are ready to sell their hay, straw, stubble, &c. rather than consume them in making dung, and very rarely pay any attention to the preservation of the urine and drainings of their dunghills. The first of these articles is so important, that without a very determined attention to it, no farm can ever be brought into very high order. All the ensuing management depends upon the quantity of straw and stubble, or litter, being large: but if the farmer sells hi& straw, how is he to see a great dunghill. The farm-yard manure depends on the con- sumption of hay and strawy just in proportion GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 54'^ as either is sold, the dunghill must decline ; and sorry I am to observe, that it is too com- mon a practice among farmers to be ready to sell both. The rule, however, admits of ex- ceptions; for near very large towns, hay and straw for littering horses will sell for such high prices, that if the farmer's waggon or cart brings him back a load of rich manure, it may be more advantageous to sell than to consume. Profit is the great object, and we must never carry any rules so far as to lefscn it ; but the common error is doing it too universally, and being tempted with too low prices. To name a price under which a farmer should never sell, is not easy to be done, as it must necefsarily be regulated by various circum- stances. There are many hay farmers near London that entirely depend on selling, what- ever may happen to be the price : no system of cattle is prepared on such farms to make a profitable consumption of hay, which can only arise from other connected articles. But where such cases do not immediately mark exceptions, I think I may safely say, that a ton of hay, in commonly improved countries, ought never to be sold dry in the winter for lefs than 50s. nor a ton of straw for lefs than 30s. with a proviso that they should go at no 544 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. price without a load of rich manure being brought back. There certainly are farmers ■who might say. How can I ?nake 50s. by eating my hay at home? All I reply is, that if vou cannot do it, you are not in a good cattle system, or you give it lavishly or improperly j and that he who makes a point of doing it, will, in the long run, find his annual dunghill so large, and his fields consequently so im- proved, that he will afsuredly find his account amply in it. It is only by means of such at- tentions, that cultivators have made the sur- prising quantities we have heard o^. At the most leisure season, before the time of confining his cattle to fodder, so much marl, turf, dry mud, loam, Sic. should be carted into the farm-yard as will cover the whole about twelve inches deep; and if there are many stables, hog-houses, bullock, or cow- stalls, that are cleaned into it, to spread such earth thicker in those places. Those who have the fortunate opportunity of using bog peat, from the vicinity of a bog or boggy bottom, should not neglect it: such stuff is a vegetable dunghill. Only drenched in water when dry, and carted plentifully into a farm- yard, and littered upon, and impregnated,! GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 545 with animal manure, it becomes a most easy and valuable means of adding nobly to the quantity of the farm-yard compost. before the farmer begins to fodder, which will be probably some time in November, let him litter the whole yard well with either stubble, fern, or leaves. For this purpose I suppose all his wheat-stubbles mown and chopped, and stacked in or very near the yards. If he is near a warren, heath, or common, he may probably be able to procure fern cheap, that is, at the price of eight or ten shillings a waggon load, in bulk equal to a ton and half of dry hay, wherever such oppor- tunities exist, they ought never to be neg- lected. In the duchy of Mecklenburgh they are wise enough to know^ the value of this plant for litter, and reckon the dung that is made of it fatter than that of straw. If his neighbours will sell their stubble at 12s. to 15s. a waggon load delivered in, he ought to provide a large quantity. Fern, in burning, yields more alkaline salts than any other vegetable, which is proof suf- ficient how valuable the dung must be; but Volume IF. U m 516 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. care must be taken to rot it well, which is more difficult than to rot straw. Xo money which a farmer can expend, is better laid out than in the purchase of litter of any kind ; for his cattle do not only lie dry, warm, and bedded, but the quantity of ma- nure he raises is very large, and cheaper than in any otherway of buying it. The article of leaveSf depends on his situa- tion. If he is in a woodland, where the trees are thick and spreading, they are to be raked into heaps, and carted to the farm-yard, at a very moderate expense 5 they make excellent litter, and very good dung. Mr. Bevor, of Hethel, has them raked and loaded at Gd. a load. If he has any marshes in his neigh- bourhood, that afford a good swarth of rushes, coarse grafs, tiags. Sec. Sic. he should not neglect to lay in good store of them for the same use ; and if he has the power of cutting the aquatics that rise under water in lakes or meres, or flooded grounds, he may do it by jointed scythes, and rake them into boats. I have rowed through acres of water, in Ireland, in Loch Erne, so full of these, that GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 547 the quantity of litter they would yield is pro- digious. These steps being taken, the farmer is well prepared to meet the winter, and to turn it greatly to his advantage; but, in order to do this, he must adopt that husbandry which this climate points out as necefsary, but which those commonly esteemed more happy arc exempted from, and consequently tempt farmers to neglect this necefsary businefs of making dung. The management I mean, is the strict confinement of his cattle during winter. Some^curious cattle-masters tie them up in stalls; I do not require it; but it is efsential that they are confined to the yard, and on no account suffered to roam about any pastures, which is a practice too common. If all the cattle of a farm are absolutely con- fined to the yard, the lean stock to straw, and the rest to straw and turnips, &c. or to hay, the compost of marl, litter, and waste straw, will have the necefsary quantity of animal manure amongst k to ferment, rot, and turn to rich manure; whereas if the cattle do not live entirely in the farm-yard, the heap may be large, but of little value; a diflference I have had repeated occasion not only to observe, 6 M m 2 bis GEORGICAL ESSAItS. but to experience in taking dung at a valuaticru from quantity, when the quaUty (owing to this circumstance) was of little worth. The benefit to the cattle of wandering is much lefs than is supposed by somcj and the mis- chief to the grafs lands, except on the lightest soils, very great. In this system there must always be a pond's mouth in every yard. The common error j to be seen in the ma- nagement of half the yards in the kingdom, is suffering the drainings to run to waste. Rain and snow will, in spite of any management, sometimes overflow ^ but in general the whole may be under command. The best method is to sink a well about five feet deep in the lowest corner of the yard, to fix a pump in it, and to raise a small stage whereon to stand and work it ; a trough will then con- vey the water to a large heap of marl, chalk, turf, loam, &c. and daily pumping over it will make it of little lefs value than a heap of dung of the same size. The whole expense of what is necefsary for this will be under four pounds ; and that of pumping is too trifling to think of The dung should never be suffered GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 549 to remain under water, however rich it may- be 5 as putrefaction is in that case stopped. At the end of the foddering season, the farmer is to turn over and mix very well to- gether the compost v^'hich his winter manage- ment has given him. This is neccfsary, that the dung and earth may be well incor- porated. Thus the dung is ready for turnips or cab- bages ; if kept longer for beans, to be carried .on in autumn, or for potatoes, in the following spring, in which case it must, on wet land, be carted m a frost. And here results the con- venience of having a variety of farm-yards ; that is, one on each side of a barn ; for if the dung is not carted for turnips or cabbages, it must be moved to a heap, as the foddering of the ensuing winter will begin before it can be taken for the other crops,. This carting to form a heap is equivalant to a stirring, and I would not have the heap touched after the first mixing together of the marl and the layer, which has accumulated upon it. Many personb turn over their dunghills frequently, in order that they may rot the sooner ; but I have often observed that no dung becomes so H m 3 550 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. thoroughly and equally converted into a mucilaginous mafs — into black butter as the farmers call it — as that which never was stirred at all. By moving, the dung is made to lie loose and hollow ; every fresh fermen- tation that is excited in that state volatilizes the oil and alkaline salt, and carries it off to the atmosphere : hence we see that a dunghill often stirred or moved, though