A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF
TROPICAL MONTANE
CLOUD FORESTS

DRAFT

AUGUST 1997

WORLD CONSERVATION
MONITORING CENTRE

The World Conservation Monitoring Centre,
provides information services on the conservation and
sustainable use of species and ecosystems and supports

others in the development of their own
information systems.

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD
FORESTS

DRAFT

by Mark Aldrich, Clare Billington, Mary Edwards and Ruth Laidlaw

World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.

August 1997

CN

The World Conservation Union

Netherlands Committee WORLD CONSERVATION
MONITORING CENTRE

Acknowledgements

Grateful appreciation is expressed to a number of people who have contributed to the
compilation and production of this directory. To Heather Cross for her great efforts in
editing, reviewing and production, and to James Culverwell and Sam Kanyamibwa
(Africa), Ruth Laidlaw (Central America and South-East Asia), Miguel Morales (Mexico)
and Chris Sharpe (Venezuela) for their help in writing and researching. Also to Tim
Quinton for his work on the database and Mary Edwards for map production. Finally to
Clare Billington, Willem Ferwerda, Larry Hamilton and Richard Luxmoore for their advice
and encouragement along the way.

Many thanks are also due to those who commented on a draft layout for the database and on
types of information to be collected, as well as giving advice and guidance during this phase of
work. They include Sampurno Bruinzeel, Rainer Bussmann, Charles Doumenge, Willem
Ferwerda, Don Gilmour, Larry Hamilton, Mark Jeffcote, Jim Juvik, Maarten Kappelle, Mariella
Leo, Adrian Long, Chris Sharpe, Fred Scatena, Ed Tanner, Paul Toyne, Peter Weaver, Tim
Whitmore, Jan Wolf, and many colleagues here at WCMC.

In addition thanks to all the cloud forest enthusiasts around the world who have contributed
information and expressed an interest in working with WCMC in raising awareness of the value
of remaining cloud forests. Many are listed along with their contact details as an annexe to this
directory. Apologies to any that have been missed.

We trust that this draft directory and the database from which it has been compiled provide a
valuable resource. We also hope to build on this and the rapidly developing network of contacts
in a subsequent phase of work, which will contribute towards the conservation of the remaining
areas of this unique and fragile ecosystem.

The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), based in Cambridge. UK is a
joint-venture between the three partners in the World Conservation Strategy and its successor
Caring For The Earth: UCN - The World Conservation Union, UNEP - United Nations
Environment Programme, and WWE - World Wide Fund for Nature. WCMC provides information
services on conservation and sustainable use the world's living resources, and helps others to
develop information systems of their own.

Prepared by Mark Aldrich, Clare Billington, Mary Edwards and Ruth Laidlaw with funding from
IUCN Netherlands Committee.

CN

The World Conservation Union

Netherlands Committee WORLD CONSERVATION
MONITORING CENTRE

Copyright: World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1997

Copyright release: Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-
commercial purposes is authorised without prior permission from
the copyright holders.

Reproduction For resale or other commercial purpose is prohibited without the
prior written permission of the copyright holders.

Disclaimer: The designations of geographical entities and the presentation of
material in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever by WCMC and its collaborators and _ other
participating organisations, concerning the legal or constitutional
status of any country, territory, or area or of its authorities; or
concerning the delineation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Citation: World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1997. A Global Directory
of Tropical Montane Cloud Forests (Draft). Aldrich, M..,
Billington, C., Edwards, M. and Laidlaw, R (Eds).
World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.
Unpublished. 268pp.

Available From: World Conservation Monitoring Centre
219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, UK
Tel: +44 1223 277314; Fax: +44 1223 277136
Email: info@wcemce.org.uk; URL: http://www.wcmc.org.uk
FTP: ftp://ftp.wcmc.org.uk

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Introduction and Background to the Development of this Directory

1.

10.

11.

12.

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD
FORESTS

CONTENTS

An Introduction to Tropical Montane Cloud Forests
1.1 Values

12: Threats/Pressures

1.3 The need for information

1.4 Related activities

Definitions and Terminology

2.1 Difficulties with definition
2.1.1 Working definitions

2.2 Commonly used Terminology

Distribution of TMCFs

3.1 Global distribution

3.2 Altitude, latitude and the Massenerhebung effect
3.3 Altitudinal distribution

3.4 Mapping

Background to the development of a global database

Development of a standardised methodology and format for recording data
Data gathering exercise: problems

Compilation of a draft directory

Development of a Cloud Forest Network

Global Overview

Including tables showing total number of regions and sites per country,
with the number of sites protected -

Table 1: South-East Asia

Table 2: Africa

Table 3a: Central America

Table 3b: South America

Table 4: Global Totals

Conclusions

Proposed future activities

References

Page No.

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Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
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http://www.archive.org/details/globaldirectoryo97aldr

The Directory

Legend to the maps

1. AFRICA :

Angola 1

Burundi 5

Cameroon 9

Cote d'Ivoire 14
Equatorial Guinea 18
Ethiopia 22
Gabon 26
Guinea 32
Kenya 36
Liberia 45
Madagascar 49
Malawi 53
Mozambique 57
Nigeria 61
Reunion 65
Rwanda 69
Sao Tomé and Principe 75
Sierra Leone 79
Tanzania -83
Uganda 90
Zaire 96

Di: LATIN AMERICA - CENTRAL

Belize 107
Costa Rica itt
E] Salvador 117
Guatemala 121
Mexico 126
Panama 135

2.1. LATIN AMERICA - SOUTH

Bolivia 143
Brazil 149
Colombia 154
Ecuador 162
Peru 170

Venezuela 177

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3. SOUTH-EAST ASIA

4. Work currently in progress on the following:

Argentina
Honduras
Nicaragua

Caribbean Islands
Pacific Islands

Australia

Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia

China

India

Indonesia

Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar

Papua New Guinea
Philippines

Sri Lanka
Thailand

Viet Nam

Appendix 1: Example Site Sheets

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INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THIS
DIRECTORY

1. AN INTRODUCTION TO TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Tropical montane cloud forests (TMCFs) are high on the list of the world's most threatened
ecosystems, and it is widely believed that the majority of those which remain are small areas
or remnant fragments of their original extent. Much of their value is related to their unique
characteristics of biodiversity and endemism and the functions that they provide. If managed
sustainably, TMCFs can provide a valuable range of services to local populations living in or
adjacent to the forest. As well as being a source of fuelwood and small dimension timber,
they may provide a range of non-wood forest products including honey, medicinal plants and
bushmeat.

1.1 Values

The hydrological role of TMCFs through their water stripping function gives them a value in
terms of water resources that is quite distinct from other forests or types of land use
(Stadtmuller, 1987, quoted in Hamilton er al. 1993). Tree crowns act to intercept wind-
driven cloud moisture on leaves and branches which drips to the ground, resulting in the
addition of water to the hydrological system. As a result TMCFs play an important role in
watershed protection by maintaining ground cover, thus minimising soil erosion and
providing a regular and controlled supply of water to communities living downstream.

TMCFs also make excellent ecosystems and sites for monitoring climate change and air
quality due to their relatively undisturbed tropical location.

in addition to having a wealth of biological diversity which has been previously undervalued,
TMCFs possess a very high proportion of endemic species, and probably many more as yet
unknown to science. Many TMCF areas serve as refugia for endangered species which are
being marginalised by the transformation and/or destruction of ecosystems at lower
elevations. Throughout the tropics, the TMCF zone provides habitat for notable plant species
such as tree ferns (Cyatheaceae) and many rare and endemic orchids (Orchidaceae) along
with other economically valuable plants and tree species. TMCFs are also the last remaining
habitat for many threatened species of mammals and birds. According to Long (1993), 260
of the world's nationally endemic bird species have cloud forest habitats.

With this wealth of diversity, cloud forest areas are becoming an increasingly important draw
for ecotourism, such as bird watching holidays, and for local education and recreation.

However while such activities may provide a valuable source of income, they must be
carefully managed in order to help conserve the unique environment and benefit local
communities.

Me Threats/Pressures

Despite their considerable value, these fragile habitats are under increasing threat from a wide
range of sources. In particular, human population pressures have forced the conversion of
more marginal and previously less accessible areas for both subsistence and cash crops,
including legal or illegal drug plant production. Many areas are under pressure from
encroachment by livestock or have already been cleared to provide new grazing land.
TMCFs may also provide a valuable source of fuelwood and small dimension timber, along
with a range of non-wood forest products, but in many areas such exploitation has reached
unsustainable levels resulting in irreversible damage to the forest habitat. The same is true
for hunting or capture of fauna (for sport, subsistence or commercial trade), and tourism and
recreation. Plans for new road building projects threaten many remaining TMCFs, along
with mining and geothermal development schemes many of which are well established.

1.3 The need for information

The situation is critical - James Luteyn, a botanist with the New York Botanic Garden states
that "some 90% of mountain forests have disappeared from the northern Andes", whilst
attention has been focused on the plight of tropical rain forests of the Amazonian basin
(Wuetrich, 1993). Immediate action is required to achieve their conservation before any more
of these rare and valuable habitats are lost for good.

To date, at the global level, relatively little is known about the whereabouts, extent and
condition of the remaining areas of TMCF. In particular, detail is required on the protection
status, biological importance, socio-economic conditions and current threats on a site by site
basis. Although in some cases detailed information exists for specific sites, it is widely
scattered and often not generally available. At a local level, experience from a number of
IUCN conservation projects in montane forest areas suggests that the major constraint to
cloud forest conservation is lack of awareness and commitment of all the participants and
interest groups to the long-term conservation of these forests.

1.4 Related activities

In response to these issues, a Tropical Montane Cloud Forests International State-of-
knowledge Symposium and Workshop was held in Puerto Rico in June 1993, with the aim of
drawing together information on the global extent of TMCFs. In response to a lack of detailed
global or national maps, the participants produced regional maps showing general
concentrations of TMCF, along with a list of sites by region and country, and a series of
recommendations concerning general and specific research needs (see Sections 3.4 and 4,
below).

Later the same month, another symposium, Neotropical Montane Forests: Biodiversity and
Conservation, also concerned with the threat to montane cloud forests was held at the New
York Botanical Garden. Participants, which included 120 scientists, 60 of them Latin
American, discussed potential conservation efforts. These included the need for biological
inventories to determine the most threatened areas, ecological restoration and in-situ and ex-
situ conservation. In particular, the importance of international co-operation was stressed

il

In 1995, IUCN - The World Conservation Union published a booklet in their Focus Series
entitled A Campaign for Cloud Forests: unique and valuable ecosystems at risk. Written by
Dr. Lawrence Hamilton (co-organiser of the Puerto Rico Symposium and Vice-Chair for
Mountains in the World Commision for Protected Areas (WCPA)) it was an attempt to
promote a better understanding of TMCFs among a clientele of IUCN members, partners,
donors and a wider audience. In addition to highlighting the need for awareness raising both
at national and international level of the value of cloud forests, an number of further actions
required for their conservation were identified.

Dr. Hamilton is also Editor of Mountain Protected Areas Update, the newsletter of the
WCPA Mountains Programme. Produced bi-monthly it often includes reports on initiatives
in cloud forest areas, and has information on forthcoming meetings, activities of members and
reviews of publications.

2s DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
Moll Difficulties with Definition

Hamilton et al. (1993) acknowledge that "clear definition of tropical montane cloud forest is
fraught with difficulty". Despite having a number of key recognisable features, these vary
greatly from one area to another, and this combined with an enormous range in the
terminology used to identify TMCFs, leads to considerable confusion, as confirmed by a
number of other authors of cloud forest studies such as Stadmuller and Ohsawa.

At the Puerto Rico Symposium the participants recognised the need for a clear definition of
TMCF (qualified as it might be), and discussed a number of alternatives. As a result, a
synthesis working definition was developed - this is reproduced along with the thoughts of
some other authors in Section 2.1.1 (below). It was decided to use this working definition as a
guide for the purposes of the current project (see Section 4. for Background), rather than
attempt to develop it any further. In deciding which TMCF sites or areas to include several
characteristics served as valuable indicators. In summary these were as follows: i

e A distinctive floristic and structural form, trees often described as having low stature
and crooked and gnarled trunks and branches. Certain tree species appeared to be
good indicators, as was a high proportion of epiphytes. High floral and faunal
biodiversity and endemism.

° Climatic features: persistent, frequent or seasonal cloud cover at the vegetation level.
Relatively high net precipitation enhanced through direct canopy interception of cloud
water (cloud stripping).

e Typically occurring in a relatively narrow altitudinal zone. However, considerable

variation in its position between large island mountain systems, and coastal areas or on
small islands in marine, equatorial conditions.

ill

As mentioned earlier a wide range of terminology is used to describe cloud forests (see
Section 2.2). Regional differences are apparent particularly with the term "cloud forest"
itself. For example when searching the literature as part of this project, the term "cloud
forest" or its Spanish equivalents were commonly used in association with montane forests in
South and Central America, but not with those in Asia, Africa, Caribbean Islands or in the
Oceania/Pacific region. This made the data gathering exercise considerably more difficult
and time consuming for these regions.

In Asia it appeared that cloud forest best equated to the more commonly described upper
montane rainforests. This is confirmed by Ohsawa (1993) who reports that "botanists have
observed that cloud forests on the tropical mountains of South-East Asia roughly correspond
to the upper montane rainforests dominated by microphyllous trees". Whitmore (1975) and
Whitten (1984) also link the commonly used pseudonyms of cloud forest, elfin forest and
moss forest with upper montane forest in South East Asia.

When attempting to identify cloud forests in Africa, the relationship is less obvious. "Upper
montane" is less commonly used, with the more general Afromontane being more common.

In the Caribbean and Oceania/Pacific regions, cloud forests are commonly found in small
patches on island mountains at a wide range of elevations. In many cases they are unique,
highly endemic ecosystems and where documented are referred to as TMCFs. The mossy or
elfin features of other areas are often identified, and due to a high elevational range they may
be associated with either lower montane forests or as facies of upper montane forest (Merlin
and Juvik, 1993).

2.1.1 Working definitions
Hamilton, Juvik, and Scatena (from Hamilton et al. (1993)):

"The tropical montane cloud forest is composed of forest ecosystems of distinctive floristic and
structural form. It typically occurs as a relatively narrow altitudinal zone where the
atmospheric environment is characterised by persistent, frequent or seasonal cloud cover at
the vegetation level. Enveloping clouds or wind-driven clouds influence the atmospheric
interaction through reduced solar radiation and vapour deficit, canopy wetting, and general
suppression of evapotranspiration. The net precipitation (throughfall) in such forests is
significantly enhanced (beyond rainfall contribution) through direct canopy interception of
cloud water (horizontal precipitation or cloud stripping) and low water use by the vegetation.

In comparison with lower latitude tropical moist forest, the stand characteristics generally
include reduced tree stature and increased stem density. Canopy trees usually exhibit gnarled
trunks and branches; dense compact crowns; and small, thick and hard (sclerophyll) leaves.
TMCF is also characterised by having a high proportion of biomass as epiphytes (bryophytes,
lichens and filmy ferns) and a corresponding reduction in woody climbers. Soils are wet and
frequently waterlogged and highly organic in the form of humus and peat (histosol).
Biodiversity in terms of tree species of herbs, shrubs and epiphytes can be relatively high
(considering the small areal extent) when compared with tree species-rich lowland rain forest.
Endemism is often very high.

TMCF occurs on a global scale within a wide range of annual and seasonal rainfall regimes
(te 500-10,000 mm/year). There is also significant variation in the altitudinal position of this
iv

mountain vegetation belt. For large, inland mountain systems, TMCF may typically be found
between 2000-3500m (Andes, Rwenzoris), whereas in coastal and insular mountains this zone
may descend to 1000m (Hawai,'i). Under exceptionally humid, marine, equatorial
conditions, a TMCF zone may develop on steep, small island mountains at elevations as low
as 500m or even lower (Kosrae in Micronesia and Gau in Fiji)."

Stadtmiiller, T. (1987):

"Cloud forest" is neither a scientific term, nor does it serve as a definition within the
disciplines of meteorology, hydrology, geography and biogeography, floristic composition,
fauna, ecology, silviculture and conservation, and for this reason there may be confusion.
Nevertheless "cloud forest" is frequently used in scientific literature which recognises the
strong influence clouds and mist have on forest vegetation, its ecological properties and
characteristics.

For the purposes of this study the following definition of "cloud forest in the humid tropics"
is used:

Cloud forests include all forests in the humid tropics that are frequently covered in clouds or
mist; thus receiving additional humidity, other than rainfall, through the capture and/or
condensation of water droplets (horizontal precipitation), which influences the hydrological
regime, radiation balance, and several climatic, edaphic and ecological parameters.

Ohsawa, M. (from Hamilton et al. 1993):
Definition and Distribution of Tropical Montane Cloud Forest in Southeast Asia

"The characteristic features of TMCF include a thick coat of bryophytes (Frahm and
Gradstein 1991) and vascular epiphytes such as filmy ferns, bromeliads, crassuraceans,
gingibers, orchids, and ericaceous shrubs. The trees are more or less stunted and gnarled,
and canopy surfaces are relatively smooth (Leigh 1975; Stadtmiiller 1987). However, in
humid climates such as in Southeast Asia, the TMCF cannot easily be identified solely by such
physiognomic or structural features, because the surrounding upland forests are also
relatively humid from heavy precipitation throughout the year (Whitmore 1984). The "true"
cloud forest, which is mainly sustained by cloud humidity, is easily recognisable when
surrounded by totally different arid areas such as savanna or desert. This type of cloud forest
can be clearly distinguished from the surrounding dry area because its altitudinal position
results in significant moisture augmentation form fog and cloud. This situation is sometimes
referred to as an isolated cloud forest (Sugden 1982) or an additional oasis (Cloudsley-
Thompson, 1977). Such montane cloud forest often forms a narrow belt with an upper and
lower treeline, and in most cases is confined to a windward exposure."

2.2 Commonly used Terminology

The participants in the Puerto Rico Symposium offered a diverse list of local or professionally
accepted names for TMCF in seven languages.

These included mossy forest, elfin forest, montane thicket, dwarf cloud forest, nuboselva,
bosque montano nebuloso, selva neblina, bosque nuboso, bosque de ceja. selva sublada.
nebelwald, wolkenwald, forét néphéliphile, forét de nuage, unmu-rin, bosque anao, foresta
nebular, mata nebular, matinha nebular, floresta fe neblina, floresta nuvigena, mata de
neblina, matinha de altitude, floresta ombrofila densa montana e/ou alto-montana, floresta de
altitude, floresta nublada, and floresta pluvial montana e/ou alto montana.

In addition a number of other commonly used names are listed by Stadtmiiller, T. (1987).
Spanish Terminology

"The term "bosque nublado" is the most frequent and general denomination in Spanish to
describe forest under the strong influence of clouds (Lamprecht, 1954). Veillon (1974) uses
the term "selva nublada" which he considers equivalent to the "bosque muy humedo montano
bajo" according to Holdridge's classification. Other authors, e.g. Caceres (1981) mention
cloud forests in the "bosque muy humedo premontano" life zone."

English Terminology

""Cloud forest” is the most common term used worldwide to describe forest types under the
influence of clouds. However, considerable numbers of authors have created other terms to
describe such forests. The majority of these terms are those included in tropical vegetation
classification systems e.g. Montane rain forest."

German Terminology

"The most frequently used term in German literature to describe cloud forest is the term
"Nebelwald". The term "Nebelwald" signifies fog forest. In recent years the majority of
authors use the term "Wolkenwald" in order the represent the translation of the most widely
used term at the international level, "cloud forest", more accurately. Another German term
synonymous with cloud forest is "Gebirgs-Nebelwald" which means mountain cloud forest".

3. DISTRIBUTION OF TMCFs
3.1 Global Distribution

Prior to the Puerto Rico Symposium, the limited knowledge of the global distribution of
TMCFs was based on the available information on the geographical distribution of montane
and submontane forests. This suggested that they are potentially found on all the major
mountain chains in tropical regions, where topo-climate conditions are favourable to the
occurrence of ground-level clouds during a considerable period of the year. As a result,
TMCFs tend to occur more frequently in Tropical America and Southeast Asia than in
tropical Africa due to a wider distribution of mountain ranges subject to oceanic differences in
Vil

these areas (Doumenge er al. 1993). Persson (1974, in Hamilton er al. 1993)) estimated that
TMCE constituted one-quarter of montane and submontane rain forest (c.50 million ha)
although this was probably an over-estimate.

3.2 Altitude, latitude and the Massenerhebung effect

Localised variations in the extent and elevational limits of TMCF are found as a result of
changes in the relationship between altitude and temperature. In tropical areas the cloudiness
and high water vapour content of the atmosphere significantly reduces the amount of solar
radiation received by the forest canopy compared with drier tropical environments.
Furthermore whereas in general temperature declines with increasing altitude, there are
marked differences above and below the condensation level which is marked by the cloud
base. Below this level the rate of decline of temperature is relatively high, whereas above the
cloud base rates of change in the saturated air tend to be much slower (Richards, 1966).
These effects combined with the direction of prevailing winds may lead to striking differences
between vegetation types on either side of the same mountain range (Kappelle and Zamora,
1995), (Lawton and Dryer, 1980) . A good example is in Costa Rica where the mean
temperature on the Continental Divide of mountains running down the centre of the country is
commonly 2°C higher on the Pacific side than on the wetter Atlantic (or Caribbean side).
Here the North-East trade winds (from the Atlantic) are also a prominent feature of the
climate at higher elevations throughout the year. Forest on the windward side has a lower
and more open canopy, and trees have significantly thicker trunk diameters than on the
leeward side. Species composition is also affected by a more open canopy where shade
intolerant species are prominent, and there is a thicker shrub layer. Density of bryophytic
and vascular epiphytes also increases with exposure to prevailing winds due to the rising
frequency of cloud in the forest (Lawton and Dryer, 1980).

In addition larger mountain masses tend to be warmer at comparable altitudes than isolated
mountains, as large upland surfaces provide extensive areas for heating by solar radiation, a
process which increases significantly with higher altitudes. This phenomenon has been
termed the Massenerhebung effect. In the humid tropics this means that lowland rain forest is
replaced by montane forest at a higher elevation in large mountain ranges such as the Andes.
This is compared with isolated mountains, particularly near the coast, where the zones are
more compressed (Richards, 1966).

3.3 Altitudinal Distribution

In general there is a transition in forest type with increasing altitude, moving from lowland
moist forest through lower montane, upper montane and alpine forest before reaching alpine
shrub or grassland vegetation (commonly referred to as "paramo") above the treeline. As
mentioned earlier TMCF is generally found within the upper montane belt, although there is
huge altitudinal variation (see diagram below). Depending on latitude, the lower limit of
TMCF on large inland mountain systems is typically between 1,500 and 2,500 metres above
sea level (m), with the upper limit between 2,400 and 3,300m (Bruijnzeel and Proctor, 1993).

Vil

Forest Formation Floristic zone important groups *
Coniferae
Upper Montane Ericaceae
montane ericaceous
Myrtaceae
= Oak-Jaurel Fagaceae. Lauraceae
S 1200+ Lower
= montane
$ - Upper Shorea platyclados,S. ciliata,
= dipterocarp S.ovata. Dipterocarpus retusus
Hill As below +
Lowland dipterocarp Shorea curtisii
Lowland Numerous dipterocarps especially Dipterocarpus

dipterocarp spp.. Shorea spp. and Dryobalanops saromatica

Vegetation zones on the main mountains of Malaya (from Whitmore, T C 1984)

In addition to this general distribution, TMCF may occur as micro-occurrences where there is
a cooler climate and stronger influence of mists and clouds than might normally be expected.
Examples in Africa include the isolated low elevation Belinga mountains of Gabon (800-
900m), and the Angola Highlands where there is an extension of dense forests from Southern
Zaire (Doumenge ef al. 1993).

In the Caribbean and Oceania/Pacific regions, the cloud forests are commonly found at
relatively low elevations (500m or lower) on small island mountains. In the Pacific TMCF
typically occur as small and isolated patches on high volcanic mountains. In Oceania and the
Caribbean, the TMCF belt occurs at higher elevations on larger islands, and at much lower
elevations close to the equator.

3.4 Mapping
In preparation for the Puerto Rico Symposium, Doumenge ef al. (1993), with the help of
WCMC attempted a global map of TMCF distribution based on the larger categories of

montane and submontane tropical rain forests. More detailed, larger scale regional maps
were also provided for the participants to review.

Vili

4. BACKGROUND TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF A GLOBAL DATABASE

In addition to producing regional maps showing general concentrations of TMCF. and a list
of sites by region and country, participants in Puerto Rico made a series of recommendations
concerning general and specific research needs. These maps and site list, which name and
locate individual cloud forests, protected areas, and known remaining undisturbed areas. were
thought useful in that they were collected as a starting point. However the Proceedings
stated- "we hope that this will be the start of a more complete location map for these
ecosystems" - and the data collected was sent to WCMC "who will maintain and improve the
data set" (Hamilton et al. 1993). Readers were asked to send information about other cloud
forest sites to WCMC.

Amongst the research needs identified, participants felt it necessary to raise the profile of
TMCFs at the international scale. Again the lack of detailed and available information on
TMCF areas was highlighted. In response they recommended that relevant information is
collected and analysed in a co-ordinated way in order to improve understanding of these
ecosystems, and ensure that reliable information is made available to a range of users for
effective decision making. It is generally felt that a systematic initiative was required to
gather, process, store and disseminate this information.

It was recommended that this should include the development of a standardised methodology
and format for collecting information, through a worldwide inventory of TMCFs, with
textual, numerical and spatial data stored on a centralised database at the World Conservation
Monitoring Centre.

In addition it was also recommended that at the local level, efforts at raising the awareness of
local owners and users of land, along with politicians and agencies about the value of the
resource they are impacting must underlie all direct actions taken to reduce the threats to
TMCFs from human impacts . In addition, support must be given to local initiatives which
involve interest groups in participatory planning and management.

As a result a project proposal to develop a TMCF database was prepared at WCMC, which
included an information gathering exercise through a range of contacts with a knowledge of
cloud forests and/or experience in the management of cloud forest areas. The further
development of a cloud forest contacts network was also proposed in order to provide a focal
point for information exchange and allow those with an interest in the management and
conservation of TMCFs to share their experience of existing conservation initiatives, to the
benefit of future projects.

Funding for a first phase of work was provided by the Government of the Netherlands
through the Tropical Rainforest Programme of the IUCN Netherlands Committee. In order to
publicise the project and identify willing contributors, information on the project was
circulated widely through International forestry and conservation newsletters, meetings and
other fora, as well as e-mail and on the WCMC Web page. These activities proved very
successful in stimulating interest and identifying new contacts.

1X

5: DEVELOPMENT OF A STANDARDISED METHODOLOGY AND FORMAT
FOR RECORDING DATA

Following a review of the types of information available containing descriptions of TMCF
sites, including material held at WCMC, scientific papers, articles and books, a draft
framework for recording data in a database was developed through consultation with a
number of interested parties. A set of draft materials were then sent to a core group of
contacts with experience and/or knowledge of cloud forest issues, for comment. These
materials included a proposed structure for recording both summary and more detailed
information, along with a detailed national map designed to facilitate the addition of cloud
forest sites. Having reviewed the range of responses from the core group, the database layout
was designed.

A new recording facility to store data on TMCFs was added to the existing Protected Areas
database at WCMC. This includes the ability to link cloud forest sites to existing protected
area records. Selected database fields were added and a new cloud forest category created.
Based on the database layout, blank summary site data sheets were designed for collecting
information which could later be added to the database. A sheet giving the proposed layout of
more detailed information as an accompanying text description for each site was also
prepared.

6. DATA GATHERING EXERCISE: PROBLEMS

The initial intention was to gather data on cloud forest sites, by enlisting the help of contacts
with knowledge of cloud forests in a particular country or region. These contacts were either
previously known to staff at WCMC or had responded to a plea for help when the project was
being publicised. It was hoped that the data gathered would supplement the relatively limited
information already held at WCMC. This exercise began with sets of materials being sent to
more than 40 contacts in South and Central America. Each set included a country map,
copies of the blank summary site sheets, and a photocopy of the synthesis working definition
developed at the Puerto Rico Symposium, accompanied by a letter of explanation. Similar
exercises were planned for Africa, South-East Asia and the Pacific/Oceania.

In practice the results from this exercise were poor. It is likely that this was due to lack of
time available for contacts to complete site sheets, despite efforts made to minimise the effort
required. However, in a minority of cases, sets of completed site sheets were returned along
with maps on which the location of cloud forest sites had been marked. This information was
very useful and was entered in the database.

As a result of the poor response to this initial widespread data gathering exercise and the
relatively small number of contacts identified in other regions, it was decided to concentrate
further efforts through correspondence only with those contacts who had expressed a
willingness to help. In order to provide a useful product at the end of the first phase of the
project it was also decided to combine the information received with material gathered from a
comprehensive review of information available through research at WCMC.

Data on a site by site basis was recorded where available. However the amount of detail was
very variable between sites, so it was decided to group sites into sub-national regions (often
Xx

mountain ranges, islands or single, isolated mountain peaks). Descriptive information from
the sites in a particular region was compiled into a summary paragraph for the region, which
was entered into the database in a memo field. These paragraphs were then incorporated into
country chapters for the draft directory.

7. COMPILATION OF A DRAFT DIRECTORY

Following an intensive period of research and compilation, a draft directory of TMCFs has
been produced, for widespread distribution to all contributors and other identified contacts in
hard copy form. In addition the material will be made available on the WCMC Internet Web
Site.

A global directory has been compiled, consisting of a global overview followed by a section
on each of the major tropical regions, which contain a chapter on each country included.
Each chapter begins with a national overview, map and summary table showing the main sub-
national cloud forest regions and sites identified with latitude and longitude co-ordinates
where available, along with an indication of which sites have an element of formal protection
(this refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria). This is
followed by summary paragraphs describing each of the sub-national regions in terms of
location, biodiversity, conservation status, and giving details of the values of the TMCF sites
in the area and the pressures currently faced.

As a result of the variable level of detail gathered to date at the site level, no further site
information has been included in this first draft version of the directory. However detailed
information is held in the database for some sites, and can be added for other sites as it
becomes available. An example of the site sheet which has been used to gather information
and shows the database fields which exist for recording the more detailed data, is included in
Annex 1.

8. DEVELOPMENT OF A CLOUD FOREST NETWORK

In addition to the cloud forest contacts identified through the Puerto Rico Symposium and the
other related activities described in Section 1.4, a significant number of new contacts,
particularly researchers active in the field and local NGOs have been made during the first
phase of this project. A full list of names by country with contact details is enclosed with this
directory. It is hoped that this can be developed further into a contacts network, linked by an
e-mail List-Server and Newsletter, in a subsequent phase of this project subject to funding
being found.

Xi

9. GLOBAL OVERVIEW

The work to date has identified a total of 605 TMCF sites in 41 countries (see Tables 1, 2. 3
and 4 below). These are marked on the following map which shows the distribution of
montane cloud forest sites in the tropics. The highest concentration is found in Latin America.
where 280 sites (46%) are found in only 12 countries, the majority in Venezuela. Mexico.
Ecuador and Colombia. This is perhaps not surprising due to the large and high mountainous
areas of the Andes region which are subject to oceanic influences, but also it is indicative of
the fact that the term “cloud forest” is more widely used and recognised than in the other
continents. This is discussed in Section 2 of the Introduction, Definitions and Terminology.
In south-east Asia, 228 sites have been identified in 14 countries principally in Indonesia and
Malaysia and to a lesser extent in Sri Lanka, Philippines and Papua New Guinea. In Africa,
97 sites have been recorded in 21 countries, with many cloud forests found on relatively
isolated mountains scattered across the continent.

Details of the size of particular cloud forest sites have been difficult to obtain, except where
the information has been supplied by local experts. In any case the actual extent of cloud
forest itself as distinct from the surrounding or adjoining forest type is very difficult to
determine, even on the ground. As a result the sites identified should generally be considered
as areas of forest containing a proportion of cloud forest.

An initial assessment of the values of cloud forests shows that the majority of areas are
incredibly important habitats for endemic and other threatened species of flora and fauna,
including many important tree species and plants such as tree ferns Cyatheaceae and orchids
Orchidaceae. Large numbers of bird species and mammals such as the spectacled bear
Tremarctos ornatus and howler monkies Alouatta spp. are dependent on cloud forest habitat
for their survival. These forests have a high socio-economic value to local populations
principally as a source of fuelwood, building materials and food amongst others, but also on a
larger scale for watershed protection and climate regulation. At the same time, overcutting for
fuelwood, clearance for agriculture, encroachment by grazing animals and the spread of fire
from grass-burning of adjoining areas were identified as amongst the major localised threats
to these fragile ecosystems and their inhabitants. Many areas are under pressure from mining
companies and large-scale road building projects, often against the wishes of local people.

Globally, from the information gathered, just under half the sites identified have an element of
protection by being within protected areas classified as meeting IUCN Management Category
I-VI criteria. Others may be under less formal protection such as private reserves or in
collaborative forest management agreements, although this information is not available at this
stage. In south-east Asia, 50% of sites identified are within IUCN protected areas, while
Latin America has 44% (Central America has only 30%, while South America has 47%), and
Africa has 39%. However, despite the fact that cloud forests in these areas are legally
designated as “protected”, in practice many are under pressure from the threats described
above and are continuing to become more fragmented and in some areas completely lost at an
alarming rate.

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Xvi

10. CONCLUSIONS

The production of this draft directory as the first output from the TMCF database at WCMC
represents an important initial stage in the development of a standardised methodology and
format for collecting information on TMCFs on a site by site basis. It is hoped that WCMC
can continue to provide a focal point for information exchange, through further data gathering
and dissemination in a subsequent phase of work.

Whilst the database provides the best available information on the location and status of
TMCFs, considerable work is required to develop the level of detail on a site by site basis. As
indicated in the global overview the current level of detail varies considerably depending on
the types of information available, but more importantly on the level of input from those with
a detailed knowledge of a particular area. In order to produce a more comprehensive
information base, the collaboration of regional and national cloud forest contacts should be
encouraged. Such a relationship must be mutually beneficial, and should be developed by
expanding the existing number of contacts by activating a contact network and the facilitation
of regional workshops attended by local experts from all sectors. In addition collaboration
with related conservation initiatives such as the Mountains Programme of the IUCN-WCPA
(World Commission on Protected Areas) must be sought.

It is also important that the information available should be disseminated as widely as
possible. In particular it should be made available to a range of users at the policy and
decision making levels. This should be done by distribution of this directory in hard copy
form and on the World Wide Web. In addition to making the information available and
increasing awareness of the issues, it will also be possible to encourage readers to review the
existing material, and provide feedback and more detailed information where possible.

The current directory provides a useful overview of the location of cloud forest sites, with
some general information on their importance for biodiversity, protection status, socio-
economic and wider environmental values, and the some of the major threats to their survival.
As the detail of the information improves it will be possible to develop more detailed analyses
to determine the gaps in protection and priority areas for conservation using criteria
developed at regional and national levels. This would also be assisted by the development of a
number of selected local case studies looking at particular issues in more detail, perhaps in
collaboration with existing field projects. In addition priority sites where further research or
development work is urgently needed should be identified.

A detailed funding proposal is currently being developed at WCMC for a subsequent phase of

work, based on the conclusions above and the recommendations of a number of cloud forest
experts from whom advice has been sought. The main activities are listed below.

XVil

11. |. PROPOSED FUTURE ACTIVITIES
Phase II will aim to build on the existing information through the following activities.
i. Workshops
Following an initial management advisory workshop, to determine data, technology

and information needs and set work priorities, a series of similar regional meetings
will be held with regional and local experts.

ii. Expand the information base:

Expand on the information compiled under Phase I, to produce a more comprehensive
coverage of site descriptions, to fill information gaps and to consolidate information
on boundaries of cloud forests and protected cloud forests.

iii. Function as a global focal point for cloud forest work

Function as a focal point to facilitate information and expertise exchange, by
activating the existing contacts network, and an e-mail discussion group. Also act as a
repository for information collected under detailed local cloud forest case studies (to
be funded independently), passing on knowledge to others. Enhance local scale
projects by providing a global context for cloud forest conservation.

iv. Establish Conservation Priorities
Undertake analyses, in collaboration with the Mountains Programme of IUCN-WCPA
and others, to determine gaps in cloud forest protection and to identify priorities for
conservation planning.

Vv. Distribute Data Effectively

Improve the distribution of data via a number of different media such as CD-ROM,
over the Internet and with the production of a Cloud Forest Handbook.

vi. Assist in an awareness campaign on the threatened status of cloud forests
Promote the importance of cloud forests to a wider audience by assisting in a
campaign proposed by Dr. Larry Hamilton and IUCN-WCPA with support from

Netherlands Committee for [UCN and WWF, by producing information papers, a
colour poster and other material suitable for media coverage.

For more information on Cloud Forests Phase II please contact Mark Aldrich at WCMC.
Any suggestions for improvements to the database would be gratefully received.

XVlil

12. REFERENCES

Bruijnzeel, L.A. and J. Proctor (1993) Hydrology and Biogeochemistry of Tropical Montane
Cloud Forests: What do we really know? In Hamilton er al. (1993) (Eds) Tropical
Montane Cloud Forests - Proceedings of an International Symposium at San Juan,
Puerto Rico, 31 May - 5 June 1994, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai'i, USA.
Pages 25-46.

Doumenge, C., D. Gilmour, M. Ruiz Perez, and J. Blockhus (1993). Tropical Montane
Cloud Forests: Conservation Status and Management Issues. In Hamilton er al.
(1993) (Eds) Tropical Montane Cloud Forests - Proceedings of an International
Symposium at San Juan, Puerto Rico, 31 May - 5 June 1994, East-West Center,
Honolulu, Hawai'i, USA. Pages 17-24.

Hamilton, L., J.O. Juvik, and F. Scatena (1993). The Puerto Rico Tropical Cloud Forest
Symposium: Introduction and Workshop Synthesis. In Hamilton er al. (1993) (Eds)
Tropical Montane Cloud Forests - Proceedings of an International Symposium at San
Juan, Puerto Rico, 31 May - 5 June 1994, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai'i,
USA. Pages 1-16.

Kappelle, M. and N. Zamora (1995). Changes in Woody Species Richness along an
Altitudinal Gradient in Talamancan Montane Quercus Forests, Costa Rica. In Steven
Churchill et al. (1995) (Eds) Biodiversity and Conservation of Neotropical Montane
Forests, 135-148. New York Botanic Garden, USA.

Lawton, R. and V. Dryer (1980). The Vegetation of the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve.
Brenesia 18: 101-116.

Long, A.J (1993). Restricted-Range and Threatened Bird Species in Tropical Montane Cloud
Forests. In Hamilton et al. (1993) (Eds) Tropical Montane Cloud Forests -
Proceedings of an International Symposium at San Juan, Puerto Rico, 31 May - 5 June
1994, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai'i, USA. Pages 47-65.

Ohsawa, M. (1993). The Montane Cloud Forest and its Gradational Changes in Southeast
Asia. In Hamilton et al. (1993) (Eds) Tropical Montane Cloud Forests - Proceedings
of an International Symposium at San Juan, Puerto Rico, 31 May - 5 June 1994, East-
West Center, Honolulu, Hawai'i, USA. Pages 163-170.

Richards, P.W. (1966). The tropical rain forest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
UK.

Stadtmuller, T. (1987). Cloud Forests in the Humid Tropics. A bibliographic review.
United Nations University, Tokyo, and CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica.

Whitmore, T.C. (1984). Tropical rainforests of the Far East. 2nd Edition. Clarendon Press,
Oxford.

XIX

Whitten, A.J., Damanik, S.J., Anwar, J. and N. Hisyam (1984). The Ecology of Sumatra.
Gadjah Mada University Press.

Wuetrich, B. (1993). Forests in the clouds face stormy future. Science News 144(2):23.

XX

THE DIRECTORY

Legend to the Maps

LEGEND

Adjacent countries
i@a Montane rain forest
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Cloud forest region
© Cloud forest sites

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PART ONE

AFRICA

Angola
Burundi
Cameroon
Cote d’Ivoire
Equatorial Guinea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Guinea
Kenya
Liberia
Madagascar —
Malawi
Mozambique
Nigeria
Reunion
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Sierra Leone
Tanzania
Uganda
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ANGOLA

The biomes of Angola range from hyper-arid Karroo-Namib in the south-west, to Guinea-
Congolian rainforest in the far north-west. Cloud forests are limited in extent, and confined to
isolated Afromontane forest patches totalling less than 200ha in the districts of Huambo.
Benguela and Huila, and to more extensive but discontinuous forests along the upper Angola
escarpment. At least two protected areas have been recommended to protect certain of these
cloud forests, and pressures range from timber and fuelwood collection, to coffee plantations.
The forests are considered vulnerable due to their small size and often restricted range (Collar
and Stuart, 1988; Huntley, 1974; World Bank, 1993).

References

Collar N.J. and Stuart S.N. 1988. Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. {CBP Monograph
No. 3, International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge.
Huntley B.J. 1974. Ecosystem conservation priorities in Angola. Unpublished MS, prepared

for Servico de Proteccao a Fauna.
World Bank 1993. Ecologically Sensitive Sites in Africa: Volume III: South-Central Africa and
Indian Ocean. Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre for The World Bank,
Washington, DC, USA.

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A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Angola

Angolan Escarpment

A number of fragmented forests extending along the Angolan Escarpment between Dondo and
Quilenges. varying in size between a few to several thousand hectares. The largest is the
Amboim Forest, with other forests occurring at Gabela. Vila Nova do Seles. Dondo.
Mumbondo, Asango and Conda. Grading into a dryer forest at lower elevations. the moist upper
forests attain a canopy height of up to 40m and are typified by trees such as Bombax reflexum.
Khaya acanthotheca, Blighia unijugata, Zanha golungensis, Piptadeniastrum africanum, Celtis
mildbraedii and Spathodea campanulata. Epiphytes are abundant. The forests are considered
important as refugia for several threatened and near-threatened bird species. The gabela helmet-
shrike Prionops gabela, gabela akalat Sheppardia gabela and amboim bush-shrike Laniarius
(luhderi) amboimensis are near-endemics to the Gabela region, whilst monteiro's bush-shrike
Malaconotus monteiri and pulitzer's longbill Macrosphenus pulitzeri are endemic to the
Angolan escarpment. Threats to the forests are exacerbated due to their generally small and
fragmented nature. They include planting of coffee as an understorey cash crop. No areas are
currently protected, but a 50sq.km. Gabela Strict Nature Reserve has been proposed. Part of the
lower, drier forest type has been incorporated within Parque Nacional da Kisama (Collar and
Stuart, 1988: World Bank, 1993).

Huambo/Bailundu Highlands

Numerous small to very small Afromontane forests covering a total area of under 200ha are
scattered through the mountains of Huambo, Benguela, Cuanza Sul and Huila districts. They
primarily occur in sheltered ravines at elevations between 2000-2500m and are of great:
biological importance as they represent isolated relics of a formerly more widespread biome.
The most important aggregations of forest occur on Mount Moco, where a total forested area of
about 100ha exists, and on Mount Soque and the Mambolo Plateau. Threats to the forests
include the collection of fuelwood and hunting by local communities. Dominant trees are
10-15m in height, and include the genera Podocarpus, Pittosporum, Olea and Ilex. Larger
mammals have been heavily hunted, but yellow baboon Papio cynocephalus, red-footed squirrel
Funiscuirus pyrrhopus, bushpig Potamochoerus porcus and blue duiker Cephalophus
monticola survive. The forests support an interesting avifauna. Of thirty species collected from
Mount Moco, seven are restricted to the isolated montane forests of Africa in Cameroon.
Ethiopia, Bioko. Uganda and Tanzania. Swierstra's francolin Francolinus swierstrae is an
Angolan highland endemic. and black-chinned weaver Ploceus nigrimentum and Margaret's
batis Batis margaritae have also been recorded.

ANGOLA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Cloud Forest Region

Angolan Escarpment

Huambo/Bailundu Highlands

Total No. of
CF Regions= 2

Cloud Forest Site

Amboim Forest

Assango Forest

Conda Forest

Dondo Forest

Gabela Forest

Mumbondo Forest

Vila Nova do Seles Forest
Mambolo Plateau

Mount Moco

Mount Soque

Total No. of
CF Sites= 10

Date: 27/06/97

\

Protected*™

Yes/No?

/ No
10°28'S/ 14°12'E No
10°33'S/ 14°10'E No
/ No
10°25'S/ 14°11'E No
10°06'S/ 14°07'E No
10°42'S/ 14°09'E No
/ No
12°13'S/ 14°34'E No
/ No

Total No. of CF Sites with

an element of protection = 0

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Africa

BURUNDI

Covering an area of 27.731sq.km (of which 2000sq.km forms part of Lake Tanganyika).
Burundi is situated in the highlands along the eastern arm of the Western Rift Valley. The land
surface only falls below the 1000m contour along the shores of Lake Tanganyika (773m). Cloud
forests occur on the ridge of the Zaire-Nile Divide which extends from Uganda. through
Rwanda and Burundi down into Zambia. This ridge forms part of the larger Albertine Rift
region. In Burundi the ridge is located on the western-boundary at approximately 2679m. runs
roughly north-south and provides the highest land in the country.

The protected areas system comprises ten protected areas, four of which are demarcated on the
ground. This system currently covers just over 3% of the country, most of which is montane
cloud forests. Although the reserves are of national significance, they are not important on a
regional scale and do not merit international aid (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1987).

Burundi is very densely populated, leading to a high population pressure on natural resources.

References

FAO/PNUD. 1974. La conservation et la gestion de la faune et de la flore au Burundi. Rapport
au governement du Burundi, établi sur base des travaux de J.B. Bider. 37pp.

Mackinnon, J., MacKinnon, K. 1986. Review of the protected areas system in the Afrotropical
Realm. \UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP., Nairobi, Kenya. 259 pp.

Ndabaneze, P. 1990. The mountain flora of Burundi. In: (Eds.) Messerli, B. and Hurni, H..,
African mountains and highlands. African Mountains Association. Pp. 229-236

Verschuren, J. 1976. Conservation de la nature et parcs nationaux au Burundi. Rapport de
mission, 25 juin au 26 aott 1976. Résume et Conclusions. Institut Royal des Sciences
Naturelles de Belgique, Bruxelles. 2 pp.

