ee | |

at Tine mT i 1 4 { |
ATER HEUTE TT eid NT it i} Hill} AIR ft
ii ' err itt Uy WHHL . t
7 a * } / j iit hii Pitt jiplitae at, pekpees eee autT cin 3 |
rN Guide | to r +f) eR ! r e im ATH ATE: |
: [ q HF j | i
Wile Their Kauna, Ilo Wag VAN

3

oe

: ——————
—— a
— =
: — eee
SSS —————SS
————— — SS

a
Se

—————
a

———— re

ee

ee Se
—————

——————

es =
ren a
——— A ——

et

——

———

Je — —_

7 a
a naennaieces ieee eg ‘
as

i

Division of Fishes,
U, S. National Museum

or foresentatin
Io He Ji seventh Ganual Uerhing
Th
7 iia frihores we /

Washington 2.0 U.5.@. Jebt ee,

"23. (Gor

Complinohs +f he Liu Ther

-

~ *, ee |
fas
=

Japanese Fringetail Goldfish
Carassius auratus, var. japonicus pendulibicaudalis
From Life

ailobunsidilubnog anoinogn’ ADS VUIOWUD ewieentad
. stid mort ;

De pa

—

Carded

Division of Fishes, \
U. S. National Museum

Goldfish Breeds
and other
Aquarium Fishes

Their Care and Propagation

A Guide to Freshwater and Marine Aquaria,
Their Fauna, Flora and Management.
With 280 Explanatory Illustrations,
printed with the Text.

PRAISE
PGES

Se

Herman T. Wolf

Formerly Secretary of the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia;
Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences and the Horti-
cultural Society of Philadelphia; American Breeders’ Associa-

tion, American Fisheries Society, Zoological Society, etc., etc.

INNES & SONS
Publishers
Philadelphia, U.S. A.

Copyright 1908 by

b INNES & SONS

PHILADELPHIA

The Rights of Translation are reserved

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1;

The Goldfish—History of the Goldfish—Dorades de la Chine, by de Sauvigny—Cuvier
and Valenciennes Descriptions—Fishes in General—Anatomy of the Common Goldfish.

CHAPTER I:

The Freshwater Aquarium and Its Maintenance—History of the Aquartum—The Prop-
erly Conditioned or Balanced Aquarium—Aquarium Plants in General—Scavengers—Kinds of
Aquaria—Arranging the Aquarium—Covers for Aquaria—Stocking the Aquarium—Food—
Advice to Beginners—Cleaning the Aquarium—Diseased Fishes—Restlessness of the Fishes
—Effect of Gas, Fumes and Odors—Alge—Destruction of Plants by Fishes —Cruelty to Fishes.

CHAP EE RIT:

Goldfish Breeds ~The Common Goldfish—Defects of the Finer Breeds of the Goldfish—
Japanese and Chinese Goldfishes—De Sauvigny’s Great Work on the Goldfishes of China.

CHAPTER LV.

Some Freshwater Aquarium Fishes—The Indian Paradise Fish—The Stickleback—
The Sunfish—The Dace—The Chub—The Golden Orfe or Ide—The Tench—The Carp
—The Tessellated Darter—The Sucker—The Killifish—The Brilliant Chub-Sucker or Mullet
—The Minnows—The Shiner or Roach—The Catfish—The Eel—The Spiny-rayed Fishes
—Collecting in Streams and Ponds.

CHAPTER YW.

The Propagation of the Goldfish—Embryology of the Goldfish—Artifcial Impregnation
of the Ova—Mating—Breeding—Prof. Ryder’s Observations—Dr. Watase’s Observations—
Aquarium and Tank Culture—Basin and Pool Culture—Greenhouse Culture—Pond and Lake
Culture—The Especially Equipped Breeding Establishment—Pond Aquaria—The Aquarium
Grotto—Wintering Goldfishes.

CHAPTER) Vil.

Food and Feeding—Feeding the Fry—Natural Food—Entomostraca—Malocostraca—
Amphipoda—Isopoda—Decapoda—Rotifera—Collecting Natural Food—Preserving Natural
Food—Propagating Natural Food—Feeding in the Aquarium—Composition of Foods.

CHAPTER VII.

Ailments and Diseases of the Goldfish and Other Freshwater Fishes, and their Remedies—
Detection of Illness—Treatment of Diseases—The Sanitarium and Hospital—Remedies—
Fungus on Spawn and Treatment—White Fungus and Treatment—Black Fungus and ‘Treatment
—Twitters or Itch and Treatment—Autotoxine and Treatment—Constipation and Treatment
—Fin Congestion and Treatment—Tail-rot and Treatment—Gill Congestion and Treatment—
Consumption and Treatment—Eye Inflammation and Treatment—Swimming-bladder Trouble
and Treatment—Dropsy and Treatment—Injuries and Treatment—Handling Diseased Fishes
—Larger Enemies of the Goldfish—Parasites and Parasitic Diseases—Animal Parasites—'T'rema-
toda or Flukes—Cestoda or Tapeworms—Nematoda or Roundworms-— Acanthocephala or
Thorn-headed Worms—Hirudinide or Leeches—Arachnia—Crustacea—Insecta—Bacteria—

Sporozoa—lInfusoria— Rotifera—Prevention of Parasitic Diseases—Parasiticides—Vegetal Para-
sites—Parasitic Fungi—Saprolegniacee—Other Common Forms of Fungi—Prevention of Fungus
in the Aquarium—Treatment for Vegetal Parasites—Algze More or Less Parasitic—The Algz ot
the Aquarium—Slime Fungus and Treatment—Fungi on Plants and Treatment.

CHAPTER VIII.

Conditions of Light, Water, Aeration, etc.—Conditions of Light—Water Conditions—
Water Analyses—Aeration—Soil for Aquatic Plants—Rockwork for the Aquarium.

CHAPTER IX:

The Freshwater Aquatic Plants—Sagittaria—Cabomba—Vallisneria—Myriophyllum and
Proserpinaca—Ludwigia—Nitella and Chara-——Anacharis—Ceratophyllum— HN ippuris—Fonti-
nalis — Potamogeton — Watercress — Callitriche — Utricularia —Hottonia — Freshwater Algz
—Floating Water Plants—Duckweed—Floating Pondmoss—Crystalwort—Salvinia—Trianea—
Frog-bit—Water Hyacinth—Water Lettuce—Oranamental Aquarium Plants—Ouvirandra—

Pond Plants—Terrarium and Aqua-terrarium Plants.

CHAPTER X.

The Molluscs, Vermes and Hydrozoa of Freshwater—Freshwater Molluscs—Univalves—
Bivalyes—Classification of the Univalves—Order Prosabranchia—Order Pulmonata—General
Remarks—Best Aquarium Snails—Snail Breeding—Classification of the Bivalves—Order
Lamellibranchiata—General Remarks—Best Aquarium Mussels—Freshwater Vermes and

Hydrozoa—Tubicola and Hydra—Cordylophora.
CHAPTER XI:

The Freshwater Aquatic Insects—Insect Enemies of Fishes—Order Hemiptera—Order
Neuroptera—Order Thysanura—Order Coleoptera—Order Lepidoptera—Order Arachnide.

CHAPRER Xi:

Aquarium Construction, Tools and Appliances—Aquarium Proportions—Bases—Frames
—Glass—Cements—Constructing Aquarium Frames—Assembling the Aquarium—Some
Aquaria Data—Nets, Forceps and Other Tools—Aquarium Stands.

CHAPTER XIII.

The Marine Aquarium—Aeration—Forms of Marine Aquaria—Arranging the Aquarium
—Seawater—Arrtificial Seawater—Temperature—Marine Aquarium Plants—The Marine Flora
—Green Algw—Olive-colored Algaa—Red Algee-—Algz for Marine Aquaria—Marine Fauna
Ccelenterata— V ermes—Molluscoida—Echinodermata—Arthropoda — Mollusca — Chordata—
Pisces—Care of the Marine Aquarium—Filters—Feeding Marine Animals—Stocking the Marine
Aquarium—Acclimatization—Collecting for the Marine Aquarium—Tansporting Catches—Re-

ceiving Consignments—Aquarium Tools.

CHAPTER XIV.

The ‘Terrarium and Aqua-terrarium—Dry ‘Terraria—Moist ‘Terraria—Heated Dry
Terraria—Heated Moist Terraria—Planting the Terrarium—Aqua-terraria—Animals for the
Terrarium and Aqua-terrarium—Batrachia, Frogs, Toads and ‘Tree ‘Toads—Urodela,
Salamanders and Newts—Squamata, Lizards and Snakes—Loricata, Alligators and Crocodiles—
Testudinata, Land and Water Turtles—Feeding in Terrarium.

CHAPTER XV.
Miscellaneous—Don’ts for Beginners—Aquarium Societies—Points for Judging Goldfishes
—Glossary of Scientific Terms— Bibliography, etc. —Index.

4

AUTHOR’S PREFACE
° es lover of Nature all forms of life are interesting and there is

nothing of greater charm, more diverting or restful to the mind

than observations of the natural phenomena of the world about us.
The habits of land animals and plants are easily observed but the facina-
ting study of the ever-varying beauty of aquatic life presents greater difh-
culty, as the denizens of the water can only be kept alive for convenient
observation when the natural conditions of their existence are understood
and simulated; and to those not satisfied with the dried mummy forms of
the specimen cabinet or of others in preserving fluids, the aquarium and
terrarium offer the best aid to that liberal education which is acquired only
by personal observation.

There is, however, probably no pursuit in the natural sciences more
abused by false statements, crass ignorance of the subject, trickery of trade
and wilful withholding of the truth, than the care and maintenance of the
aquarium, the breeding of aquarium fishes, and the cure of their diseases.
Let it be here stated that these are only troublesome when not correctly
understood, and the laws governing the existence of the plants and animals
violated, either from lack of information or by misleading counsel.

A simple and full elucidation of the correct governing principles is
greatly to be desired, as technical zoological and botanical treatment would
not accomplish the purpose, nor would books of that nature reach the
general public. There are a number of good American and foreign pub-
lications which severally treat of the aquarium and its inhabitants, the
culture of the goldfish, and the descriptions of freshwater and marine fauna
and flora, for the use of the collector, but there is none of sufficiently wide
scope to cover the entire field, and by concise, up-to-date, easily compre-
hensible descriptions and abundant illustrations to fully familiarize the
subject to all readers, the novice, the amateur and the adept.

The author’s interest in aquaria and the breeding of fine goldfishes
first led him to make the drawings and later prepare the accompanying

5

text, as an interesting study and pleasant diversion, apart from any motives
of profit. He has nothing to sell, nothing to conceal, nothing to withhold.
It has been his earnest effort to give as complete an insight of the subject
as is possible in a book of the present dimensions. He desires to bring
statements of facts before the reader in simple, practical and readable form,
to incorporate all obtainable accurate information and useful precept in
easily understood terms, without enthusiasm; and where possible, impart
explanations of the often puzzling phenomena which tend to mislead and
discourage both the novice and the expert fancier.

Though the discussions of Aquarium Societies are unquestionably
the best means of acquiring information and of removing difficulties, these
are usually not accessible to the masses and are patronized more especially
by adepts, novices not realizing that it is inexperience which leads to their
many annoyances, and so losing confidence give up a recreation which
should only animate to constantly increasing effort.

It is freely admitted that the herein contained information pertaining
to the breeding and care of the goldfish, aquarium hints and kindred
subjects, is the consensus of opinion and the recognized best practice of
the members of the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia, as elucidated by
the discussions and official transactions of the past eight years. The
classifications and descriptions of the goldfish breeds and varieties are
those recognized as its criterion upon which awards in competitions are
made; and the drawings, with but few exceptions, accurate portraits of
living fishes owned by members and attested to over their signatures.
The classifications of the plants are those of Britton and Brown and other
recognized American authorities.

Written on a flyleaf of a book which was probably the first American
publication on the aquarium and its inhabitants is the following memo-
randum:—

August 7, 1858.
Completed the Aquarium.
Stock,
4 Goldfish
2 Carp
1 Crawfish
t Turtle Mit Gott.

Though much has been learned in the fifty years since the
above was written, pertaining to the physiological principals governing
aquatic existence, the properly conditioned aquarium, the marvelous toy
breeds of the goldfish and other aquarium fishes, there still remains much
which is unexplained and which may prevent the aquarium and terrarium
becoming as much a feature of almost every household as potted plants,

6

the canary bird, the dog and the cat; and why the same success is usually
not attained with fishes as with other domesticated animals. It is hoped
that this book will remove some of these difficulties and enable all to
indulge in this enjoyment to whatever extent they may be inclined.

In the preparation of this volume the author has made use of every
available source for information, and is personally indebted for aid in
various ways to Dr. Herman Burgin, Dr. Robert Formad, Dr. Henry
Skinner, Dr. J. Percy Moore, Mr. Stuartson Brown, Mr. E. G. Vanatta,
Mr. Henry W. Fowler, Mr. Wm. H. Hetzel, and Mr. Rudolph H. Wolf.

THe AUTHOR

CORA PR Re Th

. History and Anatomy of
i _ the Goldfish

THE GOLDFISH

The beauty and hardiness of the goldfish has made it a household
pet for centuries, and until comparatively recently it was the only domes-
ticated fish. Its history and origin are lost in dim and distant ages,
though from the earliest descriptions to those of the present day authorities
agree that the fish was derived from the golden carp or a similar member
of the Cyprinidz, and originated in a lake near a high mountain named
Tsienking, near the city of Tchanghou, in the province of Tche-Kiang;
and thence distributed to other provinces of the Chinese realm. It was trans-
planted to Japan, and then brought to Europe, in the year 1611, where it
was well-known in 1728. Later it was brought to the United States,
where its propagation has become an industry of considerable magnitude.

Dr. S. Watase states that the goldfish was first introduced into Japan
from China at the beginning of the sixteenth century; and subsequently,
at frequent intervals, from China, Loo-choo and Corea. This first im-
ported goldfish was what is now known in Japan as the “Japanese breed”
or the ““Wakin,” having a slender body closely resembling that of the carp
and probably like the common American and European goldfish. The
Loo-choo goldfish, known as the “Riukin” has a short body, rounded ab-
domen, and a tail longer than the rest of the fish. The Corean goldfish,
known as the “Maruko” or the“ Ranchiu,” is characterized by a very short
body, which is often almost globular, and the absence of the dorsal fin.
There exist various intermediate forms; and the Japanese goldfish breeders
can freely produce the “Riukin” and “Maruko” from the “Wakin”; in-
dicating that the latter is the primitive form.

Of the European authorities Pennant, in the tenth edition of Systema
Natural, 1751, published drawings of several breeds, descriptions of which
resemble those given by Linnzus; and show individuals with double anal
and bifurcated and trifurcated caudal fins, which he designated as C. pinna
ani gemina, cauda transversa bifurca. M. Baster, in 1765, on Plate IX,
Vol. II, of Opusculus subsiciva, also illustrated six varieties of goldfishes

which he had living in basins.

George Edwards, of the Royal College of Physicians of London, in
1756, mentioned on the subject of the Goldfish that ‘His Grace, the late
Duke of Richmond, had a large Chinese earthen vessel full of these fishes
brought to England. I drew some of them for his Grace with leave to
make the drawings public. The first account of these fishes being brought
to England may be found in Petiver’s Works, published about 1691, though

II

HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH

they were not generally known till 1728, when a large number were brought
over in the Houghton Indiaman, Captain Philip Worth, and presented by
him to Sir Mathew Decker; since when they have been propagated in
ponds in the neighborhood of London. They may now be esteemed a
domestic fish.”

Edward’s colored engravings show five fishes having the general con-
formation of the ordinary goldfish but with double anal fins; one of blue
color on the back and red sides; one all red with a “spiked” dorsal fin of
four rays; one red and white with a distinctly “‘webbed”’ tail; and one
having a brown back, white sides and red abdomen. _ All have the relative
length of body, head and eyes of the common goldfish.

Dr. Elieser Bloch, in [chthiologie, edition of 1784, describes the gold-
fish and mentions some kept alive by him in Germany. Three illustrations
accompany the article. In a later volume there is one other illustration
of which both the description and the appearance would lead to the infer-
ence that it was a native Chinese fish and the probable progenitor of the
Chinese Telescope goldfish and its kindred varieties. His is an interesting
description, part fact, part fancy, but worthy of reproduction here. Of the
first-named three fishes, No. 1 is described as follows: —

««The head is of moderate length, the nostrils near the eyes, which have a dark star in a
golden ring, the rest of the head being of a golden color; and the operculz consist of two blades.
The back is rounded and several black spots are noticeable. On the sides it is red with gold,
and the abdomen reddish mixed with silver. Large scales cover the body. The sides are nar-
row and straight. The fins of the sides are carmine and the tail forked. I know of no fish of
which the fins are more varied, as I have one which has a small dorsal of nine spines, others
with it entirely absent; another has in place of the dorsal only a hump and a third two of these
humps. One of these fishes has a double anal fin and a forked tail; with another the tail is un-
usually long and all the other fins relatively very much longer than usual. The double anal fins
stand side by side, and the superfluous lobe of the tail grows in the centre. It would appear
that the tendency of the absence of one fin occasions the duplication of another, which may have
given rise to the culture of the fish. Remarkable is the fact that its color changes withage. In
the first year it is usually black, a color which Nature often produces in minerals and quadrupeds,
more seldom in insects, birds and plants, and never with fishes except these. After the first year
silver spots usually appear which gradually extend in size until the fish assumes a silver grey
appearance, after which it becomes red and more beautiful the older it grows; though it some-
times happens that after the red it assumes a permanent silver color. Occasionally it is red from
PNEANCY oc ssa The fish possesses a brilliancy which is astonishing, as it throws a lustre from the glass
of water wherein I kept it, like that of a glowing coal in the dark; but my pleasure did not last
Jong, for after death, it was in spirits but a few days before the color disappeared, a circumstance
which would indicate that the color is produced by a delicate mucus (slime) which covers the
fish, as the spirits assume a red color as the fish lost it; a similar occurrence to what I noticed with
the Schlampitzger, which lost its fine orange color on the abdomen as in holding it the mucus
came off on my hand. What further induced me to adhere to this opinion is that the fish retains
its color when dried or mounted, as the mucus dries on the surface and is preserved by the varnish.”’

This is a strange combination of correct and of faulty observations,
interesting both on account of their antiquity and of the information
which they contain.

HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH

The researches of both the author and of his friends leads to the belief
that all the descriptions of the toy varieties of the goldfish, subsequent to
1780, and many of those which still pass current, are based upon a
monograph and series of colored plates published in Paris in 1780. The
constant recurrence of allusions and reference to this work and the almost
identical phraseology in describing the fishes, would indicate that the first
and probably only authentic information of the goldfishes of China was
this monograph which the Manual du Libraire mentioned as the “ Histoire
Naturelle des Dorades de la Chine, par de Sauvigny; gravee par M. F.
N. Martinet, accompagnée d’ observations. _ Paris, 1780, gr. in-fol. col.”
and briefly states “There appeared but 24 pages with the frontispiece
and 48 colored plates.” ‘These represent seven distinct breeds and eighty-
eight varieties of Chinese goldfishes painted from nature by Panzy-Mis-
sionaire and sent to the French Minister of State, N. Bertin, in 1772.
Most diligent search and extensive inquiry failed to produce any further
information of these most important documents, of which no copy then
existed in any library in the United States, nor are they mentioned in the
catalogues of the libraries of Europe; but in March 1904, through the
instrumentality of the author, probably the only known copy was acquired

by the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia.

In Historie Naturelle des Poissons, 1803,de Lacépede describes and illus-
trates three goldfishes. One of these he named Cyprin Anne-caroline.
It has the head and body of the common goldfish, a long, low, 17-spined
dorsal fin, extending over the back almost to the base of the tail, narrow
paired fins, a single anal fin and the short caudal fin of the common gold-
fish, but deeply bifurcated. It has a brilliant gold and silver color on
the head, back and side and yellow fins. The back is overlaid with streaks
and spots of metallic black. The second illustration shows a scaled,
slightly telescopic-eyed fish, with rather long body, fins like the common
goldfish, but having a distinctly double tail, deeply bifurcated. ‘This he
calls Cyprin Gros-yeux. The third illustration shows a fish similar to the
second, with a shorter dorsal fin and a broader double tail. The eyes are
like those of the common goldfish. This he calls Cyprin Quatre-lobes.

In the Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, 1842, by M. le B. Cuvier and
M. A. Valenciennes, the following descriptions of Chinese goldfishes are
given, which appear to be largely taken from the writings of de Sauvigny
and de Lacépede:—

The Ya-Tan-Yu or Duck Eggs, so called because of their shortened form and swollen
middle. It appears from the drawings that the most of the individuals lack a dorsal fin, have

two anals and four-lobed caudal fins. This variety usually remains on the bottom of the water

13

HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH

in an overturned position, the back down and the belly upwards ; but can turn readily when they
wish to swim, or can move about as well in the overturned position. It seems that this is also the
most richly colored fish.

The Long- Tsing- Yu or Dragon Eyes correspond with the ** Telescope ’’ and «*Gros-yeux’’
of M. de Lacépéde, a variety remarkable for the enormous development of the eyes. I have
dissected them and have not found any difference in internal or external structure, the eye only
is much larger. Their right or oblique muscles were very weak, but the oblique nerves did not
appear smaller. This fish often holds itself overturned like the preceding. The Chinese have
a singular belief as to the origin of this species, regarding it as a cross between the ordinary Kin-
yu, or common goldfish, fecundated by a frog. It is however one of the rarest breeds, and are
sold in Pekin for as much as twenty thalers a piece.

>]

The Choui-Yu or Sleepers are a variety which keep themselves at the bottom of the water
without motion. It would appear that to come to the surface of the vessel is a fatigue for the fish
because it goes back very promptly to the sand.

The Kin-Teon-Yu or Leapers have the habit of frequently obliquely jumping out of the
water, like some species of our carp.

The Kin-Eubk-Yu of Nymphs are less brilliant in gold or silver than the others; but the
delicate lustre, the rich shades and the iridescence of their colorings and the quickness of their
movements, make this variety highly appreciated.

The Quen-Yu or Lettered. In conclusion the missionaries mention the Quen-yu or lettered
goldfish, the colors of which are so placed that one seems to find Chinese characters along their
sides. The dealers in Pekin pretend that they obtained this result by a secret method. The
fathers of the missions learned, but without verification from trustworthy source, that the Chinese
by a method similar to tatooing cause the sides of the fish to appear as though covered by written
characters. ‘They believe that a paste is employed to leave these tracings on the fish, made of
arsenic mixed with the urine of the tortoise, as skin preparations usually contain this metal; which
has a very active effect; and it is natural to suppose that this metallic agent would leave marks
on the horny scales of the fish.

The above constitutes the basis for probably all the more recent de-
scriptions of the Chinese goldfish breeds; the differences being principally
in the wording, errors of translation, or unfamiliarity with the toy varieties

of this fish.

In the Nouveau Memoirs de la Societé Imperial des Naturists de Moscow,
1855, M. Basilewsky depicted five goldfishes, which he designated cyprini
aurati, all having elongated bodies, either “tripod” tails, “web” tails or
double tails; and two having “spiked” dorsal fins of three and five rays.
All have larger eyes than the common goldfish but not protruding from
the head.

Dr. P. Bleeker in the 4¢las Ichthiologique des Indes Néérlandisis 1863,
describes nine breeds of goldfishes, four from Sarakarta, Java, and five
from Jedo, Japan. Two of these are new, the others are based upon
the descriptions and nomenclature of Bloch, Valenciennes, de Lacépéde

and Basilewsky.

FISHES IN GENERAL
The Pisces or fishes belong to the Vertebrata and may be defined
as gilled and generally scaled cold-blooded vertebrate animals having a
heart consisting of a single auricle and ventricle, limbs in the form of fins,

14

HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH

and a body adapted to rapid locomotion in water, and shaped to offer the
least resistance and friction in swimming. The goldfish is a member of
the carp family, and has been variously known as Cyprinus auratus and
Carassius auratus, the latter designation being more recently preferred as
more distinctive of the ornamental fish as there is a species of food carp
which bears the name Cyprinus aureus.

ANATOMY OF THE Common GoLprisH. Fig. 1. As one of the bony
fishes, it has the vertebre hollow at the ends, united by ligaments, and
having the cavities filled with a gelatinous substance in order to give to
the spine the mobile flexibility requisite to existence in a fluid medium.

S10
id
1
aoe
! '
| |
| |
Ph Ce oe a
12 13 1418 1516
COMMON AMERICAN GOLDFISH
Carasstus auratus amtericanus
FIG. 1—Parts referred to in descriptions,
I Snout, g Anus,
2 Distance from snout to nape, or occiput, 10. ~6©- Ventral fin,
3 Head. 11 Pectoral fin,
4 Lateral line, 12 Branchiostegals,
5 Dorsal fin, 13. Operculum.
6 Base of caudal fin. 14 Eye,
1 to 6 Distance from snout to base of caudal fin, 15 Upper jaw, or maxillary. 15a. Preorbital.
7 Caudal fin, 16 Lower Jaw, or mandible,
8 Anal fin 17 Nostril

The spinal column is divided into an abdominal and a caudal region, the
bones forming the arch through which the, spinal cord passes. There are
also transverse processes and an inferior arch below, which carries the lower
caudal spine and the interspinous bones of the anal fin. The ribs are
slender, curved bones each attached to a vertebra and imbedded in the
muscles of the sides and abdomen. ‘The interspinous bones in the middle
line of the back between the lateral muscles, are connected with the verte-
bre by ligaments, their outer ends being interspaced with the median
or dorsal fin. Theskullis a complicated structure consisting principally of
the cranial,the maxillary and inter-maxillary, the pra-operculum, sub-opercu-
lum, and inter-operculum, mandible and other smaller intermediary bones.

15

eS
HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH
eee

The ordinary goldfish has two sets of horizontal paired fins, the
anterior paired or pectoral fins, Fig. 2, connected with the clavicles and
the skull immediately behind the gills, and the posterior paired or ventral
fins inserted on the abdominal surface below and to the rear of the pectorals

FIG. 2—Skeleton of the Common Goldfish

and articulated to the posterior visceral arches and the pubic bone. The

single median or dorsa/ fin is interspaced with the upper interspinous bones;

the single ana/ fin with the lower interspinious bones, and the tail or caudal

fin set vertically at the extremity of the spine, articulated so that it is flex-

ible in all directions. The rays of all the fins are branched, increasing in _
number towards their extremities. The spinous and soft rays of the paired

fins correspond with the bones of the limbs of other animals, one of their

functions being to maintain the balance of the fish. Retrograde motion

is principally affected by the pectoral fins which also direct the course of
the fish by acting as propellers, further serving as adjuncts to the respi-

ratory system in changing the water at the gills. The ventral fins act as

a break in checking the forward motion in addition to aiding in the retro-

grade movement. ‘The dorsal and anal fins balance the body, and as rud-

ders prevent zigzag or rocking motion, while the caudal fin is the principal

means of locomotion, and also, together with the anal fin, aids in steering

the fish.

All the fins are organs of motion, but it is by the caudal fin that the
fish is impelled forward. If the movement is to be swift, it is strongly
bent to the right and left, while a gentle forward motion is effected by an
undulating movement, the lobes and rays of the caudal fin, acting like the
blades of a screw or an oar in sculling. If the fish wishes to move
towards the left, it gives a stroke of the tail to the right, the right pectoral

16

HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH

fin acting simultaneously while the left remains pressed to the body; if
the motion is to be checked, the ventral fins are erected and expanded
vertically ; if the motion is to be retrograde, a backward stroke is made
with all the paired fins and the dorsal and anal fins held rigidly upright,
the caudal fin being either held on a line with the body or slightly relaxed;
and should the retrograde movement be in either direction, the caudal fin
is flexed to the opposite side.

By observing injured fishes the purpose of the fins will be manifested.
If a pectoral fin is useless or both a pectoral and a ventral fin on the same
side, loss of balance will ensue, the fish falling on the opposite side ;_ with-
out both the pectorals, the head sinks ; without the ventrals, the motion
is unsteady; without the dorsal and anal fins the motion is zigzag; with-
out the caudal fin, forward movement is labored and slow; and without
any of the horizontal and vertical fins, the fish floats helplessly on its back,
this being the heaviest part of the body.

The head and fins of the goldfish are naked, that is, devoid of scales;
but the body is covered with an even layer of cycloidal scales which con-
sist of thin, flexible, horny discs, almost circular in form and evenly imbri-
cated, or overlapping each other like tiles, with the posterior parts extend-
ed and free, the anterior parts being embedded
imeaics epidermis and muscular tissue. Fig.’ 3:
They have an enameled surface, showing a fine
striation concentric to the margin with stiffening
ribs radiating from the rear. Their arrangement
is in an oblique transverse section across the body.
On each side, reaching from the head to the caudal
fin, there is a row of scales different from these in
structure, which constitute the /atera/ line. Each
of these scales is perforated by a tube leading to a
duct connected with a sac in the head; their func-

FIG. 3—Greatly enlarged scale
tion being the excretion of mucus which covers the of the Goldfish and diagram
body to lessen the friction of scales and water, and

of imbrication.

to make it impervious thereto. This mucilaginous system is also pro-
vided with nerves and is the seat of a peculiar sense which corresponds to
the organs of touch and hearing.

The digestive system of the goldfish is simple and adapted to its
natural mixed diet. Fig. 4. Devoid of teeth, a limited mastication only
takes place in the throat, which, for this purpose, is provided with a num-
ber of bony protuberances. The mouth is formed of the maxillary and
the mandible bones, having labial folds or lips. The cesophagus is

es eS
HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH
eS

capacious and opens into a well-defined stomach furnished with a valve,
behind which are a number of enlargements or appendages, the pyloric
ceeca, which probably serve as the pancreas. The intestinal canal is a con-
voluted tube lined by a mucus membrane which winds in easy turns from

FIG. 4—Interior anatomy of the Goldfish, showing parts referred to in descriptions.

1 Gullet and gills. 5 Vertebre. 9 Kidney.

2 Eye socket. 6 Heart. Io) 6 Milt.

3 Nasal passage. 7 Swimming-bladder. 11 Intestines.
4 Brain. 8 Liver. 8a Stomach. 12 Anus.

the pylorus to the anus. The liver is large, the gall-bladder distinct, and
the kidneys, situated outside of the peritoneal cavity, form two elongated
organs below the spine.

The swimming bladder is large and consists of a constricted sac di-
vided into an anterior and a posterior portion which contains air. It is
placed above the alimentary canal and communicates with the gullet by a
duct. It serves to maintain the specific gravity and to change the centre
of gravity of the fish and is enlarged or contracted by muscular action,
whereby the air is expanded or compressed. When this bladder is rup-
tured, malformed or diseased the fish loses all power of changing its posi-
tion except in limited motion over the bottom of the tank, or is helpless
on the surface of the water.

The reproductive system of the goldfish is -oviparous, the ovaries of
the female being known as the roe and the testes of the male as the milt.
The ovaries are placed below the spinal column on each side of the swim-
ming bladder and posteriorly united with a Fallopian tube or oviduct which
leads to an opening behind the anus. The milt of the male are similarly
located, and contain a thick white fluid in which are the spermatozoa. ‘The
eggs or spawn when laid, are slightly compressed globules, about the size
of the head ofa pin, of semi-transparent, white or yellowish color. Fecunda-

18

HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF

THE GOLDFISH

tion takes place after the eggs are discharged, their outline then assuming

a more spherical form, whereby the spermatozoa are drawn into the ova

through minute orifices and the egg fertilized.
g gs

The circulation of the blood is induced by a branchial or respiratory

heart consisting of two cavities, an auricle and a ventricle.

ign. Dhe

venous blood, coming from the liver and the body generally, is taken

rf 2 3
FIG. 5—Diagram of the Blood cir-
culatory systems of Fishes, Rep-
tiles and Mammals.
No. 1—Diagram ofa fish.
a’ Auricle, receiving venous blood
trom the body.
v Ventricle,
a Bulbus artoriosus, at the base of
the branchial artery.
6a Branchial artery, carrying the
venous blood to the gills.
c Aorta, carrying the arterial blood
to all parts of the body.
g Gills
No. 2—Diagram of a Reptile,
a Right auricle, receiving venous
blood from the body.
a’ Left auricle, receiving arterial
blood from the lungs.
uv Arterio-venous ventricle, con-
taining mixed blood, which is
driven by the pulmonary artery
(p) to the lungs, and by the
aorta (0) to the body.

The venous system is left light,
the arterial system is black, and
vessels containing mixed blood
are cross-shaded.

No, 3—Diagram of a Mammal.
a Right auricle.
vw Right ventricle.
p Pulmonary artery, carrying ven-
ous blood to the lungs.
pv Pulmonary veins, carrying arte-
rial blood from the lungs.
a’ Left auricle.
v’ Left ventricle.
6 Aorta, carrying arterial blood to
the body.
c¢ Vena cava, carrying venous
blood to the heart.

The arterial system is left white

and the venous system is black.

through the vena cava into the auricle and pro-
pelled into the ventricle, from which arises an
aortic arch, dilated at the base into a cavity, the
bulbus arteriosus, which has transverse rows of
valves, and is covered with muscular fibres for
rhythmical contraction. The blood is driven by
the ventricle through the branchial artery to the
gills where it is distributed by means of the bran-
chial laminz and subjected to the action of the
aerated water and thereby oxygenated. The
water is taken in at the mouth, forced to the
branchia by muscular action, passed over the gills,
deoxydized and then emitted from the gill slits,
or opercular appertures, on each side of the neck.
These gill slits are closed in front and covered
by the operculum bones connected by bony spines
with the hyoid arch supporting the branchiostegal
membrane. The aerated blood is not returned
to the heart, as in higher forms of animals, but is
driven from the branchia through all parts of the
body by the action both of the heart and the
contractions of the voluntary muscles; that is,
the arterial blood returned from the gills is pro-
pelled through the systemic vessels of the body
without being first sent back to the heart. The
oxygen thus consumed is not that which forms
the chemical constituent of water (H2O) but that
contained in the air which is dissolved or in sus-
pension in the water. Fishes transferred to water
devoid of air are speedily suffocated, but gold-
fishes are of low vitality and their absorption of
oxygen is comparatively small, as compared with
others; this, however, being also characteristic of
all stillwater fishes in greater or lesser degree.

ee

HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH

The nervous system of the goldfish is well developed but of some-
what inferior type. The brain is small and appears to consist mainly of
ganglia devoted to the special senses. The eyes are large, brilliant and
well developed, devoid of eyelids, and have a considerable range of vision,
and probably some magnifying power as compared with the human sight.
The interorbital space is wide, the eyes being placed at the sides of the
head, directed somewhat forward, the angles of vision being both to the
front and to the sides. The pupils are nearly round with flattened, slight-
ly convex cornea, and are enveloped in a layer of gelatinous substance
which covers the cavity of the orbit and permits of considerable move-
ment of the bulbus. They have brilliant dark centres and white, yel-
lowish or reddish borders.

Goldfishes are voiceless, having no lungs nor any of the auditory
organs present in some species of fishes.

The nose has two erect nasal appendages below the infraorbital space
with tubes leading to sacs lined with a folded olfactory membrane.
Anteriorly the water is admitted into the sacs, but posteriorly they are
closed and do not connect with the pharynx; the sense of smell apparently
not being very acute.

The sense of taste is located in the sensory nerves of the palate, in a
thick cushion of soft contractile substance supplied with nerves.

The essential portions of the organs of hearing are present but not
fully developed, and consist of rudimentary organs located at the base of
the cranial cavity, a labyrinth with vestibule and semicircular canals, but
the tympanum and the external parts are entirely absent, though the
bones in the temporal region are thin and may partially serve the purpose
of conducting soundwaves.

The sense of touch is very well developed and it would appear that
sensations of sound are communicated by vibrations in the water, which
act on the sensory nerves of the scales, more especially those of the latera]
line. On this account the fish probably feels, rather than hears, sounds.

The nerves on the surface of the fish, both of the scales and of the
fins, are well developed.

The fish has a well-organized muscular system in all parts of the
body. There are sets of muscles that cover the sides of the trunk, the
back and the tail, composed of many tendons branching from the large
lateral muscles, these being divided into dorsal and ventral halves. Each
fin possesses a separate system of muscles which governs every move-
ment. Internally, the muscles are greatly ramified and control all the
organs.

HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF THE GOLDFISH

The goldfish has no fixed period for slumber, apparently sleeping
whenever desirable, by day or by night. It remains motionless on the
bottom of the tank or rests on the plants, breathing slowly and regularly,
the eyes slightly withdrawn, vacant and of a glassy stare. All the fins
but the pectorals are motionless, and these have only sufficient movement
to change the water at the gills. If undisturbed this rest may be for
hours, but usually it is only for a few minutes at frequent intervals.

The diet of the goldfish is omnifarious, its food consisting of the
minute vegetal, insectile and animal organisms found in its natural habita-
tion, and the young shoots and tender leaves of aquatic plants, as well as
smaller fishes and its own spawn and young.

The excrement, when the fish is in a healthy condition, is dark brown
or black, and usually appends for some time, as a long vermicelli-like

thread. From its appearance illness of the fish or constipation/ may often
be first detected.

CHAPTER IT.

The Freshwater Aquarium and
its Maintenance.

THE AQUARIUM

A well-kept aquarium is unquestionably one of the most beautiful
ornaments in the household, as it is both decorative and instructive, and a
constant source of interest and entertainment to young and old. To the
lover of the beautiful in Nature, the plant and animal life, thus brought
under ready observation, affords opportunity for study and investigation
that must lead to broader views and a higher appreciation of the beauties
of nature. :

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AQuarium. Of the early history of the
aquarium Henry D. Butler states that “the great principle of the Aquarium
was faintly indicated by Priestley, as long ago as the close of the 18th
Century; Ingelhauss approached it more closely in 1778-9; Daubeny
touched its verge in 1833; Dr. W. B. Ward, in £837, suggested it with
some distinction; Dr. Johnson partially demonstrated it in 1842; Dr.
Lankester, in 1849, and Warrington, in 1850, rendered it conclusive; but
Dr. Philip H. Gosse, in 1852, perfected all the labors of his predecessors
in a series of decisive experiments that left no room for doubt or contra-
diction.”

“* An aquarium had also, about this time, established itself, by acci-
dent, at Hampton Court, England, and was described by M. Jesse. In
a water tank in the open air, plants and snails made themselves unbidden
confreres with the fishes. Nature did the rest, as she does in those more
gigantic Aquaria, the placid lake and the majestic river.”

“Next followed the grand Aquaria of London and Dublin under
regal auspices. These were sumptuous exhibitions; and in a short time
created such a popular interest in Great Britain that all the other curiosi-
ties of nature sank at once, into comparative insignificance.”

Other authorities mention that Priestley, in 1833, discovered that
growing plants, submerged in water, gave off oxygen when exposed to sun-
light. In 1844, Ward succeeded in keeping fishes together with plants,
but did not know the law of balance between plant and animal life. In
1849, Wm. Stimson had several aquaria at the Smithsonian Institute, but
did not give publicity to the fact. But in 1850, Robert Warrington, of
Manchester, England, read a monograph before the London Chemical
Society on “ The Relation between the Animal and Vegetable Kingdom,”
in which he explained the principle for the arrangement and maintenance
of the aquarium. Later, he in conjunction with Dr. Gosse, continued
their experiments and learned of the necessity of snails, and this finally
solved the entire problem of the balanced freshwater aquarium. Dr. Gosse

25

THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE

also first applied the term ‘‘ aquarium ”’ to fish tanks, it having previously
been used by the botanists to designate aquatic plant receptacles.

THe Property CoNnpITIONED oR Batancep AQuarium. When
properly arranged, its maintenance is very simple, but the governing prin-
ciples of a balanced aquarium are not always understood. It is not real-
ized that when the relations of plant to animal life are correctly propor-
tioned, the aquarium is virtually self-sustaining or balanced, and the water
need only be changed at long intervals, often of a year or more.

Plants in their growth liberate oxygen and take up the carbon-oxide
and dioxide given off by the living creatures; the latter, in their turn re-
quire the liberated oxygen, which is either in suspension or dissolved in
the water, to maintain their existence. Hence, if the plants and animals
are properly balanced, the quality of the water remains fixed, and only
becomes vitiated after a long period through the presence of other gases
generated by the excrement of the animals and the decomposition pro-
duced by the general decay of the plants, of food, and other organic sub-
tances. Oxygen is absorbed in considerable quantity by the breathing
organs of the living inmates, for the oxidation of waste carbonaceous
matter, thereby producing carbonic acid gas. ‘This, during the daytime,
is absorbed by the plants, the contained carbon being required to add to
the solid structure of the plants, and the oxygen isset free in the water.
-Thus the double action of animals and plants maintains an almost perfect
balance, as the animals diminish the proportion of oxygen and add to the
quantity of carbonic acid gas, and the plants increase the oxygen and di-
minish the carbonic acid gas.

The fishes, however, consume more oxygen than still water takes up
from the air, and if oxygen-liberating plants are not introduced into the
aquarium, they suffer from the lack thereof, become restless, come to the
surface to breathe the air,and may finally die of asphyxiation.

It must not, however, be taken that an exact balance is ever attained,
and it is better to have a preponderance of the oxygenating element, re-
stricting the animal. life to that which will live comfortably in the existing
environment, and that the nearer these conditions are approached the
better the inhabitants will thrive and the less often the water need be
changed.

AguariumM Prants. Not all aquatic plants are equally good gener-
ators of oxygen and some information is requisite to make a selection of
those which best fulfil this necessary purpose. ‘There are quite a number
of readily obtainable plants which perform this function, many of them
native and others to be had of dealers. These are, in the order of their

26

THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE

utility, Sagittaria (floating arrowhead), Cabomba (fanwort), Vallisneria (eel
or tape grass), Anacharis (water weed), Myriophyllum (water milfoil),
Ludwigia (loose strife), Fontinalis (willow moss), Ceratophyllum (horn-
wort), Potamogeton (pond or stink weed), and others, of which more will
be stated hereafter.

SCAVENGERS. To get rid of offal and waste matter generally, scav-
engers must be introduced, the best of these being frog tadpoles and those
species of snails that do not attack the plants. When not overfed, they
also clean the glass of the green coating of Alga, the minute water plants,
though these are far from objectionable, as they are one of the natural

foods of the fishes.

Kinps or Aguaria. Any vessel will serve as an aquarium if it is
clean and impervious to water, but glass better permits of observation of
the contents. ‘The cylindrical and bell forms distort the appearance of the
fishes, and the ordinary globes furnish, in proportion to their capacity, too
limited surface for the absorption of air. All-glass vessels are liable to
fracture by uneven expansion and contraction, due to rapid changes in
temperature or the effect of the sun rays, and if not soft and well-annealed,
by the pressure and weight of the water. Globes and cylinders may also
be so placed as to condense the sun rays, and as focusing lenses set fire to
inflammable materials. Of the all-glass vessels the rectangular battery jars,
though usually more expensive, give the best results. They may be ob;
tained in two sizes made of white flint glass; having a capacity of 214 and
5 gallons, and are sold with or without brass or iron bases and stands.
Thick pieces of felt under them are safeguards against breakage from un-
even pressure on the bottoms, when set on flat surfaces, or by scratches.
The brass or iron-framed aquaria are by far the best, and when properly
constructed the glass sides and the bottom are so neatly joined that little
or no cement is required on theinside. ‘They are the strongest and hand-
somest, and can be made in any desired size. The foregoing refers to
small aquaria, and it is a mooted question whether a number of these, each
of distinct character, may not have more charm than one larger aquarium,
if space will permit of their proper display, though the larger the aquarium
the more likely is the success with fishes.

Large aquaria are usually made with heavy iron stiffening frames,
slate bases and thick plate or crystal glass, the size limited only by the
available space. When the tanks are of too great width they may become
obscure and their contents not so easily seen. When they are of too great
depth the aerating surface may not be sufficient and the water pressure too
great. Consequently a tank of greater width than 24 inches and greater

27

THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE

height than 22 inches is objectionable. For out-of-door tanks and cis-
terns, any size and a variety of materials may be used; but when built of
wood, they should be seasoned by a frequent change of water. Slate, soap-
stone and cement basins are used, of which more will be stated hereafter.

ARRANGING THE AQuaRiuM. ‘The aquarium should be set on a stable
support, a stand, table or shelf, preferably facing a northern or north-
eastern exposure in the summer, while in the winter it should be placed
to get the sunlight two or three hours daily, preferably the morning sun;
as it is essential that the aquarium should get a good light or failure will
be the inevitable result. If indoors it should be placed at a window or
under a skylight admitting the daylight and sunlight but without too much
exposure to the direct rays of the sun during the hot summer months.
The best success will be had when the light is such as to stimulate the
growth of the plants without producing material changes in the tempera-
ture of the water. The position at a window also permits of the necessary
ventilation and aeration; the slight draught, even when the window is
closed, is a protection from excess of coal or illuminating gases and tobacco
smoke; and in warm weather, it will moderate the temperature of the water
if the direct rays of the sun are excluded.

Covers For Aquaria. Expertsadvocate glass covers for the aquarium
having sufficient plant life. The plants will grow more luxuriently, dust
will be kept out, froth and bubbles will not form on the surface, and the
evaporation will be less rapid. The cover need not fit tightly, but raised
about 1% inch by rubber or cork discs on the upper frame of the aquarium
or it may have the corners cut away. The cover will also prevent the
single-tailed goldfishes, the ide, tench and other freshwater fishes, from
leaping out of the aquarium, a habit which they have inherited from their
wild congen¢térs wh¢ do this at twilight, when the day enemies have retired
and those of the night not yet appeared. The double-tailed goldfish can-
not leap from the water. Wire gauze or cotton netting over the top of the
aquarium will also serve to prevent the leaping out of the fishes.

AguaRiuM Equipment. In the equipment and maintenance of an
aquarium cleanliness is the all-abiding law. The interior should be cleaned
with water, the glass rubbed with table salt, either on the finger tips or on
a soft rag, and then carefully rinsed; no soap or alkaline substances are to
be used nor any greasy or soiled vessel employed. When placed in posi-
tion, the bottom shouid be covered with two inches of well washed sand,
or grit/(small pebbles) and covered with small or larger pebbles; this depth
being requisite for tHe proper rooting of the plants.

28

7p

THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE

Next the plants should be arranged, and for the indoor aquarium
Sagittaria, Cabdmba, Vallisneria, Nitella, Potamogeton and Ludwigia, the
best generators of oxygen, are to be recommended and should be planted
in natural groups, interspersed with a few slips of Anacharis and Fontinalis,
to enhance the effect; considerable opportunity being afforded for the dis-
play of individual taste either by arrangement with mathematical precision
or by mingling in the graceful abandon of nature. These will grow all
the year and thrive indoors; and, to permit of shelter to the fishes from
too strong light, they should be arranged towards the window, leaving an
open space on the inner side in which the fishes may disport themselves.
If closely grouped, each kind somewhat by itself, most picturesque water
gardens can be produced.

The planting is usually done directly in the sand or grit, the lower
ends of the plants covered and weighted with pebbles, but it is preferable
to plant in low flower pots or dishes, into which a little clean earth or
pond mud has been placed, covered with pebbles, so that the plants will
not be uprooted when the sand and grit are taken out and cleaned. Sagit-
taria and Vallisneria should be planted deeply so that the runners will
be covered; the others may be set into the sand or grit without roots, as
with some of the plants these will develop, or they will grow without roots.
Bunches of Cabamba and other aquatics bound with strips of block tin, as
sold by the dealers, should be separated; when planted in that way they
will not thrive and soon rot at the lower ends. Cabg@mba and Cerato-
phyllum rarely root in the aquarium but grow quite as well with the ends

buried in the pebbles.

A few larger pebbles scattered over the top and brook-worn stones
between the plants, a pile of rockwork or a piece of turfstone make a pleas-
ing effect, but it is surely questionable taste to introduce the grotesque
submerged castles and figurettes so often seen in aquaria.

The pebbles permit the humus and precipitations to sift to the bottom,
add to the cleanly appearance, permit of the growth of tiny aquatic plants,
and are of benefit in many other ways.

When the plants have been put in position, the aquarium should be
filled with clean water nearly or quite to the top, by pouring it on wrap-
ping paper laid over the plants, that the contents may not be disturbed;
and then the plants raised to proper positions.

The outside having been cleaned, the aquarium should be permitted to
stand a few days before introducing the fishes, though it is advisable to
introduce tadpoles and snails at once, so that the water may clear and the
plants begin to take root and accumulate oxygen.

a2)

THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM:AND ITS MAINTENANCE

The use of feeding dishes is an unsettled question. Some expert
fanciers claim that it 1s best to have the fishes hunt their food among the
pebbles; but for the novice they have the advantage of showing whether
the quantity given is correct and all the food consumed after each feeding,
an important observation, as all excess should be removed.

STOCKING THE AQuartumM. The number of fishes and scavengers
which may be safely introduced depends upon the size of the fishes, the
conditions under which they have been reared, the quantity of light, the
temperature of water, the plant growth, and other circumstances ; but over-
stocking should be avoided. A generally accepted rule for the perma-
nent aquarium, under the most favorable conditions, is not more than one
2 or 3 inch fish per 2% to 3 gallons of water, with a tadpole and two
snails to each three fishes. Care should also be exercised that the water is
of like temperature to that to which the fishes have been accustomed, as
any sudden excessive changes are injurious. If they have been kept in
cold water, that of the aquarium should be of the same temperature, and
assume that of the room after the fishes have been put into it. This is
usually between 50° and 80° F. In the aquarium, indoors, in the winter,
it is easily maintained between 50° and 60° F., and in summer between
65° and 80° F. In the open air the fishes survive almost every tempera-
ture, even freezing cold, if the ice is broken to prevent suffocation ; while
100° F. is not injurious if sufficient oxygen is contained in the water and
no sudden changes in temperature take place. A moderate equable tem-
perature, between 50° and 70° F., is best for the household aquarium, and
is easily attained.

It has been ascertained that for each 16 degrees of lower temperature
water will absorb or hold in suspension double the volume of oxygen
liberated by plants; and, inversely, a corresponding diminution will take
place for each 16 degrees of rise in temperature; or that water at say 44°
F, will sustain nearly twice as many fishes in comfort as will the same vol-
ume at 60° F., or three times as many as at the summer heat of 76° to
80° F.; and their number should therefore be diminished as soon as they
persist in remaining on the surface sucking in the air and taking the re-
quired oxygen directly from the air itself.

In changing the fishes to the aquarium they should be gently handled,
floated from one vessel to the other, if possible, avoiding violence or need-
less fright, as considerate treatment soon makes them less timid and more
fully domesticated.

Success with goldfishes depends upon cleanliness, a vigorous plant
growth to furnish abundant oxygen, intelligent treatment and proper food,

sparingly fed.

30

————— eerste
THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINFENANCE

Foop. The natural food of the goldfish consists of the minute pro-
tozoans and crustaceans, alg, insects, larvee and worms contained in all
freshwater. In the artificial conditions of domestication and in the
aquarium, however, an insufficient amount of this food is obtainable,
making feeding necessary ; the best results being obtained when this
natural food can be given to them; but in lieu thereof, artificial food may
be fed, care being taken to feed in moderation, excess being more danger-
ous than a slight insufficiency. Not more should be given than will be
immediately consumed, and if any remains uneaten, it should either be re-
moved with the lifting-tube or no more given until it has been consumed.
Animals under domestication thrive best when sparingly fed, and this
also applies to goldfishes and other aquarium pets. The appetite of
fishes is greatest in warm weather, as they become sluggish when the water
is cold, and in their natural state take little or no food; which should be
considered, and their diet regulated in keeping with their natural require-
ments.

During warm weather they should be fed once each day, but when
the water has become cold, only on alternate days, or a smaller quantity
given daily with occasional days of abstenence, that they may seek the
discarded particles of previous feedings and prevent its becoming sour, with
the attendant objectionable results.

For the novice, the most readily obtainable and least harmful fish
food is the generally used rice wafer. Of this a piece about 34 inch
square should be fed to each 3 inch fish in summer and a smaller quantity
in winter, varied at intervals of a week with other approved prepared gold-
fish foods or small particles of cleansed earthworms or ant larve, and
when these can not be obtained with very small pellets of raw scraped
beef, each fish receiving but one piece and care taken that none remains
uneaten. Bread, cake and similar substances are not proper food for
aquarium fishes.

Satts. In an aquarium holding say five gallons of water, a half tea-
spoonful of table salt or a smaller quantity of epsom or glauber salts
should be put about once a fortnight. It is beneficial to the fishes, who
take it ravenously, as they have the same craving for saline substances as
other animals. The table salt is both a mild antiseptic and a cathartic,
and the other salts, cathartics, which are necessary to the fishes in their
artificial surroundings, confinement, and the concentrated and highly
nutritious forms of their food. Some of the prepared foods contain these
salts, but their addition to the water in moderate quantity is always bene-

ficial.

31

THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE

Sea shells, corals and other marine objects should not be put into the
freshwater aquarium, though experts favor the introduction of a small quan-
tity of lime in some slowly soluble form as necessary to the existence of
the fish and molluscs. This will be treated of hereafter.

Avbvice TO BEGINNERS. The novice would do well to first obtain a few
of the inexpensive common goldfishes, which are hardy and easily domes-
ticated, and study their habits and requirements, before procuring the finely
bred Japanese and Chinese varieties. Among the common American and
European goldfishes there are many of beautiful forms and markings, rang-
ing over almost the entire gamut of colors; from pure irridescent pearly
white, lustrous silvery and golden hues, to all the shades and combinations
of yellow, red, blue, brown and black. he prevailing colors of all the
breeds of the goldfish are bright or dull white and yellowish tints on the
abdomen, which change to a lustrous metallic yellow on the sides, and then
almost impreceptibly shade into golden yellow, red, vermillion, carmine
or the deepest and richest oxblood red. .

When he has familiarized himself with their care, the novice could
select for a five-gallon aquarium, say one Japanese Fringetail, a Fantail, a
Comet and a Nymph, none over three inches; but these should not be at
once put into a newly established aquarium, and only after he is assured
that it will support that number in comfort. These are more easily kept
than the more delicate fishes of Chinese and Corean origin.

CLEANING THE AQuarium. When and how often it is advisable to
clean the aquarium is a matter of individual judgment. Green water, even to
the extent of obscuring the contents, is not injurious; the fishes thrive
better in it than in limpid water; nor is the residuum on the pebbles harm-
hualleite objectionable substances are removed either with the dip—or lifting
tube or the lower depths of water siphoned with a small rubber hose, which
may be guided to all parts of the tank, removing the heavy vitiated water
and most of the sediment. If the fishes continue excessively restless,
persist in coming to the surface for air, and still avoid the bottom of the
tank, possibly due to overfeeding, the introduction of more tadpoles and
snails may be required, but should these measures not affect a remedy,
thorough siphoning or cleaning is necessary and must be done at once.

Diseasep Fisnes. When a fish becomes diseased, it should be
immediately removed and isolated, and, dependent on the nature of the
ailment7 either the others quarantined, or the tank and contents cleaned
and the healthy fishes returned; the latter course especially if the disease
can be traced to unsanitary conditions. A clean surface on the pebbles
adds to the beauty of the aquarium and also indicates healthful conditions.

32

=.

SS esessssesesesnsnnssnsnessnsennn

THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE
——————— eee

It is a grave mistake to immediately introduce recently acquired fishes into
an established aquarium. ‘They should be kept for some time under
observation and only introduced when full assurance has been reached that
they are free of contamination. Aquatic plants should also be placed in
water containing a tablespoonful of Phenol Sodique to the quart of water
several hours before being placed into an aquarium; then rinsed in clean
water, carefully examined, all decayed parts removed and the leaves cleared
of dirt, aloe and conferve, as serious ailments to the fishes are often pro-
duced by inattention to these particulars.

Restiessness. When the supply of oxygen is insufficient, the fishes
come to the surface gasping for air. Relief may be given them by dipping
and pouring back some of the water and by increasing the number of
plants, selecting the best oxygenators; but if these measures do not improve
their comfort some of the water should be siphoned from the bottom,
refilling with fresh aerated water, poured a number of times from one
vessel to another, or introduced into the aquarium in a finespray. While
the aquarium should be cleaned when the fishes persist in coming to the
surface, this should not always be taken as an indication of unsanitary con-
ditions, as they have the habit of doing this at daybreak and in the evening.
The gasping of the fishes on the surface is to take in air with the water,
to cause its partial absorption in the mouth before passing the water into
the gills. .

Excessive restlessness may also be due to a variety of causes; in-
sufficient oxygen, the accumulation of objectionable gases in the water, im-
purity of the water itself, and the presence of parasites and fungi, too small
to be seen. These will be treated of under ailments and remedies.

Changes from colder to warmer weather also unfavorably affect the
fishes as a portion of the suspended air is thereby expelled from the water;
and cloudy weather has some effect, as the plants will not liberate as much
oxygen when they lack the stimulus of strong sunlight.

It is not advisable to put ice into the aquarium to furnish oxygen or
to cool the water; fishes are just as liable to pneumonia_as_other animals;

this being the ailment that kills many of them when transferred from
aquaria to tanks in the open air too early in the Spring.

Errect oF Gases, FUMES AND ObDors. Authorities on the sub-
ject of goldfish culture disagree as to the injurious effects of illuminating
and coal gases, tobacco smoke, and the dust borne by the wind or raised
by sweeping. Water readily absorbs fumes and odors, and if these are
excessive, they cannot be otherwise than injurious, though with care and
forethought no further precautions need be taken. ‘The hands should not

33

“sek

THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE

be put in the water, least of all after smoking; the aquarium should be
covered when sweeping, and the room frequently aired or ventilated in mild
weather. The dust may be removed from the surface of the water with
a piece of clean blotting paper, but it soon settles to the bottom and
serves as food for the scavengers and formsa part of the humus or residuum
on the sand or pebbles. When the humus layer becomes thick, it may
be injurious, and should be removed with the dipping-tube, the water
siphoned, or the aquarium cleaned. In an experimental aquarium con-
taining twenty gallons of water, this humus had formed fully halt an inch
thick, the water not having been changed for eighteen months, yet the
fishes were perfectly healthy and contented. It is best to remove it, how-
ever, as it is the culture medium of parasites and fungi, and it is not
advisable to leave it so long in the aquarium.

A piece of charcoal floating on the water or weighted and hidden
among the plants serves as a deodorizer and mild antiseptic, and can be
introduced to advantage.

Atc#. Algz on the glass may be removed with a brush or a piece
of felt on a stick or rod. It is advisable, however, to leave it on the sides
which do not obstruct the view, as it aids in screening the fishes from ex-
cessive light and in keeping the water in good condition. A fish showing
signs of illness, will often speedily recover when removed to a tank filled
with green water, as it contains not only desirable food, but also beneficial
medicinal properties. A very little permanganate of potassium will check
the growth of Alge, if this is found to be objectionable.

Destruction or Piants. Even when sufficiently fed, the fishes
will sometimes tear and destroy some of the aquatic plants, feeding on the
younger shoots; but this is often done in sheer mischief and wantonness
and the remedy is to introduce more of those plants which are unmolested.
It may also be noticed that the fishes take the sand and smaller pebbles
into their mouths; they do this to feed on the tiny water plants growing
upon them, and it is not always an indication of insufficient feeding.

In conclusion it would be well to recapitulate the principles leading
to success with the properly conditioned aquarium, any mistakes of which
will surely lead to failure:—absolute cleanliness with everything pertaining
to the aquarium; proper and abundant light; a vigorous growth of desir-
able aquatic plants; absence of decaying vegetation, a proper balance of
plant and animal life, with preferably a preponderance of the former, ab-
sence of parasites and diseases, sufficient scavengers; and care in feeding

the proper food.

ao

THE FRESHWATER AQUARIUM AND ITS MAINTENANCE

Crue.ty To Fisxes. All admirers of the aquarium should consider it
a duty to direct attention to the pernicious practise of keeping fishes in
small fish globes. Millions of goldfishes have been killed by slow torture
in this regretable precurser of the modern aquarium, and by other uninten-
tional cruelties. Many instances can be recalled of globes containing too
many fishes, without a plant, hungin the glaring sun; to improper feeding
and other practises which a little knowledge of the subject would prevent.

That the common goldfish is tenacgous of life and will often survive
abuses for a long time is no excuse for violating the laws of its nature.
Other animals are protected by laws and philanthropic societies, but these
seem to interest themselves but little in the fauna of the aquarium.

It is the dealer in fishes who is responsible for the survival of fish
globes. They are the cheapest vessels that can be offered to purchasers,
and he still has them for sale, rather than explain that the globe is an
objectionable form of fish receptacle, superseded by better ones, and that
success with its use is hardly possible. He would find that his sales
would not diminish from candor and expressions of the truth. If he would
explain the laws of balance in the aquarium, it is certain that the success
which his customers will have would result in further exciting interest,
while an unsuccessful attempt will discourage and may lead to the aban-
donment of all hope of success.

Means should be devised for placing simple correct information with-
in the reach of everyone; then the aquarium would be much more popu-

lar than it now is, and this esthetic pleasure in the household would be
within the reach of almost every one.

Experts in the keeping of the aquarium should interest themselves
in this subject for the benefit of the general public. The fish globe
should be used only as a temporary receptacle or hospital, but it were
best if this torture chamber came entirely out of use.

CHAPTER III.

Goldfish Breeds

THE COMMON GOLDFISH

Both the American and European common goldfishes have elongated
bodies slightly flattened on the sides, the latter being the slightly longer

FIG. 6.—The Common American Goldfish

Carasstus auratus, Var. AMeEYICANUS

and more slender fish. Figs. 6 and 7. The scaleless head 1s usually short
with broad forehead and wide interorbital space, blunt snout, full and well-
defined lips, erect nostrils, clear eyes and the opercule or gill covers of a
burnished metallic lustre. The body has an even covering of uniformly

FIG. 7—The European Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. europensis; as known in the eastern United States markets.

sized scales having a bright, enameled surface. There are two sets of
paired and three single fins including the tail. The color varies in differ-
ent fishes and may be white, silvery-grey, olivate, golden or orange-yellow,

ae

GOLDFISH BREEDS

red and brown or a combination of these colors, sometimes associated with
black. It 1s hardy and tenacious of life, grows to large size, often attain-
ing a length of 16 inches and reaching an age of 12 to 16 years, with re-
ported instances of even greater size and longevity. It is prolificand will
thrive under trying and adverse circumstances in any stillwater pool, cis-
tern, tank or aquarium. It will withstand almost any temperature unless
deprived of sufficient oxygen or subjected to sudden changes and may be
transported over long distances. It is easily domesticated, and like its
progenitor, the Crucian carp, will survive considerable periods out of the
water in wet waterplants, to keep the gills moist.

When the fish has a grey or olivate hue, it is known asa silverfish, but
these colorings may not be permanent and at some time either become
mottled or entirely change to golden hues; though this rarely occurs with
white or albinoid fishes; and when it does is usually just before or during
the breeding season, thereby proving that the fish was only a dullcolored, ©
colorless or uncolored goldfish. Sometimes the color is entirely white
with an irridescent or rainbow lustre. These are known as_pearlfishes,
their oftentimes red eyes proving them to be albinos.

When they have almost transparent scales and bodies, as sometimes
happens with the white or very light-colored fishes, hybrids crossed with
Japanese or Chinese stock, they are called transparent goldfishes, and
these offer most interesting study in the aquarium, as all the functions of
their existence may be observed through their transparent sides. Others
of the goldfishes have a deep, resplendent blue-brown color on the sides
and so dark a tone on the back as to appear to be black, with the scales
sometimes outlined with metallic purple-bronze or bluish tints. These
are commonly known as black goldfishes and are not highly prized,
though a close study of the beautiful and fleeting changes of color should
lead to a higher appreciation. These fishes usually lose their colors and
assume those of the ordinary goldfish. All the common goldfishes are at
first of a dull greyish-brown or olivate color.

Another fine distinction is in the shape of the head. When its out-
line, from the snout to the dorsal fin, forms an even upward curve, the
head somewhat flattened on the sides, with the lower side of the body,
from the gill covers to the caudal fin, nearly on a straight line, the fish
is known as a Ram’s nose; and when the head is very broad and rounded
on the sides, with thick lips, is slightly depressed at the interorbital space
and where the head joins the trunk, and the back very much rounded, the
whole fish having a porcine appearance, it is known as a Hog’s nose.
These characteristics have been bred by the Japanese and Chinese, but

40

ia)

IS a lcci

GOLDFISH BREEDS

sometimes occur with the common goldfish, probably due to an admixture
of an oriental strain or a variation in or from the parental type, to which
this fish is particularly liable.

The desirable characteristics of the common goldfish are perfection
of form, head and eye; fine, clean even and symmetrical fin development;
evenly imbricated and uninjured scales; a clean and healthy general appear-
ance, with distinct and brilliant colors.

Perfect development of the finely bred varieties are hereafter described;
but the more general imperfections in these fishes consist of slight mal-
formations of body and fins, and too great length of body in the short-
bodied breeds or too short-bodies in those which should be long and
slender. Some imperfect fishes of the double-tailed breeds have the upper
lobe of the tail single and the lower lobe double. These are known as
“ Tripod-Tails”. Others have the otherwise double tail joined at the
top or margin and are known as ““Web-tails”, while when the double tail 1s
joined at the centre and flattened ona horizontal plane, they are known
as “Dolphin-tails”. Another frequent imperfection of some breeds isa
single instead of a double anal fin or the anal fin may be entirely absent.
Some have the main ray of the dorsal fin crooked, due to the “ hinge”
or interspinous bone of the first ray being above the surface of the back,
which prevents the fish carrying the dorsal fin erect, or the dorsal fin
may be too short and consist of but three to six rays.

By careful breeding more or less fixed varieties may be produced, but
none of these forms are permanent, as the goldfish is naturally inclined to
variations under domestication or will revert to the original stock except
under most careful breeding and selection, and what may be considered
imperfections in some breeds are desired characteristics in others, as will
be seen in the descriptions of the oriental goldfishes hereafter given.

Except only the Comet, the finer breeds should have very short heads,
short bodies, evenly rounded backs, long pendant fins, small scales and
large eyes.

THE JAPANESE AND CHINESE GOLDFISHES

The culture of the finely bred goldfishes has been conducted in the
warmer parts of Japan and in China for centuries, all the varieties now
known in the United States having been derived from these sources.
The original parent stock was a Cyprinoid similar to the Crucian carp,
with which albindism is of frequent occurrence, the colors of albinoid fishes
of every species being bright orange and golden hues with occasionally
white or uncolored individuals. By careful selection these colors were

41

GOLDFISH BREEDS

made permanent in the goldfish, though the Oriental breeders did not
confine themselves to this but developed combinations embracing every
shade and color combination. Variations in body and head, difference in
eye, fin and scale were also developed to such an extent as to produce all
those strange varieties and almost incredible monstrosities which can be
bred in all domesticated animals.

After the desired type had been established, breeding was carried
forward generation by generation, until those wide differences were pro-
duced and perpetuated which now characterize the various breeds of
Japanese and Chinese Goldfishes; but China, even more than Japan, is so
truly the land of the bizarre that this is also most evident in their gold-
fishes; and, to the uninitiated, the forms and colors developed by them
would appear like nightmares or caricatures of the fish when judged from
the standard of European and American breeders. Every conceivable
variation in bodily appearance, head, snout, mouth, eye, fins, tail and color
has been developed and bred so as to force the conclusion that nothing 1s
impossible to the Chinese breeder. All the varieties are not known in the
United States, as some especially of the Chinese breeds, have probably
never been exported or failed to survive the long journey; but the widely
diversified appearance of those with which we are familiar leads to the ex-
pectation of even greater marvels as the result of that Oriental patience
and perseverance which is proverbial in the Mongolianrace. By methods
apparently known only to themselves they have succeeded in developing
and perpetuating malformations of structure which entirely change the
appearance of every part of the fish. Some varieties of their goldfishes
have the bodies modified in every conceivable way; shortened, elongated,
rounded, curved, crescent-shaped, triangular in section or twisted and other-
wise distorted into strange forms; with the dorsal fin sometimes only half
its normal length or entirely absent. Others have the paired fins length-
ened and abnormally shaped, the anal double or absent; the caudal of
every conceivable form; the head so much shortened and the snout mal-
formed as to produce an almost bulldog appearance, or covered by papillo-
matous growths, the eyes almost wholly projecting beyond the orbits, to
appear like globular or tubular projections, with the pupils pointing side-
wise, forward or straight upward. Others have the scales raised from the
sides to give an appearance like a ruffled fowl; some are so transparently
scaled as to appear entirely scaleless or have a few scales on an otherwise ap-
parently scaleless body. The marking and colors are equally fantastic and
baroque and show every grotesque and fanciful design and color conbina-
tion. Nosingle detail seems to have been omitted that could produce the
wierdest conceptions of what might be considered a diseased imagination.

42

GOLDFISH BREEDS

To find beauty in this wild fantasm is surely “an acquired taste’’ but
their rarity and singular appearance, their extreme contrast with every
other kind of goldfish, led to the Chinese varieties being the highest prized

of any of the aquarium fishes.

In the following descriptions and illustrations the Japanese and
Chinese goldfishes will be treated of in the order in which they differ from
the ordinary goldfishes and from each other. It may be here stated that
the racial characteristics of the Japanese and Chinese are clearly reflected
in their goldfish breeding; the innate, though often oddly expressed, ap-
preciation of the beautiful of the Japanese race, and the search for the
bizarre, the grotesque, and often to the Occidental mind the horrid, on
the part of the Chinese.

It should also be premised that the illustrations are accurate, unflattered
drawings from life of the most perfect fishes of their respective kinds,
seen or owned by the author, except in a very few instances of those
varieties which are now extinct in the Eastern States and for which descrip-
tions and sketches were obtained from their one-time owners, to whom
credit is given. Nearly all of these different breeds have been fully accli-
mated and most of them are American bred.

Early naturalists distinguished between the few then known toy
varieties of the goldfishes, of Chinese and Japanese origin, by more or
less appropriate Latin and Greek descriptive designations, which Dr. E.
Zernecke applied to the now generally known varieties and added others.
For instance, the Japanese double-tailed fishes were known as Carassius
auratus, variitas japonicus, (Japanese variety of the goldfish); but which
did not designate the Fringetail or Fantail and applied as well as to the
Comet, Nymph or others of Japanese origin and derivation. Dr. Zernecke
proposed Carassius auratus, var. japonicus, bicaudalis, (double-tailed Japa-
nese variety of the goldfish); which would not include the single-tailed
varieties, but could be applied to both the Fringetail and the Fantail. The
following nomenclature for the toy varieties now known and bred in the
United States is proposed and here adopted with the hope that it will meet
with general acceptance:—

The Common American Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. americanus.

The Common European Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. europensis.

The Japanese Comet Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. japonicus simplex.

The Japanese Fringetail Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. japonicus pendulibicaudalis.
The Japanese Fantail Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. japonicus erectibicaudalis.
The Japanese Nymph Goldfish— Carassius auratus var. japonicus, nympha.

The Japanese Barnacled Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. japonicus verrucosus.
The Japanese Hooded or Lion-headed Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. japonicus veocephalus.

43

GOLDFISH BREEDS

The Chinese Telescope Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. chinensis macrophthalmus.
The Chinese Mottled or Variegated Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. chinensis variegatus.

The Chinese Fringetail Telescope Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. chinensis penduli-
bicaudalis.

The Chinese Moor or Black Telescope Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. chinensis maurus.

The Chinese Tiger Telescope Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. chinensis tigrinus.

The Chinese Lettered Telescope Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. chinensis scriptus.

The Chinese Eggfish— Carassius auratus, var. chinensis oviformis.

The Chinese Blue Telescope Goldfish— Carassius auratus, var. chinensis cyanpeus.

The Chinese Celestial Telescope Goldfish— Carassius aufatus, var. chinensis uranoscopus.

The Chinese Tumbler Telescope Goldfish— Carassius au.atus, var. chinensis saltator.

The adoption of these polynomials ‘to designate the numerous arti-

ficial variations of the Goldfish,Carassius auratus, is done without inten-

tion of conflicting with the codes of nomenclature of zoologists.

THE JAPANESE COMET GOLDFISH

This variety was bred from the ordinary goldfish by crossing with the
Japanese Fringetail or with fishes derived of this stock, and authorities
claim first known in the United States about the year 1872. The efforts
of the breeders were directed to the production of a pronouncedly elon-

FIG. 8.—Japanese Comet Goldfish

Carassius auratus var.japonicus simplex Two-thirds life size.

gated body and tail, a long and narrow head with pointed snout, erect
nostrils, thin lips and flat eyes; small uniform scales, long and erect dorsal

44

A

yy

“Y

GOLDFISH BREEDS

and Jong pendant pectoral, ventral and anal fins. Of these the pectorals
and ventrals are paired and the dorsal, anal and caudal fins single; the
desired characteristic being a very slender, flat-sided and long-drawn fish,
as the well-applied name would indicate. The colors are those of the
ordinary goldfish.

The Comet is a most elegant, graceful and dainty fish, very hardy
and easily bred; the personification of grace and rapidity of movement.
Since its introduction, American breeds have produced a considerable

FIG. 9—Transparently Scaled Japanese Comet Goldfish. Lateral and frontal views.
T wo-thirds life size.

variation of the scaled parent type, and fanciers now distinguish between
Ram’s nose and Hog’s nosescaled and scaleless(transparently-scaled)Comets,
having either full, broad tails or with the tails very considerably bifurcated
and spread, the most prized and rarely to be obtained being scaleless sharp-
nosed Comets of a deep oxblood red color on the body and white fins
with very long pendant lower fins, erect dorsals and widely spread single
tails, either full or bifurcated, carried straight out behind and considerably
longer than the body of the fish. These command high prices and are in
beautiful contrast to other finely bred goldfishes.

THE JAPANESE FRINGETAIL GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. japonicus pendulibicaudalis. Figs. 10 and 11.

Of the finely bred aquarium fishes the beau-ideal is unquestionably
the truly magnificent Japanese Fringetail. No other variety has so richly
rewarded the efforts of the breeder as this wonderful specimen achieved by
careful selections on the lines of beauty, symmetry, grace and elegance of

45

GOLDFISH BREEDS

color. Patient, discriminating labor with thousands of generations has pro-
duced in the perfect Fringetail the handsomest of all goldfishes. The

long, lace-like fins and tail, the rich burnished metallic lustre, the marvelous

FIG. 10—Adult Japanese Fringetail Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. japonicus pendulibicaudalis. Two-thirds life size.

brilliancy of color, the finely modeled form and the perfection ot graceful
movement are truly typified in this justly prized fish. The full develop-
ment of the beauty of the species is only attained upon maturity; although
the fancier can discern in quite young fishes, those that give promise of
future perfect development.

The fine mature Fringetail is a small-scaled, short-bodied and short-
headed, thick, almost egg-shaped fish with evenly rounded sides, having

46

GOLDFISH BREEDS

all the very long pendant fins paired, except the long, wavy and lace-like
dorsal; and an immense delicate drooping double tail, divided quite to the
base and floating behind the body like a great mass of most dainty
lace; much longer than the body
of the fish. “The two separate tails
are exactly alike in conformation,
length, droop and texture.

By crossing with the Chinese
transparently scaled fishes, Ameri-
can breeders have produced a larger
black-eyed transparently scaled fish
that is handsomer than the Japanese
Fringetail; though otherwise it has
all the characteristics of the im-
ported fish; but is even more deli-
cate and dainty in fin and tail de-

FIG. 11—Young Japanese Fringetail Goldfish. velopment and more pronounced
Two-thirds life size.

WKN

in color.

In moving through the water the stately appearance of the fully
developed Fringetail is most graceful, majestic and fairy-like; the beautiful
tail, floating behind and following every movement, 1s carried as though
the fish were proud of its almost regal appearance.

THE JAPANESE FANTAIL GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. japonicus erectibicaudalis, Fig. 12.

This beautiful fish has certain distinguishing characteristics which
clearly mark it as a distinct variety, though in many particulars it bears a
close resemblance tothe Fringetail. Authorities agree on these distinctions
which are recognized by fanciers. The Japanese breeders developed de-
cided differences in conformation of body and fins which are very apparent
in finely bred specimens, though these are more rare than is generally sup-
posed, as most of the goldfishes known as Fantails are usually Fringetails
with either short or imperfectly developed tails; or web-tailed Japanese fishes.

The Fantail is a scaled short-bodied fish, very thick, round-backed
and deep-bellied, of almost oval outline; its body being best described as
of short pumpkin-seed-form, with the horizontal longer diameter of slightly
greater length than a true oval, and so formed that an imaginary line from
the upper lip to the base of the tail would show the upper and lower halves
of the body of almost the same conformation. It has a short, broad head,
distinctly hognosed, a large mouth with full lips, erect nostrils and eyes
like the ordinary goldfish, but larger. The long and erect dorsal fin sits
far back on the spine, all the other fins being paired; the pectorals and

47

GOLDFISH BREEDS

ventrals are long and pendant, the double anal fins are long and extend
almost straight backward, while the broad double tail, which is the princi-
pal characteristic of the fish, is divided quite to the base and the two dis-
tinct tails stand directly vertical on the same plane and are carried straight

FIG. 12—Japanese Fantail Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. japonicus erectibicaudalis. Two-thirds life size.

out behind the body without the least drop or droop; the upper and lower
lobes being of exactly the same length so that a perpendicular line from
the end of the upper will exactly touch the end of the lower lobe on
each side. This isnever the case with the imperfectly developed Fringetail;
the upper lobes are always the longer, and the relative position of the
double tail is not directly vertical or parallel to each other but at a decided
angle when the fish is viewed from the rear, while the perfectly developed
Fantail has the appearance of having two separate single tails placed side
by side. The tail of the Fantail never exceeds the body in length.

The colors are identical with those of the Fringetail, but the scales
are larger and usually coarser; this variety also having no transparently
scaled members, either of pure or crossed stock. It is a characteristically
handsome fish though not as “showy” as the Fringetail.

48

GOLDFISH BREEDS

THE JAPANESE NYMPH GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. japonicus nympha. Figs, 13 and 14.
With all finely bred domesticated animals there are always some
individuals that have a tendency to partially revert to the ancestral type.
This frequently occurs with goldfishes, as many of the progeny of the

FIG. 13—Scaled Japanese Nymph Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. japonicus nympha Two-thirds life size
finest strains develop characteristics different from their parents and clearly
indicate the type from which the breed was derived. An instance of this
is the Nymph goldfish, the name of which would indicate some such
thought on the part of the breeders. It is now recognized as a distinct
variety and may be bred by
crossing the Comet and the
Fringetail, but is more usually
accidentally produced from
Fringetail stock; being what
is known, in the parlance
of the breeder as a “sport.”
The finest specimens have all
the characteristics of the
Fringetail with a_ single
Comet-like tail. Fine speci-
mens of the Nymph are very

FIG. 14—Transparently-scaled Japanese Nymph Goldfish handsome, having long pen-
Bee I dant pectoral and ventral fins,

49

GOLDFISH BREEDS

a very high dorsal and a straight single anal fin; a delicate, very long
single tail, and the head, eyes, small scales and general conformation, as
well as the rich lustrous colors of the Fringetail. The body is shorter,
broader and fuller than the Comet, those with almost circular flat-sided
bodies are the highest prized.

In the aquarium they make an agreeable contrast to the other fine
breeds and have an individuality of their own which warrants their being
classed as a distinct variety. Some fanciers still consider them single-tailed
Fringetails, but the general consensus of opinion is that these fishes should
be classed as Nymphs, the most typical having short flat-sided bodies and
straight Comet-like tails, though some Nymphs have tails of such great
length that they of necessity droop. These may be considered a separate
variety, and are quite as much prized as the straight tailed fishes. They
occur both scaled and transparently scaled.

THE JAPANESE HOODED OR LION-HEADED GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. japonicus leocephalus Fig. 15,

The form, scales, fins and color of this peculiar Japanese or Corean
goldfish resemble the Fringetail but the dorsal fin is absent; the distinctive
difference consists of a peculiar growth on and over the sides of the head,

FIG. 15, Adult Japanese Hooded or Lion-headed Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. japonicus leocephalus. ‘Two-thirds life size

50

GOLDFISH BREEDS

surrounding the orbits, so that the head of the fish has an appearance
similar to that of the “Owl” breed of pigeon, surmounted by a hoodlike
excrescence of bright pink or of crimson color. This papillomatous growth
consists of rounded tubercles, about pinhead size, evenly placed and entirly
covering the head.

This peculiar goldfish was described by Mr. Hugo Mulertt who im-
ported a number from Europe, and has also recently been reintroduced
into the United States. Fine specimens are of pearl-white color on the
sides with occasional regularly placed single brilliant red scales; others are
of golden color, but all have the characteristic crimson papille on and
over the head. Occasional fine specimens are devoid of anal fins.

In writing of the “Corean breed,” known as the “Maruko” or
“Ranchiu,” now largely bred in Japan, Prof. S. Watase states that it has
an exceedingly short body, being in some instances almost globular in form,
The dorsal fin is entirely absent and the head is distinctive of this breed
in having rough-looking protuberances of the skin which often attain a
considerable size and length.

Two specimens of this fish were shown in alcohol in the Japanese
section at the Chicago World’s Fair, as they did not survive the voyage
to the United States. ‘These had developed the peculiar growth into long
and hair-like manes and were designated by the Japanese as “Lions.”
No others were seen by the author until recently and these had the
papillomatous growths and general characteristics of the illustrated fish.
Dr. Hugh M. Smith of the Bureau of Fisheries at Washington, during
his visit to Japan saw and had drawings made of some remarkably devel-

oped fishes of this breed.

THE JAPANESE BARNACLED OR PARADISE GOLDFISH
Carassius auratus, var. japonicus verrucosus Fig. 16.

This exceedingly rare
Japanese goldfish has the
body and fin development
of the Telescope, with the
large tubular eyes pointed
forward; a shortened head
and long snout, moderately
large paired fins and a
double tail. The skin is cov-
ered with wartlike growths
or papilla, which cause the
thin scales to curve and

Fig. 16—Japanese Barnacled Paradise Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. japonicus verrucosus. Two-thirds life-size

-

51

GOLDFISH BREEDS

stand from the sides as though they were ruffled, and giving to the fish
somewhat the appearance of being covered with barnacles. The scales are
unevenly imbricated, so that they appear somewhat scattered, like those of
the mirror carp; although they entirely cover the body of the fish.

The singular appearance of these fishes led American breeders to
suppose them to be diseased, but later they were recognized as a variety
of the Japanese Telescope, the distinctive peculiarity being the scale
formation. The colors are mottled red and white with black and white
fins and tail. So far as is known, these fishes are now extinct in the
Eastern section of the United States, the last importation having been
received in 1897. Recent repeated inquiries and efforts to obtain breed-
ing fishes by direct importation have been unsuccessful, leaving it an open
question whether they should be recognized as a separate breed or an
accidental variation which was lost.

THE CHINESE TELESCOPE GOLDFISHES
This singular breed is of Chinese origin but is also bred in Japan.
In it may be observed the peculiarities of the Chinese breeder and his desire
to produce abnormalities. The head and snout are considerably shortened;
the body is rounded and egg-shaped, the dorsal fin erect and set far back
on the spine; all the lower fins are paired; and the double tail is divided to its
base and carried straight out at a downward angle. ‘The vertebral column
ain is also curved downward behind in an ab-

1. Common Goldfish,

Fringetail, etc. —fat normal way to produce a hunchbacked
: oS condition. There are both scaled and
transparently-scaled Telescopes, the for-
Se ae mer being generally recognized as of
Japanese breeding. As the name implies,
3. Chinese Telescope the principal peculiarity is the develop-
Goldfishes—as ovoid’. ‘ment of the projecting eyes, Hie. L7.swalem
have the character of spheres, ovoids,
4s. Ghinele Telescope tfuncated cones or Seamented, splieresyses
Golsfishes — as tn” upon the sides of the head, the eyeballs
appearing to almost wholly project from

5. Chinese Telescope the’ orbits, and the cornea forming a seg-
Goldfishes—as segment-

saokeree ment of a much smaller sphere than does

the eyeball proper. As a result of this
6. Chinese Celestial peculiarity, the anterior portion of the eye
Telescope Goldfishes as : S
spheres; with | pupie 1S) Ole aGlite than the larger posterior
turned upwards. portion. The iris is also very distinctly

FIG. 17—The Eyes of outlined. In addition to the abnormally
Goldfishes. p,

52

GOLDFISH BREEDS

shaped body, projecting eyes and peculiar droop of the tail, fanciers
prize the remarkable colorings developed by the orientals. ‘The pre-
vailing colors of the scaled Japanese fish, Fig. 18 are those of the
ordinary goldfish, but most oddly placed. Certain fishes have clear
golden-red bodies with the backs and all the fins jet-black and have
black eyeballs; others have white bodies and deep-red fins and red eyeballs

FIG. 18—Scaled Japanese Telescope Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. japonicus macrophthalmus. Two-thirds life-size

with black irides; some have red or golden-yellow bodies and white fins
with red, white and black eyes; and others pearly-white bodies, and fins
mottled with red,and red and black eyes, though none of these colorings
are necessarily permanent. ‘The colors of these fishes are so fantastic that
French, German and American authorities class them as much by these
color peculiarities as by changes in body structure.

The following are the most generally known of the Chinese telescopic-

eyed goldfishes bred 1n the United States:

THE CHINESE MOTTLED OR VARIEGATED
TELESCOPE GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis veriegatus. Figs. 19, 20, 2% and.22

This variety of the Telescope is commonly known as the Calico, as
best describing its fantastic markings. The body is short and thick; the
spine has a decided backward curve; the snout is formed to give the short

wt
Ww

GOLDFISH BREEDS

head a pugnacious appearance ; the mouth is placed almost vertically at
the front of the head; the lips are distinct; the nostrils small but erect,
and the eyes very large and usually disclike or tubular in form. The

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis veriegatus. Lateral view. Two-thirds life size

dorsal fin is high and short; all the lower fins are paired, long and very
broad ; the tail is double and the two separate tails are carried at an angle

FIG. 20—Adult Chinese Mottled Telescope Goldfish

Dorsal view. wo-thirds life size

4s

GOLDFISH BREEDS

to each other, straight, drooping and at an angle with the body. Its
markings are most peculiar and consist of irregular blotches of all shades
and shapes, distributed at random over the entire fish, including body, fins

oo
FIG. 21—Young Chinese Mottled Telescope Goldfish

Lateral view. Life size

and tail. It isso transparently scaled that the flesh tints, which are often
of a pronounced bluish hue, may be seen through the skin; upon which

FIG. 22— Young Chinese Mottled Telescope Goldfish

Frontal view. Life size
the red, yellow, brown, blue and black mottlings show most conspicuous-
ly. This is a handsome, most peculiar and highly prized fish.

55

GOLDFISH BREEDS

THE CHINESE FRINGETAIL TELESCOPE GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis pendulibicaudalis. Fig. 23

This variety has the body, eyes and fin development of the Calico,
but differs in its markings. The transparent scales are invisible and the
colors are most oddly distributed in patches of beautiful oxblood red,
white and bluish tints over the head and body. The long, delicate, filmy,
lacelike fins and beautiful long double tail are usually white.

f |
ees
HH Al a Py) fi

Ij

7) Ke
Ul

i
ip ~p

FIG. 23 —Chinese Fringetail Telescope Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis pendulihicaudalis. Life size '

Sometimes the fish is almost or entirely white, with delicate pink and
blue tones, and so transparent that almost all of the internal organs and
the skeleton are visible, a most interesting, curious and dainty so-called
Transparent Fringetail Telescope Goldfish. These fishes are derived from
the same parent stock as the Mottled Telescope and are bred from im-
ported fishes. Oftentimes some of the young of Mottled Telescopes ex-
hibit this character and are greatly admired, not only for their beautiful
colors but also for their spheroidal eyes, which are usually deep blue in color.

The Chinese Fringetail Telescopes have most wonderful development
of fins and tail, so dainty and lacelike as to seem too delicate to serve their
uses. ‘These are as long and pendant as those of the most perfect Fringe-
tails. The illustration is of an 18 months old fish owned by the author.

56

GOLDFISH BREEDS

THE CHINESE MOOR TELESCOPE GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. Chinensis maurus Fig. 24

This magnificent variety, known as the Moor or Black Telescope, is
a very rare and deservedly highly prized fish. Its general conformation
is that of the Chinese Telescope, but the fins and tail are usually longer.

WRN
WN \\t
SSA

\\\\
wx) NN
\\

FIG. 24—Chinese Moor Telescope Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis maurus Two-thirds life size

The distinctive coloring is permanent in purely bred fishes and consists
of an even covering over the entire fish, including the eyes, fins and tail,
of a wonderfully rich bluish-black hue, so delicate and even in tone as to
appear as though the entire fish were covered with the richest blue-black
velvet, the magnificent sheen of which is such that one could expect to
feel the very texture of the fabric. With many of the American bred
Moors, however, the black color is not permanent.

The Moor is always a scaled fish, though these, due to the intensely
dark color, are usually invisible. Sometimes in fishes bred from Japanese
stock, the colors are black on the back and sides, with a delicate bluish or
reddish-bronze tone on the abdomen, these scales have the appearance of
being outlined with golden-bronze. The fishes so marked never retain
their black color, but at some time in their existence, assume the darker
colors of the goldfish. It is accepted among breeders that young Moors

GOLDFISH BREEDS

which are white on the under side of the body, between the fins, are more
likely to retain their black color than those which are yellow in this region.

No fish is handsomer in the aquarium than a fine Moor,as the beauti-
ful form and color not only contrast with the other fishes, but tend to bring
their brilliant colors more prominently into notice.

THE CHINESE PIEBALD OR TIGER TELESCOPE GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis tigrinis Figs. 25 and 26

This fish has a most curious appearance both in form and markings.
The tubular eyes are developed to a remarkable degree, often extending

FIG. 25—Chinese Tiger Telescope Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis tigrinus Lateral view Two-thirds life size

beyond the snout, directed sidewise and projecting 1% to 5¢ inches from

the orbits.

FIG. 26—Chinese Tiger Telescope Goldfish

Frontal view

In transverse section the fish would appear almost triangular,
with the flattened abdomen as the base. The body is short, thick and

Two-thirds life size

malformed, scant of fins and tail, and the
curious markings, from which the fish de-
rives its name, are the pink and blue tones
of the flesh under the transparent scales,
as the prevailing color, overlaid, with
streaks and patches of black, dark brown,
red and dusky grey on the back, sides and
fins, with a lemon-yellow abdomen. But
two good specimens of this breed have
been seen by the author; European
authorities depict them as characteristically
marked with narrow bands of contrasting
colors.

GOLDFISH BREEDS

THE CHINESE LETTERED TELESCOPE, GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis scriptus. Fig. 27

Another instance of the patient labors of the Chinese in developing
desired characteristics in the goldfish is evident in the Lettered Telescope,
a very rare fish, as but two specimens, both females, have come to the
knowledge of the author, both owned in Philadelphia. No recent author-
ity describes this fish, the following is a description of the two mentioned
specimens.

The form and eye development is similar to that of the Tiger Tele-
scope, though the body is rather more rounded and not so triangular in
section. Theeyes are distinctly tubular and directed forward at each side
of the snout with a slightly upward trend, and the cornea is also directed
forward and slightly upward. The head and snout are very short, the

FIG. 27—Chinese Lettered Telescope Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis scriptus. ‘Vwo-thirds life size

body thick and quite as broad as high, with the fins and double tail fairly well
developed, and the pectorals and ventrals extend almost straight out at the
sides of the fish. The anal fin is double, as is also the tail, which is dis-
tinctly spread and divided to the base. The anal fins are used like the
ventrals in swimming.

The chief peculiarity of this fish consists of the colors and markings.
The transparently scaled body is dark olive-green on the back, citron-
yellow on the sides, and yellowish-white under the abdomen; covered with
brown markings which have the appearance of Chinese characters written

in sepia.

GOLDFISH BREEDS

It is a most curious, almost repulsive fish and odd-looking aquarium
inmate, rather more remarkable for oddity than beauty. See Cuvier and
Valenciennes description of this fish, the Quen-yu, and also that of de
Sauvigny.

THE CHINESE BLUE TELESCOPE GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis cyaneus

The fish is described as a scaled Telescope, silvery on the abdomen
flushed with rose-pink, a rich azure blue on the back and sides, the whole
fish having a metallic lustre. Those seen or owned by the author are
transparently scaled, with a velvety, ultra~-marine blue color on the back,
reddish-blue transparent lower sides and a blue-white or greyish abdo-
men, with a dark bluish-brown or black dorsal fin, white or grey lower
fins and dusky-grey or brownish double tail. The eyeballs are promi-
nent and ofa blue color, the whole color tone being bluish and bluish brown
with local tones of pinkish blue and bluish-white.

This is a handsome Chinese goldfish and is greatly admired. The
author has never seen one sufficiently perfect to serve as atype. The
colors are best seen when the fish is viewed in a strong light, together with

brilliantly colored goldfishes.

THE CHINESE CELESTIAL TELESCOPE GOLDFISH

Carassius, auratus, var. chinesis uranoscopus. Figs. 28 and 29
f

The most curious of the highly bred Oriental goldfishes is the Celes-

tial Telescope or Stargazer. This fish has an extremely shortened snout,

FIG. 28— Chinese Celestial Telescope Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis uranoscopus, Dorsal view. ‘Two-thirds life size

60

GOLDFISH BREEDS

with the large spheroidal projecting eyes, having very small irides, turned
upward over the head, so that the gaze of the fish is always directed to the
surface. Its eyesight is very defective. The dorsdl fin has been entirely
eliminated, as the scales are evenly imbricated over the back and sides.
The body is egg-shaped, very tapering at the tail. The fins are broad
and pendant, and the tail is carried at a slight downward angle and very
widely spread to maintain the balance of the fish. Its movements are
slow and languid. Due to its fixed upward gaze, the fish has acquired the
habit of carrying its body at an angle, with the snout and eyes usually the
highest points of the plane. European authorities depict this fish as
“dolphin-tailed,” and
without anal fins.
These would not be as
highly prized by Amer-
ican fanciers.

It is stated that this
fish is bred in jars to
which the light is ad-
mitted through a slit in
the lid or cover, thus
inducing the fry to
gaze upward for both
light and food. It 1s

considered to be sacred

FIG. 2g9—Chinese Celestial Telescope Goldfish and is kept in many
Lateral view. ‘Two-thirds life size of the Oriental tem-

ples, probably on account of its constant heavenward gaze.

The Celestial Telescope is the most difficult of the imported gold-
fishes to rear or to keep alive in the aquarium, the author having no in-
formation of its successful breeding in the United States for successive
generations and knows of but three authenticated instances of a long sur-
vival of the imported fish.

THE CHINESE EGGFISH

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis oviformis. Fig. 30

Several recent German authorities mention the Chinese Eggfish, a
variety of the scaled goldfish which resembles the Ya-Tan-Yu or Duck-
egg of Cuvier and Valenciennes and of de Sauvigny. It is described as
having a perfect eggshaped body, very evenly convexed and rounded on
all sides, from the head to the base of the tail; with flat eyes like those of
the Fringetail, which very seldom incline to the telescopic. The dorsal
and anal fins are absent, the pectoral and ventral fins are normal and the

61

GOLDFISH BREEDS

narrow double tail droops directly downward from the back. ‘Those of
a white color are most highly prized and are considered to be the most
perfect and preferable to mottled or red fishes, as they more nearly deserve
the designation of Egefish.

FIG. 30—Chinese/Eggfish

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis oviformis. Two-thirds life size

None of these are bred in the Eastern States, the author having seen
but one imported specimen; but young fishes of scaled Telescope parent-
age often exhibit some of the described characteristics, which by careful
breeding and selection would in time produce this breed. At the time of
this writing attempts in this direction are being made in Philadelphia.