black and rotten, is by far drier than one which has re- mained untouched ; and it is the fat, oily, wet rottennefs that is valuable, that is muci- laginous. The longer you keep, and the oftener you mix your dung, the drier it be- comes ; till at last it has the appearance of black snuff, and might be sown by hand. Hence, therefore, to avoid too much stirring and moving, (which by the way is very ex- pensive also,) I would let it rest in the farm- yard till the land is ready it is designed for, and fodder in another yard. If the buildings and conveniencies will not allow this, then in the spring, as soon as the foddering is over, I would, instead of turning over, cart it at once out of the yard into a heap, taking care to mix the marl with the litter as well as pofsible in filling the carts; and making the heap in the field where it is to be used, leav^ GEORGICAL ESSAYS. j5l it untouched ; in which way the dung has but one stirring also. The heap should not jt)e above four feet thick, and not carted on to ; and if it is put in a shady phice, under thick spreading trees, so much the better. Here you will permit me to reprobate a very common and mischievous practice ; it is that of keeping hogs in the yard, who, for ever burying themselves in the straw, disturb its fermentation so much, that the putrefac- tion so necefsary to bring it to a mucilaginous state can never go on as it ought. These animals are not content with the fresh straw just thrown out of the barn, but dig into and disturb the mafs that is trodden down, and which ought to rest, in order to ferment. One can scarcely go into a farm-yard without observing this ill-management j the food thus procured for the hogs is of no value com- parable to the mischief they doj at the end of the foddering season, the litter of the yard is in so uncorrupted a state, that it must be carted on a fresh heap in order to rot; whereas a dunghill made in any place where the hogs cannot get at it, will often be ready to carry on the land. I have heard the practice de- fended, as there is no folly but will meet its IS'I m 4 552 GEQRGICAL ESSAYS. patron; but let me ask these people, would they have the mafs of litter in the yard fer- ment and putrefy, or would they not? And does grubbing into, and disturbing it daily, retard or accelerate the fermentation ? If a yard was kept warm by covering it with a roof to keep out rain and frost, ad- mitting air around it, the litter would putrefy the sooner. How ill-judged, therefore, to let the cold air, frost, and snow, into the mafs itself, by the holes these grubbing animals are constantly making! The hogs should be confined to their own small yard. Respecting the quantity to be used per acre, it depends on three circumstances. The richnefs of the compost — the soil — and the crop. — If many beasts or hogs were fat- tened in the winter, it will be much richer than if made by only lean cattle, when more must be used. — If the soil is very poor, it will demand the more ; and potatoes or cabbages will require a larger manuring than other crops. However, in a general way, forty tons may be reckoned a proper manuring, if the compost is not very rich; if it is, thirty. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. £»5.3 A very different system from tliis has been practised and recommended by some persons; which is, to neglect littering altogether — to keep all cattle tied up — and to make them eat all the straw. This is done by means of particular standings or floors, that have a step immediately beyond their hind-feet; so that neither their dung nor urine falls on the part where they lie, in which manner mere sweep- ing keeps them clean. This may be the most profitable in certain circumstances, par- ticularly where straw cannot be purchased, and on farms that contain much grafs and but little tillage. 'a- Before I quit this subject of managing the farm-yard dung, I shall mention a speculation which I believe I shall put in practice, as soon as it suits my convenience. It is to cover the entire farm-yard with a slight roof of feather-edged boards; the expense is not considerable. I have little doubt of its an- swering greatly. Very heavy rains and snows that float the yard by accident are bad enough, but not so much to be guarded against as the sun, and especially upon the system of soiling in the summer, or a part of it, all the Cattl^ on the winter's dung. No man that 554 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. has not tried it can easily conceive the dif- ference between the dung that is made under cover, and that which is exposed to all weathers. The superiority is indeed so great, that I believe one load to which neither the sun nor rain can come, is worth two exposed to both. It rots much better and quicker also. I should apprehend the yard cattle also would be in better condition, when covered from the weather, than when exposed to beating rains; but the whole side to the south should be open about nine feet high, Ip. order that they should have plenty of air. GEORGICAL ESSAYS, 555 ESSAY xxvir. Oil the Size of Farms, j^LLL considerations on the size of farms ought to be in reference to two principal objects. First, the grofs produce of the earth ; and, secondly, the neat produce of it : by which neat produce I mean the portion of it, which finds the way to market, and supports the part of the population of a country not immediately concerned in its cultivation. The subject admits of collateral views, such as the revenue of the Prince, and Population : but as they properly floyi', by the application of just principles, from tiie decision of those two chief circumstances, they do not demand a particular attention. If there are men who would wish to have small farms, whether the product of the earth was great or little, and who do not esteem any circumstance equal to a minute division, I leave such to their systematical visions — they 556 CEORGICAL ESSAYS. by no means merit attention. The argument generally advanced is, that the earth is better cultivated by little farmers than by great ones. It would be a very curious disquisition to inquire which of these products the grofs, or the neaty ought to be the object of a legislature in the regulations of landed property : To enter fully into this question would carry me too far : It is sufficient to observe, that those are the most flourishing countries, where the neat produce is the greatest, because the ex- istence of it as a superlucration of husbandry provides in the more ample manner for the clafses unconnected with agriculture, viz. the inhabitants of towns, manufacturers, soldiers, seamen, 8cc. And as the wealth, power, and prosperity of a modern State depend exceed- ingly on these clafses, they necefsarily give a superiority in this view to the neat^ rather than to the grofs produce. And as a confirmation that this ought really to be the principal con- cern, we may recur to the case of an extreme division of the soil, in which every family might have just enough land to support itself by means of a very operose culture, and con- sequently could spare nothing for market* GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 5 57 The femilies might live comfortably (provided the surplus of their population emigrated) — the soil might be admirably cultivated — the country might be very populous, but there could be neither cities, towns, army, navy, nor manufacturers. Such a nation of little farmers would be the prey of the first invader, for they must stick close to their fields or starve. This case shows, that cultivation and population are to be considered only in connection with the political interests of the community. Culti- vation is not efsential to the happinefs of the individual : a Tartar family living on their mare's milk, may be as happy without tillage, as a European peasant with it. Hence, therefore, no useful conclusion can be drawn from maxims that lay down the measure of subsistence as the measure of population ; because population ought never to be con- sidered that is not applicable to the prosperity and defence of the community : And 1 have already supposed a case in which a country might be exceedingly populous and yet very weak. And here I must stray for a moment from the immediate line of my argument, to obviate a very common error, which I meet with 558 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. every day both in books and conversation ; and that is, the notion that great national strength results from breeding numbers of men in little farms. This I take to be erro- neous, because I have view^ed great tracts of couiTtry with close attention ; and have reason to believe, that young men bred up to coun- try labour, sobriety, tind industry, rarely, or never enlist ; nor can the State get at them but by tyrannical means, such as enrolling them in regiments by force. I have observed in Eng- land, that a peasant (uniefs a profligate fellow) \vill not enter into the army if he has not been rendered idle by serving in the militia. A verv general observation tells me, that our late wars have been entirely supported by the in- habitants of towns, chiefly manufacturing places. A w^ar gives a check to fabrics j hands are thrown out of employment, or wages are sunk ; then w^orkmen enlist fast : and thus it is that vv^e hear of such incredible num- bers supplied by single towns, such as Bir- mingham, Manchester, &c. Nothing