The global distribution and status of seagrass ecosystems Discussion paper prepared for the UNEP-WCMC Global Seagrass Workshop St Pete’s Beach, Florida, 9 Novemiber, 2001 Prepared by: Mark D. Spalding, Michelle L. Taylor, Sergio Martins, Edmund P. Green, and Mary Edwards WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE AlN) 5:55 / Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge http://www.archive.org/details/globaldistributi01 spal The global distribution and status of seagrass ecosystems Discussion paper prepared for the UNEP-WCMC Global Seagrass Workshop St Pete’s Beach, Florida, 9 November, 2001 Prepared by: Mark D. Spalding, Michelle L. Taylor, Sergio Martins, Edmund P. Green, and Mary Edwards With assistance from: Mark Taylor and Corinna Ravilious Table of Contents Introduction to the workshop .............2:ce:cescescesceseeseeseesseeeeeseaees The global distribution and status of seagrass ecosystems... Introduction PAG SOCIALE GUS PECLES vaccesatesarresecacnseesnccocessassenesersresenscvetacranar= Productivity and biomass ...........2:c:ccccessssseessesseeseneeeees The distribution and area of seagrass habitat The value Of S€ag4rasseS .............:scesccecseseesetessenee Threats to SCAgTASSES ......-.-.cssscsecessssssessesssssnsssscenesecscsencsecuescceseesecesusucaccncecscsesecarsssessecsssossusssscecsvsnssnsenecesecseneenenseass® g Management InterventionS.............cc:cccccssesesseseseseeseseeneneneseeseeeseeseesenscisseessucsssceusssssissessssssssssnsseasaneneanenensenenseeenesees Bibliography: ........-cccecceceesessesessessesessessesecsesveseenecsececsecscnecucsesuecacensnenesussesacsucsesnssessssssssssscrsssssecsenscsecnesscsccnceucnecneenee® 16 Annex 1 : Seagrass Species Lists by County ...........ccscsceseceesecseseesesesessesessesscseesessessensavesecnsssessenesscseeucscsscucecasenenacacs 29 Annex 2 — Species distribution maps ............cscsececseesececeseeseereseceeeneeesnssessssecseesssssessessscssesseseseesenscscereciceacesteseeeneticett® 34 Annex 3 — Seagrass distribution maps ...........c:ccccccsseeeeeseeeeteesesestecsseesssescecsssesseuenssssenenssescscecenececeueenensicececicereneeteesgys 68 Annex 4 — Full list of MPAs by COUNLTY ...........:ssscescsessesesesseseseeseseeeeneseseeesncaceeencneeesicisetensatesesocecsecssseensasseencasaseeeneeees 74 UNEP WCMC introduction to the workshop The Global Seagrass Workshop of 9 November 2001 has been set up with the expressed aim to develop a global synthesis on the distribution and status of seagrasses world-wide. Approximately 20 seagrass experts from 14 countries, representing all of the major seagrass regions of the world have been invited to share their knowledge and expertise. A list of the expected participants is provided below: Name Country Name Country Bujang Sidik Japar Malaysia Kun-Seop Lee Korea Caroline Ochieng Tanzania Mark Spalding*** UK Chatcharee Supanwanid Thailand Michelle Taylor*** UK Diana Walker Australia Miguel D. Fortes Philippines Dr Jagtap Tanaji Gajanan India Nataliya Milchakova Ukraine Evamaria W. Koch USA Robert Coles Australia Frederick T. Short USA Ronald C. Phillips USA Gabriele Procacini* Italy Salomao Bandeira Mozambique Gilberto Cintron** USA Sandy Wyllie-Echeverria USA Hugh Kirkman Thailand Graeme Inglis New Zealand Joel Creed Brazil Sven Beer* Israel Keiko Aioi* Japan * Providing input, but not attending ** Ramsar Convention representative *** UNEP-WCMC representatives Prior to the meeting each of the participants has prepared short summary documents describing the seagrasses resources in their region of expertise. In parallel with this work, staff at UNEP-WCMC have prepared a global assessment of seagrasses. All of these papers were circulated prior to the workshop. The structure of all of these documents has been broadly standardised, with the aim of focussing attention under the following headings: 1 - Species distribution and extent Species lists by country, or specific sites, Seagrass associates, notably commercially important species and threatened species. Major seagrass areas and ecosystem types, in specific regions Maps of distribution of seagrass ecosystems, or references of seagrass mapping works Area estimates, for individual sites or countries 2 - Uses and threats Indirect uses — coastal protection, fisheries, aquaculture etc. Pointers to specific studies. Direct uses — any uses of seagrasses for food, fodder, handicrafts, medicinal products etc. Threats — full list of threats, with locations and estimates of extent of impacts. Estimates of area loss or degradation 3 - Seagrass management and restoration Protected areas — lists of protected areas containing seagrass ecosystems Other legal and policy measures Restoration — case studies, including both successes and failures 4 - Bibliography and contacts List of all seagrass references from each region List of all agencies and individuals with an interest and working knowledge of seagrass ecosystems, including official government agencies, academic organisations, fisheries and NGOs. This workshop has been kindly supported by the UK Department For International Development, the Ramsar Convention Secretariat, the Estuarine Research Federation and the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research i) The global distribution and status of seagrass ecosystems Introduction Seagrasses are a mixed group of flowering plants which grow submerged in shallow marine and estuarine environments world-wide. In many areas they form extensive ecosystems, often referred to as seagrass beds or seagrass meadows. They are considered to be one of the most important shallow-marine ecosystems to humans, being highly productive, and playing an important role in fisheries production as well as binding sediments and providing some protection from coastal erosion. In this discussion paper we attempt to summarise distribution, importance and status of seagrasses world-wide. Firstly we consider in more detail the definition of seagrasses, both as species and as habitats, and look at the geographic patterns of biodiversity and habitat distribution. Next we consider their importance to humans. Finally we look at the human impacts on these ecosystems, including both threats, and the and management measures for the protection or restoration of seagrass beds. Definitions Seagrasses are flowering plants which grow fully submerged and rooted in estuarine and marine environments. They are not true grasses. Although they are all monocotyledons, they do not have a single evolutionary origin, but are a polyphyletic group, defined by the particular ecological niche they inhabit. Five particular adaptations to enable survival in this