THE CHINESE TUMBLER GOLDFISH

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis saltator. Fig. 31

This singularly developed goldfish is one of the most curious of the
Chinese varieties as yet known in the United States. The accompanying
illustration was made from the description and sketch obtained through
the courtesy of Mr. Hugo Mulertt.

The curvature of the spine, the development and position of the
pectoral, ventral and dorsal fins; the large anal fin and the peculiar double
tail make this fish so out of balance that its only method of progression
is by a series of backward somersaults, similar to the gyrations of the
Tumbler pigeon. It is described as a scaled, telescopic-eyed fish of blue
color flushed with orange, and is now extinct in the United States. In

62

GOLDFISH BREEDS

1g01,a Philadelphia breeder accidentally obtained several fishes in a

FIG. 31—Chinese Tumbler Goldfish

Carassius auratus, var. chinensis saltator Two-thirds life size

the described perculiarities of this variety, but none survived to maturity.
See de Sauvigny’s description of the Kin-teon-yu.

OTHER VARIETIES OF THE GOLDFISH

The early authorities writing on the goldfish mention a number of
other varieties not here described because they are still unknown to the
author. The data concerning them is meagre and not sufficiently explicit
for their certain identification. There are probably many with which the
American fancier will become familiar later, as the appreciation of the finer
goldfishes is of rapid growth so that the attention of Oriental breeders
will be directed to this market for their, at present, very perishable wares.
With increased interest, however combined with improved facilities of
transportation, better accommodations upon arrival and rest before ship-
ment across the Continent, as well as with a fuller understanding of their
requirements for acclimatization, breeding and treatment of ills and ail-
ment upon arrival, the mortality will be so materially lessened as to make
their importation and propagation a profitable industry. When this has
been accomplished, all the wonders in goldfish culture now only known
through the insufficient descriptions of travelers not fully conversant with
the subject, will be familiar to the American and European breeders.

63

GOLDFISH BREEDS

Hysripization. Hybridization is easy with the goldfish, as its evi-
dent by the many singular crosses produced by breeders. Fig. 32 is an
accurate drawing of a goldfish, known in Philadelphia as Agard’s Wonder,

<>

the product of crossing a

SN

SY transparently scaled Comet

QO \ and a similarly scaled Teles-
Sx cope, which resulted in the

production of this singular
hybrid. It has the short
hunchbacked body, the de-
pressed snout and the paired
fins and protruding eyes of
the Telescope, together with
the dorsal fin and long verte-
bral column of the Comet; to
which is attached a very long
deeply bifurcated double tail.
Another peculiarity is the en-
tire absence of the anal fin.
This singular fish is so out of
balance, due to the long spine

FIG. 32—Agard’s Wonder .
Two-thirds life size and the great mass of tail,

that it rests upon the water plants balanced on the tail, and the elongated
spine is so mobile that when it is curved under the body, the head of the
fish is sometimes wrapped into the folds of the tail.

Another abnormality
is shown in Figs. 33 and
34. This white fish has
the body shaped like an
egg,and when viewed from
above, has very much the
appearance of a white rat.

Many other singu-
larities could be cited,
and when it is remember-
ed what faithful copyists
both. the Chinese and
Japanese are, there can
be no doubt that the
goldfishes depicted on

their ceramics and FIG. 33—Lawson’s The White Rat

Lateral view ‘Two-thirds life size

64

GOLDFISH BREEDS

bronzes are accurate re-productions of fishes bred by them. Some of these
are so astonishing in form and colors that to the layman they would appear
to be willful exaggerations or caricatures, but to the experienced goldfish
culturist are easily within
the range of possibility
and may be accepted by
him without question.
This tendency to varia-
tion on the part of the
bbe: goldfish is one of the
BIG: dai_The White Ret principal points of inter-
Dorsal view Two-thirds life size est in its culture, as any
alevin may have a distinct character of its own and be either a wonder in
its way or a“‘sport” not worth the trouble of raising. It should be stated
that young fishes of marked abnormality do not usually survive which is
very often also the case with those considered the most perfect by the
fancier.

Description of the Goldfishes Depicted by De Sauvigny

This illustrated memoir of Chinese goldfishes is in the possession of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and is entitled

Histoire Naturelle Des Dorades de la Chine,

Gravées par M. F. N. Martinet, Ingénieur et Graveur du Cabinet du Roi,
Accompagnée d’Observations et d’ Anecdotes relatives aus Usages, aus
Meers et au Gouvernement de cet Empire,

par M. De Sauvigny,
Chevalier de !’Ordre Royal et Militaire de Saint Louis, Censeur Royal, &c.
a Paris,
De |’ Imprimerie de Louis Jorry, reu de la Huchette, prés du
Petit-Chatelet.

MDCCLXXX
Avec Approbation et Privelege du Roi.

It consists of forty-eight finely colored plates, and of twenty-four
pages of text principally descriptive of the Chinese realm, government, laws
and literature. The brief mention of the goldfishes occurs in the Preface
and in the short article proper, a literal translation of which follows.

“Of the different species of goldfishes of China the one known in
Europe is the least thought of there. The stories of our travelers and the
history of Pere du Halde have only given a very imperfect idea and in
several respects even a false one.”

65

GOLDFISH BREEDS

“These memoirs were made in Pekin by a very able Chinaman, and
have been sent to the Minister in France, who has allowed us to make
use of them.

“All the fishes, redrawn and colored in France, have come to us
with these memoirs and we are safe in saying that the burin and colorings
of M. Martinet have made the copies better than the original drawings.

Only one species of goldfish is known in Europe; the Chinese recog-
nize seven to which they have given the common name of Kin-Yu, and
they distinguish each by a particular name. We have taken the precaution
of adding to the Chinese names the French equivalents because it must be
remembered that all the names in the Chinese language, as in the greater
number of the Oriental languages, have a descriptive significance and ordi-
narily take to themselves the principal qualities of the thing described.”

“There are then seven species of goldfishes or Kr1n-Yv.

1. The KIN-YU, properly so called; this is the most common of all, first known in
China, towards the year 950, and in the 18th Century brought to Port de |’ Orient, to |’ Hotel
de la Compagnie des Indes.

The YA-TAN-YU, or Duck Eggs.

The LONG-TSING-YU or Dragon Eyes.
The CHOI-YU or Sleepers.

The KIN-TEON-YU or Tumblers.

The NIN-EUBK-YU or Nymphs.

The QUEN-YU or Lettered Fishes.’’

NSN Amn PW N

“The habits of life, the development, the different changes, the manner
of propagation and the increase of these fishes are no less marvelous than
their external form and their brilliant colors.”

“It is a noteworthy fact that they have been given the name of a sea
fish, with which they appear to have nothing incommon. However, they
may have originally come from the sea; indeed they were first known in
the province of Tche-Kiang which extends as far as the sea on the Oriental
coast. They may have ascended the rivers by which this province is
watered, following the habit of the salmon, the shad, the sturgeon, the sole
and many other species of fishes.”

“We know how actively Chinese industry is awakened by cupidity, but
is it able to influence the Works of Nature? Is it able to change, so to
speak, their habitation? However, if man has been able to transplant
plants and quadrupeds from the northern meridian and from the old to
the new hemisphere, what law prevents him naturalizing in the rivers
some of the inhabitants of the sea? Some of the provinces abound in salt
waters of which fish ponds can be made; would it then be impossible to
people them with sea fishes? These questions, more interesting because

66

GOLDFISH BREEDS

of the benefit which they present than because of the curiosity which they
excite, open a vast field of research for naturalists, which have not yet
sufficiently attracted their attention.”

This meagre and unsatisfactory description is all the mention which
the memoir makes of the goldfishes, but the plates are so interesting and
curious that brief descriptions of the eighty-eight fishes of the mentioned
seven breeds shown are only omitted on account of lack of space. The
book is open to the inspection of the publicin the library of the Academy,
Cor. 19th and Race Streets, Philadelphia.

None of the plates show transparently scaled fishes or an absence of
the dorsal fin which leads to the inference that these characteristics were of
later development than the publication of this book.

CArE Age A Re klh V

Some Freshwater Aquarium Fishes

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

Many of the readily obtainable native freshwater fishes, and some of
the foreign forms, make interesting aquarium inhabitants, living in perfect
amity with and harmless to goldfishes. There are others, however, which
are best kept by themselves ; but all serve as interesting studies to the lover
of fluvial life in the household. These will be described, together with
the methods for their care and maintenance, beginning with the nest- builders
and following with the ordinary pond and river fishes. Mention of a
good part of the freshwater Ichthyic fauna is omitted, these being forms
that cannot be kept alive in smaller aquaria.

THE INDIAN PARADISE FISH

This beautiful and interesting aquarium fish, Macropodus venestrus,
is most singular and curious in all its habits. In the Orient, it 1s bred
for the same purpose as the game chicken and contests are arranged upon
which considerable sums are often staked. ‘This fish is of such a belliger-
ent disposition that the males will attack each other, and also their mates
out of the breeding season, the strong lips and sharp teeth being formid-
able weapons with which fatal wounds are inflicted.

The appearance of the fish is novel, the curious form, brilliant
markings, evasive colors and marvelous fins and tail, differing from any
other domesticated fish. In the breeding season the males are of lustrous,
dark olive-green color,
overlaid with fleeting,
prismatic color flashes
which seem to be under
control of the fish. The
fins and tail are outlined
with most brilliant red,
yellow and brown. The

females are lighter in
color and of a more grey-

FIG. 35—Indian Paradise Fish 2 i
Macropodus viridi-auratus Two-thirds life size ish or light-brown hue,

which becomes a greyish-white during the breeding period, and all the fins
are shorter and more rounded than those of the males. The illustration,
Fig. 35, is the male of the domesticated variety, Macropodus viridi-auratus,
in nuptual garb.

The Paradise Fish is easily reared and prolific, and will thrive in any

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

receptacle and water, much plant life and frequent changes of water being
unnecessary. The fish is an air-breather and is not dependent upon the
oxygen liberated by aquatic plants. It will live in temperatures to 100° F.,
but, on account of its tropical origin, succumbs to those under 38° or 40°
F. It is of such lively habit that the aquarium should be kept covered
to prevent its leaping out of the water. The sexes should also be separated
except in the breeding season, as the full-grown pugnaceous male
frequently kills its mate and will exterminate any other fish in the same
vessel.

The nest-building habit of this fish is most curious. Thespawnings
occur a number of times during the season, the floating nests being formed
of air bubbles coated with gelatinous matter expelled from the mouth of
the male. The eggs are deposited by the female, fecundated by the male,
carefully placed in the fairy nest and permitted to hatch, he guarding and
caring for them until the fry make their appearance. ‘Then the nest is
destroyed and the young fishes are carefully tended until they are old
enough to care for themselves; the male assuming the whole duty and
keeping the female away from the young. When of sufficient age, the fry
should be fed with the same food as young goldfishes and later will thrive
on the prepared fish foods together with a frequent diet of earthworms or
small particles of raw meat and liver, though the fish prefers and thrives
best on living food. Daphnia, small worms, young snails, gnats, small
houseflies, moths and other insects are generally fed.

THE STICKLEBACK
This most interesting little fish inhabits streams which reach the ocean,
some forms frequenting brackish and salt water. It is one of the most
belligerent of freshwater fishes and may be bred in the aquarium, but should

FIG, 36—Four-spined Stickleback, Apeltes guadratus

be isolated from other kinds. Its nest-building is very interesting and
varies considerably in the natural state. Some build upon the bottom of

72

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

the streams hidden among the weeds and water plants, others under sub-
merged boughs to which the nest is attached, or upon stones and project-
ing ledges. The building is done solely by the male who assumes bright
colorings at this period. All kinds of material are collected and are matted
together to form the bottom, and held in place by sand and small pebbles.
Leaves, stems, twigs and other available materials are glued together with
a mucilagenous substance which is exuded from the body of the fish.
Next the sides and roof are formed, leaving only a circular opening through
which the female deposits the spawn. The male guards the young fishes,
not even permitting the female to approach the nest after spawning. He
assaults every living thing that comes into the neighborhood with his
sharp dorsal and ventral fins and teeth. About the tenth day after the
spawn has hatched, he begins to demolish the nest but keeps vigil over the
young for a month or more until they are able to take care of themselves,
when both he and the young disappear together.

There is nothing more interesting in an aquarium than a pair of
sticklebacks. They should be supplied with an abundance of building
material in the form of aquatic plants, especially myriophyllum, nitella and
vallisneria, the long leaves of the latter being especially desirable for the
foundation of the nests.

Three species are generally distributed, the T'wo-spined Stickleback,
Gasterosteus bispinosus; the Four-spined Stickleback, Apeltes quadratus;
Fig. 36, and the Ten-spined Stickleback, Pygosteus pungitius. Vhe Four-

spined form is abundant in the Delaware river.

Daphnia, earthworms, small particles of fresh meat, insects and any of
the boiled cereals, sparingly fed, is the best food for the Stickleback in the

aquarium.

THE SUNFISH

The ordinary sunfish, Expomotis gibbosus, is one ot the most widely
distributed of the freshwater fishes, There are many well-known species
which differ principally in their really beautiful markings and the shape of
the ear or gill-flap.. Nearly all the sunfishes are nest-builders; their spawn-
ing beds may be recognized by the clean appearance of the gravelly bot-
toms of streams and ponds, from which all vegetal matter, mud and peb-
bles have been either carefully removed by agitation with the fins and tail,
or carried away in the mouths of the fishes. Often the stems of the sur-
rounding aquatic plants are trained over the beds to form a perfect bower.
After depositing the spawn it is carefully watched by the parent fishes,

TS

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

which become bold and belligerent during this season and will attack all
approaching enemies. Figer

The sunfishes acquire the unpleasant habit of nibbling the fins and
tails of the goldfishes, if not plentifully fed, for which reason it is best to

FIG. 37—Common Sunfish, Expomotis gibbosus
keep them separate or to introduce very small ones only into an aquarium in
which goldfishes are kept.
The most generally distributed species of sunfishes (Centrarchidz) are
the following: The Common Sunfish, Eupomotis gibbosus; Fig. 37, the
Blue-spotted Sunfish, Exneacanthus gloriosus; the long-eared Sunfish, Lepomis

FIG, 38—Black-banded Sunfish, Mesogonistius chatodon
auritus; the Black-banded Sunfish, or Chetodon, Mesogonistius chetodon,
Fig. 38, and other forms popularly known as the Green and Blue Sunfish,

74

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

Red-bellied Bream and Crappie. All will survive in the aquarium, and
those enumerated occur in the Delaware River. "The Chetodon is an
especial favorite with aquariists on account of its beautiful markings and
lively habits. The sunfish should be occasionally fed with live food, flies,
worms, etc.
THE AMERICAN DACE

The Black-nosed Dace, Rhinichthys cataracta, Fig. 39, is a native of
all swift-running streams, preferably those of cold water. There are two
varieties most generally distributed which usually inhabit the same streams
and rivulets. ‘he Black-nosed Dace, the most abundant form in the valley
of the Delaware, is easily distinguished by the black line extending from the

ae

Mae om ae eae :

Se oN us ww - oe Hs i i) oe % yh
ak thea saa j

Se. VARA
ae 2 aa »
e i iy ys i yy

: bss oc a iy : »
Dy co By »} aay

< SS
Se 2
==
SS SSS
SS SS

FIG. 39—Black-nosed Dace, Rhinichthys cataractae
snout along the sides tothe tail. [tis most remarkably rapid inits movements
and in the aquarium isa veritable finny jester. Its movements are so rapid
and erratic that it appears like a silvery streak as it darts about in bewilder-
ing confusion. In every way it is entirely harmless and may be kept
with goldfishes, especially with the fine breeds of sluggish habits, to whom
it is of direct benefit in agitating the water.

The spawning season begins early in June, when both the male and
the female take to nest-making in some rapid running brook or trout stream,
the clearing sometimes being over two feet in diameter. All waste-materials
are carefully removed and when the spawn has been deposited it 1s cover-
ed with clean pebbles which the fishes bring down stream in their mouths,
the alternate deposits of spawn and pebbles often forming mounds eight
inches high. This is done not only to protect the young from enemies,
but also to prevent the eggs from washing away in the rapid flowing streams.

The dace will thrive on the usual goldfish foods. Live food should
be occasionally fed.

THE CHUB
That species of the Chub popularly known as the Fall-fish, Silver-
chub, Wind-fish and Corporal, Semotilus corporalis, is a most interesting
aquarium fish but thrives best in larger tanks, as it often grows to be 15
inches in length. It has the habit of building nests for the spawn and

75

i

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

i

young, which, in a locality in which the fishes are abundant, measure 4 to
10 feet in diameter. Pebbles:and stones, often several pounds in weight,
are heaped up to form conical mounds, and, as the fishes are gregarious
during the breeding season, quite a number use the same spawning place,
which is added to year by year. The purpose of these elaborate structures
is to protect the young from their predatory enemies, the Rock and Black
bass, perch, catfish, eel and water-snake. In the aquarium they are timid
and entirely harmless and will thrive satisfactorily when not overstocked.

FIG. 40-——Creek Chub, Semotilus atromaculatus
The Horned-dace or Creek-chub, Semotilus atromaculatus, Fig. 40, 1s
abundant chiefly in small brooks. It is more lively in the aquarium than
the Corporal.
The chub prefers a vegetable diet, and should be fed on boiled cereals,
and occasionally a little of the boiled yolk of an egg.

THE GOLDEN ORFE OR IDE

This fish, Fig. 41, is one of the Carp family, the Cyprinide, developed
in Germany from the albino Orfe, /dus idus, a handsome, hardy fish but
not fully domesticated, its probable migratory habit and consequent rest-
lessness causing it to leap from the water, on which account the tank
should be screened or not filled to the top. This applies more to the
American bred fish
than to the import-
ed German Orfe,
Idus melanotis; the
latter having lost its
wild habits by many
generations under
domestication. Its

FIG. 41—Golden Ide, Zaas tdus

propagation hasbeen
very successful in the fish ponds at Washington, where an abundant sup-
ply is kept, and though a food fish of fair quality it has not been bred for

76

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

this use in the United States. Tenacious of life and easily reared in
shallow ponds of about 3 feet depth, of either spring or running water and
containing abundant plant life, its propagation should be encouraged be-
cause it is a very ornamental fish. It is of handsome form with rich sal-
mon-yellow color on the back and silvery white sides, and a very conspic-
uous inhabitant for the pond or basin as it has retained its habit of swim-
ming in schools and appears to be constantly in motion,

Spawning takes place in April or May, the eggs, being about 1-10
inch in diameter, adhere to the aquatic plants, on which they hatch in 5 or
6 days. Success in hatching depends upon an even temperature of about
56° F.; and should be conducted in shaded ponds. With a healthy plant
growth feeding need not be resorted to until the fry is a month old, when
they should be given a small quantity of cooked corn-meal mixed with flour
and boiled oatmeal, with an occasional ration of finely divided fish flesh,
bivalve, crayfish or other animal food. The young attain a length of 3
inches in six months, growing in natural waters to 12 to 15 inches ina
year and to a weight of 1 to 1% pounds. In the aquarium the growth is
slow, not over an inch a year.

The Golden Orfe is a beautiful aquarium inhabitant and is harmless to
goldfishes. For pond culture, on country estates, it 1s preferable to the
common goldfish, as its habits are more interesting.

THE TENCH

This handsome freshwater food fish, Tivca tinca, is one of the most
generally bred of the European pond fishes, especially in England, whither
it was introduced from the Continent, as it is not indigenous to the natural
waters of Great Britain. It has also been successfully cultivated in the
United States, the breeding fishes and fry having been distributed by the
U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries.

It belongs to the carp family,(Cyprinidz) but differs from the other mem-
bers of this numerous family both in body conformation and its very small
scales. All the fins have a rounded outline, the dorsal is without a spine and
the male possesses a thick outer ray on the ventrals which serves a sexual
purpose. The tench thrives best in enclosed preserved waters having a
clay or mud bottom with Ee
abundant vegetation, 1s
extremely prolific and
grows to a weight of 3
and 4 pounds. It is a
food fish, the meat being
of a sweet and pleasant
flavor and it will thrive
in any fresh water pond, FIG. 42—Young Golden Tench. inca auratus.

lg)

a ee
SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

A
lake or pool which never seem to be too thick, muddy or fetid for it to
inhabit. Like the carp it buries itself in the mud during the winter months
and there remains in a semi-torpid state until the advent of warm weather.

The young are most beautiful aquarium inmates though more timid
than goldfishes. Their colors are so delicate and fleeting as to be almost
prismatic, when the fishes are viewed in a strong light. In form they are
long, slender and rather flat-sided; the mouth is narrow, the eyes large
and the small nostrils are erect. The fins are clear transparent white in
fine contrast with the handsome colors of the body. ‘Two forms are
generally bred, the Green and the Golden tench.

The Common or Green. Tench, Vinca ceruleus, is a finely scaled
handsome fish, especially the young when about 2 to 3 inches in length.
The colors are rich olive-green on the back and abdomen with a fine
metallic golden-green lustre which fairly scintillates with prismatic colors
when viewed in the aquarium with the light at the back of the observer.

The Golden Tench, Vinca auratus, isan albino variety of the Com-
mon Tench originally bred in Silesia, and is of bright orange color, spotted
with brown dots on the sides, fins and tail. | The small fishes, Fig. 42,
are so nearly transparent when viewed towards the light that all the interior
organs and the very functions of life may be seen through the transparent
substance of the skin. When viewed with the light at the back of the ob-
server, the colors are most charming and resemble an opal more than any
other object. With the exception of the Goldfish and the Paradise fish,
the Tench is probably the handsomest aquarium fish, very hardy, easily
kept, and perfectly harmless, and should find a place in every aquarium.
It may be fed with the usual goldfish foods. Its culture should be en-
couraged, as it is a very fine pond fish of lively habit.

THE CARP
The Carp, Cyprinus carpio, is one of the most widely distributed of
the pond fishes. A number of forms have been produced by European
breeders of which the following are the more interesting.

ORT as
eva Ive —
A a

FIG 43—Young Scaled Carp, Cyprinus carpio communts

78

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

The Scaled Carp, Cyprinus carpio communis, Fig. 43, was originally
introduced into Europe from Central Asia, and has been extensively culti-
vated in natural and artificial ponds and slow-flowing streams. It is dis-
tinguished from its kindred breeds by its regular concentrically arranged
scales. The color is variable but is usually brownish with a bluish tinge
along the back and a golden or coppery reflection along the scales.

The Mirror Carp, Cyprinus carpio specularis, Fig. 44, has very large
irregularly disposed scales. Some forms have very few scales, sometimes
restricted to one row along the lateral line, or in others to a line along the
back with a few large scales scattered at random over the sides. Some have
a dorsal, a ventral and a lateral line of scales on an otherwise scaleless body,
these differences being produced by the careful selection and propagation
of breeders.

FIG. 44—Young Mirror Carp, Cyprinus carpio specularis
The color of the back is a decided bluish tone tinged with green and
grey, which extends over the sides. “The abdomen and the fins are white.
The Leather Carp, Cyprinus carpio coriaceus, sive. nudus, Fig. 444 has
either a few scales on the back or none at all, and possesses a thick soft

FIG. 44a—Young Leather Carp, Cyprinus carpio coriaceus

leathery skin, which feels velvety to the touch. Those of golden-brown,
color and devoid of scales are most highly prized by European breeders.

19

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

The Golden Carp, Cyprinus carpio aureus, is an albino form of the
Scaled Carp, at one time extensively bred in Germany for ornamental pur-
poses but has been largely superseded by the Common goldfish.

The Crusian Carp, Carassius carassius, Fig. 45 is a variable form
closely related to Cyprinus carpio and differs somewhat in form and in the
absence of barbels. It is a shorter fish of more hunch-backed appearance.
Its habits are also similar to the common carp, and it will live in localities
wherein the impurities are sufficient to destroy most other of the fresh-
water fishes. It is con-
sidered to have been the
form from which the

goldfish, Carassius aura-
tus, was derived, this fish

SLD e tay eerie
a Se
¢) > Rea ye :
+ SS

YOEAZA nas: being of Chinese and
REN eel Corean origin and ex-
Wick bid os Bach TS =

sone traction. Other forms

Ss of the Crusian Carp are
FIG. 45—Young Crusian Carp, Carassius carasstus Ge moles, ‘Gs gibelio, Ce
oblongus and C. humilis, all variations produced by domestication, selection

and breeding.

Small specimens of all the Carp breeds make interesting aquarium
fishes. In 1877, and for some years thereafter, attempts were
made to generally introduce the Scaled and Leather Carp in the United
States, as their easy propagation recommended them for regions remote
from a supply of better-flavored fishes, but the results were not satisfac-
tory and in the past years the attempt has been abandoned. The introduction
of carp into many streams is now forbidden by acts of state legislation.

All carp will excavate the banks of ponds in search for food which
consists of the tender shoots and roots of aquatic plants and the tiny ento-
mostraca and insects of fresh water, for which it burrows into the mud
and the banks of streams and ponds. In the aquarium it will thrive on
goldfish foods. The carp is destructive to the spawn of other fishes.

THE TESSELLATED DARTER

The Tessellated Darter, Boleosoma nigrum ohmstedi, Fig. 46 1s a most
singular and beautifully marked small fish of belligerent habits. The
name is derived from its habit of lying motionless on the bottom of clear
streams and suddenly springing upon its prey with marvelous rapidity.
In the aquarium it is best kept with such freshwater fishes as are able to

80

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

take care of themselves, like the sunfish, catfish, tiny eels, the young of the
spiny-rayed fishes, etc.; and should be fed on small live food and boiled

cereals.

MO aes

fea
ROR) 4 A rahe
POY ass ei ae oy, eh Oe En
So if uf Be = TRAY) +9 ai
x a >) ») t:
= . Lee
Sy ia
Ss

FIG. 46—Tessellated Darter, Boleosoma nigrum chmstedi

THE SUCKER

The Common Sucker, Catostomus commersonnu, Fig. 47, will also
thrive in the aquarium. Its habits are similar to the Carp, and the young

FIG. 47—Common Sucker, Catostomus commersonnii

may be kept with goldfishes. Any of the goldfish foods may be fed,
boiled oatmeal, flaked rice, or fine corn meal mush being the usual food,
varied occasionally with small particles of earthworms, mussels and small
snails.

THE KILLIFISH

Two species of the Killifish are vivacious little aquarium inmates.
These are the Common or Green Killifish, Pundulus heterochtus, and the
Barred Killifish, Faundulus diaphanus, Fig. 48, which inhabits brackish
water. Both thrive in the aquarium. The Barred form is marked with
steel-blue and silvery-white bars, and has a peculiar metallic lustre. It 1s
entirely harmless and very lively in its habits. Its food should be a mixed
animal and vegetable diet, sparingly fed.

81

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

THE BRILLIANT CHUBSUCKER OR MULLET

This fish is known as the Chubsucker, Erimyzon sucetta, Fig. 49, and
may be recognized by its clear green back, lemon-yellow sides, and white

FIG. 49—Chub-sucker or Mullet, Erimyzon sucetta

abdomen. It is quite generally distributed in flowing water in most of
the river systems of the Eastern, Middle and Southern states. It can be
kept with other freshwater fishes and thrives satisfactorily in the aquarium.
Its food is the same as that of the Sucker.

THE MINNOWS

The Minnows or cyprinoids are among the smallest of freshwater
fishes. There are many well-known species some of which thrive in the
aquarium, but others, whose natural habitat is swift-running water, are
dificult to keep alive except in tanks in which the water is constantly
changing. Some of the hardy forms are easily tamed and soon learn to
come to the surface of the water to be fed. The most generally distri-
buted species are the Black-striped minnow, Notropis procne; the Silver-
fin, Notropis analostanus, Fig. 50, and the Red-fin, Notropis cornutus.

82

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

These are all abundant in the small tributary streams of the Delaware,
and when young are difficult to identify as they all look much alike. The
adults, however, are different and develop brilliant colors during the

FIG. 50—Silver Fin, Notropts anaiostanus

spring or breeding season. ‘The young of almost all species of freshwater
fishes are often called minnows. The minnows thrive best on _ boiled
cereals and small particles of earthworms, dessicated meat, shellfish, etc.

THE SHINER OR ROACH

This beautiful fish, 4éramis crysoleucas, Fig. 51, may be kept in the
aquarium and is perhaps the most hardy of all of our Minnows or Cypri-
noid fishes. Instances of a long survival of this fish in the aquarium are

FIG. 51 —Shiner or Roach, Abramis crysoleucas

frequently mentioned, and, as it is of interesting habit, it will reward the
fancier to introduce it, but not together with the finely bred goldfishes, as
it tears their tails and fins. Its food is like that of the minnows.

83

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

THE CATFISH

This fish is so well-known that little need be said in its description.
Several species are most generally distributed, the White Catfish, dmezurus

FIG. 52—-Stone-catfish or Little Mad Tom, Schi/beodes insignis

catus, the Horned Pout or Common Bullhead Ameiurus nebulosus, and the
Little Mad Tom, Schilbeodes insignis, Fig. 52. They are very annoying
to goldfishes and should not be put into aquaria with them. Small parti-

cles of animal food, dessicated meat, mussels, etc.,together with boiled cereals
are the best food.

THE EEL
Eels abound in all the waters of the temperate and torrid zones, but
it has been established that they always visit brackish and salt water to
spawn. They are very tenacious of life, a modification of their gills en-
abling them to go considerable distances overland in their Spring migra-
tions or in search of food. The Common American Eel, Anguilla

QE mn

FIG. 53—Common Eel, Anguilla chrysypa

chrysypa, Fig. 53, is of slow growth, rarely exceeding 12 inches during the
first year, but attaining a length of over 4-feet and a weight exceeding 5
pounds. Its food consists of all insect and animal life as well as putres-
cent vegetal and animal substances. They are good scavengers but de-
structive to the spawn ofall fishes. In the aquarium they will nibble at
the fins of other fishes and should not be kept with goldfishes unless they
are of very small size. Eels will eat almost anything and everything fed
to them.

84

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES

THE SPINY-RAYED FISHES

The Bass, Perch, Pike, Pike-perch, and other predaceous spiny-rayed
fishes need not receive mention here, as their belligerent habits preclude
their being kept in aquaria with other fishes. They thrive only in large
tanks having a constant flow of fresh water. Very small specimens are
sometimes kept in aquaria, but it is difficult to keep them alive.

COLLECTING IN STREAMS AND PONDS

One of the chief pleasures incidental to the household aquarium for
other than goldfishes, is the collecting of the plant and animal inhabitants
of running streams and standing water for home study, observation and
classification, and the pleasant outings with congenial companions which
this occupation affords. Very few andsimple appliances are required; these
being a close-meshed pond net with a long sectional handle, upon which
a small garden hoe and a wire scoop may be fastened, a collapsing dredg-
ing net, a fishing line and minnow hooks, a can of two gallons capacity,
a number of small tin cans with perforated lids and small bottles for catch-
ing and holding the water inhabitants; and, for the collecting of plants
otherwise out of reach, a wire dredging hook or grapple fastened to a
strong cord. Larger cans are required to transport fishes, covered with
gauze, not with a lid, and if ice is necessary it should be put into the gauze
cover, not into the water.

In collecting, a certain indication of abundant animal life is the
presence of a considerable plant growth, and a careful examination of
the floating and submerged leaves, the overhanging foliage, the bottom
and the stones is advisable before rendering the water muddy with nets
and scoop, which should be turned out on a clear space rather than
in the grass, as the contents can then be better searched and the catch
seen. The route should also be up-stream that the water may be clear.
In addition to identifying the plants and preserving such as may be desired,
a thorough examination of them, as well as of the mud and gravel, should
be made as these are the home of many insects, larve, and molluscs.
The dredge will also yield many of the latter not otherwise readily ob-
tained.

The late summer and fall months are the best for making collections
for the household aquarium, as those collected in the spring may not sur-
vive the summer heat.

SOME FRESHWATER AQUARIUM FISHES .

The lower forms of life are present in all bodies of water but in rapid
streams minnows, shiners, sunfishes, dace, chub, suckers, newts, salaman-
ders and crayfishes will be found; and in springwater streams trout, troutlets,
sticklebacks, dace, pickerel and bass; also fontinalis, chara, and sometimes
anacharis of the long-leaved variety. In ditches many insects and their
larve abound; also catfishes, sunfishes, killifishes, carp, eels, tadpoles,
mussels and some varieties of the snails; while the ponds afford sunfishes,
catfishes, chub, carp, eels, frogs and tadpoles; and in these latter two most
of the desired aquatic plants will be found, and a great variety of bivalve
and univalve molluscs, together with many of the insects and their larve.
In ponds, ditches and pools the tiny entomastraca, which form the natural
food for young fishes, may be found.

PHoToGrapHInG Fisues. The photographing of the ichthyfauna
in the natural element and surroundings is a recent achievement of the
instantaneous processes but the difficulties are so many that good results
are extremely rare. Probably the best work in this line was done by
R. W. Shufeld, of the Medical Corps, U.S. Army. The usual conditions
are unfavorable to proper light, the incessant movements of the fishes
makes focusing difficult, the refraction of the glass front of the aquarium
is troublesome and the reflection produces a mirror as likely to show the
camera and operator as the contents of the aquarium. By the use of a
glass plate behind the fish, to restrict its movement, one element of difh-
culty may be partially obviated; but a specially constructed very narrow
miniature aquarium, fitted to a tripod and backed by a screen will lead to
more satisfactory results, as it may be set in the open air and in favorable
light. Theapparent plant life, to form a natural background, may con-
sist of a sepia drawing secured to the back of the aquarium; the front
being constructed of the thinnest portrait glass; but even this interposes
a slight screen to the contents and sometimes interferes with a perfectly
clear picture.

The constant, almost imperceptible movement of the fins and the
rarity with which they are all fully expanded compelled the abandonment
of this method of illustrating this volume and forced the author to adopt
the considerable labor of making accurate pen drawings. The restlessness
of the subject prevented the taking of snapshots with every detail of form
and fin at their best so as to serve as types of the most perfect fishes of
the recognized breeds. ‘2

CEIAP TERY.

The Propagation of the Goldfish

iad

=e
_

_——.
2
'
-
+
“

y

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

As previously stated, the goldfish is oviparous and the spawn is
fecundated after extrusion. Figure 54. The almost transparent white or
yellowish eggs are about one-sixteenth inch in diameter and when first ex-

truded havea slightly flattened, lentél
shaped appearance but upon fecunda-
tion assume a globular form. Fer-
tilized eggs retain their translucent ap-
pearance, but the unfertilized eggs
become opaque or milky. The
hatching of the ova takes place in
from three to seven days, dependent
upon the season of the year and the
temperature of the water; and con-
sists of the germination of the yolk,
the development of the embrio, and
the final evolution of the alevin or
Be pe oan ener chee the leat 1) “tiny: fry still attached to: the yallesac,
of an aquatic plant. Enlarged about B ; :
two anda half diameters. upon which it nourishes for some
days after hatching. Figure 55 will explain the metamorphosis of the
egg and the development of the fry, the greatly enlarged illustration being
that of a June hatching of spawn ofa mottled male and a red and white
female Chinese Telescope goldfish ; and is (1) the newly exuded unfecun-
dated ova, full and lateral views; (2) the ova four and ten hours after
fecundation, showing germination and formation of the membrane; (3) the
development of the embrio and plasmic processes at the edge of the mem-
brane, twenty-four and thirty-six hours after fecundation; (4) development
of the alevin and yolksac, fifty and fifty-six hours after fecundation; (5)
free-swimming alevin attached to the yolksac, four days old; (6) alevin five
days old; (7) the same seven days old; (8) the fully developed young fry
ten days old.

ARTIFICIAL ImMpREGNATION. The author knows of no successful at-
tempts at the artificial impregnation of the spawn of goldfishes, though
this is successfully done with the eggs of the larger food fishes, and has
increased the number of fertile eggs from 50% to 80% or 90% over the
natural method of fecundation. Attempts in this direction would be most
interesting, and there is no doubt of its being practiced by the Oriental
breeders.

89

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

Martine. The mating season of the goldfish is during the warm
spring and summer months, when the water is at 60° or over, and spawn-
ings occur at frequent intervals, as with this species of Cyprinidz all the

FIG, 55. Embriology of the Goldfish.

1. Newly exuded egg, not fecundated, wrin-
kled and unexpanded surface covered

with vesicles. Full and lateral views.

v

Egg, four and ten hours after fecundation,
showing germination and formation of

membrane.

Development of embrio and plasmic pro-

w

cesses at edge of membrane, 24 and 34

hours after spawning,

4. Development of alevin and yolk-sac, 50
and 58 hours after spawning.

5. Free-swimming alevin attached to the yolk-
sac, showing skeleton, partly developed
digestive organs and surface colors.

Four days old.

6. Alevin five days old; dorsal and caudal fins
partly developed.

7. Alevin seven days old; pectoral and anal

fins developed.

8. The fully developed Telescope fry, ten€ {
days old.

Greatly enlarged, Actual size, No. 8, |———_|
eggs do not mature at the same time. During this period the distinguish-
ing characteristics of the male are developed and consist of wartlike pro-
tuberances or papillose tubercles on the opercule and main rays of the pec-
toral fins, Fig. 1o(page 46), which have distinct sexual purpose. Another

go

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

means of discriminating the sexes is the appearance of the fishes near the
anal region.. The female shows a slight protuberance above the anus, the

protrusion of the oviduct; while the male has a
CLE. depression in this region as though a tiny piece of

= oe the flesh had been pinched out with the nails of the

finger and thumb, Fig. 56. ‘These latter differences
FIG. 56 Difference at anal

pebror @malsandimalecad: sate noticable at all times.
fishes, for determ ning the sex.

The conduct of the male in pursuit of the female shows unmistakable
evidence of courtship; swimming beside and around her, rubbing her sides
and pressing on the ovaries with the head and tubercles, aiding her in
depositing the spawn, often fairly forcing her on the spawning bed.

Fl At this season the enlarged ovaries of the female give to her a de-
cidely fuller and more distended appearance and also aid in the discrimina-
tion of the sexes, though the otherwise general conformation of body and
fin may be alike. It is generally recognized, however, that the males of
finely bred goldfishes incline to longer bodies than the females.

The female deposits the spawn, Fig. 54, on the leaves and roots of aquatic
plants, its mucilaginous covering causing an adhesion thereto, where it is
covered and fecundated with spermatic corpuscles by the male. To the
breeder the preferable plants for spawning are Myriophyllum, introduced
in loose bunches, and the Water Hyacinth whose finely spiked floating
roots are well adapted to this purpose. Previous examination 1s advisable
that they harbor no snails, insects, larve, or other enemies that may de-
vour the spawn or injure the fry, if introduced with them into the hatch-
ing dishes. Preferably the plants should be placed in water for some time
so that the Jarve will hatch and then thoroughly cleaned in a weak solution

ke | of Phenol-sodique before use for spawning.

When the fry has reached the stage of development that the yolksac
entirely disappears, feeding is necessary and this consists of the tiny water
plants known as Alge, and of minute aquatic animalcule which abound in
quiet pools and still water, entomostraca of the genera Daphnia, Poly-
Ar af phema, Ceriodaphnia, Sida, Cyclops and Cypryis; also mosquito larve and

those of harmless insects, of which more will be stated hereafter. Great
care must be taken in the selection of this food that injurious insect spawn
and larve, or the protozoa and fungi which produce diseases, and parasites
are not introduced with it into the rearing tanks. ‘This will also be treated
of elsewhere.

If the breeding is undertaken in a small way, a fine net of cheese
cloth and a jar containing a little pond soil and a water plant are required

gl

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

to collect the animalcule which constitute the entire requirements of the
fry; but breeders usually employ a tank in which to store and propagate
them under careful supervision.

When the fry have reached an age of about three weeks a few parti-
cles of clean, crushed earthworms, finely scraped liver or powdered pre-
pared fish food may be occasionally fed, their diet being as described until
they have reached an age of two or three months and are able to subsist
on the food of mature fishes. Rice flour, oatmeal broth and finely powdered
barley malt starch have also been fed to very young fishes with success;
but the best results and most vigorous growth are obtained by feeding
them their natural pond food two or three times daily; when this can be
obtained it should be fed exclusively.

The common goldfish is easy to propagate but considerable experience,
skill and knowledge are required to successfully rear fine specimens of the
Japanese and Chinese breeds; of which the Comets, Fringetails, Fantails
and Nymphs are more likely to reward the efforts of the amateur culturist
than the very abnormally developed Telescopes and Celestials. There
are but few breeders who have successfully done this on a commercial scale,
though the requirements as to equipment are few and simple. A light,
sheltered room, a greenhouse, conservatory, or in the open air during mild
weather; a number of rearing tanks or other vessels of various sizes and
depths of water; hatching dishes, jars or tanks; the proper aquatic plants
and water supply; some few simple tools, patience, cleanliness, good eye-
sight, some little experience and a careful attention to minor details are
required.

A prime factor in the successful propagation of the goldfish breeds is
a judicious selection of the breeding stock, so that the desired characteris-
tics of the parents may be transmitted to their young. The breeder should
carefully select and mate those which most markedly exhibit the recognized
perfections of strain, type, color and conformation, or such which are de-
rived from known fine stock, as the constant tendency of the finely bred
Japanese and Chinese fishes is toward reversion to the original stock or
ancestral type; nor is this probably as much due to inbreeding as to the
fact that the fishes, under the changed condition of existence, differences
in treatment, climate, food etc., from generation to generation undergo a
gradual variation from the direct parent stock, acquire a different form or
become hybridized; and perfect specimens of the fine Oriental fishes are
exceptionally rare. There is a general belief that all the methods em-
ployed by the Japanese and Chinese culturists, in developing and maintain-
ing the pure strains and in producing the wide diversity of form, color and
appearance of the different breeds are not known or fully understood by

92

a

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

the American breeder, goldfish culture being a comparatively recent in-
dustry in the United States, but has been a science in China and Japan for
centuries and an occupation of very considerable magnitude, to which must
be added the endless patience and perseverance which is characteristic of
the Oriental. It is also known that they only retain those young fishes
which are the most perfect of their respective kinds, as with all animals

-even the most careful breeding will produce many variations from the

parent stock, which in the goldfish leads to the hatching of imperfect fishes
and ‘‘sports.”’

The breeding of the fine varieties is best conducted in tanks where
the fishes may be kept under constant inspection and supervision, but the
common goldfish multiplies rapidly in the pond; requiring only moderate
attention, some little protection from natural enemies and sufficient food.

None of the early writers mention or illustrate the so-called scaleless
goldfishes. These really are thin or transparently scaled fishes. ‘The
young of these breeds show a change from the dull to the bright colors
almost as soon as the umbilical sac is consumed and when the fish is still
very small. Under the microscope both the embrio and alevin show a
mottled appearance different from the dull olivate color of the heavily
scaled goldfishes. These thin-scaled fishes are the most sensitive to cold
water and low temperatures, as they are derived from fishes bred in the
warmer parts of China.

In breeding for color both parents should have the desired markings
or have been derived from highly colored stock. To produce scaleless
(transparently scaled) Japanese Fringetails a female Fringetail should be
crossed with a transparently scaled male Chinese Telescope; as when the
female is transparently scaled and the male scaled, a smaller percentage of
the young will be transparently scaled. A scaleless (crossed) female Fringe-
tail and a male scaleless Telescope will produce the telescopic eye and the
Fringetail body and large fin development; and when both parents are
scaleless (crossed) Fringetails, they are most likely to produce scaleless
Fringetails with smaller and flat eye development than the Chinese Teles-
cope, but larger than that of the common goldfish. These are the hand-
somest and most highly colored fishes, superior to the Scaled Japanese
Fringetail stock.

Prof. John A. Ryder stated that experiments in shaking apart the
cells produced by the first cleavage in the egg led to the development of
two separate embrios from the same egg, as well as the production of
monstrosities in both invertebrate and vertebrate animals. He mentioned
experiments in producing double monsters by violently shaking the re-

a3

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

cently fertilized ova of the pike, of almost entire broods of salmon com-
posed of fry developed as double and triple monsters, each from a single
yolk, by rough and careless handling or shaking of the ova during the
early stages of their development; and the production of double monsters
of the lobster and of birds by these and similar treatment of the eggs;
which led him to the conclusion that the double-tailed goldfishes were
produced by this or similar simple practices. The Orientals, by taking
the eggs of the normal species and either by shaking or disturbing them in
other ways produced some complete double monsters, some with two
heads and a single tail, and some with duplicate caudal and anal fins. Of
these the double monsters did not survive, but those with duplicated fins
may have been kept alive and selections in breeding would continue the
tendency to double fins.

It is known that crustaceans, batrachians, reptiles and fishes also
have the power not only to reproduce lost parts, but of their regeneration
in duplicate and triplicate, diverging from the point of mutilation. In tad-
poles it has been observed that when the tail is cut off at right angles to the
body, the new tip grows straight backwards in normal form, but when the cut
is at an acute angle the development is, according to the inclination, either
upwards or downwards; and that, if the growth of new material is inter-
fered with across the narrow line of the stump, the growth will be to each -
side, producing a duplication of the part in diverging directions.

It has also been noted that this regenerative power diminishes in the
higher animals, the last evidence being the reproduction of extremital parts;
and that the rarity of the production of monstrosities, due to disturbance
during the development, also diminishes, so that the continuation of these
aberrations in successive generations becomes less frequent in the higher
animal forms.

With fishes, however, the hereditary tendency to duplication of parts
is a marked characteristic; and the goldfish and other Cyprinidae tend to
the retention of abnormalities; but which, in the natural state of pond ex-
istence would be lost,as fishes encumbered with duplicate fins, especially tails,
would be less likely to reach maturity than those normally developed, though
this sometimes occurs. Under the care of the breeder, however, these are
fostered and by selection and careful propagation still further developed,
until this tendency becomes a characteristic of the breed, and a considerable
portion of the young continue the desired inherited peculiarity.

How this tendency is transmitted to the ova of the parent it is difficult
to trace, but it is certain that the partially double bodies of the parents
have some influence, and that the artificial interference with the ova or

94

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

with the normal processes of development, influences the first generation
and these may transmit the effect and continue the peculiarity in the
future generations.

Abnormal modifications in the goldfish breeds are not restricted to
the fins, but affect the body, head and other organs, but in some respects
the type is fixed, as in the number of scales in the lateral line and the number
of transverse rows of scales on the body, though a displacement of the organs,
a shortening of the body muscles and of the segments of the vertebra, is
evident in the shortened body; to compensate for which the overlap of
the scales and of their surface varies very considerable in the different breeds.
Variations of the ‘head consist most largely in ashortening, by compression,
of thesnout and of the position of the mouth,which in some breeds is modified
to an almost vertical position. ‘The form and position of the nostrils are
also changed on the short snout.

The degenerative changes are not alone due to careful selection, but
are also attributable to the restraint of an aquarium existence; the enforced
disuse of the muscles producing an exaggerated growth of all the fins, as
“the material saved from expenditure in muscular effort may be expended
in growth in another direction, and culminates in a lengthening of all the
fins, so that they are an actual hindrance in swimming.”

The highly bred varieties have become entirely unfitted to existence
other than in the aquarium under the fostering care of the breeder, and the
young of such breeds, if they survive at all, revert more and more
to the ancestral type with each succeeding generation when deprived of
this supervision.

A sluggishness of habit has also been developed by the Oriental breed-
ers, as both the descriptions of authorities on the propagation of the gold-
fish and the observations of fanciers prove; and with some of the highly
developed varieties has been carried to such extent that harmless fishes of
other species must be kept with them in the aquaria to agitate the water
and prevent suffocation.

Some of the races are so monstrously developed and the displacement
or the crowding of the swimming bladder so extensive that they cannot
maintain their equilibrium in the water, but assume a position as though
standing on their heads or tails, or partly or entirely reversed.

Professor Ryder prepared tables of measurements, in millimetres, of
the three breeds of goldfishes obtained from Philadelphia breeders in
March, 1893, which are here given in condensed form; but it should be
stated that at this writing more varieties and even more wonderful developed
fishes are sucessfully bred.

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

RACES
Length of body.
Length of head.
Length of intestine.
Width of the trunk behind
the body cavity, between it and
Length of caudal fin.
of intestine.
fin.

the base of the caudal fin.
Ratio of head to length of
intestine

Total length of head and body.
Distance from vent to caudal fin.
Ratio of total length to length
Ratio of total length of head and
body to the length of the caudal

Common Goldfish.

Wo

Two long bodied Japanese long-
tailed Goldfishes.

1:9.25 | 1:2.85
28|19|226| 7 LOWES

Healso pointed out that “the large number of capillaries in the huge
tail of fine specimens of the ‘Kinyiki’ and KIN-YU races indicate that the
caudal fin may possibly serve in a very important way as an adjunct to
branchial respiration”, and that “the immense fins of the Japanese double-
tailed goldfishes have been developed partially in physiological response
to artificial conditions of respiration, that were not as favorable as those
enjoyed by their wild congenetors’’, and, “ that the dorsal, anal and caudal
fins may be so modified as to minister in an important way to the needs
of respiration.’ Also, “the fact that the very long fins are only fully devel-
oped at a very late period of the growth of the animal, is in harmony with
the view that the hypertrophy of these organs is associated with a correla-
tive degeneration of the muscles of the trunk, and possible use of these
structures with their great amount of surface as respiratory organs, in the
restricted and badly aerated tanks and aquaria in which they have been
bred for centuries.”

The very red color of the blood in the arteries and capillaries of the
fins would indicate the correctness of this hypothesis.

The comparisons of the telescopic-eyed goldfishes are equally interest-
ing. Professor Ryder states that “ the eye-ball becomes greatly elongated
in the direction of its optic axis. Sometimes the difference between the
axial and equatorial diameter is as much as three millimetres, constituting
an extremely myopic form of eye-ball. The form of the eye-ball in the
common races is flat or hypermetropic in character. A gradual passage
from the hypermetropic to the myopic form is shown in the following
table, as based upon actual approximate measurements of the eye-balls of
individuals of the three races. The size and shape of the globular lens
is not appreciably different from that of the other races with smaller eye-
balls. It would therefore, seem impossible for the image formed by the lens

Three short-bodied Japanese
double-tailed Goldfishes.

96

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

of a distant object to be thrown on the retina at all, consequently the
condition is one of near sightedness, or of an optical adjustment for very
near objects. The conditions of life * * “ would in their restricted quarters
actually foster the development of near sightedness, and any variation in
that direction would actually tend to be preserved. * * * The name
telescope fish in allusion to the protruding eye-balls becomes a misnomer,
as the form of the eye is distinctly myopic and short-sighted, and not
hypermetropic or far-sighted, as required of an optical organ having tele-
scopic capacity.” The Chinese designation ‘Dragon-eyes,” would better

apply to these breeds of goldfishes.

E Z
ee) a
| = on
Nn 7) s 3S
3 2 P 2
< = g ry)
ms ° ‘3 E
B a S|
5 5
=] ¥
=k <
as
Common Goldfish. 5
Double-tailed Japanese Goldfish. 4 All measurements
Telescopic-eyed Goldfish. in millimeters.
No. I - - 6
No. 2 - - 9

Dr. S. Watase, in writing “On the Caudal and Anal Fins of Gold-
fishes” states that in his opinion, artificial selection has produced the
abnormal forms of all the fins, and that in all goldfishes, irrespective

of what breed, the tail fin is
\ above all other parts subject
‘ to the greatest variation.
JK It is found in one of the
following states: 1, it has three
1 2 3 5

lobes, one median and two

<4

Fig. 57. Diagram of the vertebra and tail-rays of Goldfshes. | lateral; 2, it consists of two

Single tail of the Common Goldfish. ; ‘ved \ o1V)1
Tripod tail of the Chinese and Japanese Goldfishes. Se palate halves ( Lar d) siving

Webbed tail of the Chinese and Japanese Goldfishes. rise to a four-lobed tail (the

Double tail of the Japanese Fantail Goldfish. * Ap =e

Double tail of the Japanese and Chinese Fringetail and Telescope Le Olsuo-W0; ) and Boke 1s Viehe=
Goldfishes.

nAPwne

ical and normal. In the first
two classes, the lobes are more or less horizontally spread. The simplest
transition state from single to double, is seen when the tail, normal in all
other respects, has the ventral edge slightly furrowed by a median groove.

a7

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

The greater part of it is vertical and median, but its lower portion occurs
doubles (the ¢ripod taily) which in some cases extends further upwardsy(the
web tail), In other instances the furrow may reach the dorsal edge of the
tail and thus divide it into two halves, which then expand right and left.
These halves may or may not be connected at the median line, at the
dorsal edge; in the former case, the tail is represented by a more or less
horizontally expanded single piecef (the do/phin tailj) in the latter case it
is distinctly paired) (the double tail)) Pig. 57:

Next to the caudal fin the anal fin undergoes a remarkable variation.
It is either median and normal or distinctly paired. In the former case,
especially when the caudal fin is also normal, the goldfish closely resembles
the carp. In the double form of the anal fin, bony structures similar to
those of the single fin are present in pairs. These double fins often make a
flapping motion serving the same function as the ventral fins. Examination
of the embrios of these breeds of fishes show that the double caudal and
anal fins are laid out as two longitudinal folds or thicknesses along the ven-
tral side of the post-anal section ofthe body, which diverge ata later period
and form paired caudal and anal fins. The internal structures of these
parts are also paired. In some of the breeds the anal fin is entirely absent
and others have been developed which are devoid of dorsal fins, while the

Egg-fish has neither dorsal nor anal fins.

BREEDING. It is proposed to treat of tank culture first and later of
the basin or pooland pond or lake culture, these latter terms being applied
to the smaller brick or cement basins and pools or those with earthen or
boarded sides, and the larger natural or artificial ponds and lakes.

When the breeding is conducted indoors or in a greenhouse the season
is earlier thanin the open air and spawnings may begin in February, while
out-of-doors or in the pond, in a temperate climate, the fishes may not
mature the spawn till April, May, or June, after which it may be continu-
ous, at short intervals, until the advent of cold weather. Spawning is
also dependent upon the temperature of the water and rarely begins until

it has reached 60° F.

The period of rest between spawning varies with the fishes and may
be but a few days or several weeks, dependent upon their vigor and the
temperature of the water. Spawning may occur two days in succession,
or at an interval of several days, ifthe weather becomes colder, to be re-
sumed when the water becomes warmer. Of this the surest guide is the
appearance of the female and the action of the male, and trials with the latter
should be undertaken, the fishes being again separated if no spawn results
in a day or two. An occasional change of males is also advisable. Stimu-

98

7

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

lating food and the frequent addition of well-aerated water also greatly aid the
spawning. As soon as thespawn is deposited and fecundated, which usually
takes place early in the morning, the plants to which it adheres should be
placed in the hatching dishes or the parents removed from the tank or rear-
ing trough, to prevent their devouring both the spawn and later the young
fishes. The fry also prey on each other, and hatchings of different dates
should be isolated until the fishes have acquired considerable growth
and are of equal size; those of slower development and smaller size to be
either put by themselves or with the next younger hatch; where their
chances of obtaining food are improved, or the larger and more vigorous
ones removed. [In breeding fine fishes it will be noticed that the single-tail
“sports” always make the most rapid growth, as they are better able to
get about than their finer double-tailed brethren. They are also the natural
cannibals and prey upon the smaller more perfect fishes.

The depth of water for hatching and for the fry should best not exceed
6 to 8 inches and when transfers are made, the dishes and their contents
should be submerged and the fry permitted to make their exit at will.
Change in the temperature of the water is also usually fatal and must be
guarded against 1n making tranfers and at other times.

If there are no facilities for separating the parents and spawn, asin the
small way in the house aquarium, a movable partition will serve; but it
is best to hatch the spawn in separate vessels which can be placed in good
but not too strong light, where eggs and fry will remain undisturbed.
Shallow glass, porcelain or enameled dishes, fruit or candy jars, or other simi-
lar receptacles will fully answer the purpose, and are generally employed.

The relative size and vigor of the fishes regulate the number of males
and females mated, to which individual judgment is the best guide. With
the facilities at hand each female ready to spawn should be placed in a
separate compartment with one, two or three males, dependent upon their
size; but when the spawning has begun, selection of the finest male should
be made, if he is of sufficient size, and the others removed to prevent too
great exhaustion of the female. Care should also be exercised to prevent
inbreeding by mating fishes of different strain or parentage. Where the
number of fishes to be bred is large and of the same breed, it 1s advisable to
select two or three males to one female, when she is the larger, three females
and four males when of one size, and six females and four males when the
latter are the larger fishes; but this, like much else relating to the culture
of the goldfish, is a matter of experience and applies more to the breeding
of the ordinay than the finely bred varieties. A change of males is also
advisable at different spawnings.

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

a

Should the rearing of the fishes be conducted in the open air, ona
large scale or in pools or lakes, much that has been stated will apply; as
with whatever method adopted the results are always more certain when
the hatching is done in dishes or shallow tanks and the fry only transferred
to the rearing ponds when sufficiently developed to find their own nourish-
ment and too large to readily fall a prey to their numerous enemies. The
temperature and condition of the water is thus under control, the spawn
and fry better protected, feeding can be regulated, and a closer supervision
had of all the details which lead to success.

Attention should also be given to the selection of such breeding fishes,
especially with the common goldfish, which evince rapid growth and soonest
develop color, as this may vary considerably, some fishes being very vig-
orous, growing to a length of 4 to 6 inches in a few months and assuming
the desired colors when quite small, while with others this may have been
delayed until the following season; and as these and other tendencies
are likely to be transmitted to the progeny, a study of the parents is necessary
to insure satisfactory results.

In pond or lake culture, where the fishes are turned in and permitted
to breed at will, few precautions other than those of water supply, abundant
food, protection from freshets and the larger predatory animals are possible;
but when the breeding is done in prepared basins or pools, a very consider-
able supervision and control of the essential features are possible. A care-
ful supervision, even from a business point of view, is advisable, as both the
returns and the quality of the fishes are so greatly increased and better as
to repay the additional care and labor involved.

Should the breeding stock have been sheltered indoors during the
winter months, which with the facilities should be done, care must be
taken not to transfer them to the open air tanks or basins too early in
the spring as serious mortality may result. The fishes have lost much of
their hardiness, and are liable to congested colds, affecting the gills and
circulatory system. Such fishes should be placed in tanks or spawning
beds protected by hotbed sash to moderate the temperature during the
night and early morning, until they have once more become acclimated to
out-of-door conditions.

Though spawning early in the season has a number of advantages
from the commercial standpoint, as the young fishes may mature sooner
and will be ready for sale when they command better prices, their enemies
less numerous, as many of them will not yet have appeared, and thereby
assure the arrival at maturity of a greater number, very early spawnings
are usually not as robust and vigorous as those of later hatching.

100

ec,

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

Where the breeding is done in protected tanks, in the open air, it has been
proven that better results are obtained by delay than by forcing, as these
later fishes often outstrip the earlier ones in size and number of survivals
at the selling season, which is usually after the month of September; but
late spawnings are not advisable, as the young must then be carried over
the winter.

The age as wellas the probable maturity of the goldfish cannot always
be determined by the size, the rate of growth not only varying with the
individual but 1s also greatly influenced by the conditions under which it is,
or has been, kept. When the surroundings are nearest the natural, growth
and development are most rapid ; indoors and in the small aquarium the
conditions of existence are artificial and unnatural and may considerably
stunt, dwarf or arrest development; but when transferred to larger tanks
or basins in the open air, the growth is often surprisingly rapid, the in-
crease in size being usually greater in a few weeks than during previous
months in the aquarium or greenhouse.

The size, however, does not impair the fecundity of the fishes as
those of small size and but eight (8) months old will spawn, though,naturally,
developing less and apparently smaller eggs than the larger mére robust
fishes. Some individuals of the imported varieties are dwarfs and never
attain a size over three inches; these are particularly desirable for small
aquaria. They are fertile and breed as well as larger fishes. Aquarium
rearing almost always dwarfs the fishes, but they are usually of finer appear-
ance than those reared in the pond, for reasons already given.

Under favorable conditions, the goldfish attains to maturity during
the spring and summer following that in which it was hatched, and large,
vigorous fishes will spawn 1500 to 2000 eggs in a season. It has been
established that fishes of the finer toy breeds under two years old have
more rounded fins than older fishes, whereby their age may be determined.
Also that fishes under four years old are the best for breeding, producing
a larger number and more robust young.

Though, as stated, any well-lighted room will serve for the culture of
the goldfish, especially a properly constructed and equipped greenhouse,
having out-of-doors facilities for the young fishes, on a mercantile basis the
industry is usually conducted in the open air, either in specially equipped
hatching and rearing establishments or in basins and pools fitted for the
purpose. There are a number of small and larger plants of this kind in
the Fastern Section of the United States, principally devoted to the cul-
ture of the common goldfish; but some of the breeders have turned their
attention to the more profitable industry of rearing the finer breeds and

IOI

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

with varying success, as the results of a season’s labors depend upon many
conditions not yet fully understood but which longer experience may rem-
edy. Success with directly imported Japanese and Chinese goldfishes 1s
equally uncertain; the mortality before arrival, from diseases, contracted
during transit and before acclimatization, being in such proportion as
to make this also a precarious business venture. Importations are made
during the most favorable season, the late fall, winter and early spring
months, but the results are usually such as soon to discourage many enthu-
siasts who otherwise would become profitable customers. The survivors
in the home aquarium are so very few that American bred fishes of the
choice imported breeds are more desirable and command higher prices, as
the percentage of fatalities of imported stock is so considerable as to pre-
vent a profitable venture.

The greatest discouragement to the breeder is the failure to raise a
large proportion of the fishes hatched. This may be due to easily
explained reasons or possibly caused by mistakes made in remote stages
of the development of the eggs or of the parent fishes; and when the fry
perish in unusual numbers, it is not sufficient to seek the cause in recent
occurrences but all the conditions of feeding and care of the parents as well
the young should be considered and corrections made in the future. At
best, the survivals are usually small in proportion to the number hatched
and even the most experienced breeders do not expect a greater survival
than 20 to 25 percent. of the most promising hatches which have arrived at
an age of two or three weeks, after which he should separate the finer de-
veloped fishes from the less desirable ones, and of these rarely over § per-
cent. will be fishes which will be considered perfect in conformation and
development by the expert fancier.

The least touch will affect the mucous membrane of the alevin and may
lay the foundation for a future fungus development, and the fry from very
young fishes or those which have not received a sufficient supply of oxygen
by overcrowding, or those of parents which have not had a frequent change
of water to act as a stimulant some little time before spawning, are usually
weaklings and do not survive. Young fishes should be handled with a
spoon and never taken out of the water.

The constantly growing demand for goldfishes is such that extensive
cultivation is certain to be remunerative. In the Eastern States, at some
seasons of the year, the supply is often exhausted and dealers complain that
fishes are hardor impossible to get; which applies to both the common and
the fine breeds and assures a ready market to breeders having the facilities
for keeping their stock until times of greatest demand, usually at the Christ-
mas season and in the spring when the breeding fishes are sought.

102

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

As it is the purpose of this volume to treat the subject not from the
business point of view only but to interest the amateur and professional
breeder alike, it is desirable to describe the breeding methods separately
beginning with the simplest. The suggestions given should be modified
to suit the conditions.

Aguarium AND Tank Cutture. This method is usually employed
by amateurs and fanciers with limited facilities, and undertaken as a
pleasant diversion. ‘The requirements are an open space, good light, one
or more tanks, sawed-off barrels or similar clean and seasoned vessels of
varying depth of water, which have been thoroughly scalded, scoured,
frequently watered, filled and left standing for one or more months, and
on which a growth ofalgz has formed, success always being surer the longer
they have been in use for this purpose. They should be placed in a bright
and sunny location, accessible to water; clean potted plants placed therein
and permitted to stand to accumulate oxygen and the minute animal life
which is not only beneficial in removing the refuse, decayed particles of
plants and excrement, but also serves as food; care being necessary in the
establishment, seasoning and maintenance of the spawning and rearing
tanks, which often require more than one season’s use to be in perfect
condition. When let into the ground they maintain a more equitable tem-
perature, but set above the ground are not so accessible to some of the
enemies, frogs and cats among the number. It is advisable to cover the
_ tanks with wire screens as a protection from the larger enemies.

As elsewhere stated, either the parent fishes may be placed into the
tanks to spawn and then removed, or the plants to which the spawn ad-
heres placed therein and permitted to hatch, the former being the better
method as then none of the eggs will be lost.

Basin AND Poot Cutture. Basinsand pools may be built of bricks laid
in cement or mortar and lined with cement, of cement concrete, or on a
good clay bottom with the sides of boards backed by well puddled clay.
Their proportions should be such that a careful observation of the entire
contents is possible and when based on a factor of 4 or 5 feet many advan-
tages will be manifest; that is, a breadth of 4 feet and a length of 4, 8 and
12 feet; or a breadth of 5 feet and length of 5, 10 and 165 feet, so that
glass sashes, wire covering, etc., are interchangeable, the capacity and the
number of fishes for each size easily kept in mind, and the available space
well occupied by this systematic arrangement.

An easily constructed basin is one of circular form with sloping sides,
as the earth may be evenly excavated, the bottom leveled off, and brick or
concrete sides built directly againstand upon them. The action of frost

103

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

is also less severe on circular than rectangular basins and a basin of this
kind 1s more likely to be lifted off the bottom than to break the sides by
the pressure, and is easily repaired by fillingin the bottom crack with liquid
cement. All tanks should be seasoned before the fishes are introduced
by a thorough soaking and frequent changes of water, to remove all traces
of soluble lime or acid substances.

When not in use, it is a mooted question whether they should be
kept dry in winter or partially filled with water to equalize the pressure
of the frozen ground. Good results have been obtained by filling with
water and floating logs in them to relieve the sides of ice pressure, while
freezing will destroy fungus and disease spores.

GREENHOUSE CuLTuRE. Experience has taught breeders of the gold-
fish that the principal purpose of the greenhouse is the wintering of the
breeding fishes, keeping over young fishes for better prices when the
general supply is exhausted, and for spawning, hatching and rearing of the
fry during the early weeks of the spawning season, when the possibility
of late frosts may endanger them out-of-doors, though early spawning is
not to be generally. recommended.

Another purpose of the greenhouse is the facilities it affords in con-
tinuous growth of the young during the winter months, as aquaria and
small household tanks tend to arrest development; also for the preserva-
tion of the necessary aquatic plants over winter. Young fishes, however,
thrive best in the open air.

Compartment tanks and cement basins, should be arranged to place
as many as possible in the available space, and to permit of ready access
and inspection. When the weather has become settled, the rearing should
be done out-of-doors. Great care must be exercised in seasoning these
receptacles.

The illustration, Fig. 58, is a greenhouse for goldfish propagation
designed by the author, which may be erected in a back yard or garden.
All the sash of the sides and roof are hinged, to permit of raising or re-
moval in warm weather for the free circulation of air, a prime essential to
success. ‘I’he spawning and hatching tanks are arranged at the sides, to
permit of a central aisle, and the overflow connections led to the drainage by
pipes with union joints. The water supply is by a hose. The rearing
tanks are shown adjoining the greenhouse but may be located within con-
venient distance and should be provided with portable glass sash as covers
on cold nights and mornings and with wire screens to keep out enemies.
If the screens are of galvanized iron, they should be thoroughly cleansed
and seasoned, to remove the acid.

104

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

All the openings are protected by screens, those of the roof by gauze
netting and the sides by 14 inch-mesh wire screens to exclude obnoxious

SECTION'A‘A

FIG. 58 Elevation, plan and section of a Greenhouse for Goldfish propagation.
A-A Line of section.

Cementibasins 91499 7.10 3/9 0Gaaqn 47

Shelves and Hatching tanks, 27 10% x 17 6% x 17 2”,

Rearing tanks, 4 04x 870% x 17 3/7

Oil or gas stove.

Ventilator.

Detail of Roof supports to prevent dripping.

QurmoOw

insects but to permit small flies, gnats, mosquitoes and other harmless in-
sects to enter and deposit their eggs, the larvae serving as food for the
young fishes.

Heating arrangements other than a portable odorless oil stove or a
small coal stove are not required, and these need only be employed in the
most inclement weather; experience having proven that goldfishes thrive
best when not kept in too warm temperature, 45° to 50° F. being better
than higher, and if no rapid changes take place those just above freezing
are not injurious, except to the transparently-scaled Chinese breeds developed
in a warmclimate. Warmer water is necessary during the breeding season.

The sash of the greenhouse should be arranged to open in the direc-
tion of the prevailing summer winds.

The principal reasons for failure to rear many young fishes, apart

105

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

from improper feeding and other evident causes, are too much light, par-
ticularly strong sunlight, which should be guarded against. Daily ventila-
tion is also required, especially when the heating apparatus is in use.
Ponp ano Lake Curture. Figs. 59 and 59a. With this method,
the rearing ponds should not be of the same depth of water, but vary
from 3 or 4 feet near the outlet to a few inches at the inlet, that the fishes

a

pe iat

tlt ce aa i” : Fe e
ihe ZN span

ass
es

ks ee oe fe

he fe

vais Ns
© soe ra Bue xs
Ea

i
Peat RGe
an pe

hike

oe
ae D
4
Peg st vb ieat
38) = d,
ej eine Le ies SE eel be

FIG. 59 _ Plan of a Fish Farm.

may seek any desired depth and relieve themselves of the water pressure,
but constructed that they may be entirely drained when necessary, and
free from obstructions that they may be seined. Each should have
independent inlet and outlet, but also arranged to connect in series, when
desired. Ponds should not be formed in streams, but at a safe distance
and the water led to them through sluices which can be closed in case of
freshets or too muddy water.

Each season the ponds should be drained, thoroughly cleaned and
the upper layer of soil removed from the bottom. It is also advisable to leave
them exposed to frost for a time to exterminate insects and other enemies.

One or more small isolated emergency ponds, containing a plentiful
growth of plants and arranged for draining, should be established; into
which fishes may be placed in case of mishap, serve as reserve ponds for
temporary storage, utilized for fishes of retarded growth, or for the separa-
tion from the general stock of selected future breeders.

A small basin dug into the soil or having a soil bottom, thickly grown
with aquatic vegetation, to supply the water with oxygen and for the pro-
pagation of the live food, should be arranged between the water supply
and the rearing ponds; and if the water is derived from a spring it should
not be too near the ponds, that it may not be of too low temperature and
also in flowing over stones or artificially constructed ripples absorb a large
quantity of air, as spring water is deficient in oxygen. The water of a
shaded cold-water brook is preferable, river or pond water is not as desir-
able on account of its rising temperature in the hot summer months.

106

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

Ponds dug into the earth or constructed by dams are Jess expensive
than those built of bricks or concrete, but the latter are more easily super-
vised, as the perpendicular sides offer a clear view of the contents and
protection from the direct rays of the
sun during hot afternoons. However
constructed,shrubbery and shade trees
should be planted along the banks
and a luxuriant growth of water plants
encouraged in them, restricted to
localities where they will be under
control. For this purpose Cabomba,
Myriophyllum, Giant Anacharis and

Ludwégia mulertti are best and will
find a ready market; but floating

~ KY ;
2 hae bunches of watercress will root and

a , thrive on the surface, furnish oxygen
ee ' and offer convenient. hiding places
and shade for the fishes and homes
for the small aquatic fauna constitut-
ing the natural food; having the ad-
ditional advantage of ready removal
when desired. No plants other than
these and lilies should be introduced

or permitted to grow. Sagittaria

—Head of farm water gate, grating, and side escapes.

BM Aihecer pat sista ob Statens aad Poni, will not grow out-of-doors. All sod
should be removed from the bottom
and the sides at the water level to prevent the injurious decay of vegetable
matter.

Feeding tables in the water are not advisable as they may become
foul from decaying matter, culture places for parasites and safe retreats
and lurking places for enemies which shun the light of day. The fishes
soon learn to congregate in the desired localities at the regular feeding

time and will keep the bottom clean and clear of food, if not overfed.

Let it here be again noted that goldfishes of the fine breeds become
more course in large bodies of water than those reared in small tanks and
basins.

SpecraLLy Eaqurprep GotprisH BREEDING ESTABLISHMENT. The
illustration, Fig. 60, is an ideal arrangement for a large artificially con-
structed breeding establishment for fine fishes. Its location would best be
in the country near an abundant supply of clear, moderately cold-water,

107

(nS

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

derived from a constant spring or shaded brook; the best site beinga sunny
location, a natural valley or a hollow, sheltered by hills or woods in the
direction of the prevailing cold winds.

= Aviat bh aisy Bf
Sin 1 iy Hh Vi it i ‘int ‘ii ibe if
i Bhi) ty at hel yo At Wl ‘in Wy i

i Up, per. Al eal

J i593 *

une a ti <
Ai ; Mi

ide il! ; ef

MTN
ra?

FIG. 60 Arrangement for a large Fish-culture Establishment for the propagation of the Goldfish.

A central greenhouse is surrounded by rearing and breeding basins;
a shed containing the water collecting tank and a pump; the water supply
and drainage system is indicated, and the premises surrounded by a board
fence, sheltering embankment and shrubbery.

An establishment of this size with sufficient breeding fishes, after a

108

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

successful season, should produce many thousands of goldfishes of both
the common and the highly prized Oriental breeds, for which there would
always be a constant and remunerative demand. The Paradise Fish, Ide
and Tench could also be cultivated.

Ponp Aquaria. Vol. VII of the Bulletins of the U. S. Fish Com-
mission, 1887, gives two excellent suggestions for pond aquaria which are
here reproduced and no better explanation can be given than to quote the
accompanying article by Mr. Wm. P. Seal:—

«<With this idea in view I offer the following suggestion for the consideration of those in-
terested in the establishment of large aquaria, hoping for further development through interchange
of ideas.

The plan or principle herein suggested might be termed not inaptly Pond-Aquaria, it being
essentially a combination of the pond and the aquarium; the aquaria being constructed on the
margin of the pond or reservoir used, as shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 61; the

ee EN ae oS =
Th Wess i= SEN a \7

\_! oe
i<K\\——A

ai

Wa

QL LY YY CY Yj
Yj YI}. YW) 4). Y Zi LL YW YY /

ROND Aquaria,
FIG. 61 Pond Aquarium.

GA

idea being to have a water-pen or pond-garden (A) extending back from each aquarium front,
and to be surrounded by a wire or other fence or partition (B) of sufficiently small mesh to pre-
vent the escape of the occupants, but large enough to allow the smaller fry, which would furnish
them with food, to pass through freely. (C) represents the glass fronts. (D) the upper or
perforated aquarium bottom, which allows the escape to a lower funnel-shaped bottom (E) of
all sedimentary deposits. (F) represents rocky eminences containing pockets, in which could be
planted aquatic vegetation at depths adapted to their needs. The whole creating a close ap-
proximation of natural conditions. An arrangement of wire gates would keep fishes in close
confinement for short periods for observation, or would keep some, while others were allowed
to roam at will in their domain.

Fig. 61a represents a cross-section of the same, showing building over the aquaria, and
greenhouse roof to pond-gardens.

The advantages of some such plan will, I think, be apparent to all who have experience
on the subject at least. It is simply imitating nature more closely and getting rid of artificialities.

The conditions would afford natural vegetation, sunlight, mud, sand, and rocks, with
abundance of room in which to move about freely and seek for natural food.

By such a plan also the necessity for circulatory apparatus is dispensed with, the circula-
tion caused by the movements of the fishes, changes of temperature and evaporation, together with
the aeration or oxygenation affected by the plant life being ample, as in the pond.

109

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

It might be argued that, with so large a space, fishes would keep hidden from view. The
experience of the writer has been that when the fear of danger is removed and animals become
confident of an ability to escape at will when threatened by danger they lose their timidity and

AIAN

Ri
";
Bd

te)

“ey ee 5
Mlle

7,

FIG. 61a Section of Enclosure for a Pond Aquarium.

become both bold and curious, and are more easily and satisfactorily viewed than when under
the influence of fear in close confinement. The deer, the most timid of animals, when confi-
dent of safety, becomes perfectly content, and without desire to escape except to seek its kind
for company.

The experience of the writer in the care of fishes and reptiles and other animals as well,
is to the same effect.”’

FIG. 62 Grotto at the Central Station of the U. S. Fish Commission, at Washington, D. C

Aguarium Grotto. The same authority describes the aquarium
grotto attached to the Fish Commission building at Washington, of which
the herewith reproduced illustrations give an adequate idea. Figs. 62
and 63.

WinterinG GorprisHEs. Inthe household the fall, winter and spring
months are the seasons when the aquarium is the most appreciated, and con-
siderations for wintering are for the surplus fishes and breeders, or for

110

a ————— —————

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

a ————

such as have been kept in outdoor tanks and basins in favorable weather
but which must be otherwise accommodated during the rigors of cold
weather. The best success is had when fine fishes are kept only about
four months in household aquaria, after which they should be placed out-
of-doors.

wi
i]
=
<
c
k
z
WJ

MAIN Builaing

FIG. 63 Plan of Grotto at the Central Station of the Fish Commission, at Washington, D. C.

The ordinary goldfish will survive out-of-doors, if the ice is broken
to admit air. The tanks should be of sufficient depth so as not to freeze
solid, and straw or other materials should be packed about them for protec-
tion. A board cover, with straw spread over it, should also be provided, to
moderate the cold. An approved method is to permit an inch of ice to
form, after which a hole should be cut and sufficient water removed to
make a space of two inches between the ice and the water, and the hole
closed with a cloth and a board. If the sides are protected, the cold will
not cause a further freezing, and the air space will prevent suffocation.
The-top of the tank may also be covered, after which the fishes will be in
comfort until the advent of spring. Feeding is only necessary at long
intervals.

The fine breeds should be wintered in a greenhouse or in the cellar.
Tanks or similar vessels will serve, but the best receptacles are fibre wash-
tubs. These should be set upon supports near a window, for occasional
ventilation, but no plants introduced unless the light is such that they
will grow. ‘The fishes should have ample water, five gallons per fish, if
possible, and once a week a pail or two of water should be siphoned from
the bottom around the edges, where the excrement will accumulate, and a
like quantity of fresh water added, which has been moderated in tempera-
ture. Feeding should be light, once a week, and but a small quantity of
nutritious food given. Fishes so wintered will remain in fine condition,

Cry

THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOLDFISH

nn nnn ee SeEE nnnEEEEEDEESSS SSE ET

the only danger being a possible lack of aeration in the absence of plants,
which should be guarded against by the occasional partial change of water.

Where there are facilities for water supply and drainage an excellent
plan is to arrange an overflow pipe and a constant very small inflow of
fresh water. A sheet of glass suspended vertically over the tank,
to which a very small hose is attached, will occasion a constant dripping
to both aerate the water and moderate its temperature. A very consider-
able constant water supply has been found to be objectionable, as the low
temperature of the water direct from the mains in winter is injurious to the
finer goldfishes, which have been bred and kept in a warm climate and lack
the hardiness of the common goldfish. Snow water is usually fatal to the
finer breeds.

Goldfishes are sometimes kept over in tubs in moderately warm cellars
without any attention or food, and though they have survived, this is\ an
inadvisable practice and an unnecessary cruelty.

Wintering in large aquaria and tanks is best, and should be adopt-
ed wherever the facilities are to be had. Any unoccupied light room will
serve, and temperatures above freezing are not injurious, except possible to
the transparently scaled fishes, if no sudden changes occur. Under these
conditions aquatic plants can usually be kept in growing condition to
supply the required oxygen. ‘The water should be occasionally partially
changed.

S\N GIIZE EATON SIMA rea TAIT 2s S24 LSA RRR SAS
£23

t' PIONS SOI NA
RNR ESOT YY
SNK yy 4

112

CHAPTER Vi

Food and Feeding

nen oe bias ee ne
A a> : 7
a ae Wh iS ae 7 pall 7 Fs a4 a)

s
‘

FOOD AND FEEDING OF GOLDFISHES AND OTHER
FRESHWATER FISHES

One of the fundamental principles of dietetics is that the chemical
composition of food should conform with the chemical composition of the
body and that those which furnish this in the best proportion are not only
the most nutritious but also best maintain the animal organism in its most
perfect condition. For this reason the diet of coldblooded animals should
consist most largely of vegetal substances and of coldblooded animals, their
natural food, as having no body temperature to maintain they do not re-
quire as large a proportion of the rich hydrates of carbon and other heat-
producing foods necessary to warmblooded animals. Experiments with
food fishes have demonstrated that with this natural food the fry will grow
seven times more rapidly than on a diet of mammal flesh.

Dietaries for mature goldfishes may be divided into several classes:
Barely subsistence diets, leading to semi-starvation,stunting and deformities;
healthy diets, producing normal growth, vigorous health and fine develop-
ment; fattening diets, leading to coarseness of appearance, insufficient fin
development, indolence and predisposition to disease; overfattening diets,
producing disturbances of the digestive system and a suppression of the
reproductive organs; and overfeeding, which leads to water contamination
diseases, asphyxiation and death.

Barely sustaining diets usually occur from the dread of overfeeding or from
overstocking, and reduce the fishes to a point below healthy development.
When the fishes are starved in infancy they become permanently stunted,
the bones hardening so that no subsequent care or feeding will cause them
to expand sufficiently to permit of normal growth; for which reason the
early feeding stages are the most important in the rearing of fine fishes
and require intelligent understanding of their wants and requirements.
Healthy diets imply not only a sufficient quantity of food, but those com-
posed of the proper constituents to stimulate active assimulation, to supply
all the needs of the animal organism in proper proportion and to produce
a vigorous growth, fine development of both body and fins, a clean and
elegant appearance, and robust health. Fattening diets are such as cause
overstimulation and excessive nutrition by their too considerable richness
of composition and produce fishes lacking in vitality, and the elegance
of appearance and fine fin development, noticeable in those more carefully
reared, This is sometimes attributed to pond culture, but is as often due to

115

FOOD AND FEEDING

highly nutritious food excessively fed, so that the labor of procuring a
livelihood is reduced to a minimum and by constant gorging the fishes
become coarse and misshapen. Excess of food also produces disorders of
the digestive system and the consequent liver affections. | Overfattening
diets will produce in the goldfish the same results as in other animals and
an overaccumulation of flesh or fat will invariably be followed by a partial
or total sterility, just as the removal of the genital organs will produce a
rapid accumulation of flesh. | Overfeeding is a most serious evil as very
many of the diseases may be directly or remotely traced to this cause and
its attendant results. Sufficient food should be given, as much as will be
at once eaten, and to fully satisfy the hunger, all additional feeding is a
source of danger to the fishes.

It was formerly supposed that the carp subsisted on vegetal food only,
but it is now known that its principal diet consists of snails, crustaceans
infusoria and other small aquatic fauna, it also deriving albumen and soluble
hydrates of carbon from the minute aquatic flora and the young shoots and
roots of plants; and this applies to all the Cyprinide,including the goldfish.

In the aquarium, fully developed goldfishes should not be fed oftener
than once a day in warm weather and on alternate days or intermittently
when the weather is cold or the temperature of the water low,
receiving less than one per cent. of their judged average weight of
nutritious food, regulated that it will be immediately consumed, not
carried off and later disgourged to contaminate the water. All fishes can live
along time without food and experience enables the culturist to judge
from general appearances when they are sufficiently fed. Whenever they
are crowded in a small space feeding should be done with additional care
or the equilibrium may be disturbed, even with a very considerable plant
growth. Inferior, stale or sour food should never be fed, and the feeding
and care of the fishes should be vested in one reliable person.

FEEDING THE Fry. The foregoing more particularly applies to grow-
ing and mature goldfishes; the important considerations of feeding the
alevin and fry require special mention, as this greatly influences the devel-
opment of the finely bred forms. When too sparingly fed or at long
intervals, the exertion of procuring food necessitates an activity detrimen-
tal to the development of the desired short bodies and large fins, while
sufficient nutrition tends to slothfulness, an easy existence and the conse-
quent fuller development of these desired characteristics. A short rotund
body also requires a shortening and crowding of the alimentary organs
together with a partial displacement of others; the double tail and long
fins further hampering the movements of the fish, so that any active strug-

116

FOOD AND FEEDING

gle for food can only tend to the elimination of the finest fry and the sur-
vival of the better adapted but undesired long-bodied, single-tailed fishes.

To achieve most certain results, a careful observation of the following
suggestions is advisable :—Experience has proven that it is best to take
the spawn and the plants to which it adheres from the spawning bed or tank
and place them into filtered water to hatch, thus largely avoiding the danger

of the presence of fungus spores and enemies; butit is well to introduce a few
pots of clean growing plants to supply the necessary oxygen and prevent
the asphyxiation of the hatching fry. Immediately after hatching, the
alevin is still attached to the umbilical sac and requires no other food than
is furnished by it and that present on the plants and inthe water; but
after its absorption young fishes may be fed on rice flour scattered on the
surface of the water, or a little of the broth of oat meal, but the best food is
the natural pond-life food, and this should be continued until it is 34 to 1
inch long, when prepared foods may be fed, if natural food is no longer
to be obtained.

Together with the plants a small dish containing clean soil should be
introduced,as it contains substances necessary for nutrition and willstimulate
the development and propagation of infusoria, the minute animal life which
is the natural first food of the newly hatched alevin. ‘This is manifested
by the greenish color of the water, which is also in part due to the presence
of tiny vegetal life, the diatoms and other small alge. After the fry have
reached the age of a week, a half pint of water of pronouncedly green
color, taken from a tank in which a considerable growth of alge has col-
lected, should be added every few days, then after a week live food should
be fed.

It should be here repeated that a low temperature of the water and
insufficient light will seriously affect the survival of the fry, as the gener-
ally accepted opinion that fishes do not feed freely when the weather is
cloudy and the water cold applies to young goldfishes; but strong sunlight
must be avoided, as that also is injurious.

When the stage of feeding live food has been reached, it should be
given in liberal quantity about three or four times a day, carefully screened
that only the smallest entomostraca are introduced into the rearing tanks;
and though it has been observed that when very abundant the larger may
prey upon the young fishes, it is always the weaklings which are attacked
and these can be dispensed with; the healthy and vigorous young fishes
escape these attacks or but few succumb.

117

FOOD AND FEEDING

Naturat Foop. The live food consists of the following Crus-
tacean denizens of still water ditches, ponds and streams, which are
classified as follows:

{ Branchiopoda.
Cladocera.
Phyllopoda. + Ostrocoda.
| Copopoda.

Entomostraca

Crustacea

Isopoda.
Decapoda.

Malacostraca -

| em

Enromostraca. This sub-class of the Crustaceans are simple organ-
isms usually of small, often microscopic size. Order PHyttopopa. Body
segmented, covered with a carapace, swimming feet with branchial sacs, man-
dables without feelers, and reduced maxille. Sub-order BRANCHIOPODA.
Body distinctly segmental, numerous pairs of swimming feet, shieldshaped
carapace, heart an elongated dorsal vessel with numerous pairs of ostia.

BRaAncHIPus STAGNALIS. Fig. 64. This freshwater Crustacean, known
as the Spring-time shrimp, reaches a length of 1.5 to 2 centimeters. The
body is covered with a segmental mantle, the head 1s large and the abdomen
£2 furnished with caudal appendages. It has eleven pairs of
legs, furnished with breathing and swimming hairs,
two pairs of antenne, and a lengthened caudal appendage
with swimming bristles. The crablike eyes are large and
distinct. The almost transparent body is of bluish-green
color on the back, the head, sides of tne abdomen and
the swimming bristles yellow, the antenne and caudal
appendages red, and the eyes black. Its food consists of
; tiny water animalcule and alge, but it will attack spawn
- and young fishes. It usually swims on its back and 1s

ers 64. Branchipus MEVEY at rest; the movement is eratic, either by quick
stagnalis. Greatly enlarged. strokes of the legs or by springs in the water by means
of a rapid movement of the abdomen. A good food for adult goldfishes,
and other freshwater fishes.

Apus Cancrirormus. Fig. 65. This freshwater Crustacean may
occur in great numbers or entirely disappear for years. In form it re-
sembles the Limulus or King Crab in miniature, as it never exceeds
3 centimeters in length. The body is flat, covered bya shieldlike mantle,

and the slender tail is as long as the body. On the shell there are two

118

FOOD AND FEEDING

paired and one central single eye. It has two pairs of threadlike an-
tenn. Under the shell there are 60 pairs of gilled
legs, of which the first pairs are developed into anten-
nze-like feelers. It swims on the back and steadily
moves through the water by rapid undulating strokes
ofthe legs. The periodic appearance of this Crustacean
may be due to the fact that the eggs must be subjected
to a period of incubation in the dry earth. The food
consists of water animalculz and decaying vegetation.

It is the larvee and young of these Branchiopods
which constitue the food of the mature goldfish,
the adult being of too large size to be readily
taken. It is principally the Crustaceans of the follow-
ing sub-order Cladocera which constitute their live food.

SuB-ORDER CLADOcERA. Compressed body small, indistinctly seg-

FIG. 65. Apus cancriformus.
Greatly enlarged.

mented, enclosed in a bivalve carapace, four or six swimming feet, and the
posterior antennz developed as longer swimming feet. The most general
forms are Daphnia, Polyphemus and Leptodora. Daphnella, Sida and
Ciriodaphnia also belong to this sub-order.

DapuniaA. Fig. 66. Four or five species of Daphnia, known to the
goldfish breeder by their light green, dark green, red and reddish colors,
abound at different seasons in almost every still or stagnant water. Their
size is from .75 to 1.5 millimeters. The segmentation
of the body is imperfect, the Crustacean being covered by
afolded carapace. The head is distinct and the abdomen
is turned downward and isin constant movement. The
long antenne are moved at longer or shorter intervals,
making the progress a series of rapid starts and stops.
Between the abdomen and the carapace of the female
is a large brood pouch in which the eggs are stored
and hatched and the larve only make their escape
when they have reached the free-swimming stage. The

FIG. 66. Daphnia pulex. paired eyes have fused into a single organ. ‘There are

a a five pairs of swimming legs on the thorax. The re-
production of the Daphnia is most curious. During the summer the
female develops spores, which, without fructification by the male, develop
in the brood pouch to perfect Daphnia in four days, and which, when they
have become liberated, in a few days reproduce in the same manner. In
the fall of the year the much smaller males appear and the sexual repro-
duction takes place. Winter eggs are produced, the thick shells of which

protect them through the cold season. The food of the Daphnia 1s de-

119

FOOD AND FEEDING

caying vegetation, organic offal and small infusoria. They are the best
food for the goldfish. It has been noticed that the tiny newly hatched
alevin will follow Daphnia to feed upon the young as they are released
from the brood pouch of the female. The most generally distributed
forms are Daphnia levis, D. pellucida, D. pulex, Daphnella branchyura,
Ceriodaphnia pulchella and Sida crystallina.

PotypHemus. Fig. 67. One species of Polyphemus is quite Beer
ally present in still and stagnant water. This is P. .
pedeculus, of which the body is of most grotesque form,
owing to the peculiar humplike brood pouch. It is
smaller than the Daphnia, about .65 to 1 millimeter in
length.

Lerropora. Fig. 68. One form of Leptodora Se
is quite generally present in larger bodies of freshwater, FIG. 67. Polyphemus
and may be taken on the surface on bright days. The Pe ae
body is long and is covered by a faintly segmented carapace. ‘There are
two long swimming legs and the very long antenne branch at the ends and
are furnished with swimming bristles.
L. hyalina is the most generally dis-
tributed form. Its length is about
I to 1.5 millimeters.

Sus-Orber Ostracopa. Com-
‘ pressed body small, indistinctly seg-

FIG. 68. Leptodora hyalina. Greatly enlarged. | mented, in a bivalve shell, five pairs
of feet adopted to swimming and creeping. The freshwater form is Cypris.

Cypris. Fig. 69. Several species are very generally distributed and
may be taken from almost every water which contains the other entomos-
traca. The body is unsegmented and is enclosed in a carapace articulated
at the dorsal edge to form a bivalve shell. At

the anterior end is a median eye, and there are
seven pairs of swimming appendages. Its size 1s
1 to 1.5 millimeters, and its movements are slow
and leisurely either in swimming or in crawling
over the bottom. The young are developed in

the brood pouch but are expelled in the larvel FIG. 69. Cypris virens.
Greatly enlarged.

condition. This Crustacean propagates even more
abundantly than the Daphnia, and will prey upon the eggs and embrios
of fishes, a number of them may attack an alevin, fastening themselves
to its surface and devouring it in spite of efforts to free itself. Goldfishes
eagerly eat the Cypris. The generally distributed forms are Cypris-virens,
C. pubera, C. pellucida, C. fusca and C. ornata.

120

FOOD AND FEEDING

Sus-Orpver Coporopa. Body small, distinctly segmented, the fore-
most segment fused with the head; antenne, mandables and maxilla well
developed, six pairs of swimming feet in the free-swimming freshwater
forms, which consist of the Cyclops and Canthocamptus.

Cyctors. Fig. 70. Ten or twelve closely allied forms abound in
still and stagnant water. heir size is 1 to 1.5 millimeter. The segmen-
tation of the body is perfect, the Crustacean being
covered with a carapace of which the first segment
is fused with the head. “Two long antenne are
present and but a single eye. The swimming
legs are attaches to the thorax, and the lengthen-
ed abdomen is provided with caudal appendages.
Their food is organic substances, infusoria and

alge, and their movements are steady and regular

FIG. 70—Cyclops thomas, aS though propelled by driving wheels. The most

oe generally distributed are C. thomasi, C. gyrinus, C.

agilis, C. edax, C. modestas, C. ater and C. viridis. Canthocamptus is rare in

the Eastern and Middle states and occasionally occurs as an unrecognized
species.

These Copopods possess extraordinary fecundity. In the winter they
seek the bottom and hibernate, but when the water reaches a temperature
of 45° to 50° F. they revive, their increase being greatest at 65° to 70° F.;
when the female every two days develops two egg sacs or external uteri,
wherein 16 to 32 eggs are hatched. In two days these become detached,
fall to the bottom where the young, almost globular cyclops, having four
legs but no tail, undergo a molting in about 15 days, when the other feet
and the tail form. In another 15 days they mature and reproduce. Car-
bonate of lime is necessary in the formation of their shells. They thrive
in water infused with vegetal matter in decomposition, but as it does not
contract any odor of decomposition it is probable that they live on the
infusoria. Potamogeton, Ceratophyllum and Fountain cress, upon which
algee and voucheria will form are usually present to sustain the infusoria.
Young goldfishes usually reject Cyclops when they can obtain Daphnia.
It has also been observed that some species of Cyclops feed upon fish spawn
and will attack very young fishes.

Matocostraca. These highly organized Crustacea have the thorax
of eight and the abdomen of seven segments. The sub-order Amphipoda
are shrimplike forms with stalked eyes; the /sspoda have depressed or flat-
tened bodies and gills borne on the abdomenal appendages; and the
Decapoda have the thoracic segments united with the head in a carapace,

12I

FOOD AND FEEDING

the three anterior pairs of limbs as foot-claws and the five pairs of posterior
limbs as walking legs. The eyes are stalked and the gills thoracic.

Sus-Orper Ampuipopa. ‘This sub-order includes the Water-fleas
and the marine Sand-hoppers, of which one genus is present in both
running and standing fresh water.

Gamoarus. Fig.71. This freshwater Crustacean, known as the Water-
fleaand FairyShrimp,Gammaruspulex,hasa flattened form,the anterior portion
consisting of the head and thorax covered with a carapace, and the posterior
portion with six segments and a terminal flap ending
in a short bristle. The anterior three pairs of legs
serve for swimming and the posterior legs for swim-
ming and the hopping motion by which it moves
more rapidly through the water. The color is a
translucent dusky grey. It is found in muddy
streams among half-rotten brush wood and other
litter, usually hidden under stones or aquatic plants,
generally feeding at dusk or at night, when it either

swims leisurely through the water or hops by rapid
strokes of the posterior legs. Its food is decaying FIG. 71. Gammarus pulex.
vegetation, small animals and spawn; and will serve ee ec

as an effective scavenger in tanks for larger fishes and amphibia but should
not be introduced with young fishes.

