UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA MEDICAL CENTER LIBRARY SAN FRANCISCO GRAY'S SCHOOL AND HELD BOOK OF BOTANY. CONSISTING OF "LESSONS IN BOTANY," AND "FIELD, FOREST, AND GARDEN BOTANY," BOUND IN ONE VOLUME. BY ASA [GRAY, HSHER rmOUBSSOB OP NATURAL HISTORY IN HARVARD U.MVEESJTT $73 IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 3 Q 1 K JL %/ JLO PUBLISHEKS' PREFACE GRATS SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY THIS work consists of the " LESSONS IN BOTANY w and the * FIELD, FOBEST AND GARDEN BOTANY," bound together in ont complete volume, forming a most popular and comprehensive SOHOOL BOTANY, adapted to beginners and advanced classes, to Agricultural Colleges and Schools, as well as to all other grades in which the science is taught ; it is also adapted for use as a hand-book to assist in analyzing plants and flowers in field study of botany, either by classes or individuals. The book is intended to furnish Botanical Classes and beginners with an easier introduction to the Plants of this country, and a much more comprehensive work, than is tne MANUAL. Beginning with the first principles, it progresses by easy stages until the student, who is at all diligent, is enabled to master the intricacies of the science. It is a Grammar and Dictionary of Botany, and comprises the common Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees of the Southern as well as the Northern and Middle States, including the commonly cultivated, as well as the native species in fields, gardens, pleasure-grounds, or house culture, and even the conservatory plants ordinarily met with. This work supplies a great desideratum to the Botanist and Botanical Teacher, there being no similar class-book published in this country. GRAY'S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, ILLUSTRATED BY OVER 360 WOOD ENGRAVINGS, FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS, BY ISAAC SPRAGUE. TO WHICH IS ADDED A COPIOUS GLOSSARY, DICTIONARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS. BY ASA GRAY, FISHER PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN HARVARD CNIVERStTY. IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., NEW YORK AND CHICAGO IT PREFACE. It is by no means indispensable for students to go through the volume before commencing with the analysis of plants. When the proper season for botanizing arrives, and when the first twelve Lessons have been gone over, they may take up Lesson XXVIII. and the following ones, and pro- ceed to study the various wild plants they find fti blossom, in the manner illustrated in Lesson XXX., &e., — referring to the Glossary, and thence to the pages of the Lessons, as directed, for explanations of the various distinctions and terms they meet with. Their first essays will necessarily be rather tedious, if not difficult ; but each successful attempt smooths the way for the next, and soon these technical terms and distinctions will become nearly as familiar as those of ordinary language. Students who, having mastered this elementary work, wish to extend their acquaintance with Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology, and to con- sider higher questions about the structure and classification of plants, will be prepared to take up the author's Botanical Text-Book, an Introduction to Structural Botany, or other more detailed treatises. No care and expense have been spared upon the illustrations of this volume; which, with one or two exceptions, are all original. They were drawn from nature by Mr. Sprague, the most accurate of living botanical artists, and have been as freely introduced as the size to which it was needful to restrict the volume would warrant. To append a set of questions to the foot of each page, although not un- usual in school-books, seems like a reflection upon the competency or the faithfulness of teachers, who surely ought to have mastered the lesson be- fore they undertake to teach it; nor ought facilities to be afforded for teaching, any more than learning, lessons by rote. A full analysis of the contents of the Lessons, however, is very convenient and advantageous. Such an Analysis is here given, in place of the ordinary table of con- tents. This will direct the teacher and the learner at once to the leading ideas and important points of each Lesson, and serve as a basis to ground proper questions on, if such should be needed. ASA GRAY HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE. January 1, 1857. %* Revised August, 1868, and alterations made adapting it to the new edition of Muniutl, and to Fitld, Forest, and Garden Botany, to which this work is the propej introduction and companion. A. G. ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS.* LESSON I. — BOTANY AS A BRANCH OF NATURAL HISTORY. . . p. 1 1. Natural History, its subjects. 2. The Inorganic or Mineral Kingdom, what it is : why called Inorganic. 3. The Organic world, or the world of Or- ganized beings, why so called, and what its peculiarities. 4 What kingdoms it comprises. 5, 6. Differences between plants and animals. 7. The use of plants : how vegetables are nourished ; and how animals. 8. Botany, how defined. 9. Physiology, and Physiological Botany, what ftey relate to. 10. Systematic Botany, what it relates to : a Flora, what it is 11. Geographical Botany, Fossil Botany, &c., what they relate to. LESSON II. — THE GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. p. 4. 12. The Course of Vegetation : general questions proposed. 13. Plants formed on one general plan. 14. The Germinating Plantlet : 15. exists in miniature in the seed: 16. The Embryo; its parts: 17, 18. how it develops. 19. Opposite growth of Root and Stem : 20. its object or results : 21, 22. the different way each gro\vs. LESSON III. GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED; continued, p. 9. 23. Recapitulation : Ascending and Descending Axis. 24, 25. The Germi- nating Plantlet, how nourished. 26. Deposit of food in the embryo, illustrated in the Squash, &c. : 27. in the Almond, Apple-seed, Beech, &c. : 28. in the Bean : 29. in the Pea, Oak, and Buckeye : peculiarity of these last. 30, 31. Deposit of food outside of the embryo : Albumen of the seed : various shapes of embryo. 32, 33. Kinds of embryo as to the number of Cotyledons : di- cotyledonous : monocotyledonous : polycotyledonous. 34, 35. Plan of vegeta- tion. 36. Simple-stemmed vegetation illustrated. LESSON IV. THE GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS AND BRANCHES, p. 20. 37, 38. Branching : difference in this respect between roots and stems. 39. Buds, what they are, and where situated : 40. how they grow, and what they become. 41. Plants as to she and duration: herb, annual, biennial, perennial: shrub : tree. 42. Terminal Bud. 43. Axillary Buds. 44. Scaly Buds. 45 Naked Buds. 46. Vigor of vegetation from buds illustrated. 47-49. Plan and arrangement of Branches : opposite : alternate. 50. Symmetry of Branches, * The numbers in the analysis refer to the paragraphs. Vi ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. what it depends on: 51. how It becomes incomplete: 51-59. how varied. 53 Definite growth. 54. Indefinite growth. 55. Deliquescent or dissolving stems, how formed. 56. Exciinvnt stems of spire-shaped trees, how produced. 57. Latent Buds. 58. Adventitious Buds. 59. Accessory or supernumerary Buds. 60. Sorts of Buds recaoitulated and defined. LESSON V. MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS p. 28. 61 -64. Morphology; what the term means, and how applied in Botany. 65. Primary Root, simple; and, 66. multiple. 67. Rootlets; how roots absorb; time for transplantation, &c. 68. Great amount of surface which a plant spreads out, in the air and in the soil ; reduced in winter, increased in spring. 69. Absorbing surface of roots increased by the root-hairs. 70 Fibrous roots for absorption. 71. Thickened or fleshy roots as storehouse of food. 72, 73. Their principal forms. 74. Biennial roots ; their economy. 75. Perennial thickened roots. 76. Potatoes, £c. are not roots. 77. Secondary Roots, their economy. 78. Sometimes striking in open air, when they are, 79 Aerial Roots ; illustrated in Indian Corn, Mangrove, Screw Pine, Banyan, £c. 80. Aerial Rootlets of Ivy. 81. Epiphytes or Air-Plants, illustrated. 82. Parasitic Plants, illustrated by the Mistletoe, Dodder, &c. LESSON VI. MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. ... p. 36. 83 - 85. Forms of stems and branches above ground. 86. Their direction or habit of growth. 87. Culm, Caudex, &c. 88. Suckers : propagation of plants by division. 89. Stolons : propagation by layering or laying. 90. Offsets. 91. Runners. 92. Tendrils; how plants climb by them : their disk-like tips in the Virginia Creeper. 93. Tendrils are sometimes forms of leaves. 94. Spines or Thorns ; their nature : Prickles. 95. Strange forms of stems. 96. Subter- ranean stems and branches. 97. The Rootstock or Rhizoma, why stem and not root. 98. Why running rootstocks are so troublesome, and so hard to de- stroy. 99-101. Thickened rootstocks, as depositories of food. 102. Their life and growth. 103. The Tuber. 104. Economy of the Potato-plant. 105. Gradations of tubers into, 106. Corms or solid bulbs : the nature and economy of these, as in Crocus. 107. Gradation of these into, 108. the Bulb : nature of bulbs. 109,110. Their economy. 111. Their two principal sorts. 112. Bulb- lets. 113. How the foregoing sorts of stems illustrate what is meant by mor- phology. 114. They are imitated in some plants above ground. 115. Consoli- dated forms of vegetation, illustrated by Cactuses, &c. 116. Their economy and adaptation to dry regions. LESSON VII. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES . p. 49. 117. Remarkable states of loaves already noticed. 118, 119. Foliage the natural form of leaves : others are special forms, or transformations; why so railed. 120. Leaves as depositories of food, especially the seed-leaves ; and, 121. As Bulb-scales. 122. Leaves ns Bud-scales. 123. As Spines. 124. As Ten- drils. 125. As Pitchers. 1 26. As Fly-traps. 127 - 129. The same leaf serving various purposes. ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. vil LESSON VIII. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. ... p. 54. 130. Foliage the natural state of leaves. 131. Leaves a contrivance for in- creasing surface: the vast surface of a tree in leaf. 132, 133. The parts of a leaf. 134. The blade. 135. Its pulp or soft part and its framework. 136. The latter is wood, and forms the ribs or veins and veinlets. 137. Division and use of these. 138. Venation, or mode of veining. 139. Its two kinds. 140. Netted-vcincd or reticulated. 141. Parallel-veined or nerved. 142. The so- called veins and nerves essentially the same thing; the latter not like the nerves of animals. 143. How the sort of veining of leaves answers to the num- ber of cotyledons and the kind of plant. 144. Two kinds of parallel-veined leaves. 145, 146. Two kinds of netted-veined leaves. 147. Relation of the veining to the shape of the leaf. 148 - 151. Forms of leaves illustrated, as to general out line. 152. As to the base. 153. As to the apex. LESSON IX. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE ; continued, p. 61. 154, 155. Leaves either simple or compound. 156-162. Simple leaves il- lustrated as to particular outline, or kind and degree of division. 163. Com- pound leaves. 164. Leaflets. 165. Kinds of compound leaves. 166, 167. The pinnate, and, 168. the palmate or digitate. 169. As to number of leaflets, &c. 170. Leaflets, as to lobing, &c. 171, 172. Doubly or trebly compound leaves of both sorts. 173. Peculiar forms of leaves explained, such as: 174. Perfoliate: 175. Equitant: 176. Those without blade. 177. Phyllodia, or flattened petioles. 178. Stipules. 179. Sheaths of Grasses ; Ligule. LESSON X. THE ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES p. 71. 181. Phyllotaxy, or arrangement of leaves on the stem : general sorts of ar- rangement. 182. Leaves arise only one from the same place. 183. Clustered or fascicled leaves explained. 184. Spiral arrangement of alternate leaves. 185. The two-ranked arrangement. 186. The three-ranked arrangement. 187. The five-ranked arrangement. 188. The fractions by which these are expressed. 189. The eight-ranked and the thirteen-ranked arrangements. 190. The series of these fractions, and their relations. 191. Opposite and whorlcd leaves. 192. Symmetry of leaves, &c. fixed by mathematical rule. 193. Vernation, or arrangement of leaves in the bud. 194. The principal modes. LESSON XI. THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM, OR INFLORESCENCE p. 76. 195. Passage from the Organs of Vegetation to those of Fructification or Re- production. 196. Inflorescence : the arrangement of flowers depends on that of the leaves. 197. They are from either terminal or axillary buds. 198. In- determinate Inflorescence. 199. Its sorts of flower-clusters. 200. Flower- stalks, viz. peduncles and pedicels, bracts and bractlets, £c. 201. Raceme. 202. Its gradation into (203) a Corymb, and that (204) into (205) an Umbel. 206. Centripetal order of development. 207. The Spike. 208. The *iii ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. 209. Spadix. 210. Catkin or Ament. 211, 212. Compound inflorescence of the preceding kinds. 213. Panicle. 214. Thyrsus. 215. Determinate In- florescence explained. 216, 217. Cyme: centrifugal order of development 218. Fascicle. 219. Glomerule. 221. Analysis of flower-clusters. 222. Com. bination of the two kinds of inflorescence in the same plant. LESSON XII. THE FLOWER : ITS PARTS OR ORGANS p. 84. 223. The Flower. 224. Its nature and use. 225. Its organs. 226. The Floral Envelopes or leaves of the flower. Calyx and Corolla, together called (227) Perianth. 228. Petals, Sepals. 229. Neutral and "double" flowers, those destitute of, 230. The Essential Organs : Stamens and Pistils. 231,232. The parts of the flower in their su< cession. 233. The Stamen : its parts. 234. The Pistil : its parts. LESSON XIII. THE PLAN or THE FLOWER p. 88. 235. Flowers all constructed upon the same plan. 236. Plan in vegetation referred to. 237 - 239. Typical or pattern flowers illustrated, those at once perfect, complete, regular, and symmetrical. 241. Imperfect or separated flowers. 242. Incomplete flowers. 243. Symmetry and regularity. 244. Irregular flow- crs. 245. Un symmetrical flowers 246. Numerical plan of the flower. 247. Alternation of the successive parts. 248. Occasional obliteration of certain parts. 24f*- Abortive organs. 250. Multiplication of parts. LESSON XIV. MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER p 96. 251. Recapitulation of the varied forms under which stems and leaves appear. 252. These may be called metamorphoses. 253. Flowers are altered branches ; how shown. 254. Their position the same as that occupied by buds. 255, 256. Leaves of the blossom are really leaves. 257. Stamens a different modifi- cation of the same. 258. Pistils another modification ; the botanist's idea of a pistil. 259. The arrangement of the parts of a flower answers to that of the leaves on a branch. LESSON XV. MORPHOLOGY OF THE CALYX AND COROLLA. . . p. 99. 260. The leaves of the blossom viewed as to the various shapes they assume ; as, 261. by growing together. 262. Union or cohesion of parts of the same sort, rendering the flower, 263. Monopetalous or monosepalous ; various shapes de- fined and named. 265 The tube, and the border or limb. 266. The claw and the blade, or lamina of a separate petal, &c. 207. When the parts arc distinct, polysepalous, and polypetalous. 268. Consolidation, or the growing together of the parts of different sets. 269. Insertion, what it means, and what is meant by the terms Free and Ilyjiogynous. 270. IVrigynous insertion. 271, 272. Coherent or adherent calyx, &c. 273. Epigynous. 274. Irregularity of parts. 275. Papilionaceous flower, and its parts. 276. Labiate or bilabial* flowers. 277. 278. Ligulate flowers : the so-called compound flowers. ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. IX LESSON XVI. ^ESTIVATION, OR THE ARRANGEMENT or THE CALYX AND COROLLA IN THE BUD. . . . p 108. 279. Estivation or Prrefloration defined. 280. Its principal modes illustrated, viz. the valvate, induplicate, reduplicate, convolute or twisted, and imbricated. 282, 283. Also the open, and the plaited or plicate, and its modification, the supervolute. LESSON XVII. MORPHOLOGY OF THE STAMENS p. Ill 284. Stamens considered as to, 285 Their insertion. 286. Their union with each other. 287, 288. Their number. 289. Their parts. 290. The Filament, 291. The Anther. 292, 293. Its attachment to the filament. 294. Its structure. 295. Its mode of opening, £c. 296. Its morphology, or the way in which it is supposed to be constructed out of a leaf; its use, viz. to produce, 297. Pollen. 298. Structure of pollen-grains. 299. Some of their forms. LESSON XVIII. MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS p. 116. 300. Pistils as to position. 301. As to number. 302. Their parts ; Ovary, style, and stigma. 303, 304. Plan of a pistil, whether simple or compound. 305, 306. The simple pistil, or Carpel, and how it answers to a leaf. 307. Its sutures. 308. The Placenta. 309. The Simple Pistil, one-celled, 310. and with one style. 311,312. The Compound Pistil, how composed. 313. With two or more cells : 314. their placentae in the axis : 315. their dissepiments or parti- tions. 316, 317. One-celled compound pistils. 318. With a free central pla- centa. 319, 320. With parietal placentae. 321. Ovary superior or inferior. 322. Open or Gymnospermous pistil : Naked-seeded plants. 323. Ovules. 324. Their structure. 325, 326. Their kinds illustrated. LESSON XIX. MORPHOLOGY OF THE RECEPTACLE p. 124 327. The Receptacle or Torus. 328-330. Some of its forms illustrated. 331. The Disk. 332. Curious form of the receptacle in Nclumbium. LESSON XX. THE FRUIT p. 126. 333. What the Fruit consists of. 334. Fruits which are not such in a strict botanical sense. 335. Simple Fruits. 336, 337. The Pericarp, and the changes it may undergo. 338 Kinds of simple fruits. 339. Fleshy fruits. 340. The Berry. 341. The Pepo or Ground-fruit. 342. The Pome or Apple-fruit. 343 345. The Drupe <>r Stone-fruit. 346. Dry fruits. 347. The Achenium : nature of the Strawberry. 348. Raspberry and Blackberry. 349. Fruit in the Com- posite Family : Pappus. 350. The Utricle. 351. The Caryopsis or Grain. 352. The Nut : Cupule. 353. The Samara or Key-fruit. 354. The Capsule or Pod. 355. The Follicle. 356. The Legume and Loment. 357. The true Capsule. 358, 359. Dehiscence, its kinds. 361. The Silique. 362. The Silicle. 363. T*>* Pyxis. 364. Multiple or Collective Fruits. 365. The Strobile or Cone. X ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. LESSON XXI. THE SEED . p. 134. 366. The Seed; its origin. 367. Its parts. 360,369. Its coats. 370. The Aril or Arillus. 371. Names applied to the parts of the seed. 372. The Ker- nel or Nucleus. 373. The Albumen. 374, 375. The Embryo. 376. The Radicle. 377. The Cotyledons or Seed-leaves : the monocotyledonous, dicoty- ledonous, and polycotyledonous embryo. 378. The Plumule. 379. The circle of vegetable life completed. LESSON XXII. How PLANTS GROW p. 138 380, 381. Growth, what it is. 382. For the first formation or beginning of a- plant dates farther back than to, 383. the embryo in the ripe seed, which is already a plantlet. 384. The formation and the growth of the embryo itself. 385. Action of the pollen on the stigma, and the result. 386. The Embryonal Vesicle, or first cell of the embryo. 387. Its growth and development into the embryo. 388. Growth of the plantlet from the seed. 389. The plant built up of a vast number of cells. 390. Growth consists of the increase in size of cells, and their multiplication in number. LESSON XXIII. VEGETABLE FABRIC: CELLULAR TISSUE. . . p. 142. 391, 392. Organic Structure illustrated : Cells the units or elements of plants. 393. Cellular Tissue. 394,395,397. How the cells are put together. 396. Inter- cellular spaces, air-passages. 398 Size of cells. 399. Rapidity of their produc- tion. 400. Their walls colorless ; the colors owing to their contents. 401. The walls sometimes thickened. 402 Cells arc closed and whole ; yet sap flows from one cell to another. 403. Their varied shapes. LESSON XXIV. VEGETABLE FABRIC : WOOD p. 145. 404. All plants at the beginning formed of cellular tissue only ; and some never have anything else in their composition. 405. Wood soon appears in most plants. 406. Its nature. 408. Wood-cells or Woody Fibre. 409. Hard wood and soft wood. 410. Wood-cells closed and whole ; yet they convey sap. 411 They communicate through thin places : Pine-wood, £c. 412. Bast-cells or fibres of the bark. 413. Ducts or Vessels. 414. The principal kinds. 415. Milk-vessels, Oil-receptacles, £c. LESSON XXV. ANATOMY OF THE ROOT, STEM, AND LEAVES, p. 149. 416. The materials of the vegetable fabric, how put together 417-419. Structure and action of the rootlets. 420. Root-hairs. 421. Structure of the* stem. 422. The two sorts of stem. 423. The Endogenous. 423. The Exo- genous : 425. more particularly explained. 420. Parts of the wood or stem itself. 427. Parts of the bark. 428. Growth of the exogenous stem year after year. 429. Growth of the bark, and what becomes of the older parts. 431. Change* in the wood ; Sap-wood. 432. Heart-wood. 433. This no longer lir- ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. xl ing. 434. What the living parts of a tree are ; their annual renewal. 435. Cambium-layer or zone of growth in the stem ; connected with, 436. new root- lets below, and new shoots, buds, and leaves above. 437 Structure of a leaf: its two parts, the woody and the cellular, or, 438. the pulp ; this contains the green matter, or Chlorophyll. 439, 440. Arrangement of the cells of green pulp in the leaf, and structure of its epidermis or skin. 441. Upper side only endures the sunshine. 442. Evaporation or exhalation of moisture from the leaves. 443- Stomates or Breathing-pores, their structure and use. 444. Their numbers. LESSON XXVI. THE PLANT IN ACTION, DOING THE WORK OF VEGETATION p. 157. 446. The office of plants to produce food for animals. 447. Plants feed upon earth and air. 449. Their chemical composition. 450. Two sorts of material. 451, 452. The earthy or inorganic constituents. 453. The organic constituents. 454. These form the Cellulose, or substance of vegetable tissue ; composition of cellulose. 455 The plant's food, from which this is made. 456. Water, furnishing hydrogen and oxygen. 458. Carbonic acid, furnishing, 457. Carbon. 459. The air, containing oxygen and nitrogen ; and also, 460. Carbonic acid; 461. which is absorbed by the leaves, 462. and by the roots. 463. Water and carbonic acid the general food of plants. 464. Assimilation the proper work of plants. 465. Takes place in green parts alone, under the light of the sun. 466-468. Liberates oxygen gas and produces Cellulose or plant-fabric. 469. Or else Starch ; its nature and use. 470. Or Sugar ; its na- ture, £c. The transformations starch, sugar, &c. undergo. 471. Oils, acids, &c. The formation of all these products restores oxygen gas to the air. 472. There- fore plants purify the air for animals. 473. While at the same time they pro- duce all the food and fabric of animals. The latter take all their food ready made from plants. 474. And decompose starch, sugar, oil, &c., giving back their ma- terials to the air again as the food of the plant ; at the same time producing ani- mal heat. 475. But the fabric or flesh of animals (fibrine, gelatine, &c.) contains nitrogen. 476 This is derived from plants in the form of Proteine. Its nature and how the plant forms it. 477. Karthy matters in the plant form the earthy part of bones, &c. 478. Dependence of animals upon plants ; showing the great object for which plants were created. LESSON XXVII. PLANT-LIFE p. i66. 479. Life; manifested by its effects ; viz its power of transforming matter: 480. And by motion. 481, 482. Plants execute movements as well as animals. 483. Circulation in cells. 484. Free movements of the simplest plants in their forming state. 485. Absorption and conveyance of the sap. 486. Its rise into the leaves. 487. Explained by a mechanical law; Endosmose. 488 Set in ac- tion by evaporation from the leaves. 489. These movements controlled by the plant, which directs growth and shapes the fabric by an inherent power. 490 - 492. Special movements of a conspicuous sort; such as seen in the bending twining, revolving, and coiling of stems and tendrils ; in the so-called sleeping and waking states of plants ; in movements from irritation, and striking spon- taneous motions. Xll ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. 493. Cryptogamous or Flowerlcss Plants. 494. What they comprise , why so culled. 495. To be studied in other works. LESSON XXVIII. SPECIES AND KINDS p. 173. 496. Plants viewed as to their relationships. 497. Two characteristics of plants and animals : they form themselves, and, 498 They exist as Individu- als. The chain of individuals -i\< s rise to the idea of, 499, 500. Species : as- semblages of individuals, so like that they are inferred to have a common an- cestry. 501. Varieties and Races. 502. Tendency of the progeny to inherit all the peculiarities of the parent; how taken advantage of in developing and fixing races. 503. Diversity and gradation of species ; these so connected as to show all to be formed on one plan, all works of one hand, or realizations of the conceptions of one mind. 504. Kinds, what they depend upon. 505. Genera. 506. Orders or Families. 507. Suborders and Tribes. 508 Classes. 509. The two great Series or grades of plants. 510. The way the various divisions in classification are ranked LESSON XXIX. BOTANICAL NAMES AND CHARACTERS. ... p. 178. 511, 512. Classification ; the two purposes it subserves. 513. Names : plan of nomenclature. 514, 515. Generic names, how formed. 516. Specific names, how formed. 517. Names of Varieties. 518, 519. Names of Orders, Sub- orders, Tribes, £c. 520, 521. Characters. LESSONS XXX. -XXXII. How TO STUDY PLANTS, pp. 181, 187, 191. 522 -567. Illustrated by several examples, showing the mode of analyzing and ascertaining the name of an unknown plant, and its place in the system, &c. LESSON XXXIII. BOTANICAL SYSTEMS p. 195 568-571. Natural System. 572, 573. Artificial Classification. 574. Arti- ficial System of Linnaeus. 575. Its twenty-four Classes, enumerated and de- fined. 576. Derivation of their names. 577, 578. Its Orders. LESSON XXXIV. How TO COLLECT SPECIMENS AND MAKE AN HERBARIUM P 199. 579-582. Directions for collecting specimens. 583,584. For drying and preserving specimens. 585, 586 For forming an Herbarium. GLOSSARY, OR DICTIONARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS p. 203 FIRST LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, LESSON 1. BOTANY AS A BRANCH OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1. THE subjects of Natural History are, the earth itself and the beings that live upon it. 2. The Inorganic World, or Mineral Kingdom, The earth itself, with the air that surrounds it, and all things naturally belonging to them which are destitute of life, make up the mineral kingdom, or in- organic world. These are called inorganic, or unorganized, because they are not composed of organs, that is, of parts which answer to one another, and make up a whole, such as is a horse, a bird, or a plant. They were formed, but they did not grow, nor proceed from previous bodies like themselves, nor have they the power of pro- ducing other similar bodies, that is, of reproducing their kind. On the other hand, the various living things, or *hose which have pos- sessed life, compose 3. The Organic World, — the world of organized beings. Thes* consist of organs ; of parts which go to make up an individual, a being. And each individual owes its existence to a preceding one like itself, that is, to a parent. It was not merely formed, but produced. At first small and imperfect, it grows and develops by powers of its own ; it attains maturity, becomes old, and finally dies. It was formed of inorganic or mineral matter, that is, of earth and air, indeed ; but only of this matter under the influence of life : and after life departs, sooner or later, it is decomposed into earth and air again. 1 2 BOTANY, WHAT IT RELATES TO. fl.KSSON 1. 4. The organic world consists of two kinds of beings ; namely, I. Plants or Vegetables, which make up what is called the Vegetable Kingdom ; and, 2. Animals, which compose the Animal Kingdom. 5. The Differences between Plants and Animals seem at first sight so obvious and so great, that it would appear mere natural to inquire how they resemble rather than how they differ from each other. What likeness does the cow bear to the grass it feeds upon ? The one moves freely from place to place, in obedience to its own will as its wants or convenience require : the other is fixed to the spot of earth where it grew, manifests no will, and makes no movements that are apparent to ordinary observation. The one takes its food into an internal cavity (the stomach), from which it is absorbed into the system : the other absorbs its food directly by its surface, by its roots, leaves, &c. Both possess organs; but the limbs oi% members of the animal do not at all resemble the roots, leaves, blossoms, &c. of the plant. All these distinctions, however, gradu- ally disappear, as we come to the lower kinds of plants and the lower animals. Many animals (such as barnacles, coral-animals, and polyps) are fixed to some support as completely as the plant is to the soil ; while many plants are not fixed, and some move from place to place by powers of their own. All animals move some of their parts freely ; yet in the extent and rapidity of the motion many of them are surpassed by the common Sensitive Plant, by the Venus's Fly-trap, and by some other vegetables ; while whole tribes of aquatic plants are so freely and briskly locomotive, that they have until lately been taken for animals. It is among these microscopic tribes that the animal and vegetable kingdoms most nearly approach each other, — so nearly, that it is still uncertain where to draw the line between them. 6. Since the difficulty of distinguishing between animals and plants occurs only, or mainly, in those forms which from their minuteness are beyond ordinary observation, we need not further concern ourselves with the question here. One, and probably the most absolute, difference, however, ought to be mentioned at the outset, because it enables us to see what plants are made for. It is this : — 7. Vegetables are nourished by the mineral kingdom, that is, by the ground and the air, which supply all they need, and which they are adapted to live upon ; while animals are entirely nourished by vegetables. The great use of plants therefore is, to take portions of LESSON 1.] BOTAXY, WHAT IT RELATES TO. 3 earth and air, upon which animals cannot subsist at all, and to con- vert these into something upon which animals can subsist, that is, into food. All food is produced by plants. How this is done, it is the province of Vegetable Physiology to explain. 8. Botany is the name of the science of the vegetable kingdom in general. 9. Physiology is the study of the way a living being lives, and ^rows, and performs its various operations. The study of plants in tins view is the province of Vegetable Physiology. The study of the form and structure of the organs or parts of the vegetable, by which its operations are performed, is the province of Structural Botany. The two together constitute Physiological Botany. With this de- partment the study of Botany should begin ; both because it lies at the foundation of all the rest, and because it gives that kind of knowledge of plants which it is desirable every one should possess ; that is, some knowledge of the way in which plants live, grow, and fulfil the purposes of their existence. To this subject, accordingly, a large portion of the following Lessons is devoted. 10. The study of plants as to their kinds is the province of Sys- tematic Botany. An enumeration of the kinds of vegetables, as far as known, classified according to their various degrees of resemblance or difference, constitutes a general System of plants. A similar ac- count of the vegetables of any particular country or district is called a Flora of that country or district. 11. Other departments of Botany come to view when — instead of regarding plants as to what they are in themselves, or as to their relationship with each other — we consider them in their relations to other things. Their relation to the earth> for instance, as respects their distribution over its surface, gives rise to Geographical Botany, or Botanical Geography. The study of the vegetation of former times, in their fossil remains entombed in the crust of the earth, gives rise to Fossil Botany. The study of plants in respect to their uses to man is the province of Agricultural Botany, Medical Botanyt and the like. 4 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 2, LESSON II. THE GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 12. The Course Of Vegetation, We see plants growing from th« seed in spring-time, and gradually developing their parts : at length they blossom, bear fruit, and produce seeds like those from which they grew. Shall we commence the study of the plant with the full-grown herb or tree, adorned with flowers or laden with fruit ? Or shall we commence with the seedling just rising from the ground ? On the whole, we may get a clearer idea of the whole life and structure of plants if we begin at the beginning, that is, with the plantlet springing from the seed, and follow it throughout its course of growth. This also agrees best with the season in which the study of Botany is generally commence^, namely, in the spring of the year, when the growth of plants from the seed can hardly fail to attract attention. Indeed, it is this springing forth of vegeta- tion from seeds and buds, after the rigors of our long winter, — clothing the earth's surface almost at once with a mantle of freshest verdure, — which gives to spring its greatest charm. Even the dullest beholder, the least observant of Nature at other seasons, can then hardly fail to ask : What are plants ? How do they live and grow ? What do they live upon ? What is the object and use of vegetation in general, and of its particular and wonderfully various forms ? These questions it is the object of the present Lessons to answer, as far as possible, in a simple way. 13. A reflecting as well as observing person, noticing the re- semblances between one plant and another, might go on to inquire whether plants, with all their manifold diversities of form and appearance, are not all constructed on one and the same general plan. It will become apparent, as we proceed, that this is the case; — that one common plan may be discerned, which each par- ticular plant, whether herb, shrub, or tree, has followed much more closely than would at first view be supposed. The differences, wide as they are, are merely incidental. What is true in a general way of any ordinary vegetable, will be found to be true of all, only with £ivat variation in the details. In the same language, though in varied phrase, the hundred thousand kinds of plants repeat the same LESSON 2.] GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. story, — are the living witnesses and illustrations of one and the, same plan of Creative Wisdom in the vegetable world. So that the study of any one plant, traced from the seed it springs from round to the seeds it produces, would illustrate the whole subject of vege- table life and growth. It maters little, therefore, what particular plant we begin with. 14. The Germinating Plantlet, Take for example a seedling Maple, Sugar Maples may be found in abundance in many places, starting from the seed (i. e. germinating) in early spring, and Red Maples at the beginning of summer, shortly after the fruits of the season have ripened and fallen to the ground. A pair of narrow green leaves raised on a tiny stem make up the whole plant at its first appearance (Fig. 4). Soon a root appears at the lower end of this stemlet ; then a little bud at its upper end, between the pair of leaves, which soon grows into a second joint or stem bearing another pair of leaves, resembling ihe ordinary leaves of 'the Red Maple, which the first did not. Figures 5 and 6 represent these steps in the growth. 15. Was this plantlet formed in the seed at the time of germination, something as the chick is formed in the egg during the process of incu- bation ? Or did it exist before in the seed, ready formed ? To decide this question, we have only to inspect a sound seed, which in this instance requires no microscope, nor any other instrument than a sharp knife, by which the coats of the seed (previously soaked in water, if dry) may be laid open. We find within the seed, in this case, the little plantlet ready formed, and nothing else (Fig. 2) ; — namely, a pair of leaves like those of the earliest seedling (Fig. 4), only smaller, borne on a stemlet just like that of the seedling, only much shorter, and all snugly coiled up within the protecting seed-coat. The plant then exists beforehand in the seed, in miniature. It was not formed, but only devel- FIG. 1. A winged fruit of Red Maple, with the seed-bearing portion cut open, to show the seed. 2. This seed cut open to show the embryo plantlet within, enlarged. 3. The embrya ttken out whole, and partly unfolded. 4. The same after it has begun to grow ; of the natural size, 1 * GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [^LESSON 2 oped, in germination ; when it had merely to unfold and grow, — to elongate its rudimentary stem, which takes at the same time an upright position, so as to bring the leaf-bearing end into the light and air, where the two leaves expand ; while from the opposite end, now pushed farther downwards into the soil, the root begins to grow. All this is true in the main of all plants that spring from real seeds, although with great diversity in the particulars. At least, there is hardly an excep- tion to the fact, that the plantlet exists ready formed in the seed, in some shape or other. 16. The rudimentary plant let contained in the seed is called an Embryo. Its little stem is named the Radicle, because it was supposed to be the root, when the difference between the root and stem was not so well known as now. It were better to name it the Caulicle (i. e. little stem) ; but it is not expedient to change old names. The seed-leaves it bears on its sum- mit (here two in number) are technically called Cotyledons. The little bud of undeveloped leaves which is to be found between the co- tyledons before germination in many cases (as in the Pea, Bean, Fig. 17, &c.), has been named the Plumuk. 17. In the Maple (Fig. 4), as also in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 28), and the like, this bud, or plumule, is not seen for some day* after the seed-leaves are expanded. But soon it appears, in the Maple as a pair of minute leaves (Fig. 5), erelong raised on a stalk which carries them up to some distance above the cotyledons. The plantlet (Fig. 6) now consists, above ground, of two pairs of leaves, viz. : 1. the cotyledons or seed-leaves, borne on the summit of the original stemlet (the radicle) ; and '2. a pair of ordinary leaves, raised on a second joint of stem which has grown from the top of the first. Later, a third pair of leaves is formed, and raisrd on a third joint of stem, proceeding from the summit of the second (Fig. 7), just as that did from the first; and so on, until the germi- nating plantlet becomes a tree. FIG. .-,. Oriiiinatinn Rod Maple, which has produced its root beneath, and i« developin| » second pair of leaves above. 6. Same, further advanced. LESSON 2.] GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 18. So the youngest seedling, and even the embryo in the seed, is already an epitome of the herb or tree. It has a stem, from the lower end of which it strikes root : and it has leaves. The tree itself in its whole vegetation has nothing more in kind. To become a tree, the plantlet has only to repeat itself upwardly by producing more similar parts, — that is, new por- tions of stem, with new and larger leaves, in succession, — while beneath, it pushes its root deeper and deeper into the soil. 19. The Opposite Growth of Root and Stem began at the beginning of germi- nation, and it continues through the whole life of the plant. While yet buried in the soil, and perhaps in total darkness, as soon as it begins to grow, the stem end of the embryo points towards the light, — curving or turning quite round if it happens to lie in some other direction, — and stretches upwards into the free air and sunshine ; while the root end as uniformly avoids the light, bends in the opposite direction to do so if necessary, and ever seeks to bury itself more and more in the earth's bosom. How the plantlet makes these movements we cannot explain. But the object of this instinct is obvious. It places the plant from the first in the proper position, with its roots in the moist soil, from which they are to absorb nourishment, and its leaves in the light and air, where alone they can fulfil their office of (digesting what the roots absorb. 20. So the seedling plantlet finds itself provided with all the organs of vegetation that even the oldest plant possesses, — namely, root, stem, ani leaves ; and has these placed in the situation where each is to act, — the root in the soil, the foliage in the light and air. Thus established, the plantlet has only to set about its proper work. 21. The different Mode of Growti. of Root and Stem may also be here mentioned. Each grows, not only in a different direction, but in a different way. The stem grows by producing a set of joints, each from FIG. 7. Germinating Red Maple, further developed. 8 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 2. the summit of its predecessor ; and each joint elongates throughout every part, until it reaches its full length. The root is not composed of joints, and it lengthens only at the end. The stem in the embryo (viz. the radicle) has a certain length to begin with. In the pump- kin-seed, for instance (Fig. 9), it is less than an eighth of an inch long : but it grows in a few days to the length of one or two inches (Fig. 10), or still more, if the seed were deeper covered by the soil It is by this elongation that the seed-leaves are raised out of the soil, so as to expand in the light and air. The length they acquire varies with the depth of the covering. When large and strong seeds are too deeply buried, the stemlet sometimes grows to the length of several inches in the endeavor to bring the seed-leaves to the sur- face. The lengthening of the succeeding joints of the stem serves to separate the leaves, or pairs of leaves, from one another, and to ex- pose them more fully to the light. 22. The root, on the other hand, begins by a new formation at the base of the embryo stem ; and it continues to increase in length solely by additions to the extremity, the parts once formed scarcely elongating at all afterwards. This mode of growth is well adapted to the circumstances in which roots are placed, leaving every part undisturbed in the soil where it was formed, while the ever-advan- cing points readily insinuate themselves into the crevices or looser portions of the soil, or pass around the surface of solid obstacles. LESSON 3. GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. LESSON III. GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. — 23. So a plant consists of two parts, growing in a different mannei as well as in opposite directions. One part, the root, grows down , wards into the soil : it may, therefore, be called the descending axis, The other grows upwards into the light and air: it may he called the ascending axis. The root grows on continuously from the ex- tremity, and so does not consist of joints, nor does it bear leaves, or anything of the kind. The stem grows by a succession of joints, each bearing one or more leaves on its summit. Root on the one hand, and stem with its foliage on the other, make up the whole plantlet as it springs from the seed ; and the full-grown herb, shrub, or tree has nothing more in kind, — only more in size and number. Before we trace the plantlet into the herb or tree, some other cases of the growth of the plantlet from the seed should be studied, that we may observe how the same plan is worked out under a variety of forms, with certain differences in the details. The mate- rials for this study are always at hand. We have only to notice what takes place all around us in spring, or to plant some common seeds in pots, keep them warm and moist, and watch their germination. 