urvnns ani viagrese seas aber Siebel le are pe res canara vane eve tabla barn oPpupabebar gti yeita> Blabet he aiabt el Nets led Silber, ie ee 4 : i £ ‘j pain =G nelnv gil E =: aa s A R'w-Gibso . r ’ t ’ i . GRASSES OF NORTH AMERICA FOR FARMERS AND STUDENTS COMPRISING CHAPTERS ON THEIR PHYSIOLOGY, COMPOSITION, SELECTION, IMPROVING, CULTIVATION, MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS; ALSO CHAPTERS ON CLOVERS, INJURIOUS INSECTS, AND FUNGI. BY oe. J). deb ALL, IM... Ac Wi. Se.) rt. 5 Professor of Botany and Forestry in Michigan Agricultural College. PUBLISHED AND COPYRIGHTED BY THE AUTHOR, P. 0. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MICH. 1887. i aR ARY —— *e “¢ ' “A THORP & GODFREY, PRINTERS AND BINDERS. LANSING. ff PREFACE. This volume may appear fragmentary and disconnected and may contain repetitions, and there may be important omis- sions. This is partially owing to the fact that much of the work has been performed at odd hours, sometimes with many days intervening. A full index will enable any one to find the topics which are mentioned. It is hoped that the farmer or general reader who has never studied botany, will find much to interest and help him, while it is believed the agricultural student will find still more. While many points are mentioned and illustrations freely used, no attempt has been made to write a complete account of the structure and physiology of grasses. Although not grasses, after some misgivings of the author, a chapter on clovers was added, because the farmer would doubtless be disappointed if he did not find one. An effort has been made to give credit to everyone who has been of much assistance in contributing to the volume, first, because it is due to such persons, and second, because if accurately quoted, it makes them responsible for the state- ments which are made. | In the chapter on bibliography will be found most of the sources of information, aside from the studies and experi- ments of the author. I have freely used, without quotation marks, my own contributions made at various times during the past seventeen years, to the Rural New Yorker, Philadel- iv PREFACE. phia Press, New York Tribune, Prairie Farmer, the Clover Leaf, also using my reports as printed in the Michigan Board of Agriculture. Liberal quotations have been made from the publications of Baron J. B. Lawes, Charles Darwin, Maxwell T. Masters, George Bentham, Wm. Caruthers, Prof. James Buckman, Dr. A. Voelcker, of England; M. J. Duval—Jouvé, of France; Ernest Hackel, of Germany; J. S. Gould, C. W,. Howard, Dr. D. L. Phares, Joseph Harris and J. B. Kille- brew, of our own country. My colleague, Prof. A. J. Cook, contributed the long and valuable chapter on Insects Injurious to Grasses and Clovers, while Prof. William Trelease, D. Sc., contributed that on Fungi injurious to the same orders of plants. My friend, Prof. F. Lamson Scribner, has shown much interest in the work, and to him I am especially indebted for many of the excellent drawings of grasses. Mr. G. B. Sud- worth also made many drawings and copied others. The Levytype Company, of Philadelphia, and the Lewis Engraving Company, of Boston, prepared most of the plates from the drawings illustrating the work. Frequent quotations have been made from the Rural New Yorker, Country Gentleman, New York Tribune, Prairie Far- mer, Farmers’ Review, and many agricultural reports of this country and of EHurope. The following persons also prepared more or less manu- script for these pages, and credit is given on the pages where the contributions appear: Prof. E. M. Shelton, of Kansas; Dr. H. P. Armsby, of Wisconsin; Prof. OC. G. Pringle, of Vermont; Dr. C. E. Bessey, of Nebraska; Prof. J. J. Thomas, Major H. E. Alvord, Prof. I. P. Roberts, Dr. HE. L. Sturte- vant and J. S. Woodward, of New York; A. W. Cheever, of Massachusetts; Prof. J. W. Sanborn, of Missouri; Prof. F. PREFACE. v A. Gulley, of Mississippi; Professors Latta and Troop, of Purdue University, Indiana. The following list should be added as freely quoted: Prof. F. L. Scribner, Clifford Richardson and Dr. G. Vasey, of Washington; Dr. R. ©. Kedzie, of Michigan; Dr. A. Gray, Prof. N. S. Schaler, and Prof. F. L. Storer, of Massachusetts ; Secretary W. I. Chamberlain, now president of Iowa Agricult- ural College; Mr. L. N. Bonham, of Ohio; E. 8. Carman, of New York; Prof. Wm. Brown, of Ontario; Prof. G. E. Morrow, of Illinois, and Mr. De Laune, of England. For reading portions of proof I am indebted to my col- legues, Prof. A. J. Cook, Dr. Lewis McLouth, Prof. E. J. MacEwan, Prof. L. H. Bailey, jr., also to Prof. V. M. Spauld- ing, of Ann Arbor, and Prof. F. L. Scribner, of Washington. Thorp & Godfrey, of Lansing, Mich., are credited with the mechanical part of the work. A second volume is in preparation. This is to contain the description of all known grasses of North America, 700 or more species, with illustrations of one species in each genus, and in some cases more than one. Full notes in regard to their value for cultivation will be given. A chapter on Geo- graphical Distribution and other information likely to interest the student of grasses will be presented. W. J. BEAL. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MICH., BOTANICAL LABORATORY, JANUARY, 1887. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. THE STRUCTURE, FORM AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRASSES. PAGE Proiipiasm. .--._ =... -=--=--4.-===---22------------4--2--55=5-5 Safe __ oo aoe ee eee eee oe ee eee eee ee 1 Damen ec Sn a en 1 TRV ES ww et a gn i a eee 2 MEME MEOOL-NAITS = 9-0-5 2 oe cae oe a ae An ee ne Eee 3 MRT Fo 2 a Oe 5) Ting Uecit_ 5 es be Fa ele a Pe ei tag gO cee ae eee 9 SNRTEURAT Sout Ie Se 9 Tne, lellewlen Qu Soe See eee aes Re ee eS aoa aera See oe 10 Manmterimiehureror the leat. - 9-222.) 5— = = eee ae eee ee 13 The epidermal system -- -------------------------------------------- 14 The epidermis proper-.---------------------------------------------- 14 POMRTNCOMIN COlIS 2 6-2 so a ee we a or Se 16 Tie SRO (Dek S Se eee ee eee ett 16 Tonglnge@ Shige ee eee ee ee ee a Ae es 16 erllvrommucelise =. = 25 5. oe ee ee woe oe oe eee eee 17 “HONE Tema Renoe IE ets ee ee ee oe J ES OO ee ee saer 23 iinoeyanculacybundless 2 325295 = wee eee ne oe oe eee eee 25 Hypodermal fibrous tissue-_--_-------------------------------------- 26 Parenchyma of the leaf_-....-----.-------------------------------- 28 SP aORnGHrOtNGaVies <2. 22. =. eee aan — ee 29 Generic and specific characters in the leaf _-_-------.---------------- 30 SMBPEITCACLSI ANG HOW CLS. 2 5250 2 ee <= - Sn on 33 Morphology of the bracts and flowers------------------------------ 33. ret Wert OTOL, UNC wit OWN CLS oe ea a 37 The caryopsis or prain......-.-.------------==--=-------=---------- 41 Tipp aca led eli _ Eel april ea eae eas ee ae ee a ke I ee 41 vill CONTENTS. CHAPTER II. THE POWER OF MOTION IN PLANTS, CHAPTER III. PLANT GROWTH. PAGE Germination of seedsS:--...-2--2<4 255. -4-255-2556 eee 48 The function of green leaves----------- ee es ee - 49 The plant is'a factory. : - = =<. -2-see5o404 22522252 2S 50 The composition of plants. +..--.-=2---+25=2.5----6 4222 d1 The chemical composition of American grasses...-.---------------- 52 CHAPTER IV. CLASSIFYING, NAMING, DESCRIBING, COLLECTING, STUDYING. Piant:affinity: - =. 2222.22 Sse ee ee ee Be aU Families of greatest worth... :....------=.+--2.-=<-+-- +5 61 Gramines, the erass family -..2 --3... 22-22 eele = es - e 64 The name of a. plant.-.-2--<---.----22-52ses2 ees 2b be ee 69 Collecting and preserving grasses. ... 2.2.5.2. = 226-2 70 Grasses.in certain. places.....222--2---t-eeeeee oes 2-2 2 73 How to begin the.study.......¢222.-2sec) 2b cee eee 75 CHAPTER V. NATIVE GRAZING LANDS. Eikectiof over-feedinyg dry ‘districts--_ 9222-22-22 eee 78 The native pastures... sels ee ee 80 The native orasses of the Pacific slopess-—----_-— 4 - a eee 82 The arricultural crasses of Montanaes.2 242 2-. eee eee 87 The native grasses of the great basin)__=--------------- =e 93 The native grasses of Northern Mexicol_2-22-_- =. ---- 25-5 eee 94. How seeds are distributed. .-- 22. eS ee eee 100 CONTENTS. ibe CHAPTER VI. GRASSES FOR CULTIVATION. PAGE Sermmavee Patni. 3028 = ot hop 2 he shed eich ads gee SEE oes 101 BEMNEEG OGRACGQ, STASS 2.522222 005. ... = wa sade aaees Sag ses al 109 _uennncrinr, tall Oat=grass. $9... 5-22-24) pecdondeccudocsueeke 121 EAA etal stOSCUG = 24252 SenSs- 42m ceaa ue eee so yee ae a 126 nme cig ©) ue UY 6 5c). a Abe set ees ise ge et 127 os. i ag DE ree ee ee ee ee Cee ae ae Ean eee 132 EEE HG foo 32 a Se ee, Be oes aee ee, < Meche 132 PemmnreeRECrEs LUDO PEASS! oe Soe ok So ee 182 Poa compressa, flat-stemmed poa, wire grass. _--.......______._.---- 137 eamarowna, TOwL meadow grass: <4 228-2222 Sobek eee enn kL 140 Rough-stalked meadow grass. --- --- Oe oi PE Soe nee as 142 Permmenconitera, Texas blue. srass-- -. ...=2.2.24----sie.incseebee ue 143 Peas vilearis, var. alba, red top. ../-. 2. ---.--. oe een cee ne 145 meroduis adiba, creeping bent, grass_.-.--.--.-.-----------+----=.--<=- 148 mecos canina, brown: bent grass._-..-..---.--.-----------.-ss2-e2 151 Alopecurus pratensis, meadow foxtail....._ ..........---.-.-_.--+..- 152 Antnoxanthum, sweet vernal prass____..._. ....-----.s-2-----«.---- 153 Eolnm- perenne, perennial rye grass. 2... 2.2... 22-2 ees cke 159 OUD D2 1S 0G Ran Sie i oa See Ae A Seem ero 161 PRPC LUN CTASS <2 ooo. pe os see Ee ee 161 MEnerpnurm TOpens, Quack. 2Tags: ..2--<1.2s2..2 =.acses-es dee ee 167 poarebum Halapense, Johnson grass......-:.---..-..-2222: 2.6 S28) 171 Peariaitaned, Murigarian grass... .<-..<222ss2c © 99. volute on the margins. within thesheath. 1x32. The Movements of the leaves of some Leguminosx are very quick, in most grasses they are quite slow, depending on the light and change of moisture. In the blades of grass the motion when drying, consists in the approach of the sides when conduplicate, or in rolling or unrolling when convolute. and in tortion when turning the lower surface to the sun. In 1858, Mr. Duvol-Jouve was surprised to see the leaves of Leersia oryzoides (rice cut-grass), move quite quickly, as he brushed them. The motion begins at the apex and extends down to the base, and is convolute when closed. Other species of this genus behave in like manner, as also does Sesleria cwrulea. A drop of water on the section of the leaf of the latter causes it to expand instantly. The same is true of a leaf of Poa pratensis or of Dactylis. Some leaves open very slowly and then only when quite moist, as in case of Lygewm sparteum, or Nardus stricta. The annual species of Atraand Chamagrostis minima are abso- lutely destitute of motion. Many remain rolled up when dry, and unroll at night when 24 MOVEMENTS OF LEAVES. the dew is on, while others rarely ever open at ali, but remain ~ closed. The leaves of Leersia (rice cut-grass) are most instructive with their bulliform cellsabove and below. These penetrate the blade deeply and make it very sensitive. In a warm day a brisk rub, or more than one between thumb and finger, causes it to close in a few seconds. After ashort interval the leaf opens again, when it will be ready to respond to the same experiment. The leaves of Panicum plicatum, when dry, close in a zigzag manner like a fan. The bulliform cells of the leaves of Phlewm pratense (Timothy) and Alopecurus pratensis (meadow foxtail) are not very large, and do not penetrate deeply. Such leaves are not good ‘ rollers.”’ In case of leaves like Sporobolus and others, the bulliform cells are large, the groups numerous, and penetrate deeply. These leaves are likely to remain rolled up for a good portion of the time, unless the weather is very moist. Frc. 37.—Transverse section of asmall agitate i portion of a blade of Sporobolus eryp- Pes alee plage tandrus showing bulliform cells, in fa d ib as x DVN : which there is a single large one, (Sudworth., deeply penetrating and some smaller cells at the side. 1%*175.—(Sudworth.) Fira. 39.—Section of a leaf-blade of Stipa spartca, well adapted for closing in dry weather. 1 x 34.—(Sudworth.) FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES. ca) cu Fia. 40.—Section of a blade of a leaf of Festuca rubra. 1x30.—(Hackel.)' The object accomplished by the closing or rolling of the leaves is to cover one surface and assist in preventing excessive evapora- aation in dry weather. The bulliform cells in their size, number, and arrangement may be used for critical specific characters. Sedges, Cyperace, often have one band of very large bulliform cells in the median line, and uniformly on the upper side. These modes of arrangement of the bulliform cells is especially important in a physiological point of view, as they produce vari- ous motions of the leaves. Fibro-vascular Bundles.—In all grasses the structure of these is much the same. There are two, rarely four, large pit- ted vessels, placed side by side near the middle of a bundle, at equal distances from the lower epidermis. The reader will here find it profitable to consult figure 5 for tracing out details. Between these is a group of small reticulated cells, as many as fifty in Festuca arundinacea, or only two or three in Panicum Crus-galli (barn yard grass) and Leersia oryzoides (rice cut-grass). Above this group, towards the upper side of the leaf, and in a median line of the bundle is one or more annular or spiral ves- sels, situated near an air cavity, made by a breaking away of the cells. On the opposite side, always on a median line, is a group of latticed cells or soft bast. Surrounding all of the above is the bundle sheath formed of long, thick walled cells; and about the whole bundle is the thin- walled parenchyma of the fundamental tissue. The bundles are not all developed to the same extent. The + 26 HYPODERMAL FIBROUS TISSUE. primaries are the most complete and have all the elements; the secondaries have no annular vessels in the lacuna, and have the other elements much less pronounced; the ¢ertiaries lack the lat- eral vessels, and are reduced to a slender cord of small dotted vessels and latticed cells, or only the latticed cells. Not unfrequently there are very small transverse bundles run- ning obliquely from one bundle to another. To see them entire, a longitudinal section must be made parallel to the epidermis. Hypodermal Fibrous Tissue.—Usually this tissue is found in isolated groups just beneath the epidermis, and consists of very long,thick-walled cells, with overlapping, tapering extremi- ties. There are no intercellular spaces. Sometimes these fibers are found at the margins of the leaf only; often opposite the fibro-vascular bundles and in contact with them on the lower side, but separated from them on the upper side by parenchyma. They protect and strengthen the blade. In some cases they come together and make a continuous band on the lower side of the leaf, but never on the upper side. In each triangular portion of a leaf of Deschampsia cespitosa we find three fibro-vascular bundles, a large median one, and two small lateral bundles. Below each is a group of hypodermal fibers. In Stipa tenacissima there are five fibro- vascular bundles in one nerve. As examples of hypodermal fibers, we have: 1°. A mere trace in the median line of Fie. 41.—A tramsverse sec- tion of about one-seventh of a the blade; blade of a eae of eeagpatey pede 1 of Fhecuiae cespitosa, showing one large 90 . keel o e blade ae two a eee 2°. A group at the kee yundles, wit ypoderma pres. fibers below each bundle. 1x and one at each margin ; 50.—(Sudworth.) « 3°. Groups, as in the latter case, with others in certain places on the lower side, or with a continuous layer on the lower side; AYPODERMAL FIBROUS TISSUE. er 4°. Groups above and below the primary bundles only; 5°. Groups above and below each bundle, but not continuous ; 6°. Groups above and below each bundle, and contiguous ; 7°. Groups covering the mesophyll, except some cells bearing chlorophyll on the sides of the nerves. The first three of the above are conduplicate in vernation, and the fourth includes all of the species of Andropogon and Panicum, except P. plicatum. So far as the development of hypodermal fibers are concerned, Chamagrostis minima and Stipa tenacissima are extremes. The former is illustrated by figure 18, and figure 14 will answer as a substitute for the latter. In aquatic and in annual grasses these fibers are feebly developed, while those grown in extreme dry, hot countries are remarkable for the development of this tissue. Upland grasses grown in the shade, moisture, have their woody fibers with an ample supply of feebly developed. When this tissue is well developed it helps prevent the free evaporation of ae FIG. 42.—Section of a leaf of Pap- ‘The closing of the stomata pophorum xcabrum, with well de- veloped hypodermal tissue. 1x50, —(Duval-Jouve.) moisture. also helps to retain the moisture. Fia. 44.—Section of the Fra. 45.— Section of a leaf Fie. 43.—Section of a blade of a leaf of Festuca ovina var, levis, with a group of hypodermal fibers below the mid-vein, and one at each margin of the leaf. 1 x 30.—(Hackel.) blade of Festuca ovina, with hypodermal fibers extending over the lower side. 1x30.—(Hackel.) of Festuca ovina var. du- riuscula hard fescue), with hypodermal fibers extendin;z over the lower side. 1x30.—(Hackel.) In the last three the bulliform cells are wantigg or only feebly developed, and the blades remain closed or nearly closed even when mature. PARENCH YMA. ci) io Parenchyma of the Leaf.—This is a name applied to all the rest of the leaf-blade after taking out the epidermis, the fibro- vascular bundles, and the hypodermal fibers. It presents three~ forms, which are quite distinct: : a. Cells containing chlorophyll and found in the leaves of all grasses without exception. &. Cells without color inside, found im certain species only. c. The star shaped and branching cells found in the air canals of species (Fig. 10.) more or less aquatic. The chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma is of two sorts: a. Where the grains are rather large and compact. b. Where some of the chlorophyll is in the form of grains, and some of it is diffused more or less like jelly. Where a part of the chlorophyll is more or less diffused, the rest is in cells which form concentric cylinders, or the cylinders may be open in one or two places. Fic. 46.—Section of a blade o Boutelowa Harvardii, showing some closed and some open cylinders of cells containing grains of chlorophyll.—(Sudworth.) Pax: O! i y (S) a ti s3 tA Fia. 47.—Section of part of a blade of Spartina stricta var., showing large cells of parenchyma destitute of chlorophyll; these are situated above the fibro-vascular bundles, and in the middle of the lobes which extend upward. 1 x 34.—(Sudworth.) THE TORTION OF LEAVES. 29 The cells of parenchyma, which contain chlorophyll, reach their maximum in species which grow in cool, shady places. Fia. 48.—Cross-section of a blade of Spar- tina juncea, in which the upper surface is deeply furrowed. 1x34.—(Sudworth.) The Tortion of Leaves.— The leaves of most flowering plants quite uniformly turn the upper surface to the light and keep the lower surface in the shade. This rule does uot hold good with the grasses nor with quite anum- ber of others, such as Typha (cat-tail flag) and Gladiolus among endogens; and some species of Liatris (blazing Bete. 49. Crose-section oF the central part of a ade of Spartina juncea, showing above the mid- star), and others among rib, a remarkable enlargement, which is occu- pied by large cells of parenchyma, destitute of exogens. chlorophyll. 1x 100.—(Sudworth.) In half or more of the grasses examined, the whole or a major- ity of the leaves, by a twist of the lower portion of the blade, turn “‘ wrong side up,”’ and expose the ‘‘ lower side *’ to the sun- light. In most other cases, we have seen that during the warmest and dryest weather, when the sun’s rays are the most trying to the life of the plant, the leaves shut up or roll up, leaving the under surface alone exposed. Whether right side up or wrong side up, the surface most exposed generally possesses the firmer epidermis. Young leaves of Phlewm pratense (Timothy), several species of Bromus (chess), Triticum (wheat), and Agropyrum (quack grass) Secale cereale (rye), and others, twist’ once or more with the sun, or in the direction which they would twist were the sun the cause of tortion. 30 CHARACTERS IN THE LEAF. Young leaves of Avena sativa (oats) and Setaria glauca (pig- eon grass) quite uniformly twist against the sun, while those of Poa pratensis (June grass) and Panicum capillare seem indifferent as to the direction in which they twist. The sun does not seem to dictate the direction of the twisting. The leaves of grasses generally twist best and with greatest uniformity when young, even though they are much shaded from the rays of the sun. Many leaves twist most towards the apex, while others twist most, or entirely, at or near the base of the blade. The margins of many leaves grow a little longer than the cen- tral portion, and if the mid-rib is not very prominent, this will produce tortion of the blade. In cases of Indian corn, the mar- gins of the older leaves are often longer than the mid-rib, but there is no tortion. The margins are undulating. With a light mid-rib and stouter margins, the leaves of this plant would show tortion. Probably one reason why most of the tortion is towards the apex of many leaves is because the mid-rib is not very strong at that part of the leaf. When young and quite erect, the lower side of many leaves seems to grow a trifle faster than the upper side, and this per- haps tips the leaf over ‘‘ bottom side’’ up. Duval-Jouve believes that tortion of the blades of grasses depends on the distribution of the fibrous tissue. In dry weather this tissue contracts least, so the blade twists. In some the air canals, Jacune, let in dry air, which contracts the delicate cells of parenchyma. The writer has not yet been able to find the reason for a uniformity in the direction for the tortion of the leaves of any species of grass. Generic and Specific Characters in the Leaf.—Eduardo Hackel, in his Monographia Festucarum HEuropearum, says: ‘“The histological characters of the leaf-blade unquestionably include those most important for the discrimination of the CHARACTERS IN THE LEAF. 31 forms of Festuca, but the degree of con- stancy or value of each character must first be determined.”’ By experimenting he claims to have found a solid foundation for the estimation of these characters. He finds the mesophyll and fibro-vascular bundles quite uniform with all sorts of treat- ment of the plants, but the epidermis offers remarkable differences, especially that on the lower side of the leaf. This difference is ap- parent in the thickness of the outer walls, the size of the cavities, and the existence or ab- sence of projections on the partition walls. The dry, cultivated plants had their epider- mis strongly thickened toward the outside, the cavities diminished, and over the partition wall had developed cuticular projections. The moist cultivated plants produced slightly thickened epidermis cells, broad cavities, and no trace of cuticular projections. The sclerenchyma or bast, or hypodermal fibers, varies much with different soils and amount of moisture. Species of moist, shady habitats, show in their leaves a clear prepon- derance of the assimilating over the mechani- cal system. In very many respects, it will be seen, that a critical study and close comparison of the leaves of grasses will reveal a wonderful vari- ; 4 : Fra. 50.—Young blade ety in their structure and cannot fail to of Triticum vulgare (wheat) twisting with the i F irati 7 course of the sun. Re- excite the admiration of every student. In course sot ee an certain portions of the preceding account of the leaf, the writer has followed Duval-Jouve. B2 POA PRATENSIS, L. (JUNE GRASS.) ELS. del ed nat THE BRACTS AND FLOWERS. 33 The Bracts and Flowers.—The grasses form a natural order which is one of the easiest to learn to recognize, but for this very reason it is generally difficult to distinguish the several species. The best characters for describing grasses are found in connec- tion with the bracts, flowers and the ripened ovary. A great diversity of views have been entertained by leading botanists in relation to the morphology of the flower and the names to be given to each part. According to our best modern authorities, including Bentham, Hooker, Gray, Sachs, Munro, and D6ll, the three outer scales con- stitute no part of the flower, but answer to bracts. Morphology of the Bracts and Flowers. a full abstract of an able essay on this subject, by the late Geo. The following is Bentham, and is taken from the Transactions of the Linnean Society: The terminology adopted by botanists has been very unsettled and repeatedly modified. The absence of all homology be- tween the so-called sepals in grasses and those of perfect flowers has been repeatedly demonstrated. Some years ago, when preparing my Handbook of the British Flora, I purposed following Kunth, but I was soon brought to a standstill by the anomaly of the spikelet of Miliwm, being described as having two flowers Fig. 51.—A plant of Poa pratensis, L. (June grass). At 1, a small plant, with roots, root-stocks, leaves, culm and flowers; e, part of a sheath of a leaf with a white ligule, above which is part of a blade; a, spikelet, closed, containing four florets ; h, spikelet spread open, containing five florets, as seen when in flower: the lower scales as seen in @ and Db, are the empty glumes, c, a floret, with floral glume at the right, lea at the left, including three stamens; f, cross-section of the floral glume which is 5-ribbed, and keeled ; d, a pistil with the ovary below bearing two short styles, each terminated by a feathery stigma; at the base on each side is a lodicuwle.—(Scribner.) According to Robert Brown, the two lower scales of a and b are the glume, and con- stitute an involucre. They are the empty glumes or basal glumes of many authors; pale of Dumortier; tegmen of Palisot de Beauvois. According to Robert Brown and Jussieu, the two scales at c, are the palew, and represent the sepals; glumelle of Dumortier ; stragula of Palisot de Beauvois; perianthium of authors. According to R. Brown and Jussieu, the right hand scale in c isthe lower or outer palea, glumen fertile of Germain de St. Pierre; flowering glume of Bentham, Hooker, Déll. According to R. Brown and Jussieu, the blunt scale at the left inc is the interior ; poleola interior of Damortier; spathella of Déll. According to R. Brown and unth, the small scales at d are the squamwle@; lodicules of Bentham and others; nectaria of Scheber; glumelle@ of some authors. By many, these scales were thought to represent petals. 5 34 THE BRACTS AND FLOWERS, and one glume, when I could not expect any of my readers to see more than one flower with three glumes. After carefully examining a great variety of genera, and com- paring them with the nearest allied orders, it appeared to me that no distinct and universally applicable definition of the term glume could be given unless it were applied, as in Cyperaceae, to the whole of the primary scales attached to the main axis of the spikelet. After printing, I ascertained that similar views had been independently propounded by Hugo, Mohl, Doll and others in Germany, and by Germain de St. Pierre, in France. In several of our large genera of grasses, the only difference between the one or two outer empty glumes and the flowering ones is that they are rather smaller or rather larger, and there is often more difference between the first and second empty glumes than between the upper empty glume and the first flowering one. In couch grass the empty and flowering glumes are precisely similar, very gradually diminishing in size from the outer empty to the uppermost flowering glume. An empty glume in one spikelet may correspond to a flowering one in another spikelet of the same plant. In rye-grass the spikelets are alternately placed in one plane, right and left, the single empty glume of each spikelet being the lowest and outer one, whilst the second glume next the axis of inflorescence, is the lowest flowering one. In the uppermost spikelet there are two empty glumes, and this is not owing to the development of an additional outer glume, for the lower of the two empty ones is on the side it ought to be in the regular alternation with the lower spikelets, but the second glume, which in the lower spikelets encloses a flower, is in this subterminal one empty. So in several Panicexw, the second or third glume, according to the genus or species, has been observed sometimes, to enclose a rudimentary or male, or even a perfect flower, and at other times to be quite empty, without any change in its appearance. THE BRACTS AND FLOWERS. 35 In Panicum, according to the Kunthean terminology, the first minute scale is a glume, the second, many times larger, is also a glume, the third, often precisely similar to the second, is not a glume, but a flower, and the fourth, whether similar or more or less dissimilar, is a part. of a flower. In some graminex there are additional empty glumes, usually small and often different in form, either immediately below the flowering ones, as in Anthoxanthum and Phalaris, or at the end of the spikelet, as in Melica. These have no pretensions to be flowers at all. In some genera, as in Uniola, from three to six of the lower glumes are empty, and precisely similar to each other, and yet we are only allowed to call the two lowest ones glumes, the others are termed flowers. We are not even allowed to define glumes as the two lowest scales of the spikelet; for that of Leersia, which has two glumes, one empty, the other flowering, is described as having no glumes but two flowers. In Ayllingaand Courtoisia, in Cypercaee, where the fruit is similarly enclosed in two glumes, they are correctly described as such, one empty, the other a flowering one. The so-called upper palea is neither homologous nor similar to the so-called lower palea or flowering glume. It is inserted on the axis of the flower, and not on that of the spikelet, as may be seen in cultivated wheat. It is differently shaped, and having instead of one central rib or keel two prominent nerves, it is generally supposed to be a double organ composed of the union of two scales. These two scales are probably the homologues of the two bracteoles of Hypolytrum and Platylepis. It is con- venient to designate them by aspecial name, for which the gener- ally received term paleaisnot inappropriate, and commits one to no special theory in regard to it. It appears to me that flowering glume and palea is not more cumbrous than the deceptive one lower palea and upper palea. The two or rarely three small scales above the palea and 36 THE BRACTS AND FLOWERS. alternating with the stamens in most grasses, have been sup- posed to represent a reduced perianth; but their homology is not satisfactorily demonstrated. To sum up, therefore, the spikelets of Graminew may be described as composed of a series of alternate glumes, distichously imbricated along the axis. To be really useful, descriptions should be clear and intelligible, and enable the reader to identify the plant. He should describe only what he actually sees, not what it may be theoretically imagined he ought to see. The empty glumes are often more or less boat-shaped, and with the one to many flowers which they include, constitute a spikelet, spicula or locusta. One or both empty glumes may be absent in certain cases. ‘The spikelets are arranged in panicles, racemes, spikes or heads. The floral glume usually resembles the two empty glumes in having a midrib with an equal number of ribs on each side, while the palea often has two ribs, with athin membrane between which is often notched at the apex. It is of much importance in describing grasses to observe the relative lengths, sizes, shape, number of ribs, the nature of the awn, and the texture of the glumes and palea. The midrib of one or more glumes often extends upwards from the apex into an awn, and in case of the floral glume, the awn sometimes starts from a notch at the top; sometimes from the back below the apex, and is then said to be dorsal. The lower part of the awn is often twisted when dry, but straightens when moist. If the lower part twists, the upper part inclines at an angle. The glumes and the palea probably represent the sheaths of leaves, and where an awn exists it sometimes represents the blade of a leaf. This is quite well shown in proliferous flowers of grasses, as seen in Figure 52, a proliferous floral glume of Phlewm pratense (Timothy). FERTILIZATION OF THE FLOWERS. 37 We say flowers are proliferows when either the glumes, palea, stamens or ovary, or all of these develop into small leaves in place of flowers. This is not uncommon in Indian corn and Juncus. The bulblets of onions or “‘onion sets’’ are familiar examples. In this connection a reference to figure 53 will show several forms of ovaries and styles, ° . e . et OF} . and impress the reader with the importance {is Praee aee Phin ae * - = pratense (Timothy), with of examining these minute and delicate a portion representing 2 the sheath aren Sporn o o 2 ‘ } ms representing the blade o organs for generic and specific characters., repress EH SRI ARES —(Sudworth). Fig. 53.—1, Pistil of Mibora minima; 2, Pistil of Arrhenatherum avenaceum; 3, Pistil of Glyceria_ aquatica ; 4, Pistil of Melica wniflora; 6, Pistil of Bromus mollis; 6, Pistil of Alopecurus pratensis, meadow fox tail: 7, Pistil of Nardus stricta. All magnified.—_(From Agrostographia synoptica by Kunth). Fertilization of the Flowers.—When the flowers arrive at a certain stage of growth, the stigmas are ready to receive the pollen, which sends a miniature thread down the style tothe ovule. The pollen of grasses is in the form of round, smooth cells, and escapes readily. The flowers of grasses, except where 38 FERTILIZATION OF THE FLOWERS. close fertilized, are usually anemophilous, fertilized by the aid of the wind. Ina few cases, insects visit the flowers quite regularly for pollen, and most likely render aid in the fertilization. The writer has several times seen large numbers of honey bees, early in the day, gathering the pollen of Festuca arundinacea. Buchloé (buffalo grass) is an example of those which are dicecious, and of course the flowers are all cross-fertilized. Indian corn, Zizania (wild rice) and Tripsacum (gama-grass) are monecious and are very likely to be crossed. In some cases of Indian corn, and probably it is so with some other species, the flowers are protogynous, i. e., the pistils come forth a day or more in advance of the anthers. In other cases, as for example, sweet vernal grass and meadow fox tail, the flowers are proterandrous, i. e., the anthers mature in advance of the pistils. In either plan, cross fertilization is secured. The spikelets of Arrhenatherum avenaceum (tall oat-grass), and others, contain a staminate or sterile flower to every perfect one, and the flowers of Hierochloa borealis (vanilla grass), are two of them staminate to one that is perfect. The use of these staminate flowers can only be for crossing. Some culti- vated plants of A. avenaceum bear only staminate flowers. In many cases where the flowers are perfect, the stamens shed their pollen before the stigmas are ready, or the reverse is the case. In some instances the stamens and pistils appear to mature at the same time, as in most, if not all, sorts of cultivated wheat, barley, oats and rye. In the three former, the glumes and palez usually closely cover up the stigmas till they are fertilized or covered with pollen. The glumes of rye spread so that cross- fertilization may take place. Amphicarpum, Oryza clandestina, some species of Hordeum and Cryptostachys, and most likely others, produce fertile flowers below ground, and are called cleistogamic. FERTILIZATION OF THE FLOWERS. 39 There appears to be no fixed rule with regard to the fertiliza- tion of the flowers of a genus. There are instances among plants in which the flowers of the same species are fertilized in a different manner in different seasons and in different countries, and certain specimens of a species are fertilized in an exceptional manner during the same season or in the same neighborhood. As a rule, a certain specified flower of a grass remains open only for a very short time, but different flowers of a plant may appear at successive periods, extending over eight days, more or less, in Indian corn; seven days, more or less, in Timothy, several days in oats and wheat, and for a much longer period in branching grasses like Hragrostis and Muhlenbergia. As an example of the fertilization of grasses, we find the fol- lowing, by A. 8. Wilson, in an admirable, illustrated paper on “Fertilization of Cereals,’? in the Gardeners’ Chronicle, for March 1874, and February, 1875: * a eee 4.93 | 4.22 | 52.83 30.43 7.69 1.23 15 12.2 New Hampshire=-*./. 23s. 2--- 4.57 | 4.2 57.16 28.28 5.79 93 10 10.8 LOT hi ee a. See 7.05 | 2.18 | 52.99 | 32.26 5.52 88 .00 0 04 ANALYSES OF GRASSES, Analyses of Dactylis glomerata (orchard grass) from various localities. FULL BLOOM. ; | [ee ga B | |. le ee 2 5 2 | 8/8 | sad Pat < 1} "os 4 LOCALITY. EB 3 e 2 | Sade weg & & Ss = 20 av Ss : _ | 4 |S2| Smeg F eo He 2 || 2 | e8| 222 Sy es le ales 2 || & |22| ee4 North Carolingds 29 2s =- 7.42 | 3.56 56.03 | 23.08 9.91 || 1.58 | .30 19.0 District of Coiumbia-_-__-_-__-__- 8.07 | 3.24 53.76 | 25.40 9.53 1.53 16 10.5 Maine isc #558 cote et obs 8.02 | 3.39 54.80 | 26,05 8.74 1.40 36 25.7 District of ‘Columbia-_-------- 6.00 | 3.62 57.34 | 24.42 8.62 1.38 42 30.4 iRennsyilvaniaa =< ees 6.33 | 2.66 54.99 | 27.51 8.56 1.37 51 37.2 iNew. Elampshirets. = os 8.44 | 3.49 54.75 | 24.91 8.41 | 1.35 42 39.9 The different sections furnish very different qualities of grasses, and for the reason that those from the north were almost entirely from cultivated soil, while those from the other sections were many or most of them wild species from old sod. ‘The improve- ment brought about by cultivation is marked, and the difference between a ton of wild western and eastern cultivated hay is apparent. In comparison with German grasses our best do not equal in amount of albuminoids, those classed by Wolff as fair, but they are far superior in having a much smaller percentage of fiber, and consequently a large amount of digestible carbohydrates. In the grasses of both countries the fiber increases with regularity as the nitrogenous constituents decrease, and of the latter the non-albuminoid portion is relatively greatly the poorer the quality of the grass. ss Analyses have been made of series illustrating the changes in composition of several species from the appearance of the blade to the maturity of the seed. With a few exceptions the specimens were personally collected in the grounds of the Department. They all grew in the sum- mer of 1880 except the few series illustrative of the first year’s growth of certain species. The specimens were cut close to the roots, weighed and dried rapidly in a current of air at 60° C. 55 ANALYSES OF GRASSES. ore jaro jor jis [sect | ets g'0e | 9¢° ore {198 |FoIe |srt | ore | #¢9 oz | 0g 99% | 809 |te1t jon lree | ene ¥9% | 1¢° ee | 62 | seer [rt | gst | gu9 o'r | 9e° sce | 162 | 9008 |cer | ete | 6t9 FL | 0g 9'e | 9h |I9LT | StL | ere | ¢29 s'1z | 9¢° ree | 16S |60'9t | 96° lost GIL 9°62 | eG: 4° |e8¢ |eeet [FT | Fee | LOL oree | OL'T Oly | 18 jor |erz |e |eec |! roe | ee ave |ee9 jeer jest | 19% [eso || sur | ge ee |ce6 | ze'9¢ | ert |eee | oe e9 | 60° 6S'F | ZO'OE | 99°8% | 90% | ue |eie | SIL | er 88% | 106 |¢o'8e |F9T | 80 Ieee || ore | o¢ wt |oss | ree | IT | ose | #19 T0e | gc 188 | 249 «| 62'9T | sor jee | ToL $92 | FG" wey (999 | L220 | eet |fe'2. | T99 198 | 08° sy |er9 |cext |iet |#9'2 |e2z9 || ese | eg | i] | fF |e2 18 | 2 | 2 leet | 2 =I = go Y D ibeacen, a= 3 aire 5 ® 3 | & | © 5 = 53 ; 8 e BS 2. S | hg Siege oll as g i 5 2 AL = : , | g ms = 5. ‘AONVISHAG HSIN] sr eS ee E for} - S2S28 8 RAAT Mer = = “uaSoaqty TROL FL 88 OVE. 06°6 060 Ss°01 06TL FEL “sprloulmnd|,y | PSS €9°ES 06°G6 S6°TS 4 GG 60°66 £0°TS 16°6T PF 06 606 CLs 99°06 er ol GU GG FITS 18°06 16°06 “sagt apnay | | 8019 | 96° | 79'S | OL |T Ry he Pe TE wool [NJ Uy SPIN CB: me | 7G) | OQ es fam ON | cease ee eee eric wLOOTq UT :[10s I9100q LOTS | Ore | SOL | eo | ST 7777777" pees Apreg COMSGRa BGI OIM a nCe mall CWO cuON es | enn eee WLOOTA TNF UT Icy GRE ea OT ae OO Ie ce OULD | eerie eae “WLOOTG ATAvo UT GIFS |goe | ese | ch | ez "7" WOOT eLoJog GPA 10 Fatal MESO) malleCOl ||" MO CUQ(CD |e renae eee eas SIQISIA oxIdS EGS OGih) © (BOG. crys iT OUND aaa eases sno aoe 9[GISTAUL OXIdS :[10S poor) *"SGNQ0ND LINANLYYdaa ‘ASNALVUd WOAIHG— TT GSS 08: PEGs IEGe NGTeOWU( ataree esata Sas. suruo00Tq ATaIegy LZR) ISS MAG ip IES Iya, Glue | aos saan Surpvords opormed :[10S 10.100g Caos rite, OG Oe Gas Gp ATES eases oar aot eee * einyeUr poog SRISI Gib. || Peon (Peel Mee AN (eliee sas ttsec a sone oe poe piety, pesg OOD | TS Ge OGIO N71) lee STON |e see es eoanemn sce YIM ey} UL pedg CAS MW Mai, I is erg Chegal( pa Resa a uLooTq TNF UT OUTS) eGre= NEGen |) OP a WT OUI eam ocor=nsaase aoe uLooTq A[.veo UT ST PIia GO eel) Hee Sahel OWL (es [pe eeeene ones pesopo {4no sporued CEHST We UG Wea 0 Gane ® |S Se eae a gyno jou efolueg :]10S poor) | “SGNQOUD LNANLYVdaa | ‘SIUVOTOA SILSOUDY—'T ge | 2 | z lek) = a3 : Fo lB ag ® 298 ee 5 a5 Bore | rel ) 4 © ce ‘NOILdIMOSaa ® i=} “MONVISGAG AUC — - aii i ae is Ee 2u'S | OF | BUTS | get | F's | Seo || B88 (oH | OTT | Oss | 60'S | FO'L9 (Fee (ero | OL | Amp [resettestseees*soder Apreou poog SHS | GLO | BSS | PT | BES | «B09 || FOR | Sh | RET | e's | BHHS | FEO | eo's | 00'°9 | OL | ez ouNE [--* 77 to *ote7o8e-7----WHOOTG ORT] WY | OTR | VOL | SST (oes | BHD || see | LL BET | TIS | L9'FE | OS'OT | 86'S | F9'B | OB | Bt oUMG [~--r > nme rm moe eae eer 61'S | Ss | M8'ST | G4" | OBS | «GEL |] O'9G | BS" | eBT | ee | gee | co'eo | ee’s | 10°68 | et} 1 oun | “" WOOT 1097 V O's | Aug | OBE | FL | SBT | SLL || GOT | OL «| SoTL «| 896 «| ORGS | oreo |Fe's | to's | de [eT ABW [tttttt tt “77777 ULOO(q TNF UT SUS OS'F «| OFIT | #9" | TAT | 864 || O'0 | 00% | SOT | OS'OL | BT's | FOGG | Ele [oes | oo |p Aw |-- 7 ott to Totes pesoTo seforuRg 68'S | 86'S | SLOT | 18 8S | 88h || OOF | TOT | 6S | LOOT | OL'SL | 98°09 | SIF | s'OL | GB | Satay |----""*---* "quo Jou seforuBd | “NUOUVO LNIWIYVdaa | | | ‘VIVUANOID SITALOVQ— III | ] Beret perce sco caster lereced|saeacaa|| OSG | Bh MeRr elie: BOGS. ORG a AS Bit lee aioe eee tonsa Sema eens Dees acre She aah eee Gres OLs ine CH a RCs te Fam CCPC ee Cech oe HAC Se Lil Vaan oll Neagee = pnt OS BT IC WOO[G 1g V a Seat g0r | OL =| 86° | 6L'g DU AMe ee: [ENR lcm ea Me ee ceca 9 mee eee wooTq Uy ae @'66 | SF Fo | 196 O09: Weer Nitin as ~~ OTqISTA oI A | POL | O8 =| SIT | 99% Gog | 00% | erg |---~ i" OTQIstAur ox1dg oo | “SMIHSA NV AVGIN c 80 aw | TOIT | 99'S | OL'T | 08'S =| 0089 || 00" 00° «| 8k’ | BRP PUY ali al Ce alec 5) HA al aaa 2 poos ALIVg Gre | GOST | LGSs | ITT | 06% | ose || Se | gO" | eR" | Lare CUBR GR: NBO eae Gey eect cate oe MOOT 103 V¥ & MT | GIT | I8'8t | see | oss | 099 |) 00° 00° =| 88° =| ga'9 3 | 66°69 | 8 | G02 [7777 9 UNL? ae oe hee ela Oo 8's | 96 | ITAL | Fe | ers | 0920 || Fes | 8s [Ost | oss [99's | tore | tee |For. [to SMES ra ands cree WOOT OLOJORT sy «SB | AB | BOFT | 68 88'S | 00K || SOL | Sl {Sat | 2eror | 6T'6s | 8e'Gy | AOL | FOL |---| @ OUNE [n~-*s=ereee neo yho you pwoH fy | *YNVICNI MS AVS | PUTT | 6L'es | GOT | 18's | 9889 || SIT | or AVL | 8T'8 | 80°26 | BE'G9 | B's Meal (0) 0 a ean ae eta ce 4s (CSAS: | OBST | OFSS | GOR | ERS | GOTNs || GAL | cs | OFT | Fee | 98°88 | BLT | 69°F RM Se a a ~~ ULOOTA 19} -V i is a 2, z Bos | 5 5 g °. oa “pe cE! a 7 S. - | ® S § = rel : “NOLMLAIHOSaa ‘ : g Beg | F | G e : Fs § 8 5 g. 5 o 5 = a See ce ae i a ae | i ae ae Nee ny oi “HON VASES HSH OL “SHON V GSH OS AUT Ue) —— $$$ _$_—_______~- ST we ee er een ANALYSES OF GRASSES. Sey | GL'8 | 6L'08 | 98'T | LHS | O8'TS GFE | cg” SVT | 16°8 | Sst | 68's | ose | 11g | 08 | eg ouNe |*-"-----------------wr00TG 1047 W CLS | 8FS | GOAL | eet | Set | 0404 || Bee | oF 80° =| 69°CT | G48L | si'se | cer | 809 | 08 | LT oun BOS eo eRe wooTq Uy ose | 199 «| LeLT | 88'T | ete =| 0489 || P90 | ao ABT | O8'GL | O8'1S | SI'SS | TrF | 18°89 | 86 | Lf oun |-~- “775="""9no T[9M 9[OlUe eyes |S | FO'ST | OLT | 6FS | 0629 || 8g Ol |TLT | 69°OL | GIST | 80°88 | Bag | GL’, PDA ee as aee ee eee yno Hon koba = | ‘VSSUNAWOD VOI—TA er Sa) Set |98 | 28. 