Sus-OrpDeER Isopopa. This sub-order includes the Water-Asel,
Wood Louse and a number of marine forms.

AsetLopus. Fig.72. This freshwater Crustacean is known asthe Water-
Asel, dsellopus tenax, and has a compressed or flattened form and a segmental
body covered with an olivate armor marked with lighter spots. It reaches
a length of 1 to 1.5 centimeters, and inhabits still and
slow-flowing water containing considerable vegetation.
Its movements are slow and it is usually secreted in
the mud or on the under side of the leaves of aquatic
plants; feeding on decaying vegetal substances, smaller
animals and spawn, and is an active enemy of very
young fishes. Another more slender and longer-limbed
form is Asellus communis, a New England States species.

Sus-OrpeER Decapopa. This sub-order includes
the freshwater Crayfishes, marine Prawns, Shrimps,
the true Crabs and Lobsters. These will be treated
of elsewhere.

AN ; rr e
Pie a. Aseliogustanag: The minute Crustaceans are of the greatest, bene-
Grea yan reed: fit to the growth and survival of the young brood of

122

FOOD AND FEEDING

goldfishes. Another abundant form of live food is Mosquito larve, which
should be here mentioned but is more fully described in another Chapter.
Too strong light and changes in the temperature of the water seriously
affect the survival of this live food. Experienced breeders guard against
these by keeping the pails or tanks in secluded places and provide protect-
ing covers. For Goldfishes Daphnia, Cypris, and Mosquito larve are the
best food, preference being given to the former. For the other freshwater
fishes all the mentioned Crustacea serve as food; they may be fed on any
of them small enough to be swallowed.

CrayrisHes. These largest freshwater Crustaceans occur abundantly
in most lakes and streams except in the New England states and the Great
Plains region. ‘They resemble the Lobster in miniature. The head and
thorax are amalgamated in one mass
covered with a carapace. The abdomen
is divided into seven segments, six of
which bear swimmerets and the seventh a
divided flattened tail-fin or telson. The
compound eyes are borne on long movable
eye-stalks, behind which are two long
jointed antenne and a second pair of short
antennules. The mouth is on the under
surface and is provided with one pair of
mandables, two pairs of maxilla, and three
pairs of maxillipeds or foot-jaws. The
segments of the thorax under the carapace
bear a pair of prehensile limbs with chelz
or claws, two pairs of ambulatory or walk-
ing legs with smaller claws and two pairs
of legs ending in simple pointed extrem-
ities. These, together with the swim-
merets and telson, constitute twenty pairs
of appendages. Most localities have sev-

i iti eral species, difficult of identification, as
FIG. 73. Freshwater Crayfish, they all exhibit considerable variation.
Cambarus blandinii. )
The distribution of the 79 species of
Cambarus is limited to the Atlantic water shed and of the 7 species
of Astacus to the Pacific water shed. The species most abundant
from New York to Alabama and south to Virginia are Cambarus blandinii,
Fig. 73, C. propinguus and C. affinis; but the greatest number of forms
occur in the southern and central portion of the United States.

Crayfishes hide under stones or in holes excavated in the banks, where

123

FOOD AND FEEDING

they sit with the head toward the opening and the claws ready to grasp any
smaller creature or dead animal matter. They should not be introduced
into the aquarium with fishes but kept by themselves and when acclima-
tized can be fed on small particles of meat or the flesh of mussels or oysters.

Rotirera. The Trochelminths, of which the wheel-animalcules form
one group, consist of Rotifera andGastrotricha, generally fresh water forms,
and Dinophilea of salt and blackish waters. About 25 species of Rotifera
occur abundantly in the United States in almost all bodies of freshwater.
They are of small size inclosed in a cuticle to form a stiff shell. At the
anterior end are cilia by which the animal
swims and brings food to the mouth, and at
the posterior end is a small separate joint, the
foot, to which two bristle-like structures are
attached. The internal organs comprise an

alimentary canal, and nervous, reproductive
and excretory systems and mucus glands.
They have dorsal antennx back of the an-

terior end of the head. Reproduction is by FIG. 74. Rotifera,
5 1. Branchionus rubens.
eggs which are developed under the carapace. a Raeules loigieres

The genera most generally distributed in the 3- Diurella tigris.

United States are Branchionus rubens, Diurella tigris, D. tenuior; D. weber,
D. porcellus, Rattulus gracilis, R. longiseta, R. bicristatus, R. carinatus and
R. rattus. Fig. 74. In the author’s vicinity Dr. Joseph Leidy also identi-
fied Acyclus inquietus, Apsilus lentiformis, Limnias socialis and a very con-
siderable number of less common forms. Some of the parasitic forms on
fishes resemble the free-swimming larve of Annelids and Crustaceans.

GasrrotricHa. This small group of minute freshwater Trochelminths
have spindle-shaped bodies with two longitudinal bands of cilia or swim-
ming hairs on the ventral surface and the mouth surrounded with a circlet
of hooked hair-like appendages. Chetonotus maximus 1s the most common
form. They are harmless to fishes and spawn.

Cotitectinc Natura Foon. For the collection of the minute water
fauna a mull net attached to a pole and a covered tin pail are usually em-
ployed. During the breeding and rearing season of the goldfish almost
any ditch, pool or pond contains them in greater or lesser quantity; but
the keeping of a supply is difficult as they may soon die and rapidly decom-
pose, making frequent excursions to the pond necessary. To avoid this,
breeders prepare a breeding tank in a shaded locality and a collection of
what might be called pure cultures for propagation are made with a pipette
or lifting tube, which closed at the upper end may be placed in the water

124

FOOD AND FEEDING

between the plants and more clean catches made than with the mull net.
The tank should be prepared with a layer of garden soil mixed with a
little liquid manure covered with pond mud, on this a thin layer of dead
leaves, and then filled with water to reproduce pond conditions. Some
alge, voucheria, wolfha and other small aquatic plants will be introduced
with the pond mud; and, after stocking, in a short time colonies of shell
insects, flea lobsters, water multipedes, infusoria, alge etc. will develop
which should be occasionally replenished by catches in the ponds.

In a small way a candy or battery jar containing a little pond soil
and rooted plants, preferably anacharis, will serve; but with ponds or
ditches nearby, the mull net will usually be all that is required. Care
should be exercised to prevent introducing predaceous insects and their
larvee, parasites or other enemies together with this food.

PRESERVING Natura Foops. It is the practice of breeders to collect
the entomostraca in quantities when they are plentiful and preserve them
in a dried state for periods of scarcity. This is done by dipping them
from the ponds with the net and filling cans with them in almost drained
condition, adding table salt to prevent their rapid decomposition They
are then parboiled, strained and evaporated to dryness at low temperature
or by spreading in the sun in hot weather. This food contains all the
essentials of the pond animalcule, and will keep almost indefinitely,
further eliminating all danger of introducing enemies into the rearing tanks.
In its dried state it is used in the best prepared fish foods.

PropacaTinG Natura Foop. ‘Theartificial propagation of natural
food has received considerable attention from the culturists of food fishes.
These consist of the minute fresh water fauna together with the larve of
mosquitoes, gnats, mayflies, dayflies, smaller bugs and beetles. Ditches
in the vicinity of the fish propagating basins, for the cultivation of natural
food, are prepared with a layer of cow manure in which water plants, in-
cluding potomogeton, anacharis, cress and conferve are grown, and partly
filled with brushwood, bricks, stones, etc.; in which the animalcule may
secrete themselves; and from which they are let into the ponds with the
water supply.

FEEDING IN THE Aquarium. ‘To assure success with the aquarium,
it must not only be in natural balance but the food should be either the
natural small pond life, or simulate that of nature, and prepared to furnish
to the living inmates the proper constituents in correct chemical propor-
tion and easily digestible form. Natural live food should be fed when it
can be procured, and which may consist not only of the tiny water ento-
mostraca, but of the larvae and pupe of mosquitoes, fly maggots, particles

P25

FOOD AND FEEDING

of worms and other living creatures; but when this cannot be procured or
its condition is such that it may be unclean, or that parasites or disease
fungi might be introduced with it; then surrogates in the form of prepared
foods should be fed. One of the first requirements in feeding artificial food
is frequent change of diet and care taken that only such quantities are feed
which will be at once consumed, and not a particle left over 15 minutes
after feeding.

Substitutes for the natural live food are prepared of the following ani-
mal and vegetable substances:—Scalded and dried earthworms; lean raw
or dried meat and liver; fish roe and flesh; ant-eggs; raw and boiled eggs;
milk curds; dried daphnia; dried prawns (fresh or saltwater shrimp) or
lobster; rice wafers, rice flour, pea flour, fine corn meal, dry or boiled oat
meal, vermicelli, egg noodles, water crackers, dog biscuit and other hard
biscuit. For very young fishes the best substitute foods are rice flour
sprinkled on the surface of the water, and oat meal broth. Blood has also
been tried but has been found to be objectionable, except for pond feeding.

Raw Meat Foop. Any kind of lean meat may be finely scraped,
slightly rinsed in cold water and carefully fed to the fishes.

EartTHworM Foop. ‘The worms should be kept a few days in moist
moss, to clean themselves, then immersed a few minutes in scalding water,
quickly rinsed with cold water, finely chopped, and either immediately
carefully fed or dried for future use.

Drriep Liver Foop. Liver is boiled and either dried in a low heat
and scraped from the piece when perfectly dry; or finely minced and dried.
Care must be exercised in its feeding.

FisH Roe ano Fiesuo Foops. The roeofthesea-bass, smelt and shad
isan excellent fish food. It should be freed from the membrane, parboiled,
dried at low temperature, and fed either in this form or rubbed into and
fed with boiled oat meal. Finely dessicated boiled fish flesh, prepared in
similar manner, is also used.

Ant Ecc Foop. The pupe of ants, known as ant eggs, may be ob-
tained of dealers, and if crushed and mixed with oat meal or with boiled
corn meal, salt, and the yolks of hard-boiled eggs, make a most nutritious
and readily digestible food. They may also be fed in the dry state.

Ecc Foop. The yolk of boiled eggs, mixed with any of the farinace-
ous foods, preferably oat meal, is an often used food. Also granulated
water crackers into which beaten raw eggs are mixed and thoroughly dried,
make a good food.

Mixep Foops. Milk curds, corn meal, boiled rice flour and eggs,
with their finely crushed shells, together with hard biscuit or water-crackers,
make a nutritious food. It should be perfectly dry, and crumbled when fed.

126

FOOD AND FEEDING

SrarcHy Foops. Of the farinaceous foods, vermicelli, egg noodles,
and the breakfast cereals are all to be recommended and when varied with
those containing animal substances, all sparingly fed, will not only nourish
the fishes but produce growth and vigor, and furnish the necessary variety
of diet.

-Many combinations may be prepared from the foregoing list; the
best being those which contain animal, crustaceous and starchy ingredients,
together with some digestible form of lime, preferably, the cuttle-fish bone
used in bird cages, or finely powdered egg-shells, table and epsom or
glauber salts; which, in combination, will furnish all the chemical constitu-
ents necessary to the health, growth and full development of animal life,
together with a mild laxative necessary to animals in confinement and
deprived of the laxative salts abundant in the natural environment. Some
successful fish culturists supply the salts and lime to the aquarium water
by adding an occasional pinch of a powder composed of % table salt, 1%
epsom salt and % plaster of paris.

A considerably used German goldfish food consists of these ingredients:
5 ounces of pea flour; 4 ounces of rice flour; 2 ounces of dried and pow-
dered fish flesh, (herring); 1% ounce of finely dessicated dried meat fibre,
(beef heart); I 1% ounces of ant-eggs (pup); 1 ounce of dried powdered
prawn, (shrimp) or lobster; 2 ounces of dried daphnia; two raw eggs, to-
gether with the powdered shells; 1% ounce of table salt; % ounce of
epsom salt and sufficient gum arabic in boiling water to bind the mass;
thoroughly kneaded into a thick dough, dried at low temperature, and
crushed into convenient small particles. This makes about a pound
of dried food. In feeding, the granules are steeped in lukewarm water
and immediately fed; or they may be forced through a colinder, or other
device to produce a vermicelli form. In the opinion of the author this
food has rather an excess of animal substances.

It must always be kept in mind that a variety of food is beneficial,
fed only in sufficient quantity to satisfy the hunger of the fishes, and
none left over after the meal to cause contaminations in the water, or to
form a culture medium for the ever-present spores of Saprolegnia, the fun-
gus which produces the most general external disease of fishes, or breeding
places for other external and internal parasites.

When Daphnia can be obtained they should be fed to the exclusion
of any other form of live or artificial food, not only to the goldfish but to
almost all the other freshwater fishes that can be kept in the aquarium.
By their use the most vigorous growth will be obtained and the least
trouble had with the aquarium and its contents. This is the unanimous
opinion of expert aquariists.

:

: a va
— 7 a i te of a Pain)
a y ‘ i Lene me eh!
. y Pre(i fat: Ne Wt Hees Peay ah
fo > an Lee Je a a ened ates sis

=et sae ay. s
a ~s te ,
2. ete, <> 7

CHAPTER: VII.

Ailments and Diseases of the Goldfish
and Other Freshwater Fishes

AILMENTS AND DISEASES OF THE GOLDFISH AND OTHER
FRESHWATER FISHES, AND THEIR REMEDIES

As already stated, the appearance and conduct of the goldfish and
other fishes are the surest indications of health or illness. A bright color,
clean appearance, expanded fins, lively disposition, good appetite and active
digestion are indicative of good health; while a dull color, coated or in-
flamed body and fins, a congested appearance, drooping or fraying fins and
tail, apathy, loss of appetite, and disturbances of the digestive system
indicated by the unusual appearance of the excrement, are equally certain
indications of illness.

The goldfish is not only subject to the usual ailments of fishes but to
others incidental to the unnatural conditions under which it is propagated,
marketed and kept in captivity. Many of the diseases are the result of
unsanitary conditions due to inexperience, neglect or overkindness; others
are due to infection and the presence of external and internal parasites.
These diseases may affect the surface and the fins, the respiratory organs,
the digestive, pulmonary and muscular systems, and the swimming bladder.
This important subject will be treated of at large, as investigations of the
diseases of goldfishes and their remedies have not had the careful attention
which has been devoted to other domesticated animals, and on account of
the meagre data it is difficult to classify them other than on general lines.

At all stages of their existence fishes are subject to a variety of
diseases. [he spawn is attacked by a white fungoid growth which covers
the exterior with a mat of fine hair like filaments, first visible on unfertile
eggs but which spreads to others with which it comes in contact. A sim-
ilar fungus attacks the umbilical sac of the alevin. Numerous other
diseases also afflict the fry, while the organic and parasitic diseases of
goldfishes may be classed as systemic, surface, gill, fin, fungus and parasite,
the origin of which may be traced either to simple or to more complex
and obscure causes; all more or less fatal to these beautiful household pets
of which fine specimens are probably more difficult to rear than any other
domesticated animal.

Detection oF Ittness. In good health, the goldfish swims with a
slow and regular motion, with the dorsal fin erect and the pectorals moving
easily and regularly. When startled it darts to the bottom by a vigorous
stroke of all the fins. When ill or out of condition, the movements are
languid or the fish will remain motionless near the top or on the bottom
of the aquarium, the dorsal fin folded on the back and the movement of
the pectorals listless, as though the fish were unwilling to make exertion.

131

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

When startled it will slowly sink to the bottom, soon to return to its
former position, or when on the bottom will seek to secrete itself.

This appearance is sometimes due to improper water conditions, which
may be easily remedied. But when the body becomes coated and the fins
pointed, then frayed, ragged, congested .or inflamed, as these are certain
indications of advanced illness, it behooves the fancier to investigate the
cause or to consult an experienced breeder. Let it be stated, however, that
it is not well to accept of promiscuous advice.

TREATMENT OF Drseases. In treating the diseases of goldfishes the
natural self-remedies of freshwater fishes should be applied under similar
conditions as far as practicable. In a state of nature the fishes seek brack-
ish or salt water, saline deposits or salty earths for some of their illnesses;
or darkness, light, deep or shallow water, abstinence from food, natural
purgatives and rest for others. These conditions should be imitated by
the aquariist when his pets become afflicted with such ailments that in his
judgment would be benefited by their application. In addition the rem-
edies hereafter mentioned should be tried.

SANITARIUM AND Hospirat. Where many fishes are kept, it is advis-
able to have an aquarium or battery jar in reserve in which a luxuriant plant
growth has been developed, to serve as a sanitarium in which fishes of
doubtful appearance may be isolated and quarantined, to prevent the spread
of diseases, and which would also serve as a “snail farm” as young snails
are one of the best articles of diet for sick fishes. .In such sanitarium the
plants should be grown in pots or dishes that they may be removed with-
out disturbance when it is necessary to thoroughly clean both the jar and
the plants. It may be well to here mention that a gg5 solution of
bichloride of mercury can be used for cleaning purposes, but plants and
receptacle must afterwards be thoroughly washed with clean water.

As a hospital a well seasoned tank, if possible one having an active
growth of alge on its sides, is best. It should contain considerable well
developed plant life and the water should have a bright green color, indi-
cating an active growth of the smaller alge. The plants should be rooted
in clean soil in pots with a slight covering of grit, because earth and mud
are beneficial to sick fishes. The tank should have a large surface area as
compared with its depth; the latter not to exceed 12 inches. In the sum-
mer, it should be partially protected from the sun, but in winter it should
get the full sunlight, and should be kept at a temperature of 60° to 70° F.
One end may be covered with a board when fishes are introduced, for rest
and shade.

All vessels for fishes having contagious and parasitic diseases should
be of glass, so that they may be thoroughly cleansed. A sick fish does

132

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

not require a large receptacle, but it should be of large diameter 1n propor-
tion to its depth, or else the depth of water so regulated. The sides should
be screened or curtained when necessary to permit of rest for the patient.

Breeders, dealers and others having a large number of fishes, should
have a hospital for fishes “out of condition”; but which is not used for
those in the active stages of contagious and parasitic diseases though it may
be used later for such patients when the danger of contagion has passed
and they are convalescing. From this receptacle they may later be trans-
ferred to the sanitarium and only returned to the aquarium when fully
recovered.

At all times when a fish gives indications of being out of condition,
it is best to remove it from its companions for the following reasons; first,
it prevents the well and stronger fishes from annoying it, second, while the
illness may be only slight, it may also be a contagious affection; third, it
gives opportunity for the required treatment or for experimentation with
the view of a cure, which could not otherwise be undertaken. A sick fish
should have nourishing food offered to it, for if it will eat the chances of
recovery are greatly increased.

Remeptres. Beneficial remedies for the ills of fishes are but few, and
the medicaments of the aquariist should consist of the following:

Common table salt and rock salt, frequently required.
Phenol-sodique, frequently required.

Peroxide of hydrogen, frequently required.

Epsom and Glauber salts, as laxatives, frequently required.
Castor oil, as a cathartic, occasionally required.
Boracic acid solution.

Saturated solution of Monsell’s salt.

Permanganate of potassium solution.

Gypsum and plaster of paris.

Coal Oil.

Tincture of aloes and myrrh.

Turlington’s Balsam.

Antigyrodactylin.

- _ Bichloride of mercury, as an anticeptic and parasiticide.
Salicylate of soda, a rs “ “e
Chlorate of potassium, ‘* ** = ¢* “ “
Formalin, celiac” bice “< “

Nore: A few drops of Monsell’s salt, less than 10 to the gallon, will clear turbid water,
due to the decomposition of chlorophyll, and 15 to 20 drops to the gallon will destroy many
of the lower organisms. It is also fatal to the snails, which should be removed before it is used.
A few drops of a weak solution of permanganate of potassium in the aquarium will remove the

green color, when objectionable.

133

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

Funcus on Spawn. The spawn of fishes is attacked by a fungus
which neater itself by short hairlike growths on the surface. Fig. 75. It
is usually one of the species of the Saproleg-
niacee, Saprolegnia ferax or Dictyuchus polyspo-

* rus, the spores of which are present in all natu-
ral waters,and are more fully described hereafter.
TreatTmMent. There is little to be done

for this diseased condition other than to pick
out the affected eggs with tweezers. Eventhen
more fertile eggs may be injured than would be
saved. Under good conditions only the un-
fertile opaque eggs are attacked; and if the
parents are healthy and the water conditions

good, these are not likely to be present in sufh-

Fig. 75. Funguson Spawn,

Naprolipnia force cient number to warrant the removal of the

paced) cBlateed affected spawn. Ifthe fishes are weak or over-
spawned, at times nearly all the eggs are unfertile or the fry hatches weak,
and on such occasions all the eggs and fry may be attacked by the fungus.
When in a day or two the spawn shows a majority of affected eggs, it is
best to destroy both it and the spawning plants, to prevent a further
spread of the fungus and the diseased condition.

It is probably always best to take the spawn and the plants to which
it adheres from the spawning bed and place them in filtered water to hatch,
thus largely avoiding the danger of the presence of fungus spores and
those of parasites; but a few pots of growing plants should be introduced
to supply the necessary oxygen and to prevent the asphyxiation of the
fry. A small dish containing clean soil should also be furnished as it con-
tains substances necessary for nutrition and will stimulate the development
of minute plant andanimal life, the first food of the young fry. The presence
of these low forms is manifested by the greenish color of the water.
After the fry are a week old, a half pint of water of pronouncedly green
color should be added every few days, and then live food should be fed.

Wuire Funcus. One of the most frequent diseases of the goldfish
and other aquarium fishes is manifested by the appearance of a white coating
on the tail and fins which spreads to the body, operculz and into the gills
of the fish, destroying the fins, covering the body with a threadlike scum and
finally causing the death of the fish from exhaustion, asphyxiation and inter-
ference with the proper functions of the skin by obstruction of the surface
pores and the induced inflammation. Figure 76.

The disease is most often introduced into the aquarium by newly ac-
quired fishes that may have been shipped long distances in cans containing

134

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

such numbers that the water is not sufficiently aerated, or which have
been bruised and otherwise injured, enfeebled from lack of food, or have
suffered from constant excitement. Carelessness of their comfort, lack of
proper care while in the hands of dealers,
unsanitary conditions, insufficient plant life,
decay of the plants and food, overstocking
and similar causes, will also produce the
disease; as under these conditions the ever-
present micro-organisms attack the weaker
fishes and spread to healthy ones with which
they come into contact. Another cause is
sudden changes of the temperature of the
water by injudiciously adding thereto, or its
continued low temperature. This is a most
frequent reason for outbreaks of the disease

in the spring, as the above conditions often

FIG. tee eo ee with prevail during the winter and the vitality of

Usually Saprolegnia and Dictyuchus. the fishes has become low, so that they suc-

cumb to this fungus when it becomes more

active owing to the rise in temperature. A very large proportion of the
mortality among aquarium fishes is due to this cause.

This White Fungus is one of the most common diseases which the
amateur is likely to encounter. When neglected, it is serious in its effects
and results, but if taken in time, proper care exercised and remedies
applied, death losses will be reduced or prevented. Owing to the general
natural or surgical contingent, in advanced stages, destruction of fin and
tail development and much loss of beauty may occur, with a probability
that the fish will never entirely recover its former beauty.

Treatment. When a fish shows fungoid tendency it should be re-
moved from its fellows and placed in a hospital jar, containing 2% gallons
of water, to which a teaspoonful of table salt, the same quantity of epsom
salt and 10 or 12 drops of Phenol-sodique have been added. The jarshould
also contain a partially opened inverted earthen flower pot, or similar
vessel, in which the fish may hide and rest. It should be kept out of the
sun, at a temperature of about 65° to 70° F. During two days the fish
should not be fed, as the disorder may be the result of overfeeding; but,
if at the end of this period there is no improvement, it should be taken
out and all the fungus spots painted with coal oil, the fish being then
placed for a short period in another receptacle to allow the excess of oil to
float off, when it may be returned to the jar. Penciling with or dipping into
a 50 per cent. solution of peroxide of hydrogen is also an approved remedy.

135

a

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

If the fungus has extended and the fins and tail become ragged, it 1s
necessary to cut off the affected parts, painting the cut edges with Phenol-
sodique, tincture of aloes and myrrh or with the peroxide of hydrogen
solution. If the spots are extensive on the body they should be cleansed
with a table salt or peroxide solution and also painted with the tincture of
aloes and myrrh. Immediate attention is necessary as soon as the disease 1s
detected, then a cure is almost always possible.

If the fish improves, the white appearance disappears and a dark edge
shows on the fins and tail. It may then be transferred to the hospital
tank to acquire strength on a light mixed diet, sparingly but frequently
fed, but if it becomes weaker, the fungus extending over the sides and
into the gills, unless it is very valuable, it is best to destroy it, because
little more can be done for its benefit. A final recourse is to place it in
the greenest water procurable and leave it there. Sometimes it recovers,
but it may be subject to a recurrence of the disease, or may present only a
wreck of its former appearance and beauty.

A recently introduced and approved remedy is the Turlington’s
Balsam. It is applied as follows:—The affected parts should be dried and
cleaned and the balsam applied generously with a small brush or a pledget
of cotton and permitted to dry from three to five minutes. During this
time the head and gills of the fish should be wrapped in a wet cloth to
keep the gills moist and to prevent movement. If this is properly done
no fear of endangering the life of the fish need be entertained. The
Balsam coats the affected edges with an insoluble surface and protects
them from the further ravages of the fungus. Also apply the parasiticides
mentioned hereafter. Prompt measures have saved many valuable
aquarium fishes.

Brack Funecus. This serious
evil attacks the goldfish in a similar
manner to the White Fungus, but
is only conveyed by contagion and
does not so much depend upon the
water and other conditions. It is
manifested on the body and fins. These
first assume a mottled dark grey ap-
pearance in spots and streaks; later they
become black and form a thick layer
which scales off, leaving raw spots and
ulcers on the body and destroy the fins
ni a. eA eee ie en and tail. The indirect causes are the

so-called Black Fungus. same as those which induce the White
Usually Gyrodactylus and My.xidium.

136

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

Fungus, but the direct causes are animal parasites usually Gyrodactylide or
Myxide, Figs. 77 and 78, of the order Protozoa, the most general of the
fish parasites, and others, all more fully described hereafter.

Treatment. If these parasites get into the gills, the best and only
thing to do is to destroy the fish, to prevent further infection, thoroughly
clean the aquarium or tank with antiseptics and burn the plants and the

fish. If, however, only the fins and part of the tS o
body are affected, it is well, if the fish is of value, jx
to attempt acure. These being animal parasites (Si
and usually deeply seated in the tissues, severe
treatment is required, which is often as nearly
fatal as the disease itself. The parasiticides should &” 36"
be first tried, which sometimes effect a cure, but if
not of benefit, the fins and tail should be cut off

: FIG. 78. Trematod parasites taken
some distance beyond the affected parts, the spots gon imported Japanese and Chinese
partie bady scraped, all the aftected) paxts»painted: Guldishesatected with Black Fungus,

E =e f Greatly enlarged.

with a solution of Monsell’s salts, and the fish

kept in a jar containing salt water to which 10 or 12 drops of Phenol-

sodique per gallon have been added, and the affected parts also penciled
with a 50 per cent. solution of peroxide of hydrogen. If the fish survives
a day or two, then the affected parts should be daily painted with coal o1]
after cleaning with salt water, or with peroxide of hydrogen, always plac-
ing the fish into a receptacle for a few minutes before returning it to the
jar. Turlington’s Balsam will be greatly beneficial should the fish survive
to the healing stage. Nourishing food of animal origin should be gener-
ously fed, such as the yolk of a boiled egg, ant larve, earthworms, etc.
Everything with which the fish has come in contact should be cleaned and
sterilized and its companions quarantined in water containing salt to the
amount of imparting a brackish taste. Upon the microscope slide the
parasites which produce the disease are killed by salt, but this remedy does
not always reach and destroy them when they have burrowed into the
tissues, under the scales and skin, and in the gills of the fish. The same
trials of remedies as for White Fungus should also be made. Also apply
the parasiticides hereafter mentioned. Cures are frequent if prompt atten-
tion is given. Severe attacks seldom occur in well-established aquaria.
Twirters or Itcu. This quite common affection of the goldfish is
produced by minute Infusoria, [chthyophthirius and Chromatophagus, the
leech-like Trichodina, and other fish parasites, which develop under unsan-
itary conditions or are principally troublesome in the presence of decom-
posing food and decaying vegetation. They are frequently introduced into
established aquaria by newly received fishes, on plants or with the water.

137

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

The affected fishes become restless, endeavoring to alleviate the irrita-
tion and dislodge the parasites by rubbing against objects in the water or on
the bottom. A close observation in severe cases will reveal the presence
of cysts in the skin of the fish or a white scum on its surface, and some-
times a congested appearance, due to the presence of parasites.

TREATMENT. Cure is usually effected by immersion in a strong salt
solution until the fish shows signs of exhaustion, or by rubbing it gently
with a saturated salt solution ona pledget of cotton, followed by similar
treatment with slightly diluted Phenol-sodique; or a weak solution of per-
manganate of potassium diluted until it is of the color of claret; but a better
method is to place the fish in a weak salt solution for several days, as this
is less likely to injure the mucus covering of the surface and the parasites
yield as well to this mild brackish water treatment. Change of water,
more scavengers, especially tadpoles, which often eat the parasites off the
sides of the fishes, greater care in feeding, siphoning out the humus in
the aquarium and other simple sanitary regulations will obviate this evil.

Avtotoxine. Fright, constant fatigue, lack of rest, too strong light
and other abnormal conditions often produce in the aquarium fish a jaded
and exhausted condition, loss of vitality, surface irritation and interference
with the respiratory and digestive systems which render it liable to diseases
to which it would be immune under normal conditions. One of these is
known to the breeder as Autotoxine or self-poisoning. It affects the scales
and gills and causes the formation of ascum or slime, similar in appearance
to White fungus, which weakens the fish, disturbs its normal functions
and causes a partial suffocation under which it soon succumbs.

This is a complaint of mature fishes, but also frequently affects
younger ones during the winter months. When the latter is the case it is
advisable to add rock salt to the water in which the fishes are kept at
intervals of twice or thrice a week, but never to the extent of imparting a
salty taste, because such excess would be injurious not only to the fishes but
also to the plants, interfering with their functions as liberators of oxygen.

TREATMENT. Mature fishes so affected should be rested in a screened
aquarium or placed in a jar containing a teaspoonful of epsom salt to the
gallon and kept in a darkened place for several days without food. Later
the food should be frequently changed to give a variety, feeding lightly
and adding a tablespoonful of salt to each 5 gallons of waterin the container.
Usually more plant life is also required, more especially those which are
the best oxygenators; the main remedy being healthful surroundings,
complete rest, exclusion of excessive light, and careful feeding.

Constipation. In the aquarium or tank goldfishes often suffer from
the confinement, lack of proper exercise, restlessness, the results of their

138

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

unnatural surroundings and the too concentrated forms of food, which
bring about disorders of the digestive organs causing constipation. This
may be detected by the appearance of the excrement, which in good health
and with natural food is of a uniform brown or black color. In confinement
the excrement is largely influenced by the nature of the food; but it should
be of uniform color and usually pendant for quite a considerable length.
When its appearance is other than usual the fish may be either overfed or
constipated. The latter is usually the case when the excrement is of vary-
ing color, white, brown and black in sections or otherwise abnormal. In
overfeeding the excrement is always white.

TREATMENT. A laxative is occasionally necessary, for which purpose
table salt, epsom and glauber salts and earthworms are to be recommended.
Many of the prepared foods contain these salts, but a little added to the water
from time to time is beneficial; the fishes take it greedily, as they have the
same craving for saline substances as other animals. Epsom salt is a mild
laxative and will prevent constipation and the concomitant evils produced
thereby. Ai fair-sized pinch should be dropped into the water every week
or fortnight, alternating with table or rock salt, to insure a proper and healthy
digestion. Aquarium water is also often deficient in mineral salts from
absorption by the plant life and the salts so added are beneficial correctives.
If a fish is excessively constipated, as may happen, a drop of castor oil
placed well down the throat is generally effective, and at all times is harm-
less to the fish. A second dose may have to be given. Fresh earthworms
are also an efficient laxative for aquarium fishes. What may appear to be
inflammation of the swimming bladder may only be constipation, for which
reason it is always well to apply these remedies in doubtful cases.

Fin Concestion. The fins of goldfishes, especially the tail, often
become red and congested, which is manifested by inflamed and bloody
streaks, lines or spots which cannot be mistaken for the arteries and
capillaries. This may be produced by constant excitement, impure water,
insufficient aeration, overfeeding, partial suffocation, bladder trouble, the
dragging of the tail over the bottom, or from other not readily recognized
causes.

Treatment. A successful remedy is to place the fish in water in
which sufficient table salt has been dissolved to give to it a brakish taste,
feeding sparingly or not at all for a few days, together with isolation in a
subdued light and complete rest. Some fanciers treat the fish by frequently
dipping the affected parts in a strong salt solution, though this should be
done with discretion as it may have the effect of further irritating the already
congested membranes. The author does not recommend these harsher
methods and gives them only because they are often resorted to. Laxa-

139

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

tives, however, are always beneficial and should be given in repeated small
doses, a cathartic of castor oil being preferable. Frequently dipping the
body and fins into dilute peroxide of hydrogen has proven to be an
effective remedy. Better aeration alone may effect a cure.

Tartrot. This affection, which seems to be a sequel of a generally
congested condition, usually starts at the ends of the tail and fins. These
first assume a serrated and then a shredded appearance, the disease causing
a decay and separation of the connective
tissue and the rays, so that they assume
a bristlelike appearancé. Fig. 79. When
it reaches the base of the tail and the
spinal column it is usually fatal; but
prompt treatment will in most cases ar-
rest the ravages of the disease and
effect a cure.

TREATMENT. The treatment for
White fungus and Fin congestion should
be first tried, and if found to be ineffect-
ive, the affected tail and fins should be
cut off beyond the diseased parts and
the fish subjected to a salt bath to prevent a further spread. A laxative
of epsom salt anda drop of castor oil as a cathartic are usually called for;
and treatment by dipping the affected parts into a solution of a tablespoon-
ful of Phenol-sodique in a gill of water, or a 50 per cent. solution of
peroxide of hydrogen; or into water in which bichloride of mercury has
been dissolved in the proportion of one tablet to the pint, have been re-
commended and tried with success, but great care must be taken in using
this latter remedy that it does not get on the gills. Good results have
also been produced by applications of Turlington’s Balsam as before sug-
gested for Fungus, and of the Tincture of aloesand myrrh. Caustic mineral
acids, especially nitric acid have been used by experts with success. To
cauterize the affected parts; applications should be made with a skewer of
soft wood dipped into the acid. This remedy should be resorted to only
when the others have failed to effect a cure.

Gitt Concestion. This disease, also known as Asphyxia and “Sore
throat,” occurs with fishes which have been subjected to sudden changes
of temperature of the water or to other exposures that may cause inflamma-

FIG. 79. Fins of a Goldfish affected with Tail-rot;
early stage.

tion or congestion of the gills, such as removal from the house aquarium
to an. out-of-door existence, undue exposure, improper water conditions or
similar causes that disarrange the respiratory organs, affect the functions
of the gills and debilitate the fish. Loss of appetite, emaciation and

140

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

enervation will result and then immediate remedies are necessary or the
fish will succumb.

A congestion spreads over the gill membranes and into the throat,
which become highly inflamed and assume a grey or whitish appearance;
they no longer perform their proper functions and finally become mortified.
Animal parasites also find lodgment in the diseased gills and unless treat-
ment is at once undertaken the fish dies of exhaustion.

This condition rarely occurs with strong fishes, but is quite common
with highly bred Chinese and Japanese goldfishes which have large fin and
tail development and extreme delicacy of constitution. At times a con-
dition somewhat like Consumption in the human race produces similar
symptoms to the above and can only be differentiated by careful examina-
tion of the gills; but as the same treatment applies to both, the distinction
is not pertinent.

TREATMENT. Rest under the most favorable conditions, stimulation
by nourishing food and treatment of the gills are advisable. The fish
should be placed in a receptacle having abundant plant life, shielded from
strong light and an equable temperature maintained. If the disease is ad-
vanced, the gills should be treated with an injection of salt water at repeated
intervals and the fish placed in shallow water in a large dish so that the
action of the fins keeps it in agitation and causes the absorption of as much
air as possible, or the water should have frequent aeration with a fountain
syringe. The relief from the water pressure, thus afforded, is also benefi-
cial. Placing the fish in a receptacle under constantly dripping water has
preserved the life of many fine specimens that otherwise would have
succumbed to diseases. Care must be taken that the water is of the same
temperature as that of the aquarium, and is best at about 60°F.

When gill parasites have made considerable ravages no remedy or
means for their eradication have as yet been found, and the death of the
fish is certain, but the usual gill and throat congestion can be cured by
immediate attention.

Young fishes are particularly liable to gill and throat parasites, the
most usual of which are Gyrodactylus and Echinorhyncus. These may occur
epidemically, often at intervals of several years, and have at times de-
stroyed nearly all the fishes of an entire season’s hatchings. They some-
times infest the gills in such numbers as to cause the opercule to stand
from the sides of the head, induce inflammation of the gills and ultimately
cause the suffocation of thefry. For this condition there is no remedy
and thorough cleaning, destruction of fry, plants, etc., by burning is neces-
sary to prevent further infection.

Consumption. What is generally known as Consumption in the gold-

141

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

fish may be due to widely different causes. It consists of a gradual emacia-
tion whereby the entire appearance of the fish is changed. The body
becomes shrunken and lean, most noticeable at the junction of the head
and the spinal column. The sides are depressed, particularly along the
back, and the abdomen is shrunken. The opercule are sometimes pro-
truding, giving to the head an abnormally large appearance, and at other
times the edges are depressed, as though folded in on the gills. The fish
has a general appearance of feebleness, lethargy and listlessness, frequently
accompanied by an abstinence from food.

TreaTMENT. For this illness there is no certain remedy, though
its progress may often be arrested by removal to a separate aquarium or
to tanks out-of-doors under the most favorable conditions, together with
trials of a stimulating diet of animal substances, earthworms, raw beef,
ant eggs and fish-roe, the later prepared by first parboiling in salt water and
then drying in a moderate heat. Great care must be exercised in feeding
these animal foods that all is immediately consumed or later removed. It
should be noted that extreme care may keep the fish alive and in fair condi-
tion, if it will eat, yet the slighest change or exposure will rapidly cause fatal
results. When the condition is permanent, such fishes should not be used
as breeders, not only because the majority of the spawn is usually
unfertile but also for the reason that the hatchings produced are feeble, few
of the fry reaching maturity and these generally with a similar tendency.
Therefore, unless the fish is valuable it is not worth the trouble of keeping
it in condition and it would better be destroyed.

Eye InrLtamMatTion. The protruding eyes of the Telescope goldfishes
especially those of the males during the breeding season, are frequently
injured and serious inflammations may occur. When so affected the eye
seems to protrude farther from the orbit and the cornea becomes opaque
or of a milky color. This condition sometimes goes no farther and the
eye gradually becomes normal in a month or more; but the inflammation
may continue to such an extent that ulcers form and either entirely destroy
the cornea or leave a blinded fish. If both eyes are affected, the fish is
temporarily blinded and may suffer through inability to find food.

TREATMENT. However treated there is always danger of permanent
injury, but probably the best results are obtained by washing the eye with
a pledget of cotton dipped in a saturated solution of boracic acid once a
day until beneficial results are produced. The fish should be isolated and
food placed so that it may find it by touch, and, in extreme cases it may
be fed by hand. In severe cases it takes nearly three months for complete
recovery, but the above treatment is almost invariably successful in about one
month, if the fish is in vigorous condition, and treatment undertaken at once.

142

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

SwiMMInG Biapper Trousie. The confinement incident to ex-
istence in the aquarium, together with water impurities and insufficient
aeration cause affections of the swimming bladder of the goldfish; but it
is more likely that such diseases are congenital and due to malformations
of the bladder, as they occur most frequently in highly bred, very short-
bodied fishes. The disease is not always noticeable in its incipiency
but develops more and more, becoming evident in the second and third
months by irregular action and later by partial or entire lack of control
over the movements. For example, the fishes may not be able to rise
from the bottom of the aquarium, or may swim only on the surface of the
water, often in reversed position ; or they may only be able to swim with
the tail uppermost, or altogether on their sides.

A fish may have this affliction, be strong, eat well and grow; but it
is unsatisfactory in appearance and undesirable to breed from, as many
of the progeny may be similarly afflicted. This ailment is most general
with the Chinese varieties, and the transparently-scaled white fishes with
blue eyes are most usually so affected. Diseases of the liver and spleen
produce similar symptoms. Sometimes it is due only to too cold water.

Treatment. Nocure or method of alleviation is known,though keep-
ing the fish in water at a temperature of 60° F. and over, has been found
to be beneficial ; because fishes so afflicted become worse or entirely help-
less in cold water. Unless the fish is valuable itis best to destroy it, in
order to put it out of its apparent misery. Castor oil and other remedies
for Constipation, however, should first be tried.

Dropsy. This is not a disease in itself but is a symptom secondary
to an affection of the liver or the spleen. It produces a distended appear-
ance of the fish by the presence of serum in its tissues, together with loss
of the control of its movements. In advanced cases, there is a ruffled
appearance of the scales, and sometimes a protrusion of the eyes and oper-
cule and finally complete helplessness and death.

TREATMENT. No cure, either in fishes or other animals, is known
for this affection of the liver, and its resultant dropsy. If the fish is other-
wise strong, has a good appetite and assimilates its food, palliative measures
by surgical operation, similar to that used with mankind, (tapping), will
often prolong life for years and keep the fish in apparently good condition,
although the operation may have to be frequently repeated. When the
abdomen is greatly distended, a small trocar, (a hypodermatic needle is
excellent for this purpose), inserted on each side from below upward and
outward, just under the skin, will open canals through the connective
tissue, which will enable the serum to exude, thus reducing the diameter
and relieving the condition. It is, of course, imperative that no organ of
the body is injured. This operation has been performed five times in

143

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

two years upon a mature “blue-ribbon” Japanese Fringetail goldfish which
is in good condition at the present writing, but which will soon require
another puncture. If the affected fish is immature and not otherwise
strong, robust and of very fine appearance, it is not worth the labor and
attention and shouldbe destroyed. Remedies for Constipation and
Bladder trouble should be tried.

Inyuries. Careless handling, rough nets, bruises, loss of scales and
the injurious effects incident to transportation cause injuries to the scales
and skin which should have immediate attention, as they form culture
surfaces for fungi and lodging places for parasites.

Treatment. A thorough cleansing of the injured parts with salt
water, followed by diluted phenol-sodique or peroxide of hydrogen should
be first applied and then the abraded spots treated with a coating of Tur-
lington’s Balsam, to keep the water from coming into contact with the
wound. This is almost always an effective remedy.

Hanpiinc Diseased FisHes. Fishes may be handled out of the
water by keeping the head enveloped in a wet cloth tokeep the gills moist.
Several minutes out of their element will not be injurious when this method
is employed.

The cleanest cut in operations on fins and tail can be made by spread-
ing them on a smooth board and making a straight pressing cut with a
knife. Scissors produce uncertain results.

A migcroscopé examination of scrapings from the diseased parts is
advisable. It nearly always reveals the cause of illness and prompts in
the use of proper remedies.

It is a wise precaution to employ a separate net and all other appliances
in the handling of sick fishes, as there is constant danger of spreading
the contagion. These should be sterilized by boiling water or with
anticeptics.

The best mild disinfectants for aquaria are Monsell’s salt solution and
permanganate of potassium; while for radical disinfection bichloride of
mercury, chlorate of potassium or formalin are most certain of result.
Bichloride of mercury is to be used in the proportion of one tablet to the
gallon of water and formalin in a 4 to 6 per cent. solution, both in water.
Care must be taken to remove all traces of these antiseptics.

Larcer Enemies oF THE GouprisH. These are limited by the
conditions and surroundings in which the fishes are kept; but all preda-
tory animals are active enemies when they can obtain access to the young
and mature fishes. ‘These may be the common rat, cat, mink, muskrat,
mole, starnosed mole, kingfisher, sandpiper, great horned owl, heron, crane,
crayfish, frog, water snake, larger fishes, and all the predaceous aquatic
insects. Most of these can be excluded by wire netting covers over the tanks.

144

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

Conciusion. There can be no question that the finely bred Gold-
fishes are more liable to illnesses than the ordinary breed. They are all
constitutionally weak and naturally subject to disturbances of digestion,
ailments of the swimming bladder, dropsical tendencies, and physical ex-
haustion; the latter due to atrophy of the muscles from disuse and from
having gone largely into the formation of the abnormally long and dupli-
cated fins, the very effort to wield which is exhausting and compels the
fishes to swim as much by movements of the body as of the long unwieldy
fins and tails. When affected by diseases these fishes are devoid of much
repellant, recuperative or sustaining power, as they are coddled, weakly,
unnatural monstrosities in whom life is kept by the constant attention of
the fancier. It will be noticed that it is the most highly prized fishes
which are most prone to illness and which soonest succumb, so that the
losses to the breeder are principally these and not the “sports’’ or partial
reverts. But on account of their value and the constant demand, the toy
varieties receive the principal attention of the skilled breeders, to which
must be added the fascinating uncertainty as to the result of a season’s
labor, as any fish that hatches may possibly develop into a fine specimen,
if it survives.

Although the foregoing investigations of fish diseases were conducted
by the author and his expert friends with aquarium fishes, the diseases and
remedies also apply to food fishes, and the methods of treatment suggested
can be used for them as well, if modified to suit existing conditions. The
tenacity of life of the common goldfish is such that it is generally employed
for ichthiological research pertaining to diseases and their treatment.

PARASITES AND PARASITIC DISEASES

The diseases of fishes are both parasitic and non-parasitic. Of the
former, the parasites may be either animal or vegetal; which, according to
the parts infested, are classed as Ecto- or surface and Ento- or internal
parasites. It is proposed to briefly describe the common forms and
the more or less effectual treatment for their eradication.

ANIMAL Parasites AND Parasitic Diseases. Nearly all classes of
animals include among their inferior ranks members which are either para-
sites or messmates at some period of their existence. True parasites are
those which live at the expense of their hosts, either establishing them-
selves in their organs and tissues or leaving them after a meal, like the
leech and the larve of predatory insects; while others require this assist-
ance at determinate periods, either in early youth, like the young of some
mussels, or during the infirmities of old age, though many are internal or
external lodgers all their lives. _Messmates are those which share in the

145

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

meals of other animals, attaching themselves to, or only accompanying,
their more vigorous hosts.

The science of Helminthology has determined that many of the para-
sites live at various stages of their existence in widely different animals.
This particularly applies to those of fishes, which more than others are
subject to parasitism, not only in the number which they harbor but also
in the frequency with which this occurs. Each genus is subject to a num-
ber peculiar to itself as well as some common to all. These inhabit various
parts of the body, the skin, connective tissues and muscles; the heart,
liver, respiratory and digestive organs, either free or encysted. The most
of them, however, exist in the intestines and alimentary canal or in the
gills and on the surface. They are sometimes harmless but more often
injurious, as their progeny may be so numerous as to tunnel in all direc-
tions until the whole organ or part of the tissue which they inhabit is little
more than a sac of microscopic worms.

Fishes acquire internal parasites with their food, while those which
affect them externally, are usually free-swimming at some stages of their
existence. These belong to different groups of the lower animals, of which
some of the common North American forms will be enumerated, for the
further identification of which the reader is referred to the authorities
mentioned in the Bibliography appended hereto.

TREMATODA OR FiLuKEs. ‘The members of this group are small para-
sitic flatworms with unsegmented flattened or cylindrical unciliated bodies,
usually having anterior mouth-openings, bifurcated intestine and without
anal opening, which attach themselves to their host by the means of
suckers or hooks, or both, and live upon their juices. The Trematoda
are classed in three groups or sub-divisions, of which the Hererocotylea are
for the most part ectoparasites and the Aspidocotylea and Malacocotylea for
the most part endoparasites. The North American Heterocotylea con-
sist of five families, the Vemnocephalide; Tristomide, Monocotylidea, Poly-
stomide and Gyrodactylide; divided into 8 families and 52 genera, mostly
parasitic on Vertebrates and principally in marine animals, but some
species have freshwater fishes and amphibia as host, of which one genera,
the Gyrodactylida, will be particularly mentioned.

GyropacTyLip# This family includes the genera Gyrodactylus and
Calcostoma, the former having double or more numerous prehensile hooks,
the latter a single horny structure at the margin of the caudal sucker.

Gyropacty.Lus. This parasite is found on the gills of freshwater
fishes in numerous specific forms, almost each species supporting a differ-
ent form, and sometimes two or more on the same gill. The most com-
mon species, G. elegans; Fig. 80; infests the gills of Cyprinide, especi-

146

ee ——Vo—

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

ally the carplike fishes, often in such numbers as to
cause the death of both young and mature fishes,
especially the very young. Other species which have
freshwater fishes as hosts are G. carassiusculus, G.
cochlea and G. tenuis. These parasites also attack the
surface of fishes and amphibia and burrow into the skin
under the scales, where they produce inflammations and
raw surfaces which form seats for fungi and ultimately
FIG, 80. Gyrodactyius elegans. cause the death of the fishes. Gyrodactylide are
Sian a among the most frequent parasites which affect the
goldfish in the aquarium and breeding tank.
The North American Aspidocotylea and Malacocotylea consist of

w/

Paramphistomida, Fasciolide, Schistosomida, Holostomide, Gasterostomida,
Didymozoinide and Monostomide; divided into 35 sub-families, 134 genera
and 22 related genera, parasitic in Vertebrates, of which the following
species are found in freshwater fishes and amphibia of the United States:—

SPECIES Hosr Part INHABITED

Distomum areolatum White Perch in intestine

=< rufoviride Striped Bass | ‘f ae

&< seriale | Salmon |<« kidneys

“e tenue Striped Bass |‘ intestine

as ‘© tenuissime | White Perch << peritoneum

“ auriculatum Lake Sturgeon | © intestine

«e grandiporum | Eel | *< stomach

<< gracile Sunfish, Goldfish | <« liver and intestines

“< laureatum Sucker «« alimentary canal

ee polymorphum Pike «« bladder
Beaune cupieels (Red-eye Bass, Black Bass | __ { intestines,

(and Goldfish

(liver and heart, #!s°sills and

surface

Gasterostoma gracilescens Carp and other Cyprinide = ** intestines
Octoplectanum affine Sun Fish << gills
Stephanochasmus tenuis Striped Bass, White Perch _<*_ intestine
Tristoma elongatus Sturgeon “« gills
Monostomum spatulutum Carp {tee << intestines and liver

os am fri Catfish <« bladder
Cephalogonimus vesicaudus Softshell Turtle | €* intestine
Distomum chelydre Snapping Turtle oS ee
Pleorchis mollis Mud Turtle << Jungs
Telorchis angustus Painted Turtle << intestine
Amphistoma subclavatum Frog and Tadpole SS yn nie
Brandesia areana [eee <¢ phyloris
Distomum quietus “ “<¢ intestine
Gorgodero cygnoides << «¢ bladder

pe amplicara << oC

ae simplex << << mouth
Halipegus ovocaudalus «6 ‘« liver
Holostomum nutidus “e << intestine
Ostioleum formosum “< a
Cymotocarpus hospitalis es ee ee 6< «6
Distomum quietus | Salamander «< bladder

<e ascoideum ‘Snails ¢< intestines, etc.

uc coronarium «« Molluscs, Alligator « << as

147

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

FIG. Si Dien FIG. 82 Diplosto- FIG. 83. Gaster-
pret aimed mum cuttcola, a Trema- ostoma gracilescens, a
Bete Greatly entered tod parasite. Greatly Trematod parasite.

av : 3 enlarged. Greatly enlarged.

Cesropa ork Tapeworms. ‘This group comprises the Tapeworms
and other cystic Entozoa which are parasitic during the greater part of
their lives; with some species the eggs only are free during certain periods
to change their residence. The Cestoda are taken as one group or sub-order,
the Pseudophyllide, which consists of five families, the Bothriocephalida,
Tetraphylhda, Cyclophyllide, Diphylliida, and Trypanorhycha; divided into
16 sub-families, 72 genera and 28 related genera, parasitic on Vertebrates,
of which the following species are found in freshwater fishes and amphibia
of the United States :-—

SPECIES

Bothriocephalis proboscideus
<e nodosus
Cyathocephalus truncatus
Dibothrium hastatum
Os cordiceps
es infundibulifor me
Dacnitus globosa
Ligula simp licissima
“© catostomi
Monobothrium hexacotyle

“6 terebrans
Schistocephalus dimorphus
“< solidus

Tenia sevelini
<< gcellata
ae dilatata

Triculpidaria nodulus

FIG, 84 Bothriocephalis
proboscideus, a Cestod para-
site. Twice natural size.

Hosr
Carp and other Cyprinide
Stickleback
Whitefish
| Sturgeon
Trout
Burbot and Whitefish
Trout
Carp and Tench
Sucker and Chub
Sucker
«« and Chub
Sculpin, etc.
Stickleback and Cyprinide
Whitefish
Rock Bass
Eel
Bass, Perch and Pike

mals.

FIG. 85 Ligula
simplicissima, a Ces-
tod parasite,
ural size of imma-
* ture form, the adult

i is parasitic in Mam-

Part INHABITED

in phylorus and intestines
<< alimentary canal
<« phyloris

«« intestine

ce ce

ce ce

<* body cavity

«ce “ce “ce

«* intestine, etc.

ee ce

ce ce

<< abdominal cavity

“ce 6e ‘cc and muscular

tissues

«« intestine

ce €<«
“e “ce
ce ce

FIG. 86 Schis-
tocephalus solidus, a
Cestod parasite.
Immature form, 6
to 15 mm. long, the
adult is parasitic in
Aquatic Birds.

Nat-

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

Probably the most frequent forms of Cestode parasites are Schistoceph-
alus solidus and allied species, which occur in many freshwater fishes in

FIG. 87 Stickleback affected with Schistocephalus solidus; showing enlargement of side and abdomen.
Slightly enlarged.

immature forms. Figs. 86, 87 and 88. As adults they have fish-feeding
birds and mammals as hosts.

FIG. 89 Ascaris acus, a Nematod
parasite. 1. Immature forms, enlarged.
2. Subsequent adult form, enlarged,

FIG. 88. Section of a Stickleback,
showing cysts of Schistocepha/us solidus.
Slightly enlarged,

Nematopa or Rounpworms. ‘This group comprises the round
and thread worms. They include a large number of families which occur
abundantly in all genera of the Vertebrates and are more numerously and
uniformly distributed than the individual members of the other parasitic
orders. They have not apparently had the attention of Helminthologists
that has been given to many other groups and the literature is fragmentary
and widely scattered. Mention will here be made of the six principal
families and the more generally distributed species.

ASCARID AND CHEIRICANTHID#. ‘These parasites inhabit higher
Vertebrates, principally birds and mammals, but two Nematods, bearing
close resemblance to Ascaris teniussima, have been found in Western
trout. Ascaris acus in the adult form is encysted in the intestines of pike,
bass and trout, Fig. 89. Its immature existence is spent in the minnow,
dace and other Cyprinide and with them is introduced into the subsequent
host.

CucuLttanip#. Several species of these parasites occur in freshwater

149

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

fishes. These are Cucullanus foveolatus of the sunfish, and C. elegans of
the perch and the Cyprinide, Fig. go.

Firarip#. These parasites are more common to
the marine fauna. Fi/aria piscius is found spirally coiled
within the tissues of the herring, cod and whiting. A
number of other species of this family occur in similar hosts
and in warm-blooded animals.

Gorpib#®. These parasites take up a free existence
FIG. go. in damp earth and penetrate the bodies of insects and their

Cucullanus elegans,

a Nematod parasite. larvae. Some gain access to fishes by this means, where

ee eae ae they become encysted in the tissues.

ANGUILLULID&. These minute free intestinal thread-
worms usually have the higher Vertebrates as hosts, but some species are
parasitic in aquatic molluscs and in insect larve. They are very widely
distributed; the so-called Vinegar-eel, Anguillus aceti, belongs to this order.
All the other families of this group are parasites of higher Vertebrates.

ACANTHOCEPHALA OR THORN-HEADED Worms. This group con-
sists of members having vermiform bodies and otherwise resemble the
Nematoda, but differ in having spine-covered heads by which they attach
themselves to their hosts. They are now included in the single family
Echinorhynchide, which infests all classes of Vertebrates and are one of the
more frequent parasites of fishes and amphibia. Over 100 species have
been described, a considerable number in the Cyprinide; and of these
Echinorhynchus proteus is the most abundant species, of which the
immature form inhabits the smaller crustaceans, especially Gammarus
and Asellus, to be transferred with them to freshwater fishes. Other

FIG. 91.
Echinorhynchus pro-
teus, an Acanthoce-

phalous parasite.

Intermediate and
Adult forms.

Greatly enlarged.

FIG. 92.
Echinorhynchus
angustatus, an

Acanthocephalous
parasite. Length
22 to 25 mm.
Enlarged.

Fig. 93.
Echinorhynchus
anthuris, an Antho-
cephalous parasite.
Greatly enlarged.

common forms are E. angustatus, E. claveceps, E. anthuris, E. globulosus,
and E. tuberosus in the Salmonide and similar fishes. Some of these and
E. clavula, E. fusiformis and E. pachysoma frequently occur in other fresh-
water fishes, principally the Cyprinidae. £. anthuris also occursin the Water
newt, and E. inflexus in the Snapping turtle. The Echinorhynchide cause

150

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

epidemics in fishes and in immature and adult forms have been found in
such numbers in the gills of young goldfishes as to cause the death of en-
tire hatchings. These worms grow to such size that they force the
opercule from the sides of the head and produce death from exhaustion
and inability of the fishes to breathe. No preventive means or parasiticides
have been devised to eradicate these destructive parasites, most of the
species of which do not exceed 1 cm. in length, and many of them are
much smaller.

Hirupinip@ or Leecues. These parasites are divided into two
groups, the Rhynchobdellide which pierce the tissues of their hosts by
means of a fine protrusile stomodzum or proboscis, and the Guathobdellide
which bite their prey by means of
triangular horny jaws. They are carniv-
orous oblong and generally depressed
contractile worms, having the mouth
encircled with a lip and a flat disc at
the posterior end, both adopted to ad-
here to other bodies and to serve as
organs of locomotion. Leeches abound
in both fresh and salt water and in
tropical countries some forms live on

FIG. 94. Piscicola funduli, the Carp-leech, at- av :
tached to the head of a young Small-mouthed Black the land secreted pene leaves. Fishes,

Bass. Slighty enlarged. frogs and turtles are most frequently
attacked, but they also attach themselves to other animals which come to
the water to drink. The larger blood-sucking forms are Hirudo and
Macrobdella; and the true parasitic forms belong to Jchthyobdella,
Cystobranchus and Clepsine which feed principally on fishes,
and Nephilis and Aulastomus on snails and worms. The
North American leeches which prey on freshwater fishes
and amphibia are the species Piscicola funduli, known as the
Carp-leech, Figs. 94 and 95, P. punclata, Actinobdella
inequiannulata, Philobdella gracile, Clepsine elegans, and C. par-
asitica. Young leeches infest the gills of fishes, especially FIG. 95.
the fry, literally packing them solid, and gorge themselves ee
with the blood, causing the death of their hosts. These
epidemics sometimes occur with broods of goldfishes. The only remedy
is to clean the tanks and destroy the aquatic plants. Cures of leech
infested fishes have been made by the brackish water treatment and by
injecting salt water into the gills.

A very minute leech-like polyp Trichodina pediculus, Fig. 96, is
usually parasitic on freshwater polyps but frequently changes to fishes as

151

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

its host; and produces tiny red external, gill and throat
ulcers into which it is pitted like a cancer. When present
in numbers it is a dangerous parasite and has been found
on fishes afflicted with what is popularly known as Twitters.
It has a nearly circular ciliated body and on its lower side a

FIG. 96 3
Trichodina pediculus suctoral disc.

a Hirudinid parasite.
Greatly enlarged.

ARACHNIA OR ARACHNID Parasites. This group
includes the Mites, Ticks, etc., of which some of the aquatic
species are discussed in the appendix to the Aquatic Insects. One family,
Trachearia, contains strictly parasitic genera, and the
Acharide and Hydrachnide have parasitic and predatory
members which subsist largely on the freshwater fauna.
The common form is the red Water-mite, Hydrachna
geographica, Fig. 97. With five other families of this

group parasitism is but slight and on the higher — FIG. 97. Hydrachna
geographica, an Arachnid

Vertebrates. parasite. Enlarged,
CrusTAcEA OR CrusTaceAN Parasites. This

group includes the so-called Fish Lice, small crustaceans known as Epizoa,

and belonging to the families Lernedz, Caligide and Argulide.
Lern#D# AND Caticip#. The members of these families rarely

occur as parasites on ‘the freshwater fauna, having those of saltwater as

hosts; but some are brought into freshwater by marine fishes in their

FIG, 98. Lernacera
cyprinacea, a Crustacean
parasite. Adult and free- FIG. 99.
swimming larva. Enlarged.

Lernacera cyprinacea, attached
to the gill of a young Large-mouthed Black
Bass. Slightly enlarged.

spawning migrations. One form, Lernacera cyprinacea, Figs 98 and 99,
occurs in freshwater and is a frequent parasite on fishes. It attaches itself
by peculiar sucker-tentacles to the gills, fins and surface, and is a very fre-
quent parasite on river and pond fishes, of such size as to be easily seen.

Arcutip®. These Copppods are known as Carp-lice, though they
have almost all the freshwater fishes and amphibia as hosts. Of the three
genera Argulus, Chonopeltis and Dolops, 42 species have been recognized,

1G2

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

mostly of the first-named genus; of which some are marine and others
freshwater forms. ‘Those on migratory fishes are able to change with their
hosts from salt to freshwater and the reverse. They are wholly external
parasites, either in the gills or on the surface, and frequently change their
host, though each species prefers a certain genus or closely related kinds,
to which it is usually confined. They have a flat rounded carapace,
notched on either side and bluntly projecting in the centre, nearly trans-
parent, and elegantly marked in colors; smooth above and armed below
with spines to attach themselves on the surface of their hosts, to which
they also cling by anterior maxillipeds which are modified into sucking
discs, and by clasping posterior legs or maxillipeds. They can swim freely
_and the males frequently abandon their hosts in the breeding season, as
do also the larger females, at times, as unlike other copopods, the hun-
dreds of eggs are not carried in sacs but are fastened in rows on objects on
the bottom. As their food is the blood of their host, extracted through
the sucking discs, they are destructive parasites which become serious
menaces, especially in the confines of the
aquarium, where they are prevented from
changing to a number of fishes. They
are of frequent occurrence on both pond-
raised and imported goldfishes, usually
easy of detection by their size and shape.

FIG. 100. Argulus catostomt, a Crustacean ‘ i
parasite. Enlarged ventral and dorsal views, and The general American freshwater form is

natural size.

Argulus catostomi, Fig. 100. Other com-
mon Crustacean parasites on the gills and surface of freshwater fishes are
Achtheres lace, A. percarum, Ergasilus funduli, Lerneopoda fontinalis, L.
siscowet, L. coregont, L. pomotidis, Lamproglena pulchella; and Lepeophtheirus
salmonis on Salmon in freshwater.

Insecta or Insect Parasites. This group includes the Lice,
Fleas, and other insect tormentors. As they do not affect fishes and
-amphibia they will not be further mentioned, though many of the aquatic
insects and their larve could be included in this group. They are else-
where mentioned and described.

Protozoa or Protozoan Parasites. This group embraces the
lowest forms of the animal kingdom; organisms possessing but a single
cell or colonies of unicellular beings. They are divided into 4 sections,
4 classes and 21 orders, many of the 38 genera of which are for the most
part entozoal, but some are ectozoal parasites. The sections of interest
to the fish-culturist are the Bacteride, Sporozoa and Infusoria.

BacTerip&. This section of the Protozoa includes orders which
are both saprophytic and parasitic, potent factors in the causation of

153

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

diseases of fishes. They have not received much attention from Bacteri-
ologists and but few have been identified.
Lymphosporidium trutte produces a dis-
ease in aquaria and among domesticated
fishes not yet observed in wild ones from
natural waters. The bacteria, Fig. 101, are
short rodlike micrococci which grow out into
filaments, and infest the gills, blood, muscles,
skin and surface generally. This micrococcus ee Bees ee ge AL 3

is usually present in cases of Autotoxine of 2: Greatly enlarged Blood corpuscles
d and Bacteria.

eq aay

aquarium fishes. Healthy fishes succumb

to the bacteria in a few days when inoculated beneath the skin and after a
longer time by mixing cultures with their food. It is to be hoped that
future investigations will familiarize the fish-culturist with many other of
these bacterial causes of fish diseases, and with methods for their destruc-

tion.
Sporozoa. This section of the Protozoa includes orders which

contain many parasitic genera. The orders of the Cytosporidia are the
Gregarinida, Coccidiida, Hemosporidiida and Gymnosporidiida. The orders
of Myxosporidia are the Phenocystida and Microsporidiida; and in addition
to these are the orders Sarcosporidia, Amabosporidia and Serumsporidia.

GreGARINIDA. Of this order none of the genera have been found
as parasites on freshwater fishes or amphibia.

Coccipirpa.- The freshwater parasites of this order belong to the
genera Rhabdospora and Coccidium. R. thélohani have been found in the
intestines of the perch, the ovarian tissues of the pike-perch, and in the
liver of the stickleback; C. metshinkovi in the intestines of the goby; and
C. gasterostei in the liver of the stickleback. None have been found on
the Cyprinide.

FIG. 102. Myxobolus sp. incert, a Sporo-
zoan parasite of the Goldfish and other Cyprinidz.
Greatly enlarged.
1. Cyst in cuticle and tissues.
2. Cyst containing vacuoles.
3. Ruptured cyst and escaping vacuoles.

FIG. 102a. Head and shoulder of a Goldfish
affected with Myxobolus sp. incert.

/)

Fa

YA

4

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

Myxosporipia. The freshwater fish-parasites of this order belong
to the genera Myxidium, Myxobolus, Henneguya, Nosema and Plistopora.

Myxosporip#&. These Protozoa, Figs. 102,1024,103, 104 and 1044,
are entirely parasitic and in the majority of cases live upon fishes. Dr. R.
R. Gurly listed 102 hosts, fishes and other aquatic fauna, inhabited by them,
either éntysted beneath the skin, on the surface of the head and fins, or in
the gills, mouth, eyes, gullet, air bladder, heart, liver, spleen, stomach, in-
testines and almost every other part of the body. The effect of their presence
is a breaking up of the parts, which undergo a vitreous degeneration, the
growth of tumors and postules and ultimately the death of the host.

FIG. 103. My.xobolus cyprini, a Spora-
xoan parasite, encysted in the Kidneys of a
Carp. 1. Enlarged 2. Natural size of cysts.

Rap seat
P| iy

yeti,
Leal

FIG. 104. Myxobolus ellipsoides, a Sporozoan
parasite. Greatly enlarged.
I 2 1. Cyst in the tissues of the Air-bladder of a
Tench.

2. Psorospores liberated from the cyst, highly
magnified.

They are usually amceba-like microscopic organisms, which reproduce with-
in or without the cyst or tissue cavity with those species which inhabit the
surface; and constantly within the cyst with those which inhabit the cavities
of the hollow organs of their hosts. Mention will only be made of those
Myxosporide of the orders Phenocystida and Microsporidiida common to

FIG. 1044. Dermal cysts of Myxosportdium genys incert, a Sporozoan
parasite, on the skin of a Minnow. 2. Liberated psorospores, highly magnified.

freshwater fishes, batracians and larger crustaceans, the table showing how
many species have been identified and the parts they inhabit. It is seldom
that they have more than one particular host; that of the goldfish, for
instance, being Myxobolus sp. incert, Figs. 102 and 1024, and Table p. 156.

Myxosporide spare no organ or elemental cell and nearly all of them
produce a cachexia, comparable with the cancerous tumors of warm-blooded
animals. ‘They are the cause of violent epidemics among fishes and have
occasioned the deaths of hundreds of tons of food fishes in a very short
time when outbreaks of the contagious diseases caused by them have

155

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

occurred. They are present in all bodies of water and a careful observa-
tion of catches of freshwater fishes will almost always reveal some affected
with the postules or tumors produced by these protozoan parasites.

s 8
vo u —_
© n =] ° a = 5 ee n ! se 2
— fe 2 & © ‘ 4 a= B'S] 2 1 Oo @
3) ~ | n =a vo a oo ve bond fas!
@ Si Seine = 3 a jos 5 S| & Se pet Oy ieee:
apie. o a] 2 fo he, fe => 5 rep Mitel seul Weel ee
o oO Shy) ae) | tet | es Oh ee ior | t= S 6S Oj] gs isk
mat tes sate | | ey beet Syed lost ES|| SPS Realist tt) a sei | a 5 oo
Oo Host >| ule o o = Ae S159 ae)
v a Bf feissonra’ re ° oO Ag; so} | \ice} fe: Sioa Cy i es! re
ome olfelosl lols SI8 5) 2ISFILS fre sleeig | es
a hee pa) 5B Ole o a oO wo Sl a oy) Ss a ei =
2°96 —Q Sa R= a Re tao ne S MH os oO oO
= 1S) ea) = ma P~ na uc Yo re a
5 ala Sy S ee ie £613 Sine ee
— S UO w ia oo =
z seth Serie A je |ala i = EF
1 |Goldfish x x
7 |Carp 52 5.0.44) Is. < x x x
6 |Tench ooh 1.8. x x x
5 | Sunfish Gl Ne. ae x
4 [Stickleback XX XX
4 |Minnow al ex =x
3 | Perch x XX
4 | Pike-perch xx | x x
2°) Pike x x
4 |Chub-sucker | xX |] xX x x
1 |Mullet x
2 |Gudgeon x x
1 | Barbel x
i Eel x
2 |Catfish aOR
2 Frog x x
2 |Toad x Xx
1 | Crayfish cs
I Prawn =
1 |Shrimp x

Inrusorta. This section of the Protozoa includes orders which con-
tain many parasitic genera. The countless host of Infusoria is divided
into 3 classes, 13 orders and 306 genera; of which 286 recognized species
occur in rivers and other freshwater, 76 species in pond water, 15 in marsh
water, 4 in ditch water, 13 in bogs, 17 in standing and stagnant water, and
I in spring water; while 80 species occur on or among aquatic plants, 35
in and on entomostraca, 16 in and on frogs, toads and salamanders, 14 in
molluscs, 5 in and on polyps and sponges, 4 in earthworms and tubifex,
18 in aquatic insects, and 4 are parasitic in and on fishes. These are the
following :—

IcHTHYOPHTHIRID#. These infusoria are probably the most frequent
and general forms of freshwater fish parasites. Small raised white spots de-
velop on the skin, which increase to larger blotches, spread over the sides,
head and fins, until the fish assumes the appearance of being dotted with
white and covered with slime. These extend to the mouth and esophagus
and enter the gills, when the fish wastes away from loss of appetite, difficulty

156

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

in breathing and the sloughing away of the skin. ‘The following are the
recognized most common freshwater species likely to be encountered by
the aquariist.

IcHTHYOPHTHIRIUS MULTIFILIIS. This infusorian, Figs. 105 and 106,
first forms round milky spots on the skin, fins, eyes and gills of freshwater
fishes. A microscope examination will reveal that each spot is caused by

FIG. 105. Ichthyophthirius multifilirs, an
Infusorian parasite. Greatly enlarged.
1. Ciliated spore.
2. Segmentation upon encystment.

3. Adult infusorian.

FIG. 106. Head of a Catfish affected with Ichthyophthirius
miultiplits.

the presence of a ciliated infusorian, the epidermis of the fish forming a
considerable protuberance over the parasite. Sometimes two or three

infusoria inhabit the same cyst, the form of the younger differing from
that of the grown individuals. The fishes soon appear completely ema-
ciated, the skin becomes thickened where the parasite 1s encysted, a scum
forms on the surface and deaths occur in ten days to two weeks.
PANTOTRICHUM LAGENULA (U. /agenula.) This infusorian, Fig. 107,
is parasitic on the skin and in the gills of freshwater fishes and produces
the “Spot-disease”’ or “Pox,” by living in the
pulp cavity of the scales and absorbing their con-
tents, pigment cells, etc., producing colorless
patches on the skin. These spots first appear

FIG. 107. Pantotrichum lagenula, as slimy excrescences, later assume a funguslike
ee eee een appearance, and finally cause the death of the fish
a cre ne by emaciation and destruction of the tissues.
The infusorian has an oval body with a sucking disc and swimming appen-
dage, and the cuticle is covered with very fine evenly-developed cilia.
TRACHELocerRcIDA. Of these infusoria the most frequently occur-
ring freshwater species, is the ciliate Holotricha, H. mystacca, Fig. 108,a more
or less elongated or flask-shaped infusorian, entirely covered with cilia;

with delicate flexible cuticle and the anterior part of the body at times

15)

EEE

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

extended like a porboscis. It is most frequently
observed on fishes kept under unsanitary conditions
or which have become exhausted from fright, trans-
shipment or other disturbing causes.

The following are nearly related forms.

CHROMATOPHAGUS PARASITICUS. On the :
bodies of freshwater fishes, very distinct milky-white ee ee
spots develop, caused by these large infusoria lodg- enlarged.
ing on, or in, the epidermis, which show a distinct rotating motion between

, the epidermic cells, Fig 109. These
parasites are usually single, but some-
times two or three are imbedded close
together. Their shape is variable but
most often oval with the longer diameter
Ue 0.615 mm. and the shorter 0.408 mm.
FIG: 169. Chomatiphapesparnaiess, aninmenan be body as ‘enclosed imjastuumelaets

parasite: Greatly enlarged. cuticle covered with fine cilia, the layer
below finely granular, filled with a large number of contractile vacuoles of
different size. They have a proboscis-like sucking tube. The presence of
these parasites is manifested by the formation of cysts on the surface of
the fishes, which enlarge until the skin and head are covered by funguslike
postules in which the boring infusoria are encysted. Death results from
exhaustion and the ravages produced by the parasites. A similar infusorian
has been found in the blinded eye of a Telescope goldfish.

Tetromitus nitscHEt. This infusorian, Fig. 110, previously re-
cognized as Contia necarix, is supposed to have only the Japanese Fringetai|
goldfish as host, but a very similar species, Bodo necator, is very destructive
to young trout in Europe, and the described form is
probably a Japanese species of the same genus. This
minute organism attaches itself to the surface and under
the scales in vast numbers, often hundreds in a space as
large as the head of a pin. Its presence is manifested by
excessive mucous coating, red spots and ulcers. In the
free-swimming stage it has a flattened appearance with
cilia at one side by means of which it moves through the
water until it comes in contact with its future host.
When not checked this parasite may become so numerous FIG. 110, Tetromitus

; ; nitschei, ( Contia necarix)
as to cause the destruction of all the fishes in an aquarium. an Infusorian parasite.

None of the other mentioned orders of Infusoria OceaTy Serer.
are parasitic on fishes but a considerable number occur with other lower
forms of aquatic fauna.

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

Rotirera ork Parasitic Rotirers. Three genera of Rotifera, 4/-
bertia, Balatro and Dictyophora are parasitic on the freshwater fauna. Some
of the already described forms must not be mistaken for this group, whose
occurrence on the Cyprinidz is not common. Many parasites are design-
ated as ‘‘Rotifers’”’ by the fish-culturists, but belong to much lower orders,
or are larval forms differing in appearance from the adults.

PREVENTION OF Parasitic Diseases. The best preventive measures
against parasites 1n the aquarium are care in not introducing them upon fishes
and plants and guarding against their spreading by constant vigilance. A
careful examination of every newly acquired fish should be made; the
appearance of the surface and gills, the condition of the fins and the
manner in which they are carried, the behavior of the fish and its general
condition noted. Newly acquired fishes should be quarantined at least a
week and aquatic plants inspected and carefully cleaned before either are
put into the aquarium. A microscope examination of anything suspicious
is also advisable. Infected fishes should be placed in the most salubrious
surroundings, with a plentiful plant growth, abundant aeration,and nutritive
food given.

An already mentioned sometimes effective remedy is to place the af-
fected fishes, or any subjected to contagion, in water taken from neglected
out-of-doors tanks which has become very green with alge and other low
forms of plant and animal life. This is worth a trial as beneficial results
often follow; but if the afflicted fishes are not of value, and their disease
does not yield to the remedies before and hereafter mentioned, their destruc-
tion is advised. The most rigorous sanitary regulations are required in
the infected aquaria or tanks, to destroy every trace of parasites.

ParasiticipEs. An absolute means of destroying fish parasites has not
yet been found, though acid and alkaline substances have proven beneficial
and have effected cures. They destroy the free-swimming parasites but
have not been as successful with those burrowing in the skin or in the gills.
Solutions which would destroy these are oftentimes fatal to the fishes prior
to exterminating the parasites. German ichthyological authorities recom-
mend the following remedies, all of which require close attention in their
application:

Two grams of salicylate of soda are to be dissolved in one litre of
warm water and permitted to cool. Two vessels, holding about three
gallons each, are required; one filled with well-aerated water, of the same
temperature as that to which the fish has been accustomed, the other con-
taining 1% gallons of the same water. These should be prepared early
in the morning and the fish introduced into the partly filled one, after
which small even quantities of the solution are to be added at frequent

159

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

intervals until by evening all has been introduced. After about two-thirds
of the solution has been added, careful attention must be given to the fish,
and ifits condition is weak and the indications are that it would be endangered
by a stronger bath, it should be removed to the second vessel, the water of
which has been aerated by frequently dipping out and pouring back. It
is necessary to leave the fishin the solution as long as endurable without
complete exhaustion indicated by excessive restlessness and later by partly
or completely turning on its side. Should the fish not recover at once in
the second vessel, it must be kept in motion by gently stirring the water.

Picric acid has also been found to be beneficial. A one-percent.
solution of this poisonous acid is made in hot water. The fish is placed
in well-aerated water to which small quantities of the solution are added,
until zs to goes part of the acid is present in the water, if the fish can endure
this amount, and then, after a few minutes, water of the same temperature
is added at intervals until a very considerable dilution has taken place, when
the fish should be removed to well-aerated water. This may be repeated
after a few days, the fish to remain in the weakened bath several hours, if
possible. Chlorate of potassium is used in the same manner, but the
amount present in the water should not exceed 1 in 1000. All three of
these remedies are certain to destroy the higher forms of surface parasites,
and usually those encysted on the fish.

American breeders have successfully applied the following remedies,
all of which are to be recommended:—

Permanganate of potassium solutions are powerful disinfectants and
frequently used specifics, but are not always efficient. They produce an
objectionable discoloration of the water and when sufficiently strong to
destroy the parasites cannot be endured by the fishes. The best applica-
tion is by the use of a separate vessel, and covering the mouth and gills
of the fish with a wet cloth agitating the body in a strong solution for a
few minutes, then placing the fish into water to wash off the potassium
before returning it to the hospital jar.

Bichloride of mercury has been found to be beneficial when applied
in the same manner, also a weak solution of formalin; a tablet of the former
in a pint of water and a 10 percent. solution of the latter. Salt is a gener-
ally applied and safe remedy, and should be used as previously mentioned,
a strong solution kept from the gills, and a weaker one by placing the fish
into it for one or more days.

External applications of boracic acid in water have proven effectual
for surface parasites, and should be frequently applied with a brush or a
pledget of cotton. Very satisfactory results have been obtained with a
50 percent. solution of peroxide of hydrogen in water. The fish is grasped

160

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

by the head, to close the operculz and mouth, and the rest of the body
immersed for five seconds, the treatment to be repeated at intervals of one
day. All newly acquired fishes should be so treated before introduction
into an established aquarium. No ill results follow and salutary effects
are certain.

A recent highly recommended remedy is the ANTIGYRODACTYLIN,”
of Paul Nitsche, for the extirpation of surface parasites on fishes, especially
those of the aquarium. The fishes should be well fed about two hours
before treatment and receive no food three hours thereafter. “The treat-
ment is to be applied three succeeding days. ‘The fish is to be taken by
the head and gently passed backward and forward through the Antigyro-
dactylin for 1% to 134 minutes, not longer. Then it should be
placed in a vessel containing well-aerated water, that the parasites may
drop off and sink to the bottom. After five minutes it should be
transferred to a second similar vessel, and then, after expiration of another
five minutes, to a third large shallow-water vessel containing just sufficient
water to enable the fish to swim. This water should be changed daily and
the vessel scoured. It is advisable to have the water of each vessel one or
two degrees colder than the preceding, on account of its effect on the
parasites, as it will aid in their leaving the fish.

If the fishes show indications of exhaustion after the bath, they should
be kept in motion for some time with a light wooden rod.

A litre of Antigyrodactylin is sufficient for the treatment of twenty
fishes. Taken internally it is poisonous, but is harmless externally, even
on wounds and abrasions.

VeceTAL Parasires aNnD Parasitic Diseases. All animal and vege-
table substances are subject to the attack of low forms of vegetal parasites,
and though they are not all necessarily malignant, many of the diseases of
aquatic animals and plants are directly due to the presence of these micro-
organisms, which are saprophytic upon the dead and parasitic upon the
living tissue.

The vegetal parasites found on animal bodies belong to the class of
Cry ptogamia and the orders Alge and Fungi; distinguished from each other
by the presence of chlorophyll or other coloring substances in the former
and their absence in the latter.

Parasitic Atc&. The aquatic forms of this order, or those which
have preserved some essential algal features, found on animals, consist of
single or branching, cylindrical or flattened filaments, which have no method
of fixing themselves but are firmly held by the crossing of their fibres. The
reproductive system consists of round or oval spores enclosed in a case or

*To be obtained of H. Lehmann & Co., Chemists, Berlin.

161

i

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

LL

sporangium. ‘They subsist on the juices of their host. Other forms are
parasitic upon either growing or dead and decaying plants.

Parasitic Func. The aquatic forms of this order, the Phyco-
mycetes, found on animals and plants, consist of densely interwoven
masses of cellular filaments, which terminate in or constitute the rootlike
mycelium, from which hyphe and spore capsules are developed. With
some species there is but a single hypha with reproductive bodies at the
ends, this being the case with the more ordinary forms which affect the
freshwater fauna. As fungi contain no chlorophyll they must take up and
assimulate nutritive substances from other organisms and are therefore
either saprophytic or parasitic. .

The Phycomycetes are separated into five groups or sub-orders: 1, the
Clytridiacee, of which a considerable number of species are parasitic upon
Protozoa, Anguillule, Rotifera, Alge and Saprolegnia; 2, the Aucylistacea,
parasitic upon Conjugate, Chlorophycee and Anguillule; 3, the Monoble-
pharidacee, nearly all saprophytes; 4, the Peronosporacee, of which one
genus, Pythium, has species parasitic on water plants and saprophytic on
organic substances; and 5, the Saprolegniacee, the order of greatest interest
to the fish-culturist, as of all the above, this group and the Peronosporacee
are, to greater or lesser degree, aquatic at some or all stages of their
existence. Most of the Peronosporacee are aquatic only at certain stages
and afterwards become land forms, but the Saprolegniacee are aquatic at all
stages.

SAPROLEGNIACEA. This group of water molds contain both fresh
and saltwater forms, of which the genus Saprolegnia is widely dessemi-
nated in all bodies of freshwater. “he most generally distributed genera
are Saprolegnia, Pythiopsis, Dichtyuchus, Achlya, Aphanomyces, Leptomitus and
Apodachlya, present as saprophytes on dead and decaying aquatic animals
and vegetal substances, and as parasites on all aquatic fauna, including the
spawn and young and mature fishes, whenever the conditions favor their
active development. This occurs on skin abrasions, bruises, wounds, loss of
a scale, or on a torn or congested fin. When fishes are enfeebled and the
mucus coating affected, when they are kept under unsanitary conditions or in
too cold water, these fungi may develop to cover the entire body, first as
a film and later as white or colored blotches on the head and body, in the
mouth and gills, on the fins and on and under the scales, which they
often force out of place; as, when once established upon and into the
living tissue, they ultimately cause its destruction. Investigators have
determined that the Saprolegniacee on fishes can be communicated to
dead insects and those growing on dead insects and other low forms of
aquatic fauna are communicated in their turn to living and healthy fishes.

162

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

The Saprolegniacee have the merit of scavengers in consuming the organic
compounds of dead animal matter and when this source of nutrition is
exhausted it is usually followed by a disappearance of the fungi; but
under favorable conditions some species of this genus become active
parasites on fishes, amphibia, insects and plants, and have caused epidemics
of diseases in rivers and lakes, as well as among fishes in the confines of
the aquarium and breeding tank. |
SapRoLeGnia. Fig. 111. The most common species of this genus
is Saprolegnia ferax a minute vegitative body without stem or leaf,
which may exist as a saprophyte and develop its spores. These drift
about in the water, to immediately under-
go a change in contact with a fitting animal
surface not protected from their ravages.
A rootlike nucleus or rhizoid is formed
from which threadlike hyphe grow, each
bearing a Sporangium or brood-sac filled
with spores,and forminga white cottony felt
over a malignant sore. These ulcers, if
not checked, spread over the surface and
sap the vitality of the victim until death
ensues. This parasitic fungus is one of the

FIG. 11. Saprolegniacee, the most common

Vegetal parasites of Freshwater. commonest and most frequent causes of
Greatly enlarged. 4 5
43 to 45. Saprolegnia ferax. epidemics among fishes. Other more or

46 to 49. Saprolegnia torulosa.

ag a less common species of the eastern section
50. <Achlya apiculata.

51. Achlya eee: - ofthe Wniteds States, ate 0. wxita, 0.
I to 4. yp. @ with spores. 5 : . .

52. Dictyuchus polysporus. monoica, S. torulosa, S.declina, 8. astorophora

53. Leptomerus lacteus, desea S f ,

ee aed and S. ¢rileaseana. Spores of one or more

SE TS forms of these saprophytes are always

present in all freshwater and are therewith introduced into the aquarium.

Pyruiopsis. The most common species of this genus is Pythiopsis
cymosa, a minute vegitative body similar to the foregoing, but with more
slender hyphz; which occurs in stagnant water and is parasitic upon low
forms of vegetal life and saprophytic on organic substances.

Dictryucuus. This fungus produces a skin disease on cold-blooded
animals and lower forms of aquatic life. In appearance it resembles Sap-
rolegnia, but the sporangia are more fusiform. “The most common species
are Dichtyuchus polysporus and D. magnusii; the former.as frequently present
as an animal parasite as S. ferax. Usually they are associated on the
same host.

Acuyta. This fungus is one of the most malignant of the Sap-
rolegniacee. It attacks marine fishes during their freshwater spawning

163

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

migrations. ‘The entire body becomes covered with white gnawing ulcers,
the gills livid, the eyes coated and glazed, and the surface ulcerated so
that the raw flesh may be seen. When the fungus reaches into the
respiratory organs death results. This fungus may be recognized under
the microscope by its stiff and bristly appearance. “The most common
species of this genus is chlya apiculata, a minute vegitative body
having short, stout and stiff hyphae and abundant sporangia upon short
branches. It occurs on dead leaves and similar substances in stillwater:
pools and ditches, in the slime of stagnant water and in rivers and other
natural water courses. Other frequently occurring forms are 4. megosperma,
A. americana, A. oblongata and A. racemosa.

ApHanomyces. ‘This fungus is parasitic on the Alge, principally on
the species Spirogyra and Zygnema, also on some of the Mosses and other
low forms of aquatic plant life. It consists of very slender and delicate
hyphe, forming a fine film over the plant, which it destroys. The sporangia
usually have a prickly appearance. The more common species are
A phonomyces levis, A. phycophilus and A. scaber.

Leprometus. This fungus grows in water containing considerable
organic impurities especially in that to which the waste of factories finds
its way. It may be recognized by the many-branching form of the
hyphe. The more common species of this genus is Leptometus lacteus
a minute felted vegitative body which covers the bottom of streams for con-
siderable distances with a thick white layer. Some of the Leptometez
also occur abundantly in localities where the streams contain starchy refuse
and much decaying vegetal matter. They also flourish on animal remains
and slaughter house refuse in streams, on decaying alge, and in the
slime of stagnant water. ‘There are no reported instances of their having
become parasitic on fishes but always indicate stream pollution.

ApopacHtya. This fungus occurs most frequently upon dead animal
matter in water and no certain conclusions have been reached of its
becoming parasitic on living organisms. It has received some attention
from investigators as it is considered to be the first instance of the
occurrence of sexual organs in these low forms of plants. Three species
have been established, 4podachlya brachynema, A. pyrifera and A. completa.
As they are harmless to fishes they need no further description here.

OTHER Common Forms oF Funct. Penicillium, Aspergillus and
Mucor are also saprophytes which live upon decaying organic matter and
particularly flourish in water containing salts of ammonia. The common
forms are Penicillium glaucum, Eurotium aspergillus glaucus, Mucor mucedo,
M. racemosus and M. circinelloides.

164

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

The large group of Schizomycetes or Yeast fungi are not treated of
here as they do not enter into the subject. |

TREATMENT FoR VeGeETAL Parasites. Fishes affected with parasitic
fungi may be successfully treated and cures effected. When given imme-
diate attention, the spread of the fungi may be checked by salt baths or local
application of strong brine, followed by the peroxide treatment; but when
the ravages are not at once checked they produce fatal results. They
sometimes produce epidemics which cause the deaths of thousands of food
fishes and of entire broods of goldfishes. There is no radical fungicide
which is invariably effective with the fungi. The remedies for animal par-
asites should be applied as usually, a microscope examination only can
determine what form of parasite is present.

PREVENTION OF Funcri 1n Aguaria. Filtration of the water is a
radical prevention of the introduction of and the removal of Fungi in the
aquarium; but the spores may be brought over into the filtered water by
the fishes themselves or on aquatic plants, snails and tadpoles, when
these are introduced in fungused condition, or together with live food
taken from unsanitary localities. Cleanliness in every particular is the
best preventive, together with a frequent careful inspection of both the
fishes and the scavengers, and the isolation of any which may have a
doubtful appearance. Prevention is always easier than acure. Strong and
healthy fishes are seldom attacked by vegetal parasites, but the disease is
sometimes communicated from weakened or bruised fishes introduced into
a previously sanitary and well-established aquarium.

Atca# More or Less Parasitic. The common forms of Alge
which adhere to the aquarium, on the aquatic plants, or suspended in the
water, belong to a number of genera. Those most frequently met with
are the following:

CHLOoROPHYLLACE®. In the clouded water of a stagnant aquarium
two forms of Chlorococcum, one motile and the other at rest, were found
by Dr. H. C. Wood; the younger forms green, the older ones darkish-
brown in color. “Chey were so numerous as to make the water opaque and
stagnant.

Androgynia huntii, forms delicate bright-green fringes on the plants
and glass of the aquarium.

Bulbocheta dumosa, forms small bushy growths on larger Alge, Con-
ferve and other plants in the aquarium.

Tolypothrix distorta, forms microscopic bright-green tufts or balls
adhering to plants in the aquarium and to the glass.

Mastigonema elongatum, forms blackish-green nodules about the size
of a pin head on Brook-moss and Characez.

165

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

Batrachosperms are small gelatinous masses of Algze which attach them-
selves to plants and submerged wood.

Lemanea grow in masses and form a turf-like covering on stones in
water often two inches long. Some of the forms of this genus are present
in all freshwater.

Nostocs ceruleum, N. depressum, N. sparicum and N. lobatus, are Alge
which adhere to aquatic plants and form tiny dark-green, brown and
blackish tufts.

Cylindrospermum minutus, forms filamentous light-green to rusty-brown
intricately felted minute masses on aquatic plants.

Gloiotrichia incrustata, forms tiny clusters of light-green, straight and
stiff filaments bearing round fronds the size of a mustard seed on water
plants.

Rivularia cartilagine, appear as sub-globose, stiff, deep brown or
blackish threadlike filaments, having small semi-globose fronds or cells
containing spores, and attach themselves to aquatic plants.

Scytonema immersus, and S. negelii, form dark green mats on aquatic
plants, and S. dubium, dark masses binding the leaves together.

Other Algze which cause green water and scum on ponds and stagnant
water are Oscillaria, Hydrodictyon, Zygnomacia, Wolfia and Vaucheria.

Diatoms and Dismids are also often present in great numbers. These
serve as food for fishes, and are in part the first food of the alevin and fry,
their silicious casings aiding in the development of the bones.

Conrerv#. The Cladophora are the larger members of this genus,
two of which are common in Eastern waters. hese are C/. fracta and
Cl. brachystelecha. Vhey seldom occur in aquaria, but Scenodesmus polymor-
phus, develops in quiet pools and ditches in such numbers as to make
the water clouded and very green. It consists of short and slender fila-
ments with tiny threadlike branches.

Aquarium fanciers have been led into considering all minute water
plants as Conferve. They are a small group of the large family of Algae,
and mostly of larger size than those which occur in aquaria.

Stime Funcr. When the sides of breeding tanks do not become
coated with alge, two or three species of the Myxogastres or Slime Fungi
are likely to form. ‘These are injurious to the spawn and young fishes
and should be removed.

Pranr Func. A number of injurious fungi on the larger aquatic
and semi-aquatic plants are likely to be encountered by the aquarist. The
more general of these are:-—

Rhizopus necans, affecting lilies introduced from Japan. It lives as
a saprophyte in the soil and becomes a wound parasite, gaining access

166

AILMENTS AND DISEASES

through broken roots or abraded surfaces and rots the bulb. A white
mycelium forms upon which black sporangia stand erect on the short
hyphe. It is very destructive when once introduced.

Sclerotina plorifera. Vhe white pond-lily and kindred species are
subject to this fungus which forms orange-brown and yellow specks on
the stems, leaves and buds, which spreads and causes an unsightly appear-
ance. It also attacks the finer species of exotic and hybrid lilies and is
often communicated to other aquatic plants.

TREATMENT. The affected plants should be submerged for half an
hourina I or 2 percent. solution of salicylic acid and afterwards thoroughly
cleansed, and the affected spots painted with a 5 to 10 percent. salicylic acid
‘solution. Badly diseased bulbs and plants should be at once destroyed by
burning and the others cleaned and repotted.

167

’ a 4.
aa , 7 Tat
'

Kz acts 9 ne) ee
bla 7 R ‘er hSes :
; : S 7 J a 179. 0a
; > : a eA ‘ a s bate Ber = i
Gis ne ey a <
é * am . nd _ 7 a oo BRL ose ae
c i 7 ; ® >» i, = es PO adh 1 : ie
_* % » AGNES ae ea Us a
Pee ot (ey aes ce

9

aT

ali

ae. ee ee ee =
=e |

i 2
i

*.

'

.

7. = -

a
:
~

~~.

ee
°
wn
<

*
‘
'
7
7
_

ie

CHAPTER VIII-

Conditions of Light, Water, Aeration, etc.

_
7
:

4 ae

CONDITIONS OF LIGHT

As elsewhere stated, the best light for the aquarium is either a
northern or northeastern exposure during the summer, and a position
where it may receive a good, unobstructed light during the winter, when a
few hours of the morning sun would be beneficial. A fine growth of plants
is the best indication of favorable conditions, for when the light is excessive
at noon or during the early afternoon, it will not only cause a loss of the
suspended oxygen by a marked increase in the temperature of the water,
but also affect the growth of the plants by a scorching and decay of the
leaves, and arrestment of their growth. oo little light is also detri-
mental because plants require good light to grow.

When the admission of light is principally on the surface of the water,
the conditions are nearest perfect. The plants will grow vigorously and
the animal inmates be the most comfortable. For this reason aquaria
exposed to very strong side light should be provided with a screen for use
during the heated portion of the day. This may be constructed of one
or more thicknesses of violet or greenish tissue paper or cheese cloth,
attached to a light rod, to be hung over the front pane of glass. Window
shades partly lowered or raised from below, or the setting of the aquarium
back from the window are also effective measures.