Verschuren, J. 1977. Burundi and wildlife: Problems of an overcrowded country. Oryx 14(3):
237-240.

Weber & Vedder. 1984. Forest conservation in Rwanda and Burundi. Swara 7(6) 32-35.

Wilson V.J. 1990. Preliminary survey of the duikers and other mammals of Burundi, east
Africa. Pan African Decade of Duiker Research (1985-1994).

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A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries : Burundi
Bururi

A relic forest covering 1600ha located on the southern edge of the Zaire-Nile Divide. Bururi
Forest is interesting given that it is recognised as a biogeographical crossroads. The cloud forest
lies between 1900m and 2150m. Approximately 19 species of tree are found, dominated by
Strombosia and Myrianthus, Tabernaemontana, Newtonia and Entadrophragma. The forest
supports important fauna, including 87 bird species, 5 carnivores, and 5 primates, including the
chimpanzee Pan troglodytes.

Kibira

Located in the north of the country on the central portion of the Zaire-Nile Divide, Kibira forest
covers an area of 40,000ha and constitutes an extension of Nyungwe forest (90,000ha) in
Rwanda. Together they form the largest afromontane forest block in Africa. The forest ranges in
altitude from 1600m to 2900m. Kibira has been protected since 1933, but in reality from only
1980 (Wilson 1990). Only 16% remains as primary forest (Wilson 1990), composed of
Sypmhonia_ globulifera, Newtonia buchananii, Albizia gummifera and Entadrophragmu
excelsum. The forest holds animal species of conservation concern, including the mountain
monkey Cercopithecus lhoesti, chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, and several restricted range bird
species (Bradypterus graueri, Alethe poliophrys, Hemitesia neumanni, Cryptospiza shelleyi).
There is much pressure on the forest due to illegal activities including poaching, bamboo
cutting, wood cutting and burning.

BURUNDI: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/9

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?

Bururi Bururi 3°56'S/ 29°35'E No
Kibira Kibira 2°43'S/ 29°20'E

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 2 CF Sites= 2 an element of protection = 0

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Africa

CAMEROON

Although much of southern and south-western Cameroon is forested. montane forest is
primarily confined to the western high plateaux along the border with Nigeria. These include the
Tchabal Mbabo and Bamboutos Mountains, and to related but isolated massifs such as Mts.
Manengouba, Cameroon and Kupe. Western Cameroon has the largest area of montane habitats
in West and West-central Africa, yet the combined area of montane forest and montane
grassland constitutes less than one percent of the country's land area. Trees that are
characteristic of montane forests in Cameroon include Podocarpus latifolius, Prunus africanus,
Rapanea melanophloeos and Syzygium staudtii. Levels of endemism are fairly high, but species
diversity is low. This is assumed to result from gross reductions in forest cover during glacial
epochs. Wildlife typical of the montane forests includes Preuss's guenon Cercopithecus preussi.
bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus, blue duiker Cephalophus monticola, black-fronted duiker C.
nigrifrons and yellow-backed duiker C. sy/vicultor. Much of the montane areas are threatened
by activities associated with human encroachment (ICBP 1987, 1988: Lamarque er al., 1990:
Sayer et al., 1992; Richards, 1996; World Bank 1993).

References

ICBP. 1986. Conservation of Cameroon Montane Forests. Ed. S.N. Stuart. Report of the
ICBP Cameroon Montane Forest Survey.

ICBP. 1987. The conservation of Oku Mountain Forest, Cameroon (project proposal).
Cambridge, UK.

ICBP 1988. Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. \CBP Monograph No. 3.Lamarque F..
Stark M.A., Fay J.M. and Alers M. 1990. Cameroon.

In: Antelopes - Global Survey and Regional Action Plans. Part 3: West and Central
Africa. Ed. R. east, IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group.

Larison B., Smith T.B., Fotso R., McNiven D., Holbrook K. and Lamperti I. 1995.
Preliminary report - Surveys of selected montane and lowland areas of Cameroon.
Unpublished WWF MS.

Richards P.W. 1996. The tropical rain forest - an ecological study (second edition). Cambridge
University Press.

Sayer J.A., Harcourt C.S. and Collins N.M. 1992. The conservation atlas of tropical forests:
Africa. Macmillan.

World Bank 1993. Ecologically sensitive sites in Africa. Volume I: Occidental and Central
Africa. Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre for The World Bank,
Washington, DC, USA.

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A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Cameroon

Bamenda Highlands

Lying along the Nigerian border and extending into Nigeria in parts, these highlands contain the
Bamboutos Mountains and Mt. Oku, and are connected with the Tchabal Mbabo plateau in the
north.

Hoséré Vokre

Relict Podocarpus forests exist on this isolated massif. The pink-footed puffback Drvoscopus
angolensis, cinnamon bracken warbler Bradypterus cinnamomeus and Preuss's sunbird
Nectarinia preussi occur at the northernmost limit of their distribution. Human impacts are
extreme and include encroaching agriculture, fire, grazing pressure and hunting (WWF, 1995).

Mount Cameroon

This is an isolated, active volcano on the coast of Cameroon's South-West Province, and is the
highest mountain in West Africa. Reaching a height of 4100m it supports a narrow belt of
montane forest between 1800-2130m dominated by trees such as Schefflera abyssinica.
Syzygium staudtii and S.mannii. The lower woody stratum is dominated by Allophylus bullatus,
and by semi-woody plants such as Mimulopsis solmsii and Oreacanthus mannii. Wildlife
includes species such as Preuss's guenon Cercopithecus preussi, drill Mandrillus leucophacus,
chimpanzee Pan troglodytes and low numbers of elephant Loxodonta africana. The Mount
Cameroon francolin Francolinus camerunensis is endemic to the mountain, and two threatened
and four near-threatened bird species occur. A protected area has been proposed that would
Incorporate the upper forests around the southern end of the mountain, and the Mount
Cameroon Project has been initiated to help achieve this. Threats to the forests include the:
felling of trees for their medicinal bark, intensive hunting by locals, and annual fires in the
grasslands above the forests. Periodic lava flows have destroyed areas of forest in the past
(Collar and Stuart, 1988: Richards, 1996).

Rumpi Hills

Covering an area of about 45km by 30km, the Rump Hills support limited amounts of montane
forest on the higher peaks. The highest is Mt. Rata, at 1768m. A few montane species such as
Xylopia africana occur, and Preuss's guenon Cercopithecus preussii 1s reportedly common.
Three threatened and four near-threatened bird species have been recorded as has the endemic

CAMEROON: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Cloud Forest Region

Bamenda Highlands

Hoséré Vokré
Mount Cameroon
Rumpi Hills
Tchabal Mbabo

Total No. of
CF Regions= 5

Cloud Forest Site

Bamboutos Forests
Mount Kilum/Idjim
Mount Kupé

Mount Manenguba
Mount Nlonako
Hoséré Vokré
Mount Cameroon
Rumpi Hills
Tchabal Mbabo

Total No. of
CF Sites= 9

Date: 27/06/97}

Protected*

Yes/No?

5°40'N/ 10°05'E Wo
6°12'N/ 10°32'E Yes
4°47'N/ =9°42'E Wo
5°O1'N/ §=9°S1'E No
4°53'N/ 9°55'E No
8°30'N/ 13°50'E No
4°07'N/ §=9°10'E Yes
4°50'N/ 9°06'E Wo
7°16'N/ 12°09'E Wo

Total No. of CF Sites with
an element of protection = z

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Africa

chameleon Chamaeleo eisentrauti, but it is not known to what extent they utilise the montane
elements of the hills (ICBP. 1986: World Bank, 1993).

Tchabal Mbabo

Tchabal Mbabo is a 25km long, bowl-shaped east-west ridge, the north and west-facing slopes
of which are extensively forested with dense montane forest between 1600-2010m. The upper
storey 1s dominated by the trees Syzygium staudtii, Schefflera abyssinica and Carapa
grandiflora, with a high diversity of epiphytes. Species associated with grassland and forest
openings are Adenocarpus mannii, Philippia mannii and Aguaria salicifolia. Significant
wildlife populations survive, including buffalo Syncerus caffer, yellow-backed duiker
Cephalophus sylvicultor, bay duiker C. dorsalis, bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus, black ‘and
white colobus Colobus guereza and giant forest hog Hylochoerus meinertzhageni. Several bird
species endemic to the western Cameroon/eastern Nigeria uplands region have been recorded,
three of which are regarded as threatened or potentially threatened. The area offers one of the
most significant possibilities to protect montane forest in Cameroon. The forests are extensive
and human pressures are low (Collar and Stuart, 1988; World Bank, 1993; Larison e/ al., 1995).

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

COTE D'IVOIRE

The only higher altitude forest that occurs in Céte d'Ivoire occurs on Mount Nimba on the joint
borders with Liberia and Guinea. The mountain supports a transitional "mist forest" between
1000-1600m dominated by Parinari excelsa and Uapaca chevalieri., It is mentioned here
because of its exceptionally high degree of endemism (Collar and Stuart. 1988: WCMC 1991).

References

Collar and Stuart 1988. Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. |CBP Monograph No.3
World Bank 1993. Ecologically sensitive sites in Africa. Vol.IV: West Africa. Compiled by the

World Conservation Monitoring Centre for The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1991. Guide de la diversite biologique de Cote d'Ivoire.
WCMC, Cambridge. UK.

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COTE D'IVOIRE: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Cloud Forest Region
Nimba Range

Total No. of
CF Regions= 1

Cloud Forest Site

Mount Nimba

Total No. of
CF Sites= 1

Date: 27/06/9

Protected*
Yes/No?

7°33'N/ 8°27'W No

Total No. of CF Sites with
an element of protection = 0

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Africa

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Cote d'Ivoire

Nimba Range

Part of the "Guinea Backbone", which is found across the borders of Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire and
Guinea, Mount Nimba reaches an altitude of 1752m. It features a very high degree of
endemism, with over 500 new species described from the area. Endemics include the Nimba
flycatcher Melaenornis annamarulae, lesser otter shrew Nectophrynoides liberiensis and over
20 species of invertebrate. The massif has high water catchment values. The Mount Nimba
Strict Nature Reserve covers 5000ha and is also a World Heritage Site (World Bank. 1993).

17

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

EQUATORIAL GUINEA

Equatorial Guinea comprises the small mainland territory of Rio Muni on the Atlantic coast
between Gabon and Cameroon, and the island islands of Bioko (Fernando Po) and Annobon in
the Gulf of Guinea. The only montane areas occur on the island of Bioko, which 1s part of the

Cameroon Line of Tertiary to recent volcanoes and lies 32km off the coast of Cameroon
(WCMC, 1996).

References

Collar and Stuart. 1988. Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. \CBP Monograph No.3.

Sayer J.A., Harcourt C.S., Collins N.M. 1992. The conservation atlas of tropical forests: Africa.
Macmillan.

WCMC 1996. PADU datasheet.

World Bank 1993. Ecologically sensitive sites in Africa. Volume I: Occidental and Central
Africa. Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre for The World Bank,
Washington, DC, USA.

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EQUATORIAL GUINEA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Bioko Gran Calera de Luba 3°20'N/ 8°33'E Yes
Pico Basile 3°35'N/ 8°46'E Yes
Pico Biao 3°20'N/ 8°38'E Yes

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 3 an element of protection = 3

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Africa

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Equatorial Guinea

Bioko

Covering an area of 2017sq.km, Bioko Island was connected to the African mainland between
10.000-11,000 B.P. when sea levels were lower. The island is dominated by two connected
mountain masses. Pico Basile (3011m) in the north is the island's highest point, while the
southern third of the island consists of a rugged plateau reaching a height of 2009m on Pico
Biao, and 2261m on Gran Caldera de Luba. Rainfall in the wetter south of the island can exceed
10,000mm/annum. Although montane rain forest occurs between 900-2400m. true Schefflera-
dominated "lichen forest" only occurs above 1900m. The upper forests are home to the island's
only endemic bird, the Fernando Po speirops Speirops brunneus, and several rare primate
species such as an endemic subspecies of drill Mandrillus leucophaea occur. Two protected
areas exist: Pico Basile o Sta. Isabel and Sur de la Isla de Bioko, both of which include montane
forests. Pressures on the montane forests are low, apart from hunting (Collar and Stuart, 1988:
Sayer e/ al., 1992; World Bank, 1993).

21

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

ETHIOPIA

Highlands above 2500m in elevation cover 43% of Ethiopia, and account for 90% of
agriculturally suitable land. The Rift Valley runs from the south-west of the country north and
north-eastwards towards the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, on either side of which lie highland
plateaux averaging between 2100-2500m in elevation. Dry and moist forms of montane and
upper montane forests occur along the eastern escarpment north of the Rift Valley, around the
Bale, Sidamo and Hararghe plateaux, on massifs on the huge Central Plateau such as Simen
(incorporating the highest point in Ethiopia at 4624m), Guna and Birhan massifs. and in the
south-west of the country in southern Wollega, Illubabor and Kaffa provinces. The montane
forests of Ethiopia can be divided into moist and dry forms. Dryer forests are typified by trees
such as Juniperus procera, Apodytes dimidiata, Halleria lucida, and Olea species. Wetter forms
of montane forest are characterised by mixed Podocarpus gracilior-broadleaf communities.
Upland and montane forests have been under intense human pressure in Ethiopia for a
considerable period, and it is estimated that of an original cover of 176,000 sq.km of
Podocarpus/Juniperus forest, only 0.9% now remains. Similarly, only 11% of the area formerly
covered by broadleaved upland forests now survives (WCMC, 1991).

References

Hillman J.C. 1993. Ethiopia: Compendium of Wildlife Conservation Information. Vols 1 & 2.
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation, Addis Ababa.

Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation and Development 1986. Management
Plan: Simen Mountains National Park and Surrounding Rural Area. UNESCO and
WCS.
The World Bank. 1993. Ecologically sensitive sites in Africa. Volume Il: Eastern Africa.
Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre for The World Bank,
Washington, DC, USA.

Uhlig S.K. and Uhlig K. 1991. Studies on the altitudinal zonation of forests and alpine plants in
the central Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Mountain Research and Development, Vol.11(2)
pp. 153-156.

WCMC. 1991. Biodiversity guide to Ethiopia. World Conservation Monitoring Centre,
Cambridge.

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ETHIOPIA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Cloud Forest Region

Central Plateau
Sidamo, Bale and Hararghe plateaux

Total No. of
CF Regions= 2

Cloud Forest Site

Simen Mountains
Bale Mountains

Total No. of
CF Sites= 2

Date: 27/06/9

Protected

Yes/No
13°00'N/ 38°00'E Yes
7°00'N/ 40°00'E No

Total No. of CF Sites with
an element of protection =

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Africa

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Ethiopia

Central Plateau

Occurring at elevations between 1600-3300m, only scattered remnants of this forest type now
survive. Dominant trees are Juniperus procera and Olea europaea ssp. africana, associated in
places with species such as Podocarpus gracilior, Cordia abyssinica, Dombeya schimperiana
and Ehretia cymosa. It includes sites such as the Simen Mountains in north-central Ethiopia.
and Mt. Guge (4200m) to the west of Lake Abaya (WCMC, 1991: World Bank, 1993).

Sidamo, Bale and Hararghe plateaux

Occurring in the south-east of Ethiopia, these plateaux support both moist and dry forests
between 1500-2700m. Little is known of their overall composition. The Bale Mountains (7°N,
40°E) form the highest section of the southern plateaux south of the Rift Valley, reaching a
height of 4377m (World Bank, 1993; Uhlig and Uhlig, 1991; WCMC, 1991).

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

GABON

Gabon, located on the west coast of Equatorial Africa, lies entirely within the Guineo-
Congolian regional centre of endemism which is the most biologically diverse region in the
continent. The interior uplands consist mainly of plateau surfaces of 450m to 600m dissected
by the Ogooué River system into distinct blocks. The plateau surface is broken by the Monts de
Cristal in the north and the Massif du Chaillu in the south, with the highest mountains just over
1000m.

The rain forests, which comprise an estimated 8000 species of plants, cover about 85% of the
country. In the north-east of the country the mountains are covered between 950m and 1000m
with a type of vegetation known as "elfin thicket" found nowhere else in Africa. The remaining
area, mostly in the south-east and south-west, is largely. savanna, which is thought to be a
climatic remnant from a drier past.

Gabon is one of the few countries in the world that still offers exceptional potential for
conservation, as in general, the major ecosystems remain intact. Along with adjacent areas of
Cameroon and Congo, it forms what is probably the largest intact forest block remaining in
Africa (WWF, 1991). However, forest exploitation is highly selective, 90% of trees cut being of
one species, okoumé Aucomea klaineana, an important species for use as plywood and veneer
(Tutin and Fernandez, 1987).

The protected areas system (excluding forest reserves) currently comprises 10 reserves which
cover just over 6% of the country. No national parks exist and selective logging has affected the
forests in four of the areas (Sayer, Harcourt and Collins, 1992). Additional areas are in need of
protection, particularly the primary forest north and south of the Ogooue. The ecological impact
of shifting cultivation is not serious as population density is very low.

References

Davis. S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson. P.. Henson, L.. Leon, C.J., Villa-Lobos, J.L., Synge. H.
and Zantovska, J. 1986. Plants in danger: what do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 127-128.

Hughes, R.H. and Hughes, J.S. 1991. Directory of African wetlands. UCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya/WCMC, Cambridge, UK. Pp 481-492.

IUCN. 1987. Action strategy for protected areas in the Afrotropical Realm. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 60 pp.

IUCN. 1989. La conservation des écosystemes forestiers d'Afrique centrale. TUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 124 pp.

Africa

IUCN. 1990. La conservation des écosystémes forestiers du Gabon. Based on the work of Chris
Wilks. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 228 pp.

IUCN. 1983. La répartition des aires protégées en fonction des besoins de la conservation des
communautes biotiques de l'Afrique Centrale et de l'Ouest. Working Document. IUCN.
Gland, Switzerland.

Mackinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. 1986. Review of the protected areas system in the

Afrotropical Realm. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge. UK/UNEP. Nairobi.

Kenya. 259 pp.

McShane, T.O. 1990. Conservation before the crisis-an opportunity in Gabon. Oryx 24: 9-14.

McShane, T.O. and McShane-Caluzi, E. 1990. Conservation before the crisis: A strategy for

conservation in Gabon. WWF.

Nicoll, M. and Langrand, O. 1986. Conservation et utilisation rationnelle des écosystémes
forestiers du Gabon. Project 3247. WWF/UICN, Gland. 143 pp.

Sayer, J.A., Harcourt, C.S. and Collins N.M. 1992. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests:
Africa. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge. UK.

Tutin, C.E.G. and Fernandez, M. 1987. Gabon: A Fragile Sanctuary. Primate Conservation 8:
160-161.

WWE. 1991. List of Approved Projects. Vol. 6: Africa/Madagascar. P. 6072.

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GABON: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97
Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Monts Doudou Monts Doudou 2°23'S/ 10°20'E No
Monts de Bélinga Monts de Bélinga 1°O7'N/ 13°12°E No
Monts de Christal Monts de Christal O°35'N/ 10°36'E No
Monts du Chaillou Monts du Chaillou 1°37'S/ 11°S3'E No
Total No. of Total No. of Total Wo. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 4 CF Sites= 4 an element of protection = 0

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Gabon

Monts Doudou

The Monts Doudou are located between Sette-Cama and Moukalaba Reserves in the south-west
of Gabon. They constitute a mountain range oriented north-south, covering an area of
260,000ha. The vegetation belongs to the Guineo-Congolean type. The flora of the Monts
Doudou is rich and includes a new sub-species of Begonia bongoensis and an undescribed
Impatiens species (IUCN, 1990). The forest is dominated by okoumé Aucowmea klaineanu,
Monopetalanthus spp., Toubaouate brevipaniculata, Dialium pachyphyllum, Desbordesia
glaucescens, Librevillea klainei, Allanblackia floribunda and Coula edulis. The site is
particularly important for the rocky areas whose diverse fauna includes Cephalus ogilbyi
crusalbum, endemic to Gabon. However, the Monts Doudou are not officially protected (IUCN.
1990).

Monts de Bélinga

Located near Belinga, in the north-east of Gabon, the Monts Belinga contain many high peaks
lying north-south, the highest reaching 1024m. The mountains hold a unique vegetation of
"elfin thicket", located at altitudes above 900m. The vegetation is dense and reaches 4-8m
height. Epiphytes, orchidae, bryophytes and lianes are abundant. The fauna is not well known.
Limited human activities are recorded, although an area of 200-300ha has been proposed for
protection as an integral forest (IUCN, 1990), due to its unique vegetation. Mining project to
exploit iron.

Monts de Christal

Located on the north-western Gabon-Equatorial Guinea border, the Monts de Cristal (also
called Tchimbele) cover an area of 410,000ha. The vegetation is Guineo-Congolean and the site
is recognised as one of the most important centres of endemism in Gabon. A number of
endemics in the Begoniaceae family are found. The rocky area in the north-east of the
mountains holds species characteristic of the Soudanian, including Dissortis barterii,
Afrotrilepis sp. and Sanseveria sp. The fauna includes Picathartes oreas, which is only found in
forests of Cameroon and Gabon. Levels of forest exploitation are low although poaching occurs
in some areas. A power station project being developed at Kinguélé and Tchimbélé offers a
potential threat to the forest (IUCN, 1990).

Africa

Monts du Chaillou

Located in the central Chaillou massif, the Monts Chaillou are also called Monts Soungou-
Milondo, the names of the two main peaks: Mont Soungou (1022m) and Mont Milondo
(1020m). The area covers 100,000ha and is not officially protected. Vegetation is again
dominated by okoumé Aucoumea klaineana. Sub-montane forest occurs above 750m and
includes Begonia thomeana, which is only found outside Gabon in Sao Tome. Human pressure
is mainly from poaching and limited to within 2-3 km of the roads bordering the site to the
north, west and south (IUCN, 1991).

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

GUINEA

Approximately 20-25% of land in Guinea exceeds 1000m in elevation. most of this in the Fouta
Dyjallon and Nimba mountains. The greater part of the country is covered by degraded rain
forest. The only higher altitude forest that occurs is on Mount Nimba on the joint borders with
Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire, which reaches a height of 1752m. The mountain supports a
transitional "mist forest" between 1000-1600m dominated by Parinari excelsa. It is mentioned
here because of its exceptionally high degree of endemism (Collar and Stuart, 1988).

References
Collar and Stuart. 1988. Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. 1CBP Monograph No.3

World Bank 1993. Ecologically sensitive sites in Africa. Vol.IV: West Africa. Compiled by the
World Conservation Monitoring Centre for The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.

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Cloud Forest Region
Nimba Range

Total No. of
CF Regions= 1

Cloud Forest Site

Mount Nimba

Total No. of
CF Sites= 1

Date: 27/06/95

Protected
Yes/No

7°34'N/ =8°28'W No |

Total No. of CF Sites with
an element of protection = ¢

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Africa

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Guinea

Nimba Range

Part of the "Guinea Backbone", which is found across the borders of Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire and
Guinea. Mount Nimba reaches an altitude of 1752m. It features a very high degree of
endemism, with over 500 new species described from the area. Endemics include the Nimba
flycatcher Melaenornis annamarulae, \esser otter shrew Nectophrynoides liberiensis and over
20 species of invertebrate. The massif has high water catchment values. The Mount Nimba
Strict Nature Reserve covers 5000ha and is also a World Heritage Site (World Bank. 1993).

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

KENYA

Kenya covers an area of 580,370 sq.km, bordered by Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west.
Sudan and Ethiopia to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the east. The altitude ranges from sea
level to 5200m at Mt. Kenya. The highlands form most of the south-west and central parts of
the country and have an elevation of between 1400 and 2800m (FAO, 1981).

Kenya has the most diverse forests in East Africa, with lowland rain forest in western Kenya.
montane forest in the central and western highlands and on higher hills and mountains along the
southern border. In addition, there are some coastal mosaic forests and fairly extensive
mangroves, particularly at Lamu and the mouth of the Tana River. However, only 3.8% (2.2
million ha) of the country is composed of forested land, 2.1% is inland water bodies. and about
75% composed of woodlands, bushlands and grasslands, mostly in arid and semi-arid areas
(ETMA/NES, 1985; Polhill. 1989; WCMC, 1991).

Cloud forest is found at several sites in the northern mountain range, the southern hills. Mount
Kenya range and on Mount Elgon.

The largest proportion of existing national parks and wildlife reserves (74%) are found in arid
and semi-arid regions (Pertet, n.d.). Forest areas with limited protection in either national parks
or reserves include the Guineo-Congolean rain forest, coastal forest and woodland and coastal
palm woodland. Recommendations to expand the protected areas network to include these areas
are found in MacKinnon and MacKinnon (1986), IUCN (1987) and Stuart and Adams (1990).

There are reports of heavy encroachment and over-exploitation of many forest areas and other
biotic communities. Population growth has led to increases in agricultural encroachment,
shifting cultivation, cattle grazing, illegal settlement, and subsistence hunting, which have put
the forests under severe pressure. In addition, intensive logging and unlicensed timber
extraction for building poles and charcoal, the conversion of indigenous forest to plantations
and the legal degazetting of forest land for conversion to other types of land use and rapid
industrialisation are major threats to the forest resource, both within and around various forest
reserves (ERL, 1990; Young, 1984). Other threats include poaching, uncontrolled bushfires,
invasion of alien plant species, and tourism impacts (Marsh, 1985; K WS, 1990).

References

Bronner, G. 1990. Vegetation and Land use in the Matthews Range Area, Samburu District,
Kenya. Dissertationes Botanicae 160: 1-182. Berlin:J.Cramer.

Africa

Bussman, R.W. The forests of Ol Doinyo Lenkiyio (Mathews Range. Samburu District.
Kenya).

Bussmann, R.W. 1994. The forests of Mount Kenya (Kenya) - Vegetation. Ecology.
Destruction and Management of a tropical mountain forest ecosystem. Dissertation
Universitat Bayreuth.

ERL 1990. Environmental study of the Mau and Trans Mara Forests, Kenya. Environmental
Resources Ltd. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Nairobi. Kenya. 143

pp.

ETMA/NES 1985. Endangered resources for development. The report on the strategy
conference for the management and protection of Kenya's plant communities: forests,
woodlands, bushlands, savannahs, and aquatic communities. Nairobi, 22-23 August
1984. ETMA (Environmental Training and management in Africa) Regional Office.
Nairobi. 55 pp.

FAO 1981. Tropical Forest Resource Assessment Project: Forest Resources of Tropical Africa
(Part II: Country Briefs — Kenya). FAO, Rome. Pp. 257-268.

Hughes, R.H. and Hughes, J.S. 1991. Directory of African wetlands. UCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya/WCMC, Cambridge, UK. Pp. 162-188.

IUCN 1987. Action strategy for protected areas in the Afrotropical Realm. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 36-37.

IUCN 1990. Regional Office — Eastern Africa: Triennial Report 1988-1990. Prudential Printers
Ltd., Nairobi. 72 pp.

KWS 1990. Kenya Wildlife Service — A policy framework and development programme
1991-96: Annex 6 — Community conservation and wildlife management outside parks
and reserves. Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi. 181 pp.

MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. 1986. Review of the protected areas system in the
Afrotropical Realm. 1UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. Pp. 214-216.

Marsh, C.W. 1985. 4 resurvey of Tana River primates and their forest habitat. New York
Zoological Society, New York. 23 pp.

Polhill, R.M. 1989. East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda). In: Campbell, D.G. and Hammond,
D. (Eds), Floristic Inventory of Tropical Countries. New York Botanical Garden, New
York. Pp. 218-231.

Stuart, S.N., and Adams, R.J. 1990. Biodiversity in Sub-saharan Africa and its islands:
conservation, management and sustainable use. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp.
112-119.

WCMC 1991. Protected areas system: Kenya. World Conservation Monitoring Centre,
Cambridge, UK. Draft. 18 pp.

Young, T.P. 1984. Kenya's indigenous forests: status, threats and prospects for conservation
action. A report to the WWF/IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Office, Nairobi, Kenya. 41

Pp.

Northern Mountains

8 Mount Kenya
& Volcanic Range

ob ee es Sa se SSS SS SES

KENYA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 31/07/97
Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
ee eee ee EE
Mount Elgon Mount Elgon 1°02'N/ 34°30'E Yes
Mount Kenya Volcanic Range Aberdare Hills 0°25'S/ 36°41'E Yes
Mount Kenya 0°10'S/ 37°30'E Yes
Mount Mukogodo 0°04'N/ 37°26'E Yes
Ndare Ngare 0°13'N/ 37°21'E Yes
Ngaia Forest 0°22'N/ 38°O1'E Yes
Nyambeni Hills 0°14'N/ 37°56'E Yes
Northern Mountains Karisia Hills 1°11'N/ 36°47'E Yes
Mathews Range 1°17'N/ 37°18'E Yes
Mount Kulal 2°43'N/ 36°56'E Yes
Mount Marsabit 2°20'N/ 38°00'E Yes
Mount Nyiro 2°10'N/ 36°50'E No
Ndoto Mountains 1°50'N/ 37°10'E Yes
Southern Hills Loita Hills 1°62'S/ 35°53'E No
Nguruman Escarpment 1°49'S/ 35°S5'E No
So a el oe ee | ee a ee eS SS
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 4 CF Sites= 15 an element of protection = 12

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Kenya

The Northern Mountains

The northern mountain range of Kenya where cloud forest is found includes the Mathews
Range, Ndoto Mountains, Mount Kulal, Mount Nyiro, Mount Marsabit, and Karrissia Hills
which includes Maralal and Porror. The annual average rainfall can be as low as 100-150mm in
the plains, with 500mm in the valley of the Nyiro-Ndoto mountains. Maximum rainfall is
recorded in the mountain forest zone, reaching about 1200mm.

Montane forest which includes cloud forest at higher elevations and in volcanic craters. is found
between 1500 and 2700m. The vegetation is dominated by Olea hochstetteri, O. africana.
Cassipourea malosana and Juniperus procera. It often forms distinct zones. such as on the
Mathews range where the forest is composed of mainly Croton megalocarpus from 1500m to
2000m, with Olea africana-Juniperus procera around 1960m, and Podocarpus latifolius trom
2000m to 2700m (Bronner, 1990). Montane grassland is often found above.

Although not endemic to cloud forests, bird species including the lammergeier Gypuetus
barbatus, mountain buzzard Buteo oreophilus, yellow-billed hornbill Tockus flavirostris,
star-spotted nightjar Caprimulgus stellatus, and Narina's trogon Apaloderma narina are all
found in the mountain area. At Mount Kulal the fauna is particularly characterised by the
presence of an endemic sub-species of bird, the montane white-eye Zosterops poliogaster
kulalensis.

Most of these forests are gazetted forest reserves, although in many cases the actual forest area
is only a small proportion of the total area of the reserve.

There is an increasing pressure on the forests from the local population, mainly by tree felling
for fuel, and construction of houses and enclosures for livestock. The montane and sub-montane
forests have been reduced and forest regeneration is hindered in several areas by removal of the
understorey. Grass fires started by pastoralists erode the forest edge, and periodic droughts have
also caused problems. A further threats is from extensives fires caused by honey hunters.

The Southern Hills

Cloud forests in southern Kenya, found between Nairobi and the Tanzanian border, include the
Nguruman escarpment and the Loita Hills, where the altitude varies from 1500m to 2100m. The
climate is characterised by two wet seasons from February-March to May and from October to
December. Annual rainfall varies from 1500 to 2100mm.

40

Africa

Comprehensive species inventories have been conducted in the area. The montane range is
dominated by Juniperion procerae and Cassipourion malosanae. Other species include //ex
mitis, Ilea capensis, O. europaea, Juniperus procera, and Podocarpus falcatus (Bussmann
1994, Beck and Bussmann 1995).

In addition to their richness in biodiversity and endemic species, these forests are important for
watershed protection, socio-economic and medicinal uses, and there is a proposed tourism
development in the Loita hills (Bussmann, pers. comm.). However, they are also under threat.
due mainly to agricultural encroachment, grazing and fire.

Mount Kenya Volcanic Range

The Mount Kenya volcanic range form the central highlands and are composed of Mount Kenya
itself, and the Aberdare Hills, Mount Mukogodo, Nyambeni Hills, Ngaia Forest and Ndare.
Mount Kenya is the second highest mountain in Africa after Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. The
highest peaks are Batian (5199m) and Nelion (5188m). The climate is characterised by a long
wet period from March to June and a short dry season from December to February.

Altitude ranges between 1880 and above 5000m. The vegetation varies with this altitude, a rich
alpine and sub-alpine flora giving way at lower altitudes to bamboo forests and then montane
rainforest. On Mount Kenya, at higher altitudes (2500m-3000m with rainfall over
2000mmi/year) the vegetation is dominated by bamboo Arundinaria alpina and a mosaic of
bamboo and Podocarpus milanjianus with bamboo at intermediate elevations (2600m-2800m).
and Podocarpus above (2800-3000m) and below (2500-2600m). Above 3000m, cold becomes
an important factor, tree stature declines, and Podocarpus is replaced by Hypericum spp., and
beyond 3400m there is an alpine zone. In the Abedares, the lower montane forests
(1829-2590m) are dominated by Podocarpus, Olea and cedar Juniperus procera, with some
tree fern Cyathea deckeni succeeded at higher altitudes (2600-3000m) by Podocarpus and
bamboo spp Arundinaria alpina, and Hagenia abyssinica with moorland above. ,

The fauna includes a number of threatened mammals such as the elephant Loxodonta africana,
black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis, and leopard Panthera pardus. Bird life is abundant and
varied, with over 200 recorded species including the green ibis Mesembrinibis cayennensis,
mountain buzzard Buteo oreophilus, scaly francolin Francolinus squamatus, Hartlaub's turaco
Tauraco hartlaubi, silvery-cheeked hombill Bycanistes brevis, Mackinder's eagle owl Bubo
capensis and the locally threatened scarce swift Schoutedenapus myioptilus in the forest areas.

Forest in the Aberdares is in theory well protected by the Aberdare National Park which was
established in 1950 and acts as a core zone surrounded by a Forest Reserve of 26,480ha. The

4]

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

park is bisected by a major road, and exploration of the high moorland on foot and trout-fishing
are permitted. There is increasing pressure from surrounding farmland expansion and
uncontrolled tree felling. Accidental forest fires may pose a potential threat if not controlled.

Mount Elgon

Mount Elgon is located on the western border with Uganda, and ranges in altitude from
2336-4627m. The mountain is a massive volcanic cone which rises to 4627m, overlooking a
huge caldera which, together with half the mountain, lies in Uganda. The vegetation changes
with increasing altitude from olive Olea hochstetteri and Aningueria adolfi-friedericii wet
montane forest, through olive and Podocarpus gracilior forest, Podocarpus and bamboo
Arundinaria alpina zone, with moorland and heath above. Of the 400 species recorded for the
area the following are of particular note as they only occur in high altitude broad-leaf montane
forest: Ardisiandra wettsteinii, Carduus afromontanus, Echinops hoehnelii, Ranunculus
keniensis, and Romulea keniensis. The fauna include threatened species such as leopard
Panthera pardus, and elephant Loxodonta africana. Birds of the forest zone include species
characteristic of such altitudes in Ceastern Africa and include the endemic subspecies of chat
Cercomela sordida rudolfi and Hunter's cisticola Cisticola Chunteri masaba. Raptors include
crowned eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus, African hobby Falco cuvierii, mountain buzzard
Buteo oreophilus. The area was designated a National Park (16,923ha) in 1968 and is officially
protected. However, there is severe encroachment into the western section of the reserve as well
as into the forests and moorlands surrounding the Park which act as a buffer for the maintenance
of these habitats within the reserve.

Mount Kenya Volcanic Range

The Mount Kenya volcanic range form the central highlands and are composed of Mount Kenya
itself, and the Aberdare Hills, Mount Mukogodo, Nyambeni Hills and Ndare. Mount Kenya is
the second highest mountain in Africa after Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. The highest peaks are
Batian (5199m) and Nelion (5188m). The climate is characterised by a long wet period from
March to June and a short dry season from December to February. Altitude ranges between
1880m and above 5000m. The vegetation varies with this altitude, a rich alpine and sub-alpine
flora giving way at lower altitudes to bamboo forests and then montane rainforest. On Mount
Kenya, at higher altitudes (2500m-3000m with rainfall over 2000mm/year) the vegetation is
dominated by bamboo 4rundinaria alpina and a mosaic of bamboo and Podocarpus
milanjianus with bamboo at intermediate elevations (2600m-2800m), and Podocarpus above
(2800-3000m) and below (2500-2600m). Above 3000m, cold becomes an important factor, tree
stature declines, and Podocarpus is replaced by Hypericum spp., and beyond 3400m there is an
alpine zone. IN the Abedares, the lower montane forests (1829-2590m) are dominated by

Africa

Podocarpus, Olea and cedar Juniperus procera, with some tree fern Cyathea deckeni succeeded
at higher altitudes (2600-3000m) by Podocarpus and bamboo spp 4rundinaria Calpina, and
Hagenia abyssinica with moorland above. The fauna includes a number of threatened mammals
such as the elephant Loxodonta africana, black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis. and leopard
Panthera pardus. Bird life is abundant and varied, with over 200 recorded species including the
green ibis Mesembrinibis cayennensis, mountain buzzard Buteo oreophilus. scaly francolin
Francolinus squamatus, Hartlaub's turaco Tauraco hartlaubi, silvery-cheeked hornbill
Bycanistes brevis, Mackinder's eagle owl Bubo capensis and the locally threatened scarce swift
Schoutedenapus myioptilus in the forest areas. Threats to Mount Kenya.. Forest in the
Aberdares is in theory well protected by the Aberdare National Park which was established in
1950 and acts as a core zone surrounded by a Forest Reserve of 26.480ha. The park is bisected
by a major road, and exploration of the high moorland on foot and trout-fishing are permitted.
There is increasing pressure from surrounding farmland expansion and uncontrolled tree felling.
Accidental forest fires may pose a potential threat if not controlled.

Northern Mountains

The northern mountain range of Kenya where cloud forest is found includes the Mathews
Range, Ndoto Mountains, Mount Kulal, Mount Nyiro, Mount Marsabit, and Karrissia Hills
which includes Maralal and Porror. The annual average rainfall can be as low as 100- 150mm in
the plains, with 500mm in the valley. of the Nyiro-Ndoto mountains. Maximum rainfall is
recorded in the mountain forest zone, reaching about 1200mm. Montane forest which includes
cloud forest at higher elevations and in volcanic craters, is found between 1500 and 2700m. The
vegetation is dominated by Olea hochstetteri, O. africana, Cassipourea malosana and
Juniperus procera. It often forms distinct zones, such as on the Mathews range where the forest
is composed of mainly Croton megalocarpus from 1500m to 2000m, with Olea africana-
Juniperus procera around 1960m, and Podocarpus latifolius from 2000m to 2700m (Bronner.,
1990). Montane grassland is often found above. Although not endemic to cloud forests, bird
species including the Clammergeier Gypaetus barbatus, mountain buzzard Buteo Coreophilus,
yellow-billed hornbill Tockus flavirostris, star-spotted nightjar Caprimulgus stellatus, and°
Narina's trogon Apaloderma narina are all found in the mountain area. At Mount Kulal the
fauna is particularly characterised by the presence of an endemic sub-species of bird, the
montane white-eye Zosterops poliogaster kulalensis. Most of these forests are gazetted forest
reserves. although in many cases the actual forest area is only a small proportion of the total
area of the reserve. There is an increasing pressure on the forests from the local population,
mainly by tree felling for fuel, and construction of houses and enclosures for livestock. The
montane and sub-montane forests have been reduced and forest regeneration is hindered in
several areas by removal of the understorey. Grass fires started by pastoralists erode the forest
edge. and periodic droughts have also caused problems. A further threats is from extensives
fires caused by honey hunters.

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Southern Hills

Cloud forests in southern Kenya, found between Nairobi and the Tanzanian border. include the
Nguruman escarpment and the Loita Hills, where the altitude varies from 1500m to 2100m. The
climate is characterised by two wet seasons from February-March to May and from October to
December. Annual rainfall varies from 1500 to 2100mm. Comprehensive species inventories
have been conducted in the area. The montane range is dominated by Juniperion procerae and
Cassipourion malosanae. Other species include /lex mitis, Ilea capensis, O. europaea.
Juniperus procera, and Podocarpus falcatus (Bussmann 1994, Beck and Bussmann 1995). In
addition to their richness in biodiversity and endemic species, these forests are important for
watershed protection, socio-economic and medicinal uses, and there is a proposed tourism
development in the Loita hills (Bussmann, pers. comm.). However, they are also under threat.
due mainly to agricultural encroachment, grazing and fire.

44

Mie Ges. cea |
Vids
_
Se

Africa

LIBERIA

Although a country of fairly rugged topography, Liberia has no true montane cloud forest. The
highest point in the country is Mount Nimba (1385m). which supports a "mist forest" between
1000-1600m dominated by Parinari excelsa. It is mentioned here’ both because of its
exceptionally high degree of endemism, and the threats facing it. A large iron-ore mine has been
operating on the mountains since 1963, which has attracted large numbers of people to the site.
This has put enormous pressures on the natural resources of the mountain (Collar and Stuart,
1988).

References
Collar and Stuart. 1988. Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. |CBP Monograph No.3

World Bank. 1993. Ecologically sensitive sites in Africa. Vol.IV: West Africa. Compiled by the
World Conservation Monitoring Centre for The World Bank, Washington, DC. USA.

45

ee

LIBERIA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Nimba Range Mount Nimba 7°32'W/ §=8°28'W Wo
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 1 an element of protection = 0

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Liberia

Nimba Range

Part of the "Guinea Backbone", found across the borders of Liberia, Cdte d'Ivoire and Guinea.
Mount Nimba reaches an altitude of 1752m. It features a very high degree of endemism. with
over 500 new species described from the area. Endemics include the Nimba flycatcher
Melaenornis annamarulae, lesser otter shrew Nectophrynoides liberiensis and over 20 species
of invertebrate. The massif has high water catchment values. The Mount Nimba Strict Nature
Reserve covers 5000ha and is also a World Heritage Site (World Bank, 1993).

48

Africa

MADAGASCAR

Considered as one of the seven major world centres of biodiversity, Madagascar is divided into
two major floristic zones. Covering about half of the country, the Eastern Zone extends
westwards from the east coast to the central highlands. The dryer Western region reaches from
the west coast, eastwards up to about the 800m contour. Most of the Eastern Zone was
originally forested, but human pressures have had severe impacts on these. The total area of
surviving montane forests has been estimated at 60,000ha. Sclerophyllous montane forests of
gnarled Philippia trees with a canopy 10-13m in height occur along the east-facing central
escarpment between 1300 and 2000m. Below this zone, moist montane rain forest occurs
between 800-1300m, whilst a thicket of ericoid and herbaceous plants occur above 2000m on
isolated massifs such as Tsaratanana, Marojejy, Ankaratra and Andringitra. The upper montane
forests are considered to be highly susceptible to being negatively impacted by fire, and their
limited size and extent are cause for concern (Sayer er.a/. 1992; UICN/PNUE/WWFE, 1990).

References

Collar N.J. and Stuart S.N. 1988. Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. \CBP
Monograph No. 3.

IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1990. Madagascar: Profil de l'environnement. Ed. M.D. Jenkins. IUCN.

Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK.

Sayer J.A., Harcourt C.S. and Collins N.M. 1992. The conservation atlas of tropical forests:
Africa. Macmillan.

World Bank 1993. Ecologically sensitive sites in Africa. Volume II South-Central Africa and
Indian Ocean. Compiled by World Conservation Monitoring Centre for The World
Bank, Washington, DC, USA.

WWE 1986. An action plan for conservation of biological diversity in Madagascar. WWF.

49

ars oe
Eek «IC
mi
eS -Massif du |
ee Tsaratanana
iF 4 (
of Ce
Boy Massif du \
og Marojely ce
Ne
}
a re
pais a VV
}
a y)
eg
me (
| \ Ankaratra Massif )
\ @ :
/
3
| A
Andringitra Massif
‘) |
(
_
\ e MADAGASCAR

i

250 km

a
MADAGASCAR: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
ES I ER et ad RE A a

Andringitra Massif Andringitra Massif 22°12'S/ 46°55'E No
Ankaratra Massif Ankaratra Massif 18°SO'S/ 47°18'E No
Tsaratanana/Marojejy Massif Massif du Marojejy 14°26'S/ 49°15'E Yes
Massif du Tsaratanana 13°57'S/ 48°S1'E Yes

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 3 CF Sites= 4 an element of protection = 2

* 'protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Madagascar

Andringitra Massif

Amongst the coldest of the Madagascan upland areas, Andringitra is a rugged granitic massif
enclosing a plateau area of 2500m on the south-eastern escarpment. west of Mankara.
Sclerophyllous montane forest 4-5m in height occurs between 1500-2000m. It consists of
species of Schefflera, Weinmannia, Brachylaena and Philippia. Seven endemic amphibians and
two endemic molluscs occur, as well as several species of lemur. Fires are a problem. The
Andringitra Strict Nature Reserve covers 31,160ha of the area (IUCN/UNEP/WWF. 1993:
World Bank, 1993).

Ankaratra Massif
A volcanic massif lying about 70km south of Antananarivo, supporting badly degraded

montane forests that are considered biologically important. Little recent information exists
(IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1990; World Bank, 1993).

Africa

MALAWI

Malawi is situated at the southern end of the Western Rift Valley, and approximately 75% ot
the country's land surface consists of elevated plateaux between 750-1350m above sea level.
These are distributed through the Northern, Central and Southern Regions. and are often
contiguous with higher mountains such as Mt. Mulanje (at 3000m the highest peak in Malawi),
Zomba and Mafinga mountains, and the highlands of Nyika. Misuku, Vipya and Dowa. Mean
annual rainfall varies between 1000-3100mm.

These highlands support an estimated 324sq.km. of isolated but extensive montane forest
patches between 1675-2600m which is generally differentiated into three forms dominated by
Mulanje cypress Widdringtonia whytei, African juniper Juniperus procera and undifferentiated
broadleaved Afromontane forest dominated by species such as //ex mirtis, Kiggelaria africana,
Allophylus abyssinicus, Ekebergia capensis, Pittosporum viridiflorum and Rapanea
melanophloeos. The bamboo Arundinaria alpina occurs (Chapman, 1983; Dowsett-Lemaire,
1989: MAB, 1982).