24. The Germinating Plantlel feeds on Nourishment provided beforehand, The embryo so snugly ensconced in the seed of the Maple (Fig. 2S 3, 4) has from the first a miniature stem, and a pair of leaves already green, or which become green as soon as brought to the light. It has only to form a root by which to fix itself to the ground, when it becomes a perfect though diminutive vegetable, capable of providing f>r itself. This root can be formed only out of proper material: neither water nor anything else which the plantlet is imbibing from the earth will answer the purpose. The proper material is nourish- ing matter, or prepared food, more or less of which is always pro- vided by the parent plant, and stored up in the seed, either in the embryo itself, or around it. In the Maple, this nourishment is stored up in the thickish cotyledons, or seed-leaves. And there is barely enough of it to make the beginning of a root, and to provide for the lengthening of the stemlct so as to bring up the unfolding seed-leaves where they may expand to the light of day. But when this is done, S & F— 2 to GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 3. the tiny plant is already able to shift for itself; — that is, to live and continue its growth on what it now takes from the soil and from the air. and elaborates into nourishment in its two green leaves, under the influence of the light of the sun. 25. In most ordinary plants, a larger portion of nourishment is provided beforehand in the seed ; and the plantlet consequently is not so early or so entirely left to its own resources. Let us exam in :i number of cases, selected from very common plants. Sometimes as has just been stated, we find this 26. Deposit Of Food in the Embryo itself, And we may observe it in every gradation as to quantity, from the Maple of our first illus- tration, where there is very little, up to the Pea and the Horsechestnut, where there is as much as there possibly can be. If we strip off the coats from the large and flat seed of a Squash or Pumpkin, we find nothing but the em- bryo within (Fig. 9) ; and almost the whole bulk of this consists of the two seed-leaves. That these contain a good supply of nourishing matter, is evident from their sweet taste and from their thickness, although there is not enough to obscure their leaf-like appearance. It is by feeding on this supply of nour ishment that the germinating Squash or Pumpkin (Fig. 10) grows so rapidly and so vigorously from the seed, — lengthening its stemlet to more than twenty times the length it had in the seed, and thickening it in proportion, — sending out at once a number of roots from its lower end, and soon developing th»* plumule (16) from its upper end into a third leaf: meanwhile the two cotyledons, relieved from the nourishment with which their tissue was gorged, have expanded into useful green leaves. 27. For a stronger instance, take next the seed of a Plum or 1'earh, or an Almond, or an Apple-seed (Fig. 11, 12), which shows FIO. 9. Kmltryo of a Pumpkin, of tlio natural size i the cotyledons a little opened JO Tin- same, when it lia« germinated LESSON 3.] GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 11 the same thing on a smaller scale. The embryo, which here also makes up the whole bulk of the kernel of the seed, differs from that of the Pumpkin only in having the seed-leaves more thickened, by the much larger quantity of nourishment stored up in their tissue, — so large and so pure in deed, that the almond becomes an article of food. Fed by this abundant supply, the second and even the third joints of the stem, with their leaves, shoot forth as soon as the stemlet comes to the surface of the soil. The Beech-nut (Fig. 13), with its sweet and eatable kernel, consisting mainly of a pair of seed-leaves folded together, and gorged with nourishing matter, offers another instance of the same sort : this ample store to feed upon enables the germinating plantlet to grow with remarkable vigor, and to develop a second joint of stem, with its pair of leaves (Fig. 14), before the first pair has expanded or the root has ob- tained much foothold in the soil. 28. A Bean affords a similar and more familiar illustration. Here the co- tyledons in the seed (Fig. 1C) are so thick, that, although they are raised out of ground in the ordinary way in ger- mination (Fig. 17), and turn greenish, yet they never succeed in becoming leaf- like, — never display their real nature of leaves, as they do so plainly in the Ma- ple (Fig. 5), the Pumpkin (Fig. 10), the Morning-Glory (Fig. 8, 2G - 28), &c. Turned to great account as magazines of food for the germinating plantlet, they fulfil this special office admirably, but FIG. 11. An Apple-seed cut through lengthwise, showing the embryo with its thickened cotyledons. 12. The embryo of the Apple, taken out whole, its cotyledons partly separated FIG. 13. A Beech-nut, cut across. 14. Beginning germination of the Beech, showing the plumule growing before the cotyledons have opened or the root lias scarcely formed. 15. The •ame, a little later, with the second joint lengthened. 12 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. ^LESSON 3. they were so gorged and, as it were, misshapen, that they became quite unfitted to perform the office of foliage. This office is accordingly first performed by the succeeding pair of leaves, those of the plumule (Fig. 17, 18), which is put into rapid growth by the abundant nourishment contained ir the large and thick seed-leaves. Tho latter, having fulfilled this office, soon wither and fall away. 29. This is carried a step farther in the Pea (Fig. 19, 20), a near relative of the Bean, and in the Oak (Fig. 21, 22), a near relative of the Beech. The differ- ence in these and many other similar cases is this. The cotyledons, which make up nearly the whole bulk of the seed are exces- sively thickened, so as to become nearly hemispherical in shape. They have lost all likeness to leaves, and all power of ever fulfilling the office of leaves. Ac- cordingly in germination they remain ft ichanged within the husk or coats of flie seed, never growing themselves, but supplying abundant nourishment to the plumule (the bud for the forming stem) between them. This pushes forth from the seed, shoots upward, and gives rise Fid. in. A Bean: the embryo, from whirl) seed-coats have been removed: the small Btoin is si-en above, bent down ti|H>n the ed^e of the thick cotyledons. 17. The same in early germination ; the plumule growing from between the two seed-leaves. 18. The germination more advanced, the two leaves of the plumule unfolded, and raised on a short joint of stern. FIG. 19. A Pea: the embryo, with the seed-coats taken olT. 20. A Pea in germination. LESSON 3.] GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. to the first leaves that appear. In most cases of the sort, the radicle, or short original stemlet of the embryo be- low the cotyledons (which is plainly shown in the Pea, Fig. 19), lengthens very little, or not at all ; and so the cotyledons remain under ground, if the seed was covered by the soil, as every one knows to be the case with Peas. In these (Fig. 20), as also in the Oak (Fig. 22), the leaves of the first one or two joints are imperfect, and mere small scales ; but genuine leaves immedi- ately follow. The Horsechestnut and Buck- eye (Fig. 23, 24) furnish another instance of the same sort. These trees are nearly related to the Maple ; but while the seed- leaves of the Maple show themselves to be leaves, even in the seed (as we have already seen), and when they germinate fulfil the office of ordinary leaves, those of the Buckeye and of the Horsechestnut (Fig. 23), would never be suspected to be the same organs. Yet they are so, only in another shape, — exceedingly thickened by the accumulation of a great quantity of starch and other nourishing matter in their substance ; and besides, their contigu- ous faces stick together more or less firmly, so that they never open. But the stalks of these seed-loaves grow, and, as they lengthen, push the radicle and the pumulo out of the seed, when the former develops downwardly the root, the latter upwardly the leafy stem and all it bears (Fig. 24). 30. Dppasit of Food outside of the Embryo, Very often the nourish- ment provided for the seedling plantlct is laid up, not in the embryo itself, but around it. A good instance to begin with is furnished by the common Morning-Glory, or Convolvulus. The embryo, taken out of the seed and straightened, is shown in Fig. 26. It consists of a short stemlet and of a pair of very thin and delicate green leaves, having no stock of nourishment in them for sustaining the FIG. 21. An acorn divided lengthwise. 22. The germinating Oak. 22 14 GROWTH OK THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 3- earliest growth. On cutting open the seed, however, we find this embryo (considerably crumpled or folded together, so as to occupy less space, Fig. 25) to be surround- ed by a mass of rich, mucilaginous matter (becoming rather hard and solid when dry), which forms the principal bulk of the seed. Upon this stock the embryo feeds in ger- mination ; the seed-leaves absorbing it into their tissue as it is rendered soluble (through certain chemical changes) and dissolved by the wa- ter which the germinating seed im- bibes from the moist soil. Having by this aid 25 ss lengthened its radicle into a stem of consider- able length, and formed the beginning of a root at its lower end, already imbedded in the soil (Fig. 27), the cotyledons now disengage themselves from the seed-coats, and ex- pand in the light as the first pair of leaves (Fig. 28). These immediately begin to elaborate, under the sun's influence, what the root imbibes from the soil, and the new nourishment so produced is used, partly to increase the size of the little stem, root, and leaves already existing, and partly to produce a second joint of stem with its leaf (Fig. 29), then a third with its leaf (Fig. 8) ; arid so on. 31. This maternal store of food, deposited in the seed along with the embryo (but not in its substance), the old botanists likened to FIG. 23. Buckeye : a seed divided. 24. A similar seed in nomination. FIG. 2f». Sood and emhryo of Morning-Glory, cut across, t?-. Kmhryo of the same, de- tached and straightened. 27. Germinating Morning-Glory. 28. The same further advanced; us two thm seed-leaves expanded. LESSON 3.J GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEfcD- 15 the albumen, or white of the egg, which encloses the yolk, and therefore gave it the same name, — the albumen of the seed, — a name which it still retains. Food of this sort for the plant is also food for animals, or for man ; and it is this albumen, the floury part of the seed, which forms the principal bulk of such important grains as those of Indian Corn (Fig, 38 - 40), Wheat, Rice, Buck- wheat, and of the seed of Four-o'clock, (Fig. 36, 37), and the like. In all these last-named cases, it may be ob- served that the embryo is not enclosed in the albumen, but placed on one side of it, yet in close contact with it, so that the embryo may absorb readily from it the nourishment it requires when it begins to grow. Sometimes the embryo is coiled around the outside, in the form of a ring, as in the Purslane and the Four-o'clock (Fig. 36, 37) ; sometimes it is coiled within the albumen, as in the Potato (Fig. 34, 35) ; some- times it is straight in the centre of the albumen, occupying nearly its so 32 34 36 whole length, as in the Barberry (Fig. 32, 33), or much smaller and near one end, as in the Iris (Fig. 43) ; or some- times so minute, in the midst of the al- bumen, that it needs a magnifying-glass tc find it, as in the But FIG. 29. Germination of the Morning Glory more advanced : the upper part only , showing the leafy cotyledons, the second joint of stem with its leaf, and the third with its leaf just developing. FIG. 30. Section of a seed of a Peony, showing a very small smbryo in the albumen, netir one end. 31. This embryo detached, and more magnified. FIG. 32. Section of a seed of Barberry, showing the straight embryo in the middle of the albumen. 33. Its embryo detached. FIG. 34. Section o. a Potato-seed, showing the embryo coiled in the albumen. 35. It» embryo detached. FIG. 36. Section of the seed of Four-o'clock, showing the embryo coiled round the Biitside of the albumen. 37 Its embryo detachad 16 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 3 tercup or the Columbine, and in the Peony (Fig. 30, 31), where, however, it is large enough to be distinguished by the naked eye. Nothing is more curious than the various shapes and positions ol the embryo in the seed, nor more interesting than to watch its de- velopment in germination. One point is still to be noticed, since the botanist considers it of much importance, namely : — 32. The Rinds of Embryo as to the Number of Cotyledons. In all the figures, it is easy to see that the embryo, however various in shape is constructed on one and the same plan ; — it consists of a radicle or stemlet, with a pair of cotyledons on its summit. Botanists there- fore call it dicotyledonous, — an inconveniently long word to express the fact that the embryo has two cotyledons or seed-leaves. In many cases (as in the Buttercup), the cotyledons are indeed ?o minute, that they are discerned only by the nick in the upper end of the little embryo; yet in germination they grow into a pair of seed-leaves, just as in other cases where they are plain to be seen, as leaves, in the seed. But in Indian Corn (Fig. 40), in Wheat, the Onion, the Iris (Fig. 43), &c., it is well known that only one leaf appears at first from the sprouting seed : in these the emb?%yo has only one cotyle- don, and it is therefore termed by the botanists monocotyJedo- nous ; — an extremely long word, like the other, of Greek derivation, which means one-cotyle- doned. The rudiments of one or more other leaves are, indeed, commonly present in this sort of embryo, as is plain to see in Indian Corn (Fig. 38-40), but they form a bud situated above or within the cotyledon, and enclosed by it more or less completely ; so thaw they evidently belong to the plumule (1C) ; and these leaves appear 31 the seedling plantlet, each from within its predecessor, and then-- Jbre originating higher up on the forming stem (Fig. 42, 44). This will readily be understood from the accompanying figures, with their explanation, which the student may without difficulty verify for him- FKJ. 38. A grain .•! Indian Corn, flatwise, cut away a little, so as to show the embryo, lying on the albumen, which makes the principal hulk of the Feed. FIG. 3!). Another grain of Corn, cut thnmijli the middle in the opposite direction, divid- ing the embryo through its thick cotyledon and its plumule the latter consisting of two l«;ivrs, »i7ir enclosing the other. FIG. 40. The embryo of Corn, taken out whole : the thick mass is the cotyledon ; the narrow ln.dy partly enclosed hy it is the plumule ; the little projection at its base is the very thorf "Mlicle enclosed in the shi-athiiiK base ol the lir.»t leaf of the plunml*. LESSON 3.j GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. self, and should do ?o, by examining grains of Indian Corn, soaked in water, before and also during germination. In the Onion, Lily, and the Iris (Fig. 43), the rnonocotyledonous embryo is simpler, consisting apparently of a simple oblong or cylindrical body, in which no distinction of parts is visible : the lower end is radicle, and from it grows the root ; the rest is a cotyledon, which has wrapped up in it a minute plumule, ©r bud, that shows itself when the seeds sprout in germi- nation. The first leaf which appears above ground in all these cases is not the cotyledon. In all seeds with one coty- ledon to the embryo, this remains in the seed, or at least its upper part, while its lengthening base comes out, so as to extricate the plumule, which shoots upward, and de- velops the first leaves of the plantlet. These appear one above or within the other in succes- sion,— as is shown in Fig. 42 and Fig. 44, — the first commonly in the form of a little scale or imperfect leaf; the second or third and the 4I following ones as the real, ordinary leave.- jf the plant. Meanwhile, from the root end of the embryo, a root (Fig. 4), 44), or soon a whole cluster of roots (Fig. 42) , makes its appearance, p 33. In Pines, and the like, the embryo con- sists of a radicle or stemlet, bearing on its summit three or four, or often from five to ten slender cotyledons, arranged in a circle (Fig. 45), and expanding at once into a circle of as many green leaves in germination (Fig. 46). Such embryos are said to be polycotyledonous, that is, as the word denotes, many- cotyledoned. 34. Plan of Vegetation, The student who has understandingly followed the growth of the embryo in the seed into the seedling plantlet, — u>ci' posed of a root, and a stem of two or three joints, each bearinj \ FIG. 41. Grain of Indian Corn in germination. PIO. 42. The same, further advanced 2* 18 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. f LESSON 3- leaf, or a pair (rarely a circle) of leaves, — will have gained a cor- rect idea of the plan of vegetation in general, and have laid a good foundation for a knowledge of the whole structure and physiology 43 of plants. For the plant goes on to grow in the same way throughout, by mere repetitions of what the early germinating plantlet displays to view, — of what was contained, in miniature or in rudiment, in the seed itseli So far as vegetation is concerned (leaving out of vie\f for the present the flower and fruit), the full-grown leafy herb or tree, of whatever size, has nothing, and does nothing, which the seedling plantlet does not have and do. The whole mass of stem or trunk and foliage of the complete plant, even of the largest forest-tree, is composed of a succession or multiplication of similar parts, — one arising from the summit of another, — each, so to say, the offspring of the preceding and the parent of the next. 35. In the same way that the earliest portions of the seedling stem, with the leaves they bear, are successively produced, so, joint by joint in direct succes- sion, a single, simple, leafy stem is developed and carried up. Of such a simple leafy stem many a plant consists (before flowering, at least), — many herbs, such as Sugar-Cane, Indian Corn, the Lily, the tall Banana, the Yucca, &c. ; and among trees the Palms and the Cycas (wrongly called vi £0 Palm) exhibit the same simplicity, their 3tems, of whatever age, being unbranched columns (Fig. 47). (Growth in diameter is of course to be considered, as well as growth in length. That, and the question how growth of any kind takes place, we will consider hereafter.) But more commonly, as soon as the plant has produced a main stem of a cer- tain length, and displayed a certain amount of foliage, it begins to FIG. 43. Portion of a seed of the Iris, or Flower-de-Luce, showing its small embryo In the albumen, near the bottom. l"l<;. 14. Genninatiiif; plantlet of the Iris. FIG. 45. Section of a seed of a Pine, with its embryo of several cotyledons. 4»i. Early «eedling Pine, with ita stemlet, displaying its six seed-leavea. LESSON 3.] GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 19 produce additional stems, that is, branches. The branching plant we will consider in the next Lesson. 36. The subjoined figures (Fig. 47) give a view of some forms of simple-stemmed vegetation. The figure in the foreground on the left represents a Cycas (wrongly called in the conservatories Sago Palm). Behind it is a Yucca (called Spanish Bayonet at the South) and two Cocoanut Palm-trees. On the right is some India. Corn, and behind it a Banana, 20 GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. ^LESSON 4. LESSON IV. THE GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS AND BRANCHES. 37. WE have seen how the plant grows so as to produce a root, and a simple stem with its foliage. Both the root and stem, how- ever, generally branch. 38. The branches of the root arise without any particular order. There is no telling beforehand from what part of a main root they will spring. But the branches of the stem, except in some extra- ordinary cases, regularly arise from a particular place. Branches or shoots in their undeveloped state are 39. Buds, These regularly appear in the axih of the leaves, — that is, in the angle formed by the leaf with the stem on the upper side ; and •& leaves are symmetrically arranged on the stem, tho buds, and the branches into which the buds grow, necessarily par- take of this symmetry. 40. We do not confine the name of bud to the scaly winter-buds which are so conspicuous on most of our shrubs and trees in winter and spring. It belongs as well to the forming branch of any herb, at ^ts first appearance in the axil of a leaf. In growing, luids lengthen into branches, just as the original stem did from the plumule of the embryo (16) when the seed germinated. Only, while the original stem is implanted in the ground by its root, the branch is implanted on the stem. Branches, therefore, are repetitions of the main stem. They consist of the same parts, — namely, joints of stem and leaves. — growing in the same way And in the axils of their leaves another crop of buds is naturally produced, giving rise to another generation of branches, which may in turn produce still another generation ; and so on, — until the tiny and simple seedling develops into a tall and spreading herb or shrub ; or into a niasnve tree, with its hundreds of annually increasing branches, and its thousands, perhaps millions, of leaver 41. The herb and the tree grow in the same way. The difference is only in size and duration. An Herb dies altogether, or dies down to the ground, after it has ripened ita fruit, or at the approach of winter. LESSON 4-7 GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. .An annual herb flowers in the first year, and die?, root and all, after ripening its seed : Mustard, Peppergrass, Buckwheat, &c., are examples. A biennial herb — such as the Turnip, Carrot, Beet, and Cabbage — grows the first season without blossoming, survives the winter, flowers after that, and dies, root and all, when it has ripened its seed. A perennial herb lives and blossoms year after year, but dies icwn to the ground, or near it, annually, — not, however, quite down to the root : for a portion of the stem, with its buds, still survives ; and from these buds the shoots of the following year arise. A Shrub is a perennial plant, with woody stems which continue alive and grow year after year. A Tree differs from a shrub only in its greater size. 42. The Terminal Blld, There are herbs, shrubs, and trees which do not branch, as we have already seen (So) ; but whose stems, even when they livo for many years, rise as a simple shaft (Fig. 47). These plants grow by the continued evolution of a bud which crowns the summit of the stem, and which is therefore called the terminal bud. This bud is very conspicuous in many branching plants also ; as on all the stems or shoots of Maples (Fig. 53), Horsechestnuts (Fig. 48), or Hickories (Fig. 49), of a year old. When they grow, they merely prolong the shoot or stem on which they rest. On these same shoots, however, other buds are to be seen, regularly arranged down their sides. We find them situated just over broad, flattened places, which are the scars left by the fall of the leaf-stalk the autumn previous. Before the fall of the leaf, they would have been seen to occupy their axils (39) : so v.hey are named 43 Axillary Buds, They were formed in these trees ^cirly in the summer. Occasionally they grow at the time into branches : at least, some of them are pretty sure to do so, in case the growing terminal bud at the end of the shoot is injured or destroyed. Otherwise they lie dormant until the spring. In many trees or shrubs (such for example as the Sumach and Honey-Locust) these axillary buds do not show themselves until spring ; but if FIG. 48. Shoot oi Horsechestnut, of one year's growth) taken in autumn after the leave* bavo fallen. 22 GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. [LESSON 4. searched for, they may be detected, though of small size, hidden under the bark. Sometimes, although early formed, they are con- cealed all summer long under the base of the leaf- stalk, hollowed out into a sort of inverted cup, like a candle-extinguisher, to cover them ; as in the Locust, the Yellow-wood, or more strikingly in the Button- wood or Plane-tree (Fig. 50). 44. Such large and conspicuous buds as those of the Horsechestnut, Hickory, and the like, are seedy ; the scales being a kind of imperfect leaves. The use of the bud-scales is obvious ; namely, to protect the tender young parts beneath. To do this more effectually, they are often coated on the outside with a varnish which is impervious to wet, while within they, or the parts they enclose, are thickly clothed with down or wool ; not really to keep out the cold of winter, which will of course penetrate the bud in time, but to shield the interior against sudden changes « from warm to cold, or from cold to warm, which are equally injurious. Scaly buds commonly belong, as would be expect- ed, to trees and shrubs of northern climates ; while naked buds are usual in tropical regions, as well as in herbs everywhere which branch during the summer's growth and do not endure the winter. 45. But naked buds, or nearly naked, also occur in several of oin own tn-<-s and shrubs; sonn-tinics pretty large ours, as those of Hob FIT.. 49. Annual shoot of tho Sha»l>ark Hickory. FU;. .•><). Bud and leaf of the llnttoiiwcoil. or AiiK-riran Plane-tree. LESSON 4.] GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. 23 blebush (while those of the nearly-related Snowball or High Bush- Cranberry are scaly) ; but more commonly, when naked buds occur in trees and shrubs of our climate, they are small, and sunk in the bark, as in the Sumac ; or even partly buried in the wood until they begin to grow, as in the Honey-Locust. 46. Vigor Of Vegetation from Buds, Large and strong buds, like those of the Horsechestnut, Hickory, and the like, on inspection will be K>und to contain several leaves, or pairs of leaves, ready formed, folded and packed away in small compass, just as the seed-leaves are packed away in the seed : they even contain all the blossoms of the ensuing season, plainly visible as small buds. And the stems upon which these buds rest are filled with abundant nourishment, which was deposited the summer before in the wood or in the bark. Under the surface of the soil, or on it, covered with the fallen leaves of autumn, we may find similar strong buds of our perennial herbs, in great variety ; while beneath are thick roots, rootstocks, or tubers, charged with a great store of nourishment for their use. As we regard these, we shall readily perceive how it is that vegetation shoots forth so vigorously in the spring of the year, and clothes the bare and lately frozen surface of the soil, as well as the naked boughs of trees, almost at once with a covering of the freshest green, and often with brilliant blossoms. Everything was prepared, and even formed, beforehand : the short joints of stem in the bud have only to lengthen, and to separate the leaves from each other so that they may unfold and grow. Only a small part of the vege- tation of the season comes directly from the seed, and none of the earliest vernal vegetation. This is all from buds which have lived through the winter. 47. This growth from buds, in manifold variety, is as interesting a subject of study as the growth of the plantlet from the. seed, and is still easier to observe. We have only room here to sketch the general plan ; earnestly recommending the student to examine at- tentively their mode of growth in all the common trees and shrubs, when they shoot forth in spring. The growth of the terminal bud prolongs the stem or branch: the growth of axillary 1/uds pro- duces branches. 48. The Arrangement of Branches is accordingly the wime as of axillary buds ; and the arrangement of these buds is the same as that of the leaves. Now leaves are arranged in two principal ways : they are either opposite or alternate. Leaves are opposite when 24 GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. [LESSON 4. there are two borne on the same joint of stem, as in the Horse- chestuut, Maple (Fig. 7), Honeysuckle (Fig. 132), Lilac, &c. ; the two leaves in such cases being always opposite each other, that is, on exactly opposite sides of the stem. Here of course the buds in their axils are opposite, as we observe in Fig. 48, where the leaves have fallen, but their place is shown by the scars. And the branches into which the buds grow are likewise opposite each other in pairs. 4i). Leaves are alternate when there is only one from each joint of stem, as in the Oak (Fig. 22), Lime-tree, Poplar, Buttonwood (Fig. 50), Morning-Glory (Fig. 8), — not counting the seed-leaves, which of course are opposite, there being a pair of them ; also in Indian Corn (Fig. 42), and Iris (Fig. 44). Consequently the axillary buds are also alternate, as in Hickory (Fig. 40) ; and the branches they form alternate, — making a different kind of spray from the other mode, — one branch shooting on the one side of the stem and the next on some other. For in the alternate arrangement no leaf is on the same side of the stem as the one next above or next below it. 50. Branches, therefore, are arranged with symmetry ; and the mode of branching of the whole tree may be foretold by a glance at the arrangement of the leaves on the seedling or stem of the first year. This arrangement of the branches according to that of the leaves is always plainly to be recognized ; but the symmetry of branches is rarely complete. This is owing to several causes ; mainly to one, viz. : — 51. It never happens that all the buds grow. If they did, there would be as many branches in any year as there were leaves the year before. And of those which do begin to grow, a large portion perish, sooner or later, for want of nourishment or for want of light. Those which first begin to grow have an advantage, which they are apt to keep, taking to themselves the nourishment of the stem, and starving the weaker buds. 52. In the Ilorsechestnut (Fig. 48), Hickory (Fig. 49), Mag- nolia, and most other trees with large scaly buds, the terminal bud is the strongest, and has the advantage in growth, and next in strength are the upper axillary buds: while the former continues the shoot of the last year, some of the latter give rise to branches, while the rest fail to grow. In the Lilac also, the upper axillary buds are stronger than the lower ; but the terminal bud rarely LESSON 4.J GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. 25 appears at all ; in its place the uppermost pair of axillary buds grow, and so each stem branches every year into two ; making a re' peatedly two-forked ramification. 53. In these and many similar trees and shrubs, most of the shoots make a definite annual growth. That is, each shoot of the season develops rapidly from a strong bud in spring, — a bud which gen- erally contains, already formed in miniature, all or a great part of the leaves and joints of stem it is to produce, — makes its whole growth in length in the course of a few weeks, or sometimes even in a ftr.v days, and then forms and ripens its buds for the next year's similar rapid growth. 54. On the other hand, the Locust, Honey-Locust, Sumac, and, among smaller plants, the Rose and Raspberry, make an indefinite annual growth. That is, their stems grow on all summer long, until stopped by the frosts of autumn or some other cause ; con- sequently they form and ripen no terminal bud protected by scales, and the upper axillary buds are produced so late in the season that they have no time to mature, nor has the wood time to solidify and ripen. Such stems therefore commonly die at the top in winter, or at least all their upper buds are small and feeble; and the growth of the succeeding year takes place mainly from the lower axillary buds, which are more mature. Most of our perennial herbs grow in this way, their stems dying down to the ground every year: the part beneath, however, is charged with vigorous buds, well pro- tected by the kindly covering of earth, ready for the next year's vegetation. 5-3. In these last-mentioned cases there is, of course, no single main stem, continued year after year in a direct line, but the trunk is soon lost in the branches ; and when they grow into trees, these commonly have rounded or spreading tops. Of such trees with deliquescent stems, — that is, with the trunk dissolved, as it were, into tin- successively divided branches, the common American Kim (Fig. 54) furnishes a good illustration. 50. On the other hand, the main stem of Pines and Spruces, as it begins in the seedling, unless destroyed by some injury, is carried on in a direct line throughout the whole growth of the tree, by the development year after year of a terminal bud : this forms a single, uninterrupted shaft, — an excurrent trunk, which can never be con- founded with the branches that proceed from it. Of such spiry or spire-shaped trees, the Firs or Spruces are the most perfect and 3 26 GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. J_LESSON 4. familiar illustrations (Fig. 54) ; but some other trees with strong terminal buds exhibit the same character for a certain time, and in a less marked degree. 57. Latent Buds, Some of the axillary buds grow the following year into branches ; but a larger number do not (51). These do not necessarily die. Often they survive in a latent state for some years, visible on the surface of the branch, or are smaller and concealed jnder the bark, resting on the surface of the wood : and when at any time the other buds or branches happen to be killed, these older latent buds grow to supply their place; — as is often seen when the foliage and young shoots of a tree are destroyed by insects. The new shoots seen springing directly out of large stems may sometimes originate from such latent buds, which have preserved their life for years. But commonly these arise from 58. Adventitious Buds, These are buds which certain shrubs and trees produce anywhere on the surface of the wood, especially where it has been injured. They give rise to the slender twigs which often feather so beautifully the sides of great branches or trunks of our American Elms. They sometimes form on the root, which naturally is destitute of buds ; and they are sure to appear on the trunks and roots of Willows, Poplars, and Chestnuts, when these are wounded or mutilated. Indeed Osier-Willows are pollarded, or cut off, from time to time, by the cultivator, for the purpose of producing a crop of slender adventitious twigs, suitable for basket-work. Such branches, being altogether irregular, of course interfere with the natural sym- metry of the tree (50). Another cause of irregularity, in certain trees and shrubs, is the formation of what are called 59. Accessory ur Supernumerary Buds, There are cases where two, three, or more buds spring from the axil of a leaf, instead of the single one which is ordinarily found there. Sometimes they are placed one over the other, as in the Aristolochia or Pipe-Vine, and in the Tartarian Honeysuckle (Fig. 51); also in the Honey-Locust, and in the Walnut and Butternut (Fig. 52), where tho upp«T supernumerary bud is a good way out of the axil and above the other:-. And this is here stronger FIG. 51. Tartarian Honeysuckle, with three accessory buds in one axil. LESSON 4.] GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM BUDS. 27 than the others, and grows into a branch which is considerably out or tho axil, while the lower and smaller ones commonly do not grow at all. In other cases the three buds stand side by sidfi in the axil, as in the Hawthorn, and the Red Mapl« (Fig. 53). If these were all to grow into branches, they would stifle or jostle each other. But some of them are commonly flower-buds : in the Red Maple, only the middle one is a leaf-bud, and it does not grow until after those on each side of it have ex- panded the blossoms they contain. 60. Sorts Of Buds, It may be useful to enumerate the kinds of buds which have now been mentioned, referring back to the paragraphs in which the pe- culiarities of each are explained. Buds, then, are either terminal or lateral. They are Terminal when they rest on the apex of a stem (42). The earliest terminal bud is the plumule of the embryo (16). Lateral, when they appear on the side of a stem : — of which the only regular kind is the Axillary (43), namely, those which are situated in the axils of leaves. Accessory or Supernumerary (59), when two or more occur in addition to the ordinary axillary bud. 53 Adventitious (58), when they occur out of the axils and without order, on stems or roots, or even on leaves. Any of these kind*. may be, either Naked, when without coverings ; or scaly, when protected by scales (44, 45), Latent, when they survive long without growing, and commonly without being visible externally (57). Leaf-buds, when they contain leaves, and develop into a leafy shoot. Flower-buds, when they contain blossoms, and no leaves, as the FIG, 52. Butternut branch, with accessory buds, the uppermost above the axil. FIG. 53. Red-Maple branch, with accessory buds placed side ny side. 28 MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. [LESSON 5. side-buds of the Bed-Maple, or when they are undeveloped blossoms. These we shall have to consider hereafter. Figure ii-1 represents a spreading-topped tree (American Elm), the stem dividing off info branches ; and some spiry trees (Spruces on the right hand, and two of the Arbor- Vuuj on the left) with ex- current LESSON V, MORPHOLOGY (i.e. VARIOUS SORTS AND FORMS) OF ROOTS. 61. Morphology, as the name (derived from two Greek word?) denotes, is the doctrine of forms. In treating of forms in plants, the botanist is not confined to an enumeration or description of the shapes or sorts that occur, — which would be a dull and tedious business. — but he endeavors to bring to view the. rc/afioiis bcftrccn one form and another ; and this is an inn-resting study. G2. Botanists irive particular names to all the parts of plants, and also particular terms to express their principal varieties in form. They use th'-se terms with great precision and advantage in describ- ing the species or kinds of plants. Thev must therefore he defined and explained in our books. Hut it would be a gieat \va-te of time LESSON 5.] MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. 29 for the young student to learn them by rote. The student should rather consider the connection between one form and another; and notice how the one simple plan of the plant, as it has already been Illustrated, is worked out in the greatest variety of ways, through the manifold diversity of forms which each of its three organs of vege- tation — root, stem, and leaf-— is made to assume. 63. This we are now ready to do. That is, having obtained i g neral idea of vegetation, by tracing the plant from the seed anc the bud into the herb, shrub, or tree, we proceed to contemplate tin principal forms under which these three organs occur in dilferenl plants, or in different parts of the same plant ; or, in other words, tc study the morphology of the root, stem, and leaves. 64. Of these three organs, the root is the simplest and the leas? varied in its modifications. Still it exhibits some widely differeir* kinds. Going back to the beginning, we commence with 65. The Simple Primary Root, which most plants send down frorr> the root-end of the embryo as it grows from the seed ; as we havr seen in the Maple (Fig 5-7), Morning-Glory (Fig. 8 and 28) Beech (Fig. 14. 15), Oak and Buckeye (Fig. 22-24), &c. This, if it goes on to grow, makes a main or tap root, from which side- branches here and there proceed. Some plants keep this mair root throughout their whole life, and send off only small side braf :>. Beetling Maple* of the natural size, showing the root-hairs. 56. A bit of the and ..| the root magnified. LESSON 5.] MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS. a tree exposes to the air, as compared with the surface of its twigs. 69. The absorbing surface of roots is very much greater than it appears to be, on account of the root-hairs, or slender fibrils, which abound on the fresh and new parts of roots. These may be seen with an ordinary magnifying-glass, or even by the naked eye in many cases ; 'as in the root of a seedling Maple (Fig. 55), where the surface is thickly clothed with them. They are not root- lets of a smaller sort ; but, when more magnified, are seen to be mere elongations of the surface of the root into slender tubes, which through their very delicate walls imbibe moisture from the soil with great avidity. They are com- monly much longer than those shown in Fig. 5G, which represents only the very tip of a root moderately magnified. Small as they are indi- vidually, yet the whole amount of absorbing surface added to the rootlets by the countless numbers of these tiny tubes is very great. 70. Roots intend- ed mainly for ab- sorbing branch free- ly, and are slender or thread-like. When the root is prin- cipally of this character it is said to be fibrous; as in Indian Corn (Fig. 42), and other grain, and to some extent iu all annual plants (41). 71. The Root as a Storehouse of Food In biennial and many perennial herbs (41), the root answers an additional purpose. In the course of the season it becomes a storehouse of nourishment, and enlarges or thickens as it receives the accumulation. Such roots are said to be fleshy ; and different names are applied to them according t plant dies, except the seeds (if it formed them) and the tubers; and the latter are left disconnected in the ground. Just as that sman portion of nourishing matter which is deposited in the seed (3, and Fig. 34) feeds the embryo when it germinates, so the much larger portion deposited in the tuber nourishes its buds, or eyes, when they likewise grow, the next spring, into new plants. And the great supply enables them to shoot with a greater vigor at the beginning. and to produce a greater amount of vegetation than the seedling plant could do in the same space of time ; which vegetation in turn may prepare and store up, in the course of a few weeks or months, the largest quantity of solid nourishing material, in a form most available for food. Taking advantage of this, man has transported the Potato from the cool Andes of South America to other cool cli- mates, and makes it yield him a copious supply of food, especially in countries where the season is too short, or the summer's heat too little, for profitably cultivating the principal grain-plants. 105. All the sorts of subterranean steins or branches distinguished by botanists pass into one another by gradations. AVe have seen how nearly related the tuber is to the rootstock, and there are many cases in which it is difficult to say which is the proper name to use. So likewise, 106. TV Corm, OF Solid Bulb, like that of the Indian Turnip and ihe Crocus (Fig. 71), is just a very short and thick rootstock; as will be seen by comparing Fig. 71 with Fig. (57. Indeed, it grows 80 very little in length, that it is often much broader tlian long, as w the Indian Turnip, and the Cyclamen of our greenhouses. Corms LESSON 6.] SUBTERRANEAN FORMS : BULBS. are usually upright, producing buds on their upper surface and roots from the lower. But (as \ve see in the Crocus here figured) buds may shoot from just above any of the faint cross lines or rings, which are the scars left by the death and decay of the sheathing bases of former leaves. That is, these are axillary buds. In these extraordinary (ju.-t as in ordinary) sterns, $13 buds are either axillary or terminal. The whole mode of growth is just the same, only the corm does not increase in length faster than it does in thickness. After a few years some of the buds grow into new corms at the expense of the old one ; the young ones taking the nourishment from the parent, and storing up a large part of it in their own tissue. When exhausted in this way, as well as by flowering, the old corm dies, and its shrivelled — n and decaying remains may be found at the side of or beneath the present generation, as we see in the Crocus (Fig. 71). 107. The conn of a Crocus is commonly covered with a thin and dry, scaly or fibrous husk, consisting of the dead remains of the bases of former leaves. When this husk consists of many scales, there is scarcely any distinction left between the corm and 108. The Ball), This is an extremely short subterranean stemr usually much broader than high, producing roots from underneath, and covered with leaves or the bases of leaves, in the form of thick- ened scales. It is, therefore, the same as a corm, or solid bulb, only it bears an abundance of leaves or scales, which make up the greater part of its bulk. Or we may regard it as a bud, with thick and fleshy scales. Compare a Lily-bulb (Fig. 73) with the strong scaly I ids of the Hickory and Horsechestnut (Fig. 48 and 40), and the /•semblance will be apparent enough. 