niche have been identified (Phillips and Mefiez, 1988): 1 An adaptation to survive in high, and in some cases varying, salinity 2 An ability to grow whilst completely submerged, which presents problems, notably of lowered gas concentrations and rates of diffusion 3 The use of an anchoring system to withstand water movements 4 The development of submarine pollination strategies 5 An ability to compete with other species in the marine environment These adaptations have led to a number of morphological characteristics which are widespread or ubiquitous amongst seagrasses, notably: flattened leaves (with the exception of Syringodium); strap-like leaves (with the exception of Halophila); and extensive system of roots and rhizomes (Phillips and Mefiez, 1988). Although arguments still remain over the details of nomenclature and taxonomic relations of particular species (Kuo and McComb, 1989) there is little or no controversy over which species are, or are not seagrasses, and Table 1 provides a list of the currently accepted species. Point for discussion: is there indeed consensus on this list? Taxonomy and nomenclature? Diplantera, Potamogeton, Ruppia, Zannichellia? Seagrass ecosystems are areas of estuarine or sea floor where seagrasses make up an important part of the biomass or play a key role in the ecosystem function. Typically these are areas dominated by soft substrates such as sand or mud, but some species can be found growing on more rocky substrates. In some cases seagrasses can be observed with a scattered distribution over otherwise bare substrate, or in small patches as part of a mosaic of rocky or coral habitats, and in these cases the delimitation of seagrass ecosystems becomes more subjective. They are only found in shallow waters because of the rapid attenuation of light with depth, but have been recorded to 70m in clear waters (Lipkin, 1979). Although typically permanent over periods of decades, seagrass systems can be highly opportunistic, and can form relatively transient communities in others. The diversity of seagrasses Using the definition provided there are 60 species from four families which are widely accepted as true seagrasses. A small group of species from the family Potomogetonaceae (notably species from the genera Ruppia and Potamogeton) are also included as seagrasses by some experts, but are not considered further in this report. Table 1: A list of generally accepted seagrass species. FAMILY GENUS SPECIES FAMILY GENUS SPECIES Cymodoceaceae Amphibolis antarctica Halophila stipulacea Amphibolis griffithii Halophila tricostata Cymodocea angustata Thalassia hemprichii Cymodocea ciliata Thalassia testudinum Cymodocea nodosa Posidoniaceae Posidonia angustifolia Cymodocea rotundata Posidonia australis Cymodocea serrulata Posidonia coriacea Halodule beaudettei Posidonia denhartogii Halodule bermudensis Posidonia kirkmanii Halodule emarginata Posidonia oceanica Halodule pinifolia col @rsoujee <—Posidonia ostenfeldii Halodule uninervis Posidonia robertsonae Halodule wrightii Posidonia sinuosa Syringodium filiforme Zosteraceae Heterozostera tasmanica Syringodium isoetifolium Phyllospadix iwatensis Thalassodendron ciliatum Phyllospadix japonicus Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Phyllospadix scouleri Hydrocharitaceae = Enhalus acoroides Phyllospadix serrulatus Halophila australis : Phyllospadix torreyi Halophila baillonis S nas Zostera asiatica Halophila beccarit Zostera caespitosa Halophila capricornt Zostera capensis Halophila decipiens Zostera capricorni Halophila engelmannii Zostera caulescens Halophila hawaiiana Zostera Japonica Halophila johnsonii Zostera marina Halophila minor Zostera mucronata Halophila ovalis Zostera muelleri Halophila ovata Zostera noltii Halophila spinulosa Zostera novazelandica » , * 4 y< Species distribution : As a part of the present work, seagrass distribution information has been compiled from some 500 sources (see bibliography). The majority of these include direct observations of species, and these have been used to generate species lists for every country as species richness statistics. These sources provided at least partial information for the seagrass flora in 115 countries and territories world-wide, and this is provided in Annex 1. These show that the most diverse countries include Australia (31 species), the Philippines (18 species) and Japan (17 species). These same geographic data were added to a geographical information system (GIS) at UNEP-WCMC, developing both spatial and point data as available. Plotting the available information by species, generalised distribution maps were produced for every species, updating earlier work by den Hartog (1970) and by Phillips and Mefiez (1988). These maps are presented in Annex 2. Feedback please: it would be possible, using the individual species maps for each country presented in Annex 2 to generate “predicted” or “expected” species lists for any country or region. This would allow generation of lists for smaller or unstudied areas. Would this be a valuable exercise? We clearly have more work to do to get these tables complete? It would be valuable to get updates for each country, but also to try and gather information for entire countries that we are currently missing. The species distribution information points clearly to the centres of diversity both at national and regional levels. The highest levels of diversity are clearly located in Australia (31 spp.) and the Philippines (18 spp.). The maps also point clearly to species with restricted ranges, and to species endemic to single countries (Table 2). Twa species of seagrasses have been listed as globally threatened: Halophila johnsonii (Vulnerable) and Phoilospadigl Rae) (IUCN, 1997). “ eewodtt Table 2: list of single country endemic species of seagrasses. Amphibolis antarctica, Amphibolis griffithii, Cymodocea angustata, Halophila australis, Halophila capricorni, Halophila tricostata, Posidonia angustifolia, Posidonia australis, Posidonia coriacea, Posidonia denhartogii, Posidonia kirkmanii, Posidonia ostenfeldii, Australia Posidonia robertsonae, Posidonia sinuosa, Thalassodendron pachyrhizum, Zostera mucronata Halodule emarginata Phyllospadix japonicus, Zostera caespitosa Madagascar Halophila stipulacea New Zealand Zostera novazelandica Halophila hawaiiana, Halophila johnsonii How accurate is this, are there others? Does this in any way reflect the bias of the workers? If we were to change this to restricted range species are there any in particular? Or what should constitute a restricted range? What are thoughts about threatened species? The species distribution maps have also been amalgamated to develop a global map