References

Chapman J.D. 1983. The evergreen forests of Malawi. Nyala 9(1/2):5-17.

Dowsett-Lemaire 1989. Vegetation and birds of evergreen forests of southern Malawi, with
special reference to mid-altitude forests. Nyala 14(1):29-37.

Lemon P.C. 1964. Natural communities of the Malawi National Park (Nyika Plateau).
Government Printer, Zomba, Malawi.

MAB 1982. Draft environmental profile of Malawi. U.S. Man and the Biosphere Secretariat.
Washington, D.C.

World Bank 1993. Ecologically sensitive sites in Africa. Volume VI: Southern Africa. Compiled
by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre for The World Bank, Washington, DC,
USA.

A

ee
Pa

Oma
~~ Nyika Plateau

Si

\
\

Dedza-Salima
ae, Escarpment

Mulanje ae

MALAWI

150 km

a ——_——

MALAWI: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*™

Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?

Dedza Mountain Dedza Mountain 14°20'S/ 34°21'E Yes

Mulanje Mountain Mulanje Mountain 16°00'S/ 35°35'E Yes

Nyika Plateau Nyika Plateau 10°35'S/ 33°50'E Yes
Total No. of Total No. of Total Wo. of CF Sites with

CF Regions= 3 CF Sites= 3 an element of protection = 3

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Malawi

Dedza Mountain

Montane forest is known to occur between 2050-2150m on this mountain. which is within the
Dedza-Salima Escarpment Forest Reserve, and adjacent to Mount Domue. a cloud forest site in
Mozambique.

Mulanje Mountain

This is an isolated massif in southern Malawi, close to the border with Mozambique. The
highest point in southern tropical Africa, it consists of a high plateau between 1800-1900m.
surmounted by rocky peaks reaching a maximum height of 3001m. Montane forest occurs
primarily in sheltered valleys and ravines between 1850-2300m. It is often dominated by
Mulanje cypress Widdringtonia whytei and Olea capensis. Other species of note are
Podocarpus latifolius, Ekebergia capensis, Cassipourea malosana, Rapanea melanophloeos
and the endemic Rawsonia burttdavyi. Six forest birds are considered important; the Thyolo
alethe Alethe choloensis, an endemic subspecies of olive-flanked robin Alethe anomala, Natal
thrush Turdus fischeri, long-tailed forest scrub-warbler Bradypterus cinnamomeus, moustached
green tinker-barbet Pogoniulus leucomystax and the near-threatened white-winged apalis Apalis
chariessa. The cypresses of Mt. Mulanje have been exploited for timber since the turn of the
century, and fires, refugees and invasive alien plants pose further threats. Part of the mountain
has Forest Reserve status, but levels of protection are low. The mountain has high watershed
values (WCMC, 1996; World Bank, 1993).

Nyika Plateau

This upland is located in north Malawi, on the edge of the East African Rift Valley. Isolated
montane forest patches cover an estimated 2-4% of the plateau, primarily in sheltered valley
heads and hollows. Trees such as Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus procera and Rapanea
melanophlocos occur. The plateau has high watershed values, and numerous endemics. Fires are
a threat to the integrity of the forest patches. The Nyika National Park covers 313,400ha of the
Malawian part of the plateau (Lemon, 1964; WCMC, 1996).

Africa

MOZAMBIQUE

The only Afromontane areas in Mozambique lie along the border with eastern Zimbabwe in the
Chimanimani Mountains. and on nearby Mount Gorongosa. Tending to occur in sheltered areas.
they attain a canopy height of 20m and are dominated by trees such as Aphiloia theiformis.
Maesa lanceolata, Curtisia dentata, Widdringtonia cupressoides, Podocarpus latifolius and
Tabernaemontana stapfiana (Sayer et al., 1992).

References

Hughes R.H. and Hughes J.S. 1992. A directory of African wetlands. \UCN, Gland.
Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya/WCMC, Cambridge. UK.
Sayer J.A., Harcourt C.S. and Collins N.M. 1992. The conservation atlas of tropical forests:

Africa. Macmillan.
Tinley K.L., Rosinha A.J., Lobao Tello J. and Dutton P. 1974. Wildlife and wild places in

Mozambique. Oryx XIII(4).

57

} MOZAMBIQUE
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MOZAMBIQUE: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97
Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Chimanimani Mountains Chimanimani Mountains 19°47'S/ 33°O3'E No
Mount Chiperone Mount Chiperone 16°30'S/ 35°44'E Q No
Mount Domue Mount Domue 14°28'S/ 34°15'E No
Mount Gorongosa Mount Gorongosa 18°27'S/ 34°03'E No
Namuli Massif Namuli Massif 15°21'S/ 37°02'E No
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 5 CF Sites= 5 an element of protection = 0

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Mozambique

Chimanimani Mountains

Running north-south along the border with and extending into Zimbabwe in the southern region
of Mozambique, these mountains support important montane communities, with numerous
endemics. Montane forests extend into Zimbabwe, and include the adjacent Serra Maquta. They
include Mt. Binga (2436m), the highest point in Mozambique.

Mount Chiperone

This isolated peak is situated in western Mozambique. Reaching a height of 2180m it supports
areas of moist montane forest that are possibly similar to those in neighbouring Malawi (World
Bank, 1993).

Mount Domue

Located in the central region of Mozambique, west of Lake Malawi, Mount Domue lies
adjacent to Dedza Mountain in Malawi.

Mount Gorongosa

Lying 155km east of Zimbabwe's Inyanga Highlands, this is a montane area rising to 1863m. It
supports extensive areas of wet montane forest, although the extent of true montane elements 1s
unclear. Rare birds and an endemic subspecies of chameleon occur. Forest clearance is chronic,
and the area has been recommended for inclusion within Gorongosa National Park (World
Bank, 1993).

Namuli Massif

The Namuli Massif is the principal watershed of northern Mozambique, reaching a height of

2419m. Ravines and other sheltered areas support forest, but there is a lack of information on
the extent and significance of montane elements (Frame and Frame, 1987; World Bank, 1993).

60

Africa

NIGERIA

Uplands over 1000m in height in Nigeria are restricted to the Cameroon Highlands along the
south-eastern border with Cameroon, and the Jos Plateau in central Nigeria. The former include
Chabbal Wadi, the country's highest peak (2419m). Limited areas of upland forest occur above
1500m, usually in ravines and steep-sided valleys. They support species such as Siz) gin
staudtii, Carapa procera, Bridelia speciosa, Cephaelis mannii, Eriocoelum macrocarpum and
Symphonia globulifera. Specific information on the extent of true upper montane associations is
limited, and it is possible that most, if not all, upland forests in Nigeria are submontane. Few
parts of Nigeria have escaped modification by man, and it can be expected that montane and/or
submontane associations outside protected areas such as Gashaka Gumpti and Obudu will be
under threat (World Bank, 1993).

References

Aderopo Akinsoji 1994. Vegetation of Gashaka Gumpti National Park -1. Report
commissioned by NCF/WWE-UK.

Hall J.B. 1981. Ecological islands in south-eastern Nigeria. Afr.J. Ecol. 19:55-72

Sayer J.A., Harcourt C.S. and Collins N.M. 1992. The conservation atlas of tropical forests:
Africa. Macmillan.

WCMC 1988. Nigeria: Conservation of biological diversity. WCMC, Cambridge.

61

@ Jos Plateau

Mambllla
Plateau

ee
°
y

See ee ee eee
NIGERIA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?

Fe a EN EE aE ee a SS OEE EE ES
Jos Plateau Jos Plateau 9°S7'N/ B°54'E Wo
Mambilla Plateau Mambilla Plateau 8°20'N/ 11°50'E Yes
Obudu Plateau Obudu Plateau 6°30'N/ 9°15'E Yes
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 3 CF Sites= 3 an element of protection = 2

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Nigeria

Jos Plateau

Small relict patches of upland forest occur in gullies and ravines, and along the edges of the Jos
escarpment. Little information is available (Commonwealth Institute, 1983).

Mambilla Plateau

Relict upland forests occur in ravines and along drainages. Species include Syzygium staucitii.
and species of Syzygium, Agauria, Clausena and Peddiea. Upper montane elements are
indicated by Podocarpus latifolius and Hypericum revolutum. Part of the plateau is protected
within Gashaka Gumti National Park (Aderopo, 1994; WCMC, 1988).

Obudu Plateau

Forests are confined to steep slopes and valleys, and consist of lowland forest with
Afromontane elements such as Podocarpus latifolius, Dasylepis racemosa and Ritchica
albersii. The forests are considered to be of great phytogeographical interest. Mammals include
leopard Panthera pardus, chimapanzee Pan troglodytes, gorilla Gorilla gorilla, and several
monkey species. Grazing, fires and hunting are threats (Hall, 1981; World Bank, 1993).

64

Africa

REUNION

Located to the east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, La Reunion is formed from two
volcanic cones, one of which, Piton de la Fournaise (2500m), is still active. The island is
mountainous, and has the highest peak in the Indian Ocean, Piton de Neiges at 3069m.

The montane forest is composed of four types of vegetation: 1). species-rich formations of
Bertiera rufa, Dombeya ficulnea, D. punctata, D. reclinata, Forgesia borbonica, Badula
horbonica var. macrophylla, and Monimia rotundifolia, 2). forest of Acacia heterophylla
(endemic to the Reunion), often associated with Nastus borbonicus, 3). forest of Pandanus
montanus, and 4). forest of Philippia montana located on slopes and crets (Cadet, 1977).

High degrees of endemism are found in both flora, 30% of flowering plants out of around 500
species and about 12% from more than 200 ferns and allies (Baumer 1981; Cadet, 1977; Davis
et al., 1986), and fauna (Cheke, 1977, 1987b). However, introduced plant species may number
up to 1000 (Macdonald e7 al., 1991).

The altitude and the ruggedness of the terrain has meant that large areas of upland vegetation
have remained more or less untouched by man's influence, although these have come under
progressively greater pressure from fires and as use for pasture. In comparison, the relatively
small area of lowland forest, has been all but totally destroyed by clearance for agriculture and
grazing. fire, and competition from exotic species. Despite these pressures, Reunion has
retained significantly more native woody vegetation than any of the other small Indian Ocean
Islands. Invasion by alien plant species is widespread throughout the remnant native
ecosystems. Outside these remnants, alien plants completely dominate the modern Reunion
landscapes (Bosser, 1983; Cheke, 1987b; Macdonald efal., 1991; White, 1983)). The
threatened plants of Reunion are listed by Dupont and Girard (1989).

Protected areas were first established in 1963 with the creation of two strict biological reserves,
and there are currently five reserves totalling 59 sq.km. of the island's 2500 sq.km (Sayer,
Harcourt and Collins, 1992). However, despite the high rate of endemism and the rarity of
certain plant and animal species, these are insufficient. Both MacKinnon and MacKinnon
(1986) and IUCN (1987) include sections on Reunion which propose the establishment of
nature reserves to protect mountain forest, and development of the marine protected areas
system. In addition, Doumenge and Renard (1989) give detailed proposals for the
reorganisation of conservation programmes and expansion of the protected area network, with
information on 13 additional reserves.

65

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

References

Baumer, M. 1981. Le couvert végétal a la Réunion. /nfo-Nature 18: 15-25.

Bosser, J. 1983. Projét de constitution de réserves biologiques dans le domaine torestier de La
Réunion. Report to the Office National de la Foret prepared by the ORSTOM Director
of Research. 35 pp.

Cadet, J. 1977. La vegetation de l'ile de la Réunion. Thesis, University of Marseille. Published
1980. Imprimerie Cazal, St Denis.

Cheke, A.S. 1977. Rapport sur la distribution et la conservation du Tuit-tuit. oiseau rarissime
de la Réunion. /nfo-Nature 15: 21-38.

Cheke, A.S. 1987a. An ecological history of the Mascarene Islands, with particular reference to
extinctions and introductions of land vertebrates. In: Diamond, A.W. (Ed.), Stucies of
Mascarene Island birds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, UK. Pp.
5-89.

Cheke, A.S. 1987b. The ecology of the surviving native landbirds of Reunion. In: Diamond.
A.W. (Ed.), Studies of Mascarene Island birds. Cambridge University Press.
Cambridge, England, UK. Pp. 301-358.

Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Villa-Lobos, J.L., Synge. H.
and Zantovska, J. 1986. Plants in danger: what do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 296-297

Doumenge, C. and Renard, Y. 1989. La conservation des écosystémes forestiers de I'Ile de la
Réunion. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 95 pp.

IUCN 1987. Action strategy for protected areas in the Afrotropical realm. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 60 pp.

Macdonald, I.A.W., Thébaud, C. Strahm, W.A. and Strasberg, D. 1991. Effects of alien plant
invasions on native vegetation remnants on La Réunion (Mascarene Islands, Indian
Ocean). Environmental Conservation 18: 51-61

MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. 1986. Review of the protected areas system in the
Afrotropical Realm. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya. P. 232.

Sayer, J.A., Harcourt, C.S. and Collins N.M. 1992. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests:

Africa. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

White, F. 1983. The Vegetation of Africa. Unesco, Paris, France. 356 pp.

66

ee

—— ==]
Wy SI 0

NOINNaY

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Date: 27/06/9

REUNION: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Protected*
Yes/No?

Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site

Réunion Picon de Neiges 21°04'S/ 55°35'E No
Picon de la Fournaise 21°13'S/ 55°40'E

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 2 an element of protection = 0

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Africa

RWANDA

Located in the heart of central Africa, astride the east African Rift, all of Rwanda lies between
800 and 4500m. In general, the land mass is high and rugged. with an exceptional degree of
relief in which hydrological features play an important role. The north is volcanic. the west is
mountainous, the east is rolling terrain.

The varied topography is responsible for diverse regional climatic conditions and habitat.
leading to a remarkable variety of different habitats and species. There are two major
phytogeographic zones: a Sudano-Zambezian zone below 1800m elevation, and an Afro-Alpine
zone between 1800m and 4500m. Cloud forests occur in the north and the west of the country.
along the Zaire-Nile Divide which extends from Uganda, through Rwanda and Burundi down
into Zambia and is part of the larger Albertine Rift Region. The cloud forests are specifically
found in the Afro-Alpine phytogeographic zone which may be subdivided into an African
montane zone above 2000m, and an African submontane zone below 2000m.

All remnant forest lands were set aside as official reserves in 1933, in response to the rapid
conversion of montane forest to pasture land which had recently occurred (Bissio, 1988; Weber
and Vedder, 1984). Rwanda is now one of the most densely populated countries in Africa, yet is
one of the few nations in the world to have more than 10% of its land included within protected
areas. most of which lies within the two national parks, Volcans and Akagera.

However, human pressure on natural habitats is very high and this has increased following the
last civil war. Secondary forest mosaics produced by human activity have generally replaced
natural vegetation in the African submontane zone (IUCN, 1979; Rattray, 1960).

References

Bissio, R.R. (Ed.) 1988. In: Third World Guide 89/90. Third World Editors. Pp. 208-209.

Dowsett R.J. 1990. Survey of the Fauna and Flora of Nyungwe forest, Rwanda. Tauraco
Research Report, No. 3.

IUCN 1979. The distribution of protected areas in relation to the needs of biotic community
conservation in west and central Africa. IUCN, Morges. Switzerland.

IUCN 1987. Action strategy for protected areas in the Afrotropical Realm. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 60 pp.

IUCN/WWF 1985. Rapport d'une mission au Zaire et Rwanda. 20 pp.

69

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Kanyamibwa, S. 1993. Grey crowned cranes Balearica regulorum as indicators for wetlands
conservation in Rwanda. Paper presented at the African Crane and Wetland Training
Workshop. Maun, Botswana 8-15 August 1993. 6p

Kanyamibwa S. 1996. Important Bird Areas in Rwanda - Report to BirdLife International.
Important Bird Areas for Africa programme.

MDP 1991. La stratégie nationale de l'environnement au Rwanda. Ministére du Plan. Projet
Environnement et Développement. 1 p.

Montfort, N. 1985. Les Mammiféres du Rwanda. Rotary Club, Kigali.

ORTPN (1991). Plan de conservation de l'éléphant au Rwanda. Unpublished report. Office
Rwandais du Tourisme. 43 pp.

Spinage, C., 1972. The ecology and problems of the Volcano National Park, Rwanda.
Biological Conservation 4: 194-204.

Verschuren, J. (1990). Que sont devenus les fameux parcs nationaux du Zaire et du Rwanda?
Parcs Nationaux XLV: 16-29.

Weber, B. and Vedder, A. 1984. Forest conservation in Rwanda and Burundi. Swara 7: 32-35.

Weber, B. and Vedder, A. (1991). Rwanda: fragile cease fire in gorilla Enclave. Wilcdlife
Conservation 94(4): 8-9.

Wilson V.J. 1990. Preliminary survey of the duikers and other mammals of Burundi, east
Africa. Pan African Decade of Duiker Research (1985-1994).

Wilson, R. (1991). The conflict in Rwanda and its impact on the mountain gorilla. Orvx 25:
119-120.

70

aaa [a =a)

VONVMu

Date: 27/06/9

RWANDA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Protected*

Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?

Giswati-Mukura Giswati Forest 1°46'S/ 29°26'E No

Mukura Forest 1°58'S/ 29°32'E No
Nyungwe Forest Nyungwe Forest 2°30'S/ 29°20'E Yes
Virunga Mountains Volcans 1°28'S/ 29°33'E Yes |

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 3 CF Sites= 4 an element of protection = 2

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Africa

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Rwanda

Giswati-Mukura

Gishwati and Mukura forests are located in the west of Rwanda, on the Zaire-Nile Divide. at an
altitude of 2000-2900m. Whilst the forests have been repeatedly degraded. actual areas are
estimated at 6000ha for Gishwati and 2100ha for Mukura. The vegetation in both forests is
typical of montane forest habitats and includes Crysophyllum, Entandophragma and Newtonia
at lower altitudes, and Syzygium guineense, Carapa grandiflora, Parinari excelsa, Strombosia
and Symphonia in mature forest. The fauna and flora are typical of the Albertine Rift montane
forest ecosystems. These forests hold many species of conservation concern, including the rare
african tree species Podocarpus, and primates such as Pan troglodytes, Cercopithecus lhoesti
and Cercopithecus mitis sp., and a number of Albertine Rift endemic bird species. However.
only occasional surveys have been conducted in Gishwati and further assessment is needed. As
with other forest reserves in the country, Gishwati and Mukura were established in 1993.
However, they have been degraded and reduced significantly in size, due to a high demand for
agricultural land.and grazing.

Nyungwe Forest

Nyungwe forest lies in the south of Rwanda and runs into the smaller Kibira forest in Burundi.
It is subdivided from the north to the south by the Zaire-Nile massif (2600-2900m) leading to
two distinctive areas in terms of pedology, vegetation, water flow and as a result, biodiversity.
The western section is schistose, with a very dense forest at 1700-2000m. The eastern section.
which is granitic, lies higher (2200-2500m) and is dominated by many clearings and secondary
forest. The highest peak, Mt. Bigugu (2950m) is located in the mid-west of the forest. The
annual average rainfall is 1500-2500mm, with most of the cloud forest found in the wetter
south-western zone. Close to Nyungwe, Cyamudongo forest (1700-2400m altitude) is a western
relict forest of 300ha which was certainly part of Nyungwe in the past, but the vegetation is
more dense, with less openings. Nyungwe has high floral diversity, with more than 250 tree
species including the rare african Podocarpus, and more than 100 species of orchids. A total of
13 species of primates, representing 25% of Africa's total are found in Nyungwe, some of them
listed as rare or endangered (Pan troglodytes, and Cercopithecus lhoesti), or as endangered
subspecies (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii). Nyungwe also holds many endangered mammals
which are endemic to the Albertine Rift, including species of bats and squirrels. Two forest
species of butterfly are also endemic to Nyungwe: Belearica sp., and Acraea turlini. Around
275 bird species occur in Nyungwe, 25 endemic to the Albertine Rift mountains. After the
Itombwe forests in eastern Zaire, Nyungwe is the most important forest for the conservation of
montane forest birds in the region. The variety of habitat leads to a high diversity of species,

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

including Glaucidium capense albertinum, Indicator pumilio, Kupeornis rufocinctus. Zoothera
tangangicae, Apalis rufogularis argentea, Cryptospiza schelleyi and Bradypterus graueri.
which are all Albertine Rift endemics and considered as vulnerable or threatened. Logging has
reduced the lowland forest from 114,000 ha in 1958 to 97,000 ha in 1979. Nyungwe also sutters
from the exploitation of firewood, charcoal and timber for woodwork. Goldmining poses
problems, as small alluvial gold lodes worked by local people require the cutting of forest along
mineralized watercourses, and mining is often accompanied by poaching. Several mammals.
mainly ungulates, have suffered from overhunting. A conservation plan was established in 1984
(MINAGRI, 1984), with different zones, including a core area (40%) for integral protection.
Cyamudongo forest also hosts a number of typical Albertine bird species, including Musophagu
rosae which is not found in Nyungwe. The forest sparrowhawk Falco erythropus has only been
recorded in Cyamudongo forest, which also hosts the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes and is
recognized for a high diversity in butterfly species. The forest has suffered much fragmentation
as a result of clearance for agriculture. The remaining forest is under protection by local public
administration, with one guard covering all the forest.

Virunga Mountains

The Parc National des Volcans covers an area of 15,000ha in the Virunga Mountains, which are
located in the north-west of Rwanda, at the border with Uganda and Zaire. The park contains
eight pleistocene volcanic peaks belonging to the chain which forms part of the watershed
between the Nile and Zaire river systems. The full altitudinal range is from 2400 to 4507m.
including Mt. Karisimbi, one of the highest mountains in Africa (4507m). The terrain is difficult
and broken with steep slopes, and rainfall is high, with between c.2000-2400mm per year (at
Karisoke area). Forest is transitional with altitude. A reduced montane forest with Neoboutonia
is found at low altitudes (2400-2500m), with bamboo forest Arundinaria alpina at 2500-3200m,
replaced by Haegenia-Hypericum forest on the more humid slopes in the west and the south of
the park, up to 3500m. The park is best known for the mountain gorilla Gorilla gorilla beringei,
a threatened subspecies endemic to the Virunga Mountains and Bwindi Forest in Uganda. Other
threatened mammals include the elephant Loxodonta africana, and the leopard Panthera
pardus, but there have been no records since 1979. Whilst no endemic bird species are known to
the site, the park holds many Albertine Rift endemics, including Bradypterus graueri.
Francolinus nobilis, Musophaga johnstoni, Batis diops, Ploceus alienus, Cryptospiza jacksoni,
and Cryptospiza shelleyi. There is very high human pressure around the park, with
encroachment for agriculture, illegal wood and bamboo cutting. There are also problems with
gorilla poaching and feral dogs. The park has been reduced in area, by half from 1958 to 1973.
Recent civil war has disturbed those conservation activities which had been established.

74

Africa

SAO TOME & PRINCIPE

The Democratic Republic of Sao Tomé and Principe is an island-nation in the Gulf of Guinea in
the equatorial east Atlantic, 250kms from the coast of Africa. It consists of two volcanic islands.
reaching maximum elevations of 2024m on Sao Tomé, and 948m on Principe.

A "Montane Forest Region" is recognised on Sao Tomé particularly, and to a much lesser extent
on Principe. Occurring between 800-1400m, it is characterised by a distinct flora resulting from
lower minimum temperatures, higher rainfall and humidity, and reduced light levels resulting
from near-perpetual cloud cover. The forests are notable for their high degree of endemism.

A single protected area (zonas ecologica) has been proposed for each island - one of 245 sq.km.
on Sao Tomé, and one of 45sq.km. on Principe (Jones and Tye, 1988; WCMC, 1996).

References

Jones P.J. and Tye A. 1988. A survey of the avifauna of Sao Tomé and Principe. \CBP Study
Report No. 24, Cambridge.
WCMC 1996. Democratic Republic of Sao Tomé and Principe.

75

Principe Island)

( Sao Tome Island °

ji :
ne SAO TOME & PRINCIP

{ 0 25 km
V———

SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Protectec*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Principe Island Principe SLORY VOSS fine P/OAIPAUI 3, Yes
Sao Tomé Pico de Sao Tomé O°16'N/ 6°35'E e's
eee
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with

CF Regions= 2 CF Sites= 2 an element of protection = 2

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Sao Tomé and Principe

Sao Tomé and Principe

A "Montane Forest Region" is recognised on Sao Tomé, and to a much lesser extent on
Principe. Occurring between 800-1400m it is characterised by a distinct flora resulting from
lower minimum temperatures, higher rainfall and humidity, and much reduced light levels as a
result of near-perpetual cloud cover. The forest is notable for its high degree of endemism. A
protected area (Zonas Ecologica) of 245sq.km has been proposed that would incorporate the
higher forests. The dwarf olive ibis Bostrychia bocagei (indeterminate status, until recently
considered extinct) and the maroon pigeon Columba thomensis, both endemic, are recorded
from the higher forests. There are few threats (Jones and Tye, 1988). The south-facing higher
parts of Sao Tomé receive an annual rainfall in excess of 7000mm/annum.

78

Africa

SIERRA LEONE

Sierra Leone lies on the seaward slopes of a series of high plateaux, embracing mountainous
regions such as the Wara Wara Mountains, Sula Mountains, Tingi Hills and Loma Mountains to
the north and north-east. Mt. Bintimani in the Loma mountain range is one of the highest points
of West Africa, at 1948m. The Tingi Hills and Loma Mountains are reported to support limited
areas of moist montane forest, but information on the extent of true montane elements is
lacking. They are known centres of plant diversity and endemism, and contain tree species such
as Daniella thurifera, Terminalia ivorensis, Parkia bicolor, Parinari excelsa, Bridelia grandis
and Pycnanthus angolensis. Less than 4% of the country is presently under primary and
secondary closed forest.

References

Commonwealth Institute (?). Sierra Leone. Commonwealth Fact Sheet.

Davies A.G. 1987. The Gola Forest Reserves, Sierra Leone: wildlife conservation and forest
management. IUCN Gland, Switzerland, and WCMC, Cambridge.

Phillipson J. 1978. Wildlife conservation and management in Sierra Leone. Report prepared for
the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Sierra Leone.

World Bank 1993 . Ecologically sensitive sites in Africa. Volume lV: West Africa. Compiled by
the World Conservation Monitoring Centre for The World Bank, Washington, DC,
USA.

79

|
|
|
|

aye

SIERRA LEONE

100 k
=

Loma Mansa )
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cm
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Tingi Hills x

or

A
SIERRA LEONE: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Loma Mansa Mount Bintumani 9°12'N/ 11°09'W Yes
Tingi Hills Sankan Biriwa 8°S7'N/ 10°47'W No
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 2 CF Sites= 2 an element of protection = 1

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Sierra Leone

Loma Mansa

The Loma Mountains contain the highest point in Sierra Leone at Mt. Bintimani (1948m). The
threatened grey-necked picathartes Picathartes gymnocephalus occurs. and the mountains are a
known centre of local endemism. Larger mammals that occur include the western black and
white colobus Colobus polykomos, chimpanzee Pan troglodytes and golden cat Felis auratu. A
national park has been proposed for the area, and extensive hunting occurs below the 800m
contour. The Loma Mountains Non-hunting Forest Reserve covers 560sq.km (Davies. 1987:
Phillipson, 1978; World Bank, 1993).

Tingi Hills

Located fairly close to the Loma Mountains and supporting similar forest types. The peak of
Sankan Biriwa.(1715m) is contained by the Tingi Hills Forest Reserve (106sq.km). Animals
remaining in the area include buffalo Syncerus caffer, bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus and
yellow-backed duiker Cephalophus sylvicultor. The toad Bufo cristiglans is endemic to the
Tingi Hills (World Bank, 1993).

Africa

TANZANIA

Tanzania is the largest country in East Africa. Most of the country is located on the Central
African Plateau, 1000-1500m above sea level, rising from a narrow coastal strip some 15-30km
wide. In addition, there are a number of mountain ranges, notably those running parallel to the
borders with Rwanda and Zambia, and along the shores of Lake Tanganyika and at the head of
Lake Malawi. The Pare and Usambara Mountains form part of the "Eastern Arc" in the
north-east close to the border with Kenya. Kilimanjaro, an isolated volcanic massif rising to
5895m in the north-east of the country, is the highest peak in Africa.

Forest covers 40% of the land area. Over 98% of this is natural miombo woodland, the
remainder being closed tropical forest which covers less than 1% of the total land area. This
includes scattered patches of forest on mountain slopes where the cloud forest is found, a few
lowland forests in the mountain foothills, coastal forests and mangrove swamps. Although
small in area, these forests are of great importance ecologically and in terms of biodiversity —
the eastern mountain and coastal forests contain large numbers of endemics which are attracting
increasing interest.

The mountains are also an important water catchment area and the forest cover needs to be
maintained to safeguard regular runoff (Bensted-Smith and Msangi, 1989). Major
environmental problems include loss of top soil and lowering of productivity, notably in the
high population areas, which frequently leads to deforestation and expansion of agriculture in
other areas, even within protected areas (Mwalyosi, 1986).

The protected areas network currently comprises national parks, Ngorongoro Conservation
Area, game reserves, forest reserves, and game controlled areas, which together cover nearly
40% of Tanzania's surface area. Of the. forest reserves, just over half serve a production
function, and the remainder serve a protection function (WD, 1991). The Udzungwa Mountains
are in the process of being gazetted as a national park and greater protection has been proposed
for the Uluguru and Usambara mountains.

References
Bensted-Smith, R. and Msangi, T.H. 1989. Report on the conservation of ecosystems and
genetic resources. Tropical Forestry Action Plan, United Republic of Tanzania.

Unpublished report for the Forest and Beekeeping Division of the Ministry of Lands
Natural Resources and Tourism.

83

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregorson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Villa-Lobas. J.L.. Synge. H..
and Zantovska, J. 1986. Plants in danger: What do we know’? VUCN. Gland.
Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. Pp. 351-353.

Hughes, R.H. and Hughes, J.S. 1991. Directory of African wetlands. YUCN, Gland. Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya/WCMC, Cambridge, UK. Pp. 227-253.

ITC 1989. United Republic of Tanzania: development and promotion of wildlife utilisation.
International Trade Centre Project No. URT/87/004. (Unseen)

IUCN 1987. Action strategy for protected areas in the Afrotropical Realm. IUCN, Gland.
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 47-49.

Lovett, J. 1985. An overview of the moist forests of Tanzania. Final report of the Tanzania
forest habitat evaluation project. WWF. Tanzania National Scientific Research Council
Research Monographs.

MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. 1986. Review of the protected areas system in the
Afrotropical Realm. 1UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi.
Kenya. Pp. 244-246.

Mosha, G.T. and Thorsell, J.W. 1984. Training Protected Area Personnel: Lessons from the
College of African Wildlife Management. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds),
National parks, conservation and development: The role of protected areas in
sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Mwalyosi, R.B.B. 1986. Tanzania, natural resources expertise profile. Conservation for
Development Centre — International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources, Gland, Switzerland. 71 pp. ;

Rogers and Homewood 1978

Schmithiisen, F. 1986. Forest legislation in selected African countries. FAO Forestry Paper 65,
Food and Agricultural Organisation, Rome. Pp. 92-94; 290-307.

Stuart, S.N., and Adams, R.J. 1990. Biodiversity in sub-saharan Africa and its islands:
conservation, management and sustainable use. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp.
204-214.

SWARA 1989. Conservation of the Mara area. SWARA 12(2): 19.

TWCM 1990. Conservation monitoring news. No. 1, May 1990. Tanzania Wildlife
Conservation Monitoring, Arusha. 8 pp.

UNEP/IUCN 1988. Coral reefs of the world. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Guilf.
UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK/ UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Pp. 363-369.

WD 1991. Elephant conservation plan — Tanzania. Wildlife Division, Ministry of Tourism,
Natural Resources and the Environment, Dar-es-Saalam. 152 pp.

84

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TANZANIA, UNITED REPUBLIC OF: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 31/07/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?

Eastern Arc Mountains Nguru

Ukaguru if No
Uluguru i No
Usambara Mountains 4°42'S/ 38°16'E No
Uzungwa Mountains 7°S0'S/ 35°55" E No
Mahale Mountains Mahale Mountains 6°10'S/ 29°50'E No
North Eastern Mountains Hanang 4°30'S/ 35°22'E No
Malundwe 3°47'S/ 35°44'E No
Mount Kilimanjaro 2°59'S/ 37°27'E Yes
Mount Meru 3°15'S/ 36°45'E No
Ngorongoro 3°10'S/ 35°30'E Yes
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 3 CF Sites= 11 an element of protection = 2

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Africa

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Tanzania

Eastern Arc Mountains

Running north-east, from south-west Tanzania to the east coast border with Kenya, the Eastern
Arc Mountains are linked to the North Eastern Mountains which includes Mt. Kilimanjaro.
However in terms of cloud forest distribution the two regions appear quite separate. The Eastern
Arcs include the Nguru, Uluguru, Ukaguru, Usambara and Uzungwa mountain ranges.

The very dissected orography, with steep slopes, deep valleys, high summits, rocky cliffs. and
wide range of climatic and soil conditions have resulted in a wide range of vegetation types.
Montane forest generally occurs between 1400 and 2200m with moss covered upper montane
forest at higher altitudes. The upper montane forest is dominated by Balthasaria schliebenii,
Garcinia volkensii, Ocotea usambarensis, Podocarpus milanjianus, P. latifolius, P. ensiculus,
Schefflera myriantha and S. barteri. The tree trunks are covered in mosses and epiphytes are
common, including Srolzia viridis, Mystacidium nguruense, Lycopodiums and filmy ferns. In
the ground flora among the many ferns, Cincinnobotrys oreophilum and Cincinnobotrys
ranarum are common. Elfin forest, commonly up to 4m tall covers the summits and ridges
above 2000m. These trees are covered by mosses and ferns, and the ground is also covered with
cushions of Mastigophora diclados, Sphagnum spp., Dicranoloma billarderi and Syrrhopodon
stuhlmannii. These montane forests are especially rich in endemic herbs, and many orchids,
including the Nguru and Uluguru endemic, Tridactyle brevifolium. Along streamlets large
stands of the tree fern Cyathea manniana occur. In Uluguru the subendemic C.pumila and
endemic C. fadenii and C. schliebenii are found. The Usambara Mountains support what is
probably one of the richest biological communities in Africa, in terms of plant and animal
species and endemic taxa. More than 276 forest tree species have been recorded, of which some
50 are endemic or of very restricted range, such as the monotypic genera Cephalosphaera
usambarensis, Englerodendron usambarense, and Platypterocarpus tanganyikensis. The
avifauna includes two threatened endemic species, the Usambara ground robin Dryocichloides
montanus and the Usambara eagle owl Bubo vosseleri, and several threatened species only
found in a few montane forests in Tanzania. In the Udzungwas, animal species of conservation
concern include two endemic to the mountains, the Iringa red colobus Colobus badius
gordonorum, and crested mangabey Cercocebus galeritus. There are eight threatened bird
species. Three, Mrs Moreau's warbler Bathmocercus winifredae, banded green sunbird
Anthreptes rubitorques and the Tanzanian mountain weaver Ploceus nicolli are endemic to a
few forests in eastern Tanzania. Another four have very limited distributions, the dappled
mountain robin Modulatrix orostruthus. Iringa ground robin Dryocichloides lowei, Amani
sunbird Anthreptes pallidigaster and Swynnerton's forest robin Pogonocichla swynnertoni, the
subspecies rodgersi of the latter being endemic to the Uzungwas. One species, the rufous-
winged sunbird Nectarinia rufipennis is endemic to the Uzungwas, being only recently

87

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

discovered in the Mwanihana Forest (Stuart and Jensen, 1981). There are also many endemic
species of invertebrate. The forests in this region serve a critical watershed protection role.
which is helped by a thick covering of bryophytes on the forest floor in many areas. This is
particularly important as many large scale commercial agricultural developments are dependent
on a reliable source of water, and hydro-electric schemes are planned. In Kanga FR, the forests
are relatively undisturbed in comparison to the nearby Nguru South FR, probably due to
traditional cultural values which restrict access. The bark of Entandrophragma excelsum and
Myrica salicifolia trees is harvested for medicinal purposes. Current pressures on the forests
include logging and use by the local population for firewood and building poles.

Mahale Mountains

Located near Gombe, on the western side of the country close to the border with Zaire, the
Mahale Mountains run in a chain from north-north-west to south-south-east for some 50km
with Mt. Nkungwe, the highest peak at 2462m. The western slopes of the main ridge drop
precipitously with many ravines running into the lake, whilst hilly country (below 1700m)
extends to the east of the main ridge.

There are three major vegetation types: Kasoge Forest (780m at iake level to 1300m) which is a
well developed lowland forest on the western slope of the Mahale Mountains; wet and more
verdant forest from 1500-2400m which comprises a mosaic of montane forest, grassland and
alpine bamboo bush; and miombo forest on the eastern slopes and north and south of the
Kasoge Forest, covering some 75% of the park area.

The Mahale Mountain National Park was established in 1985, and contains 55 recorded
mammal species, with nine primates, including a large population of chimpanzee Pan
troglodytes. The 120 recorded bird species include: crested malimbe Malimbus rubricollis and
white-spotted pygmy crake Cofurnicops pulchra.

North Eastern Mountains

This group of mountains cover a large area from north-central Tanzania up to Mt. Kilimanjaro,
which lies on the border with Kenya. Forest occurs between 1980m and 3300m with montane
and upper montane forest tending to lie on the wetter southern, eastern and northern slopes, and
dry montane forest on the western slopes. Above the forest, grassland and moorland is found
above about 2500m.

Patches of cloud forest are found within the montane and upper montane forests at Hanang,
Malundwe, Ngorongoro, Nou, and on Mounts Meru and Kilimanjaro. The montane forests
commonly include Albizia gummifera, Podocarpus sp., and Prunus africana, which is also

88

Africa

found in the upper montane zone along with Cassipourea malosana, Ilex mitis, and Ocotea
usambarensis. On Kilimanjaro, the wetter southern slopes are dominated by Podocarpus spp.
and camphorwood Ocotea usambarensis with an understory of ferns such as tree ferns Cyathea
spp. and the long-spiked Lobelia gibberoa. Mammal species found above the treeline but which
also use the montane forest habitat include the grey duiker Sy/vicapra grimmia, red duiker
Cephalophus natalensis and elephant. On Kilimanjaro, three species of primate are found
within the montane forests, the blue monkey Cercopithecus mitis, black and white colobus
Colobus polykomos abyssinicus, and Galago crassicaudatus. Sunbirds in the highland forest
around Ngorongoro include the golden winged sunbird Nectarinia reichenowi and eastern
double collared sunbird N. mediocris. The butterfly Papilio sjoestedti, sometimes known as the
Kilimanjaro swallowtail, flies in the montane forests of Mt. Meru, Mt. Kilimanjaro and
Ngorongoro.

The upland forests perform a critical watershed function, protecting the catchments of many
rivers. Meru is the most important catchment reserve in the country as it supplies water to
Arusha town and the densely populated surrounding area. Although most of the cloud forest is
contained in Forest Reserves, grazing and fires set by hunters and beekeepers in the subalpine
heath cause extensive damage. Human impact is relatively limited, although there has been
serious encroachment fer cultivation in some areas, and intensive pit sawing for Loliondo is
carried out in some areas. Cutting of trees for firewood is another potential threat.

89

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

UGANDA

Uganda is a landlocked country covering about 236,000 sq.km. In the west of the country the
landscape is dominated by the rift valley and its associated mountains and lakes. and in the east
the international border with Kenya follows a line of raised land associated with the large
Miocene volcanoes of Mount Elgon (Howard, 1988).

Ecologically, Uganda is very diverse, with a range of altitude from 600m in the bottom of the
rift valley, to over 5000m at the top of the Rwenzori, Africa's third highest mountain range.
Seven of mainland Africa's 18 phytochoria (plant kingdoms) are represented in Uganda.

Cloud forests occur along the mountains on the western border with Zaire and Rwanda, and on
Mount Elgon which is on the eastern border of the country with Kenya. The cloud or moist
montane forest generally lies between altitudes of 2000 and 3500m, although there is
considerable variation.

Uganda is a predominantly agricultural nation, and there is great pressure on these forests along
with other forest areas. At the turn of the century, forests covered approximately 12.7% of the
country's total area. Today this figure is thought to be around 3%, with very little remaining
outside government forest reserves (Hamilton, 1984; Struhsaker, 1987). The principal forest
reserves were formally gazetted in 1932. These reserves are distributed such that 50% is in
savanna woodland and forest plantation, 40% is in tropical high forest and 10% in montane
catchment areas (IUCN, 1990).

It has been estimated that only about 50% of forested land within reserves remains essentially
undisturbed (IUCN, 1990). The forests are under particular pressure from agricultural
encroachment and settlement, illegal or unmanaged exploitation of timber and charcoal, an
ever-increasing fuel wood demand, cattle grazing, pollution, and uncontrolled burning. National
parks and wildlife sector reserves have been threatened by agricultural encroachment, illegal
poaching and a negative public attitude to wildlife conservation. These problems were
compounded by political and economic instability in the 1970s and 1980s (Anon., n.d.; Corson
and Kux, 1982; Okua, 1991; Pomeroy, 1990; Struhsaker, 1987).

90

Africa

References

Anon. (n.d.) Conservation of wildlife outside the national parks. Uganda. 11 pp.

Butynski, T.M. 1984. Ecological survey of the Impenetrable (Bwindi) Forest. Uganda. and
Recommendations for its conservation and management. Unpublished report to the
Uganda Government.

Corson, J. and Kux, M. 1982. MAB draft environmental profile - Uganda. Department of State.
Washington, DC. 258 pp.

Hamilton, A. 1969. The vegetation of south-west Kigezi. Uganda J. 33: 175-99.

Hamilton, A.C. 1984. Deforestation in Uganda. Oxford University Press, Uganda. (Unseen)

Hamilton, A.C. and Perrott, R.A. 1981. A study of altitudinal vegetation in the montane forest
belt of Mt. Elgon, Kenya/Uganda. Vegetatio 45: 107-125.

Harcourt, A.H. 1979. Conservation of the Bwindi Forest Reserve and its Gorillas, S.W. Uganda.
WWF/IUCN Project 1577 Report.

Harcourt, A.H. 1980. Can Uganda's Gorillas Survive? A survey of the Bwindi Forest Reserve.
Biological Conservation 19: 269-282.

Howard, P.C. 1988. Nature conservation in Uganda's tropical forest reserves. Kampala, Uganda.
Unpublished draft. 302 pp.

IUCN/MEP 1986. Uganda natural resources datasets — a preliminary review. IUCN, Nairobi,
Kenya and Ministry of Environment Protection, Uganda. Pp. 2-13.

IUCN. 1990. IUCN Uganda country programme workshop — working group background
papers. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Keith, S., Twomey, A., Friedmann, H. and Williams, J. 1969. The Avifauna of the Impenetrable
Forest, Uganda. Amer. Mus. Novit. 2389.

Malpas, R. 1980. Wildlife in Uganda 1980 - A Survey. A Report to the Minister of Tourism and
Wildlife, Uganda.

Okua, M. 1991. The management of protected areas under the Uganda Game Department. A
paper presented to the preparatory session for the World Congress on National Parks
and Protected Areas, Amboseli National Park, Kenya, 9-16 July. 6 pp.

Pomeroy, D.E. (Ed.). 1990. Forum II — conservation of biodiversity in Uganda. Proceedings of
the Second Conservation Forum, 8-10 February, Kabarole District, Uganda. 63 pp.

Struhsaker, T.T. 1987. Forestry issues and conservation in Uganda. Biological Conservation 39:
209-234.

Stuart, S.N. and Adams, R.J. 1990. Biodiversity in Sub-saharan Africa and its islands:
conservation, management and sustainable use. Occassional Paper No. 6. IUCN
Species Survival Commission, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 218-223.

91

ee UGANDA

Mount Elgon
Forest
ip
Rwenzori
Mountains

UGANDA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97
Protected*

Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?

oe nae ne eee
Bwindi Forest Bwindi Forest 1°02'S/ 29°42'E Yes
Mgahinga Forest Mgahinga Forest / No
Mount Elgon Forest Mount Elgon Forest 1°1S'*N/ 34°33'E Yes
Rwenzori Mountains Rwenzori Mountains 0°15'N/ 29°57'E Yes
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 4 CF Sites= 4 an element of protection = 3

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Uganda

Bwindi Forest

Bwindi (Impenetrable) Forest is located in south-west Uganda near the border with Zaire. and
covers an area of 31,000ha. The reserve is very steep, hilly countryside with an altitudinal range
from 1400 to 2400m. The forest includes a wide variety of vegetation types which can be
broadly classified as medium altitude moist evergreen forest and high altitude forest. Important
constituents are Prunus africana, Newtonia buchananii, Syphonia globulifera, Chrysophyllum
spp., Podocarpus spp. and Strombosia cheffleria. The vegetation is more fully described in
Hamilton 1969. The fauna is one of the richest communities in East Africa. One-third of the
world's population of the mountain gorilla Gorilla gorilla berengei (c.400) exists here. There
are six other species of diurnal primate recorded, including chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, and
three nocturnal primates. Several threatened birds with limited ranges are among the diverse
avifauna. These include the African green broadbill Pseudocalyptomena graueri, Grauer's
swamp warbler Bradypterus graueri, and Chapin's flycatcher Muscicapa lendu. A threatened
butterfly species, the cream-banded swallowtail Papilio leucotaenia, is also found in this
reserve. Together with some remnant lowland forest outside the boundary, the montane forest in
this reserve constitutes an important water catchment area for many rivers supplying the
agricultural land of the surrounding region. Where trees are cleared the soils are very susceptible
to erosion, due to the steepness of the slopes. However the forest also lies in one of the country's
most densely populated areas, and the main threats to this forest are posed by the hunting of its
large mammals, and uncontrolled timber cutting. Fortunately these threats have been moderated
due to the Ugandan Government's commitment to the protection of this forest (Howard. 1988).

