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Gods and Heroes of Japan

BY

HELEN C. GUNSAULUS
Assistant Curator of Japanese Ethnology

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

CHICAGO
1924

'tUMblS

Field Museum of Natural History

Department of Anthropology

Chicago, 1924
Leaflet Number 13

Gods and Heroes of Japan

Each year from July 1st to October 1st there is on
view in Gunsaulus Hall (Room 30, Second Floor), a
group of wood-block prints (Series III) which illus-
trate certain of the gpds and heroes of the Japanese
people. These prints are of the type known as suri-
mono, cards of greeting made for special occasions and
more fully described in Leaflet No. 11. Any limited
selection such as this one can claim to be only an in-
troduction to a subject which is almost limitless in its
inclusion. In this leaflet mention is made solely of
those deities and heroes who appear pictured in this
group of prints ; acquaintance may be made with many
more interesting characters by a study of the decora-
tions on certain sword-mounts installed in Gunsaulus
Hall.

Any approach to the study of the deities wor-
shipped or reverenced in Japan must of necessity pre-
suppose some acquaintance with at least three religions
which for centuries have made their impression on the
hearts and minds of the people of that country. These
three systems of faith are Shintoism, Buddhism, and
Taoism. Confucianism has had a much more vital
influence on Japanese life than has Taoism, but the for-
mer religion is essentially a code of ethics in which
emphasis is put upon the social and political duties of
man rather than upon a personal relationship be-
tween himself and any god or gods. There is con-
sequently no Confucian pantheon in the sense that

[69]

2 Field Museum of Natural History

we have a Shinto or a Buddhist pantheon. A supreme
ruler, Shang Ti, is recognized. Confucius himself is
reverenced and honored, but not worshipped. The
evidences of Confucian influence are apparent not so
much in the attitude of the Japanese toward super-
natural beings as in their reverent devotion to purely-
historical personages who on account of bravery, self-
sacrifice, and loyalty have become recognized as na-
tional heroes. In the later pages of this leaflet, this
influence will be illustrated.

One of the extraordinary traits of the Japanese
mind lies in the fact that a man may at one and the
same time be Shintoist, Buddhist and Confucianist.
This, however, is not so strange as it at first appears,
for it will be remembered that when Buddhism was in-
troduced into Japan in the sixth century, the early pro-
tagonists, anxious to propagate the new religion, "gen-
erously" coordinated with the Buddhist pantheon many
of the Shinto gods, thereby stilling in the minds of the
doubtful any scruples which they might have had about
deserting the deities of their ancestors. Buddhism
not only accomplished the fusion of Shinto deities into
the Buddhist pantheon, but also taught of a way of sal-
vation, a hope and doctrine undeveloped in the Shinto
religion whose main teaching was honor for the gods
and obedience to the emperor. Confucianism in turn
offered rules for daily living. Thus each of these three
systems of faith emphasized a different principle. As
an illustration of the comparative harmony in which
three religions may dwell, Hokusai has left a surimono
full of meaning and beauty. It hangs on the south
wall of the room, and its most striking note is a large,
rugged maple-tree beneath which three travellers are
seated. From the fallen leaves they have kindled a
fire over which they have heated a pot of wine (sake) .
These three men are conceded to be Buddha, Confucius,

[70]

Gods and Heroes of Japan 3

and Lao-tse tasting the wine of life. One of these
philosophers finds it sweet, one sour, and the third
finds it bitter, thus showing that the same principle —
the meaning and value of life — may be interpreted
in various and contrasting ways. y

SHINTO DEITIES

Unlike Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism,
which were imported from India and China, Shinto is
the native religion of Japan; that is to say, it was
evolved out of a combination of the nature myths of the
earliest inhabitants, together with the emperor-wor-
ship which was brought to the islands by the conquer-
ing Yamato race in the early Christian era. Shinto is
the Chinese term for Kami no Michi which means
"the way of the gods." Kami means that which is
above, and therefore is a term applied to the nature
deities, the emperors and certain other human deities
who together make up the Shinto pantheon. The doc-
trine, if such it may be called, is outlined in the book
called the Kojilji ("Record of Ancient Matters"), writ-
ten in the year a.d. 712, and in the Nihongi ("Chron-
icles of Japan"), a.d. 720. The Kojiki has been styled
"the Bible of Shinto." The first section opens with an
account of the creation in which Japan is made the
centre of the world — the "spontaneously congealed
island," which was formed by the drops falling from
the spear of Izanagi and Izanami as they stood upon
the floating bridge of heaven. These gods descended
to the island and there became the creator and creatrix
of all the spirits which abound in nature.