so idle, therefore, as to tell us of the superior robust- nefs, and hardinefs of countrymen : It is nothing to the purpose, without tyrannical operations^ to take that vigour from the inno- cence of its ov\n fields, and imbrue thbse GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 559 Jhands in blood, that were educated for the plough. I am not, however, so ready to ad- mit the superiority in modern war, undoubted as it was before the invention of artillery. The scum of towns, the outcasts of cities, have in many regiments, equalled whatever could, be performed by rustics. An army is not always employed in intrenching. A sturdy peasant may not be moulded into an auto- maton, that is to perform rapid evolutions as easily as the more pliable body of a manufac- turer. But whether this is just or not, the fact remains the same, that it is the towns, and not the fields, that recruit our armies. The conclusion I draw, is the necefsity of the policy common in Europe, to leave the size of farms free, that the private interest of pro- prietors may unite with that of the State in raising from the land as great a neat produce as pofsible ; or, in other words, supply as many, and as great towns, and as flourishing manufac- tures, as the nature of the territory will per- mit. Thus far I have virtually allowed, that an extreme division of the soil is well calculated to raise the greatest grofs produce ; because I may grant this to my opponents without the 560 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. least injury to my general argument. But I am perfectly persuaded that the fact is otherwise, and that large farms are much superior to small ones in this as well as in every other respect. In fact, we have throughout England no tracts of country (not one to my knovv^ledge) divided generally into small farms, and yet well cul- tivated. By small I mean under one hundred acres. I am well acquainted with vast num- bers of them, and scarcely know a single one that is well cultivated. Some there must, of course be, from 70 to 100, that may be tolerably managed on good land : but I con- tend, that even such will be much inferior in the culture to larger ones j and that for every well-cultivated farm, of that size to which I am referred, I will show ten admirably ma- naged of 5, or 600 acres, or more. And as to much smaller ones, such as 10, and 20, and 30 acres, which, according to the arguments of so many writers, are the best of all, they are found in England to be very generally the residence of poverty and misery; wretchedly cultivated. Not that I would prohibit them. Perfect freedom is all I. contend for. If thev are a spur to the industry of labourers, to make them sober and saving in order to be- come the occupiers of such, they are advan- GEORGICAL ESSAYS 56-1 tageousjbut by no means for the products that will be gained from them. I have found from a close inspection, that the number of horses in a couhtry thus di- vided, is treble and quadruple the number found upon large farms ; one very evident rea- son for the poverty of their cultivators. There was a farm in my parish (at present my pro- perty) of only 16 acres of land, and yet the man kept two horses : no wonder he failed, notwithstanding the most intense industry. There is another remaining of 28 acres, on which there are three horses kept. A con- tiguous one of 350 acres has only 10 upon it. Those who are advocates for little farms, in order that pigs and poultry may be plentiful, forget the swarms of horses that eat what would feed myriads of pigs and chickens. The point of taxation to raise the neces- sary revenue of the State,, depends like so many other circumstances on the neat, not on the grofs produce. If a country was divided into very small farms in property, the owners living entirely witiiin themselves, fed by their corn, or their butter and cheese, the wool of a few sheep converted into clothing, and Volume IV. X n i<32 GEORGICAL ESSAY5. patch of flax into linen by the female part of the family; such a farmer v/ould want to go to market for nothing but the very trifling reparation of the irons of his instruments, and for salt, both which might be gained by a little barter. Such a man's farm might be cultivated like a garden, and the proportional population great, but what says the sovereign to such a system? Such a man can pay n© taxes without the greatest distrefs. But what are we to say to poor soils and countries that want improvement? Can these be managed by little farmers ? We have vast tracts of land in England that can be culti- vated to no purpose whatever without a fold. Divide a large farm so that a flock of sheep can- not be kept, and after absenting yourself some years, return to view your improvement. But Avhy do I waste time in reasoning upon points that are self-evident. The same argument is equally applicable to soils that require in- closing, marling, draining, laying down to grafses as a preparation for corn ; and, in a word, any expensive improvement. That little farms may be had upon soils na- turally fertile, and that want no other improve- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 563 ment than the common routine of the year, is a fact; but even upon these in England the superiority of cultivation and product is all on the side of Jarge farms. We are told, that in Flanders the case is otherwise. I have not seen the country, and therefore cannot con- tradict the fact : but it appears, from M. Mann's memoir, that they are commonly in property, which certainly makes a vast dif- ference: unite that circumstance with the richest soil that is to be met with in Europe, and you certainly describe the case in which little farms will be attended with the greatest advantages they are capable of. There are numbers of such in Switzerland, and they are thought favourably of for the same reason. Such are my reasons for thinking that the grofs produce of the earth is larger from a country divided into greater farms than if it were in small ones : but all these reasons may be of no avail, and the fact quite contrary, yet the advocates for the latter would find themselves not at all nearer to their mark ; for as I set out with saying it is not the ^ro/s, but ^ the NEAT produce in the markets that must decide the general question. Nn2 o64 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. That this is greatest from large farms, no man of the least attention to country businefs can entertain a doubt. In the first place, the agriculture of them is incomparably better than upon small ones : the permanent im- provements which bad soils may require, are only to be found upon them. And when a large grofs produce is raised, it is not de- voured as on little tarms, by a multiplicity of uselefs horses, but as much goes neat to market as is pofsiblc. Every sort of work is done cheaper and better, by^eing distributed to hands accustomed to perform it. The in- genious writer, Dr. Smith, has shown, that one reason why manufacturing labour is better performed than that of agriculture, is the division it undergoes. A pin is well and cheaply made, because every article in its fabric is a distinct trade. Agriculture will not admit of this, for men cannot be em- ployed their v^hole lives in sowing, others in ploughing, others in hedging, others in hoeing, and so on ; but the nearer we approach to this the better, which can only be on a large farm. In a small one, the same man is shepherd, hogherd, cowherd, ploughman, and sower : he goes about ten different sorts of labour and attention in the same day, and GEORGICAL ESSAYS. $65 cansequcntly acquires no habitual skill pecu- Jiarly in any ; — and this affects not only the manner in which work is done, but the quan- tity and cheapnefs. The amount of the great farmers improve- ments, and the superiority of his cultivation, make him also superior in the quantity of population he supports, at the same time that he sends a greater neat. produce to market. This I have found to be the case by comparino- the population of different farms in above I00,C)O0 acres of country: but it is not a cir- cumstance on which 1 rest any merit, because the tewcr hands employed on a farm, the more may be employed in manufactures, &c. This question properly reduces irself to the simple inquiry, are machines advantageous in agricuUuref We know the clamours that ill- informed people have in every age raised against them in manufactures, and all the en- lightened world is now convinced of the folly and futility of those complaints: But in regard to agriculture, it seems, from the pane- gyrics which arc from time to time given of the spade as the best instrument of culture, that the ideas of mankind are not equally cleared. A plough tills the carti, ten times Nn3 566 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. as cheap as the spade, and consequently, compared with that instrument, throws ten men out of employment for one it keeps in it. Does it depopulate by this ? — Very far from it. It enables those ten men to be much better employed in manufactures or com-. merce. The reasoning extends to all new machines which have the same effect of throw- ing men out of work. The fewer men re- quired to cultivate the earth, the more nu- merous may be those clafses unconnected with agriculture, because the greater is the 7wat produce which goes to market. Every mode, according to this reasoning, of