3 Lear To'e9 | 08'e | 20°68 |7--"° Sa | aa mm 04 (FR ccilccclccsccccll| LS | 19 | The | GOSR | Sars Vee'er ue leet wets: A TN Oe dec SOOM OL Mie? es £'0e | g9° OVS | 88'6T | AIS | PESr | 66 | ars |----" ODPAG IS eos cee Woo[q o10Joq \| ‘FON 198 | | “TTL ‘AONIND Fee | GOTT | 19°96 | Oa'T | Tes | ONPG |) LOE | ST’ | BEL joes | re'#s | Bg'°89 | Io's | Teo | GL | 8 OUNp |-"7*""***"*"7""*"UMOIG | poss UT eve =| 18h | 69'8E | STL | co's | 06°99 || FB ide LOT | OL | OL'8e | 2e'so | TFs Tet Aye Gle UTA |e ees eee woo Tiny Uy 96'S | F9'OE | 809s | GUT | Gee | OFSa || OT | Ga’ oh =| 888) «| GB's | CLOG | eee | eek | Go | T oun UMOIC UBOIRteIoe ! [108 400d uo uUMOIS ‘ON 199 GP'S || 064 | GOAT || 88" | STS _ | 00°69. || BL | OT’ «| BVT | BBL «| OF'GS | oB'NG | aes | con | oo | 8 Aw [7777777777 =- == UMOOT [Ny Uy ee? = (Rae at | Raa nina |r ah 1) vet OBL | Ss'el | 261s | esa | ees | 199 |---| etdy PEsOTO OTOUBY, | :]108 Lood U0 UMOLS *Z "ON JOS 19°¢ | PLOT | AT'8e | LT | 18's | 08'S9 || Ost | ze OS GF | F8S | FI'eQ Noch |88:0! LOY |e COUN ee poos uy W'S | 899 |OFFL |OLT | 88s |O68TL || OT | Zo’ | 10% | T9°s~ | oes | Ee*TO | 08's | o8's ie |MUOPARIBIAL | oe ste oe uLOOTG [[0J UT PLY | 199 | 66FL | BUT | TOL | O8'OL || SIL | og |go'e | TeoL | estes | ee'ta | L0'F | Te¢ ye ABTA cpa *~-SurpRoids ous wr (OCF | WIL | PTT | Bet | OL. || VST | sh [BTS | e8er | Sret | 8 | 88% | 408 | Of | GelIady |-""------~--o[qqs1A gsnf oporusg :[][08 poos uO UMOAS [ “ON 198 | “NUGUVO INDIUM dao | ‘SISNULVUd VOJ—' A | | g8'°% | Lh'8 | QT'st [Art jee | 9°99 || 09 O° 88'T | e098 =| O8'9s | Gero | Og'e | ArR |°---") en ABI joo ool doar eee | 196 | SL'Is yc | Og 009 | 00 00° GL'T TROT WSL: Bom OR PROBS 2 Gree | ce co li hme AN ise coo ea wooTq Uy AVS | 6e°9 | 8O'SL | HOT | F8'T 4'94 || BOF | gg AUG | 89'Sl | OFS | 90°19 | OFF 1062 |---~ BDULCG Wis || (eons actrees THOO[ SL0J0 EF OOS | ALF | FOIL | SOT | IL lL || G88 | 99° | e's | SLOT | I's | ore | er | 186 |" 6LUady | Sujawodde ysnf peo | ‘SISNULVUd SAUNOTAOTY—' AT AU# | 999 | @O'ST £0'% S'S | OL'89 6G | $9" PLG SOL ||iPenlen li sOsues WOM! NORIO TE: les ce | RO er ci eae eee al ah 1g | OL'S | O8'SE | IST | 89's | OD'hL Sol | "sl OFT | O16 | Fee | 18°69 | 98°9 | FT'OL |-°-- gt Aqne POMP REIT oe cc . MHOTISA 68 | 00'9 | OO'SE | OB'T | 18'S | OBL || BLT | 68 | 98'S | GORE | F9'TS | G6'OF | 98'9 | ao°OL |---"| GL Atmp [octet ttt UOO1f) 996 | Soh | 986 | THT | 98'S | 09°6L eh | ot 40% =| GBT | 90S | 90'8F | 689 | OS'IT | 8@ | ot ouns yno jou pro YIMOIT 8.1R0A YSATT ‘NIQUVO LNAI ATT Gs |T0L | 80'S | Fe coe | OLF9 OTS | ee LOT | 646 | S8'6T | TeF7 | OTS eve |e2'8 | O82E | AL AVe | 06°29 || O08 | SE PLT | S80U | SSS | GLFS | Lee 09° «=| 29% | 09'0L | 28 I6T | OF'6L SOL | te O'S «| 9ST «| 69'S «| FTG | 96'S ecg | LFS | cc'e | eg 02's | OF'SL gee | sc 18'S | SEF | Gass | SOS | F's Ise |o9e |cF6 | 16 103 | 09°08 Sse | GOL | SLs | SOT | FS'ST | SLsr | eos 18's |886 | 26°02 | 16° LUS GSTs) sa Nia = pl = IZT |09% | 2rse | #8°9g | F9°¢ Behe) Nee oan 188: 86°T ¥'9) 9 | 60° CFI |66°8 | 86'S | S6FS | GLE MD 68 |F89 | Ter | te 10° O'FL Ggl | SLT |OLIL |) SS'0¢ | 4°99 | F9°S Sl we |zre ee | 92° 19'T FU LST | 6& 60° |OU'SL | 00ST | 80°S¢_ | F8°F R Ose «|e | Ser | 94 63'T 98 OST | 8a ASL | 29 IL | 68'S | O2'2g | 8c’E Je SS LI hO \\) Ws Yi e ae fs Sta OE TT - - Liars & 4 ei Fic. 80. D. (CALAMAGROSTIS,) CANADENSIS, BEAUV., 179 bristle-like or smooth rudiment of a flower; flower perfect. The empty glumes persistent below the joint, slightly unequal, awn- less, keeled, membranous; the floral glume often with a ring of hairs at the base, 5-nerved, entire or 2-4-toothed, bearing a short awn on the back. Palea slender, 2-nerved, thin. Stamens 3. Styles distinct, short, stigmas feathery. Caryopsis obovoid or oblong, often oblique, included by the slender flowering giume and the palea, free, or slightly adherent. _ Grasses with various habits. Panicle terminal. Nearly re- lated to Agrostis. About 120 species in temperate and cold regions. D. (Calamagrostis,) Canadensis, Beauv. Blue Joint.— A perennial with creeping rootstocks, found in low grounds, 3-6-ft. high. Leaves flat, glancous. Panicle open, 2-6 in. Spikelets purplish with the rachilla continued behind the palea as ashort, hairy pedicel. Empty giumes, ovate, lauceolate, acute, the upper with an obscure nerve each side the middle one. Hairs numerous, as long as the floral glume, which bears a very slender, straight awn near the middle. Palea hyaline, two- thirds as long as its glume. This native perennial grass is widely distributed in the marshes of the Northern States clear across the continent, where. it at- tains a height of four to six feet or more. The narrow panicle somewhat resembles that of red top, only it is more slender. Unfortunately, the common name is a very indefinite one, as many other and widely different grasses in various parts of our country have been called ‘‘ blue joint.’’ It is not much culti- vated, but is quite common, and if cut rather early, while in flower, or sooner, it affords a very large yield of good hay. Blue joint will grow on land rather too wet for-red top, and for such places, if they cannot be drained, we know of no grass more suitable for cultivation. Fic. 80. Deyeuxia Canadensis (Blue Joint); a, upper part of a plant; b, empty glumes; ¢, d, back of same; e, floral glume, palea to the left, and at. base a rudiment of a floret; f, ovary and styles.—(Sudworth). Fig. 81. MUHLENBERGIA, SCHREB. 181 The seeds are quite small and some time is required for the grass to become well established. Concerning this grass, Gould says: ‘‘It constitutes about one-third of the natural grasses on the beaver dam meadows of the Adirondacks. It is certain that cattle relish it very much both in its green state and when made into hay, and it is equally certain that farmers who have it on their farms believe it to be one of the best grasses in their meadows.’’ MUHLENBERGIA, SCHREB. Spikelets 1-flowered, small, panicled, flowers perfect. Glumes 8, the two lower empty, persistent below the joint, membranous or hyaline, equal or oftener unequal, sometimes minute, or one of them wholly wanting, keeled, acute, mucronate, or rarely short or long awned. The floret with a minute callus or sessile, usually bearded at base. The floral glume 3-5-nerved, firm or membranous, obtuse, acute, mucronate, or very often bearing aslender awn. Palea hyaline, included, 2-keeled. Lodicules 2, very small. Stamens usually 3. Styles distinct, stigmas plu- mose. Caryopsis narrow, subterete, inclosed by the floral glume, free. Grasses of various habits. Panicles terminal and axillary, narrow and slender, loose and branching, dense or spike-like, spikelets small, slender. About 60 species, mostly North American, a few found in the Andes and Asia. M. glomerata, Trin, Muhlenberg’s Grass, Satin Grass, Wild Timothy. or rarely simple. Panicle spike-like, dense, excerted, 2-3 in. Culms erect, glancous, 1-3 ft. high, branched, often lead colored, glumes awned, nearly equal. Common north- ward in bogs, or at the west on dryer land. Fic. 81. Muhlenbergia glomerata; a, plaut; b, spikelet; c, floret; (U. S. Agricult- ural Department and Scribner). 182 M. GLOMERATA, TRIN., MUHLENBERG’S GRASS. The following is by Dr. C. E. Bessey, now of Lincoln, Ne- braska: ‘Ten or twelve years ago I had my attention first called to this wild grass as one possessing many valuable qualities, making it desirable for introduction and cultivation. I found that the liverymen of central Iowa were in the habit of cutting those parts of the prairie which lie between the sloughs and the high land. The hay obtained from these places was of fine quality, being composed of leafy, branching stems of fine length and medium hardness. It was always cut late, but even then it was not often in seed. In fact, the rarity of the seeding is so great that I have heard it averred, over and over again, that 1t is a seedless grass. Of course this was an error, as all grasses are seed-bearing at some stage or other of their existence. In fact, it appears to seed freer under cultivation than in the wild state. ‘So much for this grass in a general way. As to common name, I find no uniformity whatever. It is known here and there under many different names. For example, in some places it is known as Nimble Will; in others as Limber Bill, names which in other regions again are entirely unknown or applied to entirely different grasses. I have heard it called Fine Slough grass, a misnomer, 1s it does not grow in genuine sloughs at all. Again, the name of Small Willow Top is occasionally heard, although not confined to this grass alone. In the books, all the Muhlenberg grasses are called drop-seed grasses, a name which cannot be expected to come into general use. In reports it is often spoken of as simply fine prairie grass, which is, to say the least, exceedingly vague. “The name I have used—Muhlenberg grass—is one which I think we might well adopt, in honor of the discoverer, old Dr. Muhlenberg, a botanist of the last century, who did much to bring before the world the natural resources of this country. Now it is curious that although this grass has been known in the M. GLOMERATA, TRIN., MUHLENBERG’S GRASS, 188 West for many years as a valuable wild one, there are to be found scarcely any references to its value in published books or reports to which I have access. Flint, in his great and valuable work, ‘Grasses and Forage Plants,’ describes it and then remarks, ‘Of no agricultural value.’ Dr. Darlington, in his book, ‘Amer- ican Weeds and Useful Plants,’ does not even mention it; but in reference to a closely-allied species he says: ‘It affords an indifferent pasture in the latter part of summer; but it is not of much worth.’ Dr. Killebrew does not mention it in his book, ‘Grasses, Meadows and Pastures.’ Dr. Vasey, in ‘The Agri- cultural Grasses of the United States,’ says, ‘Specimens have been sent from Colorado and Kansas and recommended as an ex- cellent grass for hay.’ : ““ Now, chemical analyses show that Muhlenberg grass is highly nutritious. In the years 1878 and 1879, at my suggestion, Mr. W. K. Robbins, a graduate of the Iowa Agricultural College, made analyses of this grass, with results which showed that in nutritiousness it ranked with red top and blue grass, and, in some instances, Timothy. More recent analyses by the govern- ment chemist at Washington make a still better showing. ‘Tak- ing an average of the analyses I find the following results: «Timothy contains 44 per cent of albuminoids. “Orchard grass contains 63 per cent of albuminoids. “Red top contains 63 per cent of albuminoids. «‘ Blue grass contains 8 per cent of albuminoids. “Muhlenberg grass contains 17 2-5 per cent of albuminoids. “That is, Muhlenberg grass is more than twice as nutritious, weight for weight, as blue grass. It is nearly three times as nu- tritious as red top and orchard grass, and about four times as nutritious as Timothy. Now I would not for a moment be un- derstood as considering these analyses as settling the relative merits of these grasses. It is well known, however, that the analysis of a grass is one of the important factors in determining MUHLENBERGIA MEXICANA, TRIN. 185 its value, and I bring it in here as simply corroborating what the feeders of hay have been saying for a long time.”’ Muhlenbergia Mexicana, Trin.—Culms ascending, branch- ing, 2-3 feet high; lateral panicle often included at base, linear, interrupted; glumes awnless. sharp-pointed, unequal. It is quite luxuriant, thrives in the shade, and stands drought well. Dr. Bessey also speaks well of this grass as well as of the pre- ceding, for lowa and Nebraska. He writes: ‘‘ When I called Prof. Budd’s attention to it he said that he grew a three acre lot of it for four years, and that it yielded from 25-5 tons per acre of hay of the highest quality. This agrees with other testimony. In fact, I have for the last ten years, from time to time, called attention to its value in the papers of this State.” If these species are as valuable as the above notes indicate, most likely several other species of the same genus are also valu- able. The very small size of the seed and its slow growth when small, would make it unprofitable for alternate husbandry. PENNISETUM, PERS. Spikelets ovate or ovate-lanceolate, with one perfect flower, and -asecond male or neutral one below, solitary, or 2-3 together, closely surrounded by an involuce of bristles which are attached above the joint. Glumes 4, rarely 3, the lower small or 0, the second often equaling the spikelet, both empty; the third empty or including a palea or staminate flower; the terminal one shorter, including a perfect or pistillate flower, firmer than the palea. Stamens, 3. Styles distinct at the base or united for more or less of their length, stigmas feathery with short or long branches. Cariopsis included, free. Annuals or perennials, often branch- Fic. 82.—Muhlenbergia sylvatica,—1, Top of a plant; 2, spikelet. A grass of value in some localities.—(U. S. Agricultural Department and Scribner). 24 F.L.S. Led, Fic. 83. P. SPICATUM, PEARL MILLET. 187 ing. Leaves flat. Spikelets crowded in a spike-like panicle, or on spike-like branches. | Species about 40. mostly African, a few in tropical Asia and America. P. spicatum: Pearl, Indian, African, Cat-tails, or Horse Millet.—This grass has been spoken of very highly as a meadow grass for the South, where it has been grown for many years. It needs an abundance of heat, rich soil, and makes a rank, rapid growth six or eight feet high, each culm teminating in a stiff spike an inch in diameter and six to twelve inches in length. Branches come out in abundance near the ground, hence there will be all states of advancement in the spikes of flowers. As said of Panicum Texanum (Texas Millett) and Sorghum hala- pense (Johnson grass), it may be cut two or three times a year, and yield an abundant crop of rather coarse hay. It cures slowly. In central Michigan, where it has been tried, the summers are too cool for perfecting seed, and the crop does not become large till iate in the season. Indian corn is certainly preferable for the North, and perhaps as suitable for the South. PANICUM, L. Spikelets born on a jointed pedicel, spikelets racemed or pan- icled, with one perfect terminal flower, and usually a second which is male or neutral. Glumes usually 4, the lowest small or minute, the second and third usually sub-equal, membranous, awnless or rarely awned, empty or the third including the rudi- ment of a palea or a male flower; the terminal including a per- fect flower, shorter and more obtuse than the others, carioceous, as is also the included palea. Lodicules, 2, fleshy. Stamens, 3. Styles distinct or united at the base for a short distance, stigmas feathery. Caryopsis included in the firm floral glume and palea, free. Annuals or perennials of various habits. Fic. 83.—Pennisetum spicatum (Pearl millet); a, top of a plant with a spike reduced one-half; b, a pair of spikelets on the short hairy pedicel, with bristly incolucre ; c¢, view of one spikelet; d, another view.—(Scribner). th (= Fig. 8¢. P. TEXANUM, BUCKL. TEXAS MILLET. 189 About 250-280 species, widely scattered over the earth. A large and difficult genus. P. Texanum, Buckl. Texas Millet, Texas Panic Grass.— A leafy annual, 2-5 ft. high, sparingly branched. Leaves 6-8x 4-1 in; soft with rough margins. Panicle 6-8 in. long, narrow, erect, spikelets oblong, pointed. Lower, empty glume half as long as the second, acute, 5-nerved. The upper glume 5-7 nerved. The floral glume transversely wrinkled. For most of the following I am indebted to Dr. G. Vasey. This grass is a native of Texas. It is a grass of rapid growth, succulent, yielding a large amount of forage. Mr. Pryor Lea, of Texas, after trying it for some years, con- siders it superior to any grass that he ever saw for hay. It is a much more certain crop than millet, and cultivated with less labor, and all kinds of stock prefer it. It prospers best in the warmest season of the year. A. W. Ravenel, of S. C., has tried Texas millet for several years, and esteems it very highly. Dr. Phares, of Mississippi, says: ‘‘In habit it is much like crab grass, which is inclined to crowd out this millet.’’ Prof. 8. B. Buckley, of Texas, says: ‘It growsthick and very rapidly, one or two months being sufficient to bring it to maturity for hay. It thrives best on the Colorado bottom lands, yet I have seen it growing on poor upland soil, but it was dwarfed at least one-half. It may be cut twice or three times a year.”’ It need hardly be said that this grass promises nothing for the northern United States. AVENA, L. Spikelets 2-flowered, very rarely 1-flowered, panicled, rachilla jointed between the flowers, lower flowers, at least, perfect, the upper often male or imperfect. Empty glumes persistent below Fig. 84.—Panicum Taxanum (Texas Millet); numbers J, 2, top of a plant; 3, dorsal view of spikelet ; 4, front view; 45, side view; 6, floral glume; 7, side view of floral glume and palea. = s. Agricultural Department, details by Se ribner). a TL i! Fig. 8. A. FLAVESCENS, L., GOLDEN OAT-GRASS. 191 the joint, membranous, slightly unequal. Floral glumes con- vex on the back, acute, 5-9-nerved, often briefly 2-fid at the apex, the lower ones including a perfect flower and bearing on the back a twisted awn, the upper ones awnless, including a staminate or neutral flower. Palea narrow, 2-toothed or 2-fid. Lodicules 2-fid. Stamens, 3. Styles short, distinct, stigmas hairy. Cary- opsis oblong or long-fusiform, pubescent or rarely smooth, some- times deeply grooved, included by the floral glume and _ palea, free or more or less adhering to the palea. Annuals or perennials. Species about 40. Found in many temperate regions. A. flavescens, L. Yellow Oat, or Golden Oat-Grass.—An erect, smooth, glabrous perennial, culm 1-2 ft. hi., stoloniferous. Leaves flat, sheaths hairy; ligule truncate, ciliate. Panicle open, branches in 3 whorls. Spikelets compressed + in., 3-4 fld., shin- ing, yellowish. Empty glumes ovate, acuminate. Floral glumes keeled; awns divergent. According to Baron Lawes, it is tufted, of rather weakly habit, the culms few and slender, producing flowers in June and July. It is found in cool, dry pastures and light soils. It is hardy and seeds early, is never sown alone, but is recommended: as a minor ingredient with others for permanent pasture. The seed is very often adulterated with seeds of Aira flexuosa, which is not worth raising. ; I have seldom seen yellow oat grass in the pastures of the United States, and on trying it for several years in Michigan, I am compelled to say that it seems to promise little for this country. HOLCUS, L. Spikelets 2-fld., usually in collected dense oblong or interrupted panicles, rachilla jointed above the empty glumes, extending beyond the flowers as a small stipe; lower flower perfect, the Fia. 85.—Avena flavescens (Yellow Oat Grass). a, A short plant.—(Sutton) ; a, spike- let.—\Seribner). ALF Aet. Fig. 86. . H. LANATUS L., MEADOW SOFT GRASS, 193 upper male. Empty glumes persistent below the joint, keeled, the lower l-nerved, acute or acuminate, the second broader, 3-nerved, acute or awned. Floral glumes shorter than the empty ones, membranous, the lower awnless, at length firm, including a perfect flower, the upper quite similar, but including a staminate or neutral flower, and bearing on its back a slender curved awn. Palea narrow, 2-keeled. Lodicules oblique, acumi- nate. Stamens 3. Styles distinct, stigmas feathery. Caryopsis oblong, included by the firm glume, free. Soft annuals or perennials. Leaves flat or rarely convolute. Species 8, belonging to Europe or Africa. H. lanatus, L., Meadow Soft Grass, Velvet Grass, York- shire Fog, Salem Grass, White Timothy, Velvet Mes- quit Grass.—A soft perennial, culms 6-24 in., ascending, leafy. Leaves flat, upper sheaths inflated; ligule short. Panicle 2-5 in., whitish green, often pinkish; branches 2-3-nate. Spikelets ¢ in., elliptic-oblong; empty glumes acute, nerves strong. [Specific character after Hooker. ] Velvet grass is mentioned here because it is so soft, velvety, conspicuous and handsome, that every one at once becomes inter- ested in knowing the name and value, but it is still questionable whether it is worthy of cultivation anywhere. Holeus lanatus is very productive of seed, and somewhat resembles orchard grass. The whole plant has a grayish aspect of pale white color often tinged with red. It is very common in England, and has been introduced with other seeds into various parts of this country. During summer on the moist old pastures of New England, we have often seen bunches untouched and going to seed, while June grass, red top and white clover were kept closely cropped. Baron Lawes says: ‘This grass is not liked by cattle either Fria. 86.—Holcus lanatus (Velvet Grass); a, A plant; }, spikelet; c, back of upper empty glume; d, two florets, without empty glumes.—(Scribner.) 28 194 HOLCUS MOLLIS, L., CREEPING SOFT GRASS. when green or in hay, being too soft, spongy, and insipid. It is almost a weed, tending to usurp the land, and is one of the few poor grasses which is not reduced but increased by manuring a meadow [of mixed species]. The seed should be carefully excluded.”’ Dr. Phares says: ‘‘It has been introduced into Texas, and constitutes nine-tenths of all the so-called mesquit grass planted in the Southern States. It grows much larger than in the Eastern States or in England; and it seems too, to be more valuable and greatly improved here. It grows two to four feet high in the South.”’ Holecus mollis, L., Creeping Soft Grass.—This much resem- bles the former grass, but is not so common. In Great Britain the creeping habit makes it very troublesome. ‘The nodes are villous, awn inflexed, exserted. Much like H. lanatus, but usually more slender. CYNOSURUS, L. Spikelets dimorphous, fascicled in a dense one-sided spike-like panicle; the terminal fascicle 2-3 fld., flowers perfect, the lower consisting of 1-2 neutral flowers. Rachilla of the fertile spikelet usually jointed above the lower glumes. The empty glumes linear, lanceolate, acute or short awned. Floral glumes broader, membranous, 1-3-nerved, mucronate or awned at the apex or on the back. The terminal one narrower, empty, inclosing a stam- inate flower, or reduced to an awn. Glumes of the sterile spike- lets distichous, pectinate, all empty, sub-equal, linear, subulate, l-nerved; rachilla continuous. Palea of the fertile flower nar- row, 2-toothed. Lodicules with a basal lobe. Stamens 3. Styles distinct, short, stigmas plumose. Caryopsis oblong or elliptical, included by the glume and palea and adherent. Tufted annuals or perennials with flat leaves. The sterile spikelets form an invo- lucre to the fertile one. C. CRISTATUS L., CRESTED DOG’S TAIL. 195 Species 3 or 4, found in Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. C. cristatus, L., Crested Dog’s Tail.—A stoloniferous per- ennial, 1-2 ft. hi., culms terete, erect, smooth. Leaves short, narrow, slightly hairy; ligule 2-fid Spike 1-2 in., linear. It has long been found in most meadows and pastures of Great Britain and the continent of Europe. It is still recommended by nearly or quite all those who sell grass seeds, especially for perma- nent pasture and lawns on dry light land, but we notice that some of the most observing and independent farmers in those countries seldom recommend it or use it on their lands. Dr. Lindley said: ‘* Its roots are long and wiry, and descend deep into the ground. It was quite early used for pastures and lawns; not very nutritious, not a favorite with stock.”’ Baron J. B. Lawes says: ‘‘ This grass has a wide range Of soils, and grows in dry, damp, and even in irrigated lands, and varies in character accordingly. It is better for pasture than hay, and was unable to maintain even a moderate degree of prominence where the conditions were favorable for the luxuriance of other graminaceous species. ”’ The late James Buckman said: ‘* We think it has been over- much cultivated. It is not a favorite with deer or Southdowns. The culms soon become wiry and make poor hay, neither in quantity nor quality is it worthy a place in a good meadow. “The culms are much used for straw-plaits, for which they are well adapted, both from their fineness and strength.”’ It is seldom met with in this country, and judging from our own efforts to grow this grass, we have little to expect in its favo1 1 ) Oss : Kia. 87 EARLY ATTEMPTS TO CULTIVATE GRASSES. 19% CHAPTER VII. EARLY ATTEMPTS TO CULTIVATE GRASSES. Meadows of the Romans.—It will be unsafe to enter into details in reference to the time of introduction of most of our valuable grasses. Even to the present day, there is much un- certainty and confusion of the names of grasses. As a matter of history it may not be out of place to read a few extracts from L. J. M. Columella, the old Roman, who wrote about A. D. 50: ““The hay which grows naturally in a juicy soil, is reckoned better than that which is forced by constant watering. Land . that shelves gently, if it is either flat or well watered, may be reduced into meadow; but such a level ground is most approved, which, having a very small gentle descent, does not suffer the showers nor the rivulets that flow into it, to abide long in it; or if any water comes upon it, it creeps off slowly; therefore, if in any part it be low and marshy, and the water stagnates upon it, it must be carried off by furrows; for either great abundance or scarcity of water, is equally pernicious to grass of all sorts.”’ After speaking of removing brush, briars, and weeds, he says: *“It is important that we neither allow a hog to feed therein, because, with its snout, it digs up and raises the turf, nor larger cattle, unless when the ground is exceeding dry, because they sink their hoofs into it and bruise and cut the roots of the herbs. Nevertheless, the second year we will allow smaller cattle to be admitted, after the hay harvest is over, provided the dryness and condition of the place will suffer it. Then the third year, when the meadow is become more hard and solid, it may receive Fig. 87.—Cynosurus cristtus (Crested Dog’s tail); a, A whole plant ; b,c, two views of a spikelet.—(Plant from Sutton, spikelets by Scribner). 198 EARLY MEADOWS OF GREAT BRITAIN. greater cattle also. Moreover, the leaner and pendent places must be assisted and refreshed with dung. Prudent husband- men commonly lay more dung upon a hill than a valley, because, as I said, the rains always carry the fatter matter down to the lower grounds.”’ «There is a measure to be observed in drying hay, that it be put together neither over dry nor yet too green; for, in the first case, it is not a whit better than straw if it has lost its juice; and, in the other, it rots in the loft if it retains too much of it; and after it is grown hot it breeds fire, and sets all ina flame. They do not put it up in mows, before that they suffer it to heat, and concoct itself, and then grow cool, after having thrown it loosely together for a few days.”’ Here in a few lines we get the ancient idea of selecting lands for meadows, of drainage, of clearing out weeds, of keeping hogs and cattle off from newly seeded land, of applying manure, of storing hay, of spontaneous combustion. The First Meadows of Great Britain.—It is not yet very long since the first efforts were made to improve pastures in Great britain. In his Mystery of Husbandry Discovered and Laid Open, J. Worlidge, in 1681, writes: ‘‘ Ray grass, by which they improve any cold, sour clay weeping lands which is unfit for sainfoin, hath the precedence of all other grasses, these are lucerne, clover, tares, spurry, and trefoil.’” This is the first mention made of rye grass in cultivation, and for many years it was the only true grass, the seeds of which were intentionally sown. Timothy was introduced into England by the soldiers who returned from this country in 1776. Orchard grass began to be sown about the same time, and since then the number of varieties has stead- ily increased. Some of the above, as well as the following, is adapted from Gould: The making of artificial meadows began to receive attention PROGRESS HAS BEEN VERY SLOW. 199 even from the first settlement of this country. In a work writ- ten by Jared Elliott in 1749, the cultivation of Timothy and fowl meadow is strongly recommended, the latter grass is espec- jially lauded as in many respects better than any other. Timothy and red top in the East were sown very extensively, and sea weed and fish were successfully used as manures. A\l- though we were thus early in forming :artificial meadows and pastures, our subsequent improvement has not kept pace with our early enterprise, and we are now far behind England and Scotland in this department of husbandry. In 1824 a new and most important stimulus to their cultiva- tion was offered by the Duke of Bedford, who published his work, giving an account of experiments made by George Sinclair. Since that time Parnell, Way, Lawes and Gilbert, Buckman and Voelcker in Great Britain have done much to advance our knowledge. Numerous prize essays and other communications have appeared, and progress has been rapid and substantial, yet even in Great Britain as late as 1882, one of the best experi- menters, C. De L. F. DeLaune, says: ‘‘ Unfortunately for owners and occupiers of land, the grossest ignorance prevails about grasses. ‘To many almost every herb that is green is considered to be grass. ”’ Progress Has Been Very Siow. graph is taken from Gould: It will not be denied that farmers, in general, bestow much Most of the following para- less care, or thought, upon their meadows than they do upon their grain lands. Not many can name for certain half a dozen kinds, and not one farmer in ten thousand knows the names of the grasses growing on his farm, or can discriminate between them. Grass is grass, and that is all they trouble themselves to know. Very many are not aware that they have any other va- rieties than Timothy, clover (which is not a grass) and red top growing on their farms, although they may have a dozen or 200 WHY GRASSES ARE NOT BETTER KNOWN. twenty other species; much less do they understand the peculiar properties and the relative values of the different species, > says Gould, ‘‘we noticed a large tract of “Not long ago,’ Lyme grass, Hlymus villosus, growing on the banks of a rivulet. We asked the owner of the land, who had lived on it over thirty years, Whether his cattle relished it? He told us he did not ‘know; he had never noticed it, and could not tell whether the cattle would eat it or not. He had seen it growing there all the time in great abundance, but never knew its name, never in- quired what it was, nor what it was good for. Meadow fescue, Festuca pratensis, is a very common grass in the counties border- ing on the Hudson river, constituting about one-fifteenth of the crop on the meadows. When it first came in flower this year we asked the first six farmers that we met with what they called it. Not one of them could name it; they were not quite sure that they had it on their farms; they had something that looked like it, but they were not sure that it was the same. ‘Two of them thought that it was June grass. The difference between the-two is so marked that an intelligent farmer should no more confound them than he should confound a horse and a cow.”’ Why Grasses are Not Better Known.—Improvements in agriculture have always advanced slowly, with the exception of farm implements, which have not generally been invented by farmers, but by mechanics. Probably no class of men adhere more tenaciously to old practices than the farmers. They have had great respect for fashion and the tradition of their fathers. Grasses have often been recommended under wrong names, or from a very limited observation, or from selfish motives. Per- haps the seed was poor and failed to grow. The farmer is puzzled and returns to his old ways. The grasses form an exceedingly natural family, and for this very reason it is difficult for a beginner to readily distinguish individual differences. A certain grass varies much in different WHAT HAVE BEEN SOWN IN GREAT BRITAIN. 201 situations and at different stages of its growth. The grasses have a great deal in common, and to a beginner all look alike. Even for a pretty good botanist, there is no denying the fact that it is quite a task to learn to recognize our common grasses. Still, it is no more difficult than to match horses well, to judge the weight of a hog, or to pick out a good cow by her general appearance. ‘The grasses have small flowers, and these are likely to pass unobserved, while the animals referred to, by daily asso- ciation soon become familiar. What Have Been Sown in Great Britain. grasses and clovers have boen recommended in various mixtures The following for meadows and pastures. In this connection, also, we give the number of pounds to the bushel and the number of seeds to the ounce. Most of the leading seedsmen advertise and recom- mend a different selection of grasses for each geological forma- tions; one for the London clay; one for the Upper Cretaceous; one for the lower; one for the Odlite; one for the Oxford Clay; one forthe Lias; others for the New Red Sandstone, Carboniferous Limestone, Coal Measures, Old Red Sandstone, Upper Silurian, Lower Silurian. Lists are made out for rich loams, poor stiff clay, light soil; for one year, two years, three years, and for per- manent pasture and meadow. Many species are used over and over in different mixtures but in varying proportions. For ten to thirty or more species are usually named for each mixture. The writer quite agrees with James Hunter, an English seeds- man, who says: ‘‘Although much has been said about ‘ geolog- ical formations’ in connection with the grasses, this has really a very unimportant bearing upon the subject, and it is more likely to lead to confusion than otherwise. Four-fifths of those desirable for permanent pasture will thrive upon all good soils. ‘To ring the changes upon the twenty grasses and clovers through some fifty different geological formations, is nothing better than a piece of pedantry. For all practical purposes, it is quite suf- 26 202 POUNDS TO THE BUSHEL; SEEDS TO THE OUNCE, ficient to know the general character of the soil and the situa- tion.”’ To add to all this, the soils of some formations vary much in fertility and physical conditions. The more of mystery and complication a seedsman can make out of this subject the more the farmer is likely to rely on his statements, and the more easily can he be deceived. GRAMINEZE. Agrostis stolonifera, Fiorin or Marsh Bent-_-_-------------- AGOStIS: CULGOTIS, eG (UO ps oe fee S| oat te oe Seen Aire cespitosa, lutted hair erass- = 22s seen een eee Alopecurus pratensis, Meadow Foxtail-_-...-.------------ Anthoxanthum odoratum, Sweet Vernal___-....---------- Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Tall Oat-grass_.--.-.-------- Brachypodium sylvaticum, Wood Fescue grass-_---------- Cynosurus cristatus, Crested Dog’s Tail__---.-----.------ Dactylis glomerata, Cock’s Foot, Orchard grass--------- Dactylis glomerata, gigantea, Large Orchard grass-_----_-- LHS CHREMOROUEY, Wie SS 8 cose aSonSseos Senet aSSe EVO MUSNOENICULOILIES Say TN CY OT: 55 eee a a ee HESLUCH, QUTVUSCULO- Hard) HesCUCh == ee ee eee eee HST COMELOUTO mela) GS UC pene ae ae Festuca elatior gigantea, Large Fescue_-_-......-------- Festuca heterophylla, Various-leaved Fescue------------- Festuca gigantea, Giantehescnes sess =. eee eee eee IReSTUCHOUING SNC DIS PLCSCUC RS === = eee eee Festuca ovina tenuifolia, Slender Fescue_-_-_-.------------ Festuca pratensis, Meadow Fescue_. ---.-----------..---- Festuca pratensis loliacea, Darnel Spiked Fescue--. ------ HeCSTUCH aT UTC pede HeSCU C= see eee = a eee Glyceria aquatica, Water Meadow grass__-_-.---------- ae Glyceria fluitans, Floating Water grass_---..------------ Holens lanatus, Woolly Sott erass.--- ==) 23.5 -e ee eee Holeus. mollis, Creeping Soft erass—.. ...-2-.52s222-505-55 Lolium Italieum, Vtalian Rye grass_--......-.--------=--- Lolium perenne, perennial Rye grass--..-.---------------- LUM ETUSUTI, EINE LOT ASS nee a eee re ee Phalaris arundinacea, Reed Canary grass--------------.- ERICA A PRaLense Anim OU hy a= ese eee naan see Hee Poa nemoralis, Wood Meadow grass-_.-...-.-------------- Poa nemoralis sempervirens, Evergreen grass ------------ EOCMPTOLEN SIS 0) UNC, OT ASS eee ee eee eee Poa trivialis, Rough-stalked Meadow grass-------------- Pounds Seeds to the to the Bushel.| Ounce, 15 500,000 14 425,000 14 132,000 7 76,000 10 71,000 12 21,000 10 15,500 26 28,000 14 40,000 10 34,000 11 2,320 12 2,300 10 39,000 15 20,500 13 17,500 12 33,000 16 8,600 12 64,000 15 80,000 15 26,000 15 24,700 10 | 39,000 13 58,000 15 83,000 7 95,000 6 85,000 18t020| 27,000 18to30} 15,000 25 80,000 48 42,000 45 74,000 15 | 173,000 153 | 133,000 - 14 243,000 14 217,000 POUNDS TO THE BUSHEL; SEEDS TO THE OUNUE. — 203 GRAMINEX.- -CONTINUED. Psamma arundinacea, Sea-reed____--_-_- Be ere ee Trisetum flavescens, Yellow Oat grass LEGUMINOS 2. Lotus corniculatus, Bird’s-foot trefoil Pane major, Laree Foot trefoil... 1... -2-22.2-2s.225-8 memergo lupulina, Black Medick.-._.......-.-2..--.----- Medicago sativa, Lucerne, Alfalfa Onotrychis sativa, Sainfoin Trifolium jiliforme, Yellow Suckling clover Trifolium hybridum, Alsike clover iyaum pratense, Red clover_-....-----.=---2-42+=----+ Trifolium pratense perenne, Perennial clover Trifolium repens, White clover MISCELLANEOUS. Achillea millefolium, Yarrow MRIOMLILRUNLYOUS © © MIGORY 2522 2 5- a2 26 oe eee ee sae ieeroscnum sativum, Parsley ...-.---.--2222+2:.2+-----< Plantago lanceolata, Lance-leaved Plantain - Poterium sanguisorba, Burnet Pounds to the Bushel, 15 58 L Seeds to the Ounce, 10,000 118,000 28,000 51,000 16,000 12,600 1,280 54,000 45,000 16,000 16,000 32,000 200,000 21,000 12,800 15,600 3,320 From Morton’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture, we glean the fol- lowing in relation to the number of kinds selected for each use or situation: 1. For alternate husbandry, 4 grasses, 5 clovers and others. For permanent pasture, 10 grasses, 4 clovers. For permanent pasture, 12 grasses, 6 clovers. For permanent lawn, 12 grasses, 6 clovers. OD EH HP w PO — = For deep mossy ground, 9 grasses, 3 clovers. = — . For marshy grounds, 8 grasses, 1 clover. — ~ . For sandy woods, 11 grasses, 1 clover. _ Oo . For rocky and gravelly, 13 grasses, 4 clovers. For permanent fine lawns, 7 grasses, 2 clovers. For heathy and moory lands, 7 grasses, 4 clovers. For permanent, another mixture, 12 grasses, 5 clovers. For permanent lands for irrigation, 11 grasses, 2 clovers. For permanent lands in orchards, 10 grasses, 3 clovers. 204 WHAT HAVE BEEN SOWN IN THE UNITED STATES. 14. For warrens, 8 grasses, 5 clovers. 15. For drifting sands, 3 grasses, 0 clovers. These include in all 36 species of grasses, 10 of leguminous plants and 5 of others, 51 in all. The best farmers of Great Britain in more recent times are inclined to reject quite a num- ber of species heretofore enumerated for sowing. What Have Been Sown in the United States.—In 1858, in a prize essay for which he received $50, 8S. D. Harris, of Ohio, says: ‘‘Of the grasses that may be called indigenous, and at the same time having the virtues of what are called tame grasses, there are but three kinds deserving of culture in Ohio. These are Poa pratensis, Poa compressa and Trifolium repens. And all worthy of cultivation from any source on arable land are Timothy, red-top, orchard grass, red clover, and, for variety of crop, occasionally German millet and common millet. We ' should suffer no loss were all the rest stricken from our fields at once.”” In 1865, X. A. Willard reports that after making extensive inquiries of the best dairymen as to the kinds of grasses em- ployed in old pastures, they report June grass, fowl meadow grass, meadow fescue, red-top, wire grass and sweet vernal. Timothy, orchard grass, red clover, and some other forage plants, they report, grow in pastures and meadows. A leading farmer, in his report for the Board of Agriculture in 1868 says: ‘‘In Connecticut the almost universal practice is to sow Timothy and clover, either with rye in the fall or with oats in the spring, or in some few moist or rich meadows to use red-top.”’ During the same year, J. M. McMinn writes: ‘‘The pastures of Pennsylvania contain June grass (there called ‘green grass’), Timothy, red-top, false red-top (Zricuspis sesleroides), blue grass (Poa compressa) and meadow fescue. In the meadows a few others were found.’’ WHAT HAS BEEN SOWN IN THE UNITED STATES. 205 As late as 1884, in the Northern States, among those who sow seeds on their lands intended for meadows, very few sow any other seeds than Timothy and clover. If left to themselves after a few years several others come in one way and another and in- crease the variety and quality of old meadows and pastures. It is not quite as true in 1885, as it was when Gould wrote it in 1869, that “This Babel-like confusion of opinions demon- strates clearly enough that we have no real knowledge on this all-important subject, and that we rely only upon capricious guesses for the settlement of the problem.”’ Circulars or letters of inquiry in reference to the grasses for pastures or meadows seldom bring valuable or trustworthy in- formation. | From the above it will be seen that the list of grasses now gen- erally sown in any State can be counted on the fingers of one hand, while there are doubtless twenty or thirty which ought to find extensive sale for the various uses and the varied soils and climates of any large State. The list is growing, slowly growing larger. We wish to impress our readers with the very important fact that little is definitely known regarding the grasses found in our pastures, and still less is known in reference to those best adapted to cultivation. As Gould says: ‘‘ We must fairly grap- ple with the undoubted fact that the science of grass culture is yet in the early dawn of its infancy.”’ The Englishman selects twenty or more; not including some which are not true grasses. He selects some kinds for thin soil or upland pastures, others for stiff clays, others for rich, deep loams, others for meadows which are subject to periodic floods along the banks of rivers, and still others for irrigated meadows in which the water can be entirely controlled. There must always be a difference of opinion as to the merits of grasses on account of the various soils, climates, seasons and uses. 206 TESTING SEEDS. SOME COMMON WEEDS. In looking over a large number of agricultural reports of the Northern States we find in some of them much space is given to discussions of the grasses by the farmers at their winter meet- ings. There is much said about the care of meadows and pas- tures, with many repetitions. We cannot help being strongly impressed with the idea that we need many more careful observ- ers—farmers who are trained students of science. CHAPTER ViIIL TESTING SEEDS. SOME COMMON WEEDS. Seed Stations and Their Work.—Whether a seed is liable to grow or not depends much on how it was cured and the nature of the place where it has been stored. In the following account of some experiments this subject will receive some attention. The first station for testing seeds was established by Dr. Knobbe, of Saxony, in 1869. In Germany, in 1878, upwards of forty of the experimental stations had attached to them a seed control department, and 14 of these did nothing else. Adulterations.—These stations discovered adulterations of seeds which were ‘‘most ingenious in character, harmful in effect, and remarkable in amount.’’? One practice is to kill seeds by boiling or baking and mix them with some desirable seeds which they resemble. The dead seeds in that case tell no tales. Old seeds, or seeds of another variety, are often dyed or bleached with sulphur, and used to adulterate good seeds of red clover or some other species. Old seeds are dressed with oil and sometimes rubbed by machinery to improve their appearance. Seeds of rye-grass and Italian rye-grass are often adulterated SEED STATIONS AND THEIR WORK. 207 with those of chess, which they much resemble. Holcus lanatus, a poor grass, is also found in rye-grass. Meadow fescue is largely adulterated with that of perennial rye-grass, a cheaper seed of less value. Fra. 89.—e, A floret of peren- nial rye grass ; f, the same en- larged ; g, the other side of the base. Observe the difference in the apexes, difference in the piece of the rachis held by é each, though this is not uni- ab formly as here shown. Ob- Fia. 88.—e, A floret of meadow serve the base of Fig. 88 is convex, while that of Fig. 89 is flat or concave. fescue ; f, the same enlarged; g, the other side of the base of same. Crested dog’s-tail is largely aduiterated with Molinia cerulea, which is of no value. Seeds formerly sold, even by the very best seedsmen, were more or less tampered with, and they were careful to adulterate their seeds about so much each year to prevent troublesome questions. In Germany, the mills ground quartz, it was sifted, colored, and mixed with seeds of clover. Pure seeds are quoted as ‘‘ net seed,’’ while dead ones are quoted as ¢rio or ‘‘ 000.” James Hunter, of England, in his seed catalogue and treatise on grasses, writes: ‘‘If it be asked how such a state of tuings can be possible, the only reply that can be given is, that so com- plete is the want of knowledge of this subject on the part of the seedsmen and agriculturists, that almost any species of adulter- 208 SEED STATIONS AND THEIR WORK. ation of grass seeds may be practiced without fear of detection. It is probable that not one seedsman in twenty knows all the species of grasses commonly used for permanent pastures, or the seeds of the various species of grass seeds he sells.”’ In 1877 the writer began testing seeds sold in this country, and found many that were poor and unreliable, especially the more uncommon grass seeds, most of which are imported. Grass seeds vary much in weight, owing to the fact that they are usually sold in the chaff, which is not always well filled. For this reason it should always be bought by weight, remembering that if dry, the heavier the sample, the less empty chaff it is likely to contain. a Concerning poor seeds Professor Shelton remarks: ‘‘ The difficulty experienced by farmers in securing good seed has been a serious obstacle in the way of grass culture in Kansas. We have reason to know that the complaint regarding the quality of grass seeds retailed in the. State is as just as it is universal. The special cause of this trouble in Kansas seems to grow out of the fact, that, as a rule, the trade in grass seeds is not a large one as yet, anywhere; and seeds which are not sold any one sea- son, are carried to the next. In this way, seeds which were originally good are badly damaged, or their vitality is totally destroyed by being kept year after year in damp cellars and mouldy warehouses. But more than this, seeds are often worth- less in the start, from having never been properly matured, or from injury received in the field or mow before threshing.”’ Doctoring and adulterating and selling such seeds is worse than selling 100 yards of cotton thread for 200 yards, or deceiv- ing in the weight or cost of tea, coffee or sugar. The sale of poor seeds affects the future crops as well as the present one. In German seed-stations the following kind of work is done: determination of the species, the amount of impurities and their nature, the germinating power of seeds, the total weight of the GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 209 seeds, their specific gravity, their weight per bushel, detection of dyeing, bleaching, oiling, etc. The apparatus needed is very simple, consisting of a small magnifying glass, some sieves of various grades, bellows, forceps, delicate scales, thermometers, jars, test-plates, chemical tests, and a good knowledge of botany. Some genuine seeds of the common weeds and grasses are useful for comparison. The sample should be carefully and fairly drawn from the whole, and well mixed. As a general thing for convenience, 50 or 100 seeds or multiples of these numbers are counted out. They may be placed between layers of moist flannel or thick woolen paper, and kept in a temperature of 50 to 60 degrees F. A dish of damp sand, with a paper or cloth on top to hold the seeds, over which is another cloth, is a very satisfactory arrangement. What kind will usually Germinate and what will not. Seeds of the commonest grasses, such.as Timothy, orchard grass, June grass, red top, and the common clovers, are generally very good, containing from two to twenty per cent. of impurities, which consist mostly of dirt, straw and chaff. The seeds of the less common grasses, such as perennial rye grass, the fescues, meadow foxtail, oat grass, crested dog’s tail, sweet vernal possess a very low vitality, almost without exception. These are mostly imported from Europe. In 1877, the writer tested grass seeds purchased of one of the bess known seedsmen of New York. Four lots of 50 seeds each were tested, with the following results given in per cent. In each case what appeared to be a seed was tested. Most of these were in the chaff: Hard fescue, 13 per cent. Red-top, 14 per cent. Rhode Island bent, 7 per cent. June grass, 3 per cent. English rye-grass, 5 per cent. Reed canary grass, 3 per cent. Rough-stalked meadow, 2 per cent. Meadow foxtail, 4 per cent. Schroeder’s Bromus, 60 per cent. Sheep’s fescue, 1 per cent. (> Ls ~ 210 WILL SEEDS SPROUT Wood-meadow grass, 1 per cent. Meadow fescue, 7 per cent. Sweet vernal, 15 per cent. Tall fescue, 11 per cent. Darnel spiked fescue, 5 per cent, Orchard grass, 27 per cent. Hungarian grass, 51 per cent, Yellow oat grass, 11 per cent, MORE THAN ONCE? Creeping bent, 2 per cent. Crested dog’s-tail, 8 per cent. Large red clover, 88 per cent. Medium red clover, 88 per cent. Bokhara clover, 48 per cent. Ttalian clover, 82 per cent. Lucerne, 74 per cent. Timothy, 68 per cent. White clover, 84 per cent. Italian rye-grass, 21 per cent. Alsike clover, 64 per cent. The writer had kept some home grown seeds at the Agricult- ural College for two or three years in several different rooms, one of which was a damp basement. These seeds were shelled out, as were the seeds taken from the samples purchased from the New York seedsman: NEW YORK SEEDS. COLLEGE SEEDS Shroeder’s Bromus, 64 per cent, Shroeder’s Bromus, 96 per cent, Sheep’s fescue, 0 per cent. Sheep’s fescue, 72 per cent. June grass, 6 per cent. June grass, 28 per cent. Rye-grass, 18 per cent. Rye-grass, 74 per cent. Meadow fescue, 6 per cent. Meadow fescue, 92 per cent. Orchard grass, 66 per cent, Orchard grass, 82 per cent. Red clover, 94 per cent. Red clover, 52 per cent. Seeds taken from packages with low vitality will vary much in different tests, but good fresh seeds run high and quite uniform, Good seeds will stand the most abuse. Will Seeds Sprout More Than Once?—It is the opinion of many that seeds once sprouted and well dried will never sprout again. ‘To sprout’? means ‘‘to germinate,’’ “to vegetate,”’ “to begin to grow,” ‘‘to shoot, as the seed or the root of a plant.”’ In each of the cases considered the roots died at the end of each test, and new ones pushed out when moistened. The same plumule lived over, or endured all the changes. Wheat and rye and oats will start to grow after drying for several times, often for six or more times. HOW TO PROCURE GOOD SEEDS. 211 How to Procure Seeds that are Good and True to Name. —It has been shown that there are many difficulties in the way of making improvements in the seeding of land to grass. Our farmers usually buy two or three common sorts offered in the market. In England the seedsmen have largely prescribed the kinds to be used for meadows and pastures, and they are natu- rally inclined to recommend what is to them most profitable and easily obtained. Where land is to remain in grass for some years it is very important to make the right selection of seeds. The leading seedsmen keep experts, as they call themselves, for the purpose of giving information on this subject. They take contracts at special rates for laying down a certain number of acres to grass. The Royal Agricultural Society employs a consulting botanist to examine samples of seeds offered in the market. He has fees for performing certain work. ‘To report on the purity, amount and nature of foreign materials, perfectness, and germinating power of a sample of seeds the fee is five shillings. The council: have established a standard for the examination of seeds. 1. That the bulk be true to the species ordered. 2. That it contain not more than five per cent. of seeds other than the species ordered. 3. That the germinating power shall be, for cereals, green crops, clovers and Timothy not less than 90 per cent.; for fox- tail not less than 20 per cent.; and for other grasses not less than 70 per cent. Seedsmen in England and Germany will now guarantee seeds in accordance with this standard. In England, in 1869, after enacting a law against ‘‘ doctor- ing ”’ seeds, they nearly or quite disappeared from the market. The consulting botanist had only seen two samples in five years. Killed and dyed seeds are gone, but dead seeds may still be found. 212 HOW TO PROCURE GOOD SEEDS. Notwithstanding the laws enacted, and care taken, it is by no means easy to secure good seeds true to name. Mr. De Laune, in Jour. Royal Ag. Soc., in 1882, says: ‘‘ How- ever careful I was in my orders, and from whatever seed-market I ordered my seeds; the percentage of rye grass, soft woolly grass, and other bad grasses and weeds, was beyond all belief. I learned that good seed was most difficult to get. I consulted the botanist, and to my great amazement was told that my seed bought for meadow fescue was all rye grass, and the rough meadow grass was all smooth meadow grass. I have, since these experiments, never sown any seed except after the sample had been examined by the consulting botanist; and have, in conse- quence, obtained results most satisfactory to myself. I have found it necessary to examine seeds from different parts of every sack. J regret to say that there is no seed-merchant I would trust without the seed was examined by the consulting botanist.” And yet 2 leading seedsman in England says: ‘‘ The seedsman should be treated with much the same sort of confidence as the family doctor.’’ Doubtless my readers will be glad to see the following quota- tion from the Annual Report of the consulting botanist,—W. Caruthers, of the Royal Agricultural Society for 1884: ‘During the past year I have examined 701 samples of seeds. for the members of the society, besides replying to inquiries. regarding the nature, habits, and names of weeds, and the best way of dealing with them; the diseases of cultivated plants; and to various matters affecting the crops of the farm. I have examined 69 samples of meadow fescue, and 46 of tall fescue, in all 115 samples, as compared with 85 in the previous year. Sixty- five per cent of the samples of meadow fescue were free from weeds and seeds of other grasses, as against 26 per cent of last year. The principal adulterant employed is rye grass; but the HOW TO PROCURE GOOD AND TRUE SEEDS. 213 use of this seed is very greatly lessened. [This is on account of the work of the consulting botanist. | ** Seventy-six samples of cocksfoot [orchard grass] were on the whole pure. Six per cent had some small rye grass seeds in them, and in one case 20 per cent of Yorkshire fog (Holeus lanatus,) were included in the sample. “A fair proportion of 65 samples of meadow foxtail was found good. No less than 64 per cent of the samples of Agrostis alba var. stolonifera, fiorin or creeping bent, were infested with ergot, a most dangerous fungus. “Out of 126 samples of clover, 19 per cent of the red clover contained seeds of dodder, and 25 per cent of the alsike contained seeds of this parasite. «Fewer samples of grass mixture have been submitted to me during the past year, but the samples examined have more firmly convinced me that it is most undesirable for growers to purchase their seed in this form. One mixture consisted entirely of rye _grasses, with some trefoil and a little clover, and in addition the rye grass was infested with ergot. Another consisted of rye grass with one per cent of other grasses and clovers.”’ If railroad companies find it necessary to employ engineers, if trustees think it best to employ a landscape gardener to lay out a park or cemetery, if builders employ architects, why should not the farmers, at a trifling expense to each, employ a consulting botanist at an experiment station, to examine seeds before purchase ? We look forward with hope to the time when every State shall have one or more such stations. > To some extent, the following plan adopted by Professor Shel- ton, of Kansas, will work well: «Our practice, which has been entirely satisfactory, has been to send to those dealers who make a specialty of grass seeds in the sections where the seeds are raised. We have always sent 214 WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. to the large eastern dealers for our grass seeds, and to Denver and San Francisco for our alfalfa seeds. This may not be the best plan, but it has been satisfactory as to the quality of the seed procured and as to the price, which, including the freight, we have found to be considerably less than that asked by local dealers. ”’ Weeds in the Meadow.—A weed is now generally described as a plant out of place, or growing where it is not wanted. All the pasture grasses are weeds, if they grow in our garden or corn field. Ii some countries potatoes become weeds. A plant may be a troublesome weed in one country and not in another, R. W. Emerson entertained a very hopeful view of weeds, and defined one as ‘‘a plant whose virtues have not yet been dis- covered. is + # * Every plant probably is yet to be of utility in the arts.”’ A large majority of our worst weeds are foreigners, and have come from Europe, Asia and South America. It is just so with the fields of Austraha and New Zealand. Most of the weeds are introduced on to a farm by being sown with seeds of the grasses and clovers; occasionally they come from fresh manure or from waste places, or slevenly farms in the neighborhood. Most of them are following the tide of emigration and are ‘‘ going west,” but a few are taking the opposite course, such as Rudbeckia hirta, L. Dysodia and Matricaria discoidea, D. C. In the words of Dr. Thurber: ‘* Wecds seem to be naturally well provided for distribution, but the careless farmer sows them broadcast by the handful, and does what nature cannot do —he puts them in well prepared soil, where they will be sure to grow. In the month of March hundreds of farmers will sow their clover. Next summer, or later, we shall have from some of them letters and specimens. ‘A new weed has appeared in my field, or meadow, and threatens to kill out everything else. What is it, and how shall I get rid of it? Where did it come WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. 215 from?’ The answer will be: ‘ You carefully sowed it that cool March day with your clover.’ *’ Plants are assisted to become weeds by producing many seeds, by ripening with the crop so the seeds are harvested with it, by ripening before the crop and scattering seeds on the ground, by producing seeds which are not easily separated by sieves, by pro- ducing very small seeds which escape notice, by having a supply of hairs that they may be carried by the wind, or some awns or hooks to hold fast to animals, by remaining a long time in the soil without losing their vitality, by producing long or thick roots not easily eradicated, by producing bulbs, or long root stocks, by being offensive to all kinds of stock so they are allowed to grow and multiply. Clay soil is less likely to be troubled than loam or sand. Some of the weeds which interfere with the growth of grasses and clovers in the Northern States are here enumerated, with figures of a few and remarks in reference to all. Fre. 90. Fia. 94. Fra. 95. Fig. 9%. An achene or fruit of Ranunculus bulbosus, L. (Bulbous Crowfoot.) d > y f i Fra. 106. Fia. 107. Fria. 108. Fira. 106.— Achillea Millefolium, L. An achene, two views. 1x*10.—(Sudworth.) Fra. 107.— Leucanthemum vulgare, Lam. (Ox-eye.) Achene enlarged.—(Scribner.) Fra. 108.—Cnicus arvensis, (Canada thistle); an achene, also a cross section of the same. 1x10.—(Sudworth.) Leucanthemum vulgare, Lam. (Ox-eye, White Daisy.) This is one of the worst perennial weeds or weeds of any kind which infests the meadows and pastures of this country. The seeds are sown with grass seed, Onicus arvensis, Hoffm. (Canada Thistle). This is often con- sidered the arch fiend of weeds, and is too well known in many localities. The heads are small and the scales of the involucre searcely prickly pointed. It-is a perennial rooting very deeply. Its course westward is likely to be checked by the fact that it has usually failed to produce seeds on the prairies. It is often dic- cious. Some account of this pest is given in connection with the chapter on clover. 220 WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. Ragweed, Hogweed, Roman Wormwood, Ambrosia, is very common, especially in old fields. It is a coarse, homely annual, which one, not a botanist, would scarcely suspect was a member of the aster family. Fie 106 ipivel WDA Fie 112. Fra. 113. Fia. 109.—Lappa officinalis, var. major, Gr (Burdock.) One of our worst wayside weeds, carried on the fleeces of animals, 1x6.—(Sudworth.) Fra. 110.—Two views of an achene of Anthemis Cotula, (Mayweed). 1x 15.--(Sudworth.) Fia. 111.—Ambrosia artemisiefolia, L. (Rag weed), anachene. 1x8.—(Sudworth.) ~ Fia. 112.—Cichorium Intybus, L. (Chicory, Succory), two views. 1%*7.—(Sudworth.) Fic. 113.—Taraxacum Dens-leonis, Desf. (Dandelion), two views of an achene, desti- tute of the long beak and pappas, which break off easily. 1%*10.—(Sudworth.) Chicory, Siccory, (Cichorium Intybus, L.) has been introduced as a substitute for coffee, and has spread in many waste places in the older portions of the Northern States. Plantago lanceolata, L. (Ribgrass, Narrow-leaved Plantain.) This perennial herb has become extensively introduced with grass seed from the East. The flower stalk runs up quickly after cutting, and thus becomes unsightly on lawns. It has been found quite as nutritious as some of our best grasses, but it affords only a small amount of feed. Most kinds of stock eat it when young. Seeds ought to become . 114. — mtago +]: anoint. rented familiar to every one who makes a lawn or a Narrow -leaved Plant- ain), 2 views. 1%*12.- meadow. (Sudworth.) WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. 221 Plantago major, Li., (Common Plantain), is not very troublesome when compared with the former species. Found about door yards. Verbascum Thapsus, lL. (Common Mul- lein, Velvet-leaf.) The seeds of this biennial Fre. 115. Verbascum Thapsus, L. (Common Mullein). Three views of a seed. 1x20.—(Sud- i ; Fs worth.) taria (Moth Mullein), is becoming com- are very small and very numerous. V. Llat- mon, and needs attention. Linaria vulgaris, Mill. (‘Toad- flax, Butter and Eggs.) This is a vile nuisance in meadow or pasture. It seeds freely, and also Ei gt Heart, ug, SPIES Nery mapatly Wyse seed. 1x15,—(Sudworth.) = stocks. Srunella vulgaris, L. (Self-heal or Heal- all.) This is a small perennial herb, bear- ing violet flowers. In dry, thin meadows it is quite common and on the increase. . Cynoglossum officinale, L. (Hounds- Fie. 117.— Brunella vul- oue This is ¢ er plé earing : oa aie heal Henk. tongue.) This is another plant b ga 2.—(Scribner. bs all.) 1x12—(Scribner.) — nytlet containing hooded prickles. Fia.118.—Echium vulgare, L. (Viper’s Fia@. 119.—Echinospermum Lappula, Bugloss.) This issomewhat ornamental, Lehm. (Stick-seed.) The small nutlets but in some places has become very pro- are covered withadouble row of hooked lific and hard to eradicate. An angular prickles. It must be carefully kept out wrinkled nut; two views, much enlarged. of sheep pastures; two views. 1 ~x10.— (Scribner.) (Sudworth.) Cuscuta Epithymum, Murr. (Lucerne Dodder.) This is a para- sitic vine which has occasionally been introduced with seed of 222 WEEDS IN THE MEADOW. Lucerne. It is likely to be destroyed by the gareful farmer. As soon as the slender vine from the seed gets fast to the stem of a plant, the root of the dodder perishes. It takes nourishment from the Lucerne. The seeds are very small and spherical. Sulphate of iron (green vitriol), one pound to the gallon, sprinkled on plants of dodder is said to destroy it, and will not injure the Lucerne. ling ’’ of oats or wheat, and as soon as the grasses get up a little and the straggling weeds get up still higher, mow them, and keep mowing every week or two all summer. Avoid purchasing mixtures advertised in seed catalogues, as it will be much cheaper and safer to buy each sort separately, and only one or two or three sorts are desirable. The rarer grasses are mostly imported, and up to the present time, as was said, have been found to possess very low vitality; besides, bad for- eign weeds are very commonly mixed with these grass seeds. There are good reasons, then, for buying common sorts, and, if possible, those raised and cleaned in a careful manner. James Hunter, of England, in his manual of grasses, says: ‘* Careful analysis of the mixed lawn grass seeds sold by some large seed houses at high prices prove them to consist of from 40 to 50 per cent. of rye grass, whereas not a single seed of rye grass should be included in any mixture for producing a lawn.”’ The Royal Agricultural Society of England employs a con- ORNAMENTAL GRASSES, 317 sulting botanist, Wm. Caruthers, who, for small feces, tests the seeds for its members. He finds it best to avoid purchasing mixtures for lawn, pasture or meadow. The editor of the Gardner’s Monthly echoes the sentiments of our best judges in this matter when he advises for lawn to sow ‘ June grass or red top either one alone or both mixed. E. 8. Carman, one of the editors of the Rural New Yorker, and manager of a fine homestead and an experimental farm, writes: ‘* Thirteen years ago we sowed on different parts of an acre of lawn blue grass, red top, Rhode Island bent and the ‘lawn mixtures’ sold by seedsmen. ‘To-day the red top presents the finest and brightest appearance, while the lawn mixture’ portion has since been re-sown with red top and blue grass.”’ In conclusion, if not so already, make the soil strong, drain thoroughly, deeply pulverize, harrow and hand-rake the surface carefully. In early spring, or in early autumn if not dry, sow, without any wheat or oats, three or four bushels to the acre of June grass or red top, either one or a mixture of both in any proportion. Ornamental Grasses.—Although grasses rank among the lowest of the flowering plants, and very few have anything like gaily colored blossoms, yet no order possesses plants which sur- pass some of them in grace and elegance. For beauty, grasses rely mainly upon their forms and pleasing shades of green color. A few have brilliant colored anthers, or their spikelets are cov- ered with white hairs. From simple, rigid heads or spikes to the most graceful of delicate, drooping panicles there are all grades of pleasing forms. We have considered the surpassing beauty of a green velve+ lawn, but who can faii to admire the glory of the meadow or the pasture on the plain or the hill-side spotted with fat cattle or ““bunchy’’ sheep? There is much to admire when grasses are crowded together in 318 ORNAMENTAL GRASSES. large masses, whether they are kept closely shorn or cropped, or whether they grow to uniform height and are viewed at various stages of their growth as the clouds drift over the fields or “‘they wave their fairy tassels in the wind.”’ Occasionally, near springs and streams, the frost deposits on the panicles a covering which is indescribably beautiful. Within a few years, florists have given considerable attention to the grasses for winter bouquets and for other decorative pur- poses. Our enterprising growers and dealers offer the seeds of quite a long list of the best for these purposes. In one other respect the grasses have not yet begun to assume the prominence their merits demand, The writer has grown a large number of our native and foreign grasses, and has studied them where each kind grew by itself in isolated bunches or patches, and he is free to say that in no other place does a grass appear to better advantage. Here is an almost endless variety, as exhibited in form, texture and color of the leaves. The culms also, and the spikes, racemes or panicles reveal their pe- culiarities in a manner which is most varied and pleasing. Such bunches of many kinds of grasses are well worthy of a place among the ornamental plats of our lawns and gardens. Where so many are fine it is difficult to discriminate. Those advertised by the florists are all good, including those with striped leaves. Mays, sugar cane, Sorghum, bamboo, Arundo donax, Zizania aquatica, Phragmites conmunis, and other tall species with broad leaves are valuable for the sub-tropical garden. The two latter are excellent for growing in the shallow margins of ponds. For plumes and bouquets the following are much used, for accounts of which consult the text elsewhere: Briza maxima, B. media, B. gracilis, Bromus asper, Lagurus ovatus, Polypogon monspeliensis, Deschampsia eespitosa, Phragmites communis, many species of Festuca, Elyinus arenarius, Agrostis elgans, A. nebu- ORNAMENTAL GRASSES, 319 losa, A. scabra, Panicum capillare, P. virgatum, Pennisetum longistylum, Asprella hystrix, Hrianthus ravenne, Coiz lachryma, Gynerium argenteum, Arundo conspicua, Chloris radiata, Stipa pennata, Hordeum jubatum. There is scarcely a genus of grasses of any size which does not possess one or more species of special value for ornamental pur- poses. ‘To the botanist, the artist or the florist it is hardly nec- essary to mention the following genera, viz: Panicum, Setaria, Spartina, Andropogon, Phalaris, Alopecurus, Phleum, Milium, Muhlenbergia, Holeus, Avena, Cynodon, Bouteloua, Hleusine, Eatonia, Graphephorum, Eragrostis, Melica, Poa, Glyceria, Fes- tuca, Bromus, Elymus, Triticum, Lolium, and many others. We hardly know where to stop giving names for this purpose. With reference to collecting and the use of grasses, A. Hassard in The Garden for 1875 has the following: ‘* Not even the most delicate fern will give the same airy look to a vase of flowers that a few spikes of wild grasses will impart. In cutting grasses for use they must be selected before they are old enough to fall to pieces when dried. Each variety should be tied in separate bunches, and care should be taken that they are not bruised to- gether, for, if this is the case, when the bunch is opened each spike will be found to have dried in its crushed position, and its form will be thus quite spoilt. All grasses should be dried in an upright position, particularly those of a drooping character. Oats, while still green, are also very pretty in large arrangements. A free use of grasses and sedges enables you to dispense with many flowers. The bloom of ribbon grass is very useful for this purpose, as it has a silver-like lustre, or a rose-pink tint, which is very pretty.” 320 THE LEGUMINOSAL PULSE FAMILY, CGHAPTER, av. THE LEGUMINOSA. PULSE FAMILY. Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate, usually compound’ and stipulate. lowers irregular or regular. Calyx mostly 5-. lobed with one lobe next to the bract. Corolla irregular and im- bricate (often papilionaceous), or regular and valvate, rarely o. One petal next to the axis. Stamens usually 10, rarely 5 or many, monadelphous, diadelphous or distinct, mostly perigynous. Pistil with a 1-celled carpel becoming a legume or an indehiscent. fruit, sometimes jointed. Embryo usually destitute of endo- sperm. This vast family contains, at the lowest estimate, 6,500 species, and is excelled in numbers by only one other, viz: the Com- posite, which includes asters, golden rods, sunflowers, dande- lions. Plants of the pulse family are widely distributed in every climate and in all kinds of soil. They vary in size from the lit- tle pussy clover to the giant locust trees of Brazil. We compre- hend only a small portion of their uses and wealth when notic- ing those species which are cultivated or wild in the United States. Red, white, mammoth and Alsike clovers, lucerne or alfalfa and sainfoin fill a place which could not well be supplied in our pastures and meadows, while peas and beans are scarcely of more importance than the peanut which would be missed in our groceries and on the corners of the streets, as well as by the people of Africa and the tropical islands. The pulse family is the most wonderful of all the families of plants in the enormous number and variety of its useful products. Its wealth is fairly bewildering. It contains barks of great use for tanning, many delicious perfumes, valuable medicines, tough fibers useful for cords, ropes or coarse cloth. It abounds in du- TRIFOLIUM, L. TREFOIL, CLOVER. 321 rable timber and in ornamental and fragrant woods. For gums it beats the world, and supplies also many valuable coloring materials. It is well supplied with ornamental species. PAPILIONACEH, PULSE FAMILY PROPER. Leaves mostly pinnate or palmate. owers usually in axillary or terminal racemes, spikes or heads. Calyz of 5 sepals, united, often unequally. Corolla perigynous, very irregular, of 5 or rarely fewer petals, papilionaceous; upper petal called the vevil- lum, or banner, inclosing the others in the bud; 2 lateral called ale or wings, oblique outside.and often adhering to the 2 lower, which are usually united, and called carina, or the keel. Sta- mens 10, very rarely 5, monadelphous or diadelphous, mostly 9» united and a free one next the banner. This sub-family, or sub-order includes all the clovers and other leguminous forage plants which are considered in this volume. TRIFOLIUM, L. TREFOIL, CLOVER. Herbs, usuallylow. Leaves digitately, rarely pinnately 3-folio- late; stipules adnate to the petiole. Flowers capitate or spiked, rarely solitary; red, purple or white, rarely yellow; bracts small or 0, sometimes forming a toothed involucre. Calyx-teeth 5, sub- equal. Petals persistent; wings longer than the keel, the claws of both adnate to the staminal tube. Upper stamen free; all the filaments, or 5 of them, dilated at the tip; anthers uniform. Style filiform, stigmas oblique or dorsal; ovules few. Pod small, indehiscent, 14—seeded, nearly enclosed in the calyx. Found in the north temperate and warm regions, rare in southern; species 150. The above generic description is mainly adapted from Hooker’s Flora of the British Islands. 41 SSS Li A 4 ( 1 \] hi |, } en 7 Wty \f ‘| Lit i; \ ’ l \ AN i Hh NEA \\ Nt ; Wn ae \ \\\Wih Mi Me ih P\\\\N li = Sai) fils K\\ \\\ ZZ UE \ \\, \ AN |) K Nii \ EA T. PRATENSE, L. RED CLOVER. 320 T’. pratense, L. Red Clover, Broad leaved Clover, Common Clover, Meadow Trefoil.—More or less pubescent, leaflets ob- long, stipules membranous, free portion appressed to the peti- ole, heads terminal, sessile, globose, at length ovoid, subtented by opposite leaves with much dilated stipules, calyx-teeth slen- der, setaceous, erect, or spreading in fruit, the lowest longest. Pastures, roadsides, etc., ascending to 1,900 ft. in the High- lands [of Great Britain]; flowers from May to September. An- nual, biennial or perennial. Sfems 6-24 in., solid or fistular, robust or slender. Leaflets 3-2 in., often marked with a white spot or lunate band, finely toothed; stipules often 1-14 in., with long setaceous points. Heads 3-1} in. diam., pink, purple or dirty white. Calyx-tube with a 2-lipped connection in the throat, strongly nerved:; teeth not exceeding the petals, very slender, un- equal. Pod opening by the top falling off. Found in Europe, N. Africa, Siberia, W. Asia to India; introduced in N, America certainly before the Revolution. Karly History.—Although in a general way this is a plant familiar to all farmers, there are many things in regard to its habits, variation and other peculiarities yet to learn. The ex- pression ‘To live in clover’? has become proverbial, and is another way of designating a good living. With a field of clover knee high, or up to the eyes, means fat cattle and swine and bunchy sheep. Some one styles the plant ‘*The red plumed commander-in-chief of the manurial forces.”’ Red clover was known and prized over 2,000 years ago by the Greeks and Romans, but it can hardly be said to have been cul- tivated, even in the simplest way, till used in England about 1633,—253 years ago, or 44 years before the cultivation of peren- nial rye grass, and nearly 100 years before that of any other of the true grasses. FiG. 128.—Trifolium pratense, L. (Red Clover), part of a plant and a flower enlarged. —(Sudworth.) 324 THE ROOTS OF RED CLOVER. For a long time it was propagated by scattering the seed in. the chaff with all the weeds and rubbish, as it accumulated at. the stack or barn. Extent of Roots. with numerous branches extending in all directions. Sometimes. Red clover usually has a large tap root, the tap root is short and soon equaled by its branches. These roots rarely ever extend less than two feet below the surface, as in moist, compact land, or where the surface is very rich. Where the subsoil is at all open and inclined to be dry, it is not unusual for the roots of clover to reach down six feet or more below the surface; however, the main bulk of the roots are usually within a foot of the surface. Various experiments and careful estimates have shown that fully one-half the weight of a clover plant is below the ground in the form of roots. Concerning the stems and leaves | shall speak more in detail in the paragraph which treats of variations of the plant. The Flower.—The flower is irregular, papilionaceous and its structure rather difficult to understand without considerable study of specimens or good illustrations. I take pleasure in reproduc- ing the excellent illustrations of Hermann Mihler, as found in his Fertilization of Flowers. q THE FLOWER. 825 The nectar is secreted by small glands at the base, on the in- side of the tube formed by the cohesion of thenine inferior fila- ments, and accumulates around the base of the ovary. In the center is the pistil, the style of which curves upwards, carrying the stigma a little beyond the anthers. The tenth stamen is free, and for most of its length is turned to one side, making it quite easy for the long tongue of a bee to reach the nectar. In the words of Miihler, ‘‘If now a bee inserts its proboscis beneath the vexillum, while it clings with its fore legs on to the ale (which is coherent with the carina) resting its middle and hind legs on a lower part of the inflorescence, the carina and ale are drawn downwards, and the stigmas and anthers are thrust up against the under side of the bee’s head; the stigma, standing highest, receives the pollen brought by the bee, and in- stantly afterwards the anthers dust the bee with fresh polien. Cross-fertilization is thus insured; self-fertilization may take place as the bee draws back its head, but is probably neutralized and superseded by the immediately preceding cross-fertilization. **Jn order to reach the honey in this way (to the bottom of the tube) an insect must possess a proboscis at least 9 to 10 m. m. long. The pollen is accessible to all insects which can press down the carina; and such insects, whether they reach the nectar or not, will perform cross-fertilization.”’ Bumble Bees a Great Help in Fertilizing Red Clover.— Phe writer, as well as some of his students, has made many ex- periments which help to prove the truth of the above heading. Fic. 129.—Trifolium pratense, L. 1.—F lower, from below. 2.—Ditto, from above, after removing the vexillum. 3.—Anterior part of flower, twice as much enlarged; the edges of the carina have been forced apart. 4.—Right ala, from within. (The claws of 4 and 5 have been broken short off.) 5.—Right half of the carina from without. 6.—The essential organs emerging from the depressed carina. _ a, calyx; b, tube formed by the coalescence of the nine filaments with the claws of the vexillum, ale, and carina; c, vexillum; d, concave part of the inner side of the ala; e, lower border of ala, bent outwards; f, outward surface of ala; g, pouched swelling on the base of the ala; h, carina: i, style; k, superior free stamen; I, stig- ma; m, anthers; n, point of union between ale and carina; 0, point of flexure of the carina; p, part of the upper border of the ala, bent outwards; g, downward extension of vexillum.—(Miihler.) 326 BUMBLE BEES AS FERTILIZERS. The following single experiment will serve as an example: Two fine bunches of the first crop of clover, apparently alike, were covered with mosquito netting. No insects were seen about either, except those mentioned below. On June 29th a bum- ble bee was placed inside of one netting and seen to work on the flowers. On July 10th two more bumble bees were introduced and seen to work, and on July 12th more bees were introduced, and were seen to work on the flowers. On July 31st 50 ripe heads were selected from each plant, and the seeds carefully shelled and counted. The 50 heads on the plant where the bumble bees were excluded yielded seeds as follows: A0iheads yieldéd= 22.4 - ses a eee Sek ieee BS 5 0 Giheads yieldéd'one'seed: each .222 5. 22-2. d2h 225. eee 6 lhead. yielded 122.222. 25 2ebeus Loe Lene eta bot ee 2 Ihead yielded... 22. 32222. sh hec ssi sei oce 3 { head yielded ..0222..c2cclsctsecd sass a.os-5¢o5eese ee 5 1 head yielded -_-_-_---- pe ae ee iS See eee ieee he, 9 Votal..<.5-2cccccscscessescteleeesesees-ssest ees 25 The 50 heads on the plant where bumble bees were inserted and seen to work under the netting yielded seeds as follows: 25 heads yielded ---- -- -- Bete sees esuesseseew sec ae 0 So sheads yielded one each... -.2-- s22.2 5 2225 2- += sede ae 2 o> heads yielded two 'each=..-2 1..22.2:..-22 20.245. -2_ e 10 3‘heads' yielded three each. 2. . su. 242. 33. S22 ke Se ee !Qaes 3 heads yielded four each. ..........- 22 22--6-25-525-062502 12 3 heads yielded five each. ..2-...--2.6-5. 22-22 2etse es = 15 1 head yielded seven... .---3-..2--++---3225-2224--e54=> == a Y head yielded eight.2:....- 2-2 --2 22.222 3. oop = 222) See 8 1 head yielded nine... 2... 225-52 -2---'.2-.-62-2-253- 0 9 1 head yielded ten. .253 2--2.--=--. =. 22 eee is ee 10 , 1 Head’ yielded'twelve:- =... 23-22----- 22 - sete oo oon er 12 Total x 2. us2 bs esse se dg sece Bee ae eee ee 94 In the above experiment both lots of heads were covered alike BUMBLE BEES AS FERTILIZERS. 327 with netting, that no one couid say the difference in yield of seed was due to the fact that one lot was covered and the other not covered. It will be seen, that where bees were observed to work on the flowers the yield of seeds was nearly four times that where the bees were kept away. But perhaps the two plants would not have yielded the same number of seeds had they been treated in every way precisely alike. . In reply to this suggestion I can offer the following, which shows that in six examples, selected at random, only one was found in which tke yield of seeds was nearly twice the number in the heads containing the fewest seeds. On September 135th, 1882, I selected of the second crop of red clover five plants within ten feet of each other, which seemed to be much alike. They had not been covered in any way. The seeds from 50 good heads of each plant were shelled out with the following results: 1, 260; 1, 275; 1, 460; 1, 485; 1, 1,820. It will be seen that 50 heads from plant number five contained only about one-third more seeds than 50 heads from plant number one. In another place, 50 heads selected from one plant yielded 2,290 seeds, nearly twice as many as plant number one in the first lot. Mr. C. Darwin covered one hundred flower-heads of red clover by a net and not a single seed was produced, while 100 heads growing outside yielded by careful estimate 2,720 seeds. He says: ‘It is at least certain that bumble bees are the chief fer- tilizers of the common red clover.”’ It may not be out of, place to say here that experiments with white clover show that visits of honey bees increase the yield of seeds enormously. In one case Putra non tn wielded... a=. 2-24-22 2-2 oe snes 5 seeds SewisiecuMyynecesnyieldeds. 52. 