The supreme deity of the Shinto pantheon is the
Sun-Goddess, Amaterasu, who sprang into being from
the eye of her father Izanagi. She is acknowledged as
the heavenly ancestor of all the emperors of Japan,
for it was her "August Grand-child" who descended to

[71]

4 Field Museum of Natural History

earth to rule over the "Central Land of Reed Plains"
and whose descendant was the first emperor, Jimmu.
Rarely are any of the deities who preceded Amaterasu
depicted either in painting or in sculpture. Even the
story of the Sun-Goddess is much more often recalled
by the presence of certain symbols which represent
her rather than by likenesses of the deity herself. The
most dramatic incident in her career was her flight
from her mischievous brother, Susano-wo, the god of
the sea, who later went to dwell in the nether-land.
He was a jealous and impetuous fellow who continually
tormented his sister. One day while busy weaving
the garments of the gods, he crept to the roof of the
weaving hall and let down among the maidens the reek-
ing hide of a piebald horse. So great was the terror
of the Sun-Goddess, that she fled to a cave and closed
herself in, thereby robbing the land of all sunlight and
causing eternal night to prevail. Thereupon "the eight
hundred myriad deities" assembled together to entice
the Sun-Goddess from the cave. The cocks were
brought to crow, suggesting to the goddess that day
had dawned even without the rising sun. A mirror
was forged from the "Heavenly Metal Mountains;"
jewels and offerings of cloth were hung upon the sa-
cred sakaki tree, and a dancer, by name Uzume, danced
before the door of the "Heavenly Rock Dwelling,"
much to the amusement of the gods. Hearing the
commotion and laughter without, the Sun-Goddess
opened the rock door to see what could be pleasing
the deities from whom she had withdrawn her pres-
ence. On inquiry she was told that there was among
them one more illustrious even than she. At this
moment the mirror was pushed forward, and Ama-
terasu, astonished at the glory of the reflected face,
came forth from the cave to gaze upon it. Hastily a
straw rope was drawn across the entrance of the cav-

[72]

OF THE

Gods and Heroes of Japan 5

ern, and she was thus prevented from returning; day-
light was again restored to the earth. The straw rope
(shimenaiva) is seen on New Year's day. A descrip-
tion of its form and usage is given in Leaflet 11.

Three interesting prints by Hokkei are hanging
upon the north wall and illustrate this story. In the
first, a drummer may be seen beating upon a large
drum. In the second, two white fowl stand by the side
of one of the gods, Saruto Hiko no Mikoto, he who
dwelt at the eight crossroads of heaven. According
to the early records, this god had a nose seven hands
in length and a back whose length was more than seven
fathoms. He emitted a refulgence which reached
upwards to the Plain of Heaven and downwards to the
"Central Land of Reed-Plains." He it was who later
met the descending "August Grand-Child" as he jour-
neyed from heaven to the earthly country. None of
the gods dared to face Saruto Hiko no Mikoto and
subdue him, save the brazen dancer Uzume who liter-
ally stared him out of countenance and so humbled
him that he offered himself as a vanguard for the celes-
tial visitor. Uzume herself is pictured in the third
print, reproduced here (Fig. 1). She holds the bell-
rattle with which she accomplished her dance before
the cave of the Sun-Goddess. Resting against her
shoulder is the gohei, a staff adorned with paper cut-
tings which represent offerings of cloth or rather mul-
berry-bark fibre used in ancient times for clothing.
Gohei are common to-day in Japan in Shinto worship.
In the background of this print hangs the eight-pointed
mirror in which the Sun-Goddess saw her radiant re-
flection. Tradition tells us that it was given by Ama-
terasu to her grandchild with the admonition that he
take it to earth and regard it as if it were her august
spirit. The mirror is one of the three imperial treas-
ures of Japan and is guarded in the temple at Ise,

[73]

6 Field Museum of Natural History

where it is worshipped from afar, being kept covered
by a series of silken wrappings and enclosed in a cov-
ered shrine surrounded by many fences.

The "August Grandchild" married and had several
children, one of whom, "His Augustness Fire-Subside,"
descended to the Palace of the Sea Deity. There he
married the daughter of the Ocean Possessor, who was
named Toyo-tama-hime. She and her father are both
pictured in this series of prints; she, attended by an
old dragon as she comes to draw water from the well ;
he, clothed in gorgeous robes with the dragon's head
surmounting his flowing red hair. The story runs
that just prior to the birth of her child, Toyo-tama-
hime, begged "His Augustness Fire-Subside" not to
look upon her, whereupon, according to one account,
she turned into a crocodile ; according to another, a
dragon. Her request was not obeyed, and on account
of her shame at having been seen in her true form, she
left the shore whither she had come and returned to
the palace under the sea. The child who was born was
left in the care of a younger sister of the Sea Princess,
and he became the father of Jimmu Tenno, the first
human sovereign of Japan.

It has been pointed out by W. G. Aston in "Shin-
to" (p. 115) , that several features of this story betray
recent origin and foreign influence, such as the palace
in the sea-depths and the Dragon-king, which are
Chinese. He adds, "The comparatively modern char-
acter of this important link in the genealogy which
traces back the descent of the Mikados to the Sun-
Goddess confirms the view that the so-called ancestor-
worship of the ancient Japanese is a later accretion
upon what was in its origin a worship of the powers
of nature."