109. Bulbs serve the same purpose as tubers, rootstocks, or corms. The main difference is, that in these the store of food for future growth is deposited in the stem ; while in the bulb, the greater part is deposited in the bases of the leaves, changing them into thick scales, which closely overlap or enclose one another, because the etem does not elongate enough to separate them. That the scales FIG. 71. Conn or solid bulb of a ('FOCUS. 72. The same, cut through lengthwise. MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. [LESSON 6. of the bulb are the bases of leaves may be seen at once by follow- ing any of the ground-leaves (root-leaves as they are incorrectly called) down to their origin in the bulb. Fig. 75 represents one of them from the White Lily ; the thickened base, which makes a scale, being cut off below, to show its thickness. After 73 74 having lasted its time and served its purpose as foliage, the green leaf dies, down to the thickened base, which remains as a scale of the bulb. And year after year, as the bulb grows from the centre, to produce the vege- tation and the flowers of the season, the outer scales yield up their store of nourishment for the purpose, and perish. 110. Each scale, being a leaf, may have a bud in its axil. Some of these buds grow into leafy and flowering stems above ground : others grow into new bulbs, feeding on the parent, and at length destroying it, in the same way that corms do, as just described (10G). 111. When the scales are broad and enwrap all that is within so as to form a succession of coats, one over another, the bulb is said to be tunicated or coated. \\ The Tulip, Hyacinth, Leek, and Onion afford such familiar examples of coated bulbs that no figure is needed. When the scales are narrow and separate, as in the Lily (Fig. 73), the bulb is said to be scaly. 112. BlllbletS are small bulbs formed above ground ':>n some plants ; as in the axils of the leaves of the common bulbiferous Lily of the gardens, and often in the flower-clusters of the Leek and Onion. They are plainly nothing but bulbs with thickened scales. They never grow into branches, but detach themselves when 75 full grown, and fall to the ground, to take root there and form new plants. 113. From the few illustrations already given, attentive students FIG. 73. Hulb of the Meadow or Canada Lily. 74. The same, rut throuch lengthwise. FIG. 75. A lower leaf of White Lily, with its base under ground thickened into a tmlb i la. LESSON 6.] CONSOLIDATED FORMS OF VEGETATION. 47 can hardly fail to obtain a good idea of what is meant by morphology in Botany ; and they will be able to apply its simple principles for themselves to all forms of vegetation. They will find it very inter- esting to identify all these various subterranean forms with the com- mon plan of vegetation above ground. There is the same structure, and the same mode of growth in reality, however different in ap pearance, and however changed the form, to suit particular condition.^ or to accomplish particular ends. It is plain to see, already, that the plant is constructed according to a plan, — a very simple one, — which is exhibited by all vegetables, by the extraordinary no less than by the ordinary kinds ; and that the same organ may appear under a great many different shapes, and fulfil very different offices. 114. These extraordinary shapes are not confined to subterra- nean vegetation. They are all repeated in various sorts of fleshy plants ; in the Houseleek, Aloe, Agave (Fig. 82), and in the many and strange shapes which the Cactus family exhibit (Fig. 76) ; shapes which imitate rootstocks, tubers, corms, &c. above ground. All these we may regard as 115. Consolidated Forms Cf Vegetation, While ordinary plants are constructed on the plan of great spread of surface (131), these are formed on the plan of the least possible amount of surface in proportion to their bulk. The Cereus genus of Cactuses, for ex- ample, consisting of solid columnar trunks (Fig. 76, b), may be likened to rootstocks. A green rind serves the purpose of foliage ; but the surface is as nothing compared with an ordinary leafy plant of the same bulk. Compare, for instance, the largest Cactus known, the Giant Cereus of tlie Gila River (Fig. 76, in the background), which rises to the height of fifty or sixty feet, with a common leafy tree of the same height, such as that in Fig. 54, and estimate how vastly greater, even without the foliage, the surface of the latte is than that of the former. Compare, in the same view, an Opunti or Prickly-Pear pactus, its stem and branches formed of a succes- sion of thick and flattened joints (Fig. 76, a), which may be likened to tubers, or an Epiphyllum (c?), with shorter and flatter joints, with an ordinary leafy shrub or herb of equal size. And finally, in Melon-Cactuses or Echinocactus (c), with their globular or bulb-like shapes, we have plants in the compactest shape ; their spherical fig. ure being such as to expose the least possible amount of its bulk to the air. 116. These consolidated plants are evidently adapted and designed 48 MORPHOLOGY OF STEMS AND BUANCHES. [LESSON 6. for very dry regions ; and in such only are they found. Similarly, bulbous and conn-bearing plants, and the like, are examples of a form of vegetation which in the growing season may expand a large surface to the air and light, while during the period of rest the living vegetable is reduced to a globe, or solid form of the least possible surface ; and this is protected by its outer coats of dead and dry scales, as well as by its situation under ground. Such jplants exhibit another and very similar adaptation to a season of drought. And they mainly belong to countries (such as Southern Africa, and parts of the interior of Oregon and California) which have a long hot season during which little or no rain falls, when, their stalks and foliage above and their loots beneath being early cut off by drought, the plants rest securely in their compact bulbs, filled with nourishment, and retaining their moisture with great tenacity, until the rainy season comes round. Then they shoot forth leaves and flowers with wonderful rapidity, and what was perhaps a desert of arid sand becomes green with foliage and gay with blossoms, almost in a day. This will be more perfectly understood when the nature and use of foliage have been more fully considered. (Fig 76. represents several forms of Cactus vegetation.) i.ESSON 7.] MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES. LESSON VII. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES. 117. IN describing the sabterranean forms of the stem, we have been led to notice already some of the remarkable forms under which leaves occur ; namely, as scales, sometimes small and thin, as those of the rootstocks of the Quick-grass, or the Mint (Fig. 64), sometimes large and thick, as those of bulbs (Fig. 73-75), where they are commonly larger than the stem they belong to. We have seen, too, in the second Lesson, the seed-leaves (or cotyledons) in forms as unlike foliage as possible ; and in the third Lesson we have spoken of bud-scales as a sort of leaves. So that the botanist recog- nizes the leaf under other forms than that of foliage. 118. We may call foliage the natural form of leaves, and look upon the other sorts as special forms, — as transformed leaves: by this term meaning only that what would have been ordinary leaves under other circumstances (as, for instance, those on shoots of Mint, Fig. 64, had these grown upright in the air, instead of creeping under ground) are developed in special forms to serve some particular purpose. For the Great Author of Nature, having designed plants upon one simple plan, just adapts this plan to all cases. So, when- ever any special purpose is to be accomplished, no new instruments or organs are created for it, but one of the three general organs of the vegetable, root, stem, or leaf, is made to serve the purpose, and is adapted to it by taking some peculiar form. 119. It is the study of the varied forms under this view that con- stitutes Morphology (61), and gives to this part of Botany such great interest. We have already seen stems and roots under a great variety of forms. But leaves appear under more various and widely different forms, and answer a greater variety of purposes, than do- both the other organs of the plant put together. We have to con- sider, then, leaves as foliage, and leaves as something else than foliage. As we have just been noticing cases of leaves that are not foliage, we may consider these first, and enumerate the principal kinds. 120. Leaves as Depositories Of Food, Of these we have had plenty of instances in the seed-leaves, such as those of the Almond, Apple- .5 50 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES. [LESSON 7. seed (Fig. 11), Beech (Fig. 13-15), the Bean and Pea (Fig. 16- 20), the Oak (Fig. 21, 22), and Horsechestnut (Fig. 23, 24) ; where the food upon whicli the plantlet feeds when it springs from the seed is stored up in its cotyledons or first leaves. And we have noticed how very unlike foliage such leaves are. Yet in some c-a^s, as in the Pumpkin (Fig. 10), they actually grow into green leaves a» they get rid of their burden. 121. Bulb-Scales (Fig. 73-75) of- fer another instance, which we were considering at the close of the last Lesson. Here a part of the nourish- ment prepared in the foliage of one year is stored up in the scales, or subterranean thickened leaves, for the early growth and flowering of the next year ; and this enables the flowers to appear before the leaves, or as soon as they do ; as in Hyacinths, Snow- drops, and many bulbous plants. 122. Leaves as Bud-scales, &c, True to its nature, the stem produces leaves even under ground, where they cannot serve as foliage, and where often, as on rootstocks and tubers (97 - 103), they are not of any use that we know of. In such cases they usually appear as thin scales. So the first leaves of the stems of herbs, as they sprout from the ground, are generally mere scales, such as those of an Asparagus shoot ; and such are the first leaves on the stem of the seedling Oak (Fig. 22) and the Pea (Fig. 20). Similar scales, however, often serve an im- portant purpose; as when they form the covering of buds, where they protect the tender parts within (44). That bud-scnU-s are Fir,. 77. Leaves of a developing bud of the Low Sweet Buckeye (jE.sciilii* parvifloraX showing a nearly complete set of gradations from a scale to a compound leaf of five leaflets. LESSON 7.] SPINES, TENDRILS, AND PITCHERS. 51 leaves is plainly shown, in many cases, by the gradual transition between them and the first foliage of the shoot. The Common Lilac and the Shell-bark Hickory are good instances of the sort. But the best illustration is fur- nished by the Low Sweet Buckeye of the Southern States, which is often cultivated as an ornamental shrub. From one and the same growing bud we may often find all the grada- tions which are shown in Fig. 77. 123. Leaves as Spines occur in several plants. The most familiar instance is that of the Com- mon Barberry. In almost any summer shoot, most of the gradations may be seen between the ordinary leaves, with sharp bristly teeth, and leaves which are reduced to a branching spine or thorn, as shown in Fig. 78. The fact that the spines of the Barberry produce a leaf-bud in their axil also proves them to be leaves. 124. Leaves as Tendrils are to be seen in the Pea and the Vetch (Fig. 20, 127), where the upper part of each leaf becomes a tendril, which the plant uses to climb by ; and in one kind of Vetch the whole leaf is such a tendril. 1 25. Leaves as Pitchers, or hollow tubes, are familiar to us in the common Pitcher- plant or Side-saddle Flower (Sarrac3nia, Fig. 79) of our bogs. These pitchers are generally half-full of water, in which flies and other insects are drowned, often in such numbers as to make a. rich manure for the plant, no doubt; though we can hardly imagine this to be the design of the pitcher. Nor do we per- ceive here any need of a contrivance to hold water, since the roots of these plants are always well supplied by the wet bogs where they grow. FIG. 78. Summer shoot of Barberry, showing the transition of leaves into spines. FIG. 79. Leaf of Sarracenia purpurea, entire, and another with the tipper part cut off. 52 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES. [LESSON 126. Leaves as Fly-traps, Insects are caught in another way, and more expertly, by the most extraordinary of all the plants of this country, the Dionuea or Venus's Fly- trap, which grows in the sandy bogs around Wilmington, North Carolina. Here (Fig. 81) each leaf bears at its summit an appendage which opens aiA shuts, in shape something like a steel trap, and operating much like one. For when open, as it commonly is when the sun shines, no sooner does a fly alight on its surface, and brush against any one of the several long bristles that grow there, than the trap suddenly closes, often capturing the intruder, pressing it all the harder for its struggles, and com- monly depriving it of life. If the fly escapes, the trap soon slowly opens, and b ready for another capture. When retained, the insect is after a time moistened by a secretion from minute glands of the inner sur- face, and is apparently digested ! How such and various other movements are made by plants, — some as quick as in this case, others very slow, but equally wonderful, — must be considered in a future Lesson. 127. Leaves serving both Ordinary and Special Purposes, Let us now remark, that the same leaf frequently answers its gen- eral purpose, as foliage, and some special purpose besides. For example, in the Dio- Baea, the lower part of the leaf, and prob- ably the whole of it, acts as foliage, while the appendage serves its mysterious purpose as a fly-catcher. In the Pea and Vetch (Fig. 20, 127), the lower part of the leaf is foliage, the upper a tendril. In the Pitcher-plants of the Indian Archipelago (Nepenthes, Fig. SO) which are not rare in conserva- tories, the lower part of the leaf is expanded and acts as foliage; FIG. 80. I .••;!( 'i'f Ncpriitlu's: l<-af, ti-mlriV ••«'"! ("itclior combined. FIG. 81. Leaves of Dionea ;. the trap in one of them open, in the others closed. LESSON T.J THICKKNKD AND FLESHY LEAVES. 63 farther on, it is contracted into a tendril, enabling the plant to climb ; the end of this tendril is then expanded into a pitcher, of five or six inches in length, and on the end of this is a lid, which exactly closes the mouth of the pitcher until after it is full grown, when the lid opens by a hinge ! But the whole is only one leaf. 128. So in the root-leaves of the Tulip or the Lily (Fig. 75), while the green leaf is preparing nourishment throughout the grow- ing season, its base under ground is thickened into a reservoir for storing up a good part of the nourishment for next year's use. 129. Finally, the whole leaf often serves both as foliage, to pre- pare nourishment, and as a depository to store it up. This takes place in all fleshy-leaved plants, such as the Houseleek, the Ice- plant, and various sorts of Mesembryanthemum, in the Live-for-ever of the gardens to some extent, and very strikingly in the Aloe, and in the Century-plant. In the latter it is only the green surface of these large and thick leaves (of three to five feet in length on a strong plant, and often three to six inches thick near the base) which acts as foliage ; the whole interior is white, like the interior of a potato, and almost as heavily loaded with starch and other nourish- ing matter. (Fig. 82 represents a young Century-plant, Agave Americana.) 51 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS ^OLIAGE. [LESSON 8. LESSON VIII. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. 130. HAVING in the last Lesson glanced at some of the special or extraordinary forms and uses of leaves, we now return to leaves in their ordinary condition, namely, as foliage. We regard this as the natural state of leaves. For although they may be turned to account in other and very various ways, as we have just seen, still their proper office in vegetation is to serve as foliage. In this view we may regard 131. Leaves as a Contrivance for Increasing the Surface of that large part of the plant which is exposed to the light and the air. This is shown by their expanded form, and ordinarily slight thickness in comparison with their length and breath. While a Melon-Cactus (115, Fig. 76) is a striking example of a plant with the least pos- sible amount of surface for its bulk, a repeatedly branching leafy herb or tree presents the largest possible extent of surface to the air. The actual amount of surface presented by a tree in full leaf is much larger than one would be apt to suppose. Thus, the Wash- ington Elm at Cambridge — a tree of no extraordinary size — was some years ago estimated to produce a crop of seven millions of leaves, exposing a surface of 200,000 square feet, or about five acres, of foliage. 132. What is done by the foliage we shall have to explain in another place. Under the present head we are to consider ordinary leaves as to their parts and their shapes. 133. The Parts Of the Leaf, The principal part of a leaf is the blade, or expanded portion, one face of which naturally looks toward the sky, the other towards the earth. The blade is often raised on a stalk of its own, and on each side of the stalk at its base there is sometimes an appendage called a stipule. A complete leaf, there- fore consists of a blade (Fig. N,'», /»), a foot-stall' or Iraf-stalk. called the petiole (/?), and a pair of stipules (st). See also Fig. 1 .'!<'». 134. It is the blade which we are now to describe. Tlii>. a* being the essential and conspicuous part, we generally regard as the leaf: and it is only when we have to particularize, that we speak of the blade, or lamina, of the leaf. LESSON 8.] THEIR VENATION. 55 135. Without here entering upon the subject of the anatomy of the leaf, we may remark, that leaves consist of two sorts of mate- rial, viz.: 1. the green pulp, or parenchyma; and 2. the fibrous framework, or skeleton, which extends throughout the soft greer: pulp and supports it, giving the leaf a strength and firmness which it would not otherwise possess. Besides, the whole surface is cov ered with a transparent skin, called the epidermis, like that which covers the surface of the shoots, &c. 136. The framework consists of wood, — a fibrous and tough material which runs from the stern through the leaf-stalk, when there is one, in the form of parallel threads or bundles of frj fibres ; and in the blade these spread out in a horizontal direction, to form the ribs and veins of the leaf. The stout main branches of the framework (like those in Fig. 50) are called the ribs. When there is only one, as in Fig. 83, &c., or a middle one decid- edly larger than the rest, it is called the midrib. The smaller divisions are termed veins ; still smaller subdivisions, veinlets. 137. The latter subdivide again and again, until they become so fine that they are invisible to the naked eye. The fibres of which they are composed are hollow ; forming tubes by which the sap is brought into the leaves and carried to every part. The arrangement of the framework in the blade is termed the 138. Venation, or mode of veining. This corresponds so complete* ly with the general shape of the leaf, and with the kind of division when the blade is divided or lobed, that the readiest way to study and arrange the forms of leaves is first to consider their veining. 139. Various as it appears in different leaves, the veining is all reducible to two principal kinds ; namely, the parallel-veined and the netted-veined. 140. In netted-veined (also called reticulated) leaves, the veins branch off from the main rib or ribs, divide into finer and finer their 8& L«af of UM Quince: b, blade ; p, petiole ; .st, stipules. 56 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 8 veinlets, and the brandies unite with each other to form meshes of network. That is, they anastomose, as anatomists say of the veins and arteries of the body. The Quince-leaf, in Fig. 83, shows this kind of veining in a leaf with a single rib. The Maple, Basswood, and Buttonwood (Fig. 50) show it in leaves of several ribs. 141. In parallel-veined leaves, the whole framework consists of slender ribs or veins, which run parallel with each other, or nearly so, from the base to the point of the leaf, not dividing and sub dividing, nor forming meshes, except by very minute cross-veinlets, The leaf of any grass, or that of the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 84) will furnish a good illustration. 142. Such simple, parallel veins Linnaeus, to distinguish them called nerves, and parallel-veined leave* are still commonly called nerved leaves , while those of the other kind are said to be veined ; — terms which it is conven- ient to use, although these " nerves " and " veins " are all the same thing, and have no likeness to the nerves of animals. 143. Netted-veined leaves belong to plants which have a pair of seed-leaves or cotyledons, such as the Maple (Fig. 1 -7), Beech (Fig. 15), Pea and Bean (Fig. 18, 20), and most of the illustra- tions in the first and second Lessons. While parallel-veined or nerved letivee belong to plants with one cotyledon or 84 true seed-leaf; such as the Iris (Fig. 134) and Indian Corn (Fig. 42). So that a mere glance at the leaves of the tree or herb enables one to tell what the structure of the embryo is, and to refer the plant to one or the other of these two grand classes, — which is a great convenience. For generally when plants differ from each other in some one important respect, they differ correspondingly in other respects as well. 144. Parallel-veined leaves are of two sorts ; one kind, and the commonest, having the ribs or nerves all running from the base to the point of the leaf, as in the examples already given ; while in another kind they run from a midrib to the margin ; us in the com- FIG. 84. A (parallel-veined) leaf of the Lily of the Valley. LESSON 8.] THEIR FORMS AS TO GENERAL OUTLINE. 57 mon Pickerel-weed of our ponds, in the Banana (Fig. 47), and many similar plants of warm climates. 145. Netted- veined leaves are also of two sorts, as is shown in the examples already referred to. In one case the veins all rise from a single rib (the midrib), as in Fig. 83. Such leaves are called feather-veined or pinnately-veined ; both terms meaning the same thing, namely, that the veins are arranged on the sides of the rib like the plume of a feather on each side of the shaft. 146. In the other case (as in the Button wood, Fig. 50, Maple, &c.), the veins branch off from three, five, seven, or nine ribs, which spread from the top of the leaf-stalk, and run through the blade like the toes of a web-footed bird. Hence these are said to be palmately or digitately veined, or (since the ribs diverge like rays from a centre) radiate-veined. 147. Since the general outline of leaves accords with the frame- work or skeleton, it is plain that feather-veined leaves will incline to elongated shapes, or at least will be longer than broad ; while in radiate-veined leaves more rounded forms are to be expected. A glance at the following figures shows this. Whether we consider the veins of the leaf to be adapted to the shape of the blade, or the green pulp to be moulded to the framework, is not very material. Either way, the outline of each leaf corresponds with the mode of spreading, the extent, and the relative 1« ngth of the veins. Thus, in oblong or elliptical leaves of the feather-veined sort (Fig. 87, 88), the principal veins are nearly equal in length ; while in ovate and heart-shaped leaves (Fig. 89, 90), those below the middle are longest; and in leaves which widen upwards (Fig. 91-94), the veins above the middle are longer than the others. 148. Let us pass on, without particular reference to the kind of reining, to enumerate the principal 149. Forms of Leaves as to General Outline, It is necessary to give names to the principal shapes, and to define them rather precisely, since they afford the easiest marks for distinguishing species. The same terms are used for all other flattened parts as well, such as the petals of the flowers ; so that they make up a great part of the descriptive language of Botany. We do not mention the names of common plants which exhibit these various shapes. It will be a good exercise for young students to look them up and apply them. 150. Beginning with the narrower and proceeding to the broadest forms, a leaf is said to be S&F— 4 58 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 8. Linear (Fig. 85), when narrow, several times longer than wide, and of the same breadth throughout. Lanceolate, or lance-shaped, when several times longer than wide, and tapering upwards (Fig. 86), or both upwards and downwards. Oblong (Fig. 87), when nearly twice or thrice as long as broad. Elliptical (Fig. 88) is oblong with a flowing outline, the two ends alike in width. Oval is the same as broadly elliptical, or elliptical with the breadth considerably more than half the length. Ovate (Fig. 89), when the outline is like a section of a hen's-egg lengthwise, the broader end downward. Orbicular, or rotund (Fig. 102), circular in outline, or nearly so. 151. When the leaf tapers towards the base, instead of upwards, it may be OUanceolate (Fig. 91), which is lance-shaped, with the more tapering end downwards ; Spatulate (Fig. 92), round- ed above and long and narrow below, like a spatula ; Obovate (Fig. 93), or in- versely ovate, that is, ovate with the narrower end down ; or Cuneate, or cuneiform, that is, wedge-shaped (Fig. 94), broad above and tapering by straight lines to an acute angle at the base. 152. As to lllC Base, its shape characterizes several forms, such as Cordate, or heart-shaped (Fig. 90, 99, 8), when a leaf of an ovate form, or something like it, has the outline of its rounded base turned in (forming a notch or sinus) where the stalk is attached. Reniform, or kidney-shaped (Fig. 100), like the last, only rounder and broader than long. FIG. 85-90. Various forms of feather-veined leaves. Fit! 91. Oblanceolate,92. upatnlato, M. obovate, 94. wedge-shaped, feather- veined leaves LESSON 8.] THEIR PARTICULAR FORMS. 59 Auriculate, or eared, having a pair of small and blunt projections, or ears, at the base, as in one species of Magnolia (Fig. 96). Sagittate, or arrow-shaped, where such ears are pointed and turned downwards, while the main body of the blade tapers upwards to a point, as in the com- mon Sagittaria or Ar- row-head, and in the Arrow-leaved Poly go- num (Fig. 95). Hastate, or halberd- shaped, when such lobes at the base point outwards, giving the leaf the shape of the halberd of the olden time, as in another Polygonum (Fig. 97). Peltate, or shield-shaped, (Fig. 102,) Is the name applied to a curious modification of the leaf, commonly of a rounded form, where the footstalk is attached to the lower surface instead of the base, and 98 99 101 therefore is naturally likened to a shield borne by the outstretched arm. The common Watershield, the Nelumbium, and the White Water-lily, and also the Mandrake, exhibit this sort of leaf. On comparing the shield-shaped leaf of the common Marsh Pennywort (Fig. 102) with that of another common species (Fig. 101), we see at once what this peculiarity means. A shield-shaped leaf is like a FIG. 95. Sagittate, 9f>. auriculate, 97. h.ilberd-shaped, leaves. FIG. 98- 102. Various forma of radiate-veined leavea. 60 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVKS AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 8. kidney-shaped (Fig. 100) or other rounded leaf, with the margins at the base brought together and united. 153. As to the ApCX, the following terms express the principal variations. Acuminate, pointed, or taper-pointed, when the summit is more or less prolonged into a narrowed or tapering point, as in Fig. 97. Acute, when ending in an acute angle or not prolonged point, :,s in Fig. 104, 98, 95, &c. Obtuse, when with a blunt or rounded point, as in Fig. 105, 89, &c. Truncate, with the end as if cut off square, as in Fig. 106, 94. Retuse, with the rounded summit slightly indented, forming a very shallow notch, as in Fig. 107. Emarginate, or notched, indented at the end more decidedly, as in Fig. 108. Obcordate, that is, inversely heart-shaped, where an obovate leaf is more deeply notched at the end (Fig. 109), as in White Clover and Wood-sorrel ; so as to resemble a cordate leaf (Fig. 99) inverted. Cuspidate, tipped with a sharp and rigid point ; as in Fig. 110. Mucro7iate, abruptly tipped with a small and short point, like a projection of the midrib ; as in Fig. 111. Aristate, awn-pointed, and bristle-pointed, are terms used when this mucronate point is extended ii\to a longer bristle-form or other slender appendage. The first six of the^e terms can be applied to the lower as well as to the upper end of a leaf or other organ. The others belong to the apex only. Ill $r* FIG. 103 - 1 1 1. Forme of the apex of leaves. LESSON 9. j SIMPLE AND COMPOUND LEAVES. LESSON IX. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. SIMPLE AND COM- POUND LEAVES, STIPULES, ETC. 154. IN the foregoing Lesson leaves have been treated of in their simplest form, namely, as consisting of a single blade. But in many cases the leaf is divided into a number of separate blades. That is, 155. Leaves are either Simple or Compound, They are sdd to be simple, when the blade is all of one piece : they are compound, when the blade consists of two or more separate pieces, borne upon a common leaf-stalk. And between these two kinds every interme- diate gradation is to be met with. This will appear as we proceed to notice the principal 156. Forms of Leaves as to particular Outline or degree of division. In this respect, leaves are said to be Entire, when their general outline is completely filled out, so that the margin is an even line, without any teeth or notches ; as in Fig. 83, 84, 100, &c. Serrate, or saw-toothed, when the margin only is cut into sharp teeth, like those of a saw, and pointing forwards; as in Fig. 112; also 90, &c. 112 113 114 115 116 117 Dentate, or toothed, when such teeth point outwards, instead of forwards ; as in Fi«-. 113. FIG. 112- 117. Kinds of margin of leaves. 6 02 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. ["LESSON 9. Crenate, or scalloped, when the teeth are broad and rounded ; as in Fig. 114, 101. Repand, undulate, or wavy, when the margin of the leaf forms a wavy line, bending slightly inwards and outwards in succession ; as in Fig. 115. Sinuate, when the margin is more strongly sinuous, or turned inwards and outwards, as in Fig. 116. Incised, cut, or jagged, when the margin is cut into sharp, deep, and irregular teeth or incisions, as in Fig. 117. 157. When leaves are more deeply cut, and with a definite number of incisions, they are said, as a general term, to be lobed ; the parts being called lobes. Their number is expressed by the phrase two- lobed, three-lobed, five-lobed, many-lobed, &c., as the case may be. When the depth and character of the lobing needs to be more par- ticularly specified, — as is often the case, — the following terms are employed, viz. : Lobed, when the incisions do not extend deeper than about half- way between the margin and the centre of the blade, if so far, and are more or less rounded ; as in the leaves of the Post-Oak, Fig. 118, and the Hepatica, Fig. 122. Cleft, when the incisions extend half-way down or more, and especially when they are sharp, as in Fig. 119, 123. And ths phrases two-cleft, or, in the Latin form, bifid ; three-cleft, or trijid ; four-cleft, or quadrifid ; Jive-cleft, or quinquefid, &<;. ; or many-deft^ in the Latin form midtifid, — express the number of the segments, or portions. Parted, when the incisions are still deeper, but yet dc not quite reach to the midrib or the base of the blade ; as in Fig. 120, 124. And the terms two-parted, three-parted, &c. express the number of such divisions. Divided, when the incisions extend quite to the midrib, as in the lower part of Fig. 121 ; or to the leaf-stalk, as in Fig. 125; which makes the leaf compound. Here, using the Latin form, the leaf is said to be bisected, trisected (Fig. 125), &c., to express the number of the divisions. 158. In this way the degree of division is described. We may likewise express the mode of division. The notches or incisions, l)«-in.r jtlaccs where the green pulp of the blade lias not wholly filled up the framework, correspond with the veining ; as v^e pereeive on comparing the figures 118 to 121 with figures 122 to 125. The LESSON 9.] LOBED OR DIVIDED LEAVES. 65 upper row of figures consists of feather-veined, or, in Latin form, pinnateJy-veined leaves (145); the lower row, of radiate-veined or palmately-veined leaves (146). 159. In the upper row the incisions all point towards the midrib, from which the main veins arise, the incisions (or sinuses) being between the main veins. That is, being pinnately veined, such leaves are pinnately lobed (Fig. 118), pinnately cleft, or pinnatifid (Fig. 119), pinnately parted (Fig. 120), or pinnately divided (Fig. 121), according to the depth of the incisions, as just defined. 1GO. In the lower row of figures, as the main veins or ribs all proceed from the base of the blade or the summit of the leaf-stalk, so the incisions all point in that direction. That is, palmately- veined leaves are palmately lobed (Fig. 122), palmately cleft (Fig. 123), palmately parted (Fig. 124), or palmately divided (Fig. 125). Some- times, instead of palmately, we say digitately cleft, &c., which means just the same. • 161. To be still more particular, the number of the lobes, &c. may come into the phrase. Thus, Fig. 122 is a palmately three- lobed ; Fig. 123, a palmately three-cleft ; Fig. 124, & palmately three- parted ; Fig. 125, a palmately three-divided, or trisected, leaf. The F*G. 118- 121. Pinnately lobed, cleft, parted, and divided leaves. FIG. 122 - 125. Palmately or digitately lobed, cleft, parted, and divided leaves. 64 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. ["LESSON 9. Sugar-Maple and the Buttonwood (Fig. 50) have palmately five- lobed leaves; the Soft White-Maple palmately five-parted leaves; and BO on. And in the other sort, the Post-Oak has pinnately seven- to nine-lobed leaves ; the Red-Oak commonly has pinnately seven- to nine-cleft leaves, &c., &c. 162. The divisions, lobes, &c. may themselves be entire (without teeth or notches, 156), as in Fig. 118, 122, &c. ; or serrate (Fig. 324), or otherwise toothed or incised (Fig. 121 ); or else lobed, cleft, parted, &c. : in the latter cases making twice pinnatifid, twice pal- mately or pinnately lobed, parted, or divided leaves, &c. From these illustrations, the student will perceive the plan by which the bota- nist, in two or three words, may describe any one of the almost endlessly diversified shapes of leaves, so as to convey a perfectly clear and definite idea of it. 163. Compound Leaves. These, as already stated (155), do not differ in any absolute way from the divided form of simple leaves. A compound leaf is one which has its blade in two or more entirely separate parts, each usually with a stalklet of its own : and the stalk- let is often jointed (or articulated) with the main leaf-stalk, just as this is jointed with the stem. When this is the case, there is no doubt that the leaf is compound. But when the pieces have no stalklrts, and are not jointed with the main leaf-stalk, the leaf may be considered either as simple and divided, or compound, according to the circumstances. FIG. ISfi. rinnato with an odd leaflet, or odd-pinnate. 127. Pinnate with a tendril IL'8. Abruptly pinnate leaf. LESSON 9.] COMPOUND LEAVES. 164. The separate pieces or little blades of a compound leaf are called leaflets. 165. Compound leaves are of two principal kinds, namely, the pinnate and the palmate ; answering to the two modes of veining in reticulated leaves (145-147), and to the two sorts of lobed or di- vided leaves (158, 159). 166. Pinnate leaves are those in which the leaflets are arranged on the sides of a main leaf-stalk ; as in Fig. 126-128. They answer to the feather-veined (i. e. p innately-veined) simple leaf; as will bo seen at once, on comparing Fig. 126 with the figures 118 to 121. The leaflets of the former answer to the lobes or divisions of the latter; and the continuation of the petiole, along which the leaflets are arranged, answers to the midrib of the simple leaf. 167. Three sorts of pinnate leaves are here given. Fig. 126 is pinnate with an odd or end leaflet, as in the Common Locust and the Ash. Fig. 127 is pinnate with a tendril at the end, in place of the odd leaflet, as in the Vetches and the Pea. Fig. 128 is abruptly pinnate, having a pair of leaflets at the end, like the rest of the leaf- lets ; as in the Honey-Locust. 168. Palmate (also named digitate) leaves are those in which the leaflets are all borne on the very tip of the leaf-stalk, as in the Lupine, the Common Clover (Fig. 136), tl,e Virginia Creeper (Fig. 62), and the Ilorsechestnut and Buckeye (Fig. 129). They answer to the radiate-veined or palmately- veined simple leaf; as is seen by comparing Fig. 136 with the figures 122 to 125. That is, the Clover- leaf of three leaflets is the same as a pahnately three-ribbed leaf cut into three separate leaflets. And such a simple five-lobed leaf a3 that of the Sugar-Maple, if more cut, so as to separate the parts, would pro- duce a palmate leaf of five leaflets, like that of the Ilorsechestnut, or Buckeye (Fig. 129). 169. Either sorf of compound leaf may have any number of leaf- lets ; though palmate leaves cannot well have a great many, since they are all crowded together on the end of the main leaf-stalk. FIG. 120. Palmate leaf of five leaflet?, of the Sweet Buckeye. 6* 66 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 9. Some Lupines have nine or eleven ; the Horsechestnut has seven, the Sweet Buckeye more commonly five, the Clover three. A pin- nate leaf'often has only seven or live leaflets, as in the Wild Bean or Groundnut ; and in the Common Bean it has only three ; in some rarer cases only two ; in the Orange and Lemon only one ! The joint at the place where the leaflet is united with the petiole alone distingui:-he3 this last case from a simple leaf.* 170. The leaflets of a com- pound hjaf may be either entire (as in Fig. 126-128), or ser- rate, or lobed, cleft, parted, &c. : in fact, they may pre- sent all the variations of simple leaves, and the same terms equally apply to them. 171. When this division is carried so far as to separate what would be one leaflet into two, three, or several, the leaf becomes doubly or twice com- pound, either pinnately orpal- mately, as the case may be. For example, while some of the leaves of the Honey-Locust are simply pinnate, that is, once pinnate, as in Fig. 128, the greater part * When the botanist, in describing leaves, wishes to express the number o leaflets, he may use terms like these : — Unffotiolate, for a compound leaf of a single leaflet; from the Latin »»»m,ono. findfotiolton, leaflet. Bifoliolate, of two leaflets, from the Latin bis, twice, MulfoUolitm, leaflet. TrlfoUolate (or ternatt ), of three leaflets, as the Clover ; and so on. When he would express in one phrase both the number of leaflets and the way the leaf is compound, he writes : — Palmatdy lifdidate, trffoliolatc, jtluriftJi'ofale (of several leaflets), &c., or else Pinnately bi-t tri-, quadri-, or pluri-fuliUate (that is, of two, three, four, five, or Bcvcral leaflets), as the case may be. 130 FIG. 130. A twice-pinnate (abruptly) leaf of the IIonev-Locunt LES3CN 9.] PERFOLIATE LEAVES, ETC. 67 are bipinnate, i.e. twice pinnate, as in Fig. 130. If these leaflets were again divided in the same way, the leaf would become thrice pinnate, or tripinnate, as in many Acacias. The first divisions are called pinna ; the others, pinnules ; and the last, or little blades, leaflets. 172. So the palmate leaf, if again compounded in the same way, becomes twice palmate, or, as we say when the divisions are in threes, twice temate (in Latin form biternate) ; if a third time com- pounded, thrice ternate or triternate. But if the division goes still further, or if the degree is variable, we simply say that the leaf is decompound ; either palmately or pinnately so, as the case may be. Thus, Fig. 138 represents a four times ternately compound, in other words a ternately decompound, leaf of our common Meadow Rue. 173. So exceedingly various are the kinds and shapes of leaves, that we have not yet exhausted the subject. We have, however, mentioned the principal terms used in describing them. Many others will be found in the glossary at the end of the volume. Some peculiar sorts of leaves remain to be noticed, which the student might not well understand without some explanation ; such as 174. Pcrfoliate Leaves, A common and simple case of this sort is found in two species of Uvularia or Bellwort, where the stem appears to run through the blade of the leaf, near one end. If we look at this plant in summer, after all the leaves are formed, we may see the meaning of this at a glance. For then we often find upon the same stem such a series of leaves as is given in Fig. 131 : the low- er leaves are perfoliate, those next above less so ; then some (the fourth and fifth) with merely a heart-shaped clasping base, and finally one that is merely sessile. The leaf, we perceive, becomes perfoliate by the union of the edges of the base with each other around the stem ; just as the shield-shaped leaf, Fig. 102, comes from the union of the edges of the base of such a leaf as Fig. 101. Of the same sort are the upper leaves of most of FIG. 131. Leaves of Uvularia (Bellwort) ; the lower onea perfoliat*, the others merely clasping, or the uppermost only senile. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVKS AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 9. the true Honeysuckles (Fig. 132): but here it is a pair of oppo- site leaves, with their contiguous broad bases grown together, which makes what seems to be one round leaf, with the stem running through its centre. This is seen to be the case, by comparing together the upper and the lowest leaves of the same branch. Leaves of this sort are said to be c.onnate-per foliate. 175. Equilant Leaves, While ordinary leaves spread horizontally, and present one face to the sky and the other to the earth, there are some that present their tip Jc the sky, and their faces right and left to the horizon. Among these are the equitant leaves of tho iris or Flower-de-Luce. On careful inspection we shall find that each leaf was formed folded together length- wise, so that what would be the upper surface is within, and all grown together, ex- cept next the bottom, where each leaf covers the next younger one. It was from their strad- dling over each other, like a man on horseback (as is seen in the cross-section, Fig. 134), that, Linnaeus, with his lively fancy, called these equitant leaves. 176. Leaves with no distinction of Petiole and Blade. The leaves of Iris just mentioned show one form of this. The flat but narrow leaves of Jonquils, Daffodils, and the like, are other in- stances. Needle-shaped leaves, like those of the Pine (Fig. 140), Larch (Fig. 139), and Spruce, and the awl-shaped as well as the scale-shaped leaves of Junipers, Red Ce- FIG. 132. Branch of a Yellow Honeysuckle, with connate-perfoliate leaves. FIG. 133. Rontstock and equitant leaves of Iris. 134. A section across the cluster oi leaves at the bottom. LESSON 9.J PIIILLODIA, STIPULES, ETC. 69 dar, and Arbor- Vitas (Fig. 135), are different examples. These last are leaves serving for foliage, but having as little spread of surface as possible. They make up for this, however, by their immense numbers. 