Mgahinga Forest

Mgahinga forest is found on the mountain range which forms the Gorilla Game Reserve (or
Kigezi Gorilla Game Reserve) and is located in the extreme south-west corner of Uganda on the
borders with Zaire and Rwanda. Here the altitude ranges varies from 2700 to 4127m including
parts of three volcanic mountains Muhavura, Mgahinga, and Sabinio. The alpine summit areas
are dominated by Hypericum spp. and dwarf heaths which merge into broadleaved montane
forest and bamboo Arundinaria alpina. The forest is rich in lichens and mosses. On the lower
slopes is a high altitude type of savanna woodland. The reserve was established to protect the
chimpanzee Pan troglodytes and the mountain gorilla Gorilla gorilla berengei. Other mammals
include: the distinctive golden monkey Cercopithecus mitis kandti (a rare subspecies of the
diademed monkey), leopard Panthera pardus, and elephant Loxodonta africana. The abundant
bird life includes the Ruwenzori turaco Tauraco johnstoni, and the yellow-billed barbet
Trachyphonus purpuratus. The threatened butterfly species Papilio leucotaenia may also

94

Africa

inhabit the reserve. There is severe disturbance from agricultural and pastoral activities and
poaching. The area seems to be less well protected than neighbouring protected areas in Zaire
and Rwanda. There are about 400 gorillas in this whole region, but only one group is found in
the Ugandan sector and may have disappeared recently.

Mount Elgon Forest

Located on the border between Uganda and Kenya with portions of its slopes in both countries,

Mount Elgon is a solitary extinct volcano, with one of the largest craters in the world, 8km

across. The altitude varies from 1460m to 4320m at the rim of the crater. Four broad classes of
vegetation occupy different altitudinal zones on Mount Elgon: 1) a community of mixed

montane forest below 2500m, 2) a broad belt of bamboo and low canopy montane (Hagenea-

Rapanea) forest between 2400m and 3000m, 3) a zone of high montane forest between 3000m

and 3500m, a high moorland community above 3500m (Hamilton and Perrott, 1981). The

wetter southern and western slopes of the mountain support a montane forest community

dominated by species such as Prunus africana, Aningeria adolfifriedericii, and Olea

welwitschii, whilst the drier north-east supports a coniferous forest dominated by Podocarpus

gracilior, Juniperus procera, and Ejebergia capensis, with an understorey of Jlex mitis, Olea sp.

and Teclea nobilis. The most important areas of Mount Elgon for plant species conservation lie

in the high montane heath and moorland zones. Most of the animal species found here are

widely distributed in suitable montane habitats throughout East Africa, but in many cases

Mount Elgon represents the western range limits of species or races that occur in the highlands

of Kenya and northern Tanzania, meaning that it has considerable importance in terms of
conservation, particularly for bird species. The mountain is the only site record for Francolinus

jacksoni in Uganda, and Colomba delegroguei, Tauraco hartlaubi and Nectarinia tacazze are

restricted to Elgon and a few other mountains along the eastern border. The African elephant

Loxodonta africana and the leopard Panthera pardus have also been recorded. The area is

officially protected by the Mount Elgon Forest Reserve in Uganda and Mount Elgon National

Park in Kenya which together cover approximately 90,000ha. Both sides of the mountain are

important for water catchment protection, and to maintain viable populations of many of the °
larger and rare species such as elephant and leopard. However, a high human density in the

lands bordering the reserve means that encroachment is a constant pressure. Poaching activities

and timber harvesting also pose significant threats. Juniperus procera, an important timber tree

is considered to be endangered in this area (Howard, 1988).

95

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

ZAIRE

The Republic of Zaire extends from a narrow (40km) Atlantic seaboard in the west to the lake
system of the western branch of the Rift Valley in the east. The high mountain ranges are
restricted to the eastern border with Zambia and Uganda. Along the entire mountain chain, a
total of more than 4275,000ha lies above 1500m. The highest peak, Margherita (5119m) lies in
the Ruwenzori Range on the Uganda border around which an area of 35,000ha lies above
3000m.

Tropical rain forests cover 1.25 million sq.km (52% of the country), which constitutes almost
half of the tropical rain forests of Africa (Mankoto ma Mabaelele, 1987). Cloud forest is found
in the east, where a mosaic of montane forest and secondary grassland is interspersed with
smaller areas of submontane and transitional rain forest (IUCN, 1985). The eastern montane
forest covers an area of approximately 54,100sq.km (Doumenge, 1990) and serves an important
watershed protection role, as more than 90% of the country drains into the Zaire River basin.

Large areas of primary moist forest remain intact, as in general, forest exploitation is moderate.
However, there is increased exploitation in the more highly populated and accessible areas
(Doumenge, 1990), which include the eastern mountain range. The transitional forests have
been largely cleared for agricultural use (Kasali, n.d.; von Richter er a/., 1990).

Forests are well represented in the country's protected area system, although a study by
Doumenge (IUCN, 1990) identified a number of unprotected forest sites of critical importance
for conservation of biological diversity. However, despite official protection forests suffer
throughout from encroachment by local villagers, with a lack of alternative economic means
and little involvement in reserve management (Kasali, n.d.). Poaching is particularly severe
even within some protected areas and management of the national parks varies from a
reasonably high level to minimal (IUCN, 1990, De Richter er a/., 199).

References

Anon. (n.d.). Integrated nature conservation in Zaire. Manuscript submitted to Parks. 5 pp.

Bourliere and Verschuren, J. 1972. Exploration du Parc national des Virunga.

Catterall M.J. 1992. Conservation priorities for the Albertine Rift Endemic Area. Msc. Report,
Wye College, University of London.

Collar, N.J. & S.N. Stuart 1988. Key Forests for Threatened Birds in Africa. International
Council for Bird Preservation. Monograph No. 3.

96

Africa

Doumenge, C. 1990. La Conservation des Ecosystemes Forestiers du Zaire. \UCN, Gland.
Suisse and Cambridge, UK. 242pp.

Goodall, A.G. 1974. Studies on the ecology of the mountain gorilla of the Mt Kahuzi-Biega
region (Zaire) and comparisons with the mountain gorillas of the Virunga Volcanoes.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Liverpool.

IUCN/WWF 1985. Rapport d'une mission au Zaire et Rwanda. IUCN/WWF. Gland.
Switzerland.

Marius, C. 1972-3. Vegetation maps of Kahuzi-Biega.

Michel, F.C. and Kabemba, A. 1986. Enquete sur la chasse aux alentours du parc de
Kahuzi-biega (Zaire). La Lettre du Reseau Arbres Tropicaux. April. 20 pp.

OBICO, 1996. Biodiversité et Conservation dans la zone occidentale du Lac Kivu (est du
Zaire). Rapport de travail. Section OBICO-Zaire.

Prigogine, A. 1971. Les Oiseaux de l'Itombwe et de son hinterland. Volume 1. Annals of the
Museum Royal d'Afrique centrale, 8°, Sci. Zool. 185-298.

Prigogine, A. 1985. Conservation of the Avifauna of the forests of the Albertine Rift. In
Conservation of Tropical Birds. eds. A.W. Diamond and T.E. Lovejoy 277-295.
International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, Technical Publication. N° 4.

Spinage, C.A. (1972). The Ecology and Problems of the Volcano National Park, Rwanda.
Biological Conservation 4: 194-204.

Verschuren, J. 1988. Problémes scientifiques et techniques au parc national des Virunga
(Zaire). Institut Zairois pour la Conservation de la Nature/Administration Générale
Belge pour la Coopération au Développement. 135 pp.

97

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ZAIRE: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97
Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
ol a Ee Re SS ES eee
Itombwe Mountains Itombwe Mountains 3°25'S/ 28°35'E No
Kabobo Mountain Kabobo Mountain 5°08'S/ 29°03'E No
Kahuzi-Biega Mountains Kahuzi-Biega Mountains 2°03'S/ 28°S0'E Yes
Kivu Bushenyi Forest 2°21'S/ 28°57'E Yes
Mitumba 1°57'S/ 28°55'E No
Shushu 2°07'S/ 29°05'E No
Marungu Highlands Marungu Highlands 7°30'S/ 29°59'E No
Virungas/Rwenzoris Mount Tshiaber imu 0°10'S/ 29°25'E Yes
Rwenzori Mountains 0°30'N/ 29°50'E Yes
Virunga Volcanoes 1°28'S/ 29°10'E Yes
ae i NS SS
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 6 CF Sites= 10 an element of protection = 5

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Zaire

Itombwe Mountains

The Itombwe Mountain range comprise a large number of mountains oriented north-south. in
south-western Zaire. Most reach above 2000m, and altitude ranges from 1500m to 3475m. A
montane lake (Lake Lungwe) is located in the north at 2700m. The range represents the largets
area above 2500m altitude in the Central African mountains, and montane marshes have
developed over a large area. There is transition forest at 1200-1500m,. with montane forest
dominated by Parinari sp. Carapa sp. Homalium sp. Syzygium sp. Fagara aff inaequalis.
Sapium ellipticum, Ocotea michelsonii, Croton megalocarpus from 1800m to 2200m and by
Hirtella sp. Syzygium sp. Parinari sp. Symphonia sp. Olea hoschtetteri, Crysophyllum sp.
Ficalhoa laurifolia above 2000m. The forest holds a rich fauna, including Gorilla gorilla
graueri and Afropavo congensis. Among 36 endemic species occuring in the Central African
Highlands, 32 are found in Itombwe. These mountains have the greatest bird diversity among
all the afromontane forests, including 2 local endemics Phodilus prigoginei, recently recorded
after only one specimen in 1954 (Prigogine 1954) and Schoutedenepus schoutedeni. There is
also high diversity in Amphibians including Hyperolius castaneus consellatus, H. leleupi.
Chrysobatrachus cupreonites, and Rana sp. which are endemic to Itombwe. The site is state
proprety but is not offically protected despite repeated recommendations in the past. The long-
term survival of Itombwe mountains is uncertain, as there is very high pressure from mining and
grazing, which is affecting the montane and bamboo forest.

Kabobo Mountain

An isolated peak to the west of the northern half of Lake Tanganyika in south-eastern Zaire.
with altitudinal ranges from 1500m to 2700m. The site holds a rich avifauna, with around 60
species recorded, including Apalis kaboboensis, which is endemic to the forest, Tidus
tanganjicae and Lioptilus rufocinctus. The forest has no official protection despite a number of
recommendations for its conservation (Prigogine 1985).

Kahuzi-Biega Mountains

The Kahuzi-Biega Mountains are located in Eastern Zaire, 50km west of the town of Bukavu
near the Rwanda and Burundi borders. The area takes its name from two extinct volcanoes, and
is part of the Parc National de Kahuzi-Biega (total area, 600,000ha). Altitude ranges from
1800m to 3400m, with annual maximum temperatures of 18°C and minimum temperatures of
about 10.4°C. Mean annual rainfall is 1800mm with wide variation, and humidity varies

100

Africa

between 50% and 85%. Two-thirds of the mountain forest is dense primary forest with
Podocarpus and Prunus spp. intermixed with bamboo, especially at higher altitudes in upper
montane or cloud forest areas. Some patches of more open vegetation occur at lower altitudes.
The remaining area is mainly mesophytic woodland including Hagenia trees and areas of
Cyperus swamp and peatbog. The park was established to protect 200-300 mountain gorilla
Gorilla gorilla graueri occuring mainly in the forests at 2100m-2400m, but also in the lower
rain forest. The ‘mosaic’ of biotypes makes the area an excellent gorilla habitat. Other primates
include chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, owl-faced monkey Cercopithecus hamlyni, including
black and white colobus monkey Colobus guereza and red colobus C. badius. Other mammals
include the elephant Loxodonta africana, forest hog Hylochoerus meinertzhageni and many
antelope and duiker. Avifauna include the endemic Rockefeller's sunbird Necrarinia
rockefelleri, African green broadbill Pseudocalyptomena graueri and Grauer's swamp warbler
Bradypterus graueri. The National Park was accepted as a World Heritage site in 1980, as was
the Virungas in 1979. A system of four zones has been proposed (Anon., 1989), comprising
administration etc., tourism, extensive use and strict conservation, and there is a forested buffer
zone. Cloud forest is therefore subject to relatively low pressure. Agricultural activities,
especially tea-growing, occur on the periphery and, in the past, slash and burn rotational
agriculture was practised throughout the area. Poaching affects most species and the road
system has deteriorated to the point where it is not possible for guards to adequately patrol the
park. Recent economic problems in Zaire have resulted in a marked decrease in the
effectiveness of management, and thus a decline in tourism, which had previously provided a
cash flow for the region. There are a number of villages in the buffer zone and there is regular
hunting of game species both for consumption and for sale, which has threatened species
populations both in surrounding the park and within it.

Kivu

Small areas of montane forest are found in a number of locations around Lake Kivu in the east
of the country, close to the border with Rwanda. These include Bushenyi forest reserve on Kivu
Island, Shushu forest which is on two small islands off Idjwi Island in Lake Kivu, and
fragmented transition forests between Kahuzi-Biega and Masisi on the western edge of Lake
Kivu. In Bushenyi altitude ranges from 1460m (lake level) to 2260m, with sub-montane forest
up to 1700m, and a montane forest above. In Shushu altitude ranges from 1460m to 1500m with
a montane forest dominated by Neoboutonia buchananii, isolated Albizzia grandibracteata, and
Ficus spp. The forest in Mitumba is dominated by Lebrunia bushaie and important for the
conservation of some Albetine Rift endemics including Pseudocalyptonema graueri, Nectarinia
rockefellerii, Columba albinucha, Indicator pumilio, Phyllastrephus lorenzi, Turdus
tanganyicae, Lioptilus chapini, Terpsiphone bedfordi, Cryptospiza shelleyi. Bushenyi has been
under legal protection since 1939, Shusuhu is privately managed and Mitumba has no
protection. However, much of the original forest has been cleared in all three cases, and the

101

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

remaining forest is important for maintenance of ecological processes and for the conservation
of two species endemic to the islands, Apalis argentea eidos, and Cercopithecus mitis
schoutedeni. Mitumba is also under pressure from poaching.

Marungu Highlands

The extensive area of the Marungu lies to the west of the southern half of Lake Tanganyika in
Eastern Zaire. The area consists of two main land masses separated by the low-lying Mulobozi
river, the smaller northern section (also called the Malimba mountains) rising to c. 2100m, and
the larger southern section, reaching c. 2460m. Grassland and scrub are the major habitats but
there is also dense forest including Parinari excelsa, Teclea nobilis, Polysias fulva, Ficus
storthophylla and Turraea holstii in ravines, and more importantly, a narrow riparian forest.
with Syzygium cordatum, Ficalhoa laurifolia and Ilex mitis along streams. The Marungu
Highlands are a centre of endemism for plants, with over 300 endemics species (IUCN 1985).
The Marungu Sunbird Nectarinia prigoginei is restricted to the riparian forest. The area is not
protected although the forests bordering the Mulobozi and Lufuko rivers have been proposed as
conservation belts (Prigogine 1985), as they are under severe threat from timber-felling and
from erosion of stream banks by cattle.

Virungas/Rwenzoris

Virunga National Park covers a large area in North-east Zaire on the border with Uganda and
Rwanda. It includes the Rwenzori mountains, an extremely steep and rugged mountain range.
where the altitude ranges from 1700m up to Africa's third highest mountain, Margharita at
5119m, and mountain peaks are permanently snow covered. The southern area of the park
belongs to the Virunga Volcanoes complex and contains two active peaks: Nyamuragira and
Nyiragongo. The considerable altitudinal range results in marked climatic variations which
affect the overall biological and geographical diversity of habitats. Cloud forest is found in the
Rwenzoris, the Virunga Volcanoes and on Mount Tshiaberimu to the west of Lake Edward. The :
montane forest is composed of bamboo and Hagenia forest on the mountain slopes including
some areas of very dense moist forest, with Neoboutonia macrocalyx forest on the lava plains.
Alpine heath vegetation dominates about 3500m consisting of Podocarpus milanjianus and
Hagenia abyssinica with alpine forests of Dendrosenecio and giant Lobelia. Above 4300m
there is sparse vegetation, mainly lichens and spermatophyta. Mount Tshiaberimu (Tshabirimu)
is a high altitude forest dominated by bamboo. With regard to fauna, whilst none of the recorded
species are endemic to this area, there are a number of endemic subspecies. In Rwenzori, these
include the colobus monkey Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii, Rwenzori hyrax Dendroyrax
arboreus ruwenzorii, and the Rwenzori leopard Panthera pardus ruwenzorii. In addition many
Albertine Rift endemics occur. Other species of interest include elephant Loxodonta africana,

102

Africa

chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, \"hoest monkey Cercopithecus lhoesti. with gorilla Gorilla gorilla
berengei on the slopes of the Virunga mountains (about 140 were recorded in the Zaire
Virungas in 1980 and 280 in 1986 (Verschuren, 1988)). Bird species include Nahan's francolin
Francolinus nahani, forest ground thrush Turdus oberlaenderi, leopard bamboo warbler
Bradypterus alfredi and Shelley's crimsonwing Cryptospiza shelleyi. The mountains of the
Virunga National Park belong to a network of protected areas including Rwenzori Forest
Reserve (99,600ha), Rwenzori National Park (197,800ha) and Biosphere Reserve (220.000ha).
Kigezi Game Reserve (32,830ha), Kyambura Game Reserve (15,700ha), and Kibale Forest
Corridor Game Reserve (33,910ha). It is an important trans-boundary conservation area. as
about 50km of international boundary runs through the centre of the massif. The main threat to
the integrity of the forest is posed by high levels of hunting which are having a severe impact on
many of the larger mammals. Poaching of elephant and gorilla has been almost completely
stopped, although there remains localised poaching of hippopotamous, buffalo and certain
antelopes (Verschuren, 1988). There are also localised problems associated with tourist
activities such as litter, sanitation, and demand for firewood (Howard 1988) and clearance of
forest for agricultural land. The recent civil war in Rwanda has put pressure on the area due to a
high demand for firewood and increased poaching.

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PART TWO

LATIN AMERICA :
CENTRAL

Belize
Costa Rica
EI Salvador
Guatemala

Mexico
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BELIZE

The mountains of Belize are located in the largely forested Maya Mountain range. which
occupies about half of the land area of Belize. The highest known point is Victoria Peak at
1120m. One of the forest types known to occur in the Maya Mountains is lower montane
forest (International travel map productions, 1992; Zisman, 1996).

References

Faust, B. 1995. Help save a Belize cloud forest and help locals farm sustainably. Unpubl.
email to WCMC.

International travel map productions. 1992. Traveller's reference map of Belize.
International travel map productions, Canada.

Zisman, S. 1996. The directory of Belizean protected areas and sites of nature conservation
interest. Second Edition. NARMAP. pp.186.

107

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BELIZE: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?

1 EARN ee Ee ae ae ie EY a Ne a EEE
Maya Mountains Slate Creek Preserve 17°07'N/ 88°58'W Yes
eee

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 1 an element of protection = 1

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Belize

Maya Mountains

Currently, one cloud forest site has been reported in the Maya Mountains. Specifically, on the
pine ridge Caracol Road in Cayo. It is described as a newly formed private forest preserve
(364ha) of karst cloud forest, which is said to contain Mayan ruins as well as endangered
wildlife. Pressures mentioned include fires started by refugee farmers. No further details are
known for this site (Faust, 1995).

110

Latin America : Central

COSTA RICA

Known cloud forest sites are located in four mountain ranges. From north to south they are:
Guanacaste Cordillera, Tilaran Cordillera, Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Talamanca.
One of the most famous cloud forest sites in the world is found in Tilaran Cordillera - the
Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve. Cloud forest sites in Costa Rica occur between
approximately 1000m and 3000m. Many of the sites are protected. This does not, however,
make them immune to certain pressures, in particular deforestation for agriculture and pasture
land.

References

Boza, M.A. 1986. Parques Nationales: Costa Rica: National Parks. Fundacion de Parques
Nacionales, Costa Rica. 95pp.

Boza, M.A. & Mendoza, R. 1981. The national parks of Costa Rica. INCAFO, Madrid.
310pp.

Echeverria, J., Hanarahan, M. & Solorzano, R. 1995. Valuation of nonpriced amenities
provided by the biological resources. Ecological Economics 13:43-52.

Harcourt, C.S. & Sayer, J.A. (Eds.). 1996. The conservation atlas of tropical forests.
IUCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon & Schuster, New York. pp.335.-

IUCN. 1982. IUCN directory of neotropical protected areas. Tycooly International
Publishing Ltd., Dublin. pp.436.

Janzen, D.H. 1986. Guanacaste National Park: tropical, ecological and cultural
restoration. Editorial Universidad Estatal a Distancia, San José. 103pp.

Kappelle, M. & Juarez, M.E. 1995(a). The Los Santos Forest Reserve: a buffer zone vital
for the Costa Rican La Amistrad Biosphere Reserve. Environmental Conservation
21:166-169.

Kappelle, M. & Juarez, M.E. 1995(b). Agroecological zonation along an altitudinal
gradient in the montane belt of the Los Santos Forest Reserve in Costa Rica.
Mountain Research and Development 15:19-37.

Lawton, R. & Dryer, V. 1980. The vegetation of the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve.
Brenesia 18:101-116.

Lober, D.J. 1992. Using forest guards to protect a biological Reserve in Costa Rica: one
step towards linking parks to people. Journal of Environmental Planning and
Management 35:17-41.

Menkhaus, S. & Lober, D.J. 1996. International ecotourism and the valuation of tropical
rain-forests. Journal of Environmental Management 47:1-10.

111

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

National Park Service Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock and FAO. 1974. Plan maestro
para la proteccion y uso parque nacional volcan poas. Documento Técnico de Trabajo
No.10 (Proyecto FAO-RLAT/TF 199).

Pound, J.A. 1991. The secret sahara. BBC Wildlife June.

Pound, J.A. & Crump, M.L. 1994. Amphibian declines and climate disturbance - the case
of a the golden toad and the harlequin frog. Conserv. Biol. 8:72-85.

Tobias, D. & Mendelsohn, R. 1991. Valuing ecotourism in a
tropical rain-forest reserve. Ambio 20:91-93.

112

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Date: 27/06/9

COSTA RICA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?

Cordillera Central Braulio Carrillo 10°10'N/ 84°00'W Yes
Irazu Volcano 9°59'N/ 83°52'W No
Volcdn Pods 10°12'N/ 84°14'W Yes |
Cordillera de Talamanca Chirripé 9°29'N/ 83°29'wW Yes |
Genesis II Cloud Forest Preserve 9°42'N/ 83°54'W No
La Amistad 9°28'N/ 83°18'wW Yes
Los Santos 9°35'N/ 83°53'W Yes
Rfo Macho 9°35'N/ 83°37'W Yes |
Tapant f 9°43'N/ 83°47'W é Yes
Cordillera de Tilarén Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve 10°17'N/ 84°48'W Yes
Santa Elena Cloud Forest Reserve / No
Guanacaste Cordillera Volc&n Cacao 10°56 'N/085°27'W Yes
Volc&n Orosi if Yes

Volcén Rincén de la Vieja 10°48'N/ 85°23'W No
ae Ge | eee ee ee EE Ee ee ee EE
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with

CF Regions= 4 CF Sites= 14 an element of protection = 1

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Latin America : Central

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Costa Rica

Cordillera Central

The Cordillera Central comprises three main areas of montane forest. Two of these areas are
included in the National Parks of Braulio Carrillo and Volcan Pods. The third locality
includes the small protected area of Irazu Volcano, which is the highest mountain in the
Cordillera Central (3432m). The flora and fauna of the upper part of the Irazu Volcano have
suffered considerable alterations due to volcanic eruptions and to deforestation to create cattle
pasture land and to cultivate potatoes. Though wildlife is scarce, patches of cloud forest
mainly made up of Quercus formations are found between 2000m and 3100m. Likewise, the
wildlife is impoverished on Volcan Pods in this case partly due to isolation caused by
intensive agriculture at lower elevations. However cloud forest, described as Didomopanax-
Weinmannia-Clusia forest, does occur between 2450m and 2700m. Endemics to this active
volcano include Syntheosciurus poasensis (Poas mountain squirrel) and Escallonia poasana
(cipreso). A third species is endemic to Volcan Pods, Otus clarkii (Clark's screech owl) and
also to the extinct volcano Barba located in the Braulio Carrillo National Park. In Braulio
Carrillo National Park, an area of abrupt terrain and extinct volcanoes, the fauna is extremely
diverse, as is the flora (Boza, 1986; Boza & Mendoza, 1981; Harcourt & Sayer, 1996;
IUCN, 1982; FAO, 1974; WCMC unpubl. data).

Cordillera de Talamanca

The Cordillera de Talamanca has been recognised as an extremely valuable site for
biodiversity due to intermigrations from both North and South America resulting in
considerable diversity and many endemics in the area. The mountain range, therefore, has
been declared a Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Site and has been given the name
Reserva de la Biosfera de la Amistad. This Reserve comprises a range of protected areas, five
of which are known to include cloud forest sites: Hitoy Cerere Biological Reserve, La
Amistad National Park, Chirripo National Park, Tapanti National Park and Genesis II Cloud
Forest Preserve. In Chirrip6 National Park, Cerro Chirrip6 at 3820m is not only the highest
point within the Reserve, but also in southern Central America. Los Santos and Rio Macho
Forest Reserves also include tracts of cloud forest. Most of the main crest of the Cordillera de
Talamanca lies within montane rain forest and detailed botanical inventories in the montane
forest zones have shown that there are at least 477 woody species in 223 genera and 90
families. Ericaceae, Rosaceae, Poaceae and Asteraceae dominate the Upper Montane Forest
zone. Likewise, the fauna in the Biosphere Reserve is extremely diverse. (Endemics to the
Reserve include one species of fish, 20 species of amphibian and reptile, 15 bird species and
13 mammal species.) Pressures on the montane forest include deforestation for charcoal

115

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

production and low income cultivation of potatoes, carrots and cabbages (Kappelle & Juarez.
1995(a), 1995(b); WCMC unpubl.. data).

Cordillera de Tilaran

Cloud forest sites occur along the crest of the Cordillera de Tilaran and are included in a
number of private parks (including the Santa Elena Cloud Forest Reserve...) the most famous
of which is the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve. It comprises six forest types: cove forest.
leeward cloud forest, oak ridge forest, windward cloud forest, elfin forest and swamp forest.
This forest has inspired a considerable number of studies, especially on vegetation and birds.
It is therefore valued in particular for research and also for tourism (over 20,000 tourists
visited the Reserve in 1990). A well-known indigenous resident of the Monteverde Cloud
Forest is the brilliantly plumed quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno). However, in spite of being
protected as a Strict Nature Reserve, the vulnerability of this site as a safe haven for
biological diversity has been illustrated through the decline of amphibians, including the
extinction of the world's only population of golden toads (Bufo periglenes) through climate
fluctuations coupled with habitat fragmentation. In addition to habitat loss, other pressures on
the Reserve include hunting (particularly as adjacent lands are deforested and animals retreat
into the Reserve) squatting and agricultural encroachment on the lower slopes (Echeverria,
Hanarahan & Solorzano, 1995; Harcourt & Sayer, 1996; Lawton & Dryer, 1980; Lober,
1992; Menkhaus & Lober, 1996; Pound, 1991; Pound & Crump, 1994; Tobias &
Mendelsohn, 1991; WCMC unpubl. data)

Guanacaste Cordillera

Cloud forest occurs around the volcanic summits in the Guanacaste Cordillera. These include
Volcan Orosi, Volcan Cacao and Volcan Rincon de la Vieja. (These volcanoes are three of
five that compose the Guanacaste Mountain Range.) Volcan Orosi and Volcan Cacao are
located within the Guanacaste National Park and contain the smallest habitat islands of cloud.
forest in Costa Rica. They are also the lowest, occuring between 1000m and 1500m (cloud
forest normally starts above 1800m in Costa Rica). Volcan Rincon de la Vieja has an altitude
of 1898m and though it is an active volcano last erupting in the 1970s, its summit is covered
with lower montane rain forest comprising either a very homogeneous growth of Clusia rosea
(copey clusia) or a mixed forest of copey clusia, bayberry, suita of the palm family, scandent
bamboo and several species of the Araceae family. This forest is exposed to strong winds and
is covered almost all year long with mist and rain. One of the major benefits of this National
Park is the conservation of the vast hydrographic system of the volcano, which comprises 32
rivers and 16 water-collecting gorges in the park alone. The main threat to the forests of the
Guanacaste Cordillera is deforestation for agriculture and pasture (Boza, 1986; Boza &
Mendoza, 1981; Janzen, 1986).

116

Latin America : Central
EL SALVADOR

El Salvador, the smallest country with the highest population density (300 sq.km) and the
most degraded biodiversity resources in Central America, largely consists of rugged volcanic
highlands of moderate elevation. The country is in an advanced state of deforestation, with
only 3% of the forest remaining in its natural state. As a result, approximately 77% of the
country has been seriously affected by soil erosion. The network of protected areas has yet to
be finalised on paper and put into practice on the ground. El Salvadorean cloud forests,
valued for biological diversity and watershed protection, are reported to be found above
1800m, be 20-30m tall and be dominated by the families Fagaceae and Lauraceae. Epiphytes,
including bromeliads and orchids, mosses, lichens and ferns are reported to be abundant
(Hilty, 1982; Harcourt & Sayer, 1996; IUCN, 1982, 1992; WCMC unpubl. data).

References

Daugherty, H.E. 1972. The impact of man on the zoogeography of El Salvador. Biol.
Conserv. 4:273-278.

Daugherty, H.E. 1973. The Montecristo cloud-forest of El Salvador - a chance for
protection. Biol. Conserv. 5:227-230.

Hilty, S.L. (Comp.) 1982. Draft environmental profile of El Salvador. USMAB,
Washington, DC. viiit+ 137pp ;

Harcourt, C.S. & Sayer, J.A. (Eds.). 1996. The conservation atlas of tropical forests the
Americas. IUCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon & Schuster, New York.
335pp.

IUCN. 1982. IUCN directory of Neotropical protected areas. Tycooly International
Publishing Ltd, Dublin.. 436pp.

IUCN. 1992. Protected areas of the world: a review of national systems. Vol.4: Neartic
and Neotropical. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 460pp.

Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia. 1987. Elaboracion del plan y estrategia del sistema
nacional de areas silvestres protegidas de El Salvador. Unpubl.

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EL SALVADOR: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97
Protected*™

Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Mountains of El Salvador Cerro El Pital 14°24'N/ 89°O8'W Yes
Laguna Las Ninfas 13°S4'N/ 89°48'W Yes

Las Granadillas / Wo

Las Mercedes / Wo

Los Andes 13°52'N/ 89°38'W Wo

Montecristo 14°25'N/ 89°23'W Yes

San Isidro / Wo

San José Miramar / Wo

San Rafael Los Naranjos/El 13°53 'N/089°42'W No

San Salvador 13°45'N/089°17'W No

San Vicente 13°36'N/088°51'W No

Santa Ana 13°52'N/089°38 'W No

Santa Marfa 13°43 'N/089°21 "Wl No

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with

CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 13 an element of protection = 3

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: El Salvador

Mountains of El Salvador

The cloud forest in El Salvador have not escaped degradation and there is conflicting evidence
as to the number of sites, their quality and the are occupied. According to Harcourt and Sayer
(1996) cloud forest sites are estimated to cover approximately 39 sq km and to be best
developed in the northwest of the country in Montecristo National Park (which includes the
peaks Cerro Brujo (2140m), Cerro Miramundo (2394m), Cerro Redondo (?) and Cerro
Montecristo (2418m)) and on Cerro El Pital, which is the highest peak in the country
(2730m). They also note that cloud forest can be found on the volcanoes Santa Ana, San
Salvador and San Vicente. A list compiled by the Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia
(1987) states that cloud forest may be found in the following additional areas: Los Andes, San
Isidro, San José Miramar, San Rafael Los Naranjos (El Campanil), Las Granadillas, Santa
Maria, Las Mercedes and Laguna Las Ninfas. According to Daugherty (1973), however, the
original cloud forests of El Salvador are said to have been almost totally cut by peasant
agriculturalists and firewood cutters, with the only remaining ecologically-viable cloud forest
of El Salvador being the 12 sq km Montecristo cloud forest. However, more than half of this
forest has also been cut. This forest adjoins the cloud forest of Trifinio National Park in
Guatemala. The Montecristo cloud forest contains what is thought to be the last remaining
patch of virgin forest in the country and the last remaining habitat for species of wildlife that
have been exterminated in the lowlands. Examples of birds that are in danger of extinction,
but are present in this site include: quetzal Pharomacrus moccino, black chachalaca
Penelopina nigra and El Salvador hairy woodpecker Dryobates villosus.

Regardless of the above conflicting reports the message is clear: cloud forest in El Salvador is

in a very vulnerable state (Daugherty, 1972, 1973; Harcourt & Sayer, 1996; IUCN, 1982,
1992; Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, 1987; WCMC unpubl. data).

120

Latin America : Central

GUATEMALA

Guatemala forms a bridge between two continents and two oceans. Large parts of the country
are highland with 15.9% comprising montane forests.. Cloud forests have been recorded in
two of Guatemala's four main physical biogeographic regions: the Pacific mountain chain
(including Sierra Madre and Trifinio) which consists of a chain of 33 volcanoes running
parallel to the Pacific Ocean and the Interior Highlands (including Sierra de Mico, Sierra de
las Minas and University Biotope for the conservation of the Quetzal), which reaches altitudes
of 4000m and are quite heavily populated. The Guatemalan cloud forests have around 70%
endemism amongst animal species, but as a result of colonisation, timber extraction and
agriculture they represent some of the most endangered ecosystems in the country (Harcourt
& Sayer, 1996; IUCN, 1992; Nations et al. 1988).

References

Harcourt, C.S. & Sayer, J.A. (Eds.). 1996. The conservation atlas of tropical forests the
Americas. YUCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon & Schuster, New York.
335pp.

Instituto Nacional Forestal Guatemala. 1975. Plan preliminar de manejo para el parque
nacional (monumento natural): Trifinio Guatemala: Documento tecnico de trabajo
No. CA 5 proyecto FAO/PNUD RLA/72/028. Oficina Subregional Centroamericana.

IUCN. 1982. IUCN directory of Neotropical protected areas. Tycooly International
Publishing Ltd, Dublin. 436pp.

IUCN. 1992. Protected areas of the world: a review of national systems. Vol.4: Neartic
and Neotropical. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 460pp.

LaBastille, A. 1973. Establishment of a quetzal cloud forest reserve in Guatemala. Biol.
Conserv. 5:60-62.

Mardones S., C. 1988. Trifinio: un desafio de conservacion para tres paises. Flora Fauna
y Areas Silvestres 3:18-22.

Nations, J.D., Houseal, B., Ponciano, I., Billy, S., Godoy, J.C., Castro, F., Miller, G.,
Rose, D., Rey, M. and Azurdia, C. 1988. Biodiversity in Guatemala: biological
diversity and tropical forests assessment. Center for International Development and
Environment,

World Resources Institute, Washington D.C., USA, December 1988. 110pp.

121

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GUATEMALA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No

EEE EE SSEEEEIE USES IEEE SUSIE SESE

Sierra Madre Finca Mocca Private Reserve 14°30'N/ 91°12'W
Quetzal Cloud Forest Reserve if No
Volcan Acatenango 14°29'N/ 90°53'W Nc
Volcan Atitlan 14°37'N/ 91°12'W
Volcan San Pedro 14°40'N/ 91°45'W Yes
Volcan Santa Maria 14°44'N/ 91°33'W No
Volcan Toliman 14°35'N/ 91°50'W Yes
Volcan de Fuego 14°28'N/090°53'W fo)
Sierra de Mico Sierra de Mico / Yes
Sierra de las Minas Sierra de las Minas 15°09'N/ 89°50'W Yes
Trifinio Trifinio 14°30'N/ 89°20'W No
Univ. Biotope for the Conserv. of Univ. Biotope 15°15'N/ 90°17'W No
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 5 CF Sites= 12 an element of protection = 6

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Guatemala

Sierra Madre

Sierra Madre includes a number of cloud forest sites, such as: Volcan Acatenango, Volcan
Atitlan, Volcan de Fuego, Volcan Santa Maria, Volcan San Pedro and Volcan Toliman. On
Volcan Atitlan, there is a lower montane wet forest belt and a 405ha reserve of virgin cloud
forest has been established on private land in this belt in order to protect the resident
population of quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno mocinno and horned quans Oreophasis
derbianus. This protected area lies between 1707m and 2438m and is run by a Guatemalan
association of landowners called the "Association Atitlan for the protection of the quetzal". It
is known as the "Quetzal Cloud Forest Reserve" (LaBastille, 1973).

Sierra de Mico

Cloud forest, likely to be located in what is described as the low montane wet forest, is
thought to occur on the Sierra de Mico. Most of this area is protected by the Rio Dulce
National Park, which extends from sea level to 1267m and includes the Sierra de Mico, Lake
Izabel and the mouth of the Rio Dulce. The area is considered to be rich in amphibian and
reptilian fauna (IUCN, 1982; WCMC, unpubl. data)

Sierra de las Minas

The cloud forests of the Sierra de las minas cover approximately 1300sq. km, of which more
than 65% is thought to be virgin. All of the area is protected by the Sierra de las Minas
Biosphere Reserve. The mountain range is said to include two thirds of the cloud forest left in
Guatemala and also to be the largest unbroken extension of cloud forest in Central America
(see Cordillera de Talamanca). The geographical isolation and the variety of elevations and
climates have made Sierra de las Minas an area of high biological and zoological endemism,
and also the most biologically diverse area in the country. For example, there are 885 species
of reptiles, birds and mammals recorded in the area. Endangered species include the golden-
cheeked warbler Dendroica chrysoparia. The area is also considered to be a unique genetic
reservoir for conifer species. Sierra de las Minas cloud forest is valued as an important water
catchment area by the local communities, since it gives rise to 62 permanent rivers. Pressures
on the area include expansion of the agricultural frontier, logging, roads and hunting
(Harcourt & Sayer, 1996; WCMC, unpubl. data).

124

Latin America : Central

Trifinio

The cloud forests of Trifinio, the majority protected by a National Park, abutt onto the cloud
forests of Honduras and Montecristo National Park, in El Salvador. The cloud forests are
found at altitudes greater than 1800m and are dominated by species of oak tree and laurel. A
number of endemics may be found in the site including Gregia santaemartae. The area is
valued as a water catchment area and also for its archelogical remains, which are of cultural
importance (Instituto Nacional Forestal Guatemala, 1975; Mardones, 1988).

Univ. Biotope for the Conserv. of the Quetzal

This 900ha protected area is owned by the University of San Carlos. It ranges in altitude from
1580m to 2348m and includes two mountains: Cerro Quisis/Geomaya (2348m) and Cerro
Carpintero, also known as La Cumbre (2011m). The vegetation type in this protected area is
lower montane rain forest also described as cloud forest. The dominant vegetation in the area
is broadleaf but there are scattered small stands of two pine species: Pinus pseudostrobus and
Pinus oocarpa. Approximately 60 species of birds and 24 species of mammals have been
recorded in the reserve, but the area is valued for the protection of the quetzal Pharomacrus
moccino (WCMC unpubl. data).

125,

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

MEXICO

As a result of its latitudinal range and topography, México contains a remarkable climatic
complexity and biotic richness that make it one of the most ecologically diverse countries in
the world. Tropical montane cloud forests occur along the Pacific and Gulf slopes from
Sonora and Tamaulipas, respectively, southeast to Oaxaca and Chiapas, with some isolated
patches in the Transverse Neovolcanic Belt in the centre of the country. The most extensive
cloud forests in México occur on the coastal-facing slopes and ridge tops of the mountain
chains. They occur at altitudes between 700m (some areas in eastern México) and 4000 m
(Volcan Tacana, Chiapas) and total annual rainfall ranges from 1000mm in the driest areas to
over 5000mm in the wettest (Volcan Tacana, Chiapas). They are typically a dense mixture of
temperate and tropical broad-leaved tree species with canopy heights average between 20m
and 35m, and contain many epiphytes and tree ferns. Tree genera characteristic of cloud
forests in México are Quercus, Podocarpus, Juglans, and specially Chiranthodendron on the
western slopes and Liquidambar on the eastern slopes (Rzedowski, 1986).

The cloud forest is one of the country's rarest ecosystems and although it occupies only about
0.07% of the land area, it contributes highly to the biological diversity of the country (Flores
et al. 1971; Flores-Villela and Gerez, 1994; Gomez-Pompa er al. 1995). These forests hold
about 1000 plant species which are endemic to the country. In addition 28 species of
amphibians, 21 species of reptiles, 9 species of mammals and 9 species of birds are endemic
(Flores-Villela and Gerez, 1994).

Some important areas of cloud forest are considered within the Mexican scheme of Natural
Protected Areas, such as El Triunfo, La Sepultura and Sierra de Manantlén. Other important
regions, however lack any kind of protection, such as the cloud forests located in Sierra
Madre Occidental and eastern México.

Cloud forest is naturally fragmented in México because of its geological history, but further-
fragmentation has occurred because of human activities and settlements. Current pressures
include the expansion of the agricultural and grazing areas, logging and forest fragmentation
by roads. These causal factors, however, are driven by economic, social and political forces
in a broader context of political economy.

Ecological and socio-economic values include the protection of watersheds for several rivers,
lakes and springs, which provide water to human populations and are important for the
production of electricity. Cloud forests also play an important role in the protection of soils
from erosion, since they normally occur in areas with steep slopes. They also have important
aesthetic and cultural values for many local inhabitants and ethnic groups.

126

Latin America : Central

References

Breedlove, D. E. 1978. The phytogeography and vegetation of Chiapas (México). In:
Graham, A. (ed.). Vegetation and vegetational history of northern Latin America.
150-165 pp.

Bubb, P. 1991. The current situation of the cloud forest in northern Chiapas, México. Final
Report. Ecosfera, Pronatura, The Linnean Society of London, and Fauna and Flora
Preservation Society. Unpublished manuscript.

Collar, N. J., M. J. Crosby and A. J. Stattersfield. 1992. Birds to Watch 2. The world list
of threatened birds. BirdLife Conservation Series No. 4. BirdLife International.
Cambridge, UK. 407 pp.

Flores, M. G., J. Jiménez L., X. Madrigal S., F. Moncayo R., and F. Takaki T. 1971.

Memoria del mapa de tipos de vegetacion de la Republica Mexicana. Secretaria de Recursos

Hidraulicos. México. 59 pp.

Flores-Villela, O. and A. Munios-Alonso. 1993. Anfibios y reptiles. In: Luna-Vega, I. and
J. Llorente-Bousquets (eds.). Historia natural del Parque Ecologico Omiltemi,
Chilpancingo, Guerrero, México. UNAM. México. pp. 411-442.

Flores-Villela, O. and P. Gerez. 1994. Biodiversidad y conservacion en México:
vertrebrados, vegetacion y uso del suelo. CONABIO-UNAM. México. 439 pp.

Garcia-Rendon, M. 1993. Vegetacion. In: Luna-Vega, I. and J. Llorente-Bousquets (eds.).
Historia natural del Parque EcolégicoOmiltemi, Chilpancingo, Guerrero, México.
UNAM. México. pp. 39-56.

Goémez-Pompa, A., R. Dirzo, A. Kaus, C. R. Noguerén-Chang, and M. de J. Ordosez.

1995. Reservas de la bidsfera y otras areas naturales protegidas de México.
SEMARNAP-INE-CONABIO. México. 159 pp.

Hernandez-Banos, B. E., A. T. Peterson, A. G. Navarro-Sigtienza, and B. P. Escalante-
Pliego. 1995. Bird faunas of the humid montane forests of Mesoamerica:
Biogeographic patterns and priorities for conservation. Bird Conservation
International. 5:251-277.

Howell, S. N. G. and S. Webb. 1995.-A guide to the birds of México and northern Central
America. Oxford University Press. New York, USA. 851 pp.

Jiménez-Almaraz, T., J. Juarez-Gomez, and L. Leén-Paniagua. 1993. Mamiferos. In: Luna-
Vega, I. and J. Llorente-Bousquets (eds.). Historia natural del Parque Ecologico
Omiltemi, Chilpancingo, Guerrero, México. UNAM. México. pp. 503-549.

Leon-Paniagua, L. and I. Luna-Vega. 1993. Asentamientos humanos. In: Luna-Vega, I. and
J. Llorente-Bousquets (eds.). Historia natural del Parque Ecolégico Omiltemi,
Chilpancingo, Guerrero, México. UNAM. México. pp. 19-22.

Long, A. and M. Heath. 1991. Flora of the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, Chiapas, México:
A preliminary floristic inventory and the plant communities of Polygon I. Anales del
Instituto de Biologia de la UNAM, Serie Botanica. 62(2):133-172.

Martinez, A. L. and J. Llorente-Bousquetes. 1993. Mariposas. In: Luna-Vega, I. and J.

127

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Llorente-Bousquets (eds.). Historia natural del Parque Ecologico Omiltemi,
Chilpancingo, Guerrero, México. UNAM. México. pp. 307-385.

Navarro-S., A. G. and P. Escalante-Pliego. 1993. Aves. In: Luna-Vega, I. and J. Llorente-
Bousquets (eds.). Historia natural del Parque Ecologico Omiltemi, Chilpancingo,
Guerrero, México. UNAM. México. pp. 443-501.

Rzedowski, J. 1986. Vegetacion de México. Limusa. México.

SARH (Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos Hidraulicos). 1992. Compendio de informacion
sobre areas naturales protegidas. México. 147 pp.

Vazquez-Garcia, J. A. 1993. Cloud forest archipelagos: preservation of fragmented montane
ecosystems in tropical America. In: Hamilton, L. S., J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena
(eds). Tropical montane cloud forest. East-West Center, Program on Environment.
pp. 203-216.

Wege, D. C. and A. J. Long. 1995. Key areas for threatened birds in the Neotropics.
BirdLife Conservation Series No. 5. BirdLife International. Cambridge, UK. 311 pp.