Wooden tanks only admit light on the surface and should be placed
where they will get the benefit of the morning sunlight or provided with
awnings or other coverings that may be used when the heat of the sun is
excessive. A fine growth of plants with floating leaves 1s the best screen
to arrest the sunlight, and for this purpose lilies and water-poppies are
used.

A little experience will teach the aquariist when the conditions are the
most favorable, and his ingenuity will devise methods of reaching the best
results.

WATER CONDITIONS

The oxygen necessary to sustain the life of fishes is not that which
forms a chemical constituent of water (H,O) but that contained in the air
dissolved or held in suspension in the water. How considerable this is
may be realized by looking through a glass of water heated near the boil-
ing point.

In streams or ponds, aeration is maintained by the action of the wind
on the surface, but in aquaria this condition is absent, and if air is not

171

CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC.

supplied as it is consumed all the living creatures suffer and the water
deteriorates. Fishes transferred to water deficient in or devoid of air are
speedily suffocated; but, as elsewhere stated, goldfishes are naturally of
low vitality and their absorption of oxygen is small, compared with
some other species whose habitat is running water. This is more or less
characteristic of all stillwater fishes, notably the Carp family.

It is not chemically pure water that is required, as this does not exist
in nature. Some saline,carbonaceous,sulphurous and nitrogenous combina-
tions are always present, acquired from the atmosphere or from organic
and inorganic or mineral substances by its absorbing and dissolving prop-
erties. River, brook, pond, spring, well and rain water all have different
chemical composition due to these causes, and the proportion and nature of
the substances present in solution vary with each locality. Rain water
is usually the purest of the natural waters, containing only slight traces
of ammonia, carbonic acid, and some inorganic particles taken from the air.
Pond, brook and river waters usually contain mineral salts, inorganic sub-
stances, and contaminations of vegetal and animal origin. Spring and well
waters usually contain mineral salts and other constituents in varying
quantities and some organic contaminations.

Substances of a purely mineral nature are less injurious in character
than those due to animal and vegetal decomposition, to sewage and to
fungi. The presence of nitrates, nitrites, ammonia, and micro-organisms
always indicate the oxidation and decomposition of organic matter. Inor-
ganic and mineral substances are objectionable only when present in
considerable quantity.

InorGanic SuBsTANCES PREsENT IN Water. The inorganic sub-
stances are usually the sulphates, carbonates and chlorates of calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium; also iron, silica, traces of phosphoric
acid, bromine, iodine and other mineral substances. The presence of
these combinations with the hydrogen and oxygen affects the quality of the
water and causes a change known as Hardness, which may be either tem-
porary or permanent dependent upon the nature of the mineral salts
present. Soft waters are those which contain the least substances in solu-
tion; temporary hardness is mainly due to the presence of the carbonates of
lime and magnesium; and permanent hardness is caused by the sulphates,
nitrates and chlorates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium.

The carbonates of lime and magnesium which cause temporary hard-
ness are soluble only in an excess of carbon dioxide (CO,) and are only
contained in water in which the CO, is present in such quantity as to hold
it in solution as bicarbonate of lime and magnesium, as will be seen by
the formulz:—

CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC,

CaCo; -- H.-CO, Gace, CO, + H, Ca EPG. yi,

( Carbonate ) ( Carbon artociah

of lime PIPE ( Structural formula ) ( Condensed formula )

or MgCO, + H,CO, = MgCO, + CO, + H,O = Mg(HCO,).
aeremee a unoanae

; ( Structural formula ) ( Condensed formula )
The hardness produced by these causes is called temporary because it can
be removed by boiling the water, the bicarbonates being thereby changed
into the original simple carbonates by driving off the carbonic acid gas
and precipitating the carbonates in insoluble form:—

Ca Ee; — CacO.-- H,O.-- CO;

( Bica eee) Carbonate ) ( i ater) Carbon )
of lime ( of lime . ies

,

The sulphates, nitrates and chlorates which cause permanent hardness are
-not affected by boiling and are retained by the water.

Water ANALyses. Some years past the author had occasion to
make a number of analyses of Schuylkill and Croton river waters for
manufacturing purposes, and collected considerable data which is of
interest.

For drinking -and manufacturing purposes the analytical deter-
minations are usually ten in number, and these are, in their respective
order, Total Solids, Mineral matter, Organic and Volatile matter, Organic
Carbon, Ammonia both free and albuminoid, Nitrogen, in any or all
the forms of nitrates and nitrites, combined nitrogen and organic nitro-
gen, Chlorine and Metallic salts; also the amount of Oxygen required to
oxidize the water, usually by the permanganate of potassium color test, the
degree of hardness, and a microscope examination. ‘These are more than
are required for the examination of aquarium water.

It is of interest to note that an analysis of the water of a balanced
aquarium, which had not been changed for eight months, made for Mr.
Mark Samuels by Prof. Leeds, should be of such remarkable purity. As
may be naturally supposed the aquarium water contained the greatest
proportion of solids, mineral matter, chlorine and the highest degree of
hardness, due to easy explained causes. Rain water is the lowest in all of
these constituents, while the very highest are Deep well and Spring waters.
In point of purity as toammonia, the aquarium water is as low as many
of the city supply waters; and as to nitrogen, the proportion of nitrites is
lower than Schuylkill water and the nitrates but two-tenths higher. The
high percentage of chlorine is to be explained by the probable addition of
table salt, from time to time, in the aquarium, and from the animal waste.

All natural waters are chemically impure, though they may be per-
fectly clear and free from suspended particles. They contain substances
in solution, due to water being a natural universal solvent, which more
than any other liquid dissolves and takes up solids, liquids and gaseous

v73

"Ad SJ2(puegd “4° Jold S4aary uospny yi jo siaie A, ayi uo yoday
‘a'Ud ‘spaay ‘uy ‘Vy ‘Jold fAjddng saw Ay erydyapeiyg ay) uo yoday
STOYDIN "UM “JOld SArvjruvg pue jeorurayy ‘Ajddng sae MM

*suostivdwioo ajeipiory 03 ‘10yine ay} Aq apew saourysul

sjanmeg yep Sisienby inajeuy x

auios ur aie (uopes sad sures3) saruenb yo suonvoydnp sy, *aLON
. | |
66'T | LF'0 F0Z'0 | FSP'0 auON LS10°0 6100°0 G6" S6%
|
| .
62°9 | GUELTE | 360 ScL'0 8600 6L00°0 S120'0 6ST GF
FET SFF'O | F020 €&00'0) ¢600°0 ¢800°0; ¥8'S OS'S
G'gr| SZ! OTT SFL 6F'GSL100°0; S100 | SLES"0, 9680 FEZS'0 | S8S'0 000'0; 100°0 9¢60°0
| |
0°93) 36) 8'ST 316° | IT'S 8100 ee 669'0 8886'0 | S6F'O oA G10'0 190°0
FG | ¢F) OT £99°0 | SU'T] 16Z0°0 | GE0'0 | 6FE0'0, ZEO'0 S00'0 | 600°0 G100°0, Z00°0 C680
|
a | |
60 | gO FO 8LF'0 | Z8°0}6200°0 | S10'0 | T2Z0'0, 8F0'0 iL100°0 | £000 89100, 620°0 L0°0
| |
TZL|9Z'EFO'G | SSF'O 88°F FRS'O €Z00°0 9820°0 400°0 GS"¢ 9F'1G
7%) | ow z 0 one 9) a.) ate =D © ~ onlin © “0 OF ire @ “oO 9) ~~ Oe Oe
g lg sles aa Ie eae ee oe fee 2 ee ee ee Be ee eae
> s3\2s © 3 Take OB Sie Oa ao” we 5% fend > e 08 Sa vomt’s 52 96% ee) Qe 5 719 8152 Oa pe ton
Deedee ee eo a ey ie Pe ales| Rie eas ele aes
S| 2 = i | Pa aa as
aa | 2 ert _ | NHDOULIN SHLYULIN |VINOWHNY
ssanauvy | &2 S See aN GANITNOD |SALVULIN] SALINLIN | ANV SALI ato VENA lirass2 1
Ne | 3 SNI DINVDUO AVLOL -IN SV -NINAGTY HANA ton) NOPMVD | WALLY
BO a) 5 | -wot9 5
oe fase, DINVOUO | IVMANIP
SHaAUDAG ) — Duvs10O
=) NHDOULIN VINOWWY

SOSATVUY JOU AA

L8°9 "a'Ud “"197B AA JaAlTy UoOID
Msp22 7 “Wy Jd
82'S “a'Yd “191 ‘1218 M Jeary UOspnH
rpuey yA OJOld
FOOT ‘aud TEESE NC YIN
spa] “UV JOld J9ATY TIATANYIS
GFOT 0282 a SaNR SENSIS STB AAY Butids
FOG | SL'SF ” “IBM 112M doaq
£9°¢ | 19°6 ” Jaye MA aoRjINg purldy
GOT |G6'G |SsIO4IIN FA JVM UTE Y
“YU OM “JOld
13'SZ x A'Yd |(syjuow g) JaIV MA
tspaoT “UV JOld wnienby peourleg
- =
a2 | =
pe | 88
5 n n
a a 8 F}
a YUALVM
LSATVNY JO aounos
SaITOS
IVLOL

CONDITIONS OF LIGHT,’ ETC.

substances. So much is this the case that chemists distinguish substances
as soluble or insoluble in water. Some which are not affected at ordinary
temperatures dissolve in the superheated water of deep-lying strata, as is
noticeable in geyser deposits; while other substances held in suspension
are concentrated by evaporation and rendered insoluble by heat and pre-
cipitated; for instance the deposits in a teakettle or steam boiler.

When there is much vegetal or animal matter present, or when
the hardness is due to salts of magnesia or to sulphate of lime, the water
is not well suited for drinking purposes; and pollutions by the waste
materials of factories and dwellings, by sewage or similar contaminations,
are the cause of certain specific diseases which become epidemic; and inju-
rious micro-organisms belonging to the class of fungi, alga, bacteria and
the large class of Schizomycetes, when present in drinking water, are the
direct cause of typhoid and typhus fevers, diphtheria, dysentery and numer-
ous other stomach and bowel complaints. To destroy these, thorough
aeration is better than filtration, as most of the disease organisms are so small
that mechanical filters will not remove them and their spores. Boiling is
the best sterilization.

Any good drinking water is all that is required for the aquarium,
though soft water is natural to the Carp family. Gradual changes in tem-
perature also do not affect fishes if not too long sustained or excessive; but
for those which naturally inhabit cold water streams, attention must not
only be given to the character of the water but also to the required tem-
perature, and what may be either excessively warm or cold avoided.

A constant danger in the aquarium is the fouling of the water by
the decomposition of dead animals. This is indicated by a local cloudi-
ness, a greasy surface, a foul odor, and later by the behavior of the fishes,
and is followed by the death of all the inmates and the decay of the plants
if the cause is not removed. ‘This is more often due to dead scavengers
than fishes.

Brook and river water abundantly contain the spores of alg, which
are beneficial in clearing the water and furnish food for the inmates, but
if these are excessive or objectionable, the water should be filtered or spring
water used which has been left standing to acquire oxygen and so assume
the character of stillwater.

In a healthy aquarium the water must be clear and colorless though
a faintly yellow or green tint is not objectionable, the one due to the
decomposition of chlorophyll, the other to the presence of alge. Com-
parison of condition is best made by taking a glassful and comparing it
with a similar glassful of the water of a well-conditioned aquarium or with
filtered water.

CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC.

The odor of the water is also a means of determining its condition, as
when this is strong, vitiation has advanced to a dangerous degree, and to
keep the inmates alive it is not only necessary to entirely refill the aquarium
but it should be cleaned, the plants reset, and after a few days the water
again changed. Experienced aquariists can tell the condition of the water
by its taste.

When the conditions are good there is no need of changing the water
for long periods, as filling in what has evaporated is sufficient, or remov-
ing a part of the lower depth and adding a little fresh water, from time to
time, especially when the weather has became warmer.

The aquarium should have a considerable change of water, more than
half, when hot weather sets in, and it may be advisable to change part of
the water occasionally, say once a month, if not perfectly clear. The new
water also brings into the aquarium some of the mineral salts necessary
for the plants and animals, which may become exhausted by long standing.
Culturists of the food fishes recognize the benefit of occasionally turbid
water, as the precipitation of the particles of soil act as a disinfectant, and
the mineral substances are required by the fishes to digest their food. In
ponds and streams, rainstorms will supply this requirement, but at the
beginning of the feeding period of the alevin, breeders of the trout and
other food fishes make the water of indoor hatching basins thoroughly
turbid twice a day by pouring into it a mixture of water and rich sod soil,
after which the young fishes take their food with particular readiness.
The breeder of the goldfish supplies the required mineral constituents by
placing dishes of turf in the rearing tanks, which is especially necessary to
furnish soil artificially in wooden tanks and cement basins, as otherwise
the health and growth of the fishes will be impaired. Muddy water is a
favorable remedy for some of the illnesses of goldfishes and is frequently
used. A small piece of plaster of paris is also beneficial, as it furnishes
lime to the animal inmates.

Dr. W. Koch demonstrated that the addition of like quantities of
nitrate of ammonia and biphosphate of potassium with a minute quantity
of iron to calciferous wellwater, in which a number of water plants were
placed, soon produced very green and turbid water rich in plant life
consisting principally of alge, voucheria and wolfha, when kept at a
temperature of 50° to 54° F. ‘This admixture produced conditions favor-
able to the development of the ever present spores of these low plant
forms, which are beneficial to the animals in the aquarium,

When much animal life is present in proportion to the size of the
aquarium and the plant growth is insufficient, frequent changes of water
are necessary. In overstocked aquaria this must be done daily, but

176

CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC.

such conditions should be avoided. Frequent aeration will then also be
necessary as the vitiating carbonaceous constituents combine with oxygen
and form CQO,, the form in which the plants can best assimulate it, but
which in excess is fatal to animal life. Oxygen is one of the best anticep-
tics and for this reason some of the water should be dipped out and slowly
poured back into the aquarium that it may absorb air.

If the plants do not develop new shoots and leaves at all seasons,
something is wrong with the water, if the light is sufficient but not excess-
ive. When the roots are affected, indicated by their black appearance,
the ease with which the plants are uprooted and the unsatisfactory general
appearance of the leaves, the aquarium should be cleaned and refilled with
-clean water.

One very important consideration for success is the condition of the
water when the fishes are transferred from an out-of-door to an aquarium
existence. At this time many of the mishaps occur, and at no other period
are the fishes more likely to contract fungus diseases. It is always better
to fill the aquarium with the water in which the fishes have been kept, when
this is in good condition, as they will not then be subjected to differences in
temperature and composition of the water, will continue in the same con-
ditions to which they have been accustomed, and not subjected to sudden
changes, as they will be acclimated to household conditions in water
which will gradually assume the temperature of the room. Experienced
aquariists always employ this method of transfer.

AERATION

All animals require oxygen to maintain their existence, and have
organs by which it is brought into the blood. In breathing, a part of
this oxygen is taken from the air, distributed to every part of the organ-
ism and consumed in the functions of life. In exhalation and surface
expulsion CQO, or carbonic acid gas is given off, for which reason the
air becomes poorer in oxygen and richer in carbon with every breath, as
every 100 parts of inhaled air contains 20 parts of oxygen and approxi-
mately .04 parts of carbon, and the exhaled air 16 parts of oxygen and
4.38 parts of carbonic acid gas. This would indicate a consumption of
one-fifth of the oxygen and an addition of one hundred times as much
carbonic acid gas. Hence a constant breathing of normally constituted air
is necessary or suffocation wil] result, not only from the consumption and
consequent lack of oxygen but also from the poisonous eftect of the ex-
haled carbonic acid gas.

Nature, however, has provided for the maintenance of an equilibrium
by the breathing of plants which require the carbonic acid gas exhaled by

177

CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, irc:

animals, taking up the carbon and liberating the purified oxygen. What
occurs in the air also takes place in the water, though it contains less free
or suspended oxygen, an average of only 2 to 3 percent, and considerably
more suspended carbonic acid gas. The animals consume oxygen, give
off carbonic acid gas, and the plants consume carbonic acid gas and liber-
ate oxygen. Therefore, unless oxygen is added to the water, either by
plants or furnished by aeration, animal life must cease. In the properly
established aquarium the plant life should be in excess, and only as much
animal life present as will exist comfortably under the conditions. But as
plants are only active in producing this interchange when growing, and as
their growth is entirely dependent upon sufficient light, when this is not
abundantly obtained artificial aeration is necessary or a frequent change of
water required, surface aeration alone being insufficient.

There are many methods of furnishing air to the aquarium or larger
tank. he following have been given thorough trial and have proven
satisfactory when arranged that the air enters in minute bubbles for ready
absorption by the water. Good results may be had by either direct ad-
mission of the air, or by means of a stream of water under the pressure of
a considerable elevation, through a very finely perforated nozzle fixed
close to the surface of the water on the opposite side to the overflow
pipe, so that the force of the water carries with it a large amount of
minutely divided air. This also permits of warming or cooling the water
supply by coiling the pipe in a water-tight chamber, if desired, and may
be installed on a larger or smaller scale to suit the requirements.

Direct aeration, without the necessity of the overflow pipe, is ar-
ranged by the use of a pressure tank and bicycle pump, placed at any
convenient location, and the compressed air admitted into the aquarium by
a small block tin pipe buried under the pebbles. Several petcocks are
necessary to hold the pressure and to check the amount of flow, and tiny
pin holes blocked with pieces of porous wood will best serve to admit the
air in the required minute bubbles. When properly installed, a pressure
of 35 pounds in an air chamber 28 inches high and 12 inches in diameter,
produced in three minutes by a bicycle foot-pump, will furnish a 50 gallon
aquarium with air for two or three days. This system of aeration is in
successful use with a number of aquariists in Philadelphia. Care must
however be taken not to over-oxygenate the water. |

The simplest fountain device, when the aquarium is placed at a
window and is as broad as the opening, is the following. A block tin pipe
may be led under the bottom of the aquarium through the base and
screened by rockwork. This should have a small stopcock at the end
and a rubber hose to connect with a water can outside the window or

178

CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC.

screened by the window curtains; and arranged on a cord and pulley for
raising to the desired height. If the pipe is closed to a very small open-
ing above the water level, five gallons of water should be sufficient to cause
a fine fountain play for probably an hour. ‘The overflow may be carried
out of the aquarium in the corner, and a half-inch rubber tube through
the trim of the window would lead it outside, or it may be collected in a
vessel under the aquarium. This device was successfully used in swamp-
aquaria.

Many other ingenious aerating devices have been produced, but the
simplest and most efficient are those here given.

SOIL FOR AQUATIC PLANTS

Experts in the maintenance of the freshwater aquarium favor the use
of soil in shallow pots under the pebbles into which to root the aquatic plants,
the result being always satisfactory. For this purpose clean turf, directly
from under the roots of lawn grass, is the best, not garden earth or potting
soil. Aquatic plants rooted in turf grow with vigor and there is less like-
lihood of its fermenting or decomposing, to cause disturbances in the
aquarium, as may be the case with the rich potting soil, when used in con-
siderable quantity. For plants required as oxygenators, the turf may be
used in pots, but for those with floating leaves in out-of-door tanks a
richer compost is necessary, as both the lilies and water-poppies are rank
feeders and require a large quantity of rich soil, frequently renewed. ‘The
compost prepared by gardeners for this use consists of turf and some well-
rotted cow manure, a little ground bone and about a quart each of pond soil
and clean sand, the whole to about fill a bushel measure. This should be
packed about the roots of the lilies and poppies, covered with clean turf and
a thin layer of pebbles and set into pails of water for a few days, that it

may “‘

set’ and expel the generating gases before introduction into the
tanks. Water-poppies, water-clover and the potamogetons will thrive in
the aquarium in turf, but experience has taught the aquartist that Sagittaria
natans and Anacharis canadensis gigantea, the best oxygenators, will grow
more vigorously when set directly into the pebbles and sand; for when
the roots do not have much nutrition they serve principally to anchor the
plants and consume the humus. The leaf blades will perform the func-
tions of roots, grow more rapidly and assume a finer pale-green color.
The plants are less likely to develop blossomsand seeds and will not as soon
exhaust themselves or deteriorate, the propagation of Sagittaria then being
by rhizomes or offshoots, the desired “runners” of the aquariist. It 1s
also advisable to remove their floating floral leaves and the flower stalk, as
the plants usually die after ripening the seeds.

179

CONDITIONS OF LIGHT, ETC.

ROCKWORK FOR THE AQUARIUM

Picturesque effects in the aquarium may be produced by the introduc-
tion of rockwork and other natural objects. Pomice adapts itself well for
this purpose and is easily worked. Odd pieces fastened together to form
a grotto or rockery may have the surfaces hollowed out to contain soil
and sand in which plants may be grown, or form a screen behind which
brackets for small flower pots may be constructed. ‘Tuftstone is also to
be recommended, as very handsome odd pieces may be obtained and nat-
ural effects produced by their tasteful arrangement. Selinite or gypsum
nay be introduced, as it is not only handsome in appearance but dissolv-
ing slowly in the water, it furnishes lime, necessary to the molluscs and
other animal life. Small pieces of plaster of paris will also serve for this
purpose. Mica schist, quartz, feldspar, agate, rock crystals and other
minerals are effective, or water-worn stones to which aquatic plants are
attached may be introduced, but all other objects not natural to a water
garden are in questionable taste. All objects should be clean, and soaked
for some time in water before they are put into the aquarium.

180

(OJ EVIE (5) DG

The Aquatic Plants of Freshwater

-

SS ee

—_ aA -

ee

a2

7

*“< 7 Pe
ae he: 7 a: ay
ie ae ; Me ree
‘al - YY ee i faa
: “- : ie 4
f - an coed ve :
Ald
‘ 2
; a
i _
7 4
Birr (8

AQUATIC PLANTS

A number of generally procurable aquatic plants thrive at all seasons
under the unnatural conditions of the household aquarium, and not only
add to its beauty by their graceful forms and fine colors but also fulfill the
imperative requirement of properly aerating or oxygenating the water,
whereby supplying to the animal inmates the air necessary to their exist-
ence. These plants are sought by the aquaruist, and, as they belong to
different genera, they,will be described not in their botanical order but in
the order in which they most effectually serve these purposes. Those
which grow rapidly and for the greater part of the year have their foliage
submerged, taking the required carbon and nitrogen from the soil and
water, also liberate the greatest amount of oxygen to remain in available
form in the water. Experiment has proven that the ribbon-leaved
Sagittarias are in every way the best aquarium plants, with Cabomba
Giant Anacharis and Vallisneria next following, all hardy and easily pro-
pagated; while in further order of their utility, satisfactory growth and
endurance are Myriophyllum, Nitella and Anacharis; Ludwigia, Cerato-
phyllum, Hippuris, Fontinalis and Potamogeton; Callitriche, Utricularia,
Proserpinaca, Heterenia and Hottonia; and finally the Lilies, Water-
poppies and other aquatic and semi-aquatic plants either not entirely sub-
merged or floating.

The orders to which the aquarium plants belong are:—Sagittaria to
the Alismacee; Cabomba to the Nympheacez; Vallisneria to the Vallis-
neriaceae; Myriophyllum to the Halorrhagidacee; Ludwigia to the
Onagracee; Nitella and Chara to the Characee; Anacharis to the Vallis-
neriacee; Ceratophyllum to the Ceratophyllacee; Hippuris to the
Halorrhagidacee; Fontinalis to the Musci; Potamogeton to the
Naiadacee; Callitriche to the Callitrichacee; Utricularia to the Lentibu-
lace; Proserpinaca to the Halorrhagidacee, and Heterania and Hottonia
to the Primulacee.

It may be noted that when it is the habit of an aquatic plant to carry
part of its foliage above the surface of the water, better results will be ob-
tained by rooting it in soil instead of in the sand or pebbles and covering
the surface with a layer of pebbles; for, though many will thrive either
rooted in the pebbles or floating unattached, as they derive nearly all of
their nourishment from the water, when set in shallow dishes with soil
they are more likely to root, thrive and develop satisfactorily in the
aquarium.

183

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

SAGITTARIA

A small genus of very variable plants of which the number of species
differs with different authorities, and, though there are quite 100 specific
names, Micheli has reduced them to 13 species, 4 of which are doubtful.
They are widely distributed in temperate and torrid regions, and in shallow
water are effective foliage plants, most of which have the arrewshaped
leaves from which the name is derived, with small buttercuplike flowers in
successive whorls on an erect
scape. They are perennials of
easy culture, many propagating
both by runners and seeds, grow
on the muddy bottoms of shallow
streams, ponds and lakes, raising
their leaves above the water. In
the beds of rapid streams, when
exposed to a vigorous current,
the leaf blades are almost entirely
changed to the form of a spade,
and not infrequently all traces of
lamina are absent and the leaf is
lengthened to form a limp, flat,
pale-green ribbon much resem-
bling Vallisneria. This is
characteristic of S.natans, S. pusilla
and S. sinensis or S. gigantea,
which are grown in aquaria and
sucessfully in shaded ponds in
summer.

Sagittaria natans (Mul.) or
Floating or Ribbon Arrowhead,
Hig, “112; 1S a Variety of 3.
pusilla and is the best of all
aquarium plants, generally to be
had of dealers in aquatics, who
propagate it in tanks and aquaria.
It originates in a tuft on the
bottom of the water and spreads
by runners usually in the direc-

tion of the strongest light. The Fic, 112
clear-green linear leaves are Floating Arrowhead, a

: : Sagittaria natans, with rhizoid, blossom, fruit, details of leaf
nerved their entire length and and a floral leaf. Reduced one-third.

184

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

exhibit clearly veined and distinctly outlined cellular structure, grow
to and float immediately below or on the surface of the water, and
in midsummer develop lanceolate emersed and floating floral leaves
resembling those of other species of the Arrowheads. The small, incon-
spicious white flowers have three petals with yellow centres and are devel-
oped in 2 to 4 whorls about a long floating scape. These extend above
the surface until the flowers are fertilized, but the fruit ripens on or below
the surface of the water. 8. mafans is an exotic which may be obtained
from dealers and is in such constant demand that its extensive propagation
would be a profitable industry. In replanting it is advisable to take off
the partly decaying outer leaves that the younger growth may become
_more active.

Sagittaria pusilla ( Nutt.) or Slender or Subulate Arrowhead is similar to
S. natans but a more slender-leaved plant, sometimes but a few inches high,
with narrow linear submerged and lanceolate floating leaves, and the flowers
in one whorl 1% to 34 inches across, with broad filaments. Grows from
New York to Alabama along the coast line and may be had of dealers.

Sagittaria sagittefolia (Linn.), (var. 8. floreplena,) or Long-beaked
Arrowhead isa slender species with double flowers. This is a very varia-
ble form and many species have been referred to it, among them S.
sinensis (Sims.) and S. gigantea (Hort.), the cultivated broad-leaved or
giant aquarium sagittaria, and also the semi-aquatic Arrowhead, known to
florists as S. chinensis. S. sagittafolia develops the sagittate leaves above
the water in the flowering season and grows in swamps and streams in New
Jersey and Pennsylvania to Alabama. 8S. simensis is native south of the
Carolinas on the Atlantic slope, and is also propagated in tanks and aquaria.
S. mulerttii is probably a hybrid of S. watans and S. sinensis. These
Sagittarias are generally to be had of dealers.

Sagittaria gramine (Michx.) or Grass-leaved Arrowhead is an erect
glabrous and simple-leaved plant rarely over 2 feet high, with flat broadly-
linear or lance-elliptical and pointed leaves which are purplish in the Spring.
The small flowers are white and in 2 or 3 whorls. Grows in shallow water
from Newfoundland to Ontario and South Dakota, and south to Florida
ana) exas:

Sagittaria latifolia (S. variabilis,) (Willd.) or Common American
Arrowhead is variable in stature and shape of leaves,and may be only a few
inches or 3 feet in height. The leaves are mostly sagittate with long basal
lobes, but run to very narrow forms. ‘The flowers are clear white with
slender filaments. Common everywhere in ponds and lakes and may be
had of dealers. Will thrive in the aquarium.

185

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

Sagittaria lancifolia (Linn.) or Lance-leaved Arrowhead is an erect
and slender plant with the scape sometimes 4 to 5 feet high. The leaves
are variable and may be lanceolate or narrow oblong, nerved with a thick
midrib, and the flowers white in several whorls. Native in the United
States from Delaware to the tropics.

Sagittaria montevidensis (Cham. and Schlecht) or Giant Arrowhead is
a very large plant which may grow to 6 feet in height with leaf blades 1
to 2 feet long and 3 to § inches across. It is native to South America but
has been naturalized in the southern part of the United States on both the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It will grow in pots and thrives fairly well in the
house. May be had of dealers. Quite generally used in Aqua-terraria.

For aquarium culture Sagittaria should be planted in bunches or
clusters of three to five plants with the lower tufts deeply set directly
into the sand or pebbles, so that the runners will remain covered.
The younger plants will be the most likely to thrive in transplanting, as the
older leaves usually die down in the fall and winter season, and sometimes
after transplanting, but the tufts continually develop new foliage. Those
species of Sagittaria which bear linear leaves and remain submerged the
greater part of the year are preferable for the house aquarium; those which
grow above the surface are handsome foliage plants rather than efficient
oxygenators.

CABOMBA

Of the aquarium plants those most generally obtainable are the
Cabombas, the botanical name taken by Linneus from the aboriginal
Guianese, but popularly known as the Watershield, Fanwort, Fish Grass,
Washington Grass, etc. It is a genus of three species, native to the
warmer parts of America, all of similar habit, rooting in the mud and sand
of streams, ponds and lakes, and having slender branching stems which
grow to a length of several feet. It is a submerged plant except in mid-
summer, when the flowers are borne above the water accompanied by the
floating floral leaves. The submerged fanshaped leaves aré finely dissected,
opposite or sometimes verticillated, and the floral leaves small and entire.
The tiny flowers are white and yellow, and the fruit enclosed in a prickly
pod or casing.

Cabomba caroliniana (Gray.) C. viridifolia (Hort.) or Carolina Water- ~
shield, Fig. 113, is the species most usually to be obtained of dealers and
is largely grown for the aquarium purposes in Maryland, District of

186

eee eee ee ee ee en ————————————————

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

eee ee eee ee eee ee ————EEEEoo—————————————===

Columbia and North Carolina. It is a
submerged creeping plant which developes
rootlets on the lower part of the weak and
flexible stems, having the bright-green
submerged leaves opposite in pairs, finely
dissected and fanlike in appearance, with
small entire oblong-linear emersed leaves
which appear when the plant blossoms.
The small flowers are white with two
yellow spots at the base of each of the 4 to
6 petals and with 4 to 6 stamens and 3 or
4 persistent sepals. The fruit is enclosed
in a prickly pod with one seed in each
cavity.

Cambomba rosefolia (Hort.) or Red-
Stalked Watershield is a species similar to
C. caroliniana but of a darker green color
on the upper surface of the submerged
leaves and the under surface a delicate
Ny) pinkish-red. The stems are purplish-red
Ar Vidz and the flowers yellow with white stamens.

—S It is a beautiful aquarium plant which re-

FEY Ns tains its fine colors only in plentiful direct

(C= wr
ss sunlight, and is not as hardy as the first-

FIG. 113. Fanwort, Cabumba caroliniana,
floral leaves, blossoms and fruit.
Reduced one-third.

named species, thriving best when set into
soil covered with pebbles.

Cabomba aquatica (Aubl.) or Tropical Watershield is a native tropical
American species which has been introduced into the United States. It
is of pale yellowish-green color, delicate and of handsome growth, as the
fanshaped leaves are fuller and more spread and the joints closer to each
other than in the other species. The floating floral leaves are nearly
orbicular and the flowers yellow with pink stamens.

In the aquarium Cabomba will sometimes root but thrives as well
when the stems are cleared of leaves a little distance at the ends and set
into the sand or pebbles. Propagation is usually by pinching off pieces
which will soon grow to considerable length, as at the joints along the
stem rootlets will be projected which floating in the water sustain the
plant. All the Cabombas are excellent oxygenators, and thrive in the
household aquarium. They are offered by dealers bound in bundles with
block-tin fastenings which serve as a weight to retain the plant in a natural
upright position in the water, but it is advisable to separate them, planting

187

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

in smaller groups of two or three stalks, to prevent sloughing-off at the
constricted binding.

VALLISNERIA

This aquatic plant, found in freshwater all over the world, is an
excellent aquarium aerator, belonging to the order of Vallisneriacee,
named for Vallisneri, the Italian naturalist, and is a genus of but one
universally distributed species, the Vallisneria spiralis, Kel or Tape-Grass,
also known as Wild Celery, due to its imparting a celerylike flavor to wild
fowl.

Vallisneria spiralis (Linn.) Fig. 114, 1s a hardy plant with linear or
strap-shaped five-nerved leaves of the same breadth their entire length
and 1 to 6 feet long, dependent upon the depth of water, arranged in
fascicles at the end of the creeping stems
and attached to the mud or sand by root-
fibres. In the axils of these leaves, buds
are produced which constitute the starting
points not only of new shoots growing
parrallel to the bottom and developing
foliage buds at the extremities, but of
others which grow upward. Shoots are
also developed terminating in a kind of
bladder composed of two concave bracts
overlapping each other, within which the
flowers are enclosed. Of the individual
plants some develop pistillate or female
flowers only and others staminate or male
flowers, both small and inconspicuous.
The female flowers develop on very long
spiral scapes and split when the stigmas
have reached the pollen-receiving stage and
the flowers are thrust above the water.

The male flowers are borne on short stalks
near the bottom; which, when fully de-
veloped, break away from their stalks, rise
to the surface, and as they float about
convey the pollen to the female flowers
and so fertilize them; after which the long
flower stalks twist themselves into tight
spirals and draw the flowers below the

‘ r FIG. 114. Eel Grass, Vallisneria spiralis.
surface, there to ripen the fruit. Male and female plants. | Reduced one-half.

188

AQUATIC. PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

In the natural state Vallisneria usually dies down to the tuft in the
cold winter season, but in the aquarium it may thrive the entire year
and is a very graceful and ornamental plant and an excellent oxygenator.
[t may be distinguished from the ribbon Sagittarias by the narrower and
more uniform width of the leaves, their usually rounder and more blunt
tips, their thinner, more distinctly nerved and veined appearance and the
more sharply defined midribs; also the distinct close nerves at both edges
of the leaf and the absence of the cellular structure, which is very marked
in the leaves of Sagittaria. In the aquarium it should be planted deeply
and the runners kept well under the pebbles or sand. The young spring
growth is most likely to survive and become acclimated to household
conditions.

A cultivated variety, /. spiralis gigantea (Hort.) recently developed,
has % inch broad and 1 to 3 feet long leaves. It grows better in aquarium
conditions than the common native form, and may be had of florists
who propagate aquatic plants.

MYRIOPHYLLUM AND PROSERPINACA

These aquatic plants are of the same family, the former very hardy
and common to most ponds and still water in the United States, and two
species of the latter native in eastern North America. The botanical
designation of Myriophyllum is from the Greek and means ten-thousand-
leaved, the common English names being Water-milfoil or Spikewort.
It is a genus containing 15 to 20 species found from the frigid zone to
the tropics, of which the three forms hereafter described may be found in
water courses or procured of dealers, but any of those mentioned may be
introduced into the aquarium. It is a fairly good oxygenator but does
not always keep in full foliage indoors. All have pinnate submerged
leaves finely divided into threadlike segments, in whorls about a weak
stem, and entire or serrate floral leaves. The species indigenous to the
United States and to North America are:—M. spicatum, Spiked Water-mil-
foil; M. verticillatum, Whorled Water-milfoil; M. alternifolia, Loose-
flowered Water-milfoil; M@. tenel/lum, Slender Water-milfoil; M. Aumile,
Low Water-milfoil; MM. heterophyllum, Various-leaved Water-milfoil; M.
pinnatum, Pinnate Water-milfoil; and M. farwellii, Farwell’s Water-milfoil;
with the so-called Proserpinaca or Parrot’s Feather as an additional species
of the same genus.

Myriophyllum spicatum (Linn.) or Spiked Water-milfoil, Fig. 115, is
the most generally distributed, and native from Newfoundland, Manitoba
and the Northwestern Territory to Florida on the Atlantic slope, and
Iowa, Utah and California. The submerged leaves are finely dissected
into capillary divisions and grow in whorls of 4’s and 5’s; the small floral
leaves ovate, entire or serrate, usually shorter than the flowers. The flowers

189

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

are small and white, and the carpels rounded
on the back with a deep and wide groove
between; also thin, smooth and sometimes

y slightly rugose.
Myriophyllum verticillatum (Linn.) or
Whorled Water-milfoil has the submerged
Gass S leaves in more dense and crowded whorls of
Ks ‘ ee 3’s and 4’s, the capillary divisions very long
HEN and slender, usually finer than the above.

The pectinate floral leaves are much longer
than the purplish staminate flowers which
have 8 stamens. May be found in both
deep and shallow water from Quebec to
Florida; west to Minnesota and in California.
Myriophyllum alternifolia (Gray) or
Loose-flowered Water-milfoil has the sub-
merged leaves in whorls of 3 to § or occasion-
E Ny \| = ally scattered; with finely pinnate capillary
Sage, DSA
FALE WSR
: 4ANx aS

ESA \ several on a branching stem. The floral

divisions and the spikes short, numerous or

leaves are ovate-linear, entire or minutely

toothed and smaller than the 4-petaled,
‘ staminate pale rose-colored flowerets, with

8 stamens, and the carpels rounded on the

back and deeply grooved. Found in Canada

FIG. 115 Spiked Water-milfoil, and the northern United States border and
Myriophyllum spicatum,whorled leaf, flower
stalk and blossom. Reduced one-half. | may be had of dealers.

Myriophyllum nitschei (Moenk) or Full-branching Water-milfoil, is a
recently developed German aquarium variety having many-branched stems
and beautiful long and slender leaves. It is named for the German fish-
culturist, Nitsche and was developed by him from M. verticillatum. The
slender leaf filaments are from 1% to 3 inches long.

As previously stated, Myriophyllum will thrive in the aquarium but
does not grow entirely satisfactory as it loses its fine appearance. The stems
often become denuded of leaves, the plant assumes a dusky appearance
and the younger growth is irregular and straggling. Its principal use is
in the spawning of goldfishes and is introduced into the spawning-beds in
loose bunches bound at the lower ends with metallic strips. For this pur-
pose it is the best and most easily handled aquatic plant, though goldfishes
sometimes prefer the roots of the Water Hyacinth for spawning.

Proserpinaca. This species is known botanically as Myriophyllum
proserpinacoides, meaning forward creeping, and popularly as Parrot’s feather

190

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

or Chilian Water-milfoil, Fig. 116.
and emersed leaves are alike and
grow in whorls of 4’s and §’s about
a Creeping stem. Ihe minute
white auxillary and pistillate flowers
have 4 stamens and develop 4 car-
pels. Small hairlike white bracts
are borne at the base of the leaves
and among the flowers. The finely
pinnate, brilliantly green leaves and
their graceful habit in growing
above the water has made this a
very desirable plant, but it is an
indifferent oxygenator, as the sub-
merged leaves soon slough off and
the rapidly growing plant sends its
green crown of leaves 4 to 6 inches
above the surface of the water.

The pectinate-pinnatifid submerged

FIG. 116. Parrot’s feather, Myriophyllum proserpina-
coides. Emersed leaves. Reduced one-fourth.

SS Qwoss=_ 7
SSS >

FIG. 117. Mermaid-weed, Proserpinaca

palustris.

Reduced one-third.

The emersed leaves fold together at
sundown to again open after sunrise.
It is a beautiful semi-aquatic plant, and
is extensively grown in watertight hang-
ing baskets or jars where the fine single
stems hang over the sides in handsome
festoons.

In addition to the above described
form there are two species of true
Proserpinaca found in the United States,
viz, P. palustris and P. pectinata, gener-
ally distributed in the Southern States.

Proserpinaca palustris (Linn.) or
Common Mermaid-weed, Fig. 117, 1s
not an indigenous plant but is now
native to swamps from New Brunswick
to Lake Huron and south to Florida,
Iowa, Cuba and Central America. It
is an aquatic herb with single stem and
alternate dentate leaves about a weak
stem. The perfect flowers are stigmatic
above the middle with 3 or 4 styles,
and the bony fruit has one seed in each

1g!

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

cavity. It is half-hardy plant introduced from Chili, of most delicate
vivid green foliage composed of finely cut leaves. Flowers in July
and August.

Proserpinaca pectinata (Lamm.) and P. pectinacea (T. and G.) or
Cut-leaved Mermaid-weed may be found in sandy swamps near the coast
from Massachusetts to Florida and west of Louisiana. Flowers June to
September. Somewhat similar to the above. As will be seen by the
illustration, these plants differ in appearance with Parrot’s feather, the so-
called Proserpinaca of the aquarium. They are tender-leaved plants and
do not usually survive in household aquaria.

LUDWIGIA

Of the so-called Swamp Loosestrife, named for the German naturalist
Ludwig, there are about 25 aquatic or semi-aquatic species native to warm
and temperate regions and abundant in the United States and North
America; the most generally distributed being the
following, of which the popular names indicate
the character; and also several introduced species
extensively cultivated for the aquarium. They
are beautiful foliage plants of most attractive
colorings. Those most generally to be obtained
are:—Isnardia palustris or Ludwigia palustris,
Marsh purslain or False Loosestrife; L. polycarpa,
Many-leaved Ludwigia; L. spherocarpa, Globe-
fruited Ludwigia; L. glandulosa, Cylindric-fruited
Ludwigia; L. /inearis, Linear-leaved Ludwigia;
L. alternefolia, Alternate-leaved Ludwigia; L.
Airtella, Hairy Ludwigia; L. alta, Wing-stemmed
Ludwigia, and several Ludwigianthas and Isnar-
dias, kindred species of similar habit and character;
all fairly good oxygenators for aquarium and
aqua-terrarium culture.

Ludwigia palustris (Linn.) or Marsh Purslain,
Fig. 118,is a recumbent or floating aquatic, rooting
in the mud of ditches and swamps, having opposite
spatulate leaves, acute at the apex and narrowed
into a slender petiole or stem; with axillary

FIG. 118. Marsh Purslain,
Ludwigia palustris: Reduced one-

oc flowers having bractlets at the base of the calyx, .
triangular lobes and reddish petals. The branching and erect stems are
of purplish-red color and the submerged leaves a golden-red and pale-
green, and the emersed leaves a lustrous dark-green, all having distinct

192

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

red midribs and nerves. Grows abundantly in ditches, streams and ponds
in the entire eastern and western sections of the United States. Flowers
June to November.

Ludwigia glandulosa (Linn.) or Cylindric-fruited Ludwigia, Fig. 119,
has larger, more acutely spatulate leaves than the foregoing, and is a very
abundant form in still water along the Atlantic coast line. The seed car-
pels are either ovate or round in form. It 1s known to aquariists as Wild
Ludwigia, and the sometimes crisped leaves somewhat resemble the
cultivated L. mulerttii.

Ludwigia mulerttit, or Mulertt’s Ludwigia, Fig. 120, is said to be a
South American species, introduced as an aquarium plant by Mr. Hugo
Mulertt. The leaves are more lance-oblong than ZL. palustris and the

ees, ne

FIG. 119. Cylindric-fruited Ludwiga, FIG. 120. Mulertt’s Ludwigia, Ludwigia

Ludwigia glandulosa. Reduced miulerttii. Reduced one third.
one-third,

brilliant coloring more permanent. ‘The flowers are yellow. This plant
has become widely distributed among growers of aquatic plants and is
highly prized for its fine appearance and graceful habit in the aquarium.
It is easily propagated from cuttings.

Ludwigia alternifolia (Linn.) or Alternate-leaved Ludwigia, is an erect
semi-aquatic shrub and a fine foliage plant which grows to a height of 2.to

193

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

3 feet and bears yellow flowers '% to 34 inch across, and alternate lance-
olate entire or finely toothed leaves. Native to bogs in the Eastern and
Middle States.

Ludwigia grows luxuriantly in ponds and basins and survives in the
aquarium. It should be planted in shallow pots with sod soil or pond
mud covered with pebbles. Its fine foliage and handsome colors make it
a most desirable aquarium plant.

NITELLA AND CHARA

These dainty aquatics, belong to the order of the Characez and are
popularly known as Stoneworts. They are good oxygenators and beautiful
aquarium plants but the more delicate of them should not be grown in the
rearing tanks, as the young fishes may become Mh
entangled in their dense growth of hairlike stems Uy) : ff
and leaves. The generally distributed species Mit iE Y
are:—Nitella flexilis, N. gracilis, N. tenutissima, ie yh? ws

enn 58 ApS y at
Chara coronata, C. gymnopus and C. crinita. | a, ul

Fo hll|| /Aae we ly 4
Fig. | ody vi j | Ve Ws.
Nitella flexilis (Ag.) or Flexible-Nitella grows i WEL! | ae

Es
to a length of 20 to 30 inches in deep water and ‘\ } W
has a very slender erect and flexible stem with Y
heavy and long threadlike node-bearing leaflets
either single or divided into two abruptly pointed
segments. The spores or fruitlets are formed in
the middle of the branching leaves. Common in
streams and still water.

Nitella gracilis (Sm.) or Slender Nitella,
Fig. 122, 1s more hairlike than the above with the
nodes more widely separated and the leaflets some-
what shorter. The spores are formed in the axils
of the branching leaves. Usually to be found in
ponds and streams. Morris Pond and Schuylkill
River. A desirable aquarium plant.

Nitella tenuissima (Desv.) or Clustered
Nitella has very slender 2 to 6 inch long spar-
ingly branched stems and leaves in close verticils,

- hens : FIG, 121. Characee.
three or four times divided, with the first segment Reduced one-third,

. Chara coronata.

the longer. Native in New York, New Jersey, | Nitella flewiiee
. Chara gymnopus.

Rhode Island and Michigan. LE eae

I
2
3
: ~ é zs
Chara coronata (Ziz.) or Crowned Chara, is a 5. Nitella tenuissima.
6. Nitella gracilis.
R

large Ceratophyllum-like aquatic, growing to 18

educed one-third.

194

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

and 20 inches in length, having a tufted stem from a single root. The
jointed capillary leaves are often 11% to 2 inches long and form in whorls
of 8 to 11. Quite common throughout America
on a sandy soil in shallow ponds and streams.
This plant is sometimes mistaken for Cerato-
phyllum, but does not form the thick branch-
ing clusters of the latter plant.

Chara gymnopus (A. Br.) or Elegant Chara
is a slender hairy-stemmed plant growing to a
length of 2 feet in deep water and having the
verticils of many-celled capillary leaves sur-
rounded by a whorl of stipules. Each leaf
usually bears three spores. This beautiful
species is not uncommon, new localities coming
constantly into notice.

Chara crinita (Wallr.) or Crumpled Chara
somewhat resembles NV. tenuissima and has
rigid and erect stems and densely clustered,
fascicled hairlike leaves. The tiny spores form
in the axils of the leaves. Usually grows to
a height of 6 to 12 inches. It occurs more
usually in brackish water in the Eastern States,

notably in Massachusetts and New York.
ae Sen ree Nitella gracilis is a fine aquarium plant but
Reduced: ane.chird: thrives so abundantly that it forms dense
masses impenetrable to fishes and snails. When introduced, it should
be kept down by frequently removing the excess growth. It is a good
oxygenator, as are all the vigorously growing submerged aquatics. The
Charas do not grow as well in the aquarium as the Nitellas.

No other aquatics so plainly show the activity of plants in liberating
oxygen as this group, particularly Nitella) When the growth is dense in
strong sunlight, the oxygen bubbles form on the stems and leaves like
suspended clusters of tiny pearls or slender strings of transparent glass
beads; and when undisturbed, the plants appear as though hung with
jewels. It has been observed that the Paradise-fish seems to prefer this
oxygen to breathing the air and will occupy itself for hours in taking them
into the mouth for gill absorption.

Together with the Nitellas, Conferve and other large Alge are
usually introduced into the aquarium, the principal of these being the so-
called Frog-spittle, Nostocs and Zygneme, hereafter more fully described.
These seem rather to be associated with the Characee than parasitic, and

EOS

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

will develop even after the larger plants have been cleaned before intro-
duction into the aquarium. ‘The dense growth probably acts as a shelter
for these film-like alga or more secure anchors for their development.

ANACHARIS

This mosslike aquatic plant is variously known to botanists as
Anacharis, Philotria or Elodea and commonly as Waterweed, Ditchmoss,
Water Thyme, Water Pest and in the British Isles as Babington’s Curse.
There are 4 or 5 very similar American species ;

M 'v 7 NEA
which bloom from May to August, but are also an (i =
propagated by a plentiful production of off- (NOS iI SSA ai,

TY hse, bases
} \K S ‘ ‘ i\\|

shoots which, attached or separate, rooted or
floating, grow with amazing rapidity inany ditch,
stream or pond throughout the United States
and North America except the extreme north.
It is a slender wholly submerged plant with
fragile jointed and branching stem, 4 inches to
3 feet long, dependent upon the depth of water,
so weak that it mats together and decays when
the water is withdrawn. The male and female
flowers are borne on separate plants. The pistil-
late flowers are raised to the surface by their long .
calyx tubes and the minute staminate flowers
break off and rise to the surface to shed their
pollen. The fruit ripens below the surface of
the water. The plant also forms heavy buds
in the Fall, which drop to the bottom and
develop in the following Spring. It is a verit-
able pest, as it chokes up canals and waterways.

A nacharis canadensis ( Mich.) 4. alsinastrum
=" 3 2 FIG. 123. Ditchmoss or Anacharis,
(Bab.), Fig. 123, 1s the: species most-generally WW izspai canara, ee fernet ne
to be found and-has a weak jointed stem with 7 "> ae
the leaves in whorls of 4’s to 8’s or the lower leaves opposite, linear and
minutely toothed. The white pistillate flowers develop on calyx tubes
from 2 to 12 inches long.

The Common Anacharis 4. canadensis, Fig. 123, thrives fairly well in
the aquarium, is a good oxygenator, but is so weak and fragile that it will
easily break into sections. It should be planted in the sand or pebbles in
groups of 4 to 10 stalks. Freshwater fishes and goldfishes feed upon the
leaves and in the aquarium frequently entirely destroy the plant. When ~
found in cold water streams the plants are more robust and the leaves

196

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

broader, fuller and more pointed than those of quiet or stagnant water,
which probably caused it to be considered a different species. It is a
very pretty aquarium plant but dificult to maintain in satisfactory condi-
tion, except with such fishes as will not molest it,

Anacharis canadensis gigantea or Elodea canadensis gigantea ( Hort.)
Fig. 124, is a cultivated species derived from 4. canadensis, the most gen-
erally distributed native form. It has a thick jointed stem and leaves
1 to 1% inches long, in
whorls of 4 to 8, with a

MN
SAS DY» dense cluster of the long
ARI) WALL ZZYZS slender leaves at the ends
oA f WANS == =

/ : \\\ SSrecs of the stalks. It usually
COS grows without much branch-

ing. In general appearance
it considerably resembles
Hippuris and is an attrac-
tive aquarium plant which
grows to a length of 3 to 4
feet below and on the sur-
face of the water. Its color
is a delicate greyish-green,
the younger growth usually
a bright green, sometimes
marked with white. Less
fragile than 4. canadensis,
it is a good oxygenator, of
most rapid growth, which
thrives with or without
roots, set directly in the

FIG. 124 Giant Anacharis, Anacharis canandensis gigantea, Hort. pebbles or sand or in small
Reduced one-third, : :
pots with soil. May be
had of dealers in aquatic plants. In small aquaria, intended for the pro-
pagation of aquarium snails, it is preferable to most of the other aquatic
plants. Together with Cabomba it is easiest to be obtained, and is a most
satisfactory plant for the novice in aquarium study.

CERATOPHYLLUM

This generally distributed aquatic weed, commonly known as Horn-
wort, is free-suspended in every stage of development and is shifted in
position by every current, though the submerged species of this genus
mostly occur in slow streams and still water. Absorption is carried on by

197

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

the epidermal cells of the foliage leaves and not by roots, though the lower
leaves may assume a rootlike character. The Hornworts have weak and
slender widely-branching and floating stems with verticulate leaves, which
appear in thick clusters on the younger growth and branches. It is not a
desirable aquarium plant as it is too fragile and requires careful attention,
may decay in a brief period, contaminate the water, and cause the death
of the fishes. Several species have been proposed, based on the spurs,
spines or wings of the fruit but none of these distinctions are of value.
Ceratophyllum demersum (Gray), or Common Hornwort, Fig. 125,
has long or short slender submerged floating stems, dependent upon the
depth of the water, as it is characteristic of the plant to form thick mats
immediately below the surface. The linear
2 to 3 times divided and forked leaves grow : \\

fragile stem. The flowers are insignificant, ny wi i mC 4
Nit )

in \ ‘ne
wh iS \ i iN
i WA | \p i Li) My ty

Tank Want i

in verticils of 5’s to 12’s on a weak and aM

either white or yellowish in color, of which the
male and female are distinct. The former

consists of about 15 sessile anthers and the
latter of a small one-seeded ovary, but both
surrounded by a whorl of very small bracts,
while the fruit is oval with either a straight
and spinelike beak, smooth or with a basal
spur, or tubercular with narrow winglike spiny
lower margin. Grows freely 1n ponds and
slow streams throughout North America
except in the extreme North. European

NRE

oa . : pes, Ss
VAN SS
authoritie nti wo r : ,
uthorities mention t other species, C WG
submersum and C. platyacanthum, not gener- ANA
ally known in the United States. They are ERY
probably natural variants of C. demursum the TK WT
. . . . eA VA
universally distributed species. SZ
F Z Wi SWF
Podostemon ceratophyllum (Linn.) 1s ) \ Sy
‘ x NY OZ,
another aquatic bearing the name Cerato- SINS WZ
. - a7 aS yy 7
phyllum. It is popularly known as River Hf SK

Weed or Threadfoot, and is a dark green

rather stiff plant, firmly attached to the praelene an ene
stones in funning streams, The densely, 8= = Se
tufted leaves are narrowly linear and sheathed at the base, but split above
into filiform segments. It resembles C. demersum but is coarser and
rougher in appearance. The white flowers are 34 to % inch broad,
spreading from the spathes; and the oblong-oval capsules are borne ona

198

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

scape of about their own length, with recurved stigmas. Only one species
is known in the United States, which occurs in shallow streams from
Massachusetts to Northern New York, Ontario and Minnesota to Georgia,
Alabama and Kentucky. Flowers July and August.

A few stalks of Ceratophyllum make a fine appearance in the aquarium,
as the growth there developed is more delicate, brighter green and finer in
appearance than that of the ditch, pond or stream.

HIPPURIS

This genus consists of a small group of aquatic herbs with simple
erect stems and verticillate entire leaves, small axillary flowers and a one-
celled, one-seeded fruit. There are three known species native to north
temperate and lower arctic regions and southern
South America.

Hippuris vulgaris (Linn.) or Bottle Brush,
Joint-weed, Mare’s tail, etc., Fig 126, has a slender
stem and linear or lanceolate acute leaves in crowned
whorls or verticils. The flowers have stamens with
a short thick filament, comparatively large two-
celled anthers and ovoid seeds hollow in the interior.
The plant is native to swamps and bogs in Labrador
and Greenland to Alaska; south to Maine along the
shore of Lake Superior, in the Rocky Mountains to
New Mexico and along the Pacific Coast.

Hippuris tetraphyllum (Linn.) H. maritema
(Hell.)or Four-leaved Mare’s tail, is a smaller species
with obovate or oblanceolate entire leaves in verticils
of 4’s and 6’s at the base of the stem. Native to
Labrador and Canada to the United States border
and in Alaska.

Hippuris has the character of Amacharis cana-

) eres densis, but is larger, stiffer and more erect, growing

[2 to 15) inches above the water. It largely takes
Hippuris vulgaris, and enlarged the place of Anacharis in northern waters and was

AX
TPAS

~

FIG. 126. Mare’s Tail,

fruit. Reduced one-half. : z -
introduced into the Middle States by aquarium

fanciers in 1898, but has recently been superseded by 4. canadensis gigantea.

FONTINALIS

This genus of aquatic moss contains a quite considerable number of
universally distributed freshwater species, two or three of which thrive in the
aquarium. Ten species are recognized as native to the United States and

199

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

of these F. antipyrotica, F. gigantea and F. gracilis are most easily obtained
and best serve for aquarium purposes. The young foliage has a fine green
color but changes to a dusky brown with age. A few sprigs, attached to
the stone upon which they grew or in soil may be introduced if the
aquarium is exposed to a good light.

Fontinalis antipyretica (Linn.) or Willowmoss, Watermoss, Fig. 127’,
has broad ovate and acuminate entire sharply plicate leaves with the
borders reflexed on the side towards the base, in two or three rows, more
or less imbricated and sharply keeled.
The bracts are also closely imbricated
and the capsules ovate-oblong with a
conical lid and bright coral-red per-
istome or cap. The plant adheres
to rocks, submerged wood and stones
in rivers and cold-water streams, and
flowers in summer. Its name is in
allusion to the use for which it is often
applied, that of filling in between
chimneys and walls to exclude the air
and prevent the spread of fire. It is
a fairly good oxygenator.

Fontinalis gracilis (Schp.) Fig.
1277 is a generally distributed species
very much more slender and mosslike
than the above, with divided stems
considerably denuded of leaves at the
base. The tiny leaves are narrow and
often split to the keel, the carpels
smaller and usually contracted below
the mouth. Common to most ponds,

rivers and often rapid streams, some- FIG. 127. Willowmoss. 1. Fontinalis antipyratica
. E % with enlarged leaf and fruit carpel. 2, Fontinalis
times associated with the above. gracilis, Reduced one-third.

Fontinalis gigantea (Sull.) is a very robust Willowmoss, less branched
than the above with wide leaves, less acute or curved at the base, of a
coppery brown color, having small capsules and less perfect peristomes.
Found attached to stones and stumps by the side of the water, but less
generally distributed than the two above species, and in more southern
latitudes.

There are a number of other varieties of the Watermosses which are
more rare and not so often met with. Their purpose in the aquarium 1s
more for their singular and interesting appearance than special utility.

200

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

POTAMOGETON

About 40 species and sub-species of Potamogeton, also known as
Channel, Pond or Riverweed, the latter from the Greek significance of
the botanical name, are native of North America. They are all weedy
plants which attach themselves to the bottom of ponds, shallow lakes,
streams and canals and grow so luxuriantly as to choke the waterways.
They are also known as Stink-grass on account of the rank fetid odor of
the plant when exposed to the sun on the banks or shore. In many of
the species there are two kinds of leaves, the narrow submerged and the
broader floating leaves, which surround the small green flowers consisting
of 4 stamens and usually 4 one-ovuled ovaries. The fruit is a small nut-
let containing a coiled or hooked embrio. Four species have come into
slight notice in American water gardens.

Potamogeton crispus (Linn.) or Curled-leaved Pondweed, Fig. 128, has
a dark green stem and beautiful dark olive-green, two-ranked serrulate
and crisped linear leaves with a compound midrib and the outer nerves
near the margins. The ovoid fruit has a small embrio with its apex
pointed directly towards the base, and the peduncle or stem recurved on
the fruit. It occurs generally in fresh, brackish
and salt water from Massachusetts to Pennsyl-
vania and in Virginia, and flowers in August.

Potamogeton lanceolata (Linn.) or Spear-
leaved Channelweed or Pondweed, Fig. 128, is
generally distributed in all running and stagnant
waters, forming thick almost impenetrable mats
that obstruct the streams; and, as it is one
of the fragile species, it often occasions the stop-
page of turbines and water-wheels, especially in
the late fall when it sheds its foliage. In this
species the winter buds may be readily recognized.
The flowers appear in July and August and
consist of a cluster of tiny green pedals about a
thick scape and the fruit is a hard nutlet with
one or sometimes two grooves on the back; the
embrio forming a spiral of one and a half turns.
Native in almost all parts of the United States
and North America.

Potamogeton natans (Linn.) or Common
FIG. 128. Curled-leaved Pond- Spade-leaved Floating Channelweed or Pondweed,
weed, Potamogeton crispus; and

Spear-leaved Pondweed, Poramoge- Fig, 129, has long and almost leafless stems with

ton lanceolata, with winter bud. :
Reduced, one-third: short narrow pointed submerged leaves, rounded

201

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

at the base, and larger simple sparingly branched ovate floating leaves.
The peduncles of the fruit are as thick as the stems and the nutlets are
hard, pitted and with two groves on the back; the embrio forming an in-
complete circlet with its apex pointed to the base. Native in canals and
streams throughout North America, and flowers in July and August.
Potamogeton densus (Linn.) or Close or Broad-leaved Pondweed, Fig.
129, has single or branching stems, broad olive-green submerged and float-
ing leaves fitted closely to the stem
and overlaying each other, having
sharply defined midribs. The fruit
is obvoid rounded and indistinctly
three-keeled and the embrio re-
curved or spiral. This is a EKuro-
pean species which has become
naturalized in the United States.
Other frequently occurring
species are:—P. fluitans or Long-
leaved Pondweed; P. heterophyllum
or Varied-leaved Pondweed; P.
perfoliatum or Perfoliate (clasping-
leaved) Pondweed; P. compressus
or Flat-stalked Pondweed; P.

pectinatus or Fennel-leaved Pond- yy

Ve

weed; P. /ucens or Shining-leaved ee ea W7 Y
Pondweed; and P. gramine or Ky |
Grass-leaved Pondweed.

The Potamogetons are easily
grown in basins and ponds and
may thrive in the Aquarium, P.
densus and P. perfoliatum being
especially desirable, the handsome
deep olive-green leaves of the

FIG. 129. Floating Pondweed, Potamogeton natans with
former and the clear pea-green blossom; and Broad-leaved Pondweed, Potamogeton densus.
: Reduced one-third.

leaves of the latter forming a fine
contrast with other aquarium plants. They should be planted in soil or
pond mud in shallow pots covered with pebbles in the corners of the
aquarium. They are mainly propagated by cuttings, and in nature by
rhizomes and the peculiar winter buds which remain dormant in cold
weather and form new plants in the spring. Botanists are at variance in
naming two species of this plant; some designating C. crispus as C. lanceolata

and others classing the shorter-leaved of the latter species C. crispus and

202

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

assigning the long-leaved varieties of C. /anceolata with less crinkled leaves
to C. gramine. ‘This is not essential to the aquariist. The author illus-
trates the species as he recognizes them. It is a variable genus some-
times difficult of identification.

WATERCRESSES

The Family of Roripa or Watercresses contain about 25 species,
most abundant in the North temperate zone, of which eleven are native to
North America. Of these the species generally distributed in the East-
ern and Middle States are:—

Roripa palustris (Linn.) Nasturtium terrestre(A. Br.)or Marsh or Yellow
Watercress, an erect, branching, glabrous plant having the lower leaves
petioled and the upper leaves nearly sessile, with yellow flowers and
linear-oblong fruit pods. Flowers May to August. Found in swampy
localities throughout entire North America, except the extreme north.

Roripa sylvestris (Linn.) N. sylvestris (A. Br.) or Creeping Yellow
Watercress has a creeping stem rooting at the nodules, with ascending
branches, pinnately divided and toothed leaves and yellow flowers. Found
in low ground and wet places from Massachusetts to Virginia and Ohio.

Roripa nasturtium (Linn.) N. officinale (A. Br.)or Watercress, Fountain-
cress, the edible Watercress, has branched floating and creeping stems
rooting from the nodules, with odd-pinnate, ovate leaves, and white flowers,
and may be found in almost every coldwater brook of North America.
Many cultivated varieties have been produced from this species.

Another species is Roripa hispida, or Bristly Yellow Watercress which
is more seldom met with. It grows on the borders of sluggish streams
and ponds.

Of these, Fountaincress and the creeping Yellow Watercress thrive
fairly well submerged in the aquarium and all the species make ornate
plants for the aqua-terrarium.

Closely related to the cresses is another very desirable plant which
thrives in the aquarium, the generally introduced Moneywort.

Lysimachia nummularia (Linn.) or Moneywort, Creeping Loosestrife,
also known as Creeping Jenny and Herb-twopence, is a border plant that
overhangs the water and develops roots which take their sustenance
from the water. It has a glabrous, creeping stem, rooting at the nodules,
with opposite, broadly ovate leaves, obtuse at both ends and solitary yellow
flowers. This plant thrives satisfactorily in the aquarium, either rooted in
soil or in pebbles; and may be found in moist and wet places from New-
foundland to New Jersey, west to Indiana; and to be had of florists. It
is a fairly good oxygenator and a fine foliage plant in the aquarium where

203

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

it has taken the place of Watercress. It should be introduced in loose
bunches as it requires strong light to grow submerged and makes a good
screen for the fishes. The dark-green, almost circular leaves with their
straight stalks strive to reach the surface and give a vigorous thriving
appearance to the plant, in fine contrast with the languid appearance of
the usual aquatic plants in the aquarium.

CALLITRICHE

The Water Starwort family contains a number ot
herbaceous aquatic and semi-aquatic species, with
slender stems, opposite spatulate leaves and minute
axillary flowers, of which the following are native
American species :— Callitriche verna or C. palustris,
Vernal or Spring Water-Starwort, Water Fennel; Fig.
130, C. difda, Autumnal or Northern Water-star-
wort; C. heterophyllum, Larger Water-starwort and
C. austenii, Terrestial Water-starwort. They are
pond or basin plants but generally will not thrive in the
aquarium.

Callitriche verna(Lindl.)is probably the hardiest, from
the aquariist’s point of view, and is the most common and
generally distributed species in cold or running water
throughout the United States and Canada. It grows in
the mud with elongated one-nerved spatulate submerged
leaves and most peculiar floating leaves; which, though a
moderate distance from each other are arranged to form
a rosette, as the stalks of the lower leaves are longer than
those near the apex and bring the floating leaves into
clusters of 4’s, 6’s and 8’s. The small axillary flowers reach
above the surface of the water and bloom from July to
September. Native or wherever introduced, it spreads
so rapidly as to become a nuisance, and should not be
used in lily-ponds. Water Starwort is introduced into the
FIG. 130. Spring Water- aquarium in small bunches, but either so or floating on

starwort, Ca/latriche verna.

Reduced one-third. the surface is eagerly eaten by goldfishes.

UTRICULARIA

The Bladderworts are divided into aquatic and marsh species, floating
free or rooted in the mud. The aquatic species have finely divided leaves
covered with minute bladders, the marsh species rootlets under ground
and bladder-bearing leaves. There are about 150 widely distributed

204

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

J

NS

Ss
Si

cat
LA

ae
| os
hey

9
wy
ae

DY

J

———
Shee

“|

Te

p
” 9
. &

N
pr

FIG. 131, Greater Bladderwort,

Utricularia vulgaris; and Lesser

Bladderwort, Utricula ia minor.
Reduced one-third.

gins of ponds in New Jersey and New York, Massa-
chusetts and Rhode Island to Illinois, south to

Louisiana and Texas.

species of which 14 occur generally in the United
States and 3 only in the Southern States.

Utricularia vulgaris (Linn.) or Greater Blad-
derwort, Hooded Water-milfoil, Pop Weed, etc.
Fig 131, occurs in ponds and brooks throughout
nearly the whole of North America. The deli-
cate 2 to 3 pinnately divided and much crowded
floating leaves have numerous bladders, racemose
yellow flowers and long recurved fruit. Flowers
June to August and also propagates by winter
buds.

Utricularia minor (Linn.) or Lesser Bladder-
wort, Fig. 131, occurs in bogs and shallow ponds
from Greenland, Labrador and British Columbia
south to New Jersey, Arkansas, Utah and Cali-
fornia. The floating leaves are
short, much scattered, with
fewer divisions andnotas many
bladders borne among the
leaves. The flowers are pale
yellow and the fruit has the
peduncle reflexed. Flowers
June to September in different
altitudes.

Utricularia biffora ( Lam.)
or T'wo-flowered Bladderwort,
Fig. 132, occurs on the mar-

The leaves are finely divided

with few divisions and are copiously provided with blad-
ders. The flowers are yellow. Blossoms during warm
weather, later in the season the farther north it occurs.

Other generally distributed species are U. gibba,
Humped Bladderwort; U. intermedia, Flat-leaved
Bladderwort; U. clandestina, Hidden“fruited Bladder-
wort; U. purpurea, Purple Bladderwort; and U. subulata,
Tiny or Zigzag Bladderwort.

The Bladderworts are beautiful floating aquarium
plants which thrive satisfactorily indoors. Any_of the
three described species, and occasionally some of the

205

FIG. 132, Two-flowered

Bladderwort, Utricularia

biffora.

Reduced one-third.

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

others, are generally to be had and may be planted with the lower ends
embedded in the sand or pebbles or loosely floating on the surface of the
water. They require a strong light and grow very rapidly. Goldfishes
destroy them but with, Paradise fishes or for snail culture, they form hand-
some aquatic gardens.

A peculiar characteristic of the Bladderworts is that they are aquatic
insectivorous plants. The bladders are provided with a valvelike trap on
their lower sides and when filled with water also probably contain secre-
tions which attract infusoria and small crustaceans, who upon entering are
entrapped and absorbed by the plant. Of some species it is reported
that they will capture the tiny fry of fishes, though in these latitudes there
is no species with bladders sufficiently large to serve this purpose.

HOTTONIA

This pretty marsh herb is commonly known as Featherfoil, Water-
feather, Water or Marsh-violet and Water-yarrow. Two species are
native to North America.

Hottonia inflata (Ell.) or Water-feather having an entirely submerged
spongy close cluster of thick and soft stems with pinnate crowded leaves
in verticils and clustered at the ends and joints of the stems. An interest-
ing pond plant but does not usually survive in the aquarium.

H. palustris (Ell.) the second species is more rarely met with, but in
Europe is considerably cultivated as an aquarium plant.

FRESHWATER ALG

The Algz constitute one of the grand divisions of the Cryptogams
or flowerless plants, embracing the sea weeds and lower water plants,
the Fucas, Ulva and Conferve. The most of the Fuca and Ulva are
marine forms; but in counterdistinction to Alge in general, the Conferve
are an extensive section of the order of Alge, consisting of slender, often
scum-like vegetation, the best known being the so-called ““Frog-spittle.”’
The simpler forms of Alge, the Nostocee, consist only of a cell wall con-
taining a colored protoplasmic substance; but in the higher forms the cells
are combined into a tissue, and the forms which they assume are more varied
than in any other class of plants. Some appear as strings or linear masses,
globules, laminz, etc. In others, the Fucacez, a distinct stem, branches,
leaflike structures and rhizoids or rootlike structures are formed, but these
have none of the characteristics of true plants and consist entirely of
cellular tissue. .

Each season of the year, every climate, every moist spot, has its species
of Alge. Some may be found in healthy condition frozen into an icicle

206

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

or in the heated water of a boiling spring. They are the last vestige of
life in the region of perpetual snow or in the heated basin of the geyser.
The numerous forms are to be found in every stagnant pool and ditch,
rivulets,'springs and in all other bodies of water. In pools and ponds the
most conspicuous forms are Oscillatorie and Zygnemacix; the former
forming dense floating or attached slimy strata, having fine rays extending
from the mass, of dark green, purplish or bluish-black color. The
Zygneme are bright green filamentous masses, usually entangled among
the water plants, twigs, etc. When in fruit they become dingy, yellowish,
or dirty looking. Late in the season Rivulareee and Nostocs are often
met with. These adhere to larger plants and floating matter and form
fine fringes around the stems and edges of the leaves, or little green and
brownish globules and small protuberances. Of the river Algz, the
Desmids are abundant in the spring and summer months, adhering to
rocks and water plants; and Chetophora, Scytonema and Palmela are also
numerous, often free but sometimes attached to objects in the water.

Diatoms are also classed in the family of Algz and consist of minute
silicious organisms which were formerly considered as belonging to the
lowest forms of animal life. They are a higher form of Algz and obtain
firmness by depositions of silica. Another class, the Acetabularie, deposit
carbonate of lime.

The mentioned Algex and Conferve are those with which the aquariist
becomes familiar, the group being too complex in classification for further
description in a work of this character. The common small aquarium
species are mentioned elsewhere as they have more or less parasitic character.

Alge have many useful purposes in the aquarium, as they forma
screen on the glass to intense light, serve as a natural food for both the
fishes and the scavengers, and have beneficial medicinal properties to fishes.
When the growth is of a clear green color and not so thick as to be un-
sightly, it may be left undisturbed on the glass or removed only from the
side through which the contents are viewed;. but when the growth, both
on the glass and in the water, assumes a brown color, it is indicative of
a dead and decaying condition and it is advisable to thoroughly clean the
aquarium and refill with fresh water, as the appearance of the alge isa
good indication of the water conditions. Excessive growth on the plants
is injurious and they should be cleaned to prevent suffocation or the
affected leaves removed, but usually the fishes and scavengers, when not
overfed, keep them sufficiently clean. It is for this purpose that gold-
fishes are kept in tanks with aquatic plants by florists, to keep down both
objectional plant and injurious insect life.

Should the growth become so excessive as to destroy the lower leaves

207

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

of the plant, they should be removed, the aquarium cleaned and new plants
introduced; though this may only occur in large tanks or basins. Ex-
cessive growth of some of the larger varieties, especially the Conferve, may
also form such compact masses and mats that even large fishes become en-
tangled and may die of suffocation. ‘These larger alge and conferve are
best removed with tweezers, the hand, or by entangling the growth about
a stick. Aquatic plants taken directly from the pond, especially Myrio-
phyllum and Nitella, are the usual sources of introducing these objection-
able alge. The microscopic green alge are sometimes present in aquaria
in such numbers as to obscure the contents; often the decomposition ot
their chlorophyll makes the water brown. A small quantity of a solution
of permanganate of potassium in water diluted to a claret color and then
added to the aquarium water, will cause their entire disappearance without
injury to the animal life.

FLOATING WATER PLANTS

Some of the native and tropical floating plants may be introduced
into the aquarium with very pleasing effect. Of these the native species
are Duckweed, Floating Pondmoss, and Crystalwort, and the more com-
monly known tropical species, Salvinia, Trianea, Frog-bit, Water Lettuce,

and the Water Hyacinth.
DUCKWEED

Lemnas or Duckweeds, Fig. 133, occur on every ditch and pool; the
five most generally distributed in the United States being L. minor or
Lesser Duckweed; L. perpusilla or Tiny Duckweed; L. gibba or Thick-
leaved Duckweed; L. polyrhiza (Spirodela poly-
rhiza) or Greater Duckweed; and ZL. ¢risulea or
Ivy-leaved Duckweed, the last two least often
found in the Eastern and Middle States. They
are small flowering plants having pendant roots,
and grow by the extension of offshoots from
the clusters; and in winter sink to the bottom
when the growth of the leaves is checked by
frost.

L. minor has nearly round leaves of even,
small size and bright green color, with usually
one rootlet attached to each leaf. It is very
common and during the summer almost covers

FIG. 133. Duckweed. Reduced one-

third. 1. Lenina minor.
CLE the surface of ditches and other slow flowing
3. Spirodela polyrhiza. : :
4. Lemna perpusilla. or stagnant water. JL. perpusilla has a still
g

208

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

smaller elong-ovate leaf and grows in closely matted clusters of dull green
color. JL. gibba has a flat leaf, the larger about 36 inch diameter, of a
bright green color, to each of which is attached a single root.

L. polyrhiza has the leaves of varying outline, densely clustered
and overlapping each other, of varying shades, from pea-green to light
olive-green. L. ¢risulca 1s a pond variety with the serrated 3, inch leaves
of a light green color, which grow most oddly at right angles to each other.
It is restricted to some few localities.

All the duckweeds have tiny white flowers but during warm weather
increase rapidly by offshoots from the edges of the leaves. In the aquarium
goldfishes feed on their roots and leaves and soon destroy them. They
_are to no purpose as oxygenators.

FLOATING PONDMOSS

This beautiful many-branched mosslike floating plant, known botan-
ically as Azolla caroliniana, Fig. 134, consists of clusters of tiny bright
red or reddish-brown leaves usually bordered with dark
green, and having short roots under the centre of the
fonts. In warm weather it occurs on slow-flowing
streams and ponds in the Eastern and Middle States,
but is more generally distributed in Southern waters.

It does not thrive indoors in the aquarium and is prized

FIG. 134. Floating : : : :
Pondmoss, Azo//a on account of 1ts quaint appearance, having no merit

caroliniana.

as an oxygenator. Another very similar species is
A. filiculodes, a northern variety.

CRYSTALWORT

Two species of Crystalwort, Riccia fluitans and R. natans, Fig. 135,
are sometimes introduced into the aquarium. They are bright-green
mosslike plants growing on the surface of still water,
of which the first is the most common form and may
be found in many coldwater ponds and streams. It
has repeatedly forked, threadlike leaves, of which the
segmented branches grow about % to 34 inch in
length; and the second has clusters of heart-shaped

leaves with several pendant rootfibres. It is a native
of Southern waters. R. fluitans thrives fairly well in F1G- 135- vaca
the aquarium, but as it is brittle and the fishes break ree

it, it soon floats on the surface in fragments or sinks to the bottom to
clog the roots and stems of other plants. It has no merit as an oxygenator.

209

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

SALVINIA

This is the most beautiful of the smaller floating aquatic plants. Two
species, Sa/vinia natans, native to the Southern and Southwestern States,
and the larger tropical S. brasiliensis, are to be obtained of florists. Fig. 136.
< The leaves of the native species are heartshaped,

and of a bright, beautiful green color, and covered
with hairlike bristles, the under side of the leaf
being a purplish-red. The larger, more circular
leaves of the exotic species are pale golden yellow
with pea-green tints and a bright-green border;
and are more rounded with a depressed centre
which gives the leafa heartshapedappearance. The

leaves grow in rows along a fine threadlike stem,

Hie Ghee Se and in the moist atmosphere of the greenhouse
and a leaf of S. brasiliensis. develop and increase with increditable rapidity, but
Reduced one-third. ; C a iM ; 5

in the household aquarium soon diminish in size

and rarely survive the winter. Goldfishes eat the roots, which also tends to
check the growth. It is the handsomest of the floating aquarium plants
but does not serve as an oxygenator. “Iwo new species have recently be-
come known, 8. auriculata from South America, and S. elegans from Mexico.

TRIANEA

This sub-tropical floating water plant, Trianea
bogotensis, Fig. 137, with its heartshaped, slightly
roughened and waxlike green leaves, is an attractive
floating plant, which develops with remarkable
rapidity in the moist atmosphere of the greenhouse,
but dwindles in size of leaf and loses vigor in the
household aquarium. The pendant roots harbor
infusoria and entomostraca and are eaten by the
fishes. It makes a fine appearance in the aquarium,
but will not serve as an oxygenator. The leaves | %
develop in the centre of the clusters and the blossom
is small and yellow with a white centre.

As a shade plant in out-of-doors tanks, it is to
be recommended and grows well during the warm
summer months, if not exposed to too strong sun-

light. May be had of florists.
FROG-BIT

This floating plant, Hydrocharis morsus-rana,

: 5 FIG. 137. Trianea, Trianea
(Hort.) Fig. 138, a European species, never takes dogorensis. Reduced one-third.

210

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

root and propagates both by seed and by summer runners, upon which
buds are developed which become young plants. The kidneyshaped leaves
grow on long stems, and the 1% inch in diameter flowers have three petals
upon an erect scape.
It is fairly hardy and
easy to propagate in
pondsinamildclimate,
but does not thrive well
in the household aqua-
rium. Many of the
water insects and most
of the pond snails at-
tack its leaves. At
the approach of cold
weather the leaves de-
cay and the winter
buds sink to the bot-
tom of the pond, to
rise to the surface with the advent of warm weather. The plant is sub-
tropical and will not survive very cold weather. Of the floating plants it
is one of the largest fancied by aquariist, and the fine white blossoms are
attractive and of pretty form. In the greenhouse the plant survives for
years. May be had of dealers. A similar plant, the American Frog-bit,
Limnobium spongia, having dark-green heartshaped leaves, purplish on the
under side, is a desirable greenhouse plant, but also will not thrive in the
household aquarium.

\}

FIG. 138. Frog-bit, een morsus-ran@. Reduced one-third.

WATER HYACINTH

The Water hyacinth, Eichhornia, is steadily growing in favor with the
breeder of the goldfish, as it one of the best spawning plants, in addition
to its curious and handsome appearance. The thick floating leaf stalks
and dark green, burnished leaves, the long trailing roots, and the beautiful
flowers, give it a most ornate appearance. It propagates by seeds and
buds which again develop young plants before separating from the parent
plant, so that a single Water hyacinth may be developed into many hun-
dreds in a single summer. It is native to a warm climate and difficult to
keep over the winter in a cold one, even in the greenhouse. As a shade
plant, in the open-air, it is to be recommended, and the easy facility for
the removal of goldfish spawn to hatching dishes, which it affords, is a
great advantage in its use as a spawning plant. In Florida it has become a
plague, as it propagates in such numbers that it chokes the channels

zit

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

and waterways. May be had of dealers and florists generally. In warmer
climates great care must be exercised that it may not get into the streams.
Two species are generally to be had in the Eastern and Middle states, £.
azuria, bearing lavender-blue flowers, and E. crassipes, with lilac-rose
flowers.

WATER LETTUCE

This curious floating plant, Pistia stratiotes (Linn.), consists of a
cluster of large, fine, yellowish-green velvety leaves, which in general form
resembles garden lettuce, and is about the size of a teacup. It is very
handsome in the moist hot atmosphere of the greenhouse, but will not
thrive in the household aquarium or in the open air; as it is a shade plant
and can not endure direct sunlight. May be had of dealers in aquatic
plants.

ORNAMENTAL AQUARIUM PLANTS

A number of beautiful plants, rooted on the bottom but having
floating leaves and emersed flowers may be introduced into the aquarium,
but in the household there are but few that will grow satisfactorily. The
best of these are the so-called Water Poppy, Limnocharis humboldtu, a
hardy, handsome plant with small oval floating leaves and yellow poppy-
like flowers; the Water Clover, Marsilea natans, which develops clover-
like floating leaves and a delicate white flower; and the Water Snowflake
Limnanthemus indicum, having small lilylike leaves and a dainty fringed
pure white flower, from which it derives its popular name.

Some of the dwarf lilies, Mymphee, may also be grown under favorable
conditions, but as they are strong feeders and require abundant rich soil,
they are better adapted for large receptacles than the usual smaller
freshwater aquaria.

All the above ornamental plants are indifferent generators of oxygen
and should be introduced only for their ornamental appearance.

Ouviranpra. This unique plant is known botanically by its Mad-
agascar name, meaning Water-yam, and popularly as the Lattice-leaf or
Lace-plant. The skeletonized, dark olive-green leaves spread just below
the surface of the water froma single stalk or root stock and consist of a
mere tracery of many nerves and crossveins, 6 to 18 inches long and 2 to
4 inches broad.

Ouvirandra finestralis, (Poir.) or Madagascar Lace Plant, Fig. 139, 1s
the finest form, having broad recumbent latticed leaves and 2 white petal-
like bodies borne upon spikes about 2 inches long. ‘he Lace Plant is
grown in tubs or jars of freshwater, the frequent changing of which is

212

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

differed in by authorities. Fishes
are not necessary to its growth, but

a few snails or tadpoles are required
to cabonate the water and to keep
down the alge and scum.

Ouvirandra bernieriana,( Decne.)
or Bernier’s Madagascar Lace

Plant, is a sub-species having
leaves with smaller open spaces
and four-parted pinkish spikes.
The plant is usually smaller than
the foregoing. Both these species

—————SSSS Z
SSS == a

are grown in the Botanical Gardens FIG. 139. Madagascar Lace Plant, Ouvirandra finestralis.
at Washington and at the University of Pennsylvania. May be had of
dealers in aquatic plants.

The water in which these plants are grown should be clean and clear
and should be kept at about 65° to 75°F. in a greenhouse. Despite the
delicate and lacelike appearance of the plant, the leaves are tough and will

stand rough handling.

POND PLANTS

The beauty of lakes, ponds and basins largely depends upon a tasteful
and picturesque arrangement of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants both in
the water and along the borders. A selection of different species of the
Nymphee or Water Lilies, the Nelumbiz or Lotuses, the Limnachari or
Water Poppies, and occasional groups of Trapacez or Water-nuts, Mar-
silea or Water Clover, Aponogetone or Floating Cape Pond Weeds,
Limnantheme or Floating Heart, and of Eichhorni or Water Hyacinths
will beautify the surface; and clusters of Cabomba, Myriophyllum, Pro-
serpinaca and Ludwigia the lower depths, except in the flowering season;
but care must be taken that these latter will not spread too greatly and
become a nuisance. Among all these there are hardy species which will
thrive perennially when introduced, especially if the ponds and lakes are
fed from natural springs that will not freeze solid in the winter.

For the margins and borders a natural grouping of any of the native
hardy and readily obtainable Naiads, the semi-aquatic Sagittarias or
Arrowheads, the Water Lobelias, the Acorus or Sweet Flags or
Calamus, the Pontederia or Pickerel weeds, the Cypera and Papyruses
or Umbrella Plants, the Juncacee and Cyperacez or Rushes and Sedges,
the Isoetes or Quillworts, the Orontium or Golden Club, the Peltandra
or Arrow arums, and the Rannunculi, which include the Water Crowfoots

213

AQUATIC PLANTS OF FRESHWATER

and Marsh Buttercups; also the Cetha or Marsh Marigolds, the Typha
or Cat Tails, the Trollius or Globe Flowers, and many others enumerated
in the Florists’ catalogues, will produce most beautiful foliage and flower
effects.

If the pond is a natural basin, the plants may be set into the mud
at the borders, but in cement tanks they should be planted in pots and dishes
and these screened or hidden with rockwork.

TERRARIUM AND AQUA-TERRARIUM Pants. In addition to most
of the foregoing aquarium plants, Europeans collect or cultivate a consid-
erable number of native and exotic aquatic and semi-aquatic plants for the
terrarium and aqua-terrarium; of which, for brevity, only the botanical
names will be given, as the most of them have no popular names. Many
of the following may be obtained of florists or collected in bogs, along
canals and other natural waterways.

SUBMERGED AND Partiy Emersep Puiants. Heteranthera renifor-
mis and H. zosterefolia, Najas major, N. minor and N. flexilis, Zanichella
palustris, Hydrilla verticillata, Isoétes lacustris, Pilularia globulifera, Sulularia
aquatica, Saururus lucidus, Cyperus alternifolium, C. gracilis, C. papyrus, C.
laxus and C. natalensis; Butomus umbellatus, Iris pseudacorus, Rumex aquaticus,
Oryza sativa, Zizania aquatica, Spargenium ramosum, Typha latifolia, T.
angustifolia and T. minima; Oenanthe fistulosa, Richardia albo-maculuta and
R. ethiopica; Pontederia cordata, Veronica beccabunga, Myosotis palustris,
Acorus calamus, Cetha palustris, Berula aquatica, Triglochin palustris, Com-
arus palustris, Isolipis prolifera and I. gracilis, Scirpus radicans, Carex
japonica-marginatis, Menyanthes trifoliata, Menth aquatica, Nasturtium
officinale, and many others.

PLants witH Fioatinc Leaves. Other than those already men-
tioned are Alisma natans, Villarsia nympheodes and V. humboldtiana; Poly-
gonum natans, Aponogeton distachyus and others.

Fioatinc Puiants. In addition to those heretofore mentioned are
Stratiotes aloides, Aldrovandia vesiculosa; and the Mexican species, Sa/vinia
elegans.

Of this wide range of plants selection may be made of those best
adapted to grow entirely submerged, partly submerged, floating on the
water, or together with many species of ferns, on the rocks or planted
in pots.

214

CHAPTER. xX:

The Molluscs, Vermes and Hydrozoa
of Freshwater

FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS

The molluscs of interest to the aquarist belong so two classes.
They may be described as animals devoid of bony structure and joints, with
soft, thick and tough tunics or mantles, fleshy bodies and calcarious shells
of one or two valves; the Gasteropods or Univalves and the Lamelli-
branchia or Bivalves. ‘The first of these comprise the snails, limpets and
slugs, and the second the mussels and oysters, They have simple diges-
tive systems consisting of a mouth, a canal, digestive glands and anus; a
contractile heart of several cavities with but few blood vessels, the blood
being forced directly into the organs and through the spaces between them.
The breathing structures are either comb-gills or simple air breathing
chambers serving as lungs. The nervous system consist of special sense
organs and ganglia of nerve substance located at different parts of the
organism.

Univatves. Most of the univalves have a single shell, but with
some this is rudimentary, in others reduced to a few calcarious grandules
beneath the mantle, though these latter are mostly land and marine forms.
The shells of freshwater snails vary in form and
may be flat-coiled, spiral, oval-oblong, elongate or
earshaped, varying also from a length of two inches
and over to microscopic sizes. Some havea horny or
calcarious lid or operculum attached to the foot,
whereby the aperture is closed when the snail has
retired into it. Fig. 140. This is usually marked
with curved striations about a central nucleus, the

original operculum of the young snail. A mass of

Freshwater snail.

muscular tissue forms the foot, constituting the organ A. Apex.

; : ; B. Whorls
of motion, and movement consist of its contraction Gunes
and expansion from the rear to the front. A part DPEnes

} 5 f E. Body whorl.
of the foot and the digestive system are enclosed in F. Periphery.
: x yt G. Inner lip.
the shell. The head is distinct and usually has FH, Guter ip,
I. Operculum.

two, sometimes four, tentacles serving as organs of
touch and possibly of hearing. The eyes are distinct and may be devel-
oped at the ends of a second pair of tentacles or upon longer or shorter
pedicels, between, to the side of, or under the tentacles.

In the aquatic species respiration is by gills in the water breathers, or
by an air-chamber or rudamentary lung in the air breathers, the entrance
to the breathing organs being near the mantle.

The shell is formed by an excretion of carbonate of lime and some

207

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

animal matter; the whorls turning about a central columella or pillar, with
the outer or body whorl always the larger. The apex is the first growth
of the shell and subsequent development is marked by lines of growth in-
dicating a former position of the aperture. When the suture or depression
between the whorl, from the apex to the aperture, forms a right hand spiral,
the shell is right-handed or dextral, and when turned to the left is left-
handed or sinistral. The shell grows by the addition of new layers on the
lip or outer edge, but the inner portion of the mantle also forms calcareous
matter to increase the thickness of the shell with age. ‘The outer coating
is the harder, but the action of the acids in the water often erodes its
whereby the shell may lose some of the whorls. When the erosion has
penetrated the interior lining or nacre and the acidulated water comes into
contact with the animal, death results.

Reproduction is by eggs, and some of the genera are oviparous,
depositing the spawn to hatch, while others are ovoviviparous and hatch
the young in the oviduct of the female. The oviparous snails deposit
translucent gelatinous masses in which the yolks of the eggs are visible,
which enlarge and gradually assume the form of tiny snails with trans-
parent shells and escape from their gelatinous covers to the plant. The
ovoviviparous snails bury themselves in the mud and silt and bring forth
a number of perfect young, which, though very small, exactly resemble
their parents. Some species carry the young with them, inside the shell,
until they have grown to considerable size.

Bivatves. Most of the Bivalves have double-hinged valves or shells,
a tonguelike foot, sometimes provided with a byssus or tuft of threads
with which to attach themselves. The body of the animal consists of a
mantle of two lobes, leaflike gills, one or more siphons or orifices, a heart,
stomach, liver, intestines, reproductive organs and muscles, Fig. 141. “The
valves increase in size by the addition of concentric rings to the outer
edges and in thickness by deposits of nacre on the inner side; the umbone
or nucleus being the original shell of the young mussel. ‘The valves are
united by a hinge which varies in structure with the different species, and
are kept closed by adductor muscles connecting them at each end. The
interlocking projections of the hinge are known as teeth, and according to
their location are cardinal when placed under the beak, anterior and poste-
rior lateral when placed before or behind the umbones.

A set of muscles constitute the anterior and posterior retractors and
protractors which control the foot. Mussels have no distinct head, the
mantle covering the entire animal and is attached to the valves by a mem-
brane. Under it, on the posterior end, are the gill plates, partly separated
by the foot and the viscera, and forming a large cavity. In front of the gills

218

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

are the labial palps, two pairs of
triangular flaps and between the
gills and the hinge is the peri-
cardium containing a_ three-
chambered heart, and below this
the organ which serves as the
kidneys. The liver is a com-
pound digestive gland over the
posterior portion of the gills and
under this is the stomach, con-
nected with the mouth by the
oesophagus. The digestive
canal consists of an irregular

————

coiled tube which passes through
the pericardium to the posterior
end of the body. The sim-
ple nervous system consists of
ganglia at the mouth, foot and

FIG. 141. Diagrams of a Freshwater Mussel. adductor muscles.
Beak.

Tey remene Respiration consist in tak-
.H. Hinge.

B

rb

H ;
a ae ing the water through the inhal
S. Shell. ing siphon, passing it over and
F

B

A Foot. 2
r. Branchial openings. between the gills and out of the

ge) Seay CRORE: body by the exhaling siphon.

These water currents reach the

other organs, aerate the blood, convey food to the stomach and carry off
the waste materials of the system.

The Arrows indicate direction of the animal and the currents.

Reproduction varies with the genera, but with most of the freshwater
species is the following. The eggs are developed in the ovaries, pass to
the gills, where they lodge and hatch. The minute valves are connected
by an elastic hinge, the foot only partly developed, as from it extends a
number of slender filaments, the byssus. When ejected by the parent,
they swim by opening and closing the valves until they come into contact
with a fish to which they attach themselves and there undergo a metamor-
phosis. The byssus disappears, the foot is fully developed, the interior
organs undergo material changes and the valves assume the shape of the
adult. Then the mussel quits its host and falling to the bottom takes up
the habits of its kind.

The hereafter described molluscs are those of fair size which will be
of interest to the aquariist, the breeder of aquarium fishes, and the student
of natural history in the home aquarium. The nomenclature is that now

219

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

adopted by Conchologists and differs materially from that in use prior to
the past decade. The classification is in part that of Lang’s Textbook of
Comparative Anatomy and that of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia. Some of the mentioned genera are undesirable in the
aquarium and should only find a place in the terrarium or in special aquaria
adapted to their study.

‘ CLASSIFICATION OF THE Untvatves. Freshwater univalves are of
two Orders, the Prosabranchia, gilled or water-breathing snails, including
the families of the Neritide, Viviparide, Valvatide, Ampularide, Hy-
drobide and Melanide in the first Order; and in the second Order the
Pulmonata or lung-breathing snails, including most of the land snails and
slugs, together with the semi-aquatic family of the Succinea, the aquatic
family of the Lymnezide, comprising the Lymnea, Planorbes, Segmentina
and Ancylus, and the family of the Physidz, comprising the Physa and
Aplexa.

The following classification will briefly describe these orders, families
genera and species, and serve as a key to the subsequent descriptions,
which are necessarily confined to Eastern and Middle States snails, though
the most of them are also common to other sections of the United States.

Orper ProsasrancHEA—Shell spiral, aperture closed with an operculum, gills internal,
water-breathing.

Family Neritida—Shell semiglobular, aperture closed with an operculum, breathing
by gills.
Genus Neritina—W. reclivata, N. showalteri.
Family Viviparida—Shell concoidal or discoidal, aperture closed with an operculum,
gills internal.
Genus Viviparus—V. viviparus, V. georgianus.
Genus Campeloma— C. decisum, C. ponderosus.
Genus Lioplax—L. sudcarinata.

Family Valvatide—Shell depressed, aperture rounded, closed with an operculum,
gills protrusile and plumelike.

Genus Valvata—V. tricarinata, V. bicarinata, V. sincera.

Family Ampullariida—Shell globular, depressed at apex, aperture closed with an
operculum.

Genus Ampullaria— A. depressa, A. miamiensis.