177. Sometimes the petiole expands and flattens, and takes the place of the blade; as in numerous New Holland Acacias, some of which are now common in greenhouses. Such counterfeit blades are called phyllodia, — meaning leaf-like bodies. They may be known from true blades by their standing edgewise, their margins being directed upwards and downwards ; while in true blades the faces look upwards and downwards ; excepting in equitant leaves, as al- ready explained, and in those which are turned edgewise by a twist, such as those of the Callis- temon or Bottle-brush Flower of our greenhouses, and other Dry Myrtles of New Holland, &c. 178. Stipules, the pair of appendages which is found at the base of the peti- ole in many leaves (133), should also be considered in respect to their very varied forms and appearances. More commonly they appear like little blades, on each side of the leaf-stalk, as in the Quince (Fig. 83), and more strikingly in the Hawthorn and in the Pea. Here liiey remain as long as the rest of the leaf, and serve for the same purpose as the blade. Very commonly they serve for bud-scales, and fall off when the leaves expand, as in the Fig-tree, ,36 137 and the Magnolia (where they are large and conspicuous), or soon FIG. 135. Twig of Arbor-Vitffij with its two sorts of leaves: viz. some awl-shaped, the others scale-like ; the latter on the branchlets, a. FIG. 13G. Leaf of Red Clover : st, stipules, adhering to the base of p, the petiole : 6, blade of three leaflets. FIG. 137. Part of stem and loaf of Prince's-Feather ( Polygonum orientale) with tlje uniteJ sheathing stipule* forming a sheath. 70 MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES AS FOLIAGE. [LESSON 9. afterwards, as in the Tulip-tree. In the Pea the stipules make a very conspicuous part of the leaf; while in the Bean they are quite small ; and in the Locust they are reduced to bristles or prickles. Sometimes the stipules are separate and distinct (Fig. 83): often they are united with the base of the leaf-stalk, as in the Rose and the Clover (Fig. 13G) : and sometimes they grow together by both margins, so as to form a sheath around the stem, above the leaf, as in the Buttonwood, the Dock, and almost all the plants of tke Polygonum Family (Fig. 137). 179. The sheaths of Grasses bear the blade on their summit, and therefore represent a form of the petiole. The small and thin ap- pendage which is commonly found at the top of the sheath (called a ligule) here answers to the stipule. FIG. 138. Ternately-decompound leaf of Meadow Rue (Thalictrmn Cornuti). LESSON 10.] ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES. 71 LESSON X. THE ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES. 180. UNDER this head we may consider, — 1. the arrangement of leaves on the stem, or what is sometimes called PHYLLOTAXY (from two Greek words meaning leaf-order) ; and 2. the* ways in which they are packed together in the bud, or their VERNATION (the word meaning their spring state). 181. Pliyllotaxy, As already explained (48, 49), leaves are ar- ranged on the stem in two principal ways. They are either Alternate (Fig. 131, 143), that is, one after another, only a single leaf arising from each node or joint of the stem ; or Opposite (Fig. 147), when there is a pair of leaves on each joint of the stem ; one of the two leaves being in this case always situ- ated exactly on the opposite side of the stem from the other. A third, but uncommon arrangement, may be added ; namely, the Whorled, or verticillate (Fig. 148), when there are three or mort> leaves in a circle (whorl or verticil) on one joint of stem. But this is only a variation of the opposite mode ; or rather the latter ar- rangement is the same as the whorled, with the number of the leaves reduced to two in each whorl. 182. Only one leaf is ever produced from the same point. When two are borne on the same joint, they are always on opposite sides of the stem, that is, are separated by half the circumference ; when in whorls of three, four, five, or any other number, they are equally distributed around the joint of stem, at a distance of one third, one fourth, or one fifth of the circumfer- ence from each other, according to their number. So they always have the greatest possible divergence from each other. Two or more leaves be. longing to the same joint of stem never stand side by side, or one above the other, in a cluster. 183. What are called clustered or fascicled leaves, and which FIG. 139, Clustered or fascicled leaves of the Larch ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES ON THE STEM [LESSON 10. appear to be so, are always the leaves of a whole branch which remains so very short that they are all crowded together in a bundle or rosette ; as in the spring leaves of the Barberry and of the Larch (Fig. 139). In these cases an examination shows them to be nothing else than alternate leaves, very much crowded on a short spur; and some of these spurs are seen in the course of the season to lengthen into ordinary shoots with scattered alternate leaves. So, likewise, each cluster of two or three needle-shaped Laves in Pitck Pines (as in Fig. 140), or of five leaves in White Pine, answers to a similar, extremely short branch, springing from the axil of a thin and slender scale, which represents a leaf of the main shoot. For Pines produce two kinds of leaves; — 1. primary, the proper leaves of the shoots, not as foliage, but in the shape of delicate scales in spring, which soon fall away ; and 2. secondary, the fascicled leaves, from buds in the axils of the former, and these form the actual foliage. 184. Spiral Arrangement of Leaves, If we examine any alternate-leaved stem, we shall find that the leaves are placed upon it in symmetrical order, atul in a way per- fectly uniform for each species, but different in different plants. If we draw a line from the insertion (i. e. the point of attachment) of one leaf to that of the next, and so on, this line will wind spirally around the stem as it rises, and in the same species will always have just the same number of leaves upon it for each turn round the stem. That is, any two successive leaves will always \\ V be separated from each other by just an equal portion 140 of the circumference of the stem. The distance in height between any two leaves may vary greatly, even on the same shoot, for that d"pends upon the length of the intcrnodes or spaces between each leaf; but the distance as measured around the circumference (in other words, the anil<»— iMo. divergence is, />f course, where the second leaf stands on exactly the opposite side of the stem from the first, the third on the side opposite the second, and therefore over the FTO. MO. Pioco of a branchlrt of Pitch Pino, with throo loavM in a fascicle or hnndlr, in the- axil of a thin erale which answer" tn a primary loaf. Tho bundle is surrounded at the base by a short sheath, formed of the delicate scales of the axillary bud. LESSON 10.J IN A SPIRAL ORDER. first, and the fourth over the second. This brings all the leaves into two ranks, one on one side of the stem and one on the other ; and is therefore called the two-ranked arrangement. It occurs in all Grasses, — in Indian Corn, for instance ; also in the Spiderwort, the Bellwort (Fig. 131) and Iris (Fig. 132), in the Basswood or Lime- tree, &c. This is the simplest of all arrangements. 186. Next to this is the three-ranked arrangement, such as we see in Sedges, and in the Veratrum or White Hellebore. The plan of it is shown on a Sedge in Fig. 141, and in a diagram or cross- section underneath, in Fig. 142. Here the second leaf is placed one third of the way round the stem, the third leaf two thirds of the way round, the fourth leaf accordingly directly over the first, the fifth over the second, and so on. That is, three leaves occur in each turn round the stem, and they are separated from each other by one third of the circumference. 187. The next and one of the most com- mon is the five-ranked arrangement ; which is seen in the Apple (Fig. 143), Cherry, Poplar, and the greater part of our trees and shrubs. In this case the line traced from leaf to leaf will pass twice round the stem before it reaches a leaf situated di- rectly over any below (Fig. 144). Here the sixth leaf is over the first ; the leaves stand in five perpendicular ranks, equally distant from each other ; and the distance between any two successive leaves is just tvo fifths of the circumference of the stem. 188. The five-ranked arrangement ..s expressed by the fraction {. This fraction denotes the divergence of the successive leaves, i. e. the angle they form with each other : the numerator also expresses the number of turns made round the stem by the spiral line in complet- ing one cycle or set of leaves, namely L' ; and the denominator gives the number of leaves in each cycle, or the number of perpendicular FIG. 141. Piece of the stalk of a Hedge, with the leaves cut away, leaving their bases ; the leaves are numbered :D order, from I to 6. 142. Diagram or cross-section of the same, all in one plane : tho le-ives similarly numbered, 7 74 ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES ON THE STEM. [LESSON 10. ranks, namely 5. In the same way the fraction £ stands for the two-ranked mode, and £ for the three-ranked : and so these different sorts are expressed by the series of fractions £, •£, §. And the other cases known follow in the same numerical progression. 189. The next is the eight-ranked arrange- ment, where the ninth leaf stands over the firsi, and three turns are made around the stem to reach it ; so it is expressed by the fraction j. This is seen in the Holly, and in the common Plantain. Then comes the thirteen-ranked ar- rangement, in which the fourteenth leaf is over the first, after five turns around the stem. Of this we have a good example in the common Houseleek (Fig. 146). 190. The series so far, • then, is £, £, f , f , ^ ; the numerator and the denomi- nator of each fraction being those of the two next pre- ceding ones added together. At this rate the next higher should be /T, then £f , and so on ; and in fact just such cases are met with, and (commonly) no others. These higher sorts are found in the Pine Fam- ily, both in the leaves and the cones (Fig. 324), and in many other plants with small and crowd- ed leaves. But the number of the ranks, or of leaves in each cycle, can here rarely be made out by direct inspection : they may be ascer- tained, however, by certain simple mathematical computations, which are rather too technical for these Lessons. H FIG. 143. Shoot with its leaves 5-ranked, the sixth leaf over the first ; as in the Apple-tree. FIG. 144. Diagram of this arrangement, with a spiral line drawn from the attachment o/ one leaf to the next, and so on ; the parts on the side turned from the eye are fainter. FIG. 145. A ground-plan of the same ; the section of the leaves similarly niunhercd ; a dotted line drawn from the edge of one leaf to that of the next completes the spiral. I'Mi. 146. A young plant of the Houseleek, with the leaves 'not yet expanded) numbered, and exhibiting the KJ ranked arrangement LESSON 10.] ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES IN THE BUD. 75 191. The arrangement of opposite leaves (181) is usually very simple. The second pair is placed over the intervals of the first ; the third over the intervals of the second, and so on (Fig. 147) ; the successive pairs thus crossing each other, — commonly at right angles, so as to make four upright rows. And whorled leaves (Fig. 148) follow a similar plan. 192. So the place of every leaf on every plant is fixed beforehand by unerring mathematical rul^ As the stem grows on, leaf after leaf ap- pears exactly in its predes- tined place, producing a per- fect symmetry ; — a symme- try which manifests itself not in one single monotonous pattern for all plants, but in a definite number of forms exhibited by different spe- cies, and arithmetically ex- pressed by the series of frac- tions, J, •,}, f, $, j-5^, /y, &c., according as the formative energy in its spiral course up the developing stem lays down at corresponding intervals 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, or 21 ranks of alternate leaves. 1(J3. Vernation, sometimes called Prcefoliation, relates to the way in which leaves are disposed in the bud (180). It comprises two things ; — 1st, the way in which each separate leaf is folded, coiled, or packed up in the bud ; and 2d, the arrangement of the leaves in the bud with respect to one another. The latter of course depends very much upon the phyllotaxy, i. e. the position and order of the leaves upon the stem. The same terms are used for it as for the arrange- ment of the leaves of the flower in the flower-bud : so we may pass them by until we come to treat of the flower in this respect. 194. As to each leaf separately, it is sometimes straight and open in vernation, but more commonly it is either bent, folded, or rolled up. When the upper part is bent down upon the lower, as the young blade in the Tulip-tree is bent upon the leafstalk, it is said to be inflexed or reclined in vernation. When folded FIG. 147. Opposite leaves of the Spindle-tree or Burning-bush. FIG. 148- Whorled or verticillate leaves of Galium or Bedstraw. 76 ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM. |_LESSON 11. by the midrib so that the two halves are placed face to face, it is conduplicate (Fig. 149), as in the Magnolia, the Cherry, and the Oak : when folded back and forth like the plaits of a fan, it is plicate or plaited (Fig. 150), as in the Maple and Currant. If rolled, it may be so either from the tip downwards, as in Ferns and the Sundew (Fig. 154), when in unrolling it resembles the head of a crosier, and is said to be circinate ; or it may be rolled up parallel with the axis, either from one edge into a coil, when it is convolute (Fig. 151), as in the Apricot and Plum, or rolled f.om both edges towards the midrib; — sometimes inwards, when it is involute (Fig. 152), as in the Violet and Water-Lily ; sometimes outwards, when it is revolute (Fig. 153), in the Rosemary and Azalea. The figures are diagrams, representing sections through the leaf, in the way they were represented by Linnaeus. LESSON XL THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM, OR INFLO- RESCENCE. 195. THUS far we have been considering the vegetation of the plant, and studying those parts, viz. root, stem, and leaves, by which it increases in size and extent, and servos the purpose of its indi- vidual life. But after a time each plant produces a different set of (IPJJUIS, — viz. flowers, fruit, and seed, — subservient to a different purpose, that is, the increase in numbers, or the continuance of the LESSON 11.] INDETERMINATE INFLORESCENCE. 77 species. The plant reproduces itself in new individuals by seed. Therefore the seed, and the fruit in which the seed is formed, and the flower, from which the fruit results, are named the Organs of Reproduction or Fructification. These we may examine in succes- sion. We begin, of course, with the flower. And the first thing to consider is the 196. Inflorescence, or the mode of flowering, that is, the situation and arrangement of blossoms on the plant. Various as this arrange- ment may seem to be, all is governed by a simple law, which is easily understood. As the position of every leaf is fixed beforehand by a mathematical law which prescribes where it shall stand (192), so is that of every blossom ; — and by the same law in both cases. For flowers are buds, developed in a particular way , and flower- buds occupy the position of leaf-buds, and no other As leaf-buds are either terminal (at the summit of a stem or branch, 42), or axillary (in the a*il of a leaf, 43), so likewise 197. Flowers are either terminal or axillary. In blossoming as in vegetation we have only buds terminating (i. e. on the summit of) stems or branches, and buds from the axils of leaves. But while the same plant commonly produces both kinds of leaf-buds, it rarely bears flowers in both situations. These are usually either all axil- lary or all terminal; — giving rise to two classes of inflorescence, viz. the determinate and the indeterminate. 198. Indeterminate Inflorescence is that where the flowers all arise from axillary buds; as in Fig. 155, 156, 157, &c. ; and the reason why it is called indetermi- nate (or indefinite) is, that while the axillary buds give rise to flowers, the terminal bud goes on to grow, and continues the stem indefinitely. 199. Where the flowers arise, as in Fig. 155, singly from the axils of the ordinary leaves of the plant, they do not form flower- clusters, but are axillary and solitary. But when several or many flowers are produced near each other, the accompanying leaves are usually of smaller size, and often of a different shape or character : then they are called bracts ; and the flowers thus brought together FIG. 155 Moneywort (Lysimachia nunimularia) of the gardens, with axillary flower- 7* 78 ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM. [LESSON 11. form one cluster or inflorescence. The sorts of inflorescence of the indeterminate class which have received separate names are chiefly the following: viz. the Raceme, the Corymb, the Umbel, the Spike, the Head, the Spadix, the Catkin, and the Panicle. 200. Before illustrating these, one or two terms, of common oc- currence, may be defined. A flower (or other body) which has no stalk to support it, but which sits directly on the stem or axis it pro- ceeds from, is said to be sessile. If it has a stalk, this is called its peduncle. If the whole flower-cluster is raised on a stalk, this is called the peduncle, or the common peduncle (Fig. 156, ;o) ; and the stalk of each particular flower, if it have any, is called the pedicel or partial peduncle (p1). The portion of the general stalk along which flowers are dis- posed is called the axis of inflorescence, or, when cov- ered with sessile flowers, the rltachis (back-bone), and sometimes the receptacle. The leaves of a flower- cluster generally are termed bracts. But when we wi.-h particularly to distinguish them, those on the peduncle, or main axis, and which have a flower in their axil, take the name of bracts (Fig. 156, b) ; and those on the pedicels or partial flower-stalks, if any, that ofbractlets (Fig. 156, b'). 201. A KaccillC (Fig. 156, 157) is that form of flower- cluster in which the flowers, each on their own foot- stalk or pedicel, are arranged along a common stalk or axis of inflorescence ; as in the Lily of the Valley, Currant, Choke-Cherry, Barberry, &c. Each flower comes from the axil of a small leaf, or bract, which, w however, is often so small that it might escape notice, and which sometimes (as in the Mustard Family) disappears alto- gether. The lowest blossoms of a raceme are of course the oldest, and therefore open first, and tin- onu-r of blossoming is ascending, from the bottom to the top. The summit, never being stopped by a terminal flower, may go on to grow, and often does so (as in the common Shepherd's Purse), producing lateral flowers one after an- other the whole summer long. 202. All the various kinds of flower-clusters pass one into another FIG. 156 A Raceme, with a general peduncle (p), pedicels (;/), bracts (fr), and bract teu LESSON ll.j RACEME, CORYMB, UMBEL, ETC. 79 by intermediate gradations of every sort. For instance, if we lengthen the lower pedicels of a raceme, and keep the main axis rather short, it is converted into 203. A Corymb (Fig. 158). This is the same as a raceme, except that it is flat and broad, either convex, or level-topped, as in the Hawthorn, owing to the lengthening of the lower pedicels while the uppermost remain shorter. 204. The main axis of a corymb is short, at least in comparison with the lower pedicels. Only suppose it to be so much contracted that the bracts are all brought into a cluster or circle, and the corymb becomes 205. An Umbel (Fig. 159), — as in the Milkweed and Primrose, — a sort of flower-cluster where the pedicels all spring apparently from the same point, from the top of the peduncle, so as to resemble, when spreading, the rays of an umbrella, whence the name. Here the pedicels are sometimes called the rays of the umbel. And the bracts, when brought in this way into a cluster or circle, form what is called an involucre. 206. For the same reason that the order of blossoming in a ra- ceme is ascending (201), in the corymb and umbel it is centripetal^ that is, it proceeds from the margin or circumference regularly to- wards the centre ; the lower flowers of the former answering to the outer ones of the latter. Indeterminate inflorescence, therefore, is said to be centripetal in evolution. And by having this order of blossoming, all the sorts may be distinguished from those of the other, or the determinate class. In all the foregoing cases the flowers are raised on pedicels. These, however, are very short in many instances, or are wanting altogether; when the flowers are sessile (200). They are so in FIG. 157. A raceme. 158 A coryntb, 159. An umbel 80 ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM. [LESSON 11. 207. The Spike. This is a flower-cluster with a more or less lengthened axis, along which the flowers are sessile or nearly so; as in the Mullein and the Plantain (Fig. 160), It is just the same as a raceme, therefore, without any pedicels to the flowers. 208. The Head is a round or roundish cluster of flowers which are sessile on a very short axis or receptacle, as in the Button-ball, Button-bush (Fig. 161), and Red Clover. It is just what a spike would become if its axis were shortened ; or an umbel, if its pedicels were all shortened until the flowers became sessile or apparently so. The head of the Button-bush (Fig. 161) is naked ; but that of the Thistle, of the Dandelion, the Cichory (Fig. 221), and the like, is surrounded by empty bracts, which form an involucre. Two particular forms of the spike and the head have received particular names, namely, the Spadix and the Catkin. 209. A Spadix is nothing but a fleshy spike or head, with small and often imperfect flowers, as in the Calla, the Indian Turnip (Fig. 162), Sweet Flag, &c. It is commonly covered by a enveloping leaf, called a spathe. \| FIG. 160. Spike of the common Plantain or Ribwort. FIG. 161. Head of the Button -hush (Cephalanthus). FIG. 162. Spadix and spathe of the Indian Turnip ; the latter cut through below. LESSON 11.] DETERMINATE INFLORESCENCE, 81 210. A Calkill Of Ameilt is the name given to the scaly sort of spike of the Birch and Alder, the Willow and Poplar, and one sort of flower-clusters of the Oak, Hickory, and the like ; — on which ac- count these are called Amentaceous trees. 211. Sometimes these forms of flower-clusters become compound. For example, the stalks which, in the simple umbel such as has been described (Fig. 159), are the pedicels of single flowers, may ;hemselves branch in the same way at the top, and so each become ihe support of a smaller umbel; as is the case in the Parsnip, Cara- way, and almost the whole of the great family of what are called Umbelliferous (i. e. umbel-bearing) plants. Here the whole is termed a compound umbel; and the smaller or partial umbels take the name in English of umbellets. The general involucre, at the base of the main umbel, keeps that name; while that at the base of each umbellet is termed a partial involucre or an involuceL 212. So a corymb (Fig. 158) with its separate stalks branching again, and bearing smaller clusters of the same sort, is a compound corymb, of which the Moun- tain Ash Is a good example. A raceme where what would be the pedicels of single flowers become stalks, along which flowers are disposed on their own pedicels, forms a compound raceme, as in the Goat's-beard and the False Spikenard. But when what would have been a raceme or a corymb branches irregularly into an open and more or less compound flower-cluster, we have what is called 213. A Panicle (Fig. 163); as in the Oat and in most common Grasses. Such a raceme as that of the diagram, Fig. 156, would be changed into a panicle like Fig. 163, by the production of a flower from the axil of each of the bractlets 6'. 214. A Thyrsus is a compact panicle of a pyram- idal or oblong shape; such as a bunch of grapes, or the cluster of the Lilac or Horsechestnut. 215. Determinate Inflorescence is that in which the flowers are from terminal buds. The simplest case is where a stem bears a soli- tary, terminal flower, as in Fig. 163*. This stops the growth of PIG. 1(3. A Panicle S&F— 5 82 ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM. [LESSON 11. the stem ; for its terminal bud, being changed into a blossom, can no more lengthen in the manner of a leaf-bud. Any further growth a b c b c c b c must be from axillary buds developing into branches. If such 1) ranches are leafy shoots, at length terminated by single blossoms, the inflorescence still consists of solitary flowers at the summit of the stem and branches. But if the flowering branches bear only bracts in place of ordinary leaves, the result is the kind of flower-cluster called 216. A Cyme, This is commonly a flat-topped or con- vex flower-cluster, like a corymb, only the blossoms are from terminal buds. Fig. 164 illustrates the simplest cyme in a plant with opposite leaves, namely, with three flowers. The middle flower, «, terminates the stem ; the two others, b b, terminate short branches, one from the axil of each of the uppermost leaves ; and being later than the middle one, the flowering proceeds from the centre outwards, or is centrifugal; — just the op- posite of the indeterminate mode, or that where all the flower-buds are axillary. If flowering branches appear from the axils below, the lower ones are the later, so that the order of blossoming continues cmtrif- if/al or descending (which is the same thing), as in Fig. 166, mak- ing a sort of reversed raceme; — a kind of cluster which is to the trim raceme just what the flat cyme is to the corymb. 217 Wherever there are bracts or leaves, buds may be produced from their axils and appear as flowers. Fig. 165 represents the •A- here the branches, b b, of Fig. 16-1, each with a } air of small FIG. JC3 a. Diagram of an opposite-leaved plant, with a single terminal flower. 1C4 F .-11110, with a cymo of three flowers, n, the first flower, of the main axis; b b, those of branches •no, with flowers of the third order, c c. lf>f>. Same, with flowers only of the second firmer from all the axiU J the central or uppermost opening fir.-t, anil so on downward* LESSON 11.] SORTS OF FLOWER-CLUSTERS. 83 leaves or bracts about their middle, have branched again, and pro- duced the branchlets and flowers c c, on each side. It is the con- tinued repetition of this which forms the full or compound cyme, such as that of the Laurustinus, Hobblebush, Dogwood, and Hy- drangea (Fig. 167). 218. A Fascicle, like that of the Sweet- William and Lychnis of the gardens, is only a cyme with the flowers much crowded, as it were, into a bundle. 219. A Gloinemle is a cyme still more compacted, so as to form a sort of head. It may be known from a true head by the flowers not expanding centripetally, that is, not from the circumference to- wards the centre, or from the bottom to the top. 220. The illustrations of determinate or cymose inflorescence have been taken from plants with opposite; leaves, which give rise to the most regular cymes. But the Rose, Cinquefoil, Buttercup, and the like, with alternate leaves, furnish equally good examples of this class of flower-clusters. 221. It may be useful to the student to exhibit the principal sorts of inflorescence in one view, in the manner of the following Analysis of Flower-Clusters, I. INDETERMINATE OR CENTRIPETAL. (198.) Simple ; and with the Flowers borne on pedicels, Along the sides of a lengthened axis, RACEME, 201- Along a short axis ; lower pedicels lengthened, CORYMB, 203- Clustered on an extremely short axis, UMBEL, 205 Flowers sessile, without pedicels (206), Along an elongated axis, SPIKE, 207 . On a very short axis, HEAD, 208. with their varieties, the SPADIX, 209, and CATKIN, 210. Branching irregularly, PANICLE, 213, with its variety, the THYRSUS, 214 J DETERMINATE OR CENTRIFUGAL. (215.) Open, mostly flat-topped or convex. CYME, 21 0 Contracted into a bundle, FASCICLE, 218 Contracted into a sort of head, GLOMERULE, 219 222. The numbers refer to the paragraphs of this Lesson. Tho various sorts run together by endless gradations in different plants. The botanist merely designates the leading kinds by particular names. Even the two classes of inflorescence are often found com- bined in the same plant. For instance, in the whole Mint Family, 84 THE FLOWER. [LESSON 12: the flower-clusters are centrifugal, that is, are cymes or fascicles ; but they are themselves commonly disposed in spikes or racemes, which are centripetal, or develop in succession from below up- wards. LESSON XII. THE FLOWER: ITS PARTS OR ORGANS. 223, HAVING considered, in the last Lesson, the arrangement oi flower? on the stem, or the places from which they arise, we now direct our attention to the flower itself. 224. Nature and Use of the Flower. The object of the flower is the production of seed. The flower consists of all those parts, or organs, which are subservient to this end. Some of these parts are neces- sary to the production of seed. Others serve merely to protect or support the more essential parts. FIG. 167. Cym« of the Wild Hydrangea (with neutral flowers in the borderX LESSON 12.] ITS PARTS OR ORGANS* 86 225. The Organs Of the Flower are therefore of two kinds ; namely, first, the protecting organs, or leaves of the flower, — also called the floral envelopes, — and, second, the essential organs. The latter are situated within or a little above the former, and are enclosed by them in the bud. 226. TllC Floral Envelopes in a complete flower are double ; that is, they consist of two whorls (181), or circles of leaves, one above or within the other. The outer set forms the Calyx ; this more com monly consists of green or greenish leaves, but not always. The inner set, usually of a delicate texture, and of some other color than green, and in most cases forming the most showy part of the blos- som, is the Corolla. 227. The floral envelopes, taken together, are sometimes called the Perianth. This name is not much used, however, except in cases where they form only one set, at least in appearance, as in the Lily, or where, for some other reason, the limits between the calyx and the corolla are not easily made out. 228. Each leaf or separate piece of the corolla is called a Petal ; each leaf of the calyx is called a Sepal. The sepals and the petals — or, in other words, the leaves of the blossom — serve to protect, support, or nourish the parts within. They do not themselves make a perfect flower. 229. Some plants, however, naturally produce, besides their per- fect flowers, others which consist only of calyx and corolla (one or both), that is, of leaves. These, destitute as they are of the essential organs, and incapable of producing seed, are called neutral flowers. We have an example in the flowers round the margin of the cyme of the Hydrangea (Fig. 167), and of the Cranberry-Tree, or Snowball, in their wild state. By long cultivation in gardens the whole clustei has been changed into showy, but useless, neutral flowers, in these and some other cases. What are called double flowers, such as full Roses (Fig. 173), Buttercups, and Camellias, are blossoms which, under the gardener's care, have developed with all their essential organs changed into petals. But such flowers are always in an unnatural or monstrous condition, and are incapable of maturing seed, for want of 230. The Essential Organs, These are likewise of two kinds, placed one above or within the other; namely, first, the Stamens or fertil- izing organs, and, second, the Pistils, which are to be fertilized and bear the seeds. 8 8G THE FLOWER. [LESSON 12. 231. Taking them in succession, therefore, beginning from below, or at the outside, we have (Fig. 1G8, 1G9), first, the calyx or outer circle of leaves, which are individually termed sepals (a) ; secondly, the corolla or inner circle of delicate leaves, called petals (b) ; then a set of stamens (c) ; and in the centre one or more pistils (d). The end of the flower-stalk, or the short axis, upon which all these parts stand, is called the Torus or Receptacle. 232. We use here for illus- tration the flower of a spe- cies of Stonecrop (Sedum ter- iiatum), — which is a com- mon plant wild in the Middle States, and in gardens almost everywhere, — because, al- though small, it exhibits all the parts in a perfectly simple and separate state, and so answers for a sort of pattern flower, better than any larger one that is common c and well known. 233. A Stamen consists of two parts, namely, the Filament or stalk (Fig. 1 70, «), and the Anther (b). The latter is a the only essential part. It is a case, commonly with two lobes or cells, each opening lengthwise by a slit, at the proper time, and discharging a pow- der or dust-like substance, usually of a yellow color. This powder is the Pollen, or fertilizing matter, to produce which.is the sole office of the stamen. 234. A Pistil is distinguished into three parts ; namely, — beginning from below, — the Ovary, the Style, and the Stigma. The Ovary is the hollow case or young pod (Fig. 171, a), containing rudimentary seeds, called Ovules (d). Fig. 172, rrpivsrnting a pistil like that ol FIG. If 8. Flower of a Ptonecrop : Sednm ternatiim. FIG. If 9. Two parts of each kind of tlio same flower, displayed and enlarged. FIG. I'D. A stamen : «, the filament ; l>, the anther, discharging jKillon. FIG. 171. A pistil divided lengthwise, showing the interior of the ovary, a, and Its nviilcs, (/ ; /;, the style ; c, Kti) flower, ol LESSON 13.J IRREGULAR AND UNSYMMETRICAL FLOWERS 91 it it, at first view, at least in cases where the plan is more or less obscured by the leaving out (obliteration) of one or more of the members of the same set, or by some in- equality in their size and shape. The (alter circumstance gives rise to 244. Irregular Flowers, This name is given to blossoms in which the different members of the same sort, as, for exam- ple, the petals or the stamens, are unlike in &ize or in form. We have familiar cases of the sort in the Larkspur (Fig. 183, 184), and Monksbood (Fig. 185, 186); also in the Vio- let (Fig. 181, 182). In the latter is the corolla principally which is ir- regular, one of the petals being larger than the rest, and extended at the base into a hollow protuberance or spur.. In the Larkspur (Fig. 183), both the calyx and the corolla par- take of the irregularity. This a:ul the Monkshood are likewise good ex- amples of 245. Unsymmctrical Flowers, Wj call them unsymmetrical, when tie different sets of organs do not agree in the number of their parts. The irregular calyx of Larkspur (Fig. 183, 184) consists of five sepals, one of which, larger than the rest, is prolonged behind into a large spur; but the corolla is made of only four petals (of two shapes) ; FIG. 181. Flower of a Violet. 182. Its calyx and corolla displayed: the five smaller parts are the sepals ; the five intervening larger ones are the petals. FIG. 183. Flower of a Larkspur. 184. Its calyx and corolla displayed ; the five large* pieces are the sepals ; the four smaller, the petals. 92 PLAN OF THE FLOWER. [LESSON 18. the fifth, needed to complete the symmetry, being left out. And the Monkshood (Fig. 185, 186) has five very dissimilar sepals, and a corolla of only two, very small, curiously-shaped petals ; the three need- ed to make up the symmetry being left out. For a flower which is unsymmet rieal but regular, we may take the com mon Purslane, which has a ralyx c. only two sepals, but a corolla of five petals, from seven to twelve stamens, and about six styles. The Mustard, and all flowers of that family, are un- pymmetrical as to the stamens, these being six in number (Fig. 188, while the leaves of the blossom (sepals and petals) are each only four (Fig. 187). Here the stamens are irregular also, two of them being shorter than the other four. 246. Numerical Plan of the Flower, Although not easy to make out in all cases, yet generally it is plain to see that each blossom is based upon a particular number, which runs through all or most of its parts. And a prin- cipal thing which a botanist notices when examin- ing a flower is its numerical plan. It is upon this that the symmetry of the blossom depends. Our two pattern flowers, the Stonecrop (Fig. 168) and the Flax (Fig. 174), are based upon the number five, which is exhibited in all their parts. Some flowers of this same Stonecrop have their parts in fours, and then that number runs throughout ; namely, there are four sepals, four petals, eight stamens (two sets), and four pistils. The Mustard (Fig. 187, 188), Radish. FIG. 185. Flow-prof a Monkshood. 180. Its parts displayed : the fivo larppr pipro* nrp Mi- sepals ; the two small ones under the hood are petals ; the stamens and pistils are in tl lentre. FIG. 187. Flower of Mustard. 188. Its stamens and pistil sepairvte and enlarged. LESSON 13.] THE RELATIVE POSITION OF ITS PARTS. &c., also have their flowers constructed on the plan of four as to the calyx and corolla, but this number is interfered with in the stamens, either by the leaving out of two sta- mens (which would complete two sets), or in some other way. Next to five, the most common number in flowers is three. On this number the flowers of Lily, Crocus, Iris, Spiderwort, and Trillium (Fig. 189) are constructed. In the Lily and Crocus the leaves of the flower at first view appear to be six in one set ; but the bud or just- opening blossom plainly shows these to consist of an outer and an inner circle, each of three parts, namely, of calyx and corolla, both of the same bright color and delicate texture. In the Spiderwort and Trillium (Fig. 189) the three outer leaves, or sepals, are green, and dif- ferent in texture from the three inner, or the petals ; the stamens are six (namely, two sets of three each), and the pistils three, though partly grown together into one mass. 247. Alternation Of Parts. The symmetry of the flower is likewise shown in the arrangement or relative position of successive parts. The rule is, that the parts of successive circles alternate with one another. That is, the petals stand over the intervals between the sepals ; the stamens, when of the same number, stand over the intervals between the petals ; or \ when twice as many, as in the Trillium, the j outer set alternates with the petals, and the inner set, alternating with the other, of course stands before the petals ; and the pistils alter- nate with these. This is shown in Fig. 189, and in the diagram, or cross-section of the same in the bud Fig. 190. And Fig. 191 is a similar diagram or ground-plan (in the form of a FIG. 189. Flower of Trillium erectum, or Birthroot, spread out a little, and viewed from above. FIG. 190. Diagram or ground-plan of the same, as it would appear in a cross-section o« the bud ; — the parts all in the same relative position FIG. 191. Diagram, or ground-plan, of the Flax -flower, Fig. 174. 04 PLAN OF THE FLOWER, ^LESSON 13. section made across the bud) of the Flax blossom, the example of a pattern symmetrical flower taken at the beginning of this Lesson, with its parts all in fm's. 248. Knowing in this way just the position which each organ should occupy in the flower it is readily understood that flowers often become unsym metrical through the loss of some parts, which belong to the plan, but are obliterated or left out in the execution. For ex« ample, in the Larkspur (Fig. 183, 184), as there are five sepals, there should be five petals likewise. We find only four ; but the vacant place where the fifth belongs is plainly rec- ognized at the lower side of the flower. Also the similar plan of the Monkshood (Fig. 18G) equally calls for five petals ; but three of them are entirely obliterated, and the two that remain are reduced to slender bodies, which look as unlike or- dinary petals as can well be imagined. Yet their position, answer- ing to the intervals between the upper sepals and the side ones, reveals their true nature. All this may perhaps be more plainly shown by corresponding diagrams of the calyx and corolla of the Larkspur and Monkshood (Fig. 192, 193), in which the places of the missing petals are indicated by faint dotted lines. The oblitera- tion of stamens is a still more common case. For example, the Snapdragon, Foxglove, Gerardia, and almost all flowers of the large Figwort family they belong to, have the parts of the calyx and corolla five each, but only four stamens (Fig. 194); the place on the upper side of the flower where the fifth stamen belongs is vacant. That there is in such cases a real obliteration of the miss- ing part is shown by the 249. Abortive Organs, or veetiges which are sometimes met with ; — bodies which stand in tlie place of an organ, and represent it, although wholly incapable of fulfilling its office. Thus, in the Fig- wort family, the fifth stamen, which is altogether missing in Gerardia (Fig. 194) and most others, appears in the Figwort as a little scale, and in Pentstemon (Fig. 19f>) and Turtlehead as a sort of filament without any anther ; — a thing of no use whatever to the plant, but FIG. 192. Piapram of the calyx and corolla of a Larkspur. 10H. Similar diapram ol MonkslKHxl. The \\ « r, viz. of Mamillaria cK.spitosa of the Upper Missouri LESSON 14.] ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES IN THE BUD. 97 scales of bulbs (Fig. 73-75), in the spines of the Barberry and the tendrils of the Pea, in the fleshy rosettes of the Houseleek, the strange fly-trap of Dioncea (Fig. 81), and the curious pitcher of Sar racenia (Fig. 79). 252. Now the student who understands these varied forms or metamorphoses of the stem and leaf, and knows how to detect the real nature of any part of the plant under any of its disguises, may readily trace the leaf into the blossom also, and perceive that as to their morphology, 253. Flowers are altered Branches, and their parts, therefore, altered leaves. That is, certain buds, which might have grown and length- ened into a leafy branch, do, under other circumstances and to ac- complish other purposes, develop into blossoms. In these the axis remains short, nearly as it is in the bud ; the leaves therefore remain close together in sets or circles ; the outer ones, those of the calyx, generally partake more or less of the character of foliage ; the next set are more delicate, and form the corolla, while the rest, the sta- mens and pistils, appear under forms very different from those of ordinary leaves, and are concerned in the production of seed- This is the way the scientific botanist views a flower ; and this view gives to Botany an interest which one who merely notices the shape and counts the parts of blossoms, without understanding their plan, has no conception of. 254. That flowers answer to branches may be shown first from their position. As explained in the Lesson on Inflorescence, flowers arise from the same places as branches, and from no other ; flower- buds, like leaf-buds, appear either on the summit of a stem, that is, as a terminal bud, or in the axil of a leaf, as an axillary bud (196). And at an early stage it is often impossible to foretell whether the bud is to give rise to a blossom or to a branch. 255. That the sepals and petals are of the nature of leaves is evident from their appearance ; persons who are not botanists com- monly call them the leaves of the flower. The calyx is most gen- erally green in color, and foliaceous (leaf-like) in texture. And though the corolla is rarely green, yet neither are proper leaves always green. In our wild Painted-Cup, and in some scarlet Sages, common in gardens, the leaves just under the flowers are of the brightest red or scarlet, often much brighter-colored than the corolla itself. And sometimes (as ui many Cactuses, and in Carolina All- spice) there is such a regular gradation from the last leaves of the 9 98 MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER. [LESSON 14. plant (bracts or bractlets) into the leaves of the calyx, that it is im- possible to say where the one ends and the other begins. And if sepals are leaves, so also are petals ; for there is no clearly fixed limit between them. Not only in the Carolina Allspice and Cactus (Fig. 197), but in the Water-Lily (Fig. 198) and a variety of flowers with more than one row of petals, there is such a complete transition between calyx and corolla that no one can surely tell ho\r many of the leaves belong to the one and how many to the other. 256. It is very true that the calyx or the corolla often takes the form of a cup or tube, instead of being in separate pieces, as in Fig. 194-196. It is then composed of two or more leaves grown together. This is no objection to the petals being leaves ; for the same thing takes place with the ordinary leaves of many plants, as, for instance, in the upper ones of Honeysuckles (Fig. 132). 