228 2 J24 3s seen iee eek eee ee 236 seeds This is an increase of over 47 fold in favor of the bees. A large number of carefully conducted experiments made by 328 THE SLEEP OF LEAVES. many persons on a great variety of plants show results quite as remarkable as those above cited. Here the bees and bumble bees not only make use of a waste product, but help the plants as well. Most botanists now be- lieve that odor and showy flowers are advertisements for attract- ing insects, and that nectar and surplus pollen are the wages to compensate insects for services rendered in fertilization. If this be the case should not the farmer seek to encourage meadow mice, which make the nests sought by bumble bees in which to rear their young. The bumble bees, at least, should be encouraged. It is not improbable that the time may come when queen bumble bees will be reared, bought and sold for their benefit to the crop of clover seed. The Sleep of Leaves.—This can in no way be compared with the sleep of animals, but refers to the fact that the leaves of elo- vers take different positions at night from those assumed during the day time. This difference in position is caused by turgescence in the pulvinus, which is the name given to a mass of small cells a of a pale color found in a certain portion Fia. 130.—Trifolium repens ; : a, leaf during the day; b,leat of the leaf stalk. asleep at night.—(Darwin.) Experiments show that leaves kept open or spread apart con- tain more dew in the morning, and hence become cooler than those which approach each other. The leaves crowd together, or ‘‘sleep,’’ for the same purpose that pigs crowd together in cold weather, viz: to keep warm. It has been found that the leaves which sleep do not remain quiet during the night, but continue, without exception, to move during the whole twenty- four hours. All non-sleeping leaves are also in incessant motion, circumnutating. The sleep of plants is a mere modified form of ¢':'s universal circumnutation. A LITTLE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 329 During a warm, dry day leaves also assume the sleeping po- sition, which aids in checking evaporation. There are more ‘‘sleeping’’ plants among the Leguminosz than are found in all other families put together. A Little Agricultural Chemistry.—Of the thirteen elements necessary for plant growth the farmer usually need take but little care, except in the supply of potassium, phosphorus and nitro- gen, and of these three nitrogen is the most precious and costly to obtain. All agricultural plants draw much of their food from the atmosphere, and of those used by the farmer probably none are much, if any, exceeded by clover in the large proportion of nutriment thus derived. In this respect other leguminous crops are much like red clover. “Clover seed is the best manure that a farmer can use.’’ Clover has been called ‘‘a trap for nitrogen,’’ as it collects and presents large quantities of combined nitrogen in a form ready to nourish growing crops. In the words of Dr. Kedzie: ‘‘ With an adequate supply of combined nitrogen all the other chemicals of agriculture become active, while a limited supply of active nitrogen correspondingly limits the action of the rest. For high farming, or the raising of exceptionally large crops, the great want is an abundant and cheap supply of ammonia and the nitrates. *‘An acre of good clover will make 5,000 pounds of hay, con- taining 2823 pounds of mineral matter or ash. In this ash will be 973 pounds of potash, 96 pounds of lime, 344 pounds of mag- nesia, and 28 pounds of phosphoric acid. The hay will also con- tain 108 pounds of combined nitrogen.” : The roots and stubble contain fully as much of these elements as the hay. : Baron J. B. Lawes found that in autumn, after tho last crop of clover was cut, that remaining above ground, and to the depth -of 72 inches was examined: 42 330 THE USES AND VALUE. Stubble, etc., above ground contained -------- 2,669 pounds per acre, dry. 1st nine inches contained.----.--.---.-------- 3,017 pounds per acre, dry. 2d.nine. inches contamed ....-- 4. ---~+2=-.+--- 275 pounds per acre, dry. 3d nine inches contained «._-..-.-..---+.----- 191 pounds per acre, dry. NV a ee es ee se ee 6,152 This was between three and four times as much dry matter as the residue of the barley. In the words of Dr. Kedzie: ‘* The clover hay or sod contains enough phosphoric acid for more than double an average crop, enough nitrogen for more than four average crops, and potash for more than six average crops of wheat! If any person were preaching the gospel of agriculture he well might hold up the triple leaf of the red clover as the symbol of trinity of bless- ings to the farmer, furnishing for his cereal crops, from other- wise inadequate sources, a sufficient supply of potassium, phos- phorus and nitrogen. If I were designing an emblematic seal of our national agriculture I would make the central figure the clover leaf. For the farmer it is the most effective trap for ni- trogen within his reach.”’ The late George Geddes, of New York, said: ‘‘It has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that clover and plaster are by far the cheapest manure that can be had for our lands,—so much cheaper than barnyard manure that the mere loading of and spreading costs more than the plaster and clover. Plow under ' the clover on the more distant fields when it is at full growth. «A very considerable part of the cultivated land of Onondaga County has never had any other manuring than this clover and gypsum, and its fertility is not diminishing. The cost per acre is $2.32.” The Uses and Value.—The following as to the use and man- agement of red clover is gleaned from Harris’ Talks on Manures: «Clover is, unquestionably, the great renovating crop of Ameri- can agriculture. A crop of clover, equal to two tons of hay, . THE USES AND VALUE. 3381 when plowed under, will furnish more ammonia to the soil than twenty tons of straw-made manure, fresh and wet, or twelve tons of ordinary barnyard manure. **T prefer to make the clover into hay and feed the animals, as they seldom take out more than from five to ten per cent. of all the nitrogen furnished in the food,—and less still of mineral matter. If you plow it under you are sure of it. There is no less. In feeding it out you may lose more or less from leaching and injurious fermentation. As things are on many farms, it is perhaps best to plow under the clover for manure at once. As things ought to be it is a most wasteful practice. Clover is good for wheat; plaster is good for clover. The roots run deep, draw- ing large amounts of water, and can live on very weak food. The clover takes up this food and concentrates it. The clover does not create the plant food; it merely saves it. ‘To improve sandy land, instead of plowing the clover under or feeding it off, mow the crop just as it commences to blossom and let the clover lie. There would be no loss of fertilizing by evaporation, and the clover hay acts as a mulch. Mow the second crop about the first week in August.”’ _ The following computation of the redative money value of one ton of various foods for producing manure is from the experi- ments of Mr. Lawes: Coiiheni Saal anes ae en ae oN 5 00S Se ney RR ERS ek eps $27 86 UMRRMINC Oe Oe oy ne tee 19 72 teal enna. fo tc ee Se Se eee ee ee lan Co Then load, See) ee eee (eee an ee Een ee eRe DTS Le 14 59 7 Le EE) S 5B AAP la anna See ees 9 64 Indian meal______. Pee se eee ee nes Sn Ae ee 6 63 SRIMIMRRIN: Sage oe eo ee Se 2 2 = kp Ba see eee 43 (2h SUDO ones hse dee ee mer ts er eae 2 90 nn ee a ee he eee eee 1 50 uum een Menem eR LY) vet, 1 2 bl oom ee! 86 All agricultural plants draw most of their food, directly or in- 332 THE USES AND VALUE. directly, from the atmosphere, and of those used none are ex- ceeded by clover in the large proportion of nutriment thus de- rived. If the stubble and roots contain more than half of the manu- rial value of red clover, and if live stock only appropriate from five to ten per cent. of the nitrogen, and the other 90 to 95 per cent. goes back to the field or dung heap, it certainly must be the best practice, as a rule, to feed red clover instead of plowing it all under. [ have not seen a more concise and valuable summary of this matter than the one by the late Dr. Voelcker, as found in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England for 1868: 1. ‘‘A good crop of clover removes from the soil more potash, phosphoric acid, lime, and other mineral matters, which enter into the composition of the ashes of our cultivated crops, than any other crop usually grown in this country.”’ 2. “There is fully three times as much nitrogen in a crop of clover as in the average produce of the grain and straw of wheat per acre.”’ 3. ** Notwithstanding the large amount of nitrogenous matter of ash constituents of plants in the produce of an acre, clover is an excellent preparatory crop for wheat.”’ 4. “During the growth of clover a large amount of nitro- genous matter accumulates in the soil.” 5. * This accumulation, which is greatest in the surface soil, is due to decaying leaves dropped during the growth of clover, and to an abundance of roots, containing, when dry, from 1} to 2 per cent. of nitrogen.” 6. <*The clover roots are stronger and more numerous, and more leaves fall on the ground, when clover is grown for seed, than when it is mown for hay; in consequence more nitrogen is left after clover seed than after hay, which accounts for wheat yielding a better crop after clover seed than after hay.”’ THE USES AND VALUE. 333 %. <*The development of roots being checked when the pro- duce, in a green condition, is fed off by sheep, in all probability leaves still less nitrogenous matter in the soil than when clover is allowed to get riper and is mown for hay; thus, no doubt, ac- counting for the observation made by pastoral men that, not- withstanding the return of the produce in the sheep excrements, wheat is generally stronger and yields better after clover mown for hay than when the clover is fed off green by sheep.”’ 8. ‘*The nitrogenous matter in the clover-remains, on their gradual decay, are finally transformed into nitrates, thus afford- ing a continuous source of food, on which cereal crops especially delight to grow.”’ 9. ‘There is strong presumptive evidence that the nitrogen which exists in the shape of ammonia and nitric acid, and de- scends in these combinations with the rain which falls on the ground, satisfies, under ordinary circumstances, the requirements of the clover crop. This crop causes a large accumulation of nitrogenous matters, which are gradually changed in the soil into nitrates. The atmosphere thus furnishes nitrogenous food to the succeeding wheat indirectly, and, so to say, gratis.”’ 10. ‘‘ Clover not only provides abundance of nitrogenous food, but delivers this food in «a really available power (as nitrates) more gradually and continually, and with more certainty of a good result, than such food can be applied to the land in the shape of nitrogenous spring top dressing.”’ The above conclusions should be posted up and read daily by every farmer till they are indelibly fixed in his mind. Owing to the great depth to which the roots penetrate the soil, —trequently six feet or more,—they help to bring up a run-down farm; they bring the valuable ingredients from a great depth and store a large part of them in the large roots near the sur- face, where they are available for future plant growth. 33 RED CLOVER IN MANY LANDS. Red Clover in Many Lands.—Red clover is well adapted to many portions of the temperate regions of the earth. It likes best a soil of clay loam, rich in lime, but will thrive better than Timothy and most other true grasses where the land is sandy or gravelly. On good grass land it is usually the custom to sow Timothy with red clover, although it blossoms some three weeks later. Many prefer to sow orchard grass with clover, as they flower and are ready to cut at the same time. Timothy is well adapted to sow with the large, late, or mammoth clover. Red clover is not only a general favorite in the United States from Maine and New Jersey to Iowa and Illinois, but is very valuable further West and South. For Kansas, Professor Shelton reports that it deserves a prom- inent place in the list of forage plants. In some very dry sea- sons it fails almost entirely, but during the favorable seasons it flourishes abundantly and yields more—both of hay and pasture —than is generally obtained in the East. When land is once seeded it never runs out, as is the case in the Eastern States, but thickens and spreads continually by self-seeding. We believe that nowhere are such large crops of clover seed grown as in Kansas. In Mississippi, Professor Phares says, red clover grows most luxuriantly on all their lands with tenacious red or yellow clay subsoil, even though the soil be thin; and once set, it remains as long as the farmer desires, provided he does not mow more than twice each year, nor graze too heavily. In Georgia, the late C. W. Howard says: ‘‘ This is the most valuable herbaceous plant to the Southern farmer. It bears grazing admirably, makes excellent hay, and in large quantity, and thrives on land of moderate fertility. The doubts as to whether red clover would succeed at the South have been dis- pelled. At the South it lasts for several years.”’ Red clover is valuable to enrich the land and hence to enrich CLOVER AS A WEED-EXTERMINATOR. ed oo wt the owner; it is not excelled by any forage crop as a wholesome summer pasture for swine, and some have spoken very highly of its use in winter when fed to swine in the form of hay. For soiling, a good growth of red clover is very valuable, and it has often been packed into the silo to feed as ensilage in the winter. Clover as a Weed-Exterminator.—We have ample testimo- ny from a great variety of sources that red clover, with a little gypsum and perhaps a top dressing of some other fertilizer, is excellent to smother and kill out our worst weeds. The following was furnished by special request by J. S. Wood- ward, now one of the editors of the Rural New Yorker: ‘*Can- ada thistles have long roots which store up nourishment during the latter part of summer and fall to feed the spring growth. I kill the thistles without the loss of a crop as follows: Have the land rich, if possible, at least have it well seeded to clover and by top dressing with plaster, ashes, or by some means get as good growth to the clover as possible. As soon as the clover is in full bloom, and here and there a thistle shows a blossom, mow and make the crop, thistles and all, into hay. After mowing, apply a little plaster to quickly start the growth of clover. You will find this to come much quicker than the thistles. As ‘soon as the clover has a good start, from July 20th to August 5th, plow down, being careful to plow all the land and to fully cover all growth. Then roll and harrow at once, so as to cover every thistle. But few thistles will ever show themselves after this, and they will look pale and weak. When they do show, culti- vate thoroughly with a cultivator having broad, sharp teeth, so as to cut every one off under the ground. In two days go over with a sharp hoe and cut off any that may have escaped the cul- tivator. Watch the thistles, and keep using the hoe and culti- vator until freezing weather. You will see them getting scarcer and scarcer each time and looking as though they had the con- 336 PUTTING IN THE SEED. sumption. By plowing this field just before freezing up you will have the land in the finest condition for a spring crop. This plan not only kills thistles but ox-eye daisies and other weeds. It is much better than a summer-fallow, and without the loss of any crop.”’ Putting in the Seed.—'T'0o0 little care is exercised in select- ing the seed, as most of it contains more or less seeds of per- nicious weeds, and especially does this caution become more and more necessary as the country becomes older. The troublesome weeds of a farm can generally be directly traced to foul seeds sown with grasses and clovers for the meadows and pastures, In the northern portion of the United States numerons experi- ments seem to clearly indicate that it is best to sow seeds of red clover in spring. In some sections it is sown even before freez- ing ceases, but many now practice sowing just in time for the young plants to begin growth with the first early vegetation. If sown in autumn, especially if late, the young plants are very likely too feeble to survive the winter. If at all in autumn the date should be early enough to give plants a good start. In the warmer portions of our Union clover is often sown in autumn, or even in winter. Clover seed is most generally sown where wheat and some Timothy were sown the autumn previous, though it is not un- frequently sown in spring, with a thin seeding of oats or barley. It is a common practice with our best farmers to harrow the ground very lightly before sowing the clover seed. This bene- fits the wheat as well as favors the growth of the clover. Where no grass seeds have been sown, at the West, the farmer sows 6, 8 or 10 or even 12 pounds of clover seed to the acre, but. at the East 25 or 30 pounds is not thought too much. In Great Britain, which possesses a moist climate favorable to the development of grasses and clovers, it is the practice to sow much more seed than is usnally sown in the United States. CARE OF THE YOUNG CLOVER. 337 There are 16,000 clover seeds to the ounce, or 156,000 to the pound. In ten pounds there are 1,560,000 seeds. In England farmers often sow seeds of grasses and clovers enough, if all grew, to produce 16,878,000 to 27,000,000 plants, which is ten to fifteen times the amount of seed thought sufficient by our west- ern farmers. The Englishman seeks to get large uumbers of fine, small stems instead of fewer large, coarse ones. _ In various portions of our country, isolated farmers have sown clover in the spring on well prepared land without the presence of another crop, and they get a crop of grass or clover the first year. This practice deserves more thought from the average farmer. : For further remarks on this last idea consult a former para- graph on seeding without a crop. Care of the Young Clover.—It has often been shown, be- yond question, that the young plants will be more certain to live and will grow faster and become stouter, if not sown with a grain crop. If the wheat is thick and large the clover is apt to suffer; if the wheat is thin and light clover is likely to become large and crowd it. It must not be forgotten that young clover is most generally greatly benefited by even a very light dusting with gypsum, say one-fourth to one-half or even a bushel to the acre. Sheep and swine must not be allowed to feed young clover, at least very long, because it may be much damaged, or even killed. Clover needs a little time to get its roots well established, and this cannot be done without the aid of green tops. Clover fails ‘‘to catch’? for a great variety of reasons. The soil may be very much ‘‘run down,’’ or the seed is poor, sown too late, the ground is too rough, not narrowed nor rolled; the oats or wheat get the start and choke it out or enfeeble the plants; the weather in spring is too dry, too hot; the young 43 538 WINTER KILLING AND REMEDIES. plants are fed too closely. The frosts of spring may kill the young plants. . Winter Killing and Remedies.—Red clover not unfrequently ) “winter kills’’ or ‘‘ heaves out,’’ and the dead plants in spring stick up out of the ground several inches, especially in winter, when there has been little snow on the ground and frequent alternations of freezing and thawing. To prevent winter killing see that the plants are well established in autumn and that they are not fed off too closely. Thorough tile drainage is a great benefit. A moderate amount of tops left on the ground will often be of some assistance, or a very thin mulch of straw put on after the ground has first become well frozen. A mulching of straw early in autumn has sometimes done more harm than good. No attempt, at the North, should be made to save red clover over to the third year, as such efforts are not successful. As spring approaches and the soil warms up it is rather dis- couraging to find the clover killed out. The proprietor often plows up the ground and puts in another crop, thus leaving the land in a still worse condition for the next seeding to clover. He very likely raises millet or Indian corn or rye or buys of his neighbors a supply of winter feed. In case of partial winter killing the writer cannot help thinking that too little attention has been given ‘‘to patching up’’. such meadows in spring. By this is meant to harrow, re-seed, and, if possible, top dress with some sort of manure. The Best Time for Cutting Clover for Hay.—The follow- ing is from the pen of Prof. H. P. Armsby: ‘‘ What has been shown to be true of meadow hay in this respect applies also to clover. The earlier it is cut the more concentrated and digesti- ble the fodder, while as it grows older the crude fibre increases and it becomes coarse and less easily digestible. In regard to the best times for cutting clover the same rules apply as those given for cutting grass. In regard to the advantages of early SAVING CLOVER SEED. 339 and frequent cuttings, the experiments do not all give such striking results as those on grass.”’ For further notes in regard to securing clover hay the reader is referred to a former chapter of this work. Saving Clover Seed. difficult one to state, especially as the heads ripen unevenly. The proper ‘time to cut for seed is a These heads should be examined, for sometimes the earliest con- tain most seeds, and sometimes the main bulk of the seed is found in heads which mature later in the season. Some persons have observed that clover, when cut rather early, from the 5th to the 15th of June at the North, is more certain to seed well than that cut later. In some cases they report double the amount of seed from the clover which was cut early. Considering its high price, if there is any prospect of greatly in- creasing the yield of seeds more experiments are much needed. Some were suggested in the paragraph which treats of the agency of bumble bees in fertilizing the flowers. In England Dr. A. Voelcker tried some different sort of ma- nures for this purpose with results by no means satisfactory or conclusive. Probably the efforts were made in the wrong direc- tion, as indicated in the preceding paragraphs. For securing the seed, red clover is ordinarily cut with a reaper which delivers the clover in small gavels. In this way the clover is moved to one side and is not damaged by the tramping of the horses. The clover is allowed to lie until it is well dried, and probably black and brittle. It may need turning once or more before dry and ready to thresh or draw to the stack or the barn. Clover seed during the harvesting will stand a good deal of abuse and not lose its vitality. During a very unfavorable season for curing, when there was much rain, the writer tested samples from about sixty different farms in Michigan, and found they averaged 85 per cent. of good 340 RELATIVE VALUE OF DARK AND LIGHT SEEDS. seeds, rarely going as low as 75 per cent., though one small lot went down to 25 per cent. Some went up to 95 per cent. Clover is usually threshed and cleaned with a machine made for the purpose. The yield runs from less than a bushel to the acre to two bushels, a fair yield, four bushels, a fine yield, or even six bushels, an exceptionally good yield. Relative Value of Park and Light Colored Seeds.—Dark colored, bright looking seeds are generally considered the best. The results obtained on testing numerous samples on different seasons indicate that there is no difference in favor of the dark seeds either in vitality or the quality of the plants which they produce. It is generally the case that all the seeds, or nearly all, from one plant resemble each other in color and size. Some plants produce yellow seeds, others produce dark ones, others produce seeds of mixed colors. Variation of Red Clover. man, of England, in Jour. Royal Agrl. Soc., p. 446, 1866, says The late Professor James Buck- the American red clover is a much larger and coarser and more hairy plant than that cultivated in England, doubtless due to a longer and warmer summer. The wild clover, as early introduced into Europe, is usually the small hairy plant that we meet with (in England) and greatly different from that described by Sinclair, which is larger and quite smooth. The Professor goes on to say that: ‘‘ Both when wild and when cultivated it is perhaps as protean in form as any plant the farmer has to deal with. Some are more perennial than others; all are more or less hardy, more or less productive, and these differences have a high significance. However, it sel- dom happens that any particular type can be obtained pure, though the value of the seed varies just in proportion as it is 80. “There are three desiderata with regard to clover. “‘Ist. A good sort or sorts. «2d. Pure seed of the sort. VARIATION OF RED CLOVER. 341 “3d. Seed from a known and suitable climate.”’ The Professor then describes six of the leading varieties, none of which are just like those I find in Michigan. Not long ago our seeds of red clover came from Europe, and already we have a great change in the plants. I have for some years past studied quite carefully in different stages of growth, at different seasons and on different soils, many hundreds of plants. I have preserved some of the plants and seeds of a few of the most striking. There is nearly or quite a month’s difference in the time of first flowering, Some plants stool out and send up many stalks; others few. On hot, dry days some plants wilt while others show no signs of wilting. Some plants are tall and large or slender; others are short, even where the soil seems to be uni- form. Some are erect, even where there is nothing to crowd them; others spread out at once, even where somewhat crowded. The leaves and stems of some plants are densely pubescent ; others are nearly smooth, and between these are all gradations. In this respect the same plant varies a little at different seasons. The stems vary much in length and number of branches and in the color. On some plants the leaves are dark green; on others light green. The leaflets often contain a light spot, which varies in shape, size and intensity. Some are destitute of any trace of spots. Some leaves are firm, and a quarter or more thicker than others; some are thin and flabby. Some leaflets are as broad as long; others are elliptical—lanceolate. The stipules vary in shape, color and position taken. The heads of flowers vary in size and shape, and so far as seen were sessile, with an involucre of two leaves. The calyx tube and the lobes of the calyx vary in size and hairiness. The petals vary in length, direction taken, and differ in color from dirty white to pink and bright scarlet. Varying with the season, and probably with the plant, the pistils contain each o42 THE MODEL PLANT. from-none to two, three or even four seeds. There is a marked difference, as before observed, in the color of the seeds. Of some plants observed I give the following brief description: No. 1. Early, stems purplish, few and small, erect, quite hairy, leaflets spotted, rather narrow, leaflets of the involucre lance-elliptical. No. 8. Late, stems few, stout, sprawling, quite smooth, pur- plish, leaflets rather narrow, with scarcely a trace of a spot. No. 17. Very late, stems long, of medium size, spreading, green, quite hairy; leaves light green, spot inconspicuous. No. 19. A seedling of dark seed, early, stems numerous, large, tall, erect, smooth, purplish, leaflets rather broad, thick, very dark green, with no trace of a spot; flowers dark colored. The Model Plant.—I have begun a few experiments in a very small way by selecting and raising different races of red clover. This variation in our fields is a broad hint at the results which may be obtained by care and study. For the Northern States we need a red clover which starts early, grows rapidly, has numerous erect, rather stout stems, which are not large. If too woody, the stems make coarse fod- der; if they contain too little woody matter, they will not be stiff enough to stand up well. The plant should be rather hairy, as such plants usually endure hot, dry weather best. The model plant should seed freely, and to aid in this, if possible, the tube of the flower should be short enough to permit honey bees to reach the nectar. The tongue of a honey bee when stretched out is six to seven millimeters in length, while the tube of the corolla of red clover is nine to ten millimeters. It seems by this that there is a wide breech to be gained in growth of tongue or shrink- age of corolla before the honey bee can sip all the nectar from the bottom of the tube of red clover. The tongue must elongate one-third or the tube of the flower shorten as much. The occa- 2 CLOVER SICKNESS. 343 sional visits of honey bees to the flowers of red clover may be accounted for by supposing they seek pollen, or they seek the honey which has filled a considerable portion of the floral tube. The upper portion of this honey can be reached even with the tongue of the ordinary honey bee. Clover Sickness.— This is a term used in Great Britain to in- dicate a failure of the plants to thrive after they have once started. Many observations and experiments have been made and much has been written on the topic in regard to the cause and remedies. Except in a very few places in the older portions of the United States, and even these are of questionable authority, no trouble of this nature has appeared on this side of the Atlantic. Recent investigations by Kutzleb show that clover sickness is not due to parasites, to lack of nitrogen, to lack of water, or to unfayorable physical properties of the soil, but to a deficiency of easily soluble potash, especially in the subsoil. (H. P. Armsby in Science, p. 146, 1883.) It is not improbable as our country grows older that repeated crops of clover may so deprive the subsoil of potash that clover sickness may become common. One who suspects the presence of this trouble should look carefully for insects or some fungus before coming to a conclusion. To my inquiry in reference to the presence of clover sickness in the State of New York, Professor Roberts replied through the Philadelphia Press as follows: ‘‘So far nothing like what is known in Europe as ‘clover sickness’ is present. The clover leaf beetle, Phytonymus punctatus, has injured a few fields se- riously, but its ravages have been confined to very small areas, sometimes to a single acre or two in a township. The clover seed midge, Cecidomyia leguminicola, which prevents the clover from blossoming and destroys the seed, is found in most, if not all, of the counties of western New York. The hay crop is in- jured by them to only a slight extent. 344 TRIFOLIUM MEDIUM. MAMMOTH CLOVER. ‘The clover root borer, Cecidomyia trifolii, plays terrible havoc with the clover the second year. Much has been written on this subject, yet few appear to realize that their failures, after the clover has been well established, come from the injury done by the root borer. If this beetle remains, the four-years’ course must come into general practice.”’ Hoven.—This is a term applied to cattle which haye become sick and bloated after eating too heartily of clover which was fresh and wet. At such times, till the cattle have become used to the feed so as not to be greedy, they should be turned off the clover after eating for an hour or so at a time. TRIFOLIUM MEDIUM, L. MAMMOTH, GIANT, PEA-VINE CLOVER, OR COW GRASS (OF ENGLAND). The following description of the typical form, as it appears in England, is mainly from Hooker's Flora : Plant slightly hairy, leaflets oblong, obtuse, or acute; stipules herbaceous, free portion spreading, heads subglobose, terminal, often shortly peduncled, subtended by opposite leaves, calyz- teeth setaceous, spreading in fruit, lowest a little longest. June to September, perennial. Stems straggling, flexuous, often zigzag. Leaflets 1-2 in., rather rigid, almost quite entire, ciliate. Heads 1-1} in. diam. Flowers $in., rose-purple. Calyz-throat with a ring of hairs, tube 10-nerved, glabrous, teeth reaching half way up the petals. Pod often dehiscent longitudinally. Distributed in Europe, Siberia, Western Asia; introduced in North America. This clover is Trifolium medium, and so named a long time ago by Linneus. The common name might with propriety, be ‘‘medium red clover.’? I mention this fact because farmers have lately got in the notion of calling the early red clover ‘‘ me- b dium ”’ clover. Mammoth clover is quite similar in appearance to the early red clover, but it flowers later, with Timothy, is very often a peren- TRIFOLIUM MEDIUM, ETC. 34D Fie. 131.—Trifoliwm medium, L. (Mammoth Clover,) part of a plant and a lower leaf. —(Sudworth.) 44 346 TRIFOLIUM MEDIUM, ETC. nial, and is adapted for permanent pasture; the stems are larger, more inclined to spread, the leaflets are narrower and often des- titute of a light spot, the flowers are bright red and larger than in Trifolium pratense, and form a less compact head. ; The samples found at the Agricultural College, and in many other places, show all grades of intermediate forms. These two species seem to be freely hybridized. At my request, my friend, A. C. Glidden, of Paw Paw, Mich., has made numerous inquiries in reference to its value in his por- tion of the State, where it has been largely grown. L. B. Lawrence, of Cass County, who owns a large prairie farm, has grown it for many years. He considers it less hardy than the other species; it is more liable to “‘heave’’ in the spring, and often grows so rank as to kill itself by the burden of stalk on the surface. He thinks the roots are smaller and that it feeds on the surface, and does not work in the subsoil like the other species. He formerly pastured this clover till the first of June, when he allowed it to flower and seed, which would often come off early enough to plow for wheat. Recently he has run over the field with a mower, clipping the tops about the first of June, and allowing them to remain as a mulch, while the new growth forms seed. D. Woodman, of Paw Paw, once sowed a field in equal divisions of the two kinds, and the mammoth clover furnished double the amount of feed for pasture, as compared with the other half of the field. The season was a dry one. Others report that it is better than the early kind for pastures in July and August. The notion prevails that the mammoth clover does not make as good hay as the other species; it is often coarse and woody. Another point should not be overlooked. They all agree that the mammoth clover is much the most productive of seeds. As this is the case, we may expect it will soon become more com- mon than it is at present. Farmers will select the large kind to TRIFOLIUM HYBRIDUM. ALSIKE CLOVER. 347 raise seeds to sell, and many times this seed will finally be pur- chased by farmers and sown, supposing it to be the early or round leaved red clover. In managing this plant, it should be understood that if teft without pasturing or mowing in spring there will only be a small crop of seed. TRIFOLIUM HYBRIDUM, L. ALSIKE CLOVER. Plant glabrous, perennial. Stems, branching, 1-2 ft. high, ascending, weak. /Petioles long; leaflets obovate or oblong, toothed. Stipules rather long, nerves green. Heads about ? in. diam., globular, flowers pinkish, pedicellate, recurved after flow- ering; peduncles 2-4 in. Calyx white, teeth green; pod same as in white clover. Found in Europe, North Africa, West Asia; introduced into N. America. Its common name is derived from a parish in Sweden. In appearance it is so nearly intermediate between red and white clover that Linnaeus supposed it was a hybrid, and hence its specific name. It is not a hybrid. Alsike likes rather moist land, containing some clay. It is smoother and more delicate than red clover, and the stems are weaker, so much so that it is quite likely to lodge. The stems remain green after seeding. It stands dry weather well, is not apt to winter kill, the flowers continue for along time and abound in nectar, which can be reached by honey bees. Alsike clover has a good reputation for pasture and is a favor- ite with bee-keepers. It frequently yields 3-8 bushels of seed to the acre, and these are only half the size of those of red clover, nence only about half as much seed is sown to the acre. This is produced from the first crop, though it is often pastured a while. early in the season. It is two or three years coming to full size, and does best for pasture when sown with some stout grasses. The aftermath is very light. 348 TRIFOLIUM REPENS. WHITE CLOVER. When ripe it shells more easily than rec clover, and is more apt to waste, hence more care is needed in the harvesting. Trifolium repens, L. White or Dutch Clover.—A smooth perennial; stems creeping and rooting at the joints. Stipules small, narrow, accuminate; petioles 2-4 in., leaflets obovate or obcordate, obcurely toothed, often with a light mark towards the base. Heads, or close umbels, 1 in. diam.; peduncles 3-8 in. Flowers white or rosy, pedicels reflexed after flowering. Pod 4-6 seeded. In pastures of Europe, Russian Asia, N. Africa, India, N. America, at the North. This is the Shamrock of the modery Irish. The following, from Wm. Gorrie, gives a fair notion of its es- timate among the farmers of England: ‘It has long been al- most universally sown for pastures, but many consider its merits highly over-rated; for although it makes a great display on fa- vorite soils, yet it is neither fattening nor cared for by stock when they have a sufficient choice of pasturage. No attempt has been made to secure improved varieties.” Below follows the opinion of Dr. 8S. A. Knapp, of Iowa, who says: ‘It flourishes when the true grasses wither; it appears to defy equally poverty of soil, cold, excessive moisture or extreme drought. It is perennial, which gives it a great advantage over red clover, and renders it an almost necessary substitute where close grazing is practiced. It is extremely hardy, and turns its sprightly green leaves to the lingering snows of spring and stoutly resists the sharp frosts of approaching winter. It resists drought with true clover stubbornness, and thrives in the slough or upon the knoll with almost equal vigor. It furnishes a large amount of highly nutritive material. It has more protein and more fat than red clover. In flesh-forming material it is nearly 20 per cent. richer than blue grass. ‘The product is about eight tons of Fia. 182.—Trifolium hybridum, L. (Alsike Clover,) a, part of a plant; e, a flower en- larged.—(Sudworth.) MY 1 nah SAMH/Z La t SS Ye =) S~ | EB. Sudrerth del. Fig. 182. TRIFOLIUM REPENS. ris A Wz Vw \y Wert OT ae © acai Fra. 133.—Lrifoliwm repens, L. (White or Dutch Clover,) a, part of plant with e, young head; f, older head where part of the flowers have turned down; y, old head where all the flowers have turned down.—(Sudworth.) TRIFOLIUM INCARNATUM. 351 green fodder to the acre upon rich prairie soil. The flower is excellent during most of the season, and the cattle eat it with avidity, except during the months of July and a portion of Au- gust. Almost the sole objection urged to white clover is its ef- fect on horses during the maturing of the seed.”’ It makes them ‘* slobber.”’ Its dwarf character makes it unfit for the scythe. If the soil is suitable it spreads so rapidly that very little seed is necessary. White clover is a fickle plant, coming and going with the ya- rying seasons. It often burns out in hot weather. An old hard road, once abandoned, is likely to send up white clover in ad- vance of the grasses. It is a well known and highly prized bee plant, although the season is often a short one, especially if hot, dry weather comes on early. ‘© White clover is often sown with some of the finer grasses for lawns. Trifolium inearnatum, L. Crimson or Italian Clover, French Clover.—A soft, erect, hairy annnal 1-2 ft. high. S¢i- pules broad, with short, broad leafy tips; leaflets broad, obovate, or nearly round. Heads 1-2 in., oblong or cylindrical. Flowers 4 in. Calyx soft, hairy, teeth narrow, nearly equal. Petals bright crimson or scarlet or a pale cream color. Found in south- ern Europe, and cultivated in France, Germany, Belgium. When in flower this is a beautiful plant. As it is an annual belonging to a warm climate, it does not seem so popular at the North as red clover. One writer, a farmer in Virginia, speaks highly of crimson clo- ver to sow in autumn alone, or with Italian rye-grass, for cutting the next May. He says it is very productive, and is an excellent cloyer for one crop, or rather for one mowing, which should be taken early, as it becomes coarse and woody if allowed to mature. 352 MEDICAGO. After repeated trials on a small scale the writer thinks it of no value for Michigan. Prof. Gulley is of the same opinion in reference to Mississippi. Several other species of true clovers are often met with and sometimes cultivated with more or less success, but we do not intend to treat the subject exhaustively. MEDICAGO, L. MEDICK. Herbs with pinnately 3-foliolate leaves; leaflets usually toothed ; stipules adhering to the peliote. //Jowers small, in short spikes, or loose heads, violet or yellow. Calyx-teeth 5, nearly equal, keel obtuse, shorter than the wings. Sfamens diadelphous, the upper one free; anthers uniform. od small, with few seeds, very much curved, or spirally twisted, indehiscent, often spiny. Found in Europe, W. Asia, N. Africa, introduced into N. America. M. sativa, L. Lucerne, Alfalfa, Purple Medick, Chilian Clover, French Clover, Spanish Trefoil.—An upright, deeply rooting, smooth perennial, 1-2} ft. high. Leaflets obovate-ob- long, toothed, tip notched. //owers in a short dense raceme, blue or purple; peduncles longer than the leaves. Pod $ in. diam., spirally twisted. Origin not certainly known; now culti- vated in Southern Europe and America. The common French name is Lucerne ; the Spanish name for the same species is Alfalfa, a name which followed the plant into South America and thence to Mexico and California and the dry countries this side. It was known and prized by the Greeks and Romans 2,500 years ago, and was spoken of by Columella as the most valuable plant for fodder. To begin with, there are a few things which the inquirer should not fail to keep constantly in mind. Lucerne is ‘a child of the sun;”’ likes a rich loam or sand with a deep porous sub- MEDICAGO SATIVA. LUCERNE. 353 Fria. 134.—Medicago sativa, L. (Lucerne, Alfalfa,) a, part of the top of a plant; bh, flower enlarged; c, young pods.—(Sudworth.) 