128

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MEXICO: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Cloud Forest Region

Altos de Chiapas

Eastern México

Sierra Madre Occidental

Sierra Madre de Chiapas

Sierra Madre del Sur

Transverse Neovolcanic Belt

Cloud Forest Site

Huitepec
Lagunas de Montebello

Las Margaritas

Ocosingo, Chiapas

Region Norte, Chiapas

Volcan Tacana

Canon del Rio Blanco, Veracruz
Cempoaltépetl, Oaxaca
Chapulhuacan
Cuetzalan-Pahuatlan, puebla

El Cielo

Huachinango, puebla

Huautla

Huayacocotla, Veracruz

Joya del Hielo

Perote, Veracruz

Sierra de Alvarez, San Luis
Sierra de Juarez, Oaxaca

Sierra de Otontepec, Veracruz
Sierra de Santa Martha, Veracruz
Teocelo, Veracruz

Tlanchinol, Hidalgo

Volcan San Martin, Veracruz
Xilitla

Zacatlamaya

El Batel

El Nayer

Espinazo del Diablo

Saguaribo, Sonora

Surotato, Sinaloa

Cerro Tres Picos

El Triunfo

La Sepultura, Chiapas

Monte Ovando

Volcan Tacana

Cerro San Felipe, Oaxaca

Los Chimalapas

Loxicha

Omiltempi, Guerrero
Qelchultenango-Guerrero

San Andrés Chicahuaxtla, Oaxaca
Sierra de Atoyac

Sierra de Cuatro Vendados, Oaxaca
Sierra de Maihuatlan, Oaxaca
Sierra de Yucunacua, Oaxaca
Barranca de Cupatitzio, Michoacan
Cerra Viejo

Cerro de Garnica, Michoacan
Coalcoman

Cuale-Talpa
Iztacihuatl-Popocatépetl

Los Azufres, Michoacan
Nanchititla, State of México
Nevado de Colima

Nevado de Toluca, State of México
Nevado de Toluca, State of México
Ocuilan, State of México

Pico de Tancitaro, Michoacan
Pico de Tancitaro, Michoacan
Sierra Chincua, Michoacan

16°44'N/ 9
16°10'N/ 91°40'W
16°28'N/ 91°46'W
16°SS'N/ 91
17°11'N/ 92°52'W
15°06'N/ 9

/
17°08'N/ 96°01'W

/

/
23°08'N/ 99°18'W
if
21°03'N/ 98°44'W
/

/

/

/
17°38'N/ 96°23'W
/
18°23'N/ 94°50'W
19°23'N/ 97°00'W
21°05'N/ 98°38'W
18°33'N/ 95°12'W
21°15'N/ 99°10'W
/
23°28'N/105°49'W
21°31'N/105°00'W
19°26'N/103°16'W
if
/
16°31'N/ 93°25'W
15°40'N/ 92°53'W
16°10'N/ 92°44'W
/
15°06'N/ 92°12'W
17°10'N/ 96°40'W
16°46'N/ 94°12'W
16°04'N/ 96°33'W
17°33'N/ 99°41'W
if
17°11'N/ 97°53'W
17°25'N/100°15'W
/
16°12'N/ 97°07'W
if
/
20°19'N/ 98°19'W
ij}

/

/
19°10'N/ 98°40'W
if
/
19°32'N/103°37'W
19°15'N/ 99°45'W
19°15'N/ 99°45'W
18°S9'N/ 99°19'W
19°13'N/102°36'W
19°13'N/102°36'W
19°44'N/100°18'W

Yes|

Yes

Yes

Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
ee
Sierra de Manantlan, 19°33'N/104°10'W Ne
Sierra de Taxco, Guerrero 18°37'N/ 99°40'W No
Temascaltepec, State of México / No
Volcan la Malinche, 19°14'N/ 98°00'W Yes
i EEE
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 6 CF Sites= 64 an element of protection = 7

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Mexico

Altos de Chiapas

This region is located in northern Chiapas (southeast México) and runs southeast to where it
joins the highlands of Guatemala, which in turn link Altos de Chiapas with Sierra Madre de
Chiapas. All these regions are closely related and allied to the highlands of Honduras and
north-central Nicaragua. Altos de Chiapas contains approximately 38 cloud forest fragments
of different size which are grouped into three main sub-regions, Region Sun Norte, Ocosingo
and Las Margaritas. Cloud forest can be found as low as 1300m, such as in Tumbala and
Cordon Jolvit and up to 2800m as in Tzontehuitz (Bubb, 1991). Common tree genera in the
canopy include Abies, Acer, Chiranthodendron, Clethra, Drimys, Liquidambar, Magnolia,
Olmediella, Oreopanax, Persea, Photinia, Pinus, Quercus, Weinmannia, Wimmeria,
Zanthoxylum, Saurauia and Astronium (Breedlove, 1978; Bubb, 1991; Gomez-Pompa et al.,
1995). Prominent animal species are the jaguar Panthera onca, ocelot Leopardus pardalis,
and puma Felis concolor. Notable bird species include the highland guan Penelopina nigra,
resplendent quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno and emerald toucanet Aulacorhynchus prasinus.
Species endemic to this region are the snake Bothrops tzotzilorum and the bearded screech-
owl Otus barbatus. The cloud forest in this region is very poorly protected; the only protected
localities are the Lagunas de Montebello National Park, Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve
and the privately protected areas of La Yerbabuena and Huitepec, which encompass a very
low percentage of the cloud forest area of the region. As deforestation has occurred in the
lowlands, the highlands, where cloud forest is found have become important refuges for
several wildlife species (Bubb, 1991). As a result the conservation of these areas is vital. In
addition they have an important role influence in the watershed protection of the Grijalva-
Usumacinta Basin, and some areas of cloud forest are of local cultural importance. For
example, the Cerros de Chalchihuitan are of religious importance for the Tzotzil people
(Bubb, 1991). However the cloud forests are threatened by forest clearance leading to further
fragmentation. The main causes are for milpa agriculture and associated burning, cattle and
sheep ranching, fuelwood gathering and timber extraction. Hunting may also occur in some
places. In Chixtontic an additional threat is from oil exploration, with its attendant
disturbance, pollution and increased accessibility to the forest from road construction (Bubb,
1991). Since 1994, after the arising of the Zapatista Army, this region has been affected by
social struggles which have meant further pressure on the cloud forests of the area.

Eastern México

This region (north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec) comprises the Sierra Madre Oriental, a
mountain chain running parallel to the gulf coast. Close to a third of the cloud forests of the

132

Latin America : Central

country are found here (Flores- Villela and Gerez, 1994), located at altitudes between 700m
and 1500m, with a total annual rainfall of up to 4900mm (Volcan San Martin). The cloud
forests of eastern México tend to have more deciduous elements, such as Liquidambar, Fagus
and Nyssa (Vazquez-Garcia, 1993). Canopy tree height typically up to 30m with abundance of
epiphytes, tree ferns and palms. Important tree genera are Quercus, Liquidambar,
Podocarpus, Clethra, Carpinus, Ostrya, Persea, Meliosma, Sapindus, Fagus, Acer.
Dendropanax, Cercis and Magnolia (Gomez-Pompa et al., 1995). The endemic tree species
Fagus mexicana is only found in a few localities within this region, in the states of
Tamaulipas, Hidalgo and Puebla (Flores-Villela and Gerez, 1994). Endemic bird species
include the bearded wood-partridge Dendrortyx barbatus, thick-billed parrot Rhyncopsitta
terrisi and the dwarf jay Cyanolyca nana (Hernandez-Banios et al., 1995; Wege and Long,
1995). Threatened species occurring in this region include the jaguar Panthera onca, ocelot
Leopardus pardalis, jaguarondi Herpailurus yaguarundi and lynx Lynx rufus. Most of the
cloud forest of eastern México is devoid of protection, except for El Cielo Biosphere Reserve
in Tamaulipas and Los Tuxtlas in Veracruz (Volcan San Martin and Sierra de Santa Martha).
The conservation of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve is essential as the northern limit of many
tropical species is found the north of this region (GOmez- Pompa et al., 1995). Other
currently unprotected areas also have important cultural value for several indigenous people,
such as the Huastec in the Huasteca region (San Luis Potosi, Veracruz and Hidalgo), and the
Chinantec, Mixe and Mixtec in the Sierra de Juarez, who have extensive knowledge and uses
of the flora. These forests also contain important ornamental plant species such as tree ferns,
cycads, bromeliads and orchids. However control of extraction is poor and commercial
collection of plant species with ornamental value, such as camedora palm Chamaedora spp.
(Gomez-Pompa ef al., 1995) and tree ferns is often unsustainable. Other areas are under
pressure from logging for wood, pulp and cellulose, slash and burn agriculture, cattle
ranching, and hunting.

Sierra Madre Occidental

The Sierra Madre Occidental is a mountain chain running north-south parallel to the Pacific
coast, making contact with the Transverse Neovolcanic Belt in Jalisco state in the centre of
Mexico. The cloud forests of this region are not extensive because they are located in the
northern limit of the Neotropical region. For this reason they have been poorly studied to
date. Some endemic birds occurring in this region are the thick-billed parrot Rhynchopsitta
pachyrhyncha, the black-throated magpie-jay Calocitta colliei and the tufted jay Cyanocorax
diickeyi (Hernandez-Banos et al., 1995; Howell and Webb, 1995). The cloud forests of this
region, together with other forest types have an important influence for the protection of the
watersheds of several rivers that provide water to human population, agricultural areas and
for the generation of electricity. Pressures upon the cloud forests of this region include forest
conversion to agricultural areas, logging and illegal planting of narcotics.

133

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Sierra Madre de Chiapas

This mountain chain in south eastern México, runs parallel to the Pacific coast from the
southern end of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec through Chiapas into Guatemala. It contains the
largest area of cloud forest in México, occupying an area of about 144,396ha in an almost
continuous band. It occurs at altitudes between 750m and 4000m, with a total annual rainfall
range from 2500mm (El Triunfo) to 5250mm (Volcan Tacana). Canopy trees are normally
25m to 30m high, but can be up to 40m high. Common tree genera include Quercus.
Matudaea, Dendropanax, and Ocotea (GOmez-Pompa ef al., 1995). Important vegetation
communities are Quercus-Matudaea-Hedyosmum-Dendropanax, Liquidambar-Quercus-Pinus,
Cupressus-Pinus, and Ficus-Coccoloba-Dipholis-Sapium (Long and Heath, 1991). Epiphytes
such as orchids, bromeliads, mosses and ferns are very abundant (GOmez-Pompa er al.,
1995). Threatened flora include some species of bromeliads, orchids and the cicada
Ceratozamia matudae; threatened fauna includes the jaguar Panthera onca, ocelot Leopardus
pardalis and bird species such as the highland guan Penelopina nigra, resplendent quetzal
Pharomachrus mocinno and the black-throated jay Cyanolyca pumilo. There are at least two
endemic bird species, the horned guan Oreophasis derbianus and cabanis' tanager Tangara
cabanisi (Hernandez-Bafos et al., 1995). Two important protected areas, La Sepultura and El
Triunfo Biosphere Reserves have been decreed in this region, but more urgently require
protection. In addition to the high biodiversity these forests are also important for the
protection of three major river basins. The region also has high tourist potential because of its
beautiful scenery and the occurence of outstanding faunal species such as the resplendent
quetzal. The main causes of further clearance and fragmentation are from coffee plantations,
slash and burn agriculture, cattle ranching, logging of Pinus and Quercus and some localised
hunting.

134

Latin America : Central

PANAMA

Panama contains the lowest cloud forest sites in Central and South America. In addition,
endemism is a striking feature of the high cloud forests that reach 2000m and above in
western Panama. Some correlation in Panama has been shown between animal distribution,
in particular frogs of the genus Eleutherodactylus, and cloud forest zonation. Many of the
cloud forests in Panama are included in protected areas. Colonization, deforestation and
encroachment, however, seem to be major threats (Myers, 1969; Lewis, 1971; WCMC
unpubl. data).

References

Cavelier, J., Solis, D. and Jaramillo, M.A. 1996. Fog interception in montane forests
across the Central Cordillera of Panama. J. of Trop. Ecol. 12:357-369.

IUCN. 1992. Protected areas of the world: a review of national systems. Vol.4: Neartic
and Neotropical. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 460pp.

LaBastille, A. 1973. An ecological survey of the proposed Volcano Baru National Park,
Republic of Panama. IUCN Occasional Paper No.6.

Lewis, W.H. 1971. High floristic endemism in low cloud forests of Panama. Biotropica
3:78-80.

Myers, C.W. 1969. The ecological geography of cloud forest in Panama. Amer. Mus.
Novit. 2396:1-52.

Olson, D.M. 1994. The distribution of leaf litter invertebrates along a Neotropical
altitudinal gradient. J. of Trop. Ecol. 10:129-150.

Porter, D.M. 1973. The vegetation of Panama: a review. In: Vegetation and vegetational
history of northern Latin America (A. Graham, ed.) pp.167-201. Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company.

135

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PANAMA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 07/07/97
Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Cordillera Central/Serrania de Cerro Campana / Yes
Cerro Santiago 08°30'N/081°46'W No
Cerro Trinidad / Yes
North of El Valle de Anton / Yes
Cordillera de Juradé Cordillera de Juradé 7°21'N/ 77°57'W Yes
Cordillera de San Blas Cerro Azul 09°09'N/079°24'W No
Cerro Bruja 09°28'N/079°33'W Yes
Cerro Jefe 09°14'N/079°22'W Yes
Cordillera de Talamanca Cerro Pando 08°54'N/082°45 'W No
La Amistad 9°09'N/ 82°48'W Yes
Voleén Baru/Volcan Chiriqui 9°09'N/ 82°48'W Yes
Peninsula de Azuero Cerro Hoya 07°17'N/080°42'W Yes
Serranfa de Pirre Cerro Pirre 07°52'N/077°43'W No
Serranfa de(l) Darién Cerro Malf / No
Cerro Tacarcuna 08°09'N/077°18'W No
Serranfa del Sapo Cerro Sapo 07°57'N/078°23'W No
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 8 CF Sites= 16 an element of protection = 9

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Panama

Cordillera Central/Serrania de Tabasara

The Central Cordillera or the Serrania de Tabasara (as it is also known) is continuous with the
Cordillera de Talamanca (see below) and likewise contains cloud forest sites, including Cerro
Santiago, Cerro Campana, Cerro Trinidad and north of El Valle de Anton. Some of these
sites are protected by the Altos Campana National Park, which protects a sizeable population
of the rare golden frog Atelopus zeteki (Myers, 1969; Porter, 1973; IUCN, 1992: Olson,
1994; Cavelier, 1996).

Cordillera de Jurad6

This Cordillera is protected by the Darién National Park (see below) and is thought to contain
cloud forest (Myers, 1969).

Cordillera de San Blas

There are thought to be many cloud forests, including some of Panama's lowest cloud forest,
in region of the Cordillera de San Blas, for example Cerro Azul, Cerro Bruja and Cerro Jefe.
Common endemics, such as Stemmadenia alleni are known to occur on both Cerro Azul and
Cerro Jefe. Protected areas in the region include Portobel National Park and Metropolitano
Natural Park (Myers, 1969; Lewis, 1971; IUCN, 1992).

Cordillera de Talamanca

The Panamanian-Costa Rican boundary bisects this mountain range and as in Costa Rica, the
Cordillera de Talamanca in Panama has been declared part of the La Amistrad Biosphere
Reserve (also a World Heritage Site). The cloud forest in the Cordillera de Talamanca is
reputed to be the largest expanse of undisturbed cloud forest in Central America (see Costa
Rica). Again as in Costa Rica, the Biosphere Reserve includes protected areas, in this case La
Amistrad International Park and Volcan Bard. The highest point in the rugged topography of
this Reserve, and also in Panama, is Cima del Volcan Bart (also known as the Volcan de
Chiriqui) at 3400m. Cerro Pando (2290m) is another known cloud forest site in the mountain
range. Due to intermigrations from both North and South America, the Reserve is considered
to be the most important and biologically diverse natural area within the country and to
contain the largest tracts of virgin forest in Panama. Most of the main crest lies within the

138

Latin America : Central

montane rain forest life zone and is characterised by mixed oak forest. In altitudes higher than
900m, it is estimated that there are 40 endemic species of birds and also the only Panamanian
population of quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno. In addition, six species of amphibians have a
distribution restricted to the Cordillera de Talamanca. Colonisation and deforestation are
major threats to the area (Myers, 1969; LaBastille, 1973; WCMC unpubl. data).

Peninsula de Azuero

Cerro Hoya is one of a few mountains in the southern part of the Peninsula thought to contain
cloud forest. The site is protected as part of Cerro Hoya National Park (Myers, 1969; IUCN,
1992).

Serrania de Pirre

Serrania de Pirre is contained by the Darién National Park (see above). Cerro Pirre (also
known as Cerro Cana) at 1200m, is the highest peak in the ridge (Myers, 1969).

Serrania de(1) Darién

Part of this mountain range is included in the Darién National Park (also a Biosphere Reserve
and a World Heritage Site), which is thought to be the most extensive protected area in
Central America and includes an exceptionally diverse flora and fauna with many species
being endemic to the Park. The area is both anthropologically and historically rich. Known
cloud forest sites are Cerro Tacarcuna and Cerro Mali. Oenocarpus panamanus, Clusia spp.
and Quercus humboldtiana are all common species associated with this habitat. The Serrania
de Darién is remarkable for containing some of the lowest known cloud forests. The region
is, however, thought to be under pressure from road building, colonisation and associated
problems (Porter, 1973; WCMC unpubl. data).

Serrania del Sapo

Serrania del Sapo is included in the Darién National Park (see above). Cerro Sapo (1,145m) is
the highest peak (Myers, 1969).

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PART TWO

LATIN AMERICA :
SOUTH

Bolivia
Brazil
Colombia
Ecuador
Peru
Venezuela

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BOLIVIA

The combination of an intertropical position and the presence of the Andes results in a wide
range of geographical and climatic factors means that Bolivia has a huge variety of
ecosystems. These range from very dry lowland forest and desert through very moist tropical
rainforest up to snow-covered mountains. Cloud forests are found in high mountain areas
known as "Yungas" and down into sub-andean regions. According to a classification
developed by Ribera (1992, in Harcourt and Sayer, 1996), highland forests (above 3000m) in
the Yungas region make up the upper layer of the very moist cloud forest and Yungas
montane semi-moist forest, where the canopy is of medium height and trees are covered with
epiphytes. At altitudes below 3000m, forests include the intermediate and lower layers of
cloud forest, with trees not exceeding 20m in height. Below this level the forests, which are
rich in species are in an advanced state of degradation and pressure on the cloud forests is
growing. According to data from Bolivia's Conservation Data Centre the area of cloud forest
and Yungas semi-moist forest is estimated at 28,092sq.km (Harcourt and Sayer, 1996).

Latitudinal variations produce wide differences in climate from north to south, with a typical
tropical region in the north, a subtropical-temperate region in the south and a wide transitional
zone between them. Consequently towards the south, cloud forest tends to include more
subtropical-temperate species. The forests are characterised by a great structural complexity
and enormous diversity of flora, much of which has not been scientifically described, with the
richest concentration of flowering plants found in the sub-andean and montane cloud forests.
There is also great diversity of fauna, although many vertebrates are endangered or threatened
with extinction.

Under the General Forest Act of 1974, the Centre for Forest Development (CDF) was
established with full power to protect and manage the forest system. However despite
legislation, implementation is poor and many forest areas, including those set aside for
protection have been harvested unsustainably or cleared for cultivation. In addition, until
recently the legal foundation for protected areas was incomplete, and many ecosystems and
species have inadequate protection. However recent efforts have been made to develop and
establish a National Protected Areas System (NPAS) under the adminstration of a Single
organisation, the National Secretariat for the Environment, (SENMA).

The cloud forests have an important role in watershed protection, and many local
communities depend on them for a variety of resources. However, they remain under severe
pressure from the expansion of agriculture and colonisation, as in many other South American
countries. The development of Community Forestry programmes in the highlands with local
populations have aimed to reduce the removal of tree cover, by illustrating how trees can be
managed as part of farming systems to provide both environmental and social benefits.

143

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

References

DNCB. 1995. Sistema Nacional de Areas Protegidas (SNAPO). Unpublished.

Ergueta, P., Galarza, Y., Liberman, K. and Liberman, C. 1995. Catalogo de areas
protegidas de Bolivia, VI. Directorio de Consulta sobre Areas Protegidas. La Paz.
Bolivia.

Harcourt, C.S. and Sayer, J.A. (ed.) 1996. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests: The
Americas. Simon and Schuster.

Mansour, J. 1995. Parks in Peril Source Book. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington.

Virginia, USA.

Wege, D. and Long, A. 1995. Key Areas for Threatened Birds in the Neotropics. BirdLife
Conservation Series No. 5.

144

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BOLIVIA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 07/07/97 |

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No? |
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Eastern Cordillera (Central) Amboré 17°45'S/ 63°52'W Yes

Carrasco 17°16'S/ 64°24'W Yes

Eastern Cordillera (North) Isiboro Sécure 16°12'S/ 66°03'W Yes
Madidi 13°10'S/ 68°30'W Yes

Palmares de Pasopaya-Presto-Rodeo 18°37'S/ 64°35'W No

Ulla Ulla 14°58'S/ 69°11 'W Yes

Tarija Tariqufa 20°00'S/ 64°30'W Yes

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 3 CF Sites= 7 an element of protection = 6

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Latin America ; South

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Bolivia

Eastern Cordillera (Central)

Like the northern section, the central portion of the Andean Cordillera possess a rugged relief
with mountains and deep, narrow valleys. Cloud forest lies on the upper eastern slopes
between 2200 and 3500m. However vegetation is transitional between moist and dry montane
forests moving towards the subtropical-temperate zone to the south. As a result it is very
diverse. Typically cloud forest containing tree species such as Weinmannina boliviana, Alnus
acuminata, and Podocarpus spp., along with tree ferns Cyathea spp. is found adjacent to
palms and temperate cactus woodland in arid intermontane valleys (DNCB, 1995; Wege, D.
and Long, A., 1995). Large numbers of mammals are found, including threatened species
such as spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus, jaguar Panthera onca and giant anteater
Myremecophaga tridactyla. Between 600 and 700 hundred bird species have been recorded,
amongst them threatened species such as the red-fronted macaw Ara rubrogenys and both
ashy Myrmotherula grisea and yellow-rumped Terenura sharpei antwrens. As a result these
forests have provided income to the area through small-scale ecotourism, in addition to their
value for local use and water regulation. Protection of cloud forest in this area is variable,
ranging from the cloud forest of Siberia in the publicly owned Amboro National Park,
through the privately owned Carrasco Ichilo (National Park) to currently unprotected areas
such as Palmares de Pasopaya-Presto-Rodeo, which is considered a priority site for
conservation. However forests in all these areas are threatened by a combination of incoming
settlers, hunting and logging, often at unsustainable levels. The logging of timber concession
areas for mahoghany Swietenia macrophylla exacerbates the problem by opening up new
roads, which in turn attract colonisers further up towards the fragile cloud forests. Recent
correspondence claims that half a million acres (including all the cloud forest) of forest has
been cleared with Government approval (Robin Clarke Gemuseus, pers. comm).

Eastern Cordillera (North)

Running south-east from the Peruvian border the northern end of the Eastern Cordillera is
where the more tropical forest is found in Bolivia. This region has a very rugged relief
mountain peaks separated by deep, narrow river valleys. Cloud forest is found in the high
mountain or ~ Yungas' portion, usually above 2600m on both western slopes which run down
to the Atliplano, and eastern slopes which lead into the Amazon basin. The main tree species
include Juglans boliviana, Alnus acuminata and Podocarpus spp. and Polylepis racemosa
above the closed forest line. In addition to high plant diversity, many mammals are found in
association with cloud forest areas including the Jaguar Panthera onca and Spectacled Bear
Tremarctos ornatus. Hundreds of bird species have been recorded, including the Southern
Helmeted Curasow Pauxi unicornis and Yellow-rumped Antwren Terenura sharpei (Erguata

147

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

et al. 1995) which are both threatened. Some of the cloud forest is within larger protected
areas which include a range of habitats across the Cordillera, such as Ulla Ulla which borders
Pert, and Isiboro-Secure, whilst other areas have been proposed for protection such as
Madidi. Ownership is variable, some public, some privately or local community owned. as a
wide range of Indian groups or "Cultures" inhabit the area. Some areas contain archaeological
sites of importance, and in addition to sustaining local populations, the: cloud forests regulate
water supply and protect the headwaters of numerous rivers. Colonisation by illegal settlers is
poorly controlled, leading to excessive forest exploitation, illegal hunting and fishing.
Overgrazing by domestic livestock and the spread of fire form adjacent high altitude grassland
are constant threats, and there is a risk of pollution from the activities of oil exploration and
gold mining.

Tarija

The central valley of Tarija lies in the south of Bolivia, close to the border with Argentina.
Within the tropical belt the climate is rather arid, although forests on the humid eastern slopes
can be referred to as cloud forest. At altitudes up to 3500m the forest dominated by Alnus
acuminata reflects the sub-tropical to temperate climate. A valuable habitat for both
mammals, including spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus and north andean huemul
Hippocamelus antisensis, and threatened birds such as the rufous-throated dipper Cinclus
schulzi and rufous-bellied saltator Saltator rufiventris much of the forest is within the Tariquia
National Reserve. Cloud forest in this area plays an important role in watershed protection for
a number of rivers and supports several adjacent communities, although encroachment is
causing problems and several road projects which threaten the reserve are under consideration
(Mansour, 1995).

148

Latin America : South

BRAZIL

Information on the biogeography of the tropical mountains of Brazil is very restricted and
fragmented (Ab'Saber (1989), in Falkenberg and Voltolini, 1993). However the information
available suggests that cloud forest is found in two main areas within Brazil. The majority is
found in the mountain ranges which run along the south-eastern Atlantic coast, with a small
amount in the Guyana Highlands which border Venezuela and Guyana to the north. In small
patches or narrow strips, many are an intermediate forest type between more extensive forest
or grassland ecosystems. ;

Environmental legislation appears to give good protection to these forests within conservation
codes or under the Forest Code (1965). However, in practice the legislation is rarely obeyed.
As part of a national conservation strategy some cloud forests have been demarcated for
protection, but many only exist as "paper reserves" which have no funding or site protection.

References
Falkenberg, D. and Voltolini, J. 1993. The Montane Cloud Forest in Southern Brazil. In L.

Hamilton et al. (Eds.) Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Proceedings of an
International Symposium. East-West Center, Hawai'i, USA. .

149

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BRAZIL: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 07/07/97
Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
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Guyana Highlands Pico da Neblina 0°20'N/ 66°02'W Yes
Serro do Mar and Aparados da Serra Bairro de Corcovado 23°28'S/ 45°10'W Yes
Fazenda Intervales 24°14'S/ 48°09'W Yes
Itatiaia 22°23'S/ 44°38'W Yes
Sao Joaquim 28°08'S/ 49°33'wW Yes
Serra do Bocafna 22°50'S/ 44°30'W No
Serra do Tingua 22°36'S/ 43°25'W Yes
Serra dos Orgaos 22°28'S/ 43°03'wW Yes
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 2 CF Sites= 8 an element of protection = 7

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Brazil

Serro do Mar and Aparados da Serra Geral

The high elongated mountain ridge of Serro do Mar is found on the south-east Atlantic coast
of Brazil in the states of Santa Catarina and Parana. It is composed of metamorphic rocks
dating back to the Precambrian age. The Serra Geral is further south in the states of Santa
Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, and is formed from volcanic rocks of the Cretaceous age. A
vast plateau, its easternmost limit is characterised by vertical cliffs and deep, steep-walled
valleys.

Both areas are covered almost daily by orographic cloud or fog ("cerracao" or viracao"),
formed by the ascent of warm and moist oceanic winds that cool and condense at higher
altitudes. Annual rainfall is generally above 1500mm (Falkenberg and Voltolini, 1993).

Areas of cloud forest are found in both locations, either as a narrow belt, or as small spots.
Rarely differentiated as a single vegetative type, the cloud forest is often found as a transition
between hillside Atlantic forest and Araucaria pine forest, or as an intermediary belt between
Atlantic forest and the high altitude fields where grassland with isolated shrubs replaces forest
(Falkenberg and Voltolini, 1993). ,

Sites in the Serro do Mar locality include Serra dos Orgaos, Serra do Tingua, Serra do
Bocaina, Itatiaia, Bairro de Corcovado and Fazenda Intervales. Generally in this area, the
forest changes at 1150m into cloud forest up to 1350m where the grassland begins. Further
south on the Aparados and within the Sao Joaquim National Park, the cloud forest forms a
narrow belt between 700 and 1100m.

In general, these forests are dominated by small trees (6-8m) and shrubs which have an
incredible abundance and diversity of epiphytes (including orchids and bromeliads). However
there are floristic differences between the two areas, with Serro do Mar supporting a number
of south Brazilian endemic tree species, including Myrcia rupicola and Psidium spathulatum.
Aparados has endemics of its own, including Mimosa balduinii and Euplassa nebularis.
Fifteen species of ferns are considered exclusive to the southern cloud forest, including one
endemic, Polyodium subinaequale. Large numbers of mosses, lichens and lianas are also
found, and play a vital role in water retention in the canopy. No published faunal surveys
exist, but some highly endangered species use this forest as a refuge, including puma Felis
concolor, harpy eagle Harpia harpyja (Falkenberg and Voltolini, 1993).

Many of the cloud forests appear to be under some sort of protection, within the boundaries
of national parks or other "reserves". However few actually receive effective protection and

152

Latin America : South

the only relatively well-established reserve is the Parque Nacional de Aparados da Serra.
Pressures include clearance for pasture and pine plantations, firewood cutting and damage
from fire which has spread from burning of the adjacent grasslands. In some areas there has
been heavy extraction of tree fern Dicksonia sellowiana for floriculture and gardening
purposes (Falkenberg and Voltolini, 1993).

Guyana Highlands

Found on the frontier with Venezuela and Guyana, this area contains the only true Amazonian
"montane" formations, at altitudes above 1800m. The main cloud forest area is found on the
slopes of Pico da Neblina, and has high floral diversity and a huge degree of endemism. The
stunted forest is carpeted with mosses, Sphagnum spp. and contains carnivorous plants,
Heliamphera spp and several species of orchid.

153

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

COLOMBIA

In Colombia, the Andes form three cordilleras - Occidental (western), Central and Oriental
(eastern) - with their axes running parallel south to north. They are separated by the long.
deep longitudinal valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers. Most of the country’s
remaining montane forests are found in the western and eastern cordillera regions, although
there are other important areas in more isolated mountain ranges. There has been
considerable deforestation over the last 50 years, at its greatest in the Central Cordillera, with
the main causes being shifting cultivation and colonisation. Despite this, the country has
large areas of pristine forest and there is recent evidence of some highly innovative forest
conservation programmes (Harcourt and Sayer, 1996).

The upper montane forests which remain are found on steep areas of the cordilleras and other
mountain ranges at altitudes over 2000m up to between 3200 and 3800m depending on their
location. It is largely due to their elevation and inaccessibility that they remain. These
include cloud forests - in many cases mist is frequent, and there are abundant epiphytes and
Angiosperms such as Bromeliaceae, Orchidaceae and Begoniaceae which cover the trunks and
branches of the trees. Biotic diversity in these forests is high, including 15 percent of all
orchid species found in the world. Over 1500 bird species are recorded of which 46 moist
forest species are threatened (WCMC, 1992; Collar et al. 1992).

In addition isolated low-altitude cloud forests with the physiognomy of upper montane forests,
are found on the Caribbean coast both in Colombia and Venezuela on summits of mountains
less than 1000m high.

A particular threat to the remaining primary montane forests is the illegal cultivation of
Papaver somniferum for the production of opium, morphine, and heroin. It is estimated that
c.50,000 ha was deforested during 1991-92 (Cavelier and Etter, 1995).

Despite the existence of legislation relating to forest conservation, in reality there is no
effective strategy for its implementation. The forests are still at risk as private ownership is
possible within the parks and regulations are often poorly enforced. In particular, specific
measures for conservation of cloud forest or montane forest areas are lacking, and the
importance of sustainable management is only slowly being realised. It is widely felt that the
acquisition of areas by committed private people or NGOs is the only safeguard for
conservation (Wolf, 1994). Indeed an increasing number of private reserves are being
established and protected from colonisers, and efforts are being made to work with the
owners of these areas to set up a network of private reserves.

154

Latin America : South

References

Cavelier, J. and Etter, A. 1995. Deforestation of Montane Forests in Colombia as a result
of illegal plantations of Opium. Biodiversity and Conservation of Neotropical
Montane Forests, pp.541-550, Edited by Steven P. Churchill et al. New York
Botanical Garden.

Cavelier, J. and Mejia, C.A. 1990. Climatic factors and tree stature in the elfin cloud
forest of Serrania de Macuira, Colombia. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 53:
105-123.

Harcourt, C.S. and Sayer, J.A. (Eds.). 1996. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests:
The Americas. Simon and Schuster.

Hofstede, R.G.M., Wolf, J.H.D. and Benzing, D.H.1993. Epiphytic biomass and nutrient
status of a Colombian Upper Montane Rain Forest. Selbyana 14: 37-45.

Kattan, G.H., Alvarez-Lopez, H. and Giraldo, M. 1994. Forest Fragmentation and Bird
Extinctions: San Antonio Eighty Years Later. Conservation Biology 8(1): 138-146.

INDERENA, 1984. Colombia: Parques Nacionales. Bogota, Colombia.

Silverstone-Sopkin, P.A. and Ramos-Perez, J.E. 1995. Floristic exploration and
Phytogeography of the Cerro del Torra, Chocd, Colombia. Biodiversity and
Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests, pp.169-186, Edited by Steven P.
Churchill et al. New York Botanical Garden. ;

Sugden, A.M. 1982a. The ecological, geographical and taxonomic relationships of an
isolated Colombian cloud forest, with some implications for island biogeography.
Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 63: 31-61.

Webster, G.L., 1995. The Panorama of Neotropical Cloud Forests. Biodiversity and
Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests, pp.53-77, Edited by Steven P.
Churchill et al. New York Botanical Garden.

Wege, D. and Long, A. 1995 Key Areas for Threatened Birds in the Neotropics. BirdLife
Conservation Series No. 5. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.

Wolf, J.H.D. 1994. Towards the Conservation of Montane Cloud Forests and Paramo
Vegetation in the Los Nevados area, Central Cordillera, Colombia. Unpublished.

155

Serrania de Macuira

COLOMBIA

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San — ae wae

COLOMBIA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Date: 07/07/97

Protected*

Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Cerro del Torré Cerro del Torré 4°46'N/ 76°29" No
Cordillera Central Alto Quindfo 4°36'N/ 75°28'W No
Finca Guayaquil / No

Los Nevados 4°46'N/ 75°27'W Yes

Nevado de Huila 2°59'N/ 75°58'W Yes

Puracé 2°09'N/ 76°31'W Yes

Rfo Blanco Watershed 5°04'N/ 75°30'W No

Ucumar { 4°38'N/ 75°36'W No

Cordillera Occidental Alto de Pisones 5°23'N/ 76°00'W No
Alto de los Galdpagos 4°52'N/ 76°12'W No

Cerro Tatam4 4°59'N/ 76°05'W Yes

Cerro de San Antonio 3°30'N/ 76°48'W No

Las Orqufdeas 6°39'N/ 76°09'W Yes

Los Farallones de Cali 3°12'N/ 76°46'W Yes

Munchique 2°33'N/ 76°57'W Yes

Santa Helena 3°O9'N/ 76°14'W No

Cordillera Oriental Cerro Carare 5°54'N/ 73°26'W No
Cuchilla del Ramo 6°47'N/ 73°25'W No

Cueva de los Gudcharos 1°34'N/ 76°00'W Yes

Monterredondo 4°17'N/ 73°48'W No

Padramo de Chingaza 4°32'N/ 73°44'W Yes

Pdramo de Tama 7°24'N/ 72°26'W Yes

Sierra Nevada del Cocuy 6°24'N/ 72°21 'W Yes

Valle de Jesus forest 4°49'N/ 73°40'W No

Northern Sierra de Perija Cerro Pintado 10°29'N/ 72°55'wW No
Serranfa de Macuira Serranfa de Macuira 12°09'N/ 71°20'W Yes
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta 10°S9'N/ 73°38'W Yes
Sierra de la Macarena Sierra de la Macarena 2°44'N/ 73°55 'W Yes

Total No. of CF Sites with
an element of protection = 14

Total No. of Total No. of
CF Regions= 8 CF Sites= 28

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Colombia

Cerro del Torra

Located in the Departamento del Choco in Western Colombia, Cerro del Torra (c. 2800m) is
part of the Cordillera de San Miguel, which lies to the west and is distinct from the main
Cordillera. However research shows a significant phytogeographical affinity with the
Cordillera Occidental (Silverstone-Sopkin and Ramos-Perez, 1995). Being within Choco,
which has the highest floristic diversity per unit area in the world (Gentry, 1986) makes the
mountain of particular botanical interest. There are two distictive cloud forest types. Moist
cloud forest is found between 1600 and 2500m, with bryophytes covering trunks and
branches, abundant ferns and Clusiaceae. There is also a high diversity of orchids and other
epiphytes. Canopy tree height decreases from c. 30m at 1600m to 12m at 2500m, where it is
dominated by small trees including Podocarpus spp. and palms. At altitudes between 2500
and 2730m on steep terrain below the summit ridge, dwarf cloud forest with a relatively low
floral diversity is found, which is dominated by Clusia at between 3 and 6m, with emergent
Geonoma palms and abundant bryophytes (Silverstone-Sopkin and Ramos- Perez, 1995).

Cordillera Central

Fragments of cloud forest are found scattered along the western slopes of the Central
Cordillera. Upper montane (cloud) forest is usually found between 2000 and 3700m,
bordering the lower edge of the subalpine dwarf forests and paramo.

Cordillera Occidental

Patches of relatively isolated cloud forest remain along the western slopes of the Cordillera .
Occidental which possess a rugged relief with steep slopes and sharply cut mountains.
Bordering the Choco region, some are pristine areas with high floristic diversity, whilst
others are more fragmented. They range from areas within larger National Parks such as
Cerro Tatama, Las Orquideas, Los Farallones de Cali and Munchique, to smaller unprotected
areas including Alto de los Galapagos, Alto de Piscones, Cerro de San Antonio and Santa
Helena. Mainly broadleaved, the cloud forests are commonly found between 1500 and 3500m
and include Quercus humboldtii along with species of Podocarpus, Cinchona and
Weinmannia. In Las Orquideas there are many species of orchids, particularly of the genera
Angulosa, Elleanthus and Cattleya. Bird diversity is high, including threatened species such
as the long-wattled umbrellabird Cephalopterus penduliger and Buthraupis spp. (Wege and
Long, 1995). Other highly diverse fauna include bats, marsupials, primates and mammals,

158

Latin America : South

amongst them endangered species such as the spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus and the red
howler monkey Alouatta seniculus. Cloud forest areas, including those in the Parks, are under
pressure from illegal settlement and subsequent conversion of areas for agricultural land.
Some, including those around Cerro de San Antonio are isolated forest fragments in a matrix
of small farms and suburban houses (Kattan et al. 1994). Munchique and the adjacent
Tambito private reserve are also threatened by construction of a hydroelectric plant and
proposed highway development (Wege and Long, 1995). Almost total destruction of forest in
the valleys below means that remaining forest is of great value in terms of biodiversity and
watershed conservation, in addition to sustainable use by local communities.

Cordillera Oriental

Cloud forests are commonly found on the eastern slopes of the Oriental or eastern Cordillera,
which is one of the main areas where primary forest remains (Cavalier and Etter, 1995). In
the north where the highest peaks are found, two areas, Sierra Nevada del Cocuy and Paramo
de Tama (adjacent to El Tama National Park in Venezuela) contain cloud forest at altitudes
between 2300 and 3700m. Main tree species include Podocarpus respligliosii and
Weinmannia spp. and these areas harbour numerous plant and animal species endemic to
Colombia. Mammals include brazilian tapir Tapirus terrestris and the common woolly
monkey Lagothrix lagothrica. The endangered northern helmeted curassow Pauxi pauxi is
also found Cocuy. Both areas contain the sources of important rivers, and are under legal
protection as National Parks in theory, although in practice there is little control (Wege and
Long, 1995). Small fragments of humid subtropical and temperate oak-Lauraceae forest such
as Cuchilla del Ramo and Cerro Carare (both unprotected) are found on the western slopes.
These are habitat for threatened bird species, and under pressure from surrounding crop
cultivation (Wege and Long, 1995). In the central portion of the eastern slopes, close to
Bogota a belt of cloud forest is found which includes Valle de Jesus communal reserve,
Paramo de Chingaza (containing Chingaza National Park) and unprotected areas close to
Monterredondo. Found extending down to a slightly lower altitude, c.2000m the main tree
species in these areas include Weinmannia macrophylla and the endangered Podocarpus
oleifolius. Chingaza especially, is rich in bird species, some threatened such as the rusty-faced
parrot Hapalopsittaca amazonia and flame-winged parakeet Pyrrhura calliptera. Only the
truly inaccessible areas are truly safe as private ownership and encroachment threaten
effective protection, and an enlargement of the Chingaza National Park has been proposed by
Fundacion Natura to include adjacent reserves (Wege and Long, 1995). Further south on the
western slopes of the eastern Andes, cloud forest forms an important part of Cueva de los
Guacharos National Park which protects the headwaters of the Suaza River. The area contains
the last stand of nearly pristine broadleaf montane forest in Colombia which contains Quercus
humboldtii and Cedrela spp., moving through cloud forest to paramo at 2600m (INDERENA,
1984). Mammals include the threatened spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus, mountain tapir
Tapirus pinchaque and the common woolly monkey Lagothrix lagothrica. The area is

159

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

increasingly threatened by human encroachment and opium production, and there is illegal
logging (Wege and Long, 1995).

Northern Sierra de Perija

In Northern Colombia, the Sierra de Perija is contiguous with the National Park of the same
name in Venezuela, although in Colombia it is not under any protection. It contains relatively
intact cloud forest on the upper slopes of Cerro Pintado (3000m), which is a valuable habitat
for the threatened bird species, the northern helmeted curassow Pauxi pauxi which is under
pressure from local hunters (Wege and Long, 1995).

Serrania de Macuira

The Guajira Peninsula forms the north-eastern tip of Colombia on the Caribbean coastline. An
unusual "dry" elfin cloud forest is found on the coastal range of the Serrania de Macuira
which contains three peaks, the highest at 865m. This cloud forest is divided into three islands
at relatively low altitude, 500-550m on the windward side and 600-650m on the leeward side
of the mountains and is surrounded by a dry deciduous forest (Cavelier and Mejia, 1990). It is
also unusual because rainfall is very low, and virtually all the precipitation is due to
condensation from clouds. During the daytime the clouds remain above the highest peaks,
decreasing radiation, air temperature, relative humidity and evaporation in relation to the
surrounding lowlands. At night the clouds come into contact with the forest canopy
surrounding water through mist and fog interception. The constant cloud cover provides the
high humidity which allows relatively mesophilous plants to survive (Sugden, 1982a, 1982b
in Webster, 1995). Prominent tree species include Croton xancthochloros and Terminalia
amazonia_ with a canopy height of 12-15m. There are numerous epiphytes, but floral
diversity is low, with only one endemic species Cordia macuirensis. The cloud forest areas
are contained within the Macuira National Park, and although there is some pressure from
livestock grazing, much of the forest is undisturbed.

Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta

The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta lies some 250km south-west of Macuira along the
Caribbean coast. Often considered as part of the Central Cordillera, it is in fact an isolated
massif containing the highest mountain in Colombia, Cerro Siméon Bolivar at 5879m. A
wealth of biodiversity combined with its isolation have resulted in the evolution of a large
number of endemic species, including some found only in montane forest areas. The forest
has been under changing pressures, initially from campesinos fleeing violence in other parts

160

Latin America : South

of the country and displaced Indian communities. In the 1970s the area became a guerilla
stronghold, and as a result is relatively underexplored (Harcourt and Sayer, 1996).
Designated both a National Park and Biosphere Reserve the forests provide important
protection for the watersheds of five rivers.

Sierra de la Macarena

Found in a mainly low altitude region to the east of the Andes, which extends into the
Amazon Basin, the large isolated massif of Sierra de la Macarena is considered to be the
western extreme of the Guyana highlands (Harcourt and Sayer, 1996). Deep valleys are
separated by tablelands or tepuis and mountain peaks which rise to 2500m. The major
vegetation type is moist broadleaf forest, some of which is considered cloud forest. Fauna is
highly diverse with threatened mammals including the long haired spider monkey Afeles
belzebuth and the giant otter Pteronura brasiliensis, and birds such as the spot-winged
Parrotlet Touit stictoptera. Part of the Sierra de la Macarena National Park, the area is mainly
under national ownership, with 10% in private ownership. Under pressure for logging, half
the forest has been cut and the remainder, at higher altitudes is highly threatened (Wege and
Long, 1995).

161

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

ECUADOR

The majority of montane cloud forests in Ecuador are found along the Andean Cordillera
which run the length of the country, with a small number on the west coast in the Cordillera
de la Costa. These forests have very high endemism of both fauna and flora, and perform an
important watershed protection function. However, they are under severe pressure from the
rapidly increasing population in the Interandean valleys, which provides fertile soils and an
hospitable environment. The main pressures are from agricultural encroachment, grazing.
hunting and cutting for fuelwood. Almost all the natural forests of the central valley have
been removed and only 4% on the west Andean slopes remain (Dodson and Gentry, 1991).
With regard to cloud forest, in the main Interandean valley only a few highly disturbed
patches remain on the inner slopes. On the Pacific slopes cloud forest exists between 1500
and 3500m, particulary in the north. Eastern slopes are relatively undisturbed although under
increasing threat (Harcourt and Sayer, 1996). Some forests are within legally protected areas,
but remain vulnerable to pressure for clearance. Much of the cloud forest remains in isolated
patches which are not protected, while others have been secured under private or community
ownership, as reserves, whilst more secure protected area status is sought.

References

Barnett, A. 1988. Rio Mazan - A People's Forest. The Ecologist Vol. 18, No. 2.

Dodson, C. and Gentry, A.H. 1991. Biological extinction in western Ecuador. Annals of
the Missouri Botanical Garden 78: 273-295.

Downer, C.C. 1996. The mountain tapir, endangered 'flagship' species of the high Andes.
Oryx, Vol 30, No 1.

Harcourt, C.S. and Sayer, J.A. (Eds.) 1996. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests:
The Americas. Simon and Schuster.

Horwell, D. 1988. Galapagos: the enchanted isles. Dryad Press, London.

Mansour, J. 1995. Parks in peril source book. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington,
Virginia, USA.

Parker T.A. and Carr, J.L. [Eds] 1992 Status of forest remnants in the Cordillera de la
Costa and adjacent areas of south-western Ecuador (Rapid Assessment Program).
Washington, D.C.: Conservation International.

Toyne, E.P. and Jeffcote, M. (1996) Notes on cloud forests in Southern Ecuador
(unpublished).