Family Hydrobiide—Shell globose or subglobose, apex well defined, operculum
wingshaped or oval.

Genus Somatogyrus—S. a/tilis, S. subglobosus.
Genus Amnicola—/. /imosa, A. granum.
Genus Bithynia—B. tentaculata.

Family Melaniida—Shell elongated or conical or fusiform with pointed aperture
usually subrhomboidal, closed with an operculum.

Genus Goniobasis—G. virginica, G. mulineata.

Genus Anculosa— J. carinatus.

220

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

a

Orpver Putmonata.—Shell either spiral, conical, merely a calcarious plate, or altogether
rudimentary; no operculum in freshwater species,
breathing by a simple pulmonary sac; coming to
the surface to breathe.

Family Succineade—Shell imperforate, thin, ovate or oblong; aperture large, no
operculum, breathing by lungs.
Genus Succinea—S. obliqgua, S. retusa.
Family Lymnzide—Shell thin, spiral or conical, no operculum, eyes sessile, breath-
ing by lungs.
Genus Lymnza—L. stagnalis, L. palustris, L. columella, L. decidiosa, L.
catascopium.
Genus Planorbis—P. dicarinatus, P. campanulatus, P: trivolvis.
Genus Segmentina—S. armigerus, S. wheatleyi.
Genus Ancylus—A. rivularis, A. parallelus.
Family Physide

Shell sinistral, oblong, thin, spire acute, aperture narrow oval,
no operculum, breathing by lungs.

Genus Physa—P. heterostropa.
Genus Aplexa—d. hypuorum.

Neritina. These snails are not generally distributed and are seldom
met with. They have semi-globular shells consisting of an abrupt, flat
spiral with crescent-shaped aperture and are rarely over a half inch in
length.

N. reclivata, Fig. 142, the larger native species, has a thick, strong
globose-oval shell of greenish-olive color undiluted with faint green lines,
polished on the under side, three-quarters inch long, consisting of three
whorls, of which the
body whorl takes
up almost the entire
shell and the spire
very short and al-
most always eroded
by the action otf REN
peice thes water: FIG. 142. Neritina reclivata. Enlarged.*
The aperture is about four-fifths the length of the shell. ‘The body
is pale grey clouded with black, the head dusky, the tentacles long

and rodlike, the eye prominent and placed on pedicels at the outer
base of the tentacles, which are marked by darker or black lines. The
wingshaped operculum has the fanlike striations spread from a nucleus at
the upper margin. The snail is native to Florida. Its movements are
slow and it does not survive in the aquarium. It is oviparous, laying from
18 to 36 eggs on plants and stones which hatch in 14 to 16 days.

N. showalteri, Fig. 143, is a very rare smaller snail native to Alabama.
Its 14 to 34 inch long rather thick shell is smooth, round, semi-translucent,

*The bar, in all cases, indicates the true size.

221

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

and of a greenish-yellow horn color. The three whorls are convex, the
spire very much de-
pressed and the suture
spightly impressed.
The body whorl takes
up almost the entire
length of the shell.
The incurved aperture
and the operculum are crescent-shaped, the body of a dusky grey color,

FIG. 143. Neritina showalderi. Enlarged.

the tentacles long and the eyes prominent.

The Neritina are widely distributed in Europe and tropical countries
but only these two are native to the United States.

Viviparus. These snails inhabit marshy places, still water, rivers
and streams. They have the whorl of the shell very convex, an angulated
aperture and a horny operculum showing concentric lines of growth. The
larger species of the Eastern and Middle States attain a length of shell of
11% inches. The females of most of the genera have evenly developed,
sharply pointed tentacles, while the males have the right thicker and more
bluntly pointed. These snails live exclusively on dead animal matter,
alge and conferve and are harmless to aquarium plants, though not as
active as the Planorbes. They were formerly classed as the Paludina.

V. Viviparus, Fig. 144, the most common species, inhabits ponds and
still water. It has a thick, well-rounded oblong olive-green or brownish
shell of four or five inflated, sharply defined whorls; a brunt apex and deeply

Ate impressed suture. The
+ ab body whorl is marked
by three well-defined
reddish-brown bands
which diminish towards
the smaller whorls.
The thick snout and
FIG. 144. Potomac Snail, Viviparus viviparus. long, curved, flexible
tentacles and the body are bluish-grey with faint orange and yellow spots.
The projecting eyes are placed upon short pedicels under the tentacles,
and the foot is bluntly ovate and broad. The operculum is ovate and
shows concentric rings. This snail is ovoviviparous, the eggs hatching at
different periods in the oviduct, at which time the snail secretes itself in
the mud or pebbles. It is common to America and Europe, and is popu-
larly known as the “Potomac snail.’’ Abundant at Washington, D.C.

V. georgianus, Fig. 145, 1s found in canals, lakes and slow streams,

sometimes in ponds and ditches. The shell is brownish-green in color

222

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

with usually five yellow bands, more distinctly marked on the body whorl.
It has four to five :
convex whorls, the
first a mere dot and
the body whorl very
wide and exceed-
ing half the shell
in length. All are

rounded and sharply FIG. 145. Georgia Snail, Viviparus georgianus.

defined, with impressed suture. The operculum 1s bluntly pearshaped
and thick, with well defined lines. ‘The body is dark brown, spotted
with yellow, the snout broad and the tentacles long and divergent. The
eyes are placed on the outer bases of the tentacles. It 1s ovoviviparus and
harmless to aquatic plants when sufficiently fed, and bears a close resem-
blance to the foregoing. Quite generally distributed throughout the Middle
and Southern States; first found at Hopetown, Georgia. Known as the
Georgian Snail. Also note the Japanese Snail, . ma/leatus hereafter
described.

Campetoma. These snails inhabit still water and slow-flowing
streams. ‘The shells are thick, heavy and about as long, but narrower than
the foregoing, and the whorls flatter and not as rounded. ‘The larger
Eastern and Middle States species rarely exceed 11% inches in length and
most of the species less than 34 inch.

C. decisum, Fig. 146, is common in ponds and nearly all freshwater
in the Eastern section of North America, from Nova Scotia to the Rio
Grande. The 34 to1 inch long shellis elongate-ovate, rather thick and heavy
with a smooth surface not
very considerably marked
by lines of growth. Its
color is greenish with ir-
regularly disposed brown
lines of growth and 1s
usually eroded at the apex
so that of the five whorls
sometimes buttwoorthree

Ns salle remain. The body whor!
is about two-thirds the length of the shell, the aperture oval-oblique more
than half the length of the body whorl, and the operculum is elongate-
ovate with a thin transparent margin. It 1s ovoviviparous and harmless in
the aquarium, though a considerable feeder and should be furnished with
food in addition to the alge and conferve. Itis found in streams in New

229

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

Jersey, the Delaware, Schuylkill and the Susquehanna. Common through-
out New England.

C. ponderosus, Fig. 147, is the largest Eastern and Middle States
species but not as common as the foregoing. The 134 inch long polished
shell is globosely-ovate, very thick and heavy, with a roughened surface
showing very heavy
striations of growth;
of a greenish horn-
color with irregular-
ly disposed brown
and black streaks.
le has; five: sor six
whorls, of which the
body whorl is equal
to about four-fifths ee meme ee eH
of the length of the shell, a short spire and a perfect apex, usually eroded.
The aperture is oval, narrowed above, slightly oblique, and about half the
length of the shell. The operculum is elongate-ovate with a thin margin.
The body is a dull brown, the tentacles thick and the eyes prominent and
black in color. It is ovoviviparous and is found in New York, the Lake
regions, Ohio, Indiana, [llinois, Michigan, Tennessee and Alabama. No
experiments with it in the aquarium have been reported.

Lioptax. These snails are similar to the foregoing but have parallel
sides, the front truncated and the posterior extremely obtusely rounded.
The shells are concoidal, elongated and thin, the apex pointed, and the

operculum with concentric rings.

L. subcarinata, Fig. 148, is found in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio,
Kentucky and some other of the Middle Western States. The elongated
shell is 34 inch long, of a bright brownish-green color with brown trans-
, verse lines of growth.
Of the five whorls, the
body whorl takes up
three-fourths of the
shell; the suture is dis-
tinct, the apex pointed
but often eroded, and
the aperture pear-

FIG. 148. Lioplax subcarinata. shaped. The lines of
the operculum are concentric, and the body a dark grey dotted with orange.
It is ovoviviparous. Fine specimens have been taken from the Delaware
and Schuylkill rivers and their tributaries. This is the only species of the

224

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

Eastern and Middle States and there is but one in the Southern States,
L. pilsbryi of the Chipola River, Florida, a very rare species.

VatvaTA. These small snails never exceed 14 to 3, inch in diameter
and are principally prized on account of their odd appearance and the
curious formation of their water-breathing organs or branchia. Most of
the species are almost exclusively vegetable feeding and destructive to
plants, and but few should be introduced into the aquarium, though they
are comparatively harmless, due to their small size.

V. tricarinata. Fig. 149, hasaslightly depressed turbinate, translucent
yellowish-and greenish-brown shell 1% inch in diameter, of three to four
smooth whorls with faint
lines of growth and _flat-
tened spire. The body
is slightly translucent, the
plume-like branchial fila- FIG. 149. Valvata tricarinata, Enlarged.
ments long, the eyes black, the posterior of the foot extending nearly to the
circumference of the shell, and the thin operculum near the extremity of

= the foot. It is ovi-
parousand vegetable
Sabai feeding and inhabits
FIG. 150. Valvata bicarinata. Enlarged. the Eastern and
Middle States generally, with a kindred slightly larger variety, V. bicarinata,
Fig. 150, native in the Schuylkill river and its tributaries. It is about
3ginch in diameter.

V. sincera, Fig. 151, has a globose-discoidal faintly striated brownish-
green shell, consisting of three and a half accurately rounded whorls which
enlarge rapidly from the apex. ‘The suture is deeply impressed, the spire
flattened and the apex
obtuse. This snail is

seldom over jy to 4

inch in diameter and
occurs in Vermont and FIG. 151. Valvata sincera. Enlarged.

the Northwestern States. There are other species of the Valvata but they
do not occur in the Eastern or Middle States.

Amputtaria. This family has no members inhabiting waters of the
Eastern and Middle States. All the species are large and handsome; but
as their size would lead to the inference that they would be destructive to
aquarium plants, experiment would be advisable before introducing them,
as their food is vegetable and those kept in confinement eagerly devour
lettuce. They are nocturnal in habits and seldom appear out of the shell
during the day. They are interesting inmates for the Terra-aquarium.

225

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

A. depressa, Fig.-152, has a greenish-olive two inches long shell, with
a series of ten to fifteen olive bands and yellow margins on the five smooth
and polished whorls, which are more or less distinctly marked by lines
of growth, a well defined suture and a depressed spire. The operculum
is auriculate with the nucleus at the inner margin. The body is grey,

FIG, 152. Ampullaria depressa.

striated and dotted with black, the tenticles of the males yellowish-brown
and of the females reddish or orange. It inhabits canals and ditches of
soft muddy bottom and sluggish current in the middle Southern States,
is Oviparous and lays 30 to 70 eggs on plants above the water level, which
are soft when deposited but acquire a hard shell from exposure to the
atmosphere. ‘They hatch in about 12 days and are the size of a large pea.

A. miamiensis, Fig. 153, has a globose, yellowish-brown 2% inches
long heavy shell with moderately impressed suture, a depressed spire and
large body whorl. The aperture occupies about one-half the length ot

FIG. 153. Ampullaria miamiensis,

the shell, the operculum is calcarious and striated, with the nucleus at
the upper side. This handsome snail occurs only in Southern freshwater,
principally in Florida. Probably the largest native North American species
is 4. pinei, from the same locality, which reaches a length of 3 to 3% inches.

226

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND H YDROZOA

Somatocyrus. These small snails are quite generally distributed,
and on account of their size harmless and inconspicuous in the aquarium.
They are slothful in their habits and hibernate in cold water. The shells
are pretty and of fine form.

S. altilis, Fig. 154, has a 34 to ,4 inch long, smooth, thick, subglobose
pale light-green or horn-colored shell of four whorls, with a sharp suture,
short spire, nearly round-
ed aperture and regularly
ovate operculum. The
body is brownish-grey,
the tentacles long and
somewhat slender, and :
the eyes a bright bluish- FIG. 154. Somatogyrus aitilus. Enlarged.
black. It is quite generally distributed in the eastern section of the United
States and has been found in the Potomac at Washington, and in both the
Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. Also occurs in cold water ponds in the
Middle States generally.

S. subglobosus, Fig. 155, has a 14 to 3 inch long obliquely transverse
subglobose solid polished yellowish-green shell of four whorls,.an impressed
suture, a short spire and an oblique white aperture. The body is yellow-
ish-brown or grey and
the tentacles brown. It

is not common to the
Eastern and Middle but
occurs in the Southern
States, principally in
South Carolina, but is
occasionally met with in
Virginia and Maryland and at Washington, D. C.

AmnicoLa. These tiny snails are principally mentioned as they con-
stitute a numerous genus, the Hydrobide. They have thin ovate conical
shells with acute spires, small oblique, rounded ovate apertures and horny
opercule; are widely distributed and occur abundantly in many localities.

A. limosa, Fig. 156, has a conical very convex yellowish-brown
slightly wrinkled 1% inch long shell tinted with grey, of five or six whorls,
with deeply impressed su-
tures’ “Fhe “bedy whorl
takes up about one-half the
length of the shell. The
body is brown and the ten-
tacles of a lighter color. It

FIG. 155. Somatogyrus subglobosus. Enlarged.

. 156. Amnicula limosa. Enlarged.

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

occurs from Maine to Pennsylvania and Ohio, and is very numerous on
the muddy shores of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers,

A. granum is a very small species, not much larger than a pin’s head,
found in ponds near Philadelphia. It has a slender, conic-ovate yellowish-
brown shell, having four or five convex whorls, deeply impressed suture
and orbicular aperture. It ranges from Lake Superior to Virginia.
Gould mentions another species, 4. pallida, which has not been described
as occurring in the Middle States.

Biruynta. These small whorled snails are usually found in ponds,
ditches, canals and slow streams of not too cold water. They are oviparous
and water-breathing, differing principally from some of the smaller Physa
in having the whorl of the shell dextral. They thrive fairly well in the
aquarium but are vegetable feeding and indifferent scavengers.

B. tentaculata, Fig. 157, has a glossy grey or horn-colored conical 3 to
¥% inch long shell of six rounded whorls, with a distinct suture and pointed

apex. The body whorl
takes up more than _ half
the length of the shell.
The body is almost black,
spotted with yellow and the
divergent filiform tentacles

. are long and slender. The

FIG. 157. Bithynia tentaculata. Enlarged. eyes are black and set at the
base of the tentacles and the obovate operculum calcarious and brittle. It
is a harmless oviparous snail, feeding principally on decaying vegetation.
Found quite generally in the Eastern and Middle States.

Meraniup. It should be noted of this family that it contains many
genera and hundreds of species. Almost every river drainage system of
the world has either distinct or closely allied forms; those of the United
States being the Strepomatide, of which there are many local genera, the
most common of the Eastern and Middle States being the Goniobases and
Anculosa of the Hudson, Susquehanna, Delaware and Potomac basins.
For brevity these only are described, the others are closely related similar
forms.

Gontosasis. This genus has most beautiful conical or fusiform
shells, showing faint lines of growth and often series of longitudinal ridges
on the seven to ten whorls. Occurs quite generally in flowing waters.

G. virginica, Fig. 158, is a very common species of the middle Atlantic
coast States. Ithasa truncated turreted yellowish-brown 7% to 1 inch long
shell, usually eroded at the spire. The eight to ten whorls are marked
with a dull reddish line near the base of the whorls, with a second line

228

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

near the middle of the body
whorl, but one or both are
sometimes absent. The slen-
der body is pale orange above
and bluish white below,
banded by irregular interrupt-
ed black lines. It occurs in
the above mentioned local-
ities andis very abundant inthe
Delawareand Schuylkill rivers.

G. multineata, Fig. 159, 1s also common in the tributaries of the
Delaware river and in the Middle States. It has a gradually tapering very
slightly convex 5¢ to 34 inch

FIG. 158. Goniobasis virginica.

long conical yellowish-brown
shell of seven whorls marked
by a number of reddish or
brown bands, a pointed ob-
long aperture and a usually
eroded apex. It is also com-
mon to Eastern and Middle
States river systems.
Ancutosa. Many species occur in all the Middle-Western and South-
ern States but only one species is generally distributed in the Middle States.
A. carinata, Fig. 160,has a conical dark horn-colored or blackish 34 inch
long shell, very variable in appearance, with three or four whorls, all more

FIG. 159. Goniobasis multineata,

erilessy keeled on the
middle of the whorls.
The suture is but slightly
indented, the apex often
truncated but usually
eroded, and the aperture
oval and one-third as FIG. 160. Anculosa carinatus.
longas the shell. Varieties of this species arevery generally found in streams
and rivulets throughout the Middle and some of the New England States.
SuccinEA. This genus contains the most generally distributed semi-
aquatic snails which are only a part of their existence in freshwater, making
their homes in marshes and the mudbanks of ditches, ponds and streams and
are found in swampy places or on plants along the banks. They are to be
distinguished from the aquatic snails by the presence of four cylindrical
tentacles, the longer bearing the eyes. They are not desirable in the
aquarium, but are frequently introduced with aquatic plants.

229

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

S. obliqua, Fig. 161, has a % to 1% inch long, ovate, thin and fragile
pale-green or amber shell, which is faintly striated and roseate in color at
the apex. It has three whorls
of which the body whorl is
large and much _ expanded,
and about % the length of the
shell. Thespire is very small,
the aperture oval and is two-
thirds the length of the shell.
The body has a yellowish- -
brown color which shows through the semi-transparent shell. This snail
is quite generally distributed in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and
Georgia. It is destructive to agian plants.

FIG. 161. Succinea obliqua.

S. retusa, Fig. 162, has a 44 to 7% inch long somewhat conical ovate-
oblong very thin seller yellowish- ie minutely striated shell of three
whorls, of which the body whorl
constitutes nine-tenths of the
entire shell and tapers gradually
to the apex. The spire is short,
the suture indistinct, and the
aperture four-fifths the length
of the ‘shell. Phe body is a
little longer than the shell, of a translucent greyish color marked with
black spots. This snail is found quite generally in the Eastern and
Middle States.

Lymna&a. This numerously represented genus is found in stagnant
and sluggish water, ponds and streams; feeding upon waste matter and
aquatic plants, as all the genus are herbivorous and a few species also

FIG. 162. Succinea retusa. Enlarged.

carnivorous. ‘They are active, prolific and thrive in the aquarium, but are
destructive and constant feeders, preferring the healthy growing plants to
algae and decaying vegetation; though they are also effective scavengers
and devour animal substances and food offal, and sometimes their own
spawn. When bred in the aquarium they considerably loose their destructive
habits and become feeders on alge. All are air breathers and will leave
the water to rest upon aquatic plants, but only at long intervals. ‘The
shells of this family are all dextral.

L. stagnalis, Fig. 163, is the largest representative of this group, the
shell reaching a length of 1% to 2inches. Itis usually of a greenish-white or
yellowish-grey color; of six or eight whorls; of which the body whorl 1s
larger, fuller and rounder than the others, which are drawn to a long,
graceful dextral spiral, terminating in a finely pointed apex. The suture 1s

230

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

deep and the ap-
ertureoval. The
body is yellqwish-
grey with a green-
ish tinge, spotted
with brown and
the tentacles flat,
triangular and
have a backward
trend. It is ovi-
parous and the
70 to 150 eggs,
deposited at in-

FIG. 163. Niagara Snail, Lymnea stagnalis.

tervals in cylindrical capsules, hatch in15 to 20 days. ‘This is one of the
most handsome snails, of which a pair or two may be kept in the aquarium
without damage to the plants. Its range is over the entire northern latitudes,
and in the United States is found from Vermont through the Northern tier
of States to the PacificOcean. It is popularly known as the ‘Niagara Snail.”

L. palustris, Fig. 164, is a destructive though interesting common
snail found in nearly all ditches, ponds and streams in the Eastern Atlantic
slope and in Europe. The conical shell is 34 to 114 inches long, of a light
horn-color on the body
whorl and usually a
dark horn-color, brown
or black above. It has
five or six whorls sep-
arated by white lines,
with the body whorl
half as longasthe shell.
The ovate aperture is UC as Mtg LAE
nearly as long as the body whorl and the suture is deeply depressed. The
body is dark gray or nearly black, with a violet tint, faintly spotted with
yellow and black, and the tentacles flat and conical. It ranges from New
England through Pennsylvania and south. Its habit of coming above the
water serves as an identification in the aquarium, into which it is sometimes
introduced with aquatic plants. The 60 to 80 eggs are deposited in a
cylindrical capsule and hatch in 12 to 20 days.

L. columella, Fig. 165, has an ovate thin and fragile 5¢ to 34 inch long shell
of four whorls crossed by minute lines of growth. The suture is deeply im-
pressed and conspicuous, the spire narrow and the aperture larger than

half the length of the shell. The body whorl is large and expanded, and the

231

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

body partly translucent with
the central portion light brown.
The tentacles are short and
mottled with black. It in-
habits the Eastern coast States
from Maine to South Carolina,
and west to Ohio and the
Northwestern States. The
spawn is deposited in irregular patches of 50 to 100 and hatch in about 20
days. This species is similar to Succinea, but may be distinguished by
the spiral line on the shell and the fold on the columella.

L. decidiosa, Fig. 166, has a somewhat inflated thin translucent light-
ochre or brownish 34 inch long shell, showing faint lines of growth. The

FIG. 165. Lymnaea columella, Enlarged.

spire is rapidly attenuated to an acute
point, and the five whorls are sep-
arated by a deep suture, the aperture
being one-half the length of the shell.
The body is light yellowish-grey,
minutely dotted with white; and the
tentacles short, broad and translucent.
Its range is from New England to the Mississippi and it inhabits rivulets
and small lakes.

L. catascopium, Fig. 167, is very similar to L. putris of Europe and
has a smooth and polished 34 inch long greyish or yellowish-brown shell
with lightly marked lines of growth, and is darker at the apex, with

four or five convex whorls of
which the body whorl is large,’
the suture well defined, the
spire tapering to an acute point
and the aperture one-half the
length of theshell. The body

is yellowish-brown sprinkled

FIG. 167. Lymnea catascopium. with light-yellow spots; the

tentacles are short and the translucent foot as long as the aperture. It
inhabits the rivers and streams of Massachusetts and New York near
Niagara Falls, and the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers; and is one of the
most frequently met with species. It is often introduced into the aquarium
with plants. The 20 to 40 eggs are deposited in a transparent yellowish
capsule which hatch in about 16 days.

All the native Lymnea should be only sparingly introduced into the
aquarium as they make havoc with the plants. Some species sever the

232

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

leaves by clean cuts across the blades, others by devouring the edges. If
the aquarium is not covered they leave the water and crawling on the
glass and over the edges dry out and die. One was found twenty feet
from the nearest aquarium.

PLanorsis. This numerously represented genus has the spiral shell
flattened so that the view from above, below and on each side 1s different.
The species vary in size, the largest being one and a half inch in diameter
and the smallest less than g inch. It is the best native easily procured
snail for the aquarium, preferring alge to any other food, and if not over-
stocked is harmless to aquatic plants and is a good scavenger.

P. bicarinatus, Fig. 168, has a brownish-grey shell never over 1% inch
in diameter, showing pale grey lines in the suture, with more than three
complete whorls, angulated on
each side with a slightly keeled
periphery. The spire is on the
left side and is depressed as deeply
as on the other side. The body
is a dusky or blackish-brown and

the tentacles a yellowish-brown,

generally of varying lengths. It
inhabits quiet waters from New
England to Georgia and west-
ward to Tennessee, and will hi-

bernate in cold water. The eggs
are deposited from March to
July in small irregular yellow masses and hatch in 15 to 25 days, depend-
ent upon the temperature.

P. campanulatus, Fig 169, has a yellowish 34 inch in diameter compact
shell, consisting of four slowly enlarging flattened whorls, distinctly marked

FIG. 168. Planorbis bicarinatus, four views. Enlarged.

FIG. 169. Planorbis campanulatus, four views. Enlarged.

2)5)

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

with lines of growth, with the body whorl slightly depressed. The suture
is distinct, the apex compressed and the aperture dilated and deflected to
the left; the other side showing the whorls nearly as well defined. The
body is a dusky brown or russet, and the filiform tentacles are long and
marked with dark brown lines. It inhabits streams of colder water in
New England, New York, Northern Pennsylvania, Ohio and Illinois, and
has been occasionally met with in the vicinity of Philadelphia.

P. trivolvis, Fig. 170, is a very generally distributed species having a
laterally flattened 34 to 7% inch in diameter yellowish-green or brown shell,
which consists of four and a half cylindrical whorls with finely marked lines
of growth, and is slightly keeled towards the left side. The aperture is
also deflected to the left. The spire is slightly impressed, nearly level on

FIG. 170. Planorbis trivolvis, four views. Slightly enlarged.
disappear in a depression about two and a half whorls from the apex.
The body is dark brown dotted with ochre and the tentacles long and
slender. This snail occurs very generally in the Eastern and Middle
States and is found in the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. Its eggs are
laid in a yellowish vermiform mass and hatch in 12 to 20 days.

P. magnificus, Fig. 171,is the largest recently known American species,
having the flattened sinistral shell very large and heavy, about 1 % inch in
diameter and 1 inch high. The upper or spire half of the shell is pale-
brown and the lower half dark-brown. The surface is glossy and marked
by fine lines of growth. The spire is narrow, the suture depressed, and
the summit of the nearly five complete whorls acutely angular and the
umbilicus deeply funnel-shaped. The base of the whorls is so narrowly
rounded as to appear almost angular. The last whorl is very large, rounded
at the periphery, and the irregularly ovate aperture but slightly oblique.

234.

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

Found at Lower Cape Fear river in the vicinity of Wilmington, N. C.
No other locality has been reported.

— Daa a>
ip? \ iy

FIG. 171. Cape Fear river Snail, Planorbis magnificus. Four views.

There are many other smaller species of Planorbes but their size
would preclude their use in the aquarium, though they are nearly all hardy
and will survive, except the very cold water species.

SEGMENTINA. ‘These snails differ from the Planorbes in having pro-
jections or teeth within the aperture of the shell, which is discoidal with
but few of the whorls visible on both sides.

S. armigerus, Fig. 172, has a light-brown polished shell % to 3¢ inch
in diameter, with the lip much darker. The four sub-cylindrical whorls
are slightly keeled SV
upon the left side and
show faint lines of
growth. The right
side is nearly planed
with a slightly de- FIG. 172. Segmentina armigerus. Enlarged.
pressed centre. The body isa dull grey. It is a tiny insignificant snail
to but little purpose in the aquarium. Quite generally met with in the
Eastern and Middle States.

S. wheatleyi, Fig 173, is a still smaller species, rarely over % inch in
diameter, having a slightly keeled shell with the two and a half whorls

al

distinctly outlined on
the right side and lost
in the depression of
the left side. The
aperture is at an angle
pointing to the left.
Inhabits rivers and lakes of the Eastern and Middle States.

FIG. 173. Segmentina wheatleyi. Enlarged.

235

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

Ancy.tus. ‘These small snails are popularly known as ‘Freshwater
Limpets” and though belonging to the family of the Lymneide greatly
differ from them in appearance. They are sluggish and do not swim of
float in the water but adhere to plants or move slowly over the bottom.
Their food is principally alge and aquatic fungi.

A. rivularis, Fig. 174, inhabits slow-flowing streams and may be
found on aquatic plants, stones and on the bottom near the margins.
The 1% inch long dishlike shell terminates in a broad oval base which en-
tirely covers the snail so
that only the tentacles
and a part of the snout
protrude when the snail

is active. It is-‘of pale
transparent horn-color,
with the body greyish-
brown marked with white,
having a central yellowish FIG. 174. Ancylus rivularis. Enlarged.
longitudinal line upon the head. About 10 to 16 eggs are enclosed in a
round capsule, which hatch in 20 to 36 days. It inhabits the Delaware
and Susquehanna rivers and tributaries, and is met with generally in the
Eastern and Middle States to Upper Missouri.

A. parallelus, Fig. 175, greatly resembles 4. /acustris of Europe, but
may be distinguished in having the apex of the shell directed to the right,
in opposite direction to the European species. It may be found in still

water and sluggish streams
on the under sides of float-
ing plants, and has a very
thin yellowish mottled shell
with a sharp apex and oval

aperture. It grows to a

length of = inch. - The

== body is yellowish grey with

FIG. 175. Ancylus parallelus. Enlarged. the tentacles of a lighter

color. The 6 to 20 eggs are enclosed in a globular capsule and hatch in
16 to 30 days.

Neither of these species of Ancylus long survive in the aquarium as
they fall victims to the fishes.

Puysa. This genus may be distinguished by the left-hand or sinist-
ral turn of the whorls of the spindle-shaped shell. It has no operculum
but an extended mantle and two long and slender tentacles. It is not a
numerous genus though widely distributed. A sub-genus is Aplexa.

236

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

P. heterostropha, Fig. 176, reaches a length of shell 34 inch and is to
be found on the water plants of ponds and streams quite generally in the
Eastern and Middle States. The elongated translucent polished spindle-
shaped shell is ovate, of ;
yellowish-brown color
terminating rather
abruptly in an acute apex,
and the large aperture 1s
oval, about three-fourths
the length of the shell.
Of the four or five slight- FIG. 176. Physa heterostropha, Enlarged.
ly convex whorls the body whorl is inflated and more than half the length
of the shell. The suture is well marked, the apex pointed and the aperture
narrow and longer than the spire. The body is yellowish-grey or darker,
dotted with whitish-yellow; and the long and slender tentacles are pointed.
It is an active snail but of objectionable vegetable feeding habit. It de-
posits 6 to 20 eggs in a capsule, which hatch in 15 to 20 days. Found
generally throughout the Eastern and Middle States and in the Delaware
and Schuylkill rivers. It is frequently introduced into the aquarium with
aquatic plants, and is one of the most common freshwater snails.

Aplexa hypnorum, Fig. 177, has a slender translucent highly polished

yellowish-brown or ochre shell, of five or six oblique revolving flattened

whorls with convex apex
and narrow aperture. The
body is black, which tends
to give the thin shell also a
black color. It inhabits
stagnant pools and is found
FIG. 177. Aplexa hypnorum. Enlarged. in slow-flowing streams of
Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvaniaand the Western States.
There are many other species of Physa and Aplexa, but not native
to the Easten and Middle States. As they are largely herbivorous and
therefore objectionable in the aquarium they need not be described.
GenerAL Remarks. Descriptions of the colors of the shells of
snails can only be done approximately as they are variable and depend
upon the character of the water which the snails inhabit. The presence of

iron, for instance, stain them to darker colors or black, while slight acid-
ities bleach them to paler colors. If the empty shells are laid in oxalic
acid their true colors will soon appear. ‘Those given are based on the ob-
servations of the author, either of living snails in his aquaria or of those
in his cabinet collection.

Sif

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

Best Aguarium Swnaits. Experienced aquariists avail themselves
of but four species as aquarium scavengers. These are the Planorbes,
usually P. ¢rivolvis, the larger common species, popularly known in the
author’s section of the country as the ‘‘Ram’s horn” or “flat Schuylkill
snail;’ Viviparus viviparus or ‘Potomac snail;’’ Lymnea auricularia or
“Transparent African snail;”’ and Viviparus malleatus or “Japanese snail.”
The first two have been already described, the latter two will now be
mentioned.

L. auricularia, Fig. 178, is native to the water systems of the Medi-
terranean and some other parts of Europe. It is a beautiful snail having
a peculiar earshaped shell with a broad body whorl and the others flattened
and rapidly diminishing, a
and a depressed spire. The
shell is of a nearly trans-
parent light horn-color,
through which the darker
color and the brown and

black spots of the body

It has broad FIG. 178. Transparent African snail, Lymn@a auricularia.

7
Z
i
YY
i

plainly show.
and flat conical tentacles, small dark eyes and a broad foot, paler on the
under side. It feeds entirely on alge, decaying vegetation and offal, never
attacking growing plants. It is active in habit, never comes entirely above
the surface of the water, thrives in the aquarium and is one of its most
interesting inmates. It is not as tenacious of life as the first two named,
but is prolific and reaches a maximum length of 1% inches. Its eggs are
deposited in long vermiform gelatinous masses on the stems and under
the floating leaves of plants and on the glass of aquaria; which hatch in
12 to 20 days, the tiny snails being almost invisible in their transparent
shells. This snail is exotic but is extensively bred in the Eastern and
Middle States; may sometimes be had of dealers, but is usually obtained
by exchange or purchase among
aquarium fanciers.

V. malleatus, the Japanese
snail, Fig. 179, has now become
naturalized at San José, Califor-
nia, in a little valley at the foot
of Mount Hamilton. It is an
ediblesnail,known to the Chinese
as ‘“Tsen law,” which was either
planted or accidentally intro-

duced’ by the: Chinese and

FIG. 179. Japanese snail. Viviparus malleatus. ,
Nearly aduit and younger shell, showing keel, Japanese of the neighborhood.

238

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

They are for sale in the Oriental quarters of some of the Pacific
cities, and are collected in the rice fields near Yokahama and there sold
for a few cents a quart. They are ovoviviparous, very hardy, most tenacious
of life, and when not buried under the pebbles, the most indefatiguous
“workers” of any of the snails bred as aquarium scavengers. In the
author’s vicinity they may be had of several breeders who have given them
preference to the other three desirable species. ‘he shell is similar to
V. viviparus but darker in color, lacking the bright color bands, and has
a distinct keel in the centre of the body whorl, extending part-way on the
next following. They grow to a diameter of 2 inches and over, and their
almost entirely black color makes them conspicuous inhabitants of the
aquarium. They are harmless to the plants, ravenous feeders on alge and
offal, never at rest and constantly moving over the glass of the aquarium,
or feeding on the parasitic alge on the water plants and on the humus under
the pebbles. The young, when they leave the female, are 36 inch in
diameter, having a horn-colored, very markedly keeled shell. “The Chinese
species of the same genus is /’. ste/maphora, for which the above has been
mistaken; but this snail has not been introduced into the United States.
The Japanese snail will cross with the Potomac snail, the mixed breed
more resembling the latter, as it does not have the keeled shell of the
Japanese snail.

For the aquarium intended and equipped for fishes, these four species
are particularly recommended. Nearly all the others mentioned are not
desirable and should be introduced only when the approved species
cannot be obtained. More than one species is also advisable, as they all
vary somewhat in their preference of diet.

Snail, Breepinc. A “snail farm” in which the desirable aquarium
snails may be bred is best arranged in a large jar in which there is a
luxuriant growth of aquatic plants rooted in clean soil and covered with a
thin layer of sand. No fishes or insects should be introduced, as they prey
upon the young snails when first liberated from the gelatinous capsules of the
oviparous species and the newly born young of the ovoviviparous genera.
Feeding with any of the starchy fish foods should be occasionally done, as
the young snails thrive better than when entirely dependent upon alge
and decaying vegetation; but this should not be done in excess that the
snails may not feed too considerably upon this supply and thereafter become
less effectual scavengers. Excessive feeding would also contaminate the
water and cause the death of the snails.

When many snails are kept in an aquarium, it is advisable to place a
few pieces of gypsum or of plaster of paris, about the size of a large pea, in
the tank three or four times a year. These gradually dissolve and

239

i

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

i

furnishes lime for the shells of the snails without depriving other animal
or plant life in the aquarium thereof. All water under natural conditions
contain mineral salts, but those of the aquarium may become exhausted,
and it is requisite that they should be replaced.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE Bivatves. Freshwater mussels belong to
the order of the Lamellibranchiata and are divided into two families, the
Cycladide and the Unionide. The following classification will briefly
describe the order, families, genera and species, and serve asa key to the
subsequent descriptions, which are confined to Eastern and Middle
States mussels, though many are common to other sections of the

United States.
OrpER JAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Family Cycladida—Valves small, suborbicular, hinge with cardinal and lateral teeth,
animal with open simple mantle, siphon more or
less united, two unequal gills each side, foot large
and tongue-shaped.

Genus Spherium— 8. simile, S. striatinum.
Genus Pisidium—P. compressum, P. abditum.

Family Unionide—Valve large inequipartite oval or elongated, hinge with a simple
or divided cardinal tooth in each valve and an
elongated lateral tooth, gills free from the abdom-
inal sac with dorsal attached to mantle, upper
siphonal opening somewhat fringed.

Genus Unio—U. complanatus.

Genus Lampsilis—L. radiosus, L. ochraceus, L. cariosus.
Genus Anodonta—J. cataracta, A. implicata.

Genus Margaritana—M. margaritifera, M. marginata.

SpH#rium. These small mussels are generally distributed and have
thin, ovate-globose shells, and the hinge has two minute cardinal teeth in
each valve, sometimes but one, and compressed marginal teeth. They
are seldom over 34 inch long.

S. simile, Fig. 180, is the larger species of the Eastern Section and
has sub-oval dark chestnut-brown very convex valves, varying considera-
bly in outline. In the adult the extremities are broader and nearly equally
rounded, the posterior part somewhat longer
and more pointed and the umbones nearly
central; while with the young the light-yellow
valves are thin, compressed and the hinge
margins nearly a straight line. ‘The surface

of the adult shell is concentrically wrinkled with = ZZ

distinct lines of growth, and the hinge has FIG. 180. Spharium simile.
Enlarged.

oblique minute cardinal teeth, and those of the
margin are distinct, strong and white. The valves are 34 inch long, % inch
broad and 2 inch thick. The animal is of a light salmon-pink color and

240

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

slothful in movement. _ It is found in larger ponds and in rivers of the
Eastern and Middle States and along the Lakes. ‘This mussel is nearly
related to S. rivicola of Europe, both in size and in the appearance of
the valves.

S. striatinum, Fig. 181, has thin rounded-oval, pellucid, somewhat
inflated valves with the umbones central and inwardly inclined. In the
adult, they are of light-greenish horn-color and in the young a very light
= inch broad

“ 5

yellowish color, and are % inch long,
and ; inch thick. The animal is of light pink color
and its movements are rapid. Found everywhere
in the mud of freshwater ditches and streams among
the roots of water plants. This mussel is nearly

FIG. 181. Spherium striatinum. Yelated to S. cornea of Europe resembling it in size,
Sr ae shape and generally in color.

Other locally distributed Spheriums are S. rhomboidium, S. tenue and
S. truncatum. Both the described species survive in the aquarium.

Pisipi1um. ‘These tiny mussels differ from the foregoing in having
but one siphon and are more inclined to inequilateral forms; are not
generally quite so thick and are of a lighter color. They vary from ; to
14 inch in length, are never active, thrive well in the aquarium and often
bury themselves for a long period.

P. compressum, Fig 182, has solid, very oblique triangular inflated
subequalateral yellow or grey valves with light-blue interior, a thick hinge
having small cardinal and distinct lateral teeth. The umbones are prominent
and placed a little prosteriorly and the valves have
a slight beak, the posterior being evenly rounded.
The lines of growth are concentric and finely marked.
The valves are about { inch long, + inch broad
and ;) inch thick. Found quite generally in the
United States and is common to New England,
New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. ‘This’ mussel tie. xg2.. Piddium compressum.
considerably resembles P. conicum of Europe. si a

Other Eastern States species are P. abditum, Fig. 193, P. equilaterale,
P. ferrugineum and P. ventricosum, all still smaller than the foregoing and
so tiny as to be of no considerable value to the aquariist-

Unto. These most common freshwater mussels
are to be found in ditches, ponds, lakes and streams.
Their food is both vegetal and animal, as they subsist
upon decaying vegetation, diatoms, alge, infusoria and

other water animalcule. Their shells often contain
FIG. 183. Pisidium abditum. : : :
Enlarged. pearls, either attached or free in the muscle and gills.

ear |

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

U. complanatus, Fig. 184, is the widely distributed species, found in
ponds and streams. The valves vary in form but are usually oblong-ovate,
rather compressed and posteriorally the broader. The umbones are mostly
eroded and have an obtuse
ridge to the posterior tip.
The hinge has a_ single
coarsely-striated cardinal
tooth in the right and two
nearly equal teeth in the
left valves, Whe vcolor 1s
usually a yellowish-green in

the younger and_ brownish-
green in the older shells, FIG. 184. Unio complanatus. Adult,
and is dark green posteriorally at the hinge. The lines of growth are faintly
and evenly marked. The valves have an iridescent violet pearly nacre
on the inner side with a delicate pink and salmon-yellow edge, and are 3
inches long, 2 inches broad and 1 inch thick at the unbones. The animal
is yellowish-and greyish-white with a long foot. It occurs in almost every
stream and river on the Atlantic slope and is a most active mussel, often
moving several inches in a day. A good and desirable scavenger in the
aquarium where it will often survive for years.

Lampsitis. This genus of the Unionide was formerly classed with
the Unios and embraces most of the Eastern and Middle States species.

L. radiatum, Fig. 185, has broad oblong-ovate beautifully striated dull
greenish-yellow valves showing distinct lines of growth and overlaid with
green and brown rays radiating from the edges of the umbones. It is one
of the handsomest fresh-
water mussels. Theinterior
of the valves shows a deli-
cate iridescent nacre and
the hinge has erect cardinal
teeth strengthened by a rib
behind the anterior mus-
cularimpression. It grows
to a length of 3 inches,
nearly 2 inches broad and
114 inch thick; and may be found in most large ponds and streams, but
is not as long-lived in the aquarium as the foregoing.

L. ochraceus, Fig. 186, is variable in form but usually has thin, trans-
versely oblong, sub-ovate, translucent, inflated and widely gaping valves,
with elevated and almost touching umbones. The color is yellowish-

242

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

brown, finely ‘radiated and zoned with
dark olive, and a very dainty rose color
or violet tint on the inner side. The
cardinal teeth are nearly parallel with
the hinge margin and the lateral teeth
short and less prominent. It grows to
234 inches in length, 2 inches broad

and 1! inch thick, but is usually
smaller in proportion. It is a New
England species rarely found in the Middle and Western States.

L. cariosus, Fig. 187, is also variable in form, has moderately thick
inflated ovate or rounded valves, with the prominent umbones placed well
towards the anterior end of the hinge, which has a straight narrow margin

FIG. 186. Lampsilis ochraceus. Adult.

and a sharp obtuse ridge
passing towards the poster-
ior tip. The valves are
sharply marked with lines
of growth and have a
smoothly polished surface.
The coloris greenish-yellow
or light-olive, with rays of
bright-green along the

upper posterior margin; and
the inside a bluish flesh-
colored tint. The cardinal
teeth are oblique and the laterals short. It grows to a length of 3 inches,
the male being 134 and the female 214 inches broad and 114 inch
thick. It is quite generally distributed but most frequently occurs in the

Connecticut River and its tributaries. No information is at hand as to

FIG. 187. Lampsilis cariosus. Adult.

its longevity in the aquarium.

Awaponta. These mussels reach a considerable size and are usually
more ovate in form than any of the foregoing. They have siphonal apertures,
toothless hinges and sharply defined umbones. They are difficult to keep
alive in smaller aquaria, as their food consist most largely of diatoms and
infusoria, but will survive in those of running water or in large properly
balanced aquaria having abundant plant life. There are two generally
distributed species in the Eastern Atlantic States, both of which grow to
large size.

A. cataracta, Fig. 188, more generally known as 4. fluviatilis, greatly
resembles 4. cygvia of Europe and has thin transversely sub-oval inflated
valves with distinctly outlined umbones, placed well to the anterior end of

243

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

the hinge, which has the margin compressed and considerably curved.
The surface is smooth, except at the posterior portion, where it is wrinkled
and shows a number of radiation

FIG. 188. Anaaonta cataracta. Adult.
The color is a deep clear green, indistinctly radiated with a darker green
and brown. On the inside the silvery nacre is tinged with blue and yellow
and has a greenish margin. It reaches a large size and may be 4% inches
long, 234 inches broad and 1% inch thick, though most of these mussels
are about 3 inches long. It usually inhabits ponds and still water and
occurs quite generally on the Eastern Atlantic slope.

A. implicata, Fig. 189, 1s a characteristic species with transversely
oblong, sub-oval, thick, opaque, strong and heavy valves, almost as thick
as broad; having the umbones distinct and usually eroded. It has ridges
from the lower posterior edge of =
the umbone to the angular tip
of the posteriors=edae. Uhe
valves are broadest behind the
middle; the hinge margin is
slightly curved. ‘The outer sur-
face is rough with coarse lines of
growth, of a yellowish-olive color

somewhat darker above, and the
lines are marked with a dull brown. Older shells have a delicate salmon
or flesh-color and the younger a silvery tint on the inside. It grows to 4
inches long, 214 inches broad and 1% inches thick, but average shells
are usually about 3 inches long or under. It inhabits ponds and still
water throughout the Eastern and Middle States but has a quite general
distribution. This mussel is more elongate, narrower and thicker than
the foregoing and may be distinguished by its obtuse ridge. The margin

is also more convex.

244

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

Marcarirana. ‘This genus of the Unionide may be found in most
running streams of fresh water, and has the valves transversely elongated,
inequilateral, and the hinge differs from the Unios, with which some of
the species have been classed by Conchologists.

M. margaritifera, Fig. 190, has the ovate or kidney-shaped thick and
strong valves transversely much elongated, with the umbones but slightly
raised above the line of the hinge and usually much eroded; and the hinge

FIG. 190. Margaritana margaritifera. Adult.

and basal margin nearly as broad before as behind the hinge, wnich is
usually curved and nearly parallel, with the tips slightly truncated. The
surface is waved with lines of growth and loosely wrinkled posteriorly and
towards the margin. ‘he outside is pitchy-black, the inside has a green-
ish border at the margin while the nacre is bluish-white shading to flesh-
color in the centre of the valves. There are two cardinal teeth in the left
valve and one inthe right. The mussel is 41% inches long, 2 inches broad
and 114 inches thick, probably the largest freshwater mussel of the Atlantic
slope, very generally distributed in the Eastern and Middle States.

M. marginata, Fig. 191, has thin-ovate, anteriorly wedge-shaped
valves with small but elevated umbones, usually somewhat eroded. The
posterior hinge margin declines abruptly to form a rounded tip and a well-
defined ridge extends from the um-
bone to the lower forward edge and
the valves show rounded wrinkles and
well-defined lines of growth. The
color is a polished olive-green mot-
tled with lighter and darker shades

= and having broken or obscure radiat-
FIG. 191. Margaritana marginata. Nearly adult, ing darker green or brownish lines.

24.5

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

The interior has a chalky white margin and bluish-white nacre, overshot
with delicate shades of green. The mature mussel is 2% inches long, 11%4
inch broad and 1 inch thick at the umbones. It is not as generally dis-
tributed as the foregoing, but may be found in almost all the river systems
of the Eastern and Middle States, a Western species being M. truncata.

GENERAL Remarks. What has been stated as to the colors of snail
shells also applies to mussels. The presence of metallic oxides in the
water affects the color and acidities erode the valves, principally on the
umbones, the older portion of the valves; and when this has progressed
to the extent of perforating the valves the mussel dies.

Best Aguaritum Mussets. Nearly all the mentioned species will
thrive in the aquarium, instances being known of remarkable longevity.
Spheerium, Lampsilis and Margaritana will survive for years; some in the
author’s household aquaria at this writing having done most effectual duty
as scavengers for three and a half years and are still active and of good
appearance. ‘The introduction of one mussel into the aquarium for each
8 or 10 gallons of water is to be recommended, but watch should be kept
until they become acclimated, after which an occasional tap on the valves
will give assurance that they are alive. They are the best means of eradi-
cating the objectionable Tubicolores worms. If they die, the decay is rapid
and will cause trouble in the aquarium.

FRESHWATER VERMES AND HYDROZOA

Tusicota AND Hypra. In addition to the already described low
forms of animal life in the aquarium the freshwater Worms and Polyps
should be mentioned. The eggs, spores or young are introduced with
the water supply, in pond mud and on the aquatic plants. They may
increase to such numbers as to become objectionable, as the worms bring
the soil and humus to the surface of the pebbles, and by their constant
activity cause turbidities in the lower water levels; and the polyps become
active enemies to the spawn and young fishes.

FRESHWATER Worms. ‘These belong to the order Annelida. The
most usual forms are Pristina leidyi and Stylaria lacustris which live in the
soil and mud. Lumbriculus limosus, about 2 inches long, and Nais
rivulosa, about 5% to 34 inch long, live in the axils and under the leaves ot
aquatic plants. Of the Tubicolous worms, the objectionable Trimnodrilus
is usually the only species present. As of these all but the last named
are eaten by the fishes, no further mention is necessary.

Timnodrilus claparadii, Fig. 192, and T. montanus are not eaten by
goldfishes and may increase to such numbers that the whole bottom of the

246

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

aquarium will appear to be a living wriggling mass of threads that a
when disturbed. ‘These worms construct cases of the
mud and of mucus secretions which they deposit, in
which they live, consuming organic substances in the
water and mud and bringing the residue to the 2 Alba,
surface. To dispose of them is difficult as the dipping- FIG. 192. Common fresh-
water Tubicular Worms
tube or siphon will not be effectual. A better method fimnodrilus claparadii.
is to introduce one or more mussels, which cause realy enisteed:
their disappearance, or removing the other fishes introduce Sticklebacks,
which, if not otherwise fed, will in a few days clear the aquarium of the
pests. The Tudifex of Europe is sparsely represented in the United States.
FRESHWATER Potyps. These belong to the order Hydrozoa, two

classes of which, the Hydrida and Corynida, have frequently occurring
freshwater forms, the Hydra and Cordylophora.

Hypra. The freshwater hydra consists of a cylindrical body ex-
panded into a single foot at one end, by which the animal attaches itself
to any object, and having a mouth and a circle of from 5 to 12 tentacles
at the other end. ‘Those having short tentacles are of the species H. viridis
and those with long filamentary tentacles H. fusca. The body contains a
single large cavity, the rejected food being ejected from the mouth. Hydra
possess the power of repairing mutilations and of multiplying artificially,
and if cut into any number of pieces, each will develop into a perfect polyp.
Reproduction is both sexual and by gemmation; the buds often develop-
ing and throwing out new shoots before they detach themselves from the
parent. In the sexual method of reproduction, ova are developed and en-
closed in sacs, which when mature are expelled through the body wall,
the embrio appearing as a free-swimming tiny thread-cell, which attaches
itself to foreign bodies and develops into the complete animal. Hydra
occur in all waters and multiply rapidly when the temperature reaches 60°
F., though cold water does not appear to injure them.

Hydra viridis. This is the most frequently met with form. Its
power of changing its appearance is wonderful; thoseshown in Fig. 192, Nos.
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, are all the same individual and the changes took place in
less than one hour. The process of gemma-
tion may be noticed, together with the growth
of the young and its separation from the parent.
The tentacles were not of the same form or
length for even an instant, and seemed to ooze
from and return to the body constantly.

FIG, 193. Sais Palyon. eats : :
enlarged. 1 to 5. Hydra viridis, Hydra fusca. This polyp, Fig. 193; Nos.
6 and 7. Hyd aie ; : eae

ee i 6 and 7, is more stalklike than A. viridis, and

247

MOLLUSCS, VERMES AND HYDROZOA

has greater power of extending its tentacles, often to a stretch of 2 to 5
inches. Otherwise it resembles the foregoing.

Hydra are destructive to very young fishes. The observations of
Mr. A. E. Beardsly, in the investigation of the deaths of small trout, at
the hatchery of Leadville, Col., will illustrate this fact. The sediment
from the hatching troughs was found to contain innumerable hydra about
1 to 2 centimeters in length. Some of this sediment was removed to a
number of vessels into each of which five newly hatched trout in good health
were placed, and in one, as a control, the clear water of the main supply.
In this experiment 25% of the trout were killed in less than 30 minutes,
60% in 45 minutes, 80% in 60 minutes and 100% in 75 minutes; while
those in the control jar were all alive and in good health the following
day. He states that “the hydra were seen with their mouths closely ap-
plied to the surface of the fish, particularly on the yolksac. In some cases
more than a dozen hydras were attached to a single fish.” This has also
been the experience of a number of goldfish breeders.

CorpyLopHora. These polyps consist of single individuals or of a
number joined by a common stalk, each developing gonosphores or ger-
minating buds similar to those of the hydra. One species, Cordylophora
lacustra, Fig. 194, frequently occurs in fresh-
water attached to stones, shells or other firm
objects. Its waving branches somewhat re-
semble some of the aquatic mosses but when
touched the immediate change in form betrays
its animal nature. It is not an active enemy
to young fishes but should not be admitted
to the hatching troughs.

Hydra and Cordylophera can be
removed from the aquarium by the introduc-
tion of Sticklebacks, and Paradise fishes, or
by its complete rearrangement. ‘The plants
should then be placed in a strong solution
of Phenol-sodique, or in a bichloride of mercury solution of one tablet
the pint of water, and to then carefully washed in clean water before
they are returned to the aquarium; or the bichloride used directly in
the aquarium after removing the animals, and the water afterwards
removed and changed a number of times. The former is the preferred
method, but unless the pests are very numerous, a few Paradise fishes, if not
otherwise fed, will “clean them up” in a few days. Hydra are principally
destructive when they are introduced into the spawning and hatching tanks.

FIG. 194. Freshwater polyp, Cordylophora
lacustra. Enlarged.

248

CHAP TER? 21.

The Aquatic Insects of Freshwater

AQUATIC INSECTS

Insects and their larve are one of the most unfailing sources of food
supply for freshwater fishes. There are many, however, which in some
or all the stages of existence are injurious to the spawn and young, and
these belong to many orders, families, genera and species, among
them being some genera of the Heteroptera or Water-bugs; the Neurop-
tera or Dragon-flies and kindred insects; the Diptera or true Flies; the
Coleoptera or Beetles; the Lepidoptera or Moths; the Hymenoptera or
Ichneumons; the Arachnide or Spiders; and other families of the insect
world, or forms closely related thereto.

Some are not entirely rapacious nor depend solely on the blood of
animals for food, but also suck the juices from insects and plants, yet be-
come active enemies in the confines of the rearing basins for fishes, in the
absence of larger fishes which would devour them and their larve; thus
permitting them to prey upon the smaller fishes and to soincrease in numbers
as to become very destructive. These will be briefly described, their
habits noted, and illustrations given for their identification. Others which
serve as food for young and mature fishes will also be mentioned.

Freshwater plants grow in more or less shallow water, as they are
dependent for nutrition upon the decomposition of carbonic acid gas by
sunlight, and as plant-feeding animals establish
themselvesamong them, they are also frequented
by predatory animals, to whom these serve as
food. Insects are of both these classes but the
predatory more particularly claim our attention.
It should be stated that insects deriving oxygen
from the air are generally lighter than water,
so that, should they exhaust the air carried with
them under the water or become disabled, they

rise to the surface by gravity in such position
FIG. 195. Outline of a Water Beetle. that the air-breathing parts first come to the

. Ant t - . a4
: Maxillary Palpi- surface. The insects deriving oxygen from the
: ne fe air held in suspension in the water are heavier
. Fore-leg. ns c
e. Thorax. than water and no effort is necessary for them
f. Middle-leg. 2 :
g. Elytron. to keep below the surface. Changes in water
h. Suture. . =
trenton temperature are also provided against and most
ie es of the aquatic insects pass the winter in the
k. Tarsus or foot.
|. Tibia or shank. larval stage, to undergo the further transforma-
. Femur or thigh.

Es:

First three joints of foot, tions in the following spring or early summer,

Gt

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

though there is often more than one summer brood, and many remain
more than a year in the larval state. A further provision of nature is the
enormous number of eggs produced.

No insect is so completely aquatic as to pass its entire existence in
the water, yet the final perfect stage and the acquisition of wings is usually
a brief one; its purpose being principally the mating of the sexes and the
distribution of the eggs over a wider area, where the chances of survival
are improved. Fig. 195 shows the external anatomy of a beetle.

Insect Enemies. The following are the principal insect enemies of
the freshwater fishes.

Orver Hemiptera. This order includes three sub-orders, the
Heteroptera, Parasitica and Homoptera; the aquatic and semi-aquatic
bugs belonging to the first named. They have four membranous wings,
the first pair partly overlapping the others. The mouth parts are devel-
oped for piercing and sucking. Many families are comprised in this
sub-order including the Water-boatmen or Coriside; the Backswimmers
or Notonectide; the Water-scorpions or Nepidz; the Giant Water-bugs
or Belostomide; and the Creeping Water-bugs or Naucoride. Those
which live near the water and are semi-aquatic are the Toad-bugs or Gal-
gulide; the Broad-shouldered Water-striders or Valiide; the Water-
striders or Hydrobatide; and the Marsh-treaders or Limnobatide: all of
which will be described in this order.

Warer-Boatmen belong to the family of Coriside and about
forty North American species to the genus Corisa. They are of oval
form, flattened on the back and below, of mottled grey and black color,
about 3¢ inch long, eyes small and inconspicuous, i
and the body covered with fine hairs, which, in
the water, cause an almost complete envelopment
in air like a glittering armor, and enables the
bug to descend below the surface for considerable
periods, where it attaches itself by its anterior

legs. ‘The posterior legs are more largely devel-
oped and oar-like, covered with swimming bristles. PIG! 166) Wiens
The four membranous wings lie on the back, the Corisa interupta. Enlarged.*

first pair of thicker structure, the hind wings very delicate, white and lace-
like. It swims with the back upwards and in cold weather buries itself in
the mud and lies dormant until spring. The eggs are attached to the stems
of plants under the water and the larval stage is brief. All the genera are
predatory, the food consisting of insects and other aquatic animals, and the
strong and sharp beak inflicting severe bites, They are destructive to

*The line at the right of the figures indicate the natural size.

252

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

young fishes, weak flyers and clumsy of movement out of the water. In
Mexico the eggs of two species, C. mercenaria and C. femorata, are
collected in enormous quantities to be eaten by the Indians and are
exported in a dried state as food for birds, poultry and fishes. They care
distributed over the entire United States, the most general species being
C. undulata, C. interupta, Fig. 196, C. calva, C. alternata and C. vulnerata.

Back-swimMers belong to the family of Notonectide, of which
about twelve species of the genera Notonecta, Anisops and Plea are known
in the United States. Though greatly resembling the water-boatmen in
appearance and habit they are
more convex on the back, which is
keeled like a boat and on which
they swim with the ventral side
upwards and the hind end of the
body projecting to admit air beneath
the wings where the breathing —
apparatus is located. The anterior FG Lo Recerca, vine anaiata.
and middle legs are shorter than Ventral and dorsal views. Enlarged.
the oarlike posterior legs, which are strongly developed for swimming.
The eggs are laid in incisions, pierced by the ovipositor of the female in
the stems of water plants. After hatching they rapidly pass through
the larval stage and assume the appearance of the adult. They are
predaceous and feed upon other water insects and small fishes, the power-
ful beak inflicting severe wounds to the fingers in careless handling.
They attack young fishes which are entirely devoured. The most gener-
ally distributed species are N. undulata, Fig. 197, N. insulata, N. trrorata,
A. platycnemis and P. striola.

WareR-Scorpions belong to the family of Nepide and are so named
from the appearance of the anterior legs, of which the coxa are long and
the femor furnished with a groove into which the tibia and tarsus fits,
greatly resembling the hooklike cheliceres of the scor-
pion, and admirably fitted for seizing prey. The middle
and posterior Jegs are adapted for walking. At the
posterior end of the body two long half-tubes are de-
veloped, which when united form a tube for inhaling air
when under water. The species of Nepa are flat oval in
form, about one inch long, and the Ranatra long,
slender and twiglike, with all the legs thin and very
long, the body oftenattaining a length of 21% to3 inches.
The eggs are deposited in the stems of water plants
and have long protruding filiments with probably pul-

FIG, 198. Water-scorpion,
Nepa apiculata.

253

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

monary functions. The insect rests on the stalks of plants or slowly
moves over the bottom and is difficult to observe on account of its form
and the mud on the body. It is a weak flyer and
only migrates when the pool is dry and in the
mating season. Food largely consists of the eggs
of fishes, frogs, snails and insects, but it will
prey upon other water inhabitants and on young
tadpoles and fishes. The most generally dis-
tributed species are N. apiculata, Fig. 198, R.
fusca, Fig. 199, and R. guadridentata.

Grant Warer-Bucs belong to the family
of Belostomatidz, are all strictly aquatic and are
most dangerous to spawn and young fishes, as
they are predatory, live on the bottom and feed
on aquatic animals. In the Eastern section of
the United States the common forms of these
bugs belong to the genera Belostoma, Benucus

and Zaitha; of which the first named are the FIG. 199. Water-scorpion,
largest and are of elongated oval outline, very flat Ronee [i Enea

with almost transparent wings of greyish or brownish color. Benucus is
— as large and may be distinguished by the absence of the double
groove on the under side of the fore thighs,
which is characteristic of the first named.
But one species of Benucus, B. halder-
manum, is found in the United States.
The form in Zaitha is like the foregoing
but the species are smaller. Belostoma
are abundant in the tropical and temperate
zones of America, a tropical species, B.
grande, reaching a length of four inches
and B. griseum, Fig. 200, the largest of
the United States attains a length of three
inches. Their general color is greyish,
FIG, 200. Giant Water-bug, pee aee yellowish or greenish- brown but they are

usually covered with mud and when wet are darker in color than in the
specimen cabinet. The anterior legs are strongly developed to seize their
prey and the oarshaped posterior legs for swimming. When fully devel-
oped they have strong wings capable of long sustained flight, which takes
place at night, and enables them to seek other ponds and water courses
when theirs dry out. They are often found in cities, their defective sight
leading them to mistake large reflecting surfaces, like skylights and green-

25 4

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

houses for sheets of water. Lamps and electric
lights also attract them in numbers. They deposit
the eggs in masses under logs and stones on the
borders of ponds and ditches. The young are
predaceous and feed upon small snails and other
living creatures and differ but little in appearance
from the adults, except in the absence of wings.

They reach maturity during the first year. Living
prey only is acceptable to both the larvaand bugand _ FIG. 201. Giant Water-bug,
in attacking smaller fishes they seize them with the fore ce bade eee
legs, pierce them with the proboscis, which forms a
sucking tube, and extract the blood but do not eat the animal. Some of
the species of Zaitha attack the spawn of fishes. Of this genus the
most common in the Eastern section of the United
States is Z. fluminea, which reaches a length of 1 to
1% inches. Figs. 201 and 202. The females of all
three genera deposit the eggs on their backs which
are often entirely covered by nicely arranged trans-
verse rows of from 60 to 200 elongate-ovate dark
grey eggs deposited by means of a protrusile ovi-
FIG. 202. Giant Water-bug, | positor which can be extended over the back. The
eeheiieminea, Mal Giant Water-bugs and their larve are among the
most destructive enemies of the young of the goldfish and other freshwater
fishes, which are often introduced into the hatching troughs as eggs or in
the larval stage. Some adults reach the tanks in their nuptual flights,
CreepiInc Warer-Bucs belong to the Naucoride, a small family of
flat-bodied oval-shaped bugs, having the anterior legs developed to seize
their prey and the middle and posterior legs
for creeping over the bottom of ponds and
water ways. All the species are predaceous but

confine their attacks
more generally to in-
sects and their larve.
Pilocoris femarata and

Ambrysus signoretti,

FIG, 203. Creeping Water-bug,
Miow2og,arethe prin= , “7Msenmes Beare
cipally distributed Atlantic Coast and Western
species. They are both of small size, rarely over
3g inch in length and of a reddish-brown color.
FIG. 204. Toad-bug, Pelogonus Toap-Bves belong to the family of Galgul-

ame-icanus. Enlarged.

ide, and inhabit the muddy margins of ponds,

ZS,

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

streams and marshes. The toad-like appearance, the short and broad
body, mottled color and protruding eyes led to the popular designation.
They are '4 to 3¢ inch long, are all predaceous and live principally on
spawn, insect larve and small snails. The most generally distributed
species of the United States are Galgulus oculatus, Pelogonus americanus,
Fig. 204, and Mononyx stygicus.

SHore-Bucs belong to the family of Saldide,
of which twelve species inhabit the United States,
four on the Atlantic Coast. They may often
be seen in considerable numbers on the margins
of water ways and take flight when disturbed but
soon alight. Their color is dark grey with white
7; to 36 inch

and yellow markings, and their size 3
in length. The most generally distributed
Eastern United States species are Sa/da signoretit,
Fig. 205, 8. pellita, 8. splacelata and S. anthracina.

BroApD-SHOULDERED WaATER-STRIDERS be-

FIG, 205. Shore-bug, Sa/da
signoretti, Enlarged.

long to the family of Veludz and are distinct
and different from the true Water-striders. They are smaller, much
broader across the thorax and thicker of limb, all of them aquatic in habit
and almost constantly on
the water, congregating
in school of hundreds.
The most @enerally.
distributed species of the
Atlantic Coast States are
Hebrus americanus, Fig.

BIG) eae! Broad-shouldered 206, and Khagovelia col-

Nae ee ler Wig: Sag bot ve

small size. All are pre-

daceous and feed on the juices of insects which fall into the water, mos-

quito larve and the tiny alevins of fishes, when they come to the surface
of the water to take air.

WarTER-STRIDERS belong to the family of Hydrometride, slender
long-legged insects which dart about on the surface of ponds and pools
of both fresh and salt water. Some species are winged and others wingless,
varying in length from % to 5% inch. The elongated body has very
closely folded wings and long hairlike legs, both covered with minute
hairs, which prevent the insect from becoming wet and sustain it upon
the surface of the water, the legs being almost continuously lifted to
prevent their becoming wet, in which case the insect would sink into the

FIG. 207. Broad-shouldered Water-
strider, Rhagovelia collaris. Enlarged.

256

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

water. The eggs are remarkably large for the size

of the insect. They are predaceous, feeding upon
living prey from which they suck the juices. The
most general species of the Eastern United States
are Hydrometra lineata, Fig. 208, and Hygrotrechus
remigis.

Marsu-Treapvers belong to the family of
Limnobatide and are very slender, almost thread-
like insects rarely over % inch long, with long heads,

. elongated thorax and abdomen, hairlike legs and of
ists 208, Waterstrideror inconspicuous dark color.. They crawl over the
ater, Hydrometra lineata,

Enlarged. mud and the water surface or adhere to water plants
partly above the surface, feeding upon the eggs and -- es
small larve of insects and snails. The most
generally distributed species are Limnobates lineata,
Fig. 209, and the allied Limnopus rufoscutellatus.

Aguatic Priant-Lice belong to the family of
Aphidide, commonly known as Aphides, small
soft-bodied winged or wingless insects, with oval-
lobed bodies, small heads, distinct eyes, filiform
antennz and six legs; which when winged have two
pairs of lace-like membranous wings. At the tip
of the abdomen there are usually a pair of cauda or
upward protruding air breathing tubes. They are

- usually viviparous and feed upon juices by means of
a three-jointed piercing and sucking beak inserted — FIG. 209. Marsh-treader,

Limnobates lineata.

into the tender portion of growing plants. The most Enlarged.
general species of Aphides which the
aquariist is likely to encounter is
Khopalosiphus nymphee, Fig. 210,
which infests the emersed and float-
ing leaves of Sagittaria, Potamogeton,
Duckweed, Cattails, Water-plantains,
FIG. 210. Aquatic plant-louse, Rhopalosiphus nymphew, Water-poppies and Lilies; while the

winged andiyinglesstages. | Enlarged. last two mentioned plants also have
Siphonophora lili, and two greenhouse species, Aphis lilico’a and
Rhopalosiphus dianthi. They produce a disfigurement of the leaves and
cause decay by sapping the juices.

Orper Nevuroprera. Of this order a considerable number of
families are aquatic. All have the body elongated, thin and broad, net-
veined membranous wings, large head with the mouth parts well developed,

257

/

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

prominent eyes, filiform antenne, long and full thorax and segmental
abdomen. ‘This order is now restricted to a few families in the United
States, including the Dobsons or Sialide, the May- or Shad-flies or
Ephemeride; the Stone-flies or Plecoptera; the Dragon-flies or Odonata;
and the Caddice-flies or Trichoptera.

Dossons belong to the family of Sialiade, and include the Fish-flies,
Hellgramites, Alder-flies and others of diverse popular names. They have
four thin, broad, net-veined wings which are folded when at rest. All
are weak flyers with legs scarcely able to support the body. The mouth
parts are developed for biting, the abdomen long and slender, the antenne
long, the head broad with protruding eyes, and the mandables well developed.
Of the Fish-flies or Sialis there are but two species, S. infumata and S.
americana, both small insects which frequent vegetation on the banks of
streams. The eggs are laid in white cottony masses on plants overhang-
ing the water, on bridges, piers, etc., into which the larvee drop when hatched.

The largest species of Dobson is the Horned Corydalis, C. corinita, which
has a spread of wings of over five inches and is quite generally distributed.

FIG. 211. Hellgramite, larva
of the Dobson. FIG. 212. Horned Dobson, Corydalis corinita.

The larve are known as Dobsons, Hellgramites, Bugies, etc., and are exten-
sively used as bait for game fishes. They live under rocks and

258

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

,

stones in the streams and feed on the larve and nymphe of May-flies,
Stone-flies and other aquatic insects. The larval stage lasts three months
and longer, but the pupal stage is quickly passed, and in less than a month
after the larva leaves the water to make a cell for itself nearby, in which
to undergo the metamorphosis, the adult insect or imago appears.

Some of the
common species
of Sialiade, of
smaller size, the
Alder-flies, or
Chauliodes, are
C. pecticornis, hav-
ing greyish wings
and featherlike
antennze, and: C.
serricornis of a
brownish - black
color with white-
spotted wings.
Four other species
are not quite so
generally distrib-
uted. — - Alle ehre
Dobson larve are
carnivorous and
destructive to
small fishes and

snails.
May-F igs or
15 SHAD-F igs _ be-
SG. once . long to family of
1. May-fly, Heptagenia pulchella, of the family Ephemeridz. Ephemeridz, sig-
2and';3). 88 Batis pygmea, lateral and dorsal views. PER é
4. Stone-fly, Leuctra tenella, of the family Plecoptera. nifying lasting but
5. Caddice-fly, Phryganea interrupta, of the family Hydropsychide. z h h
Enlarged x 6. aday. They have
6. ss Phryganea interrupta, Imagos at rest. Natural size. : 7
fe Ch larva, Enlarged x 5. delicate as m
8. =e pupal case. Enlarged x 4. ; branous wings,
g. Black-fly, Roederiodes juncta, of the family Empidide. Enlarged x 10. ;
10. ow larva. Enlarged x 5. with a fine net-
ils ce upa. ee xc S °
Cee ae oy ae ea Enlarged x 5. ; work of veins, the
13. Buffalo-fly, Simulium venustus, of the family Simuliide. Enlarged x 5. ae
g hap of pine: fore wings larger
14. oe larva. Enlarged x 6. than the second
TiGe Ce Natural size.

pair, which latter

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

pair are wanting in some species. All are aquatic, the larve active, swim-
ming among the water plants, crawling over the bottom, or burrowing
into the banks. The nymph has small wing pads and in its transformation
floats on the surface of the water until the skin opens and the winged
insect emerges, when a molt takes place, followed by a second before the
adult stage is reached. In the final metamorphosis the mouth parts and
the alimentary canal are atrophied so that the insect cannot eat, its life
being very brief, often but a day; but when the atmosphere is moist, it
may survive several days. Flight principally takes place in the early
morning and evening hours. ‘The eggs are deposited in the water either
by dropping on the surface or by the female creeping into the water incased
ina film of air. The larval life is from two to three years, during which
as many as twenty molts take place. Both the larve and nymphe of
nearly allspecies feed on vegetal matter, diatoms, alge and conferve and are
harmless to young fishes. Though enormously numerous in individuals
there are comparatively few species, not more than eight or ten in the
Eastern section of the United States; of which the more common are
Ephemera varia, Betis pygmea, Heptagenia pulchella, Fig. 213, and Siphlutus
alternatus, some of which are extensively grown by fish breeders as a food
for young fishes, especially the trout.

Stone-Fiies belong to the order of Plecoptera, signifying plaited
wing and referring to the folding of the hind wings. The body is long
and flat,and of the four membranous wings the hind pairare slightly the larger
and are folded on the abdomen when in repose. The antenne are long
and threadlike and the mouth parts developed for biting. All the species
are aquatic and propagate in enormous numbers in almost every rapid
rocky stream, the female depositing 5000 to 6000 eggs on the water.
The larve require aerated water and will not survive in any numbers
in stagnantor stillwater ponds and ditches. They are active andcarnivorous,
feeding upon the young May-flies, soft-bodied Dipterous larve and upon
vegetal matter. They have large flat heads, compound eyes anda flat body,
which enables them to crawl under stones in the water. Usually they
have long antenne and breathe by tracheal gills. The full-grown nymph
is active and varies with different species from % to 1% inches in length,
their cast skins being common objects along the banks of streams. The
most generally distributed species are Leuctra tenella, Fig. 213, Pteronarays
proteus, Acroneuria abnormis, Isogenus frontalis and Perla ephyre. There
are no records of their being injurious to young fishes, and larve form one
of the principal natural foods of the young trout, dace and other cold-
water fishes.

260

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

Dracon-F ies belong to the order of Odonata, signifying a tooth.
More than 2000 species have been established, of which about 300 inhabit
the United States. They are very slender insects having four elongated
membranous wings, finely
netted with veins, each with
a jointed structure or nodus
near the muddle of the: - pre! 254 \\tarva of a
front margin. The head is ae te
large and may be rotated mask, Enlarged.
on the slender neck, and the
large eyes are placed at the
sides of the head. The an-
tenne are short and slender,
the mouth parts developed
for biting and the legs placed
near the front of the thorax
and fitted more for grasp-
ing their prey and adhering

to leaves and twigs than for

walking. ‘They are day

, FIG, 215. Nymph of a Dragon-fly,
flyers, the prey being cap- Anax junius, with mask folded, not visible

from above. © Enlarged.

tured by the legs and man-
dables in their darting flights. It consists of flies, mosquitoes, midges,
gnats and other small insects. All the species are aquatic. ‘The eggs are
laid in the water, on the stems or in the tissue of aquatic plants. As soon
as the young are hatched they begin their predatory life under water, feed-
ing upon eggs, larve, small insects and entomostraca, which is continued
during their entire larval and nymphal existence, attacks being directed
to larger insects and animals as they increase in size. The larve and
nymphe, Figs. 214 and 215, have a formidable structure known as a
mask, consisting of a long, hinged apparatus with sharp hook teeth which
may be folded under the head or darted forward to seize insects and
fishes to draw them to the mouth. Most of them breathe by rectal gills,
this apparatus also affording the means of locomotion by the violent ex-
pulsion of the water. Some have both lateral and caudal abdominal gills.
There is a marked difference in appearance between the larva and
nymph of most species, the latter assuming a broad, flat form different
from the slender larva and the adult insect. Both larva and nymph have
short wing pads. When the final metamorphosis takes place the nymph
crawls out of the water, the skin splits over the back, and the adult
dragon-fly emerges. From nine to twelve months are required to develop

261

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

the adult, and the winged existence lasts but a few weeks; oviposition
being conducted by the same individual for a number of days. The
larvee of the same brood also develop unequally, some growing so
rapidly that they de-
vour their more tardy
brethren. When cap-
tured, the nymphe
not only prey upon
each other but upon
any living thing kept
with them, and the
larvee and nvmphe are
the most rapacious and
destructive enemies of
young fishes which the
aquarlist encounters, a
single one often de-
stroying an entire hat-
ching of several hun-
dred young fishes in a
few days. Nor are
their attacks confined
to young fishes, what-
ever contains life is fair
game: to them.) | ihe
principal families of
the Atlantic Coast and
Gulf States are the
FEschinide, Libell-
ulide, Cordullide,
Cordulegasteride, Ag-
rionide, Gomphide;
and the Calepterygide
or Damsel-flies, Fig.

FIG. 216, Dragon-fles, 216. The “Hammer-
1. A&chna heros. ae
2. Libellula pulchella. headed dragon flies
3. Gomphus exilis. comprise the genera
4. Argia violacea, a Damsel-fly. :

Reduced one-fourth, Agrion, Lestes and

Calopteryx, which frequent grassy margins of ponds, pools and swamps.
The larger are the ““High-flying-dragon flies,” A’schna and Corduligaster,

which frequent tall shrubbery and trees and are seldom seen over ponds

262

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

and waterways. These attack all winged insects, none seem too large to
escape their onslaughts; but their principal prey is the evening flying
Diptera and juicy, winged insects. The “Swift-flying dragon-flies’’ com-
prise the genera A’schnina, Gomphus, Anax, Cordulia, Tramea, Libellula,
Celithemis and Diplax; some of them nearly as swift of wing as A‘schna
but not capable of as lofty and long-sustained flight. Dragon-flies are
local in their habits, rarely flying far from their accustomed haunts, except
in occasional cases of migration. Belostoma, Notonecta, Ranatra and
other predaceous insects prey on the younger Dragon-fly larve, and frogs
will take the perfect insect, as will also some of the birds, notably the Fly-
catchers. It may be noted that Dragon-flies are most inveterate enemies
of the mosquito in all the stages of its development, attempts having been
made to introduce them extensively to aid in exterminating this pest
The most common species of Dragon-flies in the Eastern and Middle
States are Gomphus exilis, Cordulegaster maculatus, Aischna heros, A.
clepsydra, Anax junius, Tramea carolina, Libellula pulchella, Celithemis
elisa, Diplax ribicunda, Calopteryx maculata, Lestes unguiculata, Epicordulia
princeps and Argia violacea. Fig. 216. Agrion is not found in the
Eastern section of the United States.

Cappice-Fires or Capprice-Worms belong to the order of Trichop-
tera, signifying hair-winged. They are mothlike insects usually having
four membranous wings with numerous longitudinal veins, few cross veins
and more or less clothed with hairs, which, at rest, are folded against
the abdomen, the hind wings being usually the broader. They are com-
mon near ponds, streams and lakes and frequent shady places, resting on
leaves and twigs, rarely flying during the day. The eggs are laid in gela-
tinous masses attached to water plants. The larve, known as Rock-worms,
are aquatic, elongate and cylindrical in form with a tough horny head and
thorax and a soft thin-skinned abdomen; which construct protective cases,
open at the ends, of any available materials, leaves, twigs, sand, shells and
small stones, all spun together by means of silk threads, to protect the
Caddice-worm from predatory insects and other natural enemies. ‘They
breathe by tracheal gills at the side of the abdomen, and live several
months in the larval condition, passing the pupal stage in the cases, both
ends of which are then sealed with a silk netting. The final metamor-
phosis takes place above the water on plants or on the banks, the fly
emerging from the pupa fully developed and immediately takes to flight.
The food of the larve is principally vegetal, but one family is carnivorous
and feeds upon small insect larve. There are more than 150 North
American species, the more generally distributed of the Eastern and
Middle States being PAryganea interrupta, Fig. 213, Limnephilus rhombicus,

263

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

Sericostoma americana, Rhyacophila torva, Leptocerus transversus and Mac-
ronema xebratus, each also representative of a distinct genus of the order
Trichoptera.

Orper Taysanura. This order includes the so-called Bristle-tails,
Spring-tails, Fish-moths and others; wingless insects which undergo no
metamorphoses and retain the larval form in the adult. The mouth parts
are developed for biting and chewing soft substances and they are some-
times provided with rudimentary legs only. “The sub-orders comprise the
Bristle-tails or Cinura; the Spring-tails or Collembola, and the Water
Spring-tails or Poduride, with only the last of which we are concerned.

Warer Sprinc-Tairs belong to the family of Poduride, of which
P. aquatica, Fig. 217, is often found on the surface of quiet ponds and
still water. It is a black insect with six legs, dis- 2
tinctly segmental abdomen withouta constriction to
divide it and the thorax, plumed antenne, reddish
legs provided with hairs and sharp claws, devoid
of wings, and of which the larvee may be distin-
guished from the adult only by their still smaller
size. Achorutes nivicola is another species some-

times found under the surface of the water, and
Lepidocyrtus americanus in greenhouses, under logs FIG aay, Watereprneeil
and in similar situations. They are small entirely Poduras oquation, “Enlatecs
harmless insects, mentioned only because they often attract the attention
of the fish culturist and Natural History collector.

Orper Diptera. This order includes insects which may be properly
called Flies; those having but two wings borne by the mesothorax and
include the Mosquitoes, Midges and Gnats. The wings are thin and
membranous, the mouth parts formed for sucking, the thorax and abdomen
slender, and the eyes distinct and placed at the sides of the head. The
order includes the Mosquitoes or Culicidee; Net-winged. Midges or
_ Blepharoceride and Chironomid; Moth-like Flies or Psychodide, Crane-

flles and False Crane-flies, Black and Buffalo-flies, Horse-flies, Soldier-flies,
the Long-legged flies, Snipe-flies and many others.

Mosguiroes belong to the family of Culicide, small flies with narrow
wings and long and slender abdomen, of which the males have plumelike
antennz. They frequent moist localities and pass all the stages of develop-
ment to the perfect insect in the water, a new brood appearing every
three or four weeks. In depositing the eggs the female rests upon some
floating object with the anterior legs, the middle legs rest on the water and
the posterior legs are crossed to hold the eggs as they are laid, with their
longer diameter vertical, and glued together to form a raft of often 200

264

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

together, which float about
five or six days till the em-
brios emerge from the under
side and at once take to the
water. The larve keep near
the sides of the pools or just
below the water level, as
they are not deepwater
feeders and must fre-
quently come to the sur-
face to breathe, the oriface
of the air tube being thrust
out of the water. After a
number of molts the pupa
is developed, which has the
head, thorax, wings and legs
folded in one mass and the
abdomenfree for navigation.
The pupa and nymph
stages are passed in a few
4 days and when the period of

FIG. 216. Long-beaked Mosquitoes, Culex pungens. emergence is reached, the

Adult female and male. Greatly enlarged. nymph case opens over

the back and the perfect insect appears; which, after drying itself, takes
wing and disappears. The food of the larve is vegetal substances and the
minute water infusoria. It is only the female insect which has the pro-
boscis developed for drawing blood, and both it and the male feed princi-
pally by sucking the juices of plants at night, the irritation of the bite
being due to a venomous salivary secretion which probably serves to make
the blood more liquid. The perfect insect also attacks other insects, cold-
blooded vertebrates, small fishes, birds and other warm-blooded animals.
The enemies of the larve and pupz are all the carnivorous insects and
their larve, tadpoles, frogs, salamanders, newts, minnows, sunfishes, perch,
sticklebacks, etc.; and those of the adult Dragon-flies are frogs and toads,
night-flying birds and bats. It was a theory that the female Mosquito
required animal blood to perfect the eggs, but this is scarcely possible con-
sidering the enormous numbers of which only an infinitesimal proportion
ever taste the blood of animals. Mosquitoes are classified as long and
short beaked. The long-beaked genera of North America are Anopheles,
Mergarhinus, Psorophora, Toxorhynchites, Stegomyia, Conchyliastes,
Culex, Uranoteznia and Aédes, of which there are several hundred species.

265

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

Of these Anopheles bear the Plasmodium malarie which produces malaria]
fever, Culex pipiens those of Roman fever, Stegomyia fasciata those of yellow

ie

¢

FIG. 219. Malaria Mosquitos, Anopheles quadrimaculatus. Adult male and female. Greatly enlarged.

fever, and Culex ciliaris the parasitic Filarias which produce elephantiasis.
Figs. 218 to221incl. Fishes of the carp family are very useful in ponds
to destroy mosquito larve, but the surface-feeding Top-minnow is the
best to destroy Anopheles the malaria mosquito larva, which develops and

FIG. 220. Mosquito-boat or Egg-mass, with enlarged eggs and young larve.

266

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

hatches on the surface of the water, and stocking with these is an approved
preventive measure.

The larvze and pupe of mosquitoes are one of the best natural foods
for goldfishes, in many respects preferable to the entomostraca. They
are usually more easily obtained, larger in size, more tenacious of life and
are eagerly eaten by the young fishes, who acquire a most remarkably
rapid growth on this
diet. It is not ad-
visible to feed them
to very small fishes,
as these are not able
to swallow them and
may, in turn, be at-
tacked by the larve,
but for fishes which
have reached a
growth of half an
inch, they should

form one of the

principal foods. A | 7
few barrels filled with : Ws

rain water at any ei vis

= < CS =a
convenient place Ze Z
only are required; in ye”

which they may be fe oN

bred either by the
visits of female mos-
quitoes, or more
quickly stocked by
catches in ponds and ditches. “They breed very rapidly and are a cleaner
diet than the usual live pond food. The use of mosquito larve is almost

FIG. 221. Full-grown larva and pupa of Culex pungens. Greatly enlarged.

universal among goldfish breeders and is to be in every way recommended.

Net-Wincep Mnupces belong to the families of Blepharoceride and
Chironomide, of which the tiny larve appears more like crustaceans than
insects. Some of the species, Blepharocera capitata, Chironomus minutus
and C. plomosus, live in the water during the larval and pupal stages, are of
black color and consist of segments bearing leg-like appendages, each
having sucker breathing gills. They usually occur in clusters which
form black patches on submerged rocks. When the final metamorphosis
takes place the pupa detaches itself from its mooring, floats to the surface,
and the Midge rends the case and takes to flight. They form the natural

267

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

food for many of the larger insects, young fishes, etc. Net- -winged
Midges are a very numerous family of hanarete of genera and species.
Aguatic Fiies. Some of the flies frequent water courses, ponds and
pools in which they deposit eggs and where they pass the larval and
pupal stages. Among these are the Moth-like flies of the family Psycho-
dide; the Crane-flies of the families Tipulide, Syrphide and Muscide; the
False Crane-flies, Rhyphide; the Black-flies, Empidide; and the Buffalo-flies,
Simulide; Fig. 213; the Horse-flies, Tabanide; the Soldier-flies, Stratio-
myiide; the Snipe-flies, Leptide; the Long-legged Flies, Dolichopodida;
and many others, far too many and too complex in classification for further
description in a volume of this character. The aquatic genera are all
harmless to young fishes and constitute a part of their natural food.
Orper Coreoprera. Of this order a number of families are aquatic.
They have a pair of veinless horny wing covers or elytra, occupying the
position of the fore wings, folded and meeting in a straight line down the back,
under which is a single pair of membranous wings, though some species have
the rudiments of fore wings under the elytra. More than 80 families of
Coleoptera occur in America north of Mexico and over 11,000 species
have been described. The most generally distributed genera and species
of the Eastern section of the United States, which for either a part of, or
their entire existence, inhabit the water,are the Predaceous Diving-beetles or
Dytiscide; the Water-scavenger beetles and Great Water-beetles or
Hydrophilide, the Whirligig-beetles or Gyrinide; the Pond-beetles
or Haliplide; and many other smaller beetles belonging to these genera.
Prepaceous Divinc-BeetLtes or Warter-Drvers belong to the
family of Dytiscide and are brownish-black shining beetles of oval form
with threadlike antenne. The anterior and middle legs are adapted for
crawling, the posterior legs are longer, fringed with hairs
and adapted for swimming. ‘They abound in ponds and
still water, sometimes in streams. The breathing apparatus
is located at the hind end of the body, the beetle at rest
floating on the water in an inclined position, head down-
ward, and by slightly raising the wing covers admits air
under them for breathing under the water. They are
voraceous and attack all water animals, even large fishes,
frogs and snakes. The larve are known as Water-tigers,
Fig. 222, most ferocious enemies to all living water animals,
some of them growing to a length of 2% inches. ‘They have

an elongated spindle form with a large head, and strong,
* FIG. Bas curved and hollow mandables for holding and sucking the
ater-tiger,. arva

ofa Predaceous. juices of their prey. The segmental body has six legs and
Deine ; ; ; ; a :
iving-beetle. —_ terminatesina pair of breathingtubes. Theeggs are deposit-

268

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

ed in the water and the larve leave the water, burrow into the ground to
there undergo the final metamorphosis. The flight of the Diving-beetles

is nocturnaland their specs

migrations are from
pond to pond, being
also attracted by
bright surfaces and
lights. The com-

mon genusis Acilius
which is about 34 FIG. 223. Predaceous Diving-beetle, Acilius fraternus, Female and male, Enlarged,
inch long, of a polished brownish-black color, marked with dull yellow;
the elytra covered with fine punctures, the female having four furrows
oneach wing cover. ‘The morecommon species are 4. fraternus, Fig. 223,
and 4. mediatus. ‘The largest belong to the Dytiscus, Cybister and allied
genera; the former having the cups on the under side of the tarsal discs
varying in size, and
the latter similarand
of uniform size.
The more common
of these are D. fas-
civentris, Fig. 224,
D. hybridus, and
C. fmbriolatus. The
genus Colymbetes
has the elytra mark-

FIG. 224. Predaceous Diving-beetle, Dydiscus fasciventris. Female and male. ed with apis chon

Enlarged. — fine transverse stria-
tions. The most common species is C. scu/ptilis.
All are fairly good flyers and widely distributed
in almost the entire United States,

W aTER-SCAVENGER BEETLES (GREAT WATER-
Beetes) belong to the family of Hydrophilide
and closely resemble the Predaceous Diving-
beetles in general appearance, but are more
convex and have short club-shaped antennz
concealed beneath the head and very long
palpi, the parts next to the mandables. They
are dusky-black beetles of elong-elliptical

form, strong, active and of savage disposition.
Both the middle and the posterior legs are fringed FIG. 225. Water Scavenger-beetle

: . = 5 = - or Great Water-beetle, Hydrophilus
with hairs and adapted for swimming; while the palo (Male

269

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

anterior legs are prehensile and adapted to aid in holding their prey.
The many hundred eggs are deposited in a cocoon spun by the female
and attached to the lower side of the floating leaves of aquatic plants or’
drifting leaves and branches, Fig. 226, to which the female clings with
her posterior legs, and guards until the larve are hatched. These also
somewhat resemble those of the Dytiscide but are thicker and have shorter
mandables, those of the larger genera growing to 2% or 3 inches in
length and % inch thick. They are popularly known as Spear-
mouths, and are ravenous feeders, destroying water insects, flies, small
snails, tadpoles, fishes, and their younger and weaker brethren; all of
which they attack and
crush with their power-
ful madables to extract
the “juices. ‘hey | are
very destructive to young
fishes and will destroy
hundreds in a few days
in the hatching and rear-
ing tanks. The largest
beetles of this family be-
long to the genus Hydro-
philus of which the most
commonspeciesare /7. ¢ri-
angularis and H. glaber,
Fig. 225, the next larger
to Hydrocharis, of which

FIG. 226, Water Scavenger-beetle or Great Water-beetle, Hydrophilus HH. obtusatus is the more
glaber. Female attached to Egg-pouch and predaceous larva, or Spear-mouth.

common, and the smaller
to Hydrochus, of which about twelve species inhabit the Eastern and
Middle States, the more common forms being H. scabratus and H.variolatus.
There are a number of other genera, and some of the smaller species are
not aquatic but live in moist earth and manure, feeding upon Dipterous
larve. The Water-scavenger beetles are nocturnal in their flights, strong
of wing and are attracted by lights and bright surfaces; are frequently seen
near electric lights and will penetrate into houses, instances being recorded
of their having found their way into household aquaria through open
windows. A\ll of this order have short antenne, clavate or clubbed at the
tips and may easily be distinguished from the Diving-beetles.
Warruicic-Beet es, also popularly known as Scuttle Bugs and Spin-
ners, belong to the family of Gyrinide and occur in great numbers on al-
mostallstilland slow-flowing waters. They are brilliant bluish-black beetles

270

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

with peculiar jointed antenne, strong mandables and
eyes divided by the margins of the head, so that
they appear to have eyes for looking into the air
and a second pair for seeing into the water. The
body is of slightly flattened oval or elliptical form,
the anterior legs very long and the middle and pos-
terior legs short, broad and flattened. ‘The breath-
ing apparatus is located at the sides and back of the

abdomen. Small cylindrical eggs are laid in parallel
rows upon aquatic plants, and the larve are narrow, — gy¢. he Whirligig-beetle,
flat and long, somewhat resembling centipedes. Gyrinus affinis, Enlarged,
Each abdominal segment is furnished with gills and the caudal end has a
pair of breathing tubes. Fig.229. When fully developed the larva leaves the
water to spin a cocoon onsome near by Nee
object, in which it passes the pupal
stage and emerges in about one month
as the fully developed beetle. The ~*=
4 :
food of the larva consists of the 7%
smaller water animals; that of the ARS

beetle of flies and other insects, small MES
tadpolesand young fishes. The mouth TES
= LO

parts of the beetle are developed for “777
FIG. 228. Whirligig-beetle, biting and can inflict stinging and ap
pee ee tnhet bleeding weunds. “Whey arevery agile ae: ae Fe Be
swimmers, their peculiar gyrations on the water having po rare
earned for them both their scientific and popular names. Enlarged.
There are three generally distributed genera, Gyretes, of which the most
common species is G. simatus; Gyrinus, of which G. rockinghamensis and
G. affinis, Fig. 227, are most generally distributed; and Dineutus, of
which D. vittatus, Fig. 228, and D. assimelis are the more generally
distributed forms in the Eastern and Middle States.
: Ponp-Beerttes or Hatip tips are small beetles
belonging to the large family of Haliplide, having
oval bodies more or less pointed at each end; the
three most generally distributed aquatic genera be-
ing Brychius of the Pacific Coast States, and Hall-
plus and Cnemidotus, common to almost all ponds
and streams on the Atlantic slope. The larve are
aquatic and have a slender segmental body furnished

FIG. 230. Pond-beetle or : : : -
Haliplid, Haliplus rufcollis, With spiny tips, the last segment bearing a long

Greatly enlarged.

single or forked caudal appendage. The most

271

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

generally distributed species of Haliplus are 7. fasciatus and H. ruficollis,
Fig. 230, and of Cnemidotus, C. punctatus. They are harmless to young
fishes but have been observed to feed upon spawn.

SmatLerR Warer-Beettes. A small water-beetle of the family Par-
nid, Psephemus lecontii, Fig. 231, has a dark ees body clothed
with fine silken hair to retain a film of air when
it crawls below the water surface, adhering to
plants and stones, as the legs are not so well
developed forswimming. The larva is very flat,
broadly oval or almost circular, 7, inch in length,
and consists of 10 to 12 closely fitted segments.
It lives principally upon vegetal substances
but attacks the spawn of snails and fishes.

Another small aquatic beetle belonging to
the family of Heterocerus, H. pusi/lus, hasan FIG. 231. A Smaller Water-beetle,
oblong or nearly oval form of dark-brown color Cr aie ae
with bands and spots of yellow. It is almost covered with hairs for the
retention of air and burrows galleries into the mud at the margins of ponds
and streams. ‘The mouth parts are developed for biting. The larve
and nymphe of another member of this family, H. roseatus, are of a
bright-red color.

There are many other small Water-beetles not so frequently met
with and mention of all of which would too greatly amplify this volume.
They are usually harmless to fishes, and are scavengers rather than
active enemies.

Orver Lepipoprera. Of this order a number of families abound
in the neighborhood of marshes and ponds and several species feed upon
the leaves of aquatic plants. Of these the larve have in various de-
grees adopted an aquatic existence. They are the China-Moths or Hydro-
campa, the China-Marks or Cataclysta, and several other smaller genera.