4 45 304 LUCERNE. ALFALFA. soil; utterly refuses to thrive on a compact clay subsoil, or in a hard bottom of any kind; while young it is a weak plant and a poor fighter ; requires two or three years to become well ‘‘ rooted ” and established; it should be sown after settled weather has come in the spring, without another crop, on well prepared land. Sow in drills about eight inches apart, and hoe or cultivate once or more to keep the weeds and other plants in check. It is not often well worth while to use Alfalfa where the land is to be plowed up every three to five years. his plant is a perennial, and on suitable soil can be relied on to produce good crops for many years in succession. It stands dry weather admirably; is very nutritious; like other legumes, it is a collector of nitrogen. It must be mown when young and just beginning to flower, for the stems quickly become woody and rapidly deteriorate in value. This is a favorite for irrigated meadows and soiling, and is fre- quently cut three to eight times in the year, yielding enormous crops of valuable fodder for all kinds of live stock except in iso- lated places. Alfalfa or Lucerne is not a favorite north of Ken- tucky. Perhaps it is because clovers and the grasses thrive so well, and these can be sown broadcast and are often started with another crop. Again, the farmer looks with distrust on a plant which is so slow starting and needs weeding to keep it growing. Al- falfa endures extreme dry weather much better than the true clovers and grasses. This is easily accounted for, when we understand that the roots become woody, as large as a pipe stem to half an inch or more in diameter, and have been known to extend ten or twelve, or even twenty feet below the surface. An old, thick field of Lucerne is very difficult to turn over with the plow. Those who have tried imported seed of Lucerne with seed of Alfalfa from California claim that plants of the latter will not endure the cold as well, but will stand heat and drought better. LUCERNE, ALFALFA. 39D Fifteen to twenty pounds, and even more, are usually sown to the acre. Honey bees seem to extract the honey without any trouble. Dr. H. P. Armsby states that ‘* Lucerne is even richer in pro- tein than red clover, but it is inclined to a more rapid formation of woody fiber after the flowers appear. It demands early cut- ting even more than clover. On account of its excess of protein it should be fed in connection with some feeding-stuff poor in protein, such as roots or straw, to realize the best effect.’’ Mr. Gorrie, of England, reports, that when properly managed the quantity of cattle which can be kept in good condition on an acre of Lucerne, during the whole season, exceeds belief. It is no sooner mown than it pushes out fresh shoots. Prof. J. R. Page, of Virginia, considers it one of the most cer- tain as well as one of the best crops the farmer can cultivate for soiling purposes. He finds no difficulty in getting a good stand and a profitable return, and recommends it very highly. It is cured in the same way as clover. Atthe Agricultural College in Central Michigan, Lucerne, when hoed and properly started for the first year has not killed out during severe winters, while it beats everything to endure pro- longed drought. It is not suitable to mix with clover, as the latter overtops and crowds the Lucerne. I can report no system- atic attempt in Michigan to establish, mow and feed crops of lucerne. In 1883 Prof. EK. M. Shelton, of Kansas, said: ‘*‘ We have no hesitation in saying that, all things considered, it is a most valu- able clover, especially for the western and southwestern sections of the state. Along the Arkansas river, where irrigation is prac- ticed, it has proved a most invaluable forage plant. More ac- counts come to us of failure with Alfalfa than with any other clover or grass, and this is because of the difficulty in starting the plants and in selecting and preparing the soil properly. It 356 LUCERNE. ALFALFA. must not be sown with another crop, neither mowed nor pastured during the first year. The dangers which threaten it most are the common mole and pocket-gopher; the latter burrowing among and cutting the roots, has destroyed several acres on the college farm. We have cut three and even four large crops from the same ground in one season.”’ Early in 1885 Prof. Shelton states in the Rural New Yorker that Alfalfa has proved with us the most useful of all clovers for the purpose of pasturage. It endures uninjured, close cropping, all kinds of stock consume it greedily, and it has never winter killed. It requires much field room in curing, and soon spoils with light rains. For hog pastures I know of no other plant so valuable. Prof. A. E. Blount reports for Colorado: ‘‘J. S., near the college, keeps large herds of sheep, some cattle, horses and hogs. When fed on Alfalfa cattle grow faster; cows give more and bet- ter milk; horses are more healthy and do more work with a fourth of the grain; sheep make better mutton and lose less wool; and hogs fatten, almost. ready for market, without any grain. He cuts his crops three times, averaging about two tons to the cutting. By letting the first crop grow until July he raises from 5 to 10 bushels of seed per acre.”’ He says he has samples four feet long, grown in thirty days. It does not spread except by seeding. It is too tender to sow in the fall, but should be sown in spring after the frost has gone. Har- row it in with or without a crop. President Ingersoll, of the same place, told me that Alfalfa was the only forage plant that would grow at their place and keep green without irrigation. It is a favorite forage crop in Colorado and its cultivation is extending very rapidly. For Mississippi and vicinity Prof. D, L. Phares considers Lu- cerne very valuable. It sometimes gets two feet high by the middle of February. He knows some plots of it now in fine con- MEDICAGO LUPULINA—MEDICAGO MACULATA. 357 dition that are known to have been growing for over thirty-five years, without any marks of decay. Prof. F. A. Gulley, of the same state, thinks it is too difficult to get it well started. The late C. W. Howard, of Georgia, believed, as a forage plant at the South, Lucerne is very far superior to all others. For feeding it should be cut a day in advance and used in a wilted state. Jt must never be pastured, as live stock in that climate bite out the crowns of the plants and kill them. It is ready to eut a month in advance of red clover. Medicago lupulina, L. Black Medick, Nonesuch. A pro- cumbent, branching, pubescent annual or biennial. Leaflets obovate, toothed at the apex. Peduncles longer than the leaves bearing ovoid heads of small yellow flowers. Pods small, one- seceded, black when ripe, kidney-shaped. Found in Europe, N. Africa, West Asia to India; introduced in N. America. On rich land it often affords considerable pasture, reminding one of white clover in its habit. It is not likely worth cultivat- ing in this country because we have something better. Medicago maculata, Willd. Spotted Medick, Burr Clover, California Clover.—A procumbent or spreading, branching an- nual. Leaflets obovate or obcordate, often with a black central spot, minutely toothed. Peduncles 3-5 flowered; flowers yel- low. Pod 4 in. broad, making 3-5 coils, quite compact, with a double row of long, curved spines. Found in Europe, N. Africa; introduced in N. America. The pod makes something like a burr, so much so that it adheres to wool. It is too tender and short lived to be of value at the North, but has some good words from people of the South. Prof. D. L. Phares, of Mississippi, considers it a valuable plant. He has grown it about thirty-five years, and says it fur- nishes good grazing from February till April or May. Cattle do not incline to eat it at first, but they learn, and finally acquire a 358 MEDICAGO DENTICULATA—MELILOTUS, TOURNEFORT. great fondness for it. It seeds freely every year. Crab grass occupies the ground from June to October after the Medick has seeded. Medicago denticulata, Willd. Burr-Clover.—This annual much resembles the last and is often confounded with it. The - pods are loosely spiral and deeply reticulated. A writer in the American Agriculturist for 1878 speaks highly of the plant. Burr-Clover grows wild all over the plains and foot-hills, and affords much pasture. Even the burrs grow in such profusion that they afford a good supply of dry concentrated food. They collect, by force of the wind, in the hollows of the ground. It is tenacious of life and will bear close feeding. MELILOTUS, TOURNEFORT. MELILOT. Annual or biennial, fragrant when bruised or in drying. Leaves pinnately 3-foliolate, nerves ending in teeth; stipules slightly adhering to the petiole, often cut. /Jowers small, yel- low or white, in long, loose axillary racemes. Calyx-teeth 5, nearly equal. Petals deciduous; keel shorter than the wings, obtuse. Anthers uniform. Pod with one or few seeds, small, straight, thick, indehiscent. Plants abound in an etherial oil (cumarin) rendering them objectionable to stock. Warm and temperate regions of the old world. Melilotus officinalis, Willd. Yellow Meliiot, Sweet Clover. -—This }; an annual or biennial with yellow flowers, apparently of little importance except for bees. Melilotus alba, Lam. White Melilot, Bokara Clover, Sweet Clover.—An erect, branching, woody, annual or biennial 2-6 or 8 ft. high. Leaflets truncate. Flowers small, white, in long racemes. Pods black when ripe. Fia. 135.—Medicago lupulina, L, (Black Medick.) Portion of a plant in flower and in fruit, natural size.—(U. S. Agrl. Rept.) MOP Lad VN Fig. 185. 360 LUPINUS—ULEX—ONOBRYCHIS. Found with the last. At the North it does not seem to be eaten by live stock when green, but they will eat a little when cured with other forage plants. Bees find it valuable for the nectar which is abundant during the heat of summer. Prof. Phares speaks of this as cultivated for forage. As it is a legum- inous plant and a near relative of red clover, and very large, it has been mentioned as quite suitable for green manuring. Lupinus, Tourn. Lupine.—Of this genus there are several species, some of which have proved valuable in the old world, but I cannot learn that they are as valuable as some other forage plants in any portion of the United States. Dr. H. P. Armsby says: ‘‘ The yellow lupine, when cut just at the end of flowering, is the most highly nitrogenous of all coarse fodders.”’ Of domestic animals sheep only eat lupines well on account of their bitter taste. In Central Michigan, at any rate, several varieties, after nu- merous trials, have uniformly made a slow, sickly growth. Sim- ilar trials have been reported from Georgia, Mississippi and other states. Ulex, L. Furze, Ulim, Gorse. shrubs. Leaves prickly. Flowers yellow. Found in regions all Much-branched, thorny about the Mediterranean Sea. Often abundant in England, Wales and Ireland. When bruised or wilted it is eaten by stock. Perhaps we might do the same with thistles. Like lupines, above mentioned, it is apparently of no value in the United States. Onobrychis, Tourn. Sainfoin. To this genus belongs one species which is much cultivated in parts of the continent of Europe and in Great Britain. In France this leguminous plant is much grown to improve poor, hungry land, and will last 4 to Fia. 136.—Melilotusalba, Lam. Portion of a plant in flower and fruit, natural size.— (U.S. Agr]. Dept.) 362 VICIA—PISUM. 7 years in succession. It is employed for soiling, for pasture, or made into hay after the manner of red clover. The seed is sold in two forms, that covered with the short, wrinkled pod, and that which has been separated from the pod. In England it is considered « very suitable forage plant for cal- careous soils. Although an old plant, and so well and favorably known in Europe, I cannot learn that it has met with even modcrate suc- cess in any portion of this country. The seed has been widely distributed by the Department of Agriculture. In Central Michigan we have not been able, even with the best of care, to raise respectable samples. Vicia, L. Vetch, Tare.—Of this genus of legumes there are quite a number of species native to this country, and many in Europe. Like the last mentioned, sainfoin, it has had repeated trials in various portions of the United States, and yet we do not know that it has really succeeded anywhere. To those not familiar with vetches, it may be enough to say in this connection that they are much like peas, with slender leaflets and small stalks, flowers and seeds. A writer in Morton’s Cyclopedia says: ‘*Of the artificial grasses it is next to clover in value. Sheep fatten faster upon this than any other herbage; horses improve more rapidly upon it than on clovers or the grasses; horned cattle thrive surpris- ingly upon this fodder; cows yield more butter from the tare than from any other provender; pigs voraciously consume and prosper upon it. They may be cut twice a year, and are much used for soiling. In quality they much resemble lucerne. At Lansing, Michigan, they make a weak growth, and will not en- dure the hot, dry weather. It is not improbable that some of our native vetches could be improved and adapted to cultivation. Pisum, L., Pea.—To this small genus of two species, belong the numerous races of cultivated field and garden peas. They DOLICHOS. COW PEA. 363 thrive in cool, moist, temperate regions. Like other legumes, they draw much from the air and subsoil, and are most excellent crops to alternate with wheat and the true forage grasses. They like moist loamy soil, but this should not be in the highest con- dition, else the plants ‘‘run too much to vines,’’ at the expense of a good crop of seeds. From 14 to 4 bushels of seed to the acre is sown broadcast or in drills, yielding 15 to 25 bushels of seed, which is a very nu- tritious food for swine and sheep. The greatest enemies to this crop are the pea weevil or ‘* bug’’ and mildew. Of ““buggy”’ peas only about one-fourth per cent will usually grow, and these produce feeble plants. Seed can be obtained from the North, where the bugs are not troublesome, and the young crop can be fed out bugs and all. The weevil can be killed when young, by putting the peas as soon as threshed in a tight box with some bisulphide of carbon. There is some difference in varieties, but hot, dry weather is quite sure to favor the development of mildew, which weakens and often prevents the growth of the plants or the production of a good crop of seeds. In favorable localities enough attention is not paid to this crop, both for feeding and to precede a crop of wheat. DOLICHOS, L. COW PEA. Calyx campanulate, lobes or teeth short, often obtuse, the two upper more or less united. The banner rounded, with inflexed appendages at the base; the wings falcate-obovate adhering to the keel, which is incurved and often beaked, but not spiral The odd stamen free from the banner. |, Thripsisps..-. 24 5-45.48 Welsh. (On roots.) | (On blossoms.) The following additional species are added on page 206: LEPIDOPTERA. Nephelodes violans, Guenée, Riley, Ist Report, N. Y. St. Ent., 1882. p. 103. Plusia brassicee, Riley, Id Gen. Ind. Suppl. Mo. Repts., p. 78. Heliothis armiger, Hiib., Barret Ent. Month Mag, XIV., p. 151. Enpithecia interruptofasciata, Pack., Coquillet, Papilio I., p. 57. Ephestia interpunctella (Hiib.,) Clemens, Proc. A. N. S. Ph. 1860, p. 206. Dichelia sulfureana, (Clem.) Comstock Report Comm. Agr. 1880, p. 255, Amphisa discopunctana, (Clem.) Comstock Report Comm, Agr. 1880, p. 258. . Platynota flavedana, (Clem.) Comstock Report Comm. Agr. 1880, p. 257. Sericoris instrutana, (Clem.) Comstock Report Comm, Agr, 1880, p. 258. Grapholitha interstinctana, (Clem.) Comstock Report Comm, Agr. 1880, p. 254. 374 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER. COLEOPTERA. Lachnosterna serricornis, Le Conte., Webster Am. Nat., XVI., p. 746. Colaspis brunnea, Fab., Webster Am. Nat., XVI., p. 746. Diabrotica longicornis, (Say) Forbes’ 12th Rept. Ins. IIl., pp. 21, 23. Diabrotica 12-punctata, (Oliv.) Forbes’ 12th Rept. Ins, Tll., p. 104, Tenebrio Molitor, Fitch, Fitch Trans. N. Y. St. Ag. Soc., XIII, p. 376.. Macrobasis unicolor, (Kirby) Webster Am. Nat., XVI., p. 746. Epicerus imbricatus, (Say) Webster Am. Nat., p. 746. Sitones lineellus, (Gyllenhal) European authors. Sitones flavescens, (Marsh) European authors, (Kalt et al.). Phytonomus punctatus, (Fab.) Riley Am. Nat. XV., p. 750. HEMIPTERA. Poecilocapsus lineatus, (Fub.) Lintner Ist Rep., N. Y. St. Ent., p. 277. Limothrips tritici, (Fitch) Lintner 1st and 2d Repts. Ins. N. Y., p. 304. NEUROPTERA. Smynthurus hortensis, (Fitch) Fitch 6th-9th Repts. Ins. N. Y., p. 189. Smynthurus arvalis, (Fitch) Fitch 6th-9th Repts. Ins. N. Y., p. 191. The following species are mentioned by Prof. 8S. A. Forbes in Entomological Report of Illinois, Vol. 14, pp. 72-74: LEPIDOPTERA. Cymatophora crepuscularia,._-.7. | Tortrix pallorana_______---.._Robs. Heematopis grataria----------- Fab..|\ Wypena scabra___.. == Fabr. Caceecia rosaceana...-------- Harr. | HOMOPTERA. Coceus tntolis eee Forbes. Bryobia pratensis. -------- Garman. | Bryobia pallida-.---------- Garman. To these I would add two other coecids which I have observed on clover. Pulvinaria innumerabilis.-...Rath. | Lecanium tilia__..____.___-- Fitch. Strecker in his catalogue of N. A. Mac. Lipidoptera gives Me- ganastoma cesonia, Stroll as feeding on clover. While in Rep. Comm. Ag. 1863, p. 573, and in 1865, p. 40, Epice fallax is mentioned as a clover enemy. HYLASTES TRIFOLIT. CLOVER-ROOT BORER. 375 It is more than probable that others of the butterflies, es- pecially of the genera Colias, Melitaea and Lycena, will be found upon further investigation to feed upon our clover; while it is not at all probable that the fourteen species of beetles named in the list comprises all the enemies of the clover belonging to that order. There is but little doubt that the list will be doubled. Of the Orthoptera (Locusts) but five are named, and they all of the genus Caloptenus. It is quite certain that all of our many species of that genus, and nearly all others, may be justly. in- cluded in the list. Only one unnamed species of Thrips is men- tioned. The past season I have found three species, one black, one light yellow, and one bright red, all to be very abundant on the clover blossoms, yet I could not see that they were greatly injurious. Many of the insects named in the above lst feed more gen- erally on other plants. Mamestra picta prefers the cabbage, Heliothis armiger feeds on the corn and cotton, Leucania uni- puncta—the army worm—on oats and the grasses, so that for the most part they are not serious enemies to our most valuable forage plant. One of the insects named in the list, Asopia cos- talis, feeds on the dry clover, either in the stack or mow, where it often does very great injury. As our space will not permit a detailed description of all of the above only those whose mischief is so considerable as to cre- ate concern for the future of one of our most valued farm crops will be described. These work on the roots, foliage, and seed, and will be described in that order. Hylastes trifolii, Clover-root Borer. Order Coleoptera. Family Scolytide. Miller, Mem. Soc. Dep. Mt. Tonerre I., pp. 47-64, 1807, Schmitt, Stett Ent. Zeit. V., pp. 389-397, 1844. Lintner, Ann. Rep. N. Y. St. Agr. Soc., 1879, pp. 41-42, Tl, Lintner, Rep. N. Y. Ag. Soc., 1882, p. 193, Ill. Riley, Ann. Rep. Comm. Agr. 1878, pp. 248-250, Ill. ” Riley, Am. Entomol., Vol. III., p. 180, 1880, Til. Saunders, Ont. En. Rep., Vol. XIL., p. 48, 1881, Tl. 376 HYLESINUS TRIFOLII. CLOVER ROOT BORER. This insect has long been known as a not very common inseet of Germany in Europe. Miiller, as shown by the name, -re- garded it as‘an enemy of the clover, while Schmitt thought that it attacked such plants as were already enfeebled, and was not a serious injury. In 1878 the beetle attacked this valuable plant in northwestern New York, and the fact that it injured very se- riously the clover of that region proves that Miller was correct and Schmitt wrong. Prof. Riley investigated the habits of the insect, which he found very destructive to the clover in Yates, Ontario and Seneca counties. He described it under the name Hylesinus trifolii, or Clover-root Borer, and pointed out the fact that it is much like one of our common bark beetles, Hylesinus opaculus Lec., which is often found just under the bark of ash and elm trees. While much like the elm bark beetle, it is not only a different species, but is placed in a different genus,—Hylastes by Leconte and Horn, and by European Coleopterists. The family to which it belongs, Seo- Md) lytide, is represented by numerous mm BY vit! ni 4 species, usually called bark beetles, Waves Atk fi as they tunnel and sculpture various evergreen and deciduous trees just beneath the bark. It is often stated that they attack enfeebled trees, yet I have often found them indus- trious and thriving on trees which were in full strength and vigor. The insect is well represented in Fig. 138, a showing the affected plant, 6 the grub or larva, ¢ the pupa, and d the beetle or imago. The eggs are whitish oval, the larva white, with Fra. 188, yellow head. The length of Jarva is 3 m m (.12 of an inch) in HYLESINUS TRIFOLIT, CLOVER ROOT BORER. 377 length. The pupais 22 m m long and has two spinous projec- ‘tions on the top of the head, and two smaller anal projections. ‘The imago is black, with brown punctured elytra. It is 2mm (.08 of an inch) long. The beetle hibernates, usually as an imago, but also as a pupa or larva. Mating occurs in early spring, when the female bores into the crown of the plant and deposits five or six eggs. When these hatch the larva feeds at first in the opening formed by the imago for her eggs, but soon works downward forming tunnels lengthwise of the main roots, which entirely destroys the plant. In September many pup2 will be found in the upper part of the galleries. Although as yet this beetle has not been found doing damages in the United States outside a limited area in New York, it is too much to hope that this will continue to be true. Surely such enterprise as would carry the insect from Europe to America ‘can hardly be expected to permit it to remain stationary on this continent. The fact that it has no parasites, as yet discovered, to weaken its efforts or reduce its numbers, not only accounts for its exceeding numbers in this country as compared with Eu- rope, but also gives prophecy of wide extension and serious ray- ages in the future. It is difficult to suggest satisfactory remedies for insects which are so numerous and scattered as are these beetles. It is prob- able, in fact the experience in New York already confirms the suggestion, that they will not be equally destructive every year; that while they may ruin whole fields one season the very next year they may be quite rare and far less injurious. The only . remedy thus far suggested is to plow the clover under when the insects are discovered to be at work, and not grow clover for a time. This green manuring would certainly be very excellent for the land. Yet it is to be feared that the insects would take to other herbage, possibly other leguminous plants, rather than 84 378 LANGURIA MOZARDI, CLOVER-STEM BORER, perish. This supposition seems more probable in that this: species has varied so far in its habits from those of its near con-_ geners, which are all bark or wood eaters so far as I know. It is quite probable that summer plowing, followed by thorough harrowing, might destroy the insects at work in the clover. If such were the case it certainly would be a wise proceeding. Prof. I. P. Roberts says: ‘‘In Central New York, of late years, we mow the seeded land but once and pasture in the fall the abundant second growth. Since 1878 the clover-root beetle has worked upon the clover to such an extent that it invariably fails the second year. This has caused us to change from a five to a four year rotation, viz.: hay, corn, oats and wheat.”’ Languria Mozardi, Fabr., Clover-stem Borer, Order Coleoptera: Family Erotylide. Latreille, Gen. Crust. et Ins. III., p. 66, 1807. Say, Am. Entomology, III., 1828, Il. Lamarck, An. sans vert., deux. edit. IV., p. 486, 1835. Melsheimer, Cat. Coleop. U. 8., p. 47, 1853. Le Conte, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. VII., p. 161, 1854, Oliver, Entomol. V. p. 464, Ill. Crotch, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. IV. p. 350, 1873. Le Baron, 4th Ann. Rept. Ins. Ill. p. 181, 1874. Comstock, Ann. Rept. Comm. Ag. 1879, p. 199, Ill. 1880. Saunders, Ont. En. Rep. Vol. XII. p. 44, 1881, Ill. Lintner, Ann. Rep. N. Y. Ag. Soc., 1882, p. 196, Ill. The clover-stem borer, though not very common, is widely distributed throughout the country. It is found in Michigan, Canada, New York, and south to Washington and west to Kan- sas. Indeed it is mentioned as far south as Louisiana. Prof. J. H. Comstock was the first to discover and describe its full life history. Though not as yet known to be a serious pest, from its. wide distribution we may suggest that it does more harm than is suspected, as a great many plants in a clover teld could be de- stroyed and yet not be missed. Even though not as yet alarm- ingly injurious we cannot tell when it may become so. In its. CLOVER STEM BORER. 878 distribution the seeds of mischief are wide scattered, ne knowing when they may germinate. Fig. 139 shows the eggs, ve! A larva, pupa and imago of the insect as well as the natural size of eggs and the larva—the latter as it appears in the hollowed stem of the clover. The eggs are yellow, curved, Fra. 139. and 1.7 m m (about 1-16 of an inch) long. The larve like wire worms, and many other grubs, are slim, with the three pair of jointed legs well developed, and a pair of anal pro-legs. When full grown the yellow larva is 8 m m (a little more than .3 of an inch) long. Like the pupa it has two plainly marked anal spines. The pupa is also yellow and slender, and 6 m m long. I find Say’s description of the imago, as usual, very exact: ‘‘It is slen- der, cylindrical; the dark red antenne gradually form a club of five joints. The palpi are thread-like; the mandibles bifid at tip; the maxillae have horny teeth. The thorax is yellowish- red, smooth and unspotted. The elytra are bluish-black, with a green tinge, marked with deeply impressed punctures, arranged in regular series, but without impressed strie. The thighs are pale rufous at base; the tibie have a slight rufous tinge; the tarsi are dotted with dense hairs beneath the three basal joints, the 3d being bilobate.’’ The venter has the three posterior joints black. The length of the beetle is about 7 mm (4 of an inch). The female lays the eggs in June, piercing the stem with her jaws, and pushing her eggs clear in to the pith, often, says Prof. Comstock, to a depth of 6mm. The larve feed upon the pith downward, forming a burrow 15 ¢ m (6 inches) long. This greatly injures if it does not kill the plant outright. The pupa is formed at the bottom of the burrow in August, and shortly 380 CLOVER LEAF BEETLE. after the fully developed beetles begin to appear. They are seen to emerge from the hollowed stems from August to October. There is only one brood a year. Like many of, our noxious beetles, the imago hibernates and waits for the vigorous plants of genial June before dropping her precious burden of eggs. If this pest promises to do any serious harm we have only to cut the clover early in July, when we shall save the crop, and probably destroy the insects. This would give chance for a sec- -ond crop of hay or fine pasture or crop of seed from the same plants. Itis a welcome fact that Prof. Comstock found two parasites working on these beetles, in such abundance that we understand why the latter are no more numerous and destructive. One a Chalcid and the other an Ichnenmon fly. Phytonomus punctatus, Fabr., Clover Leaf Beetle. Order Coleoptera. Family Cureulionide. Le Conte, Rhyncophora, p. 124, 1853. Riley, Am. Naturalist, Vol. XV., p. 912, Nov., 1881, Il. Riley, Rep. Comm. Ag. 1881-82, p. 171, Tl. Kilman, 15th Rep. Ont. En. Soc., 1884, p. 32. This, like many of our most destructive insects, is an im- ported species. It is a common insect in Germany, and has probably been in this country for years, as Dr. LeConte received it from Canada in 1853, when he described it as Phy. opimus. As it does not exist in collections of American Caleopterists, it is possible that the insect described by Dr. LeConte by mistake was reported as Canadian, it really being itself foreign. In 1881 a serious invasion of Western New York, Yates county, was ex- perienced, when Dr. Riley, of the Agricultural Department, in- vestigated and gave a detailed description of the species, in- cluding its work and habits. It is worthy of remark that Phy- tonomus nigrirostris, also imported, exists in the United States, and doubtless works as a larva on the clover, as it is known to do in Europe. I have taken this species in considerable num- bers along on our Western Michigan lake shore. CLOVER LEAF BEETLE. 381 Dr. Riley records this insect as very destructive in New York in 1881, and again in 1882. Mr. A. H. Kilman, of Ontario, re- ports this same weevil at Ridgeway, in that province. He says they were wafted across the lake by a strong August wind. He says that Eastern New York was desolated by the insect in 1883, but that the insect in that year proceeded no further west than Rochester. August 10, 1884, they were so abundant in Buffalo that they could be gathered by the quart, and thousands were crushed by persons walking on the pavement. As entomologists know, these weevils are armor proof against water, we can easily see how this destructive insect can be easily and quickly distributed along the shores of the northern lakes, and thus soon become a widely known and greatly dreaded pest. Fia. 140. Fig. 140 gives a good idea of the insect and its work; a, egg; 60665, larve; c, recently hatched larva; d, head of larva; e, 382 CLOVER LEAF BEETLE. jaws; f, cocoon; g, meshes of cocoon; h, pupa; 7, weevil nat- ural size; 7, side view; &, dorsal view; /, tarsus and claws of beetle; m, antenna. The eggs are oblong, oval, yellow, 1 mm (1-25 of an inch) long. The larva is yellowish at first, but becomes greenish-yel- low with age. There is a pale rose colored dorsal line. The body is rough, length 14 m m (.65 inch). The pupa is well shown in figure and is greenish with yellow markings. It pu- pates in an oval yellow cocoon of coarse threads. The imago is dark brown; sides of thorax and elytra dull yel- low, with a central yellow line on the thorax. There are rows of black raised points along the inner half of the elytra, with similar dashes of muddy yellow towards the tips. The beetle is 1 ¢ m (2-5 of an inch) long. The female lays her 200 or 500 eggs in the clover stem, which she punctures for that purpose, in August. Dr. Riley says the eggs are pushed into crevices at the base of the plants. The larva usually drops when approached, so that only very young ones can be found on the plants. The anus is said to aid in walking, as it emits a sticky substance, and can hold or grasp the stem of the plant. The larve are more active at night, but are very timid even then, and can be observed on the plants only at a distance. The larve feed upon the clover, and mature in about two months. The pupa state lasts ten days, so that the beetles come forth late in autumn. The cocoon may be formed among the stems of clover or just beneath the earth. The latter is probably the position where it will generally be found im the field. Some of the weevils may deposit eggs in the fall, while others may remain as imagos and lay eggs the next season. There may be two broods in a year, though Dr. Riley thinks it more likely that there is but one, and that variation in size and time of appearance is caused by retarded or accelerated development ; while the larva does no inconsiderable damage, far the most is CLOVER-LEAF MIDGE, 383 done by the mature beetle. The weevils are voracious eaters. ‘consuming every part of the plant above the earth, and like most weevils feeding by night and hiding by day in crevices in the earth or among the stems of the plants. Like the larve they are very timid, and fall at the slightest jar of the plants. It feeds on all kinds of clover, red, white, and alsike. The beetles in July and August often do very serious damage, completing the work of destruction so well begun by the larve at an earlier date. Dr. Riley expresses an opinion, possibly born of hope, that this insect will not spread. I have already shown how it may easily, be carried far west, and as we already have seen, it surely is spreading quite rapidly, there is grave reason to fear its general spread in the Northern United States. As we can not well use Paris green, it is probable that no bet- ter thing can be done than to plow under the clover in fields at- ‘tacked in May, at which time the insects will be in the larva state, and so probably killed by this treatment. If we wait to cut for hay many of the insects would have already pupated, and -so would come forth to new mischief the next year. It is probable that the various predaceous insects will aid to diminish the numbers of this pest, and in time the parasitic in- sects here as well as in Europe will help to hold it in check. Cecidomyia trifolii, Leow, Clover-leaf Midge. Order Diptera. Family Cecidomyidae. Loew Verhandl. Zool. Bot., Gesell., XX., 14, p. 142, 1874, Comstock Ann. Rept. Comm. Ag., 1879, pp. 197-199, Tl. Lintner Rept. N. Y. Ag. Soc. 1882, p. 203, Ill. Saunders Rept. Ontario En. Soc., Vol, XII., p. 45, 1881, Tl. This insect is so nearly like the far more destructive clover leaf midge, yet to be described, that only an expert could distinguish them the one from the other. This species has only been discovered about Washington, and unless it becomes more widely distributed, or worse still, learns the habit of its near 384 CLOVER-LEAF MIDGE. congener, which is doing widespread and most serious harm, it: will be of minor economic importance. As will be noticed it is closely related to the well-known Hes- sian fly and wheat midge, so destructive to the wheat crop. Fig. 141 shows the clover leaf concealing the larvae; one leaf spread open exhib- its the cocoons of the in- sect, the larva and midge or fly. The maggots are: FG. 141. folded in the leaflets of the clover, and are at first white, but later assume an orange hue. When full grown this footless larva is 1.5 m m (.059 of an inch) long. The pupz are enclosed in white delicate cocoons, fastened between the sides of the foided leaflets. See fig. The color of pupa is pale orange. Eyes dark, folded appendages brown. The fly is brown in color with yellowish hairs on the thorax. The female is 1.6 m m long, the male a little shorter. Except that the fly is a little smaller, and that the female has fourteen in- stead of sixteen joints to the antenne, it is almost exactly like the clover seed midge, which will be more fully described and. illustrated as its importance demands. The minute eggs, from two to twenty, are laid in the creases of the leaflets either of the: red or white clover. In June the larva absorbs the juices of the leaflet, causing it to turn brown and to become slightly thick- ened, showing the tendency to form galls, which is peculiar to. many Cecidomyian maggots. The irritation causes the leaflets to fold, thus forming a safe domicile for the defenceless larve. Late in June or early in July the flies come forth. From the exposed condition of this insect it is very likely to become the prey of parasitic insects, «nd so never become very numerous. Even in considerable numbers it does no very se-- CLOVER-LEAF OSCINIS. 385 rious harm, and unless it change its habits will never be a serious pest. We hardly need then to discuss remedies for its ravages. Oscinis trifolii Burgess. Clover-leaf Oscinis. Order Diptera. Family Oscinide. Burgess, Ann. Rept. Comm. Agrl. 1879, p. 201, Comstock, Ibid, pp. 200, 201. Lintner, Rept. N. Y. Ag. Soc. 1882, p. 205. Fitch described a species of this genus, O. tibialis, which at- tacks the wheat stem. See Fitch’s Rept., 1st and 2d, p. 300, and for illustration Pl. 1, Fig. 5th. Dr. Riley describes Oscinis brassice, which attacks the cabbage, Rept. Comm. Ag. 1884, p. 322, which is fully illustrated Pl. VIII., Fig. 5th, which cut would answer in a general way for the Clover Leaf Oscinis. There are several European species which give our friends over the sea some anxiety. The clover Oscinis is quite like our Anthomyia in habits and general appearance. ‘The eggs are very small and white. The larve greenish-white, slender, tapering towards the head. They are 1.7m m long. The puparium is shorter, oblong, and of a brown color. ‘The fly is yellow, with the dorsal surface of its abdomen and thorax black. It is quite hairy. The length is 1.3 m m, about .05 of an inch. The eggs are probably laid in May or in early June. The larva mines the leaves and stems of white clover, possibly red as well, much as the radish mag- got gouges out the plant on which it feeds. Late in June the maggot crawls from its tunnels and falls to the earth, which it enters to form the puparium. The flies appear about two weeks later. There are two and may be three broods a season. If these little sappers and miners ever become so numerous as to do serious injury we will have to resort to feeding our clover down and use ensilage for winter. 49 586 LEAF ROLLERS. Tortrix Sulfureana Clem. Clover (attacks grass). Tore trix flavedana Clem. Sericoris instrutana, Clem. Leaf rollers. Order Lepidoptera. Family Tortricide. Forbes, Ill. En. Report, Vol. XIV., p. 17. Comstock, Rept. Comm. Agr. 1880, pp. 255-258. These insects, which are closely related to the codling moth and the apple tree leaf rollers, which are so harmful to our or- chards in early summer, are all found in Michigan and the other Northern States, and South even to the Gulf. While they at- tack all the clovers they are not confined to them, but work on many other garden and field plants. In all the species the larva draw the leaves about them by means of silken threads, which they spin, and when disturbed drop and hang suspended by means of a thread, which, like a spider, they can spin as needed. A more harmful leaf roller attacks the clover seed, and will be described later. The larva of the first species is yellowish-green, the second green, the third yellow. The larvex are about $ of an inch (12 to 14mm) long. The pup are shorter and brown in color. The moth of the first species is bright yellow, with a y-shaped purple mark on each front wing. The same color marks the front and outer margins of the same wings. The back, or sec- ondary wings, are yellowish, varying to brown. It expands a lit- tle more than 4 of an inch. The second species is a little larger. The males are dark brown, with reddish-yellow markings. Hind wings reddish. Females red, with oblique obscure bands across front wings. Females expand ~ of an inch. The males are not quite so large. The color of the moth in the third species varies from yellow to yellowish-brown. It is about the size of the sul- fureana. These are seen feeding on the rolled up leaves, which serves both for home and food in May and June, and again in August, so there are two broods a year. CLOVER DRASTERIA. 387 I have found Paris green sure death to orchard and shade tree leaf rollers, and without doubt it would kill these that infest the clover. Its practicality however in this case is not so apparent. It is to be hoped that parasites and other enemies will prevent these leaf rollers from becoming very serious pests. Without doubt other Tortricids will be found to attack the clover, but as all are so nearly alike in their character and habits, what has been said will apply in a general way to all of them. Drasteria erechtea Cram. Clover Drasteria. Order Lepidoptera. Famiiy Noctuide. Saunders, Ont. En. Report, 1881, p. 47, Dl. Saunders, Ont. En. Report, 1875, p. 36, TL. French, Ill. En. Rep., Vol. VII., p. 133, Tl. Coquillett, Ill. En. Rep., Vol. X., p. 148. Packard, Guide to Study of Insects, p. 317. This is as common as any moth in Michigan, and the same is true in many other States. The familiar, short, jerky flight re- minding us of the tiger beetles, is seen from early spring till late autumn. Though so common, and though with slight excep- tion (it sometimes feeds on grass) the caterpillars feed exclusively on clover, yet I think the insect is not considered a foe to be dreaded. It may be that in case of crops like the clover, where plants are numbered by the million, we suffer more from insect attack than we know. The larva is reddish-brown, marked with longitudinal lines of dark, white and pink color. When full grown it is 3.¢m (14 inches) long. There are only three pairs of pro legs, so the eat- erpillar, like others of the lower Noctuids, is a geometer, or *‘measuring worm.’’ It spins a loose cocoon, in which, as also in its gait, it reminds us of the true geometers. The moth is well represented in the figure. The fore wings are dusky-brown, with darker bands crossing them, 388 COMMON YELLOW BUTTERFLY. one near the base, and another, sometimes incomplete, midway between this and the outer margin, near the apex, is a quite dark patch. Dashes of dull brown are scattered along the wing. The moth expands nearly 3 c m (14 inches). The caterpillars will be seen feeding on the clover all the sum- mer long, and at the sime time the moths may be started on their short journeys as we walk over the clover fields. Colias Philodice. Common Yellow Butterfly. Order Lepidoptera. Family Papilionede. Saunders, Ont. En. Report, 1881 p. 47, Il. French, Ill. En. Report, Vol. VII., p. 147. Packard, Guide to Study of Insects, p. 250. What was said of the abundance of the Clover Drasteria is even more applicable to our yellow butterfly. Few insects are more common, more widely distributed, or better known than the sulphur-yellow butterfly which gladdens the pasture and roadside, and flecks the damp places along the roadways of all our Northern States. What was said of the food, habits, and destructiveness of the Drasteria erechtea can also be said as truly of Colias philodice. Fig. 143 shows the male and female of this familiar butterfly. The eggs are long, tapering, ribbed, and though yellow at first change as the embryo de- velops, first to red and then to brown, just prior to hatching. The young larva is brown with a yellowish tinge. La- ter it changes to green. The green head has a yellowish- white stripe on each side, with a dash of red at the lower edge. The body is INSECTS ATTACKING CLOVER SEED. 589 hairy, and when full grown the caterpillar is 2.5 ¢ m, or one inch, long. The chrysalis, like that of our cabbage butterfly, Pieris rap, Which it resembles, is suspended by an anal tuft and a shoul- der girdle. It is pale green, tinted with yellow. On each side of the head is a dark red line, and yellow stripes are seen on the sides near the tip. The yellow,. occasionally very nearly white, butterflies with wings bordered with black, sometimes gray, black, or brown are well shown in the figure. The border is narrower in the male, and encloses yellow spots in the female. A black spot is seen on the front wings of both sexes. The secondary wings are bordered with dark in both sexes, and bear an orange spot. The antennae and fringe to the wings are pink. The body is black above and paler below. The size is given in the figure. The eggs are laid in May and August on the clover, and other leguminous plants, as peas, etc. The caterpillars are feeding from four to six weeks. The chrysalids are fastened to clover or other object, and last about twelve days. The butterflies swarm in May and again in July and August, when they are often so thick as to remind us of a snow storm. What was said of damages and remedies in considering the last insect applies as well to this one. Insects Attacking Clover Seed.