[74]

Gods and Heroes of Japan 7

There were many reasons for the coordinating of
the nature myths and the emperor-worship into a care-
fully outlined theory. These legends and traditions
were retold with a purpose, and that purpose was
the theoretical establishment of the imperial regime.
Times were by no means peaceful prior to the seventh
century. Tribes were struggling for supremacy, and
it was necessary for the emperor to assure his power.
By A.D. 712 when the Kojiki was committed to writ-
ing, Buddhism was rapidly absorbing many of the
native gods, and kami were losing their identity as they
came to be regarded as incarnations of Buddha. One
has only to recall that the personality of the Sun-God-
dess, the supreme deity of Shinto, was in danger of
being completely submerged as she was becoming iden-
tified with the Buddhist Dai-Nichi or Amida.

In the early ninth century there peacefully
emerged out of this conflict of the two religions, Shinto
and Buddhism, a mixed doctrine known as Ryobu-
Shinto ("Twofold Way of the Gods"). In it Kobd
Daishi, a priest, attempted the reconciliation between
the ancient traditions of the divine ancestors and the
teachings of the Indian cult. Through this process of
amalgamation, for hundreds of years, Shinto was very
nearly swallowed up within Buddhism. Ryobu-Bud-
dhism is a much more correct term for this admixture.
For several centuries the emperor himself was a de-
voted adherent to the Indian religion; many of the
rulers retired into monasteries and became Buddhist
monks. Much of the merging of Shinto in Buddhism
was accomplished through the medium of art. Shinto
knew next to nothing of artistic representation. Bud-
dhism came into Japan in the form of gorgeous
temples, noble sculptures and glorious paintings which
depicted a pantheon varied enough to coincide with
the many ideas that had been formulated concerning

[75]

8 Field Museum of Natural History

most of the native deities. Those Shinto gods who
were not individually coordinated with Buddhist dei-
ties were catalogued under the general term of
"Gongen" or temporary manifestations of Buddha.
This designation was applied to deified forces of na-
ture and to certain national heroes in the ensuing
centuries. The shogun Tokugawa Iyeyasu is quite as
often called by the name Gongen Sama. Emperors
were known as Tenno ("Heavenly King") or Ten shi,
("Son of Heaven"), names which were retained for the
supreme ruler, even after the revival of pure Shinto
and the downfall of Ryobu-Buddhism in the last cen-
tury.

THE SEVEN GODS OF GOOD FORTUNE

As W. E. Griffis tells us in his "Religions of
Japan" (p. 216), "Ryobu Buddhism is Japanese Bud-
dhism with a vengeance. Take for example, the little
group of divinities known as the Seven Gods of Good
Fortune which forms a popular appendage to Japanese
Buddhism and which are a direct and logical growth
of the work done by Kobo as shown in his Ryobu sys-
tem." These popular deities, known by the name
Shichifukujin, are nominally a Buddhist assemblage,
but, in truth, they come from four distinct sources:
Shintoism, Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Taoism. They
are in evidence in almost every Japanese home, cer-
tain of them appearing on the "god-shelf." They may
be studied in a group, as they are pictured celebrating
the New Year together in Fig. 2.

At the left of the picture is seated Benten or Ben-
zai Ten, the only female deity of the company. She
is usually identified with Sarasvati, goddess of elo-
quence and learning, the wife and female energy of
Brahma. She is again said to be Miyo-on-ten-niyo,
Goddess of the Beautiful Voice, who may be either

[76]

THE LIB8A8Y

OFTHS

nrasmr bf mm

FIG. 3. FUDO RESCUING ENDO MORITO.
BY KUNISADA.

Gods and Heroes of Japan 9

Japanese in origin, or an adaptation of one of the mu-
sicians of the god Indra. Again Benten is occasionally
identified with a Shinto deity, Ukemochi no Kami, pro-
tector of food. In this print we are told by one of the
poems that a visit is to be made to the deity Ukemochi
no Kami. In the background, in the raised recess, there
is a covered stand surmounted by a coiled white snake
having the head of an old man. This peculiar form of
serpent is often pictured on the crown of Benten;
therefore one must suppose that the artist, Hokusai,
had identified the two deities, Benten and Ukemochi
no Kami, as one and the same. In Buddhist paintings
Benten usually wears as a crown a Shinto gate or torii
beneath which the white snake is coiled. The torii is
visible here in front of the high coiffure. The rest of
her appearance does not tally with the usual Buddhist
conception wherein she is depicted either with the
sword and gem, or with eight arms holding various
symbols. In secular representations she is generally
pictured in flowing robes, wearing a small tiara, and
holding a stringed instrument. Such a conception is
given us in a print by Hokkei in the Museum collection.