Cuina-Morus belong to the genus Hydrocampa, the species varying
in length of body from 3g to 5% inch and in spread of wings from 34 to
114 inch, while the larve or caterpillars are 1% to 1 inch long, of a white
color tinged with yellow, with
the body thickest at the mid-
dle and narrowed at both the
ends, having 16 feet, the last
pair very short. The popular
name of the moth is dueto the

markings on the wings which
FIG, 232. Water-moths. China-moth, Hydrocampa obliteralis

and China-mark, Cataclysta fulicalis. Enlarged with extended wings. are white, mottled with Vidioyis

272

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

ing patterns and shades in brown. It may be seen on the wing in early
summer, deposits its eggs, encased in a gelatinous capsule, on the under
side of floating leaves near the edges. The larve burrow into the leaf
until too large to find a refuge, when they bite off oval pieces and fasten
them to other parts of the leaf with a gelatinous secretion or silk; and in
this secure retreat the molts take place. The more general species are
H. obliteralis, Fig. 232, which lives on water plants in greenhouses, rarely
out-of-doors, H. albalis, H. allionealis, A. ekthlipsis, H. icciusalis, H.
obscuralis, H. stenialis, and six other species on the Atlantic slope of
the United States.

Cuina-Marks or Caractysta are small moths, rarely over 54 inch
spread of wings, of which those of the male are white, with black mark-
ings and of the female brownish with darker markings. The larva is
brownish and is most often found among the duckweed, of which it spins
together the leaves to form a casing. The more general species are C.
fulicalis, Fig. 232, and C. difascialis, with three other species not so
generally distributed in the United States.

There are several other genera of Lepidoptera which are semi-aquatic
but which are not generally distributed and need not be mentioned here.

Orper Aricunip#. This order, consisting of the spiders, scorpions
mites and harvest-men, possesses certain characteristics in common with
the Crustaceans with which it is allied. All the families have a com-
bined head and thorax, a globular, ovate, cylindrical
or triangular abdomen connected by a slender waist;
eight legs attached to the thorax, and simple eyes,
varying from 2 to 12 1n number, placed in two trans-
verse rows. The mouth parts are armed with
powerful forceps to seize, hold and poison their
prey, below which is a pair of maxilla, somewhat

resembling a pair of legs. The spinning organs
are situated at the tip of the abdomen and the oy

FIG. 233. Aquatic-Spider,
rgvroneta aquatica. Abdomen

Breathing apparatusiis at the forward portion of the ‘sounded with air. | Enlarged.

abdomen. It serves the purpose of lungs, the colorless blood circulates
around and through it and is aerated by the absorption of air. There is
no metamorphosis, as the young, just issued from the egg, exactly resembles
the adult. Molting continues after the spiders have reached the adult
stage. All the aquatic genera belong to the Senoculina, or six-eyed group.
One species, Argyroneta aquatica, Fig. 233, about 3, inch long, spins a
baglike web of silk half the size of an acorn among the water plants with
the opening below the surface, and lives in it under the water, taking a
bubble of air into it each time it comes to the surface; effected by erecting

273

AQUATIC INSECTS OF FRESHWATER

the end of the abdomen out of the water, jerking it under and quickly
crossing the hind legs over it, then descending to the nest and by opening
the legs the air bubble escapes into the nest. The hairs on the body keep
the surface from becoming wet, and in the nest the spider is as dry as on
land. The 40 to 100 cocoons, containing the round saffron-colored eggs,
are laid in the nest during June, and in July the young are large enough
to spin a nest of their own. Another family of the eight-eyed group, the
Lycosidz, have semi-aquatic genera which almost exclusively live on the
banks of ponds and streams and prey upon aquatic insects, chasing them
on the surface of the water. Some species grow-to nearly one inch in
length. Other smaller species are of similar habit. These often dive below
the surface when pursued by enemies from above the water or when in
pursuit of their prey.

Acarina. This family consists of the lowest order of the Arachnide,
which live in the earth and in both fresh and salt water. They comprise
the Mites and Ticks which differ from other Arachnids in their oval or
rounded forms, which are not articulated. The mouth parts are developed
for biting and sucking and they breathe by tracheal gills. Of this family
the Water-mites are known as Hydrachnide, which have soft, oval un-
segmented bodies, and limbs adapted for swimming, terminating with
adhesive vesicles. They are parasitic on fishes and mussels, while some
of the smaller species live on the Hemiptera, Coleoptera and other insects.
The most generally distributed genera are Hydrachna, Atex, Limno-
chares and the marine Pontarachna. Atex hasan oval solid body of bright
red color with curved, clawlike mandables, acute, pointed maxillaries, and
short, weak legs. The species inhabit some of the mussels, 4. ypsilophorus
in Anadonta and 4. humorosa in Unios. ‘The eggs are laid in the spring
on the stems of water plants and when hatched seek hosts in which to pass
their subsequent existence. A bright red species, Bdella maritima, occurs
under stones between tidemarks. Three species of Trombidium are re-
presented in the United States, all of red color.

HypracHNna or WaArTeER-MITES, are common in ponds. They are
tenacious of life and steadily move about by the rapid movements of
their fringed legs. The larve have six and the adult
eight legs, which increase in length, with the posterior
pair the longest. The body is slightly convex, the
mandables needle-shaped, the third joint of the max-
illa the longest, and all the species have two distinct
eyes. They are parasitic on both fishes and mussels,

FIG. 234. Water-mite,
Hydrachna geographica. ' .
Enlarged. and are frequent external freshwater parasites, easily

detected by their size. The largest and most widely distributed form is
H. geographica, Fig. 234, while H. globosa and H. triangularis are also

frequently occurring species.

274

CHEAP ER <i:

Aquarium Construction, Tools and Appliances

20 IN.

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION

In the construction of an aquarium the first consideration should be
the comfort of the animal inmates, then the production of a pleasing form,
with sufficient strength to insure against leaks or breaking of the glass by
the water pressure. This latter, as previously mentioned, frequently
occurs with all-glass aquaria, and has led to the more general adoption of
brass and iron-framed aquarium tanks.

Aguarium Proportions. Surface aeration being necessary to the
survival of all forms of aquatic life, the aquarium should be constructed to
have large surface dimensions, greater than the depth of the water; even

ey 1O1N.

20 1N-

w

FIG. 235.

though its appearance may not be quite as pleasing as the usual high and
narrow forms, designed to offer the largest field of view, to occupy the
least space, and to restrict the weight of both the aquarium and its con-
tents. To test the importance of surface aeration, a few freshwater fishes
may be placed into a shallow dish of water and the same number into a
high and narrow jar containing the same quantity of water, when it will
be observed how soon those in the latter receptacle will come to the
surface gasping for air. The diagram, Fig» 235, shows three vessels,
each containing 1000 cubic inches of water, the first having a surface
area of 50 square inches, the second 100 square inches, and the third
200 square inches. No. 3 will support at least twice as many fishes as
No. 2 and four times as many as No. I.

The length of an aquarium may be proportioned to the available
space, but the breadth should not exceed 24 inches; when greater than
this the contents will be somewhat obscured. The depth of water
should not exceed 20 inches, because the pressure of the water would cause
discomfort to the inmates and tend to confine their movements to the
upper part of the aquarium. Large shallow tanks always give the best re-
sults. When space is available and the light is on the surface, a nearly

277

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION, TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

square aquarium may be adapted, but at a window with front light, the
proportion should approximate a double cube, the length twice the breadth;
but in either form the depth of the water should not be over 20 inches.

Aquarium Bases. A variety of materials may be utilized in the
construction of a base or bottom for an aquarium. Heavy white pine,
cross-battened on the under side and covered with zinc or glass; a plate
of thick glass inclosed in a strong wooden or other frame, or slabs of
marble or slate are all practicable; but wood will prove unsatisfactory for
aquaria exposed to the weather. Slate is the best material and may be
had of dealers in the desired sizes and thicknesses, with the edges either
polished or marbleized. Slate bases one inch thick weigh 14 pounds per
square foot. The required thicknesses are:

For aquaria to 15 gallons, not less than % inch thick.

¢ ia$ « ia$ ce cc «ec a9 cc
40 34

«cc “ a9 So cc « «ec cc I « «cc
is cc « cc «ee a9 «cc «cc «ee
9 I/
125 ry

Aquaria with cast iron bases and frames may be obtained but should
be thoroughly protected from rust on the surfaces in contact with the
water by asphaltum varnish or other protecting covering.

Aquarium Frames. Wooden frames may serve for small aquaria,
but are not satisfactory. Contact with the water will cause warping and leaks.
Zinc frames are too weak for aquaria of larger size. Angle brass frames
are largely used and make handsome aquaria, either polished and lacquered
or nickel-plated. For very large aquaria the angles, as rolled, are weak
and should be reinforced by soft-soldering two together, as otherwise the
resistance to the water pressure will depend too much on the strength of
the glass plates. Angle iron is the most satisfactory for all sizes and may
be obtained in different widths and thicknesses. The proper sizes and
weights are:

For aquaria to 15 gallons, % to 5% inch, weighing .56 pounds per foot.

«“ «c «cc «¢ «cc «cc c «c (<9
30 34 62

«cc «Cc «cc 60 «cc % « «“ 87 “ «cc «cc

cc «c “c 80 «¢ I «cc «cc 1.50 «c «cc (<9

“ «cc «cc 125 «c I i « « Le75 (<4 «cc «cc

Aguarium Gtass. Double-thick window glass may be used for
aquaria under 20 gallons, or for the narrower sides of those under 30
gallons capacity; but its composition is such that its power of expansion
and contraction is slight and itis liable to fracture from slight strains.
Double-thick Crown or German-flint glass is preferable, and better resists
pressure and danger from accidents. Plate glass is best for all aquaria,
and may be had in two or more thicknesses, 14 inch for aquaria under 60

278

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION, TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

gallons, and 3¢ inch for larger ones. Crystal plate is a beautifully polished,
white flint glass used for the finest aquaria. It is softer in composition
than the usual American plate glass.

Aquarium Cements. The desired properties of an aquarium cement
are insolubility, resistance to the action of water, strong adhesion, and
absence of deleterious substances in its composition. It should “set,” or
become fairly hard, but not too quickly, nor become so hard that it will
not permit of some expansion and contraction of the glass and frame. It
should be sufficiently soft to be readily applied and to adhere closely to
the surfaces. When its consistency is like that of stiff glazier’s putty it
is sufficiently thinned for use.

White and red leads form durable chemical combinations with linseed
oil, but the acid substances which accumulate in the aquarium produce
combinations with them which are injurious, so that when they are used
they should be covered with a coating of paste composed of whiting and of
shellac dissolved in naptha. Together with litharge, they may be used
where the glass is set into grooves; but for all purposes, zinc white is
more satisfactory and should be given the preference.

CEMENTS FOR WoopeEn-FRAmeED AguariA._ For securing the glass
into wooden-framed aquaria, either of two cements may be used. One is
composed of 4 parts by weight of pitch and 1 part of gutta percha, boiled
together and applied warm to the heated frame and glass. The other
consists of 2 parts by weight of zinc white, 1 part of litharge, 3 parts of
Portland cement, 3 parts of fine sand and 1 part of powdered resin, kept
dry in an air-tight receptacle, and when used made into a thick paste with
boiled linseed oil. It “sets” quickly and becomes very hard.

CEMENT FoR Zinc-FRAMED AguariA. The glass and frame are
painted with “gold size” and permitted to dry. The cement is composed
of equal parts of zinc white and red lead, rubbed into boiled linseed
oil, to which sufficient litharge is added to make a thick putty.

Cement ror Brass and IRon-Framep Aquaria. A good cement
for aquaria of thin glass, but not so well adapted for double-thick or plate
glass, consists of 3 parts by weight of zinc white, 2 parts of litharge and
2 parts of Portland cement, mixed into a thick paste with boiled linseed
oil, and an equal bulk of glazier’s putty added. ‘This “‘sets” hard and
makes a very durable cement. For plate glass the following are extensively
used: First, the frame, base and glass are painted with gold size. ‘The
cement is made of 1 part by weight of zinc white, 1 part of red lead, 1 part
of litharge, 16 parts of glazier’s putty and a very little ivory black, well
kneaded together with a little boiled linseed oil and a small quantity of
Japan drier. This “sets” slowly and never becomes perfectly hard, so as

279

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION, TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

to allow of the slight expansion and contraction. Second, a harder drying
cement may be made of 2 parts by weight of red lead, 1 part of litharge
and 16 parts of glazier’s putty, mixed and applied similarly to the fore-
going. Third, equal parts, by measure, of litharge, red lead, plaster of
paris, powdered resin, boiled linseed oil and Japan drier; mixed and used
at once. Fourth, one gill each of litharge, powdered resin, fine white sand
and plaster of paris; mixed and cooked to a paste with boiled linseed oil
and a little Japan varnish.

Should any of these cements not set sufficiently hard, as may happen
in warm weather, Portland cement will remedy the difficulty. The bright-
red color of these cements may be modified to any desired shade by the
addition of ivory black.

CEMENTS FOR Marine Aquarra. A cement composed of 2 parts
of litharge, 3 parts of Portland cement, 3 parts of fine sand, 1 part of
powdered resin, mixed to a thick putty with boiled linseed oil, is most
generally used. Another cement is composed of litharge made into a stiff
putty with glycerine and sets very hard. It may bealso used to stop leaks.

CEMENT FOR FRAMELESS AQuaRIA. Powdered sulphur is added to
melted beeswax to form a very thick fluid, and poured into the corner
posts after the aquarium is assembled. Another cement for aquaria,
having the base grooved to dispense with a lower frame, consists of zinc
white, and spar varnish, to which any coloring substance may be added,
and made into a thick paste or putty.

CEMENT FOR Rockwork AND TurTstone. Equal parts of Portland
cement and sharp white sand are the best for these uses. Mineral and
animal oils should never be used in aquarium construction.

Aquarium Paints. Asphaltum varnish is the best coating for all
frames, over which oil paints of an desired color may be used; but not
where it will come into contact with the aquarium water. Bronze, silver
or aluminum powders in gold size make a handsome finish. Surfaces in
contact with the water, or in moist places, are best protected with asphal-
tum varnish. Decalcomania decorations on the frames, covered with
varnish, make handsome embellishments.

ConstrucTinG AguariuM Frames. To facilitate comprehension of
the construction of angle-framed aquaria, the parts will be described as the
lower and upper frames and the corner posts. The greatest accuracy must be
observed to have all the parts of exactly the same size, true, plumb and at
right angles. The angle iron, which constitutes the upper and lower
frames, must be marked of exactly the right lengths and the mitre-pieces
sawed or filed out at the corners so that the frames when bent will be true
in all directions, prior to which the bolt holes in the lower frame should

280

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION, TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

be drilled and countersunk to take in the flat heads of the bolts. A rivet
hole is drilled through the frames on each side of the corners, to exactly
correspond with those in the corner posts, which are countersunk for the
rivets. that they may be hammered flush on the inside of the frame.

The base is usually 3 inches greater in length and breadth, so as to
extend 11% inches beyond the frame on all sides. The frame is set upon
the base and the bolt holes marked; which are then drilled through the
slate and opened on the under side to accommodate the nuts. Stove-bolts
of the exact required length are the best for this purpose.

ASSEMBLING THE Aquarium. When assured that all the parts are
true and in perfect alignment, and the bolt holes in the lower frame and in
the base exactly plumb, the lower frame and the base under it should be
coated with zinc white, and after this dries, aquarium cement spread over
this part of the base and the frame evenly and securely drawn tight by the
bolts, the number of which depends upon the size of the aquarium; but
one should be placed very near each side of the four corners, with one, two
or three between, at even intervals, on both the long and the short sides,
to make the frame rigid and to prevent subsequent leaks. The bolt holes
and the space about the nuts should be filled with aquarium cement. A
method of construction is to use separate corner pieces to unite the lower
and upper frames with the corner posts, usually adopted for large aquaria,
which has the advantage of making all the inner sides flush; but riveting
them together and filling the space between the frame and the glass with
cement is quite as neat and strong in construction.

SeTTiInG THE Grass. The glass should be carefully cleaned with
whiting to remove grease. The frame having been filled with a smooth
coating of cement, the glass should be carefully pressed against it, the
longer sides being first inserted and kept in place by wooden strips at the
top and bottom, and then those of the shorter sides inserted; all done by
very gentle pressureand supported in place by the wooden strips, acting as
braces. After a day, the lower and upper edges of the glass at the frames
and the corners, where front and side meet, may be covered with aquarium
cement, and this left to harden or covered with slender strips of glass.
Filling the aquarium with water will tend to exert an even pressure on all
sides and cause the glass to press evenly on the cement. ‘The cement
however will take longer to become hard. When taking an angle-framed
aquarium apart, there will be less likelihood of breaking the glass if the
cement is softened by running a knife-blade between it and the glass and
pouring in coal oil.

281

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION, TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

SOME AQUARIA DATA

231 cubic inches of water are a gallon, which weighs 8% pounds; a
cubic foot of water contains 7% gallons, and 268 gallons weigh a long
ton of 2240 pounds.

The weight in pounds of the water in an aquarium may be obtained
by multiplying the number of gallons by 8%.

The pressure on the bottom of an aquarium is obtained by multiply-
ing the height, in inches, by 0.43, the result being pounds per square
inch of bottom; the pressure on the sides by multiplying the length by
the breadth, in inches, and this by one-half the pounds pressure per inch
on the bottom, obtained as above. The result is the total pressure in
pounds.

The number of gallons in a rectangular aquarium is obtained by
multiplying the length, breadth and depth, in inches, and dividing by
231. The result is in gallons. Should the sides be sloping, the mean of
the upper and lower diameters, (the diameter in the middle,) is taken.

The capacity of 'a sphere is obtained by multiplying the cube of the
diameter, in inches, by 0.5236 and dividing by 231. The result is in
gallons.

The capacity of a cylinder is obtained by multiplying the square of
the radius (one-half the diameter,) in inches, by 3.1415; multiplying this
result by the depth, in inches, and dividing by 231. The result is in
gallons.

For ready reference, data js given of the usual sizes of household
aquaria. The weights are in pounds, the pressure in pounds per square inch.

po 8 2. ee Me

es eee bE *
20: | U2y ere 119) 160 | 5.06 625 150
2 Ar Mee fied Les Oks 3 740 185
RON 12 me 18 150 ee 925 226
BO" |) des) eee aos DIO) \\e OLO 20 ALORG 4) (oag6
304 16 | arGh a3 275 6.889) 1825 | 33515
96" | ers 5 1s GOL saris Togs | AO sie
AO | TPS 4) ars 56 465 7 26:75 | “Ono
48 | 18 | 18 | 67 | §50 pe UC ole 18
48 || 207/208) 80 665 8.60 | 4125 880
64. | 20), 20 |" 90 ease “| 4640 | 985
6@ '| 2011720.) 160 835 bh 5LOO |) LOLS

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION, TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

A number of methods have been devised to construct aquaria without
frames, some of which have been successful and of handsome appearance;
but a neat frame appears more structural, and for sizes over 24 inches is
essential to both strength and safety.

AQUARIUM TOOLS AND APPLIANCES.

The experienced aquariist avails himself of a number of simple tools
and appliances to facilitate the manipulation of the aquarium. Of these a
brief description follows:

Nets. The knotted-mesh twine nets sold by dealers are usually of
poor form and too rough for handling goldfishes. It is preferable to em-
ploy very shallow ones of Brussels netting. The simplest construction
of frame is one piece of wire, first turned into the circle and the end
twisted upon the shank. A neater one may be made of a wire ring
soldered into the head of a brass wood-screw, and fastened to a light
wooden rod. ‘The most practical size for the aquarium is about 4% to 5
inches in diameter, rounded in form at the back and straight in front; and
for the tank a solid brass wire-framed rectangular net about 8 by 12 inches.

Forceps. One of the handiest aquarium tools is the forceps. The
simplest construction is of one piece of brass wire bent into equal legs,
crossed and slightly flattened at the rivet holes and the ends serrated.
Pressure applied anywhere above the rivet closes the jaws and even the
smallest particles can be removed or plants forced into the pebbles by
grasping the roots. Another form may be made of two straight pieces
of wood screwed to a light block and long enough to be operated without
putting the hand into the water. A spring clothespin to which two
slender pieces of wood are fastened is another approved form of forceps.

Hawnpy Sticks. What have been appropriately called ‘handy sticks”
consist of two light wooden rods, having one end notched like an inverted
V and the other cut toa chisel edge. They may be applied to many uses;
making holes in the pebbles for planting, forcing down plants, cutting off
runners, and straightening the leaves.

Piant Scissors. The leaves and blades of aquatic plants should not
be torn off, even cutting them with the finger nails so bruises them that
further decay results. A scissors only should be used and to avoid put-
ting the hand into the water, they should have long shanks. These may
be made of a pair of round-end scissors from which the finger holes have
been removed and replaced by long brass rods with finger holes bent
at the ends. In using them two hands will be necessary. The clean cut
affects the plant the least and insures a neat and tidy appearance.

283

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION, TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

Dippinc or Lirtinc Tuse. With this handy tool objectionable
substances may be removed from the aquarium. The best form is a chemist’s
pipette or % inch glass tubing at least 6 inches longer than the depth of
the water, having the lower end protected by a rubber gasket to prevent
fracture or scratching of the aquarium glass. In use the upper end 1s
closed with the fingers and the tube directed over the object, when the
removal of the fingers causes an inrush of the water by atomospheric
pressure, carrying with it the substances to be removed. Then the upper
end is again closed with the fingers and the tube raised to the surface of
the water, the lower end is closed by the fingers and the tube and its con-
tents removed.

StpHon. A very useful accessory is a siphoning tube of 3g inch
rubber house, that of red rubber being usually of the best quality, more
durable and not so likely to kink or lose its cylindrical form. <A piece of
glass tubing of smaller diameter than the hose, inserted at the end, will
prevent the sucking in of pebbles that may clog the tube; but the best
device is a glass calcium tube larger in diameter than the hose and having
a bulb to arrest any particles and check their entrance into the hose. To
remove these particles the hose is pinched to stop the flow of water and
the pebbles, snails, or whatever else may have been sucked in, will fall out
of the bulb. Another device at the other end will serve to avoid getting
water into the mouth in creating the necessary suction. This consists of
a glass tube with a branching side to which a piece of small hose is attached,
which when taken into the mouth and the lower end of the tube closed
with the finger, in drawing up the water the finger will feel it before it
ascends the small tube to the mouth. Unpleasant involuntary swallows
are thereby avoided.

THERMOMETER. A thermometer is indispensable for the culture and
maintenance of the goldfish. For the aquarium, floating thermometers
are to be recommended, dairy thermometers answering the purpose, are
the cheapest and most readily to be had. ‘The bulb should reach to the
centre of the water to indicate the mean temperature, as that of the surface
is usually warmer. A little tin foil above the bulb will cause it to float
upright.

AsprratTors. A fountain syringe with which to aerate the water is
not absolutely necessary, but if at hand will be frequently used, as it may
obviate the frequent change of water in aquaria that are not properly con-
ditioned or balanced, and may greatly relieve the fishes in hot weather.
An ordinary rubber air bulb and a short piece of hose will suffice, but a
garden sprinkler at the end will cause a finer division of the air particles

284

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION, TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

and a larger absorption by the water. A generally used device is the rub-
ber florist’s aspirator.

Constant Lever SipHon. Aquaria having a constant water supply
or tanks in the open air sometimes require means of keeping the water at
a fixed level. For this purpose the constant level siphon is best adapted,
which consists of a metal or glass tube bent into the form of an irregular S
with the inlet leg the longer; then bent at right angle and downward to
carry it over the side, and the upper part bent upwards so that the outlet
is at the desired water level. Once filled with water it will be in constant
operation by capillary attraction. A funnel and tube may be arranged
to carry off the overflow water, when necessary.

Tue Srratner. The ordinary household strainer will be found
convenient to gather floating particles from the surface of the water. A
tea sieve is of convenient size for the aquarium.

Tue PotitsHer. The best form of polisher to remove alge from
the glass sides of aquaria may be made of a felt jeweler’s buff attached to
a rod, the centre holding pin sunk into the felt to prevent scratching the
glass. Brushes, wood blocks covered with several thicknesses of canton
flannel or other materials have been tried but are not as good. Polishers
are not intended for use when the alge are thick, as then only the hand,
a piece of soft cloth and a little table salt will properly clean the glass.

THE Scoop or Drepce. A metal scoop on a rod is handy in many
ways. With it the pebbles may be moved and shifted or put into the
aquarium at the exactly desired locality. Any form having a straight front
edge will serve this purpose.

Tue Macniryinc Grass. A good reading glass is a useful adjunct,
as by its use objects in the aquarium will be enlarged-and a clear observa-
tion of the contents obtained.

Aquarium Stanps. Stands may be constructed of a variety of
materials. Tables of wood with shelves for smaller aquaria and brackets
for flowering plants are quite general,and may be inexpensively constructed,
An iron stand of 34 inch gas pipe with iron fittings, either painted the
color of the aquarium frame or with any desired color of bronze powder,
makes a clean, neat and inexpensive support. Window brackets, secured
at different heights to the trim of the window, have been shown in illus-
trations and are intended for one-piece glass or other small aquaria, If
taste 1s displayed in their arrangement and of the contained plants, a very
pretty effect may be produced. Shelving across the upper sash for placing
a row of battery-jar aquaria would also be a pleasing arrangement.

A picturesque aquarium stand for the porch or garden may be made
of a portion of the gnarled trunk of a tree, the main stem furnished with

285

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION, TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

a flat board the size of the aquarium and the branches sawed off at different
levels to accommodate smaller aquaria and pots of growing plants. Other
pots or trays could be arranged about the bottom and planted with creepers,
which may be trained around the trunk and branches. The whole arrange-
ment can be constructed on rollers, for use on the porch in summer and
in the conservatory during the cold weather.

286

Chis BER Soul.

The Marine Aquarium, Inmates, and Maintenance

MARINE AQUARIA

Freshwater aquaria are familiar household objects, but the Marine
aquarium is known to the general public only through the exhibitions at
World’s fairs or those in some of the larger cities, as in Castle Garden,
Battery Park, New York; the Vivarium of the University of Pennsylvania,
at Philadelphia; and the Grotto of the Fish Commission Building, at
Washington, D. C.

It is a general opinion that the marine aquarium is difficult to estab-
lish in the household, though it is really easier to maintain, when properly
installed, than those of freshwater, as ventilation, good light and sunshine
are not as important; they are even to some extent objectionable, as strong
light is likely to produce an excessive growth of alge, and oscillatoria,
which may cause turbidity in the water, and the marine fauna is more
comfortable without much light, as in the ocean they obtain comparatively
little.

AkERATION. ‘The necessary aeration is not produced by the growth
of plants, as is the case in the freshwater aquarium. The marine flora
cannot be kept in fine growing condition under any circumstances, and
may be largely dispensed with, its purpose being more to enhance the
beauty and add to the natural appearance of the aquarium than to serve
as oxygenators. The all-important necessity is an efficient artificial aera-
tion, and some little experimentation is necessary that the introduced air
is evenly distributed at all times, and in sufficient quantity to satisfy the
requirements of the animals without excess and overstimulation. The
correct amount under varying conditions is soon learned. The air should
be admitted along the rear of the aquarium as a heavy fog, not in small
bubbles to burst on the surface. More air must be introduced when the
water is warm than when it is cold, as at higher temperatures less is ab-
sorbed by the water, while the animal requirements are greater, they
being then the most active.

The simplest and most efficient aerating device is the cylinder and
pump described on page 178; and which should be kept in constant opera-
tion, though care should be taken not to over-aerate the water.

Another simpler aerating device consists of a flowerpot or jardinaire,
having the bottom hole plugged with a piece of sponge and suspended
over or supported on the frame of the aquarium. Into this some of the
water is filled and in perculating through the sponge is both cleared and
aerated. It fully answers the purpose for shallow smaller tanks.

289

MARINE AQUARIA

Forms or Marine Aguaria. Any large glass receptacle may be
used, but the best forms have glass fronts and sides, slate backs and bot-
toms, and are constructed so that no metal or cement comes into contact
with the salt water. The cement should be covered with strips of glass
and the frames arranged outside the glass so that the glass cover-plate
rests on the upper edges of the glass and slate, and protects the frame
from the action of the salt water, to prevent its rusting and to exclude
iron rust from the water. The purpose of the cover is to check a too
rapid evaporation and to avoid the trifling splashing caused by the escape
of the air through the water.

ARRANGING THE Aquarium. In the arrangement of the aquarium
the bottom should be covered with sand and small pebbles, upon which
either a central or two side mounds of stones, preferably granite, may be
erected, interspersed with sea shells, corals and other marine objects, to
form grottos and caves, but kept away from the glass, as they may topple
and break it. Then the bottom should be covered with a thick layer of
fine beach sand, the purpose being to produce a realistic effect, simulating
a small section of the quiet bottom of the sea. The slate back may also
be covered with pieces of rock, pomice and corals, to form a background,
having shelves and projections at different elevations to which the sea
anemones and other polyps may attach themselves, or on and behind
which deep pockets may be formed and filled with sand, into which the
other animals may burrow and hide. Very picturesque marine effects in
the decorations and embellishments are possible, different in character
from those employed for the freshwater aquarium or the terrarium. The
animals will also burrow into the sand on the bottom as it offers the
best medium for the continuance of their natural habits.

SEAWATER. Admirers of the marine aquarium in seaboard towns
have ready access to seawater and others may have it shipped to them.
It should not be taken near the outlet of a freshwater stream, or where
contaminated by sewage, but at some distance from the shore; and should
be permitted to stand several days before use, that it may purify itself.
Care is also necessary that the vessel in which it is transported is clean,
odorless and tasteless.

The simplest and best method, however, is to produce seawater
artificially, as when the constituents are in proper proportions, it is pre-
ferable to the natural water, and is cleaner, clearer, and less likely to con-
tain alge in excess; those present being introduced with the plants and
animals and are required by some of the inmates. Marine plants and
animals have been found to thrive as well and better in the artificial than
in the natural seawater.

MARINE AQUARIA

Analyses have shown that seawater contains mineral salts of the
following proportion, in 1000 parts:

SOCMUMMCHVONG erty ea ier as visa dete knees 26.9 parts.
Nia Westie CMOnGe: dies. giedaie se eaten Root,
ineresivim isulip hates: \o. 20. aka oa as O29)
WalenihiesMIp Make cs cee alse ee ots. 4 er
Patascmmmchionicderts: 10 (s8.hanue hl sao we aera
Shlain Me oeoy teh 6 Lapua Ree a ees ee 166) **
POLASsiMmMsm ip hates ae va oes Pe Koy
NINE Wet Re OR eR oe ee 965.6 *
1000

ARTIFICIAL SEAWATER. Experienced marine aquariists prepare arti-
ficial seawater with the following salts, the proportions given being for a
volume of ten gallons, and the weights in Apothecaries’ weight, as this is
the most convenient source from which they may be obtained.

Sodium chloride (Tablesalt)...... 2p 82: 18 gr.
IMagnesiunn chlorides... 2... ; Gar Sos 10 rere
Magnesium: sulphate... 2.52... .:- 2S Gee) Our.
WOrassitem sulphates. 4.6 kere ss ee GO 2 Dolo ok

and sufficient wellwater to bring the whole to ten gallons.
These proportions of salts, expressed in the Metric system, would be:

Soatumnchiloriders aa).. sse 640 0 lst 663 grams.
Magnesrumrchilonde:s. .j-s00d. ys: Tso es
Migonesnimysulphates 20. 12s .. Oar
Rotasstummt sulphate’. 320. $225 #28: Tee iy Ae

Added to 265 litres of wellwater.
The salts should be fresh and be kept in glass-stoppered bottles. The
magnesium chloride deteriorates when exposed to the atmosphere, and the
tablesalt should not be very moist.

Each of the salts must be dissolved in a glass or porcelain vessel by
stirring in a little water and then separately added to the wellwater, until
the whole quantity is exactly ten gallons, or any desired part or multiple
thereof, in the same proportions. The prepared seawater should be kept
in a clean glass or stoneware vessel in a cool place and lightly covered for
two or three weeks, and occasionally stirred to insure a complete solution
and uniform mixture; after which it is ready for use.

A solution of Turk’s Island salt of the proper gravity has been suc-
cessfully used by the Fish Commission, at Washington, for small aquaria,
but it is best to prepare the saltwater as above given.

When the aquarium has been filled, it should be left undisturbed for

a day or two, after which the water will be found to be clear and limpid.

291

MARINE AQUARIA

More water than is required to fill the aquarium should be prepared so
that a part may be kept in reserve, which, in a cool place, will not deter-
iorate but improve in quality and in fitness for use in case of necessity,
which may happen to the novice.

Hyprometer. A hydrometer or specific gravity bulb is not abso-
lutely necessary but is useful. Seawater has a specific gravity of 1.023 to
1.031, which means that a volume equal to one cubic centimeter is approxi-
mately .027 grams heavier than the same volume of freshwater of the
same temperature, customarily taken at 10°C. or 50°F. Should the
hydrometer sink below this point, then the water is not sufficiently saline,
or should it rise above,it is too concentrated. Having established the degree
of salinity of the water when the aquarium has been filled, its maintenance
is simple; evaporation to produce concentration is only the wellwater,
which may be filled in, or should changes occur to affect the degree of
salinity, a part of the water may be siphoned and some of the reserve
water added, to again establish the correct balance. This very rarely or
never occurs.

Before the living inmates are introduced, the aeration should be
operated for some time, that the water will be charged with air, to revive
the animals after their exhausting journey or from other disturbances
which may affect their survival.

TEMPERATURE. With proper aeration the temperature of the water
does not seriously affect the inmates. Those of the household, of 70°F.
to 80°F. in the summer, are not injurious, if the air supply is sufficient;
for which reason the aeration should be more considerable in warm than
in cool weather. The activity of the animals also increases with the tem-
perature, whereby they liberate more carbonic acid gas and require a cor-
responding increase of oxygen for their comfort.

Marine Aquarium Prants. The growth of plants in the marine
aquarium for other than ornamental purposes has never been satisfactorily
accomplished. No dependence can be placed on them to serve as oxygen-
ators; for, though they are of most exquisite and delicate forms and
beautiful colors, they are all of the lower order of cryptogamous plants
which rank as very indifferent generators of oxygen.

Marine Frora. These marine cryptogams or algals are all non-
flowering, cellular plants, which may be classed by their colors, as this
very nearly corresponds with the botanist’s classification based on their
methods of reproduction. The lowest and simplest forms, Chlorospermez,
are bright or grass-green in color, the next higher, Melanospermez, olive-
colored, and the highest forms, Rhodospermee, are red in color. All have
a wide range of distribution in America and Europe, and consist of arctic,

292

MARINE AQUARIA

temperate and tropical genera. Those of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans
are similar, but for the purpose of this volume the Middle Atlantic coast
species only will be described.

Cape Cod is accepted as the dividing line, as north and south of it a
markedly different marine flora exists, because the great arctic and equa-
torial currents maintain different temperatures of the water; and though
the more common seaweeds may be found in both sections, those to the
north are essentially arctic and those to the south temperate zone species.
About a third of the species of each section do not extend very far into
the other. The common forms here mentioned occur from New England
to the Carolinas and some still further south.

Green Marine Atc#. Chlorospermeze have the widest range,
and those tide-mark forms which flourish in full light and where freshwater
reaches them at some stages of the tide, or which survive when laid bare
by the receding tides, are the hardiest and will thrive best in the marine
aquarium. Of these Green Algz the most generally distributed species
are:

Ulva lactuca, (Linn.) or Sea Lettuce, Oyster Green, has pale yellow-
ish-green 6 to 8 inches long and 4 inches wide, thin, membranous fronds
with crisped edges, which consist of a single layer of cellules. Quite
generally distributed on the Atlantic coast between tide-marks and in
deeper water, usually attached to all kinds of objects in the water.

Ulva latissima(Linn.) or Green Laver, Heavy Sea Lettuce, has dark
bluish-green very much broader variable fronds, which may attain a length
of 24 to 36 inches and a width of 12 to 20 inches. The fronds are thin,
soft and glossy, of irregular outline with waved and ragged edges. It
grows attached below low-tide marks and is common everywhere.

Purpyra vulgaris (Ag.) or Purple Laver, Purple Weed, is variable in
color and may have blackish-green, purple or brown, with thin, satiny,
ribbon-like fronds, elegantly waved, crisped and puckered on the edges.
The fronds are also variable in form, sometimes two inches broad in the
centre and tapering to both ends, or a broad membrane ten inches across.
Common in shallower water everywhere, but grows to largest size in Call-
fornia.

Enteromorpha intestinalis (Link.) or Gut Weed, has simple unbranched
fronds 6 to ro inches high and % inch wide, slender at the bottom but
of the same width above. It is often inflated with air bubbles and then
assumes the intestinal appearance indicated by the name. The color is
light green, often yellow or white at the top. Grows in tide-pools and
shallow water along the Middle Atlantic coast.

ie)

i

MARINE AQUARIA

nm EE EEEEIES SSE UE SEER EERIE EESRRE REE!

Enteromorpha compressa (Grev.) or Band Weed, has two layers of
cellules in the compressed or flattened fronds, slender at the base but
gradually expanding above, with a blunt, straight-cut top. This alga
grows to 8 and ro inches in length and is of a dark-green color. It may
be found along the entire Atlantic coast and is one of the few which may
survive in the aquarium.

Cladophora rupestris (Linn.) or Rock Branchweed, has dark, dull-
green, stiff and rigid fronds with secondary acutely divided branches and
closely clustered branchlets. The plant forms a tuft 3 to 6 inches high.
May be found near low-water marks in tide pools or attached to the sides
of rocks and wreckage. Most plentiful along the New England shore,
but extends south to Florida.

Cladophora arcta (Dillw.) or Arched Branchweed, has very thickly
clustered branches and straight branchlets, giving the tuft a graceful arched
appearance. The color is a glossy yellowish-green. It is frequently met
with below tide-marks from Cape Cod south to Virginia and near Santa
Cruz in California.

Bryopis pulmosa (Lam.) or Sea Feather, has beautiful bright-green
tufted 2 to 6 inches long branches, with spreading slender filamentous
pinnate fronds, which are shorter at the ends of the branches and placed
to give the plant a feathery appearance. May be found in tide-pools
growing on the rocks and on wreckage, and is very widely distributed on
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.

Chetomorpha melagonium (Web.) or Flowing Hair, has stiff wirey 4 to
12 inches long, articulated, bristly fronds tapering at the base, with blunt
tips, rising from a disclike holdfast. It 1s of clear dark-green color and
common on northern rocky shores; very rarely in sandy localities.

Chetomorpha tortuosa (Dillw.) or Sea Wool, forms green mats com-
posed of very thin filaments on rocks and shells, a densely felted and
interwoven mass of wooley, confervalike growth. Common from Delaware
northward.

Vaucheria marina (Dillw.) or Marine Vaucheria is a small brilliantly
green tufted plant growing quite generally on the mud banks and rocks
between tide-marks. Another form, /. submarina, occurs in deeper water.

Oxrve-Cotorep Marine Atc#. Melanospermee are mostly of
strong growth and leathery consistency, and will not thrive in the aquarium.
They are a very numerous family of which but a few species of the more
widely distributed genera are here given.

Alaria esculenta (Grev.) or Edible Bladderlock, belongs to the group
of Alge popularly known as “Kelps,” and has a quillike midrib which
constitutes the stem, winged at each side with ribless leaflets, often divided

294

MARINE AQUARIA

to somewhat resemble a frond of the “Boston fern.” It usually grows to
5 to 6 feet with instances of over 20 feet in length, and is of olive-green
color. The young plants soon grow to 6 to 8 inches and are of delicate
green and yellowish color. Rarely occurs south of Cape Cod, in both
shallow and deep water, but sometimes found in the Gulf Stream drift.

Fucus vesiculosus (Linn.) or Rock Weed, is common on submerged
woodwork and rocks and is variable both in the size of the plant and of
the fronds; but occurs to two feet in length. It is of leathery texture
with flat fronds having numerous small air bladders on each frond and is
fastened by disclike holdfasts. The color is olive-green in the younger
plants and greenish-brown in the older growth. Occurs generally as far
south as the Carolinas.

Fucus nodosus (Linn.) or Knotted Sea Whistle, derives its name from
the “knots” in the fronds produced by the larger air bladders. It is a
stringy plant of rich olive-green color. The fronds are generally small and
pinnate. Usually found associated with the foregoing. Other common
Fuca are FP. furcatus, Forked Rock Weed; and the California Rock Weed,
F. fastigatus.

Sargassum vulgare (Ag.) or Gulf Weed, Sea Lentel, occurs principally
in the drift of the sea on the coast. It has a disclike holdfast with a cen-
tral stem and branching fronds, with the midrib distinct and crisped and
toothed edges. The globular air vessels are set between the leaves on
short stems. The plant grows below low-tide marks and is common along
the Atlantic coast.

Laminaria saccarhina (Lam.) or Oar Weed, Sugar Sea Belt, has an
eight inch long stem and a flat base consisting of rootlike prongs. The
stem expands into a wide, dark olive-green, leathery, thick and smooth
frond, ruffled at the edges, 4 to 8 feet long and 6 to 12 inches wide.
There are also a number of smaller varieties. Found in deep pools and
below tide-marks south to Virginia.

Laminaria flexicaulis (Le Jolis) or Sea Tangle, is somewhat similar to
the above, but the frond is broader and divided into long segments; which
together with L. Jongicruris, are popularly known as Finger Tangles.
They usually grow in deeper water than the first named and may reach a
length of ten feet. Sometimes found in the Gulf Stream drift.

Stilophora rhizodes (Ag.) or Needle Weed, 1s a bristlelike filiform sea-
weed with widely spreading irregularly forked branches and cylindrical
fronds, with wartlike clusters of sphores which resemble chaplets of beads.
It is of olive-green color and occurs below tide-marks from Cape Cod
~ southward.

205

MARINE AQUARIA

Punctaria latifolia (Grey) or Broad-leaved Dotted Weed, is a variable
plant which has a cylindrical stem enlarged into a flat tender frond 3
inches wide and 12 inches long, of pale olive-green color, crisped on the
edges and dotted with minute spore masses. Very common between
tide-marks along the whole Middle Atlantic coast.

Chorda filum (Stack.) or Mermaid’s Fish-line, consists of thread-like
tough and elastic cords rising from a disclike holdfast, which reach a
length of 10 to 30 feet, dependent upon the depth of water. It affords
an anchorage to many of the smaller Alga, which attach themselves to it.
Quite common along the Middle Atlantic coast.

Chordaria divaricata (Ag.) or String Weed, is a bushy tough and
elastic dark olive-green plant with threadlike sticky cylindrical branches
fastened by a small disc to shells, stones and other alge. It is a deep-
water plant usually not over 15 inches high, distributed along the entire
Middle Atlantic coast. C. flagelliformis (Ag.) or Whiplash, 1s a very dark-
brown, threadlike plant greatly resembling the foregoing.

There are quite a number of other Olive-colored Algz, but as none
of them should find a place in the marine aquarium, they need not be
mentioned.

Rep Marine Atc&. Rhodospermee are mostly of fragile texture
and grow in sheltered rock pools, protected from light and the chafing of
the waves, or in deep water. Exposed to strong light they lose much of
their red color and become greenish, yellowish and white, and soon decay.
This group also comprehends some of orange, brown and purple colors,
but most of them are a deep red. It is the largest order, and only a few
of the most generally distributed forms will be described.

Corallina officinalis (Linn.) or Coral Weed, is a variable alga both in
size and general appearance, which may vary in color from reddish-purple
to greenish-red. It is usually from 1 to 4 inches in height, the frond
composed of slightly flattened filaments with the stem and principal
branches diverging from the edges; the plant being composed of small
wedge-shaped joints. It grows in great abundance upon rocks, wreckage,
and in tidewater pools along the Middle Atlantic coast and in California.

Delesseria sinuosa (Lam.) or Oak Leaf Weed, is a delicate, often para-
sitical, 3 to 8 inch high alga, of which the stem is flattened to form the
midrib and veins of the fronds, greatly resembling an oakleaf. It is met
with in the drift on the beach, and is a deepwater species of fine pink to
deep lake-red color. Another form is D. a/afa (Lam.), having the mar-
gins of the lobes entire and the fronds narrower. Both found north of
Cape Cod and on the California coast.

296

MARINE AQUARIA

Polysiphonia violacea (Grev.) or Many-tubed Violet Weed, is a very
common form in tide-pools and below tidewater ; very variable in appear-
ance. The stem is thick and twiglike, the primary branches widely spread,
the secondary branches short and much divided, with feathery tufts at
their ends. The color is violet and brownish-red and the plant grows to
a height of 12 to 16 inches. May be found from Cape Cod south to
Florida.

Polysephonia urceolata (Grev.) or Pitcher Weed, has very fine
silky filaments which grow in a 4 to Io inch tuft of fine carmine-red color.
The thin stems are many-branched and the fronds assume a bushy appear-
ance composed of many slender filaments. Its name is derived from the
form of the seed vessels. Common on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.

Polysephonia fastigiata (Grev.) or Black Tassel Weed, consists of a
dense tuft of many times divided filaments all of about the same length
so as to form a cockadelike tuft. It is parasitic on some of the Fuca.
The color is dark-brown or black. Common along the entire Middle
Atlantic coast.

Polysephonia elongata (Grev.) or Lobster-horn Weed, consists of a
cluster of straight stalks about the thickness of heavy twine, joined at the
upper ends, with the branches irregularly forked. The winter form is
almost denuded of branches and from it the name is derived. ‘The color
is light-brown, pink and red. Common on the Middle Atlantic coast
and grows in deeper water.

Chondrus crispus (Lyn.) or Irish Moss, has 3 to 6 inch high tough,
leathery, curled and fan-shaped fronds on a flattened stem. From it a
tasteless gelatine is made. Grows ona rocky bottom on the entire Atlantic
coast, and is a deep brown or purple color in deep water and yellowish-
green in shallow water.

Phyllophora membranifolia (Ag.) or Red Leafweed, consists of a bunch
of 12 to 20 irregular branched stems bearing wedge-shaped, fanlike ™% to
1 inch long fronds, having forked and divided edges. The plant reaches
a height of 3 to 6 inches and grows on rocks and solid bottom in deep
water in the warmer section of the Atlantic coast. It is clear red in color,
sometimes violet in the older growths.

Calithamnion americanum (Harv.) or Sea Shrub, is a dainty and beau-
tiful crimson or rose-red shrublike alga, of which the fronds are almost as
fine as a cobweb and the plant composed of innumerable delicate branches
from a central stalk attached by a disclike holdfast. Generally distributed
on the Atlantic coast south of Cape Cod. One of the handsomest com-
mon forms. Another frequent form of these fine alge is C. versicolor
(Ag.) the Many-colored Sea Shrub, distinguishable from the ten other

297

MARINE AQUARIA

forms by the diversity of its colors; which shade in different parts of the
same plant from rosy-red and bright-green to violet, brown, dark-green,
olive and yellow. It grows to about 3 to 5 inches in height. All of the
genus are beautiful plants, common to the Middle Atlantic coast.

Grinnellia americana (Harv.) or Flame Weed, is a very beautiful alga,
having a delicate red membranous frond 12 to 24 inches long and about
3 inches across the centre; with crisped and sinuous margins, and tapering
to a fine point at both ends. It usually grows in 5 to 8 fathoms of water
and is so beautiful that it is to be regretted that it will not usually survive
in the aquarium.

There are many other common genera of Red Algz, but space will
not permit of a further mention.

Atc# ror Marine Aquaria. The following are the best Algez
for the marine aquarium:—Green Alge. U/va Jactuca and U. latissima;
Cladophora rupestris, Bryopsis plumosa and Vaucheria marina. Red Alge.
Corallina officinalis, Delesseria sinuosa, Polysiphonia violacea, P. urceolata and
P. fastigiata; Phyllophora membranifolia, Callithamnion americanum and C.
versicolor.

The Olive-colored Algz should not be introduced or only small
plants under careful supervision. Some of the above may survive for a
longer or shorter period, but very rarely become fully acclimated. For
the aquarium to which considerable light has access, the Green Alge will
best serve, as they are the most likely to adopt themselves to these con-
ditions ; while those which are in subdued light or protected by green
tissue paper on the front next to the light will serve for some of the Red
Alge and still allow sufficient light to pass for the Green. The arrange-
ment should be by planting the green nearest the window or source of
light, and the red farthest away or screened by rockwork.

For the aquarium in which marine fauna are kept a few tufts of Ulva
and Enteromorpha, and one or more each of Polysiphonia and Phyllo-
phora will be all that it is advisable to introduce.

It is best to speedily transfer the plants from their native sites to the
aquarium, and to clean them with saltwater before placing them into it.
Any clean vessel will serve for their conveyance, and they should be
transmitted unhurt by friction or exposure to the atmosphere. Packed
between thick layers of moist seaweed they may be carried considerable
distances, this being better than in seawater which may rise considerably
in temperature and so injure the plants. Trials should be made, and
experience will be the best guide for their care and treatment.

Marine ANIMALS. Even a list of the marine fauna of the Middle
Atlantic coast would be so long, diverse and complicated that it could not

298

MARINE AQUARIA

find a place in this book. Only the most common /ittora/ forms, those
living on or near the shore, are mentioned and those of greatest interest
to the collector are described. [The Marine fauna may be roughly classed
aS: —

I. Porifera. Sponges.

Polyps, etc., Seaweedlike Zodphytes and small Jellyfishes, some
| of the Corallines, and Hydrozoa generally.
I]. Coelenterata. 4 Larger Jellyfishes and Scyphozoa generally.
| Sea-anemones, Actinoid corals and Actinozoa generally.
Comb-jellies and Ctenophora generally.

III. Vermes. Worms and Leeches.
IV. Molluscoida. Sea-mats or Polyzoa, and Corallines or Brachiopods.

Se ek eee ( Starfishes, Brittle-stars, Sea-urchins, Sea-cucumbers, Feather-
: ‘ (stars, Sea-lilies and Radiates generally.

( Crustaceans, Entomostraca, Barnacles, Lobsters, Shrimps, etc.,

'

VI. Arthropoda. { King Crabs, Sea Spiders, Squilla, and the Amphipods and Iso-

| pods in general.

( Limpets, Tops, Whelks, Periwinkles and other Gasteropods ;

VII. Mollusca. 4 Mussels, Clams, Scallops and Pelecypods generally.
| Cuttles and other Cephalopods.
VIII. Chordata. Sea Squirts and allied forms.
IX. Pisces. Fishes.

PorirFERA OR Sponces. These constitute one of the lowest forms
of animal life, propagating by gemmation or budding. The sponge of
commerce is the skeleton or framework, the organic portion being a soft
and jellylike substance of which the external layer is composed of flat cells
with numerous pores and larger openings for inhaling and straining the
water; the middle layer of cells having various functions, as the formation
of the framework, digestion and reproduction; and the internal layer of
cylindrical cells leading to sacs, each having a flagellate hair to create a
cugrent.| hese take im the food, ‘digest 1t and eject the excrement:
Almost every seaweed, rock, mollusc and crab has some member of this
family attached to it, which vary in size from tiny specks to large and sub-
stantial masses of varying forms and colors. Sponges are roughly divided
into two classes, Calcarea and Non-Calcarea.

The genera most usually met with are the following, of which a brief
description will suffice, as they do not survive in the marine aquarium.

Duserpeta, having an imperfectly cellular body composed of a gela-
tinous membrane covered with amorphous particles of sand.

GranmiA, having a firm, elastic body with calcareous spicula com-
pacted in a gelatinous base.

EIS)

MARINE AQUARIA

Hatrsarca, having a gelatinous or fleshy substance forming an ir-
regular crust on the object to which it adheres.

Ha icHonpriA, having an elastic body permeated by canals opening
to the surface and siliceous spicula in the fibre distributed throughout its
homologous body.

Sponct4, having a very porous body composed of net-fibres traversed
by canals opening to the surface, the fibres without spicula. Very irregu-
lar and variable in form, and parasitical or incrusted on and under stones
and other objects.

Sponges should not be introduced into smaller aquaria and should
be carefully scraped from stones and other objects, as they soon decay and
may pollute the water.

C@LENTERATA OR Potyps. Theseare somewhat higher forms ofanimals.
The Hydrozoa are zodphytes resembling seaweeds, which live in colonies,
small compound jellyfishes composed of many individuals; and the Mil-
lepores live in colonies and secrete a stony instead of horny skeleton.
Of these no further mention need be made. The Scyphozoa are larger
jellyfishes of various forms of development, but also do not require men-
tion. The Actinozoa include anemones, actinia and actinoid corals, of
which the first are of particular interest, but other forms of Corals, Cor-
allines, Sea-pens, Sea-whips and Sea-fans, and the Ctenophora, including
the Comb-jellies, require but brief mention, as none of them will survive
in the Marine aquarium.

SeA Anemones and Actinia. These polyps belong to the order
Actinaria. They mostly inhabit crevices, dark holes and under stones,
but some hardy species may be taken in exposed positions, or piles, sub-
merged woodwork and other firm objects. There are both deep and
shallow-water forms. They generally consist of an undivided column or
stalk with a pedal disc or holdfast at the under side, and an oral disc with
central mouth surrounded by circles of tentacles at the upper. ‘They are
capricious in the forms which they assume and when fully expanded are
often of considerable size, but are sensitive and when disturbed collapse
and shrink into inconspicuous dusky buttons, as they are soft and very
contractile. The most of the Actinaria are developed from eggs which
form on the edges of the inner walls of the column. These, when ma-
ture, are ejected from the mouth, small ciliated spheres which swim about
until they find a suitable location to which to attach themselves. Some
forms reproduce by budding, either on the disc or from the sides of the
column. As a means of defense they emit long slender threads or
acontia, having minute stinging cells. Nearly all are carnivorous and feed
on small animal organisms, crustaceans and molluscs.

300

MARINE AQUARIA

The most common and generally distributed Middle Atlantic coast
forms are:

Metridium marginatum, (Les.), having a smooth, cylindrical, light-
brownish column with deeply folded and fringed margin, and numerous
short, fringelike tentacles, of which the central are the longest. The
color is variable, the disc usually a light flesh-color and the tentacles grey-
ish with brighter colored tips. When expanded it is sometimes ten inches
across the disc, and when contracted appears as a broad flat cone. ‘This
is the most conspicuous and abundant form, found from low-water marks
to go fathoms, on piles, bridges, submerged woodwork, etc., and in rock
crevices and under stones, from Cape Hatteras northward.

Eloactis producta, (Stimp.), has rows of suckers the entire length of
the column. It can expand to a length of 12 inches, but is usually
shorter and thicker. There are twenty tentacles about the margin of the
thick disc. The colors are variable but usually in dusky tones with
brighter shades and mottlings. Found from Cape Cod to the Carolinas,
on sandy beaches and under rocks at low-water marks; or buried under
the sand with the mouth and tentacles only above the surface. One other
form, [/yanthus levis, (Stimp.), is found south of the Carolinas to Flor-
ida. These are nearly related to the numerous genus Halocampa of
Europe, of which there are two American species, both north of Cape Cod.

Aulactinia capitata, (Ver.), has a 6-inch long dark-grey or bluish col-
umn, 1 3¢ inches in greatest diameter when extended, and 96 tentacles in
four rows about a rose-colored disc. Found at low-water marks from Cape
Cod to Florida. There are other deep-water species of this genus.

Cerianthus americanus, (Ver.), avery long and slender form, has an
18 to 20 inches long column tapering from the disc to the base, which can
be contracted to 8 inches. The 124 marginal tentacles are 1% inches in
diameter across the disc, when expanded. Found in shallow water from
Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras.

Telia crassicornis, (Gosse), has a short and thick 1% to 2 inches
high column when extended, and short, thick tentacles. The colors of
the disc are brilliant in varying shades of bluish-green mottled with crim-
son, often bright cherry-red. The tentacles are somewhat lighter in color,
usually grey and flesh-colored. It is voracious and will entrap small
fishes, crabs, etc., that come into contact with the disc and tentacles.
Found in shallow water from Massachusetts northward on ledges and in
tide-pools.

Edwardsia sipunculoides, (Stimp.), has a slender, brownish, truncated 1
to 1144 inch long column, and 24 to 30 short tentacles about a narrow
disc, usually of a dull grey or pinkish color. Another form, E. /ineata,

301

MARINE AQUARIA

(Ver.), is similar to the above. This genus has one other Middle At-
lantic coast parasitic form and four species north of Cape Cod.

Ammophilactis rapiformis, (Ver.), has a 3-inches long column sur-
mounted with a 1% inches diameter disc, with 144 tentacles in a crowded
circle. The colors are variable, but incline to pinkish and bluish tones.
Found in tide-pools from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras.

Cylista leucolena, (Ver.), has the 2% to 3 inches long cylindrical, trans-
lucent column usually rose-colored and covered with scattered wartlets.
The disc is simple and thin and the 96 slender, crowded tentacles are
placed in five rows on the margin of the % inch diameter disc. The ten-
tacles are pinkish- and whitish-grey, darkest in color at the disc; and in
size are twice as long as the diameter of the extended column. Common
from Cape Cod to North Carolina on submerged woodwork and under
stones.

Sagartia lucia, (Ver.), is a small % to 3¢ inch high and ¥% inch diam-
eter polyp, having 84 tentacles in four rows, of which the central are the
longest. ‘he colors are bright but variable. Found from Cape Hatteras
north. Another form, S. pustulata, (McMur.), has the 3 inch column
broken by longitudinal and transverse furrows. The 1% inch diameter
disc has 64 long tentacles arranged in four rows. Found in the same lo-
calities, often associated with the above. Other shallow- and low-water
forms are S. gracillima, having a 1-inch column and 48 tentacles, and S.
modesta, very similar in form to C. /eucolena, but smaller and having a few
hairy excrescences on the column. .

Parasitic ANEMONES. ‘This interesting group contains a number of
species which attach themselves to the shells of hermit crabs, whelks and
other animals, probably on account of the change of location they afford,
and they in their turn aid as a disguise to the animals with which they
are associated. There are a number of American forms which have this
habit, among them some of those already described, which are the more
generally distributed forms.

GorconackA, the family of the Sea-fans, Sea-whips and Sea-feathers;
and Pennatulacea, the Sea-pens, are colonies of polyps closely united
about a horny axis, which resemble miniature trees and branches covered
with a coating of animal matter. None of these survive in the aquarium.

Mapvroportss, the family of the Branch and Reef Corals, also cannot
be kept alive in smaller aquaria and further mention of them is omitted.
For purposes of ornament some of the calcareous structures of American
Corals are desirable, especially those of the Florida reefs. These are
Gorgonia flabellum, the Sea Fan; G. cervicornis, the Stag-horn Coral;
Meandrina labyrinthiformis, the Brain Coral; Ordicella annularis, the Star

302

MARINE AQUARIA

Coral; Agaricia agaricites, the Fungus Coral; and Millepora alcicornis,
the Finger Coral or Sea Ginger. These corals cleared of the polyps may
be obtained adhering to the rocks upon which they grew, or may be
fastened with hydraulic cement in desired localities in the aquarium.

VeERMES OR Worms AND LeeEcHEs. ‘The marine forms occur in mud
and sand, under stones and in rock crevices, crawling over the weeds and
the bottom; or, either free or attached, in tubular cases, or sometimes
attached to other animals. The Platyhelminths are principally flat worms,
the Nemertinea thread-worms, the Nemathelminths round-worms, and
the Polycheta many-bristled-worms; the Annulata ringed worms, and the
Sedentaria tubicolous or pipe-worms. With but few of these we are con-
cerned. Elsewhere the Trematoda, internal and external parasitic, and the
Cestoda, strictly internal parasitic worms are mentioned.

Nemertina. These long and slender marine worms are generally dis-
tributed between tide-marks and are from ¥% inch to many feet in length
and exceedingly contractile. Some will survive in confinement. The
most generally species are:

Nemertes socialis, color black or brown, slender slightly flattened, 5
to 6 inches long when extended, with four eyes on each side of the head;
and NV. viridis, color olive-green or brown, rather thick, slightly flattened,
6 to 8 inches long when extended; eyes black in two rows. Both com-
mon under stones, etc., in shallow water.

Tetrastemma arenicola, color dark-pink or purple, slender, cylindrical,
4 to 5 inches long when extended, head changeable in form, neck slightly
constricted. Common in sand and mud at low water marks.

Cosmocephala ochracea, color grey or yellowish-white and mottled, 2
to 3 inches long when extended, rather stout and cylindrical. Common
on low-water-marks, usually in empty shells.

Polina glutinosa, color orange or light-yellow, eyes numerous 1n oblique
lines on head, 2 to 3 inches long when extended, usually on alge and
woodwork.

This group of worms will not long survive in aquaria together with
other animals.

SEDENTARIA. These tubicolous marine worms make interesting aquarium
studies as they construct tubes of grains of sand, seaweeds and particles of
shell by mucus secretions; other secrete calcareous matter which forms
hard cases. All have the anterior portion more developed than the pos-
terior end of the body. The most general and interesting are:

Amphitrite ornata, color red or brown, 8 to 12 inches long, with three
pairs of plumelike gills and many flesh colored tentacles at the head,
which are constantly in motion. The tubes are 14 to 3¢ inch in diameter,

393

MARINE AQUARIA

composed of sand and mud. Found in sand and gravel and under or
attached to fixed objects; from Cape Cod to Maryland.

Cistenides gouldu, color light red, body short and slightly curved,
head obliquely flat, with two broad groups of golden bristles on each side
of head, % to 2 inches long. Constructs conical horn-shaped tubes of a
single layer of sand. Found on sandy beaches from New Jersey north-
ward.

Clymenella torquata, color pale red with bright bands, 4 inches long ;
body segmented and bristled, head funnel-shaped. Constructs nearly
straight tubes of sand. Ranges from New Jersey northward close to low-
water marks.

Serpular dianthus, color variable, dull olive and reddish, with plume-
like gills which form a wreath about the head. ‘The white calcareous tube
is 3 inches long and % inch in diameter, and has the end coiled and con-
torted. The free end has acircular opening with an operculum. Found
in tide-pools attached to shells and rocks, from Cape Cod to Florida.

These are a few of the most characteristic forms.

Mottuscorpa. Of the Polyzoa there are hundreds of named species,
mostly consisting of colonies of small polyplike organisms, depositing
calcareous matter and attached to plants, stones and other fixed objects.
The Branchiopods are somewhat similar to the lamellibranch molluscs,
but the two valves of the shell are always dissimilar. They are usually
fastened to some marine object by a fleshy peduncle extending between or
through the valve; and the body cavity is lined with cilia. In the order
Inarticulata the hinge of the shell is wanting and the thin plates may be
moved in every direction. Jn the order Articulata the valves are articu-
lated by a hinge formed by teeth on the. lower and sockets on the upper
valve. They are much lower forms than the Mollusca and need not be
here further described.

EcuHINODERMATA. These Radiates of the higher type have an ex-
terior skeleton and most of them have the spines from which the name is
derived. They include the Asteroidea or Starfishes, Ophiuroidea or
Brittle-stars, Desmosticha or Sea-urchins, Holothuroidea or Sea-cucumbers,
and the Crinoidea or Feather-stars and Stone-lilies. Brief mention of
these will be made, description being confined to the most common species
of the Middle Atlantic coast.

Srar Fisues or Rays. These animals derive their name from their
asteroid or starshaped forms, the different species having from § to 22
rays. The external skeleton is complex, and consists of calcareous plates
and spines either firmly united to form a solid shield or separate and im-
bedded in the integument. The mouth is in the centre of the ventral

304

MARINE AQUARIA

side, a furrow extending along each arm in which are the ambulacra or
tube-suckers by which the animal moves and seizes its prey. The folded
stomach is connected to the mouth and occupies the greater part of the
central space. The four species of the Middle Atlantic coast are:

Asterias forbesii, (Stimp.), the most common Atlantic coast ray, has
a comparatively small body with five rather broad arms swollen at the
base and tapering to a blunt point. The upper surface is rough and cov-
ered with short spines which are larger at the edges of the rays. The
colors are variable, but usually red or reddish-brown, with bright-orange
plates in the younger and yellowish-red, brown and purple in the older
individuals. It grows from 10 to 16 inches in diameter and is common
from Massachusetts to Florida. Another form, 4. vulgaris, has a very
similar body, but the five rays are not as swollen, a little more slender,
and taper to sharper points. It may also usually be distinguished by the
difference in color, as itis darker and the yellowish-red tones are absent.
Common and often associated with the above from Cape Cod to New
Jersey. Both are very destructive to oysters.

Luidia clathrata, (Stimp.), 1s a slender five-rayed 4 to 5 inches in
diameter light colored ray, with the long arms tapering to a point and
fringed on the edges with distinct spines, but rather smooth on the surface.
The body is small and there are two rows of ambulacra. It has the habit
of breaking into pieces when taken from the water and can rarely be trans-
ported entire to the aquarium. Common from New York to the Carolinas.
There are two other Florida forms of the genus.

Echinaster sentus, (Ver.), is heavier than the above with five broader
arms and a relatively larger body, and has the surface rough with spines.
It is purplish-red in color, 4 to 4% inches in diameter, and has two rows
of ambulacra. Found near the shore from New Jersey to Florida.

Only the five-rayed forms are common on our coast, those of ten
and more rays are deep-sea forms. Starfishes are voraceous and only very
small ones should be introduced into the aquarium with other weaker
animals or with molluscs. If kept by themselves any of the described
forms often survive for a long time, especially in large aquaria.

Brirtte—Srars. The Ophiurans or Brittle-stars have the long dis-
tinct and serpentine cylindrical arms attaches like appendages to a small,
round body. ‘They have no tube-suckers, locomotion being by move-
ments of the arms. Three species are common on the Middle Atlantic
coast, but most of them are found in warmer southern and western waters.

Ophiopholis aculeata, (Ver.), has the upper surface of the body covered
with variously arranged plates surmounted by small, short spines. The
five arms are long, slender and tapering, having transverse oval plates

395

MARINE AQUARIA

with flat granules, and fringed with thick obtuse spines. The under side
is covered with regular rows of quadrangular plates. The color is vari-
able, usually variegated and spotted with purple. It is a large species,
about 18 inches in diameter, and may be found in shallow water along the
entire Northern Atlantic coast.

Ophiothrix angulata, (Ver.), is a small Florida species, sometimes
found farther north. The body is covered with short rough spines, and
the five arms are narrow, tapering and beset with long spines serrated on
the edges and ends. The color may be pinkish-yellow or light-brown,
according to the bottom upon which it lives.

Amphiura squamata, (Ver.), is a small 2 to 4 inch diameter animal.
The body is less than 1% diameter, and the five arms threadlike and al-
most smooth on their surface. This is a delicate species found from New
Jersey northward below low-water marks.

Sea Urcutins. These animals are closely related to the Starfishes,
the shell-like covering showing the lines of union of the rays. They are
mostly deep-water forms, the two shallow-water species on the Middle
Atlantic States coast are:

Arbacia punctulata, (Ver.), having a one inch in diameter shell with
14 to 34 inch long spines. The color varies from straw-yellow and white-
ish-grey to brown, with the spines tipped with brown. A small species
found in shallow water from Massachusetts to Florida.

Strong ylocentrorus drobachiensis, (Grey,) the Common Sea-egg, has a
2 inch in diameter shell, greatly resembling a large chestnut-burr, usually
of greenish-purple color. The body is circular and sometimes depressed,
and the tube-feet slender. It moves slowly and feeds on small alge,
oscillatoria, and decaying animal matter. Common in shallow water along
both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, most abundant on the coast of Maine.

Both these forms are harmless and useful aquarium inmates.

Sanp Dotiars or SHietpD Urcains. ‘This urchin, of which the
circular disc forming the skeleton, is a common object on some beaches,
belongs to the genus Echinarachnius, of which one species occurs in
Middle Atlantic coast waters.

Echinarachnius parma, (Stimp.) has a skeleton consisting of a flat disc
composed of calcareous matter and sand, often 4 to § inches in diameter,
which in life is covered by short silky spines. The animal ts somewhat
like a jellyfish in general form, occurs in deeper water, and is very rarely
taken near the shore.

Sea Cucumsers. ‘These higher forms of Echinoderms are native to
warm waters, and but one species occurs on the Middle Atlantic coast.

306

MARINE AQUARIA

Pentacta frondosa, (Jaeg.), or Brown-Sea-cucumber 1s the largest com-
mon Atlantic species which measures from a few inches to a foot in length
when extended. AHolothuria princeps and H. floridana, the Florida Sea-
cucumbers, are large species which have been collected and dried for
export to China.

FEATHER STARS AND SToneE Livies. This class of Crinoidea inhabit
deep water where they form branching featherlike and flowerlike beds.
Some are permanently attached, others become detached and float about
by movements of the raylike arms. They are rarely found on the shore
and fail to survive in aquaria. |

Crustaceans. The larger Marine crustaceans are divided into a
number of groups, the Branchyura or true Crabs, the Anomoura or Her-
mit Crabs, etc., the Macroura or Lobsters and Shrimps, the Xiphosura or
King Crabs, the Squillide or Mantis Shrimp, the Cirripedia or Barnacles
and Tops; and the smaller Marine Entomostraca or Water Fleas.

These will be mentioned in this order.

Callinectes hastatus, (Ord.), or Common Edible Crab, Blue Crab,
Sea Crab, has the shell or carapace about twice as broad as long, and
armed with a distinct projecting spine and eight short acute teeth on each
side, gradually increasing in size towards the eyes. here are four un-
equal-sided teeth between the eyes and a median spine beneath. The
front limbs, bearing the claws, are similar to each other in form, and the
three succeeding pairs of legs are slender, terminating in sharp points, and
the posterior pair end in expanded oval joints for swimming. ‘The cara-
pace grows to a length of 3 inches and a breath of 51% to 6 inches, and is
covered with minute granulations and margined with fine hairs. The
upper surface is of dark-green or bluish color, the lower dusky-white, the
feet and claws blue, tipped with yellowish-red. The period of spawning
and shedding extends over several months. It is very active, crawling and
swimming rapidly, and may be taken on muddy and sandy bottoms in
both salt and blackish water, from Cade Cod to Florida. It is predace-
ous and feeds upon all living and dead animals. This species may be
distinguished by the sharp spine on each side of the carapace. ‘There are
four other species of this genus in more southern waters.

Carcinus menus, (Say), or Green Crab, has a bright green color varied
with spots and blotches of dull yellow and brown, and has the carapace and
limbs more or less granulated. It has heavy claws and legs shorter than
the foregoing and shorter spines at the sides of the narrower carapace, with
four unevenly cirrated teeth at each side and three between theeyes. The
last pair of legs also nearly resemble the other three pairs and lack the
broad swimming blades of the foregoing species. Abundant between tide-

397

MARINE AQUARIA

marks and in tidal pools, but also resorts to the peaty banks on the shore
and in ditches and streams of salt and brackish waters. In some parts of
New England it is known as the “Joe Rocker.” Abounds from Cape
Cod to New Jersey and further south.

Cancer trroratus, (Say), or Common Rock Crab, may be distinguished
by the nine blunt teeth on each side of the front margin of the nearly
smooth carapace, which is evenly sub-oval in outline, two-thirds as long
as broad. ‘The claws are short and stout and the four posterior legs long
and rather slender, with pointed tips. The carapace and upper surface of
the legs are yellowish in color with purplish-brown dots and mottlings at
the sides and rear. Between tides it burrows in the sand and gravel or is
concealed among rocks and weeds. Its range is from Labrador to South
Carolina but occurs most generally above Virginia.

Cancer borealis, (Stimp.), or Jonah Crab, is closely related to the fore-
going, and may be distinguished by the rougher carapace and claws, the
shorter and thicker legs and the bright-red color above and yellowish
color beneath the carapace, claws and legs. ‘The carapace reaches 31%
inches in length and 534 inches in breadth. Its habitat is similar to the
above, but does not occur below the New England States. It lives a
more exposed existence and is rarely concealed among the rocks.

Panopeus herbstii, (Edw.), the most common and largest of the Mud
Crabs, is dark-olive above and yellowish-white below the carapace, and
has the large claws black, tipped with lighter color. The largest measure
2 inches across the carapace and range from Massachusetts to Brazil.
Other smaller Mud Crabs are P. depressus, P. sayi and P. harrisii, all
ranging along the Middle Atlantic coast as far south as Florida.

Platyonichus ocellatus, (Lat.), or Lady Crab, Sand Crab, has a 22 to
3 inches carapace, nearly as long as broad, the form roughly suggesting a
six-sided figure. The lateral margins bear five spines or teeth and the
front limbs and claws are long and somewhat slender. ‘The color is dingy-
white and the back is covered with red and purple spots. It frequents
the sand of low-water marks and exposed beaches buried to the eyes, and
feeds on smaller living and dead animals. It is a common feature of the
sea beach. Found from northern New England to Florida, from low-
water marks to ten fathoms.

Ocypoda arenaria, (Rath.), or Sand Crab, Ghost Crab, is a small shore
crab about 1 inch long, 1% inch broad and 1 inch thick. The carapace
folds down between the eyes, which are prominent on the long peduncles.
It burrows in the sand in holes often three feet deep and is very quick in its
movements when disturbed. It has the habit of raising itself on its feet and
moving the eyes in its desire to see approaching enemies and prey. The

308

ESE lel Oe — — — eee eee eee Sl

——————

MARINE AQUARIA

colors are almost exactly those of the sand and the coarsely granulated
carapace appears like a little mound of wet sand. Common from Long
Island to Brazil, and subsists largely on Beach fleas, upon which it springs
by a sudden movement of the legs.

Menippe mercenaria, (Say), the Stone Crab, is a frequently occurring
Southern form not present on more northern shores.

Libinia emarginata, (Leach), or Common Spider Crab, or Sea Spider,
has the whole surface of the body covered with hairs, matted with mud
and alge. ‘The carapace is nearly round and the limbs have a thick gran-
ulated covering. ‘The legs are long and slender and the claws short and
weak. The males are larger than the females and often have a spread of
12 inches. It hides in the mud and decaying weeds and is sluggish in
movement. Common from Maineto Florida. A second species, L. dubia,
closely resembles the above, but its range is more to the north.

Lamobrus Pourtalesu, (Say), or Long-armed Spider Crab, has a thick
roughly spined, almost pear-shaped 114 inches broad carapace, very long,
heavy, roughly granular and spined 3 inches long forelimbs with very
short claws. Lives among rocks, which it closely resembles, and ranges
from Cape Cod to Florida.

Hyas coarctatus, (Say), or Toad Crab, inhabits both shallow and deep
water, its name being derived from the repulsive appearance of the car-
apace and the size of the body, which resembles a toad. The legs are
slender and the claws short and weak. Common along the Atlantic coast.

Eupagurus pollicaris, (Stimp.), or Hermit Crab, Soldier Crab, lives
in shallow water and protects its soft hinder portion in empty Gasteropod
shells, which it carries with it by holding fast with the hooklike end of
the body. Found from Massachusetts to Florida. Three other Middle
Atlantic coast species are E. pubescens, E. bernhardus and E. longicarpus, all
of similar form and habits. These crabs make interesting aquarium in-
mates and thrive best when they can come on rocks above the surface.

Gelasimus minax, (Uca minax), (Le Conte), or Common Fiddler Crab,
abounds in almost every salt water and brackish marsh and estuary. The
males are provided with unequal claws, the larger of which is likened to a
a fiddle and the smaller to the bow. The claws of the female are of equal
size. They congregate in numbers and excavate holes in mud banks
above the reach of the tides, to which they scamper when disturbed.
Two other very similar species, G. pugnax and G. pugilator, also occur
from New England to Florida. Of these the one described is the larger.
Associated with the Fiddler another crab, Sesarma reticulata, the Brown
Shore Crab, will often be found. It is reddish-brown in color and has

3°9

MARINE AQUARIA

stout claws of nearly equal size. In form it very nearly resembles the
Fiddler.

Pinnotheres ostreum, (Say), or Oyster Crab, of which the female lives
parasitically in the gill cavity of the oyster and the smaller male leads a free
existence on or near oyster beds, are very unlike in appearance; the male
having a firm carapace, dark-brown above with a central dorsal stripe and
two white spots, and white below, with white legs and yellowish claws;
and the thin-shelled female has a transparent whitish color tinged with
pink ; the carapace of the adult female being about 1% inch broad and a
little less in length. Occurs from Massachusetts to South Carolina.

Pinnotheres maculatum, (Say), or Scallop Crab, occurs in the shells of
some Sea Mussels and Scallops and attains somewhat larger size than the
foregoing. The female only is parasitic, the smaller male usually lives
among seaweeds and on the mud bottoms. Occurs most generally along
the New England coast.

Hippa talpoida, (Say), or Sand Bug, has an oval body about half as
long as broad, the sides forming a nearly regular curve, giving to the ani-
mal a buglike appearance. The tail is carried under the body and the
eyes are placed on long peduncles. The color is translucent yellowish-
white, overlaid with a purplish tinge on the back, sometimes mottled.
Ranges from Cape Cod to Florida, and is known to fishermen as the
Bait-bug.

Limulus polyphemus, (Lat.), or King Crab, Horseshoe Crab, though
not a true crab and belonging to the order Xiphosura, should be here de-
scribed, as some naturalists: regard it as a low type of Crustacean, while
others place it among the Arachnida. It has a very large carapace termi-
nating in a spine at the posterior angle on both sides, a small abdomen
with a long, tapering spine at its end. The basal portion of the legs serve
as masticating organs. It is slothful in its habits and is usually buried in
the mud and sand in the shallow water of estuaries and along the shore,
feeding upon various smaller animals. Its range is from Maine to Florida,
and is abundant along the shores of the Delaware Bay. Very small
specimens have survived for long periods in aquaria.

Crass AS SCAVENGERS. Crabs are voracious feeders and will attack
their own species and most of the other living inmates of the aquarium.
Only small specimens should be introduced, which serve as excellent
scavengers.

Homarus americanus, (M-E.), the American Lobster, is one of the
most important food invertebrates, and has the body made up of two sec-
tions. The anterior portion, consisting of the head and thorax, is covered
with a carapace, and the posterior portion or abdomen is covered with six

310

MARINE AQUARIA

segments and a terminal flap or telson. Below the carapace there are five
segments corresponding to the pairs of legs, of which the anterior pair
bear the claws. Each segment of the abdomen has a pair of appendages
on the lower side, the swimmerets, and the telson has two larger ones termi-
nating in two broad plates. ‘The eyes are on two short movable ped-
uncles and there are two long and two short antenne or feelers. The
American Lobster is variable in color, usually darker green and bluish on
the carapace with the under side and the limbs of a lighter color; that of
the adult is usually a greenish black, but the color depends upon the
character of the bottom which it inhabits. Its range is from Labrador
to Delaware and Virginia, but it occurs most numerously from Massa-
chusetts northward, as it prefers a rocky and gravelly bottom covered with
a growth of the larger seaweeds. Of the Atlantic species there are but
two varieties, known to fishermen as the School Lobster and the Rock
Lobster. One other species, Panulirus interruptus, (Rand.), also classified
as Senex interruptus, the California Spring Lobster, is a smaller form, rang-
ing southward from California, and is similar to the European P. vua/garus.

SHrimps and Prawns. ‘These animals have compressed bodies and
soft carapaces with the abdomen large in comparison with the combined
head and thorax. ‘The difference between the Shrimps and Prawns is not
well defined, as they are nearly related forms. In France they are known
as Crevettes and in Germany as Garnellen.

Crangon vulgaris, (Fabr.), or Common Sand Shrimp, reaches a
length of two inches, and varies in color with the character of its habitat,
from pale translucent grey, to resemble the surface upon which it lives, to
darker colors and mottlings on a muddy bottom. It secretes itself so that
only the eyes and antenne are visible, and buries itself when disturbed.
Abounds from Labrador to North Carolina between tide-marks, princi-
pally on weedy bottoms. 2B. franciscorum is the California species.

Penaeus setiferus, (M-E.), the largest Southern Shrimp of the mar-
kets, ranges from Charleston, S. C., south. P. drasiliensis is another form
from the same locality.

Squilla empusa, (Say.), or Mantis Shrimp, is a larger deepwater species
belonging to the Squillide, and is similar to the Squilla of Europe. It
somewhat resembles the lobster and is 6 to 10 inches in length. Its range
is from Cape Cod to Florida, and is rarely found near the shore.

Palemonetes vulgaris, (Stimp.), or Common American Prawn, is usu-
ally one inch long, but reaches a length of 1% inches, and occurs abun-
dantly along the Middle Atlantic coast. The body is almost colorless
and transparent, marked by irregular spots and blotches of grey and
brown. It is the “ bait”? shrimp of the angler, and inhabits both salt and

311

MARINE AQUARIA

brackish water, preferably on a muddy bottom; and is abundant in calm.
weather in pools and ditches among vegetation, and about piles and other
submerged woodwork. It is a very good aquarium scavenger ; also serv-
ing as food for the fishes and other inmates.

Pandalus borealis, (Kroyer), or Deep Water Prawn, is a 6 to 7 inch
long species which never approaches the shore. Two other forms, P.
montagni and P. prepinquus, also inhabit deep water having abundant vege-
tation.

CirRIPEDIA. ‘These Crustaceans include the Barnacles and similar
forms everywhere plentiful in salt and brackish water. A few of the larger
forms attached to a plant or stone may be introduced into the aquarium,
but should be under careful observation, as they do not usually survive.
The most common are Balanus eburneus, or Black Barnacle, Sea-acorn ;
B. balanoides, or Ivory Barnacle, common on the Atlantic coast on most
submerged woodwork, either fixed or floating, and B. crenatus, a parasitic
form attached to crabshells, stones, etc. The larger B. ¢intinabulum, and
Lepas fascicularis, or Goose Barnacle, are found attached to the bottoms
of vessels that have come from warmer latitudes.

Marine Entromostraca. The order Crustacea also includes those
of minute size, Water-fleas which are both free-swimming and parasitic.
They form a considerable part of the food of fishes and other marine an-
imals and need no further mention here.

AmpuHipopa. ‘These forms are numerous on all beaches; the most
generally distributed are:

Orchestia agilis, (Smith), or Beach Flea, Sand Hopper, which occurs
in countless numbers on every beach. When disturbed it hops by means
of the three pairs of abdominal legs and buries itself in the sand. In color
it resembles the sandy shore, and is 5¢ inch and less in length. Another
form Talorchestia lingiconis, is similar to the above.

Gammarus locusta, (Lat.), also resembles the above but is larger and
lives in the water under stones and among the weeds. The colors are
uncertain and variable.

Caprella geometrica, (Lat.), or Skeleton Shrimp, is a small and curi-
ous amphipod, so slender as to appear like a skeleton adhering to the
seaweeds. It is about 5¢ inch long and moves like a measuring-worm.
Will survive in the aquarium.

There are a number of Boring Amphipods which do not require
mention here.

Isopopa. This numerous class is widely distributed and is frequently
found on marine plants. The most general form is:

Ces

MARINE AQUARIA

Cirolena concharum, (Lat.), having a rounded segmental body and
seven pairs of short legs. It is found swimming in shallow water among

plants from Cape Cod to South Carolina, and is rarely over % inch long.

Four other smaller and larger Isopods need no further mention. All are
of similar form and habits.

Mottusca. Of the Marine Mollusca it is proposed to mention
only a few of the shallow-water Middle Atlantic coast species most likely
to be found by the collector, as there are so many hundreds of genera and
thousands of species that space will permit of their being only superfi-
cially treated.

Univatves. The most common Limpets, Periwinkles and Whelks,
are:

Acnea testudinalis, (Miull.), or Smooth Limpet, which has a thin, ele-
vated, oblong-oval, saucer-shaped shell, with the apex turned forward.
The surface is checked with minute radiating lines and the color is gener-
ally a greenish-white, with darker brown stripes. It is about 5 inch long, %
inch broad, and %4 inch high. The most common limpet, found along
almost the entire Northeastern Atlantic coast.

Crepidula fornicata, (Lam.), or Slipper Limpet, Quarter Deck, has a
basin-shaped obliquely-oval shell, one side more oblique than the other,
with a thin, shelf-like projection at the apical end, and the apex turned to
one side. The surface is wrinkled with lines of growth, the aperture ob-
liquely sub-oval, the edge entire and sharply defined with dark spots and
blotches. Length 1% inches, breadth 1; inches, color light-brown. Found
adhering to each other and to shells on the Atlantic coast generally.

Littorina irrorata, (Say), or Common Periwinkle, has a thick varie-
gated greenish shell of six whorls, a shallow suture, pointed apex and sub-
oval aperture. Found in estuaries of the Middle and Southern States
coast.

Natica duplicata, (Say), or Coned Natica, has a large, dark and solid 1%
to 2 inches shell, the upper whorls compressed to give a pyramidal form.
The surface is marked with faint revolving lines, and the color is chestnut-
brown or black. Found on sandy and muddy shores and beaches along
the Northern Atlantic coast to Massachusetts.

Columbella lunata, (Sowb.), or Dove Shell, has a small, ovate-conic,
six-whorled, reddish-brown shell with flat whorls, a shallow suture and
smooth surface. Crescent-shaped yellowish-white spots mark the surface,
and the interior is a soft dove-color. Length § inch. Abundant from
Cape Cod to Florida.

Nassa obsoleta, (Say), or Small Whelk, has an ovular dark red-
dish-brown or olivate, six-whorled, polished 1 inch long shell with some-

313

MARINE AQUARIA

what rounded whorls, a moderately elevated spire and blunt apex. Found
on muddy shores not exposed to the surf, from Maine to Florida.

Nassa trivittata, (Say), a smaller form, has an ovate-conic % inch
greenish-white, seven-whorled shell, with the surface marked with lines
and granulations. The whorls are rounded, suture depressed and apex
acute. Found at low-water marks along the Atlantic coast generally.

Buccinum undatum, (Linn.), or Common Whelk, has a heavy ovate-
conic six-whorled greyish 3 inches shell, marked with coarse revolving
lines and waved transverse wrinkles. Found from Canada to the Caroli-
nas and further south.

Urosalpinx cinereum, (Say), or Oyster Drill, has a long-oval coarse
and solid five- or six-whorled, ash-colored or reddish-brown, one inch long
shell with a number of rib-like undulations and revolving lines on the
convex whorls. ‘The suture is depressed and the beak slightly curved.
Common along the Middle Atlantic coast and larger in southern waters.

Fulgur canaliculata, (Say), or Turret Conch, has a 6 to g inches long
pear-shaped, rather thin, pale faun-colored shell, with about six turreted
whorls and a deeply impressed channeled suture. It is one of the com-
mon Conchs of the Atlantic coast, found from Cape Cod to Georgia.

Fulgur carica, (Linn.), or Spined Conch, has a solid ash-colored six-
whorled shell, with a series of compressed spines or nodules about the
larger three whorls. ‘The upper whorls are somewhat depressed and the
suture shallow and not channeled as in the foregoing. It is less abundant
but is distributed in the same localities.

Bivatves. The most common Bivalves of the Middle Atlantic
States coast are:

Ensis directus, (Conr.), or Common Razor Clam, has yellowish-green
scabbard-shaped valves about 5 to 6 inches long and 1 inch broad, with
rounded, nearly parallel ends. It lives on sandy beaches near low-water
marks along almost the entire Atlantic coast.

Mya truncata, (Linn.), or Common Soft-shell Clam, or Gaper, has
oblong-ovate inequilateral strong, deeply concave 3 inches long valves
with distinctly marked umbones. The valves are rounded anteriorly and
truncated posteriorly, dingy white in color with yellowish and brown
wrinkled epidermis. Generally distributed along the Atlantic coast south
to South Carolina, and most abundant along the New England coast.

Mactra solidissima, (Dillw.), or Trough Clam, another soft-shelled
form, has very large, massive, transversely ovate, sometimes triangular
414 inches long valves, with the epidermis usually worn or eroded. The
umbones are usually distinct and the surface slightly folded at the lines of
growth. This clam is also known as the Beach- or Dipper-clam, and is

314

MARINE AQUARIA

found on the sandy beaches on the Atlantic coast from Labrador to Cape
Hatteras.

Petricola pholadiformis, (Lam.), or Boring Clam, has elongated, acutely
rounded, chalky, 1% inches long valves, the anterior part short and the
posterior long and neatly rounded. The animal has two long siphon
tubes united at the base, with the inhaling tube the longer. Found in
varying localities along the Atlantic coast at low-water marks.

Acra transversa, (Say), or Common Cockle, has rhomboidal, oblong
11% inches long valves, with 32 to 35 ridges or ribs placed in radiating lines
from the umbones to the margins. This is the common radiate-shelled
clam of the Atlantic coast.

Venus mercinaria, (Linn.), or Common Hard-shell Clam, Quahog,
has thick and solid, obliquely ovate or heart-shaped grey and chalky valves
with the anterior ends very short, the posterior ends terminating in a blunt
truncated point, and the curved and elevated umbones placed far forward

_to project nearly to the front of the shell. This clam is brought into the

market under different names, the younger as the Cherry Stone and Little-
neck, the older as the Hardshell, and the very large ones, which reach a
length of 3% to 4 inches, as the Chowder Clam. Those having shells 6
inches long or larger are known as Horse or Sea Clams. Common along
the entire Eastern and Middle States Coast.

Mytilus edulis (Linn.), or Edible Mussel, has thin, polished, triangu-
lar-ovate, dark-bluish, 2% inches long valves, with a pointed beak and
plainly defined lines of growth. The umbones are immediately at the
beak. Very common between tide-marks on the Atlantic coast, from the
Arctics to North Carolina.

Modiolus plicatulus, (Lam.), or Horse Mussel, has oblong-ovate
much elongated greenish-brown and horn-colored 2 to 3 inches long
valves ; with the posterior end traversed by numerous radiating ribs. The
umbones are placed above the beak. Common on muddy banks of estu-
aries and shores, crowded in vast numbers, exposed at low tide; from
Nova Scotia to Georgia.

Pecten gibbus, var. irradians, (am.), or Common Scallop, has nearly
round, rather strong, dusky or blackish 21% inches long valves, having
about 20 elevated, rounded ribs, wrinkled concentrically by fine lines of
growth, and an ear-like hinge about two-thirds as broad as the shell.
Common along almost the entire Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to
Tampa, Fla.

Ostria virginica, (Gmel.), or Chesapeake Bay Oyster, has now be-
come a widely distributed native species, found along the entire Atlantic
coast. Owing to its sedentary life, it has become very irregular in both

315

MARINE AQUARIA

form and size, and specimens from different localities would scarcely be
recognized as of one and the same species.

Anomia simplex (Orb.), or Jingle Shell, or Jingle, has rounded, scaly,
variously wrinkled and undulated, 34 inch in diameter valves. The shells
are a common feature on the seashore, their fine pearly lustre and flattened
form distinguishing them from other oysters and clams. It is a hardy
species found abundantly on oyster beds and adhering to fixed objects
along the Atlantic coast.

Marine Mottuscs as Scavencers. Marine Univalves feed upon
plants and animals, more particularly the lower forms, alge, oscillaria, pro-
tozoans and hydroids. In the aquarium they perform useful purposes,
keeping the glass clean and devouring food particles which might contam-
inate the water. They are not quite as good scavengers as some of the
freshwater species. Buivalves also render good service in keeping the
water clear, but only a few should be introduced, as they require consider-
able water for respiration and to obtain sufficient of the minute vegetable and
animal life upon which they feed.

Squips. Two of the Squids may be mentioned, as they are common
along almost the entire Atlantic coast. These are Ommastrephes sagittatus
(Lam.), and Loligo pealii, (Les.), both from 6 to 12 inches long. All the
family are ferocious creatures, the tyrants of the lower orders; solid fleshy
animals having powerful arms furnished with rows of cup-like suckers,strong
jaws and membranous tongues, armed with recurved prickles. They dis-
charge an inky fluid through a siphon. The beak or pen is the cuttle-fish
bone of commerce and forms the skeleton of the animal.

Cuorpata. These animals are common on marine plants, submerged
woodwork and other fixed objects. Their characteristic of ejecting jets of
water secured for them their popular name of Sea-squirts. They are
usually of dull colors except in southern waters, and are either individual
or compound animals. The common species are:

Molgula manhattensis, (Say), a very general form, has an olive-green
globular body with slightly rough surface, about 34 inch diameter. Two
siphon tubes extend above the upper end. Found on seaweed, etc., either
singly or in clusters,

Cynthia partita, (Say), another common form, has an oblong body,
one inch in diameter, of rusty brown color, marked with red and purple.
Usually found on piles or flattened under stones.

Botyllus gouldii, (Stimp.), is a generally distributed compound form
which appear as thick incrustations and bands on plants and piles. There
are many other common forms. Individual Sea-squirts will survive in
smaller aquaria, but it is not advisable to introduce the compound forms.

316

MARINE AQUARIA

Pisces. Of the Marine fishes only those forms will be mentioned
which are readily obtainable, the native Eastern and Middle States
coast species, and strays of the Gulf Stream, which may survive in the
marine aquarium. These are:

Herrings or Clupeide. ‘These fishes are distributed throughout the
whole of the North Atlantic, and the young make interesting aquaria in-
mates. ‘They may be obtained in abundance along the shore in summer.
Of these the Common Herring, Clupea harengus, the Sardine, Sardinella,
and the Menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, are the most numerous forms.

Toothed Minnows or Pecilitde occur in brackish water near the mouths
of rivers and along the coast. They are all small fishes varying in the
adult from 2 to 6 inches. The most common forms are Pursy Minnow,
Cyprinodon variegatus; the Kallifish, Fundulus heteroclitus ; the May Fish,
FF. mgalis; and the Rainwater Fish, Lucania parva. All are very hardy
and will survive in the aquarium.

Sea-horses or Hippocampida. The strange shape and interesting habits
of these fishes make them very desirable aquarium inmates which survive
for long periods. The abundant form on the Atlantic coast 1s Hippocam-
pus hudsonius, very similar in appearance to H. hippocampus of Europe.

Pipe-Fishes or Syngnathide. ‘These fishes are closely related to the
Sea-horses and are found everywhere on the Atlantic coast. The head is
small and the body elongated, somewhat resembling the eel. The com-
mon form is Siphostoma fuscum, a most interesting aquarium fish.

Sticklebacks or Gasterosteide. These interesting nest-builders have
three salt and brackish water species which thrive in the aquarium. ‘These
are the four-spined Stickleback, 4peltes quadracus; the ten-spined Stickle-
back, Pygosteus pungitius, which also inhabits fresh water, and the Two-
spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus bispinosus. Schools of them may some-
times be encountered in midsummer in bays and brackish water estuaries.
Their habits are described on page 72.

Silver-Sides or Atherinide. These small carnivorous fishes are found
in numbers near the shore in brackish water and at the mouths of rivers.
They resemble the smelt. Two species occur on the Middle Atlantic
coast, Menidia cerea and M. notata, known as the Sand Smelt and the
White Bait.

Mullets or Mugilide. The young of this genus will survive in the
aquarium. Theadults reach a size of 2 feet and over. The most numer-
ous marine forms are the Grey Mullets, Mugil cephalus and M. curema,
both numerous in salt and brackish water during the summer.

Crevalles or Carangide. The young of three species of these fish are
abundant during the summer months along almost the entire Middle

317

MARINE AQUARIA

Atlantic coast. These are the Goggler, Trachurops crumenophthalmus; the
Thread-fish, 4/ectis crinitus; the Common Moon-fish, Vomer setapinis; and
the Silver Moon-fish, Selene vomer.

Sea-Basses or Serranide. More than 20 species of these fishes occur
on the Atlantic coast and the young of other tropical forms are carried up
in the Gulf Stream. They are popularly known at the seaside as Black-
fish and Rock Blackfish. The most common species is Centropristes stria-
tus, small specimens of which are very interesting aquarium inmates.

Snappers or Lutianide. The young of these fine food fishes will sur-
vive in the aquarium. They are widely distributed, those frequenting the
Gulf Stream and straying to the Middle Atlantic coast being the Grey
Snapper, Neomenis griseus; the Dog Snapper, N. jocu; the Schoolmaster,
N. apodus; the Mutton-fish, NV. analis and others.

Grunts or Hemulide. The young of these beautiful sub-tropical
fishes also stray to more northern waters. Among these are the Common
Grunt, Hemulon plumieri; the Grey Grunt, H. macrostomum, and the Yel-
low Grunt, AH. sciurus.