sim- plifying the operations- of agriculture by means of large occupations, is perfectly harm- lefs in respect to population; for while the soil is well cultivated, the produce will find the way to market, and will certainly be con- sumed; and you can do no more than con- sume it, if you had a farmer's family in every field. If it is said, that the country may be very thinly peopled and the neat produce ex- ported. I reply, that that will depend on the state of manufactures, commerce, &c. and on the increase or decrease of population : The home demand will always be first supplied, but when it is supplied, the surplus ought to GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 567 be exported, or prices will be low, which is the greatest obstacle to the industry and pros- perity of a European society that can be ima- gined. England has for some years lost her corn export, but she has in those years expe- rienced so great an increase of population as fully to account for that lofs. It certainly is owing to combinations like these, that the closest observers have been of opinion, that grafs land was more advan- tageous to population than arable ; always meaning, I apprehend, (though they do not thus qualify the observation) that sort of population from which is principally derived the force and strength of a State. There is, beyond all doubt, thus much truth in it ; that it is always right to have those lands in grafs which are better adapted to it than to corn, without admitting any idea of injuring the national population by such an application of the soil. Having thus examined the two questions of grofs and neat produce, let me add an ob- servation not immediately connected with either. 1 N n 4 568 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. No restrictions whatever should be thrown on the size of farms, because they ought to be of all sizes in order to find employment for all sorts of capitals. There ought to be farms of '20 or 30 acres, that labourers may have an en- couragement to save and be industrious. If a farmer has saved 2 or SOOh he ought to be able to meet with a farm proper^ for that sum to place his son in ; if a man has IG or 20,000 pounds in his pocket and willing t® invest it in agriculture, he ought, for many obvious reasons, to be able to do it. Hence there should be an entire and universal liberty in the police of farms. The private interest of landlords will prevent an excefs either vray : for if little farms become very scarce^ they will let so much better than larger ones, that gentlemen will divide their farms ; and, in order to gain them farmers, will adapt their management to fewer buildings than the enormity of them, common in manv parts of the kingdom. On the contrary, if small farms are so numerous, and consequently let so low that they will not pay for repair?, then they will be thrown together : and these vibrations moved by the never-failing spring of private interest, will preserve that varying level v. hick ought always to take place in these affairs. GEORGICAL E^AY5. 569 Another reason why no hmitation should be, placed to the size of farms, is the merit which great farmers undoubtedly ha\t; of introducing and extending such modes of culture as gra- dually improve the national agriculture. This ought to be the great object of gentlemen's farming: and when they are succefsful in such introductions, who are the farmers that follow them, and make beneficial practices general ? — Little ones ? — Never. If a country consisted of no other, it could never be im- proved at all. I am well acquainted with the progrefs and present state of English agricul- ture in all parts of the kingdom ; and can venture to afsert, that we owe the extension of every great and beneficial practice, such as marling — turnips hoed — carrots — clover — sainfoin — watering meadows — drilling, and horse-hoeing bfans — dibbling pease on layers, &;c. 8cc. all to great farmers ; and whatever further improvements vvc may look for, must be gained by the same means. But here I must observe, that of all the divisions of landed property, that which is most to be approved, is, small and middling proprietors occupying tiieir own estates, but not bcincr crentlomen. Bv havins: no rent to 570 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. pay, they are enabled to farm their lands In- comparably better than the common race of little farmers; and by the property of their improvements, descending with the land to their posterity, they are perpetually animated to ev^ery exertion of good husbandry of which the soil is capable. But this remark docs not extend to very little spots, such as must be cultivated with the spade, being much too small for ^ny national advantage, whether owned by the farmer or not. I know many estates in the n-raritime ^part of Suffolk^ of 2, 3, or 400l. a year, cultivated by the proprietor, a race of yeomen, not gentle- men, and every appearance of building, cul- ture, &c. are admirable. But Vv^hen such owners attempt to live like gentlemen, the contrary is sure to be found -, for their ex- penses take an improper turn, their farms are neglected, and the owners ruined. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 571 f:SSAY XXVIII. On 14'oe Stock, JL HE great obstacle to the improvement of domestic animals^ seems to have arisen from a common and prevailing idea amongst breeders, that no bull should be used in tlie same stock more than three years, and no tup more than two ; because (say they,) if used longer, the breed will be too near a-khiy and the produce will be tender, diminittivc, and liable to dis- orders ; some have imbibed the prejudice so far as to think it irreligious ; and if they were, by chance, in pofsefsion of the best breed in the island, would by no means put a male and a female together that had the same sire, or Were out of the same dam. l^ut, fortunately for the public, there have been men, in diilerent lines of breeding, whose enlarged minds were not to be bound by vulgar prejudice, or long-established modes, and who have proved, by many years experience, that such notions aye without any foundation. :it'2 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Mr. Bakewell has not had a crofs (from any" other breed than his own) for upwards of twenty years. His best stock has been bred by the nearest affinities, yet they have not de- creased m size, neither are they lefs hardy, of more liable to disorders ; -but, on the contrary, have kept in a progrcfsive state of improve- ment. This mode has also been frequently prac- tised in breeding the best dogs and game- cocks. A certain gentleman, who produced the best pointers in the north of England for many years, never bred from any other than his own ; because, he said, he could not find better to crofs them with. And I am informed, from good authority, that a breeder of game- cocks, who was very succefsful, would never allow his breed to be contaminated by crofsing with others ; and to this precaution he attri^ buted all his superiority. But one of the most conclusive arguments that crofsing with different stock is not ne- cefsary to secure size, hardinefs, &c. is the breed of wild cattle in Chillingham-Park, in the county of Northumberland. It is well known these cattle have been confined jn GEORCICAL ESSAY J blZ this park for several hundred years, without any intermixture, and are perhaps the puresi breed of cattle of any in the kingdom. From their situation and uncontrouled state, they must indisputably have bred from the nearest affinities in every pofsiblc degree j yet we find these cattle exceedingly hardy, healthy, and well-formed, and their size, as well as colour, and many other particulars and pccularitics, the same as they were five hundred year.; since. From these instances, it appears there can be no danger in breeding by the nearest affinities, provided they are pofsefsed, in a superior degree, of the qualities we wish to acquire ; but if not pofsefsed ot these, then we ought to procure such of the same kind as have, in the most eminent degree, the valuable properties we think our own deficient in. It is certainly from the best males and females that best breeds can be obtained or preserved ; to breed in this manner is undoubtedly ri^ht, so long as better males can be met with, not cnlv amongst our neighbours but also amongst the most improved breeds in any part of the island, or from any part of the world, provided the expense does not exceed the j^roposed 51-1- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. advantage. And when you can no longer, at home or abroad, find betta- males than your own, then, by all means, breed from thems whether horses, neat cattle, sheep, &c. for the same rule holds good through every species of domestic animals. But, upon no account, attempt to breed or crofs from zvorse than your own ; for that would be acting in contradiction to common sense, experience, and that well- established rule — '* l/iat btst can only beget best i' or, which is a particular case of a more general rule, viz. that " Like begets likeJ* Feeling. A nice or good judge of cattle and sheep, with a slight touch of the fingers upon the fatting points of the animal, viz. — the hipSj rumps, ribs, flank, breast, twist, shoulder- score, &c. will know immediately v.'hether it will make fat or not, and in which part it will be fattest, I have often wished to convey