2o7. That stamens are of the same general nature as petals, and therefore a modification of leaves, is shown by the gradual transitions that occur between the one and the other in many blossoms ; es- pecially in cultivated flowers, such as Roses and Camellias, when they begin to double, that is, to change their stamens into petals. Some wild and natural flowers show the same interesting transitions. The Carolina Allspice and the White Water-Lily exhibit complete gradations not only between sepals and petals, but between petals and stamens. The sepals of the Water-Lily are green outside, but white and petal-like on the inside ; the petals, in many rows, grad- ually grow narrower towards the centre of the flower ; some of these are tipped with a trace of a yellow anther, but still are petals ; the next are more contracted and stamen-like, but with a flat petal-like filament; and a further narrowing of this completes the genuine sta- men. A series of these stages is shown in Fig. 198. 258. Pistils and stamens now and then change into each other in ?ome Willows ; pistils often turn into petals in cultivated flowers •, and in the Double Cherry they occasionally change directly into small green leaves. Sometimes a whole blossom changes into a cluster of green leaves, as in the " green roses " which are occa- sionally noticed in gardens, and sometimes it degenerates into a leafy branch. So the botanist regards pistils also as answering to leaves. And his idea of a pistil is, that it consists of a leaf with its margins curved inwards till they meet and unite to form a closed cavity, the ovary, while the tip is prolonged to form the style and bear the stigma ; as will be illustrated in the Lesson upon the Pistil LESSON 15.] THE CALYX AND COROLLA. 99 250. Moreover-, the arrangement of the parts of the flower answers to that of leaves, as illustrated in Lesson 10, — either to a succes- sion of whorls alternating with each other in the manner of whorled leaves, or in some regular form of^piral arrangement. /7\ LESSON XV. MORPHOLOGY OF THE CALYX AND COROLLA. 260. HAVING studied the flower as a whole, we proceed to con- sider more particularly its several parts, especially as to the principal differences they present in different plants. We naturally begin with the leaves of the blossom, namely, the calyx and corolla. And first as to 261. The Growing together Of Parts, It is this more than anything /else which prevents one from taking the idea, at first sight, that the flower is a sort of very short branch clothed with altered leaves. For most blossoms we meet with have some of their organs grown together more or less. We have noticed it as to the corolla of Ge- rardia, Catalpa, &c. (Fig. 194-196), in Lesson 13. This growing FIG. 198. Succession of sepals, petals, gradations between petals and stamens, and true stamens, of the Nympheea, or White Water-Lily. 100 THE CALYX AND COROLLA. [LESSON 15. together takes place in two ways : either parts of the same kind, or parts of different kinds, may be united. The first we may call simply the union, the second the consoli- dation, of parts. 262. Union OF Cohesion with one another of parts of the same sort. We very com- monly find that the calyx or the corolla is a cup or tube, instead of a set of leaves Take, for example, the flower of the Stra- monium or Thorn-Apple, where both the calyx and the corolla are so (Fig. 199); likewise the common Morning-Glory, and the figures 201 to 203, where the leaves of the corolla are united into one piece, but those of the calyx are separate. Now there are numerous cases of real leaves growing together much in the same way, — those of the common Thorough- wort, and the upper pairs in Woodbines or Honeysuckles, for example (Fig. 132) ; so that we might expect it to occur in the leaves of the blossom also. And that this is the right view to take of it plainly appears from the transitions everywhere met with in different plants, between a calyx or a corolla of separate pieces and one forming a perfect tube or cup. Figures 200 to 203 show one complete set of such gradations in the corolla, and Fig. 204 to 206 another, in short and open corollas. How many leaves or petals each corolla is formed of may be seen by the number of points or tips, or of the notches (called sinuses) which answer to the inter- vals between tLem. 263. When the parts are united in this way, whether much 01 rfttle, the corolla is said to be monopetalous, and the calyx mono- sepalous. These terms mean "of one petal," or "of one sepal"; that is, of one piece. Wherefore, taking the corolla or the calyx as a whole, we say that it is parted when the parts are separate almost to the base, as in Fijr. 204 ; cleft or lobed when the notches do not extend below the middle or thereabouts, as in Fig. 205 ; FIG. 199. Flower of the common Stramonium ; both the calyx and the corolla parts united into a tube. ith then LESSON 15.] UNION OF PARTS. 101 toothed or dentate, when only the tips are separate as short points entire, when the border is even, without points or notches, as in the cx>iiimon Morning-Glory, and very nearly so in Fig. 203 ; and so on ; — the terms being just the same as those applied to leaves and all other flat bodies, and illustrated in Lessons 8 and 9. 264. There is a set of terms applied particularly to calyxes, corollas, or other such bodies of one piece, to express their general shape, which we see is very various. The following are some of the principal : — Wheel-shaped, or rotate ; when spreading out at once, without a tube or with a very short one, something in the shape of a wheel or of its diverging spokes, as in the corolla of the Potato and Bitter- sweet (Fig. 204, 205). Salver-shaped, or salver-form ; when a flat-spreading border is raised on a narrow tube, from which it diverges at right angles, like the salver represented in old pictures, with a slender handle beneath. The corolla of the Phlox (Fig. 208) and of the Cypress Vine (Fig. 202) are of this sort. FIG 200. Corolla of Soapwort (the same in Pinks, &c.), of 5 separate, long-clawed petals. FIG. 201. Flower of Gilia or Ipomopsis coronopifolia ; the parts answering to the claws of the petals nf the last figure here all united into a tube. FIG. 202. Flower of the Cypress-Vine ; the petals a little farther united into a five-lobed spreading border. FIG. 203. Flower of the small Scarlet Morning-Glory, the five petals it is composed o. perfectly united into a trumpet-shaped tube, with the spreading border nearly even (or entire). FIG. 204. Wheel-shaped and five-parted corolla of Bittersweet (Solanum Dulcamara). FIG. 205. Wheel-shaped and five-cleft corolla of the common Potato. FIG. 206. Almost entire and very open bell-shaped corolla of a Ground Cherry (Physalis) 9* 102 THE CALYX AND COROLLA. [LESSON 15. Bell-shaped, or campanulate ; where a short and broad tube widens upward, in the shape of a bell, as in Fig. 207. Funnel-shaped, or funnel-form ; gradually spreading at the sum- mit of a tube which is narrow below, in the shape of a funnel or tunnel, as in the corolla of the common Morning-Glory, and of the Stramonium (Fig. 199). Tubular ; when prolonged into a tube, without much spreading at Ihe border, as in the corolla of the Trumpet Honeysuckle, the calyx of Stramonium (Fig. 199), &c. 265. In most of these cases we may distinguish two parts ; namely, the tube, or the portion all in one piece and with its sides upright or nearly so ; and the border or limb, the spreading portion or summit. The limb may be entire, as in Fig. 203, but it is more commonly lobed, that is, partly divided, as in Fig. 202, or parted down nearly to the top of the tube, as in Fig. 208, &c. 266. So, likewise, a separate petal is sometimes distinguishable into two parts ; namely, into a narrowed base or stalk-like part (a? in Fig. 200, where this part is peculiarly long), called the claw, and a spreading and enlarged summit, or body of the petal, called the ^amina or blade. 267. When parts of the same set are not united (as in the Flax, Cherry, &c., Fig. 212-215), we call them distinct. Thus the sepals or the petals are distinct when not at all united with each other. As a calyx with sepals united into one body is called monosepalous (2 ('».'>, that is, one-sepalled). or sometimes monophyllous* that is, one-leaved ; so, on the other hand, when the sepals are distinct, it is said to be FIG. 207. Flower of the Harebell, with a rampannlate or bell-shaped corolla. 208. Of a Phlox, with salver-shaped corolla. 209. Of Dead-Nettie (Laniimn), with labiate ring-cut (or gapinp) corolla. 210. Of Pnapdrapon, with labiate personate corolla. 211. Of Toad-Flax, with a similar corolla spurred at the ba*e. LESSON 15.] CONSOLIDATION OF PARTS. 103 polysepalous, that is, composed of several or many sepals. And a corolla with distinct petals is said to be polypetalous. 2G8. Consolidation, the growing together of the parts of two or more different sets. In the most natural or pattern flower (as explained in Lessons 13 and 14), the several parts rise from the receptacle or axis in succes- sion, like leaves upon a very short stem ; the petals just above or within the sepals, the stamens just above or within these, and then the pistils next the summit or centre. Now when contiguous parts of different sorts, one within the other, unite at their base or origin, it obscures more or less the plan of the flower, by consolidating organs which in the pattern flower are entirely separate. 213 2 69. The nature of this con- solidation will be at once un- derstood on comparing the fol- lowing series of illustrations. Fig. 212 represents a flower of the common Flax, cut through lengthwise, so as to show the attachment (or what the bot- anist calls the insertion) of all the parts. Here they are all inserted on, that is grow out of, the receptacle or axis of i •he blossom. In other words, here is no union at all of the parts of contiguous circles. So the parts are said to be free. And the sepals, petals, and stamens, all springing of course froiL. beneath the pistils, which are on the very summit of the axis, are said to be lypogynous (a term composed of two Greek words, mean- ing "under the pistil"). FIG. 212. A Flax-flower, cut through lengthwise. FIG. 213. Flower of a Cherry, divided in the same way. fIG. 214. Flower of the common Purslane, divided lengthwise. 104 THE CALYX AND COROLLA. [LESSON 15. 270. Fig. 213 is a flower of a Cherry, cut through lengthwise in the same way. Here tiie petals and the stamens grow out of, that is, are inserted on, the calyx ; in other words they cohere or are consolidated with the base of the calyx up to a certain height. In such cases they are said to be periyynous (from two Greek words, meaning around the pistil). The consolidation in the Cherry is con- fined to the calyx, corolla, and stamens : the calyx is still free from the pistil. One step more we have in 271. Fig. 214, which is a similar section of a flower of a Purslane. Here the lower part of the '•' J / • calyx (carrying with it of course the petals and stamens) is coherent with the surface of the whole lower half of the ovary. Therefore the calyx, seeming to rise from the mid- dle of the ovary, is said to be half superior, instead of being inferior* as it is when entirely free. It is better to say, however, calyx half-adherent to the ovary. Every gradation occurs between such a case and that of a calyx altogether free or inferior, as we see in different Purslanes and Saxifrages. The consol- idation goes farther, 272. In the Apple, Quince, Hawthorn (Fig. 215), &c. Here the tube of the calyx is consolidated with the whole 2i« surface of the ovary ; and its Jmb, or free part, therefore appears to spring from its top, instead of underneath it, as it naturally should. So the calyx is said to be superior, or (more properly) adherent to, or coherent with, the ovary. In most cases (and very strikingly in the Evening Primrose), the tube of the calyx is continued on more or less beyond the ovary, and has the petals and stamens consolidated with it for some dis- tance ; these last, therefore, being borne on the calyx, are said to be perigynous, as before (270). FIG. 215. Flower of a Hawthorn, divided lengthwise. FIG. 216. Flower of the Cranberry, divided lengthwise. LESSON 15.] IRREGULARITY OF PARTS. 105 273. But if the tube of the calyx ends immediately at the summit of the ovary, and its lobes as well as the corolla and stamens are as it were inserted directly on the ovary, they are said to be epigynous (meaning on the pistil), as in Cornel, the Huckleberry, and the Cran- berry (Fig. 216). 274. Irregularity of Parts in the calyx and corolla has already been noticed (244) as sometimes obstructing one's view of the real plan of a flower. There is infinite variety in this respect ; but what has already been said will enable the student to understand these irreg- ularities when they occur. We have only room to mention one or two cases which have given rise to particular names. A very common kind, among polypetalous (267) flowers, is 275. The Papilionaceous flower of the Pea, Bean, and nearly all that family. In this we have an irregular corolla of a peculiar shape, which Linnaeus likened to a butterfly (whence the term, papilio being the Latin name for a but- terfly) ; but the resemblance is not very obvious. The five pet- als of a papilionaceous corolla (Fig. 217) have received different names taken from widely different objects. The upper and larger petal (Fig. 218, s), which is gen- erally wrapped round all the rest in the bud, is called the standard or banner. The two side petals (w) are called the wings. And the two anterior ones (&), the blades of which commonly stick together a little, and which en- close the stamens and pistil in the flower, from their forming a body shaped somewhat like the keel, or rather the prow, of an ancient boat, are together named the keel. 276. The Labiate or bilabiate (that is, two-lipped) flower is a very common form of the monopetalous corolla, as in the Snapdragon FIG. 217. Front view of the papilionaceous corolla of the Locust-tree. 218. The parts o. the same, displayed S&F— 6 106 THE CALYX AND COROLLA. |_LESSON 15. (Fig. 210), Toad-Flax (Fig. 211), Dead-Nettie (Fig. 209), Catnip, Horsemint, &c. ; and in the Sage, the Catalpa, &c., the calyx also is two-lipped. This is owing to unequal union of the different parts of the same sort, as well as to diversity of shape. In the corolla two of the petals grow together higher than the rest, sometimes to the very top, and form the upper lip, and the three remaining ones join on the other side of the flower to form the lower lip, which therefore is more or less three-lobed, while the upper lip is at most only two- lobed. And if the calyx is also two-lipped, as in the Sage, — since the parts of the calyx always alternate with those of the corolla (247), — then the upper lip has three lobes or teeth, namely, is com- posed of three sepals united, while the lower has only two ; which is the reverse of the arrangement in the corolla. So that all these flowers are really constructed on the plan of five, and not on that of two, as one would at first be apt to suppose. In Gerardia, &c. (Fig. 194, 195), the number five is evident in the calyx and corolla, but is more or less obscured in the stamens (249). In Catalpa this num- ber is masked in the calyx by irregular union, and in the stamens by abortion. A different kind of irregular flower is seen in 277. The Ligulate or strap- shaped corolla of most com- pound flowers. "\Vhat was called the compound flower of a Dandelion, Succory (Fig. 221), Thistle, Sunflower, As- ter, Whiteweed, &<•., consists of many distinct blossoms, closely crowded together into a head, and surrounded by an involucre (208). People who are not botanists commonly take the whole for one flower, the involucre for a calyx, and corollas of the outer or of all the flowers as petals. And this is a very natural mistake when the flowers around the edge have flat and open or strap-shaped corollas, while the rest arc regular and tubular, but small, as in the Whiteweed, Sunflower, &c. Fig. 219 represents such a case in a Coreopsis, with the head, or so-called compound flower, cut through ; and in Fig. 220 we see one of the perfect flowers of the centre or disk, with a reg- ular tubular corolla (a), and with the slender bract (b) from whose FIG. 219. Head of flowers (the so-called " compound flower ") of Coreopsis, dividt-d Unsthwise. LESSON 15.] SO-CALLED COMPOUND FLOWERS. 107 axil it grew ; and also one belonging to the margin, or ray, with a strap-shaped corolla (c), borne in the axil of a leaf or bract of a 6 the involucre (d). Here the ray-flower consists merely of a strap- shaped corolla, raised on the small rudiment of an ovary ; it is therefore a neutral flower, like those of the ray or margin of the cluster in Hydrangea (229, Fig. 167), only of a different shape. More commonly the flowers with a strap-shaped corolla are pis- tillate, that is, have a pistil only, and produce seed like the others, as in Whiteweed. But in the Dandelion, Succory (Fig. 221, 222), and all of that tribe, these flowers are perfect, that is, bear both stamens and pistils. And moreover all the flowers of the head are strap-shaped and alike. 278. Puzzling as these strap-shaped corollas appear at first view, an attentive inspection will generally reveal the plan upon which they are constructed. We can make out pretty plainly, that each one consists of five petals (the tips of which commonly appear as five teeth at the extremity), united by their contiguous edges, except on FIG. 220. A slice of Fig. 219, more enlarged, with one tubular perfect flower (a) left standing on the receptacle, with its bractlet or chaff (6), one ligulate, neutral ray-flower (.c) and part of another: rf, section of bracts or leaves of the Involucre. FIG. 222. Head of flowers of Succory, cut through lengthwise and enlarged 108 THE CALYX AND COROLLA. [LESSON 16. one side, and spread out flat. To prove that this is the case, we have only to compare such a corolla (that of Coreopsis, Fig. 220, c, or one from the Succory, for instance) with that of the Cardinal-flower, or of any other Lobelia, which is equally split down along one side ; and this again with the less irregular corolla of the Woodbine, par- tially split down on one side. LESSON XVI. ESTIVATION, OR THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE CALYX AND CO ROLLA IN THE BUD. 279. .^ESTIVATION or Prcefloration relates to the way in which the leaves of the flower, or the lobes of the calyx or corolla, are placed with respect to each other in the bud. This is of some importance in distinguishing different families or tribes of plants, being generally very uniform in each. The {estivation is best seen FIG. 221. Compound flowers, i. o. heads of flowers, of Succory. LESSON 16.] THEIR ARRANGEMENT IN THE BUD. 109 by making a horizontal slice of the flower-bud when just ready to open ; and it may be expressed in diagrams, as in Fig. 223, 224. 280. The pieces of the calyx or the corolla either overlap each other in the bud, or they do not. When they do not, the aestivation is commonly Valvate, as it is called when the pieces meet each other by their abrupt edges without any infolding or overlapping ; as the calyx of the Linden or Basswood (Fig. 223) and the Mallow, and the corolla of the Grape, Virginia Creeper, &c. Or it may be Jnduplicate, which is valvate with the margins of each piece pro- jecting inwards, or involute (like the leaf in Fig. 152), as in the calyx of Virgin's-Bower and the corolla of the Potato, or else Reduplicate, like the last, but the margins projecting outwards instead of inwards ; these last being mere vari- ations of the valvate form. 281. When the pieces overlap in the bud, it is in one of two ways : either every piece has one edge in and one edge out ; or some pieces are wholly outside and others wholly inside. In the first case the aestivation is Convolute or twisted, as in the corolla of Geranium (most com- monly, Fig. 224), Flax (Fig. 191), and of the Mallow Family. Here one edge of every petal covers the next before it, while its other edge is covered by the next behind it. In the second case it is Imbricated or imbricate, or breaking joints, like shingles on a roof, as in the calyx of Ge- ranium (Fig. 224) and of Flax (Fig. 191), and the corolla of the Linden (Fig. 223). In these cases the parts are five in number ; and the regular way then is (as in the calyx of the figures above cited) to have two pieces en- tirely external (1 and 2), one (3) with one edge covered by the first, while the other edge covers that of the adjacent one on the other side, and two (4 and 5) wholly within, their margins at least being covered by the rest. That is, they just represent a circle of five leaves spirally arranged on the five-ranked or f plan (187, 188, and Fig. 143-145), only with the stem shortened so as to bring the parts close together. The spiral arrangement of the parts of FIG. 223. Section across the flower-bud of Linden. FIG. 234. Section across the riower-bud oi Geranium : the sepals numbered in their order 10 110 ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE BUD. [LESSON 16. the blossom is the same as that of the foliage, — an additional evi- dence that the flower is a sort of branch. The petals of the Linden, with only one outside and one inside, as shown in Fig. 223, exhibit a gradation between the imbricated and the convolute modes. When the parts are four in number, generally two opposite ones overlap the other two by both edges. When three in number, then one is outer- most, the next has one edge out and the other covered, and the third is within, being covered by the other two; as in Fig. 190. This is just the three-ranked (£) spiral arrangement of leaves (186, and Fig. 171). 282. In the Mignonette, and some other flowers, the aestivation is open ; that is, the calyx and corolla are not closed at all over the other parts of the flower, even in the young bud. 283. When the calyx or the corolla is tubular, the shape of the tube in the bud has sometimes to be considered, as well as the way the lobes are arranged. For example, it may be Plaited or plicate, that is, folded lengthwise ; and the plaits may either be turned outwards, forming projecting ridges, as in the corolla of Campanula ; or turned inwards, as in the corolla of the Gentian, &c. When the plaits are wrapped round all in one direc- tion, so as to cover one another in a convolute manner, the aestivation is said to be Supervolute, as in the corolla of Stramonium (Fig. 225) and the Morning-Glory ; and in the Morning-Glory it is twisted besides. FIG. 225. Upper part of the corolla of a Stramonium (Datura meteloides), in the bud. Underneath is a cross-section of the same. LESSON 17.] THE STAMENS. Ill LESSON XVII. MORPHOLOGY OF THE STAMENS. 284. THE STAMENS exhibit nearly the same kinds of variation m different species that the calyx and corolla do. They may be dis- tinct (that is, separate from each other, 267) or united. They may be free (269), or else coherent with other parts : this concerns 285. Their Insertion, or place of attachment, which is most com- monly the same as that of the corolla. So, stamens are Hypogynous (269), when they are borne on the receptacle, or axis of the flower, under the pistils, as they naturally should be, and as is shown in Fig. 212. Perigynous, when borne on (that is coherent below with) the calyx ; as in the Cherry, Fig. 213. JEpigynous, when borne on the ovary, appar- ently, as in Fig. 216. To these we may add Gynandrous (from two Greek words, answer- ing to "stamens and pistil united"), when the stamens are consolidated with the style, so as to be borne by it, as in the Lady's Slipper (Fig. 226) and all the Orchis Family. Also Epipetalous (meaning on the petals), when they are borne by the corolla; as in Fig. 194, and in most monopetalous blossoms. As to 286. Their Union With each Other, the stamens may be united by their filaments or by their anthers. In the former case they are Monadelphous (from two Greek words, meaning " in one brother- hood "), when united by their filaments into one set, usually into a ring or cup below, or into a tube, as in the Mallow Family, the Passion-flower, and the Lupine (Fig. 228). Diadelphous (in two brotherhoods), when so united in two sets, as in the Pea and almost all papilionaceous flowers (275) : here the stamens are nine in one set, and one in the other (Fig. 227). FIG. 226. Style of a Lady's Slipper (Cypripedium), and stamens united with it : a, a, the anthers of the two good stamens ; sf., an abortive stamen, what should be its anther changed into a petal-like body ; stig,t the stigma. 112 THE STAMENS. [LESSON 17. Triadelphous, in three sets or parcels, as in the common St. Johns- wort ; or Polyadelphous, when in more numerous sets, as in the Loblolly Bay, where they are in five clusters. On the other hand, stamens are said to be Syngenesious, when united by their an- thers (Fig. 229, 230), as they are in Lobelia, in the Violet (slightly), and in what are called compound flowers, such as the Thistle, Sunflower, Coreopsis (Fig. 220), and Suc- cory (Fig. 222). In Lobelia, and in the Squash and Pumpkin, the stamens are united both by their anthers and their filaments. 287. Their Number in the flower is sometimes expressed by terms compounded of the Greek numerals and the word used to signify stamen ; as, monandrous, for a flower having only one stamen ; diandrous, one with two stamens ; triandrous, with three stamens ; te- trandrouSj with four stamens ; pentandrous, with five stamens ; and so on, up to polyan- drous (meaning with many stamens), when there are twenty or a larger number, as in a Cactus (Fig. 197). All such terms m;»y be found in the Glossary at the end of the book. 288. Two terms are used to express particular numbers with un.. equal length. Namely, the stamens are didynamous when only four in number, two longer than the other two, as in the Mint, Catnip, Gerardia (Fig. 194), Trumpet-Creeper, &c. ; and tetradynamous, when they are six, with four of them regularly longer than the other two, as in Mustard (Fig. 188), and all that family. 289. Their Parts. As already shown (233), a stamen consists of two parts, the Filament and the Anther (Fig. 231). 290. The Filament is a kind of stalk to the anther : it is to the anther nearly what the petiole is to the l>la of a leaf. Therefore it is not an essential part. As a leaf may be without a stalk, so the anther may be sessile, or without a filament. When present, FIG. 227. Dindelphons stamens of the Pea, &c. 028. Munadelphous stamens of the Lupine. FIG. 229. PyncenesiouB stamens of Coreopsis (Fig. 220, a), &c. 230. Same, with the tube of anthers split down on one side and sprrr.'' open. LESSON 17.] THEIR STRUCTURE AND PARTS. 113 the filament may be of any shape ; but it is commonly thread-like, as in Fig. 231, 234, &c. 291. The Anther is the essential part of the stamen. ' It is a sort of case, filled with a fine powder, called Pollen, which serves to fertilize the pistil, so that it a may perfect seeds. The anther may be considered, first, as to 292. Its Attachment to the filament. Of this there are three ways ; namely, the anther is Innate (as in Fig. 232), when it is attached by its base to the very apex of the filament, turning neither inwards nor outwards; or Actuate (as in Fig. 233), when at- tached by one face, usually for its whole length, to the side of the fila- ment • and Versatile (as in Fig. 234), when fixed by its middle only to the very point of the filament, so as to swing loosely, as we see it in the Lily, in Grasses, &c. 293. In both the last-named cases, 232 233 234 the anther either looks inwards or out- wards. When it is turned inwards, or is fixed to that side of the filament which looks towards the pistil or centre of the flower, the anther is incumbent or introrse, as in Magnolia and the Water-Lily. When turned outwards, or fixed to the outer side of the filament, it is extrorse, as in the Tulip-tree. 294. Its Structure, &c. There are few cases in which the stamen bears any resemblance to a leaf. Nevertheless, the botanist's idea of a stamen is, that it answers to a leaf developed in a peculiar form and for a special purpose. In the filament he sees the stalk of the leaf; in the anther, the blade. The blade of a leaf consists of two similar sides ; so the anther consists of two lobes or cells, one answer- ing to the left, the other to the right, side of the blade. The two lobes are often connected by a prolongation of the filament, which answers to the midrib of a leaf' this is called the connective. It is very con- spicuous in Fig. 252, where the connective is so broad that it separates the two cells of the anther to some distance from each other. FIG. 231. A stamen : a, filament ; 6, anther discharging pollen. FIG. 232. Stamen of Isopyrum, with innate anther. 233. Of Tulip-tree, with adnate(and e.xtrorse) anther- 234 Of Evening Primrose, with versatile anther. 10* THE STAMENS. [LESSON 17. 295. To discharge the pollen, the anther opens (or is dehiscent} at maturity, commonly by a line along the whole length of each cell, and which answers to the margin of the leaf (as in Fig. 231) ; but when the anthers are extrorse, this line is often on the outer face, and when introrse, on the inner face of each cell. Sometimes the anther opens only by a chink, hole, or pore at the top, as in the Azalea, Pyrola or False Wintergreen (Fig. 235), &c. ; and sometimes a part of the face separates as a sort of trap-door (or valve), hinged at the top, and opening to allow the escape of the pollen, as in the Sassafras, Spice-bush, and Barberry (Fig. 236). Most anthers are really four-celled when young; a slender partition running lengthwise through each cell and dividing it into two compartments, one answering to the upper, and the other to the lower, layer of the green pulp of the leaf. Oc- casionally the anther becomes one-celled. This takes place mostly by confluence, that is, the two cells running together into one, as they do slightly in Pentstemon (Fig. 237) and thoroughly in the Mallow Family (Fig. 238). But sometimes it occurs by the obliteration or disappear- ance of one half of the anther, as in the Globe Ama- ranth of the gardens (Fig. 239). 296. The way in which a stamen is supposed to be constructed out of a leaf, or rather on the plan of a leaf, is shown in Fig. 240, an ideal figure, the lower part representing a stamen with the top of its anther cut away ; the upper, the corresponding upper part of a leaf. — The use of the anther is to produce 297. Pollen, This is the powder, or fine dust, commonly of a yel- low color, which fills the cells of the anther, and is discharged during blossoming, after which the stamens generally fall off or wither away. FIG. 5235. Stamen of Pyrola ; the anther opening by holes at the top. FIG. 236. Stamen of Barberry ; the anther opening by uplifted valves. FIG. 237. Stamen of Pentstemon pubescens ; anther-cells slightly confluent. FIG. 238. Stamen of Mallow ; the two cells confluent into one, opening round the margin FIG. 239. Anther of Globe Amaranth, of only one cell ; the other cell wanting. FIG: 240 Diagram of the lower part of an anther, cut acrocss above, aud the upper part ol a loaf, to show IKAV the one answers to tho other. LESSON 17.] POLLEN. Uo Under the microscope it is found to consist of grains, usually round or oval, and all alike in the same species, but very different in different plants. So that the plant may sometimes be recognized from the pollen alone. 298. A grain of pollen is made up of two coats ; the outer coat thickish, but weak, and frequently adorned with lines or bands, 01 studded with points ; the inner coat is extremely thin and delicate^ but extensible, and its cavity is filled with a thickish fluid, oftea rendered turbid by an immense number of minute grains that float in it. When wet, the grains absorb the water and swell so much that many kinds soon burst and discharge their contents. 299. Figures 241-250 represent some common sorts of pollen, magnified one or two hundred diameters, viz.: — A pollen-grain of the Musk Plant, spirally grooved. One of Sicyos, or One-seeded Cucumber, beset with bristly points and marked by smooth bands* One of the Wild Balsam- Apple (Echinocystis), grooved lengthwise. One of Hibiscus or Rose-Mallow, studded with prickly points. One of Succory, many-sided, and dotted with fine points. A grain of the curious compound pollen of Pine. One from the Lily, smooth and oval. One from Enchanter's Nightshade, with three small lobes on the angles. Pollen of Kalmia, composed of four grains united, as in all the Heath family. A grain from an Evening Primrose, with a central body and three large lobes. The figures number from left to right, beginning at the top. THE PISTILS. ] LESSON 1& LESSON XVIII. MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS. 300. THE PISTIL, when only one, occupies the centre of the flower ; when there are two pistils, they stand facing each other in the centre of the flower ; when several, they commonly form a ring or circle ; and when very numerous, they are generally crowded in rows or spiral lines on the surface of a more or less enlarged or elongated receptacle. 301. Their number in a blossom is sometimes expressed, in Sys- tematic Botany, by terms compounded of the Greek numerals and the Greek word used to signify pistil, in the following way. A flower with one pistil is said to be monogynous ; with two, digynoits ; with three, trigynous ; with four, tetragynous ; with five, pentagynous, and so on ; with many pistils, polygynous, — terms which are explained ?n the Glossary, but which there is no need to commit to memory. 302. The Paris Of a Pistil, as already explained (234), are the &vary, the Style, and the Stigma. The ovary is one essential part : »tf contains the rudiments of seeds, called Ovules. The stigma at the summit is also essential : it receives the pollen, which fertilizes the ovules in order that they may become seeds. But the style, the tapering or slender column commonly borne on the summit of the ovary, and bearing the stigma on its apex or its side, is no more neces- sary to a pistil than the filament is to the stamen. Accordingly, there is no style in many pistils : in these the stigma is sessile, that is, rgsts Jirectly on the ovary. The stigma is very various in shape and appearance, being sometimes a little knob (as in the Cherry, Fig, 213), sometimes a small point, or small surface of bare, moist tissue (as in Fig. 254-256), and sometimes a longitudinal crest or line (as in Fig. 252, 258, 267, 269), and also exhibiting many other shapes. 303. The pistil exhibits an almost infinite variety of forms, and many complications. To understand these, it is needful to begin with the simple kinds, and to proceed gradually to the complex. And, first of all, the student should £pf a clear notion of 304. The Plan or Ideal Structure of the Pistil, or, in other words, of the way in which a simple pistil answers to a leaf. Pbtild are either LESSON 18.] SIMPLE PISTILS. 117 simple or compound. A simple pistil answers tc a, sir.gu 'iLaf. A compound pistil answers to two or more leaves combined, just as a monopetalous corolla (2G3) answers to two or more petals, or leaves of the flower, united into one body. In theory, accordingly, 305. The Simple Pistil, OF Carpel (as it is sometimes called), consists of the blade of a leaf, curved until the margins meet and unite, form- ing in this way a closed case or pod, which is the ovary. So that the upper face of the altered leaf answers to the inner surface of the ovary, and the lower, to its outer surface. And the ovules are borne on wh;vt answers to the united edges of the leaf. The tapering sum- mit, rolled together and prolonged, forms the style, when there is any ; and the edges of the altered leaf turned outwards, either at the tip or along the inner side of the style, form the stigma. To make this perfectly clear, compare a leaf folded together in this way (as m Fig. 251) with a pistil of a Garden Prcony, or Larkspur, or with that in Fig. 252 ; or, later in the season, notice how these, as ripe pods, split down along the line formed by the united edges, and open out again into a sort of leaf, as in the Marsh- Marigold (Fig. 250). In the Double- flowering Cherry the pistil occasion ally is found changed back again into a small green leaf, partly folded, much as in Fig. 251. 306. Fig. 172 represents a simple pistil on a larger scale, the, ovary cut through to show how the ovules (when numerous) are attached to what answers to the two margins of the leaf. The Stonecrop (Fig. 168) has five such pistils in a circle, each with the side where the ovules are attached turned to the centre of the flower. 307 The line or seam down the inner side, which answers to the united edges of the leaf, and bears the ovules, is called the ventral or inner Suture. A corresponding line down the back of the ovary, and which answers to the middle of the leaf, is named the dorsal or outer Suture. 308. The ventral suture inside, where it projects a little into the FIG. 251. A Jeaf rolled up inwards, to show how the pistil is supposed to be formed. FIG. 252. Pistil of Isopyrum biternatum cut across, with the inner suture turned toward* the eye. FIG. 253. Pod or ripe pistil of the Caltha, or Marsh-Marigold, after opening. 118 THE PISTILS. [LESSON 18. cavity of the ovary, and bears the ovules, is called the Placenta* Obviously a simple pistil can have but one placenta ; but this is in its nature double, one half answering to each margin of the leaf. And if the ovules or seeds are at all numerous, they will be found to occupy two rows, one for each margin, as we see in Fig. 252, 172, in the Marsh-Marigold, in a Pea-pod, and the like. 309. A simple pistil obviously can have but one cavity or cell; except from some condition out of the natural order of things. But the converse does not hold true : all pistils of a single cell are not simple. Many compound pistils are one-celled. 310. A simple pistil necessarily has but one style. Its stigma, however, may be double, like the placenta, and for the same reason (305) ; and it often exhibits two lines or crests, as in Fig. 252, or it may even be split into two lobes. 311. The Compound Pistil consists of two, three, or any greater number of pistil-leaves, or carpels (305), in a circle, united into one body, at least by their ovaries. The Culti- vated Flax, for exam- ple (Fig. 212). has a compound pistil com- posed of five simple ones with their ovaries united, while the five styles are separate. But in. one of our wild species of Flax, the styles are united into one also, for about half their length. So the Common St. John's wort of the fields has e compound ovary, of three united carpels, but the three styles are separate (Fijr. 2-").")), while some of our wild, shrubby species have the Styles al^o combined into one (Fig. 256), although in the fruit they often split into three a«;ain. F,ven the ovaries may only partially combine with each other, as we see in different species of Saxifrage, eome having their two pistils nearly separate, while in others they FIG. 254. Pistil of a Saxifrapr, of two simple carpels or pistil-leaves, united at the base inly, cut across both above and below. FIG. 255. Compound pistil of common St. John's-wort, cut across : styles separate. FIG. 256. The same of shrubby St. John's-wort ; the three styles united into one- LESSON 18.1 COMPOUND PISTILS. 119 are joined at the base only, or else below the middle (as in Fig. 254), and in some they are united quite to the top. 312. Even when the styles are all consolidated into one, the stig- mas are often separate, or enough so to show by the number of their lobes how many simple pistils are combined to make the compound one. In the common Lily, for instance, the three lobes of the stigma, as well as the three grooves down the ovary, plainly tell us that the pistil is made of three combined. But in the Day-Lily the three lobes of the stigma are barely discernible by the naked eye, and io the Spiderwort (Fig. 257) they are as perfectly united into one as the ovaries and styles are. Here the number of cells in the ovary alone shows that the pistil is compound. These are all cases of 313. Compound Pistils with two or more fells, namely, with as many cells as there are simple pi.Mils, or carpels, that have united to compose the organ. They are just what would be formed if the simple pistils (two, three, or five in a circle, as the case may be), like those of a Pajony or Stonecrop, all pressed together in the centre of the flower, were to cohere by their contiguous parts. 314. As each simple ovary has its placenta, or seed- bearing line (308), at the inner angle, so the resulting compound ovary has as many axile placenta (that is, as Kr many placenta in the axis or centre) as there are pistil-leaves in its composition, but all more or le?s consolidated into one. This is shown in the cross-sections, Fig. 254-256, &c. 315. The partitions (or Dissepiments, as they are technically named) of a compound ovary are accordingly part of the walls or the sides of the carpels which compose it. Of course they are double, one layer belonging to each carpel ; and in ripe pods they often split nto the two layers. 316. We have described only one, though the commonest, kind of compound pistil. There are besides 317. One-CClled Compound Pistils, These are of two sorts, those with axile, and those with parietal placentae. That is, first, where the ovules or seeds are borne in the axis or centre of the ovary, and, secondly, where they are borne on its walls. The first of these cases, or that FIG. 257. Pistil of Spiderwort ( Tradescantia) : the three-celled orarj' cut across. 120 THE PISTILS. [LESSON 18. 318. With a Free Central Placenta, is what ^ *3nd in Purslane (Fig. 214), and in most Chick weeds (Fig. 258, 259) and Pinks. The difference between this and the foregoing case is only that the delicate partitions have very early vanished; and traces of them may often be detected. Or sometimes this is a variation of the mode 319. With Parietal Placentae, namely, with the ovules and seeds borne on the sides or wall (parietes) of the ovary. The pistil of the Prickly Poppy, Bloodroot, Violet, Frost-weed (Fig. 2G1), Gooseberry, and of many Hypericums, are of this sort. To understand it perfectly, we have only to imagine two, three, or any number of carpel-leaves (like that of Fig. 251), arranged in a circle, to unite by their contiguous edges, and so form one ovary or pod (as we have endeavored to show in Fig. 2 GO) ; — very much as in the Stramonium (Fig. 199) the five petals unite by their edges to compose a mono- petalous corolla, and the five sepals to form a tubular calyx. Here each carpel is an open leaf, or partly open, bearing ovules along its margins ; and each placenta consists of the contiguous margins of two pistil-leaves grown together. 320. All degrees occur between this and the sev- eral-celled ovary with the placentas in the axis. Com- pare, for illustration, the common St. John's-worts, Fig. 255 and 256, with Fig. 262, a cross-section of the ovary of a different species, in which the three large placentas meet in the axis, but scarcely unite, and with Fig. 263, a similar section of the ripe pod of the same plant, showing three parietal placentas borne on imperfect partitions projecting a little way into the general cell. Fig. 261 is the same in plan, but with hardly any trace of partitions ; that is, the united edges of the leaves only slightly project into the cell. FIG. 258. Pistil of a Sandwort, with the ovary divided lengthwise; and 259, the same divided transversely, to show the free central placenta. FIG. 2GO. Plan of a one-celled ovary of three carpel-leaves, with parietal placentae, cut amiss ln'lo\v, where it is complete ; the upper part showing the top of the three leaves it ia coni|xised of. approaching, but not united. FIG. 2C1 Cross-Kc-ctiou of the ovary of Frost-weed (IIeliaiitheuunn)> with three parietal olacentffiL. bearing ovules. LESSON 18.] OPEN PISTILS. 121 321. The ovary, especially when compound, is often covered by and united with the tube of the calyx, as has already been explained (272). We describe this by saying either " ovary adherent," or " calyx adherent," &c. Or we say u ovary inferior" when the tube of the calyx is adherent throughout to the surface of the ovary, so that its lobes, and all the rest of the flower, appear to be borne on its summit, as in Fig. 215 and Fig. 216; or "half- inferior" as in the Purslane (Fig. 214), where the calyx is adherent part way up ; or " superior" where the calyx and the ovary are not combined, as in the Cherry (Fig. 213) and the like, that is, where these parts are free. The term " ovary superior," therefore, means just the same as "calyx inferior"; and " ovary inferior," the same as " calyx superior." 