Wege, D. and Long, A.(1995) Key Areas for Threatened Birds in the Neotropics. BirdLife
Conservation Series No. 5.

Zorrilla, C. (1996) Notes on the Intag Cloud Forest Reserve (unpublished).

162

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Protected*
Yes/No?

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ECUADOR: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

oh i A 8 2 CO A ee ee SS SS ee

Cajas Mountains Rfo Mazan 2°49'S/ 79°O7'W No
Chilla Mountains Buenaventura 3°40'S/ 79°44'W No
Manu Forest / No
Cordillera Occidental Atacazo 0°22'S/ 78°36'W No
Cotacachi-Cayapas O°35'N/ 78°25'W Yes |
Intag 0°36'N/ 78°20'W No |
Volcan Pichincha 0°06'S/ 78°35'W No
Cordillera Oriental Podocarpus National Park 4°08'S/ 78°58'W No
Sangay 2°00'S/ 78°20'wW Yes |
Zapote Najda Mountains 3°01'S/ 78°38'wW No
Cordillera de la Costa Machalilla 1°39'S/ 80°41'W Yes
Cordillera del Condor Chinapinza 3°59'S/ 78°34'W No |
Shaime 4°22'S/ 78°39'W No |
Galapagos Islands Fernandina 0°21'S/ 91°32'W Yes
Isabela 0°48'S/ 91°07'W Yes
Santa Cruz 0°37'S/ 90°21'W Yes
Orientales Cordillera Real de los Cayambe-Coca 0°01'S/ 77°49'W Yes |
Cerro Mongus O°21'N/ 77°52'W No
Cordillera de Guacamayo 0°29'S/ 78°00'W No
Play6én de San Francisco 0°30'N/ 77°40'W Yes
Volc4n Sumaco 0°34'S/ 77°38'W Yes |
Saraguro Cuesta de Cafabrada 3°32'S/ 79°22'W No
El Quingueado if No
El Sauce 3°45'S/ 79°20'W No |
Huashapamba 3°38'S/ 79°17'W Yes
Ingapirra 3°42'S/ 79°13'wW No
Onacapa/Hifuna 3°41'S/ 79°12'W No
Santiago 3°48'S/ 79°17'W No
Torré 3°38'S/ 79°13'W No
South and West Loja Province Alamor 4°00'S/ 80°00'W No
Angashcola 4°34'S/ 79°22'W No
Celica 4°07'S/ 79°58'W No |
Lagunillas 4°47'S/ 79°22'W No
Sozoranga 4°20'S/ 79°48'wW No
Vicentino 3°57'S/ 79°S7'W No

Total No. of CF Sites with
an element of protection = 10

Total No. of
CF Sites= 35 -

Total No. of
CF Regions= 10

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

Latin America :; South
Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Ecuador

Cajas Mountains

In the Andes of southern Ecuador, the Cajas Mountains are to the north-west of the town of
Cuenca. The topography has largely resulted from extensive glaciation, with U-shaped
valleys, moraines and numerous "boxed" glacial lakes, from dammed river valleys ("Cajas"
meaning caja or box). Cloud forest is found in the Protected Landscape (IUCN Category V)
of Cajas National Recreation Area and the privately owned Rio Mazan reserve. The montane
cloud forest zone from 2800-3400m consists of woodland containing typical cloud forest
species such as Myrtus and Podocarpus, grasslands and some areas of chaparral (dominated
by scrub species, as climax woodland does not form as a result of overgrazing and fire
management). In Mazan there is a huge diversity of orchids and fungi, with many species
recently new to science (Barnett, 1988). Both areas contain threatened bird species, including
the grey-breasted mountain toucan Andigena hypoglauca, and mammals including the
northern pudu Pudu mephistopheles. Careful management is required to maintain the
recreational benefit of these areas to the people of the region whilst protecting the rich
biodiversity. A land use zoning approach has been used in Cajas to achieve this. The forests
are particularly important for watershed protection following widespread timber extraction in
the area. The Rio Mazan reserve was purchased by the people of Cuenca in order to protect
their water supply and wildlife (Barnett, 1988).

Chilla Mountains

Unconfirmed reports suggest that there are large tracts of cloud forest in these mountains
which are in El Oro Province (pers.comm, Paul Toyne, 1996). Manu forest is one such area,
along with Hacienda Buenaventura which is 9km west of Pinas at 900-1050m. Covering
c.3000ha, two-thirds is cattle pasture, with humid cloud forest in patches across the rest,
which at present is protected (Wege and Long, 1995).

Cordillera Occidental

Located in North-West Ecuador, the Cordillera Occidental is the western half of two parallel
rows of peaks and ridges which form the northern end of the Ecuadorian Andes. Many of the
higher peaks reach almost 6000m with connecting ridges at 4000m. The cordillera contains
five main areas of cloud forest which, in general lie between 1500 and 3000m. These range
from unprotected areas on the ridge crests of Volcan Pinchincha and Atacazo, to the legally
protected privately owned land of the Intag Reserve, and on Cerro Golondrinas (both
described further below), and areas within the Cotacachi-Cayapas Strict Nature Reserve. In

165

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

addition there is protection forest on the western slope of Volcan Pinchincha. Despite the area
being a distinct phytogeographic zone (Myers, 1988 in Harcourt and Sayer, 1996) with a
particular abundance of endemic epiphytes, the Cotacachi-Cayapas Reserve is the only large
conservation area protecting the moist forests in western Ecuador. In unprotected areas much
of the natural vegetation has been completely cleared as a result of burning and grazing.

Cordillera Oriental

Part of the main Andean range in Central Ecuador, this Cordillera has cloud forests in the
High Andes zone which is characterised by deep, steep-sided valleys, abundant cliffs an many
rocky jagged peaks. Due to its elevation (1000-5140m) the area has a subtropical and
temperate climate despite being in the tropics. Important areas of cloud forest are found in
Sangay National Park, which is dominated by the Sangay Volcano at 5140m, and in the to-
date unprotected Zapote Najda Mountains to the south, where a large tract of temperate cloud
forest remains on the eastern side. In Sangay, montane rain forest occurs below 3750 on the
wetter eastern slopes. The upper half is of low stature, c.5m and is dominated by Nuerolepsis
spp. and associations of Myrtus communis. Below 3000m a 12m canopy dominated by
Weinmannia spp and Oreopanax spp develops. Ferns, epiphytes and orchids are abundant.
The fauna of the area is not well studied, but thought to be species rich. Sangay is an
important habitat of the endangered mountain tapir Tapirus pinchaque which depends on
cloud forest for shelter, but is rapidly disappearing throughout its range (Downer, 1996).
These forests are also important in protecting the upper watersheds of many rivers, as run-off
and erosion is substantial due to the steep terrain and high rainfall. However in the south of
Ecuador, cloud forest on this mountain range lacks high elevations and snowy peaks resulting
in differences in the fluvian network and paramo ecosystem compared with mountains in the
north. Without run-off from snow melt the rivers are fed from subterranean springs formed
from rainwater filtered through the forest floor. The Podocarpus National Park (described
below) was established for the protection of large areas of natural cloud forest which protect
and regulate the water supply in at least four regionally important catchments. Unprotected
cloud forest is found on adjoining ranges at Angashcola and Lagunillas.

Podocarpus National Park

The park covers 146,000ha and has very irregular topography covering altitudes from 950m
to 3700m (90% above 1500m), and has a wide range of vegetation types. It still retains large
tracts of undisturbed forest, continuous from upper tropical to temperate zones. This is the
only large remaining tract of continuous Andean forest in Ecuador. Montane forest is
dominated by Podocarpus trees (Romerillos spp.) which are the only genus of conifers native
to Ecuador. Many threatened mammals have been recorded in the park, including mountain

166

Latin America : South

lion Felix concolor, and it is one of the richest areas in the world for birds with a total of
600-700 species including the bearded guan Penelope barbata and white-breasted parakeet
Pyrrura albipectus. The two main pressures on the park are mining activities and colonization
along the western and north-western boundaries, and there is some hunting and illegal
extraction of orchids and medicinal plants (Mansour, J. 1995).

Cordillera de la Costa

The Cordillera de la Costa runs up the northern half of Ecuador's western coast. These
coastal and foothill forests ranging from sea level to 800m are of great biological importance
due to the large number of species and high levels of endemism they support (Parker and
Carr, 1992).

Machililla National Park, the only national park in Western Ecuador, is found in the middle
portion of this mountain range. It covers small but very important areas of fog and dry forest,
the most biologically diverse area being Cerro San Sebastian, where small patches of

fog forest remain on the mountain peaks. There are other remnants of fog and cloud forest on
the low hills along the coast, which include Cerro Mutiles (fog forest, relatively dry),
Cabecaras de Bilsa (very wet, cloud condensation), Cerro Pata de Pajaro (fog/cloud forest)
and Manta Real (cloud forest). With an average lower limit of clouds between 500m and
600m, moving upward to peaks at 800-1000m, the cloud forests in this region are at
significantly lower altitudes than in other parts of the Andes. However the forests are very
wet all year round, receiving water from fog drip and cloud condensation. Trunk climbers,
epiphytes and mosses are profuse and diverse. Locally endemic and threatened tree species
are present, including Caryodaphnopsis theobromifolia and Carapa guianensis as well as
truly montane Andean genera. Mammals found in the area include the endangered mantled
howler monkey Alouatta palliata, jaguars Panthera onca and white-fronted capuchin Cebus
albifrons, and there are many species of bat, some typical only of undisturbed forest (Parker
and Carr, 1992). '

In Machililla, as with most of the forests in this area, the main pressures are timber
harvesting, small-scale agriculture, livestock grazing and hunting by the local human
population. The large proportion of land area under private ownership within the park is also
a problem. In addition to being the last remaining habitat for local endemic and threatened
species, many of the forests fulfill an important watershed role. All of these remnants require
improved protection with the involvement of local residents in sustainable management
programmes.

167

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cordillera del Condor

The Cordillera del Condor run up the south-eastern boundary with Peru. Cloud forest is
found on ridges close to Chinapinza and Shaime at elevations of 1700 and above. These areas
are not protected, but are adjacent to the eastern boundary of Podocarpus National Park and it
has been proposed that they should become part of a buffer zone. This would reduce the
current pressures of agricultural encroachment, gold mining and other development, and offer
protection to the Shuar Indians who live in the area.

Galapagos Islands

The Galapagos Archipelago is found in the east Pacific Ocean, 1000km west of mainland
Ecuador. World famous for their endemic fauna and flora, the islands form a National Park
and Biosphere Reserve. An unusual form of cloud forest is found between 1500m and 1700m
on the mountains and volcanoes of the larger islands, principally Isabela, Santa Cruz and
Fernandina. In the dry season (as opposed to the hot season), caused by the Humboldt
current, a temperature inversion causes cloud to form. When these are blown towards land,
and forced to rise, a persistent drizzly mist or ~garua' envelops the highlands. This provides
sufficient water to support permanent vegetation - only found on these islands (Horwell,
1988). Characteristic species include Scalesia spp. Psidium galapagenium and Pisona
floribunda.

Orientales Cordillera Real de los Andes

The eastern Cordillera Real de los Andes run the length of the country. In the north the area
has steep rugged slopes with deep, narrow valleys in between. Cloud forest is found between
2000 and 3500m. In addition to the Cayambe-Coca Strict Nature Reserve, areas of cloud
forest are found in the protection forests on the slopes of Volcan Sumaco and at Playon de
San Francisco, on a side spur Cordillera de Guacamayo, at Hacienda Aragon, and on Cerro
Mongus to the north, all of which are not protected. The main tree species include members
of the genera Guarea, Nectandra, Cedrela and Eugenia. The highly adundant and diverse
fauna includes mammals such as the spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus and margay Oncifelis
wiedit. Birds include the andean condor Vultur gryphus and andean cock-of-the-rock Rupicola
peruviana. On Sumaco vegetable cultivation by the increasing human population is posing a
serious threat.

168

Latin America : South

Saraguro

To the south of the Cajas Mountains, there are a number of cloud forest fragments
surrounding the city of Saraguro in Loja Province, which include the eastern slopes of the
Cordillera Cordoncillo. These areas, including El Sauce, Omnacapa/Hinuna, Ingapirra,
Huashapamba, Torré, Cuesta de Cafiabrada, Santiago, El Quingueado are essentially
fragments although ongoing analysis of aerial photographs suggests they are linked by
corridors of hilltop forest (Toyne, pers comm, 1996). Generally found between 2400 and
3200m, all have similar vegetational composition with slight differences due to aspect and
altitudinal variations. The area is important for threatened avifauna including the red-faced
parrot Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops, golden-plumed parakeet Leptosittaca branickti and the
bearded guan Penelope barbata. Only Huashapamba has some protection, as a Community
Forest jointly owned by three Saraguro Indian communities. However the pressures on these
forests for fuel and construction wood, and grazing by these communities are great.

South and West Loja Province

West of the Eastern Andes, a number of important, unprotected cloud forest fragments are
found in the south-west of Loja Province. Most are confined to inaccessible steep ravines at
altitudes between 1200 and 2000m, slightly lower than found on the Eastern Andean slopes.
The areas, including Alamor, Angashcola, Cordillera de Celica, Lagunillas, Sozoranga and
Vicentino (2500-3100m) vary in size from tiny patches of less than 10ha, to larger blocks of
several hundred hectares. At Angashcola and Lagunillas threatened bird species include the
recently described chestnut-bellied cotinga Doliornis remseni along with populations of the
threatened mountain tapir Tapirus pinchaque and spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus (Wege
and Long, 1995). The main pressures on the unprotected sites come from hunting and
periodic burning of the lower slopes. Little is known about the other sites except that they are
an important habitat for some of Ecuador's threatened bird species (Wege and Long, 1995).

169

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

PERU

Peru possesses the longest mountain chain in the Andes, running North-South down the length
of the country. This central portion, the Sierra, includes three mountain ranges, the
Cordillera Occidental, Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental, and the valleys and plateau
country which run between them. This area has been settled for a considerable time, once the
centre of the ancient Inca empire, and now home to much of the country's Indian population.
As result of intense and prolonged clearance and cultivation most of the natural forest is
degraded or entirely lost (Harcourt and Sayer, 1996).

Cloud forests in Peru occur on the eastern slopes of the Andes, at altitudes between 1500 and
3500m. Whilst some fragments lie within the Sierra region, a large proportion are found on
the slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the transitional high Selva which is a belt of forest
c.100km wide which runs between the Andes and the lowland rainforest further to the east in
the Amazon basin. The cloud forests in the High Selva are exceptionally diverse, and contain
a large number of endemic plants (especially orchids), birds and mammals may of which are
threatened. However these forests are under intense pressure from poverty-stricken migrant
Indians moving into the area from the already deforested Sierra in search of land. Relatively
small portions of forest are legally protected in national parks, reserves and sanctuaries, and
other categories although in practice the forests are still at risk from unsustainable utilisation.
Further priority areas which were proposed for the conservation of biodiversity in 1990
(Harcourt and Sayer 1996), have yet to be gazetted.

The development of sustainably managed communal reserves in which subsistence hunting
and extraction by indigenous people are permitted, but logging is forbidden, is required in
order that the important functions of the cloud forest in conserving both soil and water are
maintained.

References

Butchart, S.H.M., Barnes, R., Davies, C.W.N., Fernandez, M. and Seddon N. 1995.
Threatened mammals of the Cordillera de Colan, Peru. Oryx. 29 (4): 275-281.

Castro, J.M., Silva, V. and Valencia, F.R. 1990. Parque Nacional Huascaran. Plan
maestro-resumen ejecutivo. Prepared with the support of the Programa de Desarrollo
Forestal Canada-Peru.

Collar, N.J., Gonzaga, L.P., Krabbe, N., Madrojio-Nieto, A., Naranjo, L.G., Parker, T.A.
and Wege, D.C. 1992 Threatened Birds of the Americas: The ICBP/IUCN Red Data
Book. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK.

170

Latin America : South

Collar, N.J., Crosby, M.J. and Stattersfield, A.J. 1994. Birds to watch 2: the world list
of threatened birds. BirdLife Conservation Series No. 4. BirdLife International,
Cambridge, UK.

Harcourt, C.S. and Sayer, J.A. (Eds.) 1996. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests:
The Americas. Simon and Schuster.

Leo, M. 1980. First field study of the yellow-tailed woolly monkey. Oryx 15 (4): 386-389.

Narvaez, R.S. 1989. Rio Abiseo National Park. World Heritage nomination. Officina
Nacional de Evaluacion de Rescursos Naturales. 1976. Mapa ecologica del Peru y
guia explicativa. ONERN, Lima.

Young, K.R., Church, W.B., Leo, M. and Moore, P.F. 1994. Threats to Rio Abiseo

National Park, Northern Peru. Ambio 23 (4-5): 312-314.

Young, K. and Leon, B. 1989. Vegetacion del a zona alta del Parque Nacional del Rio
Abiseo. Revista Forestal del Peru 15 (1): 3-20.

Wege, D. and Long, A. 1995. Key Areas for Threatened Birds in the Neotropics. BirdLite
Conservation Series No. 5. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.

171

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PERU: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 07/07/97
Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Cordillera Blanca Huascaran 9°45'S/ 77°28'W Yes
Cordillera Central and Oriental Bosque Unchog 9°42'S/ 76°06'W No
Cerro Chacas 4°35'S/ 79°44'W No
Cerro Chinguela 5°06'S/ 79°23'W No
Cerros de Sira 9°20'S/ 74°43'W No
Cumpang and Utcubamba 8°12'S/ 77°09'W No
Cutervo 06°14'S/ 78°45'wW Yes
Leimebamba 6°41'S/ 77°46'W No
Rfo Abiseo 7°32'S/ 77°29'wW Yes
Tingo Maria 09°16'S/ 75°59'W Yes
Yandchanga Chemillén 10°22'S/ 75°21'wW Yes
Cordillera Oriental de los Andes Ampay 13°34'S/ 72°S2'wW Yes
Macchu Picchu 12°12'S/ 72°35'W Yes
Mand 12°30'S/ 71°40'W Yes
Cordillera de Colan Abra Patricia 5°46'S/ 77°41'W No
Northern Cordillera del Coldn 5°35'S/ 78°22'wW No
Southern Cordillera del Coldn 5°44'S/ 78°03'W No
Cordillera del Céndor Rfo Comaina and Rfo Cenepa 4°30'S/ 78°146'wW No
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 5 CF Sites= 18 an element of protection = 8

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Peru

Cordillera Blanca

Located to the west of the main Andes range in the Sierra Central, the Cordillera Blanca is the
highest tropical mountain range in the world with 27 snow-capped peaks above 6000m. Cloud
forest is found in the valleys of the highest peak, El Huascaran (6768m), between 2500 and
3000m, as relict Polylepis-Gynoxys woodlands. The forests form part of an important habitat
for bird species such as the andean condor Vultur gryphus and mammals including the
spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus. Despite being a National Park, Biosphere Reserve and
World Heritage Site, confusion over land tenure rights exists and Huascaran faces threats
from boundary encroachment, including spread of fire from pasture burning and overgrazing,
heavy hunting pressure, and from a major highway along the western side of the reserve
(Castro et al 1990).

Cordillera Central and Oriental

Small fragments of cloud forest are found scattered along the eastern slopes of both the
Cordillera Central and Oriental. Typically it is found between 1800 and 2500m, although it
extends up to 3600m on the higher parts of the range, although much has already been felled
or is being actively removed (Best and Clarke, 1991; in Wege and Long, 1995). This is
despite the fact that some of the cloud forest is within protected areas, such as Cutervo, Rio
Abiseo (described below), Tingo Maria and Yandchanga Chemillén. These contain some of
the most important forest relicts which are dominated with tree species of Cinchona, Cedrela
and Podocarpus. Both these areas and those which lack any protection which include Bosque
Unchog, Cerros Chacas, Cerros de Sira (which is connected to the East Andes by a low
ridge) and Cerros Chinguela, Leimebamba, Cumpang and Utcubamba, are important habitats
for a number of threatened bird species and mammals such as the ocelot Felis pardalis and the
giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridactila. They also play an important role in protecting the
watersheds of rivers which run down into the Amazon basin. However, these forests are all
under heavy pressure from fuelwood cutting, grazing and clearance for agriculture. A further
constraint is that those areas which have been set aside for protection are too small to ensure
the long-term viability of the ecosystems within them.

Rio Abiseo The Rio Abiseo National Park (total area 274,000ha) is situated in the northern
half of the Cordillera Oriental, to the west of Huicungo on the eastern slopes which run down
to the Amazon Basin. It includes the Abiseo River Basin and covers part of the watershed for
two other major rivers which are tributaries of the Amazon. Montane forests cover 53% of
the park. Forests above 2900m spend most of the year shrouded in fog caused by the cooling

174

Latin America : South

of air uplifted from the Amazon basin (Young ef al. 1994). Some of the area is renowned for
its primary cloud forest, which is reputed to be part of the Huallaga Pleistocene Refugia
surviving from before the last glaciation. This has led to a great species diversity and a high
degree of endemism (Narvaez, 1989). There is a high abundance of epiphytes with a dense
understorey of palms, vines, Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae. Tree species include Chusquea
spp. and Cedrela spp. (Young and Leon, 1989). The cloud forest supports a huge diversity of
birds, including nine threatened endemics and the South American pochard Nerta
erythrophthalma which is in danger of extinction. Notable mammals include the endemic
yellow-tailed woolly monkey Lagothrix flavicauda, a species originally thought to be extinct
by 1926 (Leo, 1980), and protected only in this park. In 1990 the Park was declared a World
Heritage Site in recognition of its unique natural and cultural resources. However continued
degradation threatens the important archeological sites, and the cloud forest has been under
pressure from hunting (now greatly reduced), and grazing pressure and burning from adjacent
areas. In addition there are plans to build a highway passing very close to the Park, but to
date funding has not been secured (Young ef al. (1994).

Cordillera Oriental de los Andes (South)

To the south, and further east into the Amazon basin, cloud forest is found on the eastern
slopes of the Cordillera protecting watersheds of the rivers below. In addition to patches in
Ampay and Macchu Picchu - some of which may already have been lost, cloud forest of
remarkable floral and faunal diversity is found within the Mand National Park. Ampay
contains the endemic tree species Podocarpus glomeratus, whilst almost 200 tree species have
been recorded in a one hectare plot near Cocha Cashu in Mani. It is also believed to be rich
in orchids, although the flora is poorly known. Declared a World Heritage Site in 1987,
Manu has a remarkable diversity of fauna, many of which are endemic.

Cordillera de Colan

This mountain range is in Amazonas Department, northern Peru. It is semi-isolated,
surrounded by lowlands except where it is joined to the Cordillera Central in the south-east.
Cloud forest is found both in the north, where it is heavily degraded, and in the south,
particularly the south-east where large areas remain, including Abra Patricia where the forest
appears to be untouched due to its inaccessibility. Montane cloud forest with canopy height of
20-25 metres is found at altitudes between 1800 and 2500m, with elfin ridge-top forest above,
up to c.2700m. The area experiences an unusually cool local climate, with frequent rainfall
which results in stunted forest at relatively low and thus accessible altitudes (Collar er al.,
1992). Tree species are not well documented, but include Cedrella spp, along with abundant
moss and epiphytes and many tree ferns. The forest is an important habitat for bird species,
five of which are threatened with extinction, including the military macaw Ara militaris

175

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

(Collar et al. 1994). Several threatened mammal species have also been recorded, of most
significance the yellow-tailed woolly monkey Lagothrix flavicauda, Andean night monkey
Aotus micronax and spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus. The recently rediscovered
(previously thought extinct) woolly monkey is found only in undisturbed humid montane
forest above 1800m. It is also found in Rio Abiseo National park, but in both areas its
survival is threatened by heavy hunting and loss of habitat. in addition to hunting. threats to
the cloud forest include cutting of Cedrella for timber, and clearance for cattle grazing and
lucrative drug cash crops (Davies ef al. 1994, in Wege and Long, 1995). Despite a number of
earlier recommendations for protection of this area, to date it is unprotected. Butchart er al.
following survey work in the area in 1994 conclude that the conservation situation is critical
with many threatened and important species dependent on an area with rapid rates of
deforestation. Urgent action should be taken to establish an effective protected area in the
southern part of the range (Butchart et al. 1995).

Cordillera del Céndor

This range of mountains spread down from the south of Ecuador with a small portion in the
north-west Peru. The forests protect the watersheds of the Comaina, Cenepa and Marafién
rivers, with cloud forest at between 1200 and 1500m. Little is. known about the fauna
although there are important bird species, including the orange-throated tanager
Wetmorethraupis sterrhopteron. Whilst part of the area is included in the Aguaruna Indian
Territory, no legal protection exists and the forests are under great pressure as both
Ecuadorian and Peruvian governments have encouraged local people to settle in the area, to
support respective territorial claims.

176

Latin America : South

VENEZUELA

Broadly speaking there are three main mountain groups in Venezuela: the Andes in the north
west of the country, the Cordillera de la Costa to the north along the Caribbean coast and the
Guayana Highlands in the south and on the border with Brazil. The Coastal Cordillera, which
is often viewed as an extension of the Andes, is in fact much older (beginning to uplift in the
late Cretaceous) and its geological history is quite different (Steyermark, 1979). The Guayana
Shield comprises some of the oldest Precambrian mountain formations which range in age
from 2000 to 1800 million years (Huber and Frame 1989).

Venezuela is rich in tropical montane cloud forests. The largest tracts are found along the
Andes and the Cordillera de la Costa, but there are also important areas in southern
Venezuela and some outlying patches on Margarita Island and the Paraguana Peninsula.
Cloud forests are generally encountered at altitudes between 800 and 2500m, although there is
much variation within the country. "Typical" cloud forest is found between 1800-2400m in
the Andes and would fall within the Upper Montane Rain Forest category of Grubb (1974).
However, the Cordillera de la Costa and isolated mountains (Cerro El Copey and Cerro Santa
Ana) show cloud forest at much lower elevations (even as low as 750m), due to the so-called
Massenerhebung effect (Grubb, 1971; Grubb and Whitmore 1966). The Guayana shield also
has cloud forest at a variety of elevations (including the "typical" 1800-2400m) depending on
orographic factors. Finally, it is worth mentioning the microphyllous or nanophyllous elfin
forests which are found locally at the summits of small isolated mountains, on tepui summits
in Guayana and at the upper limit of forest (3000-3800) in the Andes (and locally in the
higher mountains of the Coastal Cordillera). This latter forest corresponds to Grubb's
Subalpine Forest and typical genera include Befaria (Ericaceae), Brunellia (Brunelliaceae),
Clusia (Clusiaceae), Gynoxys (Asteraceae), Miconia (Melastomataceae), Rhamnus
(Rhamnaceae) and Weinmannia (Cunoniaceae) (Grubb, 1974; Prance, 1989).

These cloud forests are extremely rich in endemism, both in flora (Huber and Frame 1988)
and fauna (Cracraft, 1985, Steyermark, 1979).

Regarding threats, protection and management, the cloud forests of Venezuela fall easily into
two groups based on a north-south division. Those of northern Venezuela are relatively to
extremely well known, and many of them are legally protected; there is intense pressure on
these forests and legal provisions are not always sufficient to guarantee protection. Most of
the forests outside protected areas have been degraded or destroyed by encroachment,
agriculture (including drug production) and livestock raising. One of the most significant
areas outside protection is the eastern slopes of the Andes, particularly as this zone has been
largely converted throughout the rest of the Andes.

177

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

In comparison the cloud forests of southern Venezuela are not particularly well studied: many
of them also fall within existing protected areas, although the management of these areas Is
minimal. However there is very little threat to these forests.

References

Berry, P.E., B.K. Holst and K. Yatskievych (Eds.) 1995. Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana.
Volume 1: Introduction. Missouri Botancical Garden and Timber Press, Portland,
USA. 320 pp. + maps.

Braun, A. 1994. Palmas de la Selva Nublada de Venezuela. Impresos Luis Urbina.
Caracas, Venezuela. 54 pp.

Collar, N.J., L.P. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madrofio, L.G. Naranjo, T. Parker and D.C.
Wege 1992. Threatened Birds of the Americas: the ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book (Third
Edition, Part 2). International Council for Bird Preservation. Cambridge, UK.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby and A.J. Stattersfield 1994. Birds to Watch 2: The World List of
Threatened Birds. BirdLife Conservation Series No. 4. BirdLife International.
Cambridge, UK.

Cracraft, J. 1985. Historical biogeography and patterns of differentiation within the South
American avifauna: areas of endemism. Pp. 49-84 in Buckley, P.A. ef al. (Eds.)
Neotropical Ornithology. Ornithological Monographs No. 36. American
Ornithologists' Union. Washington, USA.

Eisenberg, J.F. 1989. Mammals of the Neotropics. The Northern Neotropics. Venue He

Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, French Guiana. Chicago University Press.

Chicago, USA. 449 pp.

Fjeldsa, J. and N. Krabbe 1990. Birds of the High Andes. Zoological Museum, University of
Copenhagen & Apollo Books. Svendborg, Denmark. 876 pp.

Grubb, P.J. 1971. Interpretation of the "Massenerhebung" effect on tropical mountains.

Nature 229:44-45

Grubb, P.J. 1974. Factors controlling the distribution of forest types on mountains: New facts

and new perspective. Pp. 13-46 in Flenley, J.R. (Ed.) Altitudinal Zonation in Malaysia.

Trans. 3rd Aberdeen-Hull Symposium on Malaysian Ecology, Univ. Hull, Dept. Geography,

Miscellaneous Series 16.

Grubb, P.J. and T.C. Whitmore 1966. A comparison of montane and lowland rainforest in
Ecuador II. The climate and its effects on the distribution and physionomy of the
forests. J. Ecol. 51:567-601.

Hoyos, J. 1985. Flora de la Isla de Margarita, Venezuela. Sociedad y Fundacion La Salle de
Ciencias Naturales. Caracas, Venezuela. 927 pp.

Huber, O. and C. Alarcon 1988. Mapa de la Vegetacién de Venezuela. Ministerio del

Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables and BIOMA. Caracas, Venezuela. Map.

178

Latin America : South

Huber, O. and D. Frame 1989. Venezuela. Pp. 362-374 in Campbell, D.G. and H.D.
Hammond (Eds.) Floristic Inventory of Tropical Countries. New York Botanical
Gardens and World Wildlife Fund.

Huber, O. (Ed.) 1992. El Macizo del Chimanta, Escudo de Guayana, Venezuela: Un Ensayo
Ecologico Tepuyano. Oscar Todtman. Caracas, Venezuela.

Huber, O. 1995. Guayana Venezolana: Mapa de Vegetacion. CVG-EDELCA and Missouri
Botanical Garden. Caracas, Venezuela. Map.

Johnston, J.R. 1909. Flora of the islands of Margarita and Coche, Venezuela. Contrib. Gray.
Herb. Harv. Univ. 37:1-149.

MARNR. 1986. Estudio integral del medio fisico-natural del Cerro Turimiquire, Edos.

Anzoategui, Monagas y Sucre, Venezuela. Serie Informes Técnicos. Zona 12y13/IT/199.

Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables. Barcelona-Maturin,

Venezuela. 133 pp.

Prance, G.T. 1989. American Tropical Forests. Pp. 99-132 in Leith, H. and M.J.A. Werner
(Eds.). Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems. Biogeographical and Ecological Studies.
Ecosystems of the World 14B. Elsevier. Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Rodriguez, J.P. and F. Rojas-Suarez 1995. Libro Rojo de la Fauna Venezolana. Provita &
Fundacion Polar. Caracas, Venezuela. 444 pp.

Schubert, C. and O. Huber 1990. The Gran Sabana: Panorama of a Region. Lagoven

Booklets. Caracas, Venezuela. 107 pp.

Sharpe, C.J. (in press). Una lista de las aves del Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria.

Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela.

Steyermark, J.A. 1966. El Cerro Turumiquire y la region oriental adyacente. Acta Bot.

Venez. 1(3-4):104-168.

Steyermark, J.A. y G. Agostini 1966. Exploracién botanica del Cerro Patao y zonas
adyacentes a Puerto Hierro, en la Peninsula de Paria, Edo. Sucre. Acta Bot. Venez.
1(2):7-80.

Steyermark, J.A. 1973. Preservemos las cumbres de la Peninsula de Paria. Def. Nat. Ano
2:33-35.

Steyermark, J.A. 1975. Flora de la Sierra de San Luis (Edo. Falcén, Venezuela) y sus

afinidades fitogeograficas. Acta Bot. Venez. 10(1/4):131-218.

Steyermark, J.A. 1977. Areas de bosques himedos de Venezuela que requieren proteccion.
Pp. 83-95 in: Hamilton, L.S. J.A. Steyermark, J.P. Veillon & E. Mondolfi (Eds.).
Conservacion de los Bosques Humedos de Venezuela. Sierra Club & Consejo de
Bienestar Rural. Caracas, Venezuela. 181 pp.

Steyermark, J.A. 1979. Plant refuge and dispersal centres in Venezuela: their relict and

endemic element. Pp. 185-221 in: K. Larsen and L.B. Holm-Nielsen (Eds.). Tropical Botany.

Academic Press. London, UK and New York, USA.

Steyermark, J.A. and G.C.K. Dunsterville 1980. The lowland floral element on the summit
of Cerro Guaiquinima and other cerros of the Guayana Highland of Venezuela. J.
Biogeogr. 7:284-303.

179

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Steyermark, J.A. y F. Delascio 1985. Contribuciones a la flora de la Cordillera de Perija,.
Edo. Zulia-Venezuela. Bol..Soc. Venez. Ciencias Nat. 40(143):153-325.

Sugden, A. 1986. Montane vegetation and flora of Margarita Island. J. Arnold Arboretum
67:187-232. !

Tamayo, F. 1941. Exploraciones botanicas en la Peninsula de Paraguana, Estado Falcon. Bol.

Soc. Venez. Ci. Nat. 7:1-90.

Viloria, A.L. 1995. Perija: Visiones y detalles de la historia, la naturaleza y el hombre. Draft

manuscript. {PARA PUBLICAR DONDE?

Wege, D.C. and A.J. Long 1995. Key Areas for Threatened Birds in the Neotropics. BirdLife

Conservation Series No. 5. BirdLife International Cambridge, UK.

180

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VENEZUELA

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VENEZUELA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 31/07/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Te ene eee eee ee
Cerro El Copey Cerro El Copey 11°00'N/ 64°00'W Yes
Cerro Santa Ana Cerro Santa Ana 11°49'N/ 69°56'W ves |
Cordillera de la Costa Central Cerro Platillon 9°S3'N/ 67°32'W Yes
El Avila 10°32'N/ 66°40'W Yes
Guatopo 10°O5'N/ 66°29'W Yes
Hato Jaguar 10°24'N/ 68°55'W No
Henri Pittier 10°28'N/ 67°51'W Yes
Macarao 10°22'N/ 67°09'W Yes
Nirgua / No |
Palmichal 10°22'N/ 67°53'W Yes
Pico Codazzi 10°25'N/ 67°19'W Yes
San Esteban 10°20'N/ 68°00'W Yes
Sierra de Aroa 10°25'N/ 68°50'W res |
Cordillera de la Costa Oriental Cerro Azul 10°40'N/ 62°00'W Yes
Cerro Humo 10°41'N/ 62°38'W Yes
Cerro Peonia 10°11'N/ 64°07'W No
Cerro Turumiquire 10°07'N/ 63°52'W Yes |
El Guacharo (Cerro Negro) 10°12'N/ 63°36'W Yes
Cordillera de los Andes El Tama 7°31'N/ 72°15'W Yes
El Zumbador Forest if. No
Guaramacal 9°11'N/ 70°10'W Yes |
La Carbonera/San Eusebio if, No
Pdramos Molino y Rio Negro 8°30'N/ 71°30'W No
Paramos del Batallon y La Negra 7°54'N/ 72°00'W ia
Sierra de Barbacoas 9°30'N/ 70°11'W Yes
Sierras de la Culata y Nevada 8°44'N/ 71°05'W Yes
Terepaima 9°53'N/ 69°16'W Yes
Yacambu 9°40'N/ 69°32'W Yes |
Duida Subcentre Autana / No
Cerro Aracamuni / No
Cerro Aratitiyope - if No
Cerro Avispa Hf No |
Cerro Guaiquinima / No
Coro-coro / No
Duida-Marahuaca 3°29'N/ 65°30'W Yes
Guanacoco / No
Guanay / No
Huachamacari © / No
Ichun / No |
Jaua / No
La Neblina 1°14'N/ 65°53'W Yes
Marutani / No
Pard / No |
Sarisarinama /] No
Serrania Vinilla / No
Serrania del Tigre / No
Sierra Curupira / No
Sierra Imera if No
Sierra Maigualida / No
Sierra Parima / No |
Sierra Tapirapeco / No
Sierra Unturan / No
Sipapo-Cuao / No
Yapacana / No
Yavi / No
Yutajé / No
Gran Sabana Auyan-Tepui 5°49'N/ 62°35'W Yes
Cerro Venamo / No i
Chimanta 5°23'N/ 62°08'W Yes
Kukenan 5°21'N/ 60°58'W Yes

pO eee EE ee see
Date: 31/07/97

Protected*

Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?

Roraima 5°14'N/ 60°47'W Yes

Sierra de Lema 5°S8'N/ 61°47'W Yes

Sierra de Perija Sierra de Perija 10°04'N/ 72°45'W Yes

Sierra de San Luis Sierra de San Luis 11°10'N/ 69°40'W Yes
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with

CF Regions= 9 CF Sites= 64 an element of protection = 31

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Venezuela

Cerro El Copey

On this isolated mountain found on the Isla de Margarita, the annual’ precipitation reaches
only 1000mm, but nevertheless a scrubby cloud forest is found from about 700m to the
summit at 930m (Hoyos, 1985).

Cerro Santa Ana

An isolated mountain located on the Peninsula de Paraguand on the Caribbean coast in the
north of the country, Santa Ana supports cloud forest at low altitudes up to 830m. A
characteristic and endemic understorey palm is Geonoma paraquanensis (Braun,

Cordillera de la Costa Central

The Cordillera de la Costa Central extends from the Yaracuy-Barquisimeto Depression in the
west to the Unare Depression in the east. The highest peak is Pico Naiguata in El Avila at
2765m, north of Caracas. Cloud forests are frequent between 1000 and 2000m, sometimes
down to 700m (Huber, 1988). Specific sites within this region include Cerro Platillon, El
Avila, Guatopo, Henri Pittier, Nirgua, Palmichal, San Esteban, Hato Jaguar and Sierra de
Aroa.

The Cordillera de la Costa, unlike the Andes, shows a significant relationship with the
Guayana, with elements such as Froesia including the rare and endemic tree species Froezia
venezuelensis (Quinaceae), Macrocentrum, Gloeospermum, Stephanopodium, Elvasia,
Cespedesia and Roucheria (Steyermark, 1979). The dominant tree of the transitional cloud
forest through the Cordillera is the endemic Gyranthera caribensis and at El Avila,
Podocarpus salcifolius and Catoblastus praemorsus are characteristic (Amend, 1991). Typical
palms include the emergent Ceroxylon interrupt C. klopstockia and Socratea altissima and
understorey species such as Geonoma spp. and Hyospathe pittieri (Braun, 1994), and Bactris
and Euterpe spp. (Huber, 1986). These cloud forests are also rich in epiphytes including
Orchidaceae, Bromeliaceae, Gesneriaceae, Ericaceae, Pteridophyta. Characteristic endemic
bird taxa include Pyrrhura hoematotis, Pionus sordidus, Synallaxis castanea, Grallaria
Cloricata, Phlloscartes venezuelanus, Tangara rufigenis (Cracraft, 1985). The antpitta
Grallaria excelsa, found elsewhere only in the Andes also occurs. Amongst the mammals, the
threatened cats Leopardus tigrinus and L. wiedii occur.

184

Latin America : South

As with the Cordillera de los Andes, many of the cloud forests in this region have at least
partial effective protection, falling within National Park and other protected area boundaries.
Pressures and management issues in E] Avila are well described in Amend (1991). Some
areas however, such as Guatopo still contain valuable cloud forest which is not protected
(Steyermark, 1979).

Cordillera de la Costa Oriental

The Cordillera de la Costa Oriental extends from the Unare Depression to the tip of the
Peninsula de Paria, and consists of two massifs: the Caripe Highlands and the Peninsula de
Paria. The Caripe area includes Cerro Peonia, Cerro Turumiquire (2596m) and El Guacharo
(Cerro Negro). These forests include an endemic montypic genus, Croizatia (Euphorbiaceae)
(Steyermark, 1977) and Turumiquire holds 37 endemic plant species while El Guacharo has
38 (Steyermark, 1979). The threatened Campylopterus ensipennis, Margarornis tatet,
Diglossa venezuelensis and Basileuterus griseiceps occur, all but the first Venezuelan
endemics. Main peaks on the Peninsula de Paria are the Cerros de Humo (1308m), Patao,
Olvido and Azul. Cloud forest is split into a western section on Cerro de Humo, and on the
other three peaks to the east. Due to the maritime location and the Massenerhebung effect,
cloud forest is found at 750m on the southern slopes and even lower on the north. These
forest support 29 endemic plant species including Besleria hirsutissima, B. mortoniana,
Heliconia steyermarkii, Elvasia steyermarkii, Topobea steyermarkii, Piper pariense, Ixora
agostiana and threatened endemic birds suchas Hylonympha macrocerca, Myioborus pariae,
Camylopterus ensipennis, Margarornis tatei, Basileuterus griseiceps, and Diglossa
venezuelensis. Apart from the endemic element, there is some affinity with Trinidad
(Camylopterus ensipennis) and with the tepuiparrotlet Platycentrum clidemoides, and the fer-
de-lance Lachesis muta from the Guayana Highlands (Wege and Long, 1995).

Cordillera de los Andes

This region covers the north-eastern branch of the Andes from the border with Colombia to
the Yaracuy-Barquisimeto Depression in Edos. Lara and Yaracuy. It includes the highest
altitudes in Venezuela, to just over 5000m, and important areas of cloud forest in the Tama
upland, Mérida Andes and Trujillo-Portuguesa-Lara. Cloud forest sites include Guaramacal,
Sierras de la Culata y Nevada, Sierra de Barbacoas, Sierra Nevada, Terepaima and Yacambu.
Tama and the Mérida Andes are separated by the 40km arid Tachira depression, a fact which
has resulted in notable endemisms and some considerable differences between the two biotas.
Typical cloud forest tree species include Podocarpus (P. rospigliosi, P. montanus, P.
pendulifolius, P. Coleifolius), Escallonia, Weinmannia, Rubus, Chusquea. In Tama the fauna
and flora show more affinity with the Colombian Cordillera Oriental than with the rest of the
Venezuelan Andes: 145 species and 39 subspecies of flowering plant as well as 6 species of

185

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

bird reach their north-eastern limit here. The frog Arelopus tamaense is endemic, and
threatened mammals include Dinomys branickii. Threatened bird species include Pauxi pauxt.
Haplopsittaca amazonina, Grallaria cucullata and the endemic Grallaria chthonia (Wege and
Long, 1995). In the Mérida Andes threatened birds include Coturnicops notata, and the
endemic Hemispingus goeringi (Wege and Long, 1995), and there are a number of
endangered endemic frog species such as Atelopus mucubajensis, A. oxyrhynchus, A. pirangot
and A. sorianoi (Rodriguez and Rojas-Sudrez, 1995). This area also includes Zumbador-
Paramos Batallén y la Negra, where there are abundant epiphytes and bromeliads, such as
Greigia (Bromeliaceae), and La Carbonera/San Eusebio which is an unusual Andean forest
which has developed on fairly flat terrain and contains magnificent specimens of Podocarpus
spp., and rare and endemic species such as Psychotria aristeguietae, and Oreopanax veillonit.
In addition the eastern slopes of the Andes hold thousands of hectares of cloud forests with
many rare and endemic species such Guettarda bernardii. In Trujillo-Portuguesa-Lara, in
particular there are many cloud forests with rare plants such as the trees Talauma
dodecocandra and Simira myriantha, and rare orchids, such as Cyrtidium rhomboglossum.
Many other Andean flora reach their easternmost limit here (Steyermark, 1977; No.32).
Characteristic mammalian endemics of the cloud forests of the north-eastern Andes (including
Colombia) are Marmosa dryas, Cryptotis thomasi, spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus,
Nasuella olivacea, Oryzomys minutus (also occurs in the Cordillera de la Costa), Aepeomys
lugens, Thomasomys aureus, Chilomys instans and Agouti taczanowskii (Eisenberg, 1989).

Many of the cloud forest areas described above have at least partial effective protection,
falling within National Park boundaries.

Duida Subcentre

The Duida Subcentre (and Gran Sabana) is part of the Guayana Highlands, the largest
mountain formation in the country, which are a Pre-Cambrian sandstone formation
characterised by the mountain structures known as "tepuis". Cloud forests are located on the
mid and upper slopes of these mountains (where these are not sheer vertical) and - in the case
of several tepuis - on the summits themselves. The Duida area is found further west and south
than the Gran Sabana, moving close to the border with Brazil. It includes the Cerro
Guaiquinima (1700m), the summit of which is 40% forested (Steyermark and Dunsterville,
1980), and the large tepui massifs of Jaua, Sarisarifiama and Guanacoco, which reach 2000m,
along with to the south-east Ichin and Marutani (1500m) and to the north Sierra Maigualida
(2400m) (Huber and Alarcon, 1988). In addition it includes part of the mountainous area of
eastern Edo. Bolivar and the northern Edo. Aamazonas (1600-2400m). The main massifs are
Sipapo-Cuao and Autana in the west (including the southerly Cerro Aracapo, Cerro Gallinero,
etc.); and Guanay, Coro-coro, Yutajé and Yavi in the north (Huber and Alarcon, 1988). To
the centre, Pari, Duida-Marahuaca, Huachamacari which range from 1600 to 2800m, and the

186

Latin America : South

outlying Yapacana (1200m) and Serrania del Tigre are found. The Sierra Parima extends
along the eastern frontier of Edo. Amazonas with Brazil and includes low mountains (to
1500m) (Huber and Alarc6n, 1988). Moving to the extreme south of Venezuela onthe border
with Brazil, the most significant mountains are Sierra de la Neblina (at 3045m, the highest
point in the Guayana Highlands), Cerro Avispa, Cerro Aracamuni, Sierra Imeri, Sierra
Unturan, Serrania Vinilla, Cerro Aratitiyope, Sierra Tapirapeco and Sierra Curupira. The
Sierra de la Neblina is the richest and most diverse area of Pantepui (Huber and Alarcon,
1988). Bird species endemic to the Duida Subcentre include Philydor hylobius (Cacraft,
1985), and the threatened Guaiquinima Redstart Myioborus cardonai is endemic to Cerro
Guaiquinima (Collar et al. 1994). The frog Minyobates steyermarki is endemic to Yapacana.
Many of these forests are found within protected areas, either national parks (including the
spectacular 3 million ha Canaima National Park and World Heritage Site) or the Tepuis
Nature Monument which includes all tepuis. However, the latter often includes only the
summits. Despite legal protection, some of these cloud forests have already been degraded by
mining activities. For example, although the Jaua-Sarisarifiama National Park legally protects
the two tepuis massifs of Jaua, Sarisarifiama, there are no local personnel and the area is
currently being invaded by miners.