in language that idea or sensation we acquire by the touch, or feel of our fingers, which enables us to form a judgment when we are handling an anim,al intended to be fatted, but I have as often found myself unequal to fulfil that wish. It is very easy to know where an animal is fattest which is already made fat, because GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 575 "Wc can evidently feel a substance or quantit)' of fat upon all those parts which arc denomi- nated ihe fatting points ; but the difHculty is, to explain how we know or distinguish animals in a lean state, which will make fat, and which will not, or rather which will make fat in such and such points or parts, and not in others j which a person of judgment (in practice) can tell, as it were instantaneously : I say in practice ; because I believe, that the best judges out of pj'actice are not able to judge with precision, at least I am not. We say this beast touches nicely ujwn its ribs, liips, &;c. &c. because we find a mellow, pleasant leej in those parts : but we do not say soft ; because there are some of this same sort of animals which have a soft loose handle, of which we do not approve, because, though soft and loose, have not that mellow {et\ above-mentioned: for thous^h thev both handle loose and soft, yet we know that the one will make fat, and that the other will not ; and in this lies the difficulty of the explanation : we clearly find a particular kindlinefs, or pleasant- nefs, in the feci of the one, much superior to the other, by which we immediately conclude, that this will make fat, and the other not so fat ; and in this a person of judgment, and in 516 GEORGIOAL ASSAYS. practice J is very seldom mistaken. I shall only- make one more remark, which is, that though the one animal will make remarkably fat, and fhe other will scarcely improve at all, with the same keeping ; yet between these extremes are numberlefs gradations, which the complete judge can distinguish with wonderful pre- cision. lyie GallodUay Breed, or Polled Cattle ^ Are a very valuable breed, and seem to be in weight and size, as much lefsthan the long- horns, as these are than the sliort-horns ; they generally v/eigh from 40 to 60 stone, some particular ones reach 70 and upwards ; but their most efsential difference from every other breed of cattle is, in having no horns at all , some few, indeed, (in every other respect polls) have two little unnaeaning horns, from two to four inches long, hanging dosvn loose from the same parts that other cattle's horns grow, and are joined to the head by a little loose skin or flesh. In most other respects (except in wanting horns) these cattle re- semble the long-horns, both in colour and shape, only they are shorter in their form_, which, probably, makes them weigh lefs. ftEORGlCAL ESSAYS. 57"? Their hides seem to be in a medium between the two last-raentioned breeds, not so thick as the long-horns, nor so thin as the short-horns ; but, like the best feeding kind of long-horns, they lay their fat upon the most valuable parts, and their beef is well marbled, oc mixed with fat. We find a few of this breed straggling through different parts of England ; among the rest, I remember the Earl of Darlington had a very handsome variety of them, finely globed with red and white. But we must look for the original of these in Galloway, (a large district iq thp south-west of Scotland) where they are mostly bred upon the moors or hilly country, and grazed upon the lands nearer the sea, until rising four or five years old, when the graziers and drovers take them up in great numbers to the fairs in Norfolk and Suffolk, previous to the turnip-feeding season, from whence the greatest part are again removed in winter and spring, (when fat) to supply the amazing consumption of the capital, where they are readily sold, and at high prices 5 for few or no cattle sell so high in Smithfield market, they being such nice cutters up, owing to laying the fat upon the Volume IF, O o 578 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. most valuable parts j a great excellence in all feeding cattle. It is no uncommon thing, in this refined market, to see one of these little bullocks outsell a coarse Lincolnshire ox,, thouirh the latter be heavier bv several stones*. I have been informed, from good authority, that the polled cows are very good milkers, in proportion to their size, and the milk of a rich quality, yielding much more butter from a given quantity of milk than the short-horns ; and also, that the oxen and spayed heifers answer well for the draught, which certainly adds to the value of this excellent breed. In Galloway they spay more heifers than perhaps in all the island besides ; and in this too their method is different from any other part I am acquainted with, for they do not castrate them until they are about a year old ; whereas in every other place, I know the * I %vas told by a Lincolnshire grazier, that a, Lin- colnshire bullock and a Galloway bullock, sent from the same village to Smilhfield at the same time, were sold for the same money, though the Scot was only half the other's weight. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 579 heifer calves are spayed from one to tlirce months old ; and it is now generally admitted, as the safest practice, to castrate calves and Jambs, male or female, while very young. Their manner of rearing calves is stjU more singular: the calves, from the time they are dropped till able to support themselves, are allowed to run with their dams, but are pre- vented from sucking, by means of a small piece of leather, with sharp spikes of iron fixed upon the outside, tied upon the upper part of the calf's nose, which, by pricking the cow every time the calf attempts to suck, prevents her from letting it, until the milk- maid comes, when she takes off the muzzle from the little animal's nose, and while she strips two of the teats, the calf takes care to empty the other tv/o ; as soon as the maidhc^s done, she fixes on the instrument again, Ujt it is done in such a manner as not to hinder the calf from feeding upon the grafs, though it is not allowed to taste the milk until the girl returns to her milking. In some parts of Scotland the general practice is, to milk three times a day in summer j but I do not recollect whether this is done in Galloway. (J O 0 ^4 580 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. Though the generality of their cattle are polled, yet they have several with horns, which they say are a bastard or mongrel breed, by crofsing with long-horned bulls from West- moreland and Cumberland. They prefer the polled ones, and of these the black or dark- brindled ones, to any other j and all allow them to be the original breed of the country. The breeders in Galloway complain of their old breed being lost, or at least much worn out ; but admitting their breed of cattle in some degree injured, yet there is little doubt, not only of its being recovered, but still more improved, when such a leading Nobleman as Lord Selkirk is among the breeders. Mr. Murray, of Broughton, and Mr. Heron, of Kirvochtree, have been long eminent in the breeding of Galloway cattle. Mr. Craik, Mr. Dilzell, and several others, have tried a crofs from Mr. BakewelFs bulls ^ how far this has succeeded, I have not been able to learn : indeed I do not see how they can form a judg- ment themselves without a full trial. But I found that the generality of the breeders were against crofsing with Mr. Bakew^ell's or any xOther kind of cattle ; believing that their re^I OEORGICAL ESSAYS. 581 briginal polled breed, had already been injured by crofsing with different kinds. Short-homed and Long-hoimed Breeds, compared. "We have already observed, that the long- horns excel in the thicknefs and firm texture of the hide, in the length and closenefs of the hair, in their beef being finer grained and more mixed and marbled than that of the short-horns, in weighing more in proportion to their size, and in giving richer milk ; but they are inferior to the short-horns, in giving a lefs quantity of milk, in weighing lefs upon the whole, in affording lefs tallow when killed, in being generally slower feeders, and in being coarser made, and more leatherly or bullish in the under side of the neck. In few words, the long-horns excel in the hide, hair, and quality of the beef J the short-horns in the quantity of beef, tallow, and milk. Each breed have long had, and probably may have their particular advocates, but if I may hazard a conjecture, is it not probable that both kinds may have their particular advantages in dit- ferent situations ? Why may not the thick, firm hides, and long close-set hair of the one kind, be a protection and security against those impetuous winds and heavy rams to which Oo 3 582 GEOnCICAL ESSAYS. the west coast of this island is so subject 5 V/hile the more regular seasons and mild climate upor. the east coast, are more suitable to the constitutions of the short-horns ? — When I say the long-horns exceed the short- horns in the quality of the beef, I mean, that preference is only due to the particular variety of long-horns taken notice of before, as select- ed, improved, and recommended by that atten- tive breeder, Mr. Bakewell ; for as to the long- horned' breed in common, I am inclined to think their beef rather inferior, than superior, to that of the generality of short-horns ; and there is little doubt but a breed of short- horned cattle might be selected, equal, if not super/or, to even that very kindly fleshed sort of ^Ir. Bakewell's ; provided any able breeders, vi'ouid pay as much attention to ihese^ as Mr. Bakewell and his neighbours have done to the long-horns. But it has hitherto been the piisfortune of the short- horned breeders to pursue the largest and bio;gesi boned ones for the best, without ccn- siderinir that those are the best that pay the most money for a given quantity of food. However the ideas of our short-horned breeders being now more enlarged, and their minds more open to conviction, we may hope GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 583 in a few years to see great improvements made in that breed of cattle *. But notwithstanding these two breeds have hitherto been in pofsefsion of the best part of the island, yet I am inclined to think that the Galloway cattle, and even the Kyloes, might be bred with advantage, in many situations, so as to be more profitable than either the short-horns or the long-horns. I have a very high opinion of both these breeds of cattle, as true quick feeders, and being kindly fleshed, or excellent eating beef; v/hich character they have established in the first market in the island. Drawing Oxen, I am sorry to observe, that tliere are not so many steers kept now as used to be formerly. Two reasons may be afsigned for this ; first, lands are now rented so high, that farmers cannot afford to keep steers to the age of oxen * I am glad to find my hopes have been vvell-fouoded ; because, within a few years, a very rapid improvement has taken place in the breeding of short-horned cattle ; so that in a few years I have reason to think they will surpafs their rivals, the long-horns. O O 4 584 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. without working them ; which is the reason" that fewer oxen are used in the draught now than formerly. A remedy for this complaint, perhaps, may not be so readily pointed out ; because, though a few people are convinced of the utility of drawing oxen in many cases, yet the generality of farmers will be very un- willing to be persuaded to thiSj because oxen are slower in their motion than horses, with- out adverting to the advantages attending the oxenin the feeding, shoeing, harnefs, &c. -, but above all, the conclusion (between an ox fatted for the shambles, after working three or four years, or indeed a lean ox sold to feed and a horse sold to the dog-kennel) is so exceeding striking, that I presume most people, when they reflect upon this very im- portant matter, will agree to the drawing of oxen in every kind of work wherein they suit J I use the exprefsion siiity because I w^ould not be understood to think, as some people do, that oxen will answer as well as horses in every kind of farming- work : but I apprehend that oxen will do sevetal kinds of home work (such as ploughing, leading dung, corn, &c.) equally as well as horses. I advance this opinion on several years ex- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 585 perience *, and believe, that most farmers might use some oxen along with their horses, but would in general recommend the oxen and horses to be in separate draughts, because the difference of the step is so very unequal. Much more might be said upon this im- portant subject, but I will at present only add, that I heartily wish our legislature would take this matter into consideration, and give premiums to encourage the rearing and draw- ing of oxen, and also to promote the breeding of the best kinds of stock, as there is httle doubt but it would have the most beneficial effects. It is true that many of our agricul- tural societies do give premiums for the above purposes i but these, though highly merito- rious, are only partial, and confined to cer- * My brother and myself, in partnership, at this time employ about 150 oxen in the draught, which is men* tioned here as a proof that we approve of drawing oxen in many cases, after more than thirty years experience ; we use them in carts singly, and two in a plough, with cords, without a driver, where they go equally as well as two horses, though not quite so swift; and J am liappy to add, that the working of oxen is becoming more gene- ral every day, as many of our neighbours are fclivsving this example. 586 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. tain districts, while the influence of the other would be general and extensive. Great Milkers not quick Feeders. I apprehend, one great mistake that breeders in general have run into, especially in breeding neat cattle, has been, endeavour- ing to unite great milkers with quick feeders. I am inclined to think this cannot be done ; for, wherever we attempt both, we are sure to get neither in any perfection : in pro- portion as we gain the one, in the same pro- portion we lose the other ; the more milk, the lefs beef J and the more \vq pursue beef, the lefs milk We get. In truth, they seem to be two different varieties of the same kind, for very different uses 5 and if so, they ought most certainly to be differently pursued by those that employ them. If the dairy-man wants milk, let him pursue the milking tribe; let him have both bull and cows of the best and greatest milking-familyhc can find : on the contrary,he that wantsfeeding or grazing cattle, let him procure a bull and a cow of that sort whi'ch feeds the quickest, wherever they are to be found. By pursuing too many objects at qnce, we are apt to lose sight of the prin- cipal ; and, by aiming at too much, we often GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 587 lose all. Let us only keep to distinct sorts, and we will obtain the prize in due time. 1 apprehend it has been much owing to the mixing of breeds and improper crofsings, that kept us so long from distinguishing the most valuable kinds. I do not suppose this doctrine to be so new, as it has been unattended to, and not properlv considered ; for I have heard many people say, " How should that cow be a good milker J she runs too much to flesh .^" And so it is, while all the great milkers are in- variably thin. The former are generally high- sided, light-bellied, covered in all their fatting points, in proportion as they recede from the great milking-tribe, though kept on middling fare ; while the latter will be lean upon their backs, flat-sided, big-bcllled, poor, and ill- looking, though much better kept than the others. I own there is a middling kind of cows which give a tolerable quantity of milk, and also keep in pretty good condition ; but this, I apprehend, docs not at all militate against the above reasoning, because, still those that incline the most to flesh, invariably give the 588 CEORGICAL ESSAYS. least milk, and vice versa : and though many of the middling cows will make very fat when they are dried, or the milk taken from them, yet will not get so quickly fat, nor so ripe, as those which give lefs milk, and are inclined more to fatten while in a milking state. The Dishley Breed of Sheep, They are peculiarly distinguished from other* long-woolled breeds, by their fine lively eyes, clean heads, straight, broad, flat backs, round (barrel-like) bodies, very fine small bones, thin pelts, and inclination to make fat at an early age ; this last property is most probably owing to the before-specified qualities , and "which, from long experience and observation, there is reason to believe extends through every species of domestic animals. The Dishley breed is not only peculiar for its mutton being fat, but also for the finenefs of the grain and superior flavour, above all other large long-woolled sheep, so as to fetch nearly as good a price, in many markets, as the mutton of the small. Highland, and short- woolled breeds. The weight of the carcase, in general, is, ewes, three or four years old, from 18lb. to 261b, per quarter j wethers, two years old. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 589 20lb. to 30lb. The wool, upon an average, 8lb. a fleece ; the length, from 6 inches to 14 inches i sold, in 179'2, at lOd. per lb. There are two reasons for killing the wethers at two years old : first, they leave the most profits and, secondly, if kept longer, they get too fat for genteel tables. To people who are strangers to these sheep, this may appear lather problematical ; the following facts may remove their doubts: — a three-year old wether, belonging to Mr. Culley, was killed at Aln* wick, by Mr. James Bolton, the 2d of Octo- ber, 1787, which measured seven inches and one-eighth of solid fat on the ribs, cut straight through without any slope, and his back, from head to tail, was like the fattest bacon. It is very common for two-year old wethers to. cut four inches thick of fat on the ribs, and from two to three inches all down the back : even ewes of this kind, which have bred and ^.uckled lambs till July, when killed about the Christmas following, will frequently measure four or five inches thick of fat on the sides, and two or three inches down the back, all the way from head to tail ; and though this breed are not eminent for much tallow, vet i^wes, under such circumstances, generally pro- 590 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. duce from 18 to 24lb. of tallow each. Towealc appetites it is not so inviting as the leaner mutton, but it finds a ready market amongst the