of seagrass biodiversity. This map is the first of its kind for seagrasses, however it has been modelled on similar maps compiled for corals (Veron 2000) and for mangroves (UNEP-WCMC, 2000). Map 1: Contour map showing the diversity of seagrass species world-wide. This map shows the clear focus of biodiversity in Southeast Asia reaching up to southern Japan, and a second focus of diversity in the Red Sea and East Africa. In some ways these mirror the patterns of diversity observed in corals and mangroves. The Southeast Asian centre of diversity is a particular feature of all marine biodiversity maps produced to date, however it is interesting to note that, for seagrasses, this extends further north and into the temperate waters of Japan. Furthermore, seagrasses clearly show a much wider global distribution into cold temperate waters, and show relatively high diversity in other regions, notably in the Mediterranean and southern Australia. Theories for the development of Southeast Asian centre of diversity have been advanced for a number of species groups, and it has been variously suggested that this region may have been a centre for species accumulation (“the vortex model of coral reef biogeography”, Jokiel and Marinelli, 1992), a location where high diversity was maintained thanks to benign climatic conditions during recent ice-ages (McCoy and Heck, 1976), or a centre for species evolution with the combination of benign conditions and changing sea levels (“eustatic diversity pump model”, Rosen, 1984). The apparent radiation of species in locations outside of this region, most notably in southern and western Australia and in Japan, is also of considerable evolutionary interest (Phillips and Menez, 1988). Associated Species A vast array of species can be found within seagrass ecosystems. Many are obligate members of the seagrass ecosystem, and are found no-where else. Others may be restricted to seagrass areas for shorter periods of their life- history, using them as breeding or nursery areas, or settling there for the adult phases of their life-history. Many more are found across a broad range of marine habitats, but regularly inhabit seagrass areas. Table 3 lists some of the major groups of species regularly recorded from seagrass ecosystems, with links to particular references which address the association with seagrasses. Species of high conservation importance have also been included Table 3: The major taxonomic groups found in seagrass ecosystems, with brief notes. Key references for this table include various chapters in Phillips and McRoy (1980). Including calcareous species otably Halimeda (1. ncludes the slime-moulds Labyrinthula spp., Diatoms and Foraminifera Includes epiphytic hydrozoans, sea anemones, and Scleractinia such as Pavona, Cnidarians Psammacora, Porites, Pocillopora, Siderastrea Many boring species Includes amphipods, and many decapod crustaceans including crabs, stomatopods and commercially important shrimp and lobster - «> «ud Some oysters, also many boring species Gastropod molluscs A broad range including nereids, Conus, Cypraea, and commercially important species of Strombus Cephalopod molluscs Squid and cuttlefish often found over seagrass areas Epiphytic on seagrass and rocks An important range of commercially important holothurian species, ophiroids are widespread, but also asteroids, and echinoids Ascideans Fish All groups, but including the commercially important Haemulidae (grunts), Siganidae (rabbitfish), Lethrinidae (emperors), Lutjanidae (snappers), Syngnathidae (pipefishes and seahorses). Many of the latter, which are used in the aquarium trade and Chinese medicine trade, are considered threatened. Notably the Green turtle.. Notably the sirenian species (dugong and manatee) Levels of diversity can be very high indeed. Harlin (1980) cites a study by Humm (1964) which listed 113 species of algal epiphytes from Thalassia testudinum beds in Florida. These lists were combined with 26 others from various publications world-wide to produce a total of some 450 algal species epiphytic on seagrasses, still probably an underestimate. Looking at a broader faunal list, Hutchings (1994) listed some 248 arthropods, 197 molluscs, 171 polychaetes, and 15 echinoderm species from Jervis Bay in New South Wales, Australia. In Florida, Roblee et al. (1991) noted 100 species of fish, and 30 crustaceans. Such figures are lower than many coral reef biodiversity statistics (for example 1500 fish on the Great Barrier Reef; 534 species from 27 phyla on a 5sq m Caribbean reef microcosm, or 220 animal species from an individual coral head, Spalding et al. 2001), however these figures are still very high, and point to an important biodiversity which is often overlooked. Whilst many of these species are broad ranging, others appear to be restricted to seagrass ecosystems, or dependant on them for a significant part of their life cycle. These seagrass dependent species include epiphytic algae (Harlin, 1980), and many of the 215 species of pipefishes and seahorses, including globally threatened species. The importance attached to endemic and unique species by conservation agencies and funders is considerable — would it be worth trying to compile a list of obligate members of seagrass ecosystems, at least for particular groups? We are clearly still a long way from developing a concept of total species numbers within seagrass ecosystems, and even further from establishing which of these are wholly dependent on these systems. It would appear from the above statistics, however, that the totals may be very large indeed — most of the comprehensive assessments have been undertaken in temperate waters, or the relatively low diversity waters of the Caribbean. The close association of seagrass ecosystems with coral reefs and mangrove forests will greatly boost the numbers of facultative inhabitants of these ecosystems in these areas, and it seems like that the total figures will number tens, perhaps hundreds of thousands of species. Productivity and biomass Seagrasses are often cited for their high productivity, despite often having relatively low biomass. Numerous studies have been undertaken on seagrass ecosystems world-wide, illustrating the considerable variance, but often very high overall figures. Comparisons of such figures are very difficult between studies. There are numerous types of measure, with biomass statistics ranging from stalk density to the dry weight of complete plant-root systems and with productivity statistics including rates of shoot extension to the dry weight of carbon produced per year. With considerable seasonal variation in growth rates and other less predictable