—While the damage done to clover by some of the insects already described, especially the borers, is quite serious at times, the danger from those attacking the seed is still more formidable, and may well cause anxiety. Happily the number in this list is very limited. Cecidomyia leguminicola, Lint. Clover Seed Midge. Order Diptera. Family Cecidomyide, Lintner, Canad. Entomol., XI., p. 44, pp. 121-124, 1879. Lintner, Rept. N. Y. Ag. Soc., 1878, pp. 62-64. Lintner, Rept. In. In., 1878, pp. 4-6. Lintner, Rept. N. Y. Ag. Soc., 1880, pp. 37-41. Lintner, Rept. Ent. Soc., Ont., 1879, pp. 28-80. Lintner, N. Y. Ag. Soc., 1882, p. 198, IL. 390 CLOVER SEED MIDGE. Riley, Ann. Rept. Comm. Ag., 1878, pp. 250-252, Ill. Riley, Ann. Rept. Comm. Ag., 1884, p. 411. Comstock, Ann. Rept. Comm.1 Ag., 879, pp. 193-197. Saunders, Rept. Ont. En. Soc., 1881, p. 38, Til. This is not only one of the most alarming of our clover pests, but may be regarded as one of the most to be dreaded insects now infesting the valuable crops of the United States. It not only does very serious damage, but is spreading with great ra- pidity. Prof. Lintner first discovered it in a limited area in Eastern New York. Now—1885—it is known to exist in Vir- ginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ontario, Michigan, and all through New York. The fact that the insect may remain in the seed, and thus be carried with it any distance, adds to the dangers threatened by this comparatively new pest. Fig. 144 a shows the female midge, ovipos- itor extended; ¢, ovi- positor more magni- fied; 56, head more en- larged ; d shows great- erenlargement of three joints of anten- ne. Fig. 145 a shows maggot or larva; 6, head more magni- +5 iy fied. es 145. The eggs are oval, pale yel- low, and only .025 m m (.01 of an inch) long. The larva or maggot varies from white to dark orange or or- ange-red. It is when full grown 2 m m (1-12 inch) long. CLOVER SEED MIDGE. 391 The pupa is orange, with brown eyes. It is found in a tough silken cocoon with more or less earth sticking to it, As will be seen by the figures the flies resemble closely the wheat midge, C. tritici. The abdomen is red, thorax brownish- red. The antenne are 15-jointed in the male, and 16 in the fe- male. ‘The wings are hairy, the palpi and ovepositor each four jointed. The male is about 1.5 m m long, the female about 3mm. ‘The male expands about 3.5mm, the female 4 m m. The size varies a little. The dark scales obscure the red color, so that the flies appear dark. Underneath the color is yellowish- gray. As with the wheat midge and Hessian fly the ovepositor and clasping organs are very prominent. The eggs are pushed, by means of the ovipositor, down into the heads of red or white clover, and lodged between the hairs that surround the separate florets. They are not glued nor placed in the florets. As with the Hessian fly the eggs may be laid singly, or in groups of two, three, four or five. As many as 50 eggs are sometimes placed in a single head of clover. The larva affects each seed much as does the wheat midge each wheat kernel. After absorbing the life from the seed the larva, like the mag- got of the wheat midge, leaves the seed and wriggles till it es- capes from the clover head and falls to the earth. Often the head of clover seems alive as a maggot pushes from nearly every seed in its effort to reach the ground. The pupa is found in its cocoon just beneath or upon the earth, under some protecting leaf, etc. The flies have been seen in New York in May, Au- gust, and quite likely some flies may issue in October. Thus there are surely two broods in New York, and possibly three. There are certainly three farther South. The larve will be seen full grown in the seed at the North in May, in July, and again in September. They probably pass the winter as pupe. Of late the larve have been found in seed in the market. 392 CLOVER SEED CATERPILLAR. This is an unwelcome fact, and explains the rapid distribution of these insects. The only remedy suggested is deep plowing when the larve are yet only partly grown. It has been suggested that abandon- ing clover for a time might be wise. That this will suffice is hardly to be expected. There is enough wild clover to prevent the extermination or any great diminution of these msects. We can hope more from parasites. Already Mr. Howard finds Ku- yrtoma funebris and Platygaster error engaged in this good work, Success to them, and may their tribe increase. If seed is found stocked with the larve it should be put into a close vessel, as a jug or barrel, and bisulphide of carbon added. This will kill all the larve post haste. Even an open barrel, water tight, may be used by placing a buffalo robe, or other air-tight cover, over it. The fact that this insect is as far West as Michigan, and possibly as far as Illinois, makes it a mat- ter of general interest. In the future, clover seed will be valu- able. Grapholitha interstinctana, Clem. Clover-seed Cater- pillar. Order Lepidoptera. Family Tortricidae. Comstock, Rept. Comm. Agr. 1880, p. 294, Clemens, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1860, p. 351, Grote, Bull. Buffalo Soc. Vol. I., p. 92. These caterpillars are also quite widely distributed. Grote and Comstock have taken them in New York, Grote in Pennsylva- nia, Comstock in Washington, and I have found them quite com- mon in Michigan. A single larva feeds on several and often all the seeds of a single head of clover. Sometimes I would find two larve in a single head. The insect was quite common about Lansing last summer—1885 The larve are dirty white, often greenish, 8 m m long, and spin white cocoons in the clover heads. ‘The bodies bear many white hairs. CLOVER HAY-WORM. 393 Chrysalis light brown; 5mm long. The anal segment bears six hooks, two dorsal, four lateral. The moths are small, brown, often nearly black, with white lines and dots marking the wings. They expand 10 m m. The moths lay the eggs in May and August. The larve are feeding in June, and probably a second brood in September. The moths are easily caught in the clover fields in May and Au- gust. By cutting the crop early we might destroy the larve, though I should fear we would not. Remedies for this and the midge would be about the same. An Ichneumon parasite was found preying on these by Prof. Comstock. It is Phanerotoma tibi- alis. It is light brown, with a large dorsal yellow spot, and is 3.5 m m long. Insects Attacking Clover Hay. Asopia costalis, Fabr. Clover Hay-worm. Order Lepidoptera. Family Pyralide. Riley, Mo. Ent. Rept. Vol. VI., p. 102, Tl. Saunders, Ont. Ent. Rep. 1880, p. 45, Il. French, Ill. Ent. Rep., Vol. VII., p. 47. This insect works on dried clover or clover hay while in the mow or stack. It is generally distributed, and scarcely a season goes by that I do not receive specimens, with request for information regarding the natural history and habits of the insect. This be- longs to the same family as the bee moth and the meal moth. Pyralis farinalis, Harr., which is often very common about barns where meal is stored, and which sometimes also feeds on clover hay. The color of the larva, Fig. 146, is dark brown, lighter beneath. The intersegmental spaces are darker than the segments, which makes the larve appear to be ringed. It is 18 m m (? of an inch) long. The cocoon is white, and 12m mlong. ‘The chrys- alis is yellow in color; length 4ofaninch. The imago, or moth, 50 394 CLOVER HAY-WORM. is purple, with a silken lustre. There are two bright yellow spots on the primary wings. The posterior wings are lighter in color than the primaries. All the wings are margined with orange, which terminates with a glossy yellow fringe. They ex- pand about 2 ¢ m, or .8 of an inch. In Fig. 146, 1 and 2 shows the larvez suspended by threads; 3 represents the cocoon; 4 the chrysalis; 5 moth with wings spread; 6 moth at rest; and 7 larva concealed in a case of silk which it has spun. These moths are attracted = by lights, and are often seen 4p Fig. 146. about our lamps in mid-summer. The eggs are laid on clover. The larve work in a silken case, and so often fairly mat the hay in one great mass. The larve attract attention in summer working upon the hay, but more usually in February and March, when stacks and mows of clover may be fairly alive with larve. These often crawl far into the stacks, where they are protected. from cold, and so are sometimes said to bear a zero temperature with- out becoming dormant, though the truth is they have had a warm nest. I have seen them drop from a mow suspended by a silken thread, so thousands could be swept away by one stroke of arake. They often leave stack or mow and seek some concealed place in which to pupate. It is probably true that leaving clover hay in mow or stack year after year will promote the rapid increase of these pests. Feeding out all the hay each winter would be a wise precaution, or if any hay is to remain over let it be other than clover. Of the many other species mentioned at the beginning of this: article none are as yet sufficiently important to demand full de- INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GRASS, 395. scription, Most work as much if not more on other plants. Some are very rare insects,.and others, though common, seem not to attract any general attention by their presence. Insects Injurious to Grass Crops.—The insects which are known to attack our grasses make even a more formidable list than those injurious to the clovers. Eighty or more species either depend wholly or in part upon our grasses for food. In the following list Hy. after the name indicates that the insect belongs to the order Hymenoptera; Lep., Lepidoptera; Dip., Diptera; Col., Coleoptera; Hom., Homoptera; Hem., Hemep- tera; Or., Orthoplera. Ill. refers to Ill. Entomological Reports ; Mo. to Missouri Entomological Reports; U. 8. Reports, U. 5S. Commissioner of Agriculture; Harr., Harris Injurious Insects ; Ont., Ontario Entomological Report; Pack., Packard's Guide to the Study of Insects; Streck., Strecker’s Catalogue of Macro- lepidoptera; Fitch, Fitch’s N. Y. Reports: Acridium Americanum, Drury, Or., Ill., Vol. [X., p. 129. Mc., Vol. VIIL., p. 103, IL. Agonoderus, all of the species, Col. Ill., Vol. XII., p. 111. Agrotis c. nigrum, Linn, Lep., Ill. Vol. VII., pp. 89, 202. Ibid. Vol. X., p. 182. Agrotis fennica, Tausch, Lep., Rep. Mich. St. Board Ag. 1883, p. 423. Ont. Vol. XV., 1884, pp. 13, 15, 21, 24. Mich. Hort. Rep. 1884, p. 81. Agrotis saucia, Hiib., Lep., Ill. Vol. VII., pp. 94, 211. Ibid, Vol. X., p- 134. Mo., Vol. 1, p. 74. U.S. 1884, p. 297, Ill. Harr., p. 444. Agrotis tessellata, Harr., Lep., Ill. Vol. VIL, pp. 91, 206. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 188. Harr., p. 445. Ont., Vol. X., p. 39. | Anjiara, all the species, Col., Ill. Vol. XII., p. 110. Anisodactylus, all the species, Col., Ill. Vol. XII., p. 111. Aphis Maidis, Fitch, Hom., Fitch, Vols. I. and II., p. 318. Ill. Vol. XIII., p. 46. Arctia (Leucarctia) acrea, Sm., Lep., Harr., p. 351. Pack., p. 286. ’ Il. Vol. VIL., pp. 79, 188. Ibid., Vol. X., pp. 115, 170. Ibid, Vol. XI., p. 62. Arctia phalerata, Harr., Lep., Harr., p. 347. Ill. Vol. VIL, p. 181. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 115." 396 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GRASS, Blissus leucopterus, Say, Het., Harr., p. 198. Ill. Vol. VIL, pp. 15, 40. Ibid, Vol, XII., p. 32. Ill. Mo., Vol. If., p. 15, Il. Ibid, VIE{ mate Bryobia pratensis, Gar., Acarina, Ill. Vol. XIV., p. 73. Bryobia pallida, Gar., Acarina, Ill. Vol. XIV., p. 74: Calathus gregarius, Say, Col., Ill. Vol. XI. p. 109. Caloptenus bivittatus, Say, Or., Ill. Vol. IX., p. 126. Mo., Vol. VIL, p. 178, Hl. Caloptenus differentialis, Thos., Or., Ill. Vol. [X., p. 127. Ill. Mo., Vol. VIL, p: 173. Tid; Vol. VELL., p. Tos: Caloptenus femur-rubrum, De G., Or., Ill. Vol. I., p. 99. Ibid, Vol. VWil.; p: 30, WL. “Harr:, p: 174, 0 Caloptenus spreetus, Tho., Or., Ill. Vol. I,, p. 82. Ibid, Vol. VIL., p. 35, Dl. Ibid, Vol. TX., p. 121.. Mo., Vol. VIL., p. 121. Ibid, Vo WEioe 57. Ibid, Vol. IX., p. 157. Report of U. S. Entomological Commission, Chytolita morbidalis, Guen., Lep., Ill. Vol. X., pp. 188, 182. Coccinellidz, Col., Ml. Vol. XII., p. 116. Cotalpa lanigera, Linn., Col., Ill. Vol. XIII., p. 146, Ill. American Nat- uralist, 1869, pp. 186, 441. Harr., p. 24, Ill. Mo. Vol. V., p. 10. Crambus vulgivagellus, Clem., Lep., Lintner’s Ent. Report, Vol. I., p. 127. Canadian Entomologist, Vol. XII., p. 17. Ibid, Vol. XIII., p. 181. Am. Nat., Vol. XV., pp. 574, 750, 914. Ont. 1881, pp. 6, 18. U. S. 1881- 1882, p. 179. Ctenucha virginica, Char., Lep., Ill., Vol. X., p. 170. Lintner’s En, Con., Vol. III., p. 155. Pack., p. 283. Debis Portlandia, Fab., Lep., Ill. Vol. X., p. 92. Strecker’s Catalogue, p. 148. Dichelia Sulfureana, Clem., Lep., Ill., Vol. XIV., p.17. Fernald’s Cata- logue, p. 21. U.S. 1880, p. 255. Drasteria erechtea, Cram., Lep., Ill. Vol. X., p. 148. Ont. 1881, p. 47, Til. Ibid, 1875, p. 36. Elateridz, Col., Harris, p. 55. Ill. Vol. V., p. 92. Ibid, Vol. VI., p. 21. Ibid, Vol. VII., p. 19. Ibid, Vol. XTI.. p. 27. Mo., Vol. II., p. 16. Fitch, Vol. X., p. 63. Elater mancus, Say, Col., Harris, p. 56. Galerita janus, Fab., Col., Ill. Vol. XII., p. 108. Glyphina eragrostidis, Midd., Hom., Ill. Vol. VIII., p. 144. Gortyna nitela, Guenee., Lep., Ill. Vol. VII., p. 100. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 151. Mo., Vol. 1., p, 56. Ibid, Vol. III., p..105. Ibid, Vol. VIII, p. 3%. Hadena devastatrix, Bruce, Lep,, Ill. Vol. VII., p. 216. Mo. Vol. L, p. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GRASS, 397 88. Ibid, Supplement, p. 56. Harris, p. 445. Fitch, Vols. I. and IL., p. 315. Harpalus, all of this Genus, Col., Ill. Vol. XII., p. 112. Heliophila phragmitidicola, Guenee, Lep., Ill. Vol. VII., p. 224. Heliophila Harveyi, Grote (albilinea, Htitbn) Lep., Mo. Vol. IX., p. 50. Ill. Vol. VIL., p. 223. Isosoma Elymi, French, Ay., Il. Vol. XI., p. 81. Canadian Entomologist, Jan., 1882. Isosoma hordei, Harr., Hy., Ill., Vol. XI., p. 75. Fitch, Vol. VI.-IX., p- 154. Harris, 553. Mich. Ag. Rept. 1884, p. 322. Mo. Vol. IIL., p. 92. Lachnosterna fraterna, Harr., Col., Ill. Vol. VI., p. 101. Harris, p. 32. Lachnosterna fusca, Frohl, Col., Il. Vol. VI., p. 97. Ibid, Vol. VII., p. 38. Mo. Vol. I., p. 156. Ill. Harris, p. 30. Fitch, Vols. I. and IL, p. 248. Lachnosterna hirticula, Knoch., Col., Ill. Vol. V., p. 87. Harris, p. 32. Lachnosterna ilicis, Knoch., Col., Ill. Vol. V., p. 87. Lachnosterna pilosicollis, Knoch., Col., Harris, p. 33. Ill. Vol. V., p. 87. Laphygma frugiperda, Guenee. Lep., Ill. Vol. VIL, pp. 97, 219. Ibid, Wol..X.,.p. 138, Vol. XIV., p..55. Mo. Vol. II., p. 41. Leucania pseudargyria, Guenee, Lep., Ill. Vol. X., p. 139. Leucania albilinea, Hiibn., Lep., Mo. Vol. TX., pp. 50-55. Leucania unipuncta, Haw., Lep., Harris, p. 627. Ill. Vol. VI., p. 56, itp. 201. Mo. Vol. I., p. 109. Ibid, Vol. 11, p. 37. Tbid, Vel. VIIZL., pp. 2%, 182. Ibid, Vol. II., p. 37. Leucarctia acreea, Smith, Lep., Ill. Vol. VII., p. 183. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 170, Packard, p. 286. Limothrips poaphagus, Com., Het. Fernald, Grasses of Maine, p. 42. Comstock Notes on Entomology, p. 120. Loxopeza atriventris, Say, Col., Ill. Vol. XII., pp. 109, 115. Lygus lineolaris, Beauv., Hem., Ill. Vol. XIII., p. 115. Mo. Vol. IL, p. 113. Harr., p. 201. U.S. Vol. 1884, p. 312. Macrodactylus subspinous, Fabr., Col., Ill. Vol. I., p. 24. Ibid, Vol. VL., p. 108. Lintner Rept., Vol. I., p. 227. Harr., p. 35. Fitch Vol. IL, p. 245. U.S. 1863, p. 567, 1867, p. 71, 1868, pp. 87, 104. Am. Entomol., Vol. I., p. 251. Mich. Pom. Report 1872, p. 667. Mich. Ag. Report 1874, p. 145. Neonympha Canthus, Linn., Lep., Ill. Vol. X., p. 91. Neonympha eurytris, Fab., Lep., Ill. Vol. X., p. 90. Strecker’s Cata- logue, p. 148. Harris, p. 306. Pack., p. 264. 398 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GRASS. Neonympha gemma, Hib., Lep., Ill. Vol. X, p. 91. Strecker’s Cata- logue Macrolepidoptera, p. 150. Neonympha phocion, Fabr., Lep., Strecker’s Catalogue, p. 149. Buffalo Bulletin, Vol. II., p. 244, Neonympha sosybius, Fabr., Lep., Ill. Vol. X., p. 91. Strecker’s Cata- logue, p. 149. Buffalo Bulletin, Vol. II., p. 145. Nephelodes violans, Guen., Lep., Ill. Vol. VII., pp. 29, 220. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 189. Lintner’s En. Report, Vol. I., p. 99. Am. Ento., Vol. IIL., p. 231. Am. Nat., Vol. XV., p.575. Canadian Entomologist, Vol. VIII., p. 69. Trans. Kan. Acad. Science, Vol. IV., p. 45. Pamphila Delaware, Edw., Lep., Ill. Vol. X., p. 96. Pamphila vitellius, Fabr., Strecker’s Cat., p.171. Proceed. Ent. Soc. Phils Ass 0: Pamphila hobomok, Harr., Lep., Strecker’s Cat., p. 172. Harr., p. 313. ‘Canadian Ent., Vol. I., p. 66. Proceed. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XI., p. 381. Tl. Vol. X., p. 97. Pamphila, lowa, Scud., Lep., Strecker’s Cat., p. 173. Pamphila Mystic, Edw., Lep., Strecker’s Cat., p. 165. Proceed. Ent. Soc. Phil., Vol. II., p. 15. Canadian Ent., Vol. I., p. 66. Packard, p. 270. Pamphila Peckius, Kerby, Lep., Ill. Vol. VII., p. 160. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 178. Harris, p. 315. Pamphila phyleeus, Dru., Lep., Strecker’s Cat., p. 164. Ill. Vol. X., pp. 96, 176. Pamphila Samoset, Scud., Lep., Strecker’s Cat., p. 174. Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. Vol. II., p. 507. Trans. Ent. Soc., Vol. L., p. 3. Pamphila Sassacus, Harr., Lep., Harr., p. 315. Ill. Vol. VII, p. 159, Ibid, Vol. X., p. 97. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. IL, p. 346. Patrobus longicornis, Say, Col., Il. Vol. XII., p. 113. Philometra serraticornis, Grote, Lep,, Ill., Vol. VII., p. 246. Platynus limbatus, Say, Ill. Vol. XII., p. 109. Plusia simplex, Guen., Lep., Ill. Vol. [X., p. 48. Ibid, Vol. XI., p. 38. Pseudoglossa lubricalis, Geyer, Ill., Vol. X., pp. 138, 182. Pterostichus, all of the Genus. Col., Ill. Vol. XII., pp. 110, 115. Pulvinatia innumerabilis, Rath., Hom., Ill. Vol. XIV., p. 103. Mich. Ag. Rep. 1883, p. 429. Ill. Am. Naturalist, Vol. XII., pp. 655-661. Proc. Dav. Ia. Acad. Sci., Vol. II., p. 293. U.S. 1884, p. 350. Rhizobius poze, Thom., Hom., Ill. Vol. VIII., p. 166. Satyrus alope, Fab., Lep., Ill. Vol. VIL, p. 156. bid, Vol. X., p. 92. Strecker’s Cat., p. 157. Harris, p. 305. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GRASS. 399 Satyrus nephele, Kirb., Lep., Ill. Vol. VIL, p. 156. Ibid, Vol. X., p. 92. Vol. VI. Proceed. Ent. Soc. Phil., p. 195. MHarr., p. 306. Bull. Buffalo Soc., Vol. II., p. 242. Scelodonta pubescens, Mels., Col., Ill. Vol. XIII., p. 163. Scepsis fulvicollis, Hubn., Lep., Ill., Vol. X., p. 171. Schizoneura panicola, Thom., Hom., Il. Vol. VIII, p. 188. Ibid, Vol. XIII., pp. 42, 51. Sciara? Dip., Ul. Vol. XIII., p. 59. Selandria? Saw Fly, Hy., U. 8. 1884, p. 401. Siphonophora avene, Fab.. Hom., Fitch, Vol. VI.-IX., p. 91. Mo. Vol. op. 0, 6,10, Wl. Vol. VIIL., pp: 29, 51. Siphonophora setariz, Thom., Hom., Ill. Vol. VIIL., p. 56. Spilosoma Virginica, Fabr., Lep., Harris, p. 349. Ill. Vol. IV., p. 188. Ibid, Vol. VII., pp. 80, 183, 277, 280. Ibid, Vol. X., pp. 116, 169. Pack- ard, p. 287. Mo. Vol. III., p. 68. Sphenophorus parvulus, Gyll., Forbes’ Notes. Seen eating grass in July and August. . Sphenophorus sculptilis, Uhl, Col., Lintner, En. Rep., Vol. L., p. 253. Mo. Vol. III, p. 59. U.S. 1879, p. 248. Ibid. 1880, p. 272. Ont., 1880, p. 56. Am. Nat., Vol. XV., p. 915. U.S. 1881-1882, p. 139. Tychea panici, Thom., Hom., Ill. Vol, VIII., p. 169. In the above list I have given only such species as I know, or have good reason to believe, feed in part or wholly on grass. I have given references that the literature may be more easily in- vestigated, though many authors referred to do not speak of the insects as enemies to our grasses, they do give habits and charac- ters which are important. In the list given others might very safely have been included. It is probably true that all the species of Lachnosterna—allies of our May or June beetle, the common white grub—and many species of related genera, are injurious to grasses, as they quite generally feed on the roots of these plants in the grub or larval state. It is also probable that others of the genera Agrotis, Ha- dena, etc., perhaps all the cut worms, are enemies of our mead- ows-and pastures. Till within a couple of ycars Agrotis fennica, the Black Army Worm, was supposed to be one of the most in- 400 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GRASS. offensive of these moths. Now we know that it may devastate whole meadows. Recently a Paralid, or snout moth, Crambus vulgivagellus, Clem., which has been supposed to be innoxious, did immense damage in Northern New York. The same moth is seen each year in Michigan and other States, and we do not know when it, or other species of the same genus, may not come to any iocality in our Northern States to the ruin- ation of our meadows and pastures. Another moth, Nephelodes. violens, Guenee, has had a history similar to that of the Cram- bus, just mentioned. This moth I find while trapping moths by sugar every year here in Lansing, sometimes in great numbers. We cannot tell when it may come in devastating numbers in any locality in the United States. It is probable that several species of Elaters—spring beetles—the dreaded wire worms, are great pests to our meadows. It is quite likely that they do far more damage to grasses than is known or suspected. The same may as truly be said of the army worm moth, and other species of the Heliophila (Leucania). We note their ravages only when they come in armies. Yet I notice they are quite common every year, and as they are not usually driven by force of numbers to leave the meadows for other pasturage their blasting work, though not inconsiderable, is unnoticed. Many species of grass-hoppers, not mentioned in the above list—indeed nearly all of our locusts— are at times more or less destructive to grasses, and like the cut worms, wire worms, white grubs and army worms, work unper- ceived. Only when they come in swarms, as they have the past season (1875), do they attract attention. In the above list I have not included any of the Chlorops, or Oscinis, but from the habits of the closely related Meromyza, as wheat enemies, the abundance of the flies of these genera on grass in summer, and the addea fact that we often find the mag- gots mining in the culms makes it possible that they do more or less harm to our species of Graminex. It has been thought that INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GRASS. 401 these maggots were what caused the June grass to wither in summer, as so frequently observed. This is more likely due to species of thrips, three or more of which I have taken from the culms. Sometimes the grass withers from the attack of the stalk borer, Gortina nilela. I have also omitted all mention of leaf hoppers in the above list. Yet it is not improbable, indeed I think it certain, that various species of Tettigonia Heleochara and Jassus may and do often quite considerable damage to our grass crops. The larve of these tree or leaf hoppers are often seen enveloped in their spittle, like secretions, on our grasses, and as such insects must suck all their nutriment from the grass, they can but be quite a serious damage. Of the Hemiptera, with the exception of a few lice, plant and bark lice, the tarnished plant bug and the chinch bug, the above list speaks not. It is quite likely that other plant and bark lice, and several Heteroptera, especially of the genera Capsus and Phytocoris, nay be found to work no inconsiderable harm to our grasses. It will be seen that there are included in the list several genera of the family Carabide, all of which have been considered here- tofore as predaceous species, and so beneficial. Prof. S. A. Forbes has well shown that many of these ground beetles are largely vegetable feeders, and that grass is the principal food of most of these species. Prof. Forbes also finds that nearly if not all of the Coccinellide (lady bird beetles) feed in part on the pollen of grasses. These probably do very little harm. As was remarked in reference to the insects infesting our clo- vers, many in the above list live in part on other plants, and many do very little apparent harm to pasture or meadow. A de- tailed description will be given only of such species as are noted enemies. 51 402 MAY BEETLE—WHITE GRUB. Lachnosterna fusca, Frohl. May Beetle—White grub. Order Coleoptera. Family Scarabeeide. Without doubt the White Grub, which is the larva of the common May beetle, though probably other species of this same and allied genera are much like this one in appearance and hab- its, is one of the very worst enemies of the grasses, as by eating otf the roots whole meadows, pasture fields, and: lawns are en- tirely ruined. Often the roots of the grass are so entirely con- sumed that all may be raked off, leaving the entire field as clean as a well tilled summer fallow. The figure (147) shows the insects in the several stages so well that little else is needed. The eggs are laid in the grass fields. The white, usually curved and wrinkled grubs with brown heads, feed for three years. The pupa is a AP Sot pure found in earthen cells, and is not different from other eopterous pupe. In May and June the bectles come forth from the earth, and the females lay their eggs each to the number of from forty to sixty. It is probable that these eggs are always laid either in grass plats or where other vegetation is rank and plentiful. The beetles are nocturnal, and as is well known are attracted by lights, and so often become very annoying as they enter our rooms and houses. Sometimes the beetles so swarm “in trees as to remind one of a swarm of bees. Indeed they often do no lit- tle mischief in eating the foliage of oaks and other trees during these summer love feasts. The grubs eat for three seasons. CUT WORMS. 403 Thus they are often found in the same grass field of varying sizes. The third spring they transform to pupe, and in May the beetles begin to appear. It is during the second summer that they do the most harm. ‘They are now large and sleek, and when they are very numerous, as is often the case, they some- times do great damage, not only to grass but to our cereal crops and corn. Fall plowing, by giving the birds and other insectivorous an- imals a better chance, is often practiced with excellent results in fighting these pests. Sometimes swine is turned into the mead- ows where they fatten on the grubs instead of on the grass which the grubs have already destroyed. Nothing is better where a field is badly infested than to turn in swine. In lawns the bare space must be spaded up and either sodded or else new grass seed sown. Rolling, which is sometimes advised, will do little or no good. I have already spoken of birds. ‘The crow, black- bird, or purple grackle is specially serviceable. I have seen a flock of those birds clean a lawn in exceedingly quick time. Predaceous wasps and beetles also prey upon these grubs. They are also often seen to afford a pasturage for large fungous growths, which destroy them. Not only do white grubs do harm to our grasses, but they also attack corn, wheat and strawberries which are planted upon sod, and the latter when grown for a series of years in one place. Agrotians. Cut Worms. Order Lepidoptera. Family Noctuide. Not only the real cut worms of the genera Agrotis, Hadena, and Mamestra, but many species of the same genera that do not cut off the food as do the typical cut worms, are often injurious to the grasses. From the very nature of our grasses much harm might be done, and yet unless it were very great go unnoticed iby the practical man. It is more than likely that with the more intensive agriculture of the future, made necessary by a more 404 CUT WORMS. dense population, note will be taken of these injuries which now are unnoticed. While we may believe that most of our cut worms attack and destroy many a spear of grass in pasture and meadow, we actually know that Agrotis fennica may utterly devastate whole meadows, as it has done in parts of Michigan for the pat two years. Pas These gray, sober colored noctuid moths, Fig. 148, lay their scores of white eggs upon the stems of grasses. The larve, Fig. 149, may be dirty white or variously striped. Those which spend the day beneath the ground are more frequently lght colored. They pupate in the earth. Fig. 150 shows the pupa. The moths of different species may be found from June to Octo- ber. Agrotis fennica is seen as a of var. moth in July. It is probably true of all the species that the eggs are Rice ae laid soon after the moths appear. In most cases these hatch the same season, and the me: larvee become partly grown, but do their greatest sth a mischief the following May and June. The eggs of A. fennica do not hatch till spring, when the larve eat rayen- ously and grow very rapidly. So we see that in all cases June is the dreaded month when these insects lay heavy tribute on the produce of the farmer. We must depend on the natural enemies very largely to over- come these injurious insects in our grass fields. The extent of the area of grass fields, the number of insects and their con- cealed condition makes all kinds of known warfare impracticable. When they cover a field, as did the A. fennica the meadows in Bay county, Michigan, we may adopt the same remedy as in case of ARMY WORM. 405 the white grub, give up the fields to the swine. While we may bandage our grape-vines, fruit trees, and garden plants, and thus protect them, and while we may bait the cut worms of clean cultivated corn fields with bunches of grass poisoned with the arsenites and thus kill them, or later dig them out at a profit, none of these methods are available in the meadow. Leucania unipuncta, Haw. Army Worm. Order Lepidoptera. Family Noctwidae. This insect is so largely the prey to insect enemies, parasitic and predaceous, that it is only rarely that it does marked injury. Yet the entomologist knows that the moths are very common each year, and there can be no doubt but that it does consider- able injury in our grass fields every season. It is only when its numbers, through favorable surroundings, become so immensely numerous as to make it necessary for the caterpillars to swarm forth from the meadows to get food, that we usually take note of its presence or become conscious of its power for mischief... Fia. 151. Fig. 152. The figures show well the appearance of the insect in its sev- erel stages. The moth, Fig. 151, is yellowish-brown, often with a greenish tinge with a descal white dot on each front wing, which gives the specific name. The caterpillar, Fig. 152, is striped longitudinally with dark and light gray lines. It pupates like all noctuids in the earth. The moths are abundant in August and September. The eggs are laid in the sheaths of the grass. The caterpillars are nearly 406 WIRE WORM. grown in July, and then is when they devastate meadow and oat field. Here as elsewhere, with the enemies of our grasses, we must trust largely to the other insects and birds that prey upon them. Usually this is sufficient to so reduce their numbers that their presence causes no anxiety, or even makes itself known to the farmer. When they migrate, in armies, threatening meadow and grain field, it is recommended to scatter straw, and when they become involved in its meshes to burn them, straw and all. Also to poison with the arsenites a portion of the grain or grass on the side of the field towards which the army is advancing, and thus hope by wholesale poisoning to save a portion of the crop. This has usually failed, as the army is often so large that they can devastate acres even though poisoned in this manner. The most satisfactory method yet recommended has proved to be the furrow or ditch. This is left steep on the side toward the field to be protected, and to have holes, like post holes, dug in it at _ frequent intervals. These holes receive the caterpillars, and the latter, by use of a convenient stick, large at one end, may be quickly killed, and so the holes made ready for a fresh lot of vic- tims. o ‘a AS Fia. 158. The moth, d, Fig. 158, expands 2.5 c m (1 inch) and like all of the specics of this genus has a slender body. The front wings are of a dull yellow color. There are rows of black scales be- tween the veins and a sub-marginal row of black dots near the 9 THE VAGABOND CRAMBUS. 411 outer border. The fringe has a golden reflection. The hind wings are pale yellow, with long paler fringe. The thorax and abdomen is yellow. ‘The projecting beak—the palpi—which gives the name snout moths to this family is well marked. The very small eggs, g, Fig. 158, are yellow till near hatching when they turn pink. Like the eggs of many butterflies they are ribbed, both longitudinally and transversely. The transverse ridges are less marked than the others. The eggs are .?7 m m by 8mm. The color of the caterpillar, a, Fig. 158, is dull green, with shining black head. There are brown tubercles along the body, each of which bears a black hair. When full grown the larva is about 2 c m (? of an inch) in length. The cocoon, 6, Fig. 158, is spun close to the earth. It is curved, attached to: grass, and varies much in size. The average length is 2.25 c¢ m,. or 9 of aninch. Some cocoons are much enlarged at one end.. The pale brown pupa is much the same as chrysalids of moths in general. It is 1 c m (.4 of an inch) in length. The eggs are deposited in dry pastures and meadows in late August. They seem to be merely dropped on the ground. They hatch in a little over a week, and the young caterpillars eat. sparingly, but do little harm ere they go into winter quarters.. They commence to feed as soon as the grass starts in spring. The brown spots in the grass fields where all has been eaten to the very roots, which latter have not been disturbed, show to the unobservant even that a serious enemy is at hand. When very numerous whole acres are fairly mown off close to the ground. While they prefer June grass they will eat any grass, and even oats and wheat. Like the corn-root Crambus they spin a web in which they live while devastating the meadows. They feed by night, and when not feeding are concealed in a cylindrical case of pieces of grass and fecal pelets held together by silken threads. The most damage is done in May. Often the caterpillars gather in immense numbers on the trunks of trees near the ground. 412 THE VAGABOND CRAMBUS. They spin their cocoons late in May, which are placed uprigat in the ground just below the surface. They do not pupate till the first of August, and do not emerge as moths till late in the same month. Prof. J. A. Lintner, who has given an excellent account of this pest in his lst An. Rep., speaks of several enemies, parasitic and predaceous, which are probably what keep this pest from do ing greater damage. He also suggests burning by firing the pastures. He further recommends trying a liberal application of lime, plaster, ashes, and especially gas-lime. Plowing in autumn would doubtless destroy the eggs. We may reasonably hope that we shall not have frequent attacks of this insect; possibly it will never do so much damage again. Yet it has come once, and so we may at least fear that it will again, and to be fore-warned is to be fore-armed. Before closing it is well to state that in company with the above Prof. Lintner found a caterpillar, the larva of a moth com- mon in Michigan and all through the North. It is Nephelodes violans. I have space only to state that it was not very injurious, though may increase and become so at any time. What has been said as to habits, and especially of remedies, in relation to the Crambus and army worms, will probably be true of this in- sect if it should ever become a serious enemy. I have not space to describe more of the insects noxious to our grasses. Those described are the only ones which have given anxiety, and while the others may become more numerous and therefore harmful, they are not likely to do so. In connection with the list given above I have referred to authors who have written upon each insect, and in many cases not only are the de- scriptions full but excellent illustrations add to the interest and value of the treatises. It is not unlikely thas new enemies will attack our forage crops; but if so they will almost certainly be like one or more of the old familiar ones, and so by studying THE FUNGI OF FORAGE PLANTS. 413 their habits and determining their natural history we shall at once know which of the old and well tried remedies to adopt. CHAPTER vik THE FUNGI OF FORAGE PLANTS, BY WILLIAM TRELEASE, D. SC, Grasses afford a nidus for the development of a large number of fungi, so that they are a favorite collecting ground with stu- dents of these plants; but the greater number of species are found on dry stems and leaves, which they seize upon, as a rule, only after their death, and though the number of truly parasitic species is by no means small, there are but few that seriously injure valuable grasses. The number of noxious species on clo- vers and other forage plants of the pea-family is also small; hence this chapter includes a few which are of such frequent oc- currence as to attract general attention. For the most part the fungi of forage plants are directly inju- rious by weakening them and appropriating to themselves the food needed for making a good growth; but they likewise lower the nutritive value of the crop that is produced. In cases where seed is an object, the loss is even greater, since the yield of dis- eased plants is greatly lessened, while the quality of their seed is always poor. The annual loss in our meadows and pastures due to these causes cannot be stated, from the lack of reliable statis- tics, but in some seasons a moderate estimate places it in the millions. Besides these direct injuries to the crops the fungi of grasses are the cause of a very considerable loss to the farmer in another way. Ergot and corn-smut have long been known to possess ac- 414 CORN-SMUT. LEAF-SMUT OF TIMOTHY. tive medicinal and poisonous properties, and it has been demon- strated that abortion and certain diseases of the feet of cattle fol- low the prolonged use of ergotized hay or pasturage. How many of the smuts and other fungi of grasses possess similar or other detrimental properties is at present merely a matter of conjec- ture; but some of them occur in sufficient quantity to merit sus- picion until they have been shown to be harmless. SMUTS. 1. Corn-smut ( Ustilago zew mays, D. C.). Order Basidiomy- cetes. Sub-order Ustilagineae. Forming galls, often of large size, in the leaves and other parts of Indian corn and teosinte, that are finally transformed into dusty masses of brown spores. No fungus is more widely distributed or better known than corn-smut. Like other smuts, its germinating spores attack young plants, its mycelium or spawn making its way upward through their growing tissues without producing any evident ef- fect until it prepares to fruit, when it increases and leads to the formation of the smut-galls, that are ultimately filled with myriads of round brown spores, each densely covered by short, sharp spines. These spores, which measure 9-15 micro-millime- ters, preserve their power of germination for several years, or, in fresh barnyard manure, etc., they develop at once, multiplying indefinitely by the production of yeast-like secondary spores, each of which has the power of infecting a seedling corn plant. Gathering and burning the smut-galls and smutty ears, while they are still green, to prevent the accumulation of spores in the soil, rotating the crop when smut has become firmly established in a field; treating seed corn with copperas-water and lime, etc., before planting; and using only old, well-rotted manure or arti- ficial fertilizers, have all been proposed as preyentives of smut. 2. The leaf-smut of Timothy (7i/letia striaeformis, Westd.) Forming black, smutty lines in the leaves of Timothy and other THE LEAF-SMUT OF TIMOTHY. 415 grasses, Whicu are finaily reduced to brown shreds, covered with dusty spores. Ly formation of lead-colored, thickened lines, about 1-64 in. wide and 1-16 to } in. long, be- tween the nerves of the leaf. The epidermis, which at first covers them and gives them their gray color, soon breaks away, revealing a pow- dery mass of black-brown spores, which are ir- regularly rounded or egg-shaped, and closely studded with short spines. They measure 10- 12 micro-millimeters, and in their microscop- Fia. 159. ical characters closely resemble the spores of the corn-smut. Similar black lines are formed in the leaves of species of Glyce- ria by Ustilago longissima (Sow.) which has smooth brown spores, 3.5 to 7 micro-millimeters in diameter, and in the leaves of wild rye and other grasses by Urocystis occulta (Wall.) the dark brown opaque spores of which measure 10-20 micro-millimeters, and usually occur in clusters of 2-4, closely surrounded by masses of half-round, colorless cells of slightly greater diameter. Ustilago hypodytes (Schl.) occurs on the stem of quack grass and other species, usually forming black smut masses inside the leaf-sheath, and Ul. grandis (Fr.) causes cat-tail-like swellings on the internodes of the reed. _ The fruit of many grasses is replaced by other smut fungi, the number of which.is very considerable. The commonest are: Ustilago panici glaucc (Wall.), very abundant in autumn on pigeon grass; U. rabenhorstiana (Kuehn), on crab grasses and sand burs; and U. segetum, (P.), in oats, barley, wheat, etc. Draining the soil well, transferring the crops to new land when they have begun to smut badly, and exercising care with respect to manure are preventive measures. 416 GRASS-RUST. RUSTS. 3 Grass-rust, (Puccinia graminis, P.) Order Basidiomy cetes. Sub-order Uredineae. Fia, 160.—Several stages of grass-rust. A, young ecidium fruit; x, section of Bar- berry leaf; a p, ecidium fruit; sp, spermagonia; IJ., a mass of teleutospores on a leaf of a grass; JJT., three uredospores, ur; with one teleutospore, t.—(From DeBarry.) Forming orange-red, powdery spots and lines on the leaves and stems of cereals and meadow-grasses, that give place later to dead-black velvety lines. The sheaths and culms of the smaller grasses, especially quack grasses and red-top, are very often attacked by this rust (called mildew and brand in England), which produces the same dis- GRASS-RUST. 417 astrous effects on them as on wheat. The red rust or uredo state appears from early spring until fall. It consists of micro- scopic one-celled rough spores, borne on branches of a myceli- SINT Fig. 161.