Croakers or Scienide. his family contains about 30 genera and 150
species, including the Weakfish, Cywoscion; Kingfish, Menticirrhus; Croaker,
Micropogon; Drum, Pogonias; Cape May Goodie, Leiostomus; Mademoiselle,
Bairdiella, and others, the young of which will thrive fairly well in the
aquarium. Most of these make peculiar noises from which they derive
their common name. Some of them reach a large size and occur in shal-
low water on sandy shores along the Atlantic coast.

Wrasses or Labridz. Of these fishes there are 8 or 10 species on
the Atlantic coast, the most common being the Tautog or Blackfish,
Tautoga onitis, and the Cunner, Ctenolobrus adspersus. These are large
fishes of which the young may be kept in the aquarium.

Harvest Fishes or Stromateide. Three species of these fishes occur
on the Middle Atlantic coast. These are the Harvest-fish, Peprilus paru;
the Butter-fish, Poronotus triacanthus, also known as the Pumpkin-seed;
and the Black Rudder-fish, Palinurichthys perciformis.

Butterfly Fishes or Chetodontide. The young of these fishes frequent
the Gulf Stream and are sometimes taken in northern latitudes. They
are most beautiful marked and of singular appearance. There are 8 to
10 genera and nearly 200 species; carnivorous fishes of tropical seas, very
hardy, which will survive in the aquarium. They are also known as
Angel Fishes.

File-Fishes or Monacanthidz. These small shore fishes of warmer
waters are closely related to the Balistide of the tropical seas, and may
be taken in shallow water in summer. They are beautiful in form and

318

MARINE AQUARIA

colors. The common form is Stephanolepis hispidus of the Eastern and
Middle States coast.

Swell Fishes or Tetrodontide. ‘These curious fishes, also known as
Puffers, Globe-and Porcupine-fishes, are summer visitors from warmer
seas. [wo species are taken on the Middle Atlantic coast, the common
Swell-fish, Spheroides maculatus, very abundant, and the Rabbit-fish, Lago-
cephalus levigatus, an occasional straggler.

Sculpins or Cottide. ‘These fishes are most abundant in the waters of
the northern seas, several forms straying below Cape Cod. ‘The common
Miller’s Thumb or Blob, Uranidea gracilis, may also be found 1n clear,
cold freshwater streams; and the common Marine Sculpin, or Grubby,
Acanthocottus eneus, near the coast, from Maine to Cape Hatteras.

Toad Fishes or Batrachide. These fishes resemble the Sculpins, and
are the most repulsive looking fishes of the coast. They frequent oyster
beds, and the common form, Opsanus tau, is abundant along the coast,
the young, when cleaned of the adhering mud, making hardy and odd
aquarium inmates.

Blennies or Blenniide. "Two species of these small fishes inhabit the
shallower waters on the Atlantic coast, living principally in the Kelp and
other weeds. The common form is Pholis gunnellus, the well-known
Butter-fish. ‘

Gobies or Gobiide. Several species of small size, the Scaleless Goby,
Gobiosoma bosci; and the Chubby Goby, Godius soporator, are sometimes
seen in aquaria. The former ranges from Cape Cod to Texas, the latter
along the Gulf States and farther north. They are hardy and will survive
in the aquarium for long periods.

Gurnards or Triglide. Several species of Sea Robbins are represent-
ed on the Atlantic coast. The young of the Web-fingered Sea-robbin,
Prinotus Palmipes, and the Wing-fish, P. evolans, make interesting
aquarium inmates, as they have the habit of crawling over the bottom
on their pectoral appendages.

Flying Gurnards or Cephalacanthida. ‘Vhese fishes, known as Sea-
bats, occur on the Atlantic coast and the young are frequently taken for
the aquarium. The one common species is Cephalacanthus volitans.

Star Gazers or Uranoscopide. Of these fishes there is but one
species along the Middle Atlantic coast, 4stroscopus anoplus, which reaches
a length of 12 inches. The young are sometimes seen in aquaria in
which they may survive for long periods. |

Cusk Eels or Ophidiide. But one species occur on the New Jersey
coast, Rissola marginata, about 7 inches in length, found in the surf and

ont)

MARINE AQUARIA

shallow water. It differs from the Eel in being scaleless and having the
ventral fins on the throat as long and forked barbels.

Cods or Gadtide. The Yom-cods are small fishes of which the
Frost-fish, Microgadus tom-cod, is found from Cape Sable north. The
young make interesting aquarium fishes.

Flat Fishes, Soleide and Pleuronectide. A number of species of Flat-
fishes occur on the Atlantic coast of which the young are frequent seen
in aquaria. They have the habit of secreting themselves to the eyes
in the sand, and their pecular movements in swimming and odd appear-
ance are interesting. There is but one common species of Sole on the
Middle Atlantic coast, the Hog Choker Achirus fascitus, which will live
in freshwater. Of the Flounders there are a number of common forms,
the common Flat-fish or Winter Flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus;
the Summer Flounder, Paralichthys dentatus; the Southern Flounder,
P. lethostigmus; the Four-spotted Flounder P. oblongus; the Window-
pane, Lophopsetta maculata; and the Rusty Dab, Limanda ferruginea.

Skates or Rajide. The common skate, Raja erinecea, is frequently
taken on the coast from Virginia northward. It reaches a length of 18
inches. Sometimes the larger R. radiata strays south of Cape Cod but it
is a northern form. Another very large-species is the Barndoor skate,
R. levis, which reaches a length of four feet. The first named is very
hardy and easily kept, and is a common feature of all larger Marine
aquaria.

Sting-rays or Dasyatide. Of this family the young of one species the
Common Sting-ray or Stingaree, Dasyatis centrurus, is frequently taken
near the shore and in salt bays and inlets. It is common from Cape Cod
south. The adults reach a length of 12 feet. The long spine on the
slender tail can inflict dangerous wounds.

Frog Fishes or Antennariide. In the floating seaweed from the Gulf
Stream a bright colored little fish, the Mousefish or Sargassum-fish,
Pterophryne histrio, is often found, which will survive in the aquarium.
It is of bright orange color mottled with various shades of red and brown.

Fishing Frogs or Lophiide. The common form is known as the
Angler or Goose-fish, Lophius piscatorius, which occurs in the shoals and
flats, and is singular on account of its repulsive ugliness and voracity. It
grows to a large size but the young are interesting aquarium inmates.

Salt-water Eels or Leptocephalide. The common form is the Conger-
eel, Leptocephalus conger; but occasionally some rare straggling tropical eel
is found by the collector, borne to northern waters in the Gulf Stream.

Care or THE Marine Aguarium. The maintenance of the marine
aquarium, when properly understood, is as simple as that of freshwater.

320

MARINE AQUARIA

Less humus will form, the glass need but seldom be cleaned, the evapora-
tion is inconsiderable, and the conditions of the water and its temperature,
when the aquarium is properly established and aerated, require but little
attention. The inmates, however, should have close supervision until
they have become accustomed to their changed environments. Occasion-
ally, even with the most careful attention, water contamination may occur
or a cloudiness of the water manifest itself. [his may be due to an ex-
cessive growth of alge in the water, the death of an inmate, the decay of
a plant, or mistakes on the part of the attendant. A more rapid aeration
may often relieve this condition, when some such happening has been the
cause and corrections have been made; but should this prove ineffectual,
or after several days not improve the appearance and remove the turbidity,
then some of the water should be siphoned and replaced by the reserve
water. ‘The turbid water, if the contamination was not a dangerous one,
may be filtered and when clear and in normal condition, may be again
used or reserved. Mishaps of this kind should not occur more frequently
than in the freshwater aquarium.

Fritters. A charcoal filter or any other mechanical, not chemical,
household filter will answer the requirements; but one easily constructed
can be made of two glass funnels or of two flower pots, one a trifle smaller
than the other. Whenconstructed of the pots, pieces of pipe are cemented
into the bottom holes and cotton gauze laid over these openings. The
smaller pot is filled halfway with coarse sand, then to the top with fine
sand and covered with a piece of gauze, brought over the edge and secured
about the outside of the pot. The larger pot is filled about one-fourth
with fine sand. Upon this is placed a layer of powdered charcoal to nearly
fill it, and the opening of the smaller pot then tightly inserted into the
opening of the larger pot and firmly secured. A siphoning tube is placed
into the aquarium, suction applied with the lips, the tube then put over
the inlet tube in the smaller pot, the filter secured that the water of the
aquarium will flow through it, and by a hose placed over the outlet of the
larger pot led into a receptacle. From this it may then be returned to the
aquarium. By siphoning from the bottom, sometimes drawing but a part
of the water through the filter will correct the difficulties; more often,
however, the aquarium must be almost or entirely drained. Experience
will teach when this is necessary, and should not be needlessly done, as
the disturbance caused thereby is always detrimental to the animal life.

Feepinc Marine ANIMALS. Some of the inmates cannot be fed
and must take their nutriment from the water in the form of alge, oscilla-
toria, diatoms and infusoria. Fanciers often arrange a number of smaller
all-glass battery jars on a shelf below the larger aquarium, sometimes con-

321

MARINE AQUARIA

nected with the aerating device, for the breeding of these low forms, and
containing a marine plant or two; from which they are dipped with water,
but this is not imperatively necessary. Other and larger animals should
be furnished with more substantial food, the preferable dietary being finely
scraped lean beef and mutton, minced angle worms, and small particles of
oysters, fish and crab-meat. Tweezers or feeding rods are required to
place the food in, on or near the molluscs, anemones and other polyps,
which should be fed once a week; but the small crabs, starfishes, other
higher forms, and the fishes, should have the same food, given them at
intervals of two or three days. Great care must be exercised that all the
food is consumed, as its rapid decomposition will cause water contamina-
tions. If any remains uneaten, it should be at once removed with the
dipping-tube. The partly digested or rejected food fragments, given off
by the lower animals and the skins of the polyps, should also be removed.
Careful sanitation is as necessary with the marine as with the freshwater
aquarium; even more so, as the scavengers of the sea are not as efficient as
those of freshwater.

Anemones should be sufficiently fed or they will become dissatisfied
with their positions and move about to find a more desirable situation.
The food should be placed on the end of the feeding stick and the tenta-
cles lightly touched with it, several very small pieces being offered to the
same individual. If they are rejected the anemone is not hungry, as it has
the power of making its tentacles adhesive, or not, at will. Some forms
kill their prey by acontia, small threads and spikules with stinging cells,
which they give off at will. These should have the food brought directly
into the centre of the disc, for if the tentacles are touched they will im-
mediately collapse. When hungry, they will at once engorge the food, if
not, it will be rejected and should be removed. The water in the vicinity
of anemones should also be stirred occasionally.

It should be noted that the food requirements of marine animals in
the aquarium are less than in natural surroundings, which should be con-
sidered in feeding, and that they take more food when the water is warm
than when it is cold.

SrocKING THE Aguarium. Overcrowding is as objectionable in the
marine as in the freshwater aquarium. Not more than one inmate of any
kind to the quart of water should be introduced, or less according to the
existing conditions and the kind and size of the animals. Overstocking
is one of the most frequent causes of discouragement and failure to the
novice. It should be remembered that marine aquaria are to be admired
as much for the artistic arrangement of the inanimate objects they contain
as for the wonderful and varied forms of marine life; and a few healthy and

322

MARINE AQUARIA

comfortable animals and plants are preferable to a larger number in sickly
or dying condition.

In handling the animals, to place them into the aquarium, the anemones
and similar fauna should be introduced together with the shells and stones
to which they may adhere. All the other low forms should be handled
in a spoon; while fishes, crabs, etc., should be transferred with a shallow
net. None should be forcibly removed from any object to which they
are attached, as it is always injurious, very often fatal to them. After
they have been put into the aquarium, they should not be touched, and if
it is necessary to assure oneself that they are alive, a very small glass tube
will serve as a blowpipe and a breath of air will cause sufficient movement
to determine the question.

A very little experience and observation will enable the fancier to
distinguish between a sick or dead inmate and a healthy and living one.
If the shape and position of the anemones have not changed, a clouded
appearance forms about the sponges, the bristles of the pipe worms remain
unchanged and motionless, the snails on one spot and enclosed in their
shells, the mussels, clams and oxygen in the same position with constantly
gaping valves and no appearance of water currents over them, the crabs
without movement of the eyes or antenne, and the fishes torpid and
motionless; these are all suspicious signs requiring investigation.

Marine Scavencers. ‘The scavengers of the marine aquarium are
gasteropods, shrimps and crabs, which are effectual when the amount of
food is properly regulated.

ACCLIMITIZATION IN THE Marine Aguarium. Deaths are most
likely to occur when the animals are first introduced, as the changed con-
ditions during their transportation affect them even more than existence
in a properly arranged, well aerated aquarium; but after they have become
acclimated to their new surroundings, the deaths are not more numerous
than with the fauna of the freshwater aquarium. Trials with the marine
aquarium are earnestly advocated; they have a novelty and beauty all their
own, may be set up anywhere and maintained at no greater expense than
the keeping of the finely bred goldfishes.

CoLLecTiInG ror THE Marine Aquarium. In making collections
the periods of lowest water twice a month, at the new and full moon, give
the most satisfactory results, but especially at full moon in the months of
September and October and in March and April. A sandy beach may
not yield many specimens, but back-bays and thoroughfares, their
borders and outlets, are favorable localities. Cliffs, rocks and boulder-
strewn beaches, or where tide-pools and depressions have formed, overflown
at high tide and above low-water when the tide recedes, are the best; and

323

MARINE AQUARIA

often many forms of plants and animals may be found in a limited space.
It is necessary to have some experience in collecting, as localities passed
over by the novice as devoid of specimens may yield an abundance to
the experienced collector. A thorough examination of the whole area
should be made, the seaweeds lifted, submerged woodwork examined,
stones overturned, and every rock, depression and cavity explored with
both the net and the fingers.

A light basket with shoulder-straps, containing a number of large-
mouthed bottles and jars, a shrimp net, a pole with a strong iron point at
one end and a detachable garden rake for the other, a coldchissel and
hammer, hip boots and felt gloves to protect from
the sharp edges of mussels and the slippery foot-
ing and concealed crevices, will be desirable; and
for use in a boat, a dragnet, constructed of an
iron frame 24 by 8 inches, with hoop-iron scrapers
on the longer sides will be useful. This dredge,
Fig. 236, will collect sponges, worms, anemones,
corals, molluscs, shrimps, crabs, fishes and often

— the rarer deepwater plants. Anemones and coral-
BIG s235- WDredge uct lines should be taken with the smaller objects to
which they adhere or a piece of it removed with the chissel, but when this
cannot be done they should be carefully removed with a paper knife or
with the finger nails, so as not to injure their bases.

Fishes may be takenin a net, the simplest being an iron hoop and
netting attached- by a rope to a long pole and baited with a broken clam,
or the wire netting lobster trap. The flat fishes lie under the sand
and are usually taken in the dragnet.

A constant observation of the tide should be kept, as its unob-
served advance is often dangerous to the collector.

Transportinc Marine Carcues. The best forms of jars are
wide-mouthed and of glass or stoneware, with tightly fitted corks
through which a glass tube has been passed to
extend two inches above and below, to prevent
spilling. These receptacles should be not over
three-fourths full of water, so that the motion in
transportation will change the air. Many of the
animals may be shipped in moist, not wet, sea-
weed. A thick layer should be placed in the
bottom of a can or box, and upon this the plants
intended for the aquarium, then a second layer of

. . D
weeds, and upon this the animals. These should py. 237, Bucktand Collecting can.

324

MARINE AQUARIA

then be covered with a considerable quantity of moist weeds. Some of the
fishes and other forms will survive for hours, if carefully packed as
suggested. The illustration, Fig. 237, 1s the Buckland collecting
can, which has a perforated false bottom connected by a pipe, pet-cock
and hose, D. and B., with the air bulb, A. The funnel C. aids in
aerating and siphoning the water. This may be set under the car seat
and the bulb operated with the foot. Modifications of this device are
easily made, and are in general use.

Recetvinc Consignments. Upon arrival, a number of shallow
receptacles filled with seawater should be at hand, to separate the animals
and to quarantine them until assured that they are in healthy condition.
The marine plants also should be cleaned with saltwater and quarantined
a day or two before introduction into the established aquarium. ‘The
anemones may not at once adhere in the desired positions, may attach
themselves to the glass or roll on the bottom; or they may, by expanding
their discs on the surface, float about for days in reversed position. Pour-
ing water into the hollow depression of the disc will cause them to sink,
as they then lose their buoyancy. It will be found that most of them will
expand more freely on bright days, though some forms, which prefer dark-
ness, will seek these localities, when offered. When considerably fed they
will not open for some days, but if it is desired to have them do this, a
very small particle of food given an hour before will excite the appetite
and cause them to open very widely in expectation of a further meal.

Aquarium Toots. These should consist of straight and bent dip-
ping tubes, a siphoning tube and hose, a shallow net with a straight front,
a sponge or piece of felt on a stick to clean the glass, a glass syringe for
aeration and feeding the mussels and other low forms; a filter, as already
described, long scissors, tweezers and feeding sticks. Pieces of charcoal
behind and under the rockwork will serve as antiseptics and aid in keeping
the water clear. With larger aquaria some efficient method of aeration 1s
imperatively necessary.

525

CHAPTER Scby.

The Terrarium, Aqua-terrarium, Inmates
and Maintenance

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

Various forms of terraria have been devised to fulfill special purposes.
These may be classed as Dry terraria for reptiles and for plants which
best thrive in a dry atmosphere; Moist terraria for amphibia and for plants
which require a moist atmosphere; Heated dry terraria for tropical rep-
tiles and for plants requiring a warm, dry atmosphere; Heated moist
terraria for tropical amphibia and for plants which thrive best in a warm
and moist atmosphere; and the Aqua-terraria which combine many of the
features of both the terrarium and aquarium. These will be treated of
separately, as their respective purposes must be kept in mind in their con-
struction, arrangement and maintenance.

Dry Terraria. The simplest form consists of a box with a glass
front, the right hand side either a hinged frame or one fitted into grooves, and
covered with cotton gauze, Brussell’s netting or fine wire screening. ‘The
left hand side is also a frame covered with netting and having a central
sliding door. ‘The back is of wood covered with cork slabs; and the top
a wooden frame fitted with glass, for the observation of the contents and
with netting, and arranged for ready removal. The bottom is furnished
with a neatly fitting zinc tray having a 3 or 4 inch raised edge to contain
soil. The most approved form has a zinc or iron frame with the sides
hinged to facilitate planting and cleaning. The uprights are tee irons
with angle iron upper and lower frames. The sides may have either
wooden or angle iron frames to fasten into the uprights by turn-buckles
or other simple device. The top may be made with slanting sides either
as a mansard or gable roof. A shallow water basin for the inmates must
also be provided either of metal or made in cement of irregular outline
with a mirror to form the bottom of the pool.

Morst TerrariaA. The construction of the moist terraria may be
similar to the above, but control of the ventilation must be kept in mind
so as to maintain a moist atmosphere necessary to the animals and plants.
The approved form consists of either a wooden or metal-framed box, two
or three of the sides of which are of glass in grooved or hinged frames,
and one of glass with a netting ventilator below, provided with a sliding
door. The top may be of netting, over which a glass plate is arranged
to be raised or lowered as required for ventilation. The zinc tray should
have a small outlet pipe through the sides of the terrarium to permit of
drainage of the excess of water. As the animals in this form of terrarium
are usually amphibious a larger water basin is required.

329

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

Heated Dry Terraria. Thesame arrangement as the above may
be used, but heating appliances must be provided. For this purpose a
second or false bottom should be constructed about 3 inches above the
bottom of the terrarium on which the planting tray may rest. Wood is
best for this false bottom as it is a better insulator and will allow of a more
even distribution of the heat than metal surfaces. The space between the
two bottoms may be arranged as a drawer lined with sheet iron for heated
sand, or fitted with a flat zinc flask for hot water, the latter being prefer-
able. The flask may also be permanently inserted, in which case an outer
tube should be soldered into the planting tray through which the tube
communicating with the flask may be brought above the surface of the
soil in the tray, that the cooled water may be removed with a siphon and
hot water introduced with a hose; or a tube let through the side closed
with a pet-cock. This need be done but once or twice a day. The water
basin for the inhabitants is usually arranged in one corner.

Heatep Morst Terraria. These are similar to the heated dry
terraria in construction, but contain a larger and deeper basin for the
amphibious animals; and should be arranged to permit of control of the
ventilation to maintain a heated moist atmosphere. The water basin is
usually constructed to occupy one side or a corner and has one of its sides
at an angle to permit of a shallow approach to the water.

With all forms of terraria the main consideration must be the repro-
duction, as nearly as possible, of the natural conditions and surroundings
of the animals and of the plants, and the establishment of good and ample
ventilation.

PLanTING THE TerrarIA. ‘The plantings should be directly into the
trays and in flower pots. A-lower drainage layer of large pebbles and a thin
leveling layer of fine grit should be first put into the trays. For the Dry
terraria these should be covered with rich garden soil, of which the lower
layer has been mixed with fertilizer; and for the Moist terraria with clean
lawn turf to which a little fertilizer has been added. Upon the pebble
foundation a background or central mound of rocks may be constructed,
to form caves and hollows in which the animals may secrete themselves,
and pockets in which to set plants; or the rocks may be arranged to
screen the receptacles of potted plants. In arrangement and planting the
natural home of reptiles should be simulated and the Dry terraria arranged
to resemble sunny, arid and rocky localities, and in the Moist terraria
miniature woodland landscapes natural to amphibious animals. The
former should also not have too considerable vegetation, with spots devoid
of soil and covered with fine gravel and a few scattered stones, while the

i359

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

latter should have an ample growth of small vegetation, sod, moss, litchens
and ferns, and an abundance of larger foliage and flowering plants.

In the Dry terrarium the water basin may be treated as incidental,
but in the Moist terrarium it should be one of the principal features.
The best form has three vertical sides covered with a thin coating of
hydraulic cement into which small pieces of stone, pomice, tuftstone, etc.,
have been pressed to resemble rough stone walls, and one partly sloping
side to permit of a gradual approach to the water level, in the foreground,
arranged to resemble a pebbly beach. The water may be siphoned out
or a drainage pipe led through the side. In large terraria the water tank
is often utilized for semi-aquatic plants in concealed pots.

In terraria miniature bridges, castles, fountains, cascades and other
landscape features are introduced with pleasing effect. Backgrounds are
made of rocks cemented at different levels to the back of the terraria and
in the pockets so formed ferns and other plants are grown. Pomice is
well adapted to this use, its pores absorbing large quantities of water.
The general appearance will be improved if the raised sides of the soil
tray are concealed by painting the glass to that level.

Reptiles require heat and strong sunlight, as they delight to sun
themselves for hours; but amphibious animals generally should be shel-
tered from strong light, as it is objectionable to them, and a temperature
of about 75° to 80° F. by daylight and not below 55° F. at night is best
suited for the indigenous forms; but for tropical species temperatures
from 15 to 20 degrees higher are required.

Piants ror TerraAriA. For the Dry terrarium cacti, aloes and
agaves are best suited for direct planting in the soil, and houseleeks for
the pots; also hardy ferns and a number of other plants which will thrive
in pots in a dry atmosphere. For the Moist terrarium a much -larger
number of plants are available and almost all that thrive in the greenhouse
may be successfully introduced. The plants should be frequently sprayed
with water. For this purpose either a small sprinkling can or a florist’s
aspirator 1s best.

ANIMALS FoR TERRARIA. Almost any of the lower forms of small
land animals may be introduced. For the Dry terrarium, butterflies,
beetles and other insects, Jand snails, slugs, hop toads, tree toads, horned
toads, lizards, snakes and small tortoises; and for the Moist terrarium
aquatic insects, snails, tadpoles, frogs, newts, salamanders, water snakes
and turtles. Most interesting collections can be made of animals which
live in harmony with each other and such added which will serve them as

food.

33!

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

Agua-TerrariA. These receptacles combine the aquarium and the
terrarium, their purpose being the growing of aquatic and semi-aquatic
plants and the maintenance of aquatic and amphibious animals in sur-
roundings nearest to those of their natural habitats, that the adults as well
as the larve and young may be kept for observation and study. The

FIG. 238. Swamp Aquarium.

effect produced is far more handsome than that of the aquarium alone,
and when the aqua-terrarium is of large size, it permits of most beautiful
and interesting arrangement, as may be seen by the illustration at the end
of this volume. The upper part is arranged to set upon the lower
aquarium, and of this latter the two sides and a part of the back are built

Jae

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

of or screened with slate to conceal the back of the rockwork and earth in
which the plants are grown.

Another form consists of a shallow open tank or aquarium having a
layer of soil covered with pebbles arranged to slope from a depth of 2
inches to within a half inch of the surface, screened by paint on the glass
to just above the soil level so that only the clean surface of pebbles is ex-
posed. In these varying depths of water a great variety of aquatic and
semi-aquatic plants may be grown, sagittaria, ludwigia, fontinalis, anacharis
and cabomba to grow submerged; parrot’s feather, water-hyacinth, salvinia,
triania and frog-bit on the surface, and semi-aquatic plants to grow one to
four feet above the surface.

Fig. 238 gives a good idea of the beauty and the arrangement of a
receptacle of this kind, the plants shown being Maidenhair, Scirpus gracilis,
in the pot, Water-hyacinth and Parrot’s feather on the surface and
Chinese and Montevidean Arrowheads and Umbrella plants growing above
the surface. This receptacle offers opportunities for tasteful and artistic
arrangement of plants and for keeping the lower forms of animal life, and
is usually installed in conservatories and greenhouses.

Under proper conditions any of the following animals can be kept in
Terraria and Aqua-terraria.

BarracuiaA. Frogs and Toads belong to the order Salientia or tail-
less Leapers, the Ranide or frogs, the Bufonide or toads and the Hylide
or tree toads. All are closely related, differing only in structural features
and habit. They have bony skeletons with projections on each side of
the vertebree but no ribs, respiration being made by the throat and con-
sists of a continuous gulping to force air to the lungs. Almost the entire
cranium is taken up by the orbits, the brain cavity being very small. The
hind-legs are long and have webbed toes, the fore-legs are short and the
toes are without webs. In repose they sit nearly upright, a position ad-
mitting of instant movement which consists of long leaps, short jumps
and a crawling movement. They are oviparous and deposit spawn in
the spring and early summer months, which is fertilized by the male as it
is extruded by the female, the size of the ova being 1.75 to 2.6 millime-
ters, varying with the different species. The frog spawn receives a coat-
ing of albumenous substance as it passes down the oviduct, which rapidly
swells when the eggs enter the water and forms clusters of gelatinous
globules enclosing the eggs, also keeping them well apart and serving as
a protection. The spawn of the toad is enclosed in long strings or ropes
of the gelatinous substance, usually attached to aquatic plants. The eggs
develop as soon as fertilized, appearing as partly white and black spheres,
but as the embrio develops the entire egg enlarges, become black and

333

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

assumes either an ovoid or a lozenge form. Dependent upon the tem-
perature of the water and the different species, the period of incubation
may be from 6 to 30 days. When the tadpole wriggles out of the
gelatinous cover, which serves as its first food consumed by absorption,
the mouth and anus soon become functionary, the alimentary canal elon-
gates, and the tadpole begins to feed on macerated vegetal and animal
matter. At first respiration takes place by external gills, but these are
soon replaced by internal structures covered by opercule. ‘The rapidity
of development depends upon natural conditions and in the different
species may be in 3 months to 2 years. The first indication of the meta-
morphosis is in the development of the hind legs, then the fore-legs de-
velop under the gill membranes, and finally the tail is absorbed, at which
period the gills are replaced by lungs and the young frog or toad becomes
amphibious. The food is no longer organic matter but living organisms,
and its usefulness as an aquarium scavenger ceases.

Tadpoles of the toad may be distinguished from those of the frog by
their blacker color, the latter being preferable in the aquarium, as they are
better scavengers and remain longer in the tadpole stage.

Frocs. These have long and tapering tongues fastened to the front
of the mouth, free behind, and the tip pointing down the throat. Their
prey is taken by its quick protrusion, and the adhesion to its viscid cov-
ering. Maturity is reached by the toad in one season, but with some of
the frogs it is delayed for 2 or 3 years; while tadpoles in aquaria some-
times never undergo the final metamorphosis, probably due to the en-
forced aquatic conditions. In the United States there are 13 recognized
species and 6 sub-species of frogs ; those most generally distributed being
the Spring or Leopard Frog, the Green Frog, the Common Bullfrog, the
Western Frog and the Western Bullfrog.

Rana virescens, (Shaw), the Spring or Leopard Frog, is found from
the Atlantic Coast to the Sierra Nevada Mountains and from Lake Ath-
abasca to Central America, but is most abundant in the Eastern States.
It grows to a length of 3% inches, exclusive of the legs; has a rather
pointed snout, and the tympanum of the male is nearly as large as the
eye. The color is bright green marked with olive, with dark-brown and
black blotches in two irregular rows on the back, and one or more indefi-
nite rows on the sides. The yellow glandular fold, which is a distinguish-
ing characteristic in the different species, reaches from the orbit to the
posterior end of the body. This frog passes through the tadpole stages
in one season and its cry may be defined by the syllables cluck cluck; cluck
cluck in gutteral tones.

Jae

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

Rana clamatans, (Shaw), the Green Frog, is distributed throughout
the Eastern and Central States and a part of Canada. The head is
rounder than the above, the body and limbs shorter and more massive,
the tympanum of the male larger than the eye and smaller in the female.
The glandular fold runs from the eye to the hip with a shorter one to the
shoulders. The color is dark-olive on the back, brilliant green on the
head and shoulders, and usually white or greenish-white below with citron-
yellow throat. At some seasons it may be greenish-brown on the back
and the sides marked with brown spots. It is aquatic in its habit and
emits a shrill cry when disturbed, the usual note being a nasal chung, and
its call is chock, chock chock.

Rana catesbeana, (Shaw), the Common Bullfrog, is distributed over
the entire country east of the Rocky Mountains and is the largest of the
North American frogs, often reaching a body length of 8 inches. It has
a broad head, bulky body and thick legs. A fold of the skin extends
from the eye to the tympanum around the forearm socket to the breast.
The tympanum of the male is larger than the eye. The complete webb-
ing of the fourth toe and the absence of the dorsal or back fold are other
distinguishing characteristics of this species. Its cry is the deep gutteral
oft-repeated croak, wuum, wuim, wutm, wuum.

Rana pretiosa (Cope), the Western Frog, and the Western Bullfrog,
Rana aurora, are not found in the Eastern States, the distribution of the
former being from Montana west to Puget Sound and south to Lower
California. Its head is obtuse, rounded and broader than long, the body
stout, the eyes smaller than the Eastern Frogs, and the indistinctly out-
lined tympanum often smaller than the eye. A depressed ridge extends
from the eye to the flank; and the color is yellowish-brown above, darker
on the side, circular brown blotches on the back, and transverse markings
on the legs. The Western Bullfrog is distributed on the Western Coast
regions of the United States. Its head is broad, acute and rounded
anteriorly, the body depressed and elongated, the eye moderately large,
and the tympanum smaller than the eye. The glandular fold reaches from
the eye to the hind leg. The color is greenish-yellow with golden reflec-
tions spotted with black, and the sides and abdomen reddish-brown. The
under side is dull, spotted greenish-yellow.

The sexes of the frogs may be determined by the size of the tympanum,
that of the female being the smaller.

Toaps. There are several variefies of the common or hop-toad
which will not be mentioned here. Toads are terrestial in habit, of dull,
inconspicuous color and usually considered of uncouth repulsive form.

335

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

They exhude pun-
gent acrid secretions
ae as a method of defense.
ye They are extremely use-
868 ful creatures devouring
st all kinds of insect vermin,
set snails and worms, their
#. food being every creep-

C ing and flying thing
A small enough to swallow.
Ya One observer notes that

| a single toad ate 24 cat-
erpillars in 10 minutes
and another 35 ‘celery
worms in three hours,
and estimated that a good
sized toad will destroy

10,000 insects and worms ina single summer. The illustration of the
metamorphosis of the common American Hoptoad, Bufo Jentiginosis,
(Shaw), Fig. 239, is taken from the Nature Study leaflets of the Cornell
University College of Agriculture and shows the life history of the toad
and the devastation wrought by its enemies, as of probably 1000 eggs
and tadpoles but one or two toads survive to the adult stage.

The toad is common to almost all parts of the United States. It
rapidly passes through all the stages of development from tadpole to
maturity, and its usefulness to the agriculturist should afford it better
protection. A rarer form, the Burrowing Toad or Spade Foot, Sacphiopus
holbrooki (Har.) is a smaller extremely noisy toad, which burrows in the
ground.

In the aquarium toad tadpoles are less beneficial than those of the
frog as their change to the adult form is briefer.

Tree Toaps. The most generally distributed tree toads and tree frogs
are the Common Tree Toad or Tree Squeak, Hy/a versicolor (Le Conte),
inhabiting the Eastern part of the United States, and having a body
length of 2 inches; the smaller Pickering’s Tree Frog, Hy/a pickeringu
(Hol.) about 1 inch in length; the Common or Swamp Tree Frog,
Chorophilis nigritus (Le Conte); the Savannah Cricket Frog, Aeris gryllus
(Hol.), the Green Tree Frog, Hy/a arborea (Hol.); and the Changeable or
Chameleon Tree Frog, Hy/a chameleonis, (Hol.), which possesses the
capacity of changing its tints to such extent that its color cannot be de-
finitely described.

336

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

Tree toads are most interesting pets. They are so sensitive to at-
mospheric changes that they serve as barometers, and are kept in aquaria
furnished with a small ladder which they either ascend or return to the
water according to the atmospheric conditions.

Uropera. Salamanders and Newts belong to the order of Urodela,
cold-blooded animals having a naked body, teeth in both jaws, four limbs,
a tail persistent through life, and no external gills in the adult. In the
larval form all are aquatic and some retain an aquatic or semi-aquatic ex-
istence through life. The common Eastern and Middle States species are:

Amblystoma punctatum (Linn.), or Spotted Salamander, a common
form, has a moderate-sized head with rounded, blunt snout; broad,
depressed and full body, and thick, rather Jong tail. The skin is
punctured with small pores, and clusters of Jarger ones are on the head.
The back is marked with a strong dorsal groove, and the legs have short
digits and nails. The color is black above with a series of round yellow
spots on each side of the back, head and tail, and the under side 1s
greyish-black. Length 6 inches. Common from Nova Scotia to Nebraska
and south. Frequents shady localities near water.

Plethodon cinereus (Green,) or Ashy Salamander, a small form, has a
short head and rather pointed snout, very slender body and cylindrical acu-
minate tail. The fore-legs are short with four digits, and the hind-legs
longer with five digits. The colors are reddish-brown on the head, the
body plumbeous, lead-or ash-colored, with usually a broad brownish-red
dorsal stripe, the limbs yellowish-grey above, and the entire lower surface
dusky-white. Length 3% inches. It is active and may be found under
logs, etc., ranging over the entire Eastern United States. It is nocturnal
in habit.

Spelerpes bilineatus (Green), or Striped Salamander, another small
form, has a small head, with somewhat rounded snout, cylindrical body,
and long cylindrical tail, thick at the base and tapering to a point. The
upper surface is brownish-yellow with a dark line on each side of the back,
and the lower surface bright yellow with a faint brown dotted marking.
Length 3 inches. Found from Maine to Florida. It is a land form
inhabiting damp places in concealment under rocks, decayed wood, moss,
lichens, etc.

Spelerpes ruber (Daud.), or Red Salamander, has a rather large wide
head, rounded snout, short limbs, small digits, and a rather short tail,
thick at its base and bluntly pointed. The colors of the entire upper
surface are vermilion-red with numerous crowded faint dark spots; and
the lower side salmon-pink. Length 5 inches. A land form, common
from Maine to Nebraska and South.

337

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

Desmognathus fusca (Raf.,) or Common Triton, Water Salamander,
has a rather large head, obtuse and rounded snout, rather long cylindrical
body, moderately long compressed and keeled tail. The limbs are rather
short with small digits. The colors are brown above, sometimes black,
with faint grey or purplish spots or shades, which become darker with age.
The lower side is marbled in dull greys and blackish tints. Length 4
inches. A very common and active form in springs and cold water
streams. Other species, are D. nigra, (Green,) having a stouter body and is
uniformly black in color, length 6 inches, found in mountain streams
and springs from Pennsylvania to Illinois and south, and D. ochrophea
(Cope,) brownish-yellow, 3 inches long and may sometimes be found
under the moss on the banks of mountain streams and other cold water.

Diemictylus veridescens (Raf.,) or Common Newt, Evet, Eft, has a
short and broad head, rather slender body, slender delicate limbs, and a
long, compressed tail. Three large pores are located behind the eye.
The colors of the upper surface of the adult are olive-green, sometimes
reddish of varying shades, with a number of scarlet spots on the sides,
and the lower side yellow with small blackish spots. Length 3% inches.
Abundant over the entire eastern section of the United States in ponds
and streams.

Diemictylus viridescens, (var. miniatus) (Raf.,) or Red Eft, is similar to
the above, but of bright vermilion red, with a rougher skin. The larve of
both species are similar in appearance and markings, and the difference in
color of the adult may be largely due to its life out of the water. Found
in the same localities but away from water under moss and stones.

The two forms of salamander-like animals found in the eastern sec-
tion of the United States are:

Necturus maculosus (Raf.), or Mud Puppy, another of the Batrachia,
has a large flattened head with abrupt truncated snout, large bushy bright-
red gills forming three tufts on each side of the head; very short, weak -
limbs, and a depressed and keeled tail. The colors are brownish or ashy-
grey with scattered darker spots, and the lower surface dusky-white.
Found over the eastern range of States, most numerous north and west of
the Alleghanies and the Great Lakes. It is sluggish in movement and
usually inhabits the greater depths, or is concealed in the mud and silt.

Cryptobranchs alleganiensis (Daud.), or Hellbender, has a large broad
and flat head, with a short rounded snout, short neck, and a thick sub-
cylindrical body with thick folds of skin on the sides. The limbs are
short and weak, having short digits without nails. ‘The tail is keeled and
very much compressed. The colors above are blackish, with darker in-
distinct markings, and paler below. Reaches a length of 18 inches.

338

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

Found in warmer streams and lakes on the western border of the Middle
States, the Ohio Valley, and South. A repulsive-looking but harmless large
salamander, which during life retains many of the larval characteristics.

SguamaTa. Lizards and Snakes belong to the order Squamata,
cold-blooded animals with the body covered with imbricated scales, the
vent across slit. There are many other individual anatomical differences
which mark them as distinct from the Urodelas and Reptilia.

Lacertitia. The Lizards have no carapace, the body is covered
with overlapping scales. There are four limbs, the feet generally have five
digits, and the tail is usually long and brittle. The Eastern and Middle
States have but few species, which will be described; but some of the
common Southern and Western forms are to be had of dealers, and will
also be briefly mentioned.

Eumeces fasciatus (Linn.), or Blue-tailed Lizard, has a short, broad
head with pointed snout, an elongated cylindrical body covered with scales.
The cylindrical tail is very long, covered above with small scales and
below with a central row of larger plates. The fore-legs are short
and the hind legs longer, both covered with scales and having long
delicate digits with very long curved nails. The colors of the head and
body above are bluish-black with five longitudinal yellow lines on the
back, and yellow veinings on the head. The lower surface is white,
except the tail, which is rich ultra-marine blue above and a little paler
below. Length 8 to 11 inches. Found throughout the eastern section
of the United States, from the Rocky Mountains to the coast; in shady
places and under the bark of decaying trees. Its food is principally
insectivorous.

Sceloporus undulatus (Daud.,) or Pine Tree Lizard, Swift, Fence
Lizard, has a short, sub-triangular, rounded head with obtusely pointed
snout, a short body, fuller than the foregoing, and the long tail cylindrical
and tapering to a fine point. The legs are moderately long, and the
digits delicate, furnished with long curved nails. The colors of the head
and neck above are dark dusky-brown with black, the back mottled
brownish-grey, with*s5 or 6 transverse black bands having white borders,
and similar markings are on the limbs and tail. The throat and lower
surface of the limbs and tail are silvery-grey, marked with small and
large black bands. On each side of the abdomen is a bright green stripe
surrounded with black, but in the females and the young the green 1s
usually absent. Length 7 inches. Very common in forests, and along
fences in the Eastern and Middle States.

Eumeces anthracinus (Baird), or Black-lined Lizard, is a rarer eastern
species found from Pennsylvania to Texas. The colors are bronze with

339

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

four yellow stripes, and between and below these are the coal-black lines
for which the name anthracite has been applied. Length 6 to 8 inches.

Other Lizards sometimes offered by Eastern dealers are Anolis prin-
cipalis (Linn.), the Green Lizard or Chamaeleon, and Leiolopisma laterale
(Say), the Ground Lizard, both southern forms, 5 inches long; PAryno-
soma cornutus (Gir.), the Common Horned Toad of the southwest, 5
inches long; and OpAisaurus ventralis (Linn.), the so-called Glass Snake,
or Joint Snake which reaches a length of 25 inches, also a southern form.

Opurpia. The Serpents have elongated bodies, obsolete limbs, im-
bricated scales, bones of both jaws movable, no eyelids, forked tongues,
and other anatomical characteristics, which separate them from other Ver-
tebrates, except the snakelike lizard Ophiosaurus, above mentioned. The
common species of the Eastern and Middle States are:

Carphophiops amenus (Say), or Ground Snake, has a small flat head,
broad snout, robust body for the size of the animal, rounded above, flat-
tened below, and covered with small, sub-hexagonal scales above and
larger plates below. The colors of the upper surface are light, glossy
chestnut-brown, lower surface salmon-red. Length 12 inches. Common
from Massachusetts to Illinois south, mostly found under rocks and the
bark of old trees, feeding on insects.

Storeria occipitomaculata (Stor.), or Red-bellied Snake, has a rather
large narrow head and pointed snout; rather stout elongated body covered
above with carinated hexagonal scales and broad plates below. The colors
of the upper surface are greyish- or chestnut-brown with paler ventral
bands, bordered with black dots, also obscure dots on the sides and back
of the head, with three pale blotches. The lower surface is bright salmon-
red. Length 12 inches. Found from Massachusetts to Minnesota,
south to Georgia, and very abundant in the Middle States.

Storeria dekayt (Hol.), or De Kay’s Snake, is another form very simi-
lar to the foregoing. The colors are greyish-brown with a clay colored
dorsal band, bordered with dotted lines, and a dark patch on each side of
the occiput. The lower surface is greyish-white. Found in the same
localities as the above, abundant in the Eastern section to the Rocky
Mountains and south.

Thamnophis sauritus (Linn.), or Riband snake, Swift Garter, has a long
ovoid head with a prolonged snout rounded at the apex; long and slender
body covered with rather long carinate scales, notched behind, and
moderately large plates below. The tail is very long, thin, and termi-
nates ona point. The colors above are light olive-brown or chocolate,
with three yellow stripes, and light brown or milky-white below with a

340

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

greenish tinge... Length 36 inches. Found about streams in the entire
Eastern section, most abundant east of the Alleghanies.

Thamnophis sirtalis (Linn.), or Common Garter Snake, Striped Snake,
is very similar to the foregoing. The colors are olivaceous with a narrow
yellow dorsal stripe, three series of small dark spots on each side, and a
paler stripe on the lower side. The under surface is pale straw-color with
a greenish tinge. The most generally distributed snake, common to
almost entire North America, in high grass and shady places.

Natrix sipedon (Linn.), or Common Water Snake, False-Moccasin,
has a large sub-oval flattened head with rounded snout; long robust body
covered above with small sub-hexagonal strongly carinate scales, and
broad plates on the lower side. The tail is large and triangular in form.
The colors are dusky-brown with bands of dull-yellow, bordered with
dark brown or black; and dirty-white or pale reddish-brown on the lower
surface; somewhat variable in color. Length 30 to so inches. Found
abundantly about streams, feeding on frogs and fishes. Ranging from
New England to Kansas and south. It is ill tempered but harmless,
This snake should not be confused with the Water Moccasin or Black
Moccasin, a southern and western form, Agkistrodon piscivorous (Hol.,)
which is also aquatic, often resting on bushes overhanging streams and is
the most dangerous and treacherous of the United States snakes.

Opheodrys estivus (Linn.), or Green Snake, has an elongated narrow
conical head, a long and slender body, with carinate scales above, rather
narrow plates below, and a very long and slender tail. The color above is
a bright clear golden-green and clear yellowish-white on the under surface.
Length 30 inches. This beautiful, harmless and gentle snake feeds upon
insects, inhabits trees, and is often found on bushes over the water.
Common from southern New Jersey to Indiana and south.

Liopeltis vernalis(De Kay) or Grass Snake, is similar to the foregoing
but smaller. Its color is a uniformly darker grass-green above, and less
yellow, nearer to the white, below. Length 20 inches. It is harmless
and is found in high grass and meadows, living on grasshopers and crickets,
and occurs in the Eastern and Middle States north of the Carolinas.

Bascanion constrictor (Linn.), or Black Snake, Blue Racer, has an
elongated oval head with rather pointed prolonged snout; a long and
slender body covered with smooth, large hexagonal scales above and broad
plates below. The whole upper surface is lustrous pitch-or blue-black,
with the throat white, the abdomen and the lower surface of the tail
greenish-or bluish slate-color. The young are olivate in color with
rhomboid black blotches. Length 59 to 60 inches. It is an active
snake, running and climbing with facility, hence the popular name of

341

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

“Racer”. Found in shady places or near streams and ponds, sometimes
basking in the sun. Common in the Eastern and Middle States, and
south. It is a harmless constrictor, living on small animals and fishes.

Pituophis melanoleucus (Daud.), or Pine Snake, Bull Snake, has a
small oval head with projecting elongated snout, long and somewhat robust
body covered with large hexagonal strongly carinate scales above, and
very large and broad plates below. ‘The abrupt slender tail terminates in
a horny point. The color of the head is dusky-white with black mot-
tlings, that of the back and tail milky-white, more or less clouded and
covered with brown blotches margined with black, and the lower surface
cream-white. There are three series of lateral blotches on the side.
Length 60 inches. It feeds on small animals and is common in pine
woods from New Jersey to Michigan and south.

Diadophis punctatus (Linn.), or Ring-necked Snake, has a rather small,
flattened head and rounded snout, a slender body covered with evenly
imbricated carinated scales above, and rather broad plates on the under
surface. The tail is rather short, slender and pointed. The color of the
head is greyish-black with a conspicuous yellow ring about the neck.
The back and tail above are blue-black, each plate usually having a black
spot on each side and sometimes a fainter median one. The lower surface
is reddish-yellow, sometimes mottled with a darker color on the sides.
Length 15 inches. A timid, harmless, beautiful snake, living concealed
under the bark of trees, logs and stones, feeding upon insects, and found
along almost the entire eastern tier of States, west to Kansas.

Lampropeltis getulus (Linn.), or Chain Snake, Thunder Snake, has a
small short head rounded at the snout, a robust elongated body covered
above with smooth large haxagonal scales, and large plates below. The
tail is short and tapering, and ends in a horny point. This finely marked
snake has a shining raven-black color with yellow lines forking on the
flanks, and is marked with about twenty transverse bars, which form
white blotches below, where the black color assumes a somewhat violet
tone. Found in the Eastern and Middle States, from the Alleghany to
the Rocky Mountains, in moist and shady places, feeding on small animals.

Lampropeltis doliatus (Linn.), or Red Snake, Corn Snake, has a rather
short head and rounded snout, an elongated moderately robust body
covered with small smooth hexagonal scales above and broad plates below.
The tail is rather short and tapering with a horny point. The upper
surface is red, with about twenty pairs of black rings about smaller -
yellowish-white ones, and the head is red with a white band about
the neck. The lower surface is dull white, marked with broad black
lines and blotches. A most beautiful red, black and white snake.

342

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

Length 30 to 50 inches. Common in the Middle States and from Mary-
land to Kansas, and south, harmless and easily domesticated.

Lampropeltis doliatus triangulus (Bote), or Milk Snake, House Snake,
is very similar to the foregoing, but the colors are bluish-grey or milk-
white, with three series of rounded brownish blotches, bordered with black,
and an arrow-shaped occipital spot; and a silvery-white lower surface,
marked with evenly-placed broad black lines and patches. Length 36
inches. Very common in New England and Middle States, south to
Virginia and west to Iowa.

Hleterodon platirhinos (Latr.), or Spreading Adder, has a large flat
triangular head with elongated and pointed snout, an elongated, thick
rounded body slightly flattened on the abdomen, covered above with
strongly carinated scales, and moderately large plates below. The tail is
long, narrow and pointed. The colors above are brownish, reddish or
iron-grey with dark blotches and half-rings on the tail. The lower surface
is yellowish-grey. This snake has a somewhat mottled appearance, as the
scales are often outlined with lighter colors, and the general color is vari-
able. Length 30 inches. It is harmless but when angry will depress
and expand the head like an adder, coiling, hissing and assuming a very
threatening aspect, but is cowardly, and if hard pressed will feign to be
dead. It feeds on small animals, principally toads, small reptiles and
insects. Found abundantly in moist places from New Hampshire to
Florida, and west to the Rockies.

Agkistrodon contortrix (Linn.), or Copperhead, Cotton-mouth, has a
large, triangular, posteriorly broad head with strong upper jaw and poison
fangs ; ashort neck, an elongated heavy thick body, covered with carinated
rhomboidal scales above and moderately broad plates below, which ex-
tend nearly to the end of the thick, conical tail, ending in a horny point.
The color of the head and the ground color of the entire upper side is a
coppery red, lighter at the sides, where the scales are flecked with small
dark spots. Behind the occiput, to the end of the tail, are a series of
transverse bars, or X-shaped blotches, of dark-brown, lighter on the back
and darker to the sides, and also bordered with darker brown. The
under surface is dull flesh-pink, flecked with brown. Length 40 inches.
Frequents dark and shady places, sometimes in high grass, from western
New England to Florida, westward to Wisconsin, and south. Feeds on
small animals, principally birds and mice. A dangerous, poisonous
snake ; now only occurring in wild and uncultivated places.

Cortalis horridus (Linn.), or Common Rattlesnake, has a very large,
triangular head with broad truncate snout, a short neck, and a thick
elongated body covered with rough carinated rhomboidal scales above and

343

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

broad plates below. The tail is short, slightly conical and bears a num-
ber of rattles. The color of the head above is ashy-brown or yellowish,
and the body and tail yellowish-brown, overlaid with three rows of con-
fluent irregular brown spots and cross-blotches, darker at the tail. Length
60 inches. Inhabits rocky places from New England to the Rocky
Mountains and south. This is the most common once abundant species,
but now nearly exterminated except in wild and uninhabited localities,
Another more western form is C. adamanteus (Beau.), the Diamond Rattle-
snake, and Sistrurus catenatus (Raf.), the Prairie Rattlesnake.

Loricata. Alligators and Crocodiles belong to this order. They
are cold-blooded animals, body elongated and rounded, covered with
plates, scales or granulations, limbs four and tail elongated, mouth large,
armed with teeth. Of this order only the Alligator is found in the United |
States. A/ligator mississippiensis (Daud.), the one species of American giant
reptile, is a native of southern waters, living in stagnant ponds and deep
morasses. Its range at one time extended along the Atlantic border from
the Neus river in North Carolina south, and west as far as New Orleans,
and up the Mississippi as far as the Red river. The persecutions of the
last half century have restricted it to localities difficult of access, although
the very young are sometimes to be had of northern dealers.

Testupinata. Turtles belong to the order Testudinata, cold-
blooded animals, body enclosed between two bony shells, the carapace and
plastron; neck and tail only flexible parts of the spinal column, these and
the legs usually retractile within the shields; no teeth, but jaws armed
with horny sheaths with cutting edges; respiration by swallowing air.
There are aconsiderable number of Eastern and Middle States species
which will be briefly described :

Terrapene carolina (Linn.), or Box Turtle, has a nearly hemispherical
carapace and somewhat smaller plastron, a narrow elongated head, the
upper jaw emarginate with a broad hook, and the lower jaw with a smaller
one. The fore-legs short with five digits and short thick nails, the hind-
legs short and flattened at the tarsus, with five digits and four nails. The
tail is short and thick with blunt point. Usually the carapace is yellow-
ish-brown with spots and stripes of bright yellow, sometimes radiating or
disposed without order, to appear like tortoise-shell. Length of carapace
61% in., breadth 4% in., elevation 234 in., length of plastron 5% in. It
is entirely a land animal, found generally in the New England and Mid-
dle States and south.

Gopherus polyphemus (Daud.), or Gopher Turtle, has a depressed,
flattened carapace and thick plastron prolonged beyond the shell in front;
a short, thick and obtuse head, serrated jaws with horny plates, short neck

344

NL

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

ee —————

and granular skin. ‘The fore-legs are large and thick, with five digits and
thick strong nails; the hind-legs are short, thick and clavate, with four digits
and strong nails. ‘The tail varies somewhat in length. The general coior
of the carapace is brownish-yellow clouded with dark brown, and the
plastron a dirty yellow. Length of shell 1434 in. and plastron 12% in.
Found in the pine woods as far north as the Carolinas and lives in burrows
like the Woodchuck or Ground Hog; feeding on plants, vegetable matter,
worms and grubs.

Clemmys insculptus (Le Conte), or Wood Tortoise, has an oval emar-
ginate carapace and an oblong smaller plastron. The head is large and
elongated ; the upper jaw emarginate in front and notched to form two
cutting teeth ; the lower jaw having a strong hook. The fore-legs are the
larger and have five digits with short, strong and slightly curved nails, the
hind-legs broad with five digits and four nails. The tail is long, thick at
the base and slender at the end. The color of the carapace is brown,
marked with radiating black lines and concentric strie of yellowish color.
The head and limbs are dull cinnibar-red and the plastron yellow with
large black blotches at the margins. Length of carapace 8 in., breadth 5
in., elevation 234 in. Found throughout entire States east of Ohio, in
woods and fields, sometimes in or near water. It is very restless and con-
stantly in motion.

Clemmys muhlenbergi (Schw.), or Muhlenberg’s Tortoise, has an
oblong arched and slightly carinate carapace and oblong plastron. The
head is short and broad with pointed snout, the jaws strong, the upper
notched with a short hook and the lower with a nearly straight cutting
edge. The limbs are like those of the Box Turtle, and the tail large,
nearly conical, thick at the base and pointed at the end. The color of
the smooth carapace is dark brown, with the plates relieved with dull yel-
low and pale brown, and the plastron is almost black at the margins and
yellow in the middle. Its principal character is the large orange spot at
each side of the head, encircling the eyes. Found in small brooks and
running water of Pennsylvania and New Jersey and adjoining States.

Clemmys gutattus (Schn.), or Speckled Tortoise, has an ovoid, more
or less flattened, smooth carapace and large oval plastron. The head is
short, smooth and rather pointed ; the upper jaw emarginate in front, and
the lower jaw notched to form a rounded hook. The forelegs are short
and the five digits slightly webbed with long slender nails ; the hind-legs
short with five digits and four nails. The tail is long and slightly com-
pressed, tapering to a point. The color of the carapace, head and limbs
is black, dotted with orange spots, and the upper surface of the tail red-
dish, spotted with brown. This Tortoise may be found in ponds, brooks

345

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

and rivers, where it lives on smaller animals, tadpoles, young frogs, fishes,
etc., and sometimes on land, when it lives on earthworms, snails, grass-
hoppers, crickets, etc. It 1s abundant in the eastern section of the United
States, and west to Indiana.

Chrysemys picta( Herm.),or Painted Turtle, Checkered Turtle, has a sub-
oval, smooth, flattened carapace and broad, oblong plastron, nearly equal in
Jength with the shell. The head is small and rounded in front with an ob-
tuse snout. The upper jaw is entire at the sides, notched in front, and the
lower jaw is slightly hooked and turned upward in front. The fore-legs
are long and the five digits have short nails; the hind-legs are flattened at the
tarsus with five digits and four nails. The tail is moderately long and
narrow. ‘The fine markings of the carapace are greenish-black with the
plates outlined in yellow, the marginal plates lighter and marked with
bright red. The plastron is bright yellow, and the head and neck above
are almost black, with yellow lines, and veined below in black and yellow.
Length of carapace 6% in., breadth 4% in., elevation 2% in. Found in
ditches, ponds and rivers of almost the entire United States; one of the
most common turtles, usually to be had of dealers.

Kinosternon pennsylvanicum (Bosc.), or Mud Turtle, has a slightly flat-
tened, oval and smooth carapace, with an oval, rounded shorter plastron.
The head is large, rather pointed at the snout, and the jaws very strong,
both furnished with a hook on the front of the cutting edges. The neck
is long and slender and the fore-legs short, rounded and covered with a
warty skin, and having five digits with short nails; the hind-legs short,
flattened at the tarsus, and having five digits with four nails. ‘The tail is
short, thick at the base, pointed, and horny at the end. The color of the
carapace 1s dusky-brown and that of the plastron variable, usually of a yel-
lowish color. The head is dark, flecked with yellowish spots. Length of
carapace 41n., breadth 234 in., elevation 134 in. Found from New York
to Florida.

Aromochelys odoratus (Latr.), or Stink-pot, Musk Turtle, is very simi-
lar to the foregoing, but may be distinguished by the carapace having
more distinct plates with sharper edges and traces of a keel. It has a re-
pulsive, strong and musky odor. Length of carapace 6 in., breadth 434
in., elevation 134 to 2 in. Found abundantly in the waters of the East-
ern States and west to Illinois.

Aspidonectes spinifer (Le S.), or Common Soft-shelled Turtle, has a
very much flattened, leathery, smooth sub-oval carapace and flat plastron.
The head is large, broad and rounded behind and so much pointed in
front as to form a prolonged cylindrical snout. The carapace is marked
front and back with a number of raised tubercles and the plastron is larger

346

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

than the carapace. The jaws have strong cutting margins, the lower fit-
ting within the upper. The fore-legs are somewhat long, with five digits
and long nails, and the hind-legs broad with five digits and four nails.
The tail is short and blunt. The color of the carapace is umber-brown
with dark spots and patches, and the translucent plastron white marked
with waving blood-vessels. The head and neck are striped, and the legs
and digits mottled. Length of carapace 12 in., breadth 10% in., eleva-
tion 234 in., and occasionally larger. Found in the Great Lakes and
Mississippi Valley and has been introduced into the Delaware River.
It is voracious and feeds upon fishes and other animals.

Chelydra serpentina (Linn.), or Common Snapping Turtle, has a sub-
quadrilateral, deeply emarginate and serrated carapace, and an anteriorly
rounded posteriorly pointed plastron. ‘The head is very large, broad be-
hind, flattened above with a short pointed snout, and strong jaws with
sharp cutting edges and both upper and lower hooks. ‘The neck is long,
and the legs large, with five digits and strong nails. The tail is very long,
thick at the base and tapering to a pointed tip. The color of the carapace
is dusky brown, the plastron yellowish-grey, and the head and limbs
dark brown with black spots. Length 25 inches. Found abundantly in
streams and ponds everywhere from Maine to Florida.

Malaclemmys centrata (Latr.), or Diamond-back Terrapin, Salt-marsh
Turtle, has a smooth oval, almost entire carapace, sub-oval plastron, and
a very large head posteriorly broad with a pointed snout. ‘The jaws are
strong, with the upper slightly emarginate and the lower curved in front
with a slight hook. The neck is short and thick; the fore-legs moderately
long and the hind-legs short, both having short and strong nails. The
tail is short, thick at the base, pointed at the tip and has a sharp ridge.
The colors of the carapace are variable, generally a dusky brown, some-
times greenish or dark olive, rarely black. The plates are usually
yellowish-brown, each with concentric dark stripes and lines to form a
pattern, the name being derived from these markings. Length of cara-
pace g inches, plastron 814 inches, elevation 3 inches. Found in saltwater
and salt and brackish marshes from New York to Yexas; once plentifully,
now almost exterminated. It is valued as food and is considered a delicacy.

Pseudemys rubriventris (Lec.), or Red-bellied Terrapin, has an elon-
gated oval, smooth carapace, an oblong plastron, and a moderate sized
head, enlarged posteriorly with a slightly pointed snout. The jaws are
strong, with the upper cutting edge so deeply emarginated as to appear to
have two teeth, the lower serrated at the sides with three emarginated
processes like teeth in front, the central a hook. The fore-legs are rather

long, the hind-legs shorter, both having strong digits with short, slightly

347

TERRARIA AND AQUA-TERRARIA

curved nails. The tail is short, thick at the base and suddenly pointed.
The color of the carapace is dusky brown with irregular red markings on
and around the plates, the plastron red, clouded with a dusky shade. The
head and neck are dark brown above with obscured red lines, and the legs
and tail dusky brown and black, also marked with red. Length of cara-
pace 11 in., breadth 7 in., elevation 434 in. Found in brackish and fresh-
water from New Jersey to Virginia. Under the name of “Slider,” it is
largely used as a substitute for the Diamond-back Terrapin. Another
form of the same genus, P. froosti (Hol.), or Yellow-bellied Terrapin, of
the Mississippi Valley, does not occur in the Eastern or Middle States,
but may be sometimes found in the markets, as it is also used as food.

Sea Turtles. These Turtles are all of very large size and are occa-
sionally taken in the more northern latitudes, coming in the Gulf Stream
from the South. They are Dermochelys coriacea (Vand.) or Leather-Tur-
tle, one of the largest Sea Turtles, reaching a length of 6 to 8 feet and a
weight of 1200 pounds; Thalassochelys caretta (Linn.), or Logger-head
Turtle, 3 to 6 feet in length and weighing 350 to 450 pounds; Eretmochelys
imbricata (Linn.), or Hawks-bill Turtle, the carapace of which is the
valued turtle-shell of commerce; and Chelonia mydas (Linn.), or Green
Turtle, valued as food, with a carapace of 3 to 4 feet and a weight of 850
pounds. These may occasionally be seen in the larger public aquaria.

FEEDING IN THE TERRARIUM. A variety of food is necessary for
the requirements of reptiles and amphibia. Frogs, Toads and Tree Toads
require insects, worms, grubs, particles of meat and fish; Salamanders and
Newts, snails, minced mussels or oysters, meat, fish and fish eggs; Lizards
and Snakes, insects, worms, grubs and small live animals; Alligators and
Snapping Turtles, tadpoles, crayfish, minnows, other small animals, and
worms and grubs, and when these cannot be obtained, minced fish, oysters,
meat, etc.; and Land Turtles should also receive snails, mussels, insects
and garden vegetables, lettuce, celery, tomato, berries and mushrooms.

Feeding should be carefully done and anything not eaten should
be removed before it decays.

CHAPTER OXY.

Don’ts for Beginners, Aquarium Societies,
Bibliography, Glossary, etc.

DON’TS FOR BEGINNERS

Don’t, as a novice, begin with a large aquarium; one of to to 12 gallons
is sufficiently large.

Don’t, except as a hospital or temporary receptacle, use the ordinary fish
globe.

Don’t use all-glass receptacles as permanent aquaria, they are too liable to
fracture.

Don’t use an aquarium greater in depth of water than in width.

Don’t handle an aquarium until the cement has “‘set’”’ or become hardened.

Don’t arrange an aquarium until it is thoroughly cleaned on the inside.

Don’t clean the glass with anything but table salt when filled, or with
whiting when empty.

Don’t move a filled aquarium ; first decant most or all of the water.

Don’t move an all-glass aquarium at any time; lift it clear and set it down
gently in its new place.

Don’t change the water when moving an aquarium; keep it in another
vessel and afterwards return it, filling in with fresh water.

Don’t needlessly disturb the aquarium and its contents.

Don’t place the aquarium in a strong sunlight if a good steady light may
be had elsewhere.

Don’t forget that a northeast exposure is the best, and light on the surface
better than strong side-light.

Don’t exclude the free access of air to the surface by tightly covering the
aquarium.

Don’t keep the glass too free of healthy alge, except on the front.

Don’t use unclean vessels or appliances of any kind.

Don’t fail to exercise the most scrupulous cleanliness with everything per-
taining to the aquarium.

Don’t permit the accumulation of refuse, of any kind, on the bottom.

Don’t put the hand into the filled aquarium, when this can be avoided.

Don’t have more than one person in charge of the aquarium.

Don’t fail to give it a little attention every day; this soon becomes a habit
and will insure success.

Don’t use deep, narrow or funnel-shaped nets nor those of coarse knotted
twine; use shallow ones of soft Brussels netting.

Don’t use the same net, or any other appliance, for sick and healthy fishes ;
this is sure to spread the contagion. Scald the net frequently.
Don’t fail to place a screen between the aquarium and the light on warm
summer days, especially strong sunlight. Tissue paper or cheese

cloth will answer the purpose.

351

DON’TS FOR BEGINNERS

Don’t expect success except when the aquarium is well conditioned or
balanced, with ample growing plants and a good light.

Don’t fail to remember that the plant life should exceed the animal life
and scavengers be present. There can scarcely be too many health-
growing plants in the aquarium.

Don’t place fishes into an aquarium until the plants are well established,
but introduce scavengers at once.

Don’t change the water needlessly, its appearance and taste is the best
guide.

Don’t occasion sudden changes in the temperature of the water.

Don’t forget that colder water will sustain more fishes than when it becomes
warmer.

Don’t, as a novice, begin with fine fishes; the ordinary goldfishes are
more hardy than the finely bred toy varieties.

Don’t, when no longer a novice, be contented with the common goldfishes ;
the inexpensive “sports” of the finer breeds are more interesting.

Don’t needlessly frighten the fishes; kind treatment will make them very
tame.

Don’t jar the aquarium or rap on the glass; fishes have finely organized
nervous systems. Guard against even the most unintentional cruel-
fies.

Don’t handle fishes roughly ; bruises and the loss of the mucus covering
of the scales become seats for fungus diseases.

Don’t place large fishes in small aquaria, nor keep large and small fishes
in the same receptacle, if avoidable.

Don’t keep fishes together which molest each other.

Don’t keep diseased fishes with healthy ones; remove them to a hospital
jar for treatment.

Don’t buy fishes and plants promiscuously; be sure that they are clean
and free from infection.

Don’t immediately introduce newly acquired fishes or plants into an es-
tablished aquarium; keep them for some time in a separate receptacle,
until fully assured that they are in perfect condition. This is a fre-
quent cause of infection.

Don’t starve the fishes, but be even more careful not to overfeed them.
Feed more sparingly in winter than in summer.

Don’t fail to remember that mistaken kindnesses kill as many fishes as
neglect or inexperience.

Don’t feed more than the fishes will eat at once; they may only masticate
the food and later eject it to contaminate the water.

352

DON’TS FOR BEGINNERS

Don’t overfeed; very many of the ills of aquarium fishes are due to this
mistaken kindness.

Don’t leave uneaten food or offal in the aquarium. Use the dipping tube.
Don’t feed worms without first cleaning them; they are carriers of both
parasites and fungus diseases. Scalding them is a good method.
Don’t overstock the aquarium at any time; until it is fully established
the one safe rule is not more than one fish for every two or three gal-

lons of water; even fewer large fishes.

Don’t fail to get a large aquarium as soon as you become expert; the larger
the tank, the surer the results.

Don’t, as a novice, keep other fishes with the goldfish ; they may not be
altogether harmless.

Don’t keep water bugs and beetles in the aquarium with fishes; they are
all harmful and predatory.

Don’t introduce plant-eating snails as scavengers. [he Planorbes and
Vivipara are the best common snails.

Don’t feel discouraged by occasional reverses ; they happen to every one,
even to the most experienced aquariists.

Don’t fail to remember that success with the aquarium depends upon the
following prime conditions; inattention to any of these, or mistakes
or neglect, will certainly lead to failure :—

1. Cleanliness of the vessel and all appliances.

A good and strong light.

A vigorous growth of plants.

Careful feeding of the proper food.

The immediate removal of sick or doubtful fishes.

Ample scavengers.

Avoidance of overstocking.

GOST ONC Se GS-9

Persistence, determination to succeed, and a considerable good

fortune.

Don’t fail to join an Aquarium Society; 1f none exists, organize one.

Don’t disregard any of the precepts of this volume; they are based on
tried experience.

Don’t fail to frequently review these Don’ts, and confer with authorities if
in serious difficulties; the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia will be
pleased to answer all inquiries.

These Don’ts apply more particularly to the Freshwater aquarium,
but it may be beneficial to keep most of them in mind for the Marine
aquarium, Terrarium and Aqua-terrarium as well.

353

AQUARIUM SOCIETIES

AQUARIUM SOCIETIES

Europeans apparently interest themselves more in the study of Natural
History than Americans. The middle and more educated classes devote
much of their leisure to pursuits which take them far afield for healthful
exercise, agreeable diversion from the cares of business and every day ex-
istence, and pleasant mental occupation. ‘This particularly applies to the
Germans, their elementary schools devoting considerable attention to sub-
jects which foster in the minds of the children a desire for information and
research. The beginning of the pursuit may be some chance animal or
plant noticed during a ramble and taken to the home, there to awaken a
desire for further information of its habits. This interest then grows and
often culminates in the establishment of a household collection of animals
and plants, sometimes far in advance of what would satisfy the more
practical-minded citizen of the United States.

The outcome of this desire for a glimpse of nature in the household
is a very large number of popular societies devoted to various branches
of nature study, among them many Aquarium Societies. Every larger
city of Germany has one or more of these of which the best-known are:

Verband der Aquarien und Terrarien Fretinde, Berlin.

Verein fur Aquarienfreunde, Berlin.

Triton, Berlin.

Elodea, Berlin-Moabit.

Nymphe alba, Berlin.

Lotus, Vienna.

Humboldt, Hamburg.

Salvinia, Hamburg.

Nymphea, Leipzig.

Wasserrose, Dresden.

Isis, Munich.

Sagittaria, Keeln.

Hottonia, Darmstadt.

Ulva, Kiel.

Heros, Nurnberg.

Tausendblatt, Plauen 1. V.

Vallisneria, Magdeburg.

Nerthus, Braunschweig.

Brehm, Gelsenkirchen.

Aquaria, Zwickau.

Verein fur Volkstumliche Naturkunde, Stettin.

Verein fur Aquarien und Terrarienkunde, Dortmund, and others.

354

AQUARIUM SOCIETIES

Four or more periodicals are published under the auspices ot
these Societies, a weekly, two fortnightly and a monthly; devoted to pop-
ular zoological, ichthyological and botanical study and the elucidation of
subjects of interest to their members.

A Society of this kind has been established in Philadelphia since
1898, and has accomplished much to popularize the aquarium, its inhab-
itants and its maintenance. To encourage this both interesting study and
beautifier of the home, some descriptions of this Society and its proceed-
ings will be of interest.

The Aquarium Society of Philadelphia, on January 1, 1908, had 128
active members, a number of which reside in neighboring cities. Its
purpose is more particularly the propagation of the finer breeds of the
goldfish and the keeping of freshwater aquaria. The sessions occur
monthly, except June, July and August. Set topics of interest are dis-
cussed, exhibitions take place, prizes are awarded and inquiries from any
source are invited and answered.

Points FOR THE JUDGMENT oF GotprisHEs. Authorities differ some-
what in the standards for judging goldfishes in prize competitions and as
as to their respective merits as fine specimens. Dr. E. Bade, one of the
best-known German ichthyologists, advocates the following scales in awards:

| | | Pectoral | Color.
Body | Caudal | Dorsal | and | Double | Scaled or Po;
|) in 4) fing =| Ventral) anal fins | Pransparent- ox
Japanese Fringetail | [a ens | |_ly Scaled _
Goldfish | | | | |
30 20 | 20 | 20 a 8 eas 100
|

| . |

A long body would, for instance, take from the merit of the fish as
many as 30 points and would in no case permit of over 70 points in its
favor, or should the anal fin be single, its merit would not be over 95 points.
If the body is not sufficiently rotund, but short and otherwise acceptable,
then its merit as to body would be expressed by not over 20 to 25
points, and so with the other details of the fish.

For the Chinese Telescope goldfish he advocates the standard of:

Pectoral

| | Color.
Caudal | Dorsal and Double | Scaled or Poi
) ares fin fin Ventral anal fins | Transparent- So.
fins ly Scaled
| |
30 30 | 10 Oe hs ALO 5 5 100
|

a E

AQUARIUM SOCIETIES

Merit as to eyes is dependent upon their size and shape, as well as
uniformity of size and equal projection from the head. The larger the
eyes the higher the points in favor of the fish. Fig. 17 will explain the
different forms of eyes, and this authority claims that the ovoid and
conical are valued the highest and should be awarded the maximum
number of points.

The Aquarium Society of Philadelphia has set a slightly different
standard, the judging being for general conformation, eye and fin develop-
ment rather than for color.

Color Eyes | Body | Caudal | Other |" Poin
y | =A witli ooh] estas
Comets Dike Nia gee 2G 100
Nymphs 40 35 25 100
Single-tailed Telescopes, asa separate,
class 40 aS 25 100
Fringetails 35 40 25 100
Fantails 35 40 25 100
Mottled Telescopes 35 25 I$ 5 10 100
Moor Telescopes |, 30 30 20 10 IO 100 |
Variagated Telescopes, (other than
the two above ) | Be 25 20 20 100
Celestial Telescopes. 30 30 20 20 100

Scaled and Transparently-scaled fishes are also judged in separate
classes, and highly colored fishes preferred to white or uncolored ones.
As absolute perfection in every particular has not yet been reached
in any goldfish, modifications of the above standards are necessary in
judging goldfish breeds, and though none
may reach the standard of 100 points, the
relative value of fishes in competitions may
be arrived at by either of the above tables.
It is left to the reader to decide how
many points a fish of the conformation of
the outline half-life-sized drawing, Fig. 240,
should receiveinacompetition. Itis needless
to say that few have seen so highly meritor-
FIG. age Outing of fe Fengetll ious a Fringetail goldfish.

356

ENCLOSED AQUA-TERRARIUM
First prize awarded by the Triton Society, Berlin.

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

Glossary of Scientific Terms used in this work

Abdomen Belly

Abdominal Pertaining to the belly

Abortive Remaining or becoming imperfect

Acuminate ‘Tapering gradually to a point

Acute Sharp-pointed

Adipose Fleshy

Air-bladder A sac filled with air, lying near the backbone of fishes ; the swimming-bladder
Alevin The newly hatched of fishes still attached to the umbilical sac
Alternate Opposite

Anal Pertaining to the anus or vent

Anal fin The fin behind the vent, in fishes

Anus The exterior opening of the intestines ; the vent

Arterial bulb The muscular swelling at the base of the great artery, in fishes
Articulate Jointed

Atrophy Non-development

Attenuate Drawn out; long and slender

Axillary In the hollow where a branch unites with the plant

Auricle One of the chambers of the heart

Barbel An elongated projection at the head, in fishes

Basal At or near the base

Bifurcated Forked; divided into two branches

Bracts Small leaves or scales

Branchiz Gills; respiratory organs of fishes

Branchial Pertaining to the gills

Branchiostegals Bony rays below the opercular bones under the heads of fishes
Byssus Tuft of threads, in molluscs

Czcum An appendage connected with the alimentary canal
Calcareous Containing or composed of carbonate of lime

Calyx Cup or outer covering of a flower

Capillaries Hairlike vessels in animals and plants

Capsule A seed pod

Carapace A shell; the upper shell of a turtle, the covering of crustaceans
Cardinal Teeth near the beak, in molluscs

Carinate Keeled; having a ridge along the middle line

Caudal Pertaining to the tail

Caudal fin The fin constituting the tail of fishes

Cilia Hairlike projections

Ciliated Fringed; having hairlike projections

Cinereous Having the color of wood ashes

Clavate Club-shaped

Concentric Having a common centre

Conchology Science of shells

Cuneate Wedge-shaped

Cycloid Smooth-edged and circular

rr

GLOSSARY
ee SS ee ae ee a

Cyprinide Fishes included in the families of Minnows, Carps, Chubs, Dace, Breams, Tench,
Ides, Goldfishes, Gudgeons, Shiners, Barbels, Stone-Rollers, etc., and many among the
multitudes of freshwater forms collectively known as Minnys and not distinguishable except
by the naturalist from the young of other fishes which they are supposed to be by the laity

Depressed Flattened vertically

Depth Vertical diameter, of body of fishes and molluscs

Dermal Pertaining to the skin

Dextral Right-handed

Diaphanous Translucent; semi-transparent

Diaphragm Muscular septum between the thorax and abdomen

Dorsal Pertaining to the back

Dorsal fin The fin on the back of fishes

Elong-ovate A long egg shape

Emarginate Slightly forked; notched at the tip

Epidermis The skin

Erectile Susceptible of being raised or erected

Fascicle A close cluster

Fauna ‘The animals inhabiting any region, taken collectively

Filament Any slender or threadlike structure

Filiform Thread-form

Finely dissected Split into fine threads

Flora The plants of any region, taken collectively

Fry The young fish after the absorption of the umbilical sac

Furcate Forked

Fusiform Shaped to taper at each end

‘Gemmation Budding

Gills | Organs for breathing the air contained in water

Gill arches The bony arches to which the gills are attached |

Glabrous Smooth

Gonospores Germinating buds

Gullet Passage to stomach

Haustellated Provided with a sucker

Height Vertical diameter

Helminth A wormlike animal

Hexagonal Six-sided

Hypha_ Rod-like Structures; spore capsules; brood sacs

Hyoid Pertaining to the tongue

Ichthiology Science of fishes

Imbricate Overlapping like shingles

Inarticulate Not jointed

Infraoral Below the mouth

Infraorbital Below the orbits or eyes

Inperforate Not pierced through

Intermaxillaries Bones forming the middle of the front part of the upper jaw, in fishes
Interorbital Space between the eyes

Interopercle Membrane bone between the preopercle and the branchiostegals
Interspinal Bones in which fin-rays are attached, in fishes

Iris_ Part of eye surrounding the pupil

358

enn

GLOSSARY
ee

Irides Plural of iris

Keeled Having a ridge along the middle

Labial Pertaining to the lips

Lamine A thin plate or scale

Lance-eliptical A long elipse

Lanceolate Oblong, gradually tapers to the outer extremity
Larva An immature form

Lateral ‘To or towards the side

Lateral line The muciferous tubes along the sides of a fish
Laterally Sideways

Linear Like a line, of the same breadth throughout
Littoral Near the shore

Longitudinal Running lengthwise

Lunate Form of the new moon

Mamme Milk glands, breasts

Mammary glands Glands secreting milk

Mandible Under jaw

Maxilla - Upper jaw

Maxillaries Outermost bones of the upper jaw, in fishes
Maxillipeds Foot-jaws of Crustaceans

Metamorphosis A decided change in form

Midrib The central or main rib of leaves in plants
Mycelium A filamentous body from which a mushroom is developed
Naked Without scales

Nerves The fine veins in leaves of plants

Nodule A rounded mass of irregular shape

Nucleus The umbone or beginning of a shell of molluscs
Oblique Slanting inclined

Obscure Scarcely visible

Obsolete Faintly marked; scarcely evident

Obtuse Blunt

Occiput Back of head

Olivaceous Color of the olive

Operculum Gill cover in fishes; calcareous lid closing the aperture, in molluscs
Orbicular Nearly circular
Orbit Eye socket

Osseous Bony

Ova Eggs Ovum Egg

Ovate Shaped like an egg

Oviparous Producing eggs which are developed after extrusion from the body
Ovoviviparous Producing eggs which are developed before extrusion from the body
Ovoid Shaped like an egg

Palmate Web-footed

Papillose With pimple-like elevations or tubercles

Pectinate Having teeth like a comb

Pectoral Pertaining to the breast

Pectoral fin The foremost paired fins, in fishes

Pediculated The stalk which supports only one flower

359

GLOSSARY

Peduncle ‘The supporting stem of a flower or seed

Pelagic On or near the high seas

Pellucid Clear, admitting light

Perforate Pierced through

Peristome A cap, or cover of a cup, in plants

Persistent Continuing through life

Pigment Coloring matter

Pinnate Shaped like a feather

Pinnatified Divided in a feathery manner

Pistillate Having a pistil and no stamens

Plastron Lower shell of turtle

Plicate Folded; forming folds or wrinkles

Plumbeous Lead-colored; dull bluish-grey

Poissons French for fishes

Prehensile Clasping

Protuberance A small excrescence like a pimple

Pubis Lower part of the pelvis

Pulmonary Pertaining to the lungs

Punctate Dotted with points

Pupa An immature form ; transformation after the larval stage

Pyloric ceca Glandular appendage or sac opening into the alimentary canal, in fishes

Pylorus The orifice through which food passes out of the stomach

Quadrangular Having four angles

Quadrilateral Having four sides

Ray Cartilaginous rods in the fins, of fishes; arm of a star fish; the star fish

Rhizomes A creeping branch or stem

Rudimentary Undeveloped

Rugose Rough with wrinkles

Sagittate Lance or sword-shaped

Sepal A leaf or division of the calyx

Serrate Notched, like a saw

Sessile Without a stem or peduncle

Setiform Bristle-like

Sinistral Left-handed

Soft rays Branched fin-rays

Specific gravity A weight which belongs to an equal bulk of each body

Spiked A fin in which the main rays extend considerably beyond the tissue or web. A
single-rayed fin

Spikes Alternated growths on .a common stem, in plants

Spinous Stiff or composed of spines

Stamen Male organ of flowers

Stamenate Furnished with stamens

Sternum The breast bone

Striate Striped or streaked

Sub Less than; not quite; under

Subulate Awl-shaped

Suture A grove or line in snail shells

Synonym A different word having the same meaning

360

GLOSSARY

Tentacles Feelers

Terete Cylindrical and tapering

Terminal At the end

Tessellated Marked with checks or squares

Thoracic Pertaining to the throat

Translucent Nearly transparent

Transverse Crosswise

Trenchant Compressed to a sharp edge

Trifurcated Forked; divided into three branches

Truncate Abrupt; cut off square

Tubercle A small excrescence like a pimple, a papilla
Typical Of a structure the most usual of a group

Umbilicus The navel

Umbone Nucleus of a shell

Vent The external opening of the alimentary canal; anus
Ventral Pertaining to the abdomen

Ventral fins The paired fins behind the pectoral fins, in fishes
Ventrical One of the walls of the heart

Vermes Worms

Vertebra_ One of the bones of the spinal column

Vertical Up and down

Verticil A small whorl

Viscid Sticky

Viscous Slimy

Viviparous Bringing forth living young

Web Membrane connecting the toes; also the fin-rays in fishes
Whorl Arrangement around a stem in plants; volution or turn of the spire of a snail

a SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSMSsSsees
BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Literature cited. The books, papers and miscellaneous publications
of which a list is hereto appended, have all been consulted in the original,
except those marked with an asterisk. These are based upon abstracts or

citations by other authors.

A Handbook of Systematic Botany. D. E. Warming, 1895

An Account of the Fish Epidemic in Lake Mendota. $. A. Forbes, 1890
*sAquaria and Construction. C. E. Driver

*sAquaria; Their Construction, &c. W. Saville Kent

A Manual for the Study of Insects. J. H. Comstock, 1895

A Manual of Fish Culture. U.S. Com. of Fish and Fisheries, 1900
American Fishes. G. Brown Good, 1888

American Fish Culture. Thaddeus Norris, 1868

Aquatic Insects in the Adirondacks. Jas. G. Needham, 1901

Atlas der Meeresalgen. J. Reinke, 1889

A Report of Work on the Protozoa of Lake Erie. H. S. Jennings, 1900
A Text Book of Entomology. A.S. Packard, M. D., 1898

A Treatise on Zodlogy. W.B. Benham, 1901

Bilder aus dem Aquarium. Dr. W. Hess, 1883

Book on the Black Bass. Dr. J. A. Henshall, 1881

Catalogue of the Odonata of North America. P. P. Calvert, 1893
Compendium der Helminthologie. Dr. von Linstow, 1868

Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. L. H. Bailey, 1900

Das Siisswasseraquarium. Dr. W. Hess, 1887

Das Siisswasser-Aquarium. E. A. Roszmaszsler, 1892

Das Siisswasseraquarium und Terrarium. A. & G. Ortleb, 1890

Das Thierreich. German Society of Zodlogists, 1903

**Der Flusskrebs; Seine Beschreibung und Zucht. O. F. Rank, 1898
Der Goldfisch; Seine PAege und Zucht. Guido Findeis, 1887

Der Goldfisch. Die Gartenlaube, 1903

Der Schleierschwanz und Telescopschleirschwanz, &c. Dr. E. Bade, 1900
Die Ernahrung des Karpfen und seine Teichgenossen. W. Susta, 1888
Die Kiinstliche Fischzucht nach dem neuesten Stande. EE. Bade, 1897
Die mikroskopische Thierweld des Siisswassers. F. Blochmann, 1886
Die Mitteleuropaischen Siisswasserfische. E. Bade, 1900

*Die Teichwirthschaft. Carl Nicklas, 1897

Die Siisswasserfische Deutschlands. M. Nitsche, 1898

Die Thier und Pflanzenwelt des Siisswassers. Dr. Otto Zacharias, 1886
Die Raderthiere und ihre beobachteten Arten. S. Bartsch, 1870

Die Verunreinigung der Gewasser. A. Koenig, 1887

Domesticated Trout. Livingston Stone, 1891

Ein Beitrag zur Parasitenlehre. C. Kerbert, 1884

Entozoa. T’. Spencer Cobbold, 1864

Entomological News

Feeding and Rearing Fishes, particularly Trout, &c. Wm. F. Page, 1895

Fish Culture on the Farm. J. J. Stranahan in Trans. Am. Fisheries Society, 1902
Fish Hatching and Fish Catching. Seth Green and R. B. Roosevelt, 1870

362

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fish Parasites, collected at Wood’s Hole in 1898. Edwin Linton, Ph. D.

Flora of the Northern United States. Britton and Brown, 1898

Fresh-water Alge of the United States. Rev. Francis Wolle, 1887

Fresh-water Alge. M. C. Cooke, 1890

Fresh-water Aquaria. Rev. G. C. Bateman, 1902

Fremdlandische Zierfische. B. Diringer, 1902

Fungi Affecting Fishes. Samuel Lockwood, 1890

Fungi, Mycetozoa and Bacteria. A. De Bary, 1887

Gas Bubble Disease of Fishes and Its Cause. F. P. Gorham, A. M., 1900

**Handbook of the Marine Aquarium. P. H. Gosse, 1855

Histoire Naturelle des Dorades de la Chine. M. de Sauvigni, 1780

Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. M. Lacépéde, 1803

Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. M. le B. Cuvier and M. A. Vallencienes, 1842

Histoire Naturelle des Vegetaux Parasites. Charles Robin, 1853

History of the Fresh-water Alge. Horatio C. Wood, M. D., 1873

Ichthiologie. Elieser Bloch, 1784 ,
Inherited Modifications in the Japanese Domesticated Golden Carp, &c. John A. Rider, 1893
Infusionsthiere als Hautparasiten bei Siisswasserfische. Drs. Helgendorf and Paulicki, 1869
*Intensive Teichwirthschaft. S. Jaffé, 1894

Insects; Their Structure and Life. G. H. Carpenter, 1899

Invertebrates of Massachusetts. August A. Gould, 1845

Katechismus fiir Aquarienliebhaber. W. Geyer, 1902

Krankheiten der Planzen. B. Frank, 1881

Land and Freshwater Shells of North America. W. G. Binney, 1886

Leitfaden fir Aquarien und Terrarienfreunde. Dr. E. Zernecke, 1897

Les Poissons d’eau douce du Canada. A. N. Montpetit, 1897

Manual of the Infusoria. W. Saville Kent, 1881-1882

Marine Alge. W. J. Farlow, M. D., 1881

Marine Aquaria. R. A. R. Bennett, 1889

Modern Fish Culture in Fresh and Salt Water. Fred’k Mather, 1900

**Monographie des Saprolegniées. M. Cornu, 1877

Nouveau Memoirs de la Societe des Naturalists de Moscow. M. Basiiewsky, 1855
Notes on American Rotifera. E. L. Herrick, 1898

Notes on Distoma Endemicum. _Isoa Jjima, 1885

Notes on Entozoa of Marine Fishes of New. England. Edwin Linton, Ph. D., 1895
Notes on Fish Culture in Germany. S. Jaffé, 1895

Notes on the Mosquitoes of the United States. L. O. Howard, 1900

**Notes sur une espece d’Infusores Parasites des Poissons d’eau douce. OD. Fouquet, 1876
Notes on Trematode Parasites on Fishes. Edwin Linton, 1898

Notice of the Occurrence of Protozoan Parasites on Fishes in Ohio. Edwin Linton, 1897
Observation on a Fungus infesting the Fish. G. P. Clinton, 1894

Observations on the Aquaria of the United States Fish Commission. William P. Seal, 1890
*On Entomostraca. Emil Weeger, 1890

On the Caudal and Anal Fins of Goldfishes. Dr. S. Watasa, 1887

On Some Lake Superior Entomostraca. S. A. Forbes, 1890

Parasites. IT’. Spencer Cobbold, 1879

Photography of Live Fishes. R. MW. Shufeldt, 1899

*“Popular History of the Aquarium. G. B. Sowerby

363

SS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SSS ees

Practical Carp Culture. L. B. Logan, 1888

Practical Trout Culture. J. H. Slack, 1872

Praxis der Aquarienkunde. Dr. E. Bade, 1899

Proceedings of the Fish-Culture Society, 1880

Report on a Parasitic Protozoan observed on the Fish. C. W. Stiles, 1894

Rotatoria of the United States. H. S. Jennings, 1900

Saprolegniacee of the United States. Jas. E. Humphreys, 1892

Sea Mosses. A. B. Harvey, 1882

Seaside Studies in Natural History. E. C. & A. Agassiz, 1865

Some Chemical Changes in the Development of the Fish Egg. P. A. Levene, 1900

Some Observations concerning Fish Parasites. Edwin Linton, 1894

Sporozoa. Alphonse Labbé, 1899

Seewasser-aquarien im Zimmer. R. E. Hoffmann, 1900

The Care of Goldfishes. C. H. Townsend in Bulletins of the New York Zoological
Society, 1907

The Cultivation of Fishes in Natural and Artificial Ponds. C. H. Townsend, 1907

Studies on Ectoparasitic Trematoda of Japan. Seitaro Goto, 1885

*The American Angler. J. A. Henshall, Vol. III

The Aquarium; a Brief Exposition of its Principles and Mangeediene Wm. P. Seal, 1887

The Aquarium. Mark Samuels, 1898

*The Aquarium. J. E. Taylor, 1876

*The Aquarium. P. H. Gosse, 1854

The Aquarium as an aid to Biological Research. Wm. P. Seal, 1883

The Aquarium of the U.S. Fish Commission at the World’s Columbian Exposition. S. A.
Forbes and others, 1894

The Black Bass. Jas. H. Henshall, 1899

*The Book of the Aquarium. Shirley Hibberd

The Brook Book. Mary R. Miller, 1902

The Crustacea of the Fresh Waters of the U. S. Sidney Smith, 1872

The Destruction of Trout Fry by Hydra. E. A. Beardsley, 1903

The Family Aquarium or Aqua-vivarium. Henry D. Butler, 1858

The Fishes of Pennsylvania. Tarleton H. Bean, 1893

The Fishes of Pennsylvania. E. D. Cope, 1881

The Fishes of North and Middle America. Jordan and Everman, 1896

The Fish of the Fresh and Brackish Waters in the Vicinity of New York. Eugene Smith, 1897

The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States. Geo. Brown Goode, 1884

*“The Fresh and Saltwater Aquarium. Rev. J. G. Wood

The Goldfish and Its Culture. Hugo Mulertt, 1883

The Home Aquarium and How to care for it. Eugene Smith, 1902

*The Home Naturalist. Harland Coultas

The Insect Book. Leland O. Howard, 1901

The Myxosporidia of Fishes, &c. Dr. R. R. Gurley, 1888

The Natural History of Plants. A. K. von Marilaun, 1895

The Pearly Freshwater Mussels of the U. S. Chas. T. Simpson, 1899

The Sea-Beach at Ebb-Tide. Augusta F. Arnold, 1901

Transactions of the American Entomological Society

The Trematodes. H. S. Pratt. American Naturalist, 1900 and 1902

*Trout Culture. Seth Green, 1870

364

BIBLIOGRAPHY

*The Vivarium. Rev, G. C. Bateman, 1893

Uber Aquarien. FF, Rossbach, 1875

**Uber die Feinde der Fische. V. La V. St. George, 1879
Untersuchungen iiber Peronosporeen und Saprolegnieen. A. De Bary, 1881
Vertebrate Animals of the Northern United States. David S. Jordan, 1899
Zur Kenntniss Kleiner Lebensformen. M. Perty, 1852

AQUARIUM AND FISH-CULTURE PERIODICALS

Allgemeine Fischerei-Zeitung, Miinchen

Blatter fiir Aquarien und Terrarien-Kunde, Magdeburg
Correspondenzblatt fiir Fischziichter, Crangen in Pommern
Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung, Stettin

Fischerei Correspondenz, Dresden

Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Plén
Isis, Magdeburg

*L” Acclimatation, Paris

L’ Aquarium, Paris

Natur und Haus, Dresden-Strehlen

Nerthus, Kiel

Reports and Bulletins of the New York Zoological Society

List of Illustrations
and
Their Derivation

i

Cs

Fig.

I

10o

II

12

14

15
16

ZO
ZI

22
5)

24

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND THEIR DERIVATION

Owned by Dr. Herman T. Plass. Author’s original, from lite

*The gentlemen named as Owners are Members of the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia.

369

Japanese Fringetail Goldfish, . Frontispiece.

Author’s original, from life
Page

The Common Goldfish, showing parts referred to in descriptions 15
Author’s original from life

Skeleton of the Common Goldfish 16
Author’s original

Greatly enlarged scale of the Common Goldfish . 17
Author’s original

Interior anatomy of the Goldfish, showing parts referred to in descriptions 18
Author’s original

Diagram of the Blood circulatory systems of Fishes, Reptiles and Mammals 19
After Nicholson

~ The Common American Goldfish 39
Author’s original, from life

The European Goldfish . 39
Author’s original, from life

Scaled Japanese Comet Goldfish . : 44
Owned by the Author. Original, from life

Transparently-scaled Japanese Comet Goldfish ; : 45
Owned by Mr. Fred. Dannenhauer.* Author’s original, from life

Adult Japanese Fringetail Goldfish . ; 46
Owned by Mr. Franklyn Barrett. Author’ s original, from life

Young Japanese Fringetail Goldfish : k 47
Owned by the Author. Original, from life

Adult Japanese Fantail Goldfish . 2. . Peer aha eres Je 48
Owned by Mr. Rudolph H.. Wolf. Aecioe: original, from life

Scaled Japanese Nymph Goldfish PPR i Wee ee Roe 49
Owned by Mr. George F. Erb. Author’s original, from life

Transparently-scaled Japanese Nymph Goldfish, «‘Hetzel’s Silver Dollar’’ 49
Owned by Mr. William H. Hetzel. Author’s original, from life

Adult Japanese Hooded or Lion-headed Goldfish ; ao
Drawn from the Japanese drawing made for Dr. Hugh M. Smith ad fon life

Japanese Barnacled Paradise Goldfish . ; cf 51
Owned by Mr. George Cugley. Author’s original

Eye forms of the Flat-eyed and the Telescopic-eyed Goldfishes 52
After Dr. E. Bade and from life

Scaled Japanese Telescope Goldfish 53
Owned by the Author. Original, trom life.

Adult Chinese Mottled Telescope Goldfish . . A is eas 54
Owned by Dr. Robert Formad and Mr. Rudolph H. Wolf. Lateral view.
Author’s original, from life ~ ‘

The Same. Dorsal view. f 54

Young Chinese Mottled Telescope Sage a eee See ee ee
Owned by Dr. Herman Burgin. Lateral view. Author’s original, from life.