fluctuations in growth the period and length of sampling greatly affects such measures. In addition, the selection of sampling areas may greatly bias overall measures. Table 4 provides a sample of some measures. Seagrasses are described by many as being among the world’s highly productive ecosystems. Most of these quote figures of 500-4000 gC/m’/year, clearly much higher than the examples provided here Is this a claim we can still make? Can we also develop estimates by region (Tropical SEAsia, Caribbean, Mediterranean, Temperate waters)? Table 4: Selected examples of measures of seagrass biomass and productivity statistics. Type of Details Species or Location Measure Source measure dominant spp Biomass Standing crop Thalassodendron Sinai a few dozens to well over Lipkin, 1979 to 25cm depth ciliatum 100kg DW m? of sediment Biomass Standing crop Mixed Sinai Several hundred grams to a Lipkin, 1979 to 25cm depth few kg DW m™ of sediment Biomass Standing crop Halophila ovalis Sinai a few grams to a few dozen Lipkin, 1979 to 25cm depth and Haldule grams DW m of sediment —uninervis , Biomass Standing crop Heterozostera Victoria 56-286 g DW m” Bulthius and of leaves and tasmanica Australia Woelkerling, 1983 stems Biomass leaves Cymodocea nodosa Spain 64-171 g DW m Terrados and Ros, 1992 Biomass rhizomes Cymodocea nodosa Spain 157-269 g DW m* Terrados and Ros, 1992 Biomass above and Mixed Texas 172.5-235.3 g DW m> below ground Primary production Various Australia 120-690 gC m2 per year Primary production Halodule wrightii Tropics 280 gC m’ yr! Primary production turtlegrass Tropics 825 gC m’ yr! Primary production eelgrass Temperate 190 gC m yr! regions Primary production eelgrass Temperate 400-800 gC m yr! regions Productivity Annualleaf Heterozostera Victoria 414-645 g DW m yr! production tasmanica Australia ; Productivity leaves Cymodocea nodosa Spain 160-427 g DW m’ yr! Productivity rhizomes Cymodocea nodosa Spain 46-78 g DW m yr! The distribution and area of seagrass habitat There has never been an accurate estimation of the global area of seagrass habitat. The total area of continental shelf (coastal waters to a depth of 200m) world-wide has been estimated at almost 25 million sq km (WRI, 2000). Assuming a constant slope this would imply an area of 5-10 million sq km of water within the depth-range of most seagrasses. In reality seagrasses only occupy a small fraction of the world’s nearshore waters and the total area of seagrasses is likely to be less than 10% of the shallow water area of the world’s continental shelves, or 500,000 to 1,000,000 sq km. _ 2 be DA ce Bees COOOL? 5G Le Onuf, 1996 Hillman et al, 1989 in Phillips and Durako (2000) Phillips and Durako (2000) Phillips and Durako (2000) Thorne-Millar and Harlin, 1984 in Phillips and Durako (2000) Sand-Jensen and Borum, 1983 in Phillips and Durako (2000) Bulthius and Woelkerling, 1983 Terrados and Ros, 1992 Terrados and Ros, 1992 While global estimates have not been produced, a considerable number of studies have estimated the area of seagrasses in particular regions or in single study-sites. A number of these are presented in Table 5. Table 5: Estimates of seagrass at local levels from around the world. Country Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia France France France Guadeloupe Guatemala India Region 159E 35S Cape York - Moreton Bay, Queensland Cliff head lagoon Gulf of Carpentaria Gulf St Vincent New South Wales Queensland Queensland, Cape York to Hervey Bay Shark Bay Spencer Gulf Succcess Bank Succcess Bank SW Australia Swan-Cannign estuary Torres Strait western Australia 3E 43N Arcachon Bay Corsica 88W 15N Kavaratti Area(km2) 78.7 4,300.0 50.0 906.0 1,530.0 155.0 4,000.0 4,000.0 3,676.0 3,700.0 10.4 7.0 2,200.0 5.0 17,500.0 20,000.0 19.0 70.0 620.0 84.0 20.0 0.4 Reference http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Lee Long et al 1993 Kirkman, H. (1997) Kirkman, H. (1997) Kirkman, H. (1997) Kirkman, H. (1997) http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Lee Long et al 1993 Kirkman, H. (1997) Kirkman, H. (1997) Kendrick et al 2000 Kendrick et al 2000 Kirkman, H. (1997) Kirkman, H. (1997) Kirkman, H. (1997) Kirkmand and Walker 1989 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Auby 1991 Pasqualini et al, 1998 Chauvaud et al 2001 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Jagtap and Inamdar, 1991 Country Region Area(km2) Reference Italy Ligurian coasts: 71.0 http://estaxp.santateresa.enea.it/www/fane/faneatlas.ht ml Italy Sicily 12E 39N 300.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Italy Sicily 13E 38N 10.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Italy Venice 15.0 Rismondo et al (1997) Jamaica Kingston Harbour 10.0 Greenway, 1995 Japan whole country 2,012.1 http://www.biodic.go.jp/english/kiso/fnd_f.html Mauritania Banc D'Arguin National Park 700.0 Kelleher et al, 1995 Mexico Campeche 496.4 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Mexico Caribbean coast 40.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Mexico Tamaulipas 357.4 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Mexico Veracruz 106.2 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu New 166E 20S 2,066.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Caledonia New 166E 22S 145.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Caledonia Saudi Arabia 370.0 MEPA/IUCN, 1987 Spain Med. 2W 39N 15,130.0 — http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Spain Med. 2W 37N 7,529.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Spain Med. 4W 37N 796.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Turks and Caicos Bank 913.6 Green et al 2000 Caicos USA Alaska 170.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu USA California 13.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu USA Florida Bay 1,800 Durako 2000 USA Maryland 55.9 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu USA Maryland & Viginia 160.