manufacturing and laborious part of the community, whom necefsity has taught to lay out their money to the best advantage, and who have found, by experience, that a pound of bone is not so nutritive as a pound of mut- ton ; and, of course, they always endeavour to buy that which has the least bone and most flesh *. The weight of wool clipped from these sheep is not so great as from some other long- woolled kinds ; but the wool of this breed hath hitherto been only a secondary consi- deration ; the quantity and quality of -^he mutton obtained at the least expense of food, was the great object of the first im.prover; this point gained, a new field opens to the experimental rural philosopher, to cover these 20od carcases with the most valuable fleeces. * I am well informed, that when the laborious clafs find this mutton loo fat, they cut off a part of the fattest, with which they make suet-dumplings or bread-paste with it for pies, Sec. and not unfrequently make sea or boiled pies of the fattest parts. GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 591 This improved breed is making its way very rapidly into all parts of the kingdom, by the practice of hiring tups ; the price of which, ior the use of one season only, is astonishing^ and to those who do not know with what eagernefs this breed is sought after, (by all who have tried them, 3 may seem incredible ; yet it is a fact, that Mr. Bakewell hiis let tups, ibr one season only, for four hundred guineas each, and taken in ewes to be tupped at ten guineas each, (eighty from two persons, and forty of his own,) makes the sum of twelve hundred guineas for one tup in one season : besides these, he lets several, every year, at two and three hundred guineas each. Our mode of management of this breed is as follows: The ewes generally lamb in March, when we give them a few turnips to increase their milk ; the latter end of June, or begin- ning of July, the lambs are weaned, and sent to middling pastures: the ewes are milked two or three times, to ease their udders ; and such as are not meant to be continued for breeding, are culled out and put to clover. When this fails, they get turnips, and are sold about Christmas, very fat, to the butchers, the price from 34s= to 40s. per head. 592 GEORGICAL ESSAYS." The Iambs, after being weaned, take the name of hogs; they are generally put to turnips at the beginning of November*, and con- tinue at them till the middle of April, or be- ginning of May, when the wether-hogs are put upon good pasture, or second year's clover. The second winter they have turnips, till the clover is sufficiently grown to receive them, which is generally about the middle of April. They are clipped about the middle of May, and generally all sold by the middle or end of June. — Morpeth is our best market ; where the two-shear wethers have been sold, for the last three years, from 40s. to 50s, per head. We generally reckon one-third of the ewes to have two lambs each ; that is, every 60 ewes to have 80 lambs They are put to the tup, so as to have lambs at two years old, and kept for breeding until three or four years old, except such as are of particular good forms, or have other valuable properties: these we keep as long as ever they will breed. Such as are defective in shape, suspected of being dow feeders, or other unprofitable qualitieSj As we find it prevents a disorder called the black-water., GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 593 we never put to the tup, or attempt to breed -from them. Lincolnshire Sheep, The average price of hogs, bought in at Lincoln and Boston fairs, is about 26s. per head ; if these are kept until three-shear, the average weight of the wool will be about 12lb. a fleece; but when they breed their own stock, and have nearly an equal number of ewes, hogs, and wethers, the average weight of the fleece is about 9lb. Very few (if any) of the Lincolnshire breed, are ready for market at tivo-sliear; and I am credibly informed, that several are under the nccefsity of wintering some of their three-shears before they are marketable. I am just retqrned from London, where I find the average price of three-shear marsh sheep not to exceed 55s. A friend, who buys a great number every Michaelmas of three-shear marsh sheep to put to turnips in the vicinity of AVakeficld and Rotherham, afsures me, that 35s. is the full average for picking the best lots ; and an ex- tensive sheep farmer near Boston informs me, his ewes that mifsed lamb last year, were sold in Smithfield (from August to Michaelmas) at about 21s. round, and that the highest price Volume IV. P p 594 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. he got for his three-shear wethers was 36s. and several Jots sold under 30s. — His flock are considered of the best Lincolnshire breed. Some of my neighbours, who have been in the habit of using rams of the Dishley breed, have, for the three last years, sold their two- shear sheep in May (clipped) for 42s. a head round -, another sold SOO two-shear sheep at Michaelmas, in one lot, for 43s. a head, and left only 26 culls, — The average weight of the wool of this flock is 9lb. a fleece. From these data a fair comparison may be made. Pure Lincolnshire breed, sold at three shear, £. s. d. Three fleeces of wool, 33lb. at lOd. per lb, 17 6 Sold at Michaelmas, three -shear, for . . . 1 15 6 Divide by 3)3 3 0 Gives the yearly profit 1 10 Crofsed with the Dishlev breed, sold at two-shear, cf. S. d. Two fleeces of wool, 18lb. at IDd. . : , , 0 15 0 Sold at Michaelmas, two-shear, for . ..230 Divide by 2)2 18 0 Gives the yearly profit 1 9 0 QEORGICAL ESSAYS. 5^5 From the above statement, it appears there is a profit of 8s. a head in favour of the latter; and, supposing only three sheep to be de- pastured on an acre, the difference will be ll. 4s. an acre; but, on the rich marshes and best grazing grounds, the difference will be considerably more. However, I am very glad to find, that the prejudices of the Lincolnshire breeders are now giving way to their better-informed rea- son, as many of the great tup-breeders in Lincolnshire are now hiring and buying rams from the midland counties; which is certainly the best, readiest, and only method to recover that valuable breed of sheep, (of which they were first in pofsefsion) and of which they, of any other county of Great Britain, can make the most advantage, from having the greatest quantity of rich sheep pasturage. After what has been said, will it not appear very extraordinary, that not only the midland counties, but Yorkshire, Durham, and North- umberland, can send their long-vvoolled breed of sheep to market at two years old, fatter in general than Lincolnshire can at three? It is a matter of fact, however, and I have no doubt Pp2 596 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. of clearing it up to the satisfaction of my un- prejudiced readers in a few words. The rich fatting marshes in Lincolnshire are, beyond any other county I know in the island, best adapted to the growing and forcing of long heavy wool. This, with the high price that kind of wool had given, previous to the American war, very probably induced the sheep-breeders of that county to pursue it so ar- dently,' in preference to every other requisite, that they neglected the form of the carcase and inclination to make readily fat; efsentials, that the other sheep-breeding counties were linder a necefsity of attending to, otherwise they could not have got them made fat in proper time, from their land not being in general near so rich as the Lincolnshire marshes. In short, the Lincolnshire breeders, by running so much upon wool and large bones, had got their sheep like their black horses, two great ends, a long thin weak middle ; and lost the thick firm barrel-like carcafs, broad fiat back, fine clean small bone, and incHnation to make fat ; — those distin- guishing characteristics of the best sheep, and for which the Dishley breed is so eminently conspicuous. CBORGICAL ESSATS. 597 The Heath Breed Have large spiral horns, black faces, and black legs, a fierce wild-looking eye, and short firm carcafses, (weighing from 12lb. to 16lb. a quarter) covered with long, open, coarse, shagged wool ; the fleeces weigh from 3lb. to 4lb. each, and sold in 1792 for 6d. per lb. Tliey are an exceedingly active and hardy race, run with amazing agility, and seem the best adapted of all others to high, exposed, heathy y mountainous districts. They are sel- dom fed until they are three, four, or five years old; at which age they feed well; the mutton is excellent, and gravy high flavoured. This hardy wild-looking tribe are first met with in the north-west of Yorkshire, and are in pofsefsion of all that hilly or rather moun- tainous tract of country adjoining the Irish Sea, from Lancashire to Fort-William. Indeed their introduction into the Western Highlands of Scotland has been only of late years; nor is there the least doubt of their answering equally as well in the mountains of Aro-yle- shire, as in those of W^estmoreland and Cum- >)erland; for it is well known, that the climate 1 Pp5 598 GEORGICAL ESSAYS. is pretty much the same in all that rugged coast, having almost uninterrupted rains and strong winds. Indeed the Galloway and Ayr- shire sheep are in some degree different j but I take them to be only a variation, probably from crofses between these and the Cheviot sheep. But, within these few years they have in those two counties been making some trials of that most useful kind of sheep, best known by the name of the Dishley breeds and every friend to his country will be glad to hear, that they have hitherto succeeded beyond expectation. Nor will any person, conversant with breeding sheep, be surprised at this; because they are in every respect as Hvell or better calculated to thrive in the flat -country and lower hills, as the black-faced oms are for the mountains. As these sheep are so well adapted for lingy or heathy mountains, and cold exposed situations; what a pity they are not covered with a finer and more valuable fleece! There is no doubt but it might be improved; indeed it is scarce pofsible to make it coarser. Some trials from the Dishley breed have been made about Moffat, in Annandale, at the requ'est of that patriotic nobleman, the Earl of Hope- GEORGICAL ESSAYS. 