Gran Sabana

The Gran Sabana (and the Duida Subcentre) is part of the Guayana Highlands, the largest
mountain formation in the country, which are a Pre-Cambrian sandstone formation
characterised by the mountain structures known as "tepuis". Cloud forests are located on the
mid and upper slopes of these mountains (where these are not sheer vertical) and - in the case
of several tepuis - on thesummits themselves. The Gran Sabana itself includes the high plain
between the low tepuis of Sierra de Lema and Cerro Venamo in the north and Sierra
Pakaraima in the south; its eastern limit is the border with Guyana and in the west it limts
with Ptari- tepui north of Kavanayén (Huber and Alarcon, 1988). Although thearea is
typically a forest-savanna mosaic, and the presence of true cloud forest is questionnable, there
are some areas which have high montane forests which are covered in orographic mists
during a large part of the year. The surrounding region also includes the Eastern Tepuis: Uei-
tepui, Roraima (2723m), Kukenan, Yuruani-tepui, Ilu-tepui and Tramen-tepui (Huber and
Alarcon, 1988), and the Auydn-tepui and Chimanta massifs as well as the outlying tepuis
Ptari-tepui, &a7CSororopan-tepui, Los Testigos, Uaipan-tepui, Aprada-tepui, Upuigma-tepui
and Angasima-tepui. It also includes the north- facing slopes of the low tepuis Sierra de Lema
(La Escalera) andCerro Venamo. Altitude generally ranges between 1500 and 2650m. The
flora of these mountains is extraordinary with a 10-50% endemism per mountain (Steyermark
1977). The Auyan-tepui/Chimantaé complex is one of the richest centres in Pantepui (Huber
and Alarc6én, 1988). The Sierra de Lema-Venamo area alone has numerous endemics
including Phainantha myrteoloides, Platycarpum rugosum, Sloanea crassifolia, Guzmania
venamensis, G. steyermarkii, Ladenbergia venamoensis, Cottendorfia gracillima, Solanum

187

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

rufistellatum, S. puberuloba, and Cyphomandra bolivarensis although not all of these are
exclusive to cloud forest habitats. Representative endemic avian taxa of the Gran Sabana
Subcentre are Crypturellus ptaritepui, Pyrrhura egregia, Campylopterus hyperthrus, Lipaugus
streptophorus, Todirotrum russatum, and Spordiornis rusticus (Cracratt, 1985). The
threatened Crypturellus ptaritepui is apparently endemic to Ptari-tepui (Collar er al. 1994).
Characteristic mammalian endemics of the cloud forests of the Guayana highlands are
Marmosa tyleriana and Sciurusflammifer (Eisenberg, 1989). Endemic amphibians include
frogs of the genus Stefania (3 spp.), the frog Otophryne robusta and Oreophrynella quelchii.
Many of these forests are found within protected areas, either national parks (including the
spectacular 3 million ha Canaima National Park and World Heritage Site) or the Tepuis
Nature Monument which includes all tepuis. However, the latter often includes only the
summits. Despite legal protection, some of these cloud forests have already been degraded by
mining activities.

Sierra de Perija

A spur of the Colombian Cordillera Oriental, found on the borderwith Colombia this
mountain range reaches over 3600m. Cloud forests are found between 1200 and 2500m. The
flora has a strongColombian affinity (e.g. Peperomia discilimba, Psychotria erythrocephala)
and is related closely to that of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. A relationship with the
Cordillera de la Costa is shown by the presence of Psiguria racemosa, a species otherwise
restricted to the former mountain range. Thereis strong endemism including Miconia
limitaris, M. perijaensis, Calea perijaensis, Senecio perijaensis, Chimarrhis perijaensis,
Pterogastra glabra, Baskevillea venezuelana Pleurothallis hypocrita, Pterichis latifolia,
Spermacoce perijaensis (Steyermark, 1979). Endemic butterflies include the browns
Lymanopoda altaselva,Pedaliodes cesarense, P. suspiro, P. vallenata, P.tyrrheoides and P.
zuleta (Rodriguez and Rojas-Suarez, 1995). Characteristic endemic bird taxa include
Metallura iracunda and a number of subspecies (Cracraft, 1985). Threatened birds Cinclude
Clytoctantes alixi, although this has not been seen for many years. The oncilla Leopardus
tigrinus and Oryzomys minutus alsooccur. The Venezuelan portion of the range is particularly
important for conservation as the Colombian sector has been largely deforested. Although
much of the area is protected by the Perija National Park, cultivation of coca, poppies and
marihuana is rife and theSierra is being deforested from the top down, as well as the bottom
up (by ganaderia), a rather unique situation. Cordillera de los Andes This region covers the
north-eastern branch of the Andes from the border with Colombia to the Yaracuy-
Barquisimeto Depression in dos. Lara and Yaracuy. It includes the highest altitudes in
Venezuela, to just over 5000m, and important areas of cloud forest in the Tama upland,
Mérida Andes and Trujillo-Portuguesa-Lara. Cloud forest sites include Guaramacal, Sierras
de la Culata y Nevada, Sierra de Barbacoas, Sierra Nevada, Terepaima and Yacambu. Tama
and the Mérida Andes are separated by the 40km arid Tachiradepression, a fact which has

188

Latin America : South

resulted in notable endemisms and some considerable differences between the two biotas.
Typical cloud forest tree species include Podocarpus (P. rospigliosi, P. montanus, P.
pendulifolius, P. oleifolius), Escallonia, Weinmannia, Rubus,Chusquea. In Tama the fauna
and flora show more affinity with the Colombian Cordillera Oriental than with the rest of the
Venezuelan Andes: 145 species and 39 subspecies of flowering plant as well as 6 species of
bird reach their north-eastern limit here. The frog Atelopus tamaense is endemic, and
threatened mammals includeDinomys branickii. Threatened bird species include Pawxi pauxi,
Haplopsittaca amazonina, Grallaria cucullata and the endemic Grallaria chthonia (Wege and
Long, 1995). In the Mérida Andes threatened birds include Coturnicops notata, and the
endemic Hemispingus goeringi (Wege and Long, 1995), and there are a number of
endangered endemic frog species such as Atelopus mucubajensis, A. oxyrhynchus, A. pirangoi
and A. sorianoi (Rodriguez and Rojas-Suarez, 1995). This area also includes Zumbador-
Paramos Batallon y la Negra, where there are abundant epiphytes and bromeliads, such as
Greigia (Bromeliaceae), and La Carbonera/San Eusebio which is an unusual Andean forest
which has developed on fairly flat terrain and contains magnificent specimens of Podocarpus
spp., and rare and endemic species such as Psychotria aristeguietae, and Oreopanax veillonii.
In addition the eastern slopes of the Andes hold thousands of hectares of cloud forests with
many rare and endemic species such as Guettarda bernardii. In Trujillo-Portuguesa-Lara, in
particular there are many cloud forests with rare plants such as the trees Talauma
dodecocandra and Simira myriantha, and rare orchids, such as Cyrtidium rhomboglossum.
Many other Andean flora reach their easternmost limit here (Steyermark, 1977; No.32).
Characteristic mammalian endemics of the cloud forests of the north-eastern Andes (including
Colombia) are Marmosa dryas, Cryptotis thomasi, spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus,
Nasuella olivacea, Oryzomys minutus (also occurs in the Cordillera de la Costa), Aepeomys
lugens, Thomasomys aureus, Chilomys instans and Agouti taczanowskii (Eisenberg, 1989).
Many of the cloud forest areas described above have at least partial effective protection,
falling within National Park boundaries.

Sierra de San Luis

The Sierra de San Luis reaches 1300m and its humid forests are separated from both the
Andes and the Cordillera de la Costa by 120km of arid lands. This isolation, coupled with an
unusual limestone topography, has led to the evolution of endemic species such as Geonoma
paraguanensis (Palmae), Epidendrum garcianum (Orchidaceae), Urticularia bintingii,
Melanea sanluisensis, and Asketanthera steyermarkii, amongst others. The avifauna is more
closely related to the Cordillera de la Costa than the Andes.

189

Ds
f

p ry ty vm! 7 any

PART THREE

SOUTH EAST ASIA

Australia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
India
Indonesia
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Papua New Guinea
Philippines —
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

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South East Asia

AUSTRALIA

Tropical rain forest, including montane forest, in Australia occupies a very small part of the
northeast of Queensland. In the hills especially on the Atherton Tableland, much has been
removed for cattle farms resulting in scattered patches of forest. In 1988, logging of the rain
forest was banned and the bulk of the remaining forested areas were protected. Pressures of
the forest include fires escaping from sugar-cane fields (Collins et al. 1991; Davis er al..
1995; WCMC unpubl. data).

References

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). 1991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. UCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &
Schuster, New York. pp.335.

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant diversity:

a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

Richards, P.W. 1996. The tropical rain forest: an ecological study. 2nd ed. Cambridge

University Press.

193

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AUSTRALIA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Great Dividing Range MCF Mount Bartle Frere MCF 17°35'S/145°48'E No
Mount Bellenden Ker MCF 17°63'S/145°52'E No

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 2 an element of protection = 0

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Australia

Great Dividing Range

The Great Dividing Range lies roughly parallel to the coast and between Townville and
Cooktown, an altitude of 900m is reached in many areas. Upper montane rain forest may be
found in the highest sites on the range, for example on Mount Bartle Frere (1612m) the
highest peak, and also on Mount Bellenden Ker (1561m) (Collins er al. Eds.), 1991: Davies
et al. (Eds.), 1995).

196

South East Asia

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

Forest exploitation in Brunei has been limited in the small wealthy Sultanate of Brunei
Darussalam. About 59% of the land area, therefore, is still under primary forest. The only
montane forest in Brunei is found in Batu Apoi Forest Reserve and covers 1.2 per cent of the
land area (Collins et al. (Eds.), 1991; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995).

References

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). 1991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. UCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &
Schuster, New York. pp.335.

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant diversity:

a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

197

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Forest Reserve, Ulu

5058680686858

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97
Protected*™
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Batu Apoi Forest Reserve, Ulu Bukit Belalong 4°29'N/115°12'°E Yes
Bukit Lesong / Yes
Bukit Tudal / Yes
Gunung Pagon 4°20'N/115°19'E Yes
Gunung Retak if Yes

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 5 an element of protection = 5

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Brunei Darussalam

Batu Apoi Forest Reserve, Ulu Temburong

The only montane forest in Brunei is found in the Batu Apoi Forest Reserve. It develops at an
altitude of between 700-900m, with upper montane forest generally developing between
1000m and 1200m. Montane forest may be found on the following five peaks: Gunung Pagon
(1850m), Gunung Retak (1618m), Bukit Lesong (1192m), Bukit Tudal (1181m) and Bukit
Belalong (915m). This forest is valued as a catchment area for three main rivers: the
Temburong, Temawai and Belalong and is protected in the Ulu Temburong/Batu Apoi
Primary Conservation Area. The montane forest is said to include plants of potential
economic importance as ornamentals, which would need to be harvested with care. The
Reserve is known to have a rich fauna with many of northern Borneo's larger mammals
represented. Potential threats to the area include increased visitor pressure (Collins ef al.
(Eds.), 1991; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995).

200

South East Asia

CAMBODIA

The plain of the Lower Mekong River, which comprises much of Cambodia, is densely
populated and mostly under rice cultivation. Upland areas lies in the southwest of the country.
namely in the Chaines des Cardamomes and Chaines de |'Elephant (Davis er al. (Eds.),
1995).

References
Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant diversity:

a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

201

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CAMBODIA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Chaines des Cardamomes Phnom Aural 12°01'N/104°11'E No
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 1 an element of protection = 0

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Cambodia

Chaines des Cardamomes

Phnom Aural (1813m) and Phnom Tumpor (1563m) are the two highest points in the
Cardamom Mountains. This is, however, a poorly known area largely due to military
conflicts, but it is thought that Phnom Aural, in particular, could be important for endemism
and may contain a small area of cloud forest (Davis er al. (Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl.
data).

204

South East Asia

CHINA

The tropical zone of China is located in the southwest of the Province Yunnan and in the
islands of Hainan and Taiwan. The natural vegetation of this tropical zone includes montane
evergreen forests and cloud forests on the highest peaks. The faunal affinities of this zone are
largely Indo-Malayan. Much of the natural vegetation, however, has been destroyed or
disturbed by man. The main threats to the remaining areas are deforestation, shifting
cultivation, fire, population pressure, hunting, fuel collection and plantations. Tropical
montane cloud forests, as such, are not thought to occur in Yunnan or Taiwan, although in
Yunnan, between July and August, cloud level is high at above 2750m on the western slope
of the Diancang Shan range (west of Dali) and between 2800-3500m on the eastern side of the
range. The cloud level becomes still higher, above 3400m on the south slope of the
Yulongxue Shan (near Lijiang) (Collins et al. (Eds.), 1991; Shimizu, 1991; Ohsawa, 1993;
Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995; Mackinnon ef al. 1996).

References

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). 1991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. UCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &
Schuster, New York. pp.335.

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant diversity:

a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

Mackinnon, J., Meng Sha, Cheung, C., Carey, G., Zhu Xiang and Melville, D. 1996. A
biodiversity review of China. WWF-International.

Ohsawa, M. 1993. The montane cloud forest and its gradational changes in southeast Asia.
In: Tropical montane cloud forests: proceedings of an international symposium (L.S.
Hamilton, J.O. Juvik & F.N. Scatena, eds.). East-West Center, Hawai'i. pp.163-170.

Shimizu, Y. 1991. Forest types and vegetation zones of Yunnan, China. Journal of the
Faculty of Science (University of Tokyo), Section 3,15:1-71.

205

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CHINA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
ee eee ee A AS OS Se ES i ee ee ee ee EEE EE EE EEE
Hainan Island Wuzhi Mountain 18°57'N/109°42'E Yes
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with

CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 1 an element of protection = 1

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: China

Hainan Island

In the middle and south of Hainan are mountains that are generally over 500m, with about 80
peaks higher than 1000m. Mount Wuzhi is the highest peak at 1867m. Wuzhi Mountain is
included in the Wu Zhi Shan Nature Reserve. Elfin mossy forests are found above an altitude
of 1600m. In these forests, the trees are about 5m high and there are abundant mosses and
lichens (Mackinnon et al. 1996).

208

South East Asia

INDIA

One of the main area of tropical rain forest in the Indian Peninsula is found in the Western
Ghats, which fringes the Arabian Sea coastline. This area contains montane forest (Collins er
al. (Eds.), 1991).

References
Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). 1991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. 'UCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &

Schuster, New York. pp.335.
FAO. 1989. Classification and mapping of vegetation types in tropical Asia. FAO, Rome.

209

~

— ee. DG

INDIA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 07/07/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Western Ghats Anamalai Hills 10°O8'N/ 77°12'E Yes
Nilgiri Hills 11°22'N/ 76°44'E Yes
Palni Hills 10°14'N/ 77°23'E Yes

Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with

CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 3 an element of protection = 3

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: India

Western Ghats

The Western Ghats contain evergreen and semi-evergreen high elevation (above 1400m)
climax forests. One source estimates the area of montane forest in the Western Ghats to be
greater than 4000sq.km. Some of the largest areas of montane forest are found in the Nilgiri,
Palni and Anamalai Hills. Doda Betta (2636m), of the Nilgiri Hills, and Anai Mudi (2695m),
of the Anamalai Hills, are the two highest mountains in the Western Ghats (Collins er al.
(Eds.), 1991; FAO, 1989; WCMC unpubl. data).

212

South East Asia

INDONESIA

Indonesia has a total territory of about 780 million hectares. It comprises a 4500km long
chain of islands stretching from Sumatra in the west to Irian Jaya in the east and is located
between the continents of Asia and Australia and the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The total area
of upper montane forest in Indonesia is estimated to be 29,029sq.km, i.e. 2.5% of Indonesia's
natural forest. The majority of upper montane forest (77.2%) occurs in Irian Jaya. One of the
values of these forests includes protection of watersheds and catchment areas and production
of forest produce. Although Indonesia has high levels of species richness and endemism, it
also has the world's longest list of species threatened with extinction. The main threats come
from a large, growing and internally mobile human population, much of which is rural and
engaged in agriculture (Veevers-Carter, 1978; FAO, 1979; Ministry of Forestry Republic of
Indonesia, 1990; Collins et al. (Eds.), 1991; Soenartono Adisoemarto (Ed.), 1992).

References

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). 1991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. YUCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &
Schuster, New York. pp.335.

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant Hetty:
guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

FAO. 1978. Way Mual and Way Nua Nature Reserves, Central Seram, Maluku. FO:
INS/73/013 Project Field Report 8.

FAO. 1979. Nature conservation and wildlife management Indonesia terminal report.
FO:DP/INS/73/013.

FAO. 1981. Proposed Manusela National Park management plan 1982-1987: Field report of
UNDP/FAO National Park development project INS/78/061. FO/INS/78/061 Field
report 15.

Laumonier, Y., Gadrinab, A., Purnajaya and Blasco, F. 1983. International map of the
vegetation and environmental conditions: Southern Sumatra. Institut de la Carte
Internationale du Tapis Vegetal/Seameo-Biotrop.

Laumonier, Y., Purnadjaya, Setiabudhi and Blasco, F. 1986. Central Sumatra. Institut de la
Carte Internationale du Tapis Vegetal/Seameo-Biotrop.

Laumonier, Y., Purnadjaya, Setiabudhi and Blasco, F. 1986. International map of the
vegetation and of environmental conditions: Northern Sumatra. Institut de la Carte
Internationale du Tapis Vegetal/Seameo-Biotrop.

213

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Long, A.J. 1993. Restricted-range and threatened bird species in tropical montane cloud
forests. In: Tropical montane cloud forests: proceedings of an_ international
symposium (eds. L.S. Hamilton, J.O. Juvik and F.N. Scatena). pp.47-65. East-West
Center.

MacKinnon, J., Smiet, F. and Artha, M.B. 1982. National conservation plan for Indonesia,
3. Java and Bali. UNDP/FAO Field Report 36, Bogor, FAO.

Ministry of Forestry Republic of Indonesia. 1990. The Indonesian tropical rain forest
conservation areas. Ministry of Forestry Republic of Indonesia.

Nooteboom, H.P. 1987. Vegetation and flora. In: Report of the 1982-1983 Bukit Raya
Expedition (ed. H.P. Nooteboom). pp.61-66. Rijksherbarium.

Smiet, A.C. 1992. Forest ecology on Java: human impact and vegetation of montane forest.
J. of Trop. Ecol. 8:129-152.

Soenartono Adisoemarto (Ed.). 1992. Indonesian country study on biological diversity.
Prepared for the United Nations Environment programme (UNEP) a study under the
work programme for environment cooperation between the Republic of Indonesia and
the Kingdom of Norway.

Thiollay, J.M. and Meyburg, B.U. 1988. Forest fragmentation and the conservation of
raptors: a survey on the island of Java. Biol. Cons. 44:229-250.

UNDP/FAO. 1981. Kerinci-Seblat Proposed National Park preliminary management plan
1982-1987. Field report of UNDP/FAO National Park Development Project
INS/78/061.

Richards, P.W. 1996. The tropical rain forest. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press.

Whitten, A.J., Sengli Damanki, Jazanul Anwar and Nararuddin Hisyam. 1984. The ecology
of Sumatra. Gadjah Mada University Press.

Whitten, A.J., Muslimin Mustafa and Henderson, G.S. 1987. The ecology of Sulawesi.
Gadjah Mada University Press.

Werner. W.L. 1986. A comparison between two tropical montane ecosystems in Asia
Pidurutalagala (Ceylon/Sri Lanka) and Pangrango-Gede (Java). Mountain Research
and Development. 6:335-344.

Whitmore, T.C. 1975. Tropical rain forests of the far east. Clarendon Press.

Veevers-Carter, W. 1978. Nature conservation in Indonesia. PT Intermasa, Jakarta.

214

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INDONESIA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Cloud Forest Region

Barisan Mountain Range

Gunung Palung Massif

Iban Range

Merkele Ridge

Mountains of Buru
Mountains of Java and Bali

Mountains of Lesser Sunda Islands
Mountains of Sulawesi

New Guinea Cordillera/Pegunungan

Cloud Forest Site

Abong- Abong
Bandahara

Bepagut

Daun

Dempo

Gedang

Hulumasen

HuLlunilo

Kapal

Kemiki

Kerinci

Lasung Tunkut
Lembu

Leuser

Malintang Sago
Marapi

Masurai

Patai

Seblat

Si Habu-Habu
Singgalang

Sopo Ucim

Sorik Merapi
Sumbing

Talamau

Talang

Tujuh

Gunung Palung
Gunung Panti

Iban Range

Gunung Binaya
Gunung Kelapat Muda
Gunung Agung
Gunung Kawi

Gunung Semeru
Gunung Tilu
Haliman

Pangrango

Gunung Rinjani
Bukit Gandadiwata
Bukit Kambuno
Gunung Dua Saudara
Gunung Katopasa
Gunung Klabat
Gunung Lompobatang
Gunung Maling
Gunung Mekongga
Gunung Nokilalaki
Gunung Ogoamas
Gunung Rantemario
Gunung Roroka Timbu
Gunung Tambusisi
Gunung Tangkoko
Gunung Tokala
Gunung Waukana
Gunung Daam
Gunung Leonard Darwin
Puncak Jaya/Mount Carstensz
Puncak Mandala
Puncak Tricora

04°20'N/096°45'E
03°46'N/097°47'E
04°20'S/103°29'E
03°22'S/102°19'E
04°04'S/103°06'E
2°44'S/101°53'E
05°03'N/095°38'E
/
4°S1'N/ 96°S3'E
4°S6'N/ 96°18'E
1°42'S/101°17°E
/
04°05'N/ 97°29'E
03°46'N/097°12'E
00°23'S/100°38'E
00°20'S/100°26'E
02°29'S/101°S2'E
04°14'S/103°20'E
02°52'S/102°08'E
/
00°23'S/100°19'E
/
00°38 'N/099°33'E
03°25'S/101°47'E
00°04'N/099°59'E
02°03'S/101°21'E
01°42'S/101°23'E
01°12'S/110°09'E
01°04'S/110°13'E
03°11'N/115°15'E
03°10'S/129°28'E
03°18'S/126°13'E
08°20'S/115°28'E
7°57'S/112°15'E
08°05'S/112°43'E
/
06°42'S/106°26'E
06°48'S/106°56'E
08°24'S/116°25'E
02°45'S/119°25'E
02°20'S/120°05'E
/
01°15'S/121°25'E
1°29'N/125°10'E
05°22'S/119°S8'E
00°45'N/120°46'E
03°39'S/121°15'E
01°21'S/120°12'E
00°39'N/120°16'E
03°23'S/120°01'E
01°16'S/120°19'E
01°38'S/121°22'E
/
01°36'S/121°41'E
/
04°23'S/138°25'E
04°02'S/136°45'E
4°05'S/137°09'E
04°43'S/140°16'E
04°17'S/138°39'E

Date: 07/07/97

Protected™
Yes/No?

Wo
Yes
No
No
No

Yes |
No
Yes
No |

No
Yes
No
No |
Yes
No
No
Yes |
No
Yes
No
No |
No
No
Yes |
Wo
No
Yes
Yes |
Yes

Yes
Yes

Yes |
Yes

Yes
Yes |

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes

Date: 07/07/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Puncak Wisnumurti 04°32'S/139°56'E No
Schwaner Mountain Range and Muller Bukit Baka 00°42'S/112°25'E Yes
Bukit Raya 00°38'S/112°43'E Yes
Tamrau Mountains and Arfak Gunung Lina 01°27'S/133°49'E Yes
Kwoka 00°40'S/132°24'E No
Van Rees Mountains and Foja Van Rees Mountains and Foja 2°32'S/138°46'E No
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 12 CF Sites= 66 an element of protection = 29

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Indonesia

Barisan Mountain Range

The Barisan Mountain Range forms the backbone of the island of Sumatra and includes many
active volcanoes. On the higher mountains a cloud zone forms at about 2000m and the
average height of upper montane forest is 2100m to 3000m. These forests have a low even
canopy, epiphytes are usually abundant and the trees are generally crooked. This forest is
characterised by the order Coniferae, particularly Dacrycarpus imbricatus and the families
Ericaceae and Myrtaceae, particularly Leptospermum flavescens. At least eleven species of
mammals are more or less restricted to the Sumatran mountains. These include the grey fruit
bat (Aethalops alecto), Sumatran rabbit (Nesolagus netscherii), volcano mouse (Mus
crociduroides), giant Sumatran rat (Sundamys infraluteus), Edward's rat (Leopoldamys
edwards!), Hoogerwerf's rat (Rattus hoogerwerfi), Kerinci rat (Maxomys hylomyoides),
Kerinci rat (Maxomys inflatus), Kinabalu rat (Rattus baluensis), mountain spiny rat
(Niviventer rapit) and the serow (Capricornis sumatraensis). The following sites are thought
to contain cloud forest: Hulumasen (2315m); Kemiki (2800m); Kapal (2783m); Abong-Abong
(2961m); Lembu (3043m); Leuser (3404m) and Bandahara (302m) both contained by Leuser
National Park; Si Habu-Habu (2310m); Sopo Ucim (2199m); Sorik Merapi (2145m); Lasung
Tunkut (2274m); Talamau (2912m); Singgalang (2877m); Marapi (2891m); Malintang Sago
(2262m); Talang (2597m); Kerinci (3800m), Tujuh (2604m), Hulunilo (2469m), Sumbing
(2507m), Masurai (2933m), Gedang (2446m) and Seblat (2383m) all contained by Kerinci-
Seblat National Park; Daun (2492m); Dempo (3159m); Patah (2817m); and Bepagut (2732m).
Many of these forests are valued for their rich flora and fauna but are threatened by
encroachment (UNDP/FAO, 1981; Laumonier et al., 1983; Whitten, 984; Laumonier et al.
1986; WCMC unpubl. data).

Gunung Palung Massif

This is an isolated massif in West Kalimantan in the island of Borneo. The two mountains,
Gunung Palung (1160m) and Gunung panti, are protected by the Gunung Palung national
Park. On the summits of these mountains a stunted bryophyte-encrusted upper montane rain
forest is found. The dominant tree species are Vaccinium spp. (Ericaceae) and Leptospermum
spp. (Myrtaceae). Pitcher plants (Nepenthes spp.), numerous species of orchids and ferns, and
many species of mosses also occur (Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995).

South East Asia

Iban Range

Much of the Iban Mountain Range is included in the Sungai Kayan-Sungai Mentarang Nature
Reserve. Upper montane forest is found above 1500m, with orchid-rich mossy forest
occurring in river gorges. The area is valued as an area of supreme importance for
conservation (Davies et al. (Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl. data).

Merkele Ridge

The Merkele Ridge is in the centre of the island of Seram, in the Moluccas in Indonesia. The
highest mountain is Gunung Binaya (3027m) and it is included in the Manusela Wai Nua/Wai
Mual National Park. Elfin/moss forest is found above 1500m on this ridge of mountains. The
trees are small in this forest type and covered with moss and epiphytes. Orchids and ferns are
common. The fauna on Seram is influenced by the Australian and Asian zoogeographical
regions. Endemic species include two species of forest rat only found in high altitudes. Four
bird species are confined to montane cloud forest in Seram (Zoothera monticola) and two bird
species’ main habitat is cloud forest (Bradypterus castaneus and Gymnophaps mada) (FAO,
1978; FAO, 1981; Long, 1993).

Mountains of Buru

Gunung Kelapat Muda, contained by the Gunung Kelapat Muda Game Reserve, is the highest
mountain (2114m) in the island of Buru, in the Moluccas in Indonesia. One bird species is
confined to tropical montane cloud forest in Buru (Zoothera dumasi) and two species’ main
habitat is cloud forest (Gymnophaps mada and Bradypterus castaneus) (Collins et al. (Eds.),
1991; Long, 1993).

Mountains of Java and Bali

Natural forests on Java, a densely populated island, have generally been cleared. Most of the
forest remnants are confined to mountain areas, where montane vegetation is found from
approximately 1500m to 2400m. The transition to mossy upper montane forest in west Java
takes place above about 1650m. Mossy forest is best developed in west Java, as the climate
becomes increasingly dry to the east. Fourteen bird species use cloud forest as their main
habitat in the Javan and Balinese mountains. Mossy forest is found on Pangrango (Cibodas)
National Park. This Park provides a refuge for a number of endangered and endemic taxa. It
is also valued for research and tourism. Management constraints include agricultural
encroachment and tourist pressure. Also in west Java is Gunung Halimun (1929m) contained
by the Gunung Halimun National Park. South of Bandung there are 19 volcanoes of 1700m to

219

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

2800m covered by less than 100,000ha of montane forest in 13 to 15 separate patches, nearly
all above 1400m. Some of this forest is included in the Cagar Alam Gunung Tilu (Mount Tilu
Nature Reserve). In central Java few forest patches remain inspite of the presence of several
high mountains. The highest peak in Java is Gunung Semeru (3676m), in east Java. This area
is included in the Bromo-Tengger-Semeru National Park. Also thought to contain mossy
forest in east Java is Gunung Kawi. In Bali, mossy forest is thought. to occur on the north-
west side of Gunung Agung (3142m) (Whitmore, 1975; MacKinnon et al., 1982; Werner.
1986; Thiollay & Meyburg, 1988; Smiet, 1992; Richards, 1996; WCMC unpubl. data).

Mountains of Lesser Sunda Islands

East of Java and Bali, the Lesser Sunda Islands are seasonally very dry, owing to a dry
monsoon which blows off Australia during the middle months of the year. As a result, little if
any mossy forest is found in these mountains, except perhaps on Gunung Rinjani (3726m -
contained by Gunung Rinjani National Park) on the island of Lombok (Whitmore, 1975;
WCMC unpubl. data).

Mountains of Sulawesi

In Sulawesi, a belt of cloud often forms around mountains at about 2000m. These high blocks
of land are largely found in central and northern Sulawesi. Upper montane forest occurs in
these areas between approximately 2400-3000m. Characteristic of the upper montane forest
are members of the family Ericaceae such as Rhododendron (19 species are endemic to
Sulawesi), Vaccinium (13 endemic species) and Gaultheris (two endemic species). The largest
mammal of mountain forests is the mountain anoa Bubalus quarlesi, which is generally
solitary. Other mountain mammal species include the shrew-rats (Tateomys rhinogradoides,
T.macrocercus and Melasmothrix naso), which are known only from mountainous areas in
Sulawesi and the Philippines where they live in mossy upper montane forest. Mountains with
upper montane forest include: Gunung Lompobatang (2871m - contained by Gunung
Lompobatang Protection Forests), where the upper montane forest is dominated by
Leptospermum. Gunung Rantemario (3450m - contained by Pegunungan Latimojong
Protection Forests) the highest mountain in Sulawesi, where upper montane forest can be
found from about 2150, with proper upper montane forest occurring above 2650m. At 2650m
Rhododendron bushes and some species of Phyllocladus predominate. Gunung Mekongga
(2799m), Bukit Gandadiwata (3074m) in the Quarles mountains, Bukit Kambuno (2950m) and
Gunung Tambusisi (2422m), where upper montane forest, with tall shrubs of mainly
Vaccinium, is found above 1700m. Gunung Tokala (2630m), Gunung Katopasa (2835m) and
Gunung Nokilalaki (2280m - contained by Lore Lindu National Park), where above 2000m,
Agathis is absent and the most common trees are Tristania, Lithocarpus and Castanopsis.
Gunung Roroka Timbu (2450m - contained by Lore Lindu National Park), Gunung Waukana

220

South East Asia

(3127m), Gunung Ogoamas (2565m), Gunung Maling (2443m), Gunung Klabat, and Gunung
Tangkoko (1109m) and Gunung Dua Suadara (1351m) both contained in Dua Saudara Nature
Reserve. Clearance for permanent and shifting cultivation is a threat to many of these areas
(Whitten et al., 1987; WCMC unpubl. data).

New Guinea Cordillera/Pegunungan Maoke

This mountain range runs the length of New Guinea (see Papua New Guinea). Seven bird
species (Eurostopodus archboldi, Astrapia mayeri, Cnemophilus macgregorii, Epimachus
meyeri, Ptiloprora guisei, Androphobus viridis and Eulacestoma nigropectus) are confined to
cloud forest in this mountain range and 13 other bird species use cloud forest on this range as
their main habitat. Puncak Jaya (Mount Carstensz) at 4884m is the highest mountain not only
in New Guinea, but also in the whole of Indonesia. It is contained by the Gunung Lorentz
Nature Reserve. At the lower limits of montane forest on this mountain, Castanopsis is the
dominant tree, replaced at higher elevations by moss-covered, monotypic stands of Notofagus
and eventually by dense conifer forests comprising Podocarpus, Dacrydium, Dacrycarpus and
Papuacedrus. The area is valued, in particular by tribal groups, for its rich biological
resources. It is, however, threatened by mining, logging, petroleum exploration, road
building, transmigration and tourism in that high-altitude vegetation is very vulnerable to
trampling. Other high peaks in this range in Irian Jaya include Gunung Leonard Darwin
(4234m), Gunung Daam (4922m), Puncak Tricora (4750m), Puncak Wisnumurti (4595m) and
Puncak Mandala (4702m) (Long, 1993; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl. data).

Schwaner Mountain Range and Muller Mountain Range

These Mountain Ranges span the provincial borders between Central, West and East
Kalimantan in the island of Borneo. Bukit Raya (2278m) and Bukit Baka (1617m) are two
peaks in the Schwaner Mountain Range which are included in the Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya
National Park. Montane forest in this area occurs above 1000m. From about 1600m upper
montane forest is encountered, again with various Ericaceae, such as Rhododendron and
Vaccinium, and Guttiferae, as well as Phyllocladus hypophyllus (Phyllocladaceae),
Elaeocarpus (Elaeocarpaceae), Embelia (Embeliaceae), Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae) and tree
ferns. The most serious threats to the forests are logging and road construction (Nooteboom,
1987: Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl. data).

221

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Tamrau Mountains and Arfak Mountains

These mountains are found in the Vogelkop or Bird's Head Peninsula, where there is a high
incidence of endemic flora and fauna. In addition, three bird species use the cloud forest on
these mountains as their main habitat (Rallina rubra, Psittacella modesta and Priloprora
perstriata). Peaks include Kwoka (3000m) and Gunung Lina (3100m). On the Arfak
Mountains there is persistent cloud cover around 1700m. Nothofagus forest occurs from
1500m to 2800m. Other common tree genera are Castanopsis and the conifers Dacrycarpus,
Dacrydium, Podocarpus, Libocedrus and Araucaria cunninghamii. Ericaceae and orchids
(such as Dendrobium spp. used by the Vogelkop bowerbird Ambyornis inortatus to decorate
its bowers), treeferns, gingers, palms and selaginellas are also common. Above 2400m, the
forest floor and tree trunks are covered in a thick layer of mosses, such as Sphaghum and
Dawsonia. A Nature Reserve is sited in the mountains (Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve)
(Long, 1993; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl. data).

Van Rees Mountains and Foja Mountains

These mountains are north of the Pegunungan Maoke in Irian Jaya. Botanically, much of this
region is very poorly known and is difficult to access. It is, however, thought to contain some
mossy forest. Threats to the area include petroleum exploration and logging. The area Is
home to nomadic hunter-gatherers and valued for its rich faunal diversity (Davis et al.
(Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl.data).

222

South East Asia

LAO PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

Lao is a mountainous country with steep areas throughout the north of the country including
Phou Bia (2829m) the highest mountain, the Chaine Annamitique forming the border with
Viet Nam and the Bolovens Plateau in the south rising to over 1500m. Tropical montane
cloud forests may be located in any of these three regions. The hills of northern Lao, above
1000m, are characterised by hill evergreen forest, usually a dense forest of Fagaceae and
Lauraceae, or dipterocarps with palms. They also contain dry hill forest and secondary
growth. The hills of central Lao and the Bolovens Plateau are similar, but include dense
fagaceous forest and forest of broadleaf trees with Podocarpus, as well as dipterocarp forest
and degraded areas. Above 2000m, the mountains are characterised by coniferous forest. The
major causes of deforestation in Lao include shifting cultivation, poorly controlled logging
and bomb damage (1960s and 1970s). The retention of forest cover on upland areas in order
to protect watersheds and regulate water flow is considered to be fundamental to the
maintenance of agricultural productivity in the lowlands (Gressitt, 1970; Anon, 1988; Collins
et al. (Eds.) 1991; Davis et al. (Eds.) 1995).

References

Anon. 1988. Shifting cultivation in Laos: technical report prepared at the request of LAO
PDR and SIDA (FOD/VF/JS/chr/dg 1088s). YUCN, Switzerland.

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). 1991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. 'UCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &
Schuster, New York. pp.335.

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant diversity:

a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.
Gressitt, J.L. 1970. Biogeography of Laos. Pacific Insects Monograph 24:573-626.

223

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

MALAYSIA

Montane forest occurs extensively on all the main mountains. Upper montane forest is mostly
found above 1500m. However, on isolated peaks, in particular those close to the coast, upper
montane forest abuts directly on to hill forest even below 800m. Endemism is very high. In
addition, many endemics are confined to a single peak or adjacent peaks. The montane flora
of Peninsular Malaysia is estimated to include at least 3000 vascular plant species, of which
about 2125 species are confined to montane forest. Montane forests protect animals that are
largely restricted to this vegetation type, for example, four species of mammals (Hapalomys
longicaudatus, Petaurista elegans, Chimarrogale himalayica and Talpa micrura) and 75
species of birds in Peninsular Malaysia. The montane flora of Peninsular Malaysia is severely
threatened by planned hill resort development, including bungalows, hotels, roads, golf
courses, efc. Other substantial threats throughout Malaysia include logging, agricultural
encroachment, tourist pressure on peaks and plant collecting (Whitmore, 1975: Davison.
1991; Ratnam, Nor Azman Hussein & Lim, 1991: Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995; Wyatt-Smith
1996).

References

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). 1991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. 'UCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &
Schuster, New York. pp.335.

Davison, G.W.H. 1991. Birds, In: The State of Nature Conservation in Malaysia
(R. Kiew, ed.), Malaysian Nature Society. pp. 135-142.

Davies, A.G. and Payne, J.B. 1982. A Faunal Survey of Sabah. World Wildlife Fund
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant diversity:
a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

Kitayama, K. 1993. Biophysical conditions of the montane cloud forests of Mount Kinabalu,
Sabah, Malaysia. In: Tropical montane cloud forests: proceedings of an international
symposium (L.S. Hamilton, J.O. Juvik & F.N. Scatena, eds.). East-West Center,
Hawai'i. pp.115-125.

Laidlaw, R.K. 1994. The Virgin Jungle Reserves of Peninsular Malaysia: the ecology and
dynamics of small protected areas in managed forest. Unpubl. doctoral dissertation,
University of Cambridge.

Medway, Lord. 1969. The wild mammals of Malaya. Oxford University Press, Kuala
Lumpur.

224

South East Asia

Medway, Lord. 1972. The Gunong Benom expedition 1967. 6. The distribution and
altitudinal zonation of birds and mammals on Gunong Benom. Bull. Br. Mus. Nat.
Hist. D. 23:105-154.

Payne, J., Francis, C.M. and Phillipps, K. 1985. A field guide to the mammals of Borneo.
WWF Malaysia/The Sabah Society, Kuala Lumpur.

Ratnam, L., Nor Azman Hussein and Lim, B.L. 1991. Small mammals in Peninsular
Malaysia. In: The State of Nature Conservation in Malaysia (R. Kiew, ed.), pp. 150-
172. Malayan Nature Society.

Richards, P.W. 1996. The tropical rain forest: an ecological study. 2nd ed. Cambridge
University Press.

Whitmore, T.C. 1975. Tropical rain forests of the Far East. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Wyatt-Smith, J. 1996. Manual of Malaysan silviculture for inland forest. 2 Vols. 2nd
Edition. Malay. For. Rec. 23.

225

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MALAYSIA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Cloud Forest Region

eee ee ee ee eee ee ee SS ee e—————————————_————————EEE—eee
Bintang Range

Central Highlands

Central Highlands - Kuamut
Central Highlands - Tawau Highlands
Gunung Belumut

Gunung Benom

Gunung Jerai

Gunung Kajang
Gunung Ledang

Main Range/Titiwangsa Range

Mount. of Sarawak-Pegunungan Kapuas

Mountains of Sarawak

Mountains
Mountains
Mountains
Mountains
Mountains
Mountains
Mountains
Mountains

of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of

Western Hill

Western Hill
Western Hill
Western Hill

Total No.

of

Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak

Ranges

Dulit Range
Gunung

Hose

Linau Balui
Pegunungan
Penambo
Tamabo Range
Usun Apau

Ranges - Maligan Range
Ranges - Trus Madi
Ranges - Witti Range

CF Regions= 24

Cloud Forest Site

Gunung Tahan
Gunung Lotong
Gunung Silam
Segama Highlands
Tawau Highlands
Gunung Lotong
Tawau Highlands
Gunung Belumut
Gunung Benom
Kedah Peak

Gunung Kajang
Mount Ophir

Bukit Larut/Maxwell Hill
Cameron Highlands
Gunung Bunga Buah
Gunung Korbu
Gunung Telapak Burok
Gunung Yong Blar
Gunung Yong Yap
Gunung Lawit
Tohenbatu

Bukit Batu Bora
Bukit Batu Mabun
Bukit Kalulong
Bukit Kenawang
Bukit Lanjak
Dulit Range
Gunung Api

Gunung Benarat
Gunung Lawit
Gunung Mulu
Gunung Santubong
Hose Mountains
Linau Balui Plateau
Penambo Range
Tamabo Range
Tohenbatu

Dulit Range
Gunung Benarat
Hose Mountains
Linau Balui Plateau
Bukit Batu Bora
Penambo Range
Tamabo Range
Bukit Batu Mabun
Bukit Kenawang
Crocker Range
Gunung Trus Madi
Maligan Range
Mount Kinabalu
Witti Range
Maligan Range
Gunung Trus Madi
Witti Range

Total No. of
CF Sites= 54

4°34'N/102°17'E
4°58'N/117°31'E
04°58'N/118°10'E
4°49'N/117°48'E
4°24'N/117°S4'E
4°58'N/117°31'E
4°24'N/117°S4'E
2°02'N/103°31'E
3°50'N/102°05'E
5°47'N/100°26'E
2°46'N/104°10'E
2°22'N/102°36'E
4°54'N/100°47'E
4°30'N/101°30'E
03°23 'N/101°53'E
4°50'N/101°18'E
2°50'N/102°04'E

/

/
01°26'N/112°58'E

/
02°35'N/114°52'E
02°54'N/114°34'E

/
02°55'N/114°39'E
01°25'N/112°00'E

/

/
04°10'N/114°53'E
01°26'WN/112°58'E

4°05'N/114°55'E
01°44'N/110°20'E

/

/
/
/
/

/
04°10'N/114°S3'E

/

/
02°35 'N/114°52'E

/

/
02°54'N/114°34'E
02°55 'N/114°39'E

5°33'N/116°08'E
05°34'N/116°29'E

/

6°00'N/116°30'E

/

/
05°34'N/116°29'E

/

Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Yes/No?

Yes
Yes
No

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Wo

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No

No

Yes
No

No

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Total No. of CF Sites with
an element of protection = 46

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Malaysia

Bintang Range

As with the Main Range, peaks in the Bintang Range mostly reach 1400m. Gunung Tahan is
the highest mountain in both the range and in the Peninsula at 2190m. There are thought to be
about 2000 vascular plant species on the mountain. Montane ericaceous forest starts at about
1200m where the most abundant species are Leptospermum flavescens, Darydium beccarit,
Rhododendron spp., Vaccinium spp. and Nepenthes spp. The red-cheeked ground squirrel
Dremomys rufigenis, a squirrel of mountain forest, is common on Gunung Tahan. Also there
is a subspecies of the slender squirrel Sundasciurus tenuis tahan described from Gunung
Tahan, which is found above approximately 1000m. Gunung Tahan is protected within
Taman Negara, a National Park (Medway, 1969; Whitmore, 1975; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1996;
WCMC unpubl. data).

Central Highlands

The Central Highlands include the Labuk, Kuamut, Segama and Tawau Highlands, which
reach a height of about 1000m, with higher peaks such as Gunung Lotong (1900m and part of
the Gunung Lotong Conservation Area in the Kuamut Highlands). Gunung Silam, known for
its ultramafic flora, is a coastal mountain in Sabah where the transition to mossy upper
montane forest takes place at c. 610-770m (due to the Massenerhebung effect). In the Tawau
Highlands mossy forest occurs at about 1000m and is included in the Bukit Tawau Park.
Mossy forest is also found in the Segama Highlands, part of which is included in the Danum
Conservation Area. Forest in the Central Highlands is largely threatened by logging, and also
mining (Collins et al. (Eds.), 1991; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1996; Richards, 1996; WCMC
unpubl. data). ;

Central Highlands - Kuamut Highlands

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed. (WCMC 1997).

Central Highlands - Tawau Highlands

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed. (WCMC 1997).

228

South East Asia

Gunung Belumut

The summit of Gunung, which is an isolated peak of 1009m in the State of Johore. lies above
the line of prevalent cloud with upper montane forest abutting onto lowland forest at about
810-840m. The forest has about 1500 vascular plant species. It may be under pressure from
commercial timber extraction (Whitmore, 1975; Davis et al. (Eds.) 1996; Richards, 1996).