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu ‘ USA Texas 951.4 http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/conserve/coastal/seegrass/ chpt].htm USA Texas 833.0 http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/conserve/coastal/seegrass/ chpt2.htm The global distribution of seagrass habitat: The broad picture of seagrass distribution has been long known (den Hartog, 1970), however there are still likely to be wide areas where even the existence of seagrasses remains unknown. Generalised distribution maps (see Map 1, above) do not provide any indication of the actual location of seagrass beds on a site-specific basis. The authors are only aware of one attempt at such a map, namely Coral World (National Geographic Society, 2000) annotated by den Hartog. As a part of the present work, a comprehensive global GIS dataset was developed, bringing together seagrass distribution maps from multiple sources, including published literature and unpublished sources. Broadly, the source material fell into the following categories: 1 — Direct habitat maps. Often high resolution and very accurate. Many such maps are now produced from remotely sensed data, but smaller areas have been mapped entirely from field observations. With remote sensing accuracy is limited by the resolution of the sensor, the clarity of the water and the degree of sampling utilised. Some remotely sensed images will only pick up shallow (<10m) seagrass beds with a high shoot density, while large pixel size will lead to the loss of small or highly patchy seagrass areas. 2 — Point based samples. Although not strictly maps, numerous publications provide exact point-locations of seagrass beds which have been the location of particular studies. Such points can be placed within a GIS and can be “buffered” out to form small polygons. Although not representative of area on the ground, they are very useful ina broader mapping context where no further information is available. 3 — Broad-scale, generalised interpolations have been put together for a number of areas or countries. These differ from generalised range maps in that they have typically compiled by local experts, and are based on interpolation of ground-based knowledge and observation. Their accuracy is obviously highly variable. Clearly, even with existing maps, there are differences in definition of what has been mapped, and significant differences in resolution. These will clearly influence the area of seagrass portrayed. Many mapping techniques, from remotely sensed image-processing to grab-sampling or side-scan sonar, may only pick up seagrasses at certain levels of shoot density, and the sensitivity to shoot density may be further altered by other attributes of the benthos or water column, the sampling routines or the time of day. Error also plays a part, and some mapping systems may incorporate non-seagrass species, such as Halimeda. Scale is also important: Lower resolution maps will tend to ignore minor breaks in seagrass beds, while finer resolution maps will pick up even small breaks, which, it could be argued, are still a part of the seagrass ecosystem In the following study we have utilised all three types of source material described above, and these have been harmonised into a single data layer. Each data point is clearly labelled with a series of attributes defining source, known species composition, and the date and scale of the original map. The primary aim of this work was to prepare a global map showing, as accurately as possible, the distribution of seagrasses, however it is clear that the same data layer may be used for more detailed analysis. The linked information in the GIS is thus of considerable importance in interpreting the layers on the map. Map 2 presents a global map of known seagrass distribution. A more detailed series of regional maps are presented in Annex 3. We would like to make a global estimate of seagrass area. There are two possible routes: 1 - Map based — using our maps and estimating for missing information 2 - Direct estimates — using total estimates of shallow water and estimating proportion with seagrass based on selected studies (e.g. Estimates from Liguria suggest 14-22% of shallow water (above 35m) dominated by seagrass; and 17% of Caicos Bank) Can we do this? 10 Il “doysysom ay] 0} asayy Suis asvajd Spasv 4ayjo ul Ssps8vas Suigisasap sypiajwu uayiam aavy nod fi os ‘Dop mau uidsapun oO} Saguasafat adDY 0} ‘a]qISSOd 41a4a49Y4M ‘AY1] PINOM aM JY) ajou asvajg ‘doysysom ay) Susnp sdow jouoisaa puv joqo]3 yjog worl sdou sayjaq dn Surysom aq 114 am *PIeP OU,, YO ,.sseisevas OU,, YAH.LIA Weorpur pjnos uMoys Jou ase sassevssvas aJoyM svory ‘A[UO 9DUdLINIIO UMOUY JO DANBOIPUI se Udas aq Pfnoys dew sty], poyesos3ex9 udaq dAvY SUOSAJod pue sjurod Byep [[e ‘ayes sty) ie deur v uo aIQISIA IEP [[e dYxPW O} JOPIO UT “‘Paqliosap se [eLJoeU JdINOS poleA ATYSIY Wo ose LIL “s}eUQeY SseIBvaS Jo UONNGINSIP [eqo[s oy, :z dey] The value of seagrasses Seagrasses are a critical ecosystem for humans, providing food and other products, binding sediments and protecting coastlines from erosion, and providing linkage to other high value coastal ecosystems, including coral reefs, mangrove forests, and open ocean ecosystems. The role they play in fisheries is now widely recognised, and indeed many of the most important tropical shelf fisheries are heavily dependant on seagrass ecosystems. Table 6: a summary of the goods and services provided by seagrass ecosystems. Commerical and artisanal fisheries - Finfish (snappers, emperors, rabbitfish, surgeonfish) - Molluscs (conch, oysters) - Crustacea (shrimp, lobster) Food: - Seeds of Zostera marina used to make flour by Seri Felger and Moser, 1973 Indians - Rhizomes of Enhalus used as food in Larnu, Kenya Crafter et al, 1992 , 1994; UNEP 1986 Fabric - Used in mat weaving, Lamu, Kenya Crafter et al, 1992 - Basket making, thatch, stuffing matresses, upholster Sudara et al, 1994 Fertiliser and mulch Capps, 1977; Stewart & Mills, 1975; Walker, 1977 Building dykes Van Katwijk, 2000 Sudara et al, 1994; Hurley 1990 Offshore fisheries (using seagrass as nursery) Coastal protection (from erosion) | Water purification (from pollutants and sediments) | Nutrient export to adjacent ecosystems Stabilising sediments There have been very few studies of the direct economic value of seagrasses. In 1986 the North Queensland fisheries were estimated at an estimated US$540,000 per year (Fortes, 1990). In Monroe County, Florida, the value of commercial fisheries for five species which depend on seagrasses was estimated at US$48.7 million per year, whilst recreational fisheries as well as the diving and snorkelling industry contribute equally large sums to the economy, and are also heavily dependant on seagrasses (Heck, 2001). Costanza et al. (1997) calculated a global value of annual ecosystem services for “seagrass/algae beds” of US$19,004 per hectare per year. With an estimated total area for these combined ecosystems of 2,000,000 sq km they calculated a global annual value of US$3,801,000,000,000 (i.e. US$3.8 trillion), based almost entirely on their role in “nutrient cycling’, in many ways a somewhat intangible role. Strangely, this same source gives no value to seagrass/algae beds for food production. Threats to seagrasses The global threats to seagrasses have received considerable attention from a number of authors and their efforts have