—Grass-rust. A, germinating teleutospore, t; B, promycelium, with spori- dia; C,s p, sporidium, germinating on the lower side of a leaf; u, a germinating uredospore.—(From DeBarry.) um that vegetates within the grass, and only appears on the sur- face to fruit, which propagate the disease rapidly in damp warm weather. Toward the end of the season the same mycelium bears a second form of fruit—two-celled teleutospores or winter- spores—that form dense elongated black cushions where they break through the epidermis, often covering the greater part of 52 418 CLOVER-RUST. the dead stem. ‘These spores germinate the next spring, when they produce secondary spores that are said by an English ex- perimenter to infect very young grass leaves, in which they forma mycelium that quickly fruits in red rust. The winter-spores have long been held to produce a mycelium in young barberry leaves, on which the common yellow cluster-cups appear as a result,— their spores again attacking grasses and forming a mycelium that bears little of the red rust, but fruits almost exclusively by winter-spores. Other grasses are subject to the attacks of rust-fungi belonging to other. species. ga, P. coronata (Cda.), the common oat-rust, id Me and P. rubigo vera, (D. C.) the barley- rust, are not infrequent on grasses, the latter on the beautiful squirrel-tail grass. coy b Fro. 162. They produce smaller clusters of uredo- spores, and the cushions of teleutospores are long, covered by the epidermis of the plant, and not so black. They are also more frequent on the blade than on the sheath of the leaves. P. magnusiana (Koem.), P. phragmitis (Schum), and P. arundi- nacea (D. C.), are found on the reed. These species all have cluster-cups or excidia on other species of plants. The rust of corn is P. maydis (Carrad). The tall gramma grass is infested by P. vexans (Farlow); P. andropogi (Schw.), occurs on broom-crass; P. arundinarie (Schw.), on fall marsh grass; and P. cynodontis (Desm.), on Bermuda grass. The common rust of old witch-grass or tickle-grass is P. emaculata (Schw.) ete. None of these species are known to produce cluster-cups. 4. Clover-rust (Uromyces trifolii, A. & 8.) Producing mi- nute white cluster-cups, pale brown uredo-pustules and darker brown teleutospore-cushions, 1-64 in. in diameter, on the leaf- stalks and blades of clover, especially white clover. . CLOVE-RRUST. 419 The clover-rust bears its clus- ter-cups on the same plant with the other forms. ‘They appear in early summer, in small clus- ters, especially on the stalk and veins of the leaves. The later cluster-cups are accompanied or followed by small round or oval pustules of rough brown uredo- spores, that are partly covered by the torn, lead-colored epider- mis of the leaf. Both of these forms immediately reproduce a mycelium, similar to that from which they originated, in other leaves. The winter spores oc- cur in slightly darker clusters in the fall, and germinate the following spring. They ee ve ; differ from the corresponding spores of Puccinia in being one-celled, and resemble the uredospores of the same species, except that they are somewhat darker brown, smooth, and often furnished with a blunt point at the end. U. medicaginis falcatae (D. C.), is a related rust, found in all its stages on alfalfa and none-such, and on the wild rabbit’s-foot clover and hop-clover. Its winter spores are striped by longi- tudinal ridges. Other species of Uromyces are found on differ- ent grasses. U. dactylidis (Otth.) occurs, in Europe, on orchard grass, the taller fescue, etc., and is represented in this country by several forms on a number of grasses. Its cluster-cups are found on the butter-cup. U. acuminatus (Arthur) is common on fall- marsh grass; U. spartinae (Farlow) on rush-salt grass; and U. Peckianus onthe smaller salt grass (Distichlis maritima). These species are not known to have a cluster-cup stage. Burning over meadows and fields covered with rusty stubble; @ proper succession of crops; and the destruction of plants that 420 ERGOT. serve as hosts for the cluster-cup stages of rusts, are the best methods of keeping them within check. ASCOMYCETES. 5. Ergot. (Claviceps, Sp. Sclerotiwm clavus of authors.) Black, purple or dark gray spurs in the flowers of cereals and of various wild and cultivated grasses. The officinal ergot, to be found in most rye-fields toward the end of summer, appears in the form of curved purple or black spurs, often an inch long and 3-16 in. in diameter, which replace the grain in one or more flowers of a spike, thus giving rise to the popular name of spurred rye, often applied to it. . Spurs of the same nature, but usually shorter and stouter, are also common in the heads of wheat. Similar bodies, varying much in size, shape and color. are found in the flowers of many grasses. On the rush-salt grass they are very long and slender, and rather pale. On wild rice they are short, and even stouter than the spurs of wheat; while on smaller grasses, like red-top, Timothy, blue-grass, etc., they are much smaller, and closely resemble the pellets of mice. These spurs are the resting form, or sclerotia, of a fungus which appears at the base of the young grain, when the grasses are in bloom. As it grows it gradually takes the place of the grain, the remains of which are pushed up at its end. While young, the fungus gives off a sweetish, ill-smelling fluid, that contains myriads of microscopic spores which are carried from plant to plant by flies, beetles and other insects that feed on the fluid, and so play an important part in spreading the disease. When the spurs have reached their growth they harden, and fall to the ground, where, as a general thing, they remain unchanged till the next spring, when each bears a number of small, stalked, Fic. 165.—1, 2, 3, 4, Grasses affected with Ergot appearing as black spurs. (From the U.S. Dept. of Agrl.) Fia. 165. 422 ; ERGOT. pink fruit-bodies, in which spores are produced at about the time when grasses are coming into bloom. Botanists recognize several species of ergot by the form of their spring fruit; but the differences between them do not much concern their life-history, so that they need not be consid- ered separately. From their habit of attacking only the flowers, they do not affect the general health of the grasses they grow on, while as a rule they are not abundant enough to seriously lessen the vield of seed. Ergot has long been em- ployed in medicine, be- cause of its action on the uterus. That it should cause abortion when fed to stock is, therefore, not surprising. Nothing can be more misleading than the popular belief that er- got does not occur on meadow grasses in suf- ficient quantity to be dan- gerous. In examining sus- Fic. 166. pected hay from several of the western States the Veterinarian of the United States Department of Agriculture found 2-6 per cent. of its entire weight to ‘be ergot. An equally erroneous and common belief is that in pastures ergot cannot mature because the grass is so closely cropped that it cannot flower. Under close grazing most grasses produce scattering flowers, when very small, and at times nearly every one of these is ergotized. Not long since considerable excitement was caused by the ap- . 39 . pearance of what was taken for ‘foot-and-mouth disease” in THE CAT-TAIL GRASS FUNGUS. 423 Kansas and other parts of the West, but on investigatiou it was found that the sloughing of the hoofs and other symptoms were the result of ergotism, due to the foul hay on which the cattle had been fed. Similar cases have occurred in other parts of the country, and in Europe the use of flour made from ergotized grain has occasionally given rise to epidemics of a similar nature among men. However it may be as regards abortion, ergot does not usually occur abundantly enough in closely grazed pastures to cause this trouble. It has been suggested that it may be prevented from occurring to a dangerous extent in hay by cutting grass as soon as it comes to bloom, and curing it before the ergot has ma- tured. Yellowish-white, irregularly rounded bodies, with a checked surface, occurring in the flowers of Paspalum laeve are Spermoe- dia paspali (Fr.), the sclerotium of an entirely different fungus. 6. The cat-tail grass fungus, (Apichlie typhina, P.) Form- ing a white or yellow coating around the upper leaf-sheaths of grasses. This pretty fungus is found on rather young plants through the entire open season. The velvety ring which it forms about the sheath consists at first of a loose mycelium, rooted in the tissues of the grass, which bears an abundance of conidia, or summer- spores. by which other plants are infected. As the ieeininsveice season goes on this thickens into a yellow or waxy mass, while its surface becomes uneven by the eleva- tion of minute points, each containing, when ripe, a Fig. 167. Cluster of asci, or spore-sacs, filled with spores. In Europe, meadow grasses, and especially Timothy, are some- 424 THE BLACK-SPOT DISEASE. times extensively attacked by this parasite, but in America it has not been noticed to any great extent on the more valuable species—its presence being possibly overlooked in meadows be- cause concealed by the spreading blades above. __ A black fungus related to this, which occurs on grass, is Hy- pocrella hypoxylon (Pk.) 7. The black-spot disease of grass, (Phyllachora graminis, P.) Coal-black spots usually under 1-32 in. wide, and 1-32—} in. long, on the leaves of grasses; especially conspicuous on the up- per side. This is one of the commonest and most no- ticeable of grass-diseases, especially toward the end of the season, but does little harm to valuable species. It is most abundant on quack grass, hedgehog grass and the broad- leaved Panicum. ‘The black spots are com- posed of dense mycelium. In them, usually after the death of the leaf, oval colorless spores Fra. 168. are formed in asci. These spores carry the species over the winter. Smaller spores (stylospores) are pro- duced in the same spots earlier, and serve for summer propaga- tion. If the disease should prove troublesome, the grass may be cut early before the fungus develops, and the meadow should be burned over on the approach of cold weather to destroy the form- ing winter spores. (Fig. 168 illustrates the above species.) 8. The black-spot disease of clover, (Phyllachora trifolli, P.) On the lower side of clover leaves, forming at first dull-black patches, often din. across; later occurring in the form of slightly glossy-black dots, 1.64 in. in diameter, on small whitish or pale- brown spots. (See Fig. 169.) THE BLACK-SPOT DISEASE OF CLOVER. 426 In the earlier part of the season small whitish or pale-brown spots appear in the leaf, which contains the mycelium of a fungus. This fruits on the lower surface, producing num- erous tufts of necklace-shaped threads, each of which ends in a 2-celled, egg- shaped conidia-spore. These tufts of threads, which, like the spores, are of a deep brown color, are packed so closely together as to completely cover the spots, though under a hand lens Fra. 169. ~ they can be distinguished as separate panules. To the naked eye they appear dead-black. Later in the season similar spots are occupied by small, coal-black fruits that contain stylospores. Winter spores, produced in asci, are not known. The conidial form of this fungus (called Polythrincium trifolit) is especially common on white clover, though both formsareat times found abundantly on red clover and other species. Kiihn suggests growing grass with the clover as a means of lessening its injury. (See Fig. 170.) Kans F1q. 170. 54 426 VIOLET ROOT-FUNGUS. GRASS MILDEW. Red clover is, also, often marked in the summer and fall by similar but darker brown spots, bearing in the center of each a brown cup, scarcely 1.32 in. in diameter, that opens irregularly at the top and so allows the escape of its spores. This is Phacid- iwm (or Pseudopeziza) trifolii, which at times does considerable damage in Europe. (Consult Fig. 171.) 9. The violet root-fungus (Leptospheria circinans, Fcke.) Forming a violet mold on the roots of alfalfa, red clover, ete., which soon rot, the parts above ground turning yellow and dying. In Europe, Lucerne is subject to a disease that manifests itself by the appearance of yellow spots in the fields. These spread until the entire crop is often affected. The trouble hes in a violet-colored mold that develops on the roots of the plants, spreading from one to another through the soil, and finally pro- ducing spores by which it is apparently carried over the winter. This disease has not been recognized yet in the United States, but what is held to be a state of the root fungus—a cobwebby, white mycelium, known as the snow-moid, that covers the ground, leaves, etc., just as the snow disappears in early spring —has been noticed in great abundance at River Falls, Wis., by my friend, Professor King, so that it is not improbable that the parasitic form will soon be found. No remedies for it have been proposed, except digging ditches, as deep as the roots extend, about diseased parts of the field when it first appears to prevent it from spreading. 10. The grass-mildew, (Zrysiphe graminis, D.C.) Forming a pure white, cobwebby or mealy coating on the upper side of the leaves of grasses, especially in the shade The German equivalent (meal-dew) of our common name for the group of fungi to which this species belongs is expressive of the appearance presented by them in their early stages. When they cover the surface of the plants they grow on with a fine, THE SCLEROTIUM DISEASE OF CLOVER, 427 white mycelium that bears such numbers of white spores as to suggest a dusting of meal or flour. =a This mildew is usually found through the: entire open season on grass growing in damp: and shaded positions; it is especially abundant yon June grass. Its cobwebby mycelium, which does not penetrate the leaves, does not at first appear to injure them but in time they succumb. Fic. 172. and dry up. Through the summer it, spreads by means of its light conidia, that are easily blown about and germinate quickly while fresh, though they are unable to live through the winter. On the dead leaves small, black fruit- bodies, scarcely visible to the naked eye, are formed, in which winter-spores are produced in short-stem asci. (Fig. 172 is the illustration for the grass-mildew. ) Usually grasses do not suffer much from mildew, except in damp and shaded places. Drainage is likely to prove beneficial where it is troublesome. 11. The sclerotium disease of clover, (Peziza cibonoides, F.) On clover, causing a browning of leaves or stem, which are soon covered in spots by a white mold that ultimately forms solid, wavy, black bodies, often } in. long, white within. In Europe, clovers are occasionally attacked by this fungus, which is very destructive when it occurs. The entire plant becomes filled with a mycelium which soon kills it and afterward breaks through in places, forming black sclerotia on the various parts of the decaying plants as winter approaches. These bodies lie dormant in the soil until the following summer, when they produce fruit-bodies in the form of wavy stems, bearing brown disks or inverted cones, ;, to 4 in. in diameter, on.their ends. When these reach the surface they shed their spores and so spread the disease. Draining the soil well, and especially replacing clover by 428 THE SCLEROTIUM DISEASE OF CLOVER. wheat, corn, or other crops not attacked by the Peziza, are recommended where it appears. As the potato, rape, and hemp sometimes suffer from a similar sclerotium disease, they should not be used in rotation with each other or with clover in case of its appearance. A large number of fungi are spoken of as imperfect fungi from the resemblance of their fruit to the conidia or stylospores of Ascomycetes. Several of these cause diseases of grasses. The brown-spot disease of pigeon- grass, early spear-grass,and other species, is due to Septoria graminum, (Desm.) (Fig. 173), that form a mycelium within the plant, usually killing it in places which turn brown and are finally dotted with the minute black fruit-bodies of the Fic. 173. parasite, within which slender colorless spores are produced. In Europe, a similar disease is also caused by a related fungus (Dilophospora graminis, Desm.) whose spores differ in having brush-like appendages at their ends. Both are at times destructive, but affect the cereals more than the smaller grasses. Mastigosporium album, (Riess), and Scolecotrichum gram- inis, (Fche.), cause diseases of the leaves of grass in Europe; the last named appeared on orchard grass in great abundance about Madison, Wisconsin, in 1886. Hadrotrichum phragmitis, (Fche.), forms small, dark-brown pustules on leaves of the reed, resem- bling those of a rust-fungus, even under ahand-lens. The gray- spot disease of crab-grass is due to Pyricularia grisea (Che.), another imperfect form that bears pear-shaped conidia on threads that protrude through the stomata of the gray spots. Sporobolus indicus, a grass of the Southern States, somewhat esteemed for pasturage while young, is often called < black-seed grass’ or ‘‘smut-grass’’ from the fact that its flowering parts are generally covered by the dark-brown fruit of Helmintho- THE GRASS PERONOSPORA. 429 sportum ravenelit, (Curt)., that is often so abundant as to forma dense, spongy mass. Wire grass is subject to similar attacks from H. nodosum, (B. & C)., and other species of the same genus occur on different grasses in a similar manner. PERONOSPOREAE. 12. The grass-peronospora, (Per- onospora graminicola, Sacc.) In the leaves of Hungarian grass and pigeon grass, ultimately filling them with a snuff-brown, powdery mass. Hungarian grass (Setaria italica) is sometimes attacked by a parasite clearly related to the notorious potato blight which forms a mycelium in the leaves of the grass in the cells of which it lives. Branches of this emerge sparsely through the stomata and bear colorless conidia which spread the disease. Later in the season these spores are replaced by winter spores (odspores) that originate on branches of the mycelium within the leaf by a process of fertilization. These spores are contained in thick-walled, brown envelopes, and presumably infect new plants in the spring. So far, this disease has not proved seriously destruc- tive, though the leaves attacked are re- duced to mere shreds when the winter spores are ripe. The flower-clusters of pigeon grass are greatly changed by the fungus, according to Dr. Halsted. (See Fia. 174. Fig. 174.) 430 CLOVER PERONOSPORA. SEEDLING ROT. 13. The clover peronospora, (Peronospora trifoliorum, DeBary). Adirty white or purple-brown mold, often completely coverning the lower surface of the leaves of clover, alfalfa, none-such, etc. (See Fig. 175.) The life history of this species is quite Ps ) similar to that of the last, though they differ sally Me : greatly in appearance. The leaves that it f / occurs on are paler than the others, and the “] threads that escape through their stomata and bear conidia are so numerous and bushy as to form a dense coating on their under side. Fic. 175. Odspores are produced in smaller numbers than in the last species, and, as they are thin-walled and nearly colorless, they are only to be found after careful microscopical examination. Another species of the same genus (P. vicial, Berk.) is found on the leaves of vetches and of the pea. . 14. The seedling rot, (Pythium debaryanum, Hesse). Caus- ing young plants of clover, millet, corn, and many other species to rot close to the ground. Several species of Pythiwm attack living plants. The present species is said to be widely distributed in garden soil in Europe and causes serious trouble by attacking seedling plants. It has not been observed in America as yet, but can be recognized, if found, by its effects on the plants, which quickly decay near the ground. They contain a delicate, colorless mycelium that fruits on the surface of the decaying parts, when these are kept damp, producing conidia, swarm-spores, and odéspores. Fairy-Ring Fungi. diameter, closely surrounded by a narrow strip of dead or dying Bright green circles, several feet in grass, are frequently seen in lawns or pastures, and are commonly called ‘‘fairy-rings.’”’ They are caused by several species of FAIRY-RING FONGI. 431 toadstools (the commonest is Marasmius oreadec) that spread a short distance outward every year, their mycelium destroying the grass in the roots of which it grows, and so causing the brown ring, on which an abundant crop of toad-stool fruits forms in the fall, which by their decay enrich the soil so that it produces a ranker vegetation the next season. An appearance which may be called false fairy-rings is occa- sionally produced by Physarum cinereum, one of the shine-molds, on the leaves and stems of grasses. This fungus grows unnoticed on decaying matter in the ground, often creeping out in a regular manner from its starting point until a more or less perfect circle six or seven feet in diameter is formed, when it suddenly appears upon the plants it has grown under, and produces its dusty, ash- colored fruit in such abundance as to attract attention from a distance. From its mode of life, it does little if any harm to the grass, further than to make a little of it unpalatable to animals. In closing this chapter, mention should be made of small, egg-shaped galls that occur on the roots of clover and many other leguminose. It has been claimed that they result from the attacks of a little under- stood parasitic fungus (Schinzia leguminosarum, Frank), or from the presence of one of the bacteria, which is apparently the case; but they have been the subject of much controversy. Whatever their true nature may be, they do not appear to be in the least injurious to the Fra. 175. plants, and may be found on nearly every c.over root examined. 432 DEBRIS. DEBRIS. After the house is finished, the debris often contains a few choice brick and some stone that did not seem to exactly fit in anywhere. ‘There is a barrel or so of good mortar, half a load of sand, a little nice lumber, a bunch and a half of shingles, and one of lath. ‘There are remnants of nails and screws, paint, oil, putty, glass, and wall-paper. Some of these are as good as any employed in constructing the building. The most worthless fragments are carted away and covered up or burned. So in writing a lecture, a story, or a book, there will often be more or less surplus materials. A change in the plan, perhaps, will make it seem best to leave out some things for want of a suitable place to use them. I once supposed the following quotations among many other things would certainly find a place in the former pages, either as headings to chapter or paragraph or in some other place. A few were thus used, but most were left over. Here are some of the remnants: “Go to grass.” “* All flesh is grass.”—TJsaiah. ‘The staff of life.”—Said of wheat. “Let the earth bring forth grass.”— Leviticus. ‘‘Sweet fields arrayed in living green.” ““Grass is rather a good savings bank.”—Joseph Harris. ‘‘Grass is the pivotal crop of American agriculture.”—Geo. Geddes. “‘Grass is king among the crops of the earth.”—Alex. Hyde. ‘“The grasses are the foundation of all agriculture.” “He maketh me to lie down in green pastures.” —23d Psalm. ‘“« A water meadow is the triumph of agricultural art.”— Pusey in Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc., 1849. DEBRIS. 433 “Farmers pay too little atttention to their pastures.”—N. H. Agrl. Rept. “The cheapest manure a farmer can use is clover seed.”—American Proverb. **No grass, no cattle; no cattle, no manure; no manure, no crops.”— Belgian Proverb. **Then learn to toil and gaily sing, All flesh is grass, and grass is king.” —Missouri Agrl. Rept. “The term grass is only another name for beef, mutton, bread and clothing.” ““Feed your land before it is hungry; rest it before it is weary; weed it before it is foul.”—English Farmer. ** One year’s seeding Is seven years’ weeding.” ‘He who makes two blades of grass grow where only one grew before, is a great public benefactor.”—Dean Swift, in about 1720. ‘** And the ripe harvest of new-mown hay Gives it a sweet and wholesome odor.” —Colley Cibber. “The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year, Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and sear.” —Bryant. **Plants do not grow where they like best, but where other plants will let them.”—Dean Herbert. | ‘* How doth the little busy bee Improve each shining hour, By carrying pollen day by day To fertilize each flower.” “And he gave it for his opinion that whoever could make two ears of corn or two blades of grass to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essential service to his country, than the whole race of politicians put together,”— Gulliver’s Travels. “But of all sorts of vegetation, the grasses seem to be most neglected; neither the farmer nor the grazier seem to distinguish the annual from the perennial, the hardy from the tender, nor the succulent and nutritive from the dry and juiceless. The study of grasses would be of great con- sequence to a northerly and grazing kingdom.”—White’s Nat. His. of Selbourne. dd 434 BIBLIOGRAPHY, BIBLIOGRAPHY. No attempt has been made to render this list of authors com- plete, yet it contains the leading authorities which nave iurmisned the greatest help,in preparing this volume. Agricultural Gazette (English), 1880. Agricul. Reports, U. 8., for 1879, ’80, ’81, °82, °83, *84. Am. Agriculturist. Short notes, 1870 and later. Am. Jour. Sci. Numerous short articles and notes. The American Naturalist, several volumes, Phila. Trans. Lin. Soc. The Morphology of the Flowers of Grasses, by Geo, Bentham. Hand-book of the British Flora. Bentham and Hooker. Genera Plantarum, vol, 3, Berlin. Dr. C. E. Bessey. Botany for schools and colleges, N. Y. Botanical Gazette, Ind. Numerous notes. Robert Brown’s Miscellaneous Botanical Works, 2 vols. Ray. Soe., London. Robert Brown. Compt. Manual of Botany. Edin. and London. Prof. James Buckman. Prize Essay. Jour. Roy. Agri. Soc., 1854. Bulletin of the Torrey Bot. Club, N. Y. William Carruthers, Consulting Botanist, Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc. His annual reports for some years. Carter on Laying Down Land to Grass, A pamphlet. Eng. A. W. Cheever, in N. H. Agrl. Report, 1875. The Clover Leaf, 1880, 81, ’82, °83, 84. Birdsell Mnfg. Co., South Bend, Ind. Rept. Conn. Board of Agrl., 1868 and later. Numerous valuable notes. The Country Gentleman. Many good articles, from 1870 to 1886. C. Darwin. Cross and Self-fertilization of Plants, and Power of Move- ments in Plants. P. Duchartre. Elements de Botanique. Paris. M. J. Duval-Jouve. Histotaxie des Feuilles des Graminees, in Annales des Sciences Naturelles. Paris. Encyclopedia Britannica. Article on Grasses, by H. T, BIBLIOGRAPHY, 435 Morgan Evans. Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc., 1876. Prof. C. H. Fernald. The Grasses of Maine. C. L. Flint. Grasses and Forage Plants. Boston. The Garden. Vols. 4 and 8, Ornamental Grasses; vol. 8, Wild Grasses for Bouquets. London. Gardener’s Chronicle. Fertilization of the Flowers. March, 1874, Feb., 1875. Botanical Text-Book. A. Gray and G. L. Goodale. Manual of Botany. A. Gray. Wm. Gorrie. Articles in Morton’s Cyclo. of Agrl. Prof. J. Stanton Gould. Grasses and their Culture. N. Y. Agrl. Rept., 1869. Prof. J. S. Gould. Lecture on Grasses. Maine Agrl. Rept., 1872. E. Hackel. Monographia Festucarum Europzearum. Joseph Harris. Value of an Analysis of Grasses. N. Y. Agrl. Rept., 1865. J. Henderson. Hand-book of the Grasses. New York. A. Henfrey. An Element. Course of Bot. London. J. D. Hooker. The Student’s Flora of the British Islands. Rev. C. W. Howard, of S. C. A Manual of the Cultivation of the Grasses and Forage Plants. James Hunter, a pamphlet, Eng. Permanent Pasture Grasses. Alex. Hyde. Twelve lectures on agriculture before the Lowell Institute, Boston. Indiana Farmer. Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc. of Eng. Many valuable papers in many volumes, notably for 1854, ’56, °58, ’59, °60, ’61, °66, ’69, "72, ’74, °75, 76, "77, °82. J. B. Kiliebrew. The Grasses and Forage Plants of Tenn. I. A. Lapham in Wis. Agrl. Rept., p. 409, 1853. Lawes and Gilbert. Philosoph. Transactions. London. Lawes and Gilbert. Treatment of Pastures. Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc., 1858, 1859. Dr. J. Lindley. The Vegetable Kingdom. J. Lindley. Many articles in Nortor’s Cyclopedia of Agricul, The Treasury of Botany. Lindley and Moore. E. J. Lowe. British Grasses. Maine Agrl. Rept. Discussions and notes, 1870, ’71, ’72, ’76, °81. Maout and Decaisne. Translated by Hooker. Descrip. and Analyt. Bot. Dr. Maxwell T. Masters. Plant Life on the Farm. London, Dr. L. D. Morse, in Missouri Agrl. Rept., p. 211, 1868. 436 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Michigan Board of Agriculture, 1871, ’75, ’77, ’78, ’80, ’81, ’82, 85. Re- ports and lectures by W. J. Beal. Crops of the Farm, by J. C. Morton and others, London. The Fertilization of Flowers, Prof. Hermann Miller. Nat. Live Stock Jour., 1872, °73, ’81. N. H. Agrl. Value of Quack Grass. p. 142, 1853. Prof. J. R. Page, University of Virginia. Report for 1879-80. Penn. Agrl. Rept., 1881. Dr. D. L. Phares, of Miss. The Farmer’s Book of Grasses and other Forage Plants. M. Plues. British Grasses. The Prairie Farmer, 1869 and later. Prantl and Vines. Text-book of Botany. Phila. The Press, Phila. Pa., 1884 and later. Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Science. Articles. by W. J. Beal. Proceedings of the Soc. for the Promotion of Agrl. Sci., vols. 1, 2, 3. Contributions by W. J. Beal. The Rural New Yorker, 34 Park Row, New York. Many articles by able writers, especially for July, 1885. A Text-book of Botany. J. Sachs. James Sanderson. Grass with or without a Crop. Trans. of Highland Soc., 1863. Prof. IN-S: Shaler. Science, p. 186. March, 1883. G. Sinclair’s Hortus Gramineus Moburnensis, 1826, London. Sowerby and Johnson. The Grasses of Great Britain. Prof. L. Stockbridge. Management of Pastures. Maine Agrl. Rept., 1876, ’81. Sutton & Sons, Eng. Permanent Pastures. A pamphlet. J.J. Thomas. Prize Essay. N. Y. Agrl. Rept., 1843. Dr. Geo. Thurber. Geolog. Sur. Cal. Botany, vol. 2. The Tribune, N. Y., 1870 and later. C. B. Trinius. Species Graminum, 3 vols, Dr. A. Veelcker. Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc., 1866, 1874. R. Warington. The Chemistry of the Farm. London. Webb & Sons, Eng. Permanent Pastures. A pamphlet. J. C. Wheeler & Sons, Eng. Book on Grasses. A pamphlet. Botanist and Florist. A. Wood. Abortion, caused by ergot------ 420 Acuminate, ending in a long tapering point. Acute, terminating in an acute angle. ' Adnate, growing fast to__-_--- 64, 65 Adulterating seeds__----------- 206 iimby of plants: 2222-2222 60, 61 Africa, Southern, effect of over REECE Re wee es See ee 78, '79 Aimean millet. ...2is-<.22---2- 187 Aorarian: orasses:.=...--2=-¢4-+ 75 Agropyrum repens------ 92, 167, 169 GlumesOfe 22 L222. 2k Se 5 - 34 iewimoies: 26 2 22 22. 229) Sl Agrostis... .-.- 70, 148, 145, 183, 403 Pepys OF. - 32-12-24 5 55 JMO a ee ek 148 Mamie eS 2 Jk koe S 151 PI OURONE. 22a oo s8s2 boo Ss 420 aye. s\n hr oe 315 Siolomifera.....:.22-.-.<- .- 148 Wulearis var alba. .-:-.2--- 145 A\GT0 IS) Se ae ee 403 Mivaeawi OF twists:..2.6.2.02-2 46 (OL S122 hh 191 Weeatie Obes 22a. 50S ae AA 28 Albuminoids.-...-=--=-- 51, 53 to 59 Alcott, J. B. on Brown bent__.. 151 Alfalfa, see Medicago sativa. emma es 2 ek 216 Allen, L. F., on orchard grass__ 113 Alopecurus agrestis, seeds of___ 153 Alopecurus pratensis-_---88, 151, 152 mamalyais Of... 5.25525--5, 57 MescOhe ted he a Ste 24 iETR ial lie eee ee ee 37 iProteranGrous-_-*—-2---<-.-- 38 PAGE Alternate, said of leaves or flow- ers where there is only one at each node or joint_------- 64 Alvord, General, on Rocky Mountain pastures_.-------- 82 Alvord, Maj. H. E., on Hungar- 1QnM CLASS eer eee eo es tie Onjorchand grass= ==) -----o 114 On sowing grass seed with- QUA CLOP Seas. 2 4S neces 252 Onw iim othiyeee assess eas 4 106 Armmoniavia Glovers ao- === 331, 333 Anidsmimeralseeess=s= = 282 = 27 Amphicarpum, flowers of -.---- 38 Hairgron se sok ae coe 17, 18 Sccdsioi segs sseose es eeeaases Aq Analysis of grasses, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59. AniabropOusi. 2226. es oe. ee 64 Andropogon, comes in where others fail__- --- By pe see 79, 80, 81 d URES 0) Ne eS 13, 19, 21, 27 On Pacitic slope. -222-5-835 83, 84 Anemophilous)-25-=--ss2=-4- == 38 Animals cover seeds.-..-.----- 47 Annuals, plants starting from seed maturing seed and dy- ing in one year. Amnmmullat: Vessels seams ase ero 25, 26 Antheras.s 3 ee aes snes Sse 64 Anthistiria, twisting of awn..-_ 46 Anthoxanthum odoratum _--1535, 155 ‘AnalypisiOl (ane 25535 a2 58 GlumiesiGh 28 22 Fan. ose teee2 30 Wars Pirellne aes See sae ee 157 Appressed, lying flat or close against. Aquaticerasses= 42 23-— =2=—- ee 74 Arabiantmillete.22s eee 438 INDEX. PAGE PAGE Aristida in Mexico. -.....-.=.-- 97 | Bast, see hypodermal fibers. Arizona, grazing of ____82, 83, 85, 93 Armsby, Dr. H. P., on Hungar- IAN OTASS soe eka eae = Lie Onielucemesces-: 22 soe ae . 355 Onvlupines? ons. Ss. 3228-2 360 On ‘making hay 2x 222 2 287 On time to cut clover______- 338 Army: worms 2220222 235.2 ee 405 Arrhenatherum avenaceum3_-7, 38, 121 ANALY SISKOLee rs see ee eee 58 Arundo donax, leaf of________- 12 Ash, composition of_-_51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 IASOpias .coOstalise as. see see 393 Asparagus, bends up----------- 44 Atmosphere, a source of plant POO Ee - cy SS POR. See 332 Aughey, Dr. 8., changes in the flora of Nebraska_---------- 79 Avena, awn twists: .2-25 2522_ 46 Avena elatior, see Arrhena- Cherinite. Ses. ete ees 121 Avena lavescenss.= ss e—- = one 191 Avena. leat Of. ease ee 30 Awn, a bristle shaped append- AGEN. ses 455 so ee 36 Awn, annoying sheep-.------.--- 47 iiwasting. 2 = pee see eee 46, 47 Axil, the upper angle formed by a leaf or branch to its sup- port. Bacteria in fermenting hay_.... 299 On roots of clovers_-__.-...- 431 Bailey, Prot.) En Hs Jr. on sedges forvhay 9-6 st 303 Banner, the largest and upper petal of a flower like the pea, clover, etc. Barley 2-2 ee hence ee ee 65, 66 Flowers of.....--- 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 ros oe 1): ) ee 86 Barnyard grass, see Panicum Crus-galli. Batchelor, Daniel, sowing grass seed without a crop--------- 252 How much seed to sow-_-_--- 244 Battle in the meadow_-__-____-- 273 Beans, value as a manure_____- Bees, on clover blossoms _-___825, 342 On flowers of Festuca___-__-_- 38 Beetle, clover-leaf__..-..-= 2222 380: Bengal grass ___..2222 22 175 Bent grass for lawn__.._____-_- 315 Bentham, G., ‘on flowers of prTasses: ....22 J. Bi Berckmans, P. J., on cow-pea__ 364 Bermuda grass, see Cynodon. Bessey, Dr. C. E., change in flora of Neéebraska_- 2 a 79, 80 A model. grass__2)23====es 299 Dactylis glomerata-_-------- 117 Muhlenbergia__-_---_-------182, 188 Need of new grasses._...__-_- 303 Phleum. pratense_—__--2-2.2 105 Poa pratensis_-...- aes 137 Bibliography --.-..25 =e 434 Biennial, requiring two years to mature. Bitter dock... .-_2.52=3====eaee 223 Black army worm. 2-2 =-==== 399 Black gramma--- 23-53 96 Black spot disease on grass and clover. -<----=2-.-—- 424 Blade, see leaf. Blissus lencopterus---.......---- 408 Blount, Prof. A. E., crossing of flowers. ..:.2--.... 307 Lucerne in Colorado-.------- 356 Blue grass, see Poa pratensis. See Poa compressa. Blue joint, see Deyeuxia and many others.-.---._--- 81, 94, 179 Blueistema 322.) ese 80, 81, 94 Bokara clover... === 358 Bone dust as a fertilizer____269, 270 Bonham, Hon. L. N., on Dactylis glomerata .<-222.--2 2 Making clover hay-.....---- INDEX. PAGE feemet PTASS...._.-.2.--2.5--2 148 Re ee ee te 368 iborer, clover-root...._..-..J.-- 375 @lover:stem -... -...2..2.-.: 78 Botanist, consulting _..___-__-- 211 Boureloua, leaf of __.........22- 28 Boxsaror collecting ......-..=1<< if Bract, a small or rudimentary [SPE 2 eae Vee eae 33 pramvot ani animal. .....-...... 45 Bran, value as a manure___._._ 331 Bromus, analysis of... ....-2. 58 ILiZGHE 1S as Sera were lees 10, 29 JET STL CONE gee eee Be 37 Broom sedge, see Andropogon_80, 88 Brown-bent, see Agrostis canina 151 Brown spot fungus on grasses__ 428 Brown, Prof. W. F., How much SOW SOW S28 ks ee 243 Hugnearian gvass......2...-- aby or4 Phieum pratense ----.--.--.-- 106 IDTIEMIOE =... =... oe oh 38, 79, 80 Buckley, Prof. 8. B.. on Texas Th Lic (ee te 187 Buckman, Prof. J., Arrhenathe- TNE 2 3S Se ae eee 122 @lassiiication .......--....2 73, 74 Cynosurus cristatis __..----- 195 Irrigation of meadows-----. 284 Variation of clover___-..---- 340 Bud, a young branch, or one or more young flowers-___.---- 6, 42 Buffalo grass, see Buchloé. ONE el a ee 221 Bugs, to keep out of cow-peas__ Bulb, a leaf bud with fleshy SGRIGS LS Se es ae ee eee 76 Bulblets of onions_-..5......-.- 37 Bulliform cells, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 28, 24, 25, 27 Bumble bees, on flowers of SLO VIG tee Been cee Mpg ORS 325, 326 Bunch: grasses....-..-.-..- ~etsill, tt Bundle: sheath... ..-.<--.-22_- 25 iurden’s prass..°3.......-.< 145, 151 PEVIEGOC Kereta: ss Se ee eee 220 439 PAGE Bur cloverss- 2-6 ces eee 357 Bush" pGaee case 2 ee eee 364 Butter and eggs, a weed...___. 221 Butterily,. yellow... 2 -222.-_. 388 Cadle, C., manuring grass lands 270 Calamagrostis, see Deyeuxia. California clover. 22 -¢--. 2, . 2 307 Big A i Rn enna 82, 83, 84 Caloptentiss: 2202925 o2) Ae as 409 Calyx, the flower cup, the outer part of the perianth. Cameron, R. A., native pastures Ol COlLOLA COs eae ene 80 Campanulate, bell shaped _____- 363 Canadarthistlo=as === eee 219 Capitate, head-shaped, collected LAV NEC AME ease Spe EN eee fe 64 Car bons ants ee eee 49, 51, 52 Careroremead Ow seee =a 266 Care oimpasuunes === eee 261 Carina, akeel, as the sharp ridge on the back of a glume. Carman, EK. 8., on lawns-_______ : Carpel, a simple pistil, or an element of a compound pistil. Cartilaginous:-- 22-58 eet os 6 Caruthers. W., on testing seeds ms Rrighand == 225252 5- 555563 212 Cary Opsiss 25-4 wre ee 41, 43 A grain, the seed-like fruit Of 2 erase: — 5 Menten 64, 65 Cathestechum, leaf of __________ 22 Cat’s-tail, meadow. .....-...--- 103 Cat-tail grass fungus_.________- 423 Cecidomyia trifolii________.__383, 389 Celerys bendsyipe sea] 2a 44 Cell, the anatomical element of PAM Geese ee cone ae Cells, star shaped_____....._.- 13, 28 Cellulose, composition of_______ 51 Cereal, applied to grasses culti- vated for their grain___65, 66, 67 Cereals: clover: 10r--=_-= 20a. 332 © Chamagrostis minima, leaf of Se acne aneee ae eae 16, 23, 27 440 PAGE Chamberlain, Hon. W. IL. on permanent erass.-—- ------_- Changing grass land by’ new 257 SCGUS Us Bi oer ne ee ees 255 Cheah se te AS ono ee teeoats 223 Cheever, A. W., on Dactylis glomerata. -- ----- eee eet 11i How much seed to sow--.--- 244 Seeding without a crop----- 250 C@hemiustryiof iclover=--2-)-5-- == 329 Chenopodiacere. "2222.2 52-242- 63 Chess4BroOmuUsss 6 eee 223 Ghick=weedee ae he eee 215 Whicory,.a weed. 22. 22-2 220 Chinch=ic yaa. See ee 408 Whinese peas ..6- 222 224-2 ese 364 Ohloniswleatiotess == eae oe 9 Chlorophyll,the substance which colors plants green__--_-.-- 1, 28 WS@SIORA= carson Soe 49, 50 Ciliate, fringed on the margin Wolbers ees eee oes ae ru Circumnutation, bowing around in every direction_---------- 44 Classifying plants_--_-...---- 60, 61 Clawiceps tat o8 ees be oes 420 Claw, the narrow base of a petal or sepal. Cleistogamic, close-fertilized in unopened flowers----------- 38 @losing, of asleats2225- soos 23, 25 Clover, see also Trifolium _-_-117, 321 AS a manures ==22== 280, 329, 332 Carol syouns sane. eae 337 Climate ood fors=-= == oa 304 Drastenia: 2s: asses eee 387 lies) rowcealel ee ns (ae o 307 onthe morhhe 22 =ess=s=— = 232 Horithe soughes-e= =e ee eee 334 Roreswihe2) esse. saree 339 Gallsvonwoots a= -es ee 481 ayatisectsn~ 20h oee eet 395 Insects injuring 22.2 -5-- =) 371 in! Georelges 3-2 esas eee ae 334 Tniiiansas = 252.2 eanar ee 334 Ta = Sexico 97 INDEX. PAGE Clover, in Mississippi- ---------- 384 Leaf beetles... 5-2-2. 343, 380 Leaf midge.. ..=2-222232aeee 383 Leaf oscinus_- === ss2= = 385 Peronospora on 223222 —===== 430 Phy llachoraon= 2-2 s== === 424 Red. 22). 4b eee 323 Rich in nitrogens225====———— 291 Root borers. 2. --- =a 344, 375 Rust... eee 418 Sclerotium’ on 22222 2eee==e— 427 Seed, amount to sow-_------- 336 Seed caterpillars) -=223-e=e—= 392 Seed, dark or light_-.-_------ 340 Seed in England ___.----===- 229 Seed, insects attack_____---.- 389 Seed midge -22=2==2===—— 343, 389 Seed to the ounce_-_--_------ 337 Seed saving. 2_-=-222=2=—5—— 339 . Seed sowing 2222s 336, 338 Selection! of sorts222 === 223 Sickness .....- 22. = 343 Soil for... J... eee 334 Stem borer: -... <2 =e 378 The model plant=32==225=e—— 342 Time to-cutli.. 3 ae 338 To lal! weeds: 22 =33==—==— 33D Variation Of... 2222-522 340 Winter killing 2°22 338 Cockinge hay. --. 2. =e 294 Cock’s-foot, see Dactylis. Cohesion, the uniting of similar parts of a flower. Cole, T. A., on orchard grass___ 113 Colias philodice_-=2 === 388 Collecting grasses --------- 70, 71, 72 Collier, Peter, on grasses------- 59 Colorado, native pastures-_---- 80, 82 Columella, on meadows---_-__--- 197 Combustible matter in grasses__ 52 Comfrey, prickly’. ===3a== Comipositze— 222-22 2a 61, 62, 67,320 Composition of grass_.51, 52, 53, — 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 Comstock, Prof. J. H., on clover stem borerst: -.- 22. eee INDEX. PAGE ‘Conduplicate, closing like the two halves of a book_---_--- 23, 27 WoneNOWer —— oso25-.-25. 5.2255 219 Consulting botanist_--.---.---- 211 Convolute, rolled up from one side longitudinally ___.-.---- 9 Convolvilaces .....--.2.--..-- 63 Cook, Prof. A. J , on insects... 370 Cat. =. a ree eee te 76 See Indian corn. ‘SUID, ¢ SER ae aS eee eye 414 Corolla, the interior perianth. The petals of a flower. Cotton cake as a fertilizer___-__- 272 Con tip 65 _ Cotton seed meal, value as a TDS eee a a ee oe 381 Cotyledon, a seed leaf_____--- 42, 65 Couch grass, see Agropyrum, SOROUINEOIST A ese = ee Se 35 CONTE) Se rr ear 393, 366 Ci i 0UG) 3 a 400 Crambus vulgivagellus________- 410 Creeping bent, see Agrostis__145, 148 Creeping, running along or under ground and rooting. Creeping soft grass, Holcus_._. 194 Creeping wheat, see Agropyrum - repens. Crested dog’s-tail, see Cynosurus. Cross-fertilization _____.____- 38, 306 Crossing with foreign stock... 307 Crow-Loot, 2 weed. ..----=--.-- 215 Crozier, Wm., on orchard zrass 111 Cruciferze, plants of___.--.---- 61 Cryptostachys, flowers__--.---- 38 in (i la rs 171 Gucurbwaces _.....-.-.....---- 62 Culm, a stem of prass.........- Ad Cultivating grasses, early at- RIESEET TOUS Need Soy et ee 197 mM A os 5 ele 80, 82 iby how air fan. ---....- 2. 297 Curtis, T. D., on orchard grass. 