Ebisu, the patron of fishermen, is seated next to
Benten in the picture under study. He is arranging
a huge fish for suspension, likely as a present to the
shrine. He is generally identified with the Shinto god,
Hiruko, though certain scholars label this association
as erroneous, and say that his origin is unknown.
Hiruko was the leech-child of Izanagi and Izanami, a
being so weak that at three years of age he was yet un-
able to stand, and was therefore abandoned and set
adrift in a reed boat. Ebisu is usually pictured as
vigorous and happy, dressed in Japanese costume and
generally carrying a fish or a fishing rod.

The most popular of the Seven Gods of Fortune
is the god of wealth, Daikoku, who stands in the centre

[77]

10 Field Museum of Natural History

of this group. He is holding a ceremonial arrange-
ment of rice puddings, rice being one of the symbols
of wealth. The jewel, the key to the store-house, and
the bag of treasures are also associated with him. An-
other of his attributes is the magic hammer whose
blows create riches. This object is to be found in the
other representations of him which are on view, es-
pecially prominent on top of the rice bale which the
reclining god holds upon his upstretched feet in an
amusing print by Hokusai. The rat, though a de-
vourer of rice, is usually associated with the god of
wealth. This is because the "day of the rat" in the
Japanese calendar is sacred to Daikoku. The rodent
is usually of the white variety as in a print by Keisai,
where it is being petted by a young woman who sits
next to Daikoku as he counts up his riches on the
abacus. In all the representations of this happy deity
it will be noted that the lobes of his ears are extremely
large. This is a mark of divinity given also to others
of the Shichifukujin. Daikoku is said to be the Japan-
ese adaptation of the Brahmanic deity Mahakala, the
black-faced god placed before the gates of Buddhist
temples. Unlike that stern, dignified deity, who is the
protector of the realm, Daikoku is represented as a
sturdy, smiling figure dressed in ancient Chinese cos-
tume. The only resemblance between these two gods
is that each is sometimes portrayed with a blackened
face. The name "Daikoku," as written, means the
"Great Black One." There is, however, another com-
bination of Chinese characters which can be read either
"Dai Koku" or "0 Kuni" and which mean "Great
Realm." These characters are those used for writing
the name of the Shinto god of land, known as 0 Kuni-
nushi no Kami. On this insecure platform, the Bud-
dhist Dai Koku ("Great Black One") has been identi-
fied with the Shinto 0 Kuni nushi no Kami ("God of

[78 j

Gods and Heroes of Japan 11

the Great Realm"). This instance serves as an illus-
tration of the blending of religions in Japan. It is
also a concrete example of the fact that when Bud-
dhism came to China it had absorbed much of the
Brahmanic pantheon and came on into Japan twofold,
so to speak, and equipped to absorb within itself many
of the native deities of that land.

Another of the Seven Gods of Good Fortune, who
came in the train of Buddhism into Japan, is Bishamon
Ten or Tamon Ten, who is seen in the background of
the picture (Fig. 2). Though of martial guise and
called the patron of the warrior, he is not primarily a
military deity, but is regarded as another god of
wealth. He wears a helmet and cuirass, and is gener-
ally equipped with a long spear which he holds in his
left hand. In his right, he usually bears a pagoda.
In this representation he is placing the pagoda before
the shrine of Benten or Ukemochi no Kami. The Sev-
en Gods are not regarded with the awe and dignity
that one would think appropriate for deities. They
are very often treated in a humorous manner, and
commonly Bishamon is pictured as making love to the
goddess Benten. Undoubtedly that idea is herein sug-
gested, as we see the dignified deity placing his pagoda
at the foot of the shrine whereon Benten's white snake
is coiled. In Buddhism, Bishamon or Tamon Ten is
known as Vaicravana, one of the four kings of Heaven,
who guard the four sides of the mountain Sumeru, the
axis of the universe. He is also identified with Ku-
bera, the Brahmanic god of Wealth, who was con-
verted by Buddha and henceforth known as Vaicra-
mana.

The three of the Seven Gods who remain to be
mentioned are all adoptions from China. They are
seated at the right of the picture, and are delightedly
fixing a ceremonial arrangement for the shrine. The

[79]

12 Field Museum of Natural History

two bearded figures are Jurojin, wearing the black
cap, and Fukurokuju, an old man with an extremely
high forehead. Both of these deities are Taoist in
origin, and their identities seem hopelessly mixed. Each
of them is said to represent the founder of the Taoist
doctrine, Lao-tse. Both are symbolical of longevity, and
both have the same attributes — the tortoise, the crane,
and the deer. Jurojin usually carries a staff, which
here lies on the floor beside him. To it is generally
attached a scroll. A Chinese legend makes of him the
spirit of the Southern Star of Longevity.

Fukurokuju whose name means "wealth, pros-
perity and long life" is considered the god of wis-
dom on account of his remarkably shaped head. His
figure is that of a dwarf. He is depicted as a more
genial deity than Jurojin, and is often to be seen
heartily laughing, or gaily travelling through the sky
on the back of a flying crane. Popular legends have
also associated him with the South Pole Star.

The j oiliest god of the group is Hotei, the friend
of children and a deity who is greatly beloved by the
populace. His extremely fat figure is only partially
covered with a flowing robe, his head is shaven, and
he usually carries a flat fan of Chinese. form. He is
possessed of many treasures to attract his admirers,
and these are encompassed in a huge bag which hangs
over his shoulder or upon which he sleeps. "Hotei"
means "cloth bag," which in Chinese reads "Pu Tai,"
the name by which this deity is known. Pu-Tai Ho-
Shang ("Cloth Bag Priest") was a Chinese monk who
is said to have lived in the tenth century. He received
his name from the sack which he carried, in which he
was wont to poke all sorts of eatables collected on his
journeys. In China his smiling image is to be seen
in the Buddhist temples, where he acts as a guardian.
In certain connections he has been identified with

[80]

Gods and Heroes of Japan 13

Maitreya, the coming Buddha, an erroneous associ-
ation which has been explained by the legend that he
is thought to have referred to himself when he once
said that Maitreya had a hundred myriad forms and
appeared to people who knew nothing of it.

FUDO AND HIS ATTENDANTS

The imposing figure of Fudo, as seen in Fig. 3,
furnishes a marked contrast to the informal and famil-
iar treatment given to the Seven Gods of Good Fortune,
whose images commonly appear in the household of
Japan. This Buddhist deity is generally to be seen
only in temples portrayed in a dignified statue or in
some rare painting. The name of Fudo means the
"Immovable One." According to the teachings of one
sect of Buddhism, he is a manifestation of Buddha in
his more formidable and indignant moods. He holds
a sword and rope which are symbolic of readiness to
menace and restrain all evil-doers. He is surrounded
by a halo of flames which typify wisdom. Though to-
day recognized as a guardian deity of Buddhism, he has
been identified both with the Brahmanic Qiva and
again with the Hindu god, Indra. He is usually pic-
tured as appearing above a waterfall which is indi-
cated in this print by Kunisada by vertical lines of blue
and silver. At the great temple of Fudo in Narita,
the cold water ordeal is indulged in by devotees of this
god. At Meguro there is a smaller temple to Fudo,
where a meritorious penance consists in standing for
several hours in cold weather beneath a waterfall in
the temple-yard, thereby washing away all taint of sin.
Such a performance is illustrated in this picture. Fudo
is generally accompanied by two attendants, one of
peaceful feminine aspect, the other a severe looking
masculine figure. Each has his own attribute. The
gentle figure, who goes by the name of Kongara, bears

[81]

14 Field Museum of Natural History

a lotus, and is said to embody the sustaining power of
Fudo. The other figure, usually colored a strong red,
carries a large club, and typifies the subjugating power
of the "Immovable One." The qualities of kindliness
and forgiveness have been attributed to this deity who
at first glance has such a terrifying exterior. The
story runs that he and his attendants came to the res-
cue of a penitent who had become frozen after stand-
ing for three days beneath a certain waterfall. This
penitent was none other than the warrior Endo Morito,
who is pictured in Fig. 3. This twelfth-century hero
had fallen in love with Kesa, the wife of Watanabe
Wataru, and was determined that he would wed her.
Loyal to her husband she resisted his suit, whereupon
Endo Morito vowed that he would slay her family, if
she did not allow him to enter the house at night and
kill the husband while he slept. Kesa agreed to this
alternative, but secretly set about making a plan to save
Watanabe Wataru. One night, her husband being
away, she made an appointment with Endo to come
to her house. Slipping into the silent room, Endo
hastily severed the head from the reclining body and
soon discovered, to his horror, that he had killed the
pure and loyal Kesa herself as she lay disguised in her
husband's clothes. In repentence and grief Endo be-
came a priest, and sought to expiate his sins by stand-
ing beneath the waterfall, counting his rosary and hold-
ing in his teeth the Buddhist bell with thunderbolt
handle.

SOME NATIONAL HEROES

Loyalty such as Kesa evinced for her husband,
loyalty of a retainer for his feudal lord, loyalty of a
daughter who makes the supreme sacrifice in order to
relieve the distress of a poverty-stricken parent, all
such exhibitions of self-effacement from a sense of duty

[82]

Gods and Heroes of Japan 15

and devotion, have long been held up in Japan as ideals
of moral attainment. Much of this reverence for loy-
alty can be traced to the influence of Confucius, whose
teachings may be summed up in the doctrine called the
"Five Relations"; sovereign and minister, father and
son, husband and wife, elder brother and younger
brother, and friends. From the sixteenth century on,
there was a decided difference between Confucianism
in Japan and Confucianism in China. Whereas in
China the basis of the Confucian system was filial
piety, in Japan the loyalty as expressed between sov-
ereign and minister, lord and retainer, master and
servant, became the corner-stone of personal righteous-
ness. To be sure, filial piety was strongly developed
in Japan. Even to-day sons and daughters are brought
up to recognize the "Twenty-four Paragons of Filial
Virtue," who are Chinese children whose sacrifices for
their parents form some of the most touching accounts
of human relationships. Four of the Twenty-four
Paragons are pictured in prints by Hokkei.

The extreme loyalty between retainer and lord
was due to the elaborate system of feudalism which
was evolved in Japan from the twelfth century on up
to the middle of the nineteenth century. For four hun-
dred years the feudal lords and their retainers, who
made up a very large part of the population, had been
engrossed in wars civil and foreign. In this time there
had developed an exaltation of bravery and self-sac-
rifice in battle which practically amounted to a re-
ligion. This philosophy went by the name of Bushido
("the way of the warrior"). Whereas Confucianism
had taught peace, Bushido glorified war, but beneath
both of these philosophies ran the same refreshing
stream — the principle of loyalty. To follow one's lord

[83]

16 Field Museum of Natural History

in death by committing suicide was a common prac-
tice for a loyal retainer. Self-abnegation was de-
veloped to such a degree that warriors frequently took
their own lives in order to bring into public notice
their disapproval of a civic situation, or to call atten-
tion to the fact that they had been thwarted in a public
duty. Stories of brave warriors were constantly told
to the rising generations, and many historical char-
acters became exalted into national heroes, paintings
and statues of whom are to-day reverenced with a de-
vout admiration.

There very often appears in Japan a group of
three Chinese heroes who have been adopted by the
Japanese as examples of loyalty between friends, and
models of national integrity. These men who lived
in the second century and who plighted their allegiance
to one another in a peach orchard, are represented in
several surimono in the Museum, hanging in a series
on the north wall. One of the heroes is always de-
picted with a flowing black beard; this is Kwan-yii,
deified as the God of War in China, where he goes by
name of Kwan-ti. His two companions are Gentoku
(Liu Pei) and Chohi (Chang Fei). The former is
usually drawn with a gentle countenance consistent
with the stories of filial sacrifice which are told of him
in early youth. Though he had a humble beginning, he
rose to note in his lifelong warfare against the usurp-
er Ts'ao Ts'ao. Finally he proclaimed himself em-
peror of China, and with the assistance of his loyal
companions held great power up until his death. Chohi
rose from the trade of a butcher and wine-seller to be
a leader in the wars of the Three Kingdoms. He was
a very clever tactician, several times saving his sol-
diers and himself by a misleading ruse. He is pictured
with fan-like beard, flowing hair, and generally carries
a straight double-edged spear.

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Gods and Heroes of Japan 17

An interesting group of surimono by Hokusai
hangs at the west end of Gunsaulus Hall. In these
prints the artist has made a comparison between some
of the heroes of China and Japan. One of them pictures
the two patriots, Hanrei (Fan Li) and Kojima Taka-
nori. Both of these men were loyal supporters of their
emperors, each of whom had come into disfavor. In
the print referred to, both heroes hold brushes and ink-
wells in their hands, preparatory to writing messages
to their respective sovereigns. The story runs, that
when the Japanese emperor, Go Daigo, was going into
exile, Kojima Takanori, remembering the loyalty of
the Chinese Hanrei for his emperor Kosen, wrote a
message upon the trunk of a cherry-tree past which he
knew his beloved sovereign would be led by his cap-
tors. It read, "0 Heaven, do not destroy Kosen while
Hanrei lives." In this veiled message Go Daigo recog-
nized the devoted hand of Kojima, and it is said that
he went into exile greatly sustained by this pledge of
fealty. Another of these prints by Hokusai (Fig. 4)
tells the stories of a Chinese boy, Se-ma Kwang, known
in Japan as Shiba Onko, and of the Japanese general,
Shibata Katsuiye. The boy, who is cited as an unusual
example of quick-wittedness, one day, in company with
several others, was looking into a deep jar wherein
some goldfish were swimming. One companion, los-
ing his balance, fell into the jar and was about to
drown. All the children ran away in terror except
Shiba Onko, who took up a rock, broke the vessel, and
allowed the water to escape. The story of Shibata
Katsuiye also centers around the breaking of a jar.
This famous sixteenth-century general while being
besieged in the castle of Chokoji was unable to obtain
any fresh water for his soldiers to drink. Thinking to
stimulate their courage, he led them into a hall, where
there stood a jar of water kept for emergency. After

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18 Field Museum of Natural History

giving them each a satisfying drink, he, without taking
any himself, took his spear and broke the jar and let
the water escape. A sortie was immediately made,
and he and his men emerged victorious.

In passing, it is of interest to study the armor
typical of the Japanese warrior. It consists of several
separate pieces: the helmet; mask; gorget; cuirass
with appended hip-pieces, four or more in number;
sleeves of mail; shoulder-guards; thigh-guards;
greaves and boots of metal or of leather. The body
of the suit itself is made of metal or leather laminae
or of bands simulating laminae laced together with
brightly colored silk braid. The breast plates are
often of embossed metal or painted leather. The hel-
mets are sometimes surmounted with crests and flar-
ing wings as in the case of that worn by the fully
armed warrior in Fig. 5. Here we see Kato Kiyomasa,
seated upon a tiger skin, and holding the folding fan
with the red sun-disk upon it, an instrument used
by generals in signaling commands. At his left is his
long, forked spear; over his shoulder may be seen his
brace of arrows; projecting behind him is his fighting
sword (katana) which is thrust through his belt along
with the short sword (wakizashi) whose hilt is visible
in front. His crest (a circle with the centre cut out)
appears on his red trousers, on his sleeves, and on his
helmet. Fixed in a brace in the immediate foreground
of the picture is a standard (umajirushi) , a banner
formerly carried by the commander of an army.

Kato Kiyomasa lived in the sixteenth century and
led the expedition against Korea. He directed the
campaign with such ferocity that the Koreans gave
him the name "devil warrior." His fierce expression
in this portrait by Shuntei seems to have completely
subdued the Korean envoy who is prostrated before
him.

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Gods and Heroes of Japan 19

Among the other national heroes who are repre-
sented in the prints may be recognized the following:

Kaneko, a woman of great strength is pictured
holding a runaway horse by the simple process of
standing with her foot upon the halter of the rearing
animal. This same character is often depicted with a
struggling enemy whose arm she has tightly grasped
beneath one of her own arms. At the same time, she
successfully carries upon her head a bowl filled to the
brim.

Tomoye Gozen is another heroine renowned for
her strength, as well as for her devotion to her lord,
Kiso Yoshinaka, whom she followed into battle, fight-
ing at his side. One enemy she struggled with and es-
caped from, leaving only her sleeve in his hand. A
second opponent she beheaded, and a third, who at-
tacked her with a pine-tree in lieu of a war club,
found himself outclassed in strength, as the heroine
twisted the tree trunk and broke it into splinters.

Asahina Saburo was the son of Tomoye Gozen
and inherited her undaunted bravery and excelling
vigor. He is sometimes shown swimming with a live
carp under each arm or hurling large rocks at his
enemies. In one picture in this series, the big hero
is playing with a child who celebrates the New Year
with his new toy, a wagon in the form of the treasure
ship (takarabune) , the magic vehicle of the Seven Gods
of Good Fortune. In the other print, Asahina is seen
in his trial of strength with Goro Tokimune, the elder
of the Soga brothers, who sought to enter the banquet
hall and save his younger brother Juro Sukenari who
was in danger. The Soga brothers lived in the early
thirteenth century, and are respected as loyal sons
who avenged the murder of their father. They are
sometimes pictured as children kneeling on the beach,

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20 Field Museum of Natural History

where they escaped being beheaded through the inter-
vention of Hatakeyama Shigetada. At the ages of
twenty and eighteen, these brothers made their way
through a furious storm to the tent of their father's
murderer, Suketsune, and there in the night they ac-
complished the deed for which they both gladly gave
their lives.

Two twelfth-century heroes are Kagekigo and
Kunitoshi who are pictured by Hokkei. They are
dressed in full armor, and are seen fighting on the sea-
shore at the battle of Yashima, which occurred in
1185. Kagekiyo, renowned for his power and vigor,
is pulling off the neck-piece of the armor of Minamoto
Miyo no Yashiro Kunitoshi. Kagekiyo was later exiled
by the Minamoto, and his closing days form the
touching theme of a famous drama.

Legends of fantastic forms have been woven
about several historical characters. So many tales
have been told about Benkei, a warrior of the twelfth
century, said to have been eight feet tall, that one
doubts if this fascinating fellow ever existed and was,
as he is reputed to have been, the retainer of the great
hero, Minamoto no Yoshitsune. Benkei, on account of
his boisterous ways, was also known by the name of
Oniwaka ("Young Demon"). When a youth, he proved
his strength by overcoming a huge fish in a waterfall.
This incident is told in a print by Hokkei. Though
said to have been a wandering priest, he is pictured as
stealing the bell from the temple of Miidera and as
fighting with all the travelers who crossed Gojo bridge,
conquering nine hundred and ninety-nine of them,
being beaten only by Yoshitsune whose loyal hench-
man he became.

It is said that Yoshitsune's skill at fencing was
due to his having been trained by the forest sprites
(tengu) , some of whom are pictured in Fig. 6. These

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FIG. 6. WATANABE FINDING KINTOKI IN THE WOODS.
BY HOKKEI.