not been duplicated here. Table 7 provides a short summary of natural and human induced threats to seagrass ecosystems. In many cases it seems likely that seagrass areas have declined as a result of a combination of threats. The decline of seagrasses in the North Atlantic in the 1930s with the “wasting disease” was probably one such example, where the final decline was probably hastened by the spread of the slime-net Labyrinthula zosterae. Table 7: Natural threats Geological Biological Meteorological Grazing by sea urchins sirenians, geese, or removal by foraging rays Storms and wave action | To develop or widen shipping lanes and open new ports and harbours Various benthic trawling devices used in the fishing industr 13 Deliberate clearance | For example to “clean” tourist beaches Erosion from alteration of Coastal development and the building of sea defences has significant effects hydrological regime on the flow of currents in nearshore waters Anchor damage Land reclamation Conversion to aquaculture ponds Sedimentation Higher turbidity reduces light levels. Very high sedimentation smothers entire seagrass beds Can have toxic or eutrophic effects. With high levels of increased nutrients, photosynthesis can be reduced by excess epiphytic overgrowth, planktonic blooms or competition from macroalgae Potential threats from rising sea levels, localised decreases in salinity, damage from UV radiation, and unpredictable impacts from changes in distribution and intensity of extreme events. Possible increases in roductivity resulting from higher CO2 concentrations Pollution Climate change Short and Wyllie-Echeverria (1996, 2000) provide a detailed analysis of seagrass losses from reports world-wide. They estimated that 2,900sq km of seagrass loss had been documented in the 1990s, and extrapolated up to over 12,000sq km world-wide during this period alone. Are we in a position to revise a global estimate? Or to produce regional estimates? Management Interventions Concern over what is now perceived as a rapid decline in seagrass areas world-wide, coupled with growing interests in both biodiversity conservation and sustainable fisheries management has led to a relatively rapid growth in the designation of marine protected areas world-wide (Burke et al 2001), particularly in nearshore areas. A large number of these include seagrass habitat. Other legal measures to protect seagrass habitats have been relatively limited to date, although some more general legal measure have probably been beneficial for seagrass communities. UNEP-WCMC maintains a global database on MPAs on behalf of the World Commission of Protected Areas. Linked to the current work a list of these areas which are known to contain seagrass habitat has been prepared and is presented in Annex 4. A summary of this information is provided in Table 8. Table 8: Summary of seagrass protected areas. Note that the area statistics are for the total area of the parks and reserves, including marine and terrestrial area. Country Total No. Country Total No. MPA area of MPA area of (sq km) _ sites (sq km) sites Antigua and Barbuda 1 France 47.4 2 Australia 1,069.0 3 French Polynesia 113.0 1 Bahamas 18.1 1 Germany, Federal Republic of 2 Belize 1,188.4 4 Guadeloupe 37.4 1 Brazil 0.1 1 Guam 61.4 1 British Indian Ocean Territory 1 Honduras 893.6 2 Cambodia 150.0 1 India 10,500.01 Cayman Islands 53.9 4 Indonesia 2,145.2 5 China 80.0 1 Jamaica 15.3 3 Colombia 1,360.0 3 Kenya 183.3 A Costa Rica 234.7 2 Martinique 4.2 1 Cuba 174.2 1 Mauritania 11,730.01 Cyprus 6.5 1 Mauritius 13.0 2 Dominica 5.3 1 Mexico 28,020.6 5 Dominican Republic 5,034.5 4 Mozambique 20,170.0 4 Country Total No. Country Total No. MPA area of MPA area of (sq km) _ sites (sqkm) _ sites Netherlands Antilles 34.2 2, Thailand 230.9 1 Nicaragua 500.0 1 Tonga 28.8 2 Palau 12.0 1 Trinidad and Tobago 6.5 1 Panama 3,200.0 1 Tunisia 126.0 1 Papua New Guinea 2,316.8 3 Turks and Caicos Islands 4.0 1 Philippines SES 1 United Kingdom 34.1 4 Puerto Rico 77.9 6 United States 12,167.3 18 Réunion 2 United States Minor Outlying 128.4 1 Saint Lucia 0.3 3 Island Saudi Arabia 2,796.0 2 Venezuela 4,394.3 4 Seychelles 15.8 2 Vietnam 150.4 1 Singapore 98 1 Virgin Islands (British) 3.2 1 Slovenia 1.9 1 Virgin Islands (U.S.) 54.5 3 Spain 507.2 1 Tanzania, United Republic of 843.9 3 From this table we can see that that there are 130 marine protected areas with seagrass communities world-wide. These are located in 57 countries and territories. This network is far smaller than the equivalent network for coral reefs and mangrove forests. While the total area of these sites appears to be very high, it should further be noted that these measures are for the total area of the sites, which may include both land and sea. They are not of the area of seagrass within this, which is likely to be only a small fraction of the total area. Figure 1 provides a model of the growth of this protected areas network over time. At the meeting we will have a full list of over 4000 MPAs world-wide and will ask participants to highlight any which we have not captured in the list provided in the Annex. 120,000 160 140 100,000 120 80,000 rm) = 100 = x 7) - o Total area 5 60,000 80 ; = 8g gw No. of sites ® E c 60 5 40,000 z I 40 20,000 20 0 0 COM Na OU sCOme ON) CO mest Onn) AQ OOh est Ome INI COn Si© BSoaSSSSSSSSERSSBS Figure 1: the growth of the protected areas network for marine protected areas including seagrass ecosystems Source: UNEP-WCMC, World Database on Protected Areas In addition to direct protection of specified areas, there are a number of other legal interventions which have been developed in particular countries which protect seagrasses, either directly, or via restrictions on particular activities. 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Assessment of environmental suitability for growth of Zostera marina L. eelgrass in San Francisco Bay, California, USA. 39. pp353-66 28 ee ee Annex 1: Seagrass Species Lists by Country Amphibolis antarctica Amphibolis griffithii Cymodocea angustata Cymodocea ciliata Cymodocea nodosa Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serrulata Enhalus acoroides Halodule beaudettei Halodule bermundensis Halodule emarginata Halodule pinifolia Halodule uninervis Halodule wrightii Halophila australis Halophila baillonis Halophila beccarii Halophila capricorni Halophila decipiens Halophila engelmannii Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii Halophila minor Halophila ovalis Halophila ovata Halophila spinulosa Halophila stipulacea Halophila tricostata Heterozostera tasmanica Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus Phyllospadix scouleri Phyllospadix serrulatus Phyllospadix torreyi Posidonia angustifolia Posidonia australis Posidonia coriacea Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirkmanii Posidonia oceanica Posidonia ostenfeldii Posidonia robertsonae Posidonia sinuosa Syringodium filiforme Syringodium isoetifolium Thalassia hemprichii Thalassia testudinum Thalassodendron ciliatum Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Zostera asiatica Zostera caespitosa Zostera capensis Zostera capricomni Zostera caulescens Zostera japonica Zostera marina Zostera mucronata Zostera muelleri Zostera noltii Zostera novazelandica Grand Total s 3 é s a &S So oes 5) jo) 7B ibe g 2 & & ou a See Gee. mot rt Kz) Cel | Ke) 1 Sie 25s ot Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh & fo) a Z oe are sh SE aisle ae BReEye EE aolons neces namamonmamanmom wm 1 1 Wil 1 1 1 1 1 ee 1 1 LL 1 jd | 1 1 1 cy By sy 7) 7 Lh) 29 Cambodia Canada Cayman Islands Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Comoros Cuba a 6. 6 «8 Amphibolis antarctica Amphibolis griffithii Cymodocea angustata Cymodocea ciliata Cymodocea nodosa Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serrulata Enhalus acoroides Halodule beaudettei Halodule bermundensis Halodule emarginata Halodule pinifolia Halodule uninervis Halodule wrightii Halophila australis Halophila baillonis Halophila beccarii Halophila capricorni Halophila decipiens Halophila engelmannii Halophila hawatiana Halophila johnsonit Halophila minor Halophila ovalis Halophila ovata Halophila spinulosa Halophila stipulacea Halophila tricostata Heterozostera tasmanica Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus Phyllospadix scouleri Phyllospadix serrulatus Phyllospadix torreyi Posidonia angustifolia Posidonia australis Posidonia coriacea Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirkmanii Posidonia oceanica Posidonia ostenfeldii Posidonia robertsonae Posidonia sinuosa Syringodium filiforme Syringodium isoetifolium Thalassia hemprichii Thalassia testudinum Thalassodendron ciliatum Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Zostera asiatica Zostera caespitosa Zostera capensis Zostera capricorni Zostera caulescens Zostera japonica Zostera marina Zostera mucronata Zostera muelleri Zostera noltii Zostera novazelandica Grand Total Denmark oa $s 2 o s a —] 7} 2 One Sane cS Be oy dy Es g a Ep VE me se a S 7) 3 = | fl 2 ee 2 G Sa rs 2 5 3 E 5 A ‘Ss Pane: Ver ieuce a) (ome Me Gu emisce memes IS SuMcAneanona Soeice in 1. ome: er keniet ot meek gr on cS Quwn ta eEeouoeuooOrtrte & 1 1 1 1 hy yl 1 hl iL yt 1 1 1 1 hal 1 yal 1 rl 1 1 yl 1 Lagl 1 1 1 Lia 1 Leet 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 el 1 hil | ik iil 1 ait 1 1 1 Te yl 1 1 | Na) Ei tL 1 Ne SEO heeiG) Ae) OT 2) 2 es A eee ile aS 30 Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Chis By 1/ Kenya 13 Amphibolis antarctica Amphibolis griffithii Cymodocea angustata Cymodocea ciliata Cymodocea nodosa Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serrulata Enhalus acoroides Halodule beaudettei Halodule bermundensis Halodule emarginata Halodule pinifolia Halodule uninervis Halodule wrightii Halophila australis Halophila baillonis Halophila beccarii Halophila capricorni Halophila decipiens Halophila engelmannii Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii Halophila minor Halophila ovalis Halophila ovata Halophila spinulosa Halophila stipulacea Halophila tricostata Heterozostera tasmanica Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus Phyllospadix scouleri Phyllospadix serrulatus Phyllospadix torreyi Posidonia angustifolia Posidonia australis Posidonia coriacea Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirkmanii Posidonia oceanica Posidonia ostenfeldii Posidonia robertsonae Posidonia sinuosa Syringodium filiforme Syringodium isoetifolium Thalassia hemprichii Thalassia testudinum Thalassodendron ciliatum Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Zostera asiatica Zostera caespitosa Zostera capensis Zostera capricorni Zostera caulescens Zostera japonica Zostera marina Zostera mucronata Zostera muelleri Zostera noltii Zostera novazelandica Grand Total Kiribati 1 Kuwait Libya Madagascar Malaysia Maldives Marshall Islands Mauritania 1 Mauritius Mexico Micronesia Morocco iL Mozambique Myanmar 5 ey ibh ie) 6) 2 6) (o9 DA) ib © 31 Netherlands 1 3 2 5 & Shane « tat Vey Seppe es ewes) ses NOT Ee Mes 2 ey orient pein FFF FF B.D 5D jk = i 12a 2. 4) 4 Zero U.S.A. - Atlantic U.S.A. - Hawaii U.S.A. - Pacific U.S.A. - Puerto Rico United Arab Emirates Venezuela Vietnam Western Samoa Yemen Grand Total Ukraine Vanuatu BWW ee = NNnNe An _ = Ww NwWwe OW PWR ODK ANON KK _ = =o _ ae mMrwoo — Be One eee NONE whe we — OnE KEK NUNS UN = 1 Tin Ay AA 2S ee Si ed OO) Annex 2 — Species distribution maps Cymodoceaceae Amphibolis antarctica Amphibolis griffithii 34 Cymodocea angustata KS = 3 v 5 Sy S 3 AS} iS q Halodule emarginata y, ae =" eg “4 =a < Be mara a ax er | Syringodium isoetifolium Thalassodendron ciliatum 41 Hydrocharitaceae Halophila australis Halophila baillonis 43 Halophila beccarii Halophila capricorni 44 Halophila decipiens Halophila engelmannii 45 Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii 46 Halophila ovata (b) 48 Halophila ovata (c) Halophila spinulosa (a) 49 Halophila spinulosa (b) Halophila tricostata Thalassia hemprichii 31 Thalassia testudinum Posidoniaceae Posidonia angustifolia 52 Posidonia australis : Posidonia coriacea 53 Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirkmanit 54 Posidonia robertsonae Posidonia sinuosa 56 Zosteraceae Heterozostera tasmanica(a) Heterozostera tasmanica(b) 57 ae > as Phyllospadix japonicus 58 mis > Phyllospadix scouleri Phyllospadix serrulatus 59 Phyllospadix torreyi Zostera asiatica 60 Zostera capensis 61 Zostera capricorni Zostera caulescens 62 ica(a) Zostera japon Zostera marina(b) h Zostera marina(c) Zostera mucronata 65 Zostera novazelandica 67 Annex 3 — Seagrass distribution maps Map A3.1: Caribbean 68 Map A3.2: Europe Map A3.3: Indian Ocean 70 Map A3.4: Eastern Asia 71 Map A3.5: Australia 72 Map A3.6: Brazil faethe ct! Saag! Annex 4 — Full list of MPAs by country COUNTRY Antigua and Barbuda Australia Australia Australia Bahamas Belize Belize Belize Belize Brazil British Indian Ocean Territory Cambodia Cayman Islands Cayman Islands Cayman Islands Cayman Islands China Colombia Colombia Colombia Costa Rica Costa Rica Cuba Cyprus Dominica Dominican Republic Dominican Republic Dominican Republic Dominican Republic France France French Polynesia Germany Germany Guadeloupe Guam Honduras Honduras India Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Jamaica Jamaica AREA NAME Cades Bay - Corner Inlet Hinchinbrook Island Wilsons Promontory Union Creek Half Moon Caye Hol Chan Port Honduras South Water Caye Saltinho Diego Garcia Ream Little Sound (Grand Cayman) North Sound (Grand Cayman) South Sound (Grand Cayman) Spott Bay (Cayman Brac) Shan Kou Corales del Rosario y de San Bernardo Old Providence McBean Lagoon Tayrona Cahuita Gandoca-Manzanillo Punta Francés - Punta Pederales Lara-Toxeftra Cabrits Del Este Jaragua Los Haitises Montecristi Cote Bleue Scandola Scilly (Manuae) Strelasund Sound/Griefswald lagoon/Isle Greifswald Wismar bight/Salzhaff area Grand Cul de Sac Marin Guam Jeanette Kawas Punta Izopo Gulf of Mannar Arakan Wowontulap Bali Barat Pulau Bokor Pulau Rambut Ujung Kulon Montego Bay Negril 74 DESIGNATION Marine Reserve Marine and Coastal Park National Park National Park Managed Nature Reserve National Monument Marine Reserve Marine Reserve Marine Reserve State Forest Reserve 2 Restricted Area National Park Environmental Zone Replenishment Zone Replenishment Zone Replenishment Zone Nature Reserve Natural National Park Natural National Park Natural National Park National Park National Wildlife Refuge Parque Nacional Marino Marine Reserve National Park National Park National Park National Park National Park Marine Park Nature Reserve (by Decree) Territorial Reserve Wetland Zone of National Importance Wetland Zone of National Importance Nature Reserve Territorial Seashore Park National Park Wildlife Refuge Biosphere Reserve (National) Nature Reserve National Park Nature Reserve Nature Reserve National Park Marine Park Marine Park IUCN SIZE (ha) YEAR CAT 1999 VI 18 1986 II 399 1989 II 49 1898 Ta 1,813 1965 Ill 3,925 1982 IV 411 1987 IV 847 2000 IV 298 1996 1 1986 Vv 1994 I 15 1993 Ib 1,731 1986 IV 331 1986 IV 317 1986 IV 33 1986 Vv 8 1990 II 12 1977 II 995 1996 II 15 1964 II 1,422 1970 IV 9,449 1985 II 17,424 1985 IV 65 1989 II 531 1986 II 88 1975 II 1,374 1983 II 1,543 1976 II 1,395 1983 VI 37 1982 IV 1,669 1975 IV 113 1992 Vv 1980 Vv 1980 IV 3,736 1987 VI 6,135 1978 II 78,162 1988 IV 112 1992 VI 15 1989 Ia 138 1986 II 771,727 1982 Ia 15 1921 Ia 18 1939 II 122,956 1992 II 153 1991 1998 COUNTRY Jamaica Kenya Kenya Martinique Mauritania Mauritius Mauritius Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mozambique Mozambique Mozambique Mozambique Netherlands Antilles Netherlands Antilles Nicaragua Palau Panama Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Philippines Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Réunion Réunion Saint Lucia Saint Lucia Saint Lucia Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia Seychelles Seychelles Singapore Slovenia Spain Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Thailand Tonga Tonga AREA NAME Ocho Rios Malindi Malindi-Watamu Caravelle Banc d'Arguin Flacq Trou d'Eau Douce Fir Arrecifes de Puerto Morelos Banco Chinchorro El Vizcaino Ria Lagartos Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano Bazaruto Ilhas da Inhaca e dos Portugueses Marromeu Zambezi Bonaire Saba Cayos Miskitos Ngerukewid Islands Comarca Kuna Yala (San Blas) Kamiali Maza (1) Talele Islands St Paul Subterranean River Boqueron Cayos de la Cordillera Estuarina Nacional Bahia Jobos Isla Caja de Muerto Jobos Bay La Parguera Iles Glorieuses Tlot d'Europa Maria Islands Pigeon Island Soufriere Dawat Ad-Dafl, Dawat Al- Musallamiyah & Coral Islands Farasan Islands Port Launay St. Anne Southern Islands Strunjan Donana Chumbe Island Coral Park (CHICOP) Mafia Island Misali Island Hat Chao Mai Fanga'uta and Fanga Kakau Lagoons Pangaimotu Reef 75 DESIGNATION Protected Area Marine National Park Marine National Reserve Nature Reserve National Park Fishing Reserve Fishing Reserve National Park Biosphere Reserve (National) Biosphere Reserve (National) Other area National Marine Park National Park Faunal Reserve Game Reserve Wildlife Utilization Area Marine Park Marine Park Marine Reserve Indigenous Commarc Wildlife Management Area Wildlife Management Area Provincial Park National Park Wildlife Refuge (Refugio de Vida Silvestre) Nature Reserve Hunting Reserve Nature Reserve National Estuarine Research Reserve Nature Reserve Nature Reserve Nature Reserve Nature Reserve Other area Marine Reserve Other area Protected Area Marine National Park Marine National Park Marine Nature Area Landscape Park National Park (State Network) Marine Sanctuary Marine Park Conservation Area National Park Marine Reserve Reserve IUCN SIZE (ha) YEAR CAT Vv I VI IV II IV IV II VI VI II II IV IV VI 1,828 14,436 254,679 4,784 52,239 15 2 26 82 5 12 32 47,413 18,423 4 5,753 237 88 1,133 188 1,168 4,973 1966 1968 1968 1976 1976 1983 1983 1998 1996 1988 1979 1992 1971 1965 1969 1981 1979 1987 199] 1956 1938 1996 1978 1973 1971 1964 1980 1981 1988 1981 1979 1975 1975 1982 1978 1989 1979 1973 1996 1990 1969 1994 1995 1998 1981 1974 1979 COUNTRY Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turks and Caicos Islands United Kingdom United Kingdom United Kingdom United Kingdom United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States Minor Outlying Island Venezuela Venezuela Venezuela Venezuela Viet Nam Virgin Islands (British) Virgin Islands (U.S.) Virgin Islands (U.S.) Virgin Islands (U.S.) AREA NAME Buccoo Reef Ichkeul West Caicos Marine Helford River Isles of Scilly Skomer Skomer Bahia Honda Biscayne Breton Channel Islands Dry Tortugas Everglades Florida Keys Galveston Island Grand Bay Gulf Islands (Florida) Hawaiian Islands (8 sites) Izembek John Pennekamp Coral Reef Merritt Island Padilla Bay Pinellas Rookery Bay St. Marks Baker Island Archipiélago Los Roques Médanos de Coro Mochima Morrocoy Con Dao Wreck of the Rhone Green Cay Sandy Point Virgin Islands 76 DESIGNATION Nature Reserve National Park National Park Voluntary Reserve Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Marine Nature Reserve National Nature Reserve State Park National Park National Wildlife Refuge National Park National Park National Park Wilderness (Fish and Wildlife Service) State Park National Estuarine Research Reserve National Seashore National Wildlife Refuge National Wildlife Refuge State Park National Wildlife Refuge National Estuarine Research Reserve National Wildlife Refuge National Estuarine Research Reserve National Wildlife Refuge National Wildlife Refuge National Park National Park National Park National Park National Park Marine Park National Wildlife Refuge National Wildlife Refuge National Park IUCN SIZE (ha) YEAR CAT Ta II IV 65 126 397 786 7,452 54,928 1,296 12,266 22,684 55,953 4,455 159 562 26,467 12,843 22,112 9,128 94,935 329 1,543 324 1973 1980 1992 1987 1976 1990 1959 1961 1980 1904 1980 1992 1947 1975 1999 1971 1945 1960 1959 1963 1980 1956 1978 1931 1974 1972 1974 1973 1974 1982 1980 1977 1956