322. Open OF Gymnospermous Pistil, This is what we have in the whole Pine family, the most peculiar, and yet the simplest, of all pistils. While the ordinary simple pistil in the eye of the botanist represents a leaf rolled together into a closed pod (305), those of the Pine, Larch (Fig. 264), 264 Cedar, and Arbor- Vitoe (Fig. 265, 266) are plainly open leaves, in the form of scales, each bearing two or more ovules on the jnner face, next the base. At the time of blossoming, these pistil-leaves of the young cone diverge, and the pollen, so abundantly shed from the staminate blossoms, falls di- rectly upon the exposed ovules. Afterwards the scales close over each other until the seeds are ripe. Then they separate again, that the seeds may be shed. As their ovules and seeds are not enclosed in a pod, all such plants are said to be Gymnospermous, that is, naked-seeded. FIG. 2G2. Cross-eection of the ovary of Ilypcricum graveolens. 2C3. Similar section of the ripe pod of the same. FIG. 2G4. A pistil, that is, a scale of the cone, of a Larch, at the time of flowering > inside view, showing its pair of naked ovules. FIG. 2G5. Branchlet of the American Arbor- Vitae, considerably larger than in nature, terminated by its pistillate flowers, each consisting of a single scale (an open pistil), together forming a small cone. FIG. 266. One of the scales or pistils of the last, removed and more enlarged, the uis;de exposed to view, showing a pair of ovulas on its base. 11 122 THE PISTILS. [LESSON 18. 323. Ovules (234). These are the bodies which are to become seeds. They are either sessile, that is, stalkless, or else borne on a stalk, called the Funiculus. They may be produced along the whole length of the cell, or only at some part of it, generally either at the top or the bottom. In the former case they are apt to be numerous ; in the latter, they may be few or single (solitary, Fig. 267 - 269). A.S to their direction, ovules are said to be Horizontal, when they are neither turned upwards nor down- wards, as in Fig. 252, 261 ; Ascending, when rising obliquely upwards, usually from the side of the cell, not from its very base, as in the Buttercup (Fig. 267). and the Purslane (Fig. 214) ; Erect, when rising upright from the base of the cell, as in the Buck- wheat (Fig. 268) ; Pendulous, when hanging from towards the top, as in the Flax (Fig. 212); and Suspended, when hanging perpendicularly from the very sum- mit of the cell, as in the Anemone (Fig. 269), Dogwood, &c. All these terms equally apply to seeds. 324. An ovule consists of a pulpy mass of tissue, the Nucleus or kernel, and usually of one or two coats. In the nucleus the embryo is formed, and the coats become the skin or coverings of the seed. There is a hole ( Orifice or Foramen) through the coats, at the place which answers to the apex of the ovule. The part by which the ovule is attached is its base ; the point of attachment, where the ripe seed breaks away and leaves a scar, is named the Hilum. The place where the coats blend, and cohere with each other and with the nucleus, is named the Chalaza. We will point out these parts in illustrating the four principal kinds of ovule. These are not difficult to understand, although ovules are usually so small that a good mrfg- nifying-glass is needed for their examination. Moreover, their nann •- all taken from the Greek, are unfortunately rather formidable. 325. The simplest sort, although the least conimon, is what is called the Orthotropous, or straight ovule. The Buckwheat affords a good FIG. 2H7. Section of the ovary of a Buttercup, lengthwise, showing its ascending ovule. 'T!G. 2C8. Section of the ovary of Buckwheat, showing the erect .ovule. FIG. 269. Section of th» ovary of Anemone, showing its suspended ovule LESSON 18.] OVULES. 123 instance of it : it is shown in its place in the ovary in Fig. 268, also detached in Fig. 270, and a much more magnified diagram of it in Fig. 274. In this kind, the orifice (/) is at the top, the chalaza and the hiluni (c) are blended at the base or point of attachment, which is at the opposite end ; and the axis of the ovule is straight) If such an ovule were to grow on one side more than on the other and double up, or have its top pushed round as it enlarges, it would become a Campylotropous or curved ovule, as in Cress and Chickweed (Fig. 271). Here the base remains as in the straight kind, but its apex with the orifice is brought round close to it. — Much the most com- mon form of all is the Anatropous or inverted ovule. This is shown in Fig. 267, and 273 ; also a much enlarged section lengthwise, or diagram, in Fig 275. To understand it, we have only to suppose the first sort (Fig. 270) to be inverted on its stalk, or rather to have its stalk bent round, applied to one side of the ovule lengthwise, and to grow fast .to the coat down to near the orifice (/) ; the hilum, therefore, where the seed-stalk is to break away (^), is close to the orifice ; but the chalaza (c) is here at the top of the ovule ; between it and the hilum runs a ridge or cord, called the Rhaphe (?•), which is simply that part of the stalk which, as the ovule grew and turned over, adhered to its surface. — Lastly, the Amphitropous or half-anatropous ovule (Fig. 272) differs from the last only in having a shorter rhaphe, ending about half-way between the chalaza and the orifice. So the hilum or attachment is not far from the middle of one side, while the chalaza is at one end and the orifice at the other. 326. The internal structure of the ovule is sufficiently displayed in the subjoined diagrams, representing a longitudinal slice of two FIG. 270. Orthotropous ovule of Buckwheat : c, hilum and chalaza ; /, orifice. FIG. 271. Campylotropous ovule of a Chickweed : c, hilum and chalaza ; /, orifice. FIG 272. Amphitropous ovule of Mallow : /, orifice ; A, hilum ; r, rhaphe ; c, chalaza. FIG. 273. Anatropous ovule of a Violet ; the parts lettered as in the last. 124 THE RECEPTACLE. [LESSON 19. ovules ; Fig. 274, an orthotropous, Fig. 275, an anatropous ovule. The letters correspond in the two ; c, the chalaza ; /, the orifice-, r, rhaphe (of which there is of course none in Fig. 274) ; p, the outer coat, called primine ; s, inner coat, called secundine ; n, nu- cleus or kernel. LESSON XIX. MORPHOLOGY OF THE RECEPTACLE. 327. THE RECEPTACLE (also called the Torus) is the axis, or stem, which the leaves and other parts of the blossom are attached to (231). It is commonly small and short (as in Fig. 1G9) ; but it sometimes occurs in more conspicuous and remarkable forms. 328. Occasionally it is elongated, as in some plants of the Caper family (Fig. 276), making the flower really look like a branch, hav- ing its circles of leaves, stamens, &c., separated by long spaces or internodes. 329. The Wild Geranium or Cranesbill has the receptacle pro- longed above and between the insertion of the pistils, in the form of a slender beak. In the blossom, and until the fruit is ripe, it is concealed by the five pistils united around it, and their flat stylos covering its whole surface (Fig. 277). But at maturity, the five Hiiall and one-seeded fruits separate, and so do their styles, from the beak, and hung suspended from the summit, They split off elasti- LESSON 19.] THE RECEPTACLE. rally from the receptacle, curving upwards with a sudden jerk, which scatters the seed, often throwing it to a considerable distance. 330. When a flower bears a great many pis- tils, its receptacle is gen- erally enlarged so as to give them room ; some- times becoming broad and flat, as in the Flow- ering Raspberry, some- times elongated, as in the Blackberry, the Mag- nolia, &c. It is the re- ceptacle in the Straw- berry (Fig. 279), much enlarged and pulpy when ripe, which forms the eatable part of the fruit, and bears the small seed-like pistils on itb surface. In the Rose (Fig. 280), instead of being convex or conical, the receptacle is deeply con* cave, or urn-shaped. Indeed, a Rose-hip may be likened to a strawberry turned inside out, like the finger of a glove reversed, and the whole covered by the adherent tube of the calyx, which remains beneath in the strawberry. 331. A Disk is a part of the re- ceptacle, or a growth from it, en- larged under or around the pistil. It is hypogynous (269), when free from all union either with the pistil or the calyx, as in the Rue and the Orange (Fig. 281), It is perigy- nous (270), when it adheres to the base of the calyx, as in the Bladder-nut and Buckthorn (Fig. 282, FIG. 276. Flower of Gynandropsis , the receptacle enlarged and flattened where it bears the sepals and petals, then elongated into a slender stalk, bearing the stamens (in appearance, but they are inonadelphous) above its middle, and a compound ovary on its summit. FIG. 277. Young fruit of the common Wild Cranesbill. FIG- 278. The same, ripe, with the five pistils splitting away from the long beak or recep tacle, and hanging from its top by their styles. FIG. 279. Longitudinal section of a young strawberry, enlarged. FIG. 280. Similar section of a young Rose-hip FIG. 281. Pistil of the Orange, with a large hypogynous disk at its base. 11* 126 THE FRUIT. [LESSON 20. 283). Often it adheres both to the calyx and to the ovary, as in New Jersey Tea, the Apple, &c., consolidating the whole together. In such cases it is sometimes carried up and expanded on the top of the ovary, as in the Parsley and the Ginseng families, when it is said to be epigynous (273). 332. In Nelumbium, — a large Water-Lily, abounding in the wa- ters of our Western States, — the singular and greatly enlarged receptacle is shaped like a top, and bears the small pistils immersed in separate cavities of its flat upper surface (Fig. 284). LESSON XX. THE FRUIT. 333 THE ripened ovary, with its contents, becomes the Fruit. When the tube of the calyx adheres to the ovary, it also becomes j, part of the fruit: sometimes it even forms the principal bulk of it, as in the apple and pear. 334. Some fruits, as they are commonly called, are not fruits at all in the strict botanical sense. A strawberry, for example (as we have just seen, 330, Fig. 282), although one of the choicest fruits in the common acceptation, is only an enlarged and pulpy receptacle, bearing the real fruits (that is, the ripened pistils) scattered over its FIG. 282. Flower of a Buckthorn, with a largo perigynous disk. 28a The same, divided. FIG. 284. Receptacle of Nelumbium, in fruit. LESSON 20.] ITS KINDS. 127 surface, and too small to be much noticed. And mulberries, figs, and pine-apples are masses of many fruits with a pulpy flower-stalk, &c. Passing these by for the present, let us now consider only 335. Simple Fruits, These are such as are formed by the ripening of a single pistil, whether simple (305) or compound (311). 336. A simple fruit consists, then, of the Seed-vessel (technically called the Pericarp}, or the walls of the ovary matured, and the seed% contained in it. Its structure is generally the same as that of tlis ovary, but not always ; because certain changes may take place after flowering. The commonest change is the obliteration in the growing fruit of some parts which existed in the pistil at the time of flowering. The ovary of a Horsechestnut, for instance, has three cells and two ovules in each cell ; but the fruit never has more than three seeds, and rarely more than one or two, and only as many cells. Yet the vestiges of the seeds that have not matured, and of the wanting cells of the pod, may always be detected in the ripe fruit. This oblitera- tion is more complete in the Oak and Chestnut. The ovary of the first likewise has three cells, that of the second six or seven cells, each with two ovules hanging from the summit. We might there- fore expect the acorn and the chestnut to have as many cells, and two seeds in each cell. Whereas, in fact, all the cells and all the ovules but one are uniformly obliterated in the forming fruit, which thus becomes one-celled and one-seeded, and rarely can any vestige be found of the missing parts. 337. On the other hand, a one-celled ovary sometimes becomes several-celled in the fruit by the formation of false partitions, com- monly by cross-partitions, as in the jointed pod of the Sea-Rocket and the Tick-Trefoil (Fig. 304). 338. Their Kinds, In defining the principal kinds of simple fruits which have particular names, we may classify them, in the first places into, — 1. Fleshy Fruits-, 2. Stone Fruits-, and 3. Dry Fruits. The first and second are of course indehiscent ; that is, they do not split open when ripe to discharge the seeds. 339. In fleshy fruits the whole pericarp, or wall of the ovary, thickens and becomes soft (fleshy, juicy, or pulpy) as it ripens. Of this the leading kind is 340. The Berry, such as the gooseberry and currant, the blueberry and cranberry, the tomato, and the grape. Here the whole flesh is equally soft throughout. The orange is merely a berry with 3 leathery rind. 128 THE FRUIT. [LESSON 20. 341. The Pepo, or Gourd-fruit, is the sort of berry which belongs to the Gourd family, mostly with a hard rind and the inner portion softer. The pumpkin, squash, cucumber, and melon are the prin- cipal examples. 342. The Pome is a name applied to the apple, pear, and quince; fleshy fruits like a berry, but the principal thickness is calyx, only the papery pods arranged like a star in the core really belonging tc the pistil itself (333). 343. Secondly, as to fruits which are partly fleshy and partly hard, one of the most familiar kinds is 344. The Drupe, or Stone-fruit ; of which the cherry, plum, and peach (Fig. 285) are familiar examples. In this the outer part of the thickness of the pericarp becomes fleshy, or softens, like a berry, while the inner hardens, like a nut. From the way in which the pistil is con- structed (305), it is evident that the fleshy part here answers to the lower, and the stone to the upper, side of the leaf; — a leaf always consisting of two layers of green pulp, an upper and an under layer, which are considerably different (439). 345. Whenever the walls of a fruit are separable into two layers, the outer layer is called the Exocarp, the inner, the Endocarp (from Greek words meaning "outside fruit" and " inside fruit"). But in a drupe the outer portion, being fleshy, is likewise called Sarcocarp (which means "fleshy fruit"), and the inner, the Putamen or stone. The stone of a peach, and the like, it will be perceived, belongs to the fruit, not to the seed. When the walls are separable into three layers, the outer layer is named either exocarp or Epicarp / the middle one is called the Mesocarp (i. e. middle fruit) ; and the inner- most, as before, the Endocarp. 346. Thirdly, in dry fruits the seed-vessel remains herbaceous in texture, or becomes thin and membranaceous, or else it hardens throughout. Some forms remain closed, that is, are indchiscent (338) ; others are dehiscent, that is, split open at maturity in some regular way. Of indehiscent or closed dry fruits the principal kinds are (he following. 347. The Ai'Iilllilllll, or Akene, is a small, one-seeded, dry, indehis- FIG. 285. Longitudinal section of a peach, showing the flesh, the stone, and the seed LESSON 20.J ITS KINDS. 129 cent frnit, such as is popularly taken for a naked seed : but it is plainly a ripened ovary, and shows the re- mains of its style or stigma, or the place ass from which it has fallen. Of this sort are the fruits of the Buttercup (Fig. 286, 287), the Cinque-foil, and the Strawberry (Fig. 279, 288) ; that is, the real fruits, botanically speaking, of the latter, which are taken for seeds, not the large juicy receptacle on the surface of which they rest (330). Here the akenes are /•^-^__ ~-~- simple pistils (395), very numerous in the same I il f flower, and forming a head of such fruits. In the Nettle, Hemp, &c., there is only one pistil to each blossom. 348. In the raspberry and blackberry, each grain is a similar pistil, like that of the strawberry in the flower, but ripening into a miniature stone-fruit, or drupe. So that in the strawberry we eat the receptacle, or end of tho flower-s.talk ; in the rasp- berry, a cluster of stone-fruits, like cherries on a very small scale ; and in the blackberry, both a juicy receptacle and a cluster of stone-fruits covering it (Fig. 289, 290). 349. The fruit of the Composite family is also an achenium. Here the surface of the ovary is covered by an adherent calyx-tube, as is evident from the positior. of the corolla, apparently standing on its summit (321, aid Fig. 220, a). Sometimes the limb or divisions of the calyx are entirely wanting, as in Mayweed (Fig. 291) and White weed. Sometimes the limb of the calyx forms a crown or cup on the top of the acheniura, as in Succory (Fig. 292); in Coreopsis, it often takes the form of two blunt teeth or scales ; in the Sunflower (Fig. 293), it consists of two FIG. 286. Achenium of Buttercup. 287. Same, cut through, to show the seed within. FIG. 288. Slice of a part of a ripe strawberry, enlarged ; some of the achenia shown cut through. FIG. 289. Slice of a part of a blackberry. 290. One of the grains or drupes divided, more enlarged ; showing the flesh, the stone, and the seed, as hi Fig. 285. S&F— 7 130 THE Fit U IT. I. ha a ON 2U thin scales which fall off at the touch ; in the Sneezeweed, of about five very thin scales, which look more like a calyx (Fig. 294) ; and in the Thistle, Aster, Sow-Thistle (Fig. 295), and hundreds of others, it is cut up into a tuft of fine bristles or hairs. This is called the Pappus ; — a name which properly means the down like that of the Thistle ; but it is applied to all these forms, and to every other under which the limb of the calyx of the " compound flowers " appears. In Lettuce, Dandelion (Fig. 296), and the like, the achenium as it matures tapers upwards into a slender beak, like a stalk to the pappus. 350. A Utricle is the same as an achenium, but with a thin and bladdery loose pericarp ; like that of the Goosefoot or Pigweed (Fig. 297). When ripe it bursts open irregularly to discharge the seed ; or sometimes it opens by a circular line all round, the upper part falling off like a lid ; as in the Amaranth (Fig. 298). 351. A Caryopsis, OF Grain, differs from the last only in the seed adhering to the thin pericarp throughout, so that fruit and seed are in- corporated into one body ; as in wheat, In- ^ ^^ dian corn, and other kinds of grain. 298 352. A Nut is a dry and indehiscent fruit, commonly one-celled and one-seedci, with a hard, crus- taceous, or bony wall, such as tne cocoanut, hazelnut, chestnut, and the acorn (Fig. 21, 299). Here the involucre, in the form of a cup at the base, is called the Wipule. Ii> the Chestnut it forms the bur ; in the Hazel, a leafy husk. FIG. 291. Acheninni of Mayweed (no pappus). 299. That of Succory (its pappus a shal low cup). 293. Of Sunflower (pappus of two deciduous scales). 294. Of Sneezeweed (Hele nium), with its pappus of five scales. 295. Of Sow-Thistlo, with its pappus of delicate downy hairs. 29fi. Of the Dandelion, its pappus raised on a long heak. If!. 297. Utricle of the common Pipwced (Chenopodium album). FIO. 298. Utricle (pyxis) of Amaranth, opening all round (circumcis*!!^. FI<:. 299. Nut (acorn) of tlie Oak, with its cup (or cupule). LESSON 20.] ITS KINDS. 131 353. A Samara, Or Key-fruit, is either a nut or an achenium, or any cT other indehiscent fruit, furnished with a wing, like that of the Maple ° (Fig. 1), Ash (Fig. 300), and Elm (Fig. 301). 354. The Capsule, or Pod, is the general name for dry seed-vessels which split or burst open at maturity. But several sorts of pod are distin- guished by particular names. Two of them belong to simple pistils, namely, the Follicle and the Legume. 355. The Follicle is a fruit of a simple pistil opening along the inner suture (307). The pods of the Preony, Col- }umbine, Larkspur, Marsh-Marigold (Fig. 302), and Milkweed are of this kind. The seam along which the follicle opens answers to the edges of the pistil-leaf (Fig. 251, 253). 356. The Legume or true Pod, like the Pea-pod (Fig. 3C2 303), is similar to the follicle, only it opens by the outer as well as the inner or ventral suture (307), that is, by what answers to the midrib as \vell as by what answers to the united margins of the leaf. It splits therefore into two pieces, which are called valves. The le- gume belongs to plants of the Pulse family, which are accordingly termed Leguminosce, that is, leguminous plants. So the fruits of this family keep the name of legume, whatever their form, and whether they open or not. A legume divided across into one-seeded joints, which separate when ripe, as in Tick-Trefoil (Fig. 304), is named a Lament. 357. The true Capsule is the pod of a compound pistil. Like the ovary it resulted from, it may be one-celled, or it may have as many cells as there are carpels in its composition. It may discharge its seeds through chinks or pores, as in the Poppy, or burst irregularly in some part, as in Lobelia and the Snapdragon ; but commonly it splits open (or is dehiscent) lengthwise into regular pieces, called valves. FIG. 300. Samara or key of the White Ash. 301. Samara of the American Elm FIG. 302. Follicle of Marsh-Marigold (Caltha palustris). FIG. 303. Legume of a Sweet Pea, opened. FIG 304. Lorn en t or jointed legume of Tick-Trefoil (Ue»iiuH, inner seed-coat ; /, the albumen ; g, the minute embryo. TIG. 322. Seed of a St. Juhn's-wort, divided lengthwise ; here the whole kernel la embryo. 136 THE SEED. [LESSON 21. apply to seeds just as they do to ovules (325) ; and so do those terms which express the direction of the ovule or the seed in the cell ; such as erect, ascending, horizontal, pendulous, or suspended (323) : therefore it is not necessary to explain them anew. The accompanying figures (Fig. 319-322) show all the parts of the most common kind of seed, namely, the anatropous. 372. The Kernel, OF Nucleus, is the whole body of the seed within the coats. In many seeds the kernel is all Embryo ; in others a large part of it is the Albumen. 373. The Albumen of the seed is an accumulation of nourishing matter (starch, &c.), commonly surrounding the embryo, and des- tined to nourish it when it begins to grow, as was explained in the earlier Lessons (30-32). It is the floury part of wheat, corn (Fig. 38, 39), buckwheat, and the like. But it is not always mealy in texture. In Poppy-seeds it is oily. In the seeds of Poeony and Barberry, and in the cocoanut, it is fleshy ; in coffee it is corneous (that is, hard and tough, like horn) ; in the Ivory Palm it has the hardness as well as the general appearance of ivory, and is now largely used as a substitute for it in the fabrication of small objects. However solid its texture, the albumen always softens and partly liquefies during germination ; when a considerable portion of it is transformed into sugar, or into other forms of fluid nourishment, on which the growing embryo may feed. 374. The Embryo, or Germ, is the part to which all the rest of the seed, and also the fruit and the flower, are subservient. When the embryo is small and its parts little developed, the albumen is the more abundant, and makes up the principal bulk of the seed, as in Fig. 30, 321, 325. On the other hand, in many seeds there is no albumen at all ; but the strong embryo forms the whole kernel ; as in the Maple (Fig. 2, 3), Pumpkin (Fig. 9), Almond, Plum, and Apple (Fig. 11, 12), Beech (Fig. 13), and the like. Then, what- ever nourishment is needed to establish the plantlet in the soil is stored up in the body of the embryo itself, mostly in its seed-leaves. And these accordingly often become very lar«;e and thick, as in the almond, bean, and pea (Fig. 1G, 19), acorn (Fig. 21), chestnut, and horse-chestnut (Fig. 23, 24). Besides these, Fig. 2f>, 2G, 30 to 37, 43, and 45 exhibit various common forms of the embryo; and also some of the ways in which it is placed in the albumen ; being sometimes straight, and sometimes variously coiled up or packed away. LESSON 21.] THE EMBRYO. 137 3-23 375. The embryo, being a rudimentary plantlet, ready formed in the seed, has only to grow and develop its parts to become a young plant (15). Even in the seed these parts are generally distinguish- able, and are sometimes very conspicuous ; as in a Pumpkin-seed, for example (Fig. 323, 324). They are, first, 376. TllC Radicle, or rudimentary stemlet, which is sometimes long and slender, and sometimes very short, as we may see in the numer- ous figures already referred to. In the seed it always points to the micropylu (371), or what answers to the foramen of the ovule (Fig. 325, 32G). As to its po- sition in the fruit, it is said to be inferior when it points to the base of the pericarp, superior when it points to its summit, &c. The base or free end of the radicle gives rise to the root ; the other extremity bears 377. The Cotyledons or Seed-Leaves. With these in various forms we have already become familiar. The number of cotyledons has also been explained to be impor- tant (32, 33). In Corn (Fig. 40), and in all Grasses, Lilies, and the like, we have a Monocotyledonous embryo, namely, one fur- nished with only a single cotyledon or seed-leaf. — Nearly all the rest of our illustrations exhibit various forms of the Dicotyledonous embryo ; namely, with a pair of cotyledons or seed- leaves, always opposite each oilier. In the Pine family we find a Polycotyledonous embryo (Fig. 45, 4G) ; that is, one Avith several, or more than two, seed-leaves, arranged in a circle or whorl. 378. The Plumule is the little bud, or rudiment of the next leaf or pair of leaves after the seed-leaves. It appears at the summit of the radicle, between the cotyledons when there is a pair of them, as in Fig. 324, 14, 24, &c. ; or the cotyledon when only one is wrapped round it, as in Indian Corn, Fig. 40. In germination the plumule develops upward, to form the ascending trunk or stem of the plant, while the other end of the radicle grows downward, and becomes the root. FIG. .323. Embryo of the Pumpkin, seen flatwise. 324. Same cut through and viewed edgewise, enlarged : the small plumule seen between the cotyledons at their hase. FIG. 325. Seed of a Violet (Fig. 319) cut through, showing the embryo in the section, edgewise ; being an anatropoua seed, the radicle of the straight embryo points down to the base near the hilum. FIG. 32C. Similar section of the orthotrnpous seed of Buckwheat. Here the radicle point* directly away from the hilum, and to the apex of the seed ; also the thin cotyledons happea . in this plant to be bent round into the same direction. 12* 138 HOW PLANTS GROW. [LESSON 22. 379. This completes the circle, and brings our vegetable history round to its starting-point in the Second Lesson ; namely, The Growth of the Plant from the Seed. LESSON XXII. HOW PLANTS GROW. 380. A PLANT grows from the seed, and from a tiny embryo, like that of the Maple (Fig. 327), becomes perhaps a large tree, pro- ducing every year a crop of seeds, to grow in their turn in the same way. But how does the plant grow ? A little seedling, weighing only two or three grains, often doubles its weight every week of its early growth, and in time may develop into a huge bulk, of many tons' weight of vegetable matter. How is this done ? What is vege- table matter ? Where did it all come from ? And by what means is it increased and accumulated in plants ? Such questions as these will now naturally arise in any inquiring mind ; and we must try to answer them. 381. Growth is the increase of a tiring thing in size and siibstmire. It appears so natural to us that plants and animals should jirow, that people rarely think of it as requiring any explanation. They say that a thing is so because it grew so. Still we wish to know how the growth takes place. 382. Now, in the foregoing Lessons we explained the whole struc- ture of the plant, with all its organs, by beginning with the seedling pluntlet, and following it onward in its development through the FIG. 327. Germinating embryo of a Maple, LESSON 22.] FORMATION OF THE EMBRYO. 139 whole course of vegetation (12, &c.). So, in attempting to learn how this growth took place, it will be best to adopt the same plan, and to commence with the commencement, that is, with the first formation of a plant. This may seem not so easy, because we have to begin with parts too small to be seen without a good microscope, and requiring much skill to dissect and exhibit. But it is by no means difficult to describe them ; and with the aid of a few figured we may hope to make the whole mat- ter clear. 383. The embryo in the ripe seed is already a plant in miniature, as we have learned in the Second, Third, and Twenty-first Lessons. It is al- ready provided with stem and leaves. To learn how the plant began, there- fore, we must go back to an earlier period still ; namely, to the forma- tion and 384. Growth of the Embryo itself. For this purpose we return to the ovule in the pistil of the flower (323). During or soon after blossoming, a cavity appears in the kernel or nu- cleus of the ovule (Fig- 274, o), lined with a delicate membrane, and so forming a closed sac, named the embryo-sac (s). In this sac or cav- ity, at its upper end (viz. at the end next the orifice of the ovule), appears a roundish little vesicle or bladder-like body (v), perhaps less than one thousandth of an inch in diameter. This is the embryo, or rudimentary new plant, ai it* very beginning. But this vesicle never becomes anything moie than a grain of soft pulp, unless the ovule has been acted upor. by the pollen. FIG. 328. Magnified pistil of Buckwheat ; the ovary and ovule divided lengthwise : roma pollen on the stigmas, one grain distinctly showing its tube, which penetrates the stylr, re- appears in the cavity of the ovary, enters the mouth of the ovule Co), and reaches the sur- face of the embryo-sac (*\ near the embryonal vesicle (»). HO HOW PLANTS GROW. [LESSON 22. 385. The pollen (297) which falls upon the stigma grows there in a peculiar way : its delicate inner coat extends into a tube (the pollen-tube), which sinks into the loose tissue of the stigma and the interior of the style, something as the root of a seedling sinks into the loose soil, reaches the cavity of the ovary, and at length penetrates the orifice of an ovule. The point of the pollen- tube reaches the surface of the embryo-sac, and in some unexplained way causes a particle of soft pulpy or mucilaginous matter (Fig. 328) lo form a mem- branous coat and to expand into a vesicle, which is the germ of the embryo. 386. This vesicle (shown detached and more mag- nified in Fig. 329) is a specimen of what botanists call a Cell. Its wall of very delicate membrane encloses a mucilaginous liquid, in which there are often some minute grains, and commonly a larger soft mass (called its nucleus). 387. Growth takes place by this vesicle or cell, after enlarging to a certain size, dividing by the for- mation of a cross partition into two such cells, co- hering together (Fig. 330) ; one of these into two more (Fig. 331); and these repeating the process by partitions formed in both directions (Fig. 332); forming a cluster or mass of cells, essentially like the first, and all proceeding from it. After increasing in number for some time in this way, 033 and by a continuation of the same process, the em- bryo begins to shape it- self; the upper end forms the radicle or root-end, while the other end shows a notch between two lobes (Fig. 333), these lobes become the cotyledons or seed-leaves, and the embryo as it exists in the seed is at length completed (Fig. 336) FIO. 329. Vesicle or first cell of the embryo, with a portion of the summit of the embryo- pac, detached. 330. Same, mr.ro advanced, divided into two cells. 331. Paine, a little far ther advanced, consisting of three cells. 332. Same, still more advanced, consisting of a little mass of young cells. FIG. 333. Forming embryo of TJnckwheat, moderately magnified, showing a nick at tho end where tho cotyledons are to be. 331. Panic, more advanced in growth. 335. Paine, Ftill farther advanced. 33R. The completed embryo, displayed and straightened out; th« •amo as shown in a section when (bided together in Fig. 33G. LESSON 22.] GROWTII OF THE PLANTLET. 141 388. The Growth Of the Plantlct when it springs from the seed is only a continuation of the same process. The bladder-like cells of which the embryo consists multiply in number by the repeated division of each cell into two. And the plantlet is merely the ag- gregation of a vastly larger number of these cells. This may be clearly ascertained by magnifying any part of a young plantlet. The young root, being more transparent than the rest, answers the purpose best. Fig. 56, on page 30, repre- pt sents the end of the rootlet of Fig. 55, magnified enough to show the cells that form the surface. Fig. 337 and 338 are two small bits of the surface more highly magnified, showing the cells still larger. And if we make a thin slice through the young root both lengthwise and crosswise, and view it under a good microscope /T?ig. 340), we may per- ceive that the whole interior is made up of just such cells. It is the same with the young stem and the leaves (Fig. 355, 357). It is essentially the same in the full-grown herb and the tree. 389. So the plant is an aggregation of countless millions of little vesicles, or cells (Fig. 339), as they are called, essentially like the cell it began wilh in the formation of the embryo (Fig. 329) ; and this lir^t cell is the foundation of the whole structure, or the ancestor of all the rest. And a plant is a kind of structure built up of these individual cells, something as a house is built of bricks, — only the bricks or cells are not brought to the forming p]ant, but are made in it and by it ; or, to give a better comparison, f.e plant is constructed much as a honeycomb is built up of cells, — only the plant constructs itself, and shapes its own materials into fitting forms. 390. And vegetable growth consists of two things;— 1st, the ex- pansion of each cell until it gets its full size (which is commonly not more than ¥^ of an inch in diameter) ; and 2d, the multiplication FIG. 337- Tissue from the rootlet of a seedling Maple, magnified, showing root-hairs. 53. A small portion, more magnified. FIG. 333- A regularly twelve-sided cell, like those of Fig. 340, detached. 142 VEGETABLE FABRIC. [l.ESSOX 23, of the cells in number. It is by the latter, of course, that the prin« cipal increase of plants in bulk takes place. LESSON XXIII. VEGETABLE FABRIC : CELLULAR TISSUE. 391. Organic Structure, A mineral — such as a crystal of spar, or a piece of marble — may be divided into smaller and still smaller pieces, and yet the minutest portion that can be seen with the mi- croscope will have all the characters of the larger body, and be capable of still further subdivision, if we had the means of doing it, into just such particles, only of smaller size. A plant may also be divided into a number of similar parts : first into branches ; then each branch or stem, into joints or similar parts (34), each with its leaf or pair of leaves. But if we divide these into pieces, the pieces are not all alike, nor have they separately the properties of the whole ; they are not whole things, but fragments or slices. 392. If now, under the microscope, we subdivide a leaf, or a piece of stem or root, we come down in the same way to the set of similar things it is made of. — to cavities with closed walls, — to Cells, as we rail them (386), essentially the same everywhere, however they may vary in shape. These arc the units, or the elements of which every part consists ; and it is their growth and their multiplication which FIG. 340. Magnifled view, or diagram, of Pome perfectly regular cellular tissue, formed of twrivo- idfd cells, cut rrofwvrl.^e and Iflnfrtliwi.-o. LESSON 23.] CELLULAR TISSUE. 143 make the growth of the plant, as was shown in the last Lesson. We cannot divide them into similar smaller parts having the prop erties of the whole, as we may any mineral body. We may cut them in pieces ; but the pieces are only mutilated parts of a cell. This is a peculiarity of organic things (2, 3) : it is organic structure. Being composed of cells, the main structure of plants is called 393. Cellular Tissue, The cells, as they multiply, build up tha tissues or fabric of the plant, which, as we have said (389), may be likened to a wall or an edifice built of bricks, or still better to a honeycomb composed of ranges of cells (Fig. 340). 394. The walls of the cells are united where they touch each other ; and so the partition appears to be a simple membrane, although it is really double ; as may be shown by boiling the tissue a few minutes and then pulling the parts asunder. And in soft fruits the cells separate in ripening, although they were perfectly united into a tissue, when green, like that of Fig. 340. 395 In that figure the cells fit together perfectly, leaving no interstices, except a very small space at some of the corners. But in most leaves, the cells are loosely heaped together, leaving spaces or passages of all sizes (Fig. 356) ; and in the leaves and stems of aquatic and marsh plants, in particular, the cells are built up into narrow partitions, which form the sides of large and regular canals or passages (as shown in Fig. 341). These passages form the holes or cavities so conspicuous on cutting across any of thesfe plants, and which are always filled with air. They may be likened to a stack of chimneys, built up of cells in place of bricks. 396. When small and irregular, the interstices are called inter- cellular spaces (that is, spaces between the cells). When large and regular, they are named intercellular passages or air-passages 397. It will be noticed that in slices of the root, stem, or any tissue where the cells are not partly separate, the boundaries of the cells are usually more or less six-sided, like the cells of a honeycomb ; and this is apt to be the case in whatever direction the slice is made, whether crosswise, lengthwise, or obliquely. The reason of this is easy to see. The natural figure of the cell is globular Cells which are not pressed upon by others are generally round or roundish (except when they grow in some particular direction), as we see in the green pulp of many leaves. When a quantity of spheres (such, for instance, as a pile of cannon-balls) are heaped up, each one in the interior of the heap is touched by twelve others. If the spheres be 144 VEGETABLE FABRIC. [LESSON 23. soft and yielding, as young cells are, when pressed together they will become twelve-sided, like that in Fig. 339. And a section in any direction will be six-sided, as are the meshes in Fig. 340. 398. The size of the common cells of plants varies from about the thirtieth to the thousandth of an inch in diameter. An ordinary size is from -^fa to 3^ of an inch ; so that there may generally be from 27 to 125 millions of cells in the compass of a cubic inch ! 399. Now when it is remembered that many stems shoot up at the rate of an inch or two a day, and sometimes of three pr four inches, knowing the size of the cells, we may form some conception of the rapidity of their formation. The giant Puff-ball has been known to enlarge from an inch or so to nearly a foot in diameter in a single night ; but much of this is probably owing to expansion. We take therefore a more decisive, but equally extraordinary case, in the huge flowering stem of the Century-Plant. After waiting many years, or even for a century, to gather strength and materials for the effort, Century-Plants in our conservatories ser.d up a flow- ering stalk, which grows day after day at the rate of a foot in twenty- four hours, and becomes about six inches in diameter. This, sup- posing the cells to average -3^ of an inch in diameter, requires the formation of over twenty thousand millions of cells in a day! 400. The walls of the cells are almost always colorless. The green color of leaves and young uark, and all the brilliant hues of flowers, are due to the contents of the cells, seen through their more or less transparent walls. 401. At first the walls are always very thin. In all soft parts they remain so ; but in other cases they thicken on the inside and harden, as we see in the stone of stone-fruits, and in all hard wood (Fig. 345) Sometimes this thickening continues until the cell is nearly filled up solid. 402. The walls of cells are perfectly closed and whole, at least in all young and living cells. Those with thickened walls have thin places, indeed ; but there are no holes opening from one cell into another. And yet through these closed cells the sap and all the juices are conveyed from one end of the plant to the other. 403. Vegetable cells may vary widely in shape, particularly when not combined into a tissue or solid fabric. The hairs of plants, for example, are cells drawn out into tubes, or are composed of a row of cells, growing on the surface. Cotton consists of simple long hairs on the coat, of the seed ; and these hairs are single rails. The hair- LESSON 24.] TOOD. 145 like bodies which abound on young roots are very slender projec- tions of some of the superficial cells, as is seen in Fig. 337. Even the fibres of wood, and what are called vessels in plants, are only peculiar forms or transformations of cells. LESSON XXI\. VEGETABLE FABRIC I WOOD. 404. CELLULAR TISSUF, such as described in the last Lesson, makes up the whole structure of all very young plants, and the whole of Mosses and other vegetables of the lowest grade, even when full grown. But this fabric is too tender or too brittle to give needful strength and toughness for plants which are to rise to any considerable height and support themselves. So all such plants have also in their composition more or less of 405. Wood, This is found in all common herbs, as well as in shrubs and trees ; only there is not so much of it in proportion to the softer cellular tissue. It is formed very early in the growth of the root, stem, and leaves ; traces of it appearing in large embryos even while yet in the seed. 406. Wood is likewise formed of cells, — of cells which at first are just like those that form the soft parts of plants. But early in their growth, some of these lengthen and at the same time thicken their walls ; these are what is called Woody Fibre or Wood- Cells ; others grow to a greater size, have thin walls with various markings upon them, and often run together end to end so as to form pretty FIG 341. Part of a slica across the stem of the Calla, or rather Richardia .' "Jcana, magnified 13 146 VEGETABLE FABRIC. [LESSON 24. large tubes, comparatively ; these are called Ducts, or sometimes Vessels. Wood almost always consists ot both woody fibres and ducts, variously intermingled, and combined into bundles or threads which run lengthwise through the root and stem, and are spread out to form the frame- work of the leaves (136). In trees and shrubs they are so numerous and crowded together, that they make a 6 solid mass of wood. In herbs they are fewer, and often scattered. That is all the difference. 407. The porosity of some kinds of wood, which is to be seen by the naked eye, as in mahogany and Oak-wood, is owing to a large sort of ducts. These generally contain air, except in very * young parts, and in the spring of the year, when they are often gorged with sap, as we see in a wounded Grape- vine, or in the trunk of a Sugar-Maple at that time. But in woody plants through the season, the sap is usually carried up from the roots to the leaves by the 408. Wood-Cells, or Woody Fibre. (Fig. 342-345.) These are email tubes, commonly between one and two thousandths, but in Pine-wood sometimes two or three hundredths, of an inch in diam- eter. Those from the tough bark of the Basswood, shown in Fig. 342, are only the fifteen-hundredth of an inch wide. Those of But- tonwood (Fig. 345) are larger, and are here highly magnified be- sides. They also show the way wood-cells are commonly put to- gether, namely, with their tapering ends overlapping each other, — spliced together, as it were, — thus giving more strength and tough- ness to the stem, &c, FIG. 342. Two wood-cells from the inner or fibrous bark of the Linden or Basswood. 343. Sonic tissue of the wood of the same, viz. wood-cells, and below (rf) a portion of a spirally marked dwt. 3-M. A separate wood-cell. All equally magnified. FIG. :M.r>. Somo wood-cells of Buttonwood, highly magnified : a, thin spots in the walls, looking like holes ; on the right-hand side, where the walls are cut through, these ,A) are Keen in profile. LESSON 24.] WOOD. 147 A V 409. In hard woods, such as Hickory, Oak, and Buttonwood (Fig. 345), the walls of these tubes are very thick, as well as dense ; while in soft woods, such as White-Pine and Basswood, they are pretty thin. 410. Wood-cells, like other cells (at least when young and living), have no openings ; each has its own cavity, closed and independent They do not form anything like a set of pipes opening one into an- other, so as to convey an unbroken stream of sap through the plant^ in the way people generally suppose. The contents can pass from on9 cell to another only by getting through the partitions in some way or other. And so short are the individual wood- cells generally, that, to rise a foot in such a tree as the Basswood, the sap has to pass through about two thousand partitions ! 