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Gods and Heroes of Japan 21

beings with bird-like bodies often have faces of long-
nosed men. They are said to haunt the forests and
the mountains, where they dwell with their ruler Ku-
rama Yama no Sojobo, a tengu with long beard and
moustaches. In this print by Hokkei they are flying
in front of a waterfall which splashes down from a
high cliff. Above, at the right, stands the hero, Wata-
nabe no Tsuna, who may be recognized by his crest,
three dots over the digit one. To him many famous
deeds are attributed. He was the loyal retainer of
Minamoto no Yorimitsu, popularly called Raiko, a
tenth-century hero, who is said to have slain hosts of
demons and goblins. Raiko and Watanabe pursued to
death the Shutendoji, the Goblin King, a fearfully
wicked giant whom they drugged and slaughtered
while he dined in his mighty palace hall. The story
is recalled in a print by Hokkei, where the full-armed
Raiko is startled by the falling of a kite whereon the
head of the goblin is pictured. Sometime after the
slaying of the Shutendoji, Raiko and Watanabe met
a new foe in the shape of a goblin spider. Both heroes
were enveloped in thick, white webs which almost suf-
focated them, but in time they cut their way through
and tracked the beast to a cave and there slew him.
Thinking that all the malevolent creatures were killed,
Watanabe disbelieved the statement that a demon ap-
peared nightly at Rashomon gate in Kyoto. Sticking
up a challenge on the gate post one rainy night, the
hero took his place and awaited the enemy. He soon
dozed off, but was suddenly awakened by a tug at his
helmet. He hastily drew his sword, and slashing it in
the dark, struck something which uttered a violent
shriek and hurried away leaving behind a huge arm.
This, Watanabe took, secreting it in a box and refus-
ing to let any one see it. One day an old woman came,
and claiming to be the hero's nurse, prayed to see
what he kept in the strong box. At first he hesitated,

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22 Field Museum of Natural History

but persuaded by her constant entreaties, he opened the
casket only to see the old woman turn into a witch,
seize the severed arm and fly out of sight.

In Fig. 6 we see Watanabe standing amazed at the
strength of the young boy Kintaro or Kintoki. The
legend runs that this boy of golden color was found
in the woods by the forest nurse, Yamauba, who is
pictured at the foot of the waterfall. His playmates
were the hare, the monkey, and the deer. The other
animals of the forest, particularly the bear and the
wild boar, he overcame when but a small lad. Very
early in life he evinced his enormous strength by push-
ing over a huge pine-tree which he wished to use as a
bridge for transporting his companions over a rushing
stream. It was during this performance that Wata-
nabe happened on the scene. He was so impressed
by the youth's power, that he begged the boy to join
his ranks and follow him in his efforts against the gob-
lins and demons. Kintoki was overjoyed, and there-
upon left his mountain home and accomplished much
in ridding the country of evil influences.

A few other characters must be mentioned as great
favorites, two especially whose stories are woven into
famous theatrical performances, known as No plays.
One is the poor fisherman Hakuryo who has the for-
tune of seeing the angel of the moon on the pine-clad
shore of Mio no Matsubara. Hokusai has left a long
surimono in which this story is eloquently told. The
fisherman is seen as he finds a feather robe hanging
in a tree. Thinking to take it home as a treasure, he
is interrupted by the appearance of a beautiful maiden
who claims it as her own. Assured that this creature
is a fairy, he is all the more anxious to retain the
magic garment and refuses to give it up to her until
she tells him that she can never return to her heavenly
palace without it. Hakuryo is touched by her beauty

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Gods and Heroes of Japan 23

and her appeal, and finally agrees to let her have it
if she will dance for him. The fairy then takes the
robe and performs many dances, and at length her feet
miss the ground, and she floats flutteringly upward
until she is lost to view.

The old man and woman portrayed in a print by
Hokkei are known as the aged couple of Takasago.
Around their story has been woven a drama of great
beauty and popularity. It is also of interest to recog-
nize them as they appear on the occasion of a wedding,
placed on a ceremonial stand beneath a miniature pine-
tree, associated with a crane and tortoise, emblems of
longevity. These aged people are said to be spirits of
the great pine at Takasago on Osaka Bay. The old
tree, though springing from a single root, has a bifur-
cated trunk which has been adopted as an auspicious
emblem of a happy wedded life of long duration. The
story goes that the fisherman's daughter, Matsuo, was
one day seated beneath her favorite pine-tree near the
shore, when there was washed up on the beach the
partially drowned figure of a youth named Teoyo.
This adventurous lad had watched from the opposite
shore of Sumiyoshi the flight of a heron, and had en-
deavored to follow the bird by swimming across to
Takasago. Matsuo soon resuscitated the youT;h and
laid him on a bed of pine needles which she had raked
up. In a few weeks the young couple were wedded
and lived for many years beneath the pine-tree, where
even now their spirits are said to return on moon-
light nights.

Helen C. Gunsaulus.

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