The Same. Frontal view . . 55

Chinese Fringetail Telescope Goldfish gd 56
Owned by the Author. Original, from life

Chinese Moor Telescope Goldfish , sy

Fig.
=

26
27

28

22
30

31
a2
33

aes
35

36
af
38
39
40
41
42
43
ait
qe
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53

54

Page

Chinese ‘Tiger “Telescope (Goldiisha >) 2 9 a5. sce ee <8
Owned by Mr. Z. K. Dannenhower. Author’s original, from life

The Same. Frontal view Shells reer ee A eNO

Chinese Lettered Telescope Goldfish . oy aenw: By SG Athy CY RS ota eae
Owned by Mr. Franklyn Barrett. Author’s original, from life

Chinese Celestial Telescope Goldfish. J" 58, (2) \2 8. 00) see ee
Owned by the Author. Dorsal view. Original, from life

The Same. (Lateral views... 07 ae a a ee

Chinese Egefish . . : bo DRO A EE ee eee
After Dr. Frederich enone

Chinese Tumbler Goldfish . . . , is See
Drawn from the sketch and description ‘aul Mr. ieee Mulertt

Agard’s Wonder : 64
Owned by Mr. Frederick T. Agard. “Authors original, from life

Lawson’s *<The, White Rat.??”) ‘Lateral yiew . .9/:. 4s. 6" =, + sas eee
Owned by Mr. Howard H. Lawson. Author’s original, from life

The same: Dorsal, views crt. 5 Sine Bae ces eee

Indian. Paradise Pish. 003 ff). So ee Fal eee
Author’s original, from lite

Four=spinted Stickleback 04,0 Riv sect co 2
After Jordan and Evermann

Common Sunfsh . .. . rae meee er eee eA
After Jordan and Beeomann

Blaeck=banded ‘Sunfish. «1.02. fact. oe ee ee
After Jordan and Evermann

Black-nosed Dace . . . . tage? Gene EL CS See
After Jordan and Evermann

Creech) a2": oie Sh ne aoe Se a oeie oe ee
After Jordan and Beerean

Golden Idevor: Orfes vee ce Te Se 5, a ee
Author’s original, from life

Young Golden Veneh. <a. 5. 4.-< 9-3. > ty 2 oe A
Author’s original, from life

scaled Carp . . . ee nr ee ar
Author’s original, from life

Mirror:Carp. 2) a, Boo ay aay en oad ae Llp Sy SAR ice ae er
Author’s original, from life

Leather Garp 78, Pre Pe eR
Author’s original, from life

Crusian ‘Carp. ee rere re eS oe
Author’s original, from life

Tessellated Darter . . . Pr weer eT Bed Oo
After Jordan and Evermann

Common Sucker ... . 5) daar, (at RMR ae RR ee CDT eae » 306 at ea
After Jordan and Hcasiteaa

Barred Killifsh . . . . en ee se ee sie ee Se
After Jordan and Pecanaun

Chub-sucker or Mullet... 3) 20-55. “2% cy ee a. gh a oo ee re
After Jordan and Evermann

Silvet=fin) 3 i; A en Me Ne
After Jordan and Eccrane

Shiner or Roach ... . rr ree ee
After Jordan and Rvermiann

Stone-catfish |. : ite ue & ey oe SS ee OE
After Jordan Ane Byernata

Common. Bel a5 he Pg Ue in Be ee Se
After Jordan and Deamers

Goldfish spawn attached to a leaf of an Aquatic plant. . . . . . ...... 89

Embriology..of the Goldfish. 5“ a-:s ss Se ee ee

Author’s original, from life

372

Fig.

fe
57
58

59
60

62
64
65
66
67

68

Difference at anal region of Female and Male Goldfishes
Author’s original
Diagram of the vertebra and tail-rays of Goldfishes .
Author’s original
Plans of a Greenhouse for Goldfish Propagation .
Author’s original
and 59a Plan of a Fish Farm
Atter Wozelka-Iglau
Arrangement for a Large Fish-culture Establishment
Author’s original
and 61a Pond Aquarium .
After William P. Seal
and 63 ‘The Aquarium Grotto at Washington, D. C. .
After Mr. William P. Seal
Branchipus stagnalis, a Crustacean .
Author’s original, from life
Apus cancriformis, a Crustacean F
Author’s original, from a specimen in , alcohol
Daphnia pulex, a Crustacean .
Author’s original, from life
Polyphemus pedeculus, a Crustacean
Author’s original, from life
Leptodera hyalina, a Crustacean .
Author’s original, from life
Cypris virens, a Crustacean
Author’s original, from life
Cyclops thomasi, a Crustacean
Author’s original, from life
Gammarus pulex, a Crustacean .
Author’s original, from life
Asellopus tenax, a Crustacean
Author’s original, from life
Freshwater Crayfish. Natural size
After Sidney I. Smith
Rotifera . :
Author’s original, fom life
Fungus on Spawn :
After Livingston Stone
Head of a Goldfish affected with White Fungus .
Author’s original
Head of a Goldfish affected with Black Fungus
Author’s original
Trematod Parasites taken from imported Japanese and Chinese Goldfishes
Author’s original
Tail of a Goldfish affected with Tail-rot
Author’s original
Gyrodactylus elegans, a Trematod parasite
After Van Beneden and Wedl
Distomum gracile, a Trematod parasite
After Zeder
Diplostomum cuticola, a Trematod parasite ,
After Nordmann
Gasterostoma gracilescens, a Trematod parasite
After Cobbold
Bothriocephalfs proboscideus, a Cestode parasite
After Leuckart
Ligula simplicissima, a Cestode parasite .
After Lampert
Schistocephalus solidus, a Cestod parasite
After Bade

371

Page
gl

ake

, loo,

107

. 108

eLOUs

5 Mite)

110

Ae tks!

Pare)

7 tO

wLZO

« 1LZO

<ZO

a eZ

- 122

py Ler

,. 12g

eelea

. 134

Bae)

ey

. 148

. 148

1.248

. 148

. 148

Fig.
87

88
89

go

g2
93
oy
95
96
97,
98
Ny)
100
101

102

A Stickleback affected with Schistocephalus solidus .
Author’s original. Enlarged

A Section of Same, showing cysts .
Author’s original

Ascaris acus, a Nematod parasite
After Cobbold

Cocullanus elegans, a Nematod parasite ,
After Zeder

Echinorhynchus proteus, an Anthocephalous parasite
After Hamann and Westrumb

Echinorhynchus angustatus, an Anthocephalous parasite
After Busk

Echinorhynchus anthuris, an Anthocephalous parasite .
After Cobbold

Carp Leeches attached to the head of a small-mouthed Black Bass
Author’s original

Pisciola funduli, the Carp Leech
After Diesing

Trichodina pediculus, the polyp-louse .
After Zernecke

Hydrachna geographica, an Arachnid parasite .
Author’s original

Lernacera cyprinacea, a Crustacean parasite
After Baird

The Same, attached to the gill of a large-mouthed Black Bass .
Author’s original

Argulus catostomi,a Crustacean parasite ,
Author’s original

Lymphosporidium trutta, a Protozoan parasite
After E. F. Smith

Myxobolus sp. incert, a Sporozoan parasite .
After Gurley

102a The Same, on the head of a Goldfish .

103
104
1O4A
105
106
107
108
109

110

113

114

Author’s original, from life
Myxobolus cyprini, a Sporozoan parasite . tae
Encysted in the kidney of a Carp. After pou
Myxobolus ellipsoides, a Sporozoan parasite . . en Ye
Encysted in the tissues of the Air-bladder of a Tench. ’ After Gurley
Myxosporidium genus incert sp., a Sporozoan parasite . art
Encysted in the skin and tissues of a minnow. After inn,
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, an Infusorian parasite
After Fouquet
Head of a Catfish afflicted with /chthyophthirius multifiliis
After Stiles
Pantotrichum lagenula, an Infusorian parasite
After Kent
Holotrichus mystacea, an Infusorian parasite
After Kent
Chromatophagus parasiticus, an Infusorian parasite .
After Kent
Tetramitus nitschei, an Infusorian parasite .
After Weltner
Saprolegniacea, Vegetal parasites
After Humphreys
Floating Arrowhead, Sagittaria natans
Author’s original, from nature
Fanwort, Cabomba caroliniana
Author’s original, from nature
Eel Grass, Va/lisneria spiralis
Author’s original, from nature

372

Page

- 149
149
149
. 150
ago
wiigia

.. 1s

Pa es
. a2
, 252
. 15S
. 52
- 153
- 154
- 154
- 154
= HSS
- 155
- 155
eat

Be LES 7/

3 Se

. 188

Fig.
115

116

117
118

119
120
121
V2z2
129
124
125
126
127

128

129

130

132
33
P34

oF)

aie

140
141
142
143
ws
145
146
nA 7
148

Spiked Water-milfoil, Myriophy//um spicatum
Author’s original, from nature

Parrot’s Feather, Myriophy/lum proserpinacoides
Author’s original, from nature

Common Mermaid-weed, Proserpinaca palustris
Author’s original, from nature

Marsh Purslain, Ludwigia palustris
Author’s original, from nature

Cylindric-fruited Ludwigia, Ludwigia glandulosa
Author’s original, from nature

Mulertt’s Ludwigia, Ludwigia mulerttii
Author’s original, from nature

Characea. ‘The more abundant forms of Nitella and Chara
Author’s original, from nature

Slender Nitella, Nite//a gracilis
Author’s original, from nature

Ditchmoss or Anacharis, Avacharis canadensis
Author’s original, from nature

Giant Anacharis, Anacharis canadensis gigantea, Hort.
Author’s original, from nature

Hornwort, Ceratophyllum demersum
Author’s original, from nature

Mare’s Tail or Bottle Brush, Hippuris vulgaris
Author’s original, from nature

Willowmoss, Fontinalis antipyratica and F. gracilis
Author’s original, from nature

Curled-leaved Pondweed, Potamogeton crispus; and Spear-leaved’Potamogeton,

P. lanceolata ae

Author’s original, from nature

Floating Pondweed, P. vatans; and Broad-leaved Pondweed, P. densus
Author’s original, from nature

Spring Water-starwort, Ca//atriche verna
Author’s original, from nature

Greater Bladderwort, Utricularia vulgaris; and Lesser Bladderwort, U. minor
Author’s original, from nature

Two-flowered Bladderwort, U. 4iflora
Author’s original, from nature

Duckweeds, Lemna and Spirodela
Author’s original, from nature

Floating Pondmoss, Azo//a caroliniana
Author’s original, from nature

Crystalwort, Riccia fluitans
Author’s original, from nature

Salvinia, Sa/vinia natans and S. brasiliensis
Author’s original, from nature

Trianea bogotensis RA
Author’s original, from nature

Frog-bit, Hydrocharia morsus-rane
Author’s original, from nature

Madagascar Lace-plant, Ouvirandra finestralis
After Dreer

Outline of a Freshwater snail

Outline of a Freshwater mussel

Neritina reclivata . . . . . Author’s original, from life .
Neritina showalteri . . . . ce “< GG * WGC
Vivipurus UVIVIpUr us ot Ae 6“ “ec “cc “e
Vivipurus georgianus. . . . «« ee cc
Campeloma decisum . . . . “ ce coe
Campeloma ponderosa. . . . “< “< ca (cc
Liplex subrarinata\ v4, "6 “ se fee

eM)

Page
1go

igt
1g
192
193
to3
a
195

196

197

£99

200

201

202

211
2103

217
219
221
222
222
222
223
224
224

Fig.
149
150
151
E52
153
Los
155
156
157
158
1$9
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
72
173
174
175
176
177
17
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192

193
194

195
196
eel
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205

Valvata tricarinata . .

Valvata bicarinata .... se
Valyara siecle. ae e6
Ampullaria depressa . . . 66
Ampullaria miamiensis . . . Ge
Somatogyrus altilus . . . . as
Somatogyrus subglobosa . . . “e
Ammnicola limosa. .... .« Ge
Bichynia tentaculata . . . . ee
Goniobasis virginita . . . . “ce
Goniobasis multineata,. . . . ce
Anculosa carinatus. . . .. “e
Succinea obliqua. . . .. . «e
SGEIM CCL ELUS Ca a i ae 66
Lymnaea SAE TGLES es My eae as
Lymnaea palustris . 1. SG
Lymnaea columella... . . ec
Lymnaea decidiosa . . . . “e
Lymnaea catascoplum . . . . Ke
Planorbis bicarinatus . . . . “e
Planorbis campanulatus . . . ee
Planor bis trivolvis eter: “<
Planorbis magnificus . 2. . “6
Segmentina armigerus . . . cs
Segmentina wheatleyi. . . . OG
Ancylusrivularis . . . . . GG
Ancylus parallelus . . . . . aie
Physa hevenostrapog wa = “
Aplexa hypnorum . . . . . “ie
Lymnaea auricularia . .. . Si
Viviparus malleatus |. . . OG
Spherium simile. "Enlarged . After Gould
Sphaerium striatinum. ... *§ “is
Pisidium GOT DISCS S7LTIZ na tee ss
Pisidium abditum . .... §§ es
Unio complanaius . . . . . *§ <<
Lampsilis radiatum . . . . «* sic
Lampsilis0chraceuy 2a 2s CG
Lampsilis cariosus 7 Gas Ss
Anadontacataracta |. , ._* ae
Anadonta implicata Be es 36
Margaritana margar dfer Dae. CG BG
Mar ‘garitana marginata Se ae ees oe

Tubiculous Worms, V%imnodrilis claparadit
Author’s original, from life

Freshwater Polyps, Hydra viridis and H. fusca .

Author’s original, from life
Freshwater Polyp, Cordylophora lacustra
After Hess
Outline of a Water Beetle. .. . -
Water-boatman, Corisa interupta.
Back-swimmer, Notonecta undulata . .
Water-scorpion, Napa apiculata .
Water-scorpion, Ramatra fusca
Giant Water-bug, Belostoma griseum .
Giant Water-bug, Zaitha fluminea
Giant Water-bug ae Re
Creeping Water-bug, Ambrysus signore pide >
Toad-bug, Belogonus americanus . . . .
Shore-bug, Sa/da signoretti . . . ...

. Author’s original, from life .

ce

“ce

ce

“e

ce

ce

“ce

ce

«ec

ee

«ec

“e

ce

ce

“é

ee

ce

“e

ce

ce

“e

“e

“ee

ce

ce

“ec

“e

ce

«ec

ce

“e “e
“ec «é
“eé “é
.
“ec “<“
“< <é
“e “eé
«eé “ee
“e “e
“e “e
“eé “e
ce e
“é “ce
e “e
“e ce
“ce “eé
“eé “e
“eé 6eé
“é ce
“é “ce
“e 66
“ce “eé
“e “ce
“e GG
“ce ce
10
“eé “ce
ae “ce
“e “sé
“e “e
.
“e “e
ce “é

Author’s original, from lite

ce ce ce “ce
«ce ce «ce «ce
ce ee ce ee
“e “ec ce “e
- ce “ce “e ce
ce ce “ce «ce
3 ce ce ce “ce
“e “ec “e “e
ce “ec “ce “ce

235

Page
225
225
225
226
226
227
227
227
228
229
229
229
230
230
231
Zo
232
252
232
233
233
234
235

Z3e
236
236
ch,
ai)
238
238
240
241
241
241
242
242
243
sass
ara
ofar

245

245
247

ii)
248
251
252

253
253

254

254
255
255
255
255
256

Fig.

206
207
208
209
210
211
zie
213

214
ra
216

217

218
219
220
2211
222
223
224
225

226

227
228
229
230
231

Bae

233
234
235

236

237
238

239

Broad-shouldered Water-strider, Hedrus americanus . Author’s original, from life .
Broad-shouldered Water-strider, Rhagovelia collaris “< “< Ot eae
Water-strider or Skater, Hydometra lineata . . , ie ee Ca CC
Marsh-treader, Limmnobates lineata, . . . . . . “« «« Bay 68.
Aquatic Plant-louse, Rhopalosiphus nymphae. . . “ “ ia ie
Helgramite, larva ofthe Dobson... ... . “< “< ce eee
Horned Dobson, Corya/is corinita. . , “ “ ans oe

Simuliide. © Caddice-May-Stone-Black and Buffalo-Aies :
Author’s original, from life

Larva of a Dragon-fly, Gomphus exilis
Author’s original, from life

Nymph of a Dragon-fly, dAnax junius
Author’s original, from life

Dragon-flies and Damsel-flies. 2chna heros, L. puihella, G. exilis and A. violacea

Author’s original, from life
Water-springtail, Podurus aquaticus
Author’s original, from life
Long-beaked Mosquitoes, Culex pungens
After Howard
A Malaria Mosquito, Anopheles quadrimaculatus
After Howard
Mosquito-boat and larvae
After Howard
Larva and Pupa of Culex pungens
After Howard
Water-tiger, Larva of the Predaceous Diving-beetle
Author’s original, from life
Predaceous Diving-beetle, Acilius fraternus
Author’s original, from life
Predaceous Diving-beetle, Dydiscus fasciventris
Author’s original, from life
Water Scavenger-beetle or Great Water-beetle Hydrophilus glaber
Author’s original, from life
Water Scavenger-beetle, Female attached to Egg-pouch and Predaceous larva or
Spear-mouth ; ee) age ot ee
Author’s original, from life. Cut reversed in printing
Whirligig-beetle, Gyrinus affinis .
Author’s original, from life
Whirligig-beetle, Dineutus vittatus
Author’s original, from life
Whirligig-beetle larva, Dineutus vittatus
Author’s original, from life
Pond-beetle or Haliplid, Halip/us ruficollis
Author’s original, from life
A Smaller Water-beetle, Psephemus lecontii
Author’s original, from life
Water-moths. China-moth, Hydrocampa obliteralis; and China-mark, Catac/ysta
fulicalts
Author’s original, from life
Aquatic Spider, Argyroneta aquatica. Author’s original, from lite

Water-mite, Hydrachna geographica es ch ECE

Three Aquaria of equal Superficial area but different Surface area
After Bateman

Dredge net for nature study collecting

Buckland collecting can aaa:

Open Aqua-terrarium or Swamp Aquarium
Atter Zernecke

Metamorphosis of the Toad, Bufo lentiginosis
From Teacher’s Leaflets

375

Page

arto)
e2EO
- 257

257

. 257
, Zhe
. 258
- 259

P26

. 261

262

. 264

_ AG{6,

. 266

mZOS

2/8
. 274

ety,

nee ey
. 324

#350

Fig. : Page

240. Outline: of a fine’ Fringetail“Geldfsh “%-" 7 ae =. ee See
Based on Dr. S. Watasa’s eee
Enclosed Aqua-terrarium . . . baa ey i Me re) ge Oe posite see nee

After Zernecke

NOTE: Tuese Drawincs are CopyriGHTED; any unauthorized
reproduction will be prosecuted by process of law.

376

INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS

(Illustrations are indicated by asterisks *)

Abnormal gold fishes*
Abramis crysoleucas, the Shiner or Roach*
Academy of Natural Sciences 13;
Acanthocephala or ‘Thorn-headed worms,
MAL SICES Mam terealeraretcateeetarsiu cleie eibiers susvelsversis. «
Acclimitization in the Marine acquarium
Achlya apiculata, a vegetal parasite*
Advice to Beginners
Aeration, better, for diseased fishes
of freshwater aquara

of marine aquaria

African snail, L. auricularia*

Agardts VWVionder COldHSH™ ci.) cctecisiie ase wisier.s
Ailments and diseases of freshwater fishes

AUG) LOT VACUIALIAT ctateialslcicteleleclelere clslelevels) »

INE ciara AO Gyn dala SCO ED OOO OTRO GOOs c

attached (to! INitella: saciccjsecece ccs ne cs

Dr. W. Koch’s observations on

in brook and river water

marine

MOLeMODMIESSeParaSltiGn reais rater

on Nitella and Myriophyllum

PIALASICIC Wevainjeliotnya a a) nian si eka (aM eialiel ale, ecevera’s sia)

OQnenheme lassie a cderrisictelercteteie iso ee cetera rahe

removing, from aquaria

Alligator, A muississippiensis

parasites of

Ameirus catus, A nebulosis S.

HE MGAGHSIEG tam ster asicia cian sierey hetett ciel stnte, er iavere

Amphipoda, sub-order of Malocostraca*

Anacharis, waterweed, Ditchmoss, etc.*

planting in aquaria

for freshwater aquaria*

canadensis, waterweed, etc.*

alsinastrum, waterweed, etc. .....

canadensis gigante, cultivated, spe-

CLEST OTe stone ototety serevovaieesiexevavtierare

planting in the aquarium

aS an Oxygenator .....ecereceevne

Anal fins, variations of goldfishes*

Anatomy of the common goldfish*

Anemones and actinida

Metridium marginatum

Eloactis producta, etc.

AULGCTENAG) (GGPULGEG “scree leeis a o's

Cerianthus americanus

TUG, NEKUSSECOT WIS) = wfaleisis teres )ni01 oe 2 6

Edwardsia sipunculoides, etc. .....

Ammophilactis rapiformis

Garlista RlenColenare Notes curs oie wietekel ete

Sagartia lucie, etc.

PATI EMOTICS) (PATA SIEICH ycreisiciste ere isiseie/ +e eleleisccreveroreie

feeding in the aquarium

Annelida or freshwater worms

Animals,

and ponds
171, 177,

for the marine aquarium
Sponges or Porifera
Polyps, jelly fishes, anemones, etc.,
or Celenterata
Worms and leeches or Vermes
Sea-mats, corallines, etc., or Mollus-
OER wena coc 6 deb octo rm heceda ne
Star fishes, sea-urchins, etc., or Echi-
nmbieledesehict Noe nano Gecueer Gonna
Crustaceans, or Arthropoda
Whelks, muscles, clams, etc., or Mol-
TUSCAM Mee ele rncteke ebelete: Te icterels
Sea squirts, etc., or Cordata
Fishes or Pisces
Animals for the terrarium
Animal parasites and parasitic diseases
Ant egg food (ant pup)
Antigyrodactylin and other remedies ........
treatment for parasitic dis-
CASES tei tte sreies
PISSED LIC OXY CEMASH AT delsictersietercsckelet oe sistas els
Antiseptics and boiling water sterilization
Apeltes quadratus, G. bispinosus and P. pun-

gitius, the sticklebacks* .......... Vi a
Aphonomyces laevis, a vegetal parasite ......
Appliances for collecting for marine aquaria
Apodachlya pyrifera, a vegetal parasite ......
Apus cancriformus, the miniature King-crab*
Aquarium, the freshwater cmccess- + cs me25y

aerationvOr the! 1c ci< ale, </eyeis's 178,
arranging the freshwater ........

95
83
67

150
323
164

147

122
196
179
196

98

302

302

22

246
299

331
145
126
133

Ewa

Heeb ekibells hE pana cnwwrnO Dherane Oe C 290
development of the .............. 2
changing fishes to the .......... 30
cleaning the freshwater ......... 32
GONISEUECELOM ayepete accu aieieini yo) tie are ee 277
and tank culture of the goldfish... 103
and tank rearing of the goldfish.. 99
CQ CIPMIGrt Laie ett sistas ae ciel eter suites 28
feeding fishes in the ........... 30
ricttahta ys so bel ey AR AC AA ccna cae 125
fishes, some freshwater .......... 71
HOWELLSDOLS? Tet aeteeitace etieinin ce Mia eegie 179
OOM! or the NOVICE; seve siniatere ete 31
FOUMLAIID IDSVICEs. stele adsieieie aaleusls slaleie 178
grotto at Washington, D. C. 110
ir cS MO tum apereteletcle etenetorsinte shore oaetereies 27
literature and periodicals .355,362, 365
marine or seawater ...........- 289
number of fishes for the fresh-
WATCIIE faleraa lore ararsyeisl a's, oc,0 alot tarie 30
pHLENMNCS Volo nO aia claciouo oe Oricieucrac pci 26
plants, arranging the, of fresh-
WaAlGDy seitis ot wisie oi einla es simla Waleetete 29
plants, arranging the, of saltwater
Plants) Oninamaentalieers cis ete aviete 212
planting the freshwater ......... 29
principles, recapitalization of the 34
PLOPOLUOMS © |p cieiclioveraaiatesel siesta evel 277
bases) frames (ald Class a. aie lereies 278
Cements for wood aquaria ....... 279
fOL -ZiNC Aquaria wac.)s-\1
for brass and iron aquaria
for marine aquaria ..... 280
for frameless aquaria ...
for rockwood and _ tuft-
SEONG aie /areieieleiensic) oteters
japkbles BAmoedduos cobb GONGor Coe 280
frames, construction of ......... 280
ASSCMIDIG Sete Mists aieiel ail eele elaiaietsiel ts 281
Settings the lasce OL) cleletelsiel=|ctere ttt
eenetal datalof the S226. - 1 282
important handy experience tables
282, 283
rockwork, pomice, tuftstone, etc... 180
Society of Philadelphia ...... 355 356
GOCIEELES® ciaecrisaie ee sey oaiere ei clecove< 354
stands, shelving, racks, etc. ...... 285
stocking Wats gAcinaoao korn aoQasase 30
temperatures in the freshwater. 30
tools and appliances of the fresh-
Wi tGie siete ots arelsiatehatsiclnie <vwietaleye 283
tools and appliances of the marine 325
water of the freshwater .......-.- 172
water of the freshwater, changing
EH eal a ais eters) cates ointetouet tote er eore 176
iGheriGecieri> bBo ooo abonouanpe rOAaoOOE COI Ce 332
and swamp aquarium ..... 332, 333
and terrarium plants, 214, 339; 33!
Aquatic insects, classification Oi acrocte cr otreltre 251
plants in the aquarium ..........-.- 29
plants for freshwater aquaria 26, 183
plants for marine aquaria ........-. 292
Plants sSOMe tO pte nen seleele rei 179
Arachnia or arachnid parasites* ............ 152
Arachnidia, aquatic spiders .............273, 274
Argulide or Carp lice* ............. Re re 153
Argulus catostomi, a crustacean parasite* 152
Arranging aquarium plants .......+++++++-- 29
the freshwater aquarium ......-. 28
the marine aquarium ..........-- 290
Artificial impregnation of fish ova ....-..-- 89
seawater for marine aquaria ...... 291
Asellopus tenax, the water-asel* .....-..--- 122
Assembling the aquarium, in construction SLezOr
Asphyxia, gill congestion or “sore throat” of
fishes, and treatment ..........-+cee-e-; 140
Autotoxine, disease of fishes ...........-+-- 138
Azolla caroliniana, or Floating pondmoss* 209
Babington’s curse, Anacharis ...........--- 196
Bacteride or protozoan parasites” ......---- 153
Balanced aquarium. ......see+eeseeeeer reese 2
Barely sustaining diets ........+.++eeereeee 115
Rarnacles or Cirripedia ....-+.+-++-+-+e eee 312
Bases for aquaria ......--.++-+eeeee eee eees 27%
Bass, parasites of .....-...--+-s+--e0ee 147, 148

Pike, Pike-perch, etc.
Basilewsky, M. Nouveau Memoirs
Basin construction for fishes

and pool culture of goldfishes
Baster, M. Opusculus subsiciva .....
Batracia, frogs and toads

mud puppy and hellbender

Beardsly, A. E., on hydra
Beginners advices LO ni cists asters ae ean etee ceiete
dont’s for

Bernier’s Madagascar lace plant
Best aquarium snails
mussels .

Better aeration for diseased fishes
Bibliography of literature cited
Bichloride of Mercury treatment of fish dis-
eases

for tailrot

for disinfection, ete.

for parasites

Bird and Mammal parasites
Black fungus on fishes, and treatment
Black-nosed dace, R. cataract@* .............
Black or Moor Telescope goldfish*
Bladderwort or Utricularia*
Bleeker, Dr.
Bloch, Dr.

P., Atlas Ichthiologique
Elieser, Ichthiologie ..........00+
description of goldfishes ..
Blood; ‘circulation jof (the emis eee nese
Blue Telescope goldfish, Chinese
Boleosoma nigrum olmstedi, the Tesselated
Garters. sizcisnjash ciotaieaysts oteieecimrerie cise ee
Boracic acid and other remedies
acid: treatment sf vjetetstee wie orate terencerereriete
acid for eye inflamation
acid «for parasites: S.cctees sie nel sie clot
Bottle-brush, Joint-weed, Mare’s tail*
Branchiopods, the young
Branchipus stagnalis, the Spring-time shrimp*
Breeds of ‘goldfishes® si. sient « seis alee eens
Breeding goldfishes for color, etc. .
fine goldfishes ...
PE POLAT pare sfoicracclelerele ever vel stench ravers
establishment, specially equipped*
Buckland, collecting ican) scsi «cele oreo
Butler, Henry D., History of the Aquarium ..

G abomba, or watershield, fanwort, etc. ...
for freshwater. aquaria ..183, 186,
caroliniana, Carolina watershield*
ros@folia, Red-stalked watershield
aquatica, Tropical watershield ....
planting in the aquarium
aS! (AN (OSV SENALOL eiaisiare cise si cleus a6

Calamus, acorus and sweet flags

Calico or) MottledmiGolditish i raecimitesie site ele

Callitriche, or water star-wort
for freshwater aquaria, 2... ...:.
verna, Spring water star-wort* .
bifida, Northern water star-wort ..
heterophyllum, Larger water star-

WOLE: iueici crise clemaie @ © airere amas
austenii, Terrestial water star-wort
for pond or basin culture
planting in the aquarium

Cape Fear river snails

Cyprinus aureus, the food carp

Care of the freshwater aquarium
marine aquarium
marine consignments

Carbonic acid gas in water

Carp, the Scaled, Mirror

Leather, Golden, Crusian, etc.*
food of the) :....
Parasites \of theP sy citrerctem
“lice or, Aneilida cia) cwteneleinvete sis isioniele
Castor Oil and other remedies .............
treatment for constipation
for fin congestion
for tall Obes in er-teteiclel
for swimming-bladder trouble .
the White, Horned Pout, Mad Tom,
CECI ie sie elotatalslubieral ovale tsi etelia) Aiapats, alot

parasites Of THE) «piss ove) eras apeveversins 147,

Cat, rat, frog, water snake, etc., as enemies..

Cat-tails or Typha

Catfish,

Catostonus commersonti, the Common Sucker*
Caudal, and anal fins of goldfishes*
Celestial Telescope goldfish, Chinese*
Cements, for wood aquaria
for zine aquaria
for brass and iron aquaria
for marine aquarian siecle ejeern
for frameless aquaria
for rockwork and tuftstone
Ceratophyllum for freshwater aquaria apes
183, 198,
Hornwort*

demersu m, common

204

204
187
238
15
32
320
32
178

80
116
156
152
133
138
139
140
143

156
144
214
81
97

280

280

199
198

378

submersum and C., Lie eal
ENA rn raters sinclar EOS
planting in the aquarium noboG ei)
as an aquarium plant Sootaces TG
Cestoda or Tapeworms, parasites* .......... 148
Chetodon,) MMi ichatodon*s neem eeieeinete 74

Chandler, Prof. C. F., Report on Hudson
LIVEL _ WAULCLE Pris iminis oe ledelelel aieisratsladatetavel erate -- 174
Changing aquaritim “water pee occ oeeciedene 112

Changes to colder and warmer weather for
AQCUAKIA + sac otek cts ars sro eisieters @ he ne eto en ag

Chara and nitella, for freshwater aquaria ....
183, 194, 195
coronata, crowned chara* ......... icv WO!
gymnopus, Elegant chara™ Sal. cece selec 195
crhinita, crumpledecharae™ sicls.ctcceleiele 195
Charcoal, deodorizing and antiseptic effect of 34
Chilian water -milfoil, M. proserpinacoides* lOO
Chinese Telescope goldfishes* Biske forans ta ecevanetote oh Se
Blue Telescope goldfish .......... 2) 60
Celestial Telescope goldfish* ....... = 60
Beefish®, tsi cisjeissaccseie items ocr aicen ZOOM
Lettered Telescope goldfish* nissce/ aye tee
Mottled Telescope goldfish* ....... sys
Moor Telescope goldfish* ........... 57
Piebald or Tiger Telescope goldfish* 58
Tumbler/coldhsh® ii.) serene 62
Snail) (PStelnapnor, riclercleiclelcis siete 239
Chlorate of potassium as an antiseptic ...... 133
treatment for diseases . 160
for disinfection ...... 144
Chlorophyllaceez, low aquatic plant forms .. 165

Chromatophagus parasiticus, an infusorian
Parasite? y vsveietevelerersis COT OOS CO OEE a. TSS
Choui-Yus ‘goldfishes cs. cick cern 14 66
Chub, fall-fish or Corporal, S. corporalis* .. 75

Chubsucker, the Brilliant or Mullet, E. suc-
Cbta™ © aas,aaie staal chelene.cyeisie aia ale ce oieie neers 82
Cladocera, sub-order of Crustacea* ......... 119
@leaning the aquarium). sae - lle cies sitet 29, 32
objects for the aquarium .......... 180

Cleanliness to exterminate leeches and other
parasites* Sy..yresls melee GOOG Fo 151
Coal Oil and other remedies ............... 133
treatment for White fungus ...... 135
treatment for Black fungus ...... 137
Gold) water veffect (on! fishes 2224.6... sen eee It
Collecting matiral se foo dsr erste ret ietttnetere tere 124
in streams and ponds .-........ 85
for the marine aquarium ....... 323
marine aquatic plants’ $3.5... <0. 323
Colors of the common goldfish ............ 40
Combination” dish) foods) es...) eee 127
Common American and European goldfishes* 39
Comparisons of goldfish eyes, Ryder’s ..... 96
Conditions OL ight tOmraduariae pce lcteternrene 171
Conferve, Cladophora, vetes Fo. .seorecrmiee 166
Congestion (of Sins! lof aShese mivitete iettertae 139
Consignments, receiving of marine ........ 325
Constant water tow a1 ‘aqitanial sje ieiencteieiers IT]
level. ‘siphon: }.c%.s.c.chveccisesreaicatere eee 285
Constipation of fishes, and trea ment <cate ahs aes
Constructine= the saquaritim ¢-1--1-) tas eeieteteneiie 277
Consumption in fishes, and treatment ....... 141
treatment with nourishing food 142
Contents; table lof; index: Paenriaacieteseritetet 377
Contia necarix, an infusoriam parasite* ..... 158
Copopoda, sub-order of the Crustacea* ..... 121
Coral, branch and reef. Madropores ...... 302
Chordata, M. manhattensis, etc. ......... 299, 316
Corean. igoldiish: | spree crcisieien ariel srevalexstep acral II

Corporal or Fall-fish, Chub, Wind-fish, S. cor-
PNG Bane om to cod otecoto ate cake ac 5 75

Crayfishes, prawns, shrimp, crabs and_ lob-
SLES PN Csisleisaeiovcheysiekere revert 122, 123
DARASIECS) ODva cisisaslocyeisnetaterereva siete 156
Crustacea, freshwater forms .......... 118 to 124
Or enustacean parasites™ ~ jes.) 152
Crustaceans, mafine forms ........... 307 to 313

Crab; blue, Gi hastates) secs

green, C. me@nus ...... 5
rock, C. tirroratus ..... - 308

jonah, (G2 borealis) 0). sis.

mid, : herbstu; (ete eee

lady; (Ps 0 cellatiis se yeteieters

Sand, (OQ: -aventty icici
stone, M. mercenaria .... 309

Spider, Sea-spider, L. em-

OFZINAtG, ‘EtG. cess sisi

toad, Hi. (coarctaius, Gin.

long: armed spider, Te

POUTLGIESIN e\cls late siniclnl -

hermit, S. pollicaris, etc...

fidler, G. minax, etc. ....
Oyster, P. ostreum .>.... 310

scallop, P. maculatum ....

sandbug, H. talpoida ....

King or MHorse-shoe, L.
polyphemus :

AS ISCAVENSERS! vip nares +

Lobster, American, Homarus

americanus ites

California, Panulirus

enteruptus

Shrimps, sand, C. vulgaris
Southern, P.

GLChas ahaa

mantis, S. empusa

skeleton, C. geometrica

Prawn, American, P. vulgaris

F 3ll,

deep water, P. borealis,

setiferus,

ivory, B. balanoides
goose, B. tintinabulum
Sand hopper, O. agilis, etc......

larger, G. locusta
TSOPOAS eaters ietrcchect fee) ates, 6 S112:
Cirelena concharum, ete.
Crystalwort, for freshwater aquaria .........
Cryptogamia, low forms of plant life
vegetable parasites .
Cruelty to fishes
Cuvier and Valenciennes,
des Poissons ..
Gynerawand Papynuses sscsciseen sin tae ae emes
Cyclops, C. thomasi, C. agilis, etc.”

Histoire Naturelle

Sin] 6) @)/R ieee) ee ei0)e) een ese a) bale ss

D ace, the, R. cataracte, etc.*
Daphnia, D. pulex, D. levis,
AS MLOOC Mtoe TSHeSem scien strcsiecie.

Darter, Tessellated, B. ohmstedi*
WAUIDEIY (OL AQUALIA \stisiejccet anit csinraniwt ole
Decapoda, sub-order of Malocostraca*
Degenerative changes in goldfishes
Deodorizing effect of charcoal
Depth of water for hatching
Derivation of the illustrations
De Pears description of the goldfishes of
ina
Descriptive designations of goldfishes .......
Desirable characteristics of the common gold-

ASHMererejeicee cies ef ahebateh Aten s jerarelelerege are. storchele reise
Destruction of plants by fishes ....:........-
Determinations in water analysis ...........
WMetechiony of allmesseok mishes acres cis ciseeie “ee
Diagrams of freshwater snails and mussels*

217,
of tail-rays of goldfishes* .........
Wiatomsnand adismids: Geet cranns ceeisae ie 166,

Dichtyuchus polysporus, a vegetal parasite* ..
Diet for freshwater fishes
Dietaries for goldfishes, etc.
Digestive system of the goldfish
Discrimination of sex*
Diseased fishes

handling of

Diseases, fungus, in transferring fishes
of fresh and saltwater fishes
Disinfectants and antiseptics
Displacement of internal organs of goldfishes
Dont’s for beginners Bie 352:
Dripping water as a remedy for fish diseases
Dropsy, a disease of fishes and its treatment
Dry terraria
Duckweeds for freshwater aquaria*
Duplication of fins in goldfishes
Dwarf lilies, for freshwater aquaria

Early spawning of POldHS HES UE peayctercherelerete ese
Earthworms as food for fishes
as laxatives for diseased fishes ..

for corsumption of fishes
Echinodermata, or Marine radiates
Ecto- and Ento-parasites, surface and internal
Edwards, George, description of goldfishes ...
Eel, the common, A. chrysypa*
cusk and saltwater
parasites of 147, 148,

Eel grass, Tape grass, etc., V. spiralis*® .....
Effect of cold water on fishes
gases, fumes and odors .

Egegfish, Chinese*
Egg food for fishes
Eggs or spawn of goldfishes
Eitchhornia azuria, lavender-blue
water hyacinth

crassipes, lilac-rose flowered water

hyacinth ...

Elodea, see Anachares
Embriology of the goldfish*
Emersed and submerged aquatic plants
Entomostraca, of freshwater
marine or water-fleas

Epsom and glauber salts
treatment for

fishes

«310

310

311

126
115
17
gI

144
177
131
144

95
353
141

212

379

for tail-rot

me treatment 140
Equilibrium in plants and animal existence,
hd aM aqdatia aa sens Air oar aap 177, 183
Equipping the aquarium’ s....<esass sce ees 28
Erimyzon sucetta, the Brilliant Chubsucker or

Mullet song an teat eee ee 2
Eupomotis gibbosus, E. gloriosus, L. auritus,

M. chetodon, the sunfishes* ..... Seay LTA
Ixcrement of the goldfish’ ........++csses.se 21
Excessive feeding: of fishes <c.:....55.56 05. 116

light in greenhouse culture ...... 106

expert method of transferring aquarium fishes 177

Eye inflammations, and treatment ......... 142
EByes/(of the. /goldnsh® cet icaats s scnwen ane 2
F airy-shrimp, Gammarus PUICLS wie oa elata sete fe 122
Failure of hatches of goldfishes ............ 102
Fantail Japanese goldfish*® ..............-. 48
Fanwort, Fish grass, etc. C. caroliniana® 186
Fattening diets for fishes ...........e«ceres 115
Feather-stars ‘or Crinoidea <.<.<<sseeces pees 304
Peedi pr anemomesi si tsrcnsiac atclee nie corns enero 22
animals of the terrarium ........... 348
basins in lakes and ponds ......... 106
AGUA IMD Woh aise ewes haere 30
EXCESSIVE saieriaree veuiee rarer ecto 116
ROLAKSH, Riryiwewan deies sinescee crea cre QI
Imethe; agiwantun sans ees 30, X16, 125
Inthe LELLATIIEe ele eaie.cio eieierale 70 448
MATING) VATS) a letiste aloes erste ition 321
SOU vin eectes claicre chelate ete ate aa meee eee TD7,
temperature Ai sce e sarssivie sd cle sae 117
thle Sifirsys pa sce: datevenctstaic acetone enero 116, 117
Hiltersior smarine aquarial) 7c) nlesete eee 321
Pilling the aquarium crisis snl 29
with out-of-door tank
Wa LOiitars wereieisisinie le: die 177
Fin congestion of fishes, and treatment ..... 139
Bins Ote thes eoldtish' i civetaeteiereie ce eieis tae ears 16
forms) of, variations in® J..:..eneccee 97
Fish Commission aquarium grotto* ......... 110
Fish culture and aquarium periodicals, 355, 365
diseases Ak wartectree ars ete ire 131
globes} undesirables ieee eee 35
literature, Wsibloeraphiv teenies cree 362
roe /and fish-Hesh’ food) Gaee.ueesc+ seek 126
Hishesy cruelty: : tO sess sus ae ceva certain eee 35
Giseased | a.3 gas oe a ctyaee civ cieiawe er eee 32
in eencrals- ey tees se hus geo 14
Oty OL CONCIAO IIS mriereteiticie eels crtcreiate 133
photographing wee cin nen manent oe 16
TEStlessness-'Of | sysj.s wie lawieeacies ce eine a 33
success with, in the aquarium ....... 30
Marine OL SeISCES) — ies om lee 317 to 320
Herring, common, C. harengus ..... 317
Sardine: Saxdunelia. 2.) etc ole
Menhaden, B. tyrannus ..........-
Toothed-minnowsi tee cietelne cee ee 17
pursy,. Goivartepatuss von vas croc
killifish, F. heteroclitus ............
Mian fishy cies raya lssincl las ctelersicrets nice
rainwater fish, L. parva .........
Sea-horse, American, H. hudsonius 317
European, H. hippocampus .......
Pipe-fish, common, S. fuscum ....... 317
Sticklebacks, A. quadracus, etc.....
23 73307,
Silver-side, sand smelt, M. cerea Sse)
Wihite-bait, “IM Smotatal i.~ aan cies 317
Mullets, grey, M. cephalus and M.
CURING wine ctsraisis oie 4s winiave oe oee 317
Crevallés, Goggler, 7. crumenopthal-
TUS stays aisis eis seid sist ei. rtoje eile 317
Thread-fish, Al crinttus .......5-..
Moon-fish, V. setapinis ...........
Silver moon-fish, S. womer .......
Sea-bass, common, C. striatus ....... 318
Snapper, grey, N. griseus .......:.+- 318
AGRE NE CIOs. ty Tata cr aise ote eiee
Schoolmaster, N. apodus ........
Mutton-fish, N. analis ....cccccn
Grunts, common, H. plumieri ....... 318
grey, H. macrostomum ........-.
VEllOWs IEls SCUMTUS J lectviewis ce me <ae
GrOa Kersey (cchss icicle ermiaie mien wieraeinisretens 318
Weakfish, C. nebulosus ...........
Kingfish, M. americanus ..........
Dram LE CAVOMUS 2 coos + cee
Cape May goodie, L. xanthurus
Madamoiselle, B. chrysura .......
Wrasses. Tautoge, 7. onitis ....... 318
Cunner iC. GASPEFSUS. coos cites coc
Harvest Fishes: Harvest-fish, P. paru 318
Pumpkin-seed, P. triacanthus .....
Black rudder-fish, P. perciformis
Butterfly or Angel Fishes, Cheto-
COMET ey elope estetnce de opaiete tal oy ols 318
File-fishes, L. hispidus, etc. ......... 318

Swell-fish, common, S. maculatus 319
rabbit-fish, LL. levigatus ......-..<.
Sculpin, Miller’s thumb, U. gracilis 319
Srubby. cA. hemeUus «laste ciate
Moad=hshs iOPSANUS feds) wis atest ioe oe 319
Blennie, Butter-fish, P.° gunnellus > 359
Gobies, scaleless, G. bosci .......... 319
chubby, 1G. “SOponaror |. . idtesteo se rere
Gunnard, sea-robin, P. palmipes 319
wing- fish, Po CBOlRNS spore tsccladors mists
Sead-baty iGo QiOWMLans «1s sieratoretols tensor
Stargazer, American, A. anoplus 319
Bel) (cusk, Ft. ar Sinaia) ficiecvec niet 511 319
Cod, Tom-cod or frost-fish, M. tom-
GOA tah ee E Oe ae cee ee 320
Flat fishes, Hog choker, A. fascitus . 320
flathish, . americanus’ tone wcwes ons
Summer-flounder, P. dentatus
Southern flounder, P. lethostigmus
four-spotted flounder, P. oblongus
window-pane, L. maculata ........
rusty. dab, LL: ferruginea .......--
Skate, common, R. erimecea ........ 320
lancer, Hts, MOQTEO, wie siet ai =\-y-\niemtar
barndoor nite I@UsS: var. tmicietacioeie es
Stingsrays, CDS 0 cenmtrurus: (ocean saat 320
FBrog-fish) »P. histrig’ csc. os ee a ceae 320
Fishing-frog or Angler, L. piscatorins 320
Eel, saltwater, Conger, L. conger .. 320
Floating arrowhead, ‘Se eMOLOWS: ELCs a croeten ieee 184
Cape pondweed BO ccenc Game Ooee 213
Grice Wace ema aepon Bors Soca ool 213
freshwater plants ..-.s<c..-+ =< 214, 208
Dick weed!) yey. avs icle kiete siciallelaicisneloueravate 208
PorvdntOsst co reves areielelereretereiercve mis aac 209
Crystalwort tei nieseie clereiee ciate ere teccreien 209
SHINAGEY an noaaMaaue dado oO manonnOaS 210
perhavele an beens came ci bec acReiccr Ss 210
BOS DIte Be reteys aracona ial peieleleterstersre ointetoreuciere 210
Water Iby ACh erates sieselerciercuersiele teksten 211
Water lettuce sisccjle Seis ster quticlem stare 212
plants* rertte settee teen ees 1208, 214
pondmoss for freshwater aquaria* 209
Floral leaves, removal of, in aquaria ........ 179
Blower, (potsmtiead atid e wciereerelieielere eretcleteicieie ele 179
Flukes or Tremotoda parasites* ............ 146
Ely: mapeots; feeding. %ojcters iis clelcie-s/a ahekere 5 125
Pood! and@feeding) sae cicsctecleyeeinisy= sine stern nies 30
freshwater fishes ...... 115, 126
Carp, Cyprinus aureus ..... GntoeGnaoe 15
HOGG Ol ee ccsre axersteterntreiaieberene eke 80, 116
Raw meat, liver, earthworms, fish roe,
ant eggs, eggs, mixed and starchy 126
Hormaline. for /disinteCtion! isi, oreyec-rele ele ssnersies 144
or formaldehyde and other antisep-
(UES, cI RS GS OG ORO Or hoe AAD 133
Borms?: of aquaria. eecainne erect Se ease 277
of jponds and) Wakes*™) Kiva. siete se « 106, 107
Fouling water by decomposition, etc. ....... 175
Fountain device for aquaria ..............-- 178
Fontinalis, for freshwater aquaria ...... 183, 200
antipyratica Willowmoss, etc.* ... 200
gracilis, watermoss, etc™ ........ 200
gigantea, Robust willowmoss ..... 200
as an aquarium ‘plant, .<)...2-.0 = <1 199
AS! Valle (OXY EMALOH ciel eke) tel ereis ietete 200
Frames for aquaria, construction of ......278, 280
Binesh water al San ter cnet -r he fr natel sieceheioraneterste lots 206
aquarium diShesS) ticles ators lel wearers 71
PA OUMISES + Csarcretehe ro cisioenteke eis etareterepeicts 217
plants for the aquarium ......... 183
Vermes and Hydrozoa ........ ae 246
WiotaniSuisstern ottatetecc rete en etienee 246
P. levdyt, Sz lacustris? ...3-
Tr (CLAP OV ACU tm uate cies ctote oie 246
POly DS: panies cess cieysreremrelsra eye eseneie 247
H. viridis and H. fusca* . 247
Gordylaphoray cen sare cten aire scree 248
LOCUSHOM ete lee eas
Fringetail Japanese goldfishes .............. 45
Chinese Telescope goldfishes ...... 56
Frogs and toads, classification of ...... 333 to 336
Spring or Leopard frog, Rana vwi-
TESCONMS aiaieya's dtahavero Rrocerstersianeinie 334
Green frog, Rana clamatans ..... 335
Common bullfrog, Rana catesbeana 335
Western frog, Rana pretiosa ...... 335
Western bullfrog, Rana aurora .... 335
American hoptoad, Bufo lentigi-
MOSUS, Dis cisionichpcreiotlcieleieem ee eae 336
Spade-foot toad, Sacphiopus hol-
DODDS ee oicterethee ecristee rere 336
Common tree-toad, Hyla versicolor 336
Pickering’s tree-toad, Hyla picker-
OLN aC PROPEL TEC COE IO Oe a Oe 336
Swamp tree-toad, Chorophilis nigri-
EUS. ayehod ois tel aeateioiaheretoc Reece emo ate 336
Savannah cricket-toad, Acris gryt-
LI aaacmda a Oats Sane os 5 336

90

Green tree-toad, Hyla arborea .... 336
Chameleon tree-toad, Hyla chame-
TEONEGS is oe a oclop aihae see ee - 336
tadpole, parasites of cheictskerateai ie 147, 156
Frogbit, for freshwater aqUATIA™ since ene 2LOn 208
Ery,, feeding “the goldfish) 2s ..ce eee eee 116
Fundulus heterochtus and F. diaphanus, the
LOUD (Sas Gbsdacucsoooc8 dace So job Sa = or
Fungi in aquaria, prevention OF ic shischietien - 165
PALAasiie Ps ac ccamew ase ome Shon EA
Parasiticns plant a.) eles Scipoaoa Asie
Parasitic, (on Iiles: jetes —. cs oe aie shai LOO
Slime us hi nciachie coe Saisie re Bie usta - 166
Fungus on spawn, S. ferax* ..... eieyare ors ae:
white, on fishes .......... Sistah sheie Ss.
black, ion’ GShes S50 52s. + ieee wna
G ammarus pulex, the Fairy-shrimp* ....... 122
Gases, fumes and odors, effect of ..... sees (OR
Gastrotricha, sub-order of Trochelminths* ... 124
General aquaria) data =o... 5.5 Bab S8b On Seo 282
table for reference ..........-. 282, 283
Getmamsisuetood ses ene eeieiee > cae eaiot re
Gill congestion of fishes, and treatment ove MEO
Glass; sales onivthe ke cretrarcts che csiercleicic ste <n Oa
LOT” AQUATIAY 7 cronierejoctictaw esterases erceetere 278
Setting (Oly) i aduania coerce saez7e
Sash’ for greenhouse® <2... +05 os ce eee 105
Glauber and epsom salts treatment for diseases
Of: fishes; -iynctesemac nn caeiceneeeiaeen 133, 139
Globe flowers or) Drollius# > ase cea eee ce 214
Glossary of scientific terms ........... 357 to 361
Golden Ide or Orfe, Idus idus and I. mela-
NOMS Nerekiale Ghee ete oe te OO AS
Goldfish abnormalibrecds= )- seme eee 64
aquarium and tank culture of 2c) 208
basin and pool culture 32...:....- 6 ies}
breeding’ thes savacn~coarciie dca 98
for iCOlOr mshi cic wince eee 98
for transparent scales ...:.....- 93
for large Teyes; ete) eens eeeeee 93
breeds)" Of" 7.1.9.2 wr. cierto ore reloios ooo 39
COrassvus QUKOtUs, me nteceo oe eee 15
Common American and European, 15, 39
Japanese \comet™ © ..2 cceisa soso 44
fantail” fF s.cle ets coolers 40
fringetail™ “so..5 os tsiseis epeieie wl eislane 45
NY MPM Scheer ee eee 49
hooded or lion-headed* ......... 50
barnacled™ (sc seieit i :b.ccee oo toes 51
télescape*. 7.2 ce hans ae eee 53
Chinese mottled telescope* ........ 53
fringetail) “telescope*: te .<).0 setae 56
moor telescope? 24,5 ce. ieee 57
piebald telescope* 5.3..-.0 sce = 88
lettered, telescope {o.- -.cemaseiee 59
celestial! telescope™ J.2..od.nceoe 60
Slejeatislales G5 Awcacue noosa oooaS 61
tumblerstelescope™ <icjecctiecise eg eicee 63
drawing of a fine specimen* ....... 356
Goldfishes, small greenhouse for culture of* 104
degenerative changes in ......... 95
demand fore ea.oene sce ane ee 102
description and designation of ... 43
desirable characteristics of ..... a oes
dietaries for .o./. duis ovaries oe 115
displacement of internal organs 95
disease investigations as applied to
other fishes ..... aielelo ahs e emeterers 145
duplication of fins of sn... 904
, Corean, Loo-choo, Maruko, Riukin,
f WiGKIIAT on aca cele ears ee arc eit ates II
/ embrgology of the* (....0 <6 J-tec
external anatomy of the Common* 15
internal anatomy of the Common*
17, 18, 19
eyespok thes 7. .cni. 10s cerscicreninttete 52
Ryder’s comparisons of the ..... 96
failures of hatches Of (2. 02 eee. 102
for disease investigations ....... 145
for “the omovice ) ite wrecks 32
fry, deeding, the! (Ssiccien<-rcreointiee 91
handling sy Ono wereycreleicteneronie a tetate 102
hybridizations Of a iris feelers 64
imperfectly developed) 2: ssa. sce 41
mating the. sant stisciceerine 90, 9gI
ET KLIDeAVE a. Cethodaco odor cod0 bdr IOI
methods of culture Of 5.2. aac 103
OFIZIN' OL yc sieisssiciste ree enrele seme II
parasites of,
, _ 147, 150, 151, 155, 156, 157
POMS AM UG Sine eke eile ere 355, 356
PLOpagation Ol THE sen teeioleimietereee 89
rearing in aquaria, tanks, and in
tel Openwain: cece cece rie -99, 100
selecting the breeding ........... 100
Spawning? thelse .scecststieeel crore eters gI
success with imported .......... . 102
Winterndine” Rie h-crc\wie se siavhetommeretet 110

Greenhouse goldfish culture* ...............
CALI De ates a eusteraveRetele eave sete to ote

specially equipped* ..... ; 105,

Growth of plants in freshwater ..........26,
Gyrodactylus, a tremotod parasite* .........
and Echinorhyncus, producing

gill congestion of fishes
and Mixidium, producing Black
fungus
Gypsum and plaster of paris

H andling young fishes .......
Hatching water for Goldfishes ..............
Handling diseased fishes ......
Tealthy diets for fishes ..
Ueated dry terraria
PAO TAO LU ALTA” nan el erein ia leis os ererere ls «cranes s
Heating arrangements for small greenhouse*
Hellbender, Cryptobranchs alleganiensis
Herrings or Clupeide
PALASITES VOT sc crury:o cfeie Stele eves eo ere alata ve
Hippuris, for freshwater aquaria ............
vulgaris, Bottle-brush, mare’s tail,
CGA! “SOGo ee oe o ORG Or Moan
tetraphyllum,
RAM ec tecteforecieticteevsie em ose oe

maritema, Four-leaved mare’s tail
as an aquarium plant
Histoire Naturelle des Dorades de la Chine,
by de Sauvigny 13,
Naturelle des Poissons de Lacépéde,
Cuvier and Valenciennes
History of the Aquarium
Hirudinide or Leeches .
Hog’s nose and Ram’s nose goldfishes ......
Holotrichus mystacca, an infusorian parasite*
Ilorned-dace or Greek-chub, S. atromaculus*
Hospital or Sanitarium for fishes
Hottonia, for freshwater aquaria
inflata, water-feather
palustris
AS ay PONG Planters ssoe rover aleve ce otete hee
Hybridization of the goldfish* ..............
Hy drocharis morsus-rane, the European frog-
Sie Niet alc airolfel aPaliax ee ateystotalniie:,aialie.che) aifevareiteteira (oie te
Hypertrophy of organs of goldfish
Hydra, polyps of freshwater ...
Enemies) of syouns) fishes cee as 6
destruction of

I chthyophthiriide, infusoria protozoan para-
sites*
Ichthyophthirius and Chromatophagus, produc-
ing Twitters or Itch
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, an infusorian para-
site
Idus idus and I. melanotis, Ide or Orfe*
Illness of fishes, detection of the
fine breeds of goldfishes
Illustrations and their derivation
Impertectly developed goldfishes
Impregnation, artificial
Index and table of contents
Indian Paradise fish*
Infusoria, protozoan parasites*
Ingelhauss on Aquaria
Injuries to fishes, and treatment
Inorganic substances in water
Insects aquatic, Hemiptera ...........252
Neuroptera

Thysanura

Diptera

Coleoptera

Lepidoptera

Arachnide

Acarina

Hydrachna

Insects, aquatic, classification and description

o
Water-boatman, Cuwurisa interupta, etc.* .....
Black-swimmers, Notonecta undulata, etc.* ..
Water-scorpions, Nepa apiculata, ete.* ..253,
Giant Water-bug, Belostomia griseum, etc.*
Creeping Water-bug, Ambrysus signoretti* ...
Toad-bug, Pelogonus americanus, etc.*
Shore-bug, Salda signoretti, etc.*
Broad-shouldered water-striders, Hebrus ameri-

canus, etc.*
Hydrometra lineata*
Marsh-treader, Limnobates lineata, etc.*
Aquatic plant lice, R. nymphee, etc.*
Dobsons, Corydatis corinita, etc.*
May-flies or shad-flies, Heptagenia pulchella,

LG:
Stone-flies, Leuctra tenella, etc.*
Dragon-flies, Gomphus exilis, etc.*
Caddice-flies, Pliryganea interrupta, etc.*
Water spring-tails, Podurus aquatica, etc.*
Mosquitoes, Culex pungens, etc.*

102

99
144
115
330
330
105
338
B07,
150
183

199
199

199
199

381

Midges,

Z net-winged, Blepharocera capitata,
ete.

Empidide, etc.*
es 259,
Predaceous diving-beetles, fasciven-
iS Vetcin cst me ee a ae
Great water-beetles, Hydrophilida glaber, etc.”
Whirligig-beetles, Gyrinus affinis, ete.”
Pond-beetles, Haliplus ruficollis, ete.*
Smaller water beetles, Psephemus
CLC Tay Vics Sis cus ren ertiee area aie ne tt ee
China Moths, Hydrocampus obliteralis, etc.*
China marks, Cataclysta fulicalis, ete.” ......
Water spiders, Argyroneta aquatica, ete.* ..
Water mites, Bdella maritima, and Hydrachna
BEOREGRINCI am poate Seis ce a ae
Enbects < aquatie® aceon clove aries seek tO
outline of a water beetle*
Insect enemies of fishes

Dytiscus

Isnardia palustris, Ludwigia*
Isopoda, sub-order
Isopods, marine

of Malocostraca*

Japanese goldfishes*
; snail, /. malleatus*
Judeine “roldfishes! © sicath cvectewis-csie ae eee es

K illifishes, the, F. heterochtus and F. dia-

HOWUS SV Tralc ete Senda ene on iere sea cot
amcds Ole aq arial. seis ocisiacie a oh em ate
Kin-Teon-Yu_ goldfishes
Kin-Yu and Kinyiki goldfishes
Koch, Dr. W., observations on growing alge

Lacépéde, Historie Naturelle des Poissons

acertilia or slizards® .. ave en se ote alee
Lace plant, Lattice-leaf or water yam* .....
Larger enemies of fishes ...........c2+.-20-
Late spawning of goldfishes {..0..5...<<-++
Lawson’s. White Rat goldfish* ..............
leeches) or, ‘Miniudimida) Geis accines serie ae
ORF CALDS Batten eee ee Sere ee
LLeech-like polyp, 2. pediculus® ..:...2....
Weecheshand! awonmssanlanine: oases eee
Leeds, Prof. A. R., Report on water supply ..
Wemmnay ion | Duckweeds) e.cscre ccts ome eeORs
minor, Lesser Duckweed* .........
perpusilla, Tiny Duckweed* .......
gibba, thick-leaved Duckweed* ......
polyrhiza, Greater Duckweed* .....

trisulca, Ivy-leaved Duckweed*

Lernecera cyprinacea, a crustacian parasite*
Leptodora., Le hyalina. sccm cent oceec eee
eight tor vag uaniaur omen ciee dciste setae bite aay iterate
in greenhouse fish culture .......
Lilies for freshwater aquaria ...............
Lime and magnesium in natural waters .....

Limnobium spongia, the American frog-bit*
Limnanthemus indicum, or water snowflake
Limnocharis humboldtu, or water-poppy
Lizards or Lacortilia, classification of ....3309,
Blue-tailed lizard, E. fasciatus
Pine tree lizard, S. undulatus ....

Black-lined lizard, E. anthracinus
Chameleon lizard, A. principalis .
Ground lizard, L. laterale .......
Horned toad, P. cornutus .......
Grass or Joint snake, O. ventralis
livertood, tor coldhshesi 1. Jer «15 sete <felos terse
Mong-Tsing=Vieseoldhshes) oc emi wees) le «l= 14,
TEOO-CHOOMPOLGHSHES tier. crevelninver stores teievere dies ora niche
ILGOSEStRILES Ore Met WIGTai er> nic e/a erelase elem ese
Loricata or alligators and crocodiles .......
Ludwigia, for freshwater aquaria 183, 192,
palustris, Marsh purslain* .......
glandulosa, cylindric fruited Lud-

WU ct aieciel tote eieieleterem ere tot eid
mulerttii, Mulertt’s Ludwigia* ....
alternifolia, alternate-leaved lLud-

WRT eae cielo seimayas nae ese tne,
for aquaria and pond growth
as an aquarium oxygenator ;

Lymphosporidium trutte, a protozoan parasite*

M acropodus venestrus and M. viridi-auratus,

the) Paradgise-uSh) je caite wala aa ciaie eel
Madaeascam face! plantn sicisc/- cers etele c's es
Magnesium and lime in water ..........++.
Maintenance of the marine aquarium .......
Malocostraca, classification of the ...........
Mammal and bird parasites ...........c..e0-
Manual du Libraire, description of de Sau-
wieny s goldfishes\ Se Solace ce os ermwleies

81

on

2]
14

176

13
339

144

211
212

212

340

340

122

66

II
192
344
193
192

193
193

193
104
183

154

mito et ty
WN SD
Or OnwN

wh

Mare’s tail, Hippurus vulgaris®™ ....5.0.+s-s 199
Marine animals, feeding the ............... 321
Marine aquaria and inmates, aeration, etc. .. 289
arranging? the os.s.cs soe oclerels 290
aeration of the sea water for 290
artificial ‘sea water ...:.... 291
hydrometer and other tools,
283, 292
temperature (Of) grime sles 202
DUALS LOL) 7 wieaansoletore nntereterere 2092
Carmen Of pcars mictaversnotevercrioiste etoreis 320
AILETS) ai shale,srereie clvunete tates lelensye © 321
Hoye SS tAgancicalocino ah tae 324, 32
Marve \fatina ase secure ce mislerioe ehereteeie tect te 2908
molluscs as scavengers .......... 316, 323
worms and leeches or Vermes 303, 304
Marsilea ‘or, water clover {.cacecmincsom emote. 205
GUODEIUG I ae eis asta = 518 A nae carn mA went OiBTSGlhaece 212
Manuko(coldisbhverecticce cvseerallefere etclers piers aenerete II
Mating the gzoldnshie, s+ -.cciecemeieneioe 90; 90, 99
Maturity ionegoldtishes © cys acts sie simieieretoniie stoi < 101
Messmates and true parasites ............+.. 145
Methods of breeding goldfishes ............. 98
SoOldhsh Gul Lice ee tee lee cities rates 103
Microscope in treatment of diseases ..... 137, 144
Mineral constituents supplied to aquarium
WATE eta rsteccrreieretsciereistate wusieueie iets 176
Saltsan, vaqiiantay seen. sejesteielscietine 139
Minnows, N. procne, N. analostanus, etc.* 82
Mutes:. “Dicks s \ete:, DanaSitesy ec sevcteiercnss <reyene tomes 152
Mixedycood! Lor tiSHesusrcmmvertstetasriede: cemtelcsnelsts 126
Molluscoida, or marine polyzoa ...........--. 304
Molluses, freshwater univalve and _ bivalve*,
217, 218
reproductive methods ......... 218, 219
diagrams of snails and mussels*,
217, 219
univalves and _ bivalve, marine,
313, 314, 315
Univalviess marines jtercieeee ce eee
Smooth limpet, A. testudinalis
Slipper limpet, C. fornicata .....
Periwinkle, L. trrorata .........
INAatiCay Ve CAUPIiCdEO, Weletelciclerelelele=
Dove ishelly iG inazan eres ais
Welks, N. obsoleta, N. trivittata
and B. undatum ....... 313, 314
BivalvieS:= maine: ptctdeiciettelerstereteinere
Clams razor. 2. Gireciismae nim «
Clam, softy". truncata << ta. os
Clam, trough, M. solidissina ;
Clam, boring, P. pholadiformis .
Clam, cockle, A. transversa ....
Clam, quahog, V. mercinaria
Mussel, edible, M. edulis ......
Mussel, horse, M. plicatulus
Mussel, jingle, A. simplex ......
Scallop, common, P. irradiana
Squids, O. sagittatus and L. pealii 316
Molluscs, parasites Ob 2.2212 ccteieere ce mis We 147
Mud puppy, Necturus maculosus ..........4. 338
Muddy water remedy for sick fishes ....... 176
Mullet or chub-sucker, E. sucetta* ..... 156, 82
PALASIFESMOLM tvtocr-lecioletdeietechenst-ratciolelave 156
Mussels, classification and descriptions of
Wee? Geanoonsaaooe 240 to 245
Sperium simile, S. rivicola, S. stria-
tonwan; Gter es 7) cia stesaser ovasavarevers 5)! 240
Pisidium compressum, P. abditum,
GiWOh wn Berercrcin cad KiOGOROnee tao 40 241
OIE Qa NeneigiT? GotsadouoGolnee 242
Lampsilis radiatum. L. ° ochrasus
anal Ee Ui elGISY On aacpioc 600000 242
Anadonta cataracta and A. ese
(CO ett MOOK a COUR OND OOLO aS 244
Margaritana margaritifera, and MW
INOPZUNGED siaveieie tuys wieieyaieiesse< oes csi 245
Moneywort, creeping Jenny, etc. ........... 203
Monsell’s salt and other remedies .......... 133
treatment for Black fungus ..... 137
for disinfection kes eyeteercletsreiel yer 144
Mosquito lance asttish sfooderr temic chet clelere siti cls 123
Mussels and snails, freshwater .............. 217
Mussels, general remarks on .........+.-+0- 246
Myriophyllum and proserpinaca* ............ 189
for freshwater aquaria,
183, 189, 190
spicatum, Spiked water-milfoil* 189
verticillatum, Whorled-milfoil*. 190
alternifolia, Loose-flowered mil-
Dio) 1 rrRrr aL Org GR GEC CG cic non 190
nitschei, Full-branching milfoil 190
proserpinacoides, Parrot’s feath-
Chane, hetectereroracietne fe shereretene 190
My-xobolus cyprini, a protozoan parasite* 155
My-xosporidium genus incert, a protozoan para-
SILO oictaventia's. sovanstaveratemPasterornerepere tote erehccane 155
Natural food for fishes ...........005. Rett sts
collectine (Ob Bip mesemote eee 12

382

PRESEN VAN Fee) ae eielerele
propagating. ...

Nasturtium, Loosestrife or Ludwigia*
Nematoda or Roundworms™ |. se. seeeeaneee
Nemertina, or Marine worms .....
Nemertes socialis, etc. ....0..000
Tetrastemma arenicola ........
Cosmocephala ochracea .

Polina glutinosa .......

Nets, separate nets, etc., for diseased fishes .
aquarium tools . 283,
Newts and salamanders .... Bere
Niagara: snails*) 2% <i sissies oem aaa
Nichols, Prof. W. R., Water supply, chemical
and sanitary Aovanndoonsae
Nin-Eubk-Yu goldfishes ......
Nitella and chara, for freshwater aquaria,

183, 794,

wee wee

sete eee

flexilis, Flexible nitella*

gracilis, Slender nitella* oa rene

tenuissima, Clustered nitella*

planting in the aquarium

as an oxygenator

Nitric acid treatment for tailrot
Notropis procne,
TLOWS Wicleteror ster
Nourishing food for ‘diseased fishes
Number of fishes for the aquarium
to be mated ...

Nymphe, dwarf lilies for freshwater aquaria
Or ‘water iltesteyasi 16

sae

N. cornutus, ete., the "Min-

O dor and taste of aquarium water ...
Ophidia_ or snakes
Open air rearing of young goldfishes
Origin of the goldfish
Ornamental aquarium plants
Ostracoda, sub-order of Crustacea* 5
Outdoor tanks and basins in winter .......
tanks to greenhouse*
Ouvirandra, as aquarium plants*
finistralis, Madagascar lace plant

bernieriana, Bernier’s Madsee

car lace Ea Gonna

Oxygen in water
Oxygen as an anticeptic ~

Paints, CLCiy se LOts ACA TIA otsletereteretelereteretomiers
Papyruses and cypera
Pantotrichum lagenula,
SUS avs 4: wire aye cahavays oie eke letataratey hel ae toenete eee
Paradise fish; ‘the’ Indian*®) 2 -\0<levverse rere
to destroy hydra

Paradise or Barnacled goldfish*
Parasites and parasitic diseases
of fishes, how acquired
vegetable, treatment
Parasiticides! * cscs hon eaisiese el eee
Parasitic alge
plant) Pumew (esc ee cisieus are eres
diseases, prevention of
Parrot’s feather, M. proserpinacoides* ......
Pennant, Systema Natural
Perch, Pike-perch, ete.
parasites ior Wisascceerlcer 147, 154,
Periodicals, aquarium and fish-culture -355;
Permanganate of eobeestam and other ‘reme.
ies
treatment for White fungus

Black fungus
fin congestion
tail-rot .

injuries of fishes

animal parasites
Phenol-sodique and other remedies
treatment for Twitters .....
for tail-rot
for injuries of fishes
Philotria, see Anacharis
Photographing Wishes: aries cherie eee
Picric acid treatment for parasitic diseases ..
Pike, parasites of ne 154,
Pike, pike-perch; bass} ete. 2). « « syecleierets crerstete
Pickerel weeds
Piebald or Tiger Telescope goldfish*
Pisces, or fishes .....
Piscicola fundula, the carp leech* .
Pistia stratiotes, or water-lettuce
Plans: of, fishy farms*s 2 hicrciae cwmicrsteletelecbotetens
Plants, aquatic of freshwater
Plants for the terrarium
the marine aquarium

Green! marine; alge 2 sccm sje eis

Sea Lettuce, U. lactuca ......
Green Laver, U. latissima ....

weee

sees

Purple Laver, P. vulgaris ....
Band weed, E. compressa ...
Gut weed, E. intestinalis

124
125
192
149

144
325
337
234

174
66

195
104
195
194
195
195
140

82
137
32
99
212
213

176
340
104

II
212
120
104
104
212
212

212
178
177

280
213

157

248

ch
145
146
165
159

166
159
190

Ir

156
365

133
136
137
140
140
144
160
133
138
140
144
196

86
160
156

213

58
317
151
212
108
183
331
2098
293
203
293
293
204

Rock branch weed, C. rupestris

Arched branch weed, C. arcta ..
Sea feather, B. pulmosa rece
Flowing-hair, C. melagonium
Sed wool, (GC. tartuosa caese acs
Sea vaucheria, V. marina .....
Olive-colored alge ........ 294 to
Edible Bladderlock, esculenta
Rock weed, F. vesiculosus .....
Knotted Sea whistle, Ff. nodosus
Gulf weed, S. vulgare ........
Oar weed, L. saccarhina ...... :
Sea Tangle, L. flexicaulis .....
Needle weed, S. rhizodes .....
Broadleaved dotted weed, P.
LORETO LN alee hatin oy sors) A/stalsieteta
Mermaid’s fish-line, C. filam
String weed, C. divaricata .....
Red marine alge ..........» At
Coral weed, C. officinalis ..... .
Oak leaf weed, D. sinuosa ....
Violet weed, P. violacea .......
Pitcher weed, P. urceolata .....
Tassel weed, P. fastigiata .....
Lobster-horn weed, P. elongata
SiriShemMOssy) Ge CVASPUS: ccc ct cris
Red leaf-weed, P. membranifolia
Sea shrub, C. americanum .....
Flame weed, G. americana
Plants eerowth i ssuimliptity vice clcnvelss ele aiele e's
affected by water conditions .......
destruction by fishes ....... SOOOOHOO
WAM Orth oom LEA WES mynictatactaisie srelerarrere
Podostemon ceratophyllum, Thread- an ee
Points for the judgment of goldfishes ....355,
Polyps, hydra, etc.* ....... sted eette etotelouere
HECGHMMIUKE So tte Otc mie kar eierorekenutiotes cle f
marine or Coelenterata ROO DM DOR Gr of
Polyphemus, P. pedeculus* ........... aes
TIC AGLARI ANY Mare cvetefarcisvelev erate lorsrarelenerk ta/g)elsie) bicve
Pera tS rere aves cioucl srcheisieial ats\syeeaiacrein otelei ohh
and lake culture of freshwater fishes
RonGsaanGulakes sy LOLMS GOL y lvls o sidies eresiele ec
and streams, collecting in ..........
Pondweed, channel or Riverweed, Potamoge-
Won" p posBonaooodoo Ivo scorned ho moda olo4
Pool and basin culture of the goldfish
Potamogeton in aquaria ...... 70; LOS 2Ole
for freshwater aquaria .........
crispus, Curled leaved Pond
WEG Caer Grice wins eiercicre aaletets
lanceolata, Spear-leaved Pond-
WEE” Fon cjeveercicteeinisya's oysters
natans, Spade-leaved Pond
WCE meee henlayevatrie chetey cae eyeretalls
densus, Broad-leaved Pond
WCC aievaynciaictevcleevevsyets state es
perfoliatum, Clasping-leaved
IBOMGWEEds cecletelste sole, ercierevels.e ie
as an aquarium plant .......
Potomac snail, V. wiviparus* ....0ceceaes 222,
PO GcwIS a SHE PSs ELCe tele crcrencuaraiclcie sere «6 retais
PAKASte Of we et cil eceie eich: ake cteseieleielelsre
Prepared food for freshwater fishes ........
Prevention of fungi in aquaria .............
PALASItICH GISCASES) Weleyeiaie cles she 5)
Bresenuinoy natiinall OOM) tei). ciclusisleveie is/ereleee = cle
Priestly, Principles of the aquarium ........
ELOPONtMOUGM On AQUARIA © © <lelc selec cietlsje sien
BEOpacatinowmiatitral etOO es sisceisie atcreieiaials) cfate's =
dao Ghats) Ragu ae COMO OSI CO TOD
Properly conditioned aquarium ..............
Proserpinaca and Myriophyllum* -189, 190,
M. proserpinacoides, FParrot’s
Feathers. cvisistiecnisissceee C
palustris, Mermaid-weed* ......
pectinata cut-leaved Mermaid-
WECM aerate sce CA OR SOOO ORIED 5
tte) CLUGh eee) ne eee Ba ayetaer’s é
I OtOZOa).,5 «<5 Fee Re che ee Me CA PEN ge Pos ere ler af lots ase
or protozoan MAGASIUES | Wise hlan elles
Protozoan parasites, Protozoa and Bacteride*
153 to
SPOLOZ Gale woaehe erat vel) ciscerat povsters Mesias
MiysxOS pot dace ncin sucteietecisieters or eieseiace
MmiEtSOLia. Mevawtc.ccnc taverns clstls ieee aie
Pythiopsis cymosa, a vegetal parasite* .......
Q@uen-Yu goldfishes .................- 14,
Riam’s nose and Hog’s nose goldfishes ..... 5
Ram’s horn or Flat Schuylkill snails*, .....
; 233,234,
hate cat mink; etc, as enemies: ....-...2. 26.
ertivvantr ea tROOC at setcier swe alee ere) saci aicrs elec! alee.
Recapitalation of aquarium principles .......
Receiving marine consignments ............
Red-blood theory in goldfishes .............
Relation of Animals and plants in the aquar-
Thibeal “aye Oe it Pt SUM iat ts ter tietc siete ToWe ow orn, ©

204
294

294
204
294
298
204
295
295
295
295

296

297
297
297
297

178
177

34
214
198
356
247
151
300
120
109
213
106
106

201
103
202

183
201
201
201
202

202
202
238
311
156
126
165
159
125
278
125

26
191
190
191

1g!
IOI
153
153

238

383

Relief from water pressure in diseases of fishes
Remedies for fish diseases

Reproduction of lost parts in reptiles, fishes,
CLC. cintsrpiserete'brais dint alae ats etRUMIAEA Ata Niotets oe
Reproductive system of the goldfish* .......
Rest between spawnings .......ssccceserecs
in treatment of diseaseS .......0..<e05
estlassness: of shes tacase urs seis cacdaa a
Rhinichthys cataracte, the Black-nosed dace*
Riccia fluitans and R. Natans, or crystalwort
Rivkin, “OMS Wisc clots inc viesiestiaie as cia
Roach or Shiner, A. crysoleucas* ...........
Rockworks or caqiarias vrisi< vole aaron eon sipiciche are
TOMNATIA) Raveikiet ad aifleee eciestn cals ei

Rotifera or Parasitic Rotifers .....'.........
pee OL) WALELCrOSSES! oct cv cies ete/eg elm, aic serie
Rotitera, species of Trochelminths* ........

Roundworms or Nematod parasites*
Rushes! andy Seuwes ae cy al pae seis eile s heen ce
Ryder’s Prof. John A., observations

tables of goldfish breeds

S agittaria, for freshwater aquaria
best aquarium plant
natans, Floating arrowhead*
pusilla, Slender arrowhead .....
sagittefolia, Long-beaked arrow-

eddie ttc Scienautecsten cme
sinensis and S. gigantea ........
chinensis and S. mulerttii .....
gramine, Grass-leaved arrowhead
latifolia, common American ar-
FOWHEAGN “i ciertouve eeocentie ere Zeke
lancifolia, Lance-leaved arrow-
EAS Faas cicisar ona centers ehate eee
montovidensis, Giant arrowhead

-183 to

planting in the aquarium =17Q;

aS an) OXIRENATOK se ss smpale ciel «eile
Salamanders and newts, classification of oa
337;

Spotted salamander,
NEL as CRC TC OP ARO AIT IC eee
Ashy salamander, P. cinereus
Striped salamander, S. bilineatus
Red salamander, S. ruber .....
Triton or water salamander, D.
ESCO! Maree crys eoreie nrerwiete ere
Common newt or eft, D. verides-
CONSE as ielcieace rie eaeetoare
Salicylate of soda, and other remedies ......
treatment for diseased fishes
SalmON\ es Parasites = Olu eete ete ete telsicisil level etolete re
Salts; and’ other cemedies’..-.- a+ sce re aes
table, epsom, glauber, etc.
Salvinia, for freshwater aquaria ......... 208,
natans, Southern salvinia
brasiliensis, Tropical! Salwinia oe...
auriculata, South American salvinia
elegans, Mexican salvinia
Sanitarium or hospital for fishes
Saprolegniacee, vegetal parasites*
Saprolegnia ferax, a vegetal parasite*
OIL SPAwWLin gles fais foleiore ea inleete
Scaled transparent scaled comet gold-
ASHES Feist svi ihc aice > Meveiatolelere
nymph _ goldfishes*
fringetail goldfishes
Scales of the goldfish*
Scaleless goldfishes
Scavengers, snails, mussels,
crabs as
marine
Scientific Terms, glossary of .......... 357
Sea anemones and actinia
Sea-fans, sea-whips, etc. Gorgonacea
Seal, Wm. P., suggestions for pond aquaria*
Seashells, corals, etc. in the freshwater aquar-
AWTHAN, Nagche ved cecer et enc ie eT Het Sipe om iete pears ate, othe
in the marine aquarium
Seawater for marine aquaria
artificial
Sedentaria, or Marine tubicolous worms
amiphitrite ornata
cistenides gouldit
clymenella_ torquata
Serpula dianthus
Sedges and Rushes
Selecting breeding fish
Semotilus corporalis, and S. atromaculatus, the
Dace*
Sense of smell of the goldfish
touch of the goldfish
Separating young fishes
Sex. discrimination in fishes*
Shape of head of common goldfish
Shiner or Roach, A. crysoleucas*
Shrimps, prawns, etc.
parasite of
thermometer,

A. puncta-

and

Siphons, strainer, scoop,

141
133

94
18
98
141
33
79
209
11
83
180

3390

159
203
124
149
213

93

95

186
184
184
185

185
185

185
185

185

186
186
186
186

338

338

338
133
159
147
133
133

210

393

Slate for

aquaria, thicknesses and weight ... 278
Slime fungi; Mixogastres; (ete) 2... reece ene 161
Slumber Jot the) -coldiish: (ieee stcieemete stare 21
Small greenhouse for goldfish culture* ..... 104
Snails and mussels of freshwater® ......... 217
Snails, classification and description of fresh-
Water™ ONii. j.adieiges ache ee S20 ntOueary
Neritina reclivata and N, showalteri* 221
Viviparus viviparus, V. georgianus
and V’. malleatus* ARN RY)
Campeloma decisum and C. pondero-
SUS HA ciel stots easter aes Neen ee 223
Lioplax subcarinata, and L. pels-
DFG © ists wes & pleraleimatsabere eae. oetebele 224
Valvata tricarinata, V. bicarinata
halal [are Mz ak Sana c neon oa cme 225
Ampullaria depressa, V. miamiensis
and Vi. pinet™ vedic Secession 226
Somatogyrus altilis, and S. subglo-
BOSUST Wass aie atphas eerie) seven eter 227,
Ammnicola limosa, A. granum and A.
RANAAe We waters cisterns ee eG eZee
Bithuniatentaculataes | seid eee 228
Ganiobasis virginica and G. multin-
eata* ntiGCO aS oOnaaC .228, 229
ANCHIOSG (COMINGS 0. aides 229
Succinea obliqua and S. ritusa* ... 230
Lymne stagnalis, L. palustris, L.
columella, L. putris, L. deci-
diosa and L. catascopium* .231, 232
Planorbis bicarinatus, P. campanu-
latus, P. trivolvis and P. mag-
MUCUS” (svarcece eaiststs eet eine 3 Gre2ad
Segmentina armigerus and S. wheat-
LENGE Ns Neato. eter ere econ 235
Ancylus rivularis, A. parallelus and
AS MIGCUSTHIST. waktortetatsisiy oe eieiont on 236
Physa_ heterostropha and A. hy-
PIOLUA — Birsiuye evs atetcleraictaiatetete its 237
Snail) (breedine~ J20vas-« <cie versed teu ierciens mecreeieiate 239
Snail farming Apoeiervesia nes treieteaciiten ere oes 239
Snail parasites; (of! seiccss mete ere niece 147
Snakes or Ophidia, Classification of ...340 to 344
Ground snake, C. amenus ........
Red-bellied snake, S. occipitomacu-
ORES CACO AO EEL OO OG
De Kay’s snake, S. dekayi .......
Riband snake, 7. sauritus ........
Garter ‘snake, 2 sirtalis’ resets 2 341
Water snake, N. sipedon ........
Green snake, O. @stivus .........
Grass snake, EL. vernalis .......--
Black snake, B. constrictor .....
Pine or Bull snake, P. melano-
LOWGCUSs WeP Norcuctere-otoaie Cekehsrcnsre leche. 342
Ring-neck snake, D. punctatus
Chain or Thendor snake, L. getu-
NUS Bere tewerepekeretevatnakel stance Mereteiehanet
Red or Corn snake, L. doliatus
Milk or House snake, L. doliatus
LIMOGES fous eectetusicvetes caer ne cae. ¢ 343
Spreading Adder snake, H. platir-
WU O'S” 4 stehapeaialiss a nctersiaisis tee aceee se oe
Copperhead snake, A. contortrix
Common Rattlesnake, C. horridus
Diamond Rattlesnake, C. adaman-
(ONS Santa cn ep o pbb s bape ot 344
Prairie Rattlesnake, S. catenatus
Soft awateta tom agtiantauswimeintebersisear acters 175
Soil Mon vag uatic sp lants meterietrertleteree teeter 179
feeding young Shes cjsire- ese = - 117
“Sore throat’? of fishes, and treatment ..... 140
Spawnins the: coldfish =. saniseeescn cca gI
Spawmor eggs of goldfishes ...5.-+.+:c0s sus Io!
Specially equipped Breeding establishments* 107
Spiderlike parasites, Arachnia™ ............. 152
Spiny-rayed: fishes: aac. acres ertevethanciee steve 85
Sponges or Porifera, calearea and non-calcarea 299
Sporozoa, protozoan! Pardsites™ eae arcane 154
Sports -coldtishesmacnericraemi ces eter 99
Spring-time shrimp, B. stagnalis*® ........... 118
Sqdtiamata or lizards and’ snakes .s...-..0.6-=- 339
Starfishes or Rays and Brittle Stars 304, 305
Asterias forbes, €tCis vcce-= seve a0
Ophiothrix angulata .....0.+.-0.:+
Amphiwra squamatad .....+-+-..5+-
Ophiopholis aculeata, etc. ........
Seasunching = seks coke ctu eiksrtneretreteterene 306
Arbacia punctulata 2 isisacsn sen
Dit ST OVOGIMCM SIS) leit ite teleere reriele
Sand-dollars or Shield-urchins ............. 306
Echinarchnius parma .........-
Sea-cucumbersi seas aerstas cari ieee rekon 306, 307
Pentacta frondosa, etc. ......
starchy. f00dS, torsnshesidneeiciciereiuet pera 12
Sterilization of water by boiling ........... 175
Stickleback, the, A. quadratus, etc.* ...... FG aha)
parasites (Of Senne 148, 149, 154, 156
Stocking the aquarium, freshwater .......... 30

384

Stocking the aquarium, marine
Stream and Pond collecting
Sturgeon, parasites: Of Wace eiciecteceio eos
Substitutes for live food
Sucker, the common, C. commersonnii* .....
parasites: of ‘the .c ce. ce Je 147,
Submerged and partly emersed plants ....
Substances in water
Success with aquarium fishes
Successful propagation methods
Sunfish, E. gibbosus,
parasites of
Sunlight, growth of plants affected by
Surtace leht stor aquamiar corrcsmiccc clecknoeatoe
Surgical treatment for diseases .
for tail-rot of fishes .....

for dropsy

for injured or diseased fishes .....

Swamp aquarium
Swimming bladder of the goldfish*
trouble and treatment

ieee SS aeee

Table of contents
goldfish breeds, Ryder’s

Table-salt treatment for White fungus
for Black fungus

for Twitters or Itch

for Fin congestion

for leeches

for parasites

Tail-rot diseases of fishes, and treatment*
Tails of goldfishes ...
Tanks and basins in winter*
Tank! water for imdoor aquaria. scence
Tapeworms or Cestoda parasites® ..........
Tench, the Green and Golden, 7. tinca, T.
caeruleus, and T. auratus* ......

EMER (OV S5ocsqaconenonnodcos
Temperature in feeding
Terraria and aqua-terraria
EY? fe wiaya sr teers yard vaveraaovetenaisne aierenee eta

heated dry

heated moist

planting the
rockwork, ete.

plants for

animals* Ors Sis. Seto sero nreatiete
Tessellated Darter, B. olmstedi*
Testudinata or Turtles, tortoises and terrapins

Tetromitus nitschei, an infusorian parasite*
Tincture’ of aloes and! myrrh) ) ecm. eite tate
for White fungus
fOr etadlcO tamer
Roads, tree-toads) and) sinors) erent
Parasites of,.....
Tools and appliances eit iei ers .283, 284,
Transferring fishes from aquarium and out-of-
Gkoxoin MCclerateltaloynie) sooooaddhabcagnoaoe 100,

Transparent African snail, L. auricularia*
rans porte; maine ALCS i cyeretleleleteleletelstetate
Treatment for diseases of fishes ............
for hunts) Onl SPaWaleee ie eteterentiets
roves NNMerhue HyvbareQbl Sooooboososocc A
for Blacks tives ere ct-r.ieuetareretenstere 0
for ewittens sO1y tc hist sree itne
Hoe FhoKolWorahsl a sogoamoduodeso5000
for (COUSEIPALTOM sletel-tolelotetetsteeiaieteners
fOr tinCONPeSHOLmi ete ier treieietate
fOr wtallEO ta oe. cneteveteretercietatererous routers
for ell) congestion: cies cemeteries
form UGonsSumpttomi jie ieisteeiae
for eye inflammation ............

for swimming-bladder trouble

itese “cbrohiche cidooosecoagoooGaSaR 00
Hoke Ailes) Sonkedgoung@ooogooeosT
for animal parasites, 159, 160, 161,
for vegetable parasites ...........
Hoye jolkenahe iota oa oooacdno0oNTGS
for sick fishes, muddy water .....
Mree-toads ancl thee-CuOPS sets icte tte leher et meketetetets
as pets and barometers a (a satngshenerene
Tremotoda or Flukes, parasites* ............
Tremotod parasites which produce Black fun-
USP acre cacicladets: sucleic tere wistes ss) cteteketenenatonenetketete
Trianea, for freshwater aquaria* ....... 210,
bogotensis or Floating-heart .......
asian) Ot-door plante sense cities
Trochelminths, the Rotifera and Gastrotricha*
MTOUty pATASIteS Om te eles eles wie lel sieeeletelatereratstetatol
‘Reypliamon \Gatetavlstrcrtespateietsiaisuelele tel Setetelonast- tats
Type of a fine Fringetail goldfish ...........
Taktstome: LOT) AQUATIC (s)elelereloclelelloletehetkelet> lays
Turbid water for young fishes ..............
Turlington’s Balsam treatment ...........++-
Soper AWieblinss aHbkorabeh Wogoudoee oon 5
eye IiEvolle snob) Rom gagonopopss
for tailrot 1.2.2.2. ..ssseeeeeees
for injuries of fishes ........-

Turtles, and tortoises, classification of 344 to

377

135
137
138
139
I51
160
140

97
104
177
148

id.
156
117
329
329
330
330
330
330
331
331

80
344
158
133
136
140
333
156

177
238
324
132
134
135
137
138
138
139
139
140
141
142
142
143
143
144
162
165
167
176
336
337
146

13
208
210
210
124
148
214
356
180
176
133
136
137
140
144
348

Box turtle, 7. carolina

Gopher turtle, G. polyphemus .......

Wood tortoise, C. insculptus
Muhlenberg’s tortoise, C. muhlenbergi

Spotted tortoise, C. gutattus

Painted tortoise, C. picta

Mud tortoise, K. pennsylvanicum
Stink-pot, A. odoratus ....
Soft-shelled turtle, A. spinifer
Snapping turtle, C. surpentina .....
Diamond-backed terrapin, M. centrata
Red-bellied terrapin, P. rubriventris .
Yellow-bellied terrapin, P. troosti ..
Leather sea-turtle, D. coriacea .....
Logger-head turtle, 7. caretta .....
Hawk’s-bill turtle, E. imbricata

Green turtle, C. mydas

Muntle, parasites Of the yc. cs cee sce
Twitters or Itch disease of fishes, and treat-
MCR: ie cicises

Umbrella plant, cypera*
Undesirable fish globes
Univalve Molluscs, classification of
Utility of plants in the freshwater
Urodela or salamanders and newts
Utricularia, for freshwater aquaria

vulgaris, Greater Bladderwort*

minor, Lesser Bladderwort*

aquarium.

bitlora, Two-flowered Bladder-
OLE A cieteisyecleveletiesuriausisteye + sees
gibba, Humped Bladderwort .....
intermedia, Flat-leaved Bladder-
Wat, UG EDO ab ORD GOommne OnE
clandistina, Widden-fruited Blad-
Cor, oomosonoopaaemoucua

purpurea, Purple Bladderwort ...
subulata, Tiny or Zig-zag Bladder-

WOE Gc late le tniales ols cilslicreveletetia"ahe. share

bal (ald ERbehshbien oacooongcuuDuOs

allisneria, for freshwater aquaria, 183, 188,
spiralis, Eel or Tape grass* .....

male and female plants .......

method of fertilization .........

spiralis gigantea, a _ cultivated

VEEBIIRY) S550 coDGg ab amODnOOOO

planting in the aquarium ......

Variations in fins and tails of goldfishes, etc.*
Goldfish breedSie cir sieleteier error =

Wereing are ieebbares SIE Gabaron bdo dooodoe
Vegetable and animal matter in water .....
Vegetal Parasites and parasitic diseases .....
Vermes and hydrozoa of freshwater .........
Vessels for contagiously diseased fishes .....
Wiialcintmrolciishumere rite saciicciscn: cree isi ciers

345

346

347

348

150
137
213
220

27
337
183
205
205

205
205

205

205
205

205
205

189

385

Watase, Dr. S., on the origin of the goldfish
On the Caudal and anal fins of gold-
fishes*

warm water treatment for diseases of fishes .
Washington grass, ete., C. caroliniana*.
Water aduariuin* * osaclecets sie terete ita etetas
ANALYSER Cn tenet eieic siete rere orale
Carborie acideasiane acer salar. amines
changing aquarium water ............
conditions ie ACCA area terete tiaha) slat aiy
effecting growth of plants .........

filling aquaria with out-of-door tank
WaAlGtann Vier ehavertucena inter ciateersiozecattans

mineral constituents supplied to aquar-

MUM ee rreieteid tatauze ence. sates eo olainic elena >

of a balanced aquarium, analysis of ..

DMV SOT Iie rccaetetoceietareieleveinaicherenl euspeietate

SOLU mOLMAC ALI Amsyet neveveve'e ciel sf atevel inate
Stibstances cin Wi weiut outs site eeiacicles
tucbid,, for young, ASHES... cl. cee vies
temperatures in the freshwater aquar-

TALI '5 favor aiavw! abe oi biesinas ta waacemereceveveb lente

in the marine aquarium

vegetable and animal matter in
Water-asel, wood-louse, A. tenax*
Wraterclover vin saquaria y vis sete sieteieieiais cele
Feathers OL LOCOMIA) feiciesiere a= = -Volsiiasiols
Watercresses, for freshwater aquaria .......
Roripa palustris, Yellow Watercress
sylvestris, Creeping Watercress
nasturtium, Fountaincress .....
hispida, Bristly Watercress
planting in aquaria
Water hyacinths, for aquaria uses ..........
for goldfish propagation

lettuce, for freshwater aquaria
lobelias for pond culture, etc.

-mite, H. geographica*

-newts and salamanders
PEERED Ol Co soosanosacasued

poppy, as an aquarium plant, 179, 183,

clover, as an aquarium plant
snowflake, as an aquarium plant
Watershield, Fanwort, Washington grass, etc.,
C. caroliniana*
yam, lace plant or lattice-leaf
Whitefish, parasites of
White fungus on spawn and fishes, and treat-
ment*
Wild cellery, V. spiralis
Willowmoss, Fontinalis, etc.”
Wintering goldfishes
Worms or Annelida of freshwater
Worms and leeches, marine

Il

97
143
186

171

A ae
i
he pen

ce ae! Ee
I~ aes we

Tn |

3716