411. But although there are no holes (ex- cept by breaking away when old), there are plenty of thin places, which look like perfora- tions; and through these the sap is readily trans- ferred from one cell to another, in a manner to be explained further on (487). Some of them are exhibited in Fig. 345, both as looked directly down upon, when they appear as dots or holes, and in profile where the cells are cut through. The latter view shows what they really are, namely, very thin places in the thickness of the wall ; and also that a thin place ii> one cell exactly corresponds to one in the contiguous wall of the next- cell. In the wood of the Pine family, these thin spots are much larger, and are very conspicuous in a thin slice of wood under the microscope (Fig. 346, 347) ; — forming stamps impressed as it were upon each fibre of every tree of this great family, by which it may be known even in the smallest fragment of its wood. 412. Wood-cells in the bark are generally longer, finer, and tougher than those of the proper wood, and appear more like fibres. For example, Fig. 344 represents a cell of the wood of Basswood, of average length, and Fig. 342 one (and part of another) of the fibrous bark, both drawn to the same scale. As these long cells form the principal part of fibrous bark, or bast, they are named Bast- cells or Bast-fibres. These give the great toughness to the inner bark of Basswood (i. e. Bast-wood) and of Leathervvood ; and they FIG. 346. A bit of Pine-shaving, highly magnified, showing the large circular thin spots >f the wall of the wood-cells. 347. A separate wood-cell, more magnified, the varying thick less of the wall at these spots showing as rings. 148 VEGETABLE FABRIC. [LESSON 24. furnish the invaluable fibres of flax and hemp ; the wood of the stem being tender, brittle, and destroyed by the processes which separate for use the tough and slender bast-cells. 413. DuctS (Fig. 348-350) are larger than wood-cells, some of them having a calibre large enough to be seen by the naked eye, when cut across (407), although they are usually much too small for this. They are either long single cells, or are formed of a row of cells placed end to end. Fig. 349, a piece of a large dotted duct, and two of the ducts in Fig. 350, show this by their joints, which mark the boundaries o^ the several cells they are composed of. 414. The walls of ducts under the microscope display various kinds of markings. In what are called Dotted Ducts (Fig. 348, 349), which are the commonest and the. largest of all, — their cut ends making the visible porosity of Oak- wood, — the whole wall is apparently riddled with holes ; but until they become old, these are only thin places. Spiral Ducts, or Spiral Vessels, also the varieties of these called Annular or Handed Ducts (Fig. 350), are marked by a delicate fibre spirally coiled, or by rings or bands, thickening the wall. In the genuine spiral duct, the thread may be uncoiled, tearing the trans- parent wall in pieces ; — as may be seen by breaking most young shoots, or the leaves of Strawberry or Amaryllis, and pulling the broken ends gently asunder, uncoiling these gossamer threads in abundance. In Fig. 355, some of these various sorts of ducts or vessels are shown in their place in the wood. 415. Milk- Vessels, Turpentine- Vessels, Oil-Receptacles, and the ike, ire generally canals or cavities formed between or among the cells, and filled with the particular products of the plant. FIG. 348. Part of a dotted duct from a Grape-vine. 349. A similar one, evidently com- posed of a row of cells. 350. Part of a bundle of spiral and annular ducts from the stem of Polygonum oricutale, or Princes' Feather. All highly magnified. WESSON 25. ] ANATOMY OF THE ROOT. 149 LESSON XXV. ANATOMY OF THE ROOT, STEM, AND LEAVES. 416. HAVING in the last preceding Lessons learned what the materials of the vegetable fabric are, we may now briefly consider »how they are put together, and how they act in carrying on the plant's operations. 417. The root and the stem are so much alike in their internal structure, that a description of the anatomy of the latter will answer for the former also. 418. The Structure Of the Rootlets, however, or the tip of the root, demands a moment's attention. The tip of the root is the newest part, and is constantly rerewing itself so long as the plant is active (67). It is shown magnified in Fig. 56, and is the same in all rootlets as in the first root of the seedling. The new roots, or their new parts, are mainly concerned in imbibing moisture from the ground ; and the newer they are, the more KCtively do they absorb. The ab sorbing ends of roots are entirely composed of soft, new, and very thin-walled cellular tissue ; it is only farther back that some wood- cells and ducts are found. The moisture (and probably also air) presented to them is absorbed through the delicate walls, which, like those of the cells in the interior, are destitute of openings or pores visible even under the highest possible magnifying power. 419. But as the rootlet grows older, the cells of its external layer harden their walls, and form a sort of skin, or epidermis (like that which everywhere covers the stem and foliage above ground), which greatly checks absorption. Roots accordingly cease very actively to imbibe moisture almost as soon as they stop growing (67). 420. Many of the cells of the surface of young rootlets send out a prolongation in the form of a slender hair-like tube, closed of course at the apex, but at the base opening into the cavity of the cell. These tubes or root-hairs (shown in Fig. 55 and 56, and a few of them, more magnified, in Fig. 337 and 338), sent out in all direc- tions into the soil, vastly increase the amount of absorbing surface which the root presents to it. 421. Structure Of the Stem (also of the body of the root). At the beginning, when the root and stem spring from the seed, they consist 13* 150 ANATOMY OF ENDOGENOUS [LESSON 25. almost entirely of soft and tender cellular tissue. But as they grow, wood begins at once to be formed in them. 422. This woody material is arranged in the stem in two very- different ways in different plants, making two sorts of wood. One sort we see in a Palm-stem, a rattan, and a Corn-stalk (Fiji. 351) ; the other we are familiar with in Oak, Maple, and all our common kinds of wood. In the first, the wood is made up of separate threads., scattered here and there throughout the whole diameter of the stem0 In the second the wo xl is all collected to form a layer (in a slice across appearing as a ring) of wood, between a central cellulai part which has none in it, the Pith, and an outer cellular part, the Bark. This last is the plan of all our Northern trees and shrubs, and of the greater part of our herbs. The first kind is 423. The Endogenous Stem ; so named from two Greek words mean- ing "inside-growing," because, when it lasts from year to year, the new wood which is added is interspersed among the older threads of wood, and in old stems the hardest and oldest wood is near the surface, and the youngest arid softest towards the centre. All the plants represented in Fig. 47, on p. 19, (ex- cept the anomalous Cycas,) are examples of En. dogenous stems. And all such belong to plants with only one cotyledon or seed-leaf to the em- bryo (32). Botanists therefore call them Endoge- nous or Monocotyledonons Plants, using sometimes one name, and sometimes the other. Endogenous stems have no separate pith in the centre, no distinct bark, and no layer or ring of wood between these two ; but the threads of wood are scattered throughout the whole, without any particular orde". This is very different from 424. The Exogenous Stem, the one we have most to do with, since all our Northern trees and shrubs are constructed on this plan. It belongs to all plants which have two cotyledons to the embryo (or more than two, such as Pines, 33) ; so that we call these either Exogenous or Dicotyledonous Plants (1C), accordingly as we take the name from the stem or from the embryo. 425. In the Exogenous stem, as already stated, the wood is all collected into one zone, surrounding- a pith of pure cellular tissue in the centre, and surrounded by a distinct and separable bark, the PIG. 351. Section of a Corn-stalk (an endogenous stein), both crosswise and length -vis* LESSON 25.] AND EXOGENOUS STEMS. 151 331 outer part of which is also cellular. This structure is very familiar in common wood. It is really just the same in the stem of an herb, only the wood is much less in quantity. Compare, for instance, a cross-section of the stem of Flax (Fig. 352) with that of a shoot of Maple or Horsechestnut of the same age. In an herb, the wood at the beginning consists of separate threads or little wedges of wood; but these, however few and scattered they may be, are all so placed in the stem as to mark out a zone (or in the cross-section a ring) of wood, dividing the pith within from the bark without. 426. The accompa- ny ing figures (which are diagrams rather than exact delinea- tions) may serve to illustrate the anat- omy of a woody exogenous stem, of one year old. The parts are explained in the references be- low. In the centre is the Pith. Surround- ing this is the layer J. of Wood, consisting both of wood-cells and of ducts or vessels. From the pith to the bark on all sides run a set of narrow plates of cellular tissue, called Medullary Rays : these make the silver-grain of wood. On the cross-section they appear merely as narrow lines; but in wood cut lengthwise parallel to them, their faces show as glimmer- FIG. 359. Cross-section of the Ptrm of Flax, showing its bark, wood, and pith. FIG. 353. Piece of a stem of Soft Maple, of a year old, cut crosswise and lengthwise. FIG. 354. A portion of the same, magnified. FIG. 355. A small piece of the same, taken from one side, reaching from the bark to the pith, and highly magnified : a, a small bit of the pith ; b, spiral ducts of what is called the medullary sheath ; c, the wood ; umine, or magnesia, iron or manganese, sulphur or phosphorus, &c< Some or all of these elements may be detected in many or most plants. But they make no part of their real fabric ; and they forrn only from one or two to nine or ten parts out of a hundred of any vegetable substance. The ashes vary according to the nature of the soil. In fact, they consist, principally, of such materials as happened to be dissolved, in small quantity, in the water which was taken up by the roots ; and when that is consumed by the plant, or flies off pure (as it largely does, 447) by exhalation, the earthy mat- ter is left behind in the cells, — just as it is left incrusting the sides of a teakettle in which much hard water has been boiled. As is very natural, therefore, we find more earthy matter (i. e. more ashes) in the leaves than in any other part (sometimes as much as seven per cent, when the wood contains only two per cent) ; because it is through the leaves that most of the water escapes from the plant. These earthy constituents are often useful to the plant (the silex, for instance, increases the strength of the Wheat-stalk), or are useful in the plant's products as furnishing needful elements in the food of man and other animals ; and some must be held to be necessary to vege- tation, since this is never known to go on without them. 453. The Organic Constituents, As has just been remarked, when we burn in the open air a piece of any plant, nearly its whole bulk, and from 88 to more than 99 parts out of a hundred by weight of its substance, disappear, being turned into air and vapor. These are the organic constituents which have thus been consumed, — the actual materials of the cells and the whole real fabric of the plant And we may state that, in burning, it has been decomposed into ex actly the same kinds of air, and the vapor of water, that the plant used in its making. The burning has merely undone the work of vegetation, and given back the materials to the air just in the state in which the plant took them. 454. It will not be difficult to understand what the organic con- stituents, that is, what the real materials, of the plant are, and how the plant obtains them. The substance of which vegetable tissue, viz. the wall of the cells, is made, is by chemists named Cellulose. It is just the same thing in composition in wood and in soft cellular tis- 160 THE PLANT IN ACTION. I LESSON 26k due, — in the tender pot-herb and in the oldest tree. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 6 parts of the first to 10 of the second and 5 of the third. These, accordingly, are necessary mate- rials of vegetable growth, and must be received by the growing plant 455. The Plant's Food must contain these three elements in some shape or other. Let us look for them in the materials which the plant is constantly taking from me soil and the air. 456. Water is the substance of which it takes in vastly more than •rf' anything else : we well know how necessary it is to vegetable life. The plant imbibes water by the roots, which are specially construct- ed for taking it in, as a liquid when the soil is wet, and probably also in the form of vapor when the soil is only damp. That water in the form of vapor is absorbed by the leaves likewise, when the plant needs it, is evident from the way partly wilted leaves revive and freshen when sprinkled or placed in a moist atmosphere. Now water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, two of the three elements of cellulose or plant-fabric. Moreover, the hydrogen and the oxygen exist in water in exactly the same proportions that they do in cellu- lose : so it is clear that water furnishes these two elements. 457. We inquire, therefore, after the third element, carbon. This is the same as pure charcoal. Charcoal is the carbon of a vegetable left behind after charring, that is, heating it out of contact of the air until the hydrogen and oxygen are driven off. The charcoal of wood is so abundant in bulk as to preserve perfectly the shape of the cells after charring, and in weight it amounts to about half that of the original material. Carbon itself is a solid, and not at all dissolved by water : as such, therefore, it cannot be absorbed into the plant, however minute the particles ; only liquid and air can pass through the walls of the cells (402, 410). It must therefore come to the plant in some combination, and in a fluid form. The only substance within the plant's reach containing carbon in the proper state is 458. Carbonic Acid. This is a ga^ and one of the components of the atmosphere, everywhere making about ^Vn Part of its bulk» — enough for the food of plants, but not enough to be injurious to animals. For when mixed in any considerable proportion with the air we breathe, carbonic acid is very poisonous. The air produced by burning charcoal is carbonic acid, and we know how soon burning rhnrconl in a close room will destroy life. 450. The air around us consists, besides this mitiute proportion of carbonic acid, of two other gases, mixed together, viz. oxygen LESSON 26.] ITS FOOD. 161 and nitrogen. The nitrogen gas docs not support animal lite •. it only dilutes the oxygen, which does. It is the oxygen gas alone which renders the air fit for breathing. 4GO. Carbonic acid consists of carbon combined with oxygen. In breathing, animals are constantly forming carbonic acid gas by unit- ing carbon from their bodies with oxygen of the air; they inspire oxygen into their lungs ; they breath it out as carbonic acid. Sc with every breath animals are diminishing the oxygen of the air, — so necessary to animal life, — and are increasing its carbonic acid, — so hurtful to animal life ; or rather, which would foe so hurtful if it were allowed to accumulate in the air. The reason why it does not increase in the air beyond this minute proportion is that plants feed upon it. They draw iheir whole stock of carbon from the carbonic acid of the air. 461. Plants take it in by their leaves. Every current, or breeze that stirs the foliage, brings to every leaf a succession of fresh atoms of carbonic acid, which it absorbs through its thousands of breathing- pores. We may prove this very easily, by putting a small plant or a fresh leafy bough into a glass globe, exposed to sunshine, and hav- ing two openings, causing air mixed with a known proportion of carbonic acid gas to enter by one opening, slowly traverse the foliage, and pass out by the other into a vessel proper to receive it : now, examining the air chemically, it will be found to have less carbonic acid than before. A portion has been taken up by the foliage. 462. Plants also take it in by their roots, some probably as a gas, in the same way that leaves absorb it, and much, certainly, dissolved in the water which the rootlets imbibe. The air in the soil, es- pecially in a rich soil, contains many times as much carbonic acid as an equal bulk of the atmosphere above. Decomposing vegetable matter or manures, in the soil, are constantly evolving carbonic acid, and a large part of it remains there, in the pores and crevices, among which the absorbing rootlets spread and ramify. Besides, as this gas is dissolved by water in a moderate degree, every rain-drop that falls from the clouds to the ground brings with it a little carbonic acid, dissolving or washing it out of the air as it passes, and bringing it down to the roots of plants. And what flows off intc the streams and ponds serves for the food of water-plants. 463. So water and carbonic acid, taken in by the leaves, or taken in by the roots and carried up to the leaves as crude sap, are the general fowl of plants, — are the raw materials out of which at least 14* 162 THE PLANT IN ACTION, [LESSON 26. the fabric and a part of the general products of the plant are made. Water and carbonic acid are mineral matters : in the plant, mainly in the foliage, they are changed into organic matters. This is 464. The Plant's proper Work, Assimilation, viz. the conversion by the vegetable of foreign, dead, mineral matter into its own living sub- stance, or into organic matter capable of becoming living substance. To do this is, as we have said, the peculiar office of the plant. Ho- and where is it done ? 465. It is done in the green parts of plants alone, and only when these are acted upon by the Jight of the sun. The sun in some way supplies a power which enables the living plant to originate these peculiar chemical combinations, — to organize matter into forms which are alone capable of being endowed with life. The proof of this proposition is simple ; and it shows at the same time, in the simplest way, what the plant does with the water and carbonic acid it consumes. Namely, 1st, it is only in sunshine or bright daylight that the green parts of plants give out oxygen gas, — then they do ; and 2d, the giving out of this oxygen gas is just what is required to render the chemical composition of water and carbonic acid the same as that of cellulose (454), that is, of the plant's fabric. This shows why plants spread out so large a suiface of foliage. 466. In plants growing or placed under water we may see bubbles of air rising from the foliage ; we may collect enough of this air to test it by a candle's burning brighter in it ; which shows it to be oxygen ga*. Now if the plant is making cellulose or plant- substance, — that is, is making the very materials of its fabric and growth, as must generally be the ca-e, — all this oxygen gas given off by the leaves comes from the decomposition of carbonic acid taken in by the plant. 467. This must be so, because cellulose is composed of 5 parts of oxygen and 10 of hydrogen to 6 of carbon (454) : here the first two are just in the same proportions as in water, which consists of 1 part of oxygen and 2 of hydrogen, — so that 5 parts of water and 6 i.t r;r- bon represent 1 of cellulose or plant-fabric ; and to make it out of water and carbonic acid, the latter (which is composed of carbon and oxygen) has only to give up all its oxygen. In other words, the plant, in its foliage under sunshine, decomposes carbonic acid gas, and turns the carbon together with water into cellulose, at the same time giving on* the oxygen of the carbonic acid into the air. 468. And we can readily prove that it is so, — namely, that plant" LESSON 26.] PRODUCING ORGANIC MATTER. 163 do decompose carbonic acid in their leaves and give out its oxygen, — by the experiment mentioned in paragraph 461. There the leaves, as we have stated, are taking in carbonic acid gas. We now add, that they are giving out oxygen gas at the same rate. The air as it comes from the glass globe is found to have just as much more oxygen as it has less carbonic acid than before — just as much more oxygen as would be required to turn the carbon re tained in the plant back into carbonic acid again. 469. It is all the same when plants — instead of making fabric At once, that is, growing — make the prepared material, and store it up for future use. The principal product of plants for this purpose is Starch, which consists of minute grains of organic matter, lying looje in the cells. Plants often accumulate this, perhaps in the root, as in the Turnip, Carrot, and Dahlia (Fig. 57 - 60) ; or in subter- ranean stems or branches, as in the Potato (Fig. 68), and many rootstocks ; or in the bases of leaves, as in the Onion, Lily (Fig. 73-75), and other bulbs ; or in fleshy leaves above ground, as those of the Ice-Plant, House-leek, and Century-Plant (Fig. 82) ; or in the whole thickened body, as in many Cactuses (Fig. 76) ; or in the seed around the embryo, as in Indian Corn (Fig. 38, 39) and other grain ; or even in the embryo itself, as in the Horsechestnut (Fig. 23, 24), Bean (Fig. 16), Pea (Fig. 19), &c. In all these forms this is a provision for future growth, either of the plant itself or of some offset from it, or of its offspring, as it springs from the seed. Now starch is to cellulose or vegetable fabric just what the prepared clay is to the potter's vessel, — the same thing, only requiring to be shaped and consolidated. It has exactly the same chemical composition, and is equally made of carbon and the elements of water, by decomposing the same amount of carbonic acid and giving back its oxygen to the air. In using it for growth . the plant dissolves it, conveys it to the growing parts, and consoli dates it into fabric. 470. Sugar, another principal vegetable product, also has essen- tially the same chemical composition, and may be formed out of the same common food of plants, with the same result. The different kinds of sugar (that of the cane, &c. and of grapes) consist of the same three materials as starch and cellulose, only with a little more water. The plant generally forms the sugar out of starch, changing one into the other with great ease ; starch being the form in which prepared material is stored up, and sugar that in which it is ex- [64 THE PLANT PURIFYING THE AIR, [LESSON 26. pended or transferred from one part of the plant to another. In the Sugar-cane and Indian Corn, starch is deposited in the seed ; in ger- mination this is turned into sugar for the plaritlet to begin its growth with ; the growing plant produces more, and deposits some as starch in the stalk ; just before blossoming, this is changed into sugar again, and dissolved in the sap, to form and feed the flowers (which cannot, like the leaves, create nourishment for themselves) ; and what is left is deposited in the seed as starch again, with which to begin the same operation in the next generation. 471. We might enumerate other vegetable products of this class (such as oil, acids, jelly, the pulp of fruits, &c.), and show how they are formed out of the carbonic acid and water which the plant takes in. But those already mentioned are sufficient. In producing any of them, carbonic acid taken from the air is decomposed, its carbon retained, and its oxygen given back to the air. That is to say, 472. Plants purify the Air for Animals, by taking away the carbonic acid injurious to them, continually poured into it by their breathing, as well as by the burning of fuel and by decay, and restoring in its place an equal bulk of life-sustaining oxygen (460). And by the same operation, combining this carbon with the elements of water, &c., and elaborating them into organic matter, — especially into starch, sugar, oil, and the like, — 473. Plants produce all the Food and Fabric of Animals, The herbiv- orous animals feed directly upon vegetables ; and the carnivorous feed upon the herbivorous. Neither the one nor the other originate any organic matter. They take it all ready-made from plants, — altering the form and qualities more or less, and at length destroy- ing or decomposing it. 474. Starch, sugar, and oil, for example, form a large part of the food of herbivorous animals and of man. When digested, they enter into the blood ; any surplus may be stored up for a time in the form of fat, being changed a little in its nature ; while the rest (and finally the whole) is decomposed into carbonic acid and water, and exhaled from the lungs in respiration ; — in other words, is given back to the air by the animal as the very same materials which the plant takes from the air as its food (463) ; — is given back to the air in the same form that it would have been if the vegetable matter had been left to decay where it grew, or if it had been set on fire and burned ; — and with the same result too as to the heat, the heat in this case producing and maintaining the proper temperature of the animal. LESSON 26.] AND PRODUCING THE FOOD OF ANIMALS. 165 475. But starch, sugar, and the like, do not make any part of the flesh or fabric of animals. And that for the obvious reason, that they consist of only the three elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; whereas the flesh of animals has nitrogen as well as these three ele- ments in its composition. The materials of the animal body, called Fibrine in the flesh or muscles, Gelatine in the sinews and bones, Caseine in the curd of milk, &c., are all forms of one and the same substance, composed of carbon, Itydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. As nitrogen is a large constituent of the atmosphere, and animals are taking it into their lungs with every breath they draw, we might suppose that they take this element of their frame directly from the air. But they do not. Even this is furnished by vegetables, and animals receive it ready-made in their food. And this brings us to consider still another and most important vegetable product, of a different class from the rest (omitted till now, for the sake of greater simplicity) ; namely, what is called 476. Proteine. This name has been given to it by chemists, be* cause it occurs under such a protean variety of forms. The Gluten of wheat and the Legumine of beans and other leguminous plants may be taken to represent it. It occurs in all plants, at least in young and growing parts. It does not make any portion of their tissue, but is contained in all living cells, as a thin jelly, mingled with the sap or juice, or as a delicate mucilaginous lining. In fact, it is formed earlier than the cell-wall itself, and the latter is moulded on it, as it were ; so it is also called Protoplasm. It disappears from common cells as they grow old, being transferred onward to new or forming parts, where it plays a very active part in growth. Mixed with starch, &c., it is accumulated in considerable quantity in wheat, beans, and other grains and seeds, especially those which are most nutritious as food. It is the proteine which makes them so nutritious. Taken by animals as food, it forms their flesh and sinews, and the animal part of their bones, without much change ; for it has the same composition, — is just the same thing, indeed, in some slightly different forms. To produce it, the plant employs, in addition to the carbonic acid and water already mentioned as its general food, some ammo- nia ; which is a compound of hydrogen and nitrogen. Ammonia (which is the same thing as hartshorn) is constantly escaping into the air in small quantities from all decomposing vegetable and animal substances. Besides, it is produced in every thunder- storm. Every flash of lightning causes some to be made (in the 166 PLANT-LIFE. [LESSON 27. form of nitrate of ammonia) out of the nitrogen of the air and the vapor of water. The reason why it never accumulates in the air so as to be perceptible is, that it is extremely soluble in water, as are all its compounds. So it is washed out of the atmosphere by the rain as fast as it is made or rises into it, and is brought down to the roots of plants, which take it in freely. When assimilated in the leaves along with carbon and water, proteine is formed, the very substance of the flesh of animals. So all iiesh is vegetable matter in its origin. 477. Even the earthy matter of the bones, and the iron and other mineral matters in the blood of animals, are derived from the plants they feed upon, with hardly an exception. These are furnished by the earthy or mineral constituents of plants (452), and are mereljf accumulated in the animal frame. 478. Animals, therefore, depend absolutely upon vegetables for their being. The great object for which the All-wise Creator estab- lished the vegetable kingdom evidently is, that plants mi^ht stand on the surface of the earth between the mineral and the animal crea- tions, and organize portions of the former for the sustenance of the latter. LESSON XXVII. PLANT-LIFE. 479. LIFE is known to us only by its effects. We cannot tell what it is : but we notice some things which it does. One peculi- arity of living things, which has been illustrated in the last Lesson, is their power of transforming matter into new forms, and thereby making products never produced in any other way. Life is also manifested by 480. Motion, that is, by self-caused movements. Living things move ; those not living are moved. Animals, living as they do upon organized food, — which is not found everywhere, — must needs have the power of going after it, of collecting it, or at least of taking it in ; which requires them to make spontaneous movements. But plants, with their wide-spread surface (34, 13H always in con- LESSON 27.] CIRCULATION IN CELLS. 167 tact with the earth and air on which they feed, — the latter and the most important of these everywhere just the same, — have no need of locomotion, and so are generally fixed fast to the spot where they grow. 481. Yet many plants move their parts freely, sometimes when there is no occasion for it that we can understand, and sometimes accomplishing by it some useful end. The sudden closing of tl Q leaflets of the Sensitive Plant, and the dropping of its leafstalk, when jarred, also the sudden starting forwards of the stamens of the Barberry at the touch, are familiar examples. Such cases seem at first view so strange, and so different from what Ave expect of a plant, that these plants are generally imagined to be endowed with a pe- culiar faculty, denied to common vegetables. But a closer exam- ination will show that plants generally share in this faculty ; that similar movements may be detected in them all, only — like those of the hands of a clock, or of the shadow of a sun-dial — they are too slow for the motion to be directly seen. 482. It is perfectly evident, also, that growth requires motion ; that there is always an internal activity in living plants as well as in animals, — a power exerted which causes their fluids to move or circulate, and carries materials from one part to another. Some movements are mechanical ; but even these are generally directed or controlled by the plant. Others must be as truly self-caused as those of animals are. Let us glance at some of the principal sorts, and see what light they throw upon vegetable life. 483. Cil'CUlalion ill Cells, From what we know of the anatomy of plants, it is clear that they have no general circulation (like that of all animals except the lowest), through a system of vessels opening into each other (402, 410). But in plants each living cell carries on a circulation of its own, at least when young and active. This may be beautifully seen in the transparent stems of Chara and many other water-plants, and in the leaves of the Fresh-water Tape-Grass (Vallisneria), under a good microscope. Here the sap circulates, often quite briskly in appearance, (but the motion is magnified as well as the objects,) in a steady stream, just beneath the wall, around each cell, passing up one side, across the end, down the other, and so round to complete the circuit, carrying with it small particles, or the larger green grains, which make the current more visible. This circulation may also be observed in hairs, particularly those on flowers, such as the jointed hairs of Spiderwort, looking 168 PLANT-LIFE. [LESSON 27. under the glass like strings of blue beads, each bead being a cell. But here a microscope magnifying six or eight hundred times in diameter is needed to see the current distinctly. 484. The movement belongs to the protoplasm (476), or jelly-like matter under the cell-wall. As this substance has just the same composition as the flesh of animals, it is not so strange that it should exhibit such animal-like characters. In the simplest water-plants, of the Sea-weed family, the body which answers to the seed is at first only a rounded little mass of protoplasm. When these bodies escape from the mother plant, they often swim about freely in the water in various directions, by a truly spontaneous motion, when they closely resemble animalcules, and are often mistaken for them. After enjoying this active life for several hours, they come to rest, form a covering of cellulose, and therefore become true vegetable cells, fix themselves to some support, germinate, and grow into the perfect plant. 485. Absorption, Conveyance Of UlC Sap, &C, Although contained in cells with closed walls, nevertheless the fluids taken in by the roots are carried up through the stem to the leaves even of the topmost bough of the tallest tree. And the sap, after its assimilation by the leaves, is carried down in the bark or the cambium-layer, and dis- tributed throughout the plant, or else is conveyed to the points where growth is taking place, or is accumulated in roots, stems, or wherever a deposit is being stored up for future use (71, 104, 128, 4G9). 486. That the rise of the sap is pretty rapid in a leafy and growing plant, on a dry summer's day, is evident from the amount of water it is continually losing by exhalation from the foliage (447) ; — a loss which must all the while be supplied from the roots, or else the leaves would dry up and die ; as they do so promptly when sepa- rated from the stem, or when the stem is cut off from the roots. Of course they do not then lose moisture any faster than they did before the separation ; only the supply is no longer kept up from below. 487. The rise of the sap into the leaves apparently is to a great degree the result of a mode of diffusion which has been called En- dosmose. It acts in this way. Whenever two fluids of different density are separated by a membrane, whether of dead or of living substance, or are separated by any porous partition, a flow takes place through the partition, mainly towards the heavier fluid, until that is brought to the same density as the other. A familiar illus- LESSON 27.3 CONVEYANCE OF THE SAP. 169 tration is seen when we place powdered sugar upon strawberries, and slightly moisten them : the dissolving sugar makes a solution stronger than the juice in the cells of the fruit ; so this is gradually drawn out. Also when pulpy fruits are boiled in a strong sirup ; as soon as the sirup becomes denser than the juice in the fruit, the latter begins to flow out and the fruit begins to shrivel. But when shrivelled fruits are placed in weak sirup, or in water, they become plump, because the How then sets inwards, the juice in the cells being denser than the water outside. Now the cells of the living plant contain organic matter, in the form of mucilage, protoplasm, some- times sugar, &c. ; and this particularly abounds in young and growing parts, such as the tips of roots (Fig. 56), whL-h, as is well known, are the principal agents in absorbing moisture from the ground. The contents of their cells being therefore always much denser than the moisture outside (which is water containing a little carbonic acid, &c., and a very minute quantity of earthy matter), this moisture is constantly drawn into the root. What makes it ascend to the leaves ? 488. To answer this question, we must look to the leaves, and consider what is going on there. For (however it may be in the spring before the leaves are out), in a leafy plant or tree the sap is not forced up from below, but is drawn up from above. Water large- ly evaporates from the leaves (447) ; it flies off into the air as vapor, leaving behind all the earthy and the organic matters, — these not being volatile ; — the sap in the cells of the leaf therefore becomes denser, and so draws upon the more watery contents of the cells of the stalk, these upon those of the stem below, and so on, from cell to cell down to the root, causing a flow from the roots to the leaves, which begins in the latter, — just as a wind begins in the direction towards which it blows. Somewhat similarly, elaborated sap is drawn into buds or any growing parts, where it is consolidated into fabric, or is conveyed into tubers, roots, seeds, and the like, in which it is condensed into starch and stored up for future use (74, 103, &c.)« 489. So in absorbing moisture by the roots, and in conveying the sap or the juices from cell to cell and from one part to another, the plant appears to make use of a physical or inorganic force ; but it manages and directs this as the purposes of the vegetable econ- omy demand. Now, when the proper materials are brought to the growing parts, growth takes place ', and in growth the plant moves 15 170 PLANT-LIFE. [LESSON 27. the particles of matter, arranges them, and shapes the fabric in a manner which we cannot at all explain by any mechanical laws. The organs are not shaped by any external forces ; they shape themselves, and take such forms and positions as the nature of each part, or the kind of plant, requires. 490. Special Movements, Besides growing, and quite independent of it, plants not only assume particular positions, but move or ber4 one part upon another to do so. Almost every species does this, as well as what are called sensitive plants. In springing from the seed, the radicle or stem of the embryo, if not in the proper position already, bends itself round so as to direct its root-end downwards, and the stem-end or plumule upwards. It does the same when covered so deeply by the soil that no light can affect it, or when growing in a perfectly dark cellar. But after reaching the light, the stem bends towards that, as every one knows ; and bends towards the stronger light, when the two sides are unequally ex- posed to the sun. It is now known that the shoot is bent by the shortening of the cells on the more illuminated side ; for if we split the bending shoot in two, that side curves over still more, while the opposite side inclines to fly back. But how the light causes the cells to shorten on that side, we can no more explain, than we can tell how the will, acting through the nerves, causes the contraction of the fibres of the muscles by which a man bends his arm. We are sure that the bending of the shoot has nothing to do with growth, because it takes place after a shoot is grown ; and the del- icate stem of a young seedling will bend a thousand times faster than it grows. Also because it is yellow light that most favors growth and the formation of vegetable fabric, while the blue and violet rays produce the bending. Leaves also move, even more freely than steins. They constantly present their upper face to tl a light ; and when turned upside down, they twist on their stalks, or curve round to recover their original position. The free ends of twining stems, as of Hop, or Morning Glory, or Bean, which appar- ently hang over to one side from their weight, are in fact bent over, and, the direction of the bend constantly changing, the shoot is steadily sweeping round the circle, making a revolution every few hours, or even more rapidly in certain cases, until it reaches a neighboring support, when, by a continuation of the same move- ment, it twines around it. Most tendrils revolve in the same way, sometimes even more rapidly ; while others only turn from the LESSON 27.] MOVEMENTS. 171 light ; this is especially the case with those that cling to walls 01 trunks by sucker-like disks, as Virginia Creeper, p. 38, fig. 62, When an active tendril comes into contact with a stem or any such extraneous body, it incurves at the point of contact, and so lays hold of the support : the same contraction or tendency to curve affecting the whole length of the tendril, it soon shortens into a coil, part coil- ing one way, part the other, thus drawing the shoot up to the sup- porting body ; or, if the tendril be free, it winds up in a simple coil. This movement of tendrils is so prompt in the Star-Cucumber (Sic- yos) in Echinocystis, and in two sorts of Passion-flower, that the end, after a gentle rubbing, coils up by a movement rapid enough to bu readily seen. In plants that climb by their leaf-stalks, such as Maurandia and Tropseolum, the movements are similar, but much too slow to be seen. 491. The so-called sleep of plants is a change of position as night draws on, and in different ways, according to the species, — the Locust and Wood-Sorrel turning down their leaflets, the Honey Locu-t raising them upright, the Sensitive Plant turning them for- wards one over another ; and the next morning they resume their diurnal position. One fact, among others, showing that the changes are not caused by the light, but by some power in the plant itself, is this. The leaves of the Sensitive Plant close long before sunset; but they expor.d again before sunrise, under much less light than they had wh^n they closed. In several plants the leaves take the nocturnal -position when brushed or jarred, — in the common Sensi- tive Plant very suddenly, in other ports less quickly, in the Honey Locust a little too slowly for us to see the motion. The way in which blossoms open and close, some when the light increases, some when it diminishes, illustrates the same thing. The stamens of the Barberry, when touched at the base on the inner side, — as by an jnsect seeking for honey, or by the point of a pin, — make a sudden jerk forward, and in the process commonly throw some pollen upon the stigma, which stands a little above their reach. 492. la many of these cases we plainly perceive that a useful end is subserved. But what shall we say of the Venus's Fly-trap of North Carolina, growing where it might be sure of all the food a plant can need, yet provided with an apparatus for catching insects, and actually capturing them expertly by a sudden motion, in the manner already described (12G, Fig. 81) ? Or of the leaflet* of the 172 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWKRLKSS PLANTS. [LESSON 27. Desmodium gyrans of the East Indies, spontaneously falling and rising by turns in jerking motions nearly the whole day long ? We can only say, that plants are alive, no less than animals, and that it is a characteristic of living things to move. *#* CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 493. IN all the foregoing Lessons, we have had what may be called plants of the higher classes alone in view. There are others, composing the lower grades of vegetation, to which some allusion ought to be made. 494. Of this sort are Ferns or Brakes, Mosses, Liverworts, Lichens, Sea-weeds, and Fungi or Mushrooms. They are all classed together under the name of ftowerlest Plants, or Crypto- gamous Plants; the former epithet referring to the fact that they do not bear real blossoms (with stamens and pistils) nor seeds (with an embryo ready-formed within). Instead of seeds they have spores, which are usually simple cells (392). The name Cryptogamous means, of hidden fructification, and intimates that they may have something answering to stamens and pistils, although not the same ; and this is now known to be the ca--e with most of them. 495. Flowerless plants are so very various, and so peculiar in each family, that a volume would be required to illustrate them. Curious and attractive as they are, they are too difficult to be studied botanically by the beginner, except the Ferns, Club-Mosses, and Horse-tails. For the study of these we refer the student at once to the Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, and to the Field, Forest, and Garden Botany. The structure and physiology of these plants, as well as of the Mosses, Liverworts, Lichens, Sea- weeds, and Fungi, are explained in the Structural Botany, or Botanical Text-Book, and in other similar works. When the student has fcecome prepared for the study, nothing can be more interesting than these plants of the lowest orders. LESSON 28.] SI'KCIES AND KINDS. 