599 tourii but I am very sorry to hear, that not- •\vithstanding the influence and earnest soli- citations of his lordship, the breeders are so exceedingly averse to it, that they do, and say every thing they can, to lefsen the merit of these trials, and, like all ignorant people, are quite prejudiced against every kind of sheep except their own. The heath sheep have been tried in those remote parts to the North of the Murray- Firth, viz. — Rofs-shire, Sutherland, and Caith- nefs, and have answered very well. The Cheviot sheep have also found their way into those districts^ — which of the two breeds will be found the most advantajreous and best o adapted for these northern regions, time and fair experiment will discover. There is little doubt but that either of them will be found better than the dun-faced kind, the only sheep known in the Highlands until of late years. pp ADDRESS. XT A VI KG now brought these Efsays to a conclusion, 1 have nothing left but to exprcfs an anxious concern, lest I may have inserted papers that, in the opinion of well-informed persons, may be deemed unworthy of preser- vation. Some may think that I have attended too little to the Practical part of Agriculture ; while others, who amuse themselves with the Theory of the Art, will be disposed to approve of what I have done. Of this matter my opi- nion is, that Theory and Practice ought to be blended together, as they do not admit of separation, the one being imperfect without the other. How far I have succeeded in my attempt,, must be left to the decision of thosr for whom the work is constructed. ADDRESS. 601 As this Selection contains many original Papers, I shall be happy to sec them as ge- nerally diffused as pofsiblc ; for which reason, I embrace the opportunity of freely offering them to the Editors of Agricultural Publica- tions, in order to answer the liberal end of universal communication. In order to mark the progrefs of Agricultural Improvements, I have it in contemplation to publish two Vo- lumes, annually, in the manner of this Selec- tion ; but, in the execution of the design, I shall be directed by the opinion that the public may entertain of the present Publica- tion. A. HUNTER. York, Januaiy 1, ISOU. CONTENTS OF VOLUME FOURTH. ESSAY I. By Joseph Wimpey, Esq. page. On the Principles of Vegetationy . . 1 ESSAY II. By A. Hunter, M.D. On the Oak, .... 55 ESSAY III. On the Economy necefsary for Gentlemen enter- ing upon small Estates, , . . 99 ESSAY IV. ByMiv Curtis. On the Aphides, . . . .110 E SS A Y V. By the President of the Jersey Society. On the Sea-Weed of the Island of Jersey, , 140 ESSAY VI. By A. Wilkinson, M. D. On Calcareous Earth, its various Compounds, and their application in Agriculture, . 144- ESSAY VII. By Nathaniel Kent, Esq. On his Mfljesti/s Farm upoji Windsor Forest, . 172 CONTENTS. ESSAY VIII. eoS Experiments and concise Agricultural Observations. PAGE 1S8 1. To obtain clean Hay-seeds for laying down Landf .. . . • 2. A cheap and lasting Paint for Gates, Railsy and Palisades, . . • • 1 ^^ 3. On Paring and Burning, . • 19^ 4. On forming Composts, . . 192 5. On converting Chalk Land and Downs into Tillage, .... 19* 6. On Hedge-row Planting, . . 19'7 7. On the Puda Baga, or Swedish Turnip, 198 8. On Irrigation, . • • .199 0. A Compost Dunghill, . . 201 10. On the Sweepings of Streets, . • 202 \l. On weeding Wheat, . . 203 12. On River Weeds, . - 204 13. On the Tap Root of Oaks, . 206 14. On the Sweepings of Roads, . . 201 15. On the 2uickbeam, or Mountain- Ash, calltd in the North, Rowan-tree, . . 209 16. On refuse Fish, . . . 210 17. On the Hyfsop of St. John, and the Reed of St. Matthew, . • 2! 2 18. On the beneficial succefsion of Crops, 217 19. On Sea-Weed, . . • 218 20. On the Lolium Perenne, or Ray-grafs, 222 21. On Tanners' Bark, . • 223 22. On Soot, . . . 224 «0# COK TENTS. J»AGB 23. On ploughing in of green Crops, , , 227 24. On putrid Water fro^n the steeping of Flax and Hemp, . . . 228 25. On Paring and Burning, . . 031 26. On Flaxseed, ajid Hemp-seed, as a Manure, 231 27. On Clay Land, too strong for Turnips, 235 28. On the Ruta Baga, or Swedish Turnip, 236 29. On Bibbling, . . . 23» 30. On Fallow, (Achillaea Millefolium,) 240 21. On the crested Dog's-tail, (Cynosurus cristatus,) . . .241 32. On the Attention neccfsary to the Course of Crops, previous to lai/ing domi for ^'^'O's, • • . . 242 33. To raise four early Crops -xith little Expense, 244 34. On tJie failure of the Turnip Crops in the County of Norj oik, . . 245 35. On Co-W'Clover, and Co^w-wheat, . 247 3-5. On Parsnips, . . ^ 248 ^1- On Heaping Wheat, , . 251 3S On Poor-rates, . . 253 29. On Mortar Rubbish, . . 254 40. On River Mud, . o-. > ; • 2o4 41. 7 o cure Mojsy Grafs, . . .255 42. On laying do'xn Land to Grafs, . . 255 43 . An improved Method of laying down Land, 256 44. On the Parochial Poor, . . 257 45 ~ On Sunwier Fallowing, . .259- 4-:. On sowing Turnips in a dry Season, • 260 47. On the Scab in Sheep, , ^ oqi 48. On Turnip Seed^ . / ~g^ CONTENTS. 605 PAGE 49. On ploughing in (h'caycd Turnips y . 266 50. On Refuse W hale-blubber ^ used as a Manure j 266 51. On Rubbing-posts for Sztnney . 268 52. On Folding Sheep, . . 26$ 33. On Sainfoin Haij, . - 269 54;. On the choice of Seeds, . • 270 55. To reviffve the rancidnefs of Turnip Butter, and the biiternefs of Barlei/-straw Butter, 270 56. On hand-xceeding Turnips, . , 271 57. On Marl, , . . 27 1 58. On feeding Figs on unripe Garden Beans, 273 bS. On Urine, as a Manure, , . 276 €0. On Lime upon Mofsrj Sward, . . 277 €1. On 7 easels, as cultivated in the County of Somerset, . . 279 €2. On the common Nettle, . . 284 63. On Lucern, , * . 286 64. On Evaporation, . . . 288 63. On the radical Improvement of Live Stock, 28S 66. On the Mistletoe, . . 289 61. On the Jge of Fruit-trees, . . 293 ESSAY IX. By A. Hunter, M. D. On tJie Ilasel, . . . 295 E S S A Y X. On the IIiLsbandry preperfor a Gentleman, 300 < ESSAY XI. By A. Hunter, M. D. On Hatching Chickens, . . 30^ 60S CONTENTS. PAGE ESSAY XII. By the President of the Jers-jy Society. On the Cult k at ion of Parsnips and Beans in the Island of Jersey, . . 3 IS ESSAY XIII. By John Wagstaffe, Esq. On Biter Weeds, as a Manure, . .■ 326 ESSAY XIV. By Major Rooke. On the Forest of Sherwood y , , 322 ESSAY XV. By Thomas Jones, Esq. ^^ On the Encouragement to be given by Landlords to their Tenants, . . . 331 ESSAY XVI. By John Horridge, Esq. On the Preparation and Use of Peat Compost, 335 ESSAY XVII. By Sir John Sinclair, Bart. On Cattle, . . . 539 ESSAY XVIII. By T. Andrew Knight, Esq. On the J phis, and Blights on Fruit-trees, 363 ESSAY XIX. BySmithsonTenuant, Esq. On different sorts of Lime, . . . 371 ESSAY XX. By Mr. IMarshall. * On the ne-jo Leicester Sheep, . , 386 — . ESSAY XXI. By William Pitt, Esq. On Agricultural Political Arithmetic, • 404- CONTENTS. 607 PAGE ESSAY XXII. By Mons. Bertrand. On the Rabbits of Angora f . , 421, ESSAY XXIII. By O. Goldsmith, Esq. 0?i the Universe, . . 424 ESSAY XXIV. By W. Falconer, ISI. D. On tJie presenation of the Health of Persons emploj/ed in Agriculture, and on the Cure of the Diseases incident to that way of Life, 430 ESSAY XXV. By James Anderson, L. L. D. On the Use of Salt as a principal Condiment in increasing the Appetite of Gramenivoroiis Animals, . . . 529 ESSAY xxvr. On Farm-Yard Compost, . . 543 . ESSAY XXVII. By A. Young, Esq. On the Size of Farms, . . 555 '^ ESSAY XXVIII. By Mr. George Culley. On Live Stock, . . . 571 THE END. Printed at the Office of T, W 1 L S O N and R. S P E N CE, Hiih-Oukgite, York. Lately zvas publislied, in 2 vols. 4ia, PEICE THREE GUINEAS, IN BOARDS, ^•^nd ornamented with original Engravings t^ all the For tit Trees ^ The THIRD EDITION, Revised, corrected, and considerably enlarged, OF EVELYN'S SILVA; OR, A DISCOURSE OF FOREST TREES : TO WHICH IS ADDED, THE TERRA; A PHILOSOPHICAL DISCOURSEof EARTH. With NOTES, By A. HUNTER, M. D. F. R. S. L. & E. FRIS'TtD FOR THE AUTHOR, And sold bv J. Mawmam. Poultry ; Cadell, jun. and Davies, Strand ; and B. & J. White, Fleet-street, London : "WiLsos and Spexce, J. Todd, Sotheran' and Sox, and J. WoLSTE.vHOLME, York : A. Constable, Edinburgh; and J. Archer, Dublin. ADVERTISEMEXT. Having had the satisfaction to see three Editions of this Work called for, during a period of twenty-four years, and as this will be the last to which I can expect to put my hand, I have only to exprefs my warmest acknowledgments for tlie fa vouiable reception that my en- deavours have met with. A. HUNTER. York. January 1, 1803. ,!? ' 1. ■ • • 'A-