111 Cutting time for clover-------- 338 Paste yOVMIs 2.2 28S a ccs 56 441 PAGE Cylindrical, long and with cross sections in the form of a circle. Cynodon Dactylon,__9, 161, 163, 368 1 E27 2 0) ieee eee 2 18 Cynosurus cristatus.___...._..- 195 Seeds of adulterated_______- 207 @yperdces? - css s5ckes 34, 35, 65 beaiviesOi 382228 te. Ee a 25 Wallet@ti ss. fa nut ll ee ta Weel 303 Dactylis glomerata......._._.-. 109 Composition. O£- .......2--2 54, 56 1 GCEFETIES(0) Hom Nm Seca heer arene Barter 19, 23 Dakota, effects of feeding OTOSSCSH ten he Wi hak et wen ete oe 80 Grazin pwn se. ee aces = 82 Dandellome-2 3. see ee ee 220 Danthonia, awn twists____..__- 46 Darkness eiechore sss = aee ae 49 Darnel, see Lolium. Darwin, C., on cross-fertiliza- GT OTA seer gras ee ots yal ees apa oa 307 Value of bumble-bees on red CLOVIS pee eae yt et 827 Darwin, Francis, seeds burying im; the soil ee ee 46, 47 IDS rsh 2h eo at eee eae 432 Deciduous, falling after a little time. Decumbent, reclining but with the apex ascending. Deer parks, nativé_...-....---- 85 Dehiscent, opening regularly. De Laune, C. F. D., on Alope- GUrUSS PLabensise =p a= 153 On buying grass seeds__----- 212 On Dactylis glomerata_--- -- 110 On ignorance of grasses- -- - - 1199 On how to select grass seed_ 129 On list of grasses to sow----- 229 On pasture yields more than THOANOWS OE Sees a eee 260 On Phleum pratense-------- 105 Deschampsia, awn of twists... 46 IGG aOR Sree eo ete oe et a eee 26 442 PAGE Dentate, toothed. Deyeuxia Canadensis----- ------ Diadelphous, filaments combin- ing in two sets. Digitately, palmately, fingered. Dicecious, unisexual, the two sexes borne on different DlaniSt2 2 ee eee ee 38 Distichlis, in Pacific slope-.----. 83 Distichous, placed in two verti- CAL TOWS£e =e oe eee 36, 64 Distribution of seeds _-__-_-__- 100, 101 Dock, narrow, Rumex-_-_-_.-_.-- 2238 DWoddere set see ae cee ae De Dodge, J. R., most valuable Wild erasses.. 252-252 s es 81 Need of new grasses -------- 301 DOP PTASS 2. a ees eee 167 WGNCHGS ha aces eae oe ae 364 Dorsal on the back of-=------ 36 Downing, A. J., on lawns------ 309 Drainage, advantages of ._---..- 240 Improves the quality of OTASSCS ss 26 eee eee eee 281 Drasteria érechtea_------------ 387 DRUDER 2 22s) oer 62 Drying grass, effect of._.-.---- 228 Paper. 5 seer eee 11 Dukevot Bedfordes =e se sa == 199 Duval-Jouve, on tortion of IGAVES 2 SS aea eee ee 30 Dymo seeds). 222 Sas eae 206 Dysart, Hon. S., on saving seed oLehimothyc.- sesso eee 106 Early cultivation of grasses... 197 Bele srassise = 24 2er, Sha oe eee tee 65 Egyptian millet or grass-_------ ilyal RlAbers isa sae ee — ae ee 406 Elements most useful to plants. 329 Elliott, Jared, early cultivation of Timothy and _ Fowl Meadow 2Tass’: = 22. -c--=2 Elliptical, oval or oblong with regularly rounded ends. Biynsts willosuss £2 22-25 -o2 oe Ce INDEX. PAGE Embryo, a rudimentary plant in the seed_/_ == 65 Of Indian corm: -2 === 42 Emerson, R. W., on weeds----- 214 Endogenous, plants in which the fibro-vascular bundles of the stem are scattered without order _....2-:,222 = 64 Endorhizal__ 2. ee 65 Endosperm, food stored in the seed outside the embryo_41, 42, 65 England, grasses sown in_----_- 201 Epicampes, leaf of .2_ 2222 22oe 22 Kpichtoé,_ -. 2.22.2 22 === 423 Epidermis =323252225e—— 14, 15, 28, 31 Affected by climate--------- 15 Of poa pratensis. 222s ee==e 15 Eragrostis, fertilized. _-..----=2 39 Ergot .....2). 22422562 420 In‘agrostis.--==-2 === 213 Ericaces -:22256:65.422 = 62 Erodium __..:-... === 216 Erysiphe on grasses------------ 426 Euphorbia______--_ == 223 Kvaporation__-- 2. 27 Evergreen grass,see Arrhenathe- rum. Experiments of J. B. Lawes on grass lands_..._- 273 Experiments, on seeds-_--_--- 208, 210° Pairy-ring fungi. - 2-22 -e eee 430 Paleate: 22. -:2.2-222.2-—— 363 False. red-top.. - -=-.22e===eeeee 140 Families of most worth__60, 61, 62, 63. 64 Farmyard manure on grass lands. 23.2 -267, 269, 270 Fermentation of hay_-_--------- 298 Fertilization of the flowers of clovers.. _. ---= 2.22545 324 Of grasses __--_---- 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 Fertilizers, effect of --..271, 275, 288 Festuca. Arundinacea.-.-2------ ee 131 Bees on flowers----.--------- 38 INDEX. PAGE Festuca. Mimrmsehla. --2 22242222225 132 LEVIES FICC si ell a ga ere 126 Gigantea, leaf of ....------20, 31 CATT a cr a i re 132 Ovina, epidermis of. --.15, 25, 27 Berhen aise soe = ce 127, 200 Reticulated cells in__------- 25 Sst. cn a 419 js HBS, (Or eae Mee Rae ee ae 8 Fiber, amount of varieties__53, 54 to 59 Fibro-vascular bundle__7, 8, 15, 14, 25, 26, 28, 31 Filament, stalk of the stamen.. 39 Filiform, thread-shaped. Hine top, Arrostis_............- 151 Fistular, hollow through the whole length. Flat-stemmed Poa_..._--.----- 137 Peete enthy =. ----+---=- 63 Flea bane, Erigeron------------ 218 Flexuous, bent alternately in opposite directions. Blorawelmwme.—......--.<-- 33, 34, 35 BREE OA. -...__.----.-. 33 IGG. 4 38, 04, 30 Flowers, fertilization of .______- 37 Meee eencsen = 22-2. 33 Of Phleum pratense_______-- Tipi Oiaremiclover. 2. = .. 2225-5 324 Foliolate, having leaflets. Food of animals loses what_____. 281 Food of plants-_-48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55 Foods, relative value of for__.._ 331 _ Fowl meadow grass, see Poa ser- otina. Foxtail, see Alopecurus. Free, not adnate to other or- EhiG Je see eo bes Se aeeS sO neene= 65 immiidamily. 22. 1s. 2 5. oe 62 Fundamental tissue ---.-.----->- 25 Fungi of forage plants_-------- 413 Galls on roots of clover, ete___. 431 Gardner’s monthly on lawns__- 317 443 PAGE Geddes, Hon. Geo., on orchard ChaSG Peter ON, eee 113 On permanent grass....---- 256 On use of plaster........--- 330 Genus sama ec: 2. Se 5 eae 69 Geranium, bends 22422225. 2222 44 Gerian millet. et 175 GErminedhion * 2 oo. csk 2c etee 48-9 Ofindian'corn==22. Sees 2 More’ than! onée! 2222. 52e 08 210 Gingeenwortshs shoe en eee 63 Glabrous, smooth, not hairy. GladiolusmleatiOt==s=sse5s-ese= 29 Gland, a part which secretes something. Glands on Sporobolus, Tragus-. 8 Glidden, A. C., on mammoth GlOVORE oe eee soe ea ee 346 On manuring grasses------- 270 Globose, approaching a sphere in shape. Glue eee eee 33, 34, 35, 36 Glumvella aoe" S652 See ee ens 33 Glumen) fertilets2 22-22-22 33 Glyceria,, pistil'of. 24 Soe 2 By Smiitofes2 282 oss oe ee 415 Geetz, M., on selecting grasses__ 229 Goldentmullets= = sae-2 22 ee 175 Goldenroat-oraSs2 ss see ee Goosefloots: 2521 2k Peewee 63 Gophers in grass land __-___----- 369 Gorrie, Wm., on red-top-_---.--- 148 Onitall-fescues - 22s eee ee 127 Onttallioat-crasses sees see 121 (GOR7ZCt Se ee ene ee anes 360 Gould, Prof. J. S., on blue joint 181 On early’ cultivation of | orassests ov ft sae eee 198 On virncanonees se eae 283 On Poa compressa-.-.------ 13 Oniquachkieorassts oa. 9 25a 168 Progressis) slow. 22--------— 199 Quoted ie way oe eee 205 Red tops se sete ne eee eee 145 Sweet vernal grass__....---- 156 Gourd tamiliy22 9222222222) eee 62 444 INDEX. PAGE PAGE Grain secs ae ee ane So ah 41, 48 | Grass of Nebraska changed by Graminez, family_-_..63, 64, 65, feeding... 22 5s5oe ae 79, 80 66, 67, 68 Of the Pacific slope_.82, 84 to 87 Grapestamily $26 54-2 32s see 61 On. a foot square__..------=- 241 Grapholithan = 2 .2- soscee soe 392 Permanent or in rotation_-.. 256 Grass, changing by new seeds__ 255 Plats.of .......525222==e—ee WO, 71 Composition of-_-..52, 53, 54, Preserving....2..=_10,tieeieeete 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 Rust.....--.-- 252302 eee 416 Climate best for.i22.5.2-222 300 Seeding with grain_____-.__. 247 Cultivated first: -4-222.-- 160, 197 Seeding without grain_____- 250 Cure best in dry countries_80, 82 The model____:-_ eae eee 299 ID etined ee ore 65 When to cut-_.-.- 59, 288, 289, 293 Distributed where-_-_-_------ 67, 68 | Grasses, as weeds__-.__--2eseee 224 For. cultivation .__.-..._- 101, 233 “Beauty of....:—.- eee 68 Ror IRansag 3. pe faces 234 Best in dry weather_.._.-.:. 60 Hor lawns. 2=-.2 a a Se 309, 311 Best on rich land 225) =-==aee iormarshes. 2) 2462) eee 233 Classified ina popular way_73, 74 For meadows and pastures - - For the south__-__--- 234, 237, 239 101, 226, 233 How to study__- 222 75, 76, 77 For ornament collecting-317, 319 In certain places_.....----- 73, 74 For poor) soilo 2. 2c. 2 aes oe 268 In Texas, natives:..-_----2 81, 82 For preventing washing, see In the United States, former- June grass, red-top, quack ly SOWN... =. 2225 204 grass, Bermuda grass, Les- Proportion. 0f 2-22) 67, 68 pedeza. Requisites for success_---.-- 299 For‘the \earden- 2 2= + noose. 318 Size Of!) 22.2... eee 68 Horthegnorkhess. a3 ee 232 Selection for one year-__.226, 227 Grow best when_-.--------- 265 Soil and climate best for_--- 300 Grow, swHeCle=see se eee2 ee 67, 68 Three. years ...-=- 22-22 268 Improving by selection ---- 305 Time of bloom =... -2-25-==aes 69 Individuals sOlss= sa 67, 68 Time to cut, .-----59, 288, 289, 293 In Great Britain, what have Two) years... - 2-2 ee 101, 2838 been s0wil 22:2. ase 20 Uses Of... 3-5 eee vis) In Northern Mexico----..94 to 99 Weeds among....-...-.-- 75, 214 Insects injurious to--------- 395 What are now sown_-..---- 229 In the Great Basin of U.S... 94 When ¢row best2220 22 eases 265 Te kines. ote 64, 65, 66, 67, 68 Wild, most valuable_-_..--- 81, 99 Killebrew on value of ---.-... 236 | Grasshoppers-_----------------- 409 Land, Howard on value of_ 235 | Grazing, native lands_------ 78 to 99 Dattlevknoywi as 2 Sees 205 In winter.....:.:.— === 82 Manunes forsee see 267 | Great basin, grasses in_____--- 93, 94 Mildew 2552 shee sees sae ere 426 | Great Britain, first meadows_-.. 198 Mixedi tor lawis--222 seen oe ole Grasses sown in, -_-_---- 201 to 2038 Most valuable wild__.-....-.81, 99.| Green grass. ..---_---222eeeeee 182 New ones. needed_---..------ 301 | Green-valley grass_----.------- aly Of Montanaos2 =. sees ne 87 to 94 | Green manuring=2- -22-e) eee 279 INDEX. PAGE Growing, when grasses do best_ 265 Growth of plants_.48, 49, 50, 51, 52 Guanoyuse Of-:.22-2-..5..--.-2 270 Remiber PASS. ..o 2-2-2 172 Gulley, Prof. F. A., on Bermuda SSS 6 44ers 165 Wnreow peas-.-.--.-_..._--- 366 OniJapan clover ....---.-.-- 368 On Johnson grass_--._------ 172 OrmeGerne 9-2 22 ke 307 Gypsum, effect of ...._.______-- Q77 Cl 270, 271 CCU 330, 337 Hackeleh,. on: leaf_ 2. .-..22.-.2 30 Hallett, Major, on improving SURG SS eee eee a B05 MeePerreseue_ .-- 5. -.--2-2---=- 132 Harris, Joseph, on manuring eTassmanGs= =... 22222-2525 270 Wale of clover.:-..-...==== 30 Harris, 8. D., on list of grasses_ 204 Head, an inflorescence in which the flowers are sessile, or nearly so on a very short TSE 2. 36 Heatimamily 22.2.2... - 2. 62 enbarmm: —.2..-...2.. ROS le ie hes Herbert, Dean, quoted --------- 273 Herd’s grass, Phleum__----- 108, 145 RMIT 22 296 park curing by hotair or a fan_ 297 Fermentation of __._.-..---- 298 Hood value: of... ...-- 5.25: 291 iM eMEXIGO 2... . 22 85, 95, 96, 97 Making clover in one day___ 295 2) A 286, 289 UOTE) (Oy ees ae ee 66 Value as a manure_..____--- del Hermaphrodite, of both sexes. Heteropogon, awn of twists____- 46 Hierochloa, flowers of________- 38 NESIMOLS- oS = 2 Sots Se ees 24 iEmlaria, in) Mexico: .-.-2-....-5- 96 Hispid, beset with bristly hairs. History of red clover__--------- 323 445 PAGE Hosweed 222 2s532525525220eeee 220: Eolcts; anally siss=s= oa =e eee 58 anaiis sass aes 1538, 198, 213 Moliis 2.2822 224. 222 ese 194 Holmes, Dr. O. W., on the use of elders te a ee 231 Hop vines, twining._..._-..-.-- 44° HMordemessasas-a2..0 552020802 ee 78 Hordeum, see barley. Horse-milletioe ass55 45 2e ee 187 Elounds=toncues ss. ase =e eee ol OWieEl. ereeaere ees 2 aha 5 UR ee 344 Howard, Rev. C. W., on Ber- MUG ae LASSee sere wee 164 Clover in Georgia .....------ 334 Lucerne in Georgia-.-------- Bve Orchard yerassse= eee eee 116 Redstop seca asses 147 Seeding without a crop----- 251 Selecting grasses for the SOuUthwE se eee pe 235, 239 Wallboatqorassee se sete = eee 123 Time of sowing seed. -_.._--- 246 Hoysradt, L. H., on collecting. 71 iungariansonass= se ese neee 175 unos One eee Se ae 429 Hunter, James, on adulterating SCCdS Aline eee eee eas 207 On seeds of tall fescue__.__._ 129 Hyaline, transparent or translu- cent, e Hyde, A., on orchara grass----- 110 Hydrogen 222s sae ae aes ae 51, 52 Hygroscopic cells, see bulliiform cells. Hylastes: tritolim 0 Sense 375 Hypodermal fibers_14, 16, 26, 27, 28, 31 Hypolytrum, scale of_.....---- 35 Imbricate, overlapping so as to “break joints.” Improving by crossing the flow- Grell Aes eee 3 306, 307 Byxselection=seees == eee 305 Idaho; grazing in 2245 5.52228 82 446 PAGE indian) corms]. ee- == =o se ee 65, 66 Fertilization of flowers... --- 39 Fibro-vascular bundles of--- 7 Germination of seed-_------- 48 iseateOees see 5 138, 18, 19, 30 MOn@ClOUS= = ee 22> . 38 Proliferous)22 22 2225-22 - 37 Seed: Okt soe ate es eee 42 Indian meal, value as a ma- TUTE] Boe ee Fo eee 331 In eequilateral, unequal sides. Indehiscent, not opening by valves or chinks, as in regu- lar lines. inflorescence £5 <2 a-5-=c=e=ee 64 Ingersoll, Prest. C. L., on lu- cernean Colorado.-=--=---—— 396 Inoculation, seeding by - --- ---- 247 Insects attacking clover hay_-- 393 Attacking clover seed..-.--- 389 Cacgryine ergots. --—- ate 420 Caught by Sporobolus------ 8 inj oriog sis 82 aes a 370 Injurious to grasses --------- 395 Internade, the part of a stem between two nodes or joints- 5, 6, 4 Involucre, a circle of bracts be- low a cluster of flowers. Irregular, not symmetrical in form. , Irrigation, effect of on grasses_. 282 co) Italian or crimson clover_.--.-- 351 Millet 28262 Sion A 175 iy 6-1 ass 326 oe 161 Ives, Henry, on quack grass... 169 Japan (ClOVer 23 - oes saree 366 SDTISOn CTass 3-52 22) eee 171 Jordon, Prof. W. H., food values Ob Miia yes see ee 291 Julie, J., on manure for grasses 267 On reasons for a rotation... 259 Juncus, proliferous---.-------- 37 June grass, see Poa pratensis, 132, 139, 143. INDEX. PAGE June Grass, Analysis.-.-----.-- 57 A weed .2:--=--i22222 135 Ergot on .22..+-.--22 eee 420 Hor dawn == 137, 310, 317 In England: ._..222233eaeee 135 In Kansas and Nebraska_136, 137 Spreads rapidly in Nebraska_ 19 Jungle grasses. --.. -.2--se==ee— 73 Kansas, clover. .22----=eeeee : Effects of feeding prairies_.._ 80 Grazing ......----4252ee 82 Kedzie, Dr. R. C., on green manuring.. 222-22 279 On manuring grass lands___ 271 Keel, a central dorsalridge---.. 77 Keeled, carinate, having a keel. Kentucky blue-grass- ---------- 182 See June grass and Poa pra- tensis. Kernel... .-_._._-. 41, 48 Killebrew, Dr. J. B., on Ber- muda grass._....-5-=3 = 163 On orchard s7rass---252s5=—= 115 On sowing grass without a CLOP. 2-222 -5-2-5-— 253 Knapp, Dr. 8. A., on alsike clo- Vel. .2. oetenenee 348 On care of pastures--------- 264 — On how much seed to sow... 244 On orchard grass2=3=2==eeee 116 Knobbe; Dr....2-2.22232 206 Knot-grass:. =. 1245255 65, 223 Kyllingia. -:--..-.--3 2 35 Labiate ......-..:- 63 Lachnosterna fusea---.--2==2== 402 Rhacunas®*222.- 4 eee 14, 26, 30 Lady’s Thumb --. 222 222=—eee 223 Lamb’s quarters... =. -22aae=ee 222 Lamina, see leaf. Lanceolate, shaped like a lance or spear head. : Languria Mozardi_....2 ee 378 INDEX. PAGE Lapham, Dr. I. A., a need of MO WI EOTASSCS. 222.222. 5.<2--- 301 On selecting grasses___.--.. 228 Latta, Prof., on tall fescue- ---- 131 Bates Cells ..._-...-..-.-.-- 25, 26 Lawes, Baron J. B., amount of dry matter to the acre-_-__---- On care of grass lands_-_265, 278 Onicock’s: foot... .--- Fe eae 110 On crested dog’s tail-_-_-_-_---- 195 On experiment on fertilizing eras lands-2 22.2 52s.0.44 273 On fertilizing grass lands in Amrerica. <=. .2aee2% 272 MOnered-FOp 2 2) s 2222s e 225. 148 On relative value of foods for WreRnOer eens eke 2s te dol Wmroots of Clover ---...-.-- 329 Ontnye-orass.* 2 2-252-.-+-- 160 On sweet vernal_-_.--------- 157 Onitalloat-erass.-_----.---- 122 @nivelvet grass._...-------- 195 On yellow oat-grass--------- 191 Lawn grass mixtures-----.----- 311 Lawns, how to make_.-__._._--_- 310 Fomponbance of... ._....----- 309 Lea, Pryor, on Texas millet_.._ 187 | ISDE. re eae 9 Mebaractensiim. =. 522.22. 2... 30, 31 Semeaiee te EE es kes, Go Wurapiliby OFS. ...222-5.---- 12 inne Gion OL .222. 5... - 49, 50, 52 ioppers_-..----- ak Pee tek AQT OmAlopecurus.....--2- 5-2. - 24 Of Amphicarpum.-*=-.------ 18, 20 Of Andropogon-.-.------ 13, 19, 21 OUD /:\SnGi0 2 ea rr 30 Wf Bermuda grass._-..-...- 18 Of Bouteloual:._...--..-=- 28 Ofabromius: 22.2. 2.22222. 29 ime @hilorist= 252.255.222.082 19 WiGynodon= 2222 5. * 22s. 18 GinMachylisss 24 'se5 42 Tee 19, 28 er Weschampsia:.)—-_-- =. 26 SeBeShiGa:-.. ssn eee 25 @iorass 22.12 27105 1236564, 76 | 447 PAGE Leaf, of Hierochloa......-.---- 24 Of Indian corn__.-_- 13, 18, 19, 30 Of June yerassa----s 22 18, 19, 23 Ofelieersiaie-ees 22: 20, 28, 24, 25 Unsymmetrical__......----- 12 Leaflet, a part of a compound leaf. Iheavesilong 2 26)..22.2 Sa 134 Minute structure____..-..18 to 31 Movements of______-_-_- 23, 24, 25 Ofplivecumines os. eee 28 Oi Narduses <2) ee eee 23 Of Panicum capillare_-_--__- 30 Of Panicum plicatum _-21, 24, 27 Of Paspalum ose). aes 21 Of Phleum-__----_- 19, 28, 24, 29, 36 Of Poa pratensis----....18, 19, 23 Ofiquackerass*2-—- 35.4255" 29 Of Ty Cs ee es ee et 29 Of Secaleee 22 = soe 29 Of Setanisesiss. 229.2 eee 30 Of Spartinaj-e..<&.. 29 28, 29 Of Sporobolus’. 22 24. = 3222 24 Of Stipa.__ === - bah eee 24, 26, 27 Of Mriticimes=== === =a 29, 31 Only apinid=tiba! === == 13 Rollerss3) =. aes ee 386 Section of _---_- ae Smutiof Dimothye. 222-2 222- 414 Sleep Ob ress Fs ny ee ee 328 {Nova nroray (ie. eS ee 23, 29, 30 LeDuc, Gen. W. G., on cocking haves S53 35 2 3 ee ee 294 How much seed to sow----- 243 IMCCTSIA ss - 55-5 ee ee ee Gadel Gilimestoies- = aes 3D icoksione - 44555 44-2s ee U7) Theatioh se petites 20, 23, 24, 25 Legume, the seed vessel of Leguminose, as the pod of a pea. Legumes rich in nitrogen--_---- 291 eouminess2s--— -ee- 61, 67, 320 TCA CSO beta kee ee eee See 23 Leptosphzria on roots of clover adlrallitall ays ee ee ee 426 448 i PAGE Lespedeza striata_-.-.--------- 366 Leucania unipunctata- --.------ 405 Miatris;sleatjyol-2-2-e5- esa - 29 Libby. E. H., on orchard grass. 111 Thich, eflect iol. eevee 49, 50 Raeules ea). Se 10, 64, 76 Niliicene seo) ee eee 63 Ralystamily-6 22S Sevoe eee ee 63 IGimbersBilll S20 2 kee eee 182 Wminacese ls. 322-5228 2 ee Sa 63 Lindley, Dr. J., quoted--------- 60 On crested dog’s tail-------- 195 Ontred=topie aa teeee ee 148 Oni tallloat-orasss2se—se= == 121 Linseed cake, valueasamanure_ 331 Lintner, Prof. J. A. on clover in- SCCHSS At fee lee 371 Lobe, any division of an organ. Loco weed.-.---- Bi yes Bee i oe 218 hoctista iets jee es fe ee 36 OCUStS Sect Ah ete = 22s J 409 hodicules=22= 38, 30, 64, 65 Lolium, analysis of = 5--<=3--2-— 58 uoliumiperenne=..2 522. =-=- 157, 159 Lucerne, see Medicago sativa. Lunate, half moon-shaped, cres- cent-shaped. Taupine 6.0 chee se ee es ee 360 liygeum), leaf of.< :22-22S2-26=< 23 (ivi FASS =. S22 eee ee eee 200 Making clover hay in one day-- 295 Mey kam oshiaye see eee ae 286, 289 Mallow ssa es ae es es 216 Mallow: familys coco eee 63 Malvacess:...2- = 24 Ss ae 22-63 Mammoth clover_.-_--__- 106, 384, 344 Manures, ammoniacal increase tHeICTASSES (222 oe see see 276 DISUSCTOL 2 eee ee eee PANTS RirechOr aes sea 271, 275, 288 Effect of barnyard_....._.-- 276 Hororass lands=ses) =e 267 Improve the quality of BTASSCO so Oe ee INDEX, PAGE: Manures, loss of food in passing through animals_-_-------- Mineral increase leguminous plants:...: 44. =e 276 Value of foods for___-_--- 331, 382 Manuring, green_--_ 9 2 2aeaeeee 279° Marasmius on roots of grasses_. 431 Marine grasses____-2-- == -==ee== 74 Marshes, grasses for ------------ Masters, Dr. M. T., experiments on grass lands )222-35===== 273 On improving by selection.. 3805 On plant life.-.: 2-23 332ee=ee Matricaria, 2 weed===. === 214 May-beetle.... =:<==232525ee= 402 Mayweed ...- .s-...54= 5555s e ee 220: McMinn, J. M., on list of grasses 204 Meadow, battle in___»--.---_- 273. Care Of 2. .- 2-4 266 Cat's ‘tail... 22 --eee 103 Meadow fescue----.--- 126, 127, 260: Adulterated with rye-grass__ 207 Meadow foxtail, see Alophecurus pratensis. --...--2.242453eee 153. Meadow, grasses suited to_..74, 226 Soft grass.<=. 25-22. =eeee 193 Yields less than pasture- ---- 260. Meadows, first in Great Britain_ 198 Of the Romans22-22=—=—-—=— 197 Means .prass: . 2... =) 7e5eeeeees 171 Medicago......---:=5235==—eee 352 Medicago sativa------------- 86, 352 Fungus on roots=--2e-eeeees 426. In California. 22 =)-2=2—-e= 86 Peronospora 00 =-- === =e-—e 430 MedickuwW. 2.225: eee 357 Black, a weed J... -25-===eee 216 Median filber 22555) 222522—2a=— 14 Medium red clover--.---- kee 344 Melica stricta, section of leaf--. 17 Melica, glume of .--.. 3. 22=e=eem 35 Pistil. of... s.26- 5 37 Melilotus....02.. 2.222 358. Membranous, thin and rather pliable. Mesophyll. 2..=.+.-+..--2_ eee 30: INDEX. 449 PAGE PAGE Bfexico, hay in--...2.._-.- 95, 96, 97 | Muhler, on fertilization of the Northern grasses in______ 94 to 99 flowers of red clover________ 325 Muhora; pistil of .---.._. 22... _- og RMU etrt rs ark glen ae 221 Mice, injurious to grass_______- Sues Mimnroa; leat Of. 5.) 6s Se ae 22 Microscope, how to use_______ moe (Oy, Mustard... sees) > nents aie 215 Midge, clover-leaf....__. ____. 383 | Mustard family__.________.____ 61 eiywer-seed. 2222... 2 28 389 eerie fo 13 | Names of a plant, rules for__ -69, 70 Stemmelume..-_.. 222.2 36)) Nardus leat of <<. 9 10 ee) 28 feeewerie ree. ee 13 Bishiore S38.) 00) een 37 Mildew on grasses__.___.______ £265| Narrow ‘dock. _ 2. “80 age Metwentee=-} 999") Native grasses of Pacific____82 to 87 Milium, spikelet of _.___________ 03 Grazing: lands.) .22 22 78 to 99 Ar Se ee 171, 175 | Nebraska, flora changes___79, 80, 82 Minerals and ammonia, effect of 277 Grading te aee ace Lee ee 82 And nitrate, effect of _______ Pr Necharia s: See en neta Whe ial 33 (uo 63 | Nectar, the sweet secretion of Mixtures, better than one grass 226 flowers. Peecowing 9 231 | Nerve, an unbranched vein or Moles in grass land___________. 369 slender rib. Molina to adulterate Cynosurus 207 | Net veined__.........._ 26, 64 LSS a iia LGU INGULLGE Sc pecan eee Se ie 223 Monadephous stamens, those Nevada, -sravmcetsse ean 82 united by their filaments_____ 64 | New Mexico, grazing _______. 82, 93 Moneecious, unisexual, the two NipitG ‘sladeg": 25 = =A. Ke otra 63 sexes born on one plant.-... 38 | Nimble Will..............____. 182 Montana, grazing ______ 82, 87 to 94 | Nitrate of soda, effect of_______ Pa Montgomery, on Johnson grass_ 173 | N IEOPCN EE eo, Pe ae 51, 52, 53 Memes Se 6 lnm Clover. ces ose 291, 329, 382 Morphology of flowers_________ 33 | Node, a joint of stem from Morrow, Prof. G. E., how much which the leaves spring___5, Seerrreaw 243 6, 9, 44, 76 On orchard prass._.:_______ 116 | Nomenclature-....._..._.____ 69, 70 Motion in plants universal __44, Nonesichos ss. 2.0 Jer! eee 357 45, 46 Movements of leaves______ 23, 24, 25 | Oat-grass, analysis.____________ 58 emer er 3 1 AGAR neler Ld lad BE 121 1 oT el eer alee al BOATS 2 sleet rn Salad i Bee 65, 66 Dem nae OF 8 rfl RilOwers7Oboos: er 38, 39, 41 Mucronate, abruptly pointed Obcordate, inverted heart shape. with a short spine....______ 77 Oblong, considerably longer Muhlenbergia, fertilized________ 39 than broad and with sides Muhlenbergia glomerata_______ 181 nearly parallel and ends Muhlenbergia Mexicana _______ 185 rounded. PeMexiCo) 2. ek) he 97 | Obovate, ovate with the broader Muhlenberg’s grass__._________ 181 end toward the apex. 57 450 = PAGE Obtuse, blunt or rounded at the extremity. Onobry Chiss====2-> == 5-2 aesee 360 Orangewortslss- 2. =. 61 Orchard grass, see Dactylis_-109, 183 Barly iculturesses === 198 Miements ami === 2s. 2-22 = 54, 56 BUN OUS\ONs32 = oe ee 428 RUShON =. 52 = Sess ee ee ee 419 Saviny \SCCWs so. ose ee ae 119 Wath clover) 5=2-4222- 42 5= 334 Orchidaces $<) 4 sees - 4a 7 Orderiy sme esa oa 60,61,62, 638, 64 Orepon, -erazing og = =e 5 ewes 82 Ornamental grasses------------ 317 Oryza, dlOWeIs2. <=. 22 5- sana e 38 Oscinis ont oliss= =o) = sae esee 385 Ounce, seeds to the_--__--.---- 202 Owanye ee. 2 eo Bee oe 33, 37, 42, 48 Over-feeding, effects of__-78, 79, 80 Ovoid, with the shape of an egg and stem at the larger end. Owviilorerekete Sees ae oie Ags Cs eae 64 Pacific slope, native grasses of 82 to 87. Page, Prof. J. R., on lucerne___ 355 Oniorchardserass=ss sees 114 Pale, see palea. Palea, an inner bract or glume- 33, 30, 36, 77 Palmate, as where a leaf has sev- eral or many leaflets all starting from the apex, of the petiole. RANI CeSe! A935 32 ee eee 68 Glumesiof = 2222-4 34, 35 Panicle, a branching raceme___ 36 Paniculate: =e 2 ee ee 64 Panicum capillare, hairson__-.. 17 How seeds are scattered_... 101 (heaor S26 Soe bate 30 Panicum Crus-galli, leaf of_--12, 25 Panicum Germanicum_-------- 175 INDEX. PAGE Panicum, in Pacific slope_--_- 83, 84 Panicum plicatum, leaf of 21, 24, 27 Panicum Texancum______--.... 189 Papilionaces:. ...-.-. 2 252225—e 321 Parallel veined: 22-22 --) == 64, 76 Parenchyma of leaf-_-.-__--- 25, 28 Parsley family -....... 222 62 Parsnip, a weed-.---------eee5 218 Paspalum, leat of 2222) === 21 Pastures, care 0f-2) =a 261 Grasses:for:_ 5222 74, 226 Improving.-. 2. =-2=— =e 262 When to feed:...-2 23322 261 Yield more than meadows__ 260 362 Pearl millet__.. 222 Pedicel, the stem of a single flower in a cluster. Peduncle, a stalk which usually supports a cluster of flowers. Pendulous...-- -_.._ = 64 Pennisetum spicatum---------- 187 Perennial rye or rye-grass-_----- 159 Perennials, living more than two years. Perfect, a flower having both stamens and pistils___-_---_- 38 Perianth 2222. 52.33.46 64 Perianthium...----)- 2 33, 36 Perigynous, said of organs which adnate to the calyx or corolla, as in the flower of a cherry. Permanent grass vs. alternate husbandry. -2.-- =a 256 Peronospora on clover and alfalfa 430 On grasses.2:..... :-=. 429 Persistent, remaining even on the fruit or during winter. Petiole, the stem of a leaf. Peziza on clover. -_- 3 427 © Phalaris; glume of - == === 35 Phares, Prof. D. L., on Bermuda QTass. 2.2222. 23 a2 LOS Qn bur clover.__->=3=3==——=— 357 On clover in Mississippi- ---- 384 INDEX. 451 PAGE PAGE Phares, Prof. D. L., on grasses Plaster, value of_..........- 330, 337 fer tbesouth. =... -...-22-..-. mow |biats Of grasses... 222... 62 nee 70, 71 On Johnson grass-_--_-------- 172 | Platylepis, scale of _.........._- 35 On lucerne in Miss. --------- 356 | Plumule, first bud of a plant, 42, Onvorchard grass: .-...-.--- 115 43, 65 Minured-tOp. ==... .-.-.2-226 147 SWays around +2... 52228! 45 @netall fescue... 22-2. - TORO Oa TRO eeam Ae 2. 5 ee 132 Qn tall oat-grass...-.....-.- 128 Analymis OP la. 5 2. 22She see 57 On Texas millet__..-.------ 187 PANT Sere a. ee 69 * On velvet grass__.._._..---- 194 Arachnifenae4]. =e .= see 143 Phleum pratense, 5, 101, 111, 112, Closed sheaths of___...__---- 10 114, 119, 183 Compressaa 4-4 -— 4 2c 137 Pipkne south... . 2.2.2.4... 106 Compressa, analysis_...._.... 57 Bom culture. -......---=--- 198 Compressa and Pratensis _.. 134 Pei MSOry....--..=-5--.- 103 OUT PRD Ce gee fey See lg See 32 Mlenientsim. 225.2... 58, 59, 56 Bpidermisi of 2222-2 2 15 LOTPE2011 Old) Se a 420 Borklawnmen see at .- 310 to 317 Fertilizing flowers ---------- 39 Meattoreaa2— 12, 18, 19, 28, 30, 38 oo) 7 ii) Like Weshueas eco. 2-24. 2222 126 HGMMEIS ONL Ss 5502 222 = 5 a2 2 423 ine Montanam=ss a 5 ae 90, 91 emmeniOf 2s... 2.-.- 22 36, 37 INGIMES ORs === ease ee 7 nMbenMISAS =... 2.2. 22-5222 105 Pratensis, see also June ineWebraska 222... 22.2. 105 grass._116, 132, 137, 139, 143, 188 Per, OL =... 19, 28, 24, 29, 36 Serotibaies 297 Sey 140, 145 malities Of... --.--.....--.« 104 Rrivialigns 160% Sele}! bet) 28 e 142 Sovie” 7c i 106 Auwieeden == 220s .ee bees is 135 SUNT Ol a ra #14 | POaChrB Ss tan. FEEL ARG 68 Sowing seed_-_--_-_- iter 104, 106 | Pod, a dry and several seeded WWathyelower =: <2... =. 334, 336 fruit. Phylachora on grass and clover 424 | Pollen, the fertilizing cells of Physarum on roots of grasses__ 431 the-ahther +234 s4 2 37, 39, 64 Phytonomus punctatus_______- 380 Tinh ryey22 ssn ee 41 Ie aeC| sa 22a NM bolygonacesse ss sass ee. oe 63 Pinnate, a compound leaf with Omics. ae L net ee ee et oer 2 leaflets along the sides of a Poor soil, grasses will not thrive mid-rib. ON: S55 = see eae oe 2 Pe 279 Pistil, the female organ of a POPPY =a n es en e 216 LALOR ELE ees es Dewol e Otash)- 25 sates 2 ee Baht 51, 52 LPUSiTUGR 222) Se ee Oe 362 | Potato pierced by quack grass__ 170 eibhegsviessels:_-.=-..-22-...2.2 7, 25 | Potatoes, value asa manure____ 331 Plant, a factory, a machine._.. 50 | Pounds, seeds to the_________-- 202 Hips = 50, 51, 52, 382 | Power of motion in plants__44, 45, 46 Growin 22-222 48, 49, 50, 51, 52 | Prentiss, Prof. A. N., on seed Piapis, affinity of _._..-.-.-.- 60, 61 GNs\iniall OMe. ee ee 101 Plantain, narrow leaved___----- 220 | Preparation of the soil_-..----- 240 Plaster, use of -......-.— 270, 271, 277 | Preserving grasses --------- RO eae 452 INDEX. PAGE PAGE Prickly comfrey. ---=- 3222522 368 | Recurved, curved backward or Primaries, of leaves------------ 26 downward. Primary meristem ___------==-- » 2 | Red, cloyer.- =. ----2:> 2=aeeeeem 323 Pringle, C. G., grasses of Pa- Fertilized by bees-------- 325, 342 Clit aan nee aie Fy ee eee 82, 83, 84 Fungus on roots: .-222=eeeee 426 Procumbent, lying along the Red-top, see Agrostis. ground. Regular, uniform or symmetri- IPEOpresstslOw, 522 199, 200 cal in shape. Preliterous, ee. oes -o nen 36, 37 | Reticulated cells.:-22)2-23e2=ee= 25 Rroteranarousees = =e eee 38 | Rhizome, a rootstock; a thick- Proterozynous_- -As22242= bes" 38 ened stem, usually below the Protoplasnic2_ 22 223. 5--e522 hese 1 surface of the ground __._-- 5, 133 Puccinia graminis .. ----.----- 416 | Rhode Island bent-------------- 151 Pulse. familyes2_=-(5.-a4ee42 61, 320 | Rib grass, Plantago lanceolata, Pm vintis#! see eee ae oe 328 65, 220. Porpls bent-25-... 4-2 145.) Rice£2. 223. - 2. 2-22 seehge 66 Purselane® =_. 22-2 s2----22 220-2 216 | Richardson, C., quoted= saya 52 Pusey on irrigation_....-.----- 2838 Riley, Prof. C. V., on clover- Pythium on young grasses and leaf beetle... 323. 2.-222=ee 380 elovers 442 ee eee 430 On clover root borer-------- 376 Robbins, W. K., on Muhlen- Quack, quick, quitch, quake bere’s grass.....2-5- =e 183 grass, see Agropyrum rep- Roberts, Prof. I. P., on clover- CTS Oe Le eee hee 92, 167 root borer. 22). -- eee 378 Quack grass, how to kill_.---..- 220 On clover _sickness..-.-.-.-= 343 im 2 \potatos 22 25 2- a eeee 17 Qn orchard grass=2332=seee 112 iPhyllaehora, 0022. 42<-2-<-2= 424 On selecting grasses and Smirtiofe 44 gases Bee sa. ee 415 clovers. -.*----.4== 234 Quarts, ground for adulterating Robinson, on lawns-.---------- 309 BoGds HUi ts iw ee ee. 8 207 | Rocky mountain pastures_-82 to 88 Quotations left over ------------ Raceme, an indeterminate in- florescence with lengthened axis and nearly equal ped- NCCLS Ree en ee ee 36 Racemose, like a raceme. Rachilla, the axis of a spikelet.64, 101 Rachis, the axis of a spike. Radicle, the lower part of a seed- ling plant, the first Internode 65 Rag-weed.- siete: b ecitese ss 220 Rain damaging hay ------------ 289 Randallorass =. --. 55 —=eeese= 126, 127 Ravenal, A. W., on Texas mil- 1), ec Oe SEE nay Ee 187 Romans, meadows of-__-_------- 197 ROOt: osos2- eee 2, 3, 4, 42, 43 Root-cap ....---.2+425 352 2 Root-hairs =... 225 ae 3, 4, 43 Root-sheath2... 22.2 42 Roots, of clover. - 22-2 324 Depth of: =22-2--32ee 3, 333 Fewer in close pasture than where grass is tall___-_----- 262 Punction of. 522... =a 49 Of Indian) corm s=_=======e=2 45 Roots, movements of_____----- 3, 45 Weight of, per acre. .--22222 330 Root-stocks, see rhizome___-_--5, 133 Root-tip, sensitive__....------. . 45 Rosaces: 0. os. ee 61 INDEX. pee Faye 2 oe be ete Rotation of crops, advantage of 259 Rothrock, Dr. J. T., grasses of PMeapsOAsM= 2-2-6 acs ee 93 Rough-stalked meadow grass... 142 Royal Agrl. Soc., consulting MemmIshiOf. 2 bk ke 212 Rnviooart = ee 67 Rudbeckia, a weed. --.---- 214, 219 Rural New Yorker, on quack GO DSG)\ 225 ee eee 168 SATO C(O oe 242 msteonealhalfas 23. Js. 2k 419 Wameloviens. 255222234 123 2s 418 0 2 ae oe ae 416 Onvorehard crass. ..-.-2=.22- 419 Onwealle fescue. 2. . 22252. 25+ 419 iOS) 2a re er 61 OS). 65, 66 POGmOn as 56. S525. seh 420 oOmmersyOL == 2use sles) 38, 39, 41 iLéoi O1232 3 29 ive-orass, analysis ......------ 58 Wekanneron=.-.-..-. =... 230, 231 Banlyseultures 2 22-255... 198 (OUTST) ge ae 34 Seeds used to adulterate meadow fescue___-_-_-- 207, 212 Reson MaMUre: 5 225-2. 280 SHEA. 360 DIMM OPASS. |. -.=-..--2-s222- 198 Salt, as atertilizer_.....-_.- 269, 271 Sanborn, Prof. J. W., on amount Ot.seed to,sow-=---)--1--.<2 242 On seeding to grass________- 249 On time to cut grass___-_- 291, 2938 Sanderson, James, of Scot- land, on sowing grass with a al) ee ee 254 Pap.movyement_ 2...-..-.-==-- 10 ‘SY Ta eee Se 181 Bayinlovseeds.. --.- ~-/s-s222-=22 299 Seem Ina Paces... .-1.-.-5.-/--- 62 Scabrous; rough to the touch. Seales, lodicules. 453 PAGE Scarious, thin, dry, membran- OUSEs 2-5 ee Sate Neo een 64 Schinzia, on roots of clover____ 431 Selerotiwm) «<3 2 =u... 26 bee 420 On. cloyerss. i 91 Bee 427 Scott. Hy Jhon, lawns...-5-555" 309 Scribner, Prof. F. L., on grasses on Montana Pus 9 Vel hee 87 Semichierass.2« oof ee 163, 167 Scutellate, shield shaped ______- 65 SC UCU oes aa — 227 Selection, improving by ------- . B05 Self-heal. 2.2.2 = ssc a 221 Septoria on grasses ---.-------- 428 Sesleria, plan of leaf--_-------- 14, 23 Sessile, having no stem-_-------- 64 Sessions, Governor, on tall oat- STASS 2 ose Se Sse eee 124 Setaceous, bristle-like. Setaniaitalicases= ssa == eee 175 Setaria, |eatiotse-= eae 30 Shaler, Prof. N. S., on need of NE Wi PLASSCS == 52 eee eee = 304 Shenthewe so ses. ae 9, 10, 64, 76 OF elm 22a rk 36 Sheep annoyed by Stipa-------- 47 HESCULO\. == See see cee 182 On mountain pastures.....-. 87 Sormelisc6 2h oe ae ee a 223 Shelton, Prof. E. M., on Bermu- (a. PASS. ooo eee 165 How much seed to sow_-_--- 2 On buying good seeds---207, 911, 213 On clover in Kansas-------- 334 On grasses for Kansas------- 234 On Johnson erasss2s--e22-—= 17 OniJUNe CLASS ee eee 136 On lucerne in Kansas---- - -- 309 Onvorchard erasse==-— == 116 On over-feeding the prairies. 80 On seeding to grass without AICLOD 2 =a ee eae 252 On sowing grass on prairie Be ee os eee ee 255 On sowing the seed _----- 245, 258 Oniball descuess. )->=-f2a= see 131 On tall oat-erass=2-2-25-2-=— 123 Oneiimoth yess so ee ee 105 Shepherd’s purse - - ------------- 215 Shrews, injurious to grasses and ClOVeIrSs-22 5. -222s5e5e ese 369 Sieve-tissues. 2-2 oe bo 7 INDEX. z PAGE Silene... 262.5.c. eee 215 Sinclair, Geo., on grasses_-__---- 199 Onvirrigation = = eee 283 Sleep'of leaves: 2.2222 aaee 328 Smooth-stalked meadow grass__ 132 Sintits:. JA. 2a. 414 Snapping beetles___-...----.--- 407 Snout moth. _..-....-- =e 400 Snow, seeds drifting on_-_------ 101 Sod in Montana_.----__.-- es 93 Soda, use 0f24.. 2. ee 270 Soft: bast... 2. <-..252 =e 25° Soft woolly grass. -_..---2----=- 230 Soil’ best for srasses== = =3e==—e= 240 For clover. ...-.- 384 Foodin: -....4-==- aa 50, 51, 52 Poor grasses will not thrive On... eee 279 Solandees 22:2 22 --52 5 eee 63 Sorghum .:..225..)22233=ee 66 Sorghum halapense.-.--+------ iyal Leaf of2-22./522-02 0 eee 12 Sorrel, sheep <....-42-2-==- == 223 South, grasses for_--------- 234, 239 Sowing grass seed on prairie sod 255 Seeds on grass_--___--------- 254 The) seeds... eee 245, 263 Sown, what grasses in Great Britain... .--. = 201 What grasses in United States 2. 4... 4.2532 204 Spartina, leaf of. === 28, 29 Spathellay_.__.. 33 Spear-grasss. .... 2-22 eeee 132 Species; a. name_-.=:-2 = eee 69 Spelt flowers... -..:- -=2255— 40, 41 Splcatezs== ssa. aeedes’ = eee 64 Spike, an inflorescence with ses- sile flowers on an elongated AMIS: 23228-¢.2. 52. 36 Spike of Timothy. ...-=.-:-22=ee= 76 Spikelet....222:.2...225 a 36 Of Pod... 22352 33 Spiral vessels... ..-.-=. --S35a" 25 Split-sheaphs .... ...-.2--s-22ee6 10 Sporobolus... .... 2.2 =e—e 8, 9, 65 INDEX. PAGE Sporobolus, indicus, smut on_-_ 428 fin Eacitic slope. -2..2=-==.--- 83 WeeaOle = 2 Sesh tho ooe 24 Preise S2oee te ie ee 43 Borne bootles:-_.... ../.-f2L.1-2 407 Sprout, seeds may more than GWG) 3 55g a ee eee 210 oy ee 228 Peemred ty O- 2eoe 2-2. s_ 2 420 Pen, ==, Ses ts Sk 33 Mimeonms WOrb...2s222..0l22.2< 215 PETORON CMM AV. c= 5. eee Ss 2S 297 Stalker, Dr. M., on Stipa_......_ 47 Stamen, the male part of a LLLO NETS 5S eee eee cece 35 Staminate, a flower bearing stamens but no pistils______- 38 SUSDTCII=..2 So Ee eee eee 42 Stellate cells in leaf____.______- 13 SoineeerS a ot 2. D, Ost 8s 9 STELIOS ie eee ae 6 Straightens how ------------ 6 Stewart, Henry, on Japan GUGKT CIR ee ee 368 Stewart, E. W., on manure of JETS 2 rs 281 SIN CLSHe@00 |e SO Ee 221 Stigma, the upper part of the pistil which receives the (evah Levi: RE Ee ene Ree 33, 37 Stipa, awn twists------------- 46, 47 Wed Oh ess 3 eso 124, 265 27 SHU GUID IG: Ae ee er ie 364 SUING oj 364 00 TIM tee eee 64 Stipules, appendages at the base of some leaves. Stock take 5 to 10 per cent of manurial value of food_____- 332 Stockbridge, Prof., on pastures_ 262 Stoloniferous, bearing prostrate, rooting branches. Bpomatas- =.= .=25522 14, 15, 16; 127 STOO S22 Ae 2 oy Se Ay 6 Storer, Prof. F. H., on fermen- PON OF Nay Sa. = anes 455 PAGE Storing hay, effect of_.._....-- 288 Strapula- sess oo. ae ae 33 Straw, value as a manure__-_.-_- 331 Stubble, manurial value of-____- 3832 Weight of per acre_.___-._-- 330 Studying grasses__.______-- o, 16, 77 Sturtevant, Dr. E. L., on Hun- Paltan ETass....& sles Se 176 Style, the part suually uniting the ovary and the stigma of a DISC bs ee ee ae _.33, 37 SUCar ee ey) 2 ee eee 66 Sulphate of lime, effect of_...._ 277 Sulphur: --26 5 464see 2-5 44a oe 51, 52 Summer dew-grass---------- _. 145 Superphosphate of ammonia, ef- LA TeChiOL seen se oe ero - se eeeeeees 27 Superphosphate of lime, effect of 276 Swecticlover-<2=te Ss 44345 se 308 Sweet scented vernal grass__-__ 153 Analiysisrohon (24-2. seeeee 58 ASWMSL OLE. S222 Sis. eee 7 Proferandrous=-_ 2225-2 222= 38 Swane clover Lote-=- eee eee 339 Syriall Tass 228 os Fe Sa il7al Tall meadow fescue__--126, 127, 131 Tallant, W. F., on orchard grass 114 Tall oat-grass, see Arrhenathe- rum Par G2 Be os 5. ee Ree ee 362 Terete, cylindrical. Nertiariesss «22s. Meese sees 26 Testa = 43. eo- cs nee ee eee 65 Nestinewseeds=:,.-2-—- s4-5-— 206, 208 Mexas blue onassaese ene ee 143 Texas anilllet.. 22 2222 See See 189 Texas, some leading grasses in_.81, 82 Mhistlesenm seal ee ae 219 Kolled@bytelover=s25442522—— 335 Thomas, J. J., on the model OTASS= ss 252s 25 eae eee 299 On need of new grasses - - --- 301 On seeding grass with grain_ 247 Thurber, Dr. Geo., on need of New eTassess=. = 2-=-- 2-225 456 zs PAGE Thurber, Dr. Geo., on weeds____ 214 Herm ge ose e see ee 6 MilletiaS= -le5 2 Ses Ss Hay ey 414 ime to ecutierassi=: S24 22 59 Timothy, see Phleum pratense. IA pIne@es- 2s asa a ares ee ees 89 MNoad=lax: eee sees aoe epee 221 Tortion of leéaves--.222-2-~ 23, 29, 30 Trachypogon, leaf of_-_-_-------- 21 Tracy, W. W., on a seed_-____-- 41 iracus, clandsione ss 2222). 8 Tragus racemosus, hairson_--.- 17 Trees, families voles ee eee 63 RURGLOL Anes Ser ee ee Pee ete 321 Trelease, Dr. Wm., on fungi__-_ 413 Pribune,.quoted= = =2-- 55 1 = = 264 Trichomes______ 3, 43 Oy 14, 063 7, 43 (irifolume ees eee 321 Trifolium hybridum ----_------- B47 incarna times ee.— see ae Bol Medium’: oo 25225 ee Perea B44 Pratense sence ee aoe See B23 IGpeNS: 2 2-== ue eee ee 348 Repens for lawn_-.--------- 315 Tripsacum, monccoeious--------- 38- Triticum, see Agropyrum. Troop, Prof., on tall fescue__-._ 131 Tuberyof Limothy 242. 22422-42- 76 Tufted, growing in bunches. DurhaneMontanass2 6-22 se 93 Turgescence, a swelling or en- Iaecing 228 seat ae! 44 Turnips, value as a manure__-_ 331 Mwinine Of aivane:_222- =. S-f228 44 ‘Twishedrawmnr==2- =e ose ee 36, 46, 47 heavesseees = - eee ey oe 23, 29, 30 witch, .erass see oo sae ees 167 Pwo-rankeds Sss- eee oe 76 (My pbha, leak ot: 23522242025 52=5 29 Ulex. Pee ee ee 360 Wimibelliterss 3340. ee ee 62 Uniola, glamesietisc. 20.2228. 23 35 United States, grasses sown in_ 204 Uroniy ces oritoli see sae ee 418 INDEX. PAGE Utah, grazing int: 2. See 82 Vagabond crambus.- -------- 410, 411 Valvate, opening as if by doors or valves. Vanilla-grass, flowers of__----_- 38 Vascnlum:... |. 2 eee yal Vase ....-2... 1. eee tial Vasey, Dr., on Johnson grass._. 173 On Texas millet: 2— = 189 Veins, transverse. --22- -- ee 12, 26 Velvet grass -.-..-=.--3 522 193, 2380 Vermation=. 222. sae : Oe ERS Versatile: 2... eee 64 WVessels)_..... 2. = eee 1, 25 Vetch... 32 eS 362 Vicia ...-.2:..2. eee 362 Violet root-fungus on alfalfa and clover. 2 (23426 Vitacese... 22.2.2. eee 61 Voelcker, Dr. A., on clover as a manure._-..--/ eee ULL 882 Fertilizers for grass lands____ 269 On manuring to increase clover. seed'2_+=2:_ 2-2 e Quality of grasses affected by manures and drainage---- 282 Warington, R., quoted__------- 52 Washington, T., grazing in... 82 Waters, R., on orchard grass_-- 115 Watson, Sereno, grasses of great basin ....-.--.-42 = 94 Weeds.....-.-.. ee 62, 63 Among grasses_..--22-2 see 224 Come in where pastures are over-fed__._--! = === 79, 80 Defined: 222-22 _ aaa 214, 215 How distributed ----.------- 214 In grasses, list of ------ 214 to 223 In meadows decrease with manuring -22 232222 eeeee 276 Killed by clover:._--3=====" 335 To get rid of ....=--.--sse=—e 224 Where from. -=2.-2---2==— 214 Wheat... .-... -.-+.225 2 65, 66 INDEX. PAGE Wheat, cross-breeding__-______- 307 mlowers=2- .. 2... ==: 38. 39, 40, 41 Pemeriot Of. ._.--...5:.-.... 35 UE) | 148 [2 Sr 348 Clover for lawn. ......--.-. 315 Clover, yield of seeds aided 0 C2 SS ees 327 Or 402 Reet ee 2. 148 ead timothy... ....-..__..- 181 Wild rice, moncoeious__________ 38 Willard, X. A., on list of grasses 204 Wilson, A. S.,on fertilization of on Se OO Winter grazing, country for__82, 88 i the south____......_. 287, 230 Winter killing of clover. _____ 338 Wite prass_______-_ tee a 137, 163 a5 457 PAGE Wire grass, analysis of _________ 57 DAPOVORTIB 0: 0s-).. a Some 406 WWiteb prAna 32) 0 Se 167 Woodchucks in grass land_____ 369 Woodward, J. S., on clover to ioilssweedso225522.. 2-008 335 Worlidge, J., on ray-grass_____- 198 Wyoming, grazing in__________ 82 Marrow. 1sGeds. oo. 2.2 3 218 Yellow butterfly. ............. 388 0) 2) 8 © a i eee 191 WOrkshinedogee jo5 Soo 193 Zea mays, see Indian corn. Zizania aquatica, leaf of _______ 12 Zizania, moncecious ___________ 38 Unsymmetrical leaf_______- 11 ma ah x ‘ i. r | fi ri Ph ae Re ei le 1 f % j _ 7 a a *y . 2 ae i es . : i 1 - = - i . . + ~ " ;. 1 n ’ ' . ‘ ' . . *% a . ‘ . * ’ * ‘ a . } cs * % * ” ~ m > . t i’ L 4 o ‘ i Beal, W. J./Grasses of North America for i mi Hii I! ly 3 518 RES eS No RR NA NG wee Sean ~ 2 > . - Coa = see sat ; : 2 : ; Sa an ae ee ee Str Aenea TAS iee ne Sane Ge aga ane anre sites wee oe z : Aes mM rence 2 om : ~, mae Sy Ee ‘ ¥ 2 oe Pos . sents tise! Sa SS oat