Gunung Benom

Gunung Benom is an isolated mountain (2075m) in the State of Pahang. It is protected by the
Krau Wildlife Reserve. Pressures on the Reserve include logging and agricultural
encroachment. Upper montane forest occurs from about 1500m. There are 48 species of birds
found above 1200m, 39 species at 1500m and 31 species at 1800m (Medway; Whitmore,
1975; WCMC unpubl. data).

Gunung Jerai

Gunung Jerai is an isolated coastal mountain of 1200m in the State of Kedah, whose peak is
often covered in cloud. The forest is valued as a water catchment area. The mountain is
thought to have about 1000 vascular plant species. Although some of the forest on the
mountain is protected by four Virgin Jungle Reserves, the area is threatened by visitor
pressure associated with tourism. There is also a microwave station on the summit
(Whitmore, 1975; Laidlaw, 1994; Davis er al. (Eds.), 1996).

Gunung Kajang

Gunung Kajang is on Pulau Tioman and on the crest of Gunung Kajang (1038m) above
1000m, there is mossy, upper montane forest. There are thought to be about 1000 vascular
plant species on this mountain. Though the whole of Pulau Tioman is a Wildlife Reserve,
plant collecting is a threat (Davis et al. (Eds.), 1996).

Gunung Ledang

An isolated mountain in the State of Johore, Gunung Ledang (1243m) is an important water
catchment area and is thought to have about 1000 vascular plant species. Though the peak is
partly protected by two Virgin Jungle Reserve, all summit vegetation has been destroyed by
campers. There is also some disturbance from a microwave station and the area is threatened
by a planned large-scale hill resort (Laidlaw, 1994; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1996).

229

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Main Range/Titiwangsa Range

The majority of mountain peaks in Peninsular Malaysia lie on the Main Range. Peaks in the
Main Range mostly reach 1400m. Montane sites include the Cameron Highlands (i.e. Gunung
Brinchang, Gunung Jasar and Gunung Beremban), Bukit Larut/Maxwell Hill (1389m).
Gunung Telapak Burok (1193m), Gunung Korbu (2179m), Gunung Yong Yap (2164m),
Gunung Yong Blar (2178m) and Gunung Bunga Buah. Three of these sites, Cameron
Highlands, Gunung Telepak Burok (in Berembun Forest Reserve) and Bukit Larut contain
small protected areas of forest (Virgin Jungle Reserve). There is also a Wildlife Santuary in
the Cameron Highlands. A major threat to the montane forests of the Main

Range is a mountain road planned to link hill resorts. The purpose of this road is to open up
land for logging, residential housing and agriculture. The result is likely to be widespread
damage to the upper montane forests, as well as landslips, soil erosion and siltation
downstream (Whitmore, 1975; Collins et al. (Eds.), 1991; Laidlaw, 1994; Davis er al.
(Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl. data).

Mount. of Sarawak-Pegunungan Kapuas Hulu

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed. (WCMC 1997).

Mountains of Sarawak

Including the upland areas of Gunung Mulu (2376m), Gunung Benarat (1515m) and Gunung
Api (1750m), all part of the Gunung Mulu National Park; Tamabo Range; Penambo Range;
Bukit Kalulong (1641m); Dulit Range and Gunung Dulit (1369m); Usun Apau Plateau and
Bukit Batu Mabun (1270m) and Bukit Kenawang (1280m); Pegunungan Iban and Bukit Batu
Bora (1465m); Linau Balui Plateau;. Hose Mountains (highest peak 2012m); Pegunungan
Kapuas Hulu and Tohenbatu (1527m) and Gunung Lawit (1767m); Boven Kapuas Mountains;
Bukit Lanjak (1281m and included in the Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary); and Gunung
Santubong (797m). Due to the Massenerhebung effect the limits of the altitudinal zones are
much higher on inland mountains than on mountains near to the coast. For example, Gunung
Santubong, an isolated mountain on the coast (797m) contains upper montane forest, whereas
the inland Gunung Mulu and Gunung Dulit are covered with low cloud above an altitude of
about 1000m for most of the year, with upper montane forest found above 1600m on Gunung
Mulu. In the short facies of the Gunung Mulu upper montane forest, the most abundant tree
species are Lithocarpus hatusimae, Dacrydium and Phyllocladus and higher up, Calophyllum
garcinioides, Eugenia kinabaluensis, Dacrydium and Phyllocladus. Smaller woody plants
include many Ericaceae some of which are epiphytic. Scrambling Nepenthes (including small
tree ferns as well as terrestrial orchids and other ground herbs. Above 1000m on Gunung Api
a limestone variant of upper montane moss forest may be found. The composition of this

230

community is similar to that of the upper montane

South East Asia

forest on Gunung Mulu. Logging is the

predominant pressure on these forests (Whitmore, 1975; Collins er al. (Eds.). 1991; Davis ef
al. (Eds.), 1996; Richards, 1996; WCMC unpubl. data).

Mountains of Sarawak - Gunung Benarat

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed

Mountains of Sarawak - Hose Mountains

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed

Mountains of Sarawak - Linau Balui Plateau

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed

Mountains of Sarawak - Pegunungan Iban

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed

Mountains of Sarawak - Penambo Range

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed

Mountains of Sarawak - Tamabo Range

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed

Mountains of Sarawak - Usun Apau Plateau

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed

. (WCMC 1997).

. (WCMC 1997).

. (WCMC 1997).

. (WCMC 1997).

. (WCMC 1997).

. (WCMC 1997).

. (WCMC 1997).

231

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Western Hill Ranges

The Western Hill Ranges are mainly sedimentary formations up to about 1500m, with higher
peaks such as Gunung Trus Madi (2649m) and Mount Kinabalu (the highest mountain in
Malesia outside New Guinea at 4101m). The Western Hill Ranges includes the Crocker.
Witti, Maligan and Trus Madi Ranges. The Crocker Range contains a Virgin Jungle Reserve
and a National Park. Mount Kinabalu is perhaps the most famous site with upper montane
forest in Sabah. It is also considered to be by far the most important botanical site in Borneo
and is protected within the Kinabalu Park. Montane forest is the dominant vegetation type
comprising 37% of the Park. With greater altitudes the montane habitats increasingly
comprise species of Fagaceae, Ericaceae, Myrtaceae, Lauraceae, Magnoliaceae and Guttiferae
along with conifers such as Agathis, Dacrycarpus, Podocarpus, Phyllocladus and Dacrydium.
Members of the Nepenthaceae are also present in these habitats including the Kinabalu
endemic Nepenthes raja. Montane mammal species include the Kinabalu squirrel Callosciurus
baluensis and the summit rat Rattus baluensis. The mountain has long been regarded as a
sacred mountain by the native Dusun people and given the wealth of species, the area is also
of considerable scientific importance. In addition, it is valued for tourism (in 1991 the Park
received 233,965 visitors) and the forest also acts as a very important catchment area.
Pressures on the montane habitats include visitor pressure and illegal plant collecting (Davies
& Payne, 1982; Kitayama, 1993; Payne er al., 1985; Collins et al. (Eds.), 1991; Davies ef al.
(Eds.), 1996; Richards, 1996; WCMC unpubl. data).

Western Hill Ranges - Maligan Range

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed. (WCMC 1997).

Western Hill Ranges - Trus Madi Range

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed. (WCMC 1997).

Western Hill Ranges - Witti Range

Presence of cloud forest, indicated but not confirmed. (WCMC 1997).

232

South East Asia

MYANMAR

The forests of Myanmar are under considerable pressure as a result of forest degradation.
over hunting and deforestation. In addition, they are poorly documented largely due to
political unrest in the country. The Myanmar Forestry Department, however, aims to include
5% of the total land area in the Myanmar protected area network. Upland areas in Myanmar
include the Chin Hills in west-central Myanmar and the Shan Plateau in east-central Myanmar
(Thein Lwin et al. 1990; Collins et al. (Eds.), 1991; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995).

References

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). 1991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. IUCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &
Schuster, New York. pp.335.

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant diversity:

a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

FAO. 1983. Nature conservation and National Parks, Burma: interim report (FO:
DP/BUR/80/006). FAO, Rangoon.

Forest Department Myanmar. 1991. Forest Resources of Myanmar: conservation and
management. Forest Department Myanmar.

Thein Lwin, Uga and Saw Tun Khaing. 1990. Wildlife conservation in Myanmar. Ministry
of Agriculture and Forests, Myanmar.

233

MYANMAR

pe

pe) et eee Eee ae
Date: 27/06/97

MYANMAR: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
pees A SS A) A NS ee ee
Chin Hills Natma Taung/Mount Victoria 21°12'N/ 93°S5'E Yes
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Sites= 1 an element of protection = 1

CF Regions= 1

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Myanmar

Chin Hills

The Chin Hills are about 400km long and contain several peaks over 2500m. The highest
peak in both the Chin Hills and in southern and central Myanmar is Natma Taung (Mount
Victoria) at 3053m. Subtropical evergreen forest occurs at 1000-2130m and is below the mist-
line, whereas temperate semi-evergreen forest occurs at 1830-3053m and is above the mist-
line. This area is thought to contain a number of endemics, possibly including the white-
browed nuthatch Sitta victoria, which is only known from Natma Taung. Natma Taung has
been proposed as a National Park. It is valued by the local people who collect beewax,
firewood, fruit and orchids from the forest. Threats to the area include habitat loss and
hunting (FAO, 1983; Forest Department Myanmar, 1991; Collins er al. (Eds.), 1991; Davies
et al. (Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl. data).

236

South East Asia

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Papua New Guinea politically comprises not only the eastern half of New Guinea Island, but
also a considerable number of islands, including New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville
Island, Goodenough Island and Fergusson Island. All of which are thought to contain at least
some areas of cloud forest. The majority of cloud forests, however, are found on the New
Guinea Cordillera, which is likely to be rich in endemics. Partly due to the complex system of
land tenure, only two cloud forest sites (Mount Giluwe and Mount Wilhelm) are included in
protected areas. Pressures on these forests include natural environmental factors (cyclones and
landslides), agriculture and logging. The forests are valued for timber, food, medicines,
textiles, fuel and ornaments (Davis ef al. (Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl. data).

References

Brass, L.J. 1956. Results of the Archbold expeditions. No.75. Summary of the fourth
Archbold expedition to New Guinea (1953). Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 111:80-152.

Brass, L.S. 1959. Results of the Archbold expeditions. No.79. Summary of the fifth
Archbold expedition to New Guinea (1956-57). Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 118:1-70.

Brass, L.S. 1964. Results of the Archbold expeditions. No.86. Summary of the sixth .
Archbold expedition to New Guinea (1959). Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 127:145-215.

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant diversity:

a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

Paijchmans, K. 1975. Explanatory notes to the vegetation map of New Guinea. Land
Research Series No.35. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation. Australia.

Richards, P.W. 1996. The tropical rain forest: an ecological study. 2nd ed. Cambridge
University Press.

Whitmore, T.C. 1975. Tropical rain forests of the Far East. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

237

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PAPUA NEW GUINEA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97
Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Ps es 5 AAPA ARMY T 1 OAR APSE eS eee
New Britain Island New Britain / No
New Guinea Cordillera Crater Mount 06°37'S/145°05'E No
Doma Peaks 05°54'S/143°43'E No
Mount Aiyang / No
Mount Albert Edward 08°53'S/147°20'E No
Mount Amungwiwa 07°27'S/146°35'E No
Mount Bangeta 06°17'S/147°05S'E No
Mount Dayman 09°50'S/149°15'E No
Mount Giluwe 06°06'S/143°54'E Yes
Mount Haagen 05°45'S/144°05'E No
Mount Herbert 05°54'S/144°59'E No
Mount lIalibu 06°16'S/144°02'E No
Mount Kerewa 06°00'S/143°45'E No
Mount Kubor 06°10'S/144°43'E No
Mount Lawson : 07°43'S/146°35'E No
Mount Michael 06°25'S/145°20'E No
Mount Obree 09°30'S/148°04'E No
Mount Otto 05°59'S/145°28'E No
Mount Piora 06°45'S/146°00'E No
Mount Saint Mary 08°09'S/146°59'E No
Mount Simpson 10°05 'S/149°36'E No
Mount Strong 07°58'S/147°57'E No
Mount Suckling 09°49'S/148°53'E No
Mount Victoria 08°52'S/147°32'E No
Mount Wilhelm 05°46'S/144°59'E Yes
Mount Yelia 07°01'S/145°52'E No
The Sugarloaf 05°47'S/143°45'E No
New Ireland Island New Ireland / No
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 3 CF Sites= 28 an element of protection = 2

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Papua New Guinea

New Britain Island

The vegetation of this island is little known and may contain cloud forest (Davis er al. (Eds.).
1995).

New Guinea Cordillera

This huge Codillera runs the length of New Guinea, i.e. Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya
(see Indonesia) and has several peaks over 4000m. Other than Mount Kinabalu (4101m - see
Malaysia), the mountains of New Guinea are the only mountains in the region that extend
above the climatic tree line. The forest zones of Malesia attain their greatest height, variation
with elevation and are the most extended on this mountain chain and it is thought that due to
the huge mass of the Cordillera, it is the only mountain range in the tropical Far East likely to
show a substantial Massenerhebung heating effect. The affinities of the New Guinea montane
flora are mainly Malesian and Australian. There is, however, a high degree of endemism at
specific level. Upper montane forest is found at about 3000m upwards and may be divided
into two distinct floristic zones; cloud forest at 3000-3300/3350m and lower subalpine forest
at 3300/3350-350/3600m. On the highest mountains, a third zone has been distinguished;
upper subalpine forest. The upper montane flora is much poorer than that of the lower
montane. Elaeocarpaceae and ground ferns are less abundant and Lauraceae distinctly rare,
whereas ground-dwelling Ericaceae are fairly common. The canopy is generally less than
20m high. The abundance and luxuriance of bryophytes varies, but typically trees are covered
with hepatics, mosses and other epiphytes. Cloud forest sites are thought to occur on the
following peaks: Mount Aiyang (3993m), Doma Peaks (3962m), Mount Kerewa (3414m),
The Sugarloaf (3962m), Mount Giluwe (4088m), Mount Ialibu (3353m) Mount Haagen
(4000m), Mount Wilhelm (4508m - the highest point in Papua New Guinea), Mount Herbert
(4267m), Mount Kubor (4359m), Mount Otto (3539m), Mount Michael (3810m), Crater
Mount (3231m), Mount Piora (3719m), Mount Yelia (3810m), Mount Bangeta (4107m),
Mount Amungwiwa (3277m), Mount Lawson (3216m), Mount Strong (3766m), Mount Saint
Mary (3654m), Mount Albert Edward (3993m), Mount Victoria (4073m), Mount Obree
(3129m), Mount Suckling (3676m), Mount Dayman and Mount Simpson (3039m) (Brass,
1956, 1959, 1964; Paijmans, 1975; Whitmore, 1975; FAO, 1989; Davis er al. (Eds.), 1995;
Richards, 1996; WCMC unpubl. data).

New Ireland Island

This island may contain cloud forest (Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995).

240

South East Asia

PHILIPPINES

In the Philippines, tropical montane cloud forests, known locally as mossy forests, occur in
rugged mountain regions above 900m elevation. They are best developed on mountains above
1200m. The upper limits vary depending on the locality and height of the mountain. Mossy
forests cover about 8% of the land area and comprise the majority of remaining non-
commercial native forest. There are estimated to be about 57 bryophyte, 91 fern, 18
gymnosperm and 377 angiosperm species in Philippino mossy forests. Typical trees in these
forests are conifers of the genera Dacrydium, Dacrycarpus and Podocarpus as well as
broadleaves of the genera Lithocarpus, Symplocos, Engelhartia, Syzygium and Myrica.
Species of Ericaceae (Rhododendron, Vaccinium) and Melastomataceae (Astonia, Medinilla,
Melastoma) are common as well as the tree fern genus Cyathea. In addition, there are an
abundance of liverworts and mosses (66 species of mosses are endemic to the Philippines).
These mossy forests are generally two-tiered with trees reaching an average height of 10m
and having a diameter of less than 40cm. They are said to have little commercial value but are
considered to have an important role to play in ensuring watershed stabilization (Tan, 1984;
Cox, 1988; Fernando, 1988; Collins et al. (Eds.), 1991; Penafiel, 1993; Davis er al. (Eds.),
1995).

References

Anon. 1988. Development of an integrated protected areas system (IPAS) for the Philippines.
WWF-USA, DENR and Haribon Foundation unpubl. report.

Anderson, G., Asane, D., Brooks, T., Dutson, G., Evans, T., Timmins, R. and Toledo, A.
1991. Preliminary report of the Cambridge Philippines rainforest project 1991.
Unpubl.

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). 1991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. YUCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &
Schuster, New York. pp.335.

Cox, R. 1988. The conservation status of biological resouces in the Philippines: a report by
the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre. Draft prepared for ITED.

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant diversity:

a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

Enables, B.U. 1978. Notes on Makiling Botanic Gardens and the Makiling Forest. Unpubl.

Fernando, E.S. 1988. Diversity of the flora in Philippines forest ecosystems. In: Proceedings
of the technical workshop on Philippine biological diversity. Haribon Foundation and
the International Institute for Environment and Development.

241

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Goodman, S.M. and Gonzales, P.C. 1990. The birds of Mt. Isarog National Park, Southern
Luzon, Philippines, with particular reference to altitudinal distribution. Fieldiana:
Zoology New Series, No.60. Field Museum of Natural History.

Penafiel, S.R. 1993. The biological and hydrological values of the mossy forests in the
Central Cordillera Mountains, Philippines. In: Tropical Montane Cloud Forests:
Proceedings of an International Symposium (eds. L.S. Hamilton, J.O. Juvik and F.N.
Scatena). pp.171-175. East-West Center.

Richards, P.W. 1996. The tropical rain forest: an ecological study. 2nd ed. Cambridge
University Press.

Whitmore, T.C. 1975. Tropical rain forests of the Far East. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Tan, B.C. 1982. Checklist of mosses of Mt Makiling (Luzon Island, Philippines). Quart.
Journ. Taiwan Museum 35:135-148.

Tan, B.C. 1984. A reconsideration of the affinity of the Philippine moss flora. J. Hattori
Bot.Lab. 55:13-22.

Tan, B.C. 1996. Biogeography of Palawan Mosses. Australian Systematic Boiany 9:193-203.

242

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———

PHILIPPINES

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Mountains

PHILIPPINES: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

a SS SS ES EE EE SS eee

Date: 27/06/97

Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Cordillera Central Mount Data 17°10'N/120°5S3'E Yes
Mount Pulog 16°36'N/120°53'E Yes
Mount Sapocoy 17°29'N/121°00'E No
Mount Tabayoo 16°41'N/120°54'E No
Sicapoo 18°02'N/120°57'E No
Cordilleras Range Mount Baloy 11°23 'N/122°09'E No
Leyte Mountains Mount Lobi 11°00'N/124°48'E Yes
Mount Tinagan 11°07'N/124°41'E Yes
Mindanao Mountains Mount Apo 6°59'N/125°16'E Yes
Mount Dapiak 8°15'N/123°28'E No
Mount Kitanglad 08°07'N/124°S5'E Yes
Mount Malindang 8°12'N/123°40'E Yes
Mount Ragang 7°41'N/124°30'E No |
Mindoro Mountains Mount Baco 12°50'N/121°10'E Yes
Mount Halcon 13°17'N/121°09'E No
Mount Iglit/Mangibok 12°35 'N/121°15'E Yes
Mount Malasimbo / Yes |
Mount Bulusan Mount Bulusan 12°48'N/124°03'E Yes
Mount Isarog Mount Isarog 13°40'N/123°23'E Yes
Mount Makiling Mount Makiling 14°08'N/121°12'E Yes
Mount Mayon Mount Mayon 13°16'N/123°42'E Yes |
Mounts Banahaw and San Cristobal Mounts Banahaw and San Cristobal 14°26'N/121°30'E Yes
Negros Mountains Mount Canlaon 10°26'N/123°10'E No
Palawan Mountains Cleopatra Needle 10°10'N/119°02'E Yes
Mount Beaufort / Yes
Mount Mantal ingajan 8°51'N/117°43'E Yes
The Teeth 9°21'N/118°16'E No
Victoria Peak 12°23'N/118°18'E Yes |
Sibuyan Mountains Mount Guiting-Guiting 12°24'N/122°33'E No
Sierra Madre/Mingan Mountains Mount Cresta / No
Mount Divilacan / No
Mount Palanan 17°01'N/122°16'E No

Total No. of
CF Regions= 14

Total No. of
CF Sites= 32

Total No. of CF Sites with

an element of protection = 19

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

South East Asia

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Philippines

Cordillera Central

The Cordillera Central is located in the north-west of the island of Luzon. The dominant tree
species in the canopy of the mossy forests of this mountain range are Lithocarpus jordanae,
L. scleriana, L. coopertus, Vicinium spp., Melastoma topingii, Eurya acuminata and some
gymnosperms represented by Taxux sumatrana, Phyllocladus stugii and Darycarpus cumingii.
The subcanopy comprises Clethrea canescens, Cyathea spp., Smilax spp., Decaspermum
spp., Medenilla spp., Melastoma topingii and Duplocosia spp. 5821 ha of mossy forest are
contained within the Mount Pulog National Park, including Mount Pulog (2929m), : the
highest mountain in Luzon. The flora of this area has affinities with the montane floras of
Sulawesi, New Guinea and Sabah, in particular Mount Kinabalu. Endemism is, however,
quite high with approximately 23% of the total number of genera represented in the flora
being endemic to Mount Pulog and its vicinities. The fauna includes the near-endemic bushy-
tailed cloud rat Crateromys schadenbergi, nine species of bird endemic to Mount Pulog and
eight species of bird, which are endangered. A second protected mossy forest site in this
mountain range is Mount Data (-Bontoc) in the Mount Data National Park. Average annual
rainfall in this site over a three-year period was recorded as 3770mm at an elevation of
2353m. The endemic forest rat Batomys granti is known only from Mount Data. Other peaks
in this mountain range include Sicapoo (2234m), Mount Sapocoy (2456m) and Mount
Tabayoo (2842m). The greatest threat to mossy forests in the Central Cordillera is the
clearing of land in order to grow temperate and semi-temperate vegetable crops. Other threats
include hunting and the extraction of certain tree species for house construction (Cox, 1988;
Penafiel, 1993).

Cordilleras Range

The Cordilleras Range is located in the Island of Panay (one of the Visayas Islands). Mount —
Baloy (2049m), which is rich in gymnosperm and tree fern species, is located in western
Panoy and contains montane forest. The largest and possibly only viable population of the
endemic Philippine spotted deer Cervus alfredi, which is in imminent danger of extinction, is
found in the Mount Maja-as/Mount Baloy area. The endemic Visayan wild pig Sus barbatus
cebifrons is also seriously threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. The area is
threatened by illegal logging and shifting cultivation, but has no legal protection (Cox, 1988;
Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995).

245

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Leyte Mountains

The Leyte mountains are located on the Island of Leyte (one of the Visayas Islands) and
contain mossy forest. This forest type is included in the Leyte Mountain National Park on the
higher mountain ridges, for example, Mount Tinagan (1125m) and Mount Lobi (1310m).
Deforestation threatens these forests (WCMC unpubl. data).

Mindanao Mountains

Mount Apo (2954m) is the highest peak in the Philippines. On this mountain, montane forest
occurs above about 2000m. It includes species of Lithocarpus, Cinnamomum, Melastoma,
Caryota, Calamus, Ficus, Agathis and many Lauraceae. Lichens, bryophytes, begonias,
orchids, aroids, Selaginella and Nephrolepis ferns abound. Between 2400-2700m_ the
vegetation is more open and stunted and is described as elfin. Upper montane endemics are
Cypholopus microphyllus and Nepenthes copelandii. The fauna of Mount Apo includes
several threatened animals, such as 24 highland restricted-range birds. Major pressures on the
area include a geothermal power station, resettlement schemes, shifting cultivation and illegal
logging. The mountain is included in Mount Apo National Park. Other peaks in Mindanao are
Mount Kitanglad (2379m) contained by Mount Kitanglad Range National Park, Mount
Dapiak (2560m), Mount Malindang (2425m) contained by Mount Malindang National Park
and Mount Ragang (2815m) (Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995).

Mindoro Mountains

Some of the highest peaks on the island of Mindoro are Mount Halcon (2585m), Mount
Malasimbo (1800m), Mount Iglit/Mangibok (1432m) and Mount Baco (2400m). Both Mount
Iglit and Mount Baco are included in the Mount Iglit-Baco National Park, where management
constraints include cattle ranching, farming, firewood gathering and settlements. Mossy
forests are found in this area above 1000m. Mount Malasimbo is included in the Puerto
Galera Biosphere Reserve (WCMC unpubl. data).

Mount Bulusan

The isolated volcano of Mount Bulusan (1560m) is thought to contain mossy forest. It is part
of Bulusan Volcano National Park (WCMC unpubl. data).

246

South East Asia

Mount Isarog

This isolated mountain is located in southern Luzon and is included in the Mount Isarog
National Park. Mossy forest is found at an elevation of 1500m to the summit at 1966m. A
total of 135 bird species have been recorded on Mount Isarog: 116 residents and 19 migrants.
The area is severely threatened by deforestation from illegal logging, poaching and squatters
(Anon, 1988; Goodman & Gonzales, 1990).

Mount Makiling

Mount Makiling (Maquiling) is an isolated extinct volcano (1140m) situated in south Central
Luzon. The flora of Mount Makiling has been studied in detail: The mossy forest zone occurs
between 900-1140m and is similar to that on other Malesian mountains. There is a single tree
storey of 6-10m high, with a covering of bryophytes, ferns and other epiphytes, up to 30cm
thick (a total of 21 species of mosses have been reported from the mountain and macrophylls
are absent. There is a fairly dense ground cover of herbaceous plants, including ferns.
Climbing plants are plentiful, but not diverse in terms of species. The commonest trees are
the tree fern Cyathea caudata and Astonia lagunensis. Threats to the area include illegal
conversion to agriculture, illegal squatting and a geothermal plant. The Mount Makiling
Faunal Reserve and the Mount Makiling Botanic Gardens are situated in this area (Enalbes,
1978; Tan, 1982; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995; Richards, 1996).

Mount Mayon

This isolated volcano (2421m) in the south of Luzon is thought to contain mossy forest. It is
part of Mayon Volcano National Park (WCMC unpubl. data).
Mounts Banahaw and San Cristobal

These mountains are situated in south Central Luzon to the east of Mount Makiling. Threats
to the forests are similar to those pressurising the Mount Makiling forests. The mountains are
included in the Mounts Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park (Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995).
Negros Mountains

These mountains on the island of Negros (one of the Visayas Islands) contains mossy forest.

This forest type has legal protection in Mount Canlaon National park. The forest is,however,
under severe threat from deforestation (Anderson ef al., 1991).

247

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Palawan Mountains

The island of Palawan has the highest percentage of forest cover in the Philippines
archipelago. Montane forests occur between 800m and 1500m on some of the highest peaks,
for example, Mount Mantalingajan (2054m) the highest mountain in Palawan, The Teeth
(1798m) and Cleopatra Needle (1593), Mount Beaufort and Victoria Peak. Common species
of upper montane forest are Agathis philippinensis, Dacrydium pectinatum, Podocarpus
polystachyus, Gnetum latifolium, Cycas wadei, Cinnamomum rupestre, Nepenthes
philippinensis and Angiopteris spp. The moss flora of Palawan consists of 192 species in 88
genera. The most serious threats to the forests are logging and shifting cultivation. The whole
of the island of Palawan has been declared a Biosphere Reserve (Davis ef al. (Eds.), 1995;
Tan, 1996).

Sibuyan Mountains

Sibuyan Island is composed of several volcanic mountain masses, the highest point being
Mount Guiting-Guiting (2052m). The montane forest on this island includes small to medium-
sized trees, such as Dacrydium elatum, Vaccinium gitingensis, Agathis spp. and Podocarpus
spp. Several plant species are known to be endemic to this mountain. Fifty-four species are
endemic to Sibuyan Island (Cox, 1988; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995).

Sierra Madre/Mingan Mountains

This mountainous area is located along the north east coast of the island of Luzon. It is largely
bounded on the west by the Cagayan Valley and on the east by the Philippine Sea. Some of
the highest peaks in the area include Mount Cresta (1672m), Mount Divilacan (1311m) and
Mount Palanan (1184m). Numerous endemics and rare species are restricted to this area, with
many species being restricted to particular vegetation types such as the mossy forests. The
forests are threatened by the expansion of towns, illegal squatters, over-exploitation for forest
products and by selective logging by local people. Part of the area was included in the
Palanan Wilderness Area in 1979 (Davies et al. (Eds.), 1995).

248

South East Asia

SRI LANKA

The upper montane rain forests of Sri Lanka occur above 1500m in the Central Highlands and
Knuckles Mountains. The original area is thought to have been about 600sq. km., but now
only fragments survive. Much of the land has been cleared for tea plantations, vegetable
gardens, terraced rice fields, housing and large plantations of Eucalyptus and Pinus caribbea
and rubber at lower elevations. At present, however, over 26,682 ha of montane forests are
legally protected. The upper montane forests are characterised by Lauraceae (Cinnamomun,
Litsea, Actinodaphne) and Myrtaceae (Syzygium, Eugenia, Rhodomyrtus), followed by
Clusiaceae (Calophyllum, Garcinia), Theaceae (Gordonia, Ternstroemia), Elaeocarpaceae and
Symplocaceae. Gymnosperms and Fagaceae, which are prominent in the mountains of Asia
and other regions of the world are lacking in South India and Sri Lanka, as, unusually, in Sri
Lanka the montane species are thought to derive from the rain forest flora of the lowlands.
The montane forests are known to be rich in endemic herbs. In addition, they are valued for
their contribution of additional moisture through interception of fog. Unique animal species
which inhabit swamps in and around the cloud forests include two endemic and monotypic
shrews, Feroculus feroculus and Solisorex pearsonii (Sumithraarachchi, 1989; Collins er al.
(Eds.), 1991; IED, 1992; Werner & Balasubramaniam, 1992; Dent & Goonewardene, 1993:
Green & Gunawardena, 1993; Werner, 1993)

References

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). i991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. 'UCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &
Schuster, New York. pp.335.

Dent, D.L. & Goonewardene, L.K.P.A. 1993. Resource Assessment and Land Use Planning
in Sri Lanka: a case study. Environmental Planning Issues No.4.

Forest Department. ? The Knuckles Range (Dumbara Hills). Education & Extension Division
Forest Department Sri Lanka.

Green, M.J.B. & Gunawardena, E.R.N. 1993. Conservation evaluation of some natural
forests in Sri Lanka. Unpubl. report.

IUCN & Sri Lankan Forest Department. 1994. Management plan for the conservation of the
Knuckles Forest. Unpubl. report.

Sumithraarachchi, D.B. 1989. Sri Lankan forests: diversity and genetic resources. In:
Tropical Forests: botanical dynamics, speciation and diversity (L.B. Holm-Nielsen,
I.C. Nielsen & H. Balslev, eds.). Academic Press. pp.253-258.

Werner, W.L. & Balasubramaniam, S. 1992. Structure and dynamics of the upper montane
rain forests of Sri Lanka. In: Tropical forests in transition: ecology of natural and
anthropogenic disturbance processes (J.G. Goldammer, ed.). Birkhauser Verlag
Basel/Switzerland. pp.165-172.

249

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

Werner, W.L. 1986. A comparison between two tropical montane ecosystems in Asia
Pidurutalagala (Ceylon/Sri Lanka) and Pangrango-Gede (Java). Mountain Research
and Development 6:335-344.

Werner, W.L. 1993. Biogeography and ecology of the upper montane rain forest of Sri
Lanka (Ceylon). In: Tropical montane cloud forests: proceedings of an international
symposium (L.S. Hamilton, J.O. Juvik & F.N. Scatena, eds.). East-West Center.
Hawai'i. pp.224-230.

WCMC. 1990. IUCN directory of south Asian protected areas. \UCN - the World
Conservation Union.

250

a -. SRILANKA

pie ous | | { 0 75 km
A SS | << |
=
‘\
x
_
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Central
Highiands j

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eee eee ce eee ee cee eee ee eee eee eee ee ee eee

SRI LANKA: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97
Protected*
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Central Highlands Agra Bopats / No
Bogawantalawa / Wo
Conical Hill 06°55 'N/080°45'E No
Hakagala / Yes
Hakgala Peak 6°56'N/ 80°48'E Yes
Harasbedda / No |
Horton Plains if Yes
Kandapola Sita Eliya / Yes
Kikilimana 06°59'N/080°43'E No
Kirigalpota 06°48'N/080°45'E Yes
Mahakudugala 07°02'N/080°48'E No
Namunukula 06°56'N/081°07'E No
Nanuoya 06°56'N/080°40'E No |
Ohiya / Wo
Pattipola / Wo
Pattipola Ambewela / No
Peak Wilderness / Yes |
Pedro / No
Pidurutalagala 07°01'N/080°45'E No
Ragala 07°01'N/080°51'E No
Sri Pada/Adam's Peak 06°47'N/080°31'E Yes |
Thangamal ai / No
Welegama / Wo
Knuckles Mountains/Dumbara Dotulugala / No
Dumbanagala 07°23'N/080°52'E No
Gal tuna / No
Gombani ya 07°28'N/080°44'E No
Kalupahana 07°28'N/080°47'E No |
Knuckles 7°22'N/ 80°S0'E No
Koboneelagala if No
Labulessapatana / No
Lakegala / No |
Wamarapugala / No
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 2 CF Sites= 33 an element of protection = 7 |

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

South East Asia

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Sri Lanka

Central Highlands

Areas of montane cloud forest in the Central Highlands that are protected are contained in
Hakagala Strict Nature Reserve (SNR), Horton Plains National Park (NP) and Peak
Wilderness Sanctuary. Hakgala SNR ranges from about 1650m to 2178m with Hakgala Peak
being the highest point. This area is noted for its endemic Monimiaceae Hortonia floribunda
and also for a number of mammal endemics such as the purple-faced langur Presbytis senex
and the toque macaque Macaca sinica. Horton Plains NP ranges from 1800m to 2389m and
Kirigalpota is the highest point. The forest is dominated by the endemic Calophyllum walkeri
in association with varieties of Myrtaceae and Lauraceae. A number of wild relatives of
cultivated plants, such as pepper, guava, tobacco and cardamon are also found in the cloud
forests of this area, along with the endemic long-clawed shrew Feroculus feroculus occurs in
the area. The highest point in the Peak Wilderness is Sri Pada/Adam's Peak (2238m).
Montane cloud forest occurs above 1700m in this Sanctuary and is confined to a narrow strip
along the ridge line and slopes of Adams Peak. It is characterised by Calophyllum walkeri and
C. trapezifollum. The continuous areas of Peak Wilderness Santuary and Horton Plains NP
contain all 21 species of bird endemic to the country. Pidurutalagala, which is not protected,
is the highest point in Sri Lanka and in the Central Highlands (2524m). Mossy forest covers
the slopes from above 1500m. Other areas of forest in the Central Highlands that are thought
to intercept fog include: Agra Bopats Proposed Reserve (PR), Bogawantalawa PR, Conical
Hill PR, Harasbedda PR, Kandapola Sita Eliya Forest Reserve (FR), Kikilimana PR,
Mahakudugala PR, Namunukula FR, Nanu Oya PR, Ohiya PR, Pattipola Ambewela PR,
Pattipola PR, Pedro PR, Ragaia PR, Thangamalai and Welegama PR (Werner, 1986;
WCMC, 1990; WCMC unpubl. data).

Knuckies Mountains/Dumbara Hills/Batadandu Kanda

The upper montane rain forest in the Dumbara Hills, also locally referred to as cloud forest or
moss forest (Dumbara means "covered in mist"), is rich in epiphytic orchids, ferns, mosses
and leafy liverworts. The forest is characterised by a single storied canopy and an
undergrowth of Strobilanthes spp., bamboos, Jmpatiens spp., Hedyotis spp. and Gaertnera
spp. In addition, of the twenty-one endemic bird species of Sri Lanka, fourteen have been
observed in the Knuckles region. The highest peaks in the Knuckles Range include Dotulugala
(1564m), Koboneelagala (1544m), Knuckles (1852m), Gombaniya (1893m), Kalupahana
(1618m), Wamarapugala (1560m), Lakegala (1310m), Labulessapatana (1485m),
Dumbanagala (1631m) and Galtuna (1164m). The main ridge has an elevation of about
1515m. The area is threatened by cardamom cultivation in particular. The Knuckles Ranges
is, however, valued as an important water catchment area (IUCN & Forest Dept., 1994).

253

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

THAILAND

Montane forests are said to be difficult to define and to map in Thailand, because distribution
is apparently dependent upon locally complex climatic and topographic variations. Montane
forests contain substantial numbers of temperate species which become more abundant to the
north of the county. Typical genera include Castanopsis, Lithocarpus and Quercus and to the
north the famiies Aceraceae, Lauraceae, Magnoliaceae and Rosaceae. Tropical montane cloud
forest may occur in the north of the country (other than on Doi Inthanon) for example, in Doi
Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary and in Thung Yai Naresuan-Huai Kha Khaeng World
Heritage Site; in Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, which is part of the Cardamom Mountains
(see Cambodia); and also on Luang Mountain (1,786m) on the Isthmus of Kra (Collins er al.
(Eds.), 1991; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl. data).

References

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds.). 1991. The conservation atlas of
tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. UCN, Gland & WCMC, Cambridge. Simon &
Schuster, New York. pp.335.

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant alee:

a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

Ewins, P.J. & Bazely, D.R. 1989. A report on wildlife conservation problems in Thailand's

National Parks. Unpubl.

254

THAILAND

250 km

ee ee eee ee

THAILAND: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97
Protected* |
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
a a 5S ee ae ed a ee eS SS ee
Doi Inthanon Doi Inthanon 18°35'N/ 98°29'E Yes
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 1 an element of protection = 1

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

South East Asia

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Thailand

Doi Inthanon

At 2595m, Doi Inthanon is the highest mountain in Thailand and is included in the Doi
Inthanon National Park. The highest peaks above 1850m are frequently cloud covered and
contain upper montane forest with small gnarled trees, which are thickly covered with
bryophytes. The fauna in this area has been severely depleted by hunting and shifting
cultivation has converted forest on the lower slopes into fire climax grasslands (Davies er al.
(Eds.), 1995; WCMC unpubl. data).

Zi,

A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS

VIET NAM

Three quarters of Viet Nam consists of hills and mountains reaching up to over 3000m. Cloud
forest sites may be contained within the two main mountain ranges in the country, the Chaine
Annamitique and the Hoang Lien Son mountain range. The latter range includes the highest
peak in the country, Phan Si Pan (3143m), which contains deciduous tropcial montane forest
and subtropical montane forest. The highest mountains in the country, some of which are also
included in nature reserves, are in the Hoang Lien Son to the north, the Ngoc Linh in the
centre and the Da Lat (Lam Vien/Langbian) Plateau to the south. These areas are said to be
the main refuges of local endemic forms of plants and animals. Upper montane forests tend to
be dominated by conifers, with an understorey of bamboo. Political unrest and warfare have
resulted in extensive deforestation throughout Viet Nam. Currently, 40% of the country is
classified as bare land (Vo Quy, 1985; WCMC, 1994; Davis et al. (Eds.), 1995; WCMC
unpubl. data).

References

Davis, S.D., Heywood, V.H. and Hamilton, A.C. (Eds.). 1995. Centres of plant diversity:

a guide and strategy for their conservation. Vol.2 Asia, Australasia and the Pacific.
WWE and IUCN. pp.578.

WCMC. 1994. The Socialist Republic of Viet Nam: an environmental profile. Unpubl.

Vo Quy. 1985. Rare species and protection measures proposed for Viet Nam. In: Conserving
Asia's natural heritage: the planning and management of protected areas in the
Indomalayan realm (J.W. Thorsell, eds.) pp.98-102. Proceedings of the 25th Working
Session of IUCN's Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas.

258

MS ;
\ | |
| 0 250 km
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Da Lat/Lam Vien/
.Lang Bian Pjateau—“

VIET NAM: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY Date: 27/06/97

Protected*

Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
ot 2 eee eee SS ee

Da Lat/Lam Vien/Lang Bian Plateau Mount Lang Bian 11°56'N/108°25'E No |
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with

CF Regions= 1 CF Sites= 1 an element of protection = 0

* 'Protected' refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria |

|

South East Asia

Cloud Forest Region Summaries: Viet Nam

Da Lat/Lam Vien/Lang Bian Plateau

The highest points on the Plateau are Bidoup (2289m) and Mount Lang Bian (2140m).
However, most of the land on the Plateau is below 1500m. Tropical montane evergreen forest
and subtropical montane forest occur above 1700m. Mount Lang Bian contains various
montane forests: the principal forest types being conifer secondary forest, comprising mainly
Pinus kesiya; forest dominated by Lithocarpus spp. and oak Quercus lanata; and elfin
woodland comprising Ericaceae, Podocarpaceae and Rhododendron. Distinct faunal species
and subspecies have developed on the Plateau. The montane evergreen forest above 900m
supports seven restricted-range bird species, of which three are endemic; the grey-crowned
crocias Crocias langbianis, the black-hooded laughing-thrush Garrulax milleti and the
collared laughing-thrush Garrulax yersini. The forests are valued for water catchment, but are
threatened by commercial logging and slash and burn cultivation (Davies ef al. (Eds.), 1995;
WCMC unpubl. data).

261

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TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS: SITE SHEET FORMAT - GUIDE

1) SUMMARY INFORMATION

CLOUD FOREST SITE NAME - : name of particular TMCF site
(if none then protected area or region)
COUNTRY
REGION : State, province, region and approx location in
country e.g NE, SW Argentina
SIZE : Area (ha)
LATITUDE : centre point co-ordinates
LONGITUDE ; (boundary information if available)
LOW ALTITUDE : Lower altitudinal limit (m above sea level)
HIGH ALTITUDE : Upper altitudinal limit (m above sea level)
RAINFALL ; mean annual(mm)
maximum monthly average
minimum monthly average
TEMPERATURE mean annual (°C)

maximum monthly average
minimum monthly average

SPECIES INFORMATION FLORA : _ Species information exists? Please circle. Y/N

[ ] Preliminary*
[ ] Extensive
[ ] Comprehensive

Please tick most appropriate
FAUNA : _ Species information exists? Y/N
[ ] Preliminary*
[ ] Extensive
{ ] Comprehensive
* Preliminary - based on limited field observations

Extensive - partial surveys of the area
Comprehensive - systematic surveys

‘ THREATS : Main Threats - Please tick those with major
relevance and add any others:

[] - agricultural encroachment
[] - grazing pressure
[J - commercial logging
[] - mining
[] - hunting
[] - fire/burning
[] - non-wood forest products
[] - tourism
[] - exploitation of non-wood forest products
[] - roads
[] - others?
VALUES : Important Values - Again tick one or more from
>; list below:
[] - watershed protection
[] - soil conservation
[] - endemism
[] - socio-cultural
[] - socio-economic
[] - medicinal
[] - biodiversity (endangered species)
[] - tourism / recreation
[] - other?
—,- PROTECTED AREA NAME : Protected Area Name (if relevant)
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP : Spatial relationship with PA eg. CF is included,

includes, same, adjacent. Overlap (ha)?

TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUD FORESTS: SITE SHEET FORMAT - BLANK

Please refer to enclosed guide version for help where needed.
1) SUMMARY INFORMATION

CLOUD FOREST SITE NAME

COUNTRY

REGION

SIZ1: : ha

LATITUDE

LONGITUDE

LOW ALTITUDE : m asl

HIGH ALTITUDE : m asl

RAINFALL : mm

TEMPERATURE : °C

SPECIES INFORMATION FLORA : _ Species information exists? Please circle. Y/N
[ ] Preliminary*
[ ] Extensive
[ ] Comprehensive

Please tick most appropriare
FAUNA : _ Species information exists? Y/N

[ ] Preliminary*
[ ] Extensive
[ ] Comprehensive
~ Preliminary - based on limited field observations
Extensive - partial surveys of the area
Comprehensive - systematic surveys

THREATS : Main Threats - Please tick those with major
relevance and add any others:

[] - agricultural encroachment
[] - grazing pressure
[] - commercial logging
[] - mining
[] - hunting
[] - fire/burning
[] - tourism
[] - exploitation of non-wood forest products
[] - roads
Eel ae, ie
Le Ss
Di ie
Gl eam
VALUES : Important Values - Again tick one or more from
list below:

- watershed protection

- soil conservation

- endemism

- socio-cultural

- s0cio0-economic

medicinal

- biodiversity (endangered species)
- tourism / recreation

Ue I re I es cree co ee Be BO ce cee Bl cee ee Bl ce)
Ned dd hd ed
'

PROTECTED AREA NAME

SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP

2)

MORE DETAILED INFORMATION (TEXT BASED) - GUIDE

SITE DESCRIPTION

Geographical Location

Area

Altitudinal limits

Hydrology - e.g. catchment extent

Physical features

Climate - details of seasonality, max and min rainfall and temperature ranges,
temporal distribution, special cloud water characteristics

VEGETATION AND FAUNA
Vegetation: - description of forest structure
- details of rare, threatened and endemic spp
- existence of species inventory/records? if so date, and where held?
- more detail on different plant groups
- total species numbers for each group

Fauna: as above, detail on birds, mammals etc.

Ecological value - summary comments

LEGAL STATUS AND MANAGEMENT

History of Legal Protection

Management responsibility

Land Tenure details

SOCIO-ECONOMICS

Local Human populations: forest/adjacent communities (including approximate

numbers)
Goods and services - socio-cultural, economic, including local uses

THREATS TO SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT

Particular detail on any threats

CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT INITIATIVES

Details of active and pending initiatives:
eg. local NGOs, national/international NGOs, bilateral development projects

RESEARCH STUDIES

Details of relevant studies, current or completed
Name of institution, list of citations

LOCAL ADDRESSES

REFERENCES
To sources of information

WORLD CONSERVATION |
MONITORING CENTRE

World Conservation Monitoring Centre |
219 Huntingdon Road _ eh
_ Cambridge CB3 ODL
United Kingdom

Telephone +44 223 277314
Fax +44 223 277136

The World Conservation Monitoring Centre is a joint-venture between the th
partners who developed the World Conservation Strategy and its successor Caring
the Earth: 1UCN-The World Conservation Union, UNEP- United Nations Environm
Programme, and WWF-World Wide Fund for Nature. Rae A