173 LESSON XXVIII. SPECIES AND KIXDS. 496. UNTIL no\v, we have been considering plants as to their structure and their mode of life. We have, as it were, been read- ing the biography of an individual plant, following it from the tiny seedling up to the mature and fruit-bearing herb or tree, and learning how it grows and what it does. The botanist also considers plants as to their relationships. 497. Plants and animals, as is well known, have two great pecu- liarities : 1st, they form themselves ; and 2d, they multiply them- selves. They reproduce themselves in a continued succession of 498. Individuals (3). Mineral things occur as masses, which are divisible into smaller and still smaller ones without alteration of their properties (391). But organic things (vegetables and ani- mals) exist as individual beings. Each owes its existence to a parent, and produces similar individuals in its turn. So each indi- vidual is a link of a chain ; and to this chain the natural-historian applies the name of 499. Species, All the descendants from the same stock therefore compose one species. And it was from our observing that the sev- eral sorts of plants or animals steadily reproduce themselves, — or, in other words, keep up a succession of similar individuals, — that the idea of species originated. So we are led to conclude that the Cre- ator established a definite number of species at the beginning, which have continued by propagation, each after its kind. 500. There are few species, however, in which man has actually observed the succession for many generations. It could seldom be proved that all the White Pine trees or White Oaks of any forest came from the same stock. But observation having familiarized us with the general fact, that individuals proceeding from the same stock are essentially alike, we infer from their close resemblance that these similar individuals belong to the same species. That is, we infer it when the individuals are as much like each other as those are which we know to have sprung from the same stock. 501. We do not infer it from every resemblance ; for there is the resemblance of kind, — as between the White Oak and the Red Oak, 15* 174 SPKCIKS AND KINDS. [LESSON '28. and between the latter and the Scarlet Oak : these, we take for granted, have not originated from one and the same stock, but from three separate stocks. Nor do \ve deny it on account of every difference ; for even the sheep of the same flock, and the plants raised from peas of the same pod, may show differences, and such differences occasionally get to be very striking. When they are pretty well marked, we call them Varieties. The White Oak, for example, presents two or time varieties in the shape of the leaves, although they may be all alike upon each particular tree. The question often arises, practically, and it is often hard to answer, whether the difference in a particular case is that of a variety, or is specific. If the former, we may commonly prove it to be so by finding such intermediate degrees of difference in various individuals as to show that no clear line of distinction can be drawn between them ; or else by observing the variety to vary back again, if not in the same individual, yet in its offspring. Our sorts of Apples, Pears, Potatoes, and the like, show us that differences which are permanent in the individual, and con- tinue unchanged through a long series of generations when propa- gated by division (as by offsets, cuttings, grafts, bulbs, tubers, &c.), are not likely to be reproduced by seed. Still they sometimes are so : and such varieties are called Races. These are strongly marked varieties, capable of being propagated by seed. Our different sorts of Wheat, Indian Corn, Peas, Radishes, &c., are familiar examples : and the races of men offer an analogous instance. 502. It should be noted, that all varieties have a tendency to be reproduced by seed, just as all the peculiarities of the parent tend to be reproduced in the offspring. And by selecting those plants which have developed or inherited any desirable peculiarity, keeping them from mingling with their less promising brethren, and selecting again the most promising plants raised from their seeds, we may in a few :u-l. LESSON 28.] ORDERS, CLASSES, ETC. 177 other : this group, therefore, answers to what is called a Tribe ; and the Rose itself stands for another tribe. But we further observe that the Apple genus, the Hawthorns, the Quince, and the June- berry, though of the same order, and nearly related among them- selves, differ yet more widely from the Rose and its nearest relations ; and so, on the other hand, do the Plum and Cherry, the Peach and the Almond. So this great Rose Family, or Order, is composed of three groups, of a more marked character than tribes, — groups which might naturally be taken for orders ; and we call them Sub- orders. But students will understand these matters best after a few lessons in studying plants in a work describing the kinds. 508. Classes. These are great assemblages of orders, as already explained (515). The orders of Flowering Plants are numerous, no less than 134 being represented in the Botany of the Northern United States ; but they all group themselves under two great classes. One class comprises all that have seeds with a inono- cotyledonous embryo (32), endogenous stems (423), and generally parallel-veined leaves (139) ; the other, those with dicotyledonous embryo, exogenous stems, and iietted-veined leaves ; and the whole aspect of the two is so different that they are known at a glance. 509. Finally, these two classes together compose the upper Series or grade of Flowering or P/ixnogamous Plants, which have their counterpart in the lower Series of Flowerless or Cryptogamou* Plants, — composed of three classes, and about a dozen orders. 510. The universal members of classification are CLASS, ORDER, GENUS, SPECIES, always standing in this order. When there are more, they take their places as in the following schedule, which comprises all that are generally used in a natural classification, proceeding from the highest to the lowest, viz. : — Series, CLASS, Subclass, ORDER, or FAMILY, Suborder, Tribe, Subtribe, GENUS, Subgenus or Section, SPECIES, Variety. S&F— 9 178 BOTANICAL NAMES. [LESSON 29. LESSON XXIX. BOTANICAL NAMES A\D CHARACTERS. 511. PLANTS are classifed, — i. e. are marshalled under their re- spective classes, orders, tribes, genera, and species, — and they are characterized, — that is, their principal characteristics or distinguish- ing marks are described or enumerated, in order that, First, their resemblances or differences, of various degrees, may be clearly exhibited, and all the species and kinds ranked next to those they are most related to ; — and Secondly, that students ma}' readily ascertain the botanical names of the plants they meet with, and learn their peculiarities, properties, and place in the system. 512. It is in the latter that the young student is chiefly interested. And by his studies in this regard he is gradually led up to a higher point of view, from which he may take an intelligent survey of the whole general system of plants. But the best way for the student to learn the classification of plants (or Botany as a system), is to use it, in finding out by it the name and the peculiarities of all the wild plants he meets with. 513. NamCSi The botanical name of a plant, that by which a botanist designates it, is the name of its genus followed by that of the species. The name of the genus or kind is like the family name or surname of a person, as Smith, or Jones. That of the speciea answers to the baptismal name, as John, or James. Accordingly, the White Oak is called botanically Quercus alba ; the first word, or Quercus, being the name of the Oak genus ; the second, alba, that of this particular species. And the Red Oak is named Quercus rubra; the Black -Jack Oak, Quercus nigra ; and soon. The bo- tanical names are all in Latin (or are Latinized), this being the common language of science everywhere ; and according to the usage of that language, and of most others, the name of the species comes after that of the genus, while in English it comes before it. 514. Generic Names, A plant, then, is named by two words. The generic name, or that of the genus, is one word, and a substantive. Commonly it is the old classical name, when the genus was known to the Greeks and Romans ; as Quercus for the Oak, Fagus for the LESSON 29.] BOTANICAL NAMES. 179 Beech, Corylus, the Hazel, and the like. But as more genera be- came known, botanists had new names to make or borrow. Many are named from some appearance or property of the flowers, leaves, or other parts of the plant. To take a few examples from tne early pages of the Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, — in which the derivation of the generic names is explained. The genus Hepatica, p. 6, comes from the shape of the leaf resembling that of the liver. Myosurus, p. 10, means mouse-tail. Jjeipldn- ium, p. 12, is from delphin, a dolphin, and alludes to the shape of the flower, which was thought to resemble the classical figures of the dolphin. Zanthorhiza, p. 13, is from two Greek words meaning yellow-root, the common name of the plant. Cimicifuga, p. 14, is formed of two Latin words, meaning, to drive away bugs, the same as its common name of Bugbane, the Siberian species being used to keep away such vermin. Sanguinaria, p. 26, is named from the blood-like color of its juice. 515. Other genera are dedicated to distinguished botanists or pro- moters of natural science, and bear their names : such are Magnolia, p. 15, which commemorates the early French botanist, Magnol, and Jejfersonia, p. 20, named after President Jefferson, who sent the first exploring expedition over the Rocky Mountains. Others bear the name of the discoverer of the plant in question ; as, Sarracenia, p. 23, dedicated to Dr. Sarrazin of Quebec, who was one of the first to send our common Pitcher-plant to the botanists of Europe ; and Claytonia, p. 65, first made known by the early Virginian botanist Clayton. 516. Specific Names, The name of the species is also a single word, appended to that of the genus. It is commonly an adjective, and therefore agrees with the generic name in case, gender, &c. Sometimes it relates to the country the species inhabits ; as, Clay- Ionia Virginica, first made known from Virginia ; Sanguinaria Canadensis, from Canada, &c. More commonly it denotes some obvious or characteristic trait of the species; as, for example, in Sarracenia, our northern species is named purpurea, from the pur- ple blossoms, while a more southern one is named flava, because its petals are yellow ; the species of Jeffersonia is called diphytta, meaning two-leaved, because its leaf is divided into two leaflets. Some species are named after the discoverer, or in compliment to a botanist who has made them known ; as, Magnolia Fraseri, named after the botanist Fraser, one of the first to find this species ; Ra- 180 BOTANICAL NAMKS AND CHARACTERS. [LESSON 29. worthia Michauxii, p. Go, named for the early botanist Michaux ; and Polygala Nuttallii, in compliment to Mr. Nuttall, who described it under another name. Such names of persons are of course writ- ten with a capital initial letter. Occasionally some old substantive name is used for the species ; as Magnolia Umbrella, p. 49, and Ra- nunculus Flammula, p. 41. These are also written with a capital initial, and need not accord with the generic name in gender, &c. 517. The name of a variety, when it is distinct enough to requite any, is made on the same plan as that of the species, and is written after it; as, Ranunculus Flammula, variety reptans, p. 41 (i. e. the creeping variety), and R. abortivus, variety micranthut, p. 42, or the small-flowered varie'y of this species. 518. Names Of Groups, The names of tribes, orders, and the like, are in the plural number, and are commonly formed by prolonging the name of a genus of the group taken as a representative of it. For example, the order of which the Buttercup or Crowfoot genus, Ranunculus, is the representative, takes from it the name of Ranun- culacece (Manual, p. 34) ; meaning Plants Ranunculacece when written out in full, that is, Ranunculaceous Plants. This order comprises several tribes ; one of which, to which Ranunculus itself belongs, takes the name of Rananculece ; another, to which the jrenus Clematis, or the Virgin's-Bower, belongs, takes accordingly the name of Cle.matidecB ; and so on. So the term Rosacece (mean- ing Rosaceous plants) is the name of the order of which the Rose (Rosa) is the well-known representative; and Rosece is the name of the particular tribe of it which comprises the Rose. 519. A few orders are named on a somewhat different plan. The great order Leguminosce, for instance (Manual, p. 123), is not named after any genus in it ; but the fruit, which is a legume (3af>), gives the name of Leguminous Plants. So, likewise, the order Umbclliferct {Manual, p. 187) means Umbelliferous or Umbel-bearing Plants; and the vast order Composites (Manual, p. 215) is so named because it consists of plants whose blossoms are crowded into heads of the sort which were called "compound flowers" by the old botanists (277). 520. Characters, The brief description, or enumeration in scien- tific terms, of the principal distinctive marks of a species, genus, oidcr, or other group, as given in botanical works, is called its Character. Thus, in the Manual, already referred to, at the begin- LESSON 30.] HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 131 ning, the character of the first great series is given ; then that of the first class, of the first subclass, and of the first division under it. Then, after the name of the order, follows its character (the ordinal character) : under the name of each genus (as, 1. Clematis, p. 35) is added the generic character, or description of what essentially distinguishes it ; and finally, following the name of each species, is the specific character, a succinct enumeration of the points in whick it mainly differs from other species of the same genus. See, for illustration, Clematis Viorna, p. 36, where the sentence immediately following the name is intended to characterize that species from all others like it. 521. Under this genus, and generally where we have several spe- cies of a genus, the species are arranged under sections, and these often under subsections, for the student's convenience in analysis, — the character or description of a section applying to all the species under it, and therefore not having to be repeated under each species. Under Clematis, also, are two sections with names, or sub-genera, which indicates that they might almost be regarded as two distinct genera. But these details are best understood by practice, in the actual studying of plants to ascertain their name and place. And to this the student is now ready to proceed. LESSON XXX. HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 522. HAVING explained, in the two preceding Le?sons, the gen- eral principles of Classification, and of Botanical Names, we may now show, by a few examples, how the student is to proceed in applying them, and how the name and the place in the system of an unknown plant are to be ascertained. 523. We suppose the student to be provided with a hand magni- fyinq-qlass, and, if possible, with a simple microscope, i. e. with a magnify ing-glass, of two or more different powers, mounted on a support, over a stage, holding a glass plate, on which small flowers or their parts may be laid, while they are dissected under the mi- croscope with the points of needles (mounted in handles), or divided 16 182 HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. [LESSON 30. by a sharp knife. Such a microscope is not necessary, except for very small flowers; but it is a great convenience at all times, and is indispensable in studying the more difficult orders of plants. 524. We suppose the student no\v to have a work in which the plants of the country or district are scientifically arranged and described : if in the Southern Atlantic States, Dr. Chapman's Flora of the Southern Strifes ; if north of Carolina and Tennessee, GrayV Manual of the Botany of the United States, fifth edition ; or, as cov ering the whole ground as to common plants, and including also all the common cultivated plants, Gray's Field, Forest, and Garden Botany, which is particularly arranged as the companion of the present work ; that containing brief botanical descriptions of the plants, and this the explanation of their general structure, and of the technical terms employed in describing them. To express clearly the distinctions which botanists observe, and which furnish the best marks to know a p-lant by, requires a good many technical terms, or words used with a precise meaning. These, as they are met with, the student should look out in the Glossary at the end of this volume. The terms in common use are not so numerous as they would at first appear to be. With practice they will soon be- come so familiar as to give very little trouble. And the application of botanical descriptive language to the plants themselves, indicating all their varieties of form and structure, is an excellent discipline for the mind, equal, if not in some respects superior, to that of learn- ing a classical language. 525. The following illustrations and explanations of the way to use the descriptive work are, first, for The Field, Forest, and Garden Bot- any, that being the one which will be generally used by beginners and classes. This and the Lessons, bound together in a single compact volume, will serve the whole purpose of all but advanced students, .eacliers, and working botanists. Thus equipped, we proceed to 526. The Analysis of a Plant. A Buttercup will serve as well as any. Some species or other may be found in blossom throughout nearly the whole spring and summer; and, except at the very beginning of the season, the fruit, more or less developed, may be gathered with the blossom. To a full knowledge of a plant the fruit is essential, although the name may almost always be ascer- tained without it. This common yellow flower being under exam- ination, we are to refer the plant to its proper class and order or LESSON 30.J HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 183 family. The families are so numerous, and so generally distinguish- able >nly by a combination of a considerable number of marks thai the student must find his way to them by means of a contrivance called an Analytical Key. This Key begins on p. 12. 527. It takes note of the most comprehensive possible division of plants, namely those "producing true flowers and seeds," and those "not producing flowers, propagated by spores." To the first of these, the great series of PH^NOGAMOUS or FLOWERING PLANTS^ the plant under examination obviously belongs. 528. This series divides into those " with wood in a circle, or in concentric annual circles or layers around a central pith, netted-veined leaves, and parts of the flower mostly in fives or fours," — to which might be added the dicotyledonous embryo, but that in the present case is beyond the young student's powers, even if the fruit were at hand; — and into those " with wood in separate threads scattered through the diameter of the stem, not in a circle," also the ''leaves mostly parallel-veined, and parts of the flower almost always in threes, never in fives." Although the hollowness of the stem of the present plant may obscure its internal structure, a practised hand, by throwing the light through a thin cross section of the stem under the glass, would make it evident that its woody bundles were all in a circle near the circumference, yet this could hardly be expected of an unassisted and inexperienced beginner. But the two other and very obvious marks, the netted-veined leaves, and the number five in both calyx and corolla, certi'y at once that the plant belongs to the first cla^s, EXOGKNOUS or DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. 529. We should now look at the flower more particularly, so as to make out its general plan of structure, which we shall need to know all about as we go on. We observe that it has a calyx of 5 sepals, though these are apt to fall soon after the blossom opens ; that the 5 petals are borne on the rec-epJude (or common axis of the flower) just above the sepals and alternate with them ; that there are next borne, a FIG 358. A flower of a Buttercup ( Kanunculus bulbosu.*) cut through from top tt> bottom, and enlarged. 184 HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. LLESSON 30. little higher up on the receptacle, an indefinite number of stamens ; and, lastly, covering the summit or centre of the receptacle, an in- definite number of pistils. A good view of the whole to iiower middle, from top to bottorr (Fig. 358). If this be done with a sharp knife, some of the pistils will be neatly divided, or may be so by a second slicing. Each pistil, we see, is a closed ovary, containing a single ovule (Fig. 359) ascending from near the base of the cell, and is tipped with a very short broad style, which has the stigma running down the whole length of its inner edge. The ovary is little changed as it ripens into the sort of fruit termed an akene (Fig. 360) ; the ovule becoming the seed and fitting the cell (Fig. 361). Reverting to the key, on p. 13, we find that the class to which our plant belongs has two subclasses, one " with pistil of the ordinary sort, the ovules in a closed ovary"; the other "without proper pistil, the ovules naked on a scale," &c. The latter is nearly restricted to the Pine Family. The examination already had makes it quite clear that our plant belongs to the first subclass. ANGIOSPERMOUS Exogenous or Dicotyledonous Plants. 530. We have here no less than 110 orders under this subclass. To aid the unpractised student in finding his way among them, they are ranked under three artificial divisions; the Polypetalous, the Monopetalous, and the Apetalous. The plant in hand being fur- nished, in the words of the key, "with both calyx and corolla, the latter of wholly separate petals," is to be sought under I. POLY- PETALOUS DIVISION; for the analysis of which, see p. 14. 531. Fully half the families of the class rank under this division. The first step in the key is to the sections A and B ; to the first of which, having "stamens more than 10, and more than twice the number of the sepals or divisions of the calyx," our plant must pertain. 532. Under this we proceed by a series of successive steps, their gradations marked by their position on the page, leading down to the name of the order or family, to which is appended the number FIG. 359. A pistil taken from a Buttercup (Ranunculus bulbosus), and more magnified-, ifs c.v:iry cut through lengthwise, showing the orule. 360. One of its pistils when ripened into a fruit (arhenium or akene). 361. The same, cut through, to show the seed in it. LESSON 30. J HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 185 of the page where that family and the plants under it are described. The propositions of the same grade, two or more, from which de- termination is to be made, not only stand one directly under the other, but begin with the same word or phrase, or with some counterpart, — in the present case again with " Stamens," and with four propositions, with one and only one of which the flower in hand should agree. It agrees with the last of the four : " Stamens noi monadelphous." 533. The propositions under this, to which we are now directed, are six, beginning with the word " Pistils " or " Pistil." The one which applies to the flower in hand is, clearly, the fourth : " Pistils numerous or more than one, separate, on the receptacle." 534. The terms of the analysis directly subordinate to this are only two : we have to choose between " Stamens borne on the calyx," and " Stamens borne on the receptacle." The latter is true of our flower. The terms subordinate to this are four, beginning with the word " Leaves." The fourth alone accords : *< Leaves not peltate ; herbs," — and this line leads out to the CROWFOOT FAMILY, and refers to p. 33. 535. Turning to that page, a perusal of the brief account of the marks of the RANUNCULACE^E (the technical Latin name) of CROW- FOOT FAMILY, assures us that the Key has led us safely and readily to a correct result. Knowing the order or family, we have next to ascertain the genus. Here are twenty genera to choose from ; but their characters are analyzed under sections and successive sub- sections (§, * , •»— , -n-, &c.) so as to facilitate the way to the desired result. Of the two primary sections, we must reject § 1, as it agrees only in respect to the pistils, and differs wholly in the characters furnished by the sepals, the petals, and the leaves. With "§ 2. Sepals imbricated in the bud: not climbing nor woody" it agrees. It also agrees with the sub-section immediately following, viz. : " * Pis- tils and akenes, several or many in a head, one-seeded." The sub- division following : " -t~ Petals none: sepals petal-like ," is inapplicable ; but its counterpart, " -i- -«- Petals and sepals both conspicuous, five or more : akenes, naked, short-pointed''' suits, and restricts our choice to the three genera, Adonis, Myosurus, and Ranunculus. The deter- mination is soon made, upon noting the naked sepals, the petals with the little scale on the upper face of the short claw, and the akenes in a head: so the genus is, 7. RANUNCULUS. 16* 186 HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. [LESSON 30. 536. The arrangement of the species of Ranunculus is to be found, under the proper number, 7, on p. 37 and the following. The first section contains aquatic species ; ours is terrestrial, and in all other particulars answers to § 2. The smooth ovary and akene, and the perennial root refer it to the sub-ection following, marked by the single star. The shape of the leaves excludes it from the "••— Spearwort Crowfoots," the large and showy petals from the ' -i- •*- Small-flowered Crowfoots ; while all the marks agree with •«—-»— -t— BUTTERCUPS or COMMON CROWFOOTS. There is still a subdivision, one set marked, " ++ Natives of the country, low or spreading" the other " •<-+ •*•+ Introduced weeds from Europe, com- mon in fields, fyc.: stem erect: leaves muck cut," — which is the case. We have then only to choose between the two field Crow- foots, and we have supposed the pupil to have in hand the lower, early-flowered one, common at the east, which has a solid bulb or corm at the base of the stem, and displays its golden flowers in spring or earliest summer, and which accordingly answers to the description of RANUNCULUS BULBOSUS, the BULBOUS BUTTERCUP. 537. Later in the season it might have been R. acris, the Tall Buttercup, or much earlier R. fascicularis, or R. repens. Having ascertained the genus from any one species, the student would not fail to recognize it again in any other, at a glance. 538. If now, with the same plant in hand, the Manual (Fifth edition) be the book used, the process of analysis will be so similar, that a brief indication of the steps may suffice. Here the corres- ponding Analytical Key, commencing on p. 21, leads similarly to the first Series, Class, Subclass, and Division ; — to A, with nume- rous stamens; 1, with calyx entirely free and separate from the pistil or pistils, thence to the fourth line beginning with the won) Pistils; thence to the third of the three subordinate propositions, viz. to " Stamens inserted on the receptacle " ; to the second of the succeeding couplet, or " Filaments longer than the anther"; to the second of the next couplet, " Flowers perfect," &c., and to the first of the final couplet, " Leaves not peltate ; petals deciduous," — which ends in " RANUNCULACE^E, 34." This is the technical name of the family, and the page where it is described. 539. Turning to that page we read the general description of that order, particularly the portion at the beginning printed in italics, which comprises the more important points. The " Synopsis of the LESSON 31. J HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 187 Genera " which follows is similar to, but more technical than that of the other, more elementary book ; and the names of the tribes or natural groups of genera (507) are inserted. The steps of analysis bring the student to the Tribe III. RANUNCULEJE, and under it to ihe genus RANUNCULUS. The number prefixed to the name enables the student to turn forward and find the genus, p. 40. The name, scientific and popular, is here followed by a full generic charade (520). The primary sections here have names: the plant under examination belongs to "§ 2. RANUNCULUS proper"; and thence is to be traced, through the subdivisions #, H— •*— -f— •)—, -M. -w., to the ultimate subdivision &., under which, through a compari.-on of characters, the student reaches the species R. BULBOSUS, L. 540. The L. at the end of the name is the recognized abbrevia- tion of the name of Linnaeus, the botanist who gave it. Then come the common or English names ; then the specific character ; after this, the station where the plant grows, and the region in which it occurs. This is followed by the time of blossoming (from May to July ); and then by i-ome general descriptive remarks. The expression " Nat. from Eu." means that the species is a naturalized emigrant from Europe, and is not original to this country. But all these details are duly explained in the Preface to the Manual, which the student who uses that work will need to study. LESSON XXXI. HOW TO STUDY PLANTS: FURTHER ILLUSTRATIONS. 511. BEGIXNKRS should not be discouraged by the slow progress th.jy must needs make in the first trials. By perseverance the vari- ous difficulties will soon be overcome, and each successful analysis will facilitate the next. Not only will a second species of the same genus be known at a glance, but commonly a second genus of the same order will be recognized as a relative at sight, by the family likeness. Or if the family likeness is not detected at the first view, it will be seen as the characters of the plant are studied out. 542. To help on the student by a second example, we will take the common cultivated Flax: Turning to the Key, as before, en 188 HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. [^LESSON 31. p. 12, the student is led to ask, first, is the plant PH^ENOGAMOUS 01 FLOWERING ? Of course it is ; the blossom, with its stamens and pistils, answers that question. Next, to which of the two classes of Flowering Plants does it belong ? If we judge by the stem, we ask whether it is exogenous or endogenous (422-424). A section of the stem, considerably magnified, given on page 151 ; we may here repeat (Fig. 362) ; it plainly shows g ring of wood between a central pith and a bark. It is therefore exogenous. Moreover, the leaves are netted-veined, though the veins are not conspicuous. We might even judge from the embryo ; for there is little difficulty in dissecting a flax-seed, and in finding that almost the whole interior is occupied by an embryo with two cotyledons, much like that of an apple-seed (Fig. 11, 12), and this class, as one of its name denotes, is dicotyledonous. If we view the parts of the blossom, we perceive they are five throughout (Fig. 363, 365), a number which occurs in that class only. All these marks, or as many of them as the student is able to verify, show that the plant belongs to Class I. EXOGENOUS or DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. 543. To which subclass, is the next inquiry. The single but several-celled ovary in the centre of the flower, enclosing the ov?ules, assures us that it belongs to the ANGIOSPERMOUS subclass, p. 13. 544. To get a good idea of the general plan of the flower, before proceeding farther, cut it through the middle lengthwise, as in Fig. 364, and also take a slice across a flower-bud, which will bring to view an arrangement somewhat like that of Fig. 365. Evidently the blossom is regularly constructed upon the number five. It has a calyx of five sepals, a corolla of five petals, five stamens, and five FIG. 862. Section of the stem of Flax, magnified. 363. Summit of a branch of the common 'lax, with two flowers. 3B4. A flower divided lengthwise and enlarged. LESSON 31.] HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. 180 styles, with their ovaries all combined into one compound ovary. We note, also, that the several parts of the blos- som are all free and unconnected, — the leaves of the calyx, the petals, and the stamens all ris- ing separately one after another from the recep- tacle underneath the ovary ; but the filaments, en close inspection, may show a slight union axnong themselves, at the base. 545. So our plant, having 5 separate petals, is of the POLTPETA- LOUS division of the first cla-s, for the analysis of which see page 14. 546. But it does not belong to the primary division A, which has more than 10 stamens. The student passes on, therefore, to the counterpart division B, on page 16, to which the few stamens, here only five, refer it. 547. Of the three subdivisions, with numerals prefixed, only the second answers ; for the calyx is free from the ovary, and there is only one ovary, although the styles are five. 548. The divisions subordinate to this form a couplet ; and our plant agrees with the second member of it, having " Stamens of the same number as the petals" [5] and "alternate with them." The division under this is a triplet, of which we take the third member; for the " Leaves are not punctate with pellucid dots." Under this, in turn, is a triplet beginning with the word Ovary, and the five, if not ten cells, determine our choice of the third member of it, " Ovary compound." Under this we have no less than nine choices, dependent upon the structure of the ovary, the number of ovules and seeds, &c. But the 5-celled ovary with a pair of ovules in each cell, separated by a false partition projecting from the back (Fig. 365), so that the pod becomes in fact 10-celled, with a sol- "tary seed in each cell, is described only in the ninth and last of he set, p. 18. Under this, again, we have to choose among five propositions relating to the seeds. Here the fifth — " Seeds and ovules only one or two in each cell" — alone meets the case. Under this, finally, we have to choose from six lines, beginning with the words Tree, Shrubs, or Herbs. The fifth alone agrees, and leads to the FLAX FAMILY, p. 77. 549. There is only one genus of it in this country, namely, the FLAX genus itself, or LINUM. To determine the species, look first FIG. 365. Cross-section of an unexpanded flower of the same, a sort of diagram. tUO HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. [LESSON 31, at the three sections, marked with stars. The second answers to out plant ; and the annual root, pointed sepals, and blue petals deter- mine it to be the COMMON FLAX, LINUM USITATISSIMUM. 550. By the Manual, the same plant would be similarly traced, ulong a somewhat different order of steps, down to the genus on p. 104, and to the species, which being a foreign cultivated one, and only by chance spontaneous, is merely mentioned at the close. 551. After several analyses of this kind, the student will be abk to pass rapidly over most of the" oteps ; should ordinarily recog- nize the class and the division at a glance. Suppose a common Mal- low to be the next subject. Having flowers and seeds, it is Phaeno- gamous. The netted-veined leaves, the structure of the stem, and the leaves of the flower in fives, refer it to Class I. The pistils, of the ordinary sort, refer it to Subclass I. The five petals refer it to the Polypetalous division. Turning to the Key in the Field, Forest, and Garden Botany, and to the analysis of that divi.-ion, commencing on p. 14, the numerous stamens fix it upon A, under which the very first line, " Stamens monadelphous, united with the base of the corolla; anthers kidney-shaped, one-celled," exactly expresses the structure of these organs in our plant, which is thus determined to be of the MALLOW FAMILY, — for which see page 70. 552. After reading the character of the family, and noting its agreement in all respects, we fix upon § 1, in which the anthers are all borne at the top, and not down the side of the tube of filaments. We pass the subdivision with a single star, and choose the alternative, with two stars, on account of the ring of ovaries, &e. ; fix upon the division -i~, on account of the stigmas running down one side of the slender style, instead of forming a little head or blunt tip at their apex ; and then have to choose among five genera. The three separate bracts outside of the calyx, the obcordate petals, and the fruit determine the plant to be a MALTA. Then, referring to p. 71 for the species, the small whiti>h flowers point to the first division, and a comparison of the characters of the two species under it, assures us that the plant in hand is MALVA ROTCNDTFOLIA. 553. For the sake of an example in the Monopetalous Division, we take a sort of Morning-Glory which is often met with climbing over shrubs along the moist banks of streams. Its netted-veined leaves, the sepals and the stamens being five, — also the. structure of the stem, if we choose to examine it, and the embryo with two leafy LESSOR 31.] HOW TO STUDY PLA.NTfl. 191 cotyledons (as in Fig. 26), readily inspected if we have seeds, — show it belongs to Class I. Its pistil refers it of course to Subclass I. The corolla being a short funnel-shaped tube, theoretically regarded as formed of five petals united up to the very summit or border, ren- ders the flower a good illustration of the MONOPETALOUS DIVISION, the analysis of which begins on p. 20, in the work we are using. 554. The calyx free from the ovary excludes it from the section A; and refers it to section B. This is subdivided, in the first place, by the number of the stamens, and their position as respects the lobes of the corolla. Now, as the petals of the corolla in this flower are united up to the very border, the student may at first be puzzled to tell how many lobes it should have, or, in other words, how many petals enter into its composition. But the five leaves of the calyx would lead one to expect a corolla of five parts also. And, although there are here really no lobes or notches to be seen, yet the five plaits of the corolla answer to the notches, and show it to consist of five petals perfectly united. Since the stamens are of the same number as the plaits of the corolla, and are placed before them (as may be best seen by splitting down the corolla on one side and spreading it out flat), it follows that they alternate with the lobes or petals ; therefore our plant falls under the third subdivision : " Sta- mens as many as the lobes ,or parts of the corolla and alternate with them." This subdivides by the pistils. Our plant, having a pistil with two stigmas and two cells to the ovary, must be referred to the fifth and last category : " Pistil one, with a single compound ovary," &c. We are then directed to the stamens, which here are "plainly borne on the corolla " ; next to the leaves, which are on the stem (not all at the root), also alternate, without stipules; the stamens 5, and the ovary 2-celled, — all of which accords with the seventh of the succeeding propositions, and with no other. The middle one alone under this agrees as to the ovary and seeds, and all is confirmed by the twining stem. It is the CONVOLVULUS FAMILY, p. 262. 555. The proper Convolvulus Family has green foliage, as has our plant. Its style is single and entire, as in § 1. Its calyx has a pair of large leafy bracts, as in the subdivision with two stars. So we reach the genus CALYSTEGIA, or BR ACTED BINDWEED. 556. Under tin? genus two species are described : the twining stem, and the other particulars of our plant, direct us to the first C. SEPIUM, which in England is named HEDGE BINDWEED, and here is one of the various Convolvulaceous plants known as MORNING-GLORY. 192 HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. [LKSSON LESSON XXXII. HOW TO STUDY PLANTS : FURTHER ILLUSTRATIONS. 557. THE foregoing illustrations have all been of the first or Ex- ogenous class. We will take one from the other class, and investi- gate it by the Manual. 558. It shall be a rather common plant of our woods in spring, the Three-leaved Nightshade, or Birthroot. With specimens in hand, and the Manual open at the Analytical Key, p. 21, seeing that the plant is of the Phaenogamous series, we proceed to deter- mine the class. The netted-veined leaves would seem to refer the plant to the first class; while the blossom (Fig. 306, 3G7), con- structed on the number three, naturally directs us to the second class, in which this number almost universally prevails. Here the stu- dent will be somewhat puzzled. If the seeds were ripe, they might be examined, to see whether the embryo has one cotyledon only, or a pair. But the seeds are not to be had in spring, and if they were, the embryo would not readily be made out. We roust judge, therefore, by the structure of the stem. Is it exogenous or endogenous ? If we cut the stern through, or take off a thin slice crosswise and lengthwise, we shall perceive that the woody matter in it consists of ^^ a number of threads, interspersed throughout f * ^\ the soft cellular part without regularity, and not \ I c°llecte(l into a ring or layer. In fact, it is just like the Corn-stalk (Fig. 351), except that the woody threads are fewer. It is therefore endo- genous (422); and this decides the question in favor of Class II. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS or EN- POGENOUS PLANTS (page 30), notwithstanding the branching veins of the leaves. For neither this character, nor the number of parts in FIG. 35G. Flower of Trillium crcctum, viewed from above. 367. Diagram of the same, a crosa-suotion of the unopened blossom, showing the number and arrangement of parts. LESSON 32.] HOW TO STUDY PLANTS 193 the blossom, holds good universally, while the plan of the stem does. 559. The single flower of our plant with distinct calyx and corolla takes us over the Spadiceous to the PETALOIDEOUS DIVISION: the Petaloideous Division of Endogens there begins on p. 28. These parts being free from and beneath the ovary, refer us to the third subdivision, viz : "3. Perianth wholly free from the ovary" 559a. The pistil is next to be considered : it accords with the third of the triplet: "Pistil one, compound (cells or placentae 3); anthers 2-celled." Under this follows a triplet, of which the initial word is "Perianth": our choice falls upon the first, as there is nothing "glumaceous" about this flower. 560. The succeeding triplet relates to the stamens; here 6, so we take the first alternative. The next refers to mode and place of growth: our plant is "Terrestrial, and not rush-like." The next again to the perianth : the second number of the triplet : " Perianth of 3 foliaceous and green sepals, and 3 colored withering-persistent petals" (as would be seen after flowering-time), brings us to a par- ticular group in the great Lily family, or LILIACE^E, p. 520. 561. Reading over the family character, and collating the five tribes comprised, we perceive that our plant belongs to the group, quite peculiar among Liliaceous plants, here ranked as Tribe I. TRILLIDE^E, the Trillium tribe. And the next step, leading to a choice between two genera, determines the genus to be TRILLIUM. 562. Turning to this, on p. 522, and reading the full description of it, we proceed to the easy task of ascertaining the species. The "flower is raised on a peduncle," as in § 2. This peduncle is slender and nearly erect, and all the other particulars accord with the sub- division marked by a single star. And, finally, the ovate, acutish, widely-spreading, dark dull-purple petals mark the species as the PURPLE BIRTHROOT, TRILLIUM ERECTUM, L. 563. By the Field, Forest, and Garden Botany, the analysis is similar, only more simple. The details need not be particularly recapitulated. 564. The student residing west of New England will also be likely to find another species, with similar- foliage, but with larger, pure white, and obovate petals, turning rose-color when about to fade. This will at once be identified as T. grandiflorum. And towards the north, in cold and damp woods or swamps, a smaller 17 194 HOW TO STUDY PLANTS. [LESSON 32. species will be met with, having dull-green and petioled leaