LIBRARY

FACULTY OF FORESTRY
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

COLONIAL BEPOBTS-MISCELLANEOtt^.

No. 66.

<H)LI) (JO A ST.

REPORT ON FORESTS;

IIY

Mil. JI. N. THOMPSON,
f!oMK«)i-v;il.or of l'W<-Hl,H, , Soul !,,.,•„ Nigeria,

to ilardamrnt 6jp <Tomman)i of

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CONTENTS.

PART I

EXAMINATION OP FORESTS AND DESCRIPTION OP JOURNEYS MADE THROUGH

THEM.

Page.

1. Description of journey from Accra to Aburi and back 7

2. Description of journey from Accra to Sekondi and the saw-mills at

Gaiyui Krom 18

3 Description of journey across the lower valleys of the Ankobra and
Tano rivers through the districts of Lower Wassaw, Lower

Denkira, and thence back to the railway at Dunkwa ... ... 24

Forests between Tarkwa and Prestea 25

The fuel supply for the gold mines ... ... ... ... ... 30

Forest vegetation of the central portion of the Ankobra drainage 31

The forests between Ahirisu (Mansi river) and N'Kwansia (on

the Ankobra river) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37

The forests between the Ankobra river, and its feeder the Sibiri

stream 38

The forest on the south-eastern slopes of the Ankobra-Tano

water-parting 41

The forests in the drainage area of the Lower Tano river 42

Forests between Tomento and the railway line at Dunkwa station 46

4. Supply of fuel for the Tarkwa and Abosso mines 49

5 The forests of Southern Ashanti 51

General remarks 51

The Tsifufu forests 55

The forests between Oboase and the village of Hun on the Adra

river ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55

Forests between the confluence of the Adra and Offin rivers and

N'Kwanta 56

The forests north of Mansu N'Kwanta 57

The forests between Impasatia and Bibiani ... ... ... ... 60

The forests between Bibiani and Mim (Tano river drainage) ... 61

The forests of the upper portion of the Bia river drainage ... 63

The forests at the head waters of the Ba river 64

6. The forests of North-western Ashanti belonging to the Volta river

drainage 67

General description of Savannah forests 67

The forests near Braha ... ... ... ... ... ... 73

The forests near Oboase 74

The vegetation near the Volta at Tonkomia 74

The forests between Bian and Jugbe (Northern Territories) ... 74

The forests in the neighbourhood of Kintampo 75

Return journey to Kumasi ... .., ... ... ... ... 76

7. The forests south-east of Kumasi ... ... ... ... ... 76

The proposed Dampia reserve 78

8. The forests between the Cane Coast road and Lake Bosumptwi ... 79

COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS. 3

Page
9. The forests between Lake Bosumptwi and the Anum river ... ... 80

10. The forests between the Annra river and Odnmase ... ... ... 30

11. The forests between Konkota and Bompata ... ... ... ... 82

12. The forests between Bompata and Abetifi ... ... ... ... 83

13. The Af ram Plains ........................ 84

General description of country and vegetation ......... 84

Useful plants of the Savannah forests ............ 88

Country between Abetifi and Aframsu ............ 94

Country between Aframsu and Jwafuabutan ... ... ... 94

Big game and game Jaws ......... ......... 95

14. Journey from Abetifi to Aburi ... ... ... ... ... ... 96

Danger attending the destruction of the forests ......... 97

Country between Kankan and Aburi ... ... ... ... 99

Mr. Pritchard's plantations at Bunsu ............... 99

Agricultural prospects of Eastern Ashanti, Kwahu, Akyem, and
Aburi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100

15. Conclusion ............... ............ 100

PART II.

A. — PROTECTION OF FORESTS AND FOREST LEGISLATION.
(a) Dangers to which the forests are exposed ... ...... ... 100

(6) Dangers attending and following the reckless destruction of the

forests ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 102

(c) Methods of protecting the forests from the dangers mentioned above 106

Forest laws — general considerations ... ... ... ... ... 106

Enactments necessary ... .................. 106

Indian forest legislation .................. 106

Its application to certain areas in the Indian Empire ...... 107

Suitability of the Indian laws (with modifications) to our West
African Colonies and Protectorates... ... ... ... ... 110

Forest administration of the Southern Shan States of Burma ... Ill
Southern Nigerian forest laws based on the Burma forest laws ... 113

Southern Nigerian forest laws, with certain modifications, suitable
for the Gold Coast and its dependencies ... ... ... ...113

Importance of continuity of policy and action in forest adminis-
tration ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 114

(d) Southern Nigeria forest laws as modified for application to the

Gold Coast and its dependencies ... ... ... ... ... 114

Orders of His Majesty the King in Council for the good govern-
ment of the Gold Coast, Ashanti, and the Northern Territories 115

The Southern Nigeria Forestry Ordinance — modifications and
additions recommended .................. 116

The Schedule — rules relating to rubber ... ... ... ...118

Rules relating to timber ..................... 122

Reasons for recommending a high minimum felling girth ..... 123

Additional rules (control of forest produce in transit) ...... 127

Classification of hammer marks ............... 127

Rules regarding their regulation and use ............ 128

Licence forms ........................ 132

(12315—2) Wt. 26122—322. 1125. 1/10. D & S. A 2

4 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Page
(</) Southern Nigeria forest laws — cont.

Timber removal pass ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 133

Drift timber 133

Salvage of drift timber ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 135

Licence to collect salved timber ... ... ... ... ... 137

Timber rules for the Northern Territories 138

Trade licence to take timber ... ... ... ... ... ... 138

General considerations regarding the timber rules ... ... ... ... 140

Rules relating to forest reserves ... ... ... ... ... ...141

B.— SUGGESTIONS AS TO THE FOREST POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION TO

BE ADOPTED ON THE GOLD COAST.

A. Forest establishments 142

B. Selection of areas for reservation ... ... ... ... ... ... 145

C. The collection of data for the preparation of working plans ... ... 148

(a) Determination of the rate of growth 149

(£>) Determination of the proportion existing between the various

age gradations 150

Linear valuation surveys 151

The calculation of the annual yield ... ... 152

Approximate methods suitable for West Africa ... 152

Sylvicultural methods of exploitation recommended — Selection

system — Coppice with standards 153

D. Botanical survey of the forests ... 153

E. The training of the subordinate staff ... 155

F. Plantations 156

G. The inspection and supervision of timber concessions and licensed

areas 156

H. General forest policy 157

PART III.

C. — CONCLUSION.

Brief description of the physical features ... ... ... ... ... 159

Climate 162

Short account of the conditions affecting plant growth 166

Classification of plant formations ... ... ... ... ... ... 170

Types of West African formations and their characteristic plants ... 170

Distribution of the forests ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 173

Exports and imports of forest produce 192

List of vernacular names of plants ... ... ... ... ... ... 196

Explanation of plates ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 199

APPENDIX.

The Forestry Ordinance 202

INDEX.

[References to the plates accompanying this report will also be found in
the List of Vernacular Names of Plants given on pp. 196-199.]

GOLD COAST. — REPORT ON FORESTS.

No. 66.
GOLD COAST

REPORT ON FORESTS.

INTRODUCTION.

For some years past the Government of the Gold Coast had
been endeavouring to procure the temporary services of an Indian
Forest Officer with a view to getting professional advice on the
best means of regulating the haphazard methods of exploiting
the mahogany forests then in vogue.

Their object was to secure a report on the forest resources of
the country and the measures that should be adopted for the
preservation of the forests against excessive exploitation.

For one reason or another such an officer could not be found,
and it was finally decided that my services should be lent for
that purpO'Se by the Southern Nigerian Government for a period
of four months.

Accordingly, on the expiration of niy year's (1907) tour in the
latter Colony and Protectorate, I left Lagos by steamer on the
31st December, 1907, and arrived at Accra on the following day,
the 1st January, 1908. After remaining there a few days and
making a short visit to the Botanical Gardens at Aburi, I
returned to the former town and sailed for the Port of Sekondi
on the 8th of the same month ; from there I began my series of
tours through the forests of the Colony and Ashanti.

In Part I. of this report, I have described, in some detail, the
trips made through the forests and the character of the country
and the vegetation passed through.

Part II. is devoted to a discussion of the measures that should
be introduced with a view to conserving the forests and initiating
a sound system of forest policy for their management and
development.

In Part III. a brief summary is given of the physical features
and climate of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, of the vegetation of
those countries, the distribution of the forests, a short account
of the conditions affecting plant growth and their influence in
determining the geographical distribution of plants, statistics
of the exports and imports of forest produce, and an estimate
of the future yield of timber from the forests.

6 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

The main principles governing the distribution of plant life,
(hough well known to botanists and professional foresters, are
not so universally appreciated by the general public.

With a view to placing1 before the latter a concise account of
the reactions of vegetation in the environment, and thus
enabling them to intelligently follow the principles on which
forest conservancy is based, I have ventured to introduce subjects
that may otherwise be considered foreign to a report of this
character. If, however, by doing this I can induce even a few
of the Political Officers in charge of our West African Colonies
and Protectorates to take some interest in forest protection, and
realise the very important transformations in climate and type
of vegetation that are liable to follow the wholesale destruction
of the forests, then my action will be fully justified.

In its initial stages, at all events, forest conservancy must
to a large extent depend, as far as its successful application goes,
on the attitude displayed towards it by the Political Officers.

The period of four months, for which my services were
originally lent, having proved insufficient for completing the
examination of the forests, I was permitted to extend it to six
months ; this enabled me to visit some of the wooded area's of
the eastern portions of the Colony and Ashanti; but, even with
this extension, I am afraid that I have left unvisited many
important forests. To thoroughly explore the whole country
would require two or three years' continuous work of that kind.

W'ith the limited time at my disposal it was a matter of some
difficulty to decide on the best routes to take, but I was eventu-
ally influenced in my choice by the consideration that it was more
important to discover what forests were left intact, and to explore
wooded areas about which but little was known, than to occupy
the bulk of my time with forests that have already been pretty
well exploited. The latter, however, were not neglected ; during
my wanderings through the forests of the lower Ankrobra and
Tano River basins, and those along the Sekondi-Kumasi Rail-
way, where exploitation is in full swing. I saw enough of the
methods employed there of felling and extracting the timber to
.enable me to form a pretty good estimate of the character of
the work and the extent to which the wood-producing capital
has been removed.

I take this opportunity of thanking all those officials of the
Gold Coast and Ashanti, to whom I am indebted for much
kindness and assistance in connection with my duties, more
especially to Major C. H. Armitage, D.S.O., the Acting Chief
Commissioner of Ashanti ; Mr. F. G. Crowther, the Acting Secre-
tary for Native Affairs; the Acting General Manager of the
Gold Coast Railway; Mr. A. J. Philbrick, the Provincial Com-
missioner of the Western Province of the Colony; Captain
G. W. C. Soden, Provincial Commissioner, Ashanti; to Mr. K.
Burbridge, Curator, the latter of whom accompanied me through-
out my tours; and to the Agricultural Department, generally,
of the Gold Coast. I have also received much help and useful
information from Mr. G. A. Stockfeld, General Manager of the

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. I

Tarquah and Abosso Mines ; Mr. McTear, General Manager of
the Aslianti Goldfields Corporation ; the Manager of the Bibiani
Mines ; and from Messrs. Nicholas and Brett ; to all of whom
I now offer my sincerest thanks. I wish also to express my
indebtedness to Dr. Otto Stapf and other officials of the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, for their assistance in identifying and
naming specimens collected during my tours.

I cannot conclude without expressing my great obligations to
the Governor, Sir John Pickersgill Rodger, K.C.M.G., and
Acting Governor Major H. Bryan, C.M.G., to whose initiative
and constant interest is due any success that may have attended
my visit to the Colony and Ashanti.

H. N. THOMPSON,

Conservator of Forests,

Southern Nigeria.
December, 1908.

PART I.

Accra. — The small cocoanut plantation situated to the north-
east of Christianborg Castle is not a success. The young plants
have suffered much from the annual fires, and their growth has
been considerably checked in consequence.

Those which have grown high enough to escape damage from
the fires are doing better, but the whole plantation is too much
exposed to the strong sea breezes for the young palms to escape
distortion ; the stems of the majority of them are bent over
towards the north-east at an acute angle.

The country about here is very arid, and this, coupled with
the fact that the salt spray is blown inland a good distance bacK
from the beach, accounts for the xerophitic habit of the vegeta-
tion occupying it ; most of the indigenous plants along the shore,
and for a mile back, possess thick succulent leaves, and even
some of the grasses have become modified in this respect.

The vegetation is scrubby, consisting mainly of dwarfed
acacias, a species of Capparis (caper), a Bridelia (E^(,phorb^acecE))
and a Convolvulus. Amongst introduced plants the prickly pear
(Opuntia), aloes, and euphorbias are most conspicuous, and have
done best because their xerophilous structure is suited to the
environment.

In the gardens belonging to Government House, I noticed thai
some casuarinas planted there were, considering the soil and
climate, doing very well indeed, and that Pithecolobium saman
was also flourishing. In these two plants we possess a ready
means of reclaiming the land along the seashore, and making
it suitable for cultivation. The two great dangers to guard
against are : first, the strong prevalent winds impregnated with

6 COLONIAL REPORTS— MISCELLANEOUS.

salt spray; and, second, the annual scrub fires that are so com-
mon during the dry season. These dangers can be best met by
planting up the coast-line with a broad belt of casuarinas, then
behind them casuarinas and pithecolobiums, mixed, to form a
wind-break, and behind that, again, a mixture of deciduous-
leaved and evergreen trees. The whole belt of tree vegetation
should be at least half-a-mile broad. Simultaneously with this,
planting measures should be taken to ensure effectual protection
against fire for the belt so formed. I understand that firewood
is scarce in Accra, and has to be brought from the foot-hills to
the north of the town, a distance of some miles. Here, again,
by the creation of fuel reserves and effective fire protection, a
cheap and constant supply of fuel can be ensured, and, in addi-
tion, the soil can be enriched, protected, and eventually made
capable of bearing fairly good agricultural crops. As things
stand at present, the fertility of the soil is being gradually
destroyed year by year, and there is no doubt that a time will
come when it will be incapable of supporting vegetation of any
economic value.

Re-afforestation, combined with adequate fire protection, will
prevent such a disastrous state of affairs, and play a prominent
part in re-establishing the fertility of the soil, increasing the
quantity of water held by it in suspension, and eventually making
it suitable for agricultural purposes.

The Accra Plains. — On my way to Aburi I had an opportunity
of observing the character of the vegetation growing on the plains
between Accra and the foot-hills of the range on which Aburi
is situated. As far up the road as Kamantang the country is
very arid and covered with scrubby vegetation. The latter
consists mainly of dwarfed acacias (probably Acacia catechu), a
spiny Capparis, Bridelia, Euphorbias, a few scrambling Coinbre-
tums and short grass. The introduced opuntias (prickly-pear
cactus) and agaves are also growing here and there as escapes.
The soil consisting mainly of weathered laterite is but poorly
covered with vegetation, and is often exposed in large patches,
but in the hollows, formed by old dried-up watercourses, where
alluvial deposits exist, a rank growth of fairly long coarse grass
has sprung up, and gives a certain amount of protection to the
soil. Trees, except those planted by man, are scarce on the
plain. The niO'St characteristic wild ones are the fan palm —
Borassus flabelliformis var. aethiopica, an arboreal Evpliorbia
with a thick woody stem, succulent fleshy leaves, and a rounded
crown, and two species of baobabs (Adansonia). These trees,
however, are few and far between and do not alter the general
scrubby character of the vegetation, which is typical of the arid
plains of West Africa. On alluvial patches the fan palm is
inclined to be gregarious. The whole of this plain is subject
to fires, and at the time of my visit the scrub was burning in
all directions. It is on these plains that re-afforestation and fire
protection will give the best results.

The Savannah Forests. — Between Kamantang and the main
Aburi range the low scrub vegetation, described above, gives

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 9

place to the open park-like grass country so common in West
Africa behind the forest belts found near the coast.

These Savannah forests represent the intermediate stage of
vegetation between the true forests and the dry scrub of the arid
regions. The soil is covered with a coarse long grass and trees
of several species as well as shrubs are found dotted about, often
in small groups and sometimes in regular belts (fringing vege-
tation) along the moister hollows.

The rainfall in such vSavannah forests is not sufficient to
enable ordinary tree vegetation to compete successfully with
the grasses, which with the help of the annual bush fires can
keep such vegetation in check. In the moister alluvial hollows
tree growth still continues to hold its own against the grasses,
but the destruction of the former by man results in a gradual
deterioration of the fertility of the soil, its desiccation, and the
eventual conversion of the Savannah forests into pure Savannahs
and the arid scrub of the Accra plains. Every stage in this
process can be recognised along the road leading to Aburi.

The vegetation usually met with in the Savannah forests
consists, amongst shrubs, of the wild custard apple, Anona
senegalcnsis, Sarcoceplialiis csculentus, Bauliinia reticulata,
Zizyphus mucronata and a species of Capparis, whilst trees are
represented by Acacia catechu, Acacia Sieberiana, Entada
soudanica, Ormosia laxiflora, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Vitex
cuneata, Vitex megapliylla, two or three species of Parinarium,
Parkia filicoidea, a small Pscudocedrela, the balsam copaiba
tree, Daniella thurifera, Lophira alata and the shea butter
tree, Butyrospcrmum Parkii. The three last trees, however,
appear to be absent from, the Savannahs through which the
Accra-Aburi road passes. Probably the locality is too close to
the sea to suit the requirements of these plants. In addition
to the plants mentioned above, others, such as the fan palm
(Borassus flabelliformis var. cethiopica) and species of Adan-
sonia (Baobabs), are also to be met with in the Savannah
forests.

The evergreen forests. — As one approaches the foot of the
main hill ranges close to Aburi, the Savannahs gradually merge
into the ordinary evergreen forests which are the richest in
variety of species of any of the types met with in Africa. As
a rule, where such forests have not been much interfered with
by man, the leaf canopy is fairly complete, the soil is well pro-
tected from the sun and atmospheric agencies by a dense under-
growth of shrubs and young trees, and the forest has all the
characteristics of what is technically knowrn as " high forest."

The variety of species is great and includes most of the West
African plants of economic importance. It will be sufficient
for the present to give only a brief list of the more important
species forming this type. They are: — The Dahomah (Pipta-
denia africana), one of the most common trees on the Gold
Coast, the Assohma (ParJda species) almost equally common,
the Ah f ram, the Opapao (Afzelia africana}, the Eku (BoTnbax
buonopozense), the Honum (Anthocleista magnifica), the Ofu

10 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

or Chen-chen (Antiaris toxicaria var. africana), the Prekese
(Tetrapleura Thonningii\ the Odouin (Chlorophora cxcclsa),
I he Ihihini (J\/KII/<I species), the Penkwa (Pseudocedrela cylin-
ilri<-ii), the Tiama-Tiaina (Pseudocedrela sp.), the N'yankom or
Yd ilk-mi (Ucritiera utilis), the Pepedum (Lovoa Klaineana),
the Kokati (Pynaertia ealaensis}, the Affrain or Off nun (Termin-
al KI sui>crh<i), Funtumia elaxtica, Funtumia africana, the Emil
or I'linril (Terminalia sp.), the KaJcu (Lophira procera), the
I Id k a (Mimusops Djaue), the Waw-waw (Triplo chiton John-
sonii), tln^ Athawah (Pentaclethra macrvpliyUa), the Meinch/n
(Peltophorum sp.), the Ehyedua (Cyanothyrsus species), the
(Ricinodeinl mil africanus), the Bay a or Yaya (Mitra-
macrophylla), Macrolobium stipulaceum, the Ote (Myris-
species), the Nyamedua (Alstonia congensis), Musanga
Smithii, Myrianthus arboreus, Haronga madagaacariensis,
Sterculia cordifolia, Cola Afzelii, Eriodendron anfractuosum,
and a host of others, some of which, for want of the flowers
and fruit, I have not yet been able to identify or get identified.

The Aburi hills were once clothed with this type of vegeta-
tion, and the remnants of the old forest can still be seen in the
form of large isolated examples of Piptadenia africana, Triplo-
cliiton Jolinsonii, Antiaris toxicaria var. africana, Clilorophora
excelsa, Parkia biglobosa, various species of Ficus, Eriodendron
anfractuosum, Bombaa buonopozense, the Off rain (Terminalia
sp.), Kokoti (Pynaertia ealaensis), Baku (Mimusops Djave), &c.,
which, on account of their size, were left as " standards " when
the natives cleared the forests for their farms.

Under these '' standards," where the soil is unoccupied at
present by agricultural crops, a dense tangled mass of secon-
dary growth has sprung up consisting mainly of Musanga
Smithii, Myrianthus arboreus, Haronga madagascariensis, the
oil palm, various species of Combretum, Landolphia, Clitandra,
Gloriosa superba, Anthocleista magnifi,ca, &c., and a few sup-
pressed seedlings of the Waw-waw (Triplo chiton Johnsonii),
the Emril, and the shingle 'tree (Terminalia scutiferd) ; clear-
ings in the secondary growth have been planted up with cocoa
and in places with cola ; extensive areas are also under cassava
and corn, and it is on these areas that denudation of the hill-
sides is proceeding most rapidly.

The Aburi hill forests, situated as they are on the edge of
the arid plains to the north of Accra, are, of course, exposed
to all the dangers which attend such proximity to an extensive
centre of desiccation.

The abandoned (fallow) cassava farms, especially those on
the steeper slopes, have been occupied by the coarser grasses.
As the latter are burnt every year, the soil becomes exposed
and is washed away during the rainy season and then denuda-
tion of the hillsides begins. It is already in full operation
on several of the minor ridges and the process is being continued
at a rapid pace. Once the soil becomes exposed it is no longer
capable of storing and regulating the supply of moisture for
the springs : the latter begin to dry up, as they have actually

GOLD COAST. — REPORT ON FORESTS. 11

done in two instances close to Aburi, where, according to the
natives, an abundant supply of water was formerly available.
Concurrently with this diminution of the moisture held in sus-
pension by the soil, the character of the vegetation alters,
plants characteristic of drier regions gradually occupy the land
and replace those typical of the evergreen hill forests, and
slowly but surely the whole aspect of vegetation changes. Once
the forests become dry and deciduous they are more than ever
exposed to damage from, forest fires, and any clearings made in
them for farming purposes are eventually occupied by various
species of grasses. When this stage is reached it may be said
that the end of forest vegetation is close at hand.

1 uder existing agricultural practice there is nothing what-
ever to stop the gradual spread of the arid country into the
very heart of the forest region and that is what will undoubtedly
take place unless efficient barriers against its spread are created.
Such barriers are even now available, provided that the forests
occupying the hill ranges which border the arid plains are
strictly protected against farming and against forest fires. The
protected area should include the catchment basins on the left
banks of the upper reaches of the Densu and Birrim Rivers.
Behind this barrier and under its protection the cultivation of
such plants as cocoa, cola, &c., W'hich require a moist climate,
can 'be carried on in safety, as they will no longer be exposed to
the direct action of the arid regions.

As matters now stand there is every indication that the cocoa
plantations on the hills facing the plain are doomed to destruc-
tion at an early date. The vegetation here is already altering in
character from the evergreen to the deciduous type, and the
change is so pronounced that the Acting Director of Agriculture
estimates the life of a cocoa tree at not more than six or seven
years in this locality. What is more important, however, is the
fact that the damage is not likely to end here. The process of
substitution will progress till the very heart of the forest country
is involved. Such changes will jeopardise the palm-oil industry
as well as bring 'about a general reduction in the fertility of the
soil.

The changes described above have been retarded to a certain
extent 011 the main Aburi range by the fact that this range is of
sufficient altitude (1,600 feet) to condense the water vapour held
in suspension by the moist sea breezes when the latter strike it
and are forced up the slopes facing the sea.

This condensation is very marked at night and gives rise to
the dense, dripping mists that are such a noticeable feature of
the Aburi Hills even at the driest season of the year. Such
night mists are very favourable to plant growth, especially in
the tropics ; they must have an appreciable effect in delaying the
progress of the usual changes that follow the destruction of
forests in hot climates. Nevertheless, beneficial as they are,
they can never compensate for so decided a diminution of the
rainfall as has apparently taken place at Aburi during the last
eight years.

The rainfall records of this station for the sixteen years 1892
to 1907 show that the average rainfall for the first period of

12 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

eight years, viz., 1892 to 1899, is 49'92 inches with maximum and
minimum respectively of 6b''74 and 40'64 inches, as against an
average of 43'34 inches and maximum and minimum of 50'53
;uid 32'09 inches respectively for the second period of eight
years, viz., 1900 to 1907.

Thus the average decrease has during this latter period been
at the rate of approximately £ inch per annum, a very high rate
indeed, and one which explains the invasion of the outlying hills
bordering the plains by deciduous-leaved species.

The change from evergreen vegetation to that of the deciduous
lype means forest fires, and the latter in their turn mean the
dominance of grasses at the expense of tree vegetation.

BOTANICAL GARDENS.

My stay at Aburi gave me an opportunity of examining the
Botanical Gardens at that station and appreciating the large
amount of useful work th'at has been carried out there in a quiet
and unostentatious manner. In addition to the various plots
planted up with species of agricultural importance, special
attention has been paid to collecting and growing a representa-
tive series of the rubber and latex-yielding plants of tropical
countries, more particularly those from West Africa.

The genus Ficus is well represented and the collection con-
tains, amongst others, quite a large number of specimens oi Ficus
elastica and Ficus Vogelii. I am informed that the yield of
rubber from the former has been very disappointing and nothing
like as abundant as that obtained from the latter. Moreover,
the rubber from this species as grown in the gardens appears to
contain a higher percentage of resins than does the correspond-
ing1 product from trees grown in the East. The rubber from
F. Vogelii sells in the home markets at the rate of 25. per pound,
whilst that of the Ire or silk rubber tree, Funtumia elastica,
commands only 6d. a pound more in price. It is evident then
that F. Vogelii is quite a valuable rubber producer and its cult-
ivation on a large scale is worth undertaking ; it is of importance
to note that it is a native of the country and not an exotic.

A fairly large plot has been planted with Castittoa elastica;
but without exception every tree has been seriously attacked by
a borer, and some of them even killed outright by the damage
done to them. This excellent rubber yielder appears to suffer
from similar attacks wherever it has been planted in Southern
Nigeria. In the Botanical Gardens at Calabar, however, the
damage done is very much less, and one or two good healthy-
looking trees that have escaped from their attacks are to be
found there. In the Olokemeji and Ebuta Metta Gardens of the
Western Province (Lagos) the species has been practically exter-
minated by these insects. It may be that the comparatively poor
rainfall of the Aburi and the two last-mentioned Gardens has
something to do with the extent of the damage and the preva-
lence of such attacks.

Experiments are being carried out in the cultivation of one
of the numerous species of Ceara rubber trees, viz., Manikot

GOLD COA8T. — REPORT ON FORESTS. 13

precosa, which is said to yield rubber at a very early age. The
individuals that have been planted are however much too small
at present to stand tapping ; hence the statement cannot yet be
verified. Hevea brasiliensis does not appear to do very well up
here, probably on account of the deficient rainfall ; the yield
of latex from all the trees originally tapped in 1903, when they
gave an average of half a pound of rubber per tree, has no\v
fallen off considerably, and in some cases ceased altogether.
This again is possibly due to the light rainfall. So far as I am
aware no other fairly large trees of this species have been tapped
annually in West Africa with a view to ascertaining whether the
output of the rubber falls with advancing age or not, but in any
comprehensive scheme for planting up large areas in West
Africa with this species, the possibility of a reduced yield should
not be overlooked. The Para rubber plantations seen by me at
Tarkwa and Kumasi, where the rainfall is very much heavier,
show excellent growth and promise to give just as good results as
those obtained in the East. However, time alone can decide this
question definitely.

Both as regards rate of growth and yield of rubber this species
is decidedly superior to the indigenous Funtwnia elastica; it is
also apparently a more hardy type as far as experience on the
Coast goes ; but there is still the uncertainty as to a sustained
annual yield of latex. Three other exotic species of rubber
trees have been introduced into the West Coast of Africa, but
they have up to now proved failures so far as yield of rubber
is concerned. They are Ficus elastica, Manihot Glaziovii, and
Castilloa elastica ; but the last has failed more on account of
damage by insects than from any other cause, and further
experiments should be tried.

Funtumia elastica. — This species is doing well at Aburi,
especially on the slopes facing the south-west, where the growth
of five years is very good and is nearly equal to that of the Para
trees of corresponding age planted in other parts of the garden.
The former species was planted along strips cleared in secondary
forest growth ; the intervening uncut bush was then in its turn
gradually removed in strips and similarly planted up with
Funtumia elastica. This process was continued till the whole
area had been gone over in this manner.

A few specimens of Funtumia latifolia are to be seen in the
gardens. They are said to yield a very poor quality rubber.

Landolphia owariensis. — This species has been planted at the
foot of the trees forming the avenue leading up from the Aburi
Post Office to the Curator's house. The vines appear to be
healthy enough, but the growth is slow, especially in diameter.
The young leaves are at first of a deep reddisli brown colour.

Fibre plants. — These are well represented and several plots of
land in one portion of the gardens have been put aside for their
cultivation. All the more important species are to be seen
growing there.

TIMBER TREES.

Several exotic species have been planted out, and a few of
them show good growth. Of these the most important is: —

14 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

€(•<!>•( I a mlorata, one of the West Indian cedar trees. The
examples n! this species in the Burdens show a remarkable
growth I'm- their age. Individuals only SOUK- sixteen years old
have acquired a height of from •"»() to (iO feet and a girth of
between '} and 6 feet at breast height. A damaged tree was
Mini and i he wood showed very rapid zones of growth; it had
'.he eharaeteristic cedar smell and appeared to be quite suitable
for the manufacture of cigar boxes and for veneering purposes.
During a subsequent visit to Aburi I was shown a polished plank
.•ut from this tree. The grain was beautiful. Specimens of the
wood have, I understand, been sent to Europe for exhibition.
The species up here loses its leaves during the dry season, at
which period it bears fruit. The flowers appear in the rains.

i am inclined to believe that this tree will prove invaluable
for re-afforesting the denuded hillsides in the vicinity of Aburi;
its rapid growth makes it eminently suitable for this purpose.
Its deciduous habit, however, will necessitate subsequent under-
planting with some evergreen species if the soil is to be adequately
protected during the dry season. This species also thrives at
Olokemeji and at Ebuta Metta in the Western Province of
Southern Nigeria.

It produces great quantities of seed at a comparatively early
age. Taken all round it promises to be one of the most useful
of exotic timber trees in West Africa.

Casuarina. — This species also does well at Aburi and shows
a good growth. It should prove very useful for firewood, for
re-afforesting the Accra plains, and for the first stages in creating
wind breaks along the exposed sea-coast.

The West Indian and South American mahoganies, Swietenia
MaJtocjani and $. macrophylla are not doing well here. Their
growth is poor and is being checked by the attacks of an insect
that damages the leading shoots. Similar damage up to a
certain age is done to the indigenous Khaya Puncliii (a closely
related genus) in the Calabar Gardens. Examples of the
American species grown at Olokemeji, Western Province,
Southern Nigeria, in a somewhat drier climate suffer in just
the same manner from insect attacks. There is one well-grown,
healthy-looking Swietenia of moderately large size, however, to
be seen in the Ebuta Metta Gardens in Lagos, where the rain-
fall is much in excess of that at Olokemeji.

The East Indian teak tree (Tectonct grand/is) has not proved a
success in these gardens. The growth is poor for the age of the
plants and probably the soil is not suitable for it. At Olokemeji,
where there is an impermeable ''pan" just below the soil, teak
becomes " stag-headed " at a very early age. It shows slightly
better growth at Ebuta Metta near Lagos, but I have nowhere
in West Africa seen healthy, well-grown specimens of this
species. On rich and deep alluvial soils close to the banks of
perennial streams, where dense evergreen vegetation is the pre-
vailing type, it will no doubt prove more successful, provided it
is protected against crowding out by indigenous plants. Though
it is a typical tree of the " mixed deciduous forests " of Burma,
I have occasion ally in some of the moistest evergreen forests of

GOLD COAST— REPOKT ON FORESTS. 15

that country found numbers of trees growing1 luxuriantly in
rich alluvial ' pockets " of -soil. Hence, provided it is planted
in deep soil, I see no reason why it should not grow well within
the evergreen forest belt of West Africa. As far as I am aware,
no determined effort has yet been made for the introduction of
this tree to the Coast. Any experiments made in this direction
are well worth the trouble and expense, as the reward of success
will be great.

The Padauk (Pterocarpus indicus). — The only specimen to be
seen in the gardens does not look healthy and has not acquired
the typical habit.

The same remarks apply to other Indian trees, such as Dal-
bergia Sixsoo and Dalbergia lalifnlia, specimens of which are
growing in the gardens.

In addition to the experimental cultivation of various plants
of economic value, much attention has been paid by the Agricul-
tural Department of the Gold Coast to the most suitable methods
of preparing the indigenous rubbers, and some fine examples of
Funtumia elastica ' biscuits ' were seen. Research work in
connection with the extraction of palm oil from the nuts of the
numerous varieties of the oil palm has also been undertaken :
several distinct varieties of that species have apparently been
established and their products isolated. The results when pub-
lished should prove of great value to the palm-oil industry.

A well-arranged Herbarium, containing specimens of a large
number of indigenous plants, has been formed, and is very useful
to students of the flora of tropical West Africa. The value of
the collection is enhanced by the fact that the bulk of the speci-
mens have been named from identifications carried out at the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and that it contains duplicates
of a large number of type specimens.

The part played by the Agricultural Department of this Colony
in developing the local cocoa industry is well known, and has in
itself justified the expenses incurred in the up-keep of the
Department. It deserves every encouragement and the most
generous treatment at the hands of the Administration. During
my visit to Aburi, both the Acting Director of Agriculture and
the Curator took every opportunity of helping me in my inquiries
concerning the indigenous timber trees and other useful plants
of the country. Reports and documents relating to these' matters
were placed unreservedly at my disposal, and I was helped in
every possible way. I take this opportunity of acknowledging
my indebtedness to those officers, and of expressing my thanks
for the assistance rendered.

Before leaving Aburi for my return journey to Accra, I was
shown the source of the precarious water supply of the former
town. The flow of what, a few years back, was a perennial stream
affording an ample supply of water has now dwindled down to
one or two trickles, and indications are not wanting of the stream
running dry in the near future. This scarcity of water has
undoubtedly resulted from the diminished supply of moisture in
the soil, resulting from the destruction of the forests.

16 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

After a short stay at Accra I left, on the 8th of January, 1908,
for Sekondi, by the mail steamer " Burutu," arriving there the
next afternoon. Whilst my carriers were being procured, stores
purchased, and arrangements being made for a prolonged trip
into the forests, I took the opportunity of visiting the saw-mills
at Gaiyin Krom, 12i miles up the railway line, and of examining
the forests in their vicinity.

The vegetation near Sekondi itself is of the mixed deciduous
type, with, if anything, a preponderance of evergreens. The
rainfall of this place is much below 50 inches a year ; to this is
due the presence of extensive patches of grass lands a few miles
up the railway, and the occurrence there of large numbers of
the Daleb palm, Borassus flabelliformis. I also noticed some
examples of Dialium guineense, the presence of which is another
certain indication of only a moderate rainfall. The hillsides on
which farming has been carried out are already in places over-
grown with grass, and a continuance of the extensive fellings of
the bush, after the native methods of farming, will undoubtedly
tend to push the deciduous vegetation further inland to places
at present occupied by the densest of evergreen forest. The
invasion has already started.

If there is any wholesale clearing of the vegetation which
clothes the main ridges and borders the more important streams
on those portions of the West African coast possessing a medium
rainfall of 50 inches and under, there is great danger of per-
manently reducing the water supply of the country, and of en-
couraging the spread of deciduous-leafed vegetation and, above
all, that of the grasses.

During my stay at Sekondi, Messrs. J. H. Nicholas and Brett
very kindly gave me much useful information regarding the
timber trade of the Colony and the different kinds of wood
exported to Europe ; they showed me various samples of timber,
and marked for me on the maps the distribution of the more
important forest areas, both of the Colony and Ashanti. They
were also good enough to place their house near the saw-mills
at my disposal, to invite me to wander freely all over their
timber concessions, and to supply me with guides and natives
familiar with the forests and the vegetation ; in short, they
helped me in every possible way. For all this assistance aiul
kindness I tender my best thanks to those gentlemen.

As one passes up the railway line towards the saw-mills (which
are situated alongside the railway at a distance of 12£ miles from
Sekondi), some fairly extensive patches of grassland are met
with; they are dotted about with the palm, Borassus flabelli-
formis, and small clumps of bush containing Yitcx cuneata,
Vitex macrophylla, Anona senegalensis, Sarcoceplialus escii-
lentus, and other plants typical of the Savannah forests ; beyond
this comes a belt of mixed deciduous forest much honeycombed
with clearings made for the native farms. These fellings are
comparatively recent, and have not yet been repeated sufficiently
often to convert the existing type of vegetation into the open
Savannah forests. The clearings are, however, being gradually

. [GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 17

invaded by grass, and the conversion, under present conditions,
is but a matter of a few years. This belt of mixed deciduous
forests gradually and almost imperceptibly passes, as one pro-
ceeds further up the line, into the typical moist evergreen
tropical forest (tropical rain forest of Schiniper) so common along
the West Coast of Africa wherever the rainfall is sufficiently
heavy to favour that type of vegetation. Gaiyin Krom (the
saw-mills) is situated in the midst of such an evergreen moist
forest. The land rises rather abruptly shortly after leaving
Sekondi, and then continues with a more or less undulating
character up to the saw-mills. The difference in level between
Sekondi and this place is, however, slight, and only amounts
to a few hundred feet. The saw-mills have been established
mainly for the purpose of supplying the mines with converted
timber of local origin, but the demands of the larger towns,
such as Sekondi and Kumasi, for such produce have not beeu
overlooked, and every endeavour is being made to satisfy local
wants. The mills are fitted with one large circular saw and
some small auxiliary ones. They are of a rather antiquated
pattern, but appear to serve their purpose fairly well. The
bulk of the timber converted is procured from the tree known to
the natives as Kaku, a species of Lophira, probably L. procera,
the wood of which is hard and extremely durable, more so than
any other West African timber. It is especially suited for
sleepers, of which large quantities are turned out by the mills,
and for underground structures that are exposed to much
moisture. Logs of mahogany, cedar, and odoum (Iroko) also
are cut up for local use, and occasionally trimmed for export to
Europe. The mills no doubt serve a very useful purpose, and
.should be encouraged. There is great scope out here for the
creation of a regular demand for local woods to replace the large
quantities of foreign produce imported from Europe. The West
African forests contain several excellent species of timber trees
that can furnish all that is desired in the way of woods suitable
for furniture and other constructive purposes ; and it should be
possible with proper management to place such woods on the
local markets at a less cost than the imported material. Such a
demand for local produce would enable several kinds of wood
to be utilised on the Coast, woods which, though they do not
command a ready sale in Europe, have a good reputation on the
West Coast for durability and general usefulness.

Up to the present only a very few of the different species of
timber trees composing the West African forests have been
exploited for the European market. The balance, which contains
several useful kinds, has been practically left untouched. A
local trade in the latter would utilise material which is standing
wasting in the forests, and render of some value large tracts of
forest land that are at present worthless so far as the timber
industry is concerned.

Hitherto, only timber cut from the various species of Khaya
(mahoganies), Pseudocedrela (cedars), the N'yankom (Heritiera
utilis), Bosse (species of Guarea), and the Pebedum (Lovoa
Klaineana), has been exported in any quantities to Europe, gene-

12315 B

18 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

rally under one or the other of the two comprehensive trade names
of "West African Mahogany" and "West African Cedar." A
few logs of the Odoum (Chlorophora excelsa), the Baku (Mimusops
Djarc), and some others have from time to time been sent to
Europe, but such shipments have met with scant encouragement
in the home markets. It is with a view to creating a demand
for these woods, the good properties of which are well recognised
and appreciated in West Africa, that efforts should be made to
start local markets for them. The markets would, of course, be
best fed by the establishment of saw-niills along the main lines
of export.

CHAPTER II.

THE FORESTS OF THE GAIYIN KROM CONCESSION.

The country in the vicinity of the saw-mills is undulating in
character; towards the east some well-defined ridges form the
water-parting between the Win and Pra Rivers. The soil con-
sists mainly of clay sands with a good admixture of humus.
The soil of the lowest depressions is marshy, and contains a larger
percentage of clay. On the higher ridges to the east a few
outcrops of quartz occur. The average annual rainfall appears
to be about 80 inches, and it is fairly well distributed through
the year. The spells of extremely dry weather accompanying
the desiccating " Harmattan " winds are of short duration, and
do not last long enough to have any permanent effect on the
vegetation. The latter belongs to the type known to Indian
foresters as the moist, evergreen tropical forests, in which the
bulk of the plants are hygrophilous, and those with the deciduous
habit quite the exception. The forest consists mainly of
secondary growth of great age, and towards the east becomes
almost primeval in character. The trees there are of immense
size. The leaf canopy is almost complete, and the undergrowth
thinner than it is in the younger secondary growth close to thf
railway line. It has been fairly rich in valuable timber trees
but the majority of the latter, especially those of exploitable
size situated within easy hauling distance of the saw-mills, has
now been felled. Light tram lines have recently been con-
structed to tap the remoter portions of the Concession, and there
is no doubt that the lapse of a few more years will see the com-
plete exhaustion of the stock of timber of marketable dimensions.
The younger secondary forests are dominated by the following
trees, placed in descending order of frequency :-

1. The Dahomah (Piptadenia africana). One of the commonest
lives of the tropical evergreen forests, in which it is universally
distributed. In habit it is partially deciduous during the dry
season, more especially where it has sprung up on lands that
have once been cleared for farms. Quite recently, specimens of
the wood exhibited at Liverpool have attracted the attention of
some of the timber brokers. If a demand for this timber should
ever arise in the home markets, the supply will be found to meet

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 19

almost any calls made on it. The reproduction of this speciesis very
fair, and the age gradations better represented than is usually
the case with West African timber trees.

2. The ~\]~(i>r-iriitr of the Fantis (TripJorliiton J <>!/ nsunii). A
fine lofty tree that attains large dimensions. It is found
throughout the evergreen and mixed deciduous forests of the
Gold Coast and Southern Nigeria, right up to the limits of the
open Savannah forests. It reproduces itself freely by seed, and
young plants spring up in large numbers on recently abandoned
farm lands. The age gradations are well represented. The
species attains its maximum frequency in the mixed deciduous
forests of the country. Like the Dahomah it is one of the few
species that appear to be if anything rather favoured by the
clearings made in the forests for farming purposes. On aban-
doned areas of that character, it quickly gains the ascendancy
over most of its competitors. It is partially deciduous in its
habits, even in the moist forests. In the deciduous type, I have
sometimes noticed it to be almost completely denuded of leaves
during the dry season of the year. The wood is of fine grain,
light in colour, and only moderately hard; it is well suited for
the internal fittings to houses, and, in fact, for all purposes
where it would not be exposed too much to rain. It is quite good
enough in quality to replace the imported pitch-pine, and it is
extremely abundant ; our West African forests contain sufficient
supplies not only to meet large demands for it in the home
markets, but also in the local ones. The tree has an excellent
form figure, and carries its girth up well to the first branches.

3. The Assomah of the Fantis (Parkia species). One of the
West African locust-bean trees, the pod of which is edible. This
species is an evergreen.

4. The Offram tree of the Fantis (a species closely related to
Terminalia superhn). This is a beautiful straight-stemmed
tree of good-form figure, with the branches coming out
at right angles to the stem in almost regular whorls.
It is flat-topped and has a great range through the forest areas
•jf the Gold Coast. In the mixed deciduous forests, and up to
the limits of the Savannah lands, it is deciduous, but in the
nioister regions it is almost an evergreen. It seeds most
copiously, and like the Waw-u'aw and the Dahomah springs up
freely on abandoned fann lands. The wood is light in colour,
and as it splits very freely and regularly, it is much used for
shingles by the Ashantis and other cognate tribes. The shingles
last, on the average, for about seven years. No doubt if tarred
they would prove to be much more durable.

5. The Afram of the Fantis (probably a species of Parinarium}.
A common tree in the moist forests. Grows to a large size, but
the wood is light, soft and porous, and almost useless. The fruits
are edible.

6. Eriodendron anfi-actuos inn. The Common West African
silk-cotton tree, and one of the giants of the moist forests.

7. The Kaku (Lophira procera). This is the " red iron-wood '
tree of Southern Nigeria ; the wood is of a deep reddish-brown

12315 B 2

20 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

colour, hard and very durable. Tin- Kaku is a medium-sized
free, confined to the evergreen forests of the niar/timc /one. and
its northern limit is roughly about the latitude of Lhinkwa
Station on the railway. It is very partial to .swampy areas,
seeds freely, and has the age gradations fairly well represented.
It furnishes one of the best fuel woods of West Africa.

8. The Xya-mc-dna (Al*t<mia nmyensis). This species is also
partial to the swamps. The wood is whitish in colour, soft, and
much used for the manufacture of native stools. The latex is
used for adulterating that of Fuiitumia e/astica.

9. The >Dul>hn (Khaya sp.). This is the common mahogany
of the Gold Coast, and appears to be closely related to Khaya
Punchii, of Southern Nigeria. It sometimes attains enormous
dimensions, and one huge example was seen on the eastern
boundary of the Concession. Like all members of this genus,
it exudes a gum from any injuries made on the lower portion
of the bole. The bulk of the mahogany shipped from the Gold
Coast is procured from this species.

10. The Emril (species of Terminalia) has somewhat the habit
of the Off ram. The wood is of a yellowish colour, has a pretty
grain, and is well suited for house boarding- and other internal
fittings. It is fairly durable.

In the older forests the species that maintain their donii-
nances are, in descending order of frequency, the silk-cotton
tree (Eriodendi-on anfractuosiim), the above-mentioned
Dahomah (Piptadenia africana)', the KnT\n (Lopliira procera),
in swampy and moist localities; the Wau'-waw (Triplochiton
Johnsonii) on higher ground; the Offram (Terminalia superbfi);
the Gold Coast mahogany, Dubini of the Fantis (species close to
K/iatja PuncJiii); the Baku (Mimu.sops Djave), which occasionally
grows to an enormous size and yields an excellent wood; the
Kokoti (Pynaertia ealaensis), another good timber tree that also
yields a first-class fuel; the Punkwa (Pseiidocedrela cylindrica),
which produces the bulk of the cedar shipped to Europe ; the
Odo u in (Chlorophora ea'-celsa), that furnishes the most useful
wood in "West Africa; the oil-bean tree, Athawali of the Fantis
(Pentacletfira macrophylla), the seeds of which are rich in vege-
table fats; the Ote (a species of Myrixtica); the Essia (Coin-
bretum species) ; the Asomah (Parl'ia species) ; and the red-
flowered silk-cotton tree (Bomba.r buonopozense) .

Among the rarer trees the following species were noticed:

The Kixlna (Sarcocephalus esculentus), the timber of
which is of a bright yellowish colour, hard and very durable-
tins species attains a large size in these moist forests, but
further inland, in the dry Savannah forests, it acquires the
habit of a shrub: the Ttiinnrc (I)ctarium species), a good timber
tree of lofty dimensions: the A irama (Ridnodendron (ifricanus),
the seeds of which are rich in oil ; T el ra pleura Tlintiuinaii,
with edible fruit; and Antiaris to.ricaria var. africana, a large
tree, the bast fibres of which are beaten out to form a native
cloth.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 21

Amongst the smaller-sized trees the following species occur
ill these forests : -

Berlinia u<-n nuiKitn ; Musanga Smithii; Myrinnthiix arborcux :
Monoilora myristica', Monodora tenuifolia', the A/ana (not iden-
tified botanically) ; the Apnn-u, ;ilso not identified; Voacanga
africana; and Rauwolfia vomitoria.

Scandent palms, such as species of Calamus and
phyllum and rul)ber vines such as Landolphia
and Carpodinus liirxuta, are the most conspicuous lianes
to be seen climbing over the tops of the trees, whilst the
feebler and more succulent plants of a similar habit are repre-
sented by climbing- avoids of the genera Culrusiu, ('frccxfi.t.
and Raphidophora, which, however, confine their attention-
to the stems and larger branches of the trees. Various epi-
phytic orchids, such as species of Angrascum, Megaclinum, &c.,
and ferns of the genera Asplenium and Platycerium are also
noticeable features of the vegetation.

Swamp Vegetation^.

As a rule, the depressions and low valleys in the Graiyin
Krom Concession are marshy, and such areas are inhabited

by species characteristic of fresh-water swamps. Amongst
others, the trees are represented by the Bat/a (Mitragyne
macrophylla), the wood of which has occasionally been shipped
home to Europe as "West African mahogany"; the Kakn
(Lnplni-a procera) along the edges of the swamps; Macrolobium
Palisoti, with a hard red wood: the Nya-me-dua (Alstonia con-
fjenxis), the soft wood of which is used by the Ashanti and
cognate tribes for the manufacture of native stools and the latex
for adulterating that of the silk rubber tree (Fiintuiiiin cluxfica) ;
the screw pine (Pandanus candeldbnrm) ; the bamboo — or Toutbo

—palm (Raphia vinif era) ; Calamus Bartcn; SarcocepHalus 1'ns-
seggeri; and Anthocleista nobilis.

Vegetation on clearings.

The plants that spring up on very recently abandoned clear-
ings such as those along the telegraph line and both sides of
the railway consist, in addition to seedlings and coppice shoots
of the more dominant trees, mainly of shrubby and herbaceous
species, some of which, however, attain the dimensions of small
trees. The most conspicuous of the latter is the " umbrella
tree" (Mu^ant/a SwifJiii) of European residents on the Gold
Coast. This species is extremely prolific and rapidly occupies
such areas: others are the large 1 crnoinu frondosa, Myrianthus
a/' ho reiix and Haronga madagascariensis .

The shrubby and herbaceous vegelation is represented
amongst climbers by species of Combretum, Mussaenda, and
Acficiti. />t'ti tnilti, whilsl those with the erect habit belong 1<>
the genera A-TnorpliopJiollus, AcalypJia, d'Qtalaria, /In/at*,

22 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

At/cm/ u/ii, Helichrysu'ni, Achyranthes, Aerua, and to fibre-
yielding1 weeds such as species of Urena and Triumfetta.

As regards the natural replacement of the timber trees and
other plants of economic, importance, 1 found that of the
Off rani, \Vaw-waw, Kaku, and Ddhomah to be excellent. The
mahoganies and cedars, though they seed freely, are not so
successful, as, owing to the dense undergrowth, the seedlings are
choked, and comparatively few reach the sapling stage. The
same difficulty occurs in the case of that fine timber tree, the
Baku. Where clearings have been made by felling trees in
the vicinity of the older cedars and mahoganies during the
ordinary course of exploitation and along the dragging paths,
quite a lot of seedlings of these two species spring up, and, if
the clearings are kept open for two or three seasons, as they
frequently are in the case of some of the main hauling roads,
a fairly large proportion get a sufficiently good start to enable
them to hold their own with other species in the struggle for
light.

The density of stock of the different species is very variable,
being as high as two to three trees per acre in the case of the
trees mentioned as possessing excellent natural regeneration,
and as low as .25 to .1, approximately, in the case of the
mahoganies and cedars. The above estimates are only rough
approximations, and are useful more for showing the propor-
tion* in which the different species occur than as a basis for
calculating the quantity of growing stock. For the latter
many more surveys in greater detail are needed : the time at
my disposal was far too short to admit of such operations being
carried out. The above figures, however, are sufficiently accu-
late for the purposes of rough estimates.

Tlie Age Gradations.

Taken as a whole, these are not well represented, especially
in the case of the most valuable timber trees. Whole classes
are often missing, and the most frequent gaps occur between
saplings and trees of nu'dium age. The mahoganies and cedars
are usually worse off in this respect than the less useful species.

Amongst the dominant kinds, trees such as the N'dic-tcaic,
the Kaku, the Dalwntali, and the Off rain have their age classes
fairly well represented; but even in their cases the gradations
are uneven and important gaps often occur. In the older
forests the bulk of the arboreal growing stock is over-mature
and regeneration tellings, carried out, with considerable care
and judgment, will be necessary before the forests can be
transposed into anything like the normal type.

The younger forests are rather better off in this respect, but
the wholesale felling of the \vgitalion for fanning purposes
has generally resulted in favouring species that do not at
present happen to l>e of much economic importance. The
Struggle for dominance amongst the members that spring up

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 23

cm recently abandoned farm lands is intense, and the victory
falls to the lot of comparatively few species, such as the Waw-
iraic, the Off rain, the 'Atrama, and the Kaku, the first and
second of which appear to be specially adapted for quickly
gaining1 the mastery over their competitors. As a rule, owing
to the practice of the natives of grubbing up and burning the
roots of the large trees felled on the sites of the more care-
fully farmed areas, the proportion amongst the individuals
forming the secondary growth (that springs up when the farm
lands are allowed to become fallow) of those that have origi-
nated from coppice shoots is not so large as one would expect ;
quite a respectable number have their origin from seeds blown
on to the clearings from trees in the adjacent woods.

Three out of the four species 'mentioned above as being most
successful in the "struggle for existence' on recently aban-
doned farm lands possess winged seeds tJiat are sufficiently
bulky and heavy to enable them to reach the ground through
the usual dense growth of weeds that spring up on such areas.
The fourth species, the exception, is the Air a ma (Ricinoden-
dron africanu-s) ; its fruits are eagerly sought after by frugi-
roro/tx bats, but I have not yet been able to settle definitely
the question as to whether the fruits are carried a sufficient
distance by these mammals and then dropped or not. That
they do occasionally carry the fruits and drop them a short
distance from the trees is certain. Perhaps the reasons for the
dominance >of the Awama are to be sought for elsewhere.
Another point that favours these dominant species is their
rapid growth when young; this, coupled with the excellent
dispersal of the seeds and the ability of the latter to reach
the soil quickly, enables the plants to occupy new clearings
promptly.

Enema Krom Concession .

To the west of the railway line, Mr. Higginbotham, the owner
of the saw-mills, possesses another concession, in which he has
started a small rubber and cocoa plantation. The forests in
this direction are of much the same type as those growing to
the east of the railway, and, if anything, are of more recent
origin. The area has apparently been subjected to heavier
fellings in the past for farming purposes than the Gaiyin Krom
block.

The dominant trees here are Dahomah, Off rant. II utr-tnnr,
and the Assomah (Parkia species). A few exceptionally well-
grown Odot/'inx (Chloro/ilioi-ii cscelxii) were seen, and one rare
species, the Pebedoum (Lovoa Klaineana), was found by
me for the first time. The wood of this tree is excellent;
it much resembles teak, and has been shipped home to Europe
by Apollonian timber merchants of the Axim district. The
example seen by me was of an exceptionally large sixe and
towered over the rest of the forest trees.

The portion of the concession gone over was rather drier than
tiie block lying to the east of the railway, and a species of

24 COLONIAL 11EPOKTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Alhi::iti, probably .1. rhombi/olia, not seen, in the Gaiyin Krom,
occurs here. This species is rather partial to the drier portions
of the moist forests, and, with some others of the same genus,
is much more plentiful in the forests further north, where a
larger proportion of trees with the deciduous habit are to be
found.

South-east of the saw-mill, along1 the old road to iShama
and close to the site of Nicholas Krom, the forest is very old
and contains some trees of lofty growth and a large girth.
Some fine examples of the Kokoti (Pynaertia ealaensis) were
shown to me by Mr. Brett in this forest, where we^also noticed ;i
fair number of the ordinary Gold Coast mahogany (K/uri/n species),
the Odouni and the Kaku. Very large examples of the Baku
and the ordinary silk-cotton tree (Eriodendron anfractuosum)
are found here and there, and the undergrowth in such places
is not so thick and tangled as it is in the younger secondary
forests. The rubber-yielding vine, Landolphia Klainei is quite
common ; its huge globular fruit, almost the size of a man's
head, were often found lying about the path.

Close to the banks of a fairly large perennial stream the
vegetation is very fine, and is a typical example of a Tropical
Evergreen High Forest, or, as Dr. A. F. W. Schimper calls it,
a " Tropical Rain Forest" of West Africa. The forest in ques-
tion is bathed in the same humid atmosphere, containing trees
of lofty growth connected one with another by lianes and a
perfect network of smaller climbers; the stems are covered
with epiphytes of various descriptions, and under all the same
dense gloomy shade 'with its tangled Undergrowth prevails
as in the type.

JOURNEY ACROSS THE LOWER VALLEYS or THE ANKOBRA AND TANO
RIVERS THROUGH THE DISTRICTS OF LOWER WAS SAW, UPPER
WAS SAW, LOWER DENKIRA, AND THENCE BACK TO THE RAILWAY
LINE AT DUNKWTA.

The carriers engaged for me having arrived, I proceeded on
the 2()th of January by rail to Tarkwa, where I met Mr. K.
Burbridge, Curator of the Gardens, who had been instructed to
accompany me during my journeys through the Gold Coast
forests. One day was taken up in completing arrangements, and
we left that place on the 22nd for an extended tour through the
Wassaw and Lower Denkira districts in directions which I hoped
would enable us to form a fair estimate of the value and extent
of the forests clothing the lower and middle drainage areas of
the Tano and Ankobra rivers.

Before describing that journey in detail, I may remark that
the railway-line between, the saw-mills and Tarkwa passes
through nmi>t evergreen tropical forest the whole way, and that
the country is hilly and Avell watered --most of the valleys being
occupied either 'by perennial streams or fresh-water swamps.

In the neighbourhood d ihe more important villages such as
Mansu and A^uaso extensive clearings have been made for farms,
the abandoned sites of which are now mainly occupied by the

GOLD COAST — KEPOKT ON FORESTS. "25

"umbrella tree" (Musniuja Sniitltii), the ] )<ili<»inili, Waw-waw
and the Off ram, Avhich with other species form the irregular,
patchy, high forest so characteristic of this secondary growth.
Steep hills are not usually selected as sites for farms by the
natives when gentler slopes covered with sufficient vegetation are
available ; where they occur the forests clothing them are of
much greater age and frequently approach the virgin type.

Large numbers of undersized mahogany and cedar logs were
seen lying along the sides of the railway and in the bed of the
Uonsa River where the line crosses it. These logs are mainly
rejections that the European timber merchants have, on account
of the small dimensions of the timber, refused to purchase from
the native contractors and owners. It is a pity that such logs
which are not worth exporting to Europe should be allowed to
1);' wasted in this manner. It would surely pay to send them
down the line to the saw-mills, where they could be converted
into pieces suitable for the construction of furniture, &c. Perhaps
the railway freights are too high to admit of such a use being
made of them. Though undersized for the European market the
logs are quite suitable for local constructive works. The action
•of the European timber merchants in rejecting such timber is
having a .salutary effect on the native fellers, who are beginning
to realize that it does not pay to cut undersized trees. This
fact, however, in itself is not sufficient to protect immature trees
and does not do away with the necessity for fixing by legislation
minimum felling girths for the various species.

Fairly extensive clearings of the forests are to be seen round
the majority of the gold mines situated in the neighbourhood of
Tarkwa. The bulk of the fellings have been made in order to
supply fuel for the machinery employed in them, though of
course a great deal had to be also done in clearing sites for the
mining camps. As a general rule the cleared areas first get
covered over with a dense growth of the " umbrella tree " and
the usual tropical weeds that spring up on such spots. These
rdaiits are in turn gradually replaced by forest vegetation, but
the process, owing to the htxuriant growth and persistence of
Musanga Smithii, is a slow one. Fortunately this species is an
evergreen, and its dense foliage affords sufficient protection to the
soil to prevent the usual injurious effects following the direct
exposure of the former to a tropical sun. Nevertheless such
fellings if repeated at too frequent intervals (short felling rota-
lion) are liable to be followed in the tropics by marked effects on
the climate, and they should in such cases be only carried out
under professional supervision. I have dealt with the question
of the fuel supply for the mines in some detail in another part
of the report.

Reverting now to our journeys through the forests clothing
the basins of the Ankobra and Tano Rivers the first day's march
was made to the small village of Hunisu situated on the Huni
River, and on the main road between Tarkwa and the mining
camps of Prestea. The country in this direction is very hillv,
and some well-marked ranges belonging to the s\ steins forming
the eastern and western water-partings of the Huni River have 1o

26 COLONIAL REPORTS — -MISCELLANEOUS.

foe crossed. Between Tarkwa and Huuisu most of the valleys
have either perennial streams running down them or are occupied
with fresh-water swamps which no doubt drain into the main
river during the flood season. The land is thus extreme!}' well
\\atered and it is quite the exception to come across dry beds of
watercourses. The rainfall also appears to be heavy judging
from the character of the vegetation, which belongs to the moist
Tropical Evergreen (" Tropical Rain Forest " of Schimper) and
Tropical Fresh- Water Swamp types of forest. Here the former
as a rule consists of irregular, secondary high forest that appears
to have sprung up on areas that were once cleared of vegetation
very many years ago, a period amounting on the average to
several generations. All stages, from land but recently re-
occupied by forests to that of older growth, are to be met with
and their comparative ages can, apart from the size of the
ordinary forest trees, be fairly well ascertained by the relative
abundance and extent of the patches of pure Musanya Smith ii
forest that they contain. Nevertheless in a few places here and
there forests of a really great age are to be met with, and these
approach closely to the primeval type.

One day was devoted to making a rough analysis of the grow-
ing stock of the forests in the neighbourhood of Hunisu.

The forests themselves are in all essentials similar to those
growing in the vicinity of the saw-mills and are, if anything,
rather moister in character, especially those passed through dur-
'ing the first two hours of the journey to Hunisu. The presence
of numerous tree ferns along this part of the journey confirms the
existence of great humidity in the locality.

Of the most valuable timber trees such as the mahoganies
(species of Khaya) and cedars (species of Pseiidocedrela) but few
were seen, and the forests are distinctly poor so far as they are
concerned. Other useful timber trees, however, are much more
plentiful. Examples 'of the Nyankon (Heritiera utilis)
a new species that yields a very fine wood similar to
that of Khaya, the Kaku, the Odoum, the Baku, the KisJtia
(jSarcocephalus escidentus), the Kokoti, and the Dahomah were
si'en ; the last species as usual is the most dominant. Curious
to say the other markedly dominant trees such as the Waw-waw
and the Off ram, which are very characteristic of the evergreen
tropical forests, were comparatively scarce in this neighbourhood,
and I am inclined to think that those two species are not at their
optimum in excessively moist forests such as these are.

The less valuable species, so far as timber alone is con-
cerned, were represented amongst a host of others by the
Saniaiiln (.\i/Ii<i Evansii), another new species ; the Uai/a ;
M(icrol<il>i ii ni Palixotii : Pentaclethra macrophylla, the seeds
of which, however, are rich in vegetable oil; the Asomali
(species of Parkia) which is rare; the .\'7\otan (an under-
mentioned species), from the wood of which the charcoal used
by the native goldsmiths is prepared. This small tree is partial
to swampy localities and is supported on long aerial roots (" Prop
roots" of Schiinper): the Abntnasi'bi (species of Garcinu:'}. also
fond of swampy soils, and the OJcisibiri (a species not yet identi-

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 27

fied for want of specimens of the flowers), the timber of which is
called the " flint wood " by the European miners, and is exces-
sively hard. It is used for mine props, and is said to be very
durable and immune to the attacks of termites (" white ants ").
This small tree only grows on high well-drained land and is
never, as far as I know, found in the moist hollows close to
streams. The s \vampy areas are inhabited by the same species
mentioned before as composing the fresh-water swamp forests
found in the neighbourhood of the saw-mills at Gaiyin Krorn.
The cosmopolitan silk cotton tree is of course found everywhere,
and forms a conspicuous feature of most West African landscapes.

The Huni River, close to the ferry opposite the village, has
some fairly deep pools that are crowded with a beautiful white
flowered lily-like Amaryllid, Cnnuin natan*. There is also
a fine specimen of the Baku tree (Mimuxopx Jjjace) to be
seen on the left bank close to the place where the main road
crosses the stream.

The next march was from Hunisu to Prestea. This again was
across very broken country intersected by two fairly high ranges
of hills that are clothed with rather dense evergreen tropical
forests. Forests of secondary growth and of comparatively
recent age are, however, the prevailing forms to be met with,
especially along the roadside in the vicinity of the present
villages or their old abandoned sites. The oil palm, which has up
to this point apparently been scarce, now makes its appearance
for the first time in somewhat large numbers, but it does not
seem to be anything like as fine a tree as it is in some parts of
Southern Nigeria. Cedars are far from rare on the higher ridges
and a few examples of the ordinary Diibini were also seen. The
descent from the water-parting between the Ankobra River and
its feeder, the Huni, to the banks of the former is rather abrupt,
and ends in very swampy ground, probably reduced to that con-
dition by the overfkrw from the river. Before the final descent
is made the water-parting assumes a somewhat terraced forma-
tion, the narrow plateau-like steps of which are usually very
moist and give rise to numerous .small feeders of the Huni and
Ankobra Rivers. Some huge examples of the Baku were seen
about here as well as fine specimens of the Odouin. After cross-
ing the Ankobra River, which at this, the lower, ford, is a fail-
sized -i ream with a sandy bottom and high, steep banks, a stiff
climb brought us to the crest of the range on one of the lower
western spurs of which the mines are situated. Near the top of
the ridge I noticed some more cedars, Pseudocedrela cylindrica,
a new species, and examples of the gum copal tree
(Cyanothyrsus oyea) ; a very large species of Piptadenia,
and an apparently new species of Brachystegia, of elegant pro-
portions. The forest about here appeared to me to be somewhat
drier than those we had lately come through, otherwise it is
very similar to the vegetation found near Huuisu, and only
differs in minor details such as the relative proportions in which
the different species are found growing together and in the
appearance of a few others not seen in the forests previously
examined. The Awama (Tticinodendron africanus), for instance,

28 COLONIAL KEPOUTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

is inure plentiful about here than it is at Huuisu, and so is the
Waw-waw.

\Ve spent a day at Prestea in order to ascertain the character
of the fellings made for supplying' the mines with fuel. For
this purpo.se we walked along the light tramway-line, leading to
luira Junction, for a few miles in that direction. The felling
zone is limited to about 500 yards on either side of tlie line,
which is utilised as the main haulage track. AVe found that the
bulk of the arboreal vegetation had been cut within this zone
with the exception of the following species, the wood of which
has been found to be difficult to split into billets, and has there-
fore been discarded by the native contractors who supply the
mines with fuel.

The favoured species are : —

The Daliomah (Piptadenia africana).

The Atltaira/i (Pentaclethra macrophylla) .

A species of Brachystegia.

A species of Dialium.

Of these the first two are the most important, as one of them,
the At/iawah, is the oil bean tree, and the other, judging from
recent inquiries made at home about the wood, is likely to turn
out a useful timber tree.

All other species of arboreal habit have been felled, including
Khayas, Pseudocedrelas, the Kakit, the Baku, Kokoti, Kishia,
Off ram, Kmril, &c.

Those that have from experience been found to be the best
for heating purposes are, in descending order of merit, the Kaku,
the Kokoti ', the Baku, Dubiiii (Kliaya}, ^yankon, &c.

Some exceptionally fine pieces of timber from the latter species
that had been split up as firewood Avere seen. The wood is very
similar to that of the mahogany (Khai/a), and has the same
brilliant lustre along the radially fractured planes, due to the
conspicuous " silvery grain " of the medullary rays as seen in
that section. 'Situated as those mines are, a very long distance
from any sea-port, the general use of coal would on account of
the expense of transport be prohibitive, and under these circum-
stances the only alternative is to utilise the fuel obtained locally
from the forests. The cost of obtaining this even is prohibitive,
unless (with the exception of the woods that are difficult to
split) every species standing in the forests can be cut up and
used for firewood. Any attempt in these areas at trying to
protect valuable species such as the Dulj ini, Kal-tt, Baktt, Kokoti,
&»•., simply means that the balance of the arboreal vegetation
would not be worth exploiting for fuel, for these trees possess
the good calorific properties, and they form the main mass of
the vegetation. It so happens that the very timbers that are
most useful for export and for local purposes are also best for
fuel. Hut under these circumstances it would be folly to place
any restrictions on the cutting of the forests for fuel; such
restrictions would end in stifling the gold-mining industry in
inaccessible localities where i( is already difficult enough to make
the revenue balance the expenditure. In my opinion only two
conditions should be allowed under the present condition of the

GOLD COAST — UKPORT <>N FORESTS. 29

gold mining industry t<» determine any such restrictions; these
are the signs of a change in the climate (water supply) towards a
drier condition or a marked denudation oi the hillsides. Of
these two the former is b}* far tiie greater danger to be guarded
against, and at the first symptoms of such a change occurring
the fellings should be placed under the control of a Forest
Department. Fortunately in the " Umbrella tree' (Musanga
Sinitliii), however troublesome a plant it may be when competing
against the growth of more valuable timber trees, we possess a
species of extraordinarily rapid growth and strong dominance
that quickly and effectually occupies cleared areas, and with
the help of the dense shade cast by its foliage affords ample pro-
tection to the soil against the action of the sun and of desiccating
winds. In the vicinity of the Prestea mines whole hillsides that
have been denuded of tree growth are now clothed with pure,
dense patches of that species, and providing such cover is not
removed at too frequent intervals, as would be the case if the
felling rotation was a short one, the're is but little danger of any
marked effect being produced on the climate, especially as the
locality in question is surrounded by tropical evergreen high
forest and is far removed from any arid tracts of country. As
the question of a cheap fuel is of vital importance to the mines,
the felling of valuable timber trees for that purpose, especially
when the timber they yield happens to be the best in heating pro-
perties, should be considered, so far as the interests of the timber
trade are concerned, as of but small importance. After all, the
use of timber for fuel is a well-recognised one, and whole forests
are systematically exploited for that purpose. It is simply a
question of local convenience, and to which purpose the product
of the trees happens at any particular place to be of the most
value. But for whatever purpose the forests are exploited they
should, as far as possible, be placed under the treatment that
best ensures the objects in view and provides for a continuous
supply of produce. "With this important principle in mind there
is but one condition at present that I would insist on when the
forests are being exploited for fuel, and that is that the
stems of the trees should, wherever possible, be felled flush with
the ground so as to promote the regeneration of the forests by
means of coppice shoots which this method of ctttting favours.
Of course in the ca-se of trees provided with large buttresses the
fellings will have to be made at a greater height from the ground,
above the point where the buttresses merge into the stem, other-
wise the expense and time taken up in cutting through the former
would be prohibitive. However, whenever it is possible to do so,
the felling of the timber flush with the ground should be insisted
upon. Even in the case of buttressed stems, when once cut
through, the subsequent felling of the large coppice shoots that
spring up from the stumps will present no further difficulty as
they will in general not be furnished with buttresses or possess
only feebly developed ones when cut at that age. Under this
system the expense of cutting through the buttresses will be
incurred once for all and will not be recurrent.

Where large timber is also in demand, as it is at most of the
mines, the ideal system of managing the forests is that known

30 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

technically as the method of " coppice with standards," which
provides both for fuel ;md large timber, or an alternative method,
and one which would perhaps be simpler, would be to set aside
certain are;is for the production of large timber and exploit the
balance for fuel under the simple "coppice" method. Which-
ever system is adopted the " working plan " for the same should
be drawn up by the Forestry Department, the members of which
would explain its provisions to the mining authorities concerned
and help them in carrying it out by general advice and super-
vision.

I understand that the mining leases in most instances carry
with them the right to all timber growing on the land, and it is
a moot point as to what amount of control, if any, Government
can exercise over the fellings on such property. There is one
point, however, in this connection that is universally recognised
and acted upon in all European countries, and that is the right
of the State to control any acts that by excessive or improper
exploitation of the forests or "by their destruction imperil the
climatic factors of the country, or, as in the cases of avalanches
and landslips, the life and property of the inhabitants. To this
extent, then, I imagine liovernment could interfere should occa-
sion arise with the exploitation of the forests growing on areas
leased to the mining companies. I do not, however, anticipate
any difficulty in getting the mining people to adopt simple and
inexpensive methods of exploiting the forests under their control,
provided they are helped by the advice of the professional
Government foresters. I think they will readily accept such
advice if it is given in a proper spirit and not forced upon them in
the form of rules and ordinances.

This system of the exercise of the very lightest control is,
however, only possible as long as the climatic factors of the
mining localities do not alter for the worse; as soon as the first-
signs of such a change are observed it will be necessary for
Government to exercise greater authority over the methods under
which the forests are being exploited. The construction of more
railways (one is already being built to the Prestea group of
mines), and the general improvement of lines of communication
which will no doubt become established facts during the next few
years, will probably relieve the pressure on the forests as sources
of fuel, and enable other substances to replace wood for that
purpose long before any marked effects on the climate and soil
can be experienced.

I have written at some length on this question of the fuel
supply for the mines as the latter represent a very important
industry of the countnr, and it is advisable that their develop-
ment should be hampered as little as possible by vexatious inter-
ferences in the form of forest legislation. Some of the mine
managers are already considering the advisability of planting up
cleared areas with valuable species of rubber-yielding plants and
with cocoa. This is an excellent idea, and if followed out should
prove of great pecuniary benefit to the companies, as the initial
expense of clearing the areas of tree vegetation, which is always
the greatest expense to be incurred in such ventures, has already

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 31

been borne under the heading of cost of fuel, and the same
felling operations will then serve two purposes instead of only
one. Such planting operations should, however, if they are
expected to help towards the protection of the soil against ex-
posure, be undertaken with species with the evergreen habit and
not alone with those that drop their leaves in the hottest and
driest season of the year, as is unfortunately the case with the
i'ara rubber plant (I [even- brasiliensis) , one of the quickest
growing, hardiest, and best rubber producers known. This
species has the deciduous habit most pronounced when growing
in localities having a well - marked and prolonged dry se;is<m.
Nevertheless if grown in mixtures with cocoa (cocoa as the
' underwood " and Para as the " overwood ") a sufficient protec-
tion should be afforded the soil by the dense shade cast by the
latter. The Para rubber trees are only bare of leaves for a short
period each year.

The land at the disposal of the mines is, generally speaking,
sufficiently extensive to permit of a long felling rotation, and in
consequence the secondary growth has time to reach good dimen-
sions before it is again removed. This is not the case with the
farming rotations usually adopted by the natives, who return
to the same area in periods varying from three to nine years, and
the secondary growth has therefore insufficient time for attain-
ing a large size. Hence, looked at from the worst point of view,
the dangers following the cutting of the forests near the mines
for firewood are nothing like as great as in the case of the much
more extensive areas utilised by the native farmers. Their
operations, for the reason indicated above, are much more
likely to, and actually do, adversely affect the climate and tha
soil. If by the discovery of new gold fields the mines ever
become so numerous as to involve extensive and continuous tracts
of country, then the consequences of felling in a haphazard
manner every year siTch large blocks of forest would be more
serious, and the fellings would have to be regulated by Govern-
ment.

After leaving Prestea we proceeded •?•?'« Bromase to Ahirisu,
on the Mansi stream, a feeder of the Ankobra River, thence to
the village of Xikwansia, on the latter, and from there to the
valley of the Sibiri stream, a feeder of the same river. Another
long day's march westwards brought us into the drainage area
of the large and important Tano River. Several days were
spent in systematically exploring and analysing the forest vege-
tation of the An'totra River, and as it is more convenient to
describe the forests in groups according to the drainage systems
occupied by them, I will begin by giving a short sketch of those
found in the Ankobra basin.

Forest Ver/efation of tlie Central Portion* of tlic Anl-nlwt

Drainage.

The character of the country and the type of forest vegetation
clothing that portion of the Ankobra drainage situated between
Tarkwa and Prestea has already been described. The remain-
ing tracts examined lie to the north of the latter settlement, and

;V2 r<»l,n\|\L UEI'OUTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

rxirnd iii I luil direction as i'iir as the village of N'Kansia, and
a tin- that in a nort h-\vesi<>rly direction as far as the Tano-
.\ nkohra skater-parting.

I'ehveen the J'rcstea mining camp and the adjacent group of
the Bromase mines the country continues to be hilly and the
forest vegetation has been extensively cleared for firewood and
for tin1 farms from which the food supply of the native settle-
i urn is connected with the mining industry is procured. The
descent to the Ankobra lUver, which separates the two groups of
mine's, is rocky and abrupt, and its channel is much obstructed
by huge outcrops of rock; the crossing is very different in
character to the lower one, where the bed of the river is covered
with sands and gravel and the water quite shallow. Prestea and
Hromase are connected by a light tram-line, which is, however,
interrupted at the crossing, but an overhead wire enables bundles
ol fuel to be slung over from one side to the other without
difficulty.

Extensive and dense patches of the " umbrella tree " (Musanga
Xntif/i/i) have completely covered the clearings made for fire-
wood. As the locality is extremely well watered and appears to
possess a heavy rainfall there is not much danger of marked
climatic changes being brought about in the near future by this
destruction of the forests. Some saw-pits in which -mahogany
and odoum timber had been cut up were seen, as well as large
numbers of faggots procured from the N'yanl'on (Heritiera

Shortly after leaving Bromase a stiff hill is encountered,
after which the path follows the ridge for a long distance.
This ridge is clothed for the greater part of the way with
evergreen tropical high forest in which numerous examples
of the Dalwmoli, the N'yankon, the Waic-icfnc, the Tiaiiin-
Tlainn (a new species of Pseiidocedrela, close to P. cylindrica),
a fine large tree, and a few Dubini (the ordinary Kli<ni<i
of the moist forests of the Gold Coast) are to be seen.
The ()<lomn (Chlorophora excelsd) is also far from uncommon
on this ridge and attains an exceptionally good growth.

On approaching the vicinity of some native villages
situated in the valley to the left of the ridge the forests on
the latter give place to recent secondary growth that has
sprung up on the old abandoned farms of the inhabitants.
Some quite fresh clearings still occupied by food crops were
also seen. From a cleared point on the ridge an extensire
view to the west of the valley of the Ankobra and the broken
country through which it flows is obtained, and some con-
ception can be thus formed of the extent to which the forest
vegetation has been removed by the clearings made for farms.
Th«- whole country in that direction is literally honeycombed
with them, and yet the villages are not numerous and the
locality is far from being densely populated.

This problem of how to cope with and restrict the enormous
(comparatively speaking) extent of country that is being con-
tinuously brought under the treatment of shifting cultivation

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 33

is one of the most difficult ones that we have to face. Given
sufficient time and a corresponding1 increase of population
(which latter may be confidently expected under British rule),
there is not the slightest doubt that slowly but surely the
climatic factors will be altered for the worse. When a marked
change has been effected and the grasses have obtained the
upper hand, xerophilous conditions established, and the annual
fires characteristic of such regions are in full sway, then
good-bye to all those vegetable products the cultivation of
which is so dependent on the heavy rainfall and conditions
of growth usually associated with the luxuriant vegetation
of the moist tropics. Agriculture is of the very first importance
to man, but in practising it it is essential to employ only such
methods as ensure a continuance of the fertility of the >soil
and of the conditions regulating the growth of the particular
crops cultivated. To deviate from this ideal for any prolonged
period results in so altering the conditions as to preclude the
cultivation of the very crops that it is intended to maintain.
The system adopted by the natives of the country is to clear
the land of forest growth, cultivate it for one or two years, and
then abandon the area for a new one. where the process is
repeated, and so on till five to nine years have elapsed, when
a return is made to the plot first cultivated; the young forest
vegetation that has in the meanwhile sprung up on this land
is then cleared, crops planted, and the whole process repeated,
each area being in its turn placed under cultivation for one
or two years and allowed to lie fallow for from five to nine
years, as the case may be. If the people devoted their atten-
tions to the same group of areas the danger done would not
be so great, though the system would still be a very wastefiil
one compared with more recent methods of permanent and
intensive cultivation. But this is not all; a further compli-
cation ensues from the habit the natives have of continually
moving the sites of their farming villages as the soil gradually
gets exhausted, and of taking up entirely fresh areas, covered
with high forest, for cultivation. The result is that large
tracks of forest-covered country, quite out of proportion to
the inhabitants they have to support, become involved in the
general process of destruction, and this is brought about by
quite a small population. The irregular patchy condition of
the evergreen forests of tropical West Africa is due to these
causes; and, where the process has been continuous without
any long breaks intervening, they are becoming modified into
the mixed deciduous type which is the index of a drier climate,
and the forerunner, given a persistence of the same causes, of
the far worse conditions favoured by ;i more pronounced xero-
philous vegetation.

What has hitherto saved the forests as a whole from almost
complete transformation into the last two types mentioned,
is the fact that in the past comparatively few areas have, on
account of internecine warfare, tribal invasions, disease, and
other causes tending to keep the density of population at a low
figure, been subjected to the continuous influence of the modifying

123JR

34 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

causes. Large tracts of country have become depopulated, and
on such areas the forests have had a chance of effectively re-
occupying the soil before any great damage was done. Such
ill-effects are of course negligible on areas where the monsoon
currents are very pronounced, but as soon as the annual rain-
fall approaches anywhere near the 50-inch limit danger is to
be apprehended.

Forests, so far as direct observations go, appear to have no
very marked effects on the quantity of rain precipitated over
areas covered by them, though their influence is more pro-
nounced in the tropics than it is in temperate latitudes; but
their action on the soil by protecting it against exposure to
sun, to desiccating winds and to the action of torrential rain,
and in preserving the moisture it contains and thus sustaining
and regulating the water supply of the country, as well as in
bringing about a high relative humidity of the atmosphere
in their neighbourhood, is of the first importance to plants
dependent on such conditions of the soil and climate. An abun-
dant rainfall is practically useless to hygrophilous plants
demanding a large supply of moisture both in the soil and air
if the former is rendered incapable by prolonged exposure of
holding in suspension the requisite supply for that type of
vegetation. It is this fact that explains the gradual modifica-
tions going on in the forests subjected to the reckless destruction
caused by the natives. The Government of India long ago
recognized the dangers following the practice of shifting
methods of cultivation, and had in some instances to restrict
its application by suitable legislation. The introduction of
such measures in West Africa is urgently called for if the
water supply of the country and other climatic factors are to
be preserved. Till land is actually required for cultivation
(under modern systems of agriculture and not the wasteful
methods of the natives) there is no better way of preserving its
fertility and even improving it than to keep it under dense
forest growth ; moreover, the portion actually taken up for
agriculture should be thoroughly developed and not abandoned
after a short period for another piece of forest land and so on,
thus involving an unnecessarily large extent of forest in waste-
ful destruction.

After descending to the village of Dumanase one comes on
1o a low, well-watered plateau, the forests in the vicinity of
which have been cleared for cultivation. Here we came across
small nurseries of cocoa plants, a feature that we subsequently
found to be common to all the villages we passed through.

The oil palm is fairly plentiful about here. The forest is
excessively moist, and, as usual in such cases, tree ferns
reappear on the scene. The arboreal vegetation is mainly com-
posed of TnplocJu'fon Johnsonii, Tticinndcndi-on africanus, Al-
ttonid conf/rnsis, Pentad etJira macropliylla, and a few Off rams
(Terminalia xttperbn) and Psevtlocedrelax. Portions of the forest,
especially where the plateau ends and the land rises up into the

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 35

hills situated between the village and the Mansi River, are dis-
tinctly good. Here some examples of a new species of Pipta-
denia (the Okan of the Benin people) that attains large dimen-
sions were seen. The country is much honeycombed with native
gold-diggings, and when moving about in the dense forest growth
one has to keep a sharp look-out to avoid falling into the pits.

That portion of the Mansi River drainage which is situated
on the left bank is occupied by some very valuable forests
that are rich in all the species of timber trees usually exploited
for the European markets. The species represented are, of
course, only those that inhabit the moist tropical evergreen
forests of the country and do not include the fine timber trees,
species of Khaya (mahogany) and Pseiidocedrela (cedar), that
are limited in their distribution to the drier, mixed deciduous
forests found further north. The woods of the latter have, as far
as I am aware, never been shipped to the home markets, as the
species occupy tracts of country that have not yet been
exploited.

Practically the whole of the forest belts about here that are
situated within a limit of two or three miles on either side of the
Ankobra River and its main feeders, such as the Maiisi, have
been leased to Europeans and native timber merchants by the
chiefs. The particularly fine patch of forest extending from
the village of Ahirisu, on the left bank of the Mansi, for
several miles up stream on that side, has been leased to an
Apollonian timber merchant, named Mensa, who resides in
Axim. His local representative, a native of the same place,
is a most intelligent person who possesses an extensive know-
ledge of the timber trees of the country. He took us about
various parts of the concession, showed us the areas where
most of the fellings have been made, gave us much informa-
tion regarding the different species that are being exploited,
and generally helped us in every way possible.

In addition to the comparative richness of this tract of
country in species of economic importance, the most noticeable
feature about it is the excellent natural regeneration of those
trees and the satisfactory condition of their age gradations.
The latter, of course, is really not very good, but it is far better
than one usually comes across in West African forests. For
these reasons I strongly recommend the bulk of the forests
in the Mansi drainage being taken up as forest reserves after
the present leases expire, if it is not possible to do so before.

The soil in this forest is rich, contains a fair amount of
moisture, and is capable of supporting trees of lofty growth.
The Parkias to be met with about here are quite the tallest
and largest I have ever seen. The same holds good with regard
to other species, such as the Biunwc (Dctarium species), the
Basse (Gmtrea species), and the Chen-Chen (Antiaris toxicaria
var. africana). The cedars and mahoganies also attain large
dimensions and, speaking generally, the forest is in an excel-
lent condition and of great age in tlie remoter portions of the

12315 Ct2

36 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

area occupied by it. In sucli places the undergrowth is not
of that tangled character so conspicuous in the younger forests
of secondary growth. The latter occur in patches along the
river bank and in the vicinity of the sites of deserted villages
and old farms.

The following species of trees have been exploited for timber
in this forest : —

(a.) The Dubini, the ordinary mahogany of the moist

forests of the Gold Coast.

(&.) The cedar known as Punkiva (Pseudocedrela cylin-
drical),
(c.) The cedar known as Tiarna-Tiama (another species

close to P. cylindrical).

(d.) The Biunwe, a lofty species of Detarium.
(e.) The Basse, a species of Gaurea.
(/.} The N'Yankon (Heritiera vtilis).
(a.) The Baya or Yaya (Mitrayyne macropliylla).
(//.) The Pebedoum (Lovoa Klaineana}.
(i.} The Ehye, or " incense-tree " {Bvswellia or Santvriopsis
Klaineana) .

Of these the species most frequently cut are (a), (b) and (c),
partly because their wood is most in demand and partly because
they are as a rule more plentiful than the others. This does not,
however, exhaust the list of useful timber trees to be found in
these forests, as they also contain such species as the Odoum
(Chlorophora excelsa) ; the Baku (Mimusops Djave) ; the Kokoti
(I'ynaertia ealaen sis); the Kishia (Sarcocephalus esculentus) ; and
the Emril (species of Terminalia) ; all of which yield timbers of
excellent local reputation.

Other species of economic importance found here are :

(a.) Trees bearing fruit rich in oils.

(1) The Awama (Ricinodendron africanus); fairly plentiful.

(2) The oil bean-tree, Athawak {Pentadethra macropJiyUa) ;

common.

(3) The Baku (Mimiisops Djave) • rather uncommon.

(4) The Kaku \(Lopkira procera} ; rare.

(&.) Rubber-yielding plants :

(1) Landolphia owariensis, iincommon.

(2) Landolphia Droogmansiana? common.

(3) Carpodinus hirsuta; common.

(r.) Trees the wood of which is used for making shingles :
(1) The Offram (Terminalia sitperba)', common.

(d.) Species tluit yield Gum Copal:

(1) The Asiadua (Cyanothyrsus ogea}; uncommon.

Besides the above, other species forming a component part of
ilie forest vegetation are the lofty Chen-chen (Antiaris toxicaria,
var. africana) ; the -Duabayi or Dual-ohm {Afronnosia la.rifora),
:i troi^ with a conspicuous reddish-coloured bark that peels off
in large flakes: the A<ww (Omphalocarpum? species); the

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS.

Meinchin {Pdtophorum? species); the Waw-Waw (Tri-
Jolinxoini); the silk-cotton tree (EriodentI ron nnfnicl
the Dahomah (Piptadenni africana); the Asomali (I'drkui
species); the Samanta {Xylia Evansii); the Okiaibirl or Flint-
wood tree (not vet identified); the Essia (Couth return species):
this is one of the "Stink-wood ' trees; the Nyemidua (Alston ia
conyensis) ; and a host of others that for want of flowers and fruit
could not be identified.

The above list, however, is sufficient to enable those persons
acquainted with the forest flora of tropical West Africa to form a
mental picture of the type of forest just described.

The oil-palm, though not common, is still pretty well distri-
buted over the area. As far as I could ascertain only one species
of Sterculia appears to be found here, and that is a tree which
seems to be a small variety of S. cordifolia, a species that is at its
optimum in numbers and size further north in the semi-evergreen
or mixed deciduous type of forest.

The Maiisi Elver is an important stream and quite deep enough
in the rainy season to float down timber of the largest dimensions.
Some patches of elephant grass (Saccharum xpontaneuni '?} were
seen on its banks.

»

The dominant species as usual are the DaJwmaJi, Waw-waw,
silk-cotton tree, the Emril, Off ram, Asomali, and Awaina; after
which come the Khayas and Pseudocedrelas.

The Forests between Ahirisu (Mansi River) and N'Kwansia

(Ankobra River).

The water-parting between the Ankobra River and its feeder
the Mansi is a low one, well covered with tropical evergreen high
forest. The valleys leading from it are very moist, and tree-ferns
are quite common along the banks of the perennial streams that
drain them. On the alluvial narrow plain carved out by the
Mansi stream, a good deal of forest has been cleared for farms,
the abandoned sites of which are now being occupied by Musanga
Smitliii and the Waw-waw. The vegetation clothing the hills
contains a fair number of mahoganies and cedars. The Odoum,
Kokoti and the gum-copal tree, Asiadua (Cyanothyrsus ogea)
are also far from uncommon, whilst the dominant species
are represented by the Dahomah, Asomah and Waw-waw. One
specimen of the ' incense-tree '; (Boswellia Klaineana) was
Keen, as well as some young examples of the Odoum (Cliluro-
plwra cd'celsa) that had been tapped by the natives for the latex,
which is used by them for adulterating that of the silk-rubber tree
(Funtumia elastica.)

To the north of the water-parting, in the vicinity of N'kwausia
village, other and more extensive clearings have been made. The
older ones are UOAV occupied by the Awama and Emril, as well as
Musanga, Waw-waw, and the Off ram, species that form the usual
inhabitants of such sites. Another species, with deciduous
leaves, Albizzia Broicnci, has made its appearance in the

38 COLONIAL KEPORT3 — MISCELLANEOUS.

older growth situated to the north of the village where a new
species of Afzclia was also found. This species appears to be
very rare, and with the exception of those seen near this village I
have only coine across it on one other occasion, and that was in the
forests near the railway station of Imbrahini. The presence of
the Albizzia mentioned above is an indication of drier conditions,
and it is not more than a long day's journey north from here be-
fore one conies to a distinctly dry belt of vegetation that stretches
right across the country from the Tano River to the railway line.
This belt is, however, not quite dry enough to be occupied by the
semi-evergreen or mixed deciduous forests. Nevertheless, it con-
tains a much larger proportion of species with the deciduous habit
than the true moist evergreen tropical forests, and can be recog-
nised without difficulty. It is an intermediate type, and bridges
the gap between the two extremes.

To the east of N'kwansia a good many of the lower valleys have
been cleared of vegetation for farming purposes, but extensive
tracts of forest remain intact. These were examined in detail,
and flowering and fruiting specimens of some of the more impor-
tant species were obtained. Kliayas and Pseudoccdrelas were fre-
quently met Avith in this direction, and we were told that they are
more plentiful still further to the east. The usual species charac-
teristic of the moist forests are found about here. The Odoum is
plentiful on this side, and so is the Baku. The rarer species seen
are the Eku (Bombay Ituonopozense) and Funtumia africana.

The heart-wood of a< Pebedum (Lovoa Klaineana) that we
felled was found to be very similar to that of the East Indian teak
(Tectona grandis}. Samples were kept for further examination.
The timber of this species has been exported to Europe from Axini,
and, according to Mr. Mensa's local representative, has sold well.

The trees along the banks of the Ankobra are in places densely
covered with the rubber- vine, Landolphia owariensis.

The Forests betiveen the Ankobra River and its Feeder the

Sibiri Stream.

In traversing the country situated between these two streams in
an east to west direction, one first reaches an old bed of the
Ankobra River, and then the broken ground forming one of the
higher valleys of that stream. The whole of this tract of ground
is covered with a dense tangled mass of vegetation consisting
mainly of Apocynaceous climbers, amongst which Landolphia
owariensis, Carpodinus liirsuta, species of Clitandra and of Stru-
phanth us are to be seen. Standing up out of all this dense under-
growth arc irregularly distributed groups of such trees as species
ofCynometra; the silk-cotton tree ; the KitiJiia; the Waw-icaw; the
Offram, and the Emril. The ground itself is literally riddled
with native diggings (for gold), and the older river gravels are
thus exposed in many places. The undergrowth about here is so
dense that machets have to be used freely to enable one to get
about, and the carriers were continually 'losing their direction.
After about an hour's journey through this type of country, one

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FOKESTS. 30

coiues to a subsidiary range of low hills which are clothed with
irregular tropical evergreen forest of good age. Here the under-
growth is much thinner, and is comparatively free of climbing
plants; the over-wood consists of the usual type in which
Piptadenias, Pai-l-ias, Waw-ivaws, &c., are the most conspicuous;
a few Khayas are also to be seen there. The low country on the
other side of these hills has been much cultivated, and contains a
few small villages, the older farm sites of which are now over-
grown with Muxanya Smithii, numerous Odotimt, E-nwil, 11 air-
ivaw, Bo/nha.f buonoijozenxe, some Albizzia Bruwnei, &c. The
undergrowth is again exceedingly dense, and considerable diffi-
culty was experienced in pushing our way through it.

To the westward of this valley is situated the main water-part-
ing between the Ankobra River and its tributary the Sibiri. It is
a well-defined range and of considerably greater altitude than the
hills lying to the east of the small villages mentioned above.
Dense tropical evergreen high forest clothes the greater portion of
the range. The trees are of lofty growth, nicely shaped, and the
forest contains a fair proportion of useful timber trees. The
undergrowth is straight, thin, and comparatively poor in climb-
ing plants, a characteristic of some of the oldest forests in tropical
West Africa. The more valuable species were represented by the
Odouin, Khayas (which were bearing imit),Pseiidocedrelas(sL\KO in
fruit), and the Baku. Others of less importance noticed were two
species of Piptadenia (P. africana and another gigantic species),
Tetrapleura Tlionningii; a species of Parkia, enormous specimens
of Antiaris toxicaria, and several species of Ficus that also
attain huge dimensions in this forest.

The latter is well worth reserving, both on account of its com-
parative richness in valuable species of timber trees, and also in
order to protect the water-supply of the Ankobra River. There is
ample land, covered with younger forests, available for native
farms in the valleys both to the east and west of the divide. The
Sibiri stream is quite an important feeder of the Ankobra ; it is
apparently subjected to very heavy floods in the rainy season, and
overflows its banks to a large extent. When the water falls at the
end of the wret season the overflow remains in the hollows and gives
rise to a succession of swamps that are occupied by a dense growth
of the Tonibo Palm (Raplna vinifcra} and scandent palms belong-
ing to the genera Calamus and AncistropliyHum. The forest
along this stream has been leased to an American firm represented
by a Mr. Payne, I think, who was, however, absent on leave at the
time of our visit. Large numbers of mahogany logs were seen
lying in the bed of the stream awaiting the next floods to take
them down to the Ankobra and thence to Axim.

The forests along the lower course of the Sibiri have been cleared
for farms, and the secondary growth that has sprung up on the
older clearings is formed by species such as the Emril, Odon-in,
Waw-waiv, Off ram, Albizzia Brownei, &c., that are generally the
first amongst trees to occupy such lands. As the locality looked a
promising one, a day was devoted to a thorough exploration of the
forest vegetation on the north bank opposite Mr. Payne's camp.

40 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Tliis portion has been well exploited, and the numerous dragging
paths enabled us to get in all directions good clear views of the
forest, only attainable otherwise by keeping to the roads or the
beds of streams.

Several species of trees new to us were found here ; unfor-
tunately they could not, for want of flowering or fruiting
specimens, be identified. They include: — •

The Jim illicit, a mediuin-si/ed deciduous-leafed tree (it was
quite bare of foliage at the time of our visit), that possesses a
very corky bark covered with small, circular depressions; the
wood is said to be gootl and to have sometimes been exported to
Europe.

The Dabima (Waw-Saw name) or tiiriko (Apollonian name),
also a small tree, with a bright yellow wood, which is used by
the natives for manufacturing door and window frames. A
yellow dye is extracted from the bark, which is further used
both as a medicine for ulcers and for making "bitters." In
addition to this, a boiled decoction of the bark is used as a
medicine for stomach-aches. This is apparently quite a useful
tree to the natives.

The Kwate prepre (Waw-Saw name). A tall tree with the
bark of a Cyanothyrsus and the foliage of a Khaya. It does not
appear to be put to any use by the natives. A new species of
silk-cotton tree, the Nyi-na-kobin (Boinbax brevicuspe), was
discovered here. It grows to a large size and sheds its
leaves in the dry season ; the natives use a decoction of the bark
for dyeing their cloths a rich reddish-brown colour. The dye
is said to be a fast one. The bark is first beaten and then soaked
in water and the cloth allowed to remain in this infusion for
three or four days, which allows sufficient time for the fibres to
be thoroughly stained. The stems of this species are often
hollowed out into canoes, which are said to last for three years.
The Burmese make a similar use of the stems of the Dido tree
(Bombaa; malabaricum) .

A new species of Parinarium that grows into a fine large tree
with a spreading crown was discovered in this locality. The
particular specimen felled was much festooned with a rubber-
vine, Landolphia Klainei, which is fairly abundant about
here. Other species of rubber-yielding vines, such as LandolpJiia
owariensis, and a species that appears to be the typical
L. Droogmansiana of De Willdeniau, are also to be met with in
this forest.

Khayas (the ordinary Dubini of the moist forests of the Gold
Coast) and two species of Pseudocedrela, the Punkwa and Tiama-
Titinia, are fairly numerous, though large numbers, especially of
the former, have heen felled for the timber trade.

The age gradations of these more important species are better
represented here than is usually the case with the over-mature
woods of_ this country. On the whole I think that an early
opportunity should be taken to reserve as much as possible of the
valuable forests clothing the drainage area of the Sibiri stream.

A particularly fine bamboo, apparently a species of Dendro-
calamus, that forms extensive clumps, is rather common about

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 41

this locality. It is, however, I believe, an introduced species, as
I have never found it far away from existing villages or their
old abandoned sites. It will be interesting to learn from what
part of the world, and how, it was introduced. It has a rather
close resemblance to D. Hamiltonii, from Burma, but does not
attain quite such large dimensions.

The Forests on the South-Eastern Slopes of the Ankobra-Tano

Water-Parting.

From Mr. Payne's timber camp we followed up the Sibiri
stream a short distance, then left it, and after passing over some
rough country covered with low hills for a mile or so, commenced
the climb of the main water-parting, the crest of which we soon
reached and followed as far as the village of Auyinabirem, where
the main road from Akropong to Akikere comes on to the ridge
from the east. We then left the latter, and turning to the south-
west followed an important spur that eventually brought us, after
many ascents and descents and a long and fatiguing march, to
the village of Akikere, which is situated in the Tano drainage.
The forest along that part of the Sibiri stream followed by us
has been much cut about for farming purposes. The growth
improved, however, after we left the river, and the main water-
parting, which is, I should think, something like 800 to 1,000
feet above sea level, is covered with really fine, lofty evergreen
forest. Several large clumps of bamboos were seen before the
foot of the ridge was reached, and flowering specimens of a
second species of Guarea, a genus to which some excellent timber
trees belong, were procured. This species is also called Bosse by
the natives, who do not appear to distinguish between the two
kinds.

As regards the vegetation on the main water-shed, it is com-
posed of excellent growth, amongst which magnificent examples
of Khaya, the Tiama-Tiama (Pseudocedrela species), the Iroko or
Odoum (Chlorophora excelsa), the Piinkwa (Pseudocedrela
species), gigantic specimens of Antiaris toxicaria var. africana,
Cyanothyrsus ogea (the gum copal tree), the Pebedum, the Bosse,
Huge Piptadenias and silk-cotton trees are to be found growing
in great profusion. A few examples of the Kokoti and the rubber
tree Funtumia elastica were also seen. Of course, the cosmo-
politan and dominant species such as the Dahomah, Offram,
Waw-waw, and a large species of Parlcia were much in evidence.
There is a marked tendency for Albizzia Brownei to occur in
greater numbers in the secondary growth near villages as we
proceed further to the westward.

After leaving Anyinabirem village the path follows a long
descent to the south-west, and then ascends an important ridge
that is almost as high as the main divide. Here the fine type of
forest just described reappears and continues till just before the
village of Bantama is reached, where it is replaced by the
secondary growth usually found near native habitations. Oil
palms were numerous along this portion of the day's march. A
very fine flowering specimen of Erythrina tomentosa was seen
close to the village. It was practically bare of leaves, but

I.! COLONIAL REPORTS— MISCELLANEOUS.

literally covered with a beautiful bloom of pink blossoms, and
formed a conspicuous object.

Between Bantama and Kwamaug the forest is on the average
much younger and of secondary growth. The Waw-waw is
becoming more dominant than ever about here and completely
outnumbers any other species. The usual trees of this type of
infest were met with, including a few Khayas and Pseudocedrclas
and an increasing proportion of the larger species of Piptadenui.
Extensive patches of a large bamboo (Dendrocalamus ? sp.) were
seen near the streams forming the water supply of the villages.

The forests clothing the main water-parting and the subsi-
diary ridge are well worth taking up as reserves. The secondary
growth should be left for the farms.

The Forests in the Drainage Area of the Lower Tano River.

Between the villages of Akikere and Tomento, which latter
is situated close to the banks of the Tano River, the country, in
a north-westerly direction from the former, is hilly and much
broken, but is not dominated by any important ranges. At
about two-thirds of the total distance between Akikere and
the Tano is situated the large and important town of Asaukagwa,
quite the largest we have seen west of the railway-line. The
adjacent country is also occupied by numerous small villages,
so that the total population inhabiting a comparatively small
area is fairly large and has in accordance with the wasteful
system of cultivation adopted by the natives necessitated exten-
sive clearings in the forests from time to time. These clearings
or their now overgrown sites are often found at a long distance
from the inhabited centres, and account for the very irregular,
patchy condition of the forests passed through.

Generally speaking the forests are comparatively young and of
secondary growth that has sprung up from time to time on the
abandoned areas. Here and there, however, where for some
reason or another the land has not been taken up for farms, belts
and patches of much older high forest are to be met with ; in
such localities trees of economic importance are fairly plentiful,
and include the ordinary Dubini (mahogany), the two species
of Pseudocedrela usually found in. the tropical evergreen forests
of this zone, the Odoum (Chlorophora excdsa), the Baku
(Mimusops Djave), the Bosse, the Pebedinn, the Asiadua or gum
copal tree (Cyanothyrsus ogea), and a species of TricJiilia that is
not uncommon in the corresponding forests of Southern Nigeria.

During the last few days indications had not been wanting of
a gradual change in the climatic conditions prevailing in this
part of the country. From Akikere onwards the forest vegeta-
tion, though still of the tropical evergreen type, showed unmis-
takeable signs of being invaded to a much greater extent by
species that are at their optimum in regions characterized either
by a mai'kedly smaller annual rainfall or, in the event of the
rainfall being still sufficiently high to satisfy under ordinary
circumstances the wants of the typical tropical evergreen vege-
tation, by a climate of which the dry season is longer and more
pronounced.

GOLD COAST — KEPOKT ON FORESTS. 43

Species such as the Kaku (Lophira procera) and the N'yankon
(llcritiera utilis) have practically disappeared froui these
forests, whilst others, such as the Waw-waw (one of the species
that has a great distributional range on the Gold Coast), the
Off ram, Stei-culia cordifolia, Albizzia Brownei, and the silk-
rubber tree (Funtumia dastica) are to be found in much greater
abundance than hitherto. The increase in the proportion of
Waw-waws to other species has been further intensified by the
local custom of protecting it as a " standard ' in the clearings
made close to villages. I could get no satisfactory explanation
as to why that species and occasionally the Emril and Off ram as
well are thus favoured by the inhabitants.

However, these three species are actually far more abundant
in the semi-evergreen or mixed deciduous forests (associated with
a drier climate), even where the former are of a great age; and
as such their comparative abundance or scarcity is a safe indica-
tion by which to gauge the climatic conditions, notwithstand-
ing the fact that their growth may have been favoured in par-
ticular localities by the action of man, as is the case here.

I do not think that the change in climate experienced in the
lower drainage area of the Tano River is mainly due to the
destruction of the forests; it more probably depends to a great
extent either on the absence of a well-marked monsoon current
or to the absence of those cyclonic movements that usually bring
rain during the dry months of the year in other parts of West
Africa or to both causes. Xevertheless as this is a hilly part of
the country the destruction of the forests is bound to further
intensify the effects of a defective or irregular rainfall. As was
to be expected from the general character of the vegetation, the
water supply of this portion of Upper Wawsaw is far from being
as abundant as it is in localities further to the south and south-
east. It is not, however, a precarious one, and in the neighbour-
hood of the larger streams swampy areas are abundant. The
tracts of country still covered with high tropical evergreen forest,
though of the modified type just mentioned, are also well watered,
and it is only in the areas that have been much subjected to
farming that it is scanty.

This modified type (an intermediate condition between the
moist tropical evergreen forests and the mixed deciduous or semi-
evergreen forests) extends in a broad belt, as will be described
later on, right across upper Denkera to the railway-line between
the stations of Dunkwa and Imbrahini.

The Taiio River itself is a fine large stream about here, and has
very few sandbanks visible even at this, the driest, time of the
year. It is not deep opposite Tomento and can be forded at most
places. A few small patches of " Savannah forest," characterized
by the presence of tall species of grasses, are also to be met with
along the banks of the stream; they are distant and feeble out-
liers of the great Savannah forests of Northern Ashanti, between
which, however, and this locality, a very broad and extensive
belt of moist evergreen forest intervenes.

Close to the banks of the river, where we encamped in a moist
patch of forest, we saw some Bayas and the Kaku, which is here

44 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

restricted to the moistest localities close to the streams. Xylia
Krdnxii on the other hand is getting more numerous and con-
spicuous us a member of the forest vegetation. Musanga Smithii
appears to be past its optimum; though still numerous, the
growth is becoming lanky and the foliage less dense.

I learnt from one of Mr. Nicholas's native employees that the
former has obtained a timber and mining lease of the country
;idjaceiit to the Taiio River from the local chiefs. Some not very
formidable rapids are said to exist on that stream near the
village of Brimang, and it is proposed to outflank them "by using
a traction engine to haul the logs out before they reach the
obstructions and to drag them to a point on the river below the
latter, whence they can be again thrown into the water. I.
fancy the great difficulty to be overcome in this scheme is to get
the traction engine as far up the country as Brimang.

Hearing that there was an extensive bit of uninhabited country
situated to the north-west of our camp, on the other side of the
river, Mr. Burbridge and myself decided to go and explore it.
As no villages were said to exist within two or three days'
journey of the centre of the blank space shown on the map we
had to leave the bulk of our carriers behind at Tomento and to
proceed with a few men and a light equipment and to arrange
for food to be sent out to us at regular intervals.

On crossing the river the right bank was found to be fringed
with a narrow belt of very moist evergreen forest, the existence of
which is due to the abundant supply of moisture available in the
soil close to the stream; shortly after leaving this the path, made
by rubber collectors and hunters, that we were following, began
to ascend the slopes of a fairly high hill, on a flattened shoulder
of which we came across the long deserted site of an old village.
The forest on this slope of the hill consists of irregular secondary
growth that has sprung up on the old clearings, and contains the
usual species characteristic of such localities. Owing, however,
to the drier conditions prevailing here such species as the
Waw-waw, Offram, Emril and Odouin (another species with an
extensive distributional range) are found in greater abundance
than in the moister localities to the south-east and south. Near
the summit of the hill the growth is much older, but still
irregular and of secondary origin ; it contains both the large and
small species of Piptadenia, a few Khayas, Pseudocedrelas, Penta-
clethra macrophylla, and large numbers of the Waw-waw; a few
Off rams were also seen.

The second tier of vegetation contained a fair number of
Funtunvia elastica, some of which have been tapped to death,
and the robust climber Carpodinus hirsuta wrhich has also been
extensively tapped; in some cases on the "herring-bone"
s\ s(rin. The latex of the latter is largely employed for adul-
terating that of the former. The resulting coagulum is a rubber
that is of much inferior quality to that obtained from the pure
Funtumia latex and of slightly better quality than that obtained
from the vine. Tn places almost every species of plant that
yields latex of any sort whatever, quite irrespective of the fact
as to whether the latices contain a large percentage of caoutchouc
or not, such as the Odoum, the Nyamedua (Alstonia congensis),

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 45

various species of Ficus, Funtumia afric-ana, several kinds of
Landolphia, Carpodiniis, Clitandra, &c., is tapped and the
latices then mixed together and coagulated. The result is a
rubber of very poor quality.

After surmounting the hill mentioned above we got on to a
main range, the crest of which we followed for several hours,
Avith many ascents and descents, before we reached water and
formed our camp for the night. This range is clothed with the
same type of forest, but the latter is open in places and contains
an increased proportion of Stereidia cor di folia and Stereulia
Barteri, the latter of which made its appearance in any large
numbers for the first time. The soil is dry and rather rocky, and
is covered in places with a dense tangled growth of a species of
woody leguminous climber that I have only seen on this ridge.
Some stems of the " Flint wood " tree that had been cut by the
rubber collectors and were lying about in a moist patch of forest
were found by me to be quite rotten. I could easily push my
walking-stick through them, so I very much doubt whether the
wood of this species is as durable as it is made out to be by the
European miners. It appears to coppice freely, judging from
the healthy-looking shoots that have sprung up from the stumps
left in the ground.

The night at the first camp was quite cold, and during the
whole of our stay in the hilly country to the west of the Tano
River the climate was found to be distinctly bracing.

The second camp was situated in a deep valley some few hours'
journey to the north-west of the last one, on a tributary of the
Tano River. Here water is abundant and of very good quality,
coming as it does from a hill torrent. The valley itself is narrow
and closely shut in with hills, but as it is very well watered the
forest vegetation is that characteristic of a moist locality. On
ascending the hills, however, it becomes of a much drier type,
though still belonging to the tropical evergreen formation, in
which such trees as Stereulia cordifolia and S. Barteri are far
from uncommon. Some fine examples of the Tiama-Tiama
(species of P seudocedrela) and the ordinary Dubini were also seen
in the hill forests, which in places are composed of trees of lofty
growth, amongst which some exceptionally fine specimens of
Antiaris toxicaria var. africana, Cyanothyrsus ogea, and the
large species of Piptadenia may be specially mentioned.

These hill forests are much more open than the moister ones
in the valley lower down, and it is possible to walk about under
them without the continual use of the " machet." The soil is
also less moist and covered with a fairly deep layer of dry leaves
that render silent walking almost impossible ; in this respect the
forests are similar to the semi-evergreen or mixed deciduous type
belonging to the middle zone of vegetation, the zone that in-
tervenes between the open savannahs and tree savannah forma-
tions of the hinterland and the moist tropical evergreen forests of
the maritime zone, where the monsoon currents are strongly
marked. On rocky portions of the ridges dense tangled masses
of lianes, consisting of rubber vines belonging to the genera
Clitanrfra, and Landolphia and of Combretaceous

46 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

plants occur, and in localities exposed to strong winds as on
some of the higher summits both the lianes and their tree
supports are to be seen leaning over to one side in the direction of
the prevalent air currents. Here the tree growth is also more or
less stunted. These differences in growth are found within
quite a small range of altitude, the highest summits of the hills
being only a few hundred feet above the level of the valley,
which, however, from its shut-in position, is fairly well protected
against dry winds — -a fact that explains the markedly humid
character of the air below, which together with the moisture in
the soil by the sides of the streams induces the luxuriant tropical
vegetation to be found there.

Another day was spent in furthur exploration of the sur-
rounding forests, and then a return was made to our main camp
on the Tano River. I was rather disappointed in these forests as
we were led to understand by the guides that they were extensive
and practically virgin in character. This we found to be very
far from the case, and the whole tract of country showed un-
mistakable signs of having been once pretty well inhabited.
Large tracts of forest were found to be of secondary origin, and
signs of villages having once existed here were also not wanting.
In fact, on our return to the village (Tomento) the chief admitted
that a very long time ago the country had been inhabited by
people who had since moved westwards.

The proportion of valuable timber trees to the other species
is also comparatively small in the forests examined, which are
otherwise, on account of the absence of villages, &c., well suited
for reservation.

On the llth February, 1908, we left Tomento to return to the
railway. Proceeding by the road Tomento-Agona-Manso-
Totonso-Supon-Princesu-Dunkwa we arrived at the last place,
which is situated on the railway, on the 17th of that month.

The wooded country traversed during this journey is situated
within the drainage systems of the Tano, Ankobra, and Prah
"Rivers. The portion in the Tano basin lies to the north-east of
Tomento, and extends in that direction almost as far as the
village of Manso, which is just outside it, and belongs to the
Ankobra drainage. These forests of the Tano basin are chiefly of
secondary growth and comparatively young, the older ones,
approaching the virgin condition, being confined to the summits
of some of the higher hills which are situated between Brimang
and Manso. As a rale the valleys are swampy and occupied by a
dense growth of Raphms and scandent palms belonging to the
genera Calamus and Ancistrophyllum. Outside these swampy
areas, however, the vegetation thoiigh still of the evergreen
tropical type is intermixed with a fairly large proportion of
deciduous leafed species which give it a somewhat drier look than
the typical moist evergreen forest to be met with nearer the
coast. This drier form of evergreen forest has already been
described when dealing with the forests seen near the Tano River
and is the predominant kind of forest vegetation met with from
Manso due eastwards to the railway. In swampy areas and
along the banks of the larger streams it of course reverts to a

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 47

inoister type and some extensive patches of such forest were
passed through in which the ordinary Dubini and the two species
of Pseudocedrela (the Punkiva and the Tiama-Tiama of the
natives) are quite plentiful. Other species noticed between
Brimang and Manso were the cosmopolitan Dahomah, Waw-waw,
Offram, Emril, Odoum, as well as examples of the Baku, KoJfoti,
and Funtumia elastica; the last, however, is confined to the
drier parts of the forests of which it now begins to form a con-
spicuous and important member. Beyond Agona the species of
Parkia, so plentiful in the moist forests further south, were
found to be getting scarce, and the same remark applies to the
Kaku and the N'yankon, which are practically absent from this
area.

From Manso eastwards, almost as far as Princessu, we marched
through the drainage area of the Ankobra Eiver, which is
clothed about here with forests exactly similar in character to
those just described.

On rich alluvial soil close to the banks of that river the
ordinary Gold Coast mahogany is very common indeed. Here
the age classes are well represented, and the forests are in a
satisfactory condition. Such areas are liable to be under water
during the flood season, and it is interesting to find that the
Gold Coast mahogany has the same partiality for localities
subjected to such inundations as its near congener Khaya
Punchii, the common mahogany of Southern Nigeria.

These rich patches of mahogany forest are abundant in the
neighbourhood of Totonso on the Ankobra Eiver.

What appears to be a fourth species of cedar (Pseudocedrela)
with very small capsules was met with in the forests between
the villages of Adwenyede and Supon.

The most important characteristic of these forests on the
middle drainage, area of the Ankobra is the abundance of the
silk-rubber tree, Funtumia elastica. It is inclined to be gre-
garious about here, and the more densely-stocked areas generally
occur in regularly-defined belts. The richest forest of this species
that we came across is situated close to the village of Jauboa,
between it and Domiabra. A rough valuation survey along a
line 300 yards long and 44 yards wide, gave an average of
16 plants (one foot in girth and over) to the acre; a most extra-
ordinary high figure. Except for the irregular spacing, the
forest looked much like a thinly-stocked plantation.

As usual, the tapping of these trees by the natives has been
much overdone, and large numbers of plants were found to have
been killed by the treatment they have received. Other latex-
yielding species, such as the Odoum (IroJco of Southern Nigeria),
Alstonia conqensis, and a small unidentified tree called Olcure
by the Fantis, that are found growing in the vicinity, have also
been tapped for the purpose of mixing their latices with that of
the Funtumia elastica.

Yet another species of cedar (Pseudocedrela) was found close
to the village of Assawase. It has small capsules which open

48 COLONIAL UEPOKT8 — MISCELLANEOUS.

at the base, just the reverse direction in which the capsules
of the other members of the genus open out.

East of Totonso the forests are, comparatively speaking, so
dry that the Asomah (Parlda species) ha/s practically disappeared
from the scene.

Otherwise the forests are quite rich in mahoganies, cedars,
n<iL-n, KoL'oti, ttoxse, &c., any among- less valuable species are the
Wair-wfiir, Off ram, Daliomah, and the large species of Fiptn-
denia.

The large bamboo (Dendrocalamus species), first met with near
the Sibiri stream, is very abundant close to the villages of this
part of the country, and the ground under the clumps affords
excellent camping sites.

The forests along the middle reaches of the Ankobra do not
appear to have been leased to anyone, and as they are very rich
in valuable economic plants, more especially so in rubber- yielding
trees, an early opportunity should be taken to select and reserve
the best areas.

From about the neighbourhood of Supon one gets into the
drainage area of the Offin Eiver, a feeder of the Prah. The part
of the country walked over between here and the Atasi Mines
(Prmcessii) is very hilly, and is covered for the most part with
secondary forest of a rather dry type, in which the majority of
species noted as characteristic of the tropical evergreen forests
are to be met with. Mahoganies and cedars are not uncommon,
but, owing to the very hilly nature of the country and the fact
that the ranges are running parallel to the direction in which
the nearest large rivers flow, I fancy it will prove too costly
an operation to get the timber out with the appliances in use
out here at the present time.

About an hour-and-a-half's journey from the mines, one conies
on to very extensive clearings that have been made for planting
the food crops, on which the large population engaged on the
mines are dependent. I fancy some of the produce is also taken
down to the railway and sold in Diinkwa.

The forests close to the mines have been cleared for firewood,
the only species left are the Dahomah, the oil bean tree,
Pentaclethra macro phylla, and aspecies of ftrachystegia,\}ie wood
of all of which is too difficult to split into billets. Owing to the
rather dry character of the forests about here, I am inclined to
think, if the water supply of the country is to be preserved, that
some restriction should be placed on the wholesale fellings that
take place annually.

The vegetation clothing the more important hills where the
sources of the streams are situated should be protected against
such damage.

During our stay at Princessu, we visited tlie water supply of
the mines; a dam has been constructed across the perennial
stream just below the point where it debouches out from the hills
on to a fairly level but narrow portion of its valley. Quite a
large quantity of water has thus been stored and pushed back

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 49

up the valley of that stream and of one of its feeders. It was
interesting to notice the effect of this flooding on the forest
vegetation of the submerged area. Two species, Funtumia
afncana and Funtumia elastica, have withstood most effectually
the prolonged submersion of their roots and the lower portions
of their stems. Most of the other species have succumbed to the
new conditions ; of the two Funtumias, F. africana has proved
to be the more resistant.

As the forest vegetation of the lower and middle portions
of the Offin River drainage has been described in another chap-
ter, I will not refer to it here except to remark that it is
almost as equally rich in rubber trees (Funtumia elastica} as that-
passed through on the journey from the Tano River to the railway
line at Dunkwa.

THE TARKWA AND ABOSSO MINES : SUPPLY OF FUEL.

On our return to Tarkwa from the Tano River trip, I was
obliged to proceed to Sekondi to arrange for carriers to replace
those out, of the first lot that had fallen sick. Returning to the
former place, I spent some days in examining the fellings that
had been made round the mines for supplying them with fuel.
Mr. G. A. Stockfeld, the General Manager, very kindly placed
at my disposal all the information he possessed on the subject,
and, in addition, accompanied me during an excursion made in
the forests near the Abosso Mines where similar fellings are
taking place.

As a general rule, the denuded areas have been sufficiently
well re-occupied with vegetation to prevent any erosion of the
hillsides during the rainy season. The umbrella tree Musanga
Smithii) has effectually occupied most of the clearings, and is
affording ample protection to the soil.

The clearings made near Abosso are much more extensive,
as several mines belonging to different companies exist in that
neighbourhood; a good many of them, however, have now been
abandoned, and the cleared areas will no doubt be gradually
re-afforested in the course of time. There are a few places on
some of the steeper hillsides that show signs of erosion, but I
think they will soon be re-occupied by weeds and other vegeta-
tion, and be protected against further damage.

The fuel mostly used on the Tarkwa Mines is procured from
the following trees : —

(1) The Kaku.

(2) The Engantan (probably Heritiero utilis)

(3) The Aphona (not identified), which is said to yield a goon

wood fit for export.

(4) The Grabossi, which yields a very hard wood.

(5) The Dubinrilli, a local name for the Diibini or ordinary

mahogany.

(6) The Kokoti (Pynaertia ealaensis).

(7) The Athawah (Pentaclethra macro pKylla).

12316 D

50 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

(8) The Dianfutu (could not be identified), said to yield an

excellent fuel.

(9) Kussiabah (same as Kishia). Good fuel.
(10) Ad Java, ditto.

Every species except the Dahomah (Piptadenia africana), how-
ever, is cut down for firewood. Those mentioned above give the
best results.

During- the five years and nine months, August, 1902, to the
end of January, 1908, the fuel consumed on the Tarkwa Mines
amounted to 37,000 cords, and this was obtained from clear
fellings made on 3,000 to 4,000 acres. The yearly consumption
thus amounts to 6,400 cords, to supply which about 600 acres
of forest has to be felled. The corresponding figures for the
Abosso Mines are: — Period, five years (1st January, 1903, to
31st December, 1907); consumption, 39,696 cords of fuel; area,
3,000 to 4,000 acres. The mean annual consumption in this case
is 7,939 cords, for which an area of about 700 to 800 acres has
every year to be cleared of forest growth.

Mr. Stockfeld is re-afforesting portions of this ground with
the following species of Eucalyptus and Melaleuca :-

Eucalyptus resin/era.

,, citriodora.

,, leucoxylon (iron bark).

,, marginata (Jarrah).

,, 'Tnacrorliyncha (stringy bark).

Melaleuca leucudendron (paper-bark tree).

The trees already planted seem to be doing fairly well ; it is
to be hoped that the experiment will prove a success.

After completing the inspection of the areas that are being
exploited for firewood, Mr. Burbridge and myself proceeded to
Imbrahirn, a station on the Sekondi-Kurnasi Railway, where we
spent a few days in examining the forests to the east of the
railway line. I found them to be rather disappointing, especi-
ally the one known as the Fetish or Sacred Forest. Generally,
the forest consists of secondary growth, but patches of much
older high forest are not wanting, and the locality is fairly rich
in mahoganies and cedars. The portions close to the railway
have been heavily exploited, and logs were found lying all about
the place. Several species of the commoner forest trees hap-
pened to be either flowering or fruiting at the time of our visit,
and we were thus able to add considerably to our collections.

This is about the extreme northern limit of the N'Yankon
(Heritiera utilis) which, owing to the rather dry character of
the country, is confined here to the vicinity of swampy ground.
Tlio 11 <nr-tr(iir and Off ram, usually the dominant species, are
comparatively scarce in this locality, but some rather rare trees,
such as a new and undescribed species of A/zelia and a Bomlxi.r
(Bombax brevicuspe), were seen.

Bubber-vines appear to be plentiful in the forests, and a few
Fun tumid, clastica are also found there. The Imbrahim forests,
with tlio exception of the sacred one, which is rather moister in

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 51

character, belong to the dry type passed through on our way
back from the Tano River.

The Pseudocedrelas about here were practically bare at the
time of our visit, and were just breaking out into new leaf.
Most of the Dub-in is seen were covered with fruit, and the railway
line was strewn with their seeds. I noticed that several cedars,
mahoganies and the new species of Afzelia have been left as
standards on the areas cleared for farms. The inhabitants have
probably realised that these species are valuable products of the
land.

The next forest examined is the one known as the Tsifufu
Forest ; it is situated further north and on the west side of the
railway.

THE FORESTS OF SOUTHERN ASHANTI.

From the 9th March to the end of that month the time was
occupied in examining the forests of Southern Ashanti. During
this period, the forests to the west of the railway and to the
north of Dunkwa were visited, as well as those between Oboase
and the Adra River, the Adra and the Offin Rivers, to the north
and south of Nkwanta, those along the Bibiani-Kurnasi Road,
and along the Bibiani-Mim Road.

The most distinctive characteristic of these forests, as com-
pared with those south of the railway station of Imbrahim, is the
much larger proportion of deciduous leaved trees to be met with
in them ; this comparatively dry belt of mixed deciduous and
evergreen forest stretches across the country to the west and
south-west as far, at least, as the Tano-Bia water-parting in
Upper Denkira ; it is fpar excellence the home of the cedars
(various species of Pseiidocedrda) and the indigenous rubber tree,
Funtumia elastica ; it is also very rich in mahogany (at least
two species of Khaya) and, taken all round, comprises, from an
economic point of view, the most valuable forests which the
country possesses.

As far as the forests of cedar and Funtumia elastica alone are
concerned, I very much doubt whether tropical Africa can show
their equal in any other portion of the continent. Moreover,
they are rich in other valuable species of timber-trees, such as
the Khayas, the Odoum (Chlorophora excelsa) which is particu-
larly abundant, and the Baku (Mimusops Djave). Indeed, the
only important timber-trees absent from this type are the KaTcu
(Lophira procera) and the Yankom (Heritiera utilis), the distri-
butional ranges of which practically cease at the latitude of
Imbrahirn on the railway. Roughly speaking, this is the northern
limit for these two species, which are never found very far away
from the maritime zone of vegetation.

The potential forest wealth of Southern and Western Ashanti
is enormous, and its value must increase rapidly from year to
^ear as the supply of American mahogany and cedars diminishes.
The exhaustion of the American sources of supply is, from over-
exploitation, likely to be realised in the very near future, and

12315 D 2

52 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

of late the annual imports to Europe and America of African
woods have already exceeded the total output of that from Central
America and Cuba. The forests of Ashauti are so valuable that
a special effort should be made to protect the richest of them and
bring them under organised control ; they are well worth any
expenditure likely to be incurred for this purpose.

In some respects it is unfortimate that the only available line
of export for these forests is the Sekondi-Kurnasi Railway.
Though several large streams, capable of floating logs, drain the
area in question, yet, owing to the presence of rapids and other
obstructions, they cannot at present be utilised for that purpose,
and for some time to come, at all events, exploitation will have
to be confined to the vicinity of the railway.

This, however, is not an unmixed evil ; their very inaccessi-
bility will indirectly aft'ord a certain amount of protection to
the forests till such a time as the country is in a position, by
opening up new lines of communications, &c., to tap these new
sources of wealth.

As far as I can find out, there appear to be only two really
serious obstructions on the Tano River. This stream drains a
very 'extensive and rich tract of forest country, and the removal
of the two obstructions at an early date is urgently called for.
Mr. G. H. Dawe, Agent at Sekondi for Messrs. Swanzy & Co.,
who has had a long and unrivalled experience of timber exploita-
tion both in Central America and the West Coast of Africa,
informs me that the lower obstruction on the Tano River, just
above Tanoso, can be removed at no great expense by the
judicious blasting and removal of certain rocks, and by the con-
struction of a boom to direct the timber into the proper channel.

That gentleman has studied the question on the spot for some
years, and it would be advisable to consult him on the points
involved before active measures are taken to clear the channel.
As a rule, such operations can only be successfully undertaken
after personal knowledge of the behaviour of the river at all
seasons of the year has been acquired by the operator. As
regards the second obstruction, which is situated at a point
much higher up the river, somewhere below Tomento, very
little is known, but it is supposed to be less formidable than the
lower one.

In any case, the attempt to clear the channel at both these
places should be made, because, if successful, it will mean the
opening up of several thousand square miles of some of the richest
forests in Africa.

The other rivers draining this extensive tract of mixed
deciduous forest are the Ankobra and the Offin, with its feeder
the Adra. The former is said to be free of all serious obstruc-
tions, and the latter are also reported to be clear. Unfortunately,
the OflBn is a feeder of the Pra River, and the latter has several
obstructions (rapids) along its course. These should be examined
and studied by an expert with a view to clearing a channel
suitable for the conveyance of timber. In this connection I may
add that the expenses connected with such operations are, as a

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 53

rule, nothing like as great as those incurred in making similar
obstructions navigable to boats.

If the worst comes to the worst, there is always the alternative,
in the case of the forests drained by the Offin and its feeder the
Adra, to collect the timber floated down the two streams at the
point where the railway bridge crosses the former, and then to
send it down the railway to Sekondi. This, however, will involve
additional handling of the logs, and all such handling means
extra expense. For this reason it may, in the case of Uftin tim-
ber, be advisable for the railway authorities to reduce their
freights.

As regards the protection of the forests themselves, the main
dangers to guard against are, first, the depletion of the forests
from over-exploitation ; and, secondly, their destruction by the
natives for farming- purposes. The former can be met by fixing
a minimum girth for the more important species that are being
exploited for trade purposes, and the latter by selecting and
taking up as Forest Reserves the richest areas and protecting
them strictly against all fellings except such are made under
the technical supervision and management of a properly con-
stituted Forest Department. On no account, except under the
strictest professional supervision, should farming be allowed on
such areas, nor should farming, as a right, be admitted in the
Reserves.

The damage done to the forests by farming is far greater than
that due to over-exploitation, because the latter is limited to
certain species only, whilst the former makes a clean sweep of
everything, and these clearings are then very often re-occupied
by species (that happen to thus get a favourable start in the
struggle for existence) other than those that formerly occupied
the area. The character of the " secondary " forest that springs
up is thus very often different from that which previously
occupied the land ; moreover, the proportionate numbers of the
various species are frequently altered as the result of such clear-
ings and the alterations are in general more favourable to those
species that do not at present happen to be of any economic value
to man.

When all is said and done, reservation is by far the most
satisfactory method of ensuring the protection of any particular
forest, because under proper organisation the protection is com-
plete and supervision concentrated. Thio is not possible when
merely a few of the more valuable species are protected (by fixing
a minimum felling girth or by selection for felling) generally
all over the country.

Nor must it be concluded that wholesale reservation is neces-
sary in order to ensure the permanent existence of forests suffi-
ciently extensive to meet the ordinary demands for forest produce.
Experience has shown that from 35 per cent, to 40 per cent,
of the total wooded area only need be taken up as reserves, even
when such reserves include the forests that may require protec-
tion, in order to preserve the climatic factors of the locality.
There is thus ample unreserved land left at the disposal of the
natives for farming purposes.

54 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

If in addition to this, owing to the land laws recognised in this
part of Africa, the principle is recognised and acted upon that the
native communities are entitled to a share of the produce of the
land and that accordingly they should share with the Government
any revenues that may be derived from exploiting the reserves,
then they can have no reasonable grounds for objecting to
reservation within the limits mentioned above.

Objection on their part to a system that—

(a.) Ensures a permanent supply of forest produce;

(6.) Ensures the reservation and improvement of the climatic
factors of the locality ;

(c.) Gives them a share in any pecuniary benefits derived
from such reservation ; and

(d.) Provides ample land on which to farm :

can but emanate from, those who are averse to improvement and
the establishment of law and order in the management of their
affairs.

At the same time it should be recognised, and provided for,
that the technical department under which the management of
the reserves is placed must be absolutely unfettered in carrying
out such professional operations as are necessary to ensure the
objects of reservation. The inhabitants should not be allowed
such rights and servitudes in the reserves as are likely to
threaten the existence of the forests or interfere with their proper
management.

Under the existing land tenures the paramount Government
cannot reasonably hope to benefit to any large extent by the
revenues derived from the reserves, as it does in India and
Burma. It should suffice if the revenues pay for the expense
of the department, and at the same time leave a small percentage
of profit over to be shared with the native communities owning
the land on which the reserves are situated.

When legislating for the legal creation of the reserves this
point should be kept in mind, and it ought to be definitely stated
that only the nett profits (after all the expenses of management
have been deducted) are to be shared in the manner indicated
above.

Except in cases where reservation is imperatively required for
preserving the water supply or arresting the progress of desicca-
tion, £c., areas taken up for reserves should, as far as possible,
be st'li'i'tod in localities free from villages or large farms. If the
inclusion of villages is unavoidable, then the latter should be
bought out with all their rights and provided with suitable land
elsewhere.

( i-nerally speaking the ordinary rights exercised over the
collection of forest produce for the local requirements of the
people residing over the vicinity of the reserve should, as far
a^ possible, be respected, unless the exercise of such rights
threaten? the existence of the forest or is likely unduly to inter-
fere with its management.

GOLD COAST — EEPORT ON FORESTS. 55

Reverting now to the forests themselves, the first one examined
in Ashanti is that known as the Tsifufu Forest, situated to the
west of the railway, between the 104th and 107th miles. This
forest is drained on its eastern side by the Jym River and on the
west by the Oh'na stream, and its feeder the Subinsu ; the ground
is hilly and culminates on the north in Kemp's Peak, a high
prominent hill from which an extensive view of the surrounding
country can be obtained. The forest is being exploited by
Messrs. Nicholas and Brett, but at present operations are con-
fined to the eastern portions adjacent to the railway.

On this aspect (eastern) of the hills the forests are of secondary
growth, the larger Khayas (mahoganies) and Pseudocedrelas
(cedars) having been left as " standards " when the ground was
first cleared for farms. The secondary growth, however, is fairly
old and the leaf canopy is now nearly complete. Deciduous-
leafed trees such as Sterculia Barteri, Sterculia cordifolia,
Ricinodendron africanus, the Tiama-Tiama (Pseudocedrela sp.),
the Offram (Terminalia sp.), Tetrapleura Thonningii, &c., are
now a prominent feature of the vegetation and give it the
" mixed " appearance so characteristic of the Ashanti forests.
On the western slopes, drained by the Ofina and its feeder the
Subinsu, the proportion of evergreen trees to the deciduous-leafed
ones is slightly greater than prevails on the eastern aspects
drained by the Jym River. The trees are of more lofty growth
and both the large and small-capsuled cedars (Tiama-Tiama and
Penkiva, both species of Pseudocedrela), as well as the ordinary
Gold Coast mahogany (Khaya sp., the Dubini of the Fantis), and
the Odoum of the Ashantis, are common about here. The summits
of the higher hills are clothed with high forest containing the gum
copal tree, Cyanothyrsus ogea, Piptadenia africana, and a large
unnamed species of tree of the same genus that is very common
on these hills. One fine example of the rare Pebedum (Lovoa
Klaineana), a tree that yields an excellent timber and is closely
related to the cedars, was found, and good specimens of fruit
procured from it. The Ashanti name for this tree is Kwatanuro.

The next forests to be examined were those in the vicinity
of Oboase and between it and the Adra River close to the village
of Hun. The first four miles of the path passed through land
leased to the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation. Timber has been
cut here (within a radius of two miles from Oboase) for the use
of the mines, both for fuel and construction purposes. The con-
sumption of fuel for all the mines belonging to that Company
amounts to an average of 3,000 cords a month. During the last
ten years some six square miles of forest have been depleted of
timber for this purpose. The trees spared when the fellings are
made are the Dahomah (Piptadenia africana), the oil-bean tree
(Pentaclethra macrophylla), and a species of Brachystegia; the
wood of all of these is difficult to split into billets. The total area
of the concession amounts to 100 square miles, so that at the
rate of clearing for fuel of six square miles in ten years the felling-
rotation will be sufficiently long to enable the coupes first made
to be reclothed with forest capable of being utilized again for
firewood, and also to furnish timber of a fair size (4' 6" to 6' in
girth) for other purposes.

56 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

The old coupes are being gradually covered by young tree
growth, but the process is slow owing to the rank crops of the
" Umbrella tree ' (Musanga Smithii) that quickly occupy the
cleared areas and keep back the growth of more valuable species.
The Company contemplate getting out an expert to manage the
forests of the estate leased to them, and they propose starting
plantations of rubber, cocoa, &c., as well as exploiting the more
valuable timbers ; for the latter purpose the excellently well-laid-
out system of light railways of 24-in. gauge, with the highly
efficient little locomotives that are in use on them, will prove
invaluable. The general manager of the mines, Mr. McTear,
very kindly took us round the workshops, saw-mills, &c., and also
to the place where the fellings are being carried out this year.
The whole organisation of the mining work appears to be very
efficient, complete, and self-contained.

Between the concession and the Adra River the country is well
farmed, but broad belts of forest intervene, and are rich in both
mahogany (a new species of Khayd) and cedars. One magnificent
example of that fine timber-tree, the Odoum (Chlorophora
excelsa), was seen. The hills round Oboase are clothed with high
forest containing two species of Piptadenia, Kliayas, cedars, the
Off ram, and Sterculia cordi folia, as well as the gum copal tree
(Cyanothyrsus ogea); the Odoum is also common. We next
sxamined the forest situated in the fork formed by the junction
of the Adra River and the Offin River, as far northwards as the
town of Mansu Nkwanta. As it is proposed to take up a suitable
area in this locality for a reserve, the forests were examined in
some detail.

The land close to the junction of the two streams is low-lying
and subject to inundations during the flood season ; even during
the dry weather it is marshy and overgrown with canes (species
of Calamus and Ancistrophyllum) and the touibo or bamboo
palm (Raphia vinifera). Similar wet depressions are found in
the vicinity of the junctions of the smaller feeders with these two
main streams.

Proceeding northwards from the confluence, the ground gradu-
ally becomes broken and hilly, till within a few hours' journey of
Nkwanta the ridges culminate in peaks 1,000 to 1,200 feet in
height.

The ve.getation, except that occupying the marshes, is of the
irregular, high forest type, mostly evergreen, but with a fair
sprinkling of deciduous-leafed trees. In the alluvial depressions
that are not under water during the dry season a few mahoganies
(new species of Khaya), cedars (Pseudocedrela cylindrica, and
another species, the Tiama-Tiama), a large-leafed Kixliia (Sarco-
rcf)lialus sp.); Odoums, Offrams, Dahomahs, &c., are to be met
with, as well as the common silk-cotton tree, Eriodendron anfrac-
f iioxu w, Alstonia congensis, and rubber vines such as Landolphia
nirtin'i'itxix and Carpodinus liii-xi/fa. The undergrowth is very
dense and tangled, consisting to a large extent of climbing and
scrambling plants.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 57

The best forests, however, are found on the higher ridges
further northwards where they have not been farmed. They con-
tain the ordinary Khaya of the Gold Coast — apparently a new
species — two species of cedars, both of which are new ; numerous
Bakus (Mlmusops Djave), Odoums, Piptadenias, the incense
tree (Santiriopsis Klainei), the gum copal tree (Cyanoihyrsus
ogea), Kokoti (Pynaertia ealaensis), Parkia biglobosa, Chen-chen
(Ant HI nx to.vicaria var. africana), the Waw-waw (Triploch.it on
Johnson it), the shingle wood tree or Off ram (Terminalio sp.), the
Oivama (Ulcinodendron africanus), and the Emril (Terminalia
sp.), another shingle wood tree.

In the extreme northern portions of the tract of country now
being dealt with, the forests assume a rather drier character, and
deciduous-leafed trees become more numerous; they comprise two
species of Albizzia, Sterculia Barteri, S. cordifolia, S. torn-en-
tosa, Cola Afzelii, and a species of Pterocarpus. The tree, how-
ever, which is most characteristic of these northern forests, and
which makes them so valuable, is the indigenous rubber plant,
Funtumia elastica. It is extraordinarily abundant about here,
more so than I have found to be the case anywhere else, and I very
much doubt if the whole of the rest of tropical Africa can show
such a rich forest in that species. It grows at its best in the drier
portions of the evergreen forests, wrhere the underwood is more
open and species of trees with deciduous leaves far from
uncommon.

A large number of the rubber trees have been killed or severely
damaged from over-tapping, and it was a pitiable sight to see the
forest paths in some places literally strewn with the dead stems of
this species. Experience has convinced me of the fact that
Funtumia elastica is much less resistant to injury caused by tap-
ping than almost any other species of rubber-yielding tree. The
wood is very soft, and decays rapidly from fungoid infections
when exposed to the air. Once decay sets in the tree is easily
overthrown during the tornado season.

For these reasons the tapping of this species has to be carried
out with the greatest care and at comparatively long intervals of
rest.

Notwithstanding the large number of trees that have been
killed, there still remain an enormous number of fairly healthy
plants that should, with care, give handsome annual return. Per-
haps the best rubber forest is situated between the village of
Yapiakrom and Odumase, on the Yapiakrom-Odumase-Takora-
Adubia-jSTkwanta road.

The Forests North of Mansu N'Kwanta.

These are situated to the south-west of Kumasi and extend
northwards as far as the main Kumasi-Bibiani road. They are
traversed from north to south by the N'Kwanta-Amanchia-
Impasatia road. With the exception of a high and important
range of hills, situated a short distance to the north-west of

58 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Mansu-N'Kwanta, the country is undulating and broken only
occasionally by well-marked ridges. The northern spurs of the
main range extend a long way into the plains and broaden out
into small plateaux which are, I should think, about 1,000 ft.
above the sea and some 600 ft. below the crest of the water-part-
ing. The village of Amanchia is situated on one of the flat spurs.
The climate here is dry and bracing. With the exception of the
main range, which is covered with the densest of evergreen forest,
rmii:iining a fair sprinkling of mahoganies, cedars, odoum and
baku, the bulk of the vegetation consists of the mixed deciduous
type, and it gradually gets drier and drier northwards as one
approaches the Kuniasi-Bibiani road. The streams draining this
northern portion were quite dry at the time of our visit, and water
\\as difficult to find even after digging. As a general rule the
forest has been destroyed within a radius of a mile or so of the
more important villages for farming purposes.

On the main range itself (the N'Kwanta Bepo) clearings have,
I am sorry to say, been made right up to the crest of the ridge by
the inhabitants of Adu-Kuma. This should be stopped, as some
of the most important feeders of the Offin river rise in those hills,
and the country already shows signs of drying up. There is
ample suitable land at the foot of the hills available for cultiva-
tion. The hills are selected in preference on account of the richer
soil that underlies the moist evergreen forests clothing them. It
is just this deep layer of humus in conjunction with the roots of
the plants growing in it that serves as the regulator of the water-
supply, and is destroyed by farming.

The forests north of the main range belong, as mentioned above,
to the mixed deciduous type in which trees such as the Waw-waiv
(Triplochiton Johnsonii) ; the Off rain (Terminalia sp.) ; the Emril
(Terminalia sp.) ; the Dahomah (Piptadenia africana}; the
Owama (Ricinodendron africanus), Albizzia fastigiata, Albizzia
Brownei, the Odoum, (Chlorophora excelsa), the Tiama-Tiama
(f'teudocedrela sp.), the Punkwa (Pseudocedrela cylindrica), the
Snmanta (Xylia Evansii), Sterculia cordifolia, S. Barteri,
S. tomentosa, and a large species of mahogany (Khaya
unthotheca} with a light-coloured bark and wood, form
the dominant species. The ordinary Gold Coast mahogany
(another new species of Khaya} is also found about here in small
numbers. A species of Pterocarpus of lofty growth was seen in
these forests for the first time.

Between Tokorase and Mansu N'Kwanta the forests have been
much destroyed for farms, but belts are left intact here and there.
They consist of irregular high forest, very rich in Funtumia
eliixlicti, and contain a few cedars (Pseudocedrela sp.) and the
ordinary Gold Coast mahogany (Khaya sp.).

Other species met with were Piptadenia africana (very com-
mon), the Waw-waw (Triplochiton Johnsonii), common, the
Odoum (Chlorophora excelsa), common, and the two shingle- wood
trees, the Emril and the Off ram, both of them species of
Terminalia.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 59

Tlie marshy hollows between the hills contained thickets of
canes (Calamus and Ancistrophyllum sp.), and the tree Alstonia
cont/citsi*, from the soft wood of which the bnlk of the Ashanti
stools are manufactured.

In the neighbourhood ofEdubia some fairly highhills (1,200 ft.)
were seen. Those close to the town had been cleared of forest
vegetation right up to the crests and planted up with crops of
banana and koko yams. Whilst at N'Kwanta I took the oppor-
tunity of discussing forestry matters with the chief, and advised
him to insist on the rubber tappers being more careful in their
methods of tapping the trees and coagulating the latex.

As regards the question of taking up a forest reserve in the
country situated in the fork formed by the junction of the Offin
and Adra Rivers, there are several objections to acquiring an
extensive area for that purpose. The country is full of small
hunters' villages, and is much cut up with their farms, and is
comparatively poor in the more valuable timber trees, such as the
mahoganies and cedars. Unless the inhabitants of these villages
are compensated and removed to another locality, the exclusion
of the farmed lands and village sites will necessitate the adoption
of very irregular boundaries to the reserve, and they will in con-
sequence be difficult to patrol.

It should, however, be possible to acquire one or two small re-
serves, consisting of a few square miles each, in the richest rubber
forests. The object of reservation would be the protection and
improvement of what are without doubt some of the best rubber
forests on the coast. The natives owning the land should share
with Government any profits arising from the sale of rubber or
other forest produce collected in the reserves, the management of
which should be undertaken departmentally.

Suitable areas to choose from are the rich forests situated
between the villages Yapiakrom and Odumase and those to the
north of Tokorase. The actual selection will have to be made
with care, and in consultation with the native chief's, and will
require more time than we were able to spare. This matter
should stand over till a Forest Officer has been appointed to the
Gold Coast. For the present it is sufficient to have pointed out
the most suitable localities.

The new white mahogany (the Kiv.abaho of the Asliantis) was
a great find, and now makes the fourth species of Khaya known
to me. It is quite common in the drier portions of the mixed
deciduous forests, and amongst the more valuable timber trees is
the most characteristic species to be found in that sub-type. It
attains good dimensions and has a very large capsule.

The dominance of trees such as the Waw-waw, Oicama, the
Albizzias, the Stereulias, the Odoum, the Tiama-Tiama, the
Sdmaitta, and the white mahogany becomes accentuated in
the drier portions of the areas clothed with forests of the mixed
deciduous type. They become so common here and are such a
characteristic feature that it is almost advisable for purposes of

60 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

classification to transfer these comparatively dry forests into
a sub-type of their own.

The forest* between Impasatia and Bibiani. — They are very
extensive, and for the greater part consist of the type noticed
above. For some distance on either side of the Offin River,
however, they become much moister and belong to the ordinary
evergreen type in which several tiers of vegetation are found.

The first half of the journey, between Impasatia and Adieiura,
a mailer of some ten miles, was through dry forest of the mixed
deciduous kind. The overwood consists of trees of lofty growth
placed rather far apart, and beneath it comes practically only
one tier of undergrowth, the leaf canopy of which is complete.
The stems of the undergrowth are straight, and they are suffi-
ciently spaced to enable one to see some distance through the
forest. The latter is one of the richest in valuable species that
I have ever seen. Two species of mahogany, the ordinary one
and the white kind, as well as two species of cedars (the Tiama-
Tiama and the Punkwa) are extraordinarily abundant about
here. ;md for miles the path was literally strewn with mahogany
seeds. Another good timber tree, the Odoum (Chlorophora
eascelsd), is also plentiful, and considerably enhances the value of
the forest. The latter is continuous wTith the dry forest north of
N'Kwanta, and contains the same dominant species. They
together form a most extensive and valuable forest, which the
Administration should make every effort to protect. Villages
fortunately are comparatively few and far between, and should
not seriously interfere with reservation. There is one drawback,
however, and that is the scarcity of streams sufficiently large to
float out the heavier class of logs. Those we saw may of course
be capable of doing so when in high flood, but they are certainly
not capable of being utilized for that purpose in the dry season.

Good timber is plentiful enough, on the other hand, to make it
worth while to construct, a light railway for its extraction, and,
as forests quite as rich as "this one in every respect are met with
all along the road to Bibiani, an important gold mining centre
which is at present cut off from the railway or any navigable
rivers, there appears to be further inducement to undertake a
work of that kind.

West of the Offin Eiver. as far ns Yenebin, the forests are
slightly moisUM1, but they are still very rich in mahoganies and
eodars. A. third very fine species of the latter, that reaches aij
immense size, made its appearance for the first time. It is very
plentiful and seeds freely, the path being frequently strewn with
its huge capsules and seeds. The species loses its leaves in the
dry season and appears to be new to science. It seems to be
closely related to Fscudoccdrcla utilis, from Uganda. It is
known to the Ashantis as the Effuo Konkonti. These forests
again are well worthy of reservation; they are drained by two
important feeders of the Offin that are sufficiently large to be
ul'lixed for extracting timber.

Between Yenabin and Bibiani the forests continue to main-
tain their excellence, and in the more hilly parts species such as

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 61

the Baku (Mimusops Djave) and Kokoti (Pynaertia ealaensis),
which I had not seen for some time, made their reappearance.
That valuable tree, the Odoum (dilorophora excelsa), that fur-
nishes the best all-round timber to be found in tropical West
Africa, is very plentiful. The silk rubber tree (Funtumia elastica)
is also found in fairly large quantities, and, taken all round, I
think that in number and variety of valuable trees these exten-
sive forests of Western Ashanti will be hard to match anywhere
in Africa. Moreover, the undergrowth is not so dense as that pre-
vailing in the evergreen forests to be met with near the coast,
and in consequence the natural regeneration of the more im-
portant species is far more satisfactory, and the gaps in the
various age gradations less pronounced. They have so far not
been touched by the timber traders, and except for clearings
made for farms, little or no damage has been done to them.
Villages are not numerous about here, and the inhabitants of
some of them have one very good custom that greatly diminishes
the damage done to valuable timber trees when the forests are
cleared for farms, viz., the habit of leaving the larger mahoganies
and cedars as standards on the cleared areas.

Extensive reserves should be taken up on this side as soon as
possible, and strictly protected against farming. If the native
chiefs and communities are paid a share of the profits arising
from the exploitation of timber and other produce, no great
difficulty should be experienced in setting these areas aside as
forest reserves. The tract of country under forest is consider-
able, and probably exceeds 400 square miles ; so there is ample
wooded land available for cultivation as well. A special effort
should be made at an early date to protect the richest portions,
before they are invaded by new settlements.

The Forests between Bibiani and Mini.
(Tano River Drainage.)

Leaving Bibiani on the 30th March, we proceeded to Mim,
via the Bibiani-Ahiraso-Ka Krorn-Gose road. Between Bibiani
and Ahiraso a high range of hills intervenes, after which the
path follows close to the left bank of the Tano B/iver w^hich is
crossed at Tanoso. From here onwards as far as Mini the country,
though broken, has no very high hills dominating it, and is
characterized 'by the extraordinary abundance of its water
supply. Perennial streams are met with at frequent intervals
along the way to that town. The well-defined range of hills
close to Bibiani is covered with high forest, in which the ordinary
Gold Coast Klutyn and another species with large leaves, closely
related to, if not identical with, A', grandis, are very
plentiful. Other .species of trees noticed were the Punkwa and
Tiama-Tiama (species of Pseudocedrela), both common, the gum
copal tree (Cyanoihyrsus oyea), the Kokoti, Baku, Odoum, Kishia,
Afzelia africana, tSterculia Barteri, and Sterculia tornentosa.
The undergrowth here was thin and comparatively free from
climbers. In the swampy depressions to the north-east of the

62 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

range of hills, close to the Tano River, the Tombo palm (Raphia
viaifcrd) and a species of Calamus (rattam) are very numerous.
The forests throughout are fairly rich in Funtumia elastica.

Between Ahiraso and Ka Krorn, along the alluvial and some-
what swampy depressions bordering the Tano River, both Khayas
:ind Pseudocedrdas are extremely abundant, more so than 1 have
seen anywhere else in West Africa, excepting perhaps on the
lower slopes of the hills surrounding the sacred lake Bosumtwi
(about 30 miles south-east of Kurnasi), where almost pure patches
of Khaya grandis are to be met with. Trees such as
Sterculia wt-difolia, S. tomentosa, and Afzelia africana have
become more abundant in these forests, whilst Musanga Smithii
and Piptadenia africana are decreasing in numbers and size.

The forests contain several species of Monodora and also the
rubber-vine Landolphia Tliompsonii. In the neighbour-
hood of the various streams the forests are much moister in
• •liaracter than they are on the higher intervening ridges, which
are the areas on which the most pronounced changes in the vege-
lation have mainly taken place. Here the large-capsuled cedar
(Pseudocedrela utilis?) is so plentiful that it is to be reckoned,
together with the Sterculias and Odoums, as forming one of the
dominant species.

Two specimens of the Borassus Palm (Borassus ftabelliformis,
var. ^Ethiopica), that have been planted in the village of Gose,
were seen for the first time since we left Sekondi, where the
species is common on the grass lands close to the sea.

In the moist belts of forest growing along the numerous
streams that exist between the last named village and Mini, the
usual species inhabiting the tropical evergreen forests are to be
met with. The mahoganies and cedars are still abundant about
here. They are associated with the Off ram, Odoum, gum copal
tree, Albizzias, Piptadenias, Eriodendron anfractuosum, species
of Strophanthus, a Peltophorum that grows to a large size, and
with the oil palm. The Sterculias and Afzelia africana are
practically confined to the drier ground on the ridges.

The undergrowth of the evergreen belts of forest is very dense
and contains, amongst other species of small trees, large numbers
of the Ctirti/ia (/iiianensis, the fruit of which is rich in vegetable
nils. The timber also has a good reputation in Senegambia. In
these forests of Ashanti, however, it scarcely attains the dimen-
sions of a timber tree.

At Mini we got into the drainage system of the Bia River. It
is said to flow through country that is covered with extensive
.UK! dense virgin forest, the best parts of which are situated due
west of Mini. Owing to the difficulty we experienced in getting
guides from the chief of that town and the disobliging attitude
shown by him in general towards our proposed scheme of ex-
ploring these forests, we were, much to our regret, forced to
abandon 1 lu> idea of examining them. The locality is practically
uninhabited, and without his ready co-operation in procuring
supplies for our carriers the trip would have proved a failure.
As it was, we had great difficulty in getting enough food for our

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. fi3

men even during our short stay in the town, which is a large and
influential centre, and, I should imagine, capable of supplying
abundant food. However, we had the consolation of passing
through a very similar (so we were informed) tract of uninhabited
country, that was clothed with what is practically virgin forest,
during our journey to Mohang. These forests are described
below.

The Forests of the upper portion of the Bia River Drainage.

From the town of Mim to within a few miles of Pamo the
country is covered with an almost continuous stretch of high
forest that appears to be more or less virgin in character. In the
neighbourhood of Kenyase Mohang a few clearings and patches
of secondary growth are to be met with ; otherwise the forests
have been left intact, and extend with but few interruptions
right up to the zone of country forming the borderland between
the areas occupied by the mixed deciduous forests and the open
Savannah forests met with in north-western and northern
Ashanti.

The country is hilly in character with a few well-pronounced
ranges forming the divide between the basins of the Tano and
Bia Rivers. They do not, however, reach an altitude of more
than a few hundred feet above the main valleys, and have no very
marked influence on the vegetation with which they are covered.

The soil is more loose in character and covered with a deeper
layer of humus than that noticed during the last few days
between Bibiani and Mim, and the rocks are of much older type,
consisting mostly of schists and granites. Between Mim and
Kenyase Mohang several important feeders of the Bia have to be
crossed. They are all of them perennial streams containing
much water. The neighbourhood of that river is very swampy,
and the crossing difficult in consequence. From the opposite
bank the country appears to rise very gradually up to the low
plateaux of the open country. Water is as scarce on this side
of the basin of the Bia as it is plentiful on the left bank drainage.

The well-watered condition of the Bia and Tano River basins
about here appears to be mainly due to the fact that those two
rivers rise on the south-western slopes of the high ground form-
ing the edge of the Hinterland plateau, where, on account of the
elevation of the land and the aspect of the slopes (facing the
direction of the south-west monsoon), the annual precipitations
must be heavy. No doubt the presence of very extensive forests
in that direction also accounts in part for the abundant water
supply.

The right bank drainage area, on the other hand, of the Bia
River is not only very much smaller in extent, but it is fed from
tjie eastern (protected aspect) slopes of the important and high
range of hills that run close to, and almost parallel with, the
eastern boundary of the Ivory Coast for a very long distance.
This backbone, as it were, of the country runs practically north
and south, and its western slopes intercept the larger portion
of the monsoon rainfall.

G4 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

'I'll is distribution of the annual precipitations has made
its eft'ects felt on the vegetation clothing these two por-
tions of the l>asin of that river, with the result that
in the former (left bank drainage) there is a tendency,
despite the generally drier strain running through the
forests, for them to revert, especially between Mini and
Keuyase Mohang, where the streams are all crowded together
within a comparatively short space, to the moister evergreen
type in which /\*eudocedrela utilis, and another species, the
TiamarTiama, of the same genus, together with the ordinary
/\ Ini i/a (Dubini of the natives) as well as Khaya antliotlieca, are
still to be found.

Other species noticed were the Off ram, Odoum, Kokoti, and a
few Piptadenias. On the right bank drainage, however, and even
in the drier portions of the left bank side, species such as the
Duakobin, Afzelia africana, Sterculia Barteri, S. cordifolia, S.
lotnentosa, Albizzia Brownei, and another species, Xylia Evansii
and Tetrapleura Thonningii are very abundant. From such areas
the Khayas have practically disappeared, and Pseudocedrelas are
only found here and there as very subordinate members of the
forest vegetation.

Funt umia elastica is still found scattered about the forests, but
not in any large numbers. Rubber-yielding vines such as Carpo-
d-inus hirsute, Landolphia owariensis, L. Thompson?., and another
species occur pretty frequently in the more open portions of the
forest.

The Forests at the Head-waters of the Ba River.

Between Techerabini and Pamo another water-parting is
crossed. It divides the basin of the Bia from that of the Komoe
River, the latter being the most important river draining the
eastern portions of the French possessions on the Ivory Coast.
One of its large feeders, the Ba River, rises on the main ridge
referred to above as forming the backbone of the country about
here, and it was this portion (at the head waters of the Ba) of the
Komoe system that was traversed by us in our journey from Pamo
to Pulianio. The divide is ascended very gradually, and one
hardly realises from the general character of the country that an
important watershed is being crossed.

The difference in the forest vegetation, however, became more
pronounced, and we at last entered the typical mixed, deciduous
forests as found in those portions of tropical West Africa with
which I am acquainted. The chief characteristic of this type is
the rather high percentage (25 to 50 per cent.) of leaf-shedding
trees to be met in it. Not only do new species with the deciduous
hal)it make their appearance, but some of the trees ordinarily met
witl. in the moist evergreen forests, where they are mainly ever-
green in habit, become more pronouncedly leaf-shedding ; the re-
sult is that these mixed forests, in the' dry season especially,
acquire that peculiar patchy colour of grays intermingled with
various shades of green that is so noticeable in this type, the gray
colouring being due to the leafless crowns of trees that have
acquired the deciduous habit.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 65

The main factor determining the prevalence of any one type
in ti particular locality is the amount of rainfall and its distribu-
tion through the various seasons of the year. Where the dry
season is long and pronounced the majority of the plants have ac-
quired a very marked deciduous habit, even when the total rainfall
is otherwise heavy.

Secondary (edaphic) influences are brought about by the char-
acter of the soil, and mainly depend on its capacity for retaining
moisture. These influences become very important, however, in
districts where the total annual rainfall is small, say 40 inches or
less, and give rise to the most pronounced types of dry vegetation
(xerophilous thorn scrub and dry open savannahs) to be met with
in the Hinterland.

In Western Ashanti the transition between the moist, tropical
evergreen forests and the mixed, deciduous ones is rather gradual,
and spread over a comparatively large extent of country ; abrupt
changes such as are to be found in the neighbourhood of the high
hills of Kwahou and the plains situated to the north and east are
not experienced here, where the hills are of insufficient altitude
to bring about important differences in the amount of rain pre-
cipitated. Nevertheless, even in Western Ashanti the presence of
the hills has, to a certain extent, affected the general prevailing
type of forest found there, and resulted in a distinctly moister
strain of vegetation in localities which would otherwise, on ac-
count of their greater distance from the sea and the consequently
diminished force of the monsoon currents, be clothed with much
drier forests than is actually the case.

In proceeding from Puliamo to the north towards the Volta
River the struggle between the different types to gain the ascend-
ancy is very noticeable, and it is just along the borderland, as it
were — that is, along the belt of country between Puliamo and
Braha where the conditions are, so to say, unstable — that every
little advantage in increased moisture and favourable conditions of
soil is eagerly sought for by the mixed deciduous forests, and the
struggle is most keen; about here reversions from the mixed deci-
duous type to the open, dry, savannah forests are frequent till the
country gradually passes into one possessing a small rainfall,
when, these conditions being the most favourable for the latter
type, the mixed deciduous forests give way to the open, savannah
ones, and are henceforth confined to narrow straggling belts along
the water-courses and swamps.

As compared with the mixed, deciduous forests of Central
Burma and the Central Provinces of India, the West African type
contains on the whole a larger proportion of evergreens, and is
more closed, and hence the transition from it to the savannah
forests is rather more abrupt than it is in those parts of Asia.

Between Techerabini and Pamo an extensive patch of grass land
was met with for the first time. It was surrounded by mixed
deciduous forest, in which far and away the most dominant species
is the Duakobin (Afrormosia In.riflora), a large leguminous
tree with a very conspicuous red bark that peels off in large
12315

6t> COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Hakes and leaves the under portions, which are of a yellowish
\vliilr colour, exposed. The timber is yellow, and resembles satin
wood in grain and lustre. Specimens of the wood of either this
species or a closely related one from Southern Nigeria have, when
figured, commanded very good prices in the home market, as much
as Sd. per superficial foot. The Duakobin is one of the numerous
>pi>cies of timber trees that holds a very subordinate position in
the moisi, tropical evergreen forest close to the sea, and yet comes
to the front as a dominant species in the drier mixed deciduous
forests. It is found in small numbers throughout the moist
forests of Ashanti and in the Western Province of the Colony.

Associated with this species in the mixed, deciduous forests
are Xi/lia Eransii (very common), Afzclia africana, All>i::ia,
Broirni'i , . 1. faslif/iata, Chlorophora excelsa, Terminalia superba,
Sicrc/tl/a cortU folia, Triplochiton Johnsonii, Pynaertia ealnen*!'*,
the E in rll (Terminalia species), Eriodendron anfractuosum, and
in the moister portions a few Funtumia elastica. Some of the
villages we passed through on our way to Tuna had their houses
thatched with grass — a sure sign that the open savannah forests
were not far off. One very extensive patch of grass land, contain-
ing several examples of a tree, Vitex megaphylla, was seen close
to the latter village. The last but one of the more extensive belts
of evergreen forest (growing on well-watered, alluvial soil) was
passed through during this portion of the journey. It contained
some enormous Pseudocedrelas and a few Khayas, as well as the
usual species found in such forests.

One of the most noticeable features about this belt of evergreen
forest was the plague of thousands of blood-sucking flies (species
of Hacmatopota) that settled on one in swarms and drove every-
one, including the carriers, nearly mad with their bites. They
were two species — one black with some white on the wings and
legs, and the other a pale brown. The former was met with in
small numbers in the forests of the Bia River basin as well, and
the latter extends into the dry, open savannah country during the
rainy season. B\it nowhere else have I found both species so
numerous and such a nuisance as they are in the evergreen belt
mentioned above; unlike the tsetses (Glossina) and flies of the
genus Tabanus, they are very soft, and at once succumb to the
lightest pressure or knock.

I M-t \\een Tuna and Puliamo we crossed alternate belts of forest
and open savannahs, the former covering as a rule larger tracts of
country to begin with and then gradually getting smaller in ex-
tent till close to Puliamo, where it gives way to an extensive patch
of open savannah country some few square miles in extent. Here
we found in places Acacia Catechu, Dichrostachysnutans,Entada
toudanica, Vilc.r ci/ncata, and a dwarf species of Ficu*. The
Forest belts contained Eriodendron anfractuosum, Afronnoxiu
laxiflora, .\ylia Kransii, Chlorophora excelsa, Terminalia
tuperba, a species of Pseudocedrela, Sterculia cordi folia, and
( 'oln . 1 ficlii .

We obtained very fine views of the high range of hills to the
west, along the French border, from this open country.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 67

For a few miles to the north of Puliamo (Jopakrom) the
country is still drained by the ]Ja River, the sources of which are
situated on a prominent range of hills situated to the north-west
of that village : the path to Asare skirts the eastern slopes and
spurs of this range, and passes through for about six miles a
large belt of tropical evergreen forest — the last important one
that we saw till we turned southwards from Kintampo and entered
the forest region again some four marches from Kumasi. In this
evergreen belt, which was confined to some very moist, well-
watered alluvial soil along the valleys of the eastern slopes and
foot of the hills, a great number of plants that we had not seen of
late reappeared. The most conspicuous were Piptadenia
(ifrii-ann, Antiaris toj-icdi-iu var. nfricana, the Tiama-Tiama
(Pseudocedrela species), I'urkid biglobosa, the Raphia palms, and
a species of Cal/nnn*, Alston/a congensis, Myrianthus arboreits;
species of Antlmcleixta and Tetrapleura Thonningii were also
seen.

Still further to the north this evergreen forest is replaced by the
more open mixed, deciduous ones, amongst which patches of grass
are frequent and forest fires had already made their appearance.
This type of forest gradually gave way in its turn to the open
savannah forests (park-like country) of the Hinterland, which
from here northwards is the prevailing type. Shortly after
leaving the evergreen forest belt we passed over to the drainage
area of the Volta Eiver, the most important river of the Colony
and Protectorate, and one which, strange to say, drains for prac-
tically the whole of its course the open park-like country charac-
teristic of the Hinterland. Even near its mouth I understand the
country is devoid of any extensive belts of evergreen tropical
forest.

The Forests of the Volta River Drainage.
North-Western Aslianti.

The typical open savannah forests begin to form the dominant
feature of the country in the neighbourhood of the small village
of Asare, which is situated on the western Ashanti plateau. This
plateau extends in the form of undulating land to within a few
miles of the actual channel of the Volta Eiver, on approaching
which a pretty considerable drop occurs.

The rolling, open country does not, I think, anywhere much
exceed an elevation of a thousand feet above the level of the sea,
but it is intersected in a north to south direction by two prominent
ranges of hills which stand out well from the surrounding plains,
and must, on their higher peaks at all events, attain an altitude of
something like two thousand feet above sea-level. They are
mainly composed of schistose and granitoid rocks that have a
shattered appearance and are lying about, piled one on top of the
other in great confusion.

The two ranges are more or less parallel in direction, the one to
the west follows closely the line of the French boundary and even-
tually becomes the range known as the Banda hills, whilst the
other, situated some twenty to thirty miles further east, has its

12315 E 2

(58 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

origin somewhere south-west of Braha, and running northwards
past the village of Oboase gradually dwindles down to some low
dills close to the Volta; it is broken through in one place by the
Tomba River, a feeder of the Tain which, in its turn, is a tributary
of the Volta.

The Tomba and Tain together drain the greater portion of the
plateau crossed by us. At the head waters of the latter stream
water is abundant, biit further down their courses both rivers get
very dry, and water is confined to a succession of rocky pools. On
the whole the water-supply of this part of the country is very poor
and precarious ; the villages have often to depend on wells dug in
the beds of dried-up water-courses for their supply, and the whole
region has a parched-up appearance, which is intensified at this
time of the year (dry season) by the forest fires that were raging in
all directions. The highest parts of the plateau, such as at Sikas-
siko, Braha, and Oboase, were exposed at the time of our visit to
very strong, dry winds, that used during the night to rise to
regular gales, even when the sky was perfectly free of clouds.

As was to be expected from the arid conditions prevailing about
here, the vegetation inhabiting it belongs to a markedly
xerophilous type, which has been further intensified by the annual
fires.

Generally speaking, the vegetation occurs in open formations,
except in the immediate neighbourhood of the streams where the
moisture in the soil has induced luxuriant growth and a rever-
sion, according to the degree of moisture, to the tropical evergreen
or mixed, deciduous forests. These latter aro, however, quite
secondary features, and are confined to extremely narrow fringes
along the water courses. In the driest localities the majority of
the species become dwarfed, and some which are ordinarily found
away from water courses in the savannah zone are now obliged
to congregate along their banks, as the conditions become too dry
even for them. This habit is most noticeable with trees like the
true Khaya Senegal ensis (which is the dry zone species of
mahogany) and the " Sass wood ' tree Erythrophloeum
guineense. Though the formations are open it must not be
supposed that they are hardly worthy to be classed as forests, and
contain few, if any, species of value to man. Extensive areas,
more especially along alluvial deposits in the valleys, are clothed
with open forests in which the trees are growing as close to each
other as they are in a well-stocked orchard, and it is only the
absence of a dense and tall undergrowth that enables one to see for
any distance through them. In such places the growth of the
trees is straight and tall ; and above all the natural regeneration
and condition of the age gradations is, comparatively speaking,
very satisfactory — in marked contrast, as far as the latter point is
concerned, with what is usually experienced in the tropical ever-
green forests, and even the mixed, deciduous ones.

Moreover, it is on just such areas that forest conservancy is
most called for, and would have the best results on the water
supply of the country and improved tree growth, providing, of
course, fire protection is a prominent part of the programme. As

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 69

regards species of economic importance, there are several of them
belonging1 to the open savannah forests the timbers of which are
of good quality and well suited for local use if not for export.
Even for the latter purpose species such as the " dry zone " rnaho-
pany (Khaya senegalensis), the Opapao (Afzelia africana), and
the " dry zone" cedar (Pseudocedrela Kotschyi), furnish woods
that are well suited to the home markets.

On the borders of the mixed, deciduous forest belt, where the
supply of moisture in general is not so poor, the savannah forma-
tions are confined to outcrops of laterite rock. It was on a succes-
sion of such outcrops near the village of Asare that we first came
across the typical vegetation of the Hinterland which, as I am
informed by my friend, Monsieur A. Chevalier, who possesses an
unrivalled knowledge of the tropical West African vegetation as
found in its native haunts, is identical with that of the Western
Soudan.

From Asare northwards the savannah .forests begin to occupy
the greater portion of the country, and the rocky outcrops are
then inhabited by a very scanty dwarf vegetation, as they are, of
course, in these still drier regions, the driest spots of all, from
which the bulk of the moisture is rapidly evaporated or drained off
after a shower of rain. Nevertheless, even here, small pools of
water collect in the hollows eroded by the action of the roots of
weeds, and these eventually become fairly large reservoirs of water
that are generally occupied by aquatic plants. As a rule, how-
ever, they are quite empty during the dry season. Where exten-
sive sheets of rock come to the surface they are often bordered by
rings of evergreen vegetation that stand out in marked contrast
with the prevailing dry growth. The supply of moisture in the
soil is abundant in such localities, and is due to the drainage off
the sheets of rock. These spots are frequently occupied by large
trees that belong, in habitat, to the leaf-shedding forest areas
(mixed, deciduous forests), or even sometimes to the moist ever-
green forests. Such examples show how all-important the in-
fluence of moisture is in determining the type of vegetation found
in any one locality.

Great differences in the density of stock are met with in the
savannah forests. It varies from that of a well-stocked orchard
to the very open park-like formations of the more arid tracts, and
every intermediate condition is represented. The best growth
occurs on rich alluvial soils along the valleys and lower flanks of
the hills.

The trees typical of these savannah forests are :
The Senegal rosewood tree (Pterocarpus erinaceus) ; Erythrina
xenegalensis (a small tree); the " Sasswood ' tree (Eryth-
rophloeum guineense), a species of Dalbergia, Parkia
filicoidea (the locust bean tree), Albizzia angolensis,
Detarium senegalensis (a good timber tree), Afzelia africana
(which yields an excellent timber), Tamarindus indic/i,
Entada soiidanica, Entada abyssinica; Ormosia laxiflora, Acacia
Sieberiana, Acacia Catechu, another species of Acacia close to A
nigrescent, DanicUti tint rlf era (the "balsam copaiba '' tree),

70 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

alata, Dichrostachys niitans, Zizyplius imn-ronata,
Hymenocardia species, Tenninalia macro ptei-a, a species of
Psorosperinum, Coin cordifolia, Adansonia digitata (Baobal)
tree), Eriodendron anfractuosum (the silk-cotton tree; occurs as
a stunted variety in the typical savannahs) ; the dry zone
mahogany (Khaya senegalensis), the dry zone cedar (Pseudo-
cedrela /\otxcliyi), Blighia sapida (frequently cultivated), Pann-
<i rhi in c ii ratellae folium (edible fruit), P. Mobola (ditto),
Anogeissus leiocarpus (the " chew stick ' tree), Eugenia
oiraricnxix, Crossopteryx Kotschyana, the shea-butter tree (ttuty-
rospermum Parkii), Kigelia pinnata, Vitex megaphylla, V.
cu.ncdtfi (fruit much sought after by elephants), Bridelia
micrantha, a species of Antidesma, the fan-palm (Borassus flabel-
H for mix var. aetli iopi-ca), the wild date palm (Phoenix reclinata),
and a small species of spiny bamboo, probably Oxytenanthera
dbyssinica.

Amongst shrubs and herbaceous plants the most characteristic
species met with are :

The wild custard apple (Anon a senegalensis), the Mexican

poppy (Argemone me.ricana, generally found as a weed in waste

places near villages and farms), Cleome cil/ata, Gynandropsis

pentaphyUa (also a weed), Cochlospermum tinctorium (very com-

mon), several fibre-yielding weeds belonging to the genera Sida,

I'/'ciKf, Hibixcux, Triumfetta (T . rliomboidea and T. cordifolia),

and Corchorus, as well as several species of Indigofera, Tepliroma,

Crotalaria, and Desmodium. The Combretaceae are represented

by Co inhrcl it in nii-ciiioxiuu, ('. fiixcinn and (.' . inucronatum ; the

Melastomaceae by Dissotis pro strata and Tristemma hirtum ; the

Ilubiaceae by various species of Oldenlandia, Sarcocephalus escu-

lentus (a dwarf form of the Kishia, a timber tree of the evergreen

forests), and Gardenia sp. probably G. terni folia (very

common); the Compositae by various small weeds be-

longing to the geneva Widens, Vernonia, Ageratum,

Emilia, as well as Spilanthes acmella; the Asclepiadere

by Calotropis procera; the Nyctaginaceae by Boerhaavia

l>:niicul<itii and B. ascendeii*: the Euphorbiaeeae by species

of Euphorbia (the cosmopolitan weed, E. pilulifcra, E. prostrata,

and another very succulent prostrate form), PJii/Uaathi/x, and

Microdesmis puberula ; the Taccaceae by Tacca : the Liliaceae by

Aloe Biirtt-ri, Glorioxa rin '.«•< :ns, Asparagus africana*, a species of

Sansevieria, and S mil ax Kraussiana, which from its straggling

habit is a great nuisance, and frequently trips one up when walk-

ing through the open forests; the Orchidaceae by Lissochilus

/•axe it*, and L. He udelolii ; the Amaryllidaea by Criinun </if/<ui-

tci/ni, species of HficmnntJi itx and Hymenocallis senegambica.

The grasses are a very dominant type in these forests, and are
represented, amongst others, by species of Eragrostis, Andro-
/n»i/on, Paiiii-uni, &c., and the Cyperaceae by Bulbostylis barbata
and 11. hinirc/iK.

One of the main distinctions between the mixed, deciduous
forests and the savannah forests is the abundance in the latter of
the grasses. Plants of that order occupy a very subordinate
place in the former, whereas in the savannahs they are far and
away the dominant group, and play a very important part in

GOLD COAST — REPORT OX FORESTS. 71

suppressing, either by direct crowding or otherwise, the growth
of more valuable species, especially timber trees. Throughout
those portions of tropical Asia and Africa with which I am per-
sonally acquainted, the presence of grass in any large quantity is
synonymous with the occurrence in the dry season of forest fires.
Excepting in areas where fire protection has been a success, these
fires, whatever their origin is, may be looked upon for all prac-
tical purposes as one of the estahlished natural conditions against
which the vegetation has to contend. Fortunately for the plants
it so happens that the very same contrivances and adaptations that
enable them to successfully occupy such localities (that is, those
in which the supply of moisture in the soil is deficient) also enable
them to some extent to resist the injurious effects of the fires.
Almost all the species inhabiting the zone of vegetation exposed
to this danger have developed an extraordinarily thick bark quite
out of all proportion to the rest of the stem tissues. To prove
this it is sufficient to select at random any two species, say one
from the moist evergreen forests and the other from the dry open
ones, when it will be found, quite nine times out of ten, that the
latter has an absolutely (not merely proportionally) thicker bark.
Again, some of the species of trees occupying fiery areas have
enormously thickened roots (similar thickening, together with
the formation of bulbs, &c., is a common adaptation amongst
shrubs and herbs growing in dry soils) that, though woody, are of
monstrous growth compared with the stems. Such plants are cut
down every year by the fires, but send up shoots and stems again
during the rainy season, and so a struggle is kept up till the stems
eventually reach a sufficient height to enable the crown to escape
from the direct action of the flames, when a more rapid growth
becomes possible. The loss in wood increment from such causes
is very great. Plants accustomed to these conditions show extra-
ordinary vitality, and it is often impossible to kill them except by
grubbing up the roots completely.

Perhaps the best example of an adaptation, amongst West
African tree*, to resist the arid conditions prevailing in the
-I'vannahs, is shown by the baobab (Adansonia <li/n1ntn. and some
other species of the same genus), the stem of which is thickened to
such an extent as to give it the appearance of a gigantic carrot.
This development is accompanied by changes in the wood tissues
that enable the xtein to function as a reservoir for storing water in,
and thus to replace its loss from transpiration during the dry
season of the year. It is probable that a large proportion of the
plants belonging to the savannah forests that mature their fruit
during the dry season do so after the annual fires have passed over
the land ; enough statistics, however, have not been collected to
establish this point.

The grasses, on the other hand, appear to suffer very little in-
jury from the fires, and, if anything, seem to shoot up with renewed
vigour very shortly after they have been exposed to their action.
Their main vegetable period is. as a rule, earlier than that of the
trees inhabiting the same localities, and is practically at an end
by the middle of July. It begins at the end of March, imme-
diately after the annual fires, and is completed in July. Thanks
to the dispersal of their seeds by wind agency, as well as to the

72 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

possession of rhizomes (underground stems) by many species, their
powers of reproduction are something phenomenal, and they can
easily out-distance most of their competitors. Underground stems
must be a distinct advantage as a protection against fires to those
plants that possess them. The dried-up stems of the grasses form
by far the greater part of the inflammable material on which the
fires are fed, and in this respect alone their presence must have a
very marked influence on the lives of the trees associating with
them. Persons who have witnessed a savannah fire at close range,
especially where the grasses are represented by gigantic forms
such as Imperata arundinacea or Saccharum spontaneum, are
alone capable of realising to their fullest extent the magnitude
and fierceness of the flames. Those due to the burning of the
ordinary layer of leaves found under trees with the deciduous
habit are quite insignificant and negligible in comparison.

The exposure of the soil to the sun and hot winds after the fires
have burnt oft: the protective covering of leaves and other vegetable
debris, results in a deterioration of its fertility, which is further
decreased when the rain from the tornadoes that immediately
follow the fire season sweeps away the ashes into the nearest
stream, and this process is repeated annually. Taken as a whole,
the grasses, when existing in any large numbers, are a very
decided menace to tree growth, both directly and indirectly.
Woodland and grassland formations are always opposed to each
other, and there is a continuous and fierce struggle between them to
gain possession of the land.

In the "fringing" belts of vegetation, which are in-
variably confined to the immediate vicinity of the water-
courses, moist depressions, and swamps, certain species from
the evergreen, moist forest regions near the coast make their
reappearance not in the subordinate position in which they arc
usually found in the latter, but as dominant types. The most
conspicuous examples amongst the trees are Carapa guianenxi*.
Berlinia acuminata, Hicinodendron africanus, a species of Cyno-
inctra close to C. Mannii, and Pterocarpus esculentus; whilst other
species not met with at all in the evergreen coastal forests occur
here : they are Mimusops multinervis (a good timber tree), an
ebony (Diospyros mespilifonnis} , a small apocynaceous tree (Poly-
adoa umbellata}, and a species of Schrebera close to S. golun-
gensis. A tree characteristic of the swamps in the dry open
country is Mitragyne africana, a near relative of which (M . macro-
phylla) occupies similar localities in the forest region further
south.

Of course, in addition to the above-mentioned plants, others
common to both the evergreen tropical forests and the mixed deci-
duous ones are also found in the fringing forests. The most
CHIIIMIOII arc: Sterculia Borlcri, Sicrculiti to/nentosa, S. conli-
folia, the Odoum (Chlorophora excelsa), the mahoganies, Khaya
Puncliii and Khaya grandis, the silk-cotton tree, Eriodendron
anfnn-1 nosum, Cola Afzel/i, Glyphaea grewioides, Xanthoteylum
senegalensc, Spondias hitea, Piptadenia africana, Termiiwliu
scutifera, T. Brownii, Cassia fistula, Mimosa asperata, Albizzia
Brownei, A. fastigiata, Randia maculata, Usteria guineensis,and
Spathodea campanulata.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 73

Further detail of the vegetation met with in the savannah
country is given in the chapter dealing' with the Afram plains
(Volta drainage). Of all the dominant plants inhabiting the
fringe forests Carujxi i/uianensts has acquired, in comparison with
its growth in the moist coastal regions, the best development. It
is now quite a respectable-sized timber tree. Rubber-yielding
vines, such as Landolphia owariensis, and others giving a less
valuable product, such as L. Thompsonii, L. ftorida, and Carpo-
dinus hirsuta, are also met with in this type of vegetation.

A very noticeable feature about the trees inhabiting the open
savannahs, more especially the drier parts, are the umbrella-
shaped crowns that they have developed, apparently with a view
to ottering as small a surface as possible to the action of desiccating'
winds. This habit is most pronounced in the case of species such
us Afzelia a frit-ana, Erythrophloeum guineense, Acacia Catechu,
Knt ml a soudanica, Khaya senegalensis, Daniella thurifera, Erio-
dendron anfractuosuiu, &c., amongst which the two first-men-
tioned species are far and away the best shade-givers in a region
that is mercilessly exposed to the fierce rays of a tropical sun.

The Indian tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica) appears to be
truly wild about this part of the Yolta drainage, and occurs in
belts and groups at no great distance from the watercourses ; it
does not, however, invade the fringe forests. I have also seen
fairly extensive forests of it close to the banks of the Okpara
Kiver, S. Nigeria, along the Dahomeyau border.

The baobab tree, on the other hand, is not really indigenous in
any part of West Africa that I have so far visited. It may be a
native of the countries north of the tenth parallel, but wherever I
have been it is always associated with human habitations, and its
existence in any locality is a certain indication that the site is or
was once occupied by villages.

Between Sikassiko and the Volta River at Tonkornia one fre-
quently comes across the sites of deserted villages, the majority of
which were abandoned on account of Ashanti raids, that are now
occupied by dense thickets, in which Anogeissus leiocarpus,
Acacia Catechu, Entada soudanica, the silk-cotton tree, and
groups of baobabs (Adansonia digitata) are the most prominent
trees. One such thicket, close to the village of Braha, is periodi-
cally occupied by lions that make raids from there on the flocks
and herds of the surrounding villages. We were shown the skins
of some of these great cats that had been killed in the thicket by
the native hunters.

The best type of open savannah forest containing trees of good,
straight growth, is to be found along the valleys on both sides of
the Braha-Oboase range of hills, where the soil is rich and com-
paratively moist. Some of the forests are well wrorth reserving,
as they contain useful timber trees, such as Khaya senegalensis,
Erythrophloeum guineense, Afzelia africana, Detarium senegal-
ense, Lophira alata, Daniella thurifera, and l'.*i ndocedrcla
Kotschyi in abundance, as well as the shea-butter tree (Butyro-
* per mum Parkii), which, however, is almost universally distri-
buted in the Hinterland. The hills themselves are occupied with

74 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

stunted, g-narled tree growth, which in many places has acquired
the habit of Chasmophytes and Lithopytes. It is represented in
general by the same species as occupy the valleys, but it is also
rich in aloes, succulent Kn pliorh'm.^ and plants of the genera
/'/r//\ and Sfi-i/i-linos. The poor condition of the hill vegetation
may be attributed to the extremely rocky character of the ground
and consequent scarcity of water.

Good open forests reappear in the valley of the Tornba (Tornme
of the maps) River, and again close to the Volta River before the
final descent to the channel is made. The banks of the latter are,
as usual, occupied by fringing forest. Magnificent park-like
country-is met with on the high shelf of land skirting the right bank
of that river. The trees about here are of very fine growth, but they
are widely scattered, and the intervals are occupied by grass.
Cola cordifolia and a small dark-coloured Acacia, closely related
to A. nigrescens, are common in this locality.

East of the village of Oboase the forests for miles are very
stunted in growth, and water is extremely scarce in that direction.
The banks of dried-up water-courses are occupied by thickets of a
spiny bamboo that appears to be an Oxytenanthera, probably 0.
dbyssinica. Here even such xerophilous trees as Khaya sene-
galensis and Afzelia africana are, on account of the dryness,
forced to abandon the high parched-up ground and congregate to-
gether along the banks of the streams.

A few miserable Raphias, oil palms, and the wild date palm,
Phoenix reclinata, are also to be met with in the same localities.

The fan palm (Borassus flabelliformis var. aethiopica) is not
nearly as abundant in these savannahs as it is on the Afram plains
in the extreme north-eastern portion of the colony. Nevertheless
it is sufficiently plentiful to form a prominent feature of the
landscape.

The Yolta River, where we crossed it, just below Tonkomia, is a
magnificent stream nearly 400 yards across from bank to bank ;
just above and below this point, however, it becomes much nar-
rower, and is confined for miles in a rocky channel. The fringe
of evergreen vegetation is not as broad as one would expect from
a river of that magnitude, but this is probably due to the very high
and stony character of the banks, to which moisture cannot perco-
late during the dry season when the river is very low.

Low rocky hills are found along both banks of the Yolta, and
the rich alluvial soil along the valleys between them is occupied
by forests of superior growth.

Those passed through between Bian and Jugba (in the Northern
Territories) are quite good and capable of yielding fairly large
timber. Unfortunately the time at our disposal was too short to
enable us to make a tour through other portions of the Northern
Territories, where, I understand, good forests exist, as, for in-
stance, to the south-east of Bole and along the left bank of the
Volta to the south-west of that station. If they are as good as
those we saw during our marches from Tonkomia to Bery, then
that portion of the Protectorate is to be congratulated on its posses-

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 75

sions, for the forests we passed through were about as good of
their kind as exist in the dry zone of the Hinterland. Here again
reservation of the best wooded areas is very desirable, especially
along the main lines of communication, so as to ensure a supply of
timber for the various district headquarters' stations and the more
important towns. The adoption of such measures would also be
attended with the happiest results so far as the preservation and
improvement of the water supply of the stations are concerned.

Near the crossing at Bery the evergreen belt is much broader
and contains a fair quantity of either /\lmi/n anthotheca or
Khaya gnnuli*, as well as the Odoum (( 'lilorophom c.i-cehu^. From
there the ground gradually rises up again into the Northern
Ashanti plateau on which Kintampo, N'koranza, &c., are situated.
The final ascent is, in the neighbourhood of the former town,
rather steep, abrupt, and very rocky. From the edge of the
escarpment a splendid view is obtained of the Banda hills and the
country drained by the Tain River. As far as one could see the
vegetation appeared to be of the same character throughout the
country embraced by the panorama, and is that typical of the
savannah forests. The monotony of the colouring was relieved
here and there by the dark green lines of the evergreen belts fring-
ing the streams.

In the vicinity of Kintampo itself some very excellent tracts
of forest belonging to a sub-type that is rather rare were met with.
They belong to the mixed deciduous forest formations, but are
eery open, and contain trees of lofty growth, amongst which
nearly all the more important timber-yielding species of Ashanti
are represented. They, of course, occur as broad fringing belts
along the water-courses, and are confined to the richer alluvial

soils.

In character they approach closely the better class of the mixed
deciduous forests of Burma. They extend, with frequent inter-
ruptions, due to belts of savannah forests intervening, right up to
N'koranza, and must altogether cover an extensive area. Con-
taining as they do well-grown examples of mahoganies, cedars,
Odoum*, Off ram*, /f/iliomahs, Wntr-iccur, &e., they are suf-
ficiently valuable, at least the best of them, to be protected by
reservation. One very important and excellent feature about
them is the satisfactory condition of the age gradations, which,
with proper treatment, would ensure a continuous yield of forest
produce. The undergrowth, apart from the seedlings of the over-
wood, consists mainly of plant associations belonging to the
natural order Scitamineae, \vhich is here represented by various
species of Ainonnnn, ( 'oxtns, and I'll rynium ; the latter furnish
the leaves so much in demand for thatching purposes by the
natives inhabiting the mixed deciduous zone of vegetation.

As Kintampo is likely to become a very important base for the
stations in the western portions of the Northern Territories when
that country is more opened up, it is advisable to protect the best
local sources of timber from damage by farming and indiscri-
minate fellings as soon as possible. The forests in its neighbour-
hood are capable of supplying timber of the very first quality and
of large dimensions.

76 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

From a professional point of view these very open, mixed deci-
(luo.i- forests are much to be desired, as they are more amenable
1o, and re-pond freely to, systematic management, and contain a
greater proportion of useful trees per acre than do the dense, moist
evergreen forests near the coast, in which only comparatively few
out of the vast number of different species composing the growing
stock are of economic importance.

Tlie Kintampo and N'koranza forests require further investiga-
tion with a view to ascertaining the possibility of exploiting them
for the home markets. Perhaps the Pru and other large feeders
of the Yolta River will prove to be of sufficient size and depth to
float down large timber during the flood season. In Burma big
io.U-s are frequently exploited from extremely hilly, and even
mountainous, country by taking advantage of the heavy rises in
the streams during the monsoons. It is wonderful what obstruc-
tions, of the nature of rapids and waterfalls, timber is capable of
successfully overcoming without sustaining much damage if only
the highest floods are utilised in floating it out.

After leaving N'Koranza we proceeded to Kumasi by the main
Kintampo-Kuinasi road, and very soon got into the moist, ever-
green tropical forest belt through which the rest of the journey
was performed. These forests differ in no respect from those we
examined to the west of the capital of Ashanti on our way to
Mim, and we therefore did not spend any time in specially investi-
gating them. The last two marches were through country that
has been extensively cultivated at one time or another, and con-
tains some good cola plantations. Nurseries of young cocoa
plants were a constant feature of every Ashanti village that we
passed through within the big forest region, and the same remark
applies to the villages of Upper Waw-saw and Denkira. The way
in which the cultivation of this plant has been taken up by the
natives throughout the most suitable localities in the Colony and
Protectorate is perfectly astonishing, and shows what they are
capable of doing, once they have had practical demonstrations of
the financial success attending such enterprise.

We reached Kuniasi on the 3rd May, 1908, and after spending a
few days in arranging for our next trip and in visiting Captain
Soden,theActingCommissioner at-0boase,with a view to procuring
information regarding the possibility of taking up a reserve on the
Dampia hills, and in enjoying the kind hospitality of the Acting
Chief Commissioner, Major Armitage, D.S.O., with whom I was
able to discuss forest matters, Mr. Burbridge and I started on the
llth of the same month for our fourth and last trip through the
Gold Coast forests.

Our late journey through the western and northern portions of
Ashanti had shown us the immense and valuable resources of the
country so far as forestry and agriculture are concerned, and had
to me, personally, enlarged my ideas and experience of the forests
of tropical West Africa.

The Forests South-East of Kumasi.

During a trip made to Kwisa (on the Cape Coast road), south-
east of Kumasi, with a view to examining the forests situated

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 77

between the Jym River and the Danipia range of hills, an oppor-
tunity was given of ascertaining the type of vegetation to be
found along that road as far to the south-east as the crest of the
range of hills mentioned above.

Generally speaking, the forest growth met with contained but
few species of any economic importance. The Odoum (Cliloro-
phora excelsa), an odd cedar (Pseudocedrela sp.), the shedua or
gum copal tree (Cyanothyrsus ogea), Funtumia elastica, the
shingle tree (Terminalia sp.), and a few mahoganies (Khaya sp.),
were the only valuable trees met with. Of these the Odoum and
the Off rani were far and away the most plentiful, and formed a
conspicuous feature of the vegetation.

The forests are of secondary growth, and are very irregular as
regards the condition of the growing stock. They are much
honeycombed with farms at the present time, and show abundant
traces of having been subjected to the same treatment in the past.
As usually happens in such cases, the clearing of the forests for
farms and the subsequent relapse into " bush " of the abandoned
(fallow) sites, has resulted in a few selected species of trees only
becoming dominant in the secondary growth that springs up.

These selected species generally throughout the country consist
of the Odoum (Chlorophora excelsa), Dahomah (Piptadenia
africana), the Off ram or shingle wood tree, the Emril, another
shingle wood tree, Pentaclethramacropliylla, the Waw-waw (jTr?^-
lochiton Johns onii), and Ricinodendron ajricanux. These trees
are left by the natives as ' standards ' when they clear the
forest for farms, and by a repetition of this process the dominance
of the favoured species becomes accentuated as the felling rota-
tions increase in number, till in time the forest acquires the
character of a wood that has been exploited under the " coppice
with standards " system, the standards being composed of a mixed
crop of the favoured species enumerated above, whilst the " cop-
pice '' consists of a very dense tangled mass of vegetation formed
to a large extent of climbers, such as various species of
Tjandolpliia, Carpodinus, Clitandra, ' Hippo crate a, Strophanthus,
Combretum, Acacia pennata, Acacia ataxacantlra, and shrubs and
trees such as Haronrja madagascariensis, Rauwolfia, Myrinnllma
(irboreiix, the "umbrella tree'' (Mnxtmrja Stnitliii), Albizzias,
and a host of other species. Amongst the dominant species of the
overwood (standards) natural regeneration by seed is most success-
ful in the case of the Waw-waw and the Offram trees.

Along the Cape Coast road, between Kuinasi and Kwisa, some
excellent examples of this type of secondary forests are to be met
with. The older forests are confined to the vicinity of the largest
streams, as, for example, the Adra River, and to swampy areas,
such as the swamps met with between Dompoase and Fomena,
where farming has not been much resorted to in the past.

Comparing these forests with those of the Western Ashanti that
are situated on approximately the same parallel of latitude, the
most marked difference between the two is the extraordinary abun-
dance in the latter of species of cedars (Pseudocedrela), and maho-
ganies (fthayas). This, in conjunction with the fact that in places

7S COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

is :i decided tendency on the part of the natives inhabiting
licit side to favour trees .it these two genera l>y leaving them as
• si;iii(l:H-(ls " when clearing the hush for fai'ins, makes the forest
areas of Western Ashanti far more valuable to the forester than
tho.se along the Cape Coast road within the limits of area now
being dealt wit h.

Tin's state of affairs in south-east Ashanti is, however, by no
means to he deplored. The people east of the railway are keen
tanners, they have gone in extensively for cocoa cultivation in
an area that appear- to he eminently suitable for that plant, and
they will nap the full benefits arising from the proximity of the
ra.il way to their farms; in short, under the circumstances, it is
preferable' iii every way that this land should be taken up for
•Agricultural purposes.

The farms belonging to the important town of Fomena extend
for a long distance round that place, and the whole locality gives
one the impression of being an excellent agricultural centre. The
country is well watered, in fact exceptionally so, and should suit
plant-: such as cola and cocoa admirably.

I was glad to see that the cultivation of the indigenous rubber
tree I'untnin'm i/i/,--f/nt has also been taken up by the natives in
this part of the country. In the wild state it is rather sparsely
distributed about here.

The Proposed Dampia Reserve.

'This reserve was meant to include the area situated between
the -Jyin Iviver and the crest of the Dampia range; it being
bounded on the south by the boundary of the Ashanti Gold-
lields Corporations land and on the north by the junction of the
Moiiisin hills with the Dampia range. From the Kwisa rest-
house, which is situated on a high spur of the Moinsin hills, Mr.
Burbridge, Curator, and myself, were able to obtain a very good
panoramic view of the upper basin of the Jym River and a por-
tion of the forests that it was proposed to take up as a reserve.
Excursions to the eastern watershed of that river, right up to the
crest of the Dampia range and along it for some distance, as
well as through the northern portions of the forests situated
1 >et \\-oen the river and the hills, showed us that: (a) the forests
are very extensively cut up with cocoa farms, some of wliich are
actually situated at the foot of the main range; almost all the
villages situated along the right bank of the river possess farms
within the area proposed to be taken up as a reserve ; (b) plants
of economic importance are comparatively scarce in these forests,
which are particularly poor in the more important timber-trees
-'irii as i he mahoganies and cedars; the Odoum (Chlorophora
excelsa) and the shingle wood tree, the Off rani, are practically
the i 1\ valuable timber-trees to be met with in any abundance:
these two species are, however, universally distributed in
Ashanti, and it would hardly be justifiable to take up a reserve
here solelv because the forest is rich in them; the Pebedum
(Lovoa Kl<i!nc,ni,!\, a good timber-tree, is sparsely distributed
about here: (c) the upper .Jym "River, north of the point where the
Cape Coast road crosses it, is scarcely of sufficient size to enable

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 79

timber to be floated down it. This fact excludes for the present
the advisability of taking up as a reserve the rather extensive
forests drained by the upper reaches of the river where only a
few villages and farms are said to exist.

The large number of farms in the lower basin of the river and
within the limits of the proposed reserve would make it very
awkward to establish reservation here ; this, coupled with the
fact that the forests are poor in economic plants, that the ground
is to a large extent swampy, and that owing to the .steepness of
the western slopes of the hills but little other forest-covered land
is available, induces me to recommend the abandonment of any
scheme for forming a reserve here. Owing to the number of
farms existing in the locality, the measure is certain to prove
very unpopular with the inhabitants.

A well cut and graded mule path was found along the crest
of the Dampia range; it was apparently constructed by one of
the mining camps (the abandoned site of which we visited) some
years ago, and is still in good order.

Though the forests under consideration are not worth reserv-
ing with the object of ensuring a contimied supply of forest
produce and improving the condition of the growing stock, yet
the fact should not be lost sight of that on general principles
alone it is highly important that the forests clothing the crests
of the hills and the steep slopes should be protected against farm-
ing in order to preserve the climatic factors of the country. This
measure is in the interests of the farmers themselves as it
ensures, apart from the existence of local swamps, the general
water supply of the streams, prevents erosion of the hill-sides,
and provides for barriers of forest vegetation against the spread
of any fungoid diseases or insect pests that may attack the agri-
cultural crops. It in fact helps to segregate the infected areas.

The Forests between the Cape Coast Road and Lake Bosumptwi.

After leaving Kwisa we marched to Lake Bosumptwi by the
Bojawe-Dadiase-Bansu road, which passes through country that
has been extensively farmed. In fact, with the exception here
and there of narrow belts of secondary forest growth, most of the
land is now under crops, such as cocoa, cola, yams, maize, &c.
Small plantations of Funtwnia ehistica have also been made in
the vicinity of the villages passed through. The secondary
forest contains the usual species common to the forests of Ashanti
along this parallel of latitude. Odoum is common, and so is the
shingle tree, the Offram ; these, with a few cedars (Psciidoce-
dre/a), are practically the only useful trees to be met with.

The hills bordering the southern edge of the lake are, how-
ever, more extensively wooded, and here cedars and mahoganies
are more plentiful. One species of the latter, probably Khaya
grandis, is very abundant along the southern shores of tiu1
lake. A rough valuation survey made over 6'4 acres gave
approximately an average of three trees over 4' 6" in girth to the
acre, a very high figure when the area covered by a mahogany
tree is taken into consideration. The natural regeneration of

80 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

i liis species is also excellent along the cleared shores of the lake.
Extensive patches ol (all elephant grass have made their appear-
ance on i In- cleared -lopes facing (lie lake, and as these patches
appear to he Imnn every year during the dry season there is
some danger of denudation of the hill-sides eventually taking
place, if the spread of ihe grass -it ihe expense of forest growth
is not checked.

The lake itself does not appear to occupy the crater of an
ancient volcano as has been suggested. I could find no trace of
vulcanic action anywhere. It is more probably due to
the sudden subsidence of an upland valley; subsidence is still
going on, as is manifest from the dead trees to be seen standing
\\r11 a\vay from the shores in the southern end of the lake, and
i lie encroachment annually of the water on the village lands at
that end. There is a marked difference in the level of the surface
of the lake in the wet and the dry seasons.

The Forests between Lake Bosumptivi and the Anum River.

After leaving, by the Bansu-Odumase road, the steep-sided basin
in which the lake is situated, we passed through open well-farmed
country in which the usual "standards'1 such as the Odoum,
Waw-waw, Off ram, Emril, Eriodendron anfractuosum, Ricino-
dendron africanus, have been left on the farms by the natives. A
few irregular belts of secondary forest containing some Khayas
and Pseudocedrelas were also met with here and there, especially
along the water-courses.

Vegetation and farms of this type are met with for some dis-
tance on the other side of the Anum Eiver, which is still a large
stream in this locality and quite capable of floating out the
heaviest timber.

The Forests between the Anum River and Odiimase.

After crossing the Anum River we ascended the low undulat-
ing plateau that forms the country to the east of the sacred lake.
For the first hour the path led through open country that had
been well cleared of forest growth for cultivation; cocoa farms
extend on either side of the track for miles, practically, and are
but little interrupted by belts of forest. The latter then become
larger in extent and finally merge into a splendid old forest that
is almosl primeval in character. This forest is about 16 miles
ode from east to west where we crossed it, and stretches south-
believe, for a long distance. It contains trees of lofty
the leaf canopy is almost complete, and in the dense
that prevails the undergrowth is so sparse that one can see
to fO yards through the forest, and can walk freely about
it \N itliout having to use the matchet.

It is greatly to be deplored that this magnificent example of
tropical evergreen forest is so comparatively poor in trees of
economic value; with the exception of a few cedars that were
seen at long intervals and a more plentiful supply of the Odoum
there was nothing to be found there that is of much value at

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS, 81

present. The ubiquitous Off ram, of course, is greatly in evidence,
and together with the Waw-waw forms the dominant species
Both these trees attain far greater dimensions in this forest than
I have seen anywhere else on the Gold Coast. Associated with
them and completing the peuplement of the arboreal growing
stock are the following species, which also attain an immense
height and are beautifully grown. They are the silk-cotton
tree (Eriodendron anfractuosum], the Esea (Combretum sp.), the
gum copal tree (Cyanothyrsus ogea), Antiaris toxicaria, Sterculia
cordi folia, Sterculia Barteri, Santiriopsis Klainei, a few Khayas,
some Kokoti and Baku, as well as Piptadenia africana, and an
allied species with a much larger fruit. These, together with
the Odoum and Off'ram, form nine-tenths of the tree vegetation.

The undergrowth chiefly consists of evergreen shade-bearing
shrubs of species different from the trees forming the overwood ;
these shrubs are of remarkably straight growth, and are
characteristic of the very old woods. The secondary or younger
woods have a dense tangled undergrowth, consisting mainly of
climbers and scrambling shrubs, and can thus be easily dis-
tinguished from the former.

Comparing this forest with similar old growth seen in Western
Ashanti, one is at once struck with the peculiarity that the over-
\vood in the forests just described is poor in variety of species
,ind that the majority of the species that compose it are identical
with those usually left as " standards " by the natives when the
forests are cleared for farming purposes; hence the conviction is
forced on one that, close as the resemblance of this forest is to
the primeval type, it is really a secondary forest of very great
age that has sprung up on areas cleared centuries ago for agri-
cultural purposes. Waves of invasion and internecine warfare
probably depopulated the area and gave it the long period of
rest necessary to develop the old growth now occupying it. The
ownership of the area in question is, I believe, still disputed, and
it is hence likely to enjoy a further spell of immunity against the
farmer's axe. I also understand that it has been the policy of
the Ashanti and some other tribes to keep intact broad belts of
forest along their common tribal frontiers ; these belts act as
' buffers" in the event of invasion, &c., and are also responsible
for some of the older forests to be met with in the country.

Poor as the Anum forests are in useful timber-trees such as
the mahoganies and cedars, nevertheless I would recommend
their reservation, if merely for the sake of preserving one of
the finest series of old forests in the country. There is ample
forest-clad ground left in the vicinity to satisfy the wants of the
most energetic farmers, and reservation would prove no hardship,
especially as reservation in this particular locality would per-
force be restricted practically to the prohibition of farming on
the selected area, and would not interfere with the use of forest
produce for the domestic requirements of the inhabitants or with
hunting.

Towards the north-eastern limit of the forest, close to the
village of Mirefuaso, which is one hour's journey from Odumase,

12315 F

82 COLONIAL REPORTS— MISCELLANEOUS.

extensive cocoa farms have been established and extend for miles
in that direction. The young trees appear to be doing remark-
ably well, and this locality will probably in a few years' time
prove to be a very rich centre for that produce. The farming
operations being carried out on this side of Ashanti are far in
advance of anything we sawr on the western side, and I am much
impressed with the future prospect of agriculture in the country
lying between the sacred lake and Kwahu. It seems to me a
pity, however, that the farmers have, excepting the various food
crops required for local consumption, practically put all their
eggs in one basket by confining their attention to cocoa and, to a
small extent, to Funtumia elastica; cola, which promises a steady
demand and a market that is unaffected by operations in Europe,
would appear to be a very desirable crop to cultivate on a large
scale, and it would increase trade generally with the northern
territories.

Considering the value of agriculture to the country — and agri-
culture will endure when all the gold-fields have been exhausted
—it would certainly be a very wise step if a large staff of travel-
ling agricultural teachers were appointed and employed to
wander round the country for the purpose of teaching the natives
improved nethqds of cultivation and preparing produce for the
export market, as well as to introduce new species of economic
plants. The great danger of delaying such instruction is that
incalculable harm may 'be done to the fertility of the soil unless
a rational and well devised scheme of rotation of crops is adopted
by the natives. Improvement of the soil means the use of
artificial manures which could not be placed at the disposal of
natives out here except at a prohibitive cost.

Concurrently with the expansion of agriculture will begin the
reduction of the forest areas, and with this reduction will follow
the train of evils resulting from the destruction of the wooded
areas — reduced rainfall, water supply, &c., till a time will come
when the farming rotation adopted by the natives will be so cur-
tailed that the secondary bush, which is at present allowed to
grow up on the fallow lands and which helps to replenish the
fertility of the soil, will not have sufficient time within which
to reach the age necessary to ensure this object. Hence the
advisability of adopting a proper rotation of crops that will
diminish the exhaustion of the soil to the maximum extent.
The necessity for protecting a certain proportion at least of the
wooded areas against the axe of the farmer will further curtail
the land left at the disposal of agriculture, and thus eventually
tend to a more intensive system of cultivation.

I may be pardoned for this digression on the agricultural
policy to be adopted out here, but it must of necessity be so
mutually interdependent with any forest policy chosen for the
country that it is just as well to mention the broad outlines of
their relations one with another.

Tlie Forests between Konltota and Bompata.

The rond between these two places passes through high forest
containing a large number of old trees, the most important of

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 83

which was the Odoum; this species is fairly plentiful about here.
The country is rather hilly, and the valleys are swampy. Some
farms were noticed on either side of the road, which was bordered
for most of the way with a fringe of evergreen forest. Other
trees seen were the Baku (scarce), Kokoti, a few Khayas, the
Penkiva (Pseudocedrela cylindrical), and another species of the
same genus with very large capsules. As usual the dominant
species of trees consisted of the Off ram, the Waw-waw, Sterculia
cordifolia, and Sterculia Barteri, the Esea, two species of Pipta-
denia, Ricinodendron africanus, Eriodendron anfractuosum, and
Alstonia congensis. The oil palm is also met with in fairly large
quantities.

Between Bonipata and Akwasihu at the foot of the mountain
system of Kwahu, we passed over very broken country which is,
however, well wooded with fairly old secondary forest ; cocoa
farms are met with along it at frequent intervals. At the village
of Prahso there is an excellent little plantation of Funtumia clas-
tica, about seven years old ; the plants are healthy and show very
good growth.

The depressions between the hills are all of them more or less
swampy and are occupied with the usual swamp vegetation of
tropical West Africa. On the hills we noticed some rich but
restricted patches of the Okisibiri or flint-wood tree, that is used
for mine props in Tarkwa and Prestea. We had not seen this
species since leaving the hills of Wassaw. Cedars, both the
PenJiwa and the large-capsuled species, were noticed along the
roadside, and the forest consisted of the usual type to be met with
in Eastern Ashanti. As we approached the high hills of Kwahu,
farms became more numerous, and the country became in conse-
quence more open in character.

A large-leafed Khaya, probably Kliaya grandis, was seen on
the slopes leading up to the final escarpment of the Abetifi hill
system. This escarpment is very steep, and stands up like a waP
of sandstone facing the low country to the west and south-west.

The crests and summits of the Abetifi hills are comparatively
flat, and in places broaden out into undulating plateaux that appear
to be well suited as sites for the formation of sanatoria and the
residence of Europeans.

The climate is delightfully bracing, and the difference in tem-
perature between the tops of these hills and the surrounding
low country is much greater than I have experienced, for a similar
comparatively small difference in altitude, in any other tropical
country. The average altitude is about 2,000 feet, and the
climate is similar to that which obtains at elevations of between
3,000 to 4,000 feet in Burma and Siam.

The hills have been extensively farmed, and several of the
ridges in the vicinity of the large town of Obo are now covered
with grass and low, scrubby oil palms ; some fairly broad belts of
forest, however, have been left intact on the higher and more ex-
posed hills on which the sources of the numerous streams watering
the country are situated.

12315 F 2

84 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Taking everything into consideration this tract of country pro-
mises the best results so far as a suitable climate for the residence
of Europeans is concerned. It is well watered; there is abun-
dance of flat ground suitable as sites for stations and recreation
grounds, and it appears to be free from the damp night mists that
are such an objectionable feature of the Aburi climate.

As far as the forest vegetation is concerned there appears to be
but little difference between that found on the hills and the ordi-
nary evergreen forests of the plains. A species of Khaya with
large leaves, probably Khaya grandis, is common about here,
and so is the Odoum (Chlorophora excelsa). The cedars (Pseudo-
ccilrela sp.), on the other hand, are poorly represented.

Other useful trees to be met with are the Offram or shingle-wood
'jree (Terminalia sp.), the gum copal tree (Cyanothyrsus ogea),
and Cordia Irvingii, a species that yields an excellent timber,
from which very durable shingles are manufactured.

The dominant species in these forests, however, are the same
as those found in the evergreen vegetation of the plains, and con-
sist of the Dahomah (Piptadenia africana), the Waw-waw (Trip-
loch? ton Johnsonii), Eriodendron an/ractuosum, the Chen-chen
(Antiaris ioxicaria. var. africana), the Assomah (Parkia biglo-
bosa), the Kokoti (Pynaertia ealaensis), the Owama (Ricinoden-
dron africanus), Stercitlia cordi folia, and Sierctdia Barteri. A
few wild examples of Funtumia elastica were also seen.

There appears to be a more pronounced difference in the her-
baceous vegetation, and many species of plants not met with in
the plains were found here. The bracken fern, for instance, was
seen on several occasions on these hills, as well as a beautiful
little wild balsam (Impatiens sp.), and a species of Begonia.

The chief agricultural crops grown are maize, koko, yams,
bananas, ground-nuts, and cocoa. Plantations of the last are, I
believe, being rapidly extended every year, and this crop has
already replaced the hill-rice that used formerly to be cultivated
here on a large scale.

The Afram Plains.

From Abetifi the plains situated to the north-east were visited.
They are clothed with vegetation characteristic of the " dry
zone." Belts of evergreen forest are, however, found along the
immediate banks of the streams and in the moist depressions so
often met with in this type of country. Extensive outcrops of
laterite and schistose rocks are found scattered about the plains,
and on them the vegetation is of the most scrubby and dwarfed
character.

The soil formed by the weathering of these rocks is nevertheless
fairly rich, and supports good tree growth wherever it is moist
and has accumulated to a sufficient depth. These rich patches of
soil are usually met with just below the lower level of the
' strike " of the outcrops, whilst narrower deposits border the
channels of the streams.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 85

Generally speaking, these rich patches of moist soil, covered
us they are with evergreen forest, form the actual sources of the
streams draining the plain. Very few of the former, if any, are
perennial, but their courses can always be recognised, even at a
distance, by the evergreen fringes of vegetation growing along
their banks, the soil in such places being moist enough at the driest
season of the year to support that type of vegetation.

From the foot of the Abetifi hills, as far north at least as the
Sumin and Bunda Rivers, the country is undulating in character
with higher ridges separating the basins of the more important
streams. Superimposed on these general features are numerous
outcrops of laterite and schistose rocks, the latter of which often
occur in the form of huge flat sheets (sometimes 200 to 300 yards
in length, and 50 to 100 yards broad, and 10 to 20 feet high),
arranged in successive terraces one above the other, like a gigantic
staircase.

The sheets of rock often contain fairly large circular or oval
depressions that are filled with rainwater during the tornado
season, and form pools that last well into the dry season. Water-
lilies and other aquatic plants occupy them, and the corrosive
action of their roots helps to further enlarge the depressions till
they sometimes reach the dimensions of quite a respectable sized
pond. A few of them are said to contain water all the year round.

The majority of the streams in ^this part of the country have
their sources in these rocky pools, the overflow from which feeds
the streams. For days after a shower of rain tiny rivulets con-
tinue to trickle off the sheets of rock down into the rich deposits
of soil found at their bases, where moss and other evergreen vege-
tation covers the ground and helps to hold the water in suspension
like a sponge, and gives it out gradually to the streams below.
These patches of evergreen vegetation act as regulators of the
water-supply, and explain why, in a tract of country having a poor
rainfall, scanty evergreen vegetation and 110 marked hill features,
such a large number of important streams are to be met with,
some of which, at all events, contain pools of water even at the
driest season of the year.

In the vicinity of the small hunting village of Jwafuabutau two
remarkable, isolated rocky hills are to be seen. They are flat-
topped, and have almost perpendicular sides of rock, imbedded in
which are horizontal layers of pebbles and conglomerate. They
remind one of the rocky escarpment sometimes found on the
" higher valley gravels " of large streams. It may be that these
two hills are the remnants of escarpments that once formed the old
banks of the Volta River, when it was carving out these plains.

The rocks forming the hills are very much riven and split
asunder ; in the chasms thus formed rich soil has accumulated and
now supports luxuriant evergreen vegetation. I found beautiful
little ponds and streams on the rocky terraces near the summit of
one of the hills, and also obtained from there a magnificent pano-
ramic view of the hill system of Kwahon and Eastern Akyam.

Reverting now to the forest vegetation of these plains it con-
sists for the greater part of deciduous-leaved trees, scattered about

86 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

tlic grass that covers most of the plain, reminding one much of a
densely planted orchard in Europe. The trees, however, gene-
rally attain a much greater height than one finds in an ore-hard,
and in this respect the resemblance is closer to thickly timbered
park land.

In depressions where the soil is rich and deep but not sufficiently
moist. to support evergreen vegetation, the deciduous-leafed trees
attain good proportions ; they grow closer together, have fine,
clean, straight stems, and resemble in density of stock a mature
oak wood at home, or the better class of dry deciduous forests of
Central India and Central Burma.

The annual fires appear to do but little damage in these well-
wooded areas, and the natural regeneration of the species inhabit-
ing them is excellent and far more satisfactory than that usually
met with in the dense evergreen forests of the regions having a
heavier rainfall.

Where the soil is shallow, resting on outcrops of rock, or where
other impermeable pans are situated close to the surface, the tree
growth is poor, the plants are gnarled and much twisted, and
suffer greatly from the annual fires that sweep over the country.
Another variant occurs in localities where a substratum of stag-
nant water exists and the soil appears to be acid. Here vegeta-
tion, excepting the grasses, is very meagre, and we thus get the
beautiful grassy glades so common in some parts of the open forest
country.

A large proportion of the trees inhabiting the " dry zone," to
which these plains belong, have developed a very thick corky layer
of bark ; this, no doubt, serves to protect the sterns against injury
from fire and drought.

The most marked difference between this type of vegetation and
that inhabiting the moist regions, with a rainfall of 50 inches
a year and over, is the extreme paucity in variety of species
characteristic of the former. The comparatively few species, how-
ever, that do occur here are numerous in individuals, and they
very often show a tendency towards the gregarious habit. Other
differences are the dominance of the grasses and the satisfactory
state of the natural regeneration in the open forests.

The species characteristic of this type of forest are amongst
the trees : -

The balsam copaiba tree (Daniella thurifera), the Senegal rose-
wood (Pterocarpus erinaceus), the cutch tree (Acacia Catechu),
Acacia Sieberiana, Acacia nigrescens, or a closely related species,
the Papoa (Afzelia africana), a fine timber tree, the " dry zone
cedar (Pseudocedrela Kotschyi), the "dry zone'1 mahogany
(Khaya senegalensis), Ormosia laxifiora, Detariuni senegalense,
another good timber tree, the " sass wood " or ordeal tree (Ery-
throphloeum guincense), which furnishes a good timber; one of
the so-called " African oaks ' (Lophira alata), the seeds of
which are rich in vegetable oils, and the timber of which is
extremely durable ; it is a congener of the Kaltu (Lophira procera),
from the moist evergreen forests of the maritime zone ; a species
of Terminal/La; a species of Dalbergiaj the Yoruba " chew-stick"

GOLt) COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 87

tree (Anogeissus leiocarpus), the wood ashes of which are used as
a mordant for fixing- dyes, and the roots as chew-sticks in the
ftYoruba country; Vitex cuneata and Vitex megaphyUa, the fruits
of which are much sought after by elephants; Parinarium cura-
tellte folium, with edible fruit; Parinarium inobola; the West
African " locust bean " (Parkla filicoidea), the legumes of which
are also edible ; the shea butter tree (Butyi-ospermumParkii) ; the
baobab (Adansonia digitata), the tamarind (Tamarind u* indica),
the Sierra Leone Tamarind (Dialium guineense}, and Ficus platy-
phylla.

Small trees and shrubs are represented by Entada soudanica;
Entada abyss inica; Crossopteryx Kotschyana; Bauliinia reticu-
lata, the bast fibres from which are used for making ropes and
the acid infusion of the leaves for coagulating Funtumia elastica
latex; the wild custard apple (Anona senegalensis), the fruits of
which are edible; the " dry zone " form of the Kishia (Sarcoce-
pliaius esculentus) ; Gardenia sp., probably G. ternifolia, with
edible fruit; Eugenia owariensis; Bridelia micrantha, that yields
a red dye; Strychnos emarginata; Carissa edulis; a species of
Zizyphus; and Cochlospermum tinctorium.

Amongst herbs we have Cassia mimosoides, and various species
of Indigofera, Tephrosia, Desmodium, Oldenlandia, Capparis,
&c.

The orchids are represented by two species of Lissochilus, one
of which, L. roseus, has very beautiful flowers.

Gloriosa superba and another pretty species of the same genus,
G. rirescens, and Asparagus a/ricana, are the most conspicuous
representatives of the Liliacece, whilst the AmaryllidecB con-
tribute various species of Crinum and Hcemanthus to the flora.

Amongst the palms we have the fan palm, Borassus flabclli-
formis var. ostliiopica, which is extremely abundant in tin-
vicinity of the Buuda River. The pericarp is edible and the
timber very durable. A wild date palm, Phoenix reclinata, and a
few dwarfed oil-palms and Raphias, which are usually confined
to the neighbourhood of streams, complete the list.

The belts and patches of evergreen forest clothing the richer
and uioister soils are composed of various species of trees, such
as Sterculia cordifoUa, S. Barteri, Pterocarpus esculentus,
Mimusops multinervis (a good timber tree), Cynometra Mannii,
Berlinia acuminata (another timber tree), Ricinodendron afri-
canus (seeds rich in vegetable oils), Alstonia congensis (softwood,
used for manufacturing native stools), the ebony tree, Diospyros
mespiliformis, several species of Ficus, Carapa guianensis (seeds
rich in vegetable oils), the silk-cotton tree, Eriodendron anfi-ac-
tuosuin, and the camwood (Baphia nitida}. The majority of the
species enumerated above are also common to the forest belt of
the Gold Coast. Two species, however, the sasswood tree (Ery-
throphloeum guineense), and the chew-stick tree (Anogeissus leio-
carpus'), which are typical of the dry open forests, often invade
these isolated patches of evergreen vegetation.

Rubber-yielding plants are here represented by Landolphra
owariensis, L. Thompsonii, and Carpodinus hirsute, only the
first-named species of which furnishes rubber of the first quality.

88 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Grouping together the useful plants found in these dry open
forests and the narrow belts and small patches of evergreen vege-
tation scattered about them we have : — «

A. Timber Trees.

1. Afzelia africana, Opapao of the Aquapims, generally distri-
buted over the open country. Where not exposed to much
damage from fire it attains fine dimensions, and becomes more or
less gregarious. The natural regeneration by seed is excellent ,
and probably better than that of any other species of timber tree
to be found in this part of the country. The various age grada-
tions are also well represented. The timber is hard, durable,
and of first-class quality; it has been frequently exported to
Europe from the Niger under the general trade name of
" African Mahogany," and is largely used on the Niger for mak-
ing furniture. It is also far and away the best shade tree of the
open country. Altogether this species appears to me to have a
great future before it, not so much perhaps for purposes of export
as for local requirements in the arid regions of the hinterland
From a professional point of view it has the great merit of repro-
ducing itself freely by seed and being a very hardy species. It
will probably respond readily to technical management, especially
if it is protected from the annual fires in the more arid districts.

2. TJie Balsam Copaiba Tree, Daniella thurifera. — This
species is also very abundant in the dry zone. It reaches fairly
large dimensions, reproduces itself freely by seed, and has the
age gradations well represented. The wood is durable and is
impregnated with a wood-oil (resin) that was exported formerly
from the Niger under the name of " Balsam Copaiba." It is,
in fact, quite a useful timber tree for local requirements. Like
Afzelia africana, it will also probably be easily amenable to
systematic management.

3. Detarium senegalense. — Not so universally distributed a>
the two former species, but extremely abundant in certain locali-
ties, especially where the subsoil is rocky. Natural regeneration
by seed is good, seedlings are plentiful, and the age gradations
satisfactory. The timber is said to be of excellent quality, but
there is some doubt as to its durability when freely exposed to
atniosDheric influences. Does not attain very large dimensions.

4. The dry zone Mahogany (Khaya senegalensis}. — This is a
small species of West African mahogany that is confined to the
open country. It sometimes attains a girth of 6 feet, but the
usual size is from 4 to 5 feet. The timber appears to be similar
to that of the other West African mahoganies. In the driest
parts of the open country it is confined to the vicinity of the
streams. The growth of this species could no doubt be consider-
ably improved by protecting it against forest fires. Natural
regeneration by seed is fairly good.

5. The dry zone Cedar (Pseudocedrela Kotschyi). — Extremely
r.ommon in some parts of the dry zone; local in its distribution.
In favourable localities it attains a fairly large size and yields
a very beautiful wood. Seedlings are numerous wherever it

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 89

occurs, aiid the age gradations are good. This species should
have a great future before it.

6. Erythrophlceum guineense, the Potrodoin of the Ashautis and
Akwapims (the sass wood or ordeal tree). — Local in its distribu-
tion, but very abundant wherever it does occur. Attains a large
size. Wood hard and fairly durable. Used for building pur-
poses on the Niger. Bark poisonous, infusions of it are used by
some of the natives (especially on the Kroo coast) for the ordeal
test. Regenerates itself freely by seed. Young plants numerous
and age gradations satisfactory. This species often invades the
belts of evergreen forest to be met with in the dry country.

T. Lophira alata (one of the so-called African oaks). — The
commonest tree of the open grass country. Universally distri-
buted there, is closely related to the Kaku tree (Lophira procera}
from the evergreen forests of the maritime zone, the wood of
which is the most durable to be found in tropical West Africa.
On good soil it attains a large size, but is usually of a crooked
and stunted growth from injuries caused by the annual fires.
Seeds small, but very rich in vegetable oils. Natural regenera-
tion very good. Age gradations well represented.

The following species are confined to the evergreen belts of
forest found in the open grass country :—

8. Mimusops multinervis. — Confined to the vicinity of the
streams. Wood hard, reddish in colour and very beautiful, often
figured ; exported from the Niger as African mahogany ; attains
large dimensions. Not very common on the Afrain Plains.
Natural regeneration by seed rather poor.

9. The ebony tree, Diospyrox mespiliformis . — Not common.
Attains a large size. Heart wood black and furnishes one of the
ebonies of commerce. Also found in the mixed evergreen and
deciduous forests of the intermediate zone (between the moist
evergreen belt and the dry zone). Age gradations poorly repre-
sented.

10. Berlinia acuinincla or a closely related species. Extremely
common along the banks of streams on the Afrain Plains. Wood
hard and fairly durable. Usually of crooked growth.

11. The Camwood tree, the Odwen of the Akwapims, Baphia
nitida. Very plentiful in some of the evergreen belts of vegeta-
tion. Scarcely attains the dimensions of a small tree.

12. The Senegal rosewood tree, Pterocarpus erinaceus. Con-
fined to the open forests. Local in its distribution. Never
attains a large size in this country. Natural regeneration good.

13. Carapa guianensis. The Osuabise of the Akwapims. Con-
fined to the evergreen belts near the banks of streams in the open
country. Attains greater dimensions here than I have seen any-
where else. Also found in the moist evergreen zone of vegeta-
tion further south. Wood has a great reputation in the Senegal.
Seeds are rich in vegetable oils.

14. Tamarindus indica. The tamarind tree. Local in its dis-
tribution. Found in the open forest just outside the evergreen

90 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

belts in the vicinity of the larger rivers. Furnishes an orna-
mental wood. Fruit edible. Grows to a fair-sized tree.

15. The fan palm, the Kube of the Akwapims, the Ma
Kube of the Ashaiitis, Bomxxux flabellifo'rrws var. cethiopica.
Universally distributed and extremely common in places, as, for
instance, in the vicinity of the small hunting village of Bunda
Su, and in the valley of the Surnin River. Very characteristic
of the open country and one of the most useful trees found there.
The wood is practically imperishable, the straight stems are very
suitable for house posts, bridge piles, &c. The pericarp of the
nut is edible and the leaves are used as thatch.

Of the species enumerated above the most suitable for export
are JSTos. 1, 4, 5, 8, and 10, if of large size. Under proper
management and with the help of fire protection the growth of
these trees could no doubt be considerably improved.

B. Trees the Fruit and Seeds of which are rich in Vegetable

Oils.

The most important of these is the

(a) Shea butter tree, the N'ku of the Ashantis, Akwapims, and
Fantis, Bitty TO spermum Parkii. A small tree, very characteristic
of the open forests, and extremely plentiful in places. Is fre-
quently confounded with Lophira alata which it somewhat
resembles and which inhabits the same region. This species (the
shea butter tree) is very prolific and quantities of the fruit can
be seen lying about rotting under the trees. The tree is common
in the vicinity of the Volta, Afrani, and other navigable rivers,
and as the oil is of great commercial value, efforts should be
made to develop an industry in it on a large scale. Extensive
tracts of country in British West Africa are inhabited by this
species and the exploitation of the product on a large scale would
considerably increase the value of what are at present looked
upon as waste lands. I was glad to notice that the inhabitants
of the small village of Sadang at the foot of the Kwahu Hills,
on the Abetifi-Atabobo road, were collecting the nuts for export
down the Volta Elver.

Other species rich in oils are : -

(6) The so-called African oak, Lophira alata, the seeds of
which contain a high percentage of oil; they are, however, very
small, and it is doubtful whether the collection of the seeds on
a large scale would prove remunerative. As mentioned above, the
species is universally distributed in the open grass country. Its
congener, L. pmrcm, the Kaku, from the maritime zone, has
much larger seeds, and it may pay to collect them.

(c} Ricinodendron africanus. The seeds of this species have
been analysed in Europe and found to contain a very high per-
centage of useful vegetable fats. The tree is most prolific and
large quantities of seed are available if a demand springs up
for them. This tree is quite common in the mixed evergreen
and deciduous forests of the intermediate zone. In the open
country it is confined to the belts of evergreen forest.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 91

(d) Carapa guianensis. The Osuabise of the Akwapiuis. This
is another species with large seeds that contain a high percentage
of vegetable fats. In the dry country it is confined to the banks
of the streams, but is universally distributed over the heavy
forest belt. The seeds if required could be procured in fairly
large quantities.

Amongst other useful trees we have : —

(e) Acacia Catechu. The species from which the Catcc/m
exported from Burma is procured. It is common in the open
grass country, and in places is so gregarious as to form almost
pure thickets. The heart- wood from which the Catechu is
extracted in Burma is, however, poorly developed in the West
African plant.

The fibre yielding plants, not including the various species of
Urena, Triumfetta, Hibiscus, and a small Sansevieria which are
almost universally distributed, are represented by—

(/) Sterculia Barter i. A tree that is confined to the evergreen
belts of vegetation in the open country and is most plentiful in
the intermediate zone. The bast fibres of this species are used
by the natives for making ropes, which are strong and durable.

(g) Bauhinia reticulata, the bast fibres of which are put to the
same use. It is universally distributed over the dry zone and
is frequently the only plant available in such localities from
which really long and strong fibres can be procured.

(h) The Baobabs, Adansonia digitata and another species.
These gouty-looking trees are found here and there in the open
country, more especially near villages and on rocky soils. I
very much doubt whether they are truly indigenous on the Gold
Coast and in Southern Nigeria.

The wood fibres of these trees are collected in Senegal and
exported to Europe where they realize from £9 to £10 per ton.
I should fancy that in favourable localities the growth of these
plants is fairly rapid and that with planting a large supply of
fibre could be obtained and collected at no great cost. It would,
of course, only pay to grow it as a forest crop.

The roots of (i) Anogeissus leiocarpus, a tree that is extremely
common in the dry zone, are rich in tannin and the wood ashes
are used by the Yorubas as a mordant for fixing dyes.

Infusions of the bark of (j) Bridelia micrantha or a closely
allied species are used by the native hunters to dye their cloths
a rich reddish-brown colour; the dye is said to be a fast one, and
the admixture of scraps of old iron (such as kerosene tins, &c.),
with the infusion of the bark appears to be an important part of
the process in fixing the dye.

The following species of plants from the open country possess
edible fruit : —

(a) Parinarium curatellce/olium. Locally common.

(1>) Parkia filicoidca. Common.

(c) The shea butter tree. Common, the pericarp is edible. It
has an agreeable sweetish taste. The " butter ' is, of course,
used for culinary purposes.

92 COLONIAL REPORTS— MISCELLANEOUS.

(d) Adansonia digitata. The fibrous pulp is eaten by the
natives. It has an acid flavour. The seeds also are washed,
pounded up, and then steeped in water for ten days and the
infusion so obtained used by the natives of North- Western
Ashanti for flavouring their soups.

(e) Tamarindus indica. The tamarind. Local in its distribu-
tion. Found near the larger rivers such as the Volta and the
Afram.

(/) The Sierra Leone tamarind, Dialiuui guineense. Very
local.

(g) Ficus platyphylla.

(li) Anona senegalensis. The wild custard apple. Very
common.

(i) Sarcocephalus esculentus. Very common.

(j) Gardenia sp., probably G. temifolia. Common.

(7c) The pericarp of the nut of the fan palm, Borassus ftabelli-
formis. Very common.

Wood oil is furnished by the ' Balsam Copaiba ' tree,
Daniella thurifera, which is very abundant in the open country,
and Gums by Acacia Sieberiana, the dry zone 'mahogany (Kliaya
senegalensis}, and the chew-stick tree, Anogeissus leiocarpus.
These gums, however, appear to be of inferior quality.

It is the custom to look upon the forest vegetation of the open
country as being practically worthless, but the list of useful
plants given above will, I hope, help to dispel this idea. No
doubt the dense evergreen forests of the moist belt are more
imposing and appeal more to the imagination than do the park-
like forests of the hinterland, but they are far more difficult to
deal with professionally. The proportion of useful species to
the rest is small, the natural regeneration is generally poor, and
the age gradations are invariably in a very unsatisfactory con-
dition ; whereas the converse with respect to all these points holds
good in the case of the open, deciduous forests just described.
Here the only difficulty to contend with is that of fire protection,
the cost of which, however, is likely to be heavy.

Of course, where the preservation of the water-supply or other
climatic factors are of importance to tropical agriculture, such
as the cultivation of cocoa, cola, rubber, and other useful plants
demanding a hot moist climate or otherwise, it is imperative that
suitable forest areas shoiild be strictly conserved with a view to
maintaining the water-supply and preventing the spread into the
forest region of the grass country. This, together with the
creation of forest reserves for the constant supply of timber and
other forest produce derived from species that arc confrned to the
moist belt, necessarily shifts the centre of gravity of loresc
management to the heavy forest region, but this is no reason why
the park-like forests of the open country should be neglected ;
they will respond far more readily to professional treatment than
the dense evergreen forest and will be much more easy to exploit
with modern mechanical appliances. At the same time their
preservation will steadily improve the quality of the soil and

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 93

keep it in the best possible condition for agriculture should the
occasion ever arise to give the land over for that purpose.

In this connection I may remark that some of the most valuable

«/

forests of India and Burma belong to similar open, deciduous
types.

The type exists over an extensive tract of country in the hinter-
land and, as such, the richest portions are well deserving of
protection and systematic management. In the vicinity of
Kintampo and N'koranza there are some very fine examples of
these forests that are well stocked with the most valuable species
of timber trees to be found in the country. They are, I am sorry
to say, being rapidly destroyed, near Kintampo especially, for
farming purposes.

Other localities where good forests of this kind exist are along
the foot of the range of hills to the west of the villages of Braha
and Oboase in North- Western Ashanti, and between Bian ami
•Jugbe in the Northern Territories.

I very much regret that for want 01 time I was unable to make
an extended trip to the Northern Territories, where the climate
is such as to make forest conservancy a matter of the greatest
importance. The small tract of country visited by me on my
way to the main Bola-Kintampo road enabled me to form some
idea of the forest vegetation found just north of Ashanti. What
I saw of it was encouraging, but I believe that the vegetation
further north, beyond the ninth parallel, is rather meagre.

The localities visited on the Afram Plains lay in the direction
of the Abetifi-Atabobo road as far north as Suminsu and Bundasu
on the Sumin and Bunda Eivers. The forests lying to the right
and left of the path were in several places examined for some
miles on either side and a short excursion was made in a hitherto
unexplored tract of country situated to the north-east of Bundasu
in the direction of Krachi. The descent of the Kwahu hills from
Abetifi to the plain is much less abrupt than it is either to the
west or south of that town. In fact, the road taken by us has
the best gradient of any leading on to the plateau. The slopes
of the hills are covered with farms of koko yams, cocoa, bananas,
and corn ; belts of forest, however, have been left intact here and
there and they contain numbers of a species of mahogany with
large leaves, probably Khaya grcnidis. They attain a large size,
and young plants of different ages are fairly plentiful, but they
are of crooked growth. The vegetation in general is evergreen
and similar in character to that met with between Obo and Abetifi
with one important exception; on the middle slopes of the hills
occurs a wide belt, which has not been destroyed for farming
purposes, of a " pure forest " (i.e., a forest consisting practically
of only one species) of an evergreen tree that is either a species
of Cynometra or a Brachystegia; with the exception of the man-
grove forests on the coast, this is the most extensive example
that I have met of a type of forest that is extremely rare in
tropical West Africa, but which, on the other hand, is the
dominant type in Northern Europe and Asia. The leaf canopy
of this forest was complete, and practically the only plants

94 COLONIAL REPORTS— MISCELLANEOUS.

found growing in the dense shade underneath were young indi-
viduals of the same species as the over-wood. The soil on which
the forest is growing is very rocky.

Close to the village of Sadang, at the foot of the hills, there is
a fairly large feeder of the Afram River that may be utilised in
exporting down to the Volta, and so on to the sea, the mahogany
growing on the northern slopes of the Kwahu hills.

Between this village and Kwantanan the forests have been much
destroyed for farming purposes, but what is left belongs to the
type found in the intermediate zone. Neither of us, however,
was prepared for the extraordinarily abrupt transition from
this type to the dry, open forests of the plains that occurs at that
village. We practically stepped out from the village (in a north-
easterly direction) into the latter type of forest.

In the vicinity of Aframsu there is an extensive patch of ever-
green forest which follows the Afram River for a long distance.
The country is very well watered about here, and several large
feeders of that river are crossed within the space of a few miles;
heavy rain had just fallen and they were all in flood. The plain
itself was also under water.

Shortly after leaving Aframsu we got into good open forest
with trees of excellent growth for that type of vegetation. Four
belts of evergreen forest were crossed and we then passed between
the two isolated rock hills that stand out of the plain close to
the small hunters' village of Jwafuabutan. These two hills are
surrounded with forest of good growth. Fine specimens of
Afzelia africana, Detarium senegalense, and the dry zone
mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) are found here. Some three
hours' journey to the north-west of the village the land
gradually rises up to a rocky ridge, the lower slopes of which are
clothed with excellent forest. Large sheets of rock begin to
appear and the village itself is situated on an outcrop of this
sort from a pool, from which the inhabitants procure their water.
There is an extensive patch of evergreen forest to the north of the
village, and a smaller one between it and the more easterly
situated hill of the two mentioned above. Further northwards
a broad belt of evergreen vegetation follows the course of the
Obusumbone River, which is of quite a respectable size. The
rest of the vegetation is of the dry zone type. Open grassy
glades containing little tree growth are frequently met with and
increase in numbers as one approaches Suminsu, where another
broad belt of evergreen forest is found along both banks of the
Surnin River. As a general rule, about this portion of the un-
dulating plains the higher land is clothed with good open forest
and the depressions with grassy glades, except where the more
important streams have carved out their channels; these are
invariably fringed with evergreen forest. Terraces of rock
become more plentiful about here and contimie to increase in
numbers towards the north-east in the direction of British Krachi.
Between Suminsu and Bundasu the fan palm becomes the domi-
nant species and covers an extensive tract of country, more par-
ticularly towards the north-west between the Bunda and Sene
rivers. Shea bnttor trees are plentiful all over this part of the

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 95

country and the species is quite common in the vicinity of the
Afrain, which is a navigable river. The collection and transport
to the Volta River of the nuts should, therefore, present no
difficulty. The country is, of course, very sparsely populated,
and any labour employed for this purpose would have to be pro-
cured elsewhere.

Early in the year, when the young grass has just sprung up,
after the annual fires have swept over the country, these plains
are said to literally teem with game of every sort. With the
exception of two herds of buffalo, one hartebeest, one elephant,
a few duikers and kob and wart hogs, we saw but little at the
time of our visit. The grass had grown high, water was plentiful
everywhere, and the game had dispersed in all directions instead
of being concentrated in the vicinity of the few pools that con-
tain water in the dry season. Judging from the game tracks met
\\ith, elephants and buffalo must be very plentiful. Large
numbers of them are slaughtered every year and the flesh taken
up to Abetifi for sale. We met numbers of people almost every
day who were employed in carrying the smoked flesh to that
town. The slaughter of elephants must be great, as one of our
guides told me that he had shot ten in one month. Several had
been killed just before we arrived at Abetifi. Elephant meat
can be purchased almost any day at Abetifi.

Some steps should, I think, be taken to limit the number of
hunters who shoot on the plains. The small villages scattered
about them are inhabited solely by professional hunters, outlaws,
and the riff-raff of the country, who earn their living by shooting
game and selling the flesh in the larger towns. The quantity
consumed for their own use is insignificant compared with what
they sell.

Abetifi is the great centre to which the bulk of the smoked
flesh is brought. It is the worst offender in this respect. Some
of the more well-to-do inhabitants own small hunters' villages
down on the plain, and a portion of everything shot in the
vicinity has to be sent up to them for disposal.

Whilst Europeans are obliged to take out licences and are
(very properly) restricted as regards the shooting of certain
species, no steps whatever have been taken to in any way limit
the incessant slaughter carried on by the natives. What the few
Europeans out here who care for big game shooting kill is a
mere drop in the ocean compared with the annual bag of the
native hunters, yet the only restrictions existing are placed on
the former. Surely, if the reason for enforcing game licences
at all in the case of Europeans is the preservation of the game
in the country, some action might be taken to restrict the
immense amount of damage done by the natives. As matters
stand, game preservation out here is an utter failure. The real
offenders have not been touched by the legislation regulating this
matter. The killing of cow elephants and their yoiing by the
natives has not even been prohibited, and, in fact, the game laws
contain a clause that specifically exempts the natives from their
application. The argument is often put forward that the
slaughter of wild animals has been going on for generations and

96 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

that they are still as plentiful as ever. This statement, however,
does not agree with the facts. The native hunters themselves
admit that game is getting scarcer and scarcer every year, and
that they have to go further afield to get it. In the olden days,
when internecine warfare was practically the normal state of
affairs, the hunters, who formed the bulk of the armies engaged,
had but little time to devote to the chase of wild animals; now,
with peace assured, they have taken to it with renewed energy and
are quickly making their mark felt.

I may remark that a large proportion of the trophies taken out
of the country every year by Europeans has been either pur-
chased from the native hunters or picked out from the hunters'
" heaps " of skulls found in some of the villages. Yery few of
them consist of bond fide trophies obtained from animals shot by
the Europeans themselves. I only mention this fact in order to
remove the erroneous impression that the Europeans are respon-
sible for the annual slaughter of a large number of animals.
Proper enquiries will, I think, confirm my assertion. Only those
who have had real experience of big game shooting in tropical
West Africa can realize the arduous nature of the undertaking
involved in procuring anything like a large bag. Again, the
number of Europeans out here who would walk a mile in full
exposure to the sun to shoot a wild animal is extremely small.
To sum up, it may be safely accepted that, with perhaps the
exception of the hippopotamus, there is at present no danger
of the large game of tropical West Africa being exterminated
by the white man. The conditions out here are far too unfavour-
able for any but the greatest enthusiasts to take up in earnest
big game shooting as a pastime. The real danger conies from the
native inhabitants themselves.

An alternative to limiting the number of native hunters allowed
to shoot on the plains would be to take up a portion of the latter
as a game reserve and to strictly prohibit all shooting within the
area selected.

During our return to Abetifi we found that the greater number
of the swamps met with before had dried up and the walking was,
in consequence, done in more comfort. From Abetifi we pro-
ceeded to Aburi via the Inipriso-Kankan-Bunsu-Ku Kurantumi-
Koforidua road.

JOURNEY FEOM ABETIFI TO ABURI.

The small plateau on which Abetifi is situated is connected by
a series of step-like descents with the much more extensive and
flatter plateau of Impriso. This appears to be an ideal place for
the residence of Europeans and is only some 300 feet lower than
Abetifi itself. There is any amount of flat ground available for
building sites and recreation grounds, water is plentiful, the
climate is bracing, and the place is not so exposed to strong winds.
About two hours after leaving Impriso one comes to the steep
escarpment that abruptly terminates the plateau to the south.
The path down the face of the escarpment is very rough and in
places, where there are huge overhanging ledges of rock, has to be
negotiated with some care.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. i)7

After a descent of something like 800 or 900 feet the broken
country comprising the basins of the Tmoi and Birrim rivers is
reached. Generally speaking it is well wooded and contains the
remains of what must once have been very fine forests rich both
in cedars and mahoganies, and comparable in many respects with
the best forests of Fpper Sefwi and Western Ashanti. Now,
however, they have been extensively cut up by farms in which
cocoa is the dominant crop. All things considered, it is perhaps
just as well to sacrifice these forests in the interests of agriculture
as the locality is eminently suited to the cultivation of cocoa,
kola, rubber-yielding plants, &c., that require a humid atmos-
phere for their best development. But in doing so it should not
be overlooked that there is a limit to the amount of forest that can
be destroyed with impunity for that purpose. Their complete
extermination would entail the eventual failure of the very crops
that it is proposed to cultivate on a large scale. In a tropical
country like this it is imperative that the woods clothing the
crests of the hills and the higher slopes, especially near the sources
of the more important streams, should be strictly conserved, and
on no account whatever should the slopes of the hills facing the
dry open forest country be denuded of vegetation — that is, if it is
intended to devote the districts of Kwahu> and Eastern Akyem to
the cultivation of crops of the nature indicated above. In any
case, whether such crops fail or not in the end, the destruction of
the forests clothing the hills will adversely affect the water-supply
of the country to such an extent as may bring disaster to locali-
ties remote from the area in which the damage was originally
done. No agricultural crops, however densely they are planted,
can ever replace, as regulators of the water-supply, the forests
now clothing the hills.

I am sorry to say that a great deal of damage has already been
done to these forests, as, for example, along the slopes of the
Abetifi Hills facing the Afram Plain, the slopes of the Aburi
Hill system facing the Pram Pram and Accra plains, and, so I
am informed, of the slopes of the hills adjacent to the Krobo
Plains.

Grass, that harbinger in tropical West Africa of the doom of
the evergreen forests (on which the water-supply of the country is
so dependent), has established itself on several of these hills, even
on some of the higher peaks of the Kwahu system, as, for instance,
near the important town of Obo, and it will only be a matter of
years, if the forests continue to be destroyed, for it to take such
possession of the soil as to practically exclude all evergreen vege-
tation. With the grass come the annual fires of the dry season
and the damage thus becomes accentuated from year to year, till
a complete change in the vegetation and climate becomes estab-
lished. The different stages in this change can be easily observed
along the Aburi- Accra road, where excellent examples exist of
the transformations resulting from the reckless destruction of the
forests.

It is hard to conceive any more difficult or serious problem,
affecting the general welfare of the country, than that which now
confronts the Administration in connection with the preservation
12315 G

08 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

of the evergreen forests on which the water-supply of the Colony
and Ashanti depends. If it is immaterial whether the whole of
the evergreen forest region becomes eventually converted into the
open type of forest characteristic of the so-called '"' dry zone "
01 not, then the problem need not be attacked ; but in this
eventuality the country must be prepared to face the diminished
water-supply, the drying up of what are at present important
perennial streams, and the limitations as to the variety of agri-
cultural crops that such a climate can support.

If, on the other hand, it is decided to preserve the water-supply
and the moist climate on which such a large number of agricul-
tural crops depend, and there is no question as to which is the
wiser choice, then immediate action is necessary. Already such
damage has been done as will take years and the expenditure of
large sums of money to repair, and there is no time to lose.

The problem should be attacked on scientific lines and such
steps taken as will ensure the protection of the forests concerned.
On the one hand there is the agricultural system of the natives,
which is one of the most wasteful known and which entails
larger areas being taken up for crops than any other method
demands, to contend against: on the other side the possible
inclusion, on the advice of over-zealous advocates of reservation,
of larger tracts of forests within the reserved area than is actually
necessary to meet the wants of the situation. A just balance
should be drawn between the conflicting interests.

In this connection I may remark that the accumulated effect
of timber exploitation on the climate of the country is a mere
bagatelle compared with that resulting from the wholesale
destruction of the forest for farming purposes. If every
mahogany and cedar tree in these forests were exterminated, it
would have but little influence one way or another on the rainfall,
because the forest vegetation as a whole would practically remain
intact, whereas the clearings for farms remove at one fell swoop
every stick of the vegetation clothing the areas selected for culti-
vation.

The preservation of the water-supply and the climatic factors of
the country must always claim first attention in any rational
scheme of forest administration, and compared with it the regula-
tion and control of timber exploitation is of secondary import-
ance, unless indeed the exploitation is so extensive as to threaten
the existence of the forests themselves, a contingency not likely
to arise out here, where only comparatively few of the species
composing the forest vegetation are of any economic value.

Indeed, the extraction of major forest produce (timber) on the
Gold Coast wants regulating not so much on account of any
danger threatening the forest vegetation as a whole, but with a
view to ensuring a continuous and sustained yield of the produce.

I strongly advise that a commission, composed of a trained
agriculturist, a trained forester (both of whom should have
experience of the tropics), and a Travelling Commissioner, be
disputed to visit the districts of Kwahu, Eastern and Western
Akyem, and Aburi, where farming is being carried out on a large

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 99

scale, and to decide, in consultation with the native chiefs and
communities concerned, what forest areas are to be protected from
the axe of the farmer.

There is certain to be great opposition on the part of the natives
to the formation of the reserves, and it will probably be very
difficult to convince them that the proposed measures are being
introduced for their own interests and that of the country at
large.

Nevertheless, a determined effort should be made to ensure the
protection of at least the forests situated at the sources of the
more important streams, and for this purpose it will not suffice
io select small patches of vegetation here and there; nothing but
continuous belts of forest will serve the purpose. If, in addition,
it can be arranged to leave intact strips of forest vegetation
between the different farming centres to act as barriers to the
spread of plant diseases, so much the better.

On no account should a scratch commission composed of
members possessing no special qualifications for the work in hand
be selected, otherwise irreparable damage may result from their
labours.

The best forests seen on the main Abetifi-Aburi road are
situated between the villages of Abetinso and Kankan, and
between the former place and the southern escarpment of the
A.betifi Hill system. They are rich in all the valuable timber-
yielding species of this coast, with the exception of the Nyankon
and Kaltu, species which are restricted in their distribution to
the maritime zone.

From the village of Kankan onwards towards Aburi cocoa and
other farms are very plentiful, more particularly between Kuku-
rantium and Koforidua and between the latter place and Aburi,
where, with the exception of the '' standards " left as shade
trees, practically the whole of the tree growth has been destroyed.
This part of the country already shows signs of becoming drier,
and plants characteristic of the mixed deciduous and evergreen
forests bordering the dry zone have made their appearance.

The forests situated in the upper basin of the Densu River
have been much destroyed for farming purposes, but those pro-
tecting the sources of its main feeders on the Kyebi range of hills
and the south-eastern extension of the Begora Range have so far
been left intact. As long as these forests are preserved there is
little risk of the water-supply of the stream being seriously
diminished.

When at Bunsu the opportunity was taken to visit Mr.
Pritchard's plantation. It consists of 2,500 acres, of which
170 acres have been mainly planted up with Para rubber and
140 acres with kola.

The plantation has been divided up into blocks by a well
laid out system of roads, and the Birrim River flows through the
centre of it. The Para rubber trees appear to be doing fairly
well, but the great interest centres round the kola plantation.
The growth of this species in its early years is very slow com-
pared with that of other crops, but when it does come into bearing

12315 G 2

100 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

tLere is no doubt that it is one of the most paying crops in the
country. The best market for this produce is in Northern
Nigeria, and it is quite unaffected by any fluctuations in the
demand for kola in Europe. Like the majority of the indigenous
West African plants, the growth of the seedlings is considerably
checked by transplanting, hence it is preferable to sow tlie seeds
out to stake. This is being done with success in the Bunsu
plantation, where all the young plants so raised are showing
excellent growth. Mr. Pritchard deserves every credit for the
enterprise shown by him in striking out what is practically a
new line of his own. The kola plantation should prove a paying
concern in a few years' time.

As regards the agricultural prospects of Eastern Ashanti and
the Kwahu, Akyem, and Aburi districts of the Colony, I think
that, providing the climatic factors remain unchanged, there is
a great future before them, and that any expenditure likely to
be incurred in constructing a railway to tap these centres and
to open up the bracing highlands of Kwahu as a residence for
Europeans is quite justifiable.

To sum up. My tours through the country have convinced me
that the Gold Coast Colony and the Protectorate of Ashanti, more
especially the latter, possess in their magnificent forests a great
natural source of wealth the value of which, with proper manage-
ment, should increase from year to year as the world's supply
of timber becomes depleted and we have to fall back on our
Colonies and Protectorates to make up part of the deficiency.
Nothing is more certain than the fact that of late years not only
the wood increment but also a large portion of the wood-producing
capital has been removed from the chief timber-producing centres
of the world in meeting the yearly demand, and that the avail-
able supply is rapidly becoming exhausted. As some of the
sources, such as the forests of Canada, the United States, and
Asiatic Russia, for instance, are brought under systematic
management, the output from them will have to be considerably
curtailed, and this will further reduce the available supply. A
beginning has already been made in these countries by the forest
management in each being placed under the charge of a properly
constituted forest department, and no doubt the result of their
efforts to prevent the exhaustion of the wood-producing capital
will soon be felt in the timber markets.

PART II.

A. PROTECTION OF FORESTS AND FOREST LEGISLATION.
(a) Dangers to u'hich the Forests are exposed:

On the Gold Coast and in tropical West Africa generally the
dangers threatening the existence of the forests are: — •

(a.) The wasteful system of farming practised by the
natives.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 101

(b.) The over-exploitation of the forests for timber, fuel,
aud other produce, such as gums, resins, rubber, &c.

(//.) Of these the former is by far the greater aud must, if
allowed to continue unrestricted for a sufficient length of time,
result in the virtual extermination of the forests. The latter is
not so serious, unless a very large demand for fuel arises and the
fellings are permitted to be undertaken without restrictions as to
their extent and character. The ordinary exploitation for
timber and minor forest produce can never, even if pushed to the
verge of extinction of the particular species of plants concerned,
have the same effect on the forests as a whole, as the damage re-
sulting from the unrestricted destruction of them for farming pur-
poses, because in the former case only a few species in comparison
with the huge number forming the balance of the growing stock
of the forests are of sufficient economic importance (at the present
time at all events) to be threatened with over-exploitation,
whereas in the latter case practically the whole growing stock
is removed at one fell swoop whenever the forests are cut down
for farms. So far then, from the point of view of looking at the
forests as a whole, more especially in connection with their role
of preserving and regulating the water supply, of preventing the
erosion of hill-sides, of acting as barriers against desiccating
winds and the spread of arid conditions, and in connection with
other protective functions, the over-exploitation o'f a comparatively
few species is but of secondary importance. Hence it may be con-
ceded that in any rational system of forest protection the steps
necessary for ensuring the safety of a sufficiently large extent
of forest to carry out these functions must receive first considera-
tion whatever may be the demand for forest produce. This prin-
ciple is so important that every European State without exception
which has included forestry amongst its administrative measures
has reserved to itself the right to interfere, by legislation, for
the protection of those forests that, by their situation or otherwise,
are best suited as " protection " belts to carry out this important
role of forest vegetation. The right to interfere is constantly
being exercised over all s/tch. areas even when the property does
not belong to tJic State, but to private individuals, corporations,
communes, fyc.

Several European countries, including all those in which
forestry is most advanced, have in addition extended the exercise
of this right to regulate, within certain limits, the methods under
which non-State forests (private and communal forests) are
c.r plotted for the supply of forest produce, even when these
forests are not required as protection against climatic, agencies.

(b.) The second danger to guard against is that of over-exploita-
tion of those wooded areas that are or should be set aside for the
purpose of supplying a sustained yield of forest produce. It is
this aspect of forestry, together with the quite subsidiary one of
protecting the woods as sanctuaries for game, that is more popu-
larly associated with forest protection and was the first to be
developed in historical sequence.

This use of the forests, though not of such vital importance to
the welfare of a country as the protective functions mentioned

102 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOtfS.

above, is still sufficiently so to have resulted in an elaborate and
special system of legislation being adopted for their protection
and management by those States that have included forestry
amongst their administrative measures.

Before proceeding to discuss the steps that should be taken
on the Gold Coast, and indeed generally in our West African
Colonies, to ensure the protection of forest areas sufficiently largo
to serve these two purposes for which forests are required, it will
be advisable first to go into greater detail as to the results that
are likely to follow, and in some cases have followed, the whole-
sale and reckless destruction of forest vegetation, both in the
temperate zones and in the tropics.

(b) Dangers attending and following the reckless destruction

of forests :

The presence of forests is most important in view of the effects
which they have 'both on the climatic and other factors of a
country; among these may be mentioned :-

1. They mitigate extremes of temperature and render the
climate more equable.

2. They exert a marked effect in regulating the water
supply, more especially by ensuring the sustained feeding of
springs and thus rendering the How of water in rivers more
continuous, and in tending to reduce the danger of violent
floods.

3. They increase the relative humidity of the air, and in
consequence reduce the amount of evaporation. This effect
is strongly marked on hills in the tropics.

4. By the mechanical action of their roots and stems the
plants composing forest vegetation assist in preventing land-
slips, erosion of hill-sides, the silting up of rivers, and arrest
the progress of shifting sands.

5. They tend to increase the precipitation of moisture.

6. They act as wind-breaks, and protect adjoining culti-
vated areas against the action of cold or dry winds.

7. They act as barriers against the spread of fungoid and
insect attacks from one cultivated centre to another.

Almost all these effects are more pronounced in the tropics,
especially in localities with well-marked wet and dry seasons,
than they are in the temperate zone.

As regards 1, 2, and 3, their action is of the utmost importance
in preserving the water supply during the intense heat of a
tropical dry season, and it is in this connection that the whole-
sale destruction of the forests by the native farmers is attended
by the greatest dangers. In the maritime zones of tropical
West Africa, where the monsoon currents are very pronounced,
and a certain amount of precipitation occurs even in what are
considered the dry months of the year, and where the air is con-
stantly very humid, such destruction may be carried out with

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 103

ruore or less iinpimity, as the soil is quickly re-clothed with
luxuriant vegetation, and the chief danger to he guarded against
is that of erosion of the hill-sides.

Such regions enjoy a heavy annual rainfall of 80 inches and
more, and the dry season is not only of short duration but is
interrupted at pretty frequent intervals by showers of rain attend-
ing the tornadoes. The case is very different, however, in those
portions of the hinterland, and also sometimes on the sea coast
itself, where the rainfall is deficient or where a long and pro-
nounced dry reason follows the annual monsoons. It is difficult
to state exactly what the minimum annual rainfall determining
the " safety '" margin of such a climate is, as so much depends
on the distribution of the rain during the various months of the
year; but so far my experience leads me to the conclusion that
in a climate where the annual rainfall is 60 inches and less the
wholesale destruction of the forests is followed not so much by a
marked deficiency in the rainfall, as by a general drying up of
what were once perennial streams and a gradual transformation
of the type of vegetation clothing the locality.

This change in the vegetation will be realized if the influence
of moisture in the soil and the degree of humidity of the air on
plant life is recalled. Both these sources of moisture are affected
very adversely (for plant growth) by the extensive destruction of
forests, with the result that the original forests are gradually
replaced by others of a drier type. The transformation is most
rapid when extensive areas covered by drier vegetation happen
to be situated within a reasonable distance, say a dozen miles or
so, of the locality in which the forests (of a moister type) are being
destroyed, as there is always a marked tendency on the part of
the former to encroach on the habitat of the latter. Once an
area becomes clothed with drier vegetation, then the conditions
so far as moisture is concerned rapidly change for the worse.
Forest fires make their appearance and all the effects on plant
life become accentuated. Such alterations in the supply of
moisture lead to the transformations of the moist evergreen
tropical forests (" rain forests " of Schimper) to the mixed
deciduous ones (" monsoon forests " of •Schimper, in which a
large proportion of the plants shed their leaves during the dry
season and replace them at the commencement of the monsoons
or wet period of the year), and, if the reduction is continued, the
conversion of the latter into the open savannahs so characteristic
of the hinterlands of our West African Colonies and also of
certain areas along the sea coast where the monsoons are deficient.
As a general rule the appearance of the grasses in any large
numbers within a forest region otherwise occupied by evergreen
vegetation is an almost certain index, in tropical West Africa,
of the commencement of such changes. Erosion of the hill-sides
and the tendency for violent floods to take place are also greater
on land covered with the more open and drier types of vege-
tation. As examples of such transformations I may mention the
tract of country between Accra and Aburi, wThere the xerophilous
scrub gradually gives place to thorn forests and these to the
savannahs at the foot of the Aburi hills and these in their turn

104 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

to the mixed deciduous and evergreen forests on the hills.
Wherever the original moist evergreen forests once covering the
latter have been destroyed the secondary growth replacing it is
assuming the mixed deciduous character. Lower down the hill-
sides and along the valleys at the foot, adjacent to the plains,
clearings of the mixed deciduous forests have resulted in the
encroachment of the open savannahs and their occupation of the
cleared areas.

The great drawback to these conversions is, of course, from
another point of view, the fact that the species occupying the
different areas are replaced by others more suited to the altered
conditions, and this in time leads to the scarcity of those plants
associated with the original environment. For instance, the
majority of species of timber trees, and others of economic im-
portance, that are confined in their distribution to the moist ever-
green forests disappear from the scene under the altered condi-
tions, and the same holds good with regard to agricultural and
other crops such as cocoa, rubber plants, &c., that are dependent
for successful cultivation on moist conditions.

It is on these grounds that I strongly recommend that a pro-
tective belt of forest be left intact along the borders of the main
cocoa-growing centres, especially those in Aquapim and Kwahou
where extensive dry areas are situated at no great distance from
them. Examples of similar transformations are to be seen
wherever extensive destruction of the forests has taken place
along the borders of the various zones of forest vegetation in
Ashanti and Northern Kwahou, and are most apparent in the
regions where the mixed deciduous forests approach the open
savannah zone. The importance of leaving untouched suffi-
ciently extensive belts of forest to regulate the water supply,
more especially in the catchment basins of streams that may in
the future be required for irrigation works, the water supply of
distant towns, and for navigation, will be evident from the above
remarks.

For all such protective purposes there is no doubt that the
evergreen forests are the more desirable type. The mixed
deciduous ones are to a large extent defoliated during the dry
season, just when the supply of moisture in the soil requires the
most protection against exposure to the fierce heat of the sun and
desiccating winds. They are, however, better than having no
protection at all.

In my opinion the influence forests have in mitigating
extremes of climate in the tropics is their most important func-
tion. On the presence or absence of these extremes depend the
existence of the various types of vegetation. However abundant
the rainfall of a locality may be during the monsoon period, if it
is habitually followed by a prolonged dry season it can never in
the tropics, except where telluric influences such as moisture in
the soil near streams affect plant growth, be covered with the
typical evergreen vegetation. Once a prolonged dry season
becomes an established condition of affairs edaphic influences
depending oil the physical and chemical properties of the soil
assume an importance in relation to plant growth that is quite

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 105

insignificant ill regions where the rainfall is heavy and the
climate huinid practically throughout the year.

As far as vegetable growth is concerned a climate with a well-
marked dry season is, so to speak, in a condition of unstable
equilibrium; the slightest variations in the soil then become of
great importance to plant life, and it is in such regions, of which
the hinterlands of our West African Colonies are the most im-
portant examples for the purpose of this report, that the question
of forest conservancy becomes one of grave concern. Destroy
the forests found there along the banks of streams, on the higher
hills, and in sheltered hollows, and the country will rapidly get
drier though the rainfall may remain practically the same as
before the damage was done'. The soil becomes no longer
capable of retaining the moisture precipitated on it once the
forests are removed.

As regards the influence of forests on rainfall, reliable statistics
extending over a long period are not available for tropical
countries. In Europe it has been shown that forests do, but only
to a very small extent, increase the annual precipitation of rain.

Quite recently, however, Mr. A. Walter, Chief Assistant of
the Royal Alfred Observatory, Mauritius, has made a thorough
examination of the data available with a view to investigating
the effect, if any, that the wholesale destruction of the forests
on the island has had on its climate. He " finds in the smoothed
rainfall curves extending over the period 1860 to 1907 evidence
that the cutting of the forests may have had some little effect on
the total fall, but has had more effect on the number of rainy
days. The distribution through the year is almost more im-
portant than the amount. The rainy days in the districts
denuded of forests have been decreased lay about 30 days per
year, but under such conditions that the amount due to these
30 days is only about 6 to 10 inches, whereas the annual varia-
tion of total rainfall is often 60 inches." (See page 610 of Vol.
78 of " Nature," where a brief extract of Mr. Walter's investi-
gations is given.)

This inquiry has, of course, been confined to a limited region
(705 square miles) having an insular climate. There is every
reason to believe that ihe influence of forests is much more pro-
nounced in the case of continental areas in the tropics, where the
differences between the various seasons of the year are very
marked. A reduction by one month of the number of rainy
days in the year would, if established in such a climate, have
very important effects on the vegetation of the locality.

The action of forests as wind-breaks is too obvious to call for
further remarks ; their use as barriers against the spread of
fungoid and insect attacks from one series of plantations to
another has of late been 'better recognized and adopted in tropical
countries. Mixed forests of the type usually found there are
amongst the most effective agencies that can be employed for
such a purpose. Any tropical country that is mainly dependent
on agricultural pursuits for its development cannot afford to
ignore this beneficial action of forest belts.

106 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

(c) Methods of protecting forests from the dangers mentioned

above :

In all civilized countries in which attention has been paid to
forestry it has been found necessary to introduce special laws for
the protection of the forests and the regulation of their manage-
ment. The application of such laws has, in the majority of
cases, been extended to private forests as well as to those belong-
ing to the State.

The essence of all such legislation should be the recognition
by the law of forests " As pieces of property, as ' estates ' of a
peculiar kind." To quote further from the work of an eminent
authority on forest law, with reference to the above idea :

"This is not a matter of words; it is an important and most
practical conception. Failure to grasp it in our colonies and
in other countries too has been the cause why so little progress
has been made in putting forest conservancy on a rational basis.
For if you realise the idea of a forest estate to be cared for as a
' piece of property ' and protected by law you will also acknow-
ledge that a piece of property if it is to be either managed or
protected must be denned as to its limits, and all questions of
right and obligation arising within those limits must be settled.
If that is not done the forest is still in a fluid, uncrystallized
state ; it hardly deserves to be called ' property ' and consequently
any real conservancy will be unattainable. And it will at once
occur to you that if forests and other estates are to be recognized
as pieces of property in the above sense, the recognition can only
be made practical and operative by some action on the part of the
national legislature or central authority, whereby the State, the
person or body (as the case may be) who has become the owner,
is protected in his enjoyment within certain local limits, and
other persons are prevented from wrongful interference."

In accordance with the above principle, if .any real progress
is to be made in forest conservancy in British "West Africa, the
first thing to do is to select the best areas and make them by
law (whether they belong to the paramount Government or to
native communities) pieces of property, to be managed as forests.
The law, in order to ensure this condition of affairs, has to provide
for five main heads of legal requirement and forest administra-
tion. They are: —

" I. It separates or distinguishes from the general area of
lands in the country, what are the forest estates or areas subject
to the law ; and it does this in several ways.

"1. It regularly constitutes State or ' Reserved forest.'
" 2. The Indian Act creates a class of forest estates less
perfectly and regularly constituted, which it calls 'protected
forest.' The Madras and Burma laws do not recognize
this, but substitute certain general protective provisions for
all wooded, grazing, and waste lands which are at the dis-
posal of Government, but are not yet either made into
regular forests or given up to cultivation.

" 3. The Indian and Burma Acts (not Madras) contemplate
the formation of village forests, forests for the benefit of
villages, but under a certain degree of State control.

GOLD COAST — BEPOllT ON FORESTS. 107

"II. It provides for separating the rights of the State from
those of private persons : for defining the rights, for regulating
their exercise (when left in the forest), for buying them out in
certain cases, and for preventing the growth of new rights or
burdens to the forest in the future.

" III. It protects (in various degrees) the different classes of
forest or other lands which it has made subject to its provisions
by:

*' 1. Preventing offences and adopting measures to fore-
stall or put a stop to accidents by fire, &c.

" 2. Punishing offences, i.e., acts which it specially pro-
vides to be offences against the forest.

" IV. It extends a similar protection to the 'produce of the
forest and to all timber (whether forest timber or not) while in
transit to the market or other destination.

" Y. It constitutes a staff of forest officers giving them legal
powers and imposing certain duties and liabilities."

I believe that the provisions for the creation of village forests
have now been expunged from the Burma Forest Act as it was
found that such estates were not required, the ordinary wants of
the people being supplied from the State reserves and the un-
reserved areas.

The difficulty of giving a legal definition of " a forest " has
been overcome by demarcating certain areas and constituting
them forest estates; in which case, <of course, the areas become
subject to the law. In all other cases the word " forest " is
employed in its ordinary accepted sense. The above is a brief
summary of the main lines on which the various Indian Forest
Acts were framed.

In that portion of the Empire the bulk of the land belongs by
conquest, escheat, and otherwise, to the British Government, so
that no difficulty has been experienced by the 'State in having
only limited areas from which to choose a sufficient quantity of
land for the purposes of creating forest estates of the required
extent. In our West African possessions, on the other hand, the
Crown owns, comparatively speaking, little laud and certainly
nothing like the quantity of wooded area that is necessary for
ensuring a continual supply of forest produce sufficient to meet
all probable demands in the future, to 'say nothing of the extent
of forests required for protective purposes in connection with
the preservation and improvement of climatic factors. In fact
the greater portion of the wooded areas belongs to native com-
munities and chiefs, and the problem thus arises as to the 'best
manner in which to ensure the conservancy of a sufficient extent
of forests on land the ownership of which does not rest with the
supreme Government.

Provided this conservancy is absolutely ensured, in accordance
with the spirit of the protective legal measures laid down in the
Indian Forest Acts, the exact authority, manner, and agency by
which it is established and enforced is a matter of but little im-
portance and chiefly depends on administrative convenience.

108 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

The protective measures should, however, be undertaken as
early as possible, because the longer they are deferred the more
burdensome will become the prescriptive rights and others
acquired over the land. These will eventually have to be denned,
regulated, and provided for before the forests can become estates
in the legal sense of the word. Until this is done the universal
and popular idea, especially amongst natives, that the forests
generally belong to no one in particular and that, with certain
exceptions, almost anyone is entitled to a share of their produce
will continue to prevail, and in the end result either in great
difficulty being experienced in limiting the rights acquired by
custom or in the latter 'becoming so extensive as to hardly make
it worth while attempting to regulate them, and the forests as
such will then, for all practical purposes, cease to exist.

Indeed the very existence of numerous rights (especially those
to the collection and utilization of forest produce) of this
character is a certain indication that the forests are much wanted
by the local right holders (in West Africa usually the members
of the native communities jointly owning the land), and it then
becomes the diity of the paramount Government to see that these
rights are satisfied both in the present and in the future. This
can only be done by ensuring the preservation and increased
productiveness of the particular forests concerned, and before
that is possible it is absolutely essential to have the legal
position of the latter clearly defined as to the ownership, boun-
daries of the land, and the extent and nature of the rights exist-
ing over them. Half measures in this respect are exceedingly
unsatisfactory and end, owing to the unrestricted damage done
to the forests, by the latter ceasing to satisfy, and thus causing
injury to the very rights that it is intended to protect.

Hence, in the interests of the native communities themselves,
quite apart from other considerations, it is highly desirable to
secure the continuous and prosperous enjoyment of such rights,
and for this purpose alone, if for no other, it becomes incumbent
on the paramount Government to ensure, either directly or in-
directly, the legal protection and proper management of the
forests.

In this connection I cannot do better than quote the following
from the work of B. H. Baden-Powell on forest law :-

There is not the least doubt that in the process of time ercrif
forest area (whether called ' protected ' or not) in which various
'undetermined rights of user exist and in which the 'matters above
specified [viz., clear and defined boundaries, a settlement of rights
—an authoritative decision as to what rights have to be exercised
and to what extent, and a prohibition against all unauthorised
diminution of area and abuse of the soil and growth, as well as
against the gradual growth of new prescriptive rights] are not
arranged ivill in tune disappear off the face of the country. It
may take a century to do it, but the deterioration and ultimate
complete destruction of such places is as certain as anything can
be."

A misconception of this real nature of the meaning attached to
the words " reserved forests " or " forest reserves " has, in some

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 109

cases I know of in one of our West African Colonies and Protec-
torates, led to great difficulties in ridding the areas of burdensome
rights acquired after the areas were obtained from the native
authorities (by lease) and declared to be reserved forests. In one
case the actual existence of the forest itself is very seriously
threatened by the large number of settlements that were allowed
to spring up within its boundaries. The importance of clearly
defining the boundaries of, and the extent and nature of any rights
existing within, an area that is to be permanently managed as a
forest estate cannot be too strongly emphasised. Failure to ensure
its legal status invariably results in a large crop of vague, unde-
fined rights that eventually overburden and destroy the dominant
estate.

Reverting now to the possible methods by which such conser-
vancy can be ensured in our West African Colonies, it is advis-
able to recall the main purposes for which forests are required in
those regions. They are :

1. As means for protecting and favourably altering the
climatic factors.

2. For a constant and sustained yield of forest produce
especially with a view to satisfying future increased demands.

3. For supplying wooded areas suitable for the exercise on
them of those methods of practising agriculture now in vogue
amongst the natives.

The last is an almost universal use to which such areas are put
by not very highly civilized native tribes inhabiting the tropics.
It is a native custom, and however wasteful and destructive it may
be, as far as the forests are concerned, it should be respected till
such a time as the tribes have been induced to adopt more modern
and less wasteful systems of agriculture. The custom in West
Africa is something with much more defined rights of a pro-
prietary nature about it than the vague ownership claimed by
nomad tribes practising shifting cultivation in other parts of the
world where they return to the same area only, if ever, after a
very long number of years.

On the Gold Coast and in Southern Nigeria the fellings of the
bush are carried out in a more or less regular rotation, the latter
extending over periods from three ta twelve years in duration, and
are sometimes confined to restricted areas, the limits of which are
well recognised amongst the natives themselves. Unfortunately,
however, there is a great tendency on the part of the inhabitants
of those countries to alter from time to time the sites of their vil-
lages, especially the smaller ones, and the result is that new
centres of forest areas are being constantly involved in destruc-
tion. It should be noted that the essence of this system is its
wastefulness and large extent of land required in comparison with
the wants of even moderately intensive cultivation. In India and
Burma no difficulty is experienced in practising permanent culti-
vation, and it is almost the universal metKbd adopted there. As a
general rule the only extensive patches of really old forest now
left in British West Africa are situated on land the ownership
of which has been disputed amongst the tribes, or which are in
places inaccessible to cultivation.

110 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

In West Africa, then, the greatest danger threatening the
existence of the forests is not their over-exploitation for forest
produce, but their wholesale destruction for farming purposes,
and this is proceeding at a very rapid pace, so that no time is to be
lost if sufficient old forest to meet all likely requirements is to be
protected and maintained. With the land tenures in force in that
part of the world, it is hopeless for the paramount Government to
expect the handsome revenues from forest estates that are realized
by the Indian Government, to which the bulk of the forests in that
country belong. In our West African Colonies the best policy to
adopt in matters of forest administration would rather appear to
be that of selecting and managing for, and more directly with a
view to their own pecuniary interests, the best wooded areas be-
longing to the native communities that we have to deal with. If
this principle is adopted and practised I anticipate but few dif-
ficulties in getting the native tribes to agree to our managing the
forests for them. The essence of such a method is, of course, the
tangible and obvious recognition in the working of the system of
the native rights to the land and its produce, for this is a point in
regard to which the tribes are exceedingly sensitive and jealous.

Nevertheless, it is always advisable for the paramount Govern-
ment to recognize, and, if necessary, in particular instances to act
upon, the principle that where the interests of the public in
general are concerned with regard to matters of forest policy it
has the right to interfere, if by so doing it can ensure the adoption
of any measures that are necessary for the public good ; but even
in such cases the advisability of sharing with the natives any
revenues derived from the venture should not be overlooked. This
right of the supreme authority to interfere, when necessary, in the
interests of the public welfare, with forestry matters, is recog-
nized in every civilised State that has had to deal with questions
of forest administration, and moreover it is being constantly prac-
tised with regard to private forests and those belonging to com-
munes, municipalities, &c., and feudatory native States.
Examples of circumstances calling for such direct interference on
the part of the supreme Government are, of course, dependent on
the inability of, or direct refusal on the part of, the bodies con-
cerned, whether they be municipalities, corporations, communes,
native communities, protected states, or even private individuals,
to carry out the measures required.

Whenever it is necessary for the good of the public to protect
extensive forest belts with a view to preserving or improving the
climatic factors of the locality or to act as protective barriers
against other dangers, the direct interference of the State is justi-
fiable if the measure cannot otherwise be ensured; and the same
holds good in the matter of preventing the extermination of valu-
able species of plants and otherwise regulating their exploitation
(both as regards major and minor forest produce) when this is
desirable for the public welfare of the countries concerned. The
necessity of such interference from the Imperial standpoint be-
comes obvious when it is recalled that the protection or destruc-
tion of certain forests in, say, one native State may be of vital
importance to the inhabitants of adjacent or even remote States

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. Ill

when the same river flows through all of them, and the forests
in question are situated at the sources of the stream (which latter
may not, in the particular State in which they are situated, be con-
sidered of much importance) the waters of which are required for
such purposes as irrigation, navigation, &c., in the other States.
Similar examples occur when the existence of an article of forest
produce which, though of great demand in many States, is only
to be found in one or a few of them, is threatened by over-
exploitation or the reckless destruction of the forests.

Adopting the principle, then, that the native communities are
entitled, except in the case of Crown lands or others leased from
the natives under conditions that do not imply the exercise of this
obligation, to a share of the revenues derived from the wooded
areas managed as forest estates, the chief measures to adopt with
a view to ensuring forest conservancy are : -

(a.) The enactment of a principal proclamation, ordinance,
or whatever else it may be called, that empowers the Governor
in Council to regulate forestry matters generally within the
limits of the colony and protectorate, and provides, amongst
other things, for the legal constitution of reserved forests.

(6.) The passing of ' orders ' and ' rules ' under the
above authority from time to time, as the necessity arises,
with a view to making the provisions of the principal enact-
ment operative.

(c.) The employment of executive measures with a view to
selecting and managing the areas required as reserves, and for
the purpose of supervising the application of the rules and
orders and enforcing them.

Before proceeding to a detailed consideration of the proclama-
tion, orders, and rules that are required for the purpose of
establishing forest conservancy on the Gold Coast, it will be con-
venient to mention briefly the manner and agency by which it has
been provided for in the different feudatory and dependent States
of India in which the British Government is either not the
general owner of the land, or, if it is, does not exercise the privi-
leges of ownership.

Taking the extreme case of native chiefs in the N.W. Hima-
layas, where the law of British territory does not apply, and where
some excellent timber forests exist which it was very desirable to
protect, the latter were leased by the chiefs to the British Govern-
ment either for a long term or in perpetuity. The forests are
managed by forest officers of the Indian Government, and all
arrangements regarding rights of user and penalties for forest
offences, &c., are carried out under the lease, the chiefs agreeing
to enforce rules.

Again in the case of the native States near Simla and in Cash-
mere the chiefs have by agreement and under the influence of the
political officers been induced to " allow or undertake a certain
conservancy."

The best example perhaps, however, for the purpose of this re-
port is the case of the Southern Shan States of Burma which,

112 COLONIAL KEPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

though technically a part of British India, are administered by
Hie Shan Chiefs or Sawbwas under the general supervision of the
chief political officer, known as the Superintendent of the S. Shan
States, and his assistants.

As I was for several years in charge of the forests of these States,
and was in part instrumental in eventually getting their manage-
ment put on a sound footing, I had ample opportunities of seeing
how the arrangements worked. The Sawbwas are allowed to
govern their own States subject to certain restrictions regarding
the more serious criminal offences and civil suits in which property
over a certain value is involved ; such cases are brought to the
courts of the political officers and are tried there, or, if tried in the
native courts, the. judgments are revised and confirmed or not, as
the case may be, in the British courts. The chief political officer
also controls the amount of revenue raised, its allotment to the
different heads of expenditure, and the manner in which it is
utilized. Each State submits an annual budget estimate, which
has to be confirmed by the superintendent before it can be used as
a basis to work on. Otherwise the chiefs have complete control
over the management of their States, and their customs are not
interfered with unless they are repugnant to civilized ideas of law
and justice. The British Government exercises a certain amount
of control over the succession of the native chiefs.

In all these respects it will be seen that the Shan States are in
very much the same position with respect to the .suzerain power
that our protectorates in West Africa are.

Now, as regards forestry in those States, the Upper Burma
forest regulation No. Y. of 1908 was, during my tenure of office
as Divisional Forest Officer for those States, in theory applicable
to them, as they formed part of the territories of Upper Burma,
but in actual practice only a few rules relating to the protection
and regulation of the exploiting of teak timber, which in Burma
is a ': Royal tree," and as such the property of the British Govern-
ment, were directly applied to them ; they were in respect of the
other rules framed under the regulations especially exempted
from their operations. The paramount Government thus, whilst
formally reserving to itself the right (in the regulations, which
correspond to the principal ordinance or proclamation of our
AVest African Colonies and Protectorates) to control the question
of forest conservancy in the States, actually did not do so, except
in the few cases indicated above. Nevertheless, as the measures
for legally creating reserved forests are contained in the principal
enactment itself and not in the subsidiary rules, they were always
directly applicable at any time when, 011 the advice of the forest
officer in charge, it appeared desirable to take up any particular
wooded area as a reserve. Since I left that country the pines,
P. KhaRjja and P. Merkusii, extensive forests of which exist in
those States, and the protection of which was urgently called for,
have been declared as " reserved trees " and specially protected
under the forest rules. All other measures of forest conservancy
were carried out by the chiefs themselves under the advice of the
divisional forest officer, backed up, if necessary, by that of the

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 113

superintendent, who occasionally had to exercise considerable
pressure to ensure their adoption. The arrangement eventually
come to, partly by means of legal enactments and partly by admin-
istrative steps, pure and simple, was in brief : —

1. That the Sawbwas administered the forest laws in their
States and maintained subordinate forest establishments for
that purpose, which were in certain matters under the control
of the divisional forest officer.

2. The latter with a suitable staff of Europeans and natives
to help him exercised general supervision over the protection
and management of the forests, more especially with a view
to seeing that the native establishments maintained by the
chiefs were carrying out their duties in an efficient manner.

3. All forest taxes and the revenues derived from the sales
of timber were collected by the supreme Government, and the
net proceeds divided up in the following proportion : -

J to the British Government.
| to the native chiefs.

Under this system the annual forest revenue went up by leaps
and bounds during my tenure of office. It was Us. 15,000 when I
assumed charge of the division, and Us. 120,000 when I left at the
end of six years, and the chiefs in the end were more than satis-
fied with the arrangements. It seems to me that such an arrange-
ment, by which Government reserves to itself, in the principal
enactment, the right to interfere in matters of forest policy and
administration whenever it is absolutely necessary to do so, yet at
the same time allows considerable freedom on the part of the
chiefs and native communities to carry out the necessary measures
in their own way, is well suited to the requirements of our West
African colonies.

The forest laws of old Southern Nigeria were based on this con-
ception of the extent to which the suzerain power should interfere
in matters of forest administration in that Protectorate. In
these laws, as will be seen presently, native rights and customs
were adequately safeguarded, and the principle was recognised all
through that the chiefs and communities were entitled to a share
of the taxes levied on, and other profits accruing from the exploita-
tion of, forest produce. Unfortunately, when the amalgamation
of the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos with old Southern Nigeria
took place, it was found that the forest proclamation enacted in
the former, though otherwise more or less suitable for local re-
quirements, was completely nullified in its operations by contain-
ing a clause that left the decision as to whether the laws were to
come into force in any particular native State with the communi-
ties themselves as represented by their respective native counrils.
Government thus virtually abandoned all control over directing
and determining the forest policy to be pursued in those
countries.

It now rests, from the legal point of view, with the native
councils alone to decide whether forest conservancy, which is pre-
eminently concerned with the public welfare and good of those

12316 H

114 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

countries, is to be adopted or not. It is true that some good can
be and has been done by the district commissioners and political
officers in getting the chiefs to make some attempt at preserving
the forests, but this is an uncertain method by which much is left
to chance and the personal influence exercised by a few officials,
and in any case is a slow process ; meanwhile the forests are being
rapidly destroyed. It may be confidently asserted that no real
progress has or ever will be made in forest conservancy unless the
supreme Government reserves to itself the right to direct and regu-
late its application. The measures necessary for the realisation
of sound forest administration are difficult enough, as it is, to put
into practice when undertaken directly by Government itself ; the
results likely to follow from leaving such measures to the caprice
of the native councils can be imagined.

In none of the ordinary affairs of life is that continuity of policy
and action required for the realisation of sound administration of
such vital importance as it is in forestry. It is the very life and
essence of its successful application.

Forest crops often require centuries before they mature and can
be reaped. The majority and best of the various approved
methods of treatment and arrangement cannot be realised before
generations have lapsed, and in most cases not within the lifetime
of the persons initiating them. The longer the interval between
the sowing and reaping of the crop the greater the opportunity
and temptation to interfere with its growth, and the greater the
chances against its ever maturing under any particular method of
treatment. Again, the temptation for private individuals, com-
munes and such bodies to reap prematurely the crop at the expense
of the generations to come is very great. For all these reasons it
is recognised in civilised States that the supreme power is the only
agency suitable for directing and carrying out a sound forest
policy.

In short, nothing but that grim tenacity of purpose and action
that can alone be exercised by the paramount Government can ever
safely carry the forests through the dangers and vicissitudes to
which they are exposed during the long years that must elapse
before they can be reaped and brought into an organised condition
capable of ensuring a sustained and increasing yield of produce in
the future.

p. — Forest laws suitable for the Gold Coast and its two
dependencies, Ashanti and the Northern Territories.

For our West African Colonies and Protectorates I think the
most suitable kind of forest legislation is that embodied in the
Forest Laws contained in pages 1312 to 1344 of Volume II. of-
"Laws of the Colony of Southern Nigeria," edited, by
authority, by E.' A. Speed, M.A., LL.B., Attorney-
General of the Colony of Southern Nigeria, and J. E.
Green, Solicitor-General of the Colony, 1908; published
by Stevens & Sons, 119 and 120, Chancery Lane.
The laws are based on those of the Indian Forest Acts, and
have been modified to suit local requirements. They have been

GOLD COAST — BEPO11T ON FORE8T8. 115

simplified, and are not so elaborate in character as the Indian
ones. They contain all that is necessary, for the present, to put
Forest Conservancy on a sound footing within our West African
Territories, and as mentioned above the success attending- their
application will depend mainly on the method and agency by
which they are directed and enforced. As long as Section 21 of
the Southern Nigeria Forestry Ordinance remains in force, no
real progress can be expected, as the question of accepting or
rejecting the laws depends, in accordance with the powers given
in that section, on the will of the native communities as expressed
by their councils, and, in some cases, on the personality of the
political 'officers. This arrangement involves an uncertainty
and reliance on chance that is absolutely fatal to good fore.st
administration.

The exact legal or administrative machinery necessary for
applying the forest laws is a matter of convenience and choice
resting with the particular administrations concerned, and is
immaterial as long as it is recognised that the enforcement of
the main provisions for conserving the forests should not be left
to chance, but, on the contrary, absolutely ensured. The native
councils possess neither the knowledge nor the experience that is
essential for coining to correct decisions on such broad questions
affecting the general and public welfare of the whole country.
If sufficient pressure can be, and is actually, when necessary,
employed, without resorting to direct legal interference with the
powers of the native councils, to accomplish the conservancy
called for — well and good. But the history and past experience
of such methods of enforcing forest rules show that they have
invariably been followed with but little success.

In Sections IV., VII., and VI., respectively, of the three
Orders of His Majesty the King in Council, dated the 26th
September, 1901, viz., the Gold Coast Order in Council, the
Ashanti Order in Council, and the Northern Territories Order in
Council, the Governor of the Gold Coast is given the power to
provide by Ordinance " for the administration of justice, the
raising of revenue, and generally for the peace, order, and good
government " of those Possessions.

As Forest Conservancy is above all things a matter concerning
the welfare of the inhabitants of those countries, and is un-
doubtedly of benefit to the public, there appears to be sufficient
legal authority for carrying out such arrangements as are neces-
sary to establish it. One would certainly include it amongst the
measures necessary for good government.

The Southern Nigeria Forest Ordinance, orders, and rules are,
with some modifications that will be suggested presently, suitable
instruments for ensuring the amount of Forest Conservancy
necessary on the Gold Coast during the immediate future.

Taking these enactments in order, I will briefly indicate the
modifications and additions that appear desirable in order to
meet the requirements of the Gold Coast, Ashanti, and the
Northern Territories.

12316 H 2

116 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

The Southern Nigeria Forestry Ordinance.

(No. 14—1902, and Proclamation No. 28—1901, with subse-
quent amendments — see pages 1312 to 1319 of the new 1908
edition of the laws of that Colony and Protectorate.)

This, as modified below, should apply to all three of those
Administrative Divisions of the Gold Coast.

Sections 1, 2, and 3 of the Ordinance can remain unaltered,
as they deal with definitions and the power to appoint officers to
carry out the provisions of the Ordinance. The definition of
" native lands " should be made more comprehensive and clear
by adding the words " imoocupied and uncultivated " after the
word "waste."

Section 4. — Another sub-section should be added to this, to the
effect that the Governor can, whenever it may appear desirable
in the interests of the native communities concerned, of the
public, or of both, to constitute any waste native land Native
Forest Reserves, on the following conditions: —

(a) That the Reserves are constituted more particularly for
the benefit of the native communities owning the land.

(&) That they shall be managed by Government agency or
under its supervision with that object, and that the Governor
may make rules for regulating this management of Native Forest
Reserves, prescribing the conditions under which the forests may
be exploited and the community or group of communities for the
benefit of which any such forest is constituted may be provided
with forest produce or with pasture, and their duties in respect
of the protection of such forest.

(c) That the net profits (i.e., after the cost of management has
been deducted from the revenues) shall be paid to the native
communities owning the land which has been constituted a
Reserve.

(d) That the titles to the ownership of the reserved lands are
not altered by such reservation.

In suggesting these additions to Section 4, I have endeavoured
to distinguish between the following ideas, and to provide for
their expression in the Ordinance: —

(1) That whenever the necessity arises for doing so, in the
interests of the native communities and of the general public,
the Government should exercise its prerogative as the paramount
Government of making certain by legislative measures of being
able to establish the Conservancy of any particular forest growing
on lands owned by the natives, and to do this without disturbing
their titles to the ownership of the land. Such areas would
then, of course, have to be in fairness managed for the benefit
of the native communities concerned.

(2) The acquisition of land for reservation by special agreement
with the native communities, under the conditions embodied in
the agreements, these conditions not necessarily being such as to
preclude Government from managing the Reserve mainly for ita
own particular purpose or in the general interests of the Colonies.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 117

The main difference between the two arrangements is that
in the former case the reservation may be compulsory, as far as
the natives are concerned, whereas in the latter case it is optional.

Section 5. — This may stand.

Section 6. — Ditto. This provides for the determination of any
rights affecting the laud that it is proposed to reserve.

Section 7. — To stand as it is.
Section 8. — Ditto.
Section 9. — Ditto.

Section. 10. — This will require some modification in the case of
Native Forest Reserves (vide the addition proposed to Section 4)
to the effect that the titles to the ownership of the land on behalf
of the native communities claiming them shall be enquired into
and defined.

Section 11. — To remain unaltered.

Section 12. — The order constituting the land a reserve should
also state whether the land has been acquired by agreement,
lease, &c., or under the powers given the Governor in the addi-
tional sub-section to Section 5 (proposed by me) for constituting
Native Forest Reserves.

Section 13. — To stand, but the titles of the native communities
to the ownership of the reserved land must be omitted from the
rights that become extinct.

Section 14. — To stand.
Section 15. — Ditto.
Section 16. — Ditto.

Section IT. — Should be modified in accordance with local re-
quirements as to who the most suitable officials are for the
purposes of this section.

Section 18. — To stand.
Section 19. — Ditto.
Section 20. — Ditto.

Section 21. — Omit the clause in which the native councils are
given the power to accept or reject any orders and rules passed
under the Ordinance. See my remarks on pages 113-115, re
this clause. Also alter the last paragraph of this section, to the
effect that all rules and orders shall apply to all Crown lands
and lands leased or held by the Crown, except to Reserves, unless
the orders or rules are specially declared to apply to Reserves.
The latter require a more thorough protection than non-reserved
areas, and are put under a more elaborate management.

Section 22. — To be modified in accordance with local practice
and requirements.

Section 23. — To stand.

Section 24. — Ditto.

Section 25. — Ditto. Omit reference to Section 21.

118 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS

THE SCHEDULE.

1. — Rides relating to Rubber.

The Southern Nigerian Rules should, with the modifications
indicated below, be applied to the Gold Coast Colony and
Ashanti, but not to the Northern Territories, as but little is
known about the rubber-producing plants of that region.

Rules 1 and 2 of the Rules may stand.

Rule 3 should be modified to suit local arrangements.

Rule 4 should be altered to the effect that these Rules do not
apply to Reserves, which, as I have mentioned before, should be
managed under rules specially framed for that purpose.

Rule 5 to stand; the titles of the officials mentioned in the
Rule may require alteration in accordance with local procedure.

Rule 6. — To stand.
Rule 7.— Ditto.

Rules 8, 9, 10, and 11 can stand; the title " District Commis-
sioner" may be replaced by the general term "Commissioner."

Rules 12, 13, 14 can remain unaltered.

Rule 15. — The minimum girth may, I think, be reduced to
24 inches.

Rule 16' should be completely altered and replaced by one in
which the following are provided for instead : — •

(1) That the trees are not tapped during the months December
to June.

(2) That under no circumstances should the cuts penetrate
deeper than the cambium layer, and on no account must they
enter the wood.

(3) No tapping shall be done higher up the tree than 12 feet
from the ground.

(4) That tapping be undertaken only in the early morning,
and not later than nine o'clock, provided that on cloudy or
rainy days, when the sun is obscured, it may be carried on up
to a later hour.

(5) That the system of tapping followed is that known as the
"half herring-bone" method, which may be described as
follows: —

A vertical, very shallow channel, not more than i-inch wide,
is cut from the base of the tree up its trunk to a height not
exceeding 12 feet. From this channel, branch channels are cut
at an angle of 45° with the main channel, and on one side only
of that channel. The branch cuts should be at intervals of
6 inches, and should not go more than a quarter round the tree.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 119

(a) When the wounds caused by making one complete series
of cuts, as described above, have completely healed, another
series of tappings can be carried out on the opposite side of the
tree, and, when these in their turn have healed, on one of the
two remaining sides of the tree that have so far not been tapped.
The fourth series should then (after the cuts from the third series
have completely healed) be carried out on the remaining uncut
side. Subsequent tappings on each section of the trunk should
be carried out so as not to tap any portion of the bark a second
time until the wrhole of the untouched surface of the bark on
that section has been tapped. The tappings, of course, should
on each occasion be limited to the proper season of the year.

Experience has shown that complicated methods are, in the
absence of adequate supervision, unsuited for the tapping of
wild trees growing in the forest, however desirable such systems
may be for plantation trees where the operations can be properly
directed and checked. Funtumia elastica is, in comparison with
the Para rubber tree, far less resistant to injuries caused by tap-
ping, and, consequently, such operations should be carried out
veiy lightly on it, special care being taken not to cut down to
the cambium zone of tissues. For this reason, the method of
removing successive thin shavings of bark off the sides of the
channels on alternate days is to be discouraged.

Rule 17 should be abolished, and the following substituted
for it : —

Vines are not to be tapped during the period December to
June. In tapping them the stem should be severed by a clean
cut flush with the ground and the latex then collected from the
severed portions of the vines by cutting the latter into small
sections and collecting the latex from each piece.

The latex collected from vines must be strained through muslin
or wire gauze or otherwise cleaned in order to get rid of extra-
neous matter before it is coagulated.

Rule 18 should be modified to the effect thai, on no account are
the latices of Funtumia elastica, Ficus Vogelii, and Landolpliia
owariensis to be mixed one with another, and the mixtures then
coagulated for the preparation of rubber. Each of the three
kinds of latex must be kept pure and coagulated separately.
Any licence-holder found guilty of preparing rubber adulterated
with dirt or other extraneous matter, or actually found preparing
rubber from latices mixed with those of the three species men-
tioned, will be liable to have his licence forfeited.

Rule 19 should, I think, be abolished, as experience has shown
that with proper management and encouragement the native
communities, as a rule, readily undertake such planting
operations.

Rule 20 should stand, but the licence fee should be a nominal
one, sufficient to cover the cost of printing the licences. The
royalties payable to the native communities, however, should
remain unaltered.

]20 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Ride 21 can stand.

Rules 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26 can stand.

Form A (Rubber Licence) should stand.

With regard to the difficult problem of ensuring the prepara-
tion of a purer grade of rubber, and putting a stop to the large
amount of adulteration of that product that is at present
practised, the following methods of dealing with it may be
mentioned : —

(1) Prohibit the export of inferior grades. This is most easily
done by imposing a prohibitive export tax on the poorer qualities.

(2) Enforce the Adulteration of Produce Ordinance, and con-
fiscate all impure rubbers.

(3) Prohibit the tapping of all latex-yielding trees other than
Funtumia elastica, Landolpliia oivariensis, and Ficus Vogelii for
the purposes of preparing rubber from the latex.

The drawback to all these methods is the fact that the inferior
grades of rubber are readily saleable, but at a reduced price, in
the home markets, and it becomes a matter for serious considera-
tion whether it is advisable to interfere with an established trade
of that sort. The real remedy, of course, lies with the merchants
who purchase the produce from the natives. They can, if they
combine together, easily effect a very great improvement in the
quality of rubber offered for sale, by simply rejecting the inferior
kinds.

Something can also be done by teaching the native better
methods of preparation, but 110 great success is likely to follow
such measures, as the main practice objected to is the act of
adulteration, which the majority of natives know very well,
without being taught, to be detrimental to the quality of the
rubber. Besides, the adulteration is very frequently carried out
with the direct intention of cheating.

Some good may be done under Ride 18 (as altered in this
Report), because the fear of having their licences confiscated may
induce some of the collectors to abandon this practice.

In the French West African Colonies, the different grades of
rubber are sorted at the port of shipment; they are put into
separate bags, which are then sealed up and the grade or quality
distinctly marked on them before they are exported. The very
inferior grades are often completely rejected by the Government
inspectors.

There is no objection to the latices of species yielding an
inferior product being mixed together before coagulation is
brought about, but it is highly desirable to keep the latices of
Funtumia elastica, Landolphia owariensis, and Ficus Vogelii
quite pure and separate one from the other.

As any arrangements that may be made for regulating the
exploitation of rubber will necessitate the employment of a fairly

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 121

large staff to carry out and supervise the measures necessary for
raising the quality of the rubber and protecting the trees against
over-exploitation, the advisability of imposing a small export tax
on rubber should be carefully considered.

The average annual export of that produce, computed from the
figures of the last nine years, is 3,511,332 Ibs., valued at
£316,995. An export tax of one halfpenny per Ib. would on this
quantity bring in an average revenue of £14,630. The average
value of the rubber exported during those years is Is. 9d. per
Ib., which makes the incidence of taxation equal to -^ of the
value, or a little under 2^ per cent.

Such a tax would, of course, fall unequally on the different
grades, but it would tend to improve the quality of the poorer
kinds, and thus help to raise the general average quality all
round. Moreover, it is a very light tax, that can be easily
borne without interfering with the trade ; and its collection would
present no great difficulty. For these reasons I strongly advise
the adoption of this method of raising revenue. The rubber trade
is of great importance to the Colony, and it is not asking too
much of it (the trade) to pay a small tax such as this in order to
improve the quality of the produce and protect the trees from
destruction.

We now corne to

2. Tlie Orders setting forth the acts prohibited under Section 18

of the Forest Ordinance.

Para. (1). The species mentioned here should be replaced by
the following : -

(a.) All species of mahoganies of the genus Khaya (native
names Dubini and Kwabaho).

(b.) All species of cedars of the genus Pseudocedrela (native
names Penkwa or Punkwa, and Tiama-Tiama).

(c.) The Odoum or Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa}.

(d.) The Baku (Mimusops Djave).

(e.) The Kivatanuro or Pebedum (Lovoa Klaineana).

(/".) Cedars belonging to the genus Guarea (native name
Bosse).

(g.) The Kaku (Lophira sp.).
The paragraph about ebony should be omitted.

The above list contains all those species of trees that yield
timber of the first quality, fit for export to Europe, and that it is
desirable to protect against over exploitation.

A clause should be added to this paragraph to the effect that
the owners of native lands cannot "t&ke" timber for export except
in accordance with conditions prescribed in the timber rules.
The concluding sentence but one of para. {-1) of the Southern

122 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Nigerian Order will require correction in accordance with this
alteration.

Para. (2.) Replace the list of plants mentioned here by those I
have mentioned above, and add the following :-

(a.) Funtumia elastica.
(6.) Landolpliia owariensis.

((•.} The oil-bean trees, Pentaclethra macrophylla (native
name Athawah), Ricmodendron afncanus (native
name Awamd), and trees of the genus Carapa.

(d.) Guna copal trees of the genus Cyano thyrsus (native name
Hyedua).

(e.) The shea butter tree (Butyrospermum Parkii).

The remaining paragraphs (3), (4), (5), (6), and (7) of the Order-
can stand.

The above Order thus modified would be suitable for the Gold
Coast and Ashanti. For the Northern Territories I would sub-
stitute a simple one somewhat as follows.

The following acts are prohibited : -

The taking on native lands of the mahogany tree (Khaya
senegalensis), the cedar (Pseudocedrela Kotschyi), the shea
butter tree (Butyrospermum Parkii), the Opapao (Afzelia
africana), and Landolphia owariensis for use in the Colony
and Protectorates of the Gold Coast, except in accordance
with the rules relating to timber for the time being in force.

So very little is known about the rubber-yielding plants of the
Northern Territories that I have not attempted to protect them
under the Order. The question can be deferred till more infor-
mation about the species and the trade done in rubber in those
countries has been procured.

Meanwhile the protection suggested above for the best three
timber trees and the shea-butter tree will suffice. It may be neces-
sary to add to the list of timber trees in the future when more is
known about them. The sass wood tree (Erythrophloeum
guineense) and the balsam copaiba tree (Daniella thurifera) may,
if necessary, be added to the list of protected trees, as they both
yield useful timber.

3. Rules Relating to Timber.

These Southern Nigeria rules appear suitable for the Gold
Coast of Ashanti, and should be adopted for them with the fol-
lowing modifications. The titles of the officers referred to in the
rules can be altered in accordance with local requirements and
custom. 'I have not attempted to correct them.

The rules that require to be modified are:-
Rule 20. — Alter sub-section (1) (a) as follows : —

" The girth of the tree at a height of 4 feet 6 inches from the
ground, or, wrhen it possesses buttresses, at the level at which they
all merge into the stem "

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 123

Rule 25. — Alter as follows : —

" No mahogany trees of the genus Khaya (known to the natives
as Dubini and Kwabaho), and no cedar trees of the genera Pseu-
docedrela (known to the natives as Penkiva, Punkwa, and Tiama-
Tiama), and Guarea (native name Bosse), and no tree of the
species Lovoa Klaineana (native name Pebedum), and no tree of
the species Baku (Mimusops Djave), and no trees of the genus
Cyanothyrsus (guni copal trees, native name Hyedua), and no
tree of the species ChloropJiora excelsa '(Odoum of the natives) of
a less girth than 12 feet at a height of 4 feet H inches from the
ground, or, when buttressed, at the height at which the buttresses
merge into the stem, and no trees of the specie* Funtumia elastica,
Pentaclctlira macropliylla (the oil-bean tree, native name
Athawah), Ridnodendron africanus (native name Aw am a}, and
trees of the genus Carapa of less than 6 feet in girth at a height
of 4 feet 6 inches from the ground, or, if buttressed, at the height
at which the buttresses merge into the stem, shall be felled :
Provided that the Governor may by Order reduce these dimensions
in any district or locality named in such Order, where the trees
do not attain such dimensions."

This rule protects undersized trees of the above-mentioned
species against felling by timber licensees.

Rule 38. — The fees paj-able on application for a timber licence
and on execution of the same should stand.

Rule 39. — The fees payable under (a) for mahogany and cedar
trees should be altered as follows : -

(1) For each mahogany tree ... ... ... 50s.

(2) ,, ,, cedar tree ... ... ..." ... 30s.

(3) Upon any other tree ... ... ... ... 20s.

The rest of the rule in question can stand as it is.

Rule 40. — Omit the words " inspection fees " from the first sen-
tence of this rule ;

And replace (a) and (b) by the following : -

(a.) "Three-fifths of the fees (i.e., 30*. in the case of maho-
ganies, 18*. in the case of cedars, and 12s. for other species) for
any of the above-mentioned trees shall be paid into the nearest
local treasury, and shall form part of the revenues of the Colony.

'(5.) " Two-fifths of the fees (i.e., 20s. for mahoganies, 12s. for
cedars, 8s. for other species) payable on mahoganies, cedars, and
other .species of trees shall be paid to the Commissioners of the
districts in which the lauds included in the licence or the greater
part thereof are or is situated and distributed by them among the
grantors of the licence in the proportion to which they are
entitled."

Sub-section (c.) of this rule can stand.

In Rule 39 the fees have been charged per tree instead of per
log. Experience has shown in Southern Nigeria that the former
arrangement prevents the wholesale waste of timber that used to
go on when an export tax per log was charged. Trees of the pre-
scribed girth used to be felled right and left, and only one or two

124 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

of the choicest logs were selected from each for export, the
balance were left to rot in the forests. Sometimes no logs at all
were selected from the felled trees, and the latter needlessly
destroyed and their value as seed bearers lost to the forests.

Similarly, experience has shown that in the case of mahoganies,
cedars, and the Odouni (Cliloropliora excelsa) the average yield of
logs per tree of individuals possessing a larger girth than 12 feet
is three, and the 'Government's share of the revenue is based on
the all-round sum of 10s. per log of trees belonging to those
species. Including the share that goes to the native communities
(grantors of the licence), the incidence of taxation amounts to
165. Sd. per log, which is by no means heavy, as the following
estimate will .show.

It is based on low figures for the superficial contents of the
logs, their lengths, and the price obtained in the home markets.
Experience has shown that trees 12 feet and over in girth yield
at least three logs of the low dimensions given below — viz., logs
10 feet in circumference, or, what amounts to the same thing,
logs having the sectional area equal to that of a circle of the
above circumference.

The length of such a log would on the average exceed 16 feet,
but the latter figure will be taken so as to give the merchants the
benefit, and the cubical content would in each case equal (~VL)' x
16 cubic feet, which is equal to 100 cubic feet. This is equivalent
to 1,200 superficial feet. As the merchant gets credit at Liver-
pool for only two-thirds of the total superficial contents of a log,
he will be paid only for § x 1,200 or 800 superficial feet. Now
fair all-round mahogany and cedar wood sell at an average price
of 3d. per superficial foot, so on this assumption the merchant
will realise £800 x fV x ^j = £10 per log, on which he has to
pay a tax of 16s. 8d. This amounts to an incidence of taxation
equivalent to |fo or S£ per cent.

With larger logs and the same price the taxation would be
lighter, but the case has been purposely put in the worst possible
light from the point of view of the merchant to show that even
under those conditions the tax is by no means an excessive one.
I think in actual practice it will be found to be about equal to a
5 to 6 per cent, ad valorem tax.

Of course, ?he imposition of such a tax will be strongly opposed
by timber merchants of the Gold Coast, but it has been found to
work very well, despite protests on the part of the merchants, in
Southern Nigeria, and timber concessions are as eagerly sought
for there now, since this duty was levied, as they were before
under the old rates. These woods are a valuable asset to the
natives and the paramount Government, and are worth to them
as sources of revenue every bit of the tax proposed. Another
point is that the timber industry of the Gold 'Coast is greatly
in need of being placed on a sound footing ; at present a large
number of undesirable persons of little or no financial stability,
and who have in addition become heavily involved in mining
speculation, are engaged in it, and have given it that hand-to-

GOLD COAST — REPOR1 ON FORESTS. 125

mouth character inseparable from the conditions mentioned
above, in the wake of which has followed the theft of timber
which is so much complained of and which is practically absent
from Southern Nigeria. The imposition of the proposed tax will
help to weed out the undesirables and regulate their operations
on a more satisfactory basis.

Another danger in fixing the Gold Coast timber tax at a lower
figure than that in force in Southern Nigeria is the probability
in such an event that attempts will almost certainly be made to
bring pressure to bear on the Government of the latter in order
to reduce the tax in force there. I have already explained that
the Southern Nigeria arrangements are working satisfactorily,
and that no changes are called for at present.

As there is certain to be an outcry against the high minimum
felling girths of 12 feet proposed for some species in Rule 25, it is
advisable to mention here Ihe reasons that have necessitated the
adoption of that size.

I have, when describing some of the forests of the Gold Coast
and Ashanti, called attention to the unsatisfactory condition of
the age classes, or gradations, of the more important species to be
found in them.

Now in order that a forest should yield an approximately equal
quantity of major produce (timber) every year in the future, it is
necessary that it should, as near as possible, be in that condition
known technically as the " normal forest," in which the age
gradations, or what amounts to the same thing as the girth, are
for all practical purposes proportional to the age, the girth
gradations are so represented in the numbers of trees and the
volume they contain as to enable that annual yield of mature
timber to be realised. Any deficiency in the " normal " number
of trees that should exist in each girth class, especially those cor-
responding to the younger age gradations or classes, necessitates
an alteration in the annual yield so as to enable the surplus stock
in the well-represented classes to be utilised in such a manner as
to permit the fellings to tide over the long period necessary before
the forest can be converted into the normal state. Now the
majority of the West African forests are in the irregular condi-
tion in which the age or girth classes are not evenly graded, large
gaps occur in the gradations, and some of the latter, especially the
older ones, are, on the other hand, represented by a greater num-
ber of trees than is necessary; hence if the yield was based on this
last factor alone, without considering the abnormal condition of
the younger classes, more than the annual wood increment would
be removed, and the wood-producing capital would be encroached
upon. In fact the greater the deficiency in the younger classes
as compared with the older ones the longer the period required
to transform the forest into the normal state, and the longer the
period over which the surplus stock of the older classes would
have to be utilised in order to ensure an approximately equal
yield during that time.

If S = the stock available for exploitation, or which will be-
come available during the N years required to transform the

126 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

forest into the normal state, the annual yield is proportional to

s

M '

The greater N is, i.e., the longer the time (which is dependent
on the amount of deficiency in the younger -classes) required to
change the forest to the normal condition, the smaller will £ or
the yield become, or, in other words, the fewer the number of
trees that can be felled. The easiest and most convenient method
at present for ensuring a smaller number of trees being felled is
to fix the minimum felling girth at a considerably higher figure
than the average girth of the older age classes. It is a rough
and ready felling prescription easy to adopt and sufficiently
accurate to prevent the forests from being' over -exploited. In time,
when larger and better trained establishments can be employed
for carrying out the important duties of framing " working
plans " for the forests, a more exact prescription will be possible.

Meanwhile the great thing to guard against is over-exploita-
tion of the growing stock, or in other words, an encroachment on
the wood-producing capital. For the above reasons I strongly
recommend the girths suggested by me in that Rule being
adopted. Any reduction will be attended by grave risks to the
wood-producing capital of the forests.

It is as well to recall here the great danger that attends the
exploitation of a forest unless such operations are carefully regu-
lated. It is due to the fact that in removing the wood increment
in the form of trees, the wood-producing capital, which also
consists of trees, may be removed as well or greatly reduced. The
producer and the produce are identical in character, and the
accurate determination of how much of the former can be utilized
without exceeding the annual quantity of wood produced by the
whole forest is beset with great difficulties. The universal
tendency is to over-exploit the material produced by forests.

Rule 43. — This should be modified to the effect that the
grantors can, without obtaining permission from anybody, fell
or cut any trees for their own domestic uses, but not for sale or
barter, provided the trees are of the size specified in Rule 25.
(b) should stand as it is.

Rule 44. — Sub-rules (1) and (2) should stand.

Sub-rule (3) should be modified to the effect that the owner
has to pay the following fees : —

(a) Upon each mahogany tree ... ... 30s.

(b) Upon each cedar tree ... ... ... 185.

(c) Upon any other tree ... ... ... 12s.

The concluding paragraph of the principal Riile should
remain as it is.

Rule 45 should stand, but fees payable by persons other than
the owner should be : —

(a) For each mahogany tree ... ... 20.s\

(6) For each cedar tree ... ... ... 12s.

(c) For every other tree ... ... ... 8s.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 127

Miscellaneous.

Ride 48 should be altered to the effect that such timber as may
be required locally for domestic, agricultural, or other like
purposes, or for the construction or repair of canoes, vessels,
buildings, bridges, tramways, railways, or other like works, but
not for purposes of sale, may be felled 'by the owners of the lands
or by any persons authorized by them, provided that felling*s for
farming purposes are not made within a distance of 100 yards
of either bank of a perennial stream, or on the crests of hills or
on their slopes in the immediate vicinity of where such streams
have their source, without the consent of the nearest Commis-
sioner or European Forest Officer.

Also add a clause to the effect that trees of any species can be
felled, without restrictions as to girth or the payment of fees,
on all mining property for purposes of fuel and the ordinary
requirements of the mines, but not for sale or barter.

Rules 49 and 50 can stand.

Rule 51. — This should be altered to the effect that the rules
shall apply to all 'Crown lands and lands leased to the Crown and
\Q native lands, but not to reserves acquired by Government nor
to native forest reserves. Also add a clause to the effect that the
Governor may, if he thinks fit, exempt any particular locality,
by notification in the Gazette, from the application of such rules.

The question as to whether timber concessions already granted
and being worked should have the Rules extended to them is a
rather difficult one to decide. As the bulk of the most suitable
areas have already been taken up, I should advise their being
included under the operation of these Rules, otherwise the best
areas and the ones most desirable to protect will be left out in
the cold, so to speak, and probably suffer very considerably in
consequence, especially if it becomes known that timber Rules
are about to be introduced. I would suggest one year's grace
being allowed from the date of the Rules coming into force to
enable concessionaires to make such arrangements as may be
necessary for the altered conditions embodied in the Rules.
Meanwhile the ordinance for the protection of immature trees,
which is already in force, should be strictly applied to the timber
concessions now being exploited.

Some additional Rules for the control and protection of forest
produce in transit will be required. They have not been included
in the Southern Nigerian Rules because the theft of timber there,
except in the Western Province, where the majority of the native
councils will have nothing to do with the Rules, is not practised
to any serious extent.

The additional Rules should be based on the following, which
is an exact copy of part of the Upper Burma Forest Rules (1899).

' 1. Marks of two kinds only, namely property marks and
classification marks, may be impressed by others than forest
officers on unconverted or roughly hewn timber. The former
denote that the timber belongs or will, after all purchase money
or royalties due to Government and the grantors of licences shall

128 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

have been paid, belong to the owner of the mark. The latter
denote the origin or the quality of the timber or by whose agency
the timber was handled.

"2. ' Classification marks ' may be impressed only on timber
bearing registered property marks. Classification marks may
only be impressed upon the authority of the person whose regis-
tered property mark has already been impressed on the timber.

" 3. All property marks and classification marks and all
transfers of .such marks shall be registered in the manner here-
inafter provided.

" 4. Except by the authority of an officer in charge of a forest
division, no person shall impress a property mark on any un-
marked timber unless he acts under the authority of the owner or
licensed extractor of the timber and impresses the registered pro-
perty mark of such owner or extractor on such timber before it
is launched in a floating stream.

" 5. Except by the authority of an officer in charge of a forest
division no person shall —

" (a) Mark any timber save with a hammer, the possession
of which has been licensed in Form XIX. or XIX. a., and sub-
ject to the conditions of that license; or

" (&.) Impress any mark on timber save a mark registered in
manner hereinafter provided.

" 6. Except 'by the authority of a person in charge of a forest
division no person shall alter or efface any mark on timber and
except by like authority no person shall impress a property mark
on timber already bearing any mark, unless the timber bears
a mark denoting that all money payable to the Government "
(to this should be added the word "Grantors'1 for the Gold
Coast Rules) " in respect thereof has been paid and the person
acts under the authority of the owner of the timber and uses the
registered property mark of such owner.

" 7. No person shall possess or carry marking hammers or
other implements used for marking timber save under and
subject to the conditions of a licence in Eorrn XIX. or XIX. a.
issued by the officer in charge of a forest division.

" 8. No person shall import timber and no person shall for
trade purposes move in transit unconverted or rough-hewn
timber extracted for trade purposes, unless each log or piece of
such timber is distinctly stamped with a registered property
mark.

"Exception. — This rule does not apply to bamboos, canes, or
firewood in billets or to timber extracted by or on behalf of
Government for its use or sale.

" 9. Registration of a classification mark or a property mark
shall be effected 'by the owner at a Divisional Forest Office^ The
forest officer in charge of such office may refuse registration of
any mark. After registering any mark the forest officer shall
send copies thereof to the offices of other forest divisions where
the mark is used.

" 10. If the forest officer refuses the registration of any pro-
perty mark or classification mark he shall record his reasons in

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 129

writing' and furnish ;i copy to i he applicant for registration, who
may appeal within one month from the date of such refusal to
the Conservator of the Circle.

'11. Whenever a property mark has been found affixed to any
standing- tree or to timber which bears traces of the obliteration,
alteration, or defacement of some other property mark 01 has
been used to mark or supermark timber in contravention of any
of these rules, or whenever the registered owner of a property
mark or his agent or servant has been convicted in a criminal
court of making a dishonest use thereof, the divisional forest
officer may cancel the registration of such mark. The forest
officer shall record his reasons in writing1, and his order shall be
subject to appeal to the Conservator of the Circle, if appeal be
made within one month from the date of cancellation of such
mark.

'' 12. Whenever any classification mark has been found affixed
to a nty standing tree or to any timber that did not previously
bear the property mark to which the classification mark is sub-
sidiary or has been iised for obliterating1, altering, or defacing
other marks, the divisional forest officer may cancel the regis-
tration of such mark. He shall record his reasons in writing
and his order shall be subject to appeal to the Conservator, if
such appeal be made within one month from the date of can-
cellation of such mark.

" 13. Registration and each renewal of registration of a
property mark or classification mark shall hold good from the
date thereof until the following thirty-first day of March and
for the next succeeding two years.

" 14. A registration mark may be borne by one or more
hammers. When a mark is 'borne 'by several hammers, a number
may be borne by each such hammer to denote that it forms one
of a series of hammers bearing the same mark, without payment
of additional fee. But any modification or alteration in the
form or character of a mark shall be separately registered.

" 15. Registration effected under any law for the time being
in force in Lower Burma shall hold good in the territories to
which the Upper Burma "Forest Regulation, 1898, extends ae
long as it holds good in Lower Burma.

Xote. — Some provision of this sort may become necessary in
the event of different Forest Ordinances being in force in the
Gold Coast, Ashanti, and the Northern Territories.

" 16. (1) The registration of classification marks is free of fee.
Fees for the registration of property marks shall be levied accord-
ing to the following scale: —

" Property Mark

(a) for teak timber

Rs.

"For each new mark registered ... 100

" For renewal of registration of a mark before it
has lapsed or within three months after it has
lapsed ... 1

1231-i I

130 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Rs.

" For renewal of registration of a mark after the
expiration of three months from the date on
which the registration lapsed ... 25

' For transfer of a mark ... ... ... ... 10

" (b) for other timber

Kov each mark registered or transferred ... 5

' For renewal of registration of a mark before it

has lapsed ... ... ... ... ... 1

4 For renewal of registration of a mark after it

has lapsed ... ... ... ... 3

'; (2) The fee prescribed in sub-section (1) of this rule shall
ordinarily be levied before the mark is registered, but the divi-
sional forest officer may, for reasons to be recorded, permit the
fee to be paid in instalments. In the latter case the registration
of the mark shall cease to hold good if default is made in any of
the instalments. The registration of marks used by Government
contractors shall be free.

.\<>tc. — Fifteen rupees are equivalent to twenty .shillings, or
£1.

'17. Timber of which the ownership is not indicated by a
registered property mark shall not be entitled to a pass under
Rule 35. 1'

The above quoted Rule is as follows :-

"(I) No person shall move timber in transit without a pass
from the deputy commissioner of the district or forest officer of
the forest division in which the timber is, or from an officer
empowered by such deputy commissioner or forest officer in that
behalf, or otherwise than in accordance with the conditions of
such pass. Provided that this rule shall not apply to—

" ((() Bamboos or firewood in billets.

' (b) Timber collected under a licence granted in accordance
with Rule 72.

" (2) The pass shall be in the form of Appendix XTI.

' (3) Such pass shall be produced on the demand of any forest
officer or police officer.

" (4) Timber for which such a pass is not produced may be
detained by any forest officer or police officer."

Under the Burma Rules fees are levied on timber for which
such passes are given, but I do not recommend this being done
on the Gold Coast, for the present at all events.

This pass will usually be given when the timber is marked
with the Government Pass mark (denoting that all fees and
royalties payable on the timber have been paid), ritlc Rule 20 (4)
of the Southern Nigeria Timber Rules.

In Burma timber stealing has been reduced to a fine art, and
the above quoted Rules have been found sufficient to meet all
requirements for protecting timber against theft.

Similar rules should, I think, be enforced on the Gold Coast,
especially in the Axim district, where, I understand, stealing of
such produce is very prevalent.

GOLD COAST- REPORT ON FORESTS. 131

In the above Rules the divisional forest officer corresponds to a
Provincial forest officer of Southern Nigeria, and deputy com-
missioner to a district commissioner in our West African Colonies
and Protectorates.

Additional Rules will be required : -

1. To regulate the size of rafts and the minimum number of
men in charge of them. This will depend on local conditions
and the presence or absence of dredgers and launches in the

water-ways.

2. To provide for the establishment of timber depots at—

(a.) The mouth of the Ankobra River;

(b.) The terminus of the railway at Sekondi,
for the purpose of examining all timber before it is exported to
Europe.

The particular spots at which the depots are to be formed
should be left till a forest department has been formed on the
Gold Coast.

The Customs authorities will have to see that no logs are
shipped for Europe that do not bear the Government Pass mark.

Timber imported from Europe might be exempted from the
rules relating to hammer marks and Passes.

Rule 14 of the Southern Nigerian Timber Rules will require
alteration in accordance with the above quoted rules regarding
the registration of hammer marks.

'' Classification marks," I may explain, are marks used by
timber merchants and others for their own private information
with a view to indicating from what forest, stream, or contractor,
&c., the timber is procured.

3. A rule to the effect that-

No person shall convert, cut, burn, or conceal any timber in
respect of which any money is payable to Government or the
native communities.

4. A rule to the effect thai-
No person shall establish or convert timber at a saw-pit or

saw-mill within a distance of 1 mile from any river used for
floating timber in rafts or of 10 miles of any railway, save under
and subject to the conditions of a licence in the form given below,
granted by the district commissioner or forest officer of a district
or by an officer empowered by either of them.

The licence form should be as follows : —

Book number Licence number

Licence to establish and convert timber at a sawpit or sawmill
has been granted under Rule of the Timber Rules to (mnnc of
person) of (residence) for a period of (months) under the following
conditions from the (date] to the (date).

(1) That the sawpit is established within the following
boundaries ..........

(2) That this licence is not transferable and must be in the
possession of the person to whom it was granted or of his agent,
when such person or his agent is using the sawpit.

12315 I 2

132 COLONIAL KKPOIITS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Breach of any of the above conditions will render the holder
liable io the forfeiture of the licence as well as the punishment
prescribed in the Timber Rules.

The (date)

Signature and designation of

Officer granting the licence.

The licence forms for the registration of property marks and
classification marks should be as below :-

Book number Licence number

Licence to possess and carry a marking hammer.

(Name) .... of (residence) ....
is permitted under Rule of the Timber Rules to possess, carry,
and use within the under-mentioned limits the marking hammer
or implement, bearing the impression shown on the reverse of
this licence and subject to the conditions noted below. The
limits above referred to are . . . (the district, forest,
stream, &c., as the case may be, or the area covered by the timber
licence).

The time for which permission to use the hammer-mark hereby
licensed is from .........

The conditions subject to which this licence is granted are:- — -

(1) That the licensee shall at all times have the licence in his
possession when using the hammer.

(2) That the licence is not transferable, but the licensee may
make over the licence and the hammer to which it refers
temporal-ill/ to any person in his own employ or in the same
employ as himself, provided that the name of the transferee and
the date of transfer are endorsed on the licence. Breach of any
of the conditions of this licence will render the licence liable to
forfeiture and the holder thereof to the punishment prescribed
in the Timber Rules.

Date .

Provincial Forest Officer,
Province.

Book number Licence number

Licence to use a Classification Marl-.

(To be issued only to owners of registered property marks or their
servants and only for mahogany and cedar timber.)

Name ..... of

is permitted under Rule of the Timber Rules to possess, carry,
and use within the under-mentioned limits the classification
hammer mark or implement bearing the device shown on the
reverse of this licence from the . . . (date) to

the .... (date), subject to the conditions noted
below: —

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 133

(1) That the mark shall only be impressed on mahogany and
cedar log's already bearing the registered property mark.

(2) That the person using the hammer shall carry the licence.

(3) That the licence is not permanently transferable, but may
be temporarily transferred to a servant or fellow-servant of the
licensee, if the transferee's name and date of transfer are
endorsed on the licence.

The limits referred to are

(District, forest, &c.).

The time for which permission to use the hammer mark hereby
licensed is granted is from . . to

Date

Provincial Forest Officer,

Province.

The Ti inlici- Reuiuctil Puss should be in the following form :-
Book number Pass number

Pass to remove timber has been granted under Hule of the
Timber Kules to—

(1) Owner's name;

(2) Destination ;

(3) Kind of timber;
(4i) Hammer mark ;

(5) Amount of timber;

(6) Place at which Pass must be presented (Timber depot) ;

(7) Date of expiry.

Any one moving timber without a pass in this form is liable
to a fine of £ or months' imprisonment.

Date

Signature and designation of
Officer granting the pass.

Xote. — The depots to which timber has to be taken should be
notified from time to time in the Official Gazette. They should
be placed at the termini of the various lines of export unless a
large local trade between one district and another springs up,
in which case they should be established at the most convenient
places on these local lines.

Lastly, as regards the question of drift timber, I cannot do
better than quote in- extenso the Burma Forest Rules on this sub-
ject. They should be closely followed in any adaptations made
for the Gold Coast :-

" 46. Timber falling under any of the following descriptions,
namely : -

"(a.) Timber found adrift, beached, stranded, or sunk;
" (&.) Timber bearing marks that have not been registered

under rules made under Section 43 ;
' (r.) Timber whidi lias been super-marked or on which marks

have been obliterated, altered, or defaced by fire or

otherwise; and

134 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

u(d,) In such areas as the Local Government directs, all
unmarked timber;

" shall be deemed to the the property of the Government unless
and until any person establishes his rights thereto, as provided
in this chapter." (See quotations of sections following this
one.)

' (2.) Such timber may be collected by any forest officer or
other person entitled to collect the same, and may be brought to
such stations as a forest officer, specially empowered in this
behalf, may from time to time notify as stations for the recep-
tion of drift timber.

' (3.) The Local Government may, by notification in the local
Official Gazette, exempt any class of timber from the provisions
of this section.

" 47. — .(1.) Public notice will from time to time, as occasion
may require, be given by a forest officer, specially empowered
in this behalf, of timber collected under the last foregoing section.

" (2.) Such notice shall contain a description of the timber and
shall require any person claiming the same to present to such
officer, within a period not less ( ? more) than one month from
the date on which such notice is given, a written statement of
such claim.

' 48. — (1.) When any such statement is presented as aforesaid,
the forest officer may, after making such enquiry as he thinks
fit, either reject the claim, after recording his reasons for doing
so, or deliver the timber to the claimant.

'' (2.) If such timber is claimed by more than one person, the
forest officer may either deliver the same to any such person
whom he deems entitled thereto, or may refer the claimants to
the Civil Court, and retain the timber pending the receipt of an
order from the Court for its disposal.

"(3.) Any person whose claim has been rejected under this
section may, within six months from the date of such rejection,
institute a suit to recover possession of the timber claimed by
him, but no person shall recover any compensation against the
Government or against any forest officer on account of such
rejection, or the detention or removal of any timber, or the
delivery thereof to any person under this section.

" (4.) No such timber will be subject to the process of any Civil
Court until it has been delivered or until a suit brought under
this section has been decided.

"(6-) Every suit instituted under this section shall be subject to
the provisions of Section 424 of the Code of Civil Procedure.

" Provided that the notice required by the said provision shall
be g^ven within three months from the date of the rejection,
under Sub-section (1), of the intending plaintiff's claim.

"49. Where no statement is presented in the manner and
within the period prescribed by notice issued under Section 47,
or where such statement having been so presented and the claim
rejected the claimant omits to institute a suit to recover posses-

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 135

siuii of such timber within the further period mentioned in
Section 48, the ownership of such timber shall vest in the
Government free from all mcTunbrances or, when such timber
has been delivered to another person under Section 48, in such
person free from all incumbrances not created by him.

'' 50. No person shall be entitled to recover possession of any
timber collected or delivered as aforesaid until such sum. as may
be due for salving, collecting, moving, storing, and disposing
of the timber has been paid by him to the forest officer or other
person entitled to receive the sum.

" 51. — (1.) The local Government may make rules to regulate
the following matters, namely :-

" (//.) The salving, collection, and disposal of all timber
mentioned in Section 40 ;

" (6.) The use and registration of boats used in salving and
collecting timber ;

" (c.) The amount to be paid for salving and collecting, mov-
ing, storing, and disposing of such timber; and

'' (d.) The use and registration of hammers and other imple-
ments to be used for marking such timber.

("2.) The Local Government may by rule under this section
attach to the breach of any rule under this section any punish-
ment not exceeding imprisonment for a term which may extend
to six months, or fine which may extend to five hundred rupees,
or both."

The above-quoted sections belong to the Upper Burma Forest
Regulations which correspond to the forest ordinan res of Southern
Nigeria, and as the latter in Sections 20 (11) and '20 (12) does give
the Governor in Council the power to make rules to regulate the
" transport of timber by land and water," and the " salving and
disposal of drift timber," these sections of the Upper Burma
forest regulations can be taken as a basis on Avhich to frame the
rules that the Southern Nigerian ordinance provides for. The
Upper Burma regulations have merely expressed in more detail
in the regulations itself what would ordinarily be expressed in
rules framed under the principal ordinances of our Colonies.

The Upper Burma forest rules relating to the salving, collec-
tion, and disposal of drift, stranded, or other timber are:-

" Rule 68.— JIn Rules ,69 to 74, the following words have the fol-
lowing meaning : -

" Log — means a piece of timber which is 4 feet 6 inches or

more in mean girth (i.e., the girth taken at the middle

of length of the log).
' Yatthit — means a piece of timber 15 feet or more in length

and having a mean girth of 2 feet or more but less

than 4 feet 6 inches.
'' Piece — means a piece of timber that is neither a log nor a

yatthit.

"69. All timber found adrift, beached, stranded, or sunk may
be salved by any person, and shall either be secured on a bank or,

136

COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

at the discretion of the salver, be iakeii to the next station down
stream notified under Section 4(> of the Upper Burma Forest
liegulations, 1898, as a station for the reception of drift timber.

" 70. (1) 'The salver shall be entitled to the following bank-
salvage for the securing of the timber:-

Per log.

Per yatthit.

Per piece.

Teak
Other timber ...

Rs. a. p.

080
040

Rs. a. p.

040
020

Rs. a. p.

020
0 1 0

and in addition thereto a payment at such rates as may from time
to time be prescribed by the Conservator for delivery of timber
at stations notified as aforesaid.

" (2.) When rafts or compartments of a raft which have been
abandoned by raftsmen are salved only half the bank-salvage
shall be payable." (X1 OTE. — One anna = one penny.)

" 71. The salver shall not deliver any timber salved by him to
any person but a forest officer or a person entitled under a licence
to collect such timber, and may refuse such delivery until the full
payment to which he is entitled under the last foregoing rule has
been tendered.

" 72. (1.) No person other than a forest officer shall collect
salved timber without a licence or otherwise than in accordance
with the conditions of the licence.

"|(2.) Such licence shall be granted by the officer in charge of
the forest division, and shall be in the form of Appendix XX. to
these rules.

" 73. For all salved timber delivered to owners from stations
notified as aforesaid the following fees shall be paid in addition
to the salvage charges prescribed in and under Rule 70.

Per log.

Per yatthit.

Per piece.

Teak

Rs. a. p.

1 8 0

Rs. a. p.
0 12 0

Rs. a. p.

060

Other timber ...

080

040

020

' 74. On timber stored or left at a station notified for the recep-
tion of drift timber for more than one month after the timber
has been delivered by a forest officer to a claimant under Section
45 of the regulations, a fee of two annas per log shall be levied
for each month or fraction of a month during which the log re-
mains at the station. Provided that no fee shall lie leviable until
after the expiry of fourteen days from the date of issue of notice
in writing to the owner or other person interested in the timber,
requiring him to remove it. The period of fourteen days shall

GOLD COAST — KEPOKT ON FORESTS. 137

count from the dale of notice whether the notice reaches the
owner or person interested or not. It shall be the duty of the
owner or person interested in timber stored or left at a drift
timber station properly to secure it and keep it in safety, no
responsibility in respect thereto being undertaken by the forest
officer in charge or by Government."

Such are the provisions that it has been found necessary to
make in Burma for the protection of forest produce in transit.
Similar enactments, modified to suit local requirements, should
be made in the timber rules for the Gold Coast. The spirit and
essential points of the above quoted rules and regulations should,
however, be preserved in the local rules, as they have been based
on a long experience of timber exploitation and the dangers that
have to be guarded against in a country where the conditions are
somewhat similar to those prevailing in A Vest Africa.

It remains now to mention that stations for the reception of
drift timber will have to be notified from time to time in the
Official Gazette; a few of them along the course of the Ankobra
River and one at Sekondi should suffice for the present. In the
event of the forests in the lower Tano drainage being much ex-
ploited a station will have to be formed at the mouth of the canal
leading from that river to Half Assini.

The licence to collect salved timber should be in the following
form : —

Book number Licence number

Licence to collect salved timber under Rule of the Timber
Rules has been granted to of ,

who is permitted to pay bank-salvage and collect logs bearing
the marks noted below within the under-mentioned limits from
the {date} to the (dote) both

days inclusive, subject to tlie following conditions :-

(1.) That bank-salvage shall be paid at the rate fixed by
Rule of the Timber Rules.

(2.) That no timber bearing marks other than those noted
below shall be collected.

(3.) That only the person in whose name the licence is issued
shall collect timber under the licence, and that at the
time of collection the licence shall be in his possession.

(4.) That the timber shall be brought to and reported at one
other of the following places, namely : -

The limits above referred to are—
The marks above referred to are —

Breach of any of the conditions of this licence will render the
licence liable to forfeiture and the holder thereof to the punish-
ment prescribed in the following rules.

Date. Signature of officer granting the licence.

138 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Lastly, when, in accordance with Section 4(J of the Upper
Burma Forest Regulations (quoted above), the ownership of cer-
tain timber vests in the Government, this ownership should refer
to the native communities from \\hose lands the timber in ques-
tion was extracted. If such ownership cannot be ascertained,
then the timber should become the property of the Gold Coast
Government.

As regards timber rules for the Northern Territories, I think
that a few simple rules to the following effect will suffice for tlie
present.

Rule 1. — That no trees of the species specified below and of less
girth than that provided for in this rule shall be felled by any
person without the permission of a District Commissioner or
Forest Officer.

The species and their -mini inn in felling girths measured at a
height of 4 feet 0 inches from the ground are : -

Minimum

girth.

The "dry zone" mahogany (Khaya seucgalensis) ... 6ft.
,, „ ,, cedar (Pseudocedrela Kotschyi) ... 6ft.

„ Shea butter tree {Biityrospcnnum Parkii) ... ... 6ft.

,, Opapao (Afzelia africana) ... ... ... ... 7ft.

,, rubber vine, Landolphia owariensis ... ... 1ft.

Rule 2. — That no person shall " fake " for the purpose of trade
or barter any timber except in accordance with the conditions
contained in the licence form appended to these rules.

Rule 3. — That the forests are not to be cleared for farming
purposes within 100 yards of either bank of a perennial stream,
except with the permission of the District Commissioner or
Forest Officer. The same rule to apply to vegetation growing
round the sources of streams and along the summits and crests of
the hills.

The licence form should be somewhat as follows :-
Trade Licence to take Timber.

Book number Licence number

Licence to fell the trees specified on the reverse and to remove
the timber to {locality where it trill be sold) is granted

under Rule 2 of the Northern Territories Timber Rules for
months from this date to {person} of (residax-, }

subject to the following conditions: —

((1.) That only trees of the number, .species, and size specified
on the reverse are felled.

(2.) That no trees are felled in such a manner as to cause
injury to any trees of the species mentioned in Rule 1
of these rules.

(3.) That all branch pieces and other debris left after a tree
has been felled shall be removed to a distance of not
less than 20 feet from any species of tree mentioned in
Rule 1.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS.

139

(4.) That no trees are felled or moved after the time for
which this licence is granted shall have elapsed.

(5.) That royalty at the under-mentioned rates shall be paid
on the timber, and that the timber shall not be
removed, converted, or utilized until such royalty has
been paid in full.

(6.) That if all dues on the timber are not paid on or before
the day of , 19 , the timber men-

tioned will lapse to Government.

(7.) That unless the licence be obtained expressly for such
purposes as providing house or bridge posts or the like,
none of the following trees, the " dry zone
mahogany (Khaya senegalensis), the ' dry zone
cedar (Pseudocedrela Kotscliyi), the Opapao (Afzelia
africana) shall be felled of less than 6 feet girth in
the case of the two former species, and 7 feet in the
case of the latter, at a height of 4 feet 6 inches from
the ground.

(8.) That no shea butter tree is felled.

(9.) That the licensee shall mark all timber felled under the
authority of this licence with a hammer mark duly
registered at the office of the District Commissioner or
Forest Officer.

Breach of the above conditions Avill render the holder liable
to forfeiture of his licence, and confiscation of the timber, as well
as to the punishment prescribed in the Timber Rules.

(Reverse of Licence.)
Number and Girths of Trees to be felled.

No.

Species.

Girth below which
trees may not be
felled.

Mark of

licensee's registered
hammer.

Limits within which trees may be felled
or boundaries of area).

Dated the

(name of forest

District Commissioner or
Forest Officer,

District.

140

COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Account of Timber brought out.

Date

Logs.

Cubic feet.

Remarks.

Initials of
officer

Rule 4. — The royalties paid oil timber extracted under a
licence for trade or barter shall be distributed as follows by the
District Commissioner : -

Three-fifths shall be paid into the local Treasury.
Two-fifths to the native communities on whose lands the
timber is cut.

Rule 5. — Native communities in receipt of timber royalties
shall help the District Commissioner to enforce the conditions
under which a licence to trade in timber is granted.

Some rules providing1 for penalties to breaches of the above
should be added.

The protection of the trees specified in Rule 1 will cause little
or 110 hardship to the native • farmers in the open savannahs in
which they grow, and with the exception of Afzelia africana they
cast very little shade.

The protection of the belts of vegetation found growing along
the banks of streams is of very great importance in the dry zone,
and the same remark applies to forest growing round the sources
of the streams, on the tops of ridges, and along the crests of hills.

It is very probable that other trees may have to be eventually
put under the protected list when more is known about the forest
vegetation of the hinterland.

General considerations regarding Tim her Rules.

It will be seen, from the proposals put forth regarding the
legislation that is considered necessary in the form of rules, that
a certain amount of protection has been afforded to forest areas
in general and their exploitation under proper restrictions pro-
vided for. Such measures are, however, of a tentative nature and
are only necessary till such a time when the best forests and a
sufficient extent of wooded land has been placed under the
intensive protection afforded by reservation. Reserves are the
permanent estates from which the demands for forest-produce
will have to be met in the future, and they therefore require
different treatment from the generally protected areas, which
latter are only protected in order to give sufficient time within
which to complete the selection and reservation of the forests that
it is considered necessary io manage solely as estates for the supply
of forest produce.

The procedure involved in reservation is a long one, and many
years must lapse before enough wooded lauds have been taken

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 141

up for that purpose. Meanwhile, unless ;i certain amount of pro-
tection is afforded to the forests ill general, there is risk of their
being destroyed or severely damaged before the choice of areas
that it is considered desirable to reserve has been completed.
As a measure suited to the uncertainty that must exist for very
many years whether permanent forests will be required in some
areas, or whether it will not be better to give up such areas to cul-
tivation and agriculture in general, this type of limited protection
is invaluable.

When the reservation of the quantity of wooded land considered
necessary for meeting all the demands for forest produce likely
to be made in the future has been completed, and when the per-
manent existence of a sufficient extent of forest has been ensured
with a view to protecting and improving the climatic factors of
the country, then and then only will it be advisable to remove
all restrictions from the unreserved areas. It is difficult to esti-
mate what percentage of the forest lands should be reserved,
because future requirements cannot be accurately allowed for.
In India about 39 per cent, of the area of forest lands has been
reserved and the area brouglit under this treatment is still increas-
ing in extent almost every year.

Rules relating to Forest Reserves.

We now come to the consideration of the orders and rules
necessary for the regulation and management of forest reserves,
which expression includes the tint ire forest reserves provided for
in the Southern Nigerian Ordinance as amended by me for the
purposes of the Gold Coast.

The Southern Nigeria Rules relating to forest reserves consist
of: —

A. Prohibitions.

B. Rules and regulations, and

An appendix containing licence forms for use in reserved
forests.

The corresponding reserved forest rules for the Gold Coast
should be identical with those enacted for Southern Nigeria, and
they will, in that form, be found to meet all the requirements of
the case.

As mentioned before, reserves should he looked upon as estates
that are to be protected and managed solely with a view to supply-
ing forest produce both for local use and, if necessary, for export,
as well as for the purpose of ensuring that beneficial action on
the climatic factors associated with the presence of large masses
of forest vegetation.

The necessity for placing such areas on a proper legal footing,
by defining their boundaries fas pieces of property) and the rights
to be exercised in them, &c., has already been explained, and it is
only necessary now to remark that unless this legal protection
has been properly secured it is useless to anticipate any good
results from a system of forest conservancy in which an essential
guarantee of that sort is wanting. It is not worth while going
to the expense of introducing measures for the treatment and

142 COLONIAL REPORTS- MISCELLANEOUS.

exploitation of the forest, sucli management being necessarily
based on the assumption that it can be exercised without hostile
interference for at least several generations, if not centuries,
when the very existence of the forest as such is not guaranteed
for a sufficient length of time to realize the object of the manage-
ment. It is sheer loss of time and money to the State. On the
other hand, it is absolutely certain that without the legal pro-
tection afforded by reservation, the forests will in time cease to ,
exist. No property of this sort regarding which the rights of
ownership and prescription have not been legally defined, limited,
and regulated, can exist for very long, more particularly in coun-
tries like our West African Colonies and Protectorates. What-
ever measures may be adopted for the general protection afforded
to the forests under enactments such as the Timber Rules, it will
be found in course of time that they are quite insufficient to meet
the demands of forest conservancy. The latter, without the
power to legally constitute reserved forests, is a mere ghost and
caricature of what it should be.

PART II.

B. — SUGGESTIONS AS TO THE FOREST POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION

TO BE ADOPTED ON THE GOLD COAST.

Having dealt with the question of legislation, the next points
to consider are the means by which the provisions of the Ordi-
nance, Orders, Rules, &c., should be put into practice, and the
general policy to be followed in regard to Forest Conservancy
and Administration on the Gold Coast.

These matters can be most conveniently dealt with under the
following heads: —

A. Establishments necessary for carrying out the provisions

of the Forest Laws and for the systematic protection
and management of the forests.

B. The selection of areas for reservation.

C. The collection of data for the preparation of '"' Working

Plans" and the methods under which the forests should
be managed.

D. The botanical survey of the forests.

E. The training of the subordinate staff.

F. Forest plantations.

G. The inspection and supervision of timber concessions and

licensed areas.
H. General forest policy.

Taking these in the order mentioned, as regards

A. — Forest Establishments.

The Forest Administration of the Gold Coast should be carried
out by means of the staff, European and native, shown below ; — •

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 143

1. European Staff' (superior Forest Service) This should
consist of: —

(a.) A Conservator with a salary of £1,000 to £1,200 on a
yearly increment of £50, and duty pay of £200 per
annum.

(b.) A Deputy Conservator on a salary of £700 to £900, with
a yearly increment of £50 and duty pay of £140 a
year.

(c.) Senior Assistant Conservators (1st grade) with salaries
of £450 to £650 per annum, a yearly increment of
£25, and duty pay at the rate of £90 per annum.

(d.} Junior Assistant Conservators (2nd grade) with salaries
of £300 to £400, and yearly increments of £25.

The Deputy Conservator will act for the Conservator when the
latter is absent on leave, and will be his second in command.

The Senior As-sistan-ts will ordinarily hold .charge of the larger
Administrative Divisions, such as the Gold Coast, Ashanti, and
the Northern Territories.

The Junior Assistants will hold charge of groups of Districts
corresponding to the Political Divisions known as Provinces.

The Conservator, Deputy Conservator, and Senior Assistants
should, as far a<s possible, be recruited from professionally
trained men who have already had some experience of actual
executive and administrative work.

The Junior Assistants should be recruited from amongst men
who have just passed through University or other 'similar courses
of instruction in Forestry.

In proposing the above 'Salaries, I have been guided mainly
by the urgent necessity that exists for procuring trained men
to fill the appointments, and the lowest existing market rates
at which good men with those qualifications can be obtained.
When the peculiar natiire of "the duties involved, the special
training necessary, and the opportunities that exist for careless
or improper treatment (the effects of which very often cannot
be ascertained till generations have passed, and the officers con-
cerned also gone) to seriously damage the forests are recalled,
I think it will be admitted that the scale of salary proposed above
is none too liberal.

Applications should be made to the India Office to induce men
from the Indian Imperial and Provincial Forest Services to
accept the higher-paid appointments. If necessary the appoint-
ments may be offered for three years to begin with, with the
option of making them permanent at the end of that period by
mutual consent. This may induce persons who are loath to leave
India permanently for residence in unhealthy climates like that
of West Africa to defer their decisions on this matter till they
have actually had experience of the climate on the Coast and
their reactions towards it. I am confident that once it is
generally known in India that the climate of the West Coast of
Africa is not quite so black as it is painted, and that the general

144 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

conditions of life out there for Europeans Lave vastly improved
of lute years, many persons will be willing to risk it, at all events
for three years to begin with, if by doing so they can better
their prospects to any appreciable extent.

In this connection, it will be iiseful for purposes of comparison
to give a list of the Indian Forest Establishment, so far as the
Upper Comptrolling Staff is concerned.

It consists of

One Inspector-General, on Us. 2,050 per mensem or £2,120
per annum.

Two Chief Conservators, each on Rs. 2,150 per mensem or
£1,720 per annum.

Nineteen Conservators-
Six of 1st grade, on Rs. 1,900 per mensem or £1,520
per annum.

Seven of 2nd grade, on Rs. 1,700 per mensem or £1,360
per annum.

Six of 3rd grade, on Rs. 1,500 per mensem or £1,200
per annum.

136 Deputy Conservators.
72 Assistant Conservators.
9 Foreign Service (four temporary).
One Assistant Inspector-General.

Five Officers at the Imperial Forest College and Research
Institute, Dehra-Dun (who each draw in addition to their
pay a special allowance of Rs. 150 a month).
Assistant Conservators start on a salary of Rs. 380 per men-
sem (£304 per annum), which rises by annual increments of
Rs. 40 per mensem (£32 per annum) to Rs. 700 a month or £560
a j*ear, and after that (they then become Deputy Conservators)
by increments of Rs. 50 a month {£40 per annum) to Rs. 1,250
per mensem or £1,000 a year in the twentieth year of service.

The salaries of the Provincial Staff are on a much lower scale,
though its members are for practical purposes equally capable ;
it is from this branch that I anticipate applications for transfer
to West Africa.

The promotion is thus continuous up to the twentieth year of
service, and a first grade Deputy Conservator then draws a
pensionable salary of £1,000 a year.

An officer can retire on pension after 25 years' service.

As regards the number of Assistant Conservators that will be
required for the Gold Coast Establishment, the following staff
should be gradually worked up to :-

One senior Assistant Conservator for each of the three adminis-
trative divisions, namely, the Gold Coast, Ashanti, and the
Northern Territories, together with an addition of two more to
act for the former when they are absent on leave.

Of the junior Assistants, three will be required for the Gold
Coast, three for Ashanti, and two for the Northern Territories,

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 145

This will bring the Forest Establishment up to the following
strength : —

£

One Conservator 1,000—50 — 1,200

Duty pay 200

One Deputy Conservator . . . 700—50 — 900

Duty pay 140

Five Senior Assistant Conservators... 450 — 25 — 650

Duty pay 90

Eight Junior Assistant Conservators 300 — 25 — 400

The cost of this Establishment will for the first year amount
to £7,140, a sum that will be more than covered by forest revenue.

2. Native Staff (Subordinate Forest Service). This should
consist of : —

Forest Rangers.

i. Forest Rangers of the first grade, with salaries of

£72 per annum,
ii. Forest Rangers of the second grade, or Deputy

Rangers, on salaries of £60 per annum.
Foresters.

i. Foresters, first grade, on £48 per annum,
ii. Foresters, second grade, on £36 per annum.

Forest Guards.

i. Forest Guards, first grade, on £24 per annum.
ii. Forest Guards, second grade, on £18 per annum.

The actual number of men required cannot be estimated for
with any accuracy at present, and the matter can be deferred
till the European Staff has been appointed. An annual expendi-
ture of £1,500 on the Native Staff should provide for all the
men that will be required during the first few years.

B. — Selection of Areas for Reservation.

The exploration of the forest areas, with a view to selecting
the best for Reserves, will form the most important duty of the
European Staff. As the process is one that takes a long time
to complete, it should be started as soon as ever a department has
been established ; it is of the utmost importance that as much
as possible of the richest forests should be reserved before they
have been damaged by the native farmers or over-exploited for
the export trade. Every dry season the forests should be
systematically explored, and proposals submitted for the reserva-
tion of the best ones, and this selection should be left to the
more experienced Senior Assistant Conservators.

Special attention should be paid first to areas covered with
high forest that shows fewT, if any, signs of having been modified
by the action of man during the past. Of such areas, those
should be selected for reservation that contain a fair proportion
of any or all of the following species of valuable plants : —

(a1.) Mahoganies, of the genus Khaya.

(ft1.) Cedars, of the genus Pseudocedrela.

(cl.) Cedars, of the genus Loroa.

12315 K

'46 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

(d1.) The Odoinn or Iroko (CMorophora excelsa).

(e1.) The Baku (Mhinixoi>x J)j(ir-c).

(/1.) The Kaku (species of Lophira).

(g1.) The Kokoti (Pynaertia ealaensis).

(A1.) The N'yankon (Heritiera ntilis).

(i.) The silk rubl>er tree (F nntintiia elastica}.

(j1.} The rubber vines, Landolphia ou-an'ensif; and L.
Thompson i /.

(&1.) The gum copal trees (species of Cyanothyrsus).

(I1.) Tlie oil-bean tree (Pentad ethra macrophylla).

(w1.) Awama (Ricinodendron africanus}.

(n1.) Trees the wood of which is used for making- shingles,
such as the Off ram (Terminalia scutifera} and the
Emril, another species of Terminalia;

and, finally, any other species of plant that furnishes valuable or
durable timber or other produce of economic value.

It will .generally be found that a large proportion of the above-
mentioned plants are to be met with in one and the same forest,
so that its reservation will afford protection at the same time to
a great many of the species that it is desirable to conserve.

When selecting- areas for reservation, information regarding
the sylvicultural peculiarities of the more important species
should be carefully collected and recorded.

The time of flowering and seeding, whether annual or occurring
at intervals of several years, the time the fruit remains on the
tree, before it falls (in some species the fruit remains on the tree
for two or three years), should be noted, as well as:-

(i.) The kind of soil that suits each species best.

(ii.) In hilly country the aspect, i.e., the slope of the ground,
whether north, south, east, or west, on which the
species thrives.

(iii.) The relation of the more important species to the other
plants in the forest ; whether they are being domi-
nated or likely to be suppressed by others, and the
state of their natural regeneration.

(iv.) "\Vhether the species is a light-deniander or can stand
dense shade.

(v.) Whether it is evergreen or becomes defoliated at
periodical intervals, and so on.

The observations indicated above will take years to carry out
thoroughly, but they should never, on account of their import-
ance, be lost sight of, and every endeavour should be made to
keep continuous records from year to year on these points.

When selecting forests for reservation, it will be found that
comparatively few tracts are covered with so-called primeval or
virgin forest; the majority of forests on the Gold Coast and in
Ashanti consist of secondary irregular growth that has sprung
up on areas previously cleared for farms by the natives. In
places, such forests have, since they re-occupied the abandoned
farms, been left untouched for such a long time that a sufficient
interval has elapsed for the trees composing them to have grown
into large trees of very nearly as good growth as the original

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 147

ones that were felled. Such forests should be selected in pre-
ference to those of younger age, commonly met with close to the
larger native towns and villages.

Again, forests situated within a reasonable distance of
"floating" streams (streams capable of floating out large logs),
should be chosen in preference to those at present inaccessible to
exploitation, unless, of course, the reservation is made with the
object of protective belts of forest, with a view to the latter
exercising its functions of preserving or improving the factors
of the locality.

The system of farming in vogue with the natives is such that
large tracts of forest-covered land are necessary for the successful
carrying out of these operations ; very much more land, in fact,
than would be sufficient in the case of permanent cultivation.
It is, therefore, necessary that the forest officer should, when
submitting proposals for reservation, first ascertain whether
sufficient forest, or scrub-covered land will still be available to
the natives' for farming purposes after the reservation has taken
place. He should make enquiries regarding the size of the
native villages and their rate of increase of population; the area
required annually by each for farming purposes ; the length of
the farming rotation ; the number of crops raised on the newly-
cleared farms before they are allowed to lie fallow, and the
nature of the crops grown.

Some of these points, especially the rate of increase of popula-
tion, can be adequately dealt with only in the course of a proper
anthropological survey; and if any such work is undertaken, it
is desirable that the needs of the Forest Department should be
kept in view when the scheme for such a survey is prepared. In-
formation as to native forest laws and land laws in general should
also be collected and put at the disposal of the Forest Department.

Details of this description should always accompany the
reserve proposals.

All areas that are found sufficiently rich for reservation should
be surveyed with the compass and rope, or the plane-table ; more
especially the boundaries of the reserves, which should consist,
as far as possible, of easily identified features, such as ridges of
hills (water-partings), the course of streams, roads, and paths.
Whilst these traverses are being made, the ''valuation surveys."
referred to under " (C) The Collection of Data for the Preparation
of ' Working Plans ' in this chapter, should be carried out in
conjunction with them. The valuation surveys will further help
to fill in the interior details of the sketch map forwarded with
the proposals for reservation. Such maps should have marked
on them the positions of all villages that are likely to be directly
affected by the reservation of the area concerned.

Rough surveys made with the aid of the compass and pacing,
timing, &c., should also be carried out along forest roads and
paths not already shown on the maps of the Colony and Protec-
torates. The field sheets of such surveys ought to be forwarded
to the Superintendent of Surveys, with a view to their being
utilized in the preparation of later editions of the maps.

12315 K 2

148 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

C. — The Collection of Data for the Preparation of Working

Plans.

This very important work should be undertaken concurrently
with the exploration and selection of areas for reservation. In
the early stages of forest conservancy in tropical West Africa,
it will not be possible to undertake any refined and costly
measures of this sort, but simple and approximate methods of the
nature indicated below should invariably be adopted with a view
to supplying some information regarding the actual condition
of the growing stock in the forests, and for the purpose of framing
simple and safe prescriptions for their exploitation till such a
time as more detailed and accurate systems become possible.
Reserves should invariably be exploited under some such simple
prescription, that limits the fellings to a definite proportion of
the mature timber they contain. For example, a prescription
that limits the fellings during a specified period to one-third,
say, of the number of mature trees standing in the reserve is
both simple to understand and to apply. It merely means that
o\it of every three mature trees found in the forest, one is to be
marked for felling. The person selecting the trees to be cut
searches about in the forest and marks every third tree of the
requisite girth that he comes across, and has them felled. If
with such a prescription is combined the 'observance of simple
rules that prohibit the felling of isolated trees of a particular
species, and further limit the first choice to trees that are past
their prime as seed-bearers, little or no harm will be done to the
forests by the time that they can be placed under a more rigorous
and accurate treatment. In any case it is much to be preferred
to the ordinary haphazard methods that do not take into con-
sideration the actual condition of the growing stock.

Before a simple plan of the nature indicated above, however,
can be framed, it is necessary to ascertain :-

'(«) the rate of growth, of the particular species exploited,

at definite periods of their age ; and
(1>) the proportion (in number of trees) existing between the

various age or girth classes.

As regards (a) the rate of growth : The Vjest and safest method
of ascertaining this, with respect to any particular species, is to
actually measure at regular intervals, say, of three, four, or
five years, the girths or diameters of a good representative series
of individuals of all sizes from that of the sapling to the mature
tree. The same trees should be re-measured at the end of every
third, fourth, or fifth year, as the case may be, and the process
continued till 15 or 20 years have elapsed, by the end of which
time it will be possible to obtain reliable data as to the rate
of diameter urowth of the species during the different stages of
its growth. The latter is not uniform in rate throughout the
lifetime of any particular species, hence the necessity for includ-
ing individuals of all sizes (the girths are proportional to the
ages) amongst those measured.

If the measurements are made on series of trees growing on
poor, middling, and good soil, more accurate data still will be

GOLD COAST — REPORT OX FORESTS. 149

procured, aud reliable averages for intermediate conditions of
the soil can then be reached by estimation. Of course, very
careful records will have to be kept of the measurements, and
each tree marked with a distinctive number by which it can be
identified, both in the forest and amongst the records.

The necessity for carrying out these observations on trees that
are not likely to be cut or damaged during the periods for which
the experiments are to hold good is obvious.

Other methods of ascertaining the rate of growth are, in the
case -of tropical trees, not so accurate as that mentioned above.
The usual one of counting the number of rings in the wood and
calculating the growth from the data so obtained is only accurate
when it is known for certain whether the rings are annual, or
bear some definite proportion to the age of the tree.

As a general rule, trees with the deciduous habit strongly
pronounced at regularly occurring intervals, such as the dry
season in the case of species inhabiting the mixed evergreen
and deciduous forests, show well-marked differences in the
appearance of the tissues formed during the dry and wet periods
of the year, and these differences can be utilized in calculating
the rate of growth.

Evergreen trees sometimes show the same regularity of differ-
ence, but there is in their case no means of ascertaining whether
it is an annual occurrence or not, unless a check depending on
historical information regarding the actual age of the tree is
available.

A safer method is to compare the number of rings in the wood
of young trees with the age of the trees as estimated from other
evidence, such as the number of years that may have elapsed
since the area on which the young plants are growing was last
cleared by the natives for farming purposes, and the time that
has passed since the farm was abandoned as fallow land.

If the average number of rings, as shown on the wood of a
large number of young plants, agrees pretty closely with the
number of years estimated from the evidence of the natives
regarding the period that lias elapsed since the farm was
abandoned by them, then it may be assumed with safety that
the rings in such instances are of animal growth. Similarly,
the correspondence between the rings and the age can be ascer-
tained from planted trees the ages of which are known. It may
happen that the average number of rings is some exact multiple
of the age ascertained from other evidence ; the inference then is
that two or more rings, as the case may be, are put on annually
by the tree, and such data will be sufficient for ascertaining the
age of the latter from an enumeration of the rings alone. The
correspondence between the rings and the age having been found,
then the age of any particular plant of the same species can be
ascertained by counting the number of rings along two or three
selected radii of a log or stump, and taking the average.

The rate of growth is got by counting the number of rings that
occur along each inch of radius. In the same manner the rate
of growth at the different periods of life of the tree can be found.

150 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Data of the kind mentioned above, to be of any scientific value,
should be procured from the average of a large number of obser-
vations, and the peculiarities of each species ascertained
separately.

(b.) The Proportion existing between the various Age or Girth

Gradations.

Before proceeding to ascertain these ration by means of linear
valuation surveys, it will be necessaiy to adopt some system of
classification of the gradations. The following will be found
suitable for present purposes : -

In a well-stocked forest the girths of the trees may, with a
fair degree of approximation, be taken as directly proportional
to their ages ; if, therefore, the girths of the various sizes be
equally spaced out between the plants of smallest dimensions,
and the average size of the mature trees, a convenient workable
scale can be arrived at. This scale need not, for the rough
approximations now being considered, be divided into more than
three classes. For example, suppose the average girth of the
mature tree to be 72 inches, or 6 feet, then the classes (if only
three divisions are made), will be as follows : —

The third class (youngest trees) will consist of all plants up

to 24 inches in girth.
The second class (middle-aged trees) will consist of all plants

between 24 inches and 48 inches in girth.
The first class (mature trees) will consist of all trees between

48 inches and 72 inches and over in girth.

In this example the girths have been equally spaced out at

72

intervals of — =24 inches, and the various classes are multiples
o

of this interval. The denominator always denotes the number
of classes it is proposed to adopt.

The actual size of the girth will, of course, depend in each
case on the size selected as the average girth of the mature tree,
and will vary with the species. Suppose the size of the mature
tree is found to be only 48 inches, then if only three girth classes
are required, the girths will be spaced out at intervals of

-5- = 16 inches. So the classes will be: —

o

Third class : All plants up to 16 by 1 inches in girth.
Second class : All plants between 16 inches and 16 inches by

2 inches or 32 inches in girth.

First class: All plants between 32 inches and 16 inches by

3 inches or 48 inches in girth and over.

The whole object of this division into girth classes being to
ascertain the condition of the aye gradations witJi reference to
any particular species, the classification of the ages into the
tlu-ee divisions, young, middle-aged, and mature, and the sub-
sequent determination of the proportions existing amongst the
•number* of the plants found in each of these classes will be quite

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 151

sufficient to indicate whether the age gradations depart greatly
from the normal type or not.

If the number of plants in the youngest and middle-aged
classes is found to be less than that in the mature class, then
the forest, so far as the particular species of plant under investi-
gation is concerned, is certainly over-mature, and great care
will have to be taken in its exploitation ; if, on the other hand,
the number of plants found in the youngest class is very greatly
in excess of that in the middle-aged class, and the number in
the latter in its turn in excess of that in the mature class, then
the age gradations approximate to the normal type and a larger
number of the mature trees will be available for exploitation
without any risk being run of encroaching on the wood-produc-
ing capital.

The method of counting the number of plants in each class
that has proved to be the best and cheapest in the tropical forests
of Burma for rough approximations of this kind is that known
as the system of " Linear valuation surveys." It is quite accurate
enough for the purpose of framing preparatory working plans
and is the most suitable, under existing conditions at all events,
for the dense forests of the West Coast of Africa. They are
carried out in the following manner.

The person making the enumeration of the trees walks through
the forest in a definite direction, say south-west, and in addition
to measuring the distance walked over counts all the plants of
the particular species that it is intended to enumerate that he
finds within one chain of either side of his line of march. He
enters in his notebook all those that belong to the lowest girth
class in the appropriate column for that class by means of a dot
or a dash of his pencil and so on for the other girth classes. At
the end of the survey he counts up the number of dots or dashes
made and thus ascertains the number of plants enumerated for
cad i class. After a little practice the girth class that a tree
belongs to can easily be ascertained by the eye alone without
measurement ; similarly, the distance of one chain on either side
of the line can be estimated by the eye, any small errors made
in this respect counterbalancing each other.

"When making the linear valuation surveys, care should be
taken in hilly country to carry them out along lines that are
roughly more or less at right angles to the ridges forming the
water-partings so as to include the trees growing at the various
elevations above the levels of the valleys, and thus obtain a
fairer average than could be got by keeping the survey at a
uniform level above the streams.

At the same time that the countings are made the actual
distance or length of line marched over should be measured in
chains by means of a rope. The total distance travelled over
(in chains) multiplied by the width of the survey (2 chains when
a distance of 1 chain on cncli \/<7e of the line of march is adopted
or only one chain when, as in very dense forest, only half a chain
on either side is included in the survey), and divided by ten,
will give the acreage of the area on which the trees were
enumerated.

152 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

The area counted over should not be less than 5 per cent, of
the total area of the forest.

It will often be found that the particular species that is being
counted occurs in patches at very long- intervals of a mile or
more in such cases, and when calculating the area of the survey,
the total length of distance chained over should be reduced by
the number of chains travelled over in these blanks.

The results obtained from the valuation surveys should be
utilized, not for the purpose of estimating the actual quantity of
growing stock in the forest, but with a view to ascertaining the
proportion that exists between the numbers of trees in the
different girth classes. These proportions or ratios will furnish
the most reliable guide as to the condition of the age gradations
and their approach to or divergence from that existing in a
normal forest.

Once the rate of growth is known and the condition of the age
gradations, it will be possible to frame a simple prescription for
the fellings.

For example, suppose the age gradations are fairly well
represented and it has been found that it requires a period of
forty-five years for a tree of the middle girth class to attain the
dimensions of those in the mature or exploitable class, then if
G be the total number of trees in the latter class, the annual
yield, Y, of the forest (in trees) will be—

Y = G

45

Now supposing the forest is leased for a period say of fifteen
years, then the prescription to cover such a period would be
somewhat as follows : —

' The lessee shall not fell during the period of his lease more
than -|§ x G mature trees or ^ x G- trees, that is to say, not
more than one-third of the total number of mature trees in the
forest." This is a simple prescription to apply and check.

In a similar manner, suppose it is determined to work over
the whole area in fifteen years and it is found that the particular
species being exploited is found more or less uniformly distributed
through the area. Then if the area is divided into fifteen annual
coups, one of which is taken in hand each year in succession and
one-third of the mature trees in each of these coups are removed,
the prescription of felling -"-- trees annually will be satisfied.

For, the trees being uniformly distributed, on j- of the area
there will be rs mature trees, and J of this is equal to -fS, the
annual yield.

If it happens, as is very likely to be the case with the "West.
African forests, that the age classes are deficient, especially the
middle and younger ones, then the number of years required to
replace the surplus stock of mature trees will, in the example
given, be much greater than forty -five years ; say it is calculated
from the rate of growth of the trees composing the younger classes
that another 11 years will be required to replace all the mature
trees, then the annual felling prescription will be equal to

G
(45 + n)'

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 153

Such simple prescriptions do not require an exact estimate
of the actual quantity of the growing- stock in the forest to be
made before they can be applied ; by felling a definite and high
proportion such as |, g, |, &c., of the actual number of mature
trees met with in the forest, a sufficient check can be kept on the
fellings to prevent over-exploitation during the time that must
lapse before the forests can be treated under the provisions of
more accurate working plans. The methods indicated above are
well suited to the requirements of wild, imperfectly explored
tracts of country such as the afforested areas of British West
Africa, where refined methods cannot be introduced at present.

The method under which the forests are to be exploited should
be that known as the " selection system." It is the most elastic
of all the systems and can be applied to all the varying con-
ditions to be found in the tropics. Moreover it is the only one
that would pay under existing circumstances where only a very
small proportion of the species composing the forest are worth ex-
ploiting.

Where fuel as well as timber for ordinary purposes is in great
demand the " coppice with standards " method is the most suit-
able one to adopt, as it meets both requirements and ensures a
certain amount of protection to the soil at all stages of the treat-
ment— a matter of great importance in the tropics.

D. — The Botanical Survey of the Forests.

It is very important that the forests should be thoroughly
explored with a view to eventually compiling a complete
botanical inventory of their contents. During the examination
of such tracts every effort should be made to secure specimens
of the flvwers, fruits, and leaves of the plants composing the
forest vegetation, as wTell as to make collections of the different
kinds of minor forest produce yielded by them.

In all cases each specimen should have a label attached to it,

giving the following information : -

The date of collection.

Locality (district, name of forest, &c.).

Whether growing in open or dense forest in the evergreen,
mixed deciduous, or savannah forests ; on hills or close to
streams. The character of the soil on wrhicli the plant grows, &c.

Colour of the flowers.

Native name of the plant.

Size to which it grows.

Uses to which it is put.

The specimens should be labelled and numbered serially, and
the flow-ers, fruit, and leaves procured from the same tree should
all bear the same number. On account of their bulk some fruits
will have to be dried and then kept in boxes — separate from the
flowers and leaves — in siich cases the greatest care should be
taken that the labels attached to the fruit bear the same number
as the labels attached to the corresponding specimens of the

154 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

flowers and leaves; otherwise very great confusion is liable to
occur.

The specimens should, as soon as possible after being
thoroughly pressed and dried, be forwarded to the Director of
the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, with a request that they be
identified and a list of the identifications sent to the officer who
made the collection. The latter person should keep duplicates of
the specimens forwarded to Europe, and they should bear the
same numbers as the originals. He will then have specimens
that have been identified by specialists to refer to from time to
time as the occasion requires. The duplicates will of course be
named in accordance with the identification lists sent from Kew.
The duplicates should be kept with great care in some central
office, like that of the Conservators or of the Provincial Forest
Officers.

Representative samples of timber of all the forest trees of the
Gold 'Coast are very much required for the purpose of making1 a
comprehensive study of these woods. The samples should be pro-
cured from thoroughly seasoned timber and the botanical identi-
fication of tlie tree yielding tlie latter tliouhl in -each caxe be
ascertained from Kew and placed absolutely beyond any shadow
of doubt.

Certain species of trees to be found on the Gold Coast and
Ashaiiti are so plentiful that every effort should be made to
introduce them to and place them on the home markets, because,
if a demand for them can be created, the supply is almost inex-
haustible and a trade in them will enhance the value of the
forests to a very considerable extent.

The most important species in this respect are the Waw-waw
(Triplochiton Johnsonii) and the Dahornah (Piptadenia africana).
Both of them yield excellent timber, and that of the latter has
lately attracted the attention of some timber brokers in the Liver-
pool market. It will be well worth the while of Government to
place some carefully seasoned and good logs of these woods on
that market with a view to introducing them to the notice of
the timber merchants. Messrs. Elder Dempster & 'Co., are
always willing to carry such samples to Europe in their steamers
free of all charges. Undoubtedly the best way of seasoning this
and almost all tropical woods is to ring bark or girdle the trees
and let them remain standing in the forest for two years or so,
till they have died and the wood has become seasoned. The
trees are by this method killed very gradually and the seasoning
of the timber is thus carried out in a very effective manner.
When ' ringing " the tree, care should be taken to completely
cut through the sap-wood all round and right into the heart-
wood. The slightest strip of uncut sap-wood will often enable
the tree to linger on for years before it dies. In trees that
possess no very distinct sap-wood the " ringing " will have to be
carried oui to a great depth all round and as far inwards as' the
zone of the dry dead wood, close to the centre of the tree.

It has been found in Southern Nigeria that by girdling or
ringing mahogany and cedar trees not only is the timber pro-
perly seasoned and rendered easier to float, but it is far less

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 155

liable to the formation of ring shakes and cracks when it is
felled. The improvement in this respect is very marked.

Reverting to the Waw-icaw and the Dahomah, these trees are
so plentiful and universally distributed that it will be possible
to place their woods, by the local use of mechanical appliances,
on the home markets at a less cost than it is possible to do in
the case of the rarer mahoganies and cedars. Even if they
command such a low price as two-pence per superficial foot it
should pay to extract them. Xow that American and other
hardwoods are getting scarcer every year these two species
should have a great future before them.

E. — The Training of the Subordinate Staff .

An early opportunity should be taken of opening a forest
school to which members of the native staff can be sent for a
course of training in their duties. Such a school should be
situated within a reserve in an easily accessible locality, and in
the reserve practical lessons in plantation work, thinnings,
girdling, felling, coppicing, &c., should be given to the pupils
as well as elementary instruction in the conditions affecting
plant growth, in the measurement of timber, surveying, the
forest laws, and the preparation and submission of forest reports.

Pending the formation of such a school, which is urgently
required for the general use of all the Colonies and Protectorates
of British West Africa, the Assistant Conservators will have to
undertake the training of the men placed under their charge.
A few months' course of instruction at one of the botanical
gardens would also be a very desirable thing for newly-joined
men. The reserve selected as the site for the school should be
specially managed with a view to furnishing examples of all
the operations described above, and some very useful informa-
tion can thus be collected regarding the reactions of the different
species experimented on towards these various methods of treat-
ment.

Plantations both pure and mixed of the timber-yielding
species should be started and careful records kept of the methods
of planting adopted and of the results, as well as a general
history of all these operations from year to year.

" Regeneration fellings " to stimulate the natural regenera-
tion of the different species of trees should also be carried out.
and records kept of the results thus obtained.

In fact, the reserve selected should serve as a centre not only
for teaching purposes, but for research work in connection with
the sylvicultural requirements of tropical West African plants,
of which but little is known at present.

The reserve should be situated somewhere on the Sekondi-
Kumassi Railway, for preference in Ashanti, say between
Dunkwa and Oboase. Unfortunately almost the whole of the
land on either side of the railway has in that direction been
leased for mining purposes or as timber concessions. Xeveri lir-
Icss it may be possible to come io some arrangement wiili fin-
lessees arud lessors with a view to Government ac<]uiriutr an area

of twenty to thirty square miles for tins purpose. The matter
is ;in important one, and every effort should be made to acquire
such a piece of land as a reserve.

Another good locality now that the Tarkwa-Prestea line has
hcen started is the (fad of country drained by the Mansi River
:ind its feeder. <h<- ()])<) n River. A reserve somewhere about
here would be accessible from both railways. The forests in
this district are very rich in mahoganies and cedars, but most
of the land close to the streams mentioned above has been leased
to timber merchants and contractors, and some difficulty may be
experienced in acquiring a sufficient area for a reserve. The
selection should be made with great care after full consideration
of the requirements, and had better be postponed till a Forest
Department has been established.

F. — Forest Plantations.

Plantations of all the more valuable economic species should
be started in the reserves and augmented every year under the
provisions of a wTell thought-out plan of operations. Efforts
should also be made to induce the native communities to take up
the planting of the indigenous rubber tree, Funtumia elastica, on
a large scale, and the members of the native forestry staff should
be freely lent out to the different districts for the purpose of
instructing the inhabitants in the best methods of cultivating
that species. This system has been attended with the happiest
icsults in the Central Province of Southern Nigeria, where a
large number of rubber plantations belonging to the natives are
now in existence.

G. — The Inspect/ion and Supervision of Timber Concessions and

Licensed Areas.

It will be an important part of the duties of every forest
officer to exercise adequate supervision over the working of
timber concessions and licensed areas, and to check as often
as possible the work done by their subordinates. In addition to
this, which will require frequent tours of inspection, it will be
necessary to keep a watch on rubber nurseries and young planta-
tions, and to make adequate provision for their annual extension
and their protection. The various points requiring attention may
be enumerated as follows : -

(a.) The infringement of flic minimum yirtli rule. — Any
cases of undersized felling by concessionaires or
licensees should be immediately reported to the
Conservator.

dt.} Carelessness of felling ami the causing of injury to young

ijmirtfi. — The concessionaire or licensee should be in-
formed in writing of any cases of this sort that are
brought to the notice of the forest officer, and he
should be warned against recurrences of such acts.
Cases of persistence in such carelessness should be
reported to the Conservator.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 157

(c.) Wasteful logging. — This is inevitable to a certain
extent, but attention should be drawn to any excessive
and uncalled-for waste that may occur, and persist-
ence in it should be dealt with as noted above
under (b).

(d.) The inspection of plantations made by concessionaires
to replace the trees felled by them. — The forest officer
should see that the species planted is really the same
as that felled (cases have occurred where the seeds
[ilauted belonged to species different from those which
they were intended to replace), and that they are
planted close enough together to enable them to
acquire a sufficient height in a few years' time to
escape being suppressed by other growth.

If instead of planting, the freeing from dominant
growth of seedlings that have sprung up naturally in
the forests is taken in hand, then care should be
exercised in ensuring that such seedlings are suffi-
ciently cleared from growth to enable them to shoot
up without further trouble.

(e.) Every opportunity should be taken to inspect the books
of concessionaires and licensees and to check therein
the number of trees and logs shown with the numbers
actually found on the stumps in the forest.

(/.) Adequate supervision should be exercised over the work
done by the subordinate staff, and any case of abuse
on their part of the powers given to them should at
once be enquired into and suitable punishment
inflicted.

H. — General Forest Policy.

This question has been dealt with to some extent when dis-
cussing the legislative measures necessary for the establishment
of forest conservancy on a satisfactory footing. It now remains
to state briefly the forest policy that should be pursued with a
view to consolidating the various measures proposed and guiding
them along the proper channels.

I trust that I hav>- -ulliciciit ly explained the importance of
establishing reserre.x of a sufficient extent to meet all the demands
for forest produce likely to arise in the future, and for the pur-
pose of realising those beneficial effects on the climatic factors
of a country that are usually associated with the presence of
large masses of forest vegetation.

The keystone to all forest conservancy is reservation. Unless
the paramount Government can ensure the thorough and legal
protection afforded by reservation to estates that are meant to
be managed as forests, real conservancy is out of the question,
and the forests as such will gradually disappear off the face of
the land.

158 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Reservation being ensured, the forests should be managed with
a view to supplying a sustained and increasing yield of produce,
both for local requirements and for the home markets, and this
can all be brought about with but little interference with the
recognised rights and privileges of the inhabitants. The supply
of their wants should be the first care of the management, and
after that can come the exploitation of produce for the European
markets. At present there are vast forests available for both
purposes, but a time will come when they will be so restricted
in size that the utmost difficulty will be experienced in supplying
the various demands. It is, therefore, highly desirable that the
best areas should at once be selected and marked off as estates
for the permanent supply of those wants before the former have
been much damaged or destroyed ; and if the two-fold character
of the markets to be supplied is kept in mind, it will be realised
that the creation of a few reserves will be totally insufficient to
meet the reqiiiremeiits of the case. Nothing short of something
like 40 per cent, of the wooded area will be required if the in-
habitants of the country are to be provided with that share of
forest produce for their daily and other requirements to which
they are justly entitled.

Concurrently with this removal of produce, measures will have
to be taken, by the properly arranged cutting of the ripe material
and by sowing and planting, to replace what has been removed
from the forests, and thus ensure a continuous supply in the
future.

None of the measures, however, will be of much avail unless
they are continually exercised and enforced, any breaks in the
continuity will be fatal both to the management and to the
results originally contemplated. Continuity of purpose and
action are the very breath a-nd life of sound forest administra-
tion. Frequent changes of policy, management, &c., bring about
that uncertainty and want of finality in the results that it is the
main object of scientific forestry to avoid. A forest crop, as it
is, takes a, very long time to mature; and the result of con-
tinually altering the treatment to which it is subjected can,
under such conditions, be easily imagined. The loss of time
alone is immense.

As regards the danger threatening the wooded areas of
Aquapim, by the encroachment on them of the adjacent grass
lands and savannah forests, I fear that the damage already done
is too great to be repaired except by the expenditure of large
sums of money, which the Administration will at present
scarcely be able to afford. It is, however, well within the means
of the Government to stop the further spread of this damage and
secure for the further cultivation of cocoa, rubber, and other
tropical crops, land that must in time, under the present methods
of farming, be lost for that purpose. By preserving a broad belt
of forest between the planting centres and the dry grass country,
a suitable barrier against the spread of the latter can be pro-
vided for. This protective belt of forest should be strictly
reserved.

GOLD COAST — REPORT (>NT FORESTS. 159

I understand ill at there is a fairly extensive piece of Crown-
land between Christianborg Castle and the cantonments. This
should, I think, be re-afforested, partly for the purpose of sup-
plying Accra with cheap fuel and partly as an object lesson in
how unfertile arid wastes can be reclaimed.

Indications are not wanting- that the climate of the country
round Winneba, Pram Pram, and Accra is gradually becoming
drier and changing for the worse, and it may possibly become
imperative some years hence for Government to arrest this process
of desiccation by means of irrigation work and re-afforestation ;
hence, timely experiments should be undertaken on a small scale
to ascertain the most suitable plants for this purpose, and
the best methods of growing' them. The importance of preserving
the forests covering the catchment basins of streams flowing
through those dry districts should also be kept in mind, especi-
ally with a view to the utilisation of their waters for irrigation
purposes.

In conclusion, it is much to be hoped that adequate steps will
be taken to secure the protection and proper management of
some of the richer portions of the magnificent forests of Ashanti
and the Colony, forests the like of which it would be very hard
to match anywhere in Africa, and which form a very valuable
asset of the country and the Empire. Any sacrifices made to
attain this object will be repaid a hundredfold in the future.
The revenues derived from timber and rubber will amply suffice
to cover the cost of all such undertakings.

PART III.

C. — CONCLUSION. — Brief description of the Climate and
J'lii/sical Features of the Gold Coast and Ashanti. — Short-
Account of the Conditions affecting Plant-growth. — -Clarifi-
cation of Plant formation*. — Types of West African forma-
tions and their characteristic Plants. — The distribution of
the Forests. — Exports and Imports of Forest Produce.—
List of Vernacular Barnes of Plants.

The Gold Coast with its two administrative divisions or depen-
dencies, Ashanti and the Northern Territories, comprises an area
of something like -82,000 square miles. It is situated on the coast
of Guinea, between the French possession of the Ivory Coast
and the German Colony and Protectorate of Togoland, with the
frontiers of which its western and eastern boundaries coincide.
It has a seaboard extending from o° west longitude to 1° east
longitude, and is bounded on the north by the llth parallel of
north latitude and the French Soudan and Dahomey. The
greatest length from north to .south is about 450 miles. It is thus
wholly situated within the northern tropic.

160 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS

Drainage Systems.

The chief rivers draining this extensive tract of country are:-

1. The Volta, with its two large feeders the Black and White
Voltas — the former of which rises in the Mina Mountains of the
Western Soudan, and the latter some hundred miles due north of
the important town of Wagadugu in the French Soudan. The
Black Volta from the 11° north parallel as far south as about
8° 40' north forms the boundary between our possessions and that
of the French. It then flows in a south-easterly direction till
within a long day's march of Kintampo, after which it makes a
big loop to the north, is joined by the White Yolta, and resumes
it south-easterly direction ; this it keeps as far as the small vil-
lage of Epuni on the north-eastern border of Ashanti, when it
turns to the south, and after running in that direction for about
a hundred miles, again, in the neighbourhood of Akusa, bends
away to the south-east and finally empties itself into the Kitta
and Adda lagoons.

It is a fine river, but unfortunately the channel is much
obstructed in places with rapids. The White Yolta drains a con-
sideiable portion of the Northern Territories. The most impor-
tant tributaries on the right bank of the main or Black Yolta are,
within our limits, the Tain, Pra, Sene, Sunii, and Afran Rivers,
all of which, except the last, drain the northern portions of
Ashanti.

2. The Tano River. — This rises in north-western Ashanti, and
after flowing in a more or less north and south direction for
nearly the whole of its course empties itself into the Tendo
Lagoon on the extreme south-western border of the Colony, close
to the coast town of Half Assini. It is also obstructed by rapids,
but they are said to be not very formidable, and the obstructions
causing them are 'Capable of being removed. The Tano River
drains the best forests of Ashanti and the Colony — a wooded area
of several thousand square miles.

3. The Pra River. — Rising in the high hills of Okwawu and
Eastern Akirn, this river flows for the greater portion of its
journey in a south-westerly direction ; at Sarmang it turns to the
south and flows into the sea close to the town of Shama. It
drains an extremely hilly tract of country, and is, like the others,
rendered unnavigable by the presence of rapids. The most im-
portant feeders on its right bank are the Anum River, which
drains the country to the east of the sacred lake, and the Otfin
with its tributary the Adra. They both drain the southern and
south-western portions of Ashanti. On the left bank it is joined
by two important feeders, the Inwi and the Birrim, the latter
of which is much the larger of the two and drains one of the best
cocoa-growing districts.

4. The Ankobra River. — This stream rises in the extreme
northern portion of Upper Denkira, close to the mining centre of
Bibiani, and is confined for the whole length of its course to the
limits of the Colony. It flows almost due north and south
through a very rich mining and timber country, and falls into
the sea close to Axirn.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 1G1

Other less important rivers are the Nakwa, in the Salt Pond dis-
trict, the Amaso in Wiimeba, and the Densu in the Accra dis-
trict. These rise in the Atikwa and Aqiiapim hills, and all of
them flow in a general north to south direction. In the neigh-
bourhood of the sea they flow through open country covered with
low scrub or savannah forest. In the eastern portion of Ashanii
a small tract of densely-wooded country is drained by the Bia
River, a tributary of the Konioe, which is the most important
water-way of the French Ivory "Coast.

The Water-partings.

Generally speaking, the country along the sea-board is undu-
lating in character, especially to the east of Winneba, where ex-
tensive plains exist between fhe coast and the well-marked hill
ranges of the interior, which approach on an average to within 15
to 20 miles of the sea shore. Westwards of the above-mentioned
town the undulations are much more pronounced and give rise
to low hills with abrupt slopes facing the sea. The coast line
is on the whole bold and well defined, and the long stretches of
low-lying mangrove swamps, so characteristic of the Southern
Xigerian coast, are here a very subordinate feature of the country.

As one recedes from the coast line northwards the land be-
comes very hilly, well wooded, and rich in perennial streams,
and these characters are maintained till the central plateau of
Northern Ashanti is reached, when the dense forests gradually
give way to the open savannah formations in which the water
supply during the dry season is poor and the contours of the
country again assume an undulating character. These upland
plains are, however, dominated here and there by well-marked
rocky hills that sometimes reach an altitude of over 1,600 feet.
The plateau is interrupted by the lower valley of the Black Volta
River to the north, but reappears, I understand, a short distance
inland from the left bank of that river, and gradually increasing
in height culminates in the tableland on which Gainbaga is
situated. It must attain an altitude of close on 2,000 feet in
that Province.

The approach to the Ashanti plateau from the east is much more
gradual as the valley of the main Yolta leads up to it from that
direction. This valley is nevertheless very much contracted in
places where prominent hill ranges, running in a north-easterly
direction, are in the vicinity of the village of Mem broken
through by it ; beyond this .gorge the country opens out on to the
Afram Plains, which gradually merge into the Xorth Ashanti
plateau. The Yolta River is practically the only drainer of the
latter, and the plateau is lowest in the north-east corner of
Ashanti.

The most pronounced ranges of hills are: —

(1.) The water-parting between the Otfin River and its tributary
the Adra. To the north of N'Kwanta it culminates in a range
over 1,600 feet in altitude.

(2.) The divide between the Tano River and the Ankobra ; this
also reaches a similar altitude.

1231-5 T

162 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

(3.) The Uboase hills forming the divide between the Offin and
the Jim Eivers. They culminate in a peak that is close on
1,800 feet above sea level.

(4.) The Dampia and Moinsin ranges forming the divide be-
tween the Jim and Anuni Eivers, both of them tributaries of the
Pra.

(5.) The Bompata hills forming the water-parting between the
main Pra and its feeder the Awere.

(6.) The Obo-Abetifi group forming the sources of the Pra and
Afrani Eivers. The highest peak reaches an altitude of 2,200
feet above the sea. This is the most prominent block of hills in
the country, and it assumes the formation of an irregular plateau
with steep escarpments on all sides, except to the north, where
the descent to the Afram plains is in comparison rather gradual.
The climate of these hills is delightfully bracing, and from the
higher peaks magnificent views of the vast undulating plains to
the north can be obtained.

(7.) The Bogora range forming the sources of the Birrim and
Ahurum Eivers. It is a prominent range, having an average
altitude of about 1,800 feet.

(8.) The Kyebi hills, on which the Uensu Eiver rises. They
reach an altitude of close on 2,000 feet.

(9.) The Akwapem and Akropong hills, about 25 miles to the
north of Accra. They culminate in peaks about 1,600 feet above
the sea level.

(10.) The Krobo hills. These consist of some extraordinarily
steep, isolated hills, situated to the north-east of Aburi, in the
neighbourhood of Akuse.

(11.) In addition to the above there is a very prominent range
of rocky hills on the north-western border of Ashanti in the
Banda district, and some bold escarpment* between N'Koranza
and Ckichewere and the neighbourhood of Marnpon.

Climate.

The climate of the Grold 'Coast and its dependencies, so far as
rainfall and the relative humidity of the air are concerned — and
these two factors after all have the most influence on plant growth
in the Tropics — can be ascertained from the data given below,
which have been compiled from statistics given in the Gold Coasl
annual reports for the five years, 1903 to 1907. Those for the
seaport town of Sekondi are based on the figures for three years
only— namely, 1905 to 1907.

Average Rainfall and Relative Humidity of the Air for the fire,

years, 1903 to 1907. "

Station.

Rainfall.

Relative humidity.

f Axim

SO-02

87-61

| Sekondi

41-23°

6433

Sea coast stations

... •( Cape Coast

34-49

84-18

| Accra

21-52f

79-46

[Kwitta

19-61

79-96

C Abnri

40-72

8605

Inland stations

... < Kumasi ...

51-77

86-27

f Gambaga ...

48-21

60-41

The mean of 3 years' observations only (1905 to 1907).
f The mean of 20 years' observations is 27 35 inches

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 163

These figures show that the rainfall along the coast line
decreases as one proceeds eastwards from Axim, where it is
80 inches, to Kwitta, on the extreme eastern extremity of the
Colony, where it is only 19'61 inches. That of Kumasi, which is
situated in the northern half of the forest region, is 52'77, and of
Gambaga, the most inland station, close on the llth parallel of
north latitude, 48'21 inches. Aburi being a hill station shows a
climate characteristic of such localities, in its relatively high
degree of humidity, which is 8G'05 for a rainfall of only 40'72
inches, against 87'61 for Axim, where the rainfall is as high as
80 inches.

Gambaga shows the extremes of a continental, tropical climate,
and has the lowest relative humidity, viz., 60'41, of those recorded.
The coastal stations, on account of their proximity to the sea,
possess a higher relative humidity than the recorded rainfalls
would otherwise lead one to anticipate.

The maximum shade temperatures range from 91°'56 F. at
Gambaga to 81° F. at Aburi, and the minimum shade tempera-
tures from 70° F. at Kumasi and Axim to 76° F. at Kwitta, and
75° F. at Cape Coast. These temperatures are well within the
normal range for tropical plants. The seasons of the year may
be divided into the following groups, viz. : —

(a.f The wet season proper, extending from about the middle of
May to the end of July.

{&.) The small rains, extending from the beginning of Septem-
ber to the middle of November.

(c.) The dry season proper, extending from the middle of
November to the end of February.

(d.) The small dry season, which consists of a break in the
rains and is practically confined to the month of August; and

(e.) The tornado season, from the beginning of March to the
commencement of the heavy rains in May. This is an inter-
mediate season in which, though thunder storms and showers of
rain are pretty frequent, yet the number of dry days is much in
excess of those on which rain falls.

The limits given above are, of course, only approximate, and
they are sometimes widely departed from, but, on the whole, they
indicate with fair accuracy the sequence and character of the

seasons

] hiring the months of December, January, and February a very
dry, cold wind, known as the Harmattan, blows from the north
and north-east at pretty frequent intervals, and sometimes lasts
for a great number of days in succession. It is accompanied by a
dust haze consisting of fine particles of quartz, diatoms, &c., and
its contact with the hot, moist air near the coast often brings
about the fogs and mists so prevalent at that season of the year.
The Harmattan is generally supposed to blow across the sandy
wastes of the Soudan on its way to the sea, and to carry with it
the finer particles of sand from those regions. Whatever its
origin, it has a very marked effect on the vegetation, and, to a

12315 L 2

164 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

large extent, determines the distribution of the different types.
As one proceeds inland and northwards from the coast, the Har-
mattan is found to l>e more pronounced and to last for much
longer intervals at a stretch till in the interior beyond the 10th
parallel of north latitude it is the prevalent breeze at that season
of the year. Rainfall has, of course, the most influence on the
vegetation, but at the same time the action is much modified l>y
desiccating winds of the nature described above. When these are
practically a constant feature of the season for several months at
a stretch, the country rapidly dries up, though the actual total
rainfall may have been abundant enough to support luxuriant
vegetation but for the prolonged dry weather brought about by
such winds. Gambaga is a case in point ; the mean annual
rainfall, as far as available data go, is 48*21 inches, which is only
4*56 inches less than that of Kumasi, a station situated within
the evergreen forest belt; but the difference between the mean
relative humidity of the air in the two places is very great indeed
— (>0'41 per cent, in the former place, and 86*27 per cent, in the
latter. It is this reduced humidity, brought about by prolonged
spells of dry weather, that accounts to a large extent for the
very pronounced difference in the vegetation of the two localities.

There is but little doubt that the presence of extensive forests hi
the vicinity of Gambaga would considerably temper and diminish
the drying action of the Harmattan winds and make the country
moister than it is, though it may result in no very marked im-
provement in the rainfall, whilst conversely, the persistent
destruction of the forests for a good distance round Kumasi would
result in the soil becoming drier, in the water supply being re-
duced, in the drying effect of the Harmattans being intensified,
and in a change of the type of vegetation.

Forests act as protective covering to the moisture in the soil :
remove them and you diminish the quantity of moisture in the
soil. This decrease reacts in its turn on the forest vegetation, and
brings about a change in its character that makes it more suited
to the altered conditions, and so on — the climatic factors and the
forests act and react on one another, by mutual adjustments, but
the continued destruction of the latter inevitably results in a
diminished water supply.

But beyond this, forest vegetation is responsible for a high per-
centage of the total amount of water held in suspension by the
atmosphere, and forests exercise a marked effect in increasing the
relative humidity of the atmosphere in their neighbourhood. A
high relative humidity means moister conditions all round, both
as to soil, the water supply of the country, and greater resistance
to desiccating influences, by its retarding action on evaporation.

When it is recollected that the amount of water vapour trans-
pired from a large mass of forest vegetation is several hundred
times greater than thait evaporated from a water surface of the
same area, it will be understood that it does not require a very
large portion of the earth's surface to be covered with forest
vegetation for the amount of moisture transpired by it to exceed

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 165

that from all other sources, the sea included. In fact, it is prob-
able that a high proportion of the total rain precipitated on the
surface of the earth consists of the condensed vapour transpired
by plants. The vapour may not always be condensed in the
actual vicinity of the forests from which it is transpired, but it is
in all probabilit3' condensed somewhere else, and that place has to
thank the forests for their contribution to its rainfall.

In this connection a very interesting article in the October
number (1908) of the '' Indian Forester" should be consulted.

Kumasi is a good example of a locality in which a compara-
tively poor rainfall (52'77 inches) is associated u-itli tin' presence
of extensive evergreen forests and a high relative humidity of
86'27 per cent.

There is but little doubt that here the high relative humidity,
and the copious water supply which this ensures, are directly
attributable to the existence of these immense forests. An
annual rainfall of only 52 inches would, in the absence of such
forests, be totally inadequate in a tropical region like that of
the Gold Coast to support the type of vegetation that actually
does exist round Kumasi. The exposed soil (in the absence of
the forests) would be rapidly deprived of its moisture during the
Harmattau season, and this would re-act on the vegetation, and
the latter would then acquire a more or less xerophilous habit.

For practical purposes it is immaterial to enquire whether in
the first instance the humidity of the air favoured the growth
of the forests or the growth of the forests produced the humidity.
Humidity cannot be voluntarily influenced by any means known
to man, except by afforestation and deforestation; for the effects
of irrigation are negligible in comparison with the effects
brought about by forests, so far, at least, as the humidity of the
atmosphere is concerned.

Forests, once they have been started, whatever their origin,
to a large extent mould their own destinies, and gradually
change the climatic and other factors of the adjacent lands in a
manner suitable for the further spread of such vegetation, pro-
vided, of course, that they are not interfered with by man.

No one who has actually experienced the change brought
about in his sensations, when stepping from the cool and grateful
shade of a tropical forest into the fierce diy heat of an adjacent
treeless plain, can fail to realise what the existence of such a
forest means to the locality, and can ever entertain any doubts
afterwards as to its beneficial action on the soil and climate.

The Soil.

The most prevalent soil of the country is a red sandy loam,
coloured by the presence in it of ferric oxide. The amount of
sand in the clay varies in different localities, but has no marked
effect on the vegetation within the maritime forest zone and the
heavy rainfall associated with it. Outcrops of laterite are also
frequently met with in the same region, but the edaphic in-
fluences due to such changes in the soil are completely ovor-

166 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

shadowed by the very much more powerful action exercised on
the vegetation by the copious rainfall.

M-etamorphic rocks of a granitoid and schistose character,
together with frequent outcrops of sandstone and quartz, form
the chief materials composing the more important hill ranges ;
in the hinterland, where the rainfall is small or a pronounced
dry season occurs, the vegetation is much modified by the
presence or absence of the different soils due to the weathering
of the above rocks. Here, again, laterite reappears as extensive
outcrops of a hard, stony, porous character, containing vitreous
or cellular concretions of ferric oxide or ferric hydrate, and
exercises a profound influence on the plant growth. Its presence
is always associated with poor, gnarled, stunted vegetation,
exhibiting a very marked xerophilous character.

The sandj- soil along the sea coast in the vicinity of Accra,
for a considerable distance inland from the shore, is much
impregnated with salt, which is blown up with the spray and
carried a good way in by the strong sea breezes so prevalent in
that locality. The vegetation about here, especially that of a
shrubby or herbaceous character, has acquired the halophytic
habit.

The Influence of Climate on Vegetation.

Before dealing with the distribution of the various types of
forest to be met with on the Gold Coas., it will be convenient,
and it will help to explain the reasons governing this distribution,
if a brief description of the reactions on plant life of the climatic
and other factors of the environment is given here.

The flora of the Gold Coast belongs to the zone known as the
Tropical Zone, but the local distribution of the various types
of vegetation found there is determined, within the limits of the
zone, by the amount of atmospheric precipitation prevailing in
any one locality. According to the degree of precipitation, the
areas may be divided up into climatic districts, with each of
which is associated a particular type of vegetation ; within the
districts, again, variations in the phj-sical and chemical con-
stitution of the soil give rise to other modifications due to
edaphic influences.

The districts may be grouped under three climatic types in
accordance with the amount of atmospheric precipitation experi-
enced in each. They are:-

(a) the Hygrophilous climate.

(&) the Xerophilous climate,

(c) the Tropophilous climate,

TO which correspond the Hygrophilous, Xerophilous, and Tropo-
philous types, respectively, of vegetation.

These modifications are brought about by the conditions known
as physiological moistness and dryness. which do not always
coincide with physical moistness or dryness.

Anything that affects the available supply of moisture, so as
to bring about this physiological moistness or dryness, is accom-
panied by hygrophilous or xerophilous vegetation, as the case

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 167

may be. When these condition* alternate one with another with
a regular periodicity, we get the third or tropophilous type.

The boundaries between these divisions are, however, not
sharply marked in nature, and intermediate conditions are often
met with. Those mentioned, however, correspond to the maxi-
mum adaptations acquired under pronounced conditions of
physiological wetness or dryness, and their periodical alterna-
tions.

This relation of plants towards water is expressed by structural
characters ; where the latter is such as to favour the exit of the
water absorbed by the roots we get the class known as Hygro-
phytes, and where it retards the exit of moisture, the class termed
Xerophytes ; Tropophytes are plants the structure of whose
perennial parts is that of Xerophytes, and that of their parts
(leaves) present only in the wet season that of hygrophytes.

Wherever moisture is abundant, and, therefore, the danger
of desiccation absent, plants have, in order to prevent any possi-
bility of stagnation in the water-current (transpiration current)
that distributes nutritive salts to the various parts requiring
them, acquired .contrivances that hasten the exit of water;
such ulants are Hygrophytes.

Where, on the other hand, the supply of moisture is scanty
and the strength of the transpiration current relatively to the
water supply has to be regulated so as to guard against physio-
logical dryness, the corresponding adaptations have brought
about the plants known as Xerophytes.

Hygrophytes have a weakly-developed root system, elongated
axes, large thin leaf-blades, and they but rarely develop thorns
(not prickles). In moist tropical forests with a heavy rainfall,
the plants often develop leaves with a long " dripping point,"
and the leaves frequently have a velvety surface on which the
water spreads out into an extremely thin layer that rapidly
evaporates. The leaves, again, possess well-developed air-con-
taining intercellular spaces that strongly promote transpiration,
and they are, especially in the case of trees forming the moist
tropical evergreen forests, rich in Hydathodes or organs for
excreting liquid wrater. The heavy showers of the so-called
" dew-drops," that are so often noticed late at night and in the
early hours of the morning, to drip off tropical forest trees in a
moist locality, mainly consist of water excreted by these
Hydathodes.

Finally, Hygrophytes, are to a large extent Ombrophilous or
rain-seeking, and their foliage is capable of being wetted.

Xerophytes, on the other hand, have to accommodate them-
selves to conditions that involve the danger of physiological
dryness. This may be brought about by increased transpiration
(with respect to the available water supply) due to the following
causes: — A dry atmosphere, reduced atmospheric pressure (rare-
faction of the air), and strong light, or by reduced absorption due
to the scarcity of free water in the soil, excess of soluble salts
or humous acids in the soil, or to a low temperature of the soil.

168 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

In nature, usually a combination of all these factors or the
greater number of them has to be faced by xerophilous plants
in the localities they inhabit, and their adaptations to these
conditions have brought about the following adaptations of
structure.

Reduced transpiration is brought about by a decrease in the
(ranspiring surface of the leaves for the same mass of plant
substance by the formation of a thick cuticle on the exposed
surfaces of the leaves, by the reduction in size of the intercellular
air spaces of the leaf, by a sinking of the stornata, and by the
presence of felted hairs containing much air.

In addition to this, Xerophytes are often characterised by the
presence of water-storing cells (double epidermis, aqueous tissue,
mucilage cells, &c.), an increase in the vessels and scleren-
chyrnatous tissues, lengthening of the palisade cells of the leaf,
a copious root system, underground stems, the power to orient
their leaves so as to avoid insolation at the hottest and brightest
time of the day and, in the case of those possessing pinnate
leaves, the power to open or close them according to the degree
of illumination ; the production of thorns from reduced leaves
and shoots, by being ombrophobous or rain-avoiding, and by the
formation of thicker and more fleshy or proportionately more
leathery leaves, or by the reduction of the latter to rudimentary
organs, in which case the axes become rich in chlorophyll.

These modifications are chiefly confined to the leaves, which
are the organs most concerned with the act of transpiration;
modifications of the axes (stems), however, are not rare. Those
of plants belonging to the Cactus family become short and thick
and even spheroidal, and are filled with a mucilaginous sap.
Similarly the stems of some Euphorbias become succulent, and
even those of gigantic trees like the tropical African Baobab
tree (Adansonia digitate^ acquire a monstrous, gouty shape,
and the wood, becoming1 soft, juicy, and spongy, forms a vast
water-reservoir.

Water-cells have a similar function; they rapidly fill up when-,
ever the water supply is temporarily increased (during rainy
weather) and yield their contents to the assimilating cells as
the supply of moisture becomes reduced.

As regards ombrophoby, Xerophytes perish if they are exposed
for a few days to continuous rain, and their leaves cannot be
wetted except after prolonged exposure to water.

The most important natural habitats where Xerophytes thrive
are : —

(1.) Districts with a dry substratum, dry air, occasional or
persistent heat, and intense illumination.

(2.) The surfaces of the bark of trees (with reference to the
growth on it of epiphytes), rocks, &c.. where, owing
to a want of sufficient depth of the substratum, any
moisture deposited on them is rapidly evaporated.

(3.) Sandy, gravelly, and other similar soils which, owing
to their permeability, are rapidly dried up.

GOLD COAST REPORT ON FORESTS. 169

(4.) Sea-shores and some soils in which the supply of salt
is abundant.

In all these habitats physiological dryness is a standing-
danger, and only Xerophytes can successfully occupy them.

Tropophytes.

Plants occupying a habitat that is alternately hygrophilous
and xerophilous in climate, have adapted their structure to these
periodically different conditions, and are known as tropophytes.
Such a climate is one in which a season of fairly abundant rain-
fall is invariably followed by a well-marked dry period of the
year. Immense tracts of the earth's surface experience a climate
of this sort, and it is immaterial to the plant whether the
periodical dryness is due to a scarcity of atmospheric precipita-
tion or to a low temperature of the soil, the latter condition
being just as capable of inducing physiological dryness as the
former. Hence, large portions of the Temperate Zones, where
severe winters prevail, are occupied by Tropophytes as well as
extensive areas in the Tropical Zone.

The difficulty of adapting the structure of plants so as to
satisfy the requirements of these, two very dissimilar periods of
the year has been met by their perennial parts, such as the
stems, branches, roots, &c., being modified to withstand xero-
philous conditions, and their temporary parts, the leaves, being
adapted to hygrophilous conditions such as prevail during the
wet season. When the dry period of the year comes round and
transpiration has to be reduced, the leaves are shed, a simple
and effective device to guard against all possibility of danger
from excessive transpiration during the season of phj'siological
dryness.

Characteristics of Tropopliytes.

(1.) They sacrifice (by shedding their leaves) the greater portion
of their transpiring organs at the beginning of the physiologic-
ally dry season, whether the latter is brought about by a dry
climate or a cold one. Most of the woody plants shed their
leaves at this season. Many herbaceous plants lose all their
sub-aerial parts and merely retain their subterranean ones, which
transpire but slightly.

(2.) Periodically foliaged tropophilous woody plants have
hygrophilous leaves, but xerophilous axes (stems, &c.) and buds.
The stems and branches are protected against drought by a
well-developed bark or thick layers of cork, and the buds by
hard and often lacquered scales.

(3.) Evergreen tropophilous plants have xerophilous foliage as
well as xerophilous axes and buds.

The most obvious characteristic is the periodical foliation and
defoliation which in some localities is most conspicuous, as the
foliation is often very luxiiriant during the wet season, and in'
marked contrast with the gaunt, bare-stemmed habit assumed
during the dry season.

170 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

A taint of the tropopliilous habit is often to be observed in
both xero.phytic and hygrophytic districts, but it is not pro-
nounced, and is generally restricted to a thinning of the foliage
merely, and does not extend to complete defoliation.

Climatic Formations.

The differentiation of the earth's vegetation is controlled by
three factors — heat (determining the zones), atmospheric precipi-
tation, and winds (determining districts), and soil ; the latter of
which is more local in its influence, and brings about edaphic
formations.

Two fficological groups are to be distinguished ; they are : -

(1.) Climatic or district formations, governed by the atmo-
spheric precipitations.

(2.) Edaphic or local formations, determined by the nature
of the soil.

The climatic formations can all be traced back to three main
types, viz., Woodland, Grassland, and Desert.

The first two types are closed formations, in which only such
plants can thrive as have acquired an optimum adaptation to
all the external factors, and this fact enables them to keep out
less favoured competitors. Here the struggle is keen, and
numerous seedlings perish in consequence ; more components
cannot be admitted. Deserts, on the other hand, are open
formations, in which the conditions are so severe that only a
few plants are able to occupy them, and there is plenty of space
available for others if the latter could be found.

The components of woodland formations consist of woody
plants, generally trees. The latter are cosmopolitan in their
distribution, and their growth is entirely prevented only by such
a degree of drought (due to scarcity of moisture in the soil or to
its frozen condition) as excludes all kinds of plants, with the
exception of the lower cryptogams. The depth of the root
system of trees enables them, to thrive in areas where long seasons1
of drought accompanied by great heat recur periodically. Pro-
viding there is a continuous supply of moisture within reach of
the root-tips, it is immaterial at what season of the year the
supply is renewed.

Dry winds, however, on account of their pronounced action in
increasing transpiration, are decidedly hostile to tree growth, as
they tend to reduce the supply of moisture even at great depths
of the soil, and their effect is more felt at the greater heights
above the surface of the ground, that are usually attained by
the tops of trees, than at lower levels closer to the surface.

Grassland, on the other hand, is mainly occupied by grasses
and herbaceous plants; also, though less frequently, by shrubs
and dwarfed trees. The latter are, however, very subordinate
constituents of the typical formation. Owing to their shallow
root systems, grasses are practically dependent on the supply of
moisture in the upper superficial layers of the soil, and this
supply is continually exposed to the danger of being considerably

GOLD COAST REPORT ON FORESTS. 171

reduced by evaporation ; hence, for their successful growth fre-
quent, if even weak, showers of rain are necessary during the
vegetative period, viz., the spring and early summer (March to
May), and a moderate degree of heat during the same period.
They are indifferent to the degree of moisture in the sub-soil
or, during their resting periods, the winter months (November
to February), to drought and exposure to dry winds. On account
of their lower stature and the proximity to the surface of the
ground of their vegetative organs, they are subjected to moister
conditions of the atmosphere and do not suffer to anything like
the same extent from dry winds as plants composing the woodland
formations do. The most favourable conditions for the latter
are a warm vegetative season, continuously moist sub-soil, and
damp calm air.

Of great importance to grassland is, in the tropics, the forma-
tion of heavy dew during the early periods of vegetative activity
and the indifference of the grasses to the fierce annual fires that
sweep over the drier portions of West Africa during the winter
season.

These two great formations of Grassland and Woodland are
continually hostile to each other, and in the struggle that often
takes place between them, the victory in any locality rests with
the formation that is best adapted to the climatic and edaphic
conditions prevailing there. Under the most favourable con-
ditions for woodland, we have the hygrophilous trees; with less
favourable conditions the tropophilous and xerophilous trees ;
and last of all, xerophilous scrub, which corresponds to the worst
environment. The corresponding conditions for the existence of
grassland are associated with the presence of pure savannah,
savannah-forest, and small isolated patches of grass-land within
districts with hygrophilous and tropophilous wood-laud climates.

With reference to the attitude displayed by these two' forma-
tions towards one another, it is important to note that in accord-
ance with the climates now prevailing, the domain of each ha&
l>econie more or less defined and limited, but that very small
changes of climate will suffice to renew the contest, and, above
'all,, that in districts where the climate is such as not to
decidedly favour one or the other, the action of man is sufficient
to start the struggle. Moreover, though in a decided woodland
climate, forest will generally succeed to destroyed forest growth,
yet the new forest is almost invariably of a more xerophiloue
(dry) character. And if the process of destruction is repeated
at pretty frequent intervals, it is followed first by savannah
forest and then by pure savannahs.

Edaphic Formations.

These are dependent on the character of the soil, and for the
purpose of this report may be divided into the following types :-

(a.) Fringing Forests. — They are similar in character to a
hygrophilous forest, but are dependent on a telluric supply of
moisture, and are hence confined to the vicinity of the beds of
streams and similar collections of water.

172 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

(ft.) Swamp Forests, the trees composing which are adapted to
growth in stagnant water.

(c.) Mangrove Swamp Forests. - - This is a formation that is
confined to tropical shores where the climate is hot and humid.
The plants composing it are restricted to1 the area comprised
between the limits of high and low tide, where the water is not
otherwise much agitated by constant strong winds and currents.
They have adapted themselves to growth in a salty stratum that is
alternately flooded by sea water and exposed to the air by the
fluctuations of the tide. They are characterised by their stilt-
like roots and the possession in the latter of pneurnatophores
and other devices for absorbing oxygen and transporting it to
such subterranean parts of the trees as may require it.

Less important edaphic formations are represented by rock
plants (Lithophytes).

Tropical W<ooilIanJ , so far as it is dependent on climate and
not on the effects of the soil, may be divided into the following
four kinds :-

(1.) The liain Forest, or the moist tropical evergreen forest of
Indian foresters.

It is an evergreen forest, hyyrophilous in character, with an
average height of more than one hundred feet, frequently much
taller. It is rich in thick-stemmed lianes and in woody as wrell
as herbaceous epiphytes, and is associated with a constantly or
u early constantly moist climate with precipitations more or less
throughout the year, and with a dry season of short duration
that is frequently interrupted by showers of rain.

<(2.) The Monsoon Forest, or mixed deciduous forest of Indian
foresters.

It is more or less leafless during the dry season, especially
towards its termination, is tropophilous in character, usually less
lofty than rain forest: rich in woody lianes and rich in
herbaceous, but poor in woody, epiphytes. It is associated with
a climate in which a more or less copious rainfall is followed by
a well-marked prolonged dry season.

(3.) Savannah Forest, the open deciduous forest of Indian
foresters.

It is more or less leafless during the dry season, and but rarely
evergreen, is xerophilous in character, of less height than the two
preceding types, park-like, very poor in underwood, lianes, and
epiphytes, and /•/<•// in terrestrial herbs, especially grasses. The
corresponding climate is one that favours grassland, but not to
the 'extent of excluding tree-growth in a pronounced degree.

(4.) Thorn Forest. --It generally resembles savannah forest,
but is even more xerophilous in character; is very rich in under-
wood and thorn plants ; poor in terrestrial herbs, especially
l/nisscs, and usually has no epiphytes. The formation corres-
ponds to a dry climate with an absence of precipitations during
the vegetative season of the grasses.

In accordance with transition's between the various climates
the above types are often connected by intermediate forms. The

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 173

commoner transitions are between the savannah forests and
Savannahs, the latter being a grassland type very poor in trees,
and between thorn forest and open bush or thorny brushwood
formations, Avhich latter, in its turn, leads on the Tropical Desert
formation.

As a general rule, really successful forests only occur where
the annual rainfall is at least 40 inches, and rich luxuriant
growth is limited to zones where the annual rainfall is much
greater. Where the atmospheric humidity is greater than that
of the kind of climate associated with thorn forest, and the
amount of rain precipitated during the vegetative period of the
grasses fluctuates within moderate limits between adjacent locali-
ties, pure savannahs alternate with savannah forest. Xero-
philous woodland becomes established where greater heat and
more prolonged rainless periods prevail during the vegetative
period, whilst grassland succeeds when a milder temperature and
a more even distribution of rainfall prevail during the vegetative
season, or a windy dry season is a constant feature of the climate.

In general, with at least 70 inches of rainfall during the year,
evergreen high forest prevails ; with 58 to 70 inches, mixed
deciduous forests; with 35 to 58 inches there is a struggle
between xerophilous woodland and grassland. These limits are
however, not infrequently departed from, and where the con-
ditions (climatic) are .not markedly in favour of any particular
type, edaphic influences depending on the character of the soil
often decide the issue. The extensive high forests of Centra)
Ashanti and of parts of the Ondo and Illesha Districts of
Southern Nigeria, which are not by any means so xerophilous in
character as to be classed with the typical monsoon or mixed
deciduous forests, and which inhabit regions with an annual
rainfall of only 55 to 65 inches, are cases in point. Perhaps
the greater number of rainy days in the year, a condition charac-
teristic of these extensive well-wooded areas, and a certain
tendency in the soil towards swampiness, are responsible for the
greener type of forest to be met with there. These regions are,
moreover, very hilly, and, in consequence, the air has a higher
relative humidity than it would have in the case of forests
situated on a lower level. The luxuriant growth is probably
accounted for by a combination of^ all these factors.

With a rainfall of 35 inches and less, xerophilous scrub and,
in particular, thorn forest and^ thorn bush prevail. If the
precipitations are decidedly less than the above, both of these
types pass into open scrub. Further reductions still in the
annual rainfall lead to the Desert type.

Describing these types somewhat in more detail, especially with
respect to their Tropical West African representatives, we have
as characteristics of

A. — The Rain or Moist Tropical Ererrjreen Forests
(1.) A poor development of bark on most of the tree stems.

(2.) A less developed branch system as compared with that of
trees from temperate zones.

174 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

(3.) A profusion of woody lianes, including several species of
climbing palms (canes, rattans).

(4.) A large contingent of woody and herbaceous epiphytes
that attach themselves to the trunks, branches, and even the
extreme tips of the twigs of the forest trees.

(5.) The not infrequent development in several species of trees
of " plank buttresses " on the stems, and the formation of cylin-
drical aerial roots that arise from the stems at some distance
from the ground.

(G.) The occurrence of canliflory, i.e., the formation of flowers
from dormant buds in the old wood.

(1 .) The presence of numerous epiphytous epiphytes, such as
small mosses, ferns, algas, &c., on the leaves of woody plants.

The features described above are common to a greater or less
degree to all tropical rain-forests.

In the West African forests of this type, such as those found
in Southern Nigeria and on the Gold Coast, the woody lianes
are represented by various species of Landolphia (L. owariensis,
L. Klainei, and many others), Carpodinus, Clitandra, Strophan-
tlms, Entada scandens, Artobotrys Thomsonii, species of Triaspis,
Hippocratea, Loncliocarpus, Combretum, Musscenda, and scandent
palms such as Calamus and Ancistrophyllum.

The feebler and more succulent climbers are represented by
Aroids of the genera Culcasia, Cercestis, and JRaphidophom; they,
however, are confined to the stems and larger branches of the
trees.

Woody epiphytes are represented by various species of Ficus,
and the smaller herbaceous ones by several genera of orchids, the
most conspicuous of which are species of Angraecum and
Megaclinium.

Several species of ferns are also epiphytic in habit in these
forests; the most noticeable belong to the genus Platycerium.

A fairly large number of the forest trees are provided with
' plank buttresses." They include all the Khayas (mahoganies),
with the exception of Kliaya senegalensis from the savannah
forests, most of the Pseitdocedrelas, the silk-cotton trees
Eriodendron anfractuosum and Bombay brevicuspe, Trip-
lochiton Jolinsonii, Heritiera utilis, Piptadenia africana,
Antiaris toxicaria, the Offrgnn (Terminalia superba), and
many others. The plank buttresses of Heritiera utilis
have the peculiarity of separating from the stem of the
tree shortly below the level from which they are given off, and in
this respect represent an intermediate stage between the cylin-
drical, aerial " prop roots," and the typical plank buttresses.

The former type of root is developed by the umbrella tree
(Musanga Smithii), species of Garcinia, and an unidentified
species of small tree known to the natives as the N'Kotan, from
the wood of which they prepare charcoal.

Cauliflory occurs in the case of many species of Ficus, Cola
canliflora, and the huge trees of the genus Omphalocarpum, as
well as amongst other species.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 175

The tropical rain forests of the Gold Coast and Southern
Nigeria contain trees of very lofty growth scattered amongst those
of more moderate dimensions. The outline of the top of the
forest vegetation is very irregular in shape, and is frequently in-
terrupted by the crowns of these giants, which include the
Kftayas, Pseudocedrelas, the Odoum (Clilorophora excelsa), the
Wau'-icaic (Triplocliiton JoJtnsonii), the Offram (Terminalia
superba), the silk cotton trees, Eriodendron anfractuosum and
Bombax brevicuspe, the Dahoinah (Piptadenia africana), and
another species of the same genus, the Balm (Mimusops Djaxe),
which is a veritable giant, Antiaris to.ricaria, the gum copal tree
(species of Cyanothyrsus), the Biunwe (species of Detarium), the
incense tree (Santiriopsis Klainei), and the Kokoti (Pynaertw
ealaensis).

The other constituents of the forests are represented, amongst
many others that have not yet been identified, by the Afram (prob-
ably a species of Parinarium), the Etnril (species of Terminalia),
the AtlitiiraJi (Pentacletln-fi macrophylla), the Asomah (Parkin
species), the Essia (Combretum species), the Awania (Ricinoden-
dron a/ricamix), Tetrapleura Thonningii, Bcrlinia acuminata,
Muxanga Smith ii, the umbrella tree, Monodora myristica, Mono-
dora tenui folia, the A /ana and Apurro (unidentified, small trees),
Voacanga africana, Rauwolfia vomitoria, Alstonia congensis, the
silk rubber tree (Funtumia elastica), the Bosse (Giiarea species),
the Pebedum (Loroa Klaineana), Albizzia rhombifolia, the
OJcisibiri or " Flintwood tree," Myrianthns arboreus, the Kishia
(Sarcocephalus esculentvs), a new species of Afzelia, Heritiera
vtilix, Allanblackia floribunda, Distemonanthus Benthamianiis,
Motandra guineensis, Bertiera montana, Combrctum comosum,
Diospyros species, Clerodendron violaceum, Mussaenda erythro-
phylla, species of Heckeldora, Canarium Schweinfurthii, Carpo-
lobia hi tea, Usteria guineensis, species of Baphia, Berlin in
auriculata, Tricliilia species, Pentadesma butyracea, Irvingia
Barteri, Acacia pennata, Cynometra Afzelii, Caesalpinia Bondn-
cella, species of Acalypha, Macaranga, and the oil palm, Elaei*
gvineensis.

As a rule, the trees in the rain forests are connected one with
another by a regular network of climbers. Epiphytes are crowded
all over the stems and larger branches. Several tiers of vegeta-
tion corresponding to the heights attained by the component
species are to be met with, and under all a deep gloomy shade
prevails, relieved only occasionally by spots of sunshine on
clearings formed by the downfall of some forest giant. The air is
saturated with moisture, and is, as a rule, remarkably still ; con-
ditions very favourable to luxuriant forest growth throughout the
area inhabited by the rain forests. The dry season is of short
duration, is frequently interrupted by showers of rain, and the
Harmattan winds are feebly developed.

The virgin forests of this type are as a rule comparatively free
of tangled undergrowth. The latter seems to be a secondarv
development brought about by the destruction of the vegetation
for farming purposes ; in the older forests the undergrowth is
straight and not very dense, so that it is possible to walk about in
it without having to continually use the knife to clear a way
through the forest.

176 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Quite a large proportion of the trees found in this type have a
very wide range, and are to be met with all over extensive tracts of
country that possess a climate with a much smaller rainfall; in
such areas, however, owing to the greater humidity brought about
l>y the hilly nature of the country and the existence of deep
sheltered valleys that are frequently occupied by perennial
streams and swampy soil, the trees in question are still able to
thrive, hut with many of them the departure in habitat from the
continually moist environment of the rain forest is associated with
a more pronounced xerophilous habit and a greater periodical
defoliation Some species remain evergreen throughout their

range.

The following trees are found distributed about the country
from the centre of the rain forest region (Lower Tano and Ankobra
River basins) right up to the borders of the savannah forest region
in Northern Ashanti.

The Odoiini (Chlorophora c.rcelsa).

The Waw-waw (Triplochiton Johnsoni-i).

The silk-cotton tree (Eriodendron anfractuosurn).

The Dahomah (Piptadenia africana).

The Off ram (Terminalia superba).

Tlie Einril (Terminalia species).

The Awania (Ricinodendron africanus).

Other species with an almost equally extensive range are invari-
ably associated with the presence of moister soil such as occurs
near the beds of streams, edges of swamps and similar collections
of water. Their distribution is governed by edaphic influences.
and they keep reappearing throughout extensive stretches of
country.

Including species that are common to most of the climatic
formations, the more valuable plants from the rain or moist
tropical evergreen forests of the Gold Coast and Ashanti are
arranged below in accordance with the character and comparative
value of the products they yield.

(a.) Species yielding first-class timber fit for export to Europe
and oilier countries,.

i. Mahoganies.

The Difbini (a new species of Kliaya).

ii. Cedars.

The Punkwa or Penkwa (Pseudocedrela cylindrica).
The Tiama-Tiama (a new species of Pseudocedrela).
The Basse (undescribed species of Guared).
The Pcbedum (Loroa Klaineana).

All the above trees belong to the natural order
Meliacere. The timber of the Pebedum closely resembles
teak in colour and structure.

The Odoum (Chlorophora excelsa).

iii. Other species :-

The N'yanl-oi) (Heritiera utilis).

The Jihinire (a lofty species of Detarium).

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 177

The Ehye or incense tree (Boswellia Klaineana?).
The Baku (Mimusops Djave).

(b.) Species yielding good timbers fit for local use.
The Kokoti (Pynaertia ealaensis).
The Kishia (Sarcocephalus esculentus).
The Emril (species of Terminalia).
The Dahomah (Piptadenia africana).
Tl>e Waw-ivaiv (Triplochiton Johnsonii).

(c.) Species the wood of which is suitable for the construction of
shingles.

The Off ram (Term/malia superba).
Another similar tree (Terminalia Brownei).
The Emril (species of Terminalia).

Cordia Irvingii, a tree from the rain forests of the
Okwawu hill system.

(d.) Species the stems of ivhich are suitable for mine props.

The Okisibiri or Flint wood tree (an undetermined
species).

(c .) Species the fruit of ivhich yields vegetable oils and fats.
The Awama (Ricinodendron africanus).
The Athawah (P entaclethra macrophylla).
The Baku (Mimusops Djave).
Carapa guianensis.
Irvingia Barteri.
Pentadesma butyracea.
The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis}.

From the above list it will be seen that this type of
forest is very rich in oil-yielding species.

(/.) Rubber-yielding plants.
i. Good class rubber.

Funtumia elastica (more plentiful in the monsoon
forests).

Landolphia Droogmansiana ?
Landolphia oivariensis.
ii. Inferior rubbers.

Carpodinus hirsuta.
Landolphia Klainei.

Besides species of Clitandra and other kinds of
Carpodinus.

(g.) Fibre -yielding plants.

These are represented by small shrubs belonging to thp
genera Urena, Triumfetta, Hibiscus, &c., and are weeds
that spring up on cleared areas. They are more suitable
for cultivation as an agricultural crop.

(h.) Plants yielding dyec.

The Nyi-Na-Kobin (Bombax brevicuspe), the bark of
which yields a deep broAvn-coloured far-' dye.
NOTE. — The N'yankon is confined to the rain forests of the
maritime zone, and is usually not found further inland
than about 90 miles from the sea.

J23J5 M

178 COLONIAL REPORTS "MISCELLANEOUS.

B. The Fresh-water Swamp Forests.

This is an edaphic formation, and is composed of plants that
have adapted themselves to growth in a permanently wet soil.
They have much the appearance of plants inhabiting the rain
forest, but are not so crowded. The formation is a comparatively
open one. The swamps occur chiefly in the vicinity of the larger
rivers, and are often caused by their overflow. They occur also
in hilly country along some of the deeper valleys.

The vegetation most partial to such areas contains, amongst
trees, the Kaku or red iron wood tree (Lpphira procera), the Boya
(M itrar/yne macropliyUa}, Macrolobium PnUsotii, Macrolobium
*h/)ulaceum, Cynometra Afzelii, Cynometra Mannii, Pterocarpv*
esculentus, the Nyamedua (Alstonia congensis], Treculiaafricana,
and Anthocleista nobilis.

The palms are represented by the bamboo palm, Raphia Vini-
fera, and Calamus Barteri.

Shrubs by Sarcocephalus Russeggeri, Urophyllum liirtellum,
and Anona palustris; water-lilies by Nymphaea stellata, and N.
Lotus ; the Amaryllids by Crinum natans, and C. purpurascens.

Orchids by species of aquatic Lissochilus, such as L. longifolius
and L. rose-us.

The Aroids are represented by the West African " sudd or
cabbage weed," Pistia Stratiotex, which often escapes into the
streams and seriously interferes with navigation, and by large-
leaved species such as Anchomanes dubius and Cyrtosperma sene-
galense.

A small balsam with pretty red flowers, J-mpntiens Irvingii, also
occurs in the shallower places.

Amongst the trees some species, such as the Kakn and the
Nyamadua, are often found along the edges of the swamps, and
occasionally at a distance from water, but they are always at their
best when either growing in the swamps or close to them. During
the dry season they are practically defoliated.

In the savannah regions the fresh water swamps are generally
fringed by a belt of Mitragyne africana, several species of
Crinums, and the fibre plant Honckenya fid folia. The most
valuable species from the swamp formations of the rain forest and
monsoon forest districts are : —

For timber —

The Kaku (Lophira procera), which, so far as is known, fur-
nishes the most durable timber of the West Coast. As a fuel the
wood has very high calorific properties. It is confined to the
maritime zone.

The Baya (Mitragyne macrophyUa} also yields a good timber
that is said to have been exported to Europe as mahogany.

Fibres —

The valuable Piassava fibre is prepared from the rachis of the
leaves of the bamboo or tonibo palm, Raphia mnifera.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 179

Another good long- fibre is yielded by the plant Honckenya
fid folia.

The seeds of Lophira procera are rich in vegetable oils.

C. The Monsoon or Mixed Deciduous Forests.

This is a formation that is very rich in plants of economic im-
portance. It is inhabited by both Tropophilous and Hygrophil-
ous plants in varying' proportions, according to local fluctuations
in the rainfall and edaphic conditions. The forests, on the whole,
are greener than the typical monsoon forests of India, Burma, and
Siarn, and contain fewer species with the Tropophilous habit;
nevertheless, owing to the complete, or nearly complete, defolia-
tion of the latter during the dry season the West African type is
easily distinguished at that season of the year from the true rain
or moist tropical evergreen forests. Forests exactly similar in
habit to the mixed deciduous forests of Eastern Asia are, as far
as my experience goes, very rarely met with, and then only as
insignificant belts in, tropical West Africa.

The Indian formation is more closely approached, on the other
hand, by the denser stocked savannah forests of this coast, but
here the grasses form a more prominent feature of the formation
than occurs in the case of the Indian type with which I am com-
paring it. Generally speaking, in Tropical West Africa the
transition between the rain forests and the savannah forests is
more abrupt than it is in those parts of Asia with which I am
acquainted. This is probably accounted for by the prolonged
dry season experienced over extensive areas in the former con-
tinent, whereas, on the Gold Coast and in Southern Nigeria, up to
the 8° parallel of north latitude at all events, that season is
tempered by frequent showers of rain during the tornado months
which coincide with the vegetative periods of the grasses, and
thus favours them at the expense of forest growth. In other
words, owing to this feature of the climate, as soon as an area
becomes, from the reduction in the annual rainfall, unsuitable
for luxuriant forest growth, it is appropriated by the grasses in-
stead of by the intermediate stage represented by the typical
monsoon forests.

Perhaps good examples of the latter occur in the drier portions
of the Northern Territories and Northern Nigeria.

A large number of the evergreens found in the mixed deciduous
forests of the Gold Coast belong identically to the same species as
those met with in the rain forest. They are, however, generally
found growing in the moist soils close to the banks of streams, or
in sheltered ravines, and on the northern aspects of the hills,
whilst the deciduous-leafed species occupy mainly the drier soils
further back from the streams and the exposed southern and wes-
tern aspects of the hills. The mixture of Tropophilous with
Hygrophilous species is more one of groups of each type than of a
true intermingling of individual trees of each kind.

It may be that the more pronounced, dry Harmattan winds met
with in the higher latitudes (from 7° '°>0' N. and upwards) during

180 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

the winter months (November to February), which is the resting
season of the grasses (a period when they are absolutely indifferent
to drought), and the prevalence of fierce fires at the same time,
severely handicaps the woodland formations in their struggle with
the grasses.

A peculiarity of the West African monsoon forests is the fre-
quent occurrence in them of small but pure communities of her-
baceous plants belonging to the order Scitamineae. Such patches
are composed of species of Amomum, Costus, and Phrynium, the
last of which supplies the natives with leaves for thatching pur-
poses, and the first mentioned genus a species that yields " the
grains of Paradise." Each such patch is pure, and consists prac-
tically of one species.

The mixed deciduous forests of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, be-
sides containing to a greater or less extent most of the valuable
species whose headquarters are the rain forests, and which have
been referred to when describing the latter formation, is composed
of the following plants, amongst others, that have not yet been
identified or named.

The Anonacece are represented by —

Monodora brevipes; a small tree.
Hexalobus grandi folia; a large tree.
Xylopia parviflora; small tree.
Xylopia aethiopica; a small tree.

The Bixinecc by —

Oncoba dentata; a shrub or small tree.
Oncoba spinosa; a shrub.

The Hypericinecc by —

Haronga madagascariensis ; tall shrub.
The Malvaceae, by —

Many species of Sida, Urena, and Hibiscus.

The Bombacecc by—

Eriodendron anfractuosum; a large tree.

The Sterculiacece by —

Sterculia cordi folia; a large tree.
Sterculia tomentosa; a medium-sized tree.
Sterculia Barteri; a large tree.
Sterculia tragacantha; a tree.
Cola latiri folia; a small tree.
Cola Afzelii; a small tree.

The Tiliacece by—

Grewia car pini folia; a shrub.

Glyphvea grewioides ; a shrub.

And species of Triumfetta.
The Malpighiacece by —

Flabellaria paniculata; a climber.

Acridocarpus Smeathmanii; a climber.

Heteropterys africana; a shrub.
The Riitacece by—

Xa/ntJio.ryhim spnegalense: a tree.

GOLD COAST — KEPOKT ON FORESTS. 181

Tlie Simarubece by —

Harrisonia abyssinica; a shrub.

The Meliacece by—

Khaya anthotheca; a large timber tree.
Khaya grand-is- ditto.
Khaya Punchii; ditto.
Pseudocedrela utilis; ditto.
Carapa guianensis ; a small tree.

The Olacinece by —

Ximenia americana; a shrub.
Apodytes beninensis; a shrub.

The Sapindacece by —

Lecaniodiscus cupanioides; a small tree.
Paullinia pinnata; a shrub.
Deinbollia insignis ; a tree.

The Anacardiacecc by —

Spondias lutea; a large tree.
Pseudospondias microcarpa; a tree.

The Connaracece by —

Cnestis ferruginea ; a shrub.

The Leguminosece by —

Pterocarpus esculentus; a tree found near water.
Berlinia acuminata; a medium-sized tree.
Afzelia africana ; a tree.
Albizzia fastigiata; a tree.
Albizzia Brownei; a tree.
Cassia fistula; a tree.
Millettia Thonningii; a shrub.

Cynometra species, close to C. Mannii ; a tree found near
rivers.

Lonchocarpus sericeus; a small tree.
Lonchocarpus cyanescens; a small tree.
Acacia ataxacantha; a scrambler.
Dialium guineense; a medium-sized tree.
Erythrina toinentosa ; a tree.
Mimosa asperata; a shrub.
Piptadenia africana; a large tree.
Xylia Evansii; a tree.
Afrormosia laxiflora; a large tree.

The Rosacece by —

Parinarium robustum; a tree, and
Another species.

The Combretacece by —

Quisqualis indica; a climber.
Combretum Zenkeri; a shrub.
Combretum racemosum; a climbing shrub.
Terminalia superba; a tree.
Terminalia Brownei ; a tree, and the
Emril, another species of Terminalia.

182 COLONIAL REPORTS— MISCELLANEOUS.

The Rubiacece by—

Morelia senegalensis; a shrub.

Macrosphyra longistyla ; a scandeut shrub.

Pavetta Baconia; a shrub or scaudent shrub.

Cremaspora africana; a shrub.

Morinda citrifolia; a tree.

Morinda longiftora; a shrub.

Oxyanthus tubiflorus; a shrub.

Randia maculata; a shrub.

Musscenda tenuiflora; a shrub.

Mussccnda splendens ; a scrambler.

Musscenda erythrophylla; a scrambler.
The Sapotacecc by—

Mimusops multinervis ; a tree.

Chrysophyllum albidum; a tree.

The Apocynacece by—

Polyadoa innljellata; a small tree.

Holarrliena Wulfsburgii; medium-sized tree.

Funtumia elastica; a tree.

Funtumia africana; a tree.

Strophanthus hispidus; a climber.

Strophanthus sarmenton-us ; a trailer.

Strophanthus Preussii; a climber.

Strophanthus gratus; au erect or climbing shrub.

Clitandra togolana; a climber.

Carpodinus hirsuta; a robust climber

Carpodinus f-ulva\ ditto.

Carpodinus Barteri; a climber.

Landolphia owariensis; ditto.

Landolphia scandens; ditto.

Landolphia Thompsonii; ditto.

Landolphia ftorida; ditto.

Pleioceras Barteri; low shrub.

Callichilia Barteri; a small shrub.

Alafia Barteri; ditto.

Alafia landolphioides ; a climber.

Voacanga africana; a shrub or small tree.

The Asclepiadeaj by—

Kan nli iu consiinilis; a shrub; grown near water.

The Bignoniacece by—

Spathodea campanulata; a tree.

The AcanthacecB by—

Acanthus montana; a shrub.
The Verbenaceie by—

Lantana camara ; a shrub.
Lippia adoensis; a shrub.
Clerodendron splendens; a shrub.
And many others of the same genus.

The Urticacea3 by—

Chlorophora excelsa; a huge timber tree.

Ftr?/,s VogeUi ; a tree ; and many others of the same genus.

Myrianthus arlioreus; a small tree.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 183

The CelastracecE by —

Hippocratea W elicits chit', a climber.

The Ebcnacece by—

Diospyros mespiliformis \ a large tree.
Diospyros monbuttensis ; a tree.

The Myrtacece by—

Napoleona Vogelii; a small tree.

The Passiflorece by—

Smeathmannui pubescens; a shrub.

The Piperacece by—

Peperomia Vogelii; a herb.

The Palma; by-

Elaeis guineensis; a tree.
Raphia vinifera; a tree.
Calamus species. 1

Ancistrophyllum species. / SCilU(lent

The Aroidece by-
Several species of Amorplio phallus.
Anchomanes Hookeri; a herb, and
Others of the same genus.

The Dioscoreacece by—

Dioscorea prehensilis.
Dioscorea Preussii.
Dioscorea alata and others.

The Liliacece by —

Dracaena maculata and others.
Sansevieria guineensis .

The Scitamineas by —

Amomum Melegueta.

Amomum latifolium.

Amomum Danielli.

Phrynium Benthami.

Phrynium brachystachys.

Phrynium Danielli.

Costus afer.
Aiid the Amaryllidete by species of Crinuni and Hcemaiit/ttts.

Some of the trees common to the rain forests and the monsoon
ones reach their optimum development both in growth and num-
bers in the latter formation. This is most marked in the case of
the following species : -

The Waw-waw (Triplochiton Johnsonii).
The Dahomah (Piptadenia africana).
The Off ram (Terminalia superba).
The Emril (Terminalia species).
The Awama (Ricinodendron africanus).
The silk rubber tree (Funtumia elastica).
The Duakobin (Afrormosia laxiflord).

They are not only more abundant in this type, but they actually
become somewhere or other within it the dominant species.

184 COLONIAL KEPOBTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Each of the above species has within its distributional range a
particular area or series of areas in which it is at its optimum and
aggressively dominant.

As a general rule the undergrowth in the drier portions of the
monsoon forests is less dense than it is in the case of the rain
forests, and the number of tiers of vegetation is also reduced.

The more valuable economic species to be met with in the mon-
soon forests may be arranged as shown below.

(a.) Species yielding first-class timber fit for export.
i. Mahoganies—

The white mahogany (Khaya anthotheca).
The large-leafed mahogany (Kliaya grandis).
Mr. Punch's mahogany (Khaya Punchii).

In addition to these the Dubini (a new species of Khaya} from
the rain forests is also frequently met with in the moister portions
of the monsoon forests,
ii. Cedars—

Pseudocedrela utilis, the Effuokonkonti of the Ashautis, a
gigantic species, as well as the Tiama-Tiama from the rain
forests,
iii. Other species —

The Odou'm (Chlorophora excelsa).
Mimusops multinervis .

The Dua-Kobin (Afrormosia laxifiora), which yields a very
pretty yellow coloured satin-wood that has, when figured, sold
for very high prices in Liverpool. So far it has. only been
exported (on a small scale) from Southern Nigeria.

The ebony tree (Diospyros mespiliformis} .
(I).} Species yielding good timber fit for local use.
The Waw-waw (Triplo chiton Johnsonii).
The Dahomah (Piptadenia africana).
Kanthoxylum senegalense, yields a yellow wood.
The Emril (Terminalia species).
The Papoa (Afzelia africana).
Albizzia fastigiata.
Albizzia Brownei.
Xylia Evansii.
Parinarium robustum.

(c.) Species the wood of which is su /.table for making shingles,
The Offram (Terminalia superba).
The Emril (Tenmnalia species).
Terminalia Brownei.

(d.) Species the fruit of which yield vi gcinblc oil* and fats.
The oil palm (Elwis guineensis}.
The Awama (Ricinodendron africanus).
Carapa guianensis.
(e.) Rubber-yielding plants.

Funtumia elastica. Most plentiful in this type of forest.
Lando Ip hia owariensis .
Landolphia Tliompsonii. \

Landolphia •florida. . , , . „ . , ,

r lit- j (• yield interior rubber.

Landolphia scandens. I J

Carpodinus hirsuta.

Ficus Vogelii, yields a fair quality rubber.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 185

(/.) Fibre plants.

In addition to the various species of Urena, Triumfetta,
Sida, Hibiscus, &c., that are herbaceous and suitable more
for cultivation as agricultural crops than as forest ones, the
following two trees yield very good fibres : —

Sterculia Barteri (from the bast).

Raphia vinifera.

Indigo is obtained from Lonchocarpus cyanescens.

The above list shows how rich the monsoon forests are in valu-
able species. Doubtless many more will be discovered as the
forests get better known.

On the whole the age gradations of the timber trees in this type
are more satisfactorily represented than they are in the rain
forests.

The species 'most characteristic of the monsoon forests are : —
Sterculia cordi folia.
Sterculia Barteri.
Sterculia tomentosa.
Cola Afzelii.
Spondias lutea.
Albizzia fastigiata.
Cassia fistula.
LoncJiocarpus cyanescens.
Erythrina tomentosa.
Afrormosia laxiflora.
Dialium guineense, &c., &c.

Their occurrence anywhere is a certain index that the climate
of that locality corresponds to the requirements of the monsoon
forests.

D. The Savannah Forests.

This in brief is a park-like formation, rich in terrestrial herbs
and more particularly in grasses. The tree growth is represented
by arboreal tropophytes and evergreen xerophytes, but the latter
are not numerous, and form an insignificant proportion of the
vegetation. The density of stock, so far as the trees are con-
cerned, varies in accordance with the nature of the soil and its
telluric properties. On stiff laterite formations the trees arc-
dwarfed, gnarled, and widely scattered, whilst alluvial hollows
and the narrower valleys are much more densely stocked, but
never to the extent seen in the monsoon or mixed deciduous
forests. Where the supply of telluric moisture is copious, how-
ever, fringing forests of great density occupy the soil, and they
frequently contain species characteristic of the monsoon and even
of the rain forests. The outcrops of laterite and metamorphic
rocks so frequently met with in Northern Ashanti and in the
Hinterland of Southern Nigeria are usually encircled by a ring
of such fringing vegetation, the moisture in the soil bordering the
outcrops of rock being supplied from the drainage off the latter.
A peculiarity of the country occupied by the savannah forests is
that during the rainy season extensive areas are under water for

186 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

very long periods at a stretch ; but they rapidly dry up at the
end of the rains, and the soil is then thoroughly turned over by the
action of the earth-worms. Literally hundreds of thousands of
the latter must operate within the space of a few acres, for the
surface of the soil is often for many square miles in succession
absolutely covered with their castings. These, when dry and
hard, render the act of walking over them a very fatiguing
operation.

In such areas an impermeable pan of hard clay or sometimes of
laterite rocks exists close to the surface of the soil and renders the
latter swampy.

Another feature of the savannah forests is the annual prevalence
in them, early in the dry season, of fierce grass fires that do an
incalculable amount of harm to tree growth and keep it in check.
The fires are generally most intense and destructive on the dried-
up swampy areas which are, as a rule, covered with tall, coarse
grasses belonging to the family Panicece.

A high proportion of the trees possess a very strongly developed
protective layer of bark on their stems and branches, and this is
not unfrequently accompanied by a corresponding increase in the
thickness of their root system ; in fact the latter is sometimes
monstrous in its development. These appear to be contrivances
to guard the trees against damage from the fires, as well as adapta-
tions to a xerophytic climate.

The average height of the tree vegetation is much less than that
characteristic of the monsoon, rain, and fringing forests, but
occasionally gigantic specimens of the Odoum (Chlorophora
excelsa), the silk cotton tree (Eriodendron anfractuosuni), and the
baobab (Adansonia digitatd) are to be met with in the savannah
forests.

The vegetation of the latter is very characteristic, and is
enumerated below : —

The AnonacecR are represented by —

The wild custard apple (Anuna senegalensis}, a woody
shrub.
The Papaveracece by —

Argemone mexicana; a weed.
The CapparidacecK by —
A species of Capparis.
Cleoine ciliata ) m . ,

Gynandropsis pentaphylla \ Tr°Plcal weeds-
The Bixineoe by —

Cochlospermum tinctorium; a characteristic shrub of this
formation.
The Hypericinece by —

Species of Psorospermnm ; shrubs and trees.
The Malvacece by-
Various species of Sida, Urena, and Hibiscus. They are
all weeds yielding good fibres. A species of the last genus
(H. lunarifolius) is the best fibre-yielding plant amongst
them, and is sometimes cultivated by the natives.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 187

The Sterculiacece by —

Cola cordifolia, a tree.

The Tiliacece by-
Species of Triumfetta and Honckenya ficifolia; fibre-
yielding weeds and shrubs.

The Bombacece by-

Adansonia digitata, the baobab tree ; fruit edible and
wood rich in fibres.

The silk cotton tree (Eriodendron anfractuosum).

The MeliacecB by—

Khaya senegalensis, the Senegal mahogany. Grows to a
inediuin-sized tree.

Pseudocedrela Kotschyi, a medium-sized tree.

The Ampelidecc by —
Species of Leea.

The Leguininosce by —

The Senegal rosewood tree (Pterocarpus erinaceus).
Erythrina senegalensis; a shrub or small tree.
The " sass-wood " tree (Erythrophloeum guineense).
The ' locust bean ' tree (Parkia filicoidea).
Albizzia angolensis, a tree.
Afzelia africana, a tree.
Detai'ium yenegalense, a tree.
Entada soudanica, a small tree.
Entada abyssinica, a small tree.
Dichrostachys nutans, a small tree.
Ormosia laxi flora, a small tree.
Mezoneurom Bentliamianiim, a shrub.
Bauhinia reticulata, a shrub.
Daniella thurifera, the " balsam copaiba tree."
Acacia Sieberiana, a tree.

Acacia Catechu (Willd.), the " cutch tree"; and another
species close to A. nigrescent.

Tamarindus indica, the Indian tamarind.
In addition to the above there are various herbs belonging
to the genera Indigofera, Teplirosia, Crotalaria, and Cassia.

The Rosacece by—

Parinarium polyandrum, a small tree.
Parinarium curatelli/olium, a small tree.
Parinarium Mobola, a small tree.

The Combretacece by—

Anogeissus leiocarpus, the "chew-stick" tree.

Terminalia macroptera, a tree.

Terminalia togoensis, a tree.
The Myrtacece by—

Eugenia owariensis, a small tree.
The RubiaceoB by —

Crossopteryx Kotschyana, a small tree.

Randia mallei/era, a shrub or small tree.

Gardenia sp., probably G. terni folia, a shrub or small
tree.

188 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Sarcocephalus esculentus, a dwarf form of tlie raiu forest
tree ( ?)

Species of Oldenlandia ; all herbs.
The Composite^ by-
Numerous herbs and weeds.

The Apocynacece by —

A xerophilous form of Landolphia owariensis which has
acquired a shrubby habit. It is rather rare.
Carissa edulis, a shrub.

The Sapotacece by —

The shea butter tree (Butyrospermum Parkii).

The Bignoniacece by —

Kigelia pinnata, the " sausage tree."

The Hhamnacece by —

Zizyphus mucronata aud another species.
The Verbenacece by —

Vitex megaphylla, a tree.

Vitex cuneata, a tree.
The Urticacece by —

(?) Ficus asperi folia, and others.

The Euphorbiacece by —

A species of Excoecaria, a shrub or small tree.
Bridelia micrantha, a shrub or small tree.
Phyllanthus reticulatus.
Antidesma venosum, a small tree.
Species of Hymenocardia.

The Dipterocarpea- by—
Lophira alata, a tree.

The Loganiaceas by —

Strychnos emarginata and others.

The Palmce by-

Borassus flabelliformis var. OKtliiupica.

The Doum or Fan Palm.

Phoenix reclinata, the wild date palm.

The Liliacece by —

Asparagus Pauli-Guilelmi; climbing shrub
Asparagus africanus ; scrambling1 shrub.
Aloe Barteri.
Gloriosa uirescens ; a climber.

The Smilacew by —

Smilax Kraussiana, a trailer.

The Orchidacetc by-
Several species of Lissochilus, amongst which L. roseus and
L. Heudelotii may be mentioned.

The Amaryllidece by—

Crinum giganteum and others.
Haemanthus species.
Hymenocallis senegambica.

The Cyperaceff by many genera and species, including
Bulbostylis barbata and B. laniceps.

GOLD COAST — KEPORT ON FORESTS. 189

The Graminece by a large number of genera, amongst which
the following may be mentioned—

Eragrostis, Andropogon, Panlcum, and the bamboo
Oxytenantliera abyssinica.

Amongst the more useful plants of the savannah forests the
following may be mentioned : —

(a.) Timber trees.

Afzelia africana, the Opapoa of the Aquapim natives.
Yields a first-class durable timber, and is often the dominant
tree in some of the savannahs.

Daniella thurifera, the balsam copaiba tree. The wood is
impregnated with a resin, but it is a useful timber.

DetariuTTi senegalense. Yields excellent timber.

Khaya senegalensis, the Senegal mahogany. Does not
reach a great size ; timber of first-class quality.

Pseudocedrela Kotschyi, the dry country cedar. Yields a
beautiful timber.

Erythrophloeum guineensis. Grows into a fine spreading
tree. Wood hard and durable.

Lophira alata. Good wood, but usually of small
dimension.

Pterocarpus erinaceus, the Senegal rosewood tree.

Tamarindus indica. Yields an ornamental wood.

The palm, Borassus flabelliformis , the wood of which,
exclusive of the pith, is extremely durable.

(6.) Trees the fruits of which are rich in vegetable oils.

The shea butter tree, Butyrospermum Parkii; extremely
abundant.

The so-called " African Oak," Lophira procera.
(c.) Fibre-yielding plants.

Various species of Urena, Triumfetta, Hibiscus, and the
woody shrub or small tree, Bauhinia reticulata, the bast fibres
of which are long and very tough.

The wood fibres of the huge baobab tree, Adansonia digi-
tata, are also of commercial value, and are from time to time
exported to Europe from Senegal,

(d.) Wood oil.

This is yielded by the ' Balsam Copaiba tree."
(e.) Gums.

By Acacia Sieberiana, Khaya senegalensis, and Anogeissus
leiocarpus. They are, however, of but little commercial
value.

(/.) Dyes.

Infusions of the bark of Bridelia micrantha yield a deep
reddish-brown dye.
(g.) Mordants.

The ashes of Anogeissus leiocarpus are used by the natives
for that purpose. The wood and bark of this species is also
fairly rich in tannin.
(h.) Rubber.

y the dry country form of Landolphia ou'ariensis.

190 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

In addition to the above the numerous fringing forests found
scattered about this formation are rich in valuable plants from
the monsoon and rain forests. The plants most commonly met
with, especially along the banks of the more important streams,
are : — Carapa guianensis, which here attains fairly large dimen-
sions, Ricinodendron africanus, a species of Cynometra close to
C. Mannii, Pterocarpus esculentus, Mimusops multinervis,
Diospyros mespiUformis, Polyadoa umbellata, Sclirebera golun-
gensis, Sterculia Barteri, Sterculia tomentosa, Sterculia cordi-
folia, ('liloropliora excelsa, Kliaya Punchii, Kliaya grandis,
Eriodendron anfractuosum, Cola Afzelii, Xanthoxylum se.ne-
galense, Spondias lutea, Terminalia superba, Albizzia Brownei,
Albizzia fastigiata, Spathodea campanulata, the moist country
form of Landolphia owariensis, Landolphia Thompsonii, Lan-
dolphta florida, Carpodinus hirsuta, the bamboo palm, Raphia
vinifera, and the oil palm.

Taken all round, the savannah forests, together with the fring-
ing forests, are fairly rich in useful plants, and since they cover
very extensive areas in the hinterland of our West African posses-
sions, they are by no means to be despised. As a general rule
the natural regeneration of the trees is good and the age grada-
tions satisfactory.

E. Savannahs.

These consist of formations in which trees are practically
absent and the dominant growth represented by the grasses. In
the portions of West Africa with which I am acquainted they
occur merely as local variants here and there of the savannah
forests. I have seen no very extensive examples of them.

The thorn forests are 'also poorly represented and only occur in
small patches, such as near Accra, and again in the Banda
country of north-western Ashanti, within the savannah forest
districts.

The most important of the Edaphic formations is the Mangrove
Forest. It i? not, however, very strongly represented on the
Gold Coast, but in the Niger delta several thousand square miles
of country are occupied by this .type. The species composing
these forests are very gregarious, and are mainly composed of
Rhizophora racemosa, R. Mangle, and Avicennia africana. The
first two yield excellent firewood, and their bark contains a
high percentage of tannin. The timber is hard and fairly
durable. The mangrove forests occur at the mouths of the Tano,
Ankobra, and Pra Rivers of the Gold Coast.

Conversions.

As a general rule the destruction of the vegetation by the
natives for agricultural purposes results in the following conver-
sions, which invariably end in a drier type of vegetation succeed-
ing the one removed. The stages are : Rain forest is converted
into monsoon forest ; monsoon forest into savannah forest :
savannah forest into pure savannah,

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 191

Distribution.

Only a general idea can be given of the distribution of these
various types of forest within the limits of the Gold Coast and
Ashanti. Accurate data for the preparation of a proper stock
map would take years to collect ; at present only rough approxi-
mations are possible.

The rain or moist evergreen tropical forests are in their typical
form restricted on the coast line to the extreme south-west corner
of the 'Colony in the neighbourhood of Axini. From there they
extend northwards (with one marked break) along the valleys of
the Tano, Ankobra, and Bia Rivers, through Wassaw, upper
Denkira, and Sefwi, to just north of the (seventh parallel of north
latitude. They have a tendency to hug the western frontier dur-
ing the greater portion of their range, and are interrupted be-
tween Asankagwa and Wiawuso by a broad belt of vegetation that
possesses a drier strain and stretches across the country from the
Tano River to the railway between the station of Inibrahim and a
point a few miles south of Oboase. An extensive branch of the
rain forest stretches from Axini in a north-easterly direction to
Tarkwa, and the Pra River follows the valley of the latter a con-
siderable distance inland, more especially -along the upper course
of its principal feeders the A mini and Birrim Rivers, and finally
splits up into several detached belts occupying the deeper valleys
of the Bompata, Abetifi-Obo, Bogora, and Kyebi hill systems.

The savannah forests, on the other hand, together with patches
of scrub forest, are well represented along the opposite end of the
coast line, viz., on the south-east sea-board, whence they
extend in a gradually decreasing (narrowing) belt as far west as
Sekondi. To the north of Accra they follow the plain and occupy
the country up to the foot of the hills, <and then sweeping round
to the north — -still keeping away from the more pronounced hill
systems — follow the valley of the Yolta River and gradually
broaden out till, at latitude 6° 30' N. approximately, they rapidly
increase in area, and bending away to the north-west, occupy the
whole of the northern half of Ashanti (from east to west) right
up to the Volta River, its large feeder, the Black Yolta, and
practically the whole of the Northern Territories on the opposite
bank. They extend southwards as far as Puliamo 011 the west, and
the neighbourhood of <Chichewere in the centre {due north of
Kumasi), and Abetifi further eastwards.

The whole of the country not occupied by either the rain forests
or the savannah forests is clothed with a rather green type of
monsoon or mixed deciduous forest. The latter is, however, in
the more hilly and well watered localities frequently interrupted
by narrow belts of evergreen (rain) forest. No very sharp lines
of demarcation exist between these types, and they usually merge
into each other very gradually. An abrupt transition, however,
exists just to the north of Abetifi, where one practically steps out
from the moist forests of the hills on to the savannah forests of
the Afram plains.

As far as it can be ascertained from data available, the distri-
bution of tiieRe various types follows closely that of the climates

192 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS

characteristic of such plant formation. The correspondence of
the extremes of climate with the extreme forms of vegetation is
quite evident enough, as can be seen in the case of the rain forests,
the savannah forests, and the thorn scrub; but the agreement is
not so pronounced in the case of the intermediate conditions cor-
responding to the monsoon or mixed deciduous forests. In the
district occupied by the latter alternations of narrow belts -or
small patches of rain forest with vegetation of a somewhat drier
character, or with formations approximating closely to the typical
monsoon forests, are frequently to be met with next door to ear-h
other, but this want of homogeneity is brought about first by the
hilly nature of the country, and secondly by edaphic influences,
which become more pronounced in regions where the atmospheric
precipitations are not heavj- enough to support the typical rain
forests. The monsoon or mixed deciduous forests correspond to
an unstable climate, the factors of which <are such as not to
decidedly favour either one or the other of the extreme forms of
forest vegetation.

The attached sketch map (taken from the 'Gold Coast annual
report of 1907) shows approximately the distribution of the
various types of formations mentioned above.

Exports of Forest Produce from the Gold Coast and Ashanti.

The quantity of forest produce exported from the Gold 'Coast
and Ashanti for the twenty years, 1888 to 1907, together with its
value, is shown in the attached table, which has been prepared
from information given in the Gold Coast Civil List and the
annual reports of the Colony.

The average annual output of such produce and its value, cal-
culated from the mean of twenty years, is also given.

The figures show that the mean annual value of the forest pro-
duce exported amounts to £576,942, or considerably over half a
million pounds sterling. There is no doubt that the trade in
these products is capable of very considerable development,
especially in the case of timber and palm oil.

With the opening up of the Tano and Pra Rivers to timber
exploitation, by the removal of the obstructions in those streams,
the forests are quite capable of more than quadrupling the present
output of timber. Similarly there are vast areas in the Waw-saw,
Denkira, and Sefwi districts, as well as in Ashanti, which are
very rich in the oil palm, and practically untouched at present.
In fact, the inhabitants are often so indifferent to the value of the
tree that they frequently tap it for palm wine.

With a view to giving some indication of the potential timber
wealth of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, the following estimate,
based on very low figures indeed, has been prepared.

As timber can, under existing conditions, be extracted profit-
ably only if the length of drag from the forest to the nearest
stream capable of floating logs does not exceed three miles, that
distance may be taken as the extreme width on either side of the

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GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS.

193

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194 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

floating streams and railways to which exploitation can extend.
Again, the proportion of one mahogany and one cedar tree to
every five acres may be accepted as a safe figure to go on. It is
in all probability rather less than the actual .proportion found in
the forests. Taking the railways first, the area available for ex-
ploitation with human labour as the hauling power is as
follows :-

Distance from Sekondi to Kumasi =168 miles.
„ Tarkwa to Prestea = 25

Total = 193 miles.
Consequently exploitable area = 193 x 6 square miles

= 1,158 square miles.
Deduct 25% for clearings, farms, &c. == —289 ,, „

Total - 869

This area at the rate of one mahogany tree for every five acres,
or 128 trees to the square mile, will contain 128 x 869 = 111,232
mahogany trees. And as the same number of cedar trees per
square mile may also be assumed to exist, the total numbor of
mahoganies and cedars available for felling will be twice the
number given for mahogany, or 222,464 trees. Deduct from this
25 per cent, of the trees to provide for unsound, crooked, or other-
wise defective trees, and we are left with a balance of 222,464 -
55, 616 or 166, 848 trees.

Now assuming that it takes thirty years for all the trees now
between 10 and 12 feet in girth to reach the latter size, then the
number of trees (12 feet and over in girth) that should be felled
each year amounts to —M-- trees, or 5,561 trees, which, on the
assumption that one tree yields three logs, amounts to an annual
output of 16,683 logs.

Similarly the timber from the basins of the Tano, Ankobra, and
Pra Rivers may be estimated as follows : —

Exploitable area on Tano and its larger feeders

-- 900 square miles.
That on the Ankobra =300

That on the Offin River = 500 ,,

That on the main Pra River = 600

Total : 2,300 ,,

And the number of mahogany and cedar trees on this area may
be computed at 2,300 x 128 x 2 trees = 588,800 trees. Deducting
25 per cent, for defective trees, the number left for felling
amounts to 441,600 trees. Hence, the annual output will equal
•»J-jJ;.;5.iu» frees =< 14,720 trees or 44,160 logs.

Therefore, the total output from both railways and streams
should amount to (10,083 + 44,160) logs = 60,843 logs. The
calculation of the output from the streams, however, is based on
the assumption that the channels of the Tano and Pra Rivers are

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 195

opened out to timber exploitation by the removal of the obstruc-
tions in them. Unless this is done, the annual output in logs
cannot be expected to reach much more than 25,000.

Every effort, however, should be made to clear the above-
mentioned obstructions and at the same time to introduce
mechanical appliances, such as traction engines, light tramways,
&c., for the haulage and transport of the timber. When this
lias been accomplished, the Gold Coast, with Ashanti, should
be able, and that without any fear of encroaching on the wood-
producing capital, to give an annual yield of something like
250,000 logs a year.

Such an out-turn, even at a very mild rate of taxation, should
be capable of bringing in an annual revenue of about £60,000.

These estimates do not include other first-class timbers such as
are yielded by the Odoiim (Chlorophora excelsa) the Baku (Mimu-
sop's Djave), &e., and are based on the most unfavourable assump-
tions. To my mind, the Colony, with Ashanti, has a great future
before it, so far as the timber industry is concerned.

The imports of timber for the years 1898 to 1906 were: —

Superficial Feet.

1898 1,470,125

1899 1,225,795

1900 1,872,520

1901 2,823,440

1902 3,378,339

1903 3,125,168

1904 3,554,850

1905 2,053,816

1906 1,841,698

Total ... ... 21,345,751

which gives a mean annual import of 2,371,750 superficial feet,
or nearly one-third of the mean annual export. There is no
doubt that the larger portion of the timber imported should be
replaced by local woods, of which there are several kinds avail-
able that are in every respect suitable for the purposes for which
the former are used. Before this can be done, however, it will
be necessary to establish modern saw-mills along the main lines
of export in the Colony, to convert the timber strictly in accord-
ance with the specifications, and to use nothing but properly
seasoned wood. It is the custom of placing unseasoned West
African woods on the market that has in so many instances given
the former a bad name. In fact, it is a matter for consideration
whether it would not be advisable for Government, to prohibit
the felling of trees that have not been previously ring-barked or
girdled and killed by the process; this would ensure a proper
seasoning of the wood before it is felled.

The establishment of saw-mills with a view to supplying local
demands for converted timber will enable a great deal of timber
to be utilised that is at present allowed to lie waste in the forests.
123] .i N2

196

COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

The fluctuations iu the quantity of timber exported from the
West Coast of Africa are mainly clue to the fluctuations in the
prices offered at the home markets. The unstable prices are the
most 'disturbing elements iu the local industry, and severely
handicap small capitalists who have embarked in the trade.

List of Vernacular Names of Plants.

The following list of the native names of plants found on the
Gold Coast and in Ashanti, together with their botanical equiva-
lents so far as known, may prove of some use to officials interested
in forestry matters : -

Botanical Name.

Ficus species.
, Large species of Piptadenia

(pi. 17).

A small unidentified tree.
A species of Parinanum.
Cyanothyrsus ogea, the gum copal

tree (pi. 15).

.\ative Name.

Abousandua (Twi name)
Adadawa (Wassaw name)

Af ana (Twi)

Affram (Twi)

Ahedua(Twi)...

Ahedua (Fanti)

Akata (Twi from Denkira)

Akwabohori (Fanti)...
Akwantanuro (Fanti)
Akwantanuro (Fanti)
Anchi (Fanti)
Appapayi (Twi)

Appayayi (Fanti)
Apurro (Twi) ...

Asoma (Fanti)
Asoma, Assomah (Twi)
Assoro (Twi) ...
Atawah, Althawah (Twi)

Awabima (Twi. Denkira)

Awarna

Baku (Fanti. Twi)...

Baya (Twi) ...
Biunwe (Twi)

Bosse (Twi) ...
Bowiwnsi (Fanti)

Bombay, buonopozcnse, the red-
flowered silk cotton tree.

Kb ay a antliotlieca, the white
mahogany (pi. 4).

Lovoa Klaineana, a good timber
tree (pi. 9).

Kb ay a anthotlieca, the white
mahogany (pi. 4.)

Pynaertia ealaensis, good timber
tree.

Khaya grandis, mahogany from
the shores of the sacred lake

(pl. 5).

>? ? ? ? ?

A small undescribed tree from
the mixed forests.

[ Ricinodendron africanus.

Species of Ompbalocarpiim H
The oil-bean tree, Pentaclethra

macropbylla.
Heritiera utili*. A good timber

tree (pl. 8).

Ricinodendron africanus.
Mimusops Djare, a very good

timber tree (pl. 20).
Mil ragyne macropb ylla .
Species of Detarium, a gigantic

forest tree; good timber.
Speries of Guarea; good timber

tree.
Species of Detarium mentioned

above.

GOLD COAST REPORT ON FORESTS.

197

Native Name.
Bowiwunua (Twi)

Dahoiuah (Twi)

Dahuniah (Twi)
Deuya (Twi) ...

Deinya (Ashanti, Twi)
Duakobin, Duabayi ...

Dubin ...

Uubini

Duamenyi (Fanti) ...

Effuo kou konti (Ashanti)
Efuobrodidwa (Twi)...

Emil

Emril ...
Emiri ...

Ehyedua(Twi)

Eku (Twi)

Ekusawa (Fanti)
Ekuana (Fanti)

Esseah...
Essia ...
Eye (Fanti)

Honum(Twi)

Kaku (Twi)

Kishia...
Kokotswi (Twi)
Kube (Akwapim)
Makube (Aslianti) ...
Kimtunkun (Twi) ...
Kunkuntuni (Denkira)

Kusia (Twi)

Krubna(Twi)...
Kwabaho (Ashanti) ...

"Kwabahori (Twi)
Kwaiitanuro (Ashanti)

Makube (Ashanti) ...
Meinchin (Apollonian)

Botanical Name.

Species of Detarium, a gigantic
forest tree ; good timber.

Piptadenia africana, a common
forest tree (pi. 16).

The same.

Large species of Piptadenia
(pi. 17).

• • 55 ) 5 J »

Afrormosia laxi flora; good timber

tree; red and white bark.
,..\ The ordinary K/iaija (mahogany)
... J of the moist evergreen forests.

Sterculia cord if alia.

i Pseudocedrela u tills, the largest
species of ' cedar," a fine
timber tree.

.Species of Tcnninalia; wood good
for shingles.

Guru copal tree (Cyanothyrsus

ogea) (pi. 15).
Bombay bnonopozense; red-
flowered silk cotton tree.
. .. Sarcocephalus esculentus (pi. 18).
The oil bean tree (Pentaclethra

macrophylla)

... | Species of Combretum,tlcLe"siink-
... \ wood " tree.

Species of Ancistrophyllum, a
large kind of rattan.

Anthocleista magnifica, a small
tree with very large leaves.

Lophira procera, yields a very

durable timber.

.. Sarcocephalus esculentus (pi. 18).
. .. Pynaertia ealaensis.
... ) The fan-palm, Borassus flabelli-
.. ) form is.

.. ) Bombax brevicuspe, a new species
..I of silk cotton tree (pi. 1).
.. Sarcocephalus esculentus (pi. 18).

Khaya? species.

KJiaya anthotlieca, the white
mahogany (pi. 4).

5 » 5 > ) '

Lovoa Klaineana, a good timber

tree (pi. 9).
The fan palm, Boraxxi/s fl

fprmis.

Species of Peltopftorum ?

198

COLONIAL liErOKTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Native Name.
Mousandua (Fauti) ...
N'ku (Aslianti and Fauti)

Nya-uie dua ...
N'yaukon

Odahuiua (Fauti)
Odeiiya (Faiiti)

Odouiu

Oduin (Twi)

Odupon (Fauti)
Odupiu (Fenti)
Offram (Twi and Fauti)

Ofu

Ohonton (Faiiti)
Ukisibiri (Faiiti)

Okitsiwanf u (Fauti) . . .
Okunmankra (Fauti)
Ougiua (Twi)...
Ouyina (Fauti)

Opapao

Opapea (Twi)
Opepeli (Fauti)
Osuabise (Akwapim)
Osupawa (Fauti)
Ote

Owaiua
Owawa (Fauti)

Pebeduui
Peukwa

Prckese

Protodon (Aslianti
Akwapirn).

Pimkwa

Sauiauta

Samautawa (Faiiti) ...

Sese (Fauti)

Takwadua (Fauti) ...
Takwadua (Twi)

Bo tanical A a me .

Species of Ficus.

Butyrospermuni Parkii, the shea

butter tree (pi. 19).
Alstonia congensis.
Heritiera utilis .

Piptadenia africana, a couiuiou

timber tree (pi. 16).
Large species of Piptadenia from

evergTeeu forests (pi. IT).
... {Gliloropliura excelsa, a large aud
... \ valuable timber tree (pi. 23;.
... ) The common Khaya (mahogany)
... j of the moist evergreen forests.
... Terminalia superba, wood used
for shingles.

f Antiaris toxicaria var. africana.

... The " Fliut-wood ' tree, not

identified.
Species of Ficus.
Species of Khaya ?

...IThe "silk cotton tree' (white
... / flowered kind), Eriodendron

anfractuosum.

Afzelia africana, a valuable
timber tree (pi. 14).

\ A species of Miinusops?

Carapa guianensis.

Species of Sarcoceplialus ?
... Species of Myristica? or Santiri-
opsis.

Ricinodendron africanus.
... Trlplocltiton Johns o?iii (pi. 2).

Lovoa Klameana (pi. 9).
Pseudocedrela cylindrica, the
cedar, a good timber tree
(pi. 10). ^

Tetrapleura Thonningii.
and Erythrophloeum guineense, a
timber tree from the savannah
forests.
... Pseudocedrela cylindrica (pi. 10).

Fun-

a Evansii.

11

The bastard rubber-tree,
tuinia africana.

Bliyhia sapida.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 199

Native Name. Botanical Name.

Tiama-Tiama ......... Ne\v species of r.ieudocedrela

close to 1' '. cylindrica^ a valu-
able timber tree of the ''cedar "
group (pi. 12).

Tombo (general W. coast The wiue or bauiboo palm,
name). Raphia vinifera.

Wansanwah (Twi) ...... Khaya ymndis, the species of

mahogany found near the
Sacred Lake (pi. 5).

Wawa... ... ... ... | Triplocliiton Johnsonii, a good

"Waw-waw ......... j timber tree (pi. 2).

Wawapupuo ......... Sterculia cordi folia

Yaiikom ... ...

Yankun

i a-ya ... ... ... ... ~i / • , 777

Yar-yar ] -Ultr"U!Jnc macTophylla.

The identification of some of the plants is rather uncertain ;
such have a note of interrogation placed after their names.

H. N. THOMPSON,

Conservator of Forests,

Southern Nigeria.

... 1

/ "-cl'^LL'>'a ufaws (pi. 3).

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE 1.
Bombax brevicuspe.

Figs. 1 ami 2, bninchlets ; 3, fruit ; 4, central axis of fruit, and calyx ;
5, seed ; 6, hair from inner wall of fruit. — Figs. 1-5, X 5 ; 6, X 2.

PLATE 2.
Triplocliiton Johnsonii.

Fig. 1, flowering branch ; 2, flower with part of calyx and petals cut off :
3, petal ; 4, apex of gonophore, with two staminodes and all but one pair of
stamens removed : 5, pair of stamens ; 6, longitudinal section of carpel. —
Fig. 1, x I ; 2, x 3 : 3, x 2 ; 4, x 4 ; 5, x 5 ; 6, x 8.

PLATE 3.

Jleritiem ut'dis.

Fig. 1, flowering branch ; 2, upper part of leafy branch ; 3, tetrameroug
flower ; 4, pentamcrous flower laid open ; 5, pistil ; 6, carpel ; 7, peltate scale
from carpel : 8, fruit ; 9, seed ; 10, section through seed.— Figs. 1-2, x ; ;
3-4, x 3 ; 5-0, x 8 ; 7,' x 5U ; 8-10, x f.

PLATE 4.
Khaya anthotheca.

Fig. 1, leaf : 2. leaflet ; 3, empty capsule ; 4, seed ; 5, cross section through
seed.— Fig. 1, x ± : 2, x ? ; 3, X £ : 4-5, X ?.

200 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

PLATE 5.
Khaya ymndis.

Fig. 1, leaf ; 2, leaflet ; 3, open capsule with some of the seeds removed :
4, seed ; 5, cross section through seed. — Fig. 1, x £ ; 2, x -5 ; 3, x A ; 4-5, x -,.

PLATE 6.
Khaya Punchii.

Fig. 1 , flowering branch ; 2, flower with corolla removed ; 3, portion of
stamina,! tube from within ; 4, pistil ; 5, longitudinal section of pistil. —
Fig. 1, x $ ; 2, x 4 ; 3-5, x 5.

PLATE 7.
Kluiya senegalensis.

Fig. 1, flowering branch ; 2, fruiting branch : 3-6, male flower : — 3, expanded ;
4, with the corolla removed ; 5, part of stamina 1 tube from within ; 6, abortive
pistil ; 7-8, female flower : — 7, part of staminal tube from within ; 8, calyx and
pistil : 9, capsule ; 10, seed ; 11, cross section through seed. — Fig. 1, x 4 i 2, X| :
3, natural size ; 4-6, x 2 : 7-8, x 3 ; 9-11, x f. ~

PLATE 8.
Khaya sp. " Dubiui " of the Fantis.

(Thompson, o. 17).
Fig. 1, fruiting branch ; 2, leaflet ; 3, empty capsule. — Fig. 1, XT', 2-3, X £•

PLATE 9.
Luaoa Klaineana.

Fig. 1, fruiting branch ; 2, portion of a lower leaf ; 3, portion of young
inflorescence ; 4, flower : 5, flower with petals removed ; 6, portion of upper
part of staminal tube from within ; 7, pistil ; 8, fruit ; 9, central axis of fruit ;
10, seed ; 11, embryo.— Fig. 1, x i : 2-3, x 3 ; 4, x 4 ; 5, x 5 ; 6, x 9 : 7, x 6 ;
8-H, x |.

PLATE 10.

Pseudocedrela cylindrica .

Fig. 1, fruiting branch ; 2, leaf ; 3, a small fruit ; 4, central axis of a large
fruit ; 5, seed from small fruit. — Figs. 1-2, x i ; 3-5, X f.

PLATE 11.
Pseudocedrela Kotscliyi.

Fig. 1 , flowering branch ; 2, flower ; 3, flower with petals removed : 4, portion
of upper part of staminal tube from within ; 5, pistil ; G, fruit ; 7, seed ;
8, embryo.— Fig. 1, x 5 : 2, x 4 ; 3, x 3 ; 4, x 8 ; 5, x 5 ; 6, x £ ; 7-8, x §.

PLATE 12.
Pseudocedrela sp. (near P. cylindrica).

(Thompson, No. 36.)
Fig. 1, leaf ; 2, fruit.— Fig. 1, x | ; 2, x f.

PLATE 13.
Pseudocedrela utilis H
(Thompson, No. 48.)
Fig. 1, fruit ; 2, valve of fruit ; 3, seed : 4, embryo. — Figs. 1-4, x -J.

PLATE 14.
Afzelia africana.

Fig. 1, flowering branch ; 2, flower ; 3, interior of calyx-tube, upper parts of
sepals, petal, stamens and ovary cut off ; 4, valve of fruit from within, showing
seeds. — Fig. 1, x ;i ; 2, x 2 : 3, x 4 ; 4, x t-

GOLD COAST — KEPO11T ON FORESTS. 201

PLATE 15.
Oyanothyrsus ogea.

Fig. 1, fruitiiig branch ; 2, leaf ; 3, bud ; 4, flower ; 5, dower with sepals aiid
one petal removed ; G, a lateral petal ; 7, an anticous petal ; 8, longitudinal
section of pistil and calyx- tube. — Figs. 1-2, x f ; 3-6, X li ; 7, x 2 ; 8, x H.

PLATE 16.
Piptadenia africana.

Fig. 1, flowering branch ; 2, flower ; 3, section of flower ; 4, portion of corolla
showing insertion of stamens ; 5, anthers ; 6, fruit ; 7, seed. — Fig. 1, x § ;
2, x 8 ; 3-4, x 10 ; 5, x 16 ; 6-7, x |.

PLATE 17.

Piptadenia sp.

(Thompson, No. 27.)

Fig. 1, flowering branch ; 2, bud ; 3, flower ; 4, petal ; 5, pistil and disc with
a single stamen ; 6, anthers ; 7, fruit ; 8, seed. — Fig. 1, X f ; 2-5, X 10 ; 6, x 20:
7-8, x if.

PLATE 18.

Sarcocephalufi esculcntus.

Fig. 1, flowering branch : 2, flower ; 3, flower laid open ; 4, anthers ; 5, longi-
tudinal section of ovary ; 6, fruit : 7, seed. —Fig. 1, x 5 ; 2-3, X 2 ; 4, x 4 ;
5, x 6 ; 6, x £ ; 7, x 10.

PLATE 19.
Butyrospermum Parkii.

Fig. 1, fruiting branch ; 2, inflorescence ; 3, flower ; 4, flower with corolla
and stamens removed ; 5, corolla and stamens ; 6, seed. — Figs. 1-2, x :\ ;
3-5, x 2 ; 6, x |.

PLATE 20.
Mimusops Djave.

Fig. 1, flowering branch ; 2, calyx and pistil ; 3, corolla and stamens from
without ; 4, corolla and stamens from within ; 5, anther ; 6, transverse section
of ovary ; 7, fruit ; 8, seed. — Fig. 1, x f ; 2, x 1| ; 3-5, x 4 ; 6, x 5 ;
7-8, X |.

PLATE 21.
Funtumia elastica.

Fig. 1, flowering branch ; 2, pits on lower surface of leaf ; 3, flower ; 4, section
of flower ; 5, portion of calyx with the pistil surrounded by the disc ; 6, an
anther, front view ; 7, a pair of open follicles, seen from the back ; 8, seed. —
Fig. 1, X | ; 2, x 2 ; 3, x H ; 4-5, x 2 ; 6, x 5 ; 7-8, x f.

PLATE 22.
Landolphia owariensis.

Fig. 1, flowering branch ; 2, upper part of young fruiting branch : 3, bud ;
4, flower ; 5, corolla, opened ; 6, pistil ; 7, anthers ; 8, fruit. — Figs. 1-2, x 3 ,
3-6, x3; 7, x 6; 8, x f.

PLATE 23.

Chlorophora excelsa.

Fig. 1, flowering branch of male ; 2, flowering branch of female ; 3, male
flower : 4, female flower ; 5, pistil ; 6, longitudinal section of pistil. — Figs
1-2, x f ; 3, x 7 ; 4-6, x 8.

PLATE 24.
Musanya Sutithii.

Fig. 1, male inflorescence and young leaf ; 2, branchlet bearing female in
florescences ; 3, head of male flowers ; 4, male flower and bracteoles ; 5, female
flowers ; 6, seed ; 7, longitudinal section of seed. — Figs. 1-2, X 'i ; 3, x 4
4, x 8 : 5, x 12 ; 6-7, x 8.

•202 COLONIAL ItEPOKTS —MISCELLANEOUS.

APPENDIX.

CHAPTEK CXXVIII.

FORESTRY.

(No. 14 — K>02, and P. No. 28 — 11)01, with subsequent amendments.)

Short Title.

1 . This Ordinance may be cited as " The Forestry Ordinance."

Definitions.

2. In this Ordinance and in any Rules and Orders made thereunder unless
the context otherwise requires : —

(1) " Tree " includes palms, bamboos, stumps, brush-wood and canes ;

(2) " Timber " includes trees when they have fallen or have been felled, aud

all wood whether cut up or fashioned, or hollowed out for any
purpose ;

(3) " Forest Produce " includes : —

A. The following, whether found in or brought from a forest or
not, that is to say, timber, charcoal, rubber, gutta percha, wood oil,
resin, natural varuish, and bark Jac.

B. The following, when found in or brought from a forest, that is to
say :—

(i). Trees and leaves, flowers and fruits, and all other parts or produce

not hereinbefore mentioned of trees, and
(ii) Plants not being trees (including grass, creepers, reeds and moss,

and ail parts or produce of such plants);
(iii) Peat, surface soil, and other substances other than minerals to

which the Mining Regulation Ordinance or other law amending

the same applies.

(4) "Lands at the disposal of the Government" mean any lands of which

the Crown has acquired or may acquire the ownership by conquest,
capitulation, treaty, grant or in any way other than by agreement
under the provisions of this Ordinance ;

(5) '• Native lands " means any waste, forest and other lands at the disposal

of a Native community and not being the private property of any
individual ;

(6) " To take timber " includes to fell trees and to carry away the timber

from the lands upon which the trees have fallen or been felled ;

(7) " Enquiry " means any enquiry by a Reserve Settlement Commissioner

under this Ordinance ;

(8) " Forestry Officer" means any officer appointed by the Governor under

section 3 of this Ordinance ;

(9) " Native Community " means any group of persons occupying any lauds

in accordance and subject to Native law, and subject to the control and
authority of any Chief or Chiefs ;

(10) "Reserve Settlement Commissioner " includes any person appointed by
the Governor to act on behalf of or in succession to the Reserve
Settlement Commissioner appointed by a notice under section 6.

Appointment of Forestry Officers, d'c.

3. The Governor may from time to time appoint such officers as he may
think necessary for carrying the provisions of this Ordinance and any orders
and rules thereunder into effect, at such salaries and upon such conditions as he
may think fit ; and iruy revoke any such appointment.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 203

Power to Constitute Reserves.

4. It shall be lawful for the Governor to constitute any of the following
lands reserves, namely : —

(i) Lauds at the disposal of Government ;

(ii) Lands acquired by agreement under section 5 (i) hereof ; and
(iii) Lands in and over which the Governor has acquired by agreement the
rights referred to in section 5 (ii) hereof.

Acquisition of Lands and Rights by Agreement.

5. It shall be lawful for the Governor to acquire by agreement from any
Natives or Native communities owning the same :

(i) Any lands upon which trees and forest produce or any kinds thereof
are growing or which are suitable for the production of trees and
forest produce, together with such rights and powers as are necessary
or expedient for the use and enjoyment of such lands and subject to
such rights and reservations as are set forth or referred to in the
agreement, for the use or benefit of the owners of the lands or any
other persons ; and

(ii) The right to take timber and collect forest produce or any kinds
thereof specified in the agreement, together with such additional rights
and powers as may be necessary and advantageous for the exercise,
enjoyment and continuance of the said rights by the Governor or his
licensees, and subject to such rights and reservations as are set forth
or referred to in the agreement for the use or benefit of the owners of
the lands or any other persons.

Notification of Intention to Create Reserve and Appointment of Reserve Settlement

Commissioner.

6. — (a) When it is proposed to constitute any lands a forest reserve a notice
shall be published in the Gazette,

(i) Specifying as nearly as may be the situation and limits of the lands ;
(ii) Declaring whether the lands are lands at the disposal of the Govern-
ment, or lauds acquired by the Governor, or land in respect of which
the Governor has acquired rights under the provisions of this
Ordinance ;

(iii) Declaring that it is intended to constitute such lands a forest reserve,
either for the general purposes of Government or for the particular
use and benefit of the Native community within the limits of whose
occupation the reserve is situated ;

(iv) Appointing an officer, hereinafter referred to as the Reserve Settle-
ment Commissioner, to enquire into and determine the existence,
nature and extent of any rights claimed by or alleged to exist in
favour of any persons or communities or brought to the knowledge of
the said Commissioner affecting the lands or the rights in or over the
lands which it is proposed to constitute a reserve.

(b) If owing to absence, illness or any other cause the Reserve Settlement
Commissioner appointed under this section is unable to perform his duties,
the Governor by notice published in the Gazette may appoint any person to
act on his behalf or in succession to him.

(f) Any notice published under this section may be varied, amended or revoked

Notice of Enquiry.

7. Upon publication of the notice aforesaid the Reserve Settlement Com-
missioner shall immediately cause the particulars contained therein to be made
known in the districts or district in which the lauds ate situated by causing the
same to be read, and interpreted in the local Native language at the next meeting
of every Native Court in the said districts or district, and also by orally
informing the Chiefs of every community dwelling on or near the lauds afore-
said, and shall also fix and in the manner aforesaid make a period within which
and a place to or at which any person or community claiming any right affecting
the lands or the rights over the lands which it is proposed to constitute a
reserve shall either send in written statement of his or their claim to the
Reserve Settlement Commissioner or appear before him and state orally the
nature and extent of their alleged rights.

204 COLONIAL IlEPOKTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Enquiry.

8. — (i) At the expiration of the period fixed by the Reserve Settlement
Commissioner, he shall enquire into and determine the limits of the lands
specified in the notice aforesaid and the existence, nature and extent of the
rights in respect of which he has received any claims under section 7 and of
any other rights alleged to exist or brought to his knowledge at the enquiry in
favour of any persons or communities affecting the lands which it is proposed
to constitute a reserve -erf the rights acquired by the Governor over any lands
under the previsions of this Ordinance.

(ii) The Reserve Settlement Commissioner shall keep a record in writing
of all claims made in respect of any rights aforesaid and of any objection
which may be made thereto, and also of any evidence given in support of or
in opposition to any claim.

Powers of Reserve Settlement Commissioner at Enquiry.

9. For the purposes of the enquiry, the Reserve Settlement Commissioner
shall have all the powers conferred upon a District Commissioner by the
Supreme Court Ordinance.

Judgment on Completion of Enquiry.

10. Upon completion of the enquiry, the Reserve Settlement Commissioner
shall deliver his judgment, describing the limits of the lands specified in the
notice aforesaid and setting forth, with all such particulars as may be necessary
to define their nature, incidents and extent, the rights in respect of which he
has received claims under section 7 and of any other rights alleged to exist
or brought to his knowledge at the enquiry in favour of any persons or
communities, and admitting or rejecting the same wholly or in part.

11. — (1) Any person who has made a claim may within three calendar
months of any judgment made under section 10 appeal from such judgment to
the Supi'eme Court.

(2) The procedure and practice for the time being in force relating to
appeals from District Courts to the Supreme Court shall apply to appeals
from the Reserve Settlement Commissioner.

Order Constituting Reserves.

12. — (1) At the expiration of three calendar months from the date of the
judgment made under section 10, or, if any appeal has been made to the
Supreme Court against such judgment, upon the decision of the Supreme
Court, the Governor may make an order constituting the lauds in respect of
which the enquiry has been held a forest reserve. Such order shall set forth
the limits and situation of the lauds which constitute the reserve, and all
rights affecting the same as set forth in the judgment of the Reserve
Settlement Commissioner, or established by the decision of the Supreme
Court.

(2) Such order shall be published in the Gazette and in the manner pre-
scribed for making known the notice referred to in section 7.

(3) Any order made under this section may be revised or modified.

Extinguishment of Right.

1 3. Every right in or over any lands in respect of which no claim has been
made under section 7, or of which no knowledge has been acquired at the
enquiry shall be extinguished, unless the claimant has satisfied the Reserve
Settlement Commissioner before the delivery of his judgment that he had
good reason for not preferring his claim within the period fixed under section 7,
in which event the Commissioner may defer his judgment until he has decided
such claim.

Acquisition of Rights admitted l>ij Reserve Settlement Commissioner.

14. Where in the opinion of the Governor it is expedient that any right
admitted by the Reserve Settlement Commissioner shall be acquired by the

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 205

Government, the Governor may acquire the same by agreement with the owner
thereof, or compulsorily under the provisions of the Fublic Lands Ordinance,
which shall be deemed to be applicable for the acquisition of such rights.

Powers of Natives to Grant Absolutely.

15. Notwithstanding any Native law or custom to the contrary, any Native,
and the Chiefs of any Native community on behalf of such community shall
be entitled to enter into any agreement to grant and convey absolutely any
lands, and any rights in and over any lands owned by them which it is proposed
to constitute a forest reserve under the provisions of this Ordinance.

Power to Declare Lands no longer a Reserve.

16. The Governor may by order direct that from a date named therein any
lands or any part thereof constituted a forest reserve under this Ordinance
shall cease to be a forest reserve or a part of such reserve, and thereupon from
such date such lands or part thereof shalt cease to be a forest reserve or a part
of such reserve ; provided that the rights, if any, which have been extinguished
therein shall not revive in consequence of such cessation.

Colonial Secretary may Execute Grant.

17. When the owner or owners have consented tc grant any concession,
lease or licence under the terms of this Ordinance, or the rules made there-
under, the Colonial Secretary may execute any instrument making such grant
on behalf of the owner or owners, and such execution shall bind the owner or
owners and his or their successors in title as effectively as if it had been duly
executed by him or them, provided that at the time of such execution there
shall be attached to the instrument a certificate in writing signed by the
Colonial Secretary that the consent of the owner or owners has been obtained
to the grant.

Prohibitions.

18. The Governor in Council may from time to time by any order prohibit
the following things, or any of them, namely : —

(1) The taking and collection of timber, rubber, and forest produce or any

kinds thereof specified in the order in any forest reserves and Native
lands, either generally or for tne purpose stated in the order, by any
persons other than the holders of concessions, leases or licences
granted in accordance with rules made under this Ordinance, or by
any other persons or by any classes of persons specified in the order ;

(2) The taking and collection of timber, rubber and forest produce, or any

kinds thereof specified in the order, in any forest reserves and Native
lands during any period specified in the order ;

(3) The sale, offering for sale, purchase and export of timber, rubber and

forest pioduce, or any kinds thereof specified in the order, by any
persons other than the holders of concessions, lease? or licences granted
in accordance with rules made under this Ordinance, or by any other
persons or by any classes of persons specified in the order ;

(4) The sale, offering for sale, purchase, possession and export of timber,

rubber and forest produce, or any kinds thereof specified in the order,
taken, collected or prepared in contravention of any order or any rules
under this Ordinance ;

(5) The sale, offering for sale, purchase, possession and export of timber,

rubber and forest produce, or any kinds thereof, taken, collected,
prepared, sold or purchased in any territories near or adjacent to the
Protectorate in contravention of the law for the time being in force
in such territories ;

(G) The sale, offering for sale, purchase, possession and export of timber
rubber and forest produce, or any kinds thereof specified in the order,
during any period prescribed by the order.

And the Governor in Council may from time to time by any order vary or

revoke any order made under this section.

206 COLONIAL REPORTS— MISCELLANEOUS.

Every order made under this section may be subject to such limitations,
exceptions and conditions as may be therein prescribed.

Any person who shall contravene any order under this section shall be liable
on conviction to a fine not exceeding one hundred pounds or to imprisonment
for a term not exceeding twelve months.

Fees, Royalties, &c.

19. The Governor may with the consent signified by resolution of the
Legislative Council make rules regulating —

(1) The fees to be charged on the grant and issue of concessions, leases and

licences : the rent and royalties to be paid by the holders thereof ;
export duties on timber, rubber and forest produce ; tolls on timber,
rubber and forest produce conveyed on any river or creek opened
or improved by the Government ; and the costs of surveys and
demarcations.

(2) The collection, payment and disposal of fees, royalties, duties, tolls, and

costs of surveys and demarcations.

Rules.

20. The Governor in Council may from time to time make, and when made,
vary or revoke rules with respect to the following things or any of them,
namely : —

(1) Application for grant and issue of (a) concessions, leases and licences, to

take and collect timber, rubber and forest produce on forest reserves
and Native lands : and (b) licences to sell, purchase and export timber,
rubber and forest produce ;

(2) Conditions on which concessions, leases and licences may be granted, and

the forms of such concessions, leases and licences ;

(3) Quantity of timber, rubber and forest produce which may be taken and

collected by holders of concessions, leases and licences, or in any area
or areas of the Colony or Protectorate ;

(4) Survey and demarcation of forest reserves and Native lands, and any

areas the survey and demarcation of which is required for the purposes
of this Ordinance ;

(5) Marking of timber ;

(6) Use and possession of marking instruments ;

(7) Taking, collection and preparation of timber, rubber and forest

produce ;

(8) Seizure, detention and disposal of timber, rubber or forest produce,

taken, collected, prepared, sold, offered for sale, purchased, possessed,
or not marked in contravention of any order or rule under this
Ordinance ;

(9) Returns and accounts to be furnished by holders of concessions and

licences ;

(10) Termination, revocation and forfeiture of concessions and licences ;

(11) Transit of timber by land and water ;

(12) Salving and disposal of drift timber ;

(13) Establishment and maintenance of nurseries :

(14) Preservation and reproduction of timber, rubber and forest produce :

(15) Introduction of new species of timber, rubber and forest produce ;

(16) Management, utilization and protection of forest reserves ;

(17) Duties and discipline of Forest Officers ;

(1.8) Generally any matter connected with the carrying of the purposes of

this Ordinance into effect.

The Governor in Council may attach a fine not exceeding fifty pounds, or a
term of imprisonment not exceeding six months, to any breach of any rule
made under this section.

Publication nf Orders and Rules.

21. All orders and rules made under the provisions of this Ordinance shall
be published in the Gazette, and shall upon such publication have full force and
effect, subject to disallowance by His Majesty.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 207

Provided that no order or rule made as aforesaid shall come into force in any
district or province to which the Native Councils Ordinance applies, unless the
same shall have been approved by the Native Council, duly constituted in
accordance with the provisions of the said Ordinance for the district or
province affected thereby.

Provided also that all rules and orders shall in every case apply to all Crown
lands and lands leased or held by the Crown.

Jurisdiction of Commissioners.

22. Proceedings under this Ordinance may be taken before any District
Commissioner, who shall have full jurisdiction to determine summarily all such
proceedings, or before any Native Council duly constituted under the Native
Councils Ordinance.

Forfeiture.

23. In addition to any fine or term of imprisonment which any Court may
impose under this Ordinance or any rule thereunder, such Court may order the
forfeiture and give directions as to the disposal of the timber, rubber, forest
produce, instrument or means in respect of which or by which the offence has
been committed.

Proof of Knoidedge.

24. Where a person is charged with the breach of any order, prohibiting the
sale, offering for sale, purchase, possession or export of timber, rubber or
forest produce, either taken, collected or prepared in contravention of any order
or rule under this Ordinance, or taken, collected, prepared, sold or purchased
in any territories aforesaid, near or adjacent to the Colony or Protectorate, in
contravention of the law for the time being in force in such territories, such
person shall be liable to be convicted of such breach, unless he shows to the
satisfaction of the Court that he was unaware that such timber, rubber or
forest produce was taken, collected or prepared in contravention of any order
or rule aforesaid, or was taken, collected, prepared, sold or purchased in
contravention of any law aforesaid, as the case may be.

Orders and Rules in Schedule to be in Force.

25. Unless and until further or other provision be made in the manner
above prescribed, the rules and orders contained in the schedule hereto shall be
and remain in force, subject to the provisions of section 21 hereof.

THE SCHEDULE.

1. RULES RELATING TO RUBBER.

Title.

1. The rules may be cited as " The Rubber Rules."

Definitions.

2. In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires, —

(1) " Head Chief" or "Chiefs" means any Chief or Chiefs having

paramount authority over a Native community.

(2) " Headman " or " Headmen " means any Chief or Chiefs having imme-

diate control and authority over a Native community.

(3) " Licence " means a licence to collect rubber.

(4) "Native Lands'" means forest lands belonging to Natives and Native

communities.

(5) " District " means a district constituted under the provisions of the

Supreme Court Ordinance, and any part of such district.

(6) Other expressions shall have the same meanings as are given in the

Forestry Ordinance.

(7) " Tapping " means either the process of extracting the rubber-producing

latex, or the single act of cutting trees for the purpose of such
extraction, according as the context requires.

208 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Applications for Grant and Issue of Licences.

3. Applications for licences to collect rubber in any district shall be made to
and licences may be granted and issued by, the District Commissioner or by any
European Forest Officer of the District.

General Powers of Licensee.

4. Subject to the provisions of these rules a licensee shall be entitled to collect
rubber on any Reserve and on any Native lands in the district named in his
licence.

Applicant whose Previous Application has been Refused.

5. If any person who has been refused a licence or whose licence has been
forfeited in any district shall apply for a licence in the same or any other
district, he shall, upon making such application, inform the District Com-
missioner or Forest Officer to whom his application is made of the fact that he
has previously applied for and been refused a licence, or that his licence has been
forfeited and, if known to him. the reasons for such refusal or forfeiture.

Right to Refuse to Issue Licence.

6. No person shall be entitled as of absolute right to the issue of a licence.

Duration of Licence.

I. Licences shall be granted for the period mentioned therein.

Applicants to have Knowledge of Tapping.

8. Any applicant for a licence may be required to satisfy the officer to whom
the application is made that he has a competent knowledge of the proper
method of tapping trees and preparing rubber.

Fees, &c. to be Paid before Issue of Licence.

y. No licence shall be issued until the fees and commuted royalties prescribed
by these rules have been paid.

Form of Licence.

10. — (a) Licences shall be printed in triplicate, and may be in Form A
appended hereto. Rules 2, 12, 13, 14, 15. 1(5, 17, 18, 24, 25 and 26 shall be
endorsed thereon.

(b) Licence forms shall be bound into books. Every book shall contain 50
licences in triplicate, or such other number as the Conservator of Forests may
direct. The books and licences in every book shall be numbered consecutively
from 1 upwards. The duplicate and triplicate of every licence shall bear the
same number as the original.

Triplicate of Licences to be sent to principal Forest Officers for Filing.

II. The District Commissioner and every Forest Officer of a district shall,
upon issuing a licence, send the duplicate thereof to the Forest Officer in charge
of the Register referred to in rule 23, or if the Forest Officer issuing the licence
is also the officer in charge of the Register aforesaid, such officer shall retain
the duplicate of such licence. Every duplicate received or retained by the
officer in charge of the Register shall be filed by him in his office.

Licences not Transferal//
12. Licences are not transferable

GOLD COAST — .REPORT ON FORESTS. 209

When a Licensee is not a Native of District Consent of Chiefs to Collection of

Rubber to be obtained.

13. When a licensee is not a member of a Native community of the district
to which his licence relates, he shall, before collecting rubber on the lands
belonging to any Native community of the district, obtain the consent of the
Head Chiefs of the community to the collection by him of rubber on the
lands belonging to such community.

Production of Licences.

14. Every licence shall be produced by the licensee at the request of any
Chief or Headman of any community upon whose lands the licensee may be
collecting rubber.

Girth of Trees to be Tapped.

15. No tree of less girth than thirty-six inches at a height of four feet from
the ground shall be tapped.

Method of Tapping.

16. In tapping trees the following or such other methods as may from time
to time be prescribed by notice published in the Gazette shall be followed :—

(1)-

(a) The cuts shall be Y shaped, the two arms of the V being each 2 in.

long and separated at their widest part by ^ in., the apex of the V
to point downwards.

(b) The distance between any two adjacent V's must not be less than 2 in.

(c) The maximum width of any cut shall not exceed A in.

(rZ) No tapping shall be done higher up the tree than twelve feet from the
ground nor extend to a greater vertical distance than four feefc.

(e) Tapping shall only be undertaken in the early morning aad must cease
by 8 a.m.

(/) On the first day of tapping a series of V's of the prescribed size should be
spaced round the tree at interval of not less than 3 in. between any
two adjacent V's. The cuts made on the first day should be very
narrow and should in no case penetrate deeper than the cambium
layer and on no account must they enter the wood. No tapping
should be done on the following day, but on the next day, the third
from the commencement of the tapping, a very thin shaving should
be pared off the lower side of each of the V's cut on the fiist day, so
as to expose a new surface, and the latex collected ; on the fourth d ly
no tapping is done and the tree is given a rest ; on the fifth day
another thin shaving is pared off the lower side of each of the V's,
fresh surfaces are thus exposed and the latex collected. This process
of one day's tapping followed by a day's rest should be continued till
the cuts have reached a maximum width of ^ in., when another series
of fresh V's can be started ; provided that the number of tappings
(consisting of initial cutting of V's plus number of subsequent
parings) does not exceed ten in one year. That is counting from the
first day of tapping not more than ten cuttings, and subsequent
parings can be done during the next twelve months. The cutting and
paring should be done with the sharpest of knives.

(</) Trees already tapped shall not be again tapped until the old cuts on them
have completely closed over and healed.

(/;) The latex must be collected and coagulated in clean vessels, and on no
account must dirt or any extraneous matter be allowed to contaminate
the latex. The latter should be strained through fine muslin or wire
gauze before it is coagulated.

Alternative Method <>f Tapping.

(2) The half herring bone method : —

(a) On the first day a channel is cut vertically from the base of the trunk to
a height of 3 ft. G in. From this vertical channel branch channels are

12315 0

210 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

cut, at an angle of 45° with the main channel, and on one, side only of
that channel. The branch cuts should be at intervals of 6 in. The
side channels are not to go more than quarter round the tree.

(V) On the second day the tree is given a rest.

(c) On the third day each of the branch channels is reopened by taking a
thin shaving off the lower side of the old cut. The vertical channel
is, not reopened.

(<7) On the fourth day the tree is given a rest.

(e) On the fifth day the process described under (r) is repeated, and this
process of tapping on every alternate day is repeated till the side
channels have been reopened nineteen times.

(/) The main channel should be shallow and not exceed ^ in. in breadth.

(fj) The side channels should start by being \ in. wide, then at each shaving
not more than TV in. should be removed. Thus after six shavings the
width of the side channels should not exceed £ in.

(//) After the successive tappings described above (seven in all including the
first cutting) have been completed the tree should be given a rest for
six months.

At the end of six months another series of similar tappings may be
carried out on the opposite side of the tree ; an interval of at least
six months' rest must then again be given.

(1) (Third tapping.) — At the end of six months' rest the process may be
again repeated on a side on which the two tappings described above
were not undertaken. The next or fourth tapping is performed on
the quarter of the trunk not yet touched, and subsequent tappings are
to be carried out so as to leave each quarter of the circumference the
maximum period of rest possible. Successive tappings on each section
of the trunk should be carried out so as not to tap any portion of the
bark a second time until the whole of the untouched surface of the
bark on that section has been tapped.

Collecting Rubber from Vines.

17. In collecting rubber from vines the vine may be cut down, but two and
a half feet at least of the stem shall be left intact, and no vine less than six
inches in girth at two feet from the ground shall be cut.

*

Latex in be Strained.

The latex collected from vines must be strained through muslin or wiro
gauze or otherwise cleaned in order to get rid of extraneous matter before it is
coagulated.

Licence Liable to Forfeiture lohen Rubber Adulterated.

18. Any licence-holder found guilty of preparing lubber adulterated with dirt
or other extraneous matter wiil be liable to have his licence forfeited.

Nurseries.

19. — (1) Native communities entitled to royalties under rule 21 shall establish
and maintain nurseries for rearing rubber plants, and plant out such plants in
such manner and at such times and places as the Forest Officers may from time
to time direct : Provided that such Native communities shall not be bound to
expend greater amounts for the purposes aforesaid than one half of the sums
received by them as royalties.

(2) If any Native community shall for any period fail to comply with the
conditions of this rule the Governor may make an order directing any Forest
Officer to perform the same on behalf of such community until further order,
and all royalties shall cease to be paid to the community until the amount of
royalty unpaid shall equal the cost of planting, and the ro^altks payable to such
community during the continuance of the order aforesaid shall be applied in the
performance of the said conditions.

GOLD COAST — REPORT OX FORESTS. 211

Fees.
20. The following fees shall be paid, namely : —

c « rJ

<~t b. (t.

One issue of every licence ... ... ... 0 10 0

Royalties.

The following commuted royalties shall be payable, namely : —

£ .s. d.

By every licensee, other than a licensee who
is a member of a Native community of
the district 0 10 0

Distribution of Royalties.

21. — (1) Where the lands upon which rubber is collected under a licence are
Native lands, the commuted royalties, if the lands are owned by one community,
shall belong to such community, or, if the lands are owned by two or more
communities, shall be allotted to such communities in such proportions as,
having regard to the number of trees tapped or vines cut, tne Forest Officer
having the supervision of such lands shall advise, and the royalties belonging
to or allotted to each community shall be divided among and paid by the
District Commissioner to the Chiefs, Headmen and other members of such
community in such proportions as may be prescribed by Native law, or in the
absence of a Native law, in such proportions as the District Commissioner may
direct.

(2) Subject to the provisions of these rules all fees and royalties shall be paid
into the Treasury and form part of the revenue of the Colony.

Remission, Ac. of Fees, &c.

22. The Governor may, if he thinks fit, lessen or remit any fees or royalties
prescribed by these rules, and if any fees have been paid into the Treasury may
order their refund.

Licence, Register.

23. The Forest Officer deputed in every district by the Conservator of
Forests for the purpose shall keep a Register of all licences issued in the
district. The Register, which ?hdl be known as a Licence Register, may be
in the Form B appended hereto, and may contain the particulars indicate .1 in
the said form.

Seizure.

24. Any Commissioner or Forest Officer may himself, or by any person acting
under his directions, seize any rubber collected, prepared, sold, offered for sale,
purchased or possessed, or suspected of having been collected, prepared, sold,
offered for sale, purchased or possessed in contravention of any order or rule
made under the Forestry Ordinance, and may detain the same until the Court
has given directions as to the disposal thereof.

Forfeiture of Licence.

25. Upon breach of rules 5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 or 17 the licence of the person
committing the breach may be forfeited, and shall be delivered on demand
to any Commissioner or Forest Officer of the district in which the breach has
been committed.

Penalties.

26. Any person who shall commit a breach of rules 5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
or 17 shall be liable, on conviction, to a fine not exceeding fifty pounds, or
to imprisonment for any period not exceeding six months, with or without
hard labour.

12315 0 2

212

COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

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GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS.

213

FORM B.

LICENCE REGISTER.

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2. ORDER SETTING FORTH THE ACTS PROHIBITED UNDER SECTION 18.

The following acts are hereby prohibited : —

(1) The taking on Native lands of mahogany trees of the genera Khaya
(known as the Oawango of the Benis and Gadeau of the Yorubas) and
Entandrophragma (known as the Ikpwapobo and Onomokyukyu of the Benis
and Ahtore of the Eiiks), of so-called cedars belonging to the genera Trichilia,
Pseudocedrela and Guarea (known as the Opobo, Opobonikwi and Opobonufwa
of the Benis), and of ebony and other timber for export by persons other than
the holders of licences to take timber or the owners of such lands : Provided
that this prohibition shall not apply to ebony on Native lands in the Calabar or
Bende district.

(2) The taking of cedars of the genera Trichilia, Pseudocedrela, and Guarea,
mahoganies of the genera Entandrophra°ma and Khaya, Funtumia elastica
(known as lyeri of the Benis), Landolphia owariensis, the vine rubter plant
Clitandra elastica, Chlorophoia excelsa (known as Oroko of the Benis), the
oil bean tree (Pentaclethra macrophylla), the oil nut (Irvingia Barter!), the
African oak (Oldfieldia africana), for use in the Colony or Protectorate except
in accordance with the rules relating to timber for the time being in force.

(3) The collection of rubber on Native lands and forest reserves by persons
other than the holders of licences to collect rubber.

(4) The collection of root rubber from the roots of Funtumia elastica
(known as lyeri of the Benis) and of any other rubber-yielding tree or plant,
excepting such rubber-yielding species as may from time to time be noticed in
the Gazette as exempted from the provisions of this Order.

(5) The sale, offering for sale, purchase and export of rubber collected,
prepared, sold and purchased in any territories near or adjacent to the
Protectorate in contravention of the law for the time being in force in such
territories ; and

(6) The sale, offering for sale, purchase, possession or export of rubber
collected in contravention of the Forestry Ordinance or any rules or orders made
thereunder.

(7) And it is hereby ordered that the onus of proof that any rubber has not
been collected or acquired in contravention of this order shall lie upon the
person in whose possession the same is found, and that in default of such proof
the rubber and the person in whose possession the same is found shall be dealt
with as if proof had been given that he had acquired such rubber in
contravention of this order.

3. RULES RELATING TO TIMBER.
Applications for and Grant of Licences.

Title.
1. These rules may be cited as '• The Timber Rules."

214 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Definitions.

2. In these rules : —

" Licence" and "Timber Licence" mean a licence granted under these rules

to take timber ;
"Provincial Commissioner" and "District Commissioner" mean respectively

the Provincial Commissioner of the province and District Commissioner

of the district in which the timber referred to issituated ;
" Holder of a Licence " includes the grantee and the assignee of a licence ;
" Conservator " means the Conservator of Forests ;
" Owner" includes any Chief or Chiefs having the disposition of any lands, or

rights thereover, belonging to a Native community, and any member of a

Native community having authority from the Chief or Chiefs of the

community to take timber ;
Other expressions shall have the same meanings as are given in the Forestry

Ordinance.

No Licence to be Granted without Approval of Governor.

3. No licence shall be granted except with the consent of the Governor.

Particulars to be Furnished by Applicant.

4. Applicants for the consent of the Governor to a licence shall forward to
the Provincial Forest Officer a statement (which shall be regarded as confidential
by all concerned) in writing in triplicate, giving, as far as they are able, the full
names, addresses and occupations of the proposed grantees and their financial
position, the species of timber to be cut, and the estimated area, positions and
boundaries of the lands to be included in the licence.

Procedure on Receipt of Application.

5.— (1) The Provincial Forest Officer, as soon as he has received an application,
shall forward such application, with his recommendations respecting the same,
to the Provincial Commissioner. If applications have been received from other
applicants for licences relating to the same area or any other portion thereof, he
shall call attention to the fact, and shall state his reasons for recommending
that the licence be granted to the one applicant in preference to the others.

(2) The Provincial Commissioner as soon as possible shall forward the
application to the Conservator, and shall state the political reasons, if any, why
the licence should not be granted ; and the Conservator shall forward it to the
Colonial Secretary for submission to the Governor.

(3) If the Governor decides to approve the grant of licence provisionally, he
shall direct the Provincial Commissioner to enquire into and advise as to the title
of the proposed grantors and of any other persons claiming to hare, or, in the
opinion of the Provincial Commissioner, having a right to grant or oppose the
grant of a licence, and to grant or refuse the licence accordingly, subject to an
appeal to the Governor.

Consent of Secretary of State required in Certain Cases.

6. No licence over an area exceeding one hundred square miles shall be
approved or granted except with the consent of the Secretary of State.

General Rights conferred by Licences.

1. — (1) Licences shall confer the right to fell and carry away the species of
trees named therein, and shall not confer any exclusive right to the use of roads,
waterways and river frontages within the area over which the licence is
granted.

Mining liit/lits.

(2) The grant of a licence to cut timber shall not preclude an exclusive or
general mining licence or a mining lease being granted under the Mining
Regulation Ordinance, or any law amending the same, to persons other than
the holders of the licence. Provided that when a licence has been gran'ed under

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 215

these rules to take timber over an area in respect of which no such mining
licence or lease is in force, the holders of the licence to take timber shall have
the right of applying under tha said law for an exclusive or general mining
licence over the area over which the said licence to cut timber his been granted,
and this right shall give the holders a prior right to be granted such mining
licence, which said prior right shall last for sis months from the date of the
said licence to cut timber.

Duration and Renewal of Licences.

(3) Subject to the provisions of this rule, licences shall be granted for five
years with a right to renew for further periods of two years. Such renewal
may be grante i on a certific ite from the Conservator that the holders of the
licence havj substantially complied with the conditions subject; to which the
licence is granted.

The refusal of the Conservator to grant a certificate shall be subject to appeal
to the Governor.

Applications for renewal shall be made to the Conservator in writing nine
months before the date on which the licence would elapse but for such renewal.
The order for the renewal shall be endorsed upon the copy of the licence filed
in the Land Registry, and a copy of such endorsement shall be sent by the
Registrar to the Conservator for transmission to the holders of the licence.

If the applicants or the holders of a licence desire that their licence shall be
granted for a longer period than above-mentioned in order that they may
construct tramways, monorails or other works for working the timber to be
included or included in their licence, they may apply at any time to have such
period fixed by the Governor.

Exclusive Water Frontages and other Rights.

(4) If for any reason it appears to the Governor desirable for the proper
working of the timber included in a licence that an exclusive water frontage
should be granted, the Governor may issue an order conferring such exclusive
frontage. Similarly, if it is conducive to the proper working of any timber
that no roads, lines or timber tracks should be made over tha lands to be
included or included in a licence by the holders of other licences, the Governor
may make an order restricting or prohibiting the making of such roads, lines or
tracks.

Effect of Provisional Consent to Application.

8. If the Governor grants his provisional consent to an application for a
licence, the fact shall be forthwith notified to the Provincial Forest Officer for
the information of the applicant. Unless otherwise stated, the Governor's
provisional consent shall mean that the licence shall be drawn in accordance
with these rules. The Governor may, however, decide not to give bis consent
unless the licence contains special clauses in modification of or supplemental to
these rules.

Reference to Attorney-General for Report on Title of Grantors.

9. In case there is any doubt as to the title of the grantors, the matter shall
be referred to the Attorney-General for report.

If Report lie. Adverse.

10. If such report be adverse the Colonial Secretary shall forthwith notify
the Provincial Forest Officer, who shall inform the applicant of the nature of
the report, so that the applicant may discontinue any expenditure which he may
be incurring or which may be incurred on his behalf with a view to obtaining
a licence or so thut he may endeavour to cure the defect in the title.

P aliment of Expenses.

11. All expenses connected with the delimitation of the lands included in a
licence, the marking off of the boundaries, the preparation of the plan of the
area of the lands aforesaid and the preparation of and recording of the licence
shall be borne by the applicants.

216 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Delimitation of Lands.

12. The limits of the lands included in the licence shall, when not in the
opinion of the Provincial Forest Officer adequately shown by natural boundaries
or by recognised roads, be marked out in the joint presence of the Forest
Officer or other person appointed by him for the purpose and of the applicant
or his agent.

Such limits shall be marked out by placing on trees at the limits of the lands
the mark to be shown on the licence.

Delimitation and Marks.

13. As soon as practicable after the Governor has given his provisional
consent to the licence, the Provincial Forest Officer shall settle with the
applicant what mark is to be shown in the licence.

Hammer Marks.

14. In addition to the marks referred to in the preceding rule the said officer
shall also settle with the applies nt what hammer marks are to be made on all
timber coming from the lands included in the licence.

A register of such hammer marks shall be kept by the Conservator.

Distinctive hammer marks shall he settled in respect of each licence. In
settling such hammer marks the Conservator shall lake care that no mark shall
resemble the marks of any other exporter of timber.

Preparation of Plan.

15. A plan of the lands included in the licence bhall be prepared by the
applicant and shall be verified by the Conservator or Forest Officer, or other
person appointed by the Governor for that purpose. Such plan shall be attached
to the licence.

Preparation of Licence.

16. The licence shall be settled by the Provincial Forest Officer and the
grantee. If the Governor has not decided that the licence shall contain special
clauses supplementing or modifying the effect of the rules, the licence may be
made out in triplicate (each copy having a plan endorsed thereon) in the office
of the Provincial Forest Officer, and af cer due execution (see next rule) by the
grantors and grantees, shall be sent to the Attorney-General by or through
the Conservator. If the licences are found to have been duly executed and
stamped and to contain the provisions required by these rules, they shall be
forwarded by the Attorney-General to the Provincial Commissioner for signature
and registiation. One copy shall be filed in the Provincial Lands Registry
Office, and the other two copies shall be sent to the Conservator, who will file
one copy in his office and transmit the other to the grantee.

If the licence has to contain special clauses, a dtaft licence only shall be
settled as aforesaid, and this draft shall be sent to the Colonial Secretary for
approval of such clauses. After such approval has been obtained the Colonial
Secretary shall return the draft, and further action shall be taken by all concerned,
as in the case of an ordinary licence.

Registration.

When a licence is to be executed by an agent authorized by a power of
attorney to execute licences relating to lands on behalf of his principal, such
power of attorney should be registered in the same manner as other instruments
relating to land at the same time as or before the licence is registered.

Execution of Licence.

17. Every licence (including all rules incorporated therewith) shall be read
over, interpreted if necessary, and explained in the presence of a Commissioner
of the district in which the lands included in the licence or the greater part
thereof is situated, to the parties thereto, and shall be executed by the parties in
the presence of such Commissioner and attested by him, provided that this rule
shall not apply to execution by the Colonial Secretary under the pr wers conferred
on him by section 17 of the Forestry Ordinance.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 217

Species of Timber to be staled in Licences. Sample.

18. Every licence shall specify the species of trees which the holders of the
licence are authorized to fell. Such description shall include the vernacular
name of each species in the local dialect. Provided that the holder of a licence
may, on giving notice to the Conservator or to any officer appointed by him, cut
down and carry away a sample tree of any other species. Such sample tree
shall not be liable to royalty or duty. Provided further that the holders of a
licence may apply at any time to the Conservator for permission to fell and
carry away any other species of tree, and if the Conservator advises that such
species of tree may be cut, the holder of the licence may apply for a supple-
mental licence granting the right to fell and carry away such species, but only
on condition that no such species of tree shall be taken except in accordance
with such instructions regarding the minimum felling girth as the Conservator
may in his discretion prescribe.

ORDINARY CONDITIONS SUBJECT TO WHICH LICENCES ARE GRANTED.

Commencement and Continuance of Work.

19. The holders of a licence shall commence work within six months from the
date when the Governor's assent to the issue of the licence is communicated to
them, and during the continuance of such licence shall not discontinue work for
any period of more than twenty-four weeks in the whole of any je'tr, or for
any consecutive period of more than sixteen weeks, provided that the licence
.shall not be liable to forfeiture, nor shall the holders thereof be liable to
any penalty under these rules or to proceedings on the Bond, if such cessation
fro:i; work has been, in the opinion of the Provincial Forest Officer, due to
causes beyond the control of the holders of the licence, or if such cessation
shall in his opinion have been desirable on any other grounds.

Procedure to be adopted before Trees are Felled.

20. — (1) The holders of licences shall mark all trees which they desire to fell,
and shall from time to time prepare a list of such trees describing :—

(a) The girth of the tree at a point 10 feet from the ground ;
(ft) The vernacular name of the tree intended to be cut ;

(c) The situation of the tree ; and

(d) The name of the Head Chief of the Native community owning the laud

on which the tree is growing, aud the name of (lie nearest village of
such Native community. Such list shall be made out in duplicate and
shall be forwarded to the nearest European Forest Officer of the
Province. Each copy shall be certified in writing to be correct by tbe
grantees or their agent.

On receipt of the lists the European Forest Officer shall endorse one copy with
a statement that f ermission is granted to fell the trees described in the list, and
after signing his name and adding the date on which the statement is signed,
shall return such copy to the holders of the licence or their agent. The other
copy shall be filed by the Forest Officer in his office. Upon receipt of the copy
of the list endorsed with the statement aforesaid the holders of the licence may
forthwith fell the trees described in such list.

Inspection.

(2) The European Forest Officer shall as soon as possible inspect, or cause to
be inspected, the trees mentioned in the list, or the stumps of the said trees which
have been felled in accordance with any permission granted as aforesaid.

Production of

(3) The holders of a licence shall retain all lists aforesaid, and shall produce
the same when required in order to show their authority for felling the
trees.

(4) No timber shall be exported unless it bears the Government pass mark
which the European Forest Officer will affix or cause to be affixed at such time
and place as may be agreed upon with the licensee.

(5) Every European Forest Officer shall keep proper records of all trees on
which he has granted a certificate of rebate under rule 39.

218 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Juju, Market and Village Trees.

21. Notwithstanding the grant of any permission under rule 20, the holders of
a licence shall not cut down any trees known as " Juju trees " on the lands
included in their licence, or any trees within 400 yards of a market or village
on the said lands without the previous consent of the Chiefs of such market and
the District Commissioner of the district in which such market or village is
situated.

Removal of Trees on Farm.

22. Notwithstanding the grant of a licence, the grantors of the licence may
farm or permit to be farmed any area or areas of the lands included in the
licence over which they have the rights of farming. If any area aforesaid
which the grantors intend to farm or permit to be farmed contains any species
of timber which the holders of the licence have the right to fell under their
licence, the grantor, prior to farming or permitting to be farmed such area,
shall give not less than three calendar months' notice of their intention to the
holders of the licence or their agent in, and the nearest European Forest
Officer of, the district in which such area is situated, and if the holders of the
licence shall not fell and remove the timber which they have the right to fell and
remove from such area before the expiration of the said notice they shall not fell
and remove the same while the area is being farmed.

Water-wii/s not to be Obstructed.

23. The holders of a licence shall not allow any timber or other matter to
fall or be thrown from the lands included in their licence into any waterway
which passes through or along the boundaries of such lands so as to obstruct
the navigation of such waterway. Any logs found adrift or not properly
formed into rafts and in charge of raftsmen in any waterway shall be liable to
confiscation, provided always that the owner of such logs may re-obtain
possession thereof upon payment of a penalty amounting to twenty-eight
shillings per log in the case of mahogany and cedars, and ten shillings per log
for other timber. But the payment of such penalty shall not release the owner
of such log or logs from any civil or criminal liability for damage which he
may have incurred.

General Powers of Grantees.

24. — (1) The holders of a licence may on the land included in their licence
extend, dig and set up pits, stages and erections, and make such-, roads and
ways as are necessary for dressing and carrying away timber, and may erect
such houses, offices, sheds and other buildings as are necessary for the residence
and use of their agents, workmen and servants. The holders of a licence shall
not damage or allow damage to be done to any rubber or other trees, under-
growth or crops other than such damage as is incidental to and unavoidable in
the exercise of the rights conferred by their licence.

Farming.

(2) No part of the land included in a licence shall be farmed by the holders
of the licence unless and until the consent of the owner of such lands and of the
nearest European Forest Officer has been obtained.

Girtlt of Trees.

25. No mahogany tree of the genera Khaya (known as Ogwango to the Benis
and Gadeau to the Yorubas), or Entandrophragma (known as Ikpwapobo and
Onomokyukyu to the Benis and Ahtore to the Efiks) ; and no cedar tree of the
genera Pseudocedrela, Trichilia or Guarea (known as Opobo, Opobonikwi and
Opobonufwa to the Benis) of a less girth than twelve feet at a point ten feet
from the ground : and no tree of the species Chlorophora excelsa (known as
Oroko to the Benis and Yorubas) of a less girth than nine feet at a point
four feet six inches from the ground ; and no tree of the species Oldfieldia
africana (African Oak) of a less girth than eight feet at a po;nt four feet

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 219

six inches from the ground ; and no ebony of less girth than ten feet at a point
four feet six inches from the ground ; and no tree of the species Funtumia
elastica (known as lyere to the Benis) of a less girth than six feet at a point
four feet six inches from the ground ; and no tree of the species Pentaclethra
macrophylla of a less girth than five feet at a point four feet six inches from
the ground ; and no Dika nut tree or wild mango, Irvingia Barteri, of a less
girth than six feet at a point four feet six inches from the ground shall be
felled : Provided that these dimensions may be reduced by order of the Governor
in any district or locality named in such order, where the trees do not attain to
such dimensions.

Marking Stumps and Logs.

26. — (1) The stump of every tree felled and the logs from every such tree
shall be marked as soou as possible after the felling thereof with the hammer
mark of the holders of the licence and with numbers. The stumps shall be
marked consecutively, and the logs from each tree shall bear (1) the stump
number of such tree, and (2) log numbers running consecutively from one
upwards.

Removal of Stumps.

(2) The holders of a licence wishing to remove the stump of a tree shall
apply for permission to the nearest European Forest Officer and such Officer may
with or without an inspection of the stump by himself or some other Forest
Officer grant the necessary permission.

Re-planting by Holders of Licences.

27. — (1) The holders of a licence shall plant or tend young trees in every
open space caused by the felling of a tree and along all disused timber tracks.
The trees to be planted or tended in such open spaces shall be of the same
species as the tree which was cut, and those to be planted in such tracks shall
be mahogany or such other species as may be allowed by the Provincial Forest
Officer.

The young trees aforesaid may be obtained by the holders of the licence
transplanting from the adjacent forest, but if suitable trees cannot be thus
obtained the holders of the licence shall establish nurseries from which to obtain
the required seedlings.

The holders of the licence shall cultivate and keep clear from undergrowth to
the satisfaction of the said Officer all young trees planted as above mentioned
during the continuance of their licence.

Grantors Cultivate Young Trees after Expiration of Licence.

(2) Grantors who have received any royalties prescribed by rule 40 in respect
of timber felled on the lands included in a licence shall after the expiration
or determination of such licence cultivate and keep clear from undergrowth
to the satisfaction of and subject to the direction of the said Officer all young
trees planted by the holders of the licence under sub-section (1) of this rule for
a period of two years after the licence has expired or been determined.

Re-planting by Forest Officers on Holders of Licences or Grantors failing to

comply with Rule 27.

28. If the holders of a licence or the grantors shall fail in whole or in part to
perform the conditions of the last rule which relate respectively to them, the
Governor may direct any Forest Officer to perform the same on their behilf, and
all expenses incurred in so doing shall be paid by the holders of a licence or the
grantors as the case may be, within two months after demand for payment has
been made in writing by such officer. In the event of the holders of the licence
or the grantors failing to pay the expenses [ ayable by them in the manner afore-
said the amount shall be recoverable as a debt by the Conservator.

Workment Payment of.

29. The holders of a licence shall make proper arrangements for the regular
payments of all labourers employed by them or by sub-contractors who are
employed by the holders to carry out the work of felling timber or getting the
same out of the lands included in the licence.

220 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Accounts.

30. The holders of every licence shall keep correct books of accounts showing
the number of timber trees felled, and shall on the days appointed for the
payment of the royalties and the permit fees hereinafter mentioned render to the
Provincial Forest Officer a copy of the accounts for the preceding half-year, and
shall verify such accounts by affidavit of themselves or their agent. The holders
of every licence shall permit the Conservator and any Forest Officer and any
person appointed by the Governor for the purpose to inspect the books of
accounts and take copies thereof and extracts therefrom at all reasonable times.

Transfer of Licences.

31. The rights conferred by a licence shall not be tranferred by the holders
wholly or in part or for all or any part of the period for which they are granted
or renewed except with the consent of the Governor in writing.

Determination of Licence on Exhaustion of Timber.

32. If, before the expiration of the term for which a licence is granted the
holders prove to the satisfaction of the Governor that the timber within the
lands included in the licence is exhausted, they may determine the same on the
30th day of June or 31st day of December in any year by giving six calendar
months' previous notice in writing to the grantors.

Determination of Licence if Timber not sufficiently n-<n-l:ed.

33. If at any time the Governor is satisfied that the holders of a licence are
not working the timber on the lands included in their licence with sufficient
diligence, he may cause the latter to be warned that they must work the timber
in a more satisfactory manner, and if at the expiration of nine months from the
date of such warning no sufficient improvement is in the opinion of the Governor
shown in the manner in which such timber is being worked the Governor may
cancel the licence, and no compensation shall in such case be payable by the
grantors or any other person to the holders of the licence or to any one
claiming directly or indirectly through them.

In causing such warning to be given regard will be paid to the market prices,
to the seasons, and to the manner in which timber on lands similar to those
included in the licence is being worked at the time of the warning.

Such warning shall be in writing, and shall specify the various reasons which
cause the Governor to be dis:atish'ed with the manner in which the timber is
being worked.

Determination of Licence on non-payment of Royalties <>/• Breach of Rules, dr.

34. Upon breach of rules 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 29, 30 or 31 or of any
special conditions or clauses in any licence by the holders thereof or in default
of payment by such holders of the royalties or permit fees set forth in rules 39
and 40 within bix weeks from the date fixed for the payment thereof, or if the
holders of the licence shall become bankrupt or shall compound or arrange with
their creditors, or suffer their effects to be taken in execution, the Governor may
by notice in writing determine their licence, and any person authorised by the
Governor may thereupon take possession of the lands to which licence relates, in
the name of the grantors. Provided that in spite of such determination the
Governor may direct that such further action as to him may seem necessary
shall and may be taken on the Bond against the holders of the licence or against
any or all of the sureties to such Bond.

Liabilities t<> Continue after Determination.

35. The determination of a licence under the provisions of rule 33 or 34 shall
be without prejudice to the rights and remedies of the grantors against the
holders of such licence for recovery of royalties and in respect of any breach of
these rules which may have been committed prior to such determination.

Security.

36. The Governor shall require the grantees and the subsequent holders of
every licence to give security for the payment of the royalties and duties and
performance of the conditions contained in these rules and in the licence either

GOLD COAST — KEPORT ON FORESTS. 221

(1) by a Bond with two sureties or (2) by deposit of a sum of money in the
Treasury. The amount for which the Bond shall be given or the sum which
shall be deposited in the Treasury shall be four hundred pounds if the area is
estimated by the Conservator at one hundred square miles or under and one
thousand pounds if the area is estimated by him to exceed one hundred square
miles.

Seizure.

37. Any Forest Officer or any Commissioner may himself, or by any person
acting under bis direction, seize any timber cut in contravention of or not
marked in accordance with these rules or any order or rule made under the
Forestry Ordinance, and may detain the same until the Court has given direc-
tions as to the disposal thereof.

Fees.

38. Applicants for licences shall pay the following fees :—

(1) Upon application ... ... ... ... ... £3

(2) Upon execution of the licence £5

These fees shall be paid by stamps affixed to the application, or as the case
may be to the licence.

Fees

39. Holders of licences shall pay the following fees :—

Upon each tree authority to fell which is given under rule 20 supra.

(a) Upon each mahogany or cedar tree ... ... ... ... 56s.

(6) Upon any other tree 20s.

Provided that such fees may be reduced by the Governor so as to permit the

profitable working of the lower classes of timber.

And provided that in the event of a tree felled proving to be unsound the
licensee shall forthwith notify the fact to the nearest European Forest Officer
of the Province, who shall examine the tree or cause it to be examined, and if
after such examination the tree proves to be unsound, and is passed as such by
the European Forest Officer, the latter shall grant a certificate to that effect,
upon production of which the Conservator or the Provincial Forest Officer shall
grant to the licensee a rebate of forty-two shillings on the tree if mahogany or
cedar, or of ten shillings if the tree be of any other kind.

Disposal of fees.

40. These fees, which include the export duties, royalties and inspection fees,
shall be paid by the holders of licences to the Conservator or Provincial Forest
Officer before they commence felling any of the trees authority to fell which is
given under rule 20 supra, and shall be divided by the Conservator or Provincial
Forest Officer as follows :—

(«) Forty-six shillings of the fee for mahogany or cedar and fourteen
shillings of the fee for any other tree shall be paid into the nearest
local treasury, and shall form part of the revenue of the Colony ; and

(b) Ten shillings of the fee for mahogany or cedar and six shillings of the

fee for any other tree shall be paid to the Commissioner of the district
in which the lands included in the licence or the greater part thereof
are or is situated, and distributed by him among the grantors of the
licence in the proportion to which they are entitled.

(c) Any rebate granted under rule 39 of these rules shall be allowed out of

the fees payable under sub-rule (a) of this rule, and shall be deducted
from the fees payable upon the next authority to fell granted under
rule 20 hereof.

Penalties of Breach of Rules, «0c.

41. If the holders of a licence shall commit any breach of any of these rules
(including the clauses or conditions contained in the licence) they shall be liable
to a fine not exceeding fifty pounds or to imprisonment for any period not
exceeding six months with or without hard labour, and in addition to such fine
or imprisonment the licence may be determined.

222 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

Form of licence.

42. Licences may be in the form given in the Appendix to these rules and all
conditions and clauses in any licence (whether in such form or not) shall be
regarded for all purposes as being prescribed by these rules.

Reservations.

43. Notwithstanding the grant of a licence under these rules there shall be
reserved :—

(a) A right on the part of the grantors to fell or cut, with the Conservator's

consent, any trees for their own domestic uses and not for sale or

barter.
(6) A right on the part of the Government with the consent of the grantors

of the licence to fell any trees when required for the construction or

repair of Government buildings or works.

CONDITIONS UPON WHICH OWNERS OF LANDS MAY CUT TIMBER.

For export.

44. The owner of any lands in a district desiring to fell trees for export shall
before commencing work : —

(1) Settle with the nearest Commissioner or European Forest Officer a

hammer mark to be made on all timber coming from his lands ; and
('2) Mark with such mark alt trees which he desires to fell, and prepare a list
in duplicate of such trees, giving the particulars set forth in para-
graphs (a), (i) and (c) of rule 20, and forward the same to the
nearest Commissioner or European Forest Officer, who shall authorize
the felling of such trees in the manner and upon and subject to the
provisions of the said rule '20, and subject to the payment of the fees
prescribed by paragraph (3) of this rule. The hammer mark settled
as herein provided shall be entered in the register to be kept by the
Conservator, under rule 14 hereof.

(3) The owner of lands shall pay in lieu of export duty and inspection fee
the following consolidated fees upon each tree authority to fell which
is given under rule 20 supra.

(a) Upon each mahogany or cedar tree ... 46s.

(ft) Upon any other tree 14s.

Provided that the Governor may reduce the latter fee so as to permit the
profitable working of the lower classes of timber. These fees, which include
export duties and inspection fee, shall be paid to the Conservator or Provincial
Forest Officer by the owner of lands before he commences felling any of the
trees authority to fell which is given under rule 20 supra and shall be paid into
the nearest local Treasury and shall form part of the revenue of the Colony.

For local use.

45. The owner of any land or any person with the consent of the owner may
fell trees thereon if the same be not for export but for sale as timber for use
locally.

Fees.

The following fees shall be paid for each tree felled under the provisions of
this rule.

The owner or other person shall pay for each tree felled

by him an inspection fee of ... ... ... ... 4s.

Any person other than the owner shall in addition to such inspection fee pay
as royalties for the owners : —

For each mahogany or cedar tree ... ... ... ... 10s.

For every other tree ... ... ... ... ... ... 6s.

Such royalties shall be paid to the Commissioner of the district and dealt with
by him according to the provisions of section (b) of rule 40 hereof.

The owner or other person desiring to fell trees under this rule shall
before doing so comply with the requirements of sub-rules 1 and 2 of
rule 44 hereof, except as regards the payment of fees provided by sub-rule 2
thereof.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 223

Re-planting by Owners of Lands.

46. The provisions of rules 27 and 28 relating to re-planting shall apply
to owners of land felling trees, provided that such owners as fell trees
for export shall not be compelled to cultivate and keep clear from
undergrowth young trees planted by them after such young trees are four years
of age.

Certain Rules to Apply to Owners of Lands.

47. The provisions of rules 21, 23, 25, 26, 37 and 41 shall apply to owners of
lands taking timber for the purposes aforesaid and to the timber taken by them
as if they were holders of licences granted under these rules.

MISCELLANEOUS.
Cutting of Timber for Local Use.

48. On native lands in respect of which no licence has been granted under
these rules, such timber as may be required locally for domestic, agricultural or
other like purposes or for the construction or repair of canoes, vessels, buildings,
bridges, tramways, railways or other like works but not for purposes of sale
may be felled by the owners of the lands or by any persons authorized by them,
provided the consent of the nearest Commissioner or European Forest Officer
be first obtained.

Procedure for Receiving of Amount Due on Bond.

49. In any proceedings which are taken on a Bond required to be given in
accordance with these rules the amount due and recoverable in such proceedings
shall be the amount (not exceeding that named in the Bond) which the
Conservator may fix as and for liquidated damages.

Ditties of Chiefs and Grantors interested in a Licence.

50. The Chiefs or grantors interested in a licence shall assist the Forestry
Department in the work of inspection and shall report to the nearest European
Forest Officer any instance in which any of these rules or any rule or order
mnde under the Forestry Ordinance has been broken.

If the Chiefs or grantois fail in the fulfilment of this duty the Conservator
or Provincial Commissioner may recommend that the royalties due or becoming
due to such Chiefs or grantors shall be paid into the general revenue of the
Colony or to any Chief or grantor who has rendered valuable assistance to the
Forestry Department, and the Governor may rrake an order to that effect
accordingly : Provided that not more than one year's royalties shall be forfeited
under this rule for any one failure.

Application of Rides.

51. These rules i-hall apply to all Crown lands and lands leased by the Crown,
and to Native lands : Provided that they shall not, without the consent in
writing of the parties interested, apply to any concession granted before the
rules came into force ; but all such concessions shall be regulated by the rules in
force at the time of the granting thereof.

APPENDIX.

Timber Licence.

Tins INDENTURE made the day of , 19 , BETWEEN

of (hereinafter called the Grantors, which expression shall include the

Grantors and their successors in title) of the one part and (hereinafter

called the Licensees, which expression shall include the Licensees and their
successors in title) of the other part :

224 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

WHEREAS the Licensees have given security by Bond for the perform-
ance of the conditions subject to which this licence is granted in the sum
of

Now THIS INDENTURE WITNESSETH :—

1. The Grantors hereby grant to the Licensees the sole and exclusive right
to take on the lands situated at bounded by a line drawn
through the centres of the trees marked at the limits of the said lands,
which lands are delineated and surrounded with a red border line on the plan
attached hereto, from the day of , 19 , for a term of five years,
provided that after the expiration of the said term of five years the Licensees
shall be entitled to renew the licence hereby granted for periods of two years in
accordance with and upon and subject to the conditions set forth in the rules
printed on the back hereof and upon and subject to such special conditions if
any as the Governor may prescribe.

2. The Licensee-! shall pay the royalties, and exercise the right hereinbefore
granted upon and subject to the conditions set forth in the rules aforesaid.

(Here insert special clauses and conditions, if any.)

IN WJTNESS WHEREOF the said parties have hereunto set their hands and
seals or made their marks and set their seals the day and year first above
written.

The above parties set their hands or made their marks
and this Indenture was sealed and delivered in the presence
of

Commissioner.

Assented to on behalf of the Government of Southern Nigeria this day

of , 19 .

Provincial Commissioner.

Rules 2, 7, 19 to 35 inclusive, and 37 to 44 inclusive shall be printed on the
back hereof.

4. RULES RELATING TO FOREST RESERVES.
A . — ProJi ibitintifi.

The following acts are prohibited except in so far as they may be expressly
sanctioned in the deeds constituting the reserves, or by the rules and regulations
hereinafter set forth.

(1) The felling, tapping, barking or taking of any plant or the produce

derived from it.

(2) The taking of earth, soil, stone, rock or minerals.

(3) The digging, cutting and turning over of soil.

(4) The lighting of fires, or smoking within specified areas (to be notified in

the Gazette), at any time between 1st December and 30th April.

(5) The hunting, trapping, snaring and catching of beasts, birds or fish, the

poisoning of water, and the use of any explosive for the purpose of
killing fish.

(6) The construction of dams or weirs across rivers or streams, and the

obstruction of the channel of any waterway.

(7) The erection of any building.

B. — Hi/left and Regulations.

l._(l)? (2) and (3) The acts prohibited may be allowed provided that a
licence be obtained from the Provincial Forest Officer authorizing the same, and
the conditions prescribed by the said licence be observed, and the fees paid as
prescribed therein.

These prohibitions and provisions do not apply to lands let out for farming
purposes as hereinafter provided.

(4) The lighting of fires within the prescribed period may be allowed
provided that :—

(i) Due notice is given to the nearest Forest Officer.

(ii) The area immediately surrounding the spot where the fire is lit is
sufficiently fire-traced to prevent the spread of fire to the adjoining
areas.

(iii) In the case of villages or farms situated within the reserve, such villages
and farms are sufficiently fire-traced to prevent the spread of fire to
the adjoining portions of the reserve.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS. 225

(iv) In the event of any fire breaking out in the reserve, the inhabitants of
any village or farm situated within the reserve are liable to be called
out by any Forest Officer to help to extinguish the fire.

Smoking is prohibited except within areas that are sufficiently fire-
traced to prevent the spread of fire from such area to the adjoining
portions of the reserve.

(5) Hunting and fishing within a Government reserve may be allowed
provided that : —

(i) Such hunting or fishing is carried out in accordance with conditions
specified on a hunting or fishing licence, and that the prescribed fees
for such licences are paid.

(ii) Such licences may prohibit altogether the hunting of any or all animals or
birds during certain seasons of the year, as, for instance, when fires
are prevalent or during the breeding season, and may prohibit alto-
gether the hunting of certain specified animals or birds.

Animals and birds so protected within reserves will be notified from
time to time by publication in the Gazette.

In the case of fishing licences, similar restrictions may be imposed.
Hunting or fishing licences may be obtained from the Provincial
Forest Officer.

(G) Buildings or similar structures may be erected in reserves provided
that :—

(i) Such buildings or structures are erected in accordance with the conditions

of a licence and the payment of any fees prescribed by such licence.
(ii) The erection of villages in a reserve or farming may be allowed free of
any fees if the inhabitants of such a village —

(a) Agree to plant up the farm lands allowed them when the latter
have reached the fallow stage with any plants that the Conservator or
Provincial Forest Officer may require to be planted out.

(5) Tend the young plants so planted out for such a period as the
Conservator or Provincial Forest Officer may direct.

(c) Limit their farming operations to such areas as may from time
to time be set aside for that purpose by the Provincial Forest Officer.

(//) Fire-trace their villages and help to put out any fires that may
occur within the reserves.

A breach of any of the above conditions will render the inhabitants
of the village liable to expulsion from the reserve.

2. The forms contained in the Appendix hereto shall be used as far as they
may be applicable, and the fees shall be paid according to the rates set forth in
the said licences, or according to rates which may hereafter be fixed by order
made under section 19 of the Ordinance and published in the Gazette.

3. Whoever shall commit a breach of any of the provisions hereinbefore
contained shall be liable upon conviction thereof to a penalty not exceeding 50/..
or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months.

APPENDIX.

Licence Farms.

FORM A.

Licence In collect Major Forest Produce (Timber).

Permission is granted to [i/a/i/r of person"] of [his residence'] to fell and take
the timber procured from [number of'\ trees of the following kinds [cuter
number nf each kind to be felled] situated within the limits of block or compart-
ment [number or name of blocl- or compartment] of the [name of] reserve during
the period [date of issue of licence] to [date of expiration of licence] on the
following conditions : —

(a) That only such trees are felled as have been marked by Government for
that purpose,

12310 V

226 COLONIAL KEPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

(7j) That the following fees are paid at the rates indicated below for the
different species and sizes ou issue of this licence.
Rates : —

(c) That the felling of the trees is carried out with due care to prevent

unnecessary damage to the young growth.

(d) That the timber is extracted along such lines of export within the limits

of the reserve as the Provincial Forest Officer may direct hereon.

[Lines of export to be utilized.']
Date.

Signature

Forest Officer.

FORM B.
Licence, to collect and take Minor Forest Produce.

Such as flowers, fruit, leaves, branches, bark, roots, fibres, dyes, gums, resins,
rubber, ashes and such other produce derived from plants as may be entered
nereon.

Permission is granted to of to collect and take [name of

produce] from [species of plant] situated in compartment or block of

the reserve to the amount of [otter number of plants utilized or quantity

of produce to le extracted] during the period to on the following

conditi ns :

(a) That the following fee of is paid for [number of plants or Ibs.

weight or bundles or basket] the above produce at the rate of per

[plant, bundle, Ib. or basket, load, itc.] on the issue of this licence.
(J) That only such plants are utilized for the collection of the produce as
may be marked or otherwise set apart by the Forestry Department for
that purpose.

(c) That the produce is collected in accordance with the instructions entered
on the back of the licence and is transported along such lines of export
within the limits of the reserve as the Provincial Forest Officer may
direct.

FORM C.

Licence to hunt within a Reserved Forest.

Permission is granted to of to hunt within the

reserve during the period to on the conditions mentioned below :

(a) That a fee of is paid on issue of this licence.

(6) That animals and birds of the following species are not to bs shot or
otherwise killed by the licensee.

Species

(c) That the following species of birds and animals only the number and sex,
given below can be killed.

Species sex number to be killed.

FORM D.
Licence to Fish within Reserved Forest.

Similar to above, but provide for restrictions as to season, and prohibit the
use of poisons, nets and explosives.

PL. L.

BOMBAX BREVICUSPE.

12315

PL. -2.

TJRIPLOCHITON JOHNSONII.

PL. 3.

HERITIERA TTILIS.

12315

a 2

PL. 4.

Z.

KHAYA ANTHOTHECA.

Pr, 5.

KHAYA ORANDIS.

PL. 6.

KnAYA PUNCHII.

PL. 7.

KHAYA SENEGALENSIS.

PL. H.

KHAYA SP. (THE " DUBINI ?I or THE FANTIS).

Pi.. II.

LOVOA KLAINEANA.

Pi.. 10.

PSEUDOCEDRELA CYLINDRICA.

PL. 11.

PSEUJIOCRDRELA KOTSCHYI.

Pu 12.

PSKUDOCEDRBLA SP. (NEAR P. CYMNDRICA).

PL. 13.

PSEUDOCEDHELA

PL. 14.

AF/ELIA AFHICANA.

CYANOTHYRSUS OGEA.

PL. 16.

PlPTADENIA AFRICAN A.

PL. 17.

12315

PlPTADENIA SP.

PL. 18.

7

SARCOCEPHALUS ESCULENTUS.

PL. 19.

BUTYROSPERMUM PARKII.

PL. 20.

7

MIMUSOPS DJAVE.

PL. 21.

FUNTUMIA ELASTICA.

PL. 22.

LANDOLPHIA OWAKIENSIS.

PL. 23.

CHLOROPHORA EXCELSA,

PL. 24.

MUSANGA SMITHII.

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS.

227

INDEX.

Abetifi
Abetifi hills
Abetinso
Abosso mines
Abotoasibi ...
Abousandua
Aburi, 8, 9, 11

12, 13,

Aburi hills ...
Abnri hill forests ..
Acacia ataxacaniha
A. Catechu ...

PAGES

84, 90, 93, 95, 96, 97
83, 85, 99, 191
99

• •• ••• ••• l/U

49, 50

26

196

15, 96, 98, 99,
100, 162
... 8, 10, 11

10

77, 181

8, 9, 66, 69, 73, 86, 91,
187
A.fastigiata ... ... ... 66

A. nigrescent ... ... 69, 74. 86

A.pennata 21, 77, 175

A. Siebrria/irt, 9, 69, 86. 92, 187, 189
Acalypha ... ... ... 21, 175

AcanthacecB ... ... ... 182

Acanthus montana ... ... ... 182

Accra 7, 10, 15, 162

Accra- Aburi road ... ... ... 9

Accra plains 8,9,97

Acliyranthes ... ... ... 22

Acridocarpus SmeatJunnii!! ... 180

A. sp. 51

Adadawa ... ... ... ... 196

Ad(i/iH<iii/n ... ... ... ... 8, 9

A. digitate, 70, 71, 73, 87, 91, 92, 168,

186, 187, 189

Adda lagoon 160

Adiemra ... 60

Adjava ... ... ... ... 50

Adra river. 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 59, 77,

160, 161

Adubia 57

Adu-Kuma... ... ... ... 58

Adwenyede village 47

Aerua ... ... ... ... 22

Afana 21, 175, 196

A/ram 10, 196

A/ram 19, 175

Afram plain, 73, 74, 84, 89, 93, 97, 161
Afram river, 90, 92, 94, 95, 160, 162

Aframsu 94

African oak ... 86, 213, 218

Afrormosia laxiflora, 36, 65, 66, 181,

183, 184, 185, 197

12315

PAGES

Afzelia africana (PI. 14), 9, 61, 62, 64,
66, 69, 73, 74, 86, 88. 94, 122, 138,
139, 175, 181, 184, 187, 189. 198

A. sp.

Agave

Age Gradations

Agernlnni ...

Agona

Ahediui

Ah f ram

Ahiraso

Ahiraso-Ka...

Ahirisu

Ahirisu village

Alt tore

Ahurum river

Al-ata

Akikere

Akikere village

Akim, eastern

38, 50, 51
... 8
... 22
22,70
46, 47
... 196
... 9
... 62
... 61
... 31
... 35
213, 218
... 162
... 196
... 42
... 41
... 160

Akropong ... ... ... ... 41

Akropong hills

Akusa

Akwabohori

Akwantanuro

Akwapem hills

Akwasihu ...

Akyam

Akyem

Alqfia Bart i r >

A. landolphioides

Albizzia

A.

162

160

196

196

162

83

85

... 97, 98, 100

182

182

57, 59, 62, 77

187

A. Brownei, 37, 39, 41, 43, 58, 64, 6(5,

72, 181, 184, 190

A.fastigiata, 58, 72, 181, 184, 185, 190
A. rhombifolia ... ... ... 175

A. rhombifolia ? ... ... ... 24

J.sp 64

Alla/ililiif/cin- ftiirtbunda ... ... 175

A I ne ... ... ... ... 74

A. Barter i 70, 188

Alstnnia congensis, 10, 20, 34, 37, 44,
47, 56, 59, 67, 83, 87, 175, 178, 197

Amanchia 57, 58

AmaryUidece ... 70, 87, 183, 188
Amaso river 161

i T C 1 Oi i

Amomuw ... ... ... /o. lou

A. Da-nielli 183

P 2

•228

COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

A. latifolium

A. Meleyueta
AmorphophaUus ..
A mpelidece
Anacardiacece
Anchi

Anchomanes dubius
A. Hooker i
A. sp.

PAGES

... 183

... 183

21, 183

... 187

... 181

... 196

... 178

... 183

... 183

Ancistrnplnjllum ... 21, 39, 46, 56, 59,

174, 183, 197

Andropor/on 70, 189

Anr/raecum 21,174

Ankobra river, 24, 27, 31, 35. 37, 38,

39,46, 47,48, 52, 160, 161, 191
Ankobra river basin ... ... 176

Ankobra -Tano Water-Parting ... 41
Aitogeissus betocarpits, 70, 73, 87, 91,

92, 187, 189

Anona paluKtri* 178

.1. s?ne(/ale»sis, 9, 16, 70, 87, 92, 186

Anonacecc 180, 186

Aiitltocleista magnified, ... 9, 10, 197

A.mibllis ... '. 21,178

A. sp 67

Antiar'iR tnxicaria 10, 39, 81, 174, 175

A. loxicaria var. africana, 10, 20, 35,

36, 41, 45, 57, 67, 84, 198

Antidesma rennsum ... ... 188

A. sp. .., ... 70

Anura forests ... 81

Anuni river ... 80, 160, 162, 191

Anyinabirem village 41

Aphona ... .... ... ... 49

Apocynacece 182, 188

Apwlyte-s beiih/oini* ... ... 181

App&payi ... ... ... ... 196

Apurm 21, 175, 196

Aquapims 88

Aquipim hills 161

Araemnm mexiran// ... 70, 186

Aroideai ... ... ... ... 183

Aroids 174, 178

Artobotryx Iliamscwii ... ... 174

Asankagwa 42, 191

Asare ... ... 67

Asare village ... 69

Axclepiadea' 70, 182

Ashanti stools ... 59

Asiad.ua 36, 37, 42

Ast>iint 196

Jx,,/Wi, 19, 20, 23, 26, 37, 48, 84, 175
Aftpnntf/fix africanus ... 70, 87, 188

A.Pauli-Gi'ulelmi 188

Asplenium ... ... ... ... 21

Assawase village ... ... ... 47

Assohma tree ... ... ... 9

Assi.m 36, 196

Asuaso village ... ... ... 24

Atabobo 90, 93

Atasi mines 48

Atlmmili, 10, 20, 28, 36, 49, 122, 123,

175, 177, 196
Atikwa hills , 161

PAGES

Aricennia africana ... ... 190

Awabima ... ... ... ... 196

Awnma, 20, 23, 27, 36, 37, 122, 123,

146, 175, 176, 177. 183, 184

A were river ... ... ... 162

Axim ... 35, 39, 160, 162, 191
Axim district 23

Ba river 64, 67

Bfiku, 10, 18, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 36, 38,

39, 42, 47, 48, 51, 57, 58, 61, 81,

83, 121, 123, 146, 177, 195, 196

Balsam copaiba tree, 9, 69, 86, 88, 92,

122

Bamboo palm 190

Banana 93

Banda district 162

Banda hills 67, 75

Bansu 79, 80

Bantama 42

Bantama village 41

BnnJirtb. 9, 70, 71, 73, 87, 91, 168, 187,

189
Baphla jiitida- ... ... 87, 89

B. sp 175

BauhhiHi reticnlata-, 9, 87, 91, 187, 189

Bayn, 1C, 21, 26, 36, 43, 177, 178, 196

Befjfiiiia sp....

Begora range

Berlh/id aruin'tnaia, 21, 72, 87, 89, 175,

181

B. auriculata 175

Bert-) era montana 175

Bery 74> 75

Bia 51

Bia river ... 62,64,66,161,191

Bia River Drainage 63

Bian 74,93

Bibiani, 51,57,58,60,61,63,160

Bidew 21» 70

BlqHomaceot 182, 188

Birrim river, 11, 97, 99, 162, 191

"Bitters" 40

Bhoure ... 20, 35, 36, 175, 176, 196

Birinev 180,186

Black Volta river 1 60, 1

Blight ft, sapid a. 70, 198

Boerhaavifrascendens 70

B. panintlata, ••• 70

Bogora range 1»2, 191

Bojawe '•*

Boia 93

Bole 74

Bombacece 180> 187

Bnmbax brevicuspe (PI. 1), 40, 50, 174,

175, 177, 197

GOLD COAST — REPORT OX FORES'l s.

229

B.

PAGES

Mii*', 9, 10, 20, 38, 39, 196,

197
B. malabarlcum ... ... ... 4U

Bompata ...... ...... 83

Bompata hills ...... 162, 191

Bousa river ......... 2o

Bornx«ns tf<t/>< tlij'urniix 8, 16, 70, 92,

189, 197

B. ftabelliformis var. (ctltiopiru. 9, 62,

74, 87, 90, 188
Borassus Palm ... ...... » 62

Bouse, 17, 35, 36, 41. 42, 48, 121, 123,

175, 176, 196
Bosumptwi Lake ...... 62, 79, 80

BoaiKellid ... ... ... ... 36

B. KhuneaiiH ...... 37, 177

Botanical Gardens ... .... 12

Botanical Survey ... ... ... 153

Bowiwtisi ...... ... ... 196

Boioiwunua... ... ... ... 196

Brachystegia ... ... ... 93

B. sp ....... 27,28,48,55

Braha ...... 65, 68, 73, 93

Braha-Oboase range ...... 73

Bi-idcln, ,,it,Tantli<i, 70, 87, 91, 188, 189
Bride/ ia sp. ... ... ... 7, 8

Brimaug ......... 44,46.47

Bromase ... ... ...... 31

Bromase mines ......... 32

Bulboxtylis barbata ... 70, 188

B. lankeps ......... 70, 188

Bunda river ...... 85, 87, 94

Buiida Su ............ 90

Bundasu ............ 94

Bunsu ......... 96, 99, 100

Buttresses ............ 174

Butyrospermum Pm-kii (PI. 19), 9, 70,
73, 87, 90, 122, 138, 188, 189, 197

C.

Cabbage weed ... 178

Caesalpinia Bpnducella ... ... 175

Calnmux 21,46,56,59,174

C. Barter i 21, 178

C. sp 62, 67, 183

CnUii'li'ilia Barteri 182

Culotropis procera ... ... 70

Camwood tree 87, 89

Canarium Schweinfurthii ... ... 175

Cape Coast 162

CapparidacecB ... ... ... 186

Cajipuri* ... 87

C. sp 7, 8, 9, 186

Curapa 122, 123

C. guianeitiiix, 62, 72, 73, 87, 89, 91,
177, 181, 184, 190, 198

nhi/ix ... ... 87,188

.. ... 45, 77, 174, 177

PAGES

C. BiirtKn 182

C. fulwa 182

C.hirsuta ... 21, 36, 38, 44, 56, 64, 73,

87, 177, 182, 184, 1'JU

Cti'i'poloblti i 'nil ii ... ... ... 17o

Cassava farniN ... ... ... 10

Cassia ... 187

C. fistula 72, 181, 185

C. liiiiiinsiiidi-s ... ... ... 87

Ciixt'llii" rlu si in i. ... ... 12, 13

Casuarina ... ... ... ... 14

Catechu ... ... ... ... 91

Cauliflory ... ... ... ... 174

Ceara rubber-trees 12

Cedar ... 18, 37, 48, 51, 56, (12, 69, 75,

77,79, 81, 83,86, 88,121,122,123.

126, 145, 176, 184, 2K'.

Cedar forests ... ... ... 51

L'edl'i'la ndnnltn ... ... ... 14

L'l /ilsti-iK'rii- ... ... ... 183

(freest is 21, 174

Chasmophytea ... ... ... 74

Clien-chm 10, 35, 36, 57, 84

Chew-stick tree ... 70, 86, 87, 92

Chichuwere 162, 191

(_'/!/ ompl,,,!-,! excelsa (PI. 23), 10, 18,
20, 23, 32, 36, 37, 41, 42, 51, 5fi,
58, 60, 61, 66, 72, 75, 77, 78, 84,
121, 123, 124, 146, 175, 176, 182,
184, 186, 190, 195, 198, 213, 218

Christiansborg Castle 7

Chrysophyllum albldum ... ... 182

Cleome I'lliata ... ... 70, 186

( 'lerndeiidron splendeus ... ... 182

C. violaceuiit, ... ... ... 175

Climate 159, 162

Cntamlru ... 10, 38, 45, 77, 174, 177

C. elaxf/ca ... 213

C. tof/oh/t/it ... ... ... 182

Gnestis f&rruginea ... ... ... 181

Cvchl'jxperntiiitt t'nu:torium 70, 87, 186
Cocoa ... 76, 78, 79, 82, 93, 97
Cocoa farms ... ... ... 99

Cola 78,79,82,97

Cola Afselii 10, 57, 66, 72, 185, 190

C. cault flora 174

C^cordifolia 70,74,187

C. laurifnl/it ... ... ... 180

Cola plantations 76

Collectors, hints to ... ... 153

Combretacea ... 45,70,181,187

Combretum 8, 10, 21, 77, 174

C. coiiinsiiiii... ... ... ... 175

C.fuscum ... ... ... ... 70

C. iii/iiToiuittiiii ... ... ... 70

('. rat'i'.miixuiii ... ... 70, 181

C. Zenkeri ... ... ... ... 181

6'. sp. ... 20,37,81,175,197

('iiinpiixilir ... ... ... 70,188

ConnaracecK ... ... ... 181

Conversions ... ... ... 190

Corcliorus ... ... ... ... 70

(.''inlia IrviiHjii ... ... 84, 177

Corn ... 93

230

COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

PAGES

Costus 75, 180

C. afer 183

Cremaspora africana ... ... 182

Crinum 87, 178, 183

C. giganteum ... ... 70, 188

C. natans 27, 178

C. purpurascens ... ... ... 178

Crossopteryx Kotschyana ... 70, 87, 187

Cratnhirla 21, 70, 187

Culcasia 21, 174

Custard apple 87,92

Cutch tree 86, 187

Cyatiothyrisus ... 40, 122, 123, 146

C. ogea (PL 15) ... 27, 30, 37, 41, 42,

45, 55, 56, 57, 61, 77, 81, 84, 196,

197

C. sp 10, 175

Cynometra ... ... ... ... 38

C. Afselli 175, 178, 180

C. Mannii ... 72, 87, 178, 181, 190

C. sp 72, 181

Cyperacew 70, 188

Cyrtosperma seneyalense ... ... 178

D.

Dadiase 79

Ddhomuh, 9, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26,
28, 32, 37, 41, 47, 48, 50, 55, 56, 58,
75, 77, 84, 154, 155, 176, 177, 183,

197
Daliumali ... ... ... ... 197

Dalbe.rgla lati folia ... ... 15

D. Sisifoo ... 15

D. sp 69,86

Daleb palm 16

Dampia range ... 76, 77, 78, 79, 162

Dampia Reserve 78

Daidflla thurlfera, 9, 69, 73, 86, 88, 92,

122, 187, 189

Date palm 70, 74, 87

Dendrocalamus llaiinltunii ... 41

D. sp.? 40,42,48

Deinbollia '/itxiynis ... ... J81

De'mya 197

Denkera 43

Denkii-a 51, 76, 160, 191

Densu river ... 11, 99, 161, 162

Dein/n 197

Desert 170

D'esmodium.\. ... ... 70, 87

Deftir/it/H ar/iff/nlf/ixe 73, 86, 88, 94

187, 189
D. sp. ... 20, 35, 36, 175, 176, 196

Dialium yuiiieei/se, 16, 87, 92, 181, 185

1). sp 28

Dianfiitu 50

Dichrostachya //it tana ... 66, 70, 187
Dido tree 40

Dika nut ...
Dioscorea alata
D. prehensilis
D. Preussii
Dioscoreacece

PAGES
... 219

... 183

... 183

... 183

, 183

Diospyros mespiliformis, 72, 87, 89, 183

184, 190
D. monbuttensis ... ... ... 183

D.sp 175

Dipterocarpece ... ... ... 188

DifisdHis proxtrata ... ... ... 70

Distemonanihus Benthamianus ... 175
Domiabra ... ... ... ... 47

Dompoase ... ... ... ... 77

DoumPaltn 188

Dracaena maculata ... ... 183

Drainage systems ... ... ... 160

Duabayi ... ... ... ... 36

Duakobin, 36, 64, 65, 66, 183, 184, 197
Duamenyi ... ... ... ... 197

Dubima ... ... ... ... 40

Dnbin 197

Dubiiii, 10, 20, 27, 28, 32, 36, 40, 42,
45, 47, 49, 51, 55, 64, 121, 123, 176,

184
Dubinvilli ... ... ... ... 49

Dumanase village 34

Dunkwa 43, 46, 48, 49, 51

Dunkwa station 20

Dye-plants 177

Dyes 185, 189

Ebenaceai ... ... ... ... 183

Ebony ... 72, 87, 89, 121, 184, 213
Ebuta Metti Gardens ... 12, 14
Edubia 59

l\ffin> I'ntl kot/ti ... ... ... 197

Effuokonkonti ... ... 60, 184

Efuobrodidwa ... ... ... 197

Ehye 36, 177

Ehy&lua 10,197

l-:i-u 9, 38, 197

Eknitiia ... ... ... ... 197

Ekus'iwa 197

Elaeis guineensis, 175, 177, 183. 184

Emil 10, 197

Emilia, 70

Emril, "10, 20, 28, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43, 44,

47, 57, 58, 66, 77, 80, 146, 175, 176,

177, 181, 183, 184, 197

Enema Krom Concession ... 23

F.tiijnntan ... ... ... ••• 49

Eiitada abyxxin!r<i ... ... 69, 87, 187

K. xc(t/t<lenn ... ••• ••• 1^4

E. KwduHira, 9, 66, 69, 73, 87, 187
Entmtdrophragma ... ... 213, 218

Epiphytes ...' 174

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS.

231

PAGES

Epum village ......... 160

Eragrostis ......... 70. 189

Eriodendron anfractuosum, 10, 10, 20,

24, 37, 56, '62, 66, 70, 72, 73, 80,

81, 8?, 84, 87, 174, 175, 176, 180,

186, 187, 190, 198

Erythrina senegalensis ... 69, 187
E. tomentoRa ...... 41, 181, 185

Erythrophloeum guineense, 68, 69, 73,
86, 87, 89, 122, 187, 189, 198
......... 81, 83

............ 197

...... 20, 37, 175, 197

... 8, 50

... ... 50

... ... 50

... ... 50

... ... 50

... 70, 87, 187
... ...8, 74

... ... 70

... ... 70

... 70, 188
... ... 188

... 192

" i

Esseah
Essia

Eucalyptus ...
Eucalyptus
/>'. macrorhyncha ... ..

E. marginata . . ..

E. resinifei'a ... ..

Eugenia oivariensis ..

Euphorbia ... ... ..

E. pilulifera ... ..

E. prostrata ... ..

Euphorbiacete ... ..

Excoecaria ... ... ..

Exports of forest produce
Eye

197

P.

Fan palm ... 8, 70, 74, 87, 90, 94, 188

Fanti tribe 19

Fetish forest ... " 50

Fibre plants ... 13, 177, 185, 189

Fibres 178

Ficus, 10, 12, 39, 45, 74, 87, 174, 198

F. axptrifolia? 188

F. elastica 12, 13

F.platyplujlla 87,92

F. Vogelii 12, 182, 184

F. sp 66, 196, 197

Flabellaria paniculata ... ... 180

Flies 66

Flint wood tree ...27, 37, 45, 83, 175,

177, 198
Fomena

Formations, climatic
-, edaphic

Forest administration
establishments

- fringing

- legislation ...

— , mangrove swamp

, mixed deciduous

, monsoon ...

policy

protection ...

, rain

. savannah .

77,78
170
171
142
142
9

171
100
172
180

172

142

100

172, 173
... 8, 172, 185

Forest, swamp

, thorn

Forestry Ordinance
Frugivorous bats ..
Funtumia africana^

F. elastica (PI 21),

37, 41, 43, 44,

58, 61, 62, 64,

83, 84, 87, 122,

182

F. latifolia ...

Fura Junction

PAGES

... 172, 177
... 172, 190

202

23

10, 38J 45, 49, 182
198

10, 12, 13, 15, 21,

47, 49, 50, 51, 57,

66, 77, 78, 79, 82,

123, 146, 175, 177,

, 183, 184, 213, 219

13

28

G.

Gadeau

Gaiyin Krom Concession...

saw-mills ...

Gambaga ...

Garcinia

G. sp.

Gardenia ternifolia ?

Gloriosa superba ...

G. virescetis

Glossina

GlypkoBa grewioides

Gose ... ...

village

Grdbossi ...
Grains of Paradise

213, 218
... 21
16, 17
161, 162, 164

174

26

70, 87, 92, 187
10,87
... 70,87, 188

66

72, 180
... 61

62

49

180

... 70, 71, 189

170

180

Guar&i, 17, 35, 36, 41, 121, 123, 175,
176, 196, 213, 218

Gum copal ... 36, 41, 42, 56, 57, 61, 62,
77, 81, 84, 122, 123, 146, 175

Gums 92, 189

Gynandropsis pentaphylla 70, 186

Grassland ...

carpinifolia

HcetnanthuH 70, 87, 183, 188

Hcematopota ... ... ... 66

Half Assiui ... ... ... 160

Harmattan wind 1(53, 164

Ifiir<>/ii/<i mti<?<ig<.(Hc<i>'!cnsiti 10, 21, 77,

180
Harrisoniaabyssinica ... ... 181

Hec.keldo /•«... ... ... ... 175

Helichrysum ... ... ... 22

232

COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

PAOES

Ucritlera nl'di.* (PL 3), 10, 17, 26, 32,

36, 43, 49, 50, 146, 174, 175, 176,

196, 197, 19'J

Heterppterys africaiia ... ... 180

Ile-Keu bras'dieiisis ... ... 13,31

Hexalobus grandifblia ... ... 180

IHbiscu*, 70, 91, 177, 180, 185, 186, 189
II. lunartfolius ... ... ... 186

Hippo£ratea 77, 174

//. WdwitsKliii 183

Holarrhena Wulfsburgii ... ... 182

Honajcmyaficifolia 178, 179, 187

JJmtttm ... ... ... 9, 197

Hun village ... ... ... 55

Huni river 25, 27

Huriisu ... ... ... ... 27

- village 25

Hydathodes 167

Uyedtta 122, 123

Hygrophytes 167

Hymenocallis senegambica 70, 188

Hymenocardia .,, ... ... 188

//. sp. ... ... ... .., 70

Hypericinece 180, 186

Z.

n 213, 218

Imbrahim 38, 43, 50, 51, 1U1

forests 50

Imoi river 97

Impasatia 57,60

IntjMitiens Ironujii ... ... ... 178

/. sp. 84

Imp&rata anaidiiiacea ... ... 72

Impriso 96

Incense tree, 36, 37, 57, 175, 177

Indigo 185

Indigofera 70, 87, 187

Iruko 41, 47, 121, 146

Ircinyia Barteri ... 175, 177, 213, 219

lyere 219

lyeri ... ... ... ... 213

J.

Jau boa village
Jopakrom ...

Jugba ......

Jugbe ......

Jwafuabutan village
Jym river ......

47

67

40

74

93

85, 94
55, 77, 78, 162

PAGES

Ka Krom 62

Kaku, 10, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26,

28, 36, 43, 47, 49, 51, 86, 89, 90,

99, 121, 146, 177, 178, 197

Kamantang ... ... ... 8

Kanii.h'm r.onsindlix ... ... 182

Kankan 96, 99

Kemp's Peak 55

Kenyase Mohang ... ... 63, 64

Khaya, 17, 26, 28, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41,

42, 44, 51, 55, 56, 62, 64, 66, 77,

80, 81, 83, 121, 123, 145, 174, 175,

197, 198, 213, 218

K. authotheca (PL 4), 58, 64, 75, 181,

184, 196, 197

K. grandis (PL 5), 61, 62, 72, 75, 79,

83, 84, 93, 181, 184, 190, 196, 199

A'. Ptuidiii (PL 6). 14, 20, 47, 72, 181,

184, 190

K teuegulensis (PL 7), 68, 69,70,73,

74, 86, 88, 92, 94, 122, 138, 139,

174, 187, 189

K. sp. (PL 8), 10, 20, 24, 32, 56, 57,
58, 59, 61, 64, 77, 176, 184, 197,

198
KiijeUa pinnata ... ... 70,188

Kintampo 67, 75, 93, 160

Kintampo forest ... ... ... 76

Kishia, 20, 26, 28, 36, 38, 50, 56, 61,

70, 87, 175, 177, 197

Kitta lagoon ... ... ... 160

Koforidua 96, 99

Koloti, 10, 20, 24, 26, 2*, 36, 37, 41,
47,48, 49, 57, 61, 64, 81, 83, 84,
146, 175, 177

197

64, 161
... 82
... 94
... 162
... 97
... 61
... 197
... 96
90, 197
... 99

Kumasi, 13, 17, 51, 57, 58, 67, 76, 77,

162, 164, 165

197

197

96

197

50

59, 121, 123

197

85

65
...82, 83. 97, 98, 100

90,94

Kwamang ... ... ... .:. 42

Kwantanan ... ... ... 94

Kwatanuro 55, 121, 197

Ku'dtc prcjire ... ... ... 40

KoJcotswi
Komoe river
Konkota ...
Krachi
Krobo hills

plains

Krom
Krubna

Ku

Kube
Kukurantium

Kunliuintuid
KunLunL'uni
Kurantumi...
Kusiit

Kussiabah ...
Kwabalio ...
Kwabdhori ...
Kwabon
Kwahou bills
Kwahu
Kwahu hills

GOLD COAST — UEPOKT OX FORESTS.

233

Kwisa
Kwitta
Kyebi hills...

PAGES

76, 77, 78, 7(J

162

Di), 1(52, 191

Xi.

Landolphln. 1U, 45, 77

L. Droogmansiana '! ... ... ]77

L.florida 73,182,184,190

L. Heudelotii 70, 188

L. Klalnet ... 21, 24, 40, 174, 177

L. owiiriensi* (PI. 22), 13, 36, 38, 40,

56, 64, 73, 87, 122, 138, 146, 174,

177, 182, 184, 188, 189, 190, 2.13

L. scandenx 182, 184

L. Thompsonii, 62, 64, 73, 87, 182, 184,

190
Lantmia caiitara ... ... ... 182

Lecaniodiscus cupanioides ... 181

Leea 187

Leguminosce 181, 187

Liliaceru 70, 87, 183, 188

Lippia adoensis ... ... ... 182

Lissochilm ... ... ... ... 87

L. longifolim 178

L. roseus 70,87,178,188

Lithophytes 74, 172

Locust bean 87, 187

Locust beau tree 69

Lonchocarpus ... ... ... 174

L. cyanexcens 181, 185

L. senccua... ... ... ... 181

Lophira ... 146

L. alata, 9, 70, 73, 86, 89, 90, 188, 189

L.procera, 10, 19, 20, 21, 36, 43, 51, 86,

89, 90, 177, 178, 179, 189, 197

L.procera? 17

•£. sp 121

Lovoa ... 145

L. Klaineana (PI. 9), 10, 17, 23, 36, 38,
55, 78, 121, 123, 175, 176, 196,

197, 198
Lower Denkira district . 24

K.

. .. ... ... ... 17.")

Mai-rnlibium I'ali.soli; ... 21, 26, 178

M. stipidacKuni 10, 178

Macr.ogphyra l<n«jistyla 182

Mahogany, 37, 48, 51, 62, 69, 72, 75,

77, 79, 81, 86, 88, 92, 121, 123,

126, 145, 176, 184, 213

v Gold Coast . 47

PAGES

Mahogany, West African... 18, 21

Maize 79

Ma Knbe. 90, 197

Mdlpig'hiacea ... ... ... 180

Malvacew 180, 186

Mampon 162

Mangrove forest 190

Manilxit (ila:.i<»-ii. 13

M. precoxa ... ... ... ... 12

Mansi river 31,35,37

Manso 46, 47

Mansu N'Kwanta 56, 57, 58

Mansu village 24

Megaclinium ... ... 21, 174

Meiruiliin 10, 37, 197

Melateuca ... ... ... ... 50

J/. leucadendro/i ... ... ... 50

Melastomacece ... ... ... 70

Meliacecc 181, 187

Mem 161

Mezoneurom JBenthamianu/it ... 187
Micrqdesmis puberida ... ... 70

Millettia Thonningii ... ... 181

Mim ... ' 51, 61, 62, 63, 64, 76

Mhunxa itsperata ... ... 72, 181

J/«/««xop« Dj,tce (PI. 20), 10, 18, 20, 27,

36, 42, 51, 57, 61, 121, 123, 146
175, 177, 195, 196.
J/. mtdtinervi*, 72, 87, 89, 182, 184. 190

J/. sp. V ... 198

Mioa mountains ... ... ... 160

Mirefuaso village 81

Mitragyne africana ... 72, 178

J/. macrophyllu, 10, 21, 36, 72, 177, 178,

196, 199

Mohang 63

Moinsin range 78, 162

Monqdpra ... ... ... ... 62

^[. bredpes 180

M. myrintica 21, 175

M. tenuifoliti. 21, 175

Monsoon forests 179, 185

Mordants 189

Morelia senegalensis ... ... 182

Morinda citri folia ... ... ... 182

M. lonyijium 182

Motandra i/uiueensi^ ... ... 175

Mousandiia,... ... ... ... 197

Mtmanga ... ... ... ... 37

M. Smithli (PI. 24), 10, 21, 25, 26, 29,

32, 37, 39, 44, 49, 56, 62, 77, 174,

175
Mussaenda ... ... ... 21,174

M. eryt /trophy li< i 175, 182

M. splendent ... 182

J/. t<:>it<ijlur<i 182

M'yaukoH 50

Myriantkus arborcus, 10, 21, 67, 77,

175, 182

Myristlca sp. 20

Myrixtic<i.*p.'t 10,198

Myrtacew 183, 187

234

COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

N.

Nakwa river
Napoleona Vogelii...
Nicholas Krom
Nikwansia ...
N'Kansia ......

N'Koranza ...
N'koranza forest ...
X' Kola n

N'kwansia ...
N'kwansia village...
Nkwanta
N'Kwanta ...
N'Kwanto Bepo Range
N'Kwanto ...
Nya-me dua
Nyamidua ...
N'yankon, 10, 17, 26, 28.

99,

NyctaginaceoR
Nyemidua ...
Nyl-Na-Kobln
Nymphaea Lotus ...
N.

PAGES

... ... 161

183

24

31

32

... 75, 93, 162
76

26, 174

90, 197

38

37

... 51, 56, 57

60, 161

58

59

20, 197

... 10, 44, 178

32, 36, 43, 47.

146, 176, 197

70

37

40, 177

178

, 178

O.

Oawango ... ... ... ... 213

Obo 93,97

Obo-Abetifi hills 162

Oboase ... 51, 55, 56, 68, 74, 93

Oboase hills 162

Obusumbone river ... ... 94

Odahuma ... ... ... ... 198

Odenya ... ... ... ... 198

Odoum, 10, 18, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27, 32,
36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42,44, 47, 51,
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64,
72, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84,
121, 123, 124, 146, 175, 176, 184,
186, 195, 198

Odum 198

Odumase 57, 80

Odumase village ... ... ... 59

Odupin ... ... ... ... 198

Odujion ... ... ... ... 198

Odwen ... ... ... ... 89

Cffin river, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 56, 58,

59, 60, 160, 161, 162

0/ram, 10, 19, 20. 22, 23. 25, 26. 28,

34, 36, 37. 38, 39, 41, 43, 44, 47,

48, 50, 55,' 56, 57, 58, 62, 64, 75.

77, 78, 79, 80, 81. 83, 84, 146, 174,

176, 177, 183, 184, 198

Ofina stream 55

nf,( 9,198

< >f/tvanyo ... ... ... ... 218

Okonton , 198

PAGES

Oil bean tree, 20, 28, 36, 48, 55, 122,

123, 146, 211

Oil nut 211

Oil palm, 10, 15, 37, 41, 74, 87, 175,

177, 184, 190
90

26, 37, 83,775, 177, 198

Oils

Okan

Okisibiri

OTcitsiwanfu

Okpara river

Okunmanlcra

Ok lire

Okwawu hills

OlacinecB

Ol'fenlandta

Oldfteldia africana

Olokemeji ...

Olokemeji Gardens

Ombrophoby

Omphalocarpum ..

0. sp.?

Oncoba dentala

Onomokyukyu

Ongina

Onyhin-

Opapea

Opapoa

Opepeh

Opobo

Opobonikwi...

Opobonufird.

Opuntia

0. sp.

()rchidacecE ...

Orchids

Ordeal tree..,

198

... 73
... 198
... 47
... 160
... 181
70, 87, 188
211, 216
... 14
... 12
... 167

174

36, 196

180

180

211,216

198

198

198

9, 69, 88, 122, 189

198

... 211, 216
... 211, 216
... 211,216

8

7

70, 188

, 178

86, 89

Ormosia laasiflora ...

Oroko

Osufibise

Osupawa

Ote

Otte ..

9, 69, 86, 187
... 211, 216
... 90, 91, 198

198

10, 198
20

Oiraaut ... 10, 57, 58, 59, 84, 198
Owawa ... ... ... ... 198

Oxyanihus tubiflorus ... ... 182

OxytenantJiera abyssinica... 70, 74, 189

P.

Padatth- ... ... ... ... 15

Palnw 183, 188

Pamo ... ... ... 63, 64, 65

Piiiul-inus candelabrum ... ... 21

Panicum ... ... ... 70, 189

Pa,))arerace<p ... ... ... 186

Papoa ... ... ... 86, 184

Para trees . ... 13

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS.

235

PAGES
Parinn rhu/i ... ... ... 9

P. curatdlifolium 70, 87, 91,

187

P.mobola 70, 87, 187

P. polyandrum ... ... ... 187

P. rob'ustum 181, 184

P. sp 175, 181, 196

P. sp. ? 19

Parkia 35, 39, 47

P biglnbosa 10, 57, 67, 84

P.filicoidea ... 9, 69, 87, 91, 187

P. sp. ... 9, 19, 20, 23, 26, 37, 39,

41, 48, 175.
Passifiorecr ... ... ... ... 183

Paullinln pinnata ... ... .... 181

Pavetta Bacon/a ... ... ... 182

Pebedoum 23, 36

Pebedum ... 17, 38, 41, 42, 55. 78, 121,
123, 175, 176, 198

Peltophorum, sp 10, 62, 197

P. sp. ? 37

Penkiftt, 10, 55, 83, 121, 123, 176, 198

Pentaclethra macrophylla... 10, 20, 26,

28, 34, 36, 44, 48, 49, 55, 77, 122,

123, 146, 175, 177, 196, 197, 213,

219

Pentadesma butyracea ... 175,177
Pepedum ... ... ... ... 10

Peperomia Vuqelti 183

Phc&nix redinata ... 70, 74, 87, 188

Phrynium 75, 180

P. Benthami 183

P brachystachys ... ... ... 183

P. Danielli 183

Phyllanthus 70

P. reticulatus 188

Physical features ... 160

Piassava fibre ... ... ... 178

Piperacece ... ... ... ... l!-'3

Piptadenia... 39, 41, 44, 56, 57, 62, 64

P. nfricnnn (PL 16), 9, 10, 20, 28, 37,

39, 50, 55, 58, 62. 67, 72, 77, 81,

84, 154, 174, 175, 176. 177, 181,

183, 184, 197, 198

P. sp. (PI. 17), 27, 35, 39, 42, 45, 48,

55, 81, 83, 175, 196, 197, 198

Pistiu Htrtdiotes ... ... ... 178

Pithecolobium samnn ... ... 7

Platyoerium ... ... 21, 174

Pleiocerux Barteri ... ... 182

Polyadoa umbellate, 72, 182, 190

Potrodom ... ... ... ... 89

Pra river ... 18, 52, 160, 162, 190, 1JU
Prah river ... ... ... 46, 48

Prahso village 83

Pram Pram plains 97

PrekfHe 10, 198

Prestea 27,28,31,83

Prestea mines 29,30

Prestea mining camp ... 25, 32

Princessu 47, 48

Princesu ... , 46

Prop roots 174

Protodon , 198

PAGES

Pru river ... 76

Pseudocedrela, 26, 28, 34, 35, 37, 38,
39, 40, 42, 44, 47, 51, 55, 62, 64,
66, 77, 79, 80, 121, 145, 174, 175,

213, 218

P. cylindrlca (PL 10), 10, 20, 27, 36,
56, 58, 83, 176, 198

P. Kotschyl (PL 11), 69, 70, 73, 86,

88, 122, 138, 139, 187, 189

P. utilisf (PL 13), 60, 62, 64, 181, 184,

197

P. sp. (PL 12), 9, 10, 32, 41, 45, 55,

58, 61, 66, 67, 77, 83, 84, 176, 198

Pseudospondias microcarpa ... 181

Psorospermum ... ... ... 186

P. sp 70

Pterocarpus sp. ... ... 57, 58

P. eriiiaceus, 9, 69, 86, 89, 187, 189
P. esculentus, 72, 87, 178, 181, 190
P. indicus ... ... ... ... 15

Puliamo ... 64, 65, 66, 67, 191

Punkioa, 20, 36, 40, 41, 47, 58, 60, 61,

121, lL'3, 176, 198

Pynaertia ealaenxis, 10, 20, 24, 36, 49,
57, 61, 66, 84, 146, 175, 177, 196,

197

Quisqualis indica ...

... 181

a.

Rainfall
Rain forest

162

> • • • . • **• I.I

72, 182

R. malleifera ... ... ... 187

frrphia ' 46, 74, 87

Raphia palm 67

Rapliia rinifera 39, 56, 62, 178, 183,

185, 190, 198
Raphidophova ... ... 21, 174

Rauwolfia ... ... ... ... 77

R. ronritoria ... ... 21, 175

Red iron-wood 19

RhamnacecB ... ... ... 188

Rhizophora racemosa ... ... 190

R. mangle ... ... ... ... 190

Ricinodendron africinntis, 10, 20, 23, 27,

34, 36, 55, '57, 58, 72, 77, 80, 83,

84, 87, 90, 122, 123, 146, 175, 176,

177, 183, 184, 190, 196, 1118

RoKucecc ... ... ... 181, 187

Rosewood tree 69, 89

236

COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

PAGES

Rubber 189

Rubber, rules relating to... ... 118

Rubber-yielding plants ... ... 177

Jiiiliim-ecc 70, 182, 187

Jiutacctc ... ... ... ... 180

S.

spontaneunt. ... ... 72

Saccharum sppntaneumf ... ... 37

Sacred Forest 50

Sadang village 90, 94

Salt Pond district 161

Samanta 26, 37, 58, 59, 198

Samartawa ... ... ... 198

Sansecifriti- ... ... ... 91

S. giiineensix ... ... ... 183

S. sp 70

Santiriopsis Klainci 36, 57, 81, 175
Sapindacece ... ... ...181

Sirpotaceai 182, 188

Sarcocephalus esculejitus (PI. 18), 9, 16,
20, 26, 36, 70, 87, 92, 175, 177,

188, 197
Sarcocephalus fiusseggcri... 21, 178

S. sp.

• • •

56, 198

Sumin river

Sarmang

. . •

... 160

Suminsu

Sass wood ... 68,69,

86, 89,

122, 187

Supon

Sausage tree

• • •

... 1*8

Swamp veget;i

Savannahs

• • •

... 190

Swietenid iiuic.

Scitaminete ...

75,

180, 183

S. Mdhugani

Schrebera golungensis

...

72, 190

>S'. sp.

...

... 72

Scrub fires ...

. * •

8

Seasons

• . •

... 163

Drv

• . •

... 163

uiy

Wr-vlnll rl liTT

. . .

... 163

Tornado ...

• • .

... 163

Sefwi

• • •

97, 191

Sekondi ... 16, 17

, 49, 53

, 62, 162

Tabanus

Sene. river

...

94, 160

Tucca

... 198

1\iccacr(t

Shama

• • •

24, 160

Tain river

PAGES

Smeathmannia^pubescens ... ... 183

Stttilaceri: ... ... ... ... 188

Smilax Kruussiana ... 70, 188

Soil 165

•^/nit/laden cqmpanulata 72, 182, 190
Spilaitthes acmella... ... ... 7ll

Spondins lutea ... 72, 181, 185, 190

Staff, European 143

Subordinate 155

Sterculia ... ... ... ... 59

S. Jiarteri, 45, 55, 57, 58, 61,64,72,81,

83, 84, 87, 91, 180, 185, 190

S. cordifolia, 10, 37, 43, 45, 55, 56, 57,

58, 62, 64, 66, 72, 81, 83, 84, 87,

180, 185, 190. 197, 199

S. tomeiitosa, 57, 58, 61, 62, 64.72, 180,

185, 190
S. tragacantha ... ... ... 180

Sterculiacew 180, 187

Stink-wood trees ... ... ... 37

Strophanthus ... ... 38, 77, 174

S. gratux 182

S. hispidus ... ... ... ... 182

S. Preussii ... ... ... ... 182

S. isarmento&us ... ... ... 182

S. sp ... 62

Stryclinos ... ... ... ... 74

N. f'/iia>'f/hintii ... ... 87, 188

Subinsu stream ... ... ... 55

Sudd weed... ... ... ... 178

... 85, 90, 94, 16d
... ... ... 94

46, 47, 48
... ... 21

ylla ... ... 14

... ... ... 14

Shea butter tree, 9, 73, 87, 90, 91, 94,

122, 188, 189
Shedua ... ... ... ... 77

Shingle tree 10, 77, 79

Shingle-wood tree..., ... 78, 84

Sibiri stream, 31, 38, 39, 40, 41, 48

Sifht 70, 180, 185, 186

Sikas-siko 68

Sikassiko ... ... ... ... 73

Silk-cotton tree, 19, 27, 37, 38, 40, 41,
70, 72, 73, 81, 87, 174, 176, 186,

187, 198

Silk-rubber tree, 43, 61, 146, 175, 183
Simarribeui ... ... ... ... 181

Siriko 40

Small rains... ... 163

T.

66

70

70

68, 75, 160

Takora 57

Tdkwudun ... ... ... ... 198

Tamarindus indica, 69, 73, 87, 90, 92,

187, 189

Tano 41

Tano-Ankobra water-paiting ... 32

Tano river, 24, 31,38, 42, 43, 44, 45,

46, 49, 51, 52, 61, 62, 63, 160, 161,

190, 191

Taiio river basin 176

Tanoso ... , 52, 61

Tarkwa 13, 24, 25, 83, 191

Tarkwa mines 49, 50

Teak tree, East Indian ... ... 14

Techerabini 64, 65

Tectono grand is ... ... 14, 38

GOLD COAST — REPORT ON FORESTS.

237

Tendo lagoon
Tephrosia ...
Terminalia . . .
T. Brownei ...
T. mncropterri
'1. scutifent...

PAGES

... 160
... 70, 87, 187

58

72, 177, 181, 184

70, 187
... 10, 72, 14G

T. superba, 10, 19, 20, 34, 36, 66, 174,
175, 176, 177, 181, 183, 184, 190,

198
T. togoensis,,, ... ... ... 187

T. sp. ... 10.20,36,55,57,58,

66, 77, 84, 86, 146, 175, 176, 177,
181, 183, 184, 197

Tetrapleura Thonninr/ii, 10, 20, 39, 55,

64, 67, 175, 198

Tiama-Tiama, 10, 32, 36, 40, 41, 45,

47, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 67

121, 123, 176, 184, 198

Tilwcetf. 180,187

Timber, rules relating to... ... 122

Timber trees
Tokorase ...
Tomba river
Tombo
Tombo palm
Tomento ...
Tomento village
Tomme river
Tonkomia ...
Totonso

Treculia africnna
Triaspis
Trichilia
Trichilia sp.

... 88

58

68, 74

198

21, 39, 62, 178
42, 43, 44, 52

46

74

73, 74
... 46, 47, 48

178

174

... 213, 218

42, 175

Triplochiton Johnsonii (PI. 2), 10, 19.
20, 34, 37, 57, 58, 66, 77, 84, 154,
174, 175, 176, 177, 183, 198, 199
Tristemma hirtum ... ... ... 70

Triumfetta, 22, 91, 177, 180, 185, 187,

189

T. cordifolia 70

T. rhomboid ea ... 70

Tropophytes 167

Tsifufu Forest 51, 55

Tuna ... 66

V.

PAGES

Vegetation on clearings 21

Verbenaceas 182, 188

Vernonia ... ... ... ... 70

Vernonia frondosa 21

Viler, cunealtl, 9, 16, 66, 70, 87, 188
V. macropJiylltt ... ... ... 16

V. megapliylla ... 9, 66, 70, 87, 188
Voacangn africana 21, 175, 182

Volta ' 94

Yolta drainage ... ... ... 73

Volta river... 65, 67, 68, 73, 74, 76,
85, 90,92, 95, 160, K>1

W.

Wagadugu

Wansanicah

Wassaw district 24,

Wassaw hills

Water partings

Waw-saw

Waw-waw, 10, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25,

28, 32. 37, 38, 39. 41, 42, 43,

47, 48; 50, 57, 58, 59. 75, 77,

81, 83, 84, 154, 155, 175, 176,

183, 184,

Wau'ft

Wawapupuo

Wet season...

White Volta

Wiawuso ...

Win river ...

Winds, dry...

Winneba river

Wood oil 92,

Woodland .,.

Woodland, Tropical

199

191

83

161

76

26,

44,

80

177,

199

199

199

163

160

191

18

170

161

189

170

172

X.

U. Xn/it/inri/l/ni, xrnrri<i1t>)i*<:, 72, 180,

184, 190

Umbrella tree, 21, 25, 29, 32, 56, 77, Xerophytes 167, 169

174, 175. Xiiuenid crmericatia ... ... 181

Upper Wawsaw 43 Xt/lia Kcansii, 26, 37, 44, 58, 64, 66,

Urena, 22, 70, 91, 177, 180, 185, 186, 181, 184, 198

189. Xylopia aethiopica 180

Urophyttum hirtellum 178 X.parmflora 180

Urticac&B 182, 188

Usteria guineensis 72,175

238 COLONIAL REPORTS — MISCELLANEOUS.

V. PAGES

PAGES Yenebin 00

Yams 79, 93 Yoruba 87

Yankom ... ... ... 51, 1S9

Yankon ... ... ... ... 10

Yankun ... ... ... ... 199

Yapiakrom village ... 57, 59

Yar-Yar 199 Z.

Ya-Ya 199

Yayu .. ... ... 10, 36 Zizyphus sp. ... ... ... 87

Yenabin 60 Z. mucronata 9, 70, 188

COLONIAL REPORTS.

The following1 recent reports relating to His Majesty s Colonial
Possessions have been issued, and may be obtained from the sources
indicated on the title page : —

ANNUAL.

No. Colony, &c.

591 Leeward Islands ,

592 East Africa Protectorate

593 Bechuanaland Protectorate

594 Northern Nigeria ,

595 Basutoland ,

596 Swaziland ,

597 St. Helena ,

598 Gibraltar

599 Falkland Islands ...

600 Uganda

601 Imperial Institute

602 Northern Territories of the Gold Coast

603 Ashanti

604 Ceylon

605 Weihaiwei ... ,

606 Seychelles

607 Jamaica -..

608 Colonial Survey Committee

609 Gambia ...

610 Malta

611 Sierra Leone

612 Turks and Caicos Islands

613 Gold Coast

Bechuanaland Protectorate

615 Bahamas ,

616 St. Lucia

617 Hong Kong

618 Fiji ,

Nyasaland Protectorate

620 Barbados

621 Trinidad and Tobago

Straits Settlements

Somaliland Protectorate

Mauritius

025 St. Vincent .'.'.' .'."

626 Jamaica

627 Swaziland

628 Grenada .'

629 Leeward Islands .

Year.

1907-1908

1908

1907-1908
1908

1907-1908
1908-1909

1908
1908-1909

1908

1908-1909
1908

1908-1909

1908
1908-1909

1908
1908-1909

1908
1908-1909

No.

58
59
60
61
62
63
64

65

MISCELLANEOUS.

Colony, &c.

British Colonies
Northern Nigeria
Nyasaland Protectorate

South Africa

Uganda

Imperial Institute
Uganda

Uganda

Subject.

Fibres.

Mineral Survey, 1906-1907.
„ ., 1907-1908.

Agriculture and Viticulture.
Cotton Industry.
Gums and Resi"s.
Botanical and 1 ^restry Depart-
ment.
Sleeping Sickness.

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE,
BY DARLING & SON, LTD., 34-40, BACON STREET, E.

1910

. .

FACULTY OF
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

3D

103

G6T5

forestry

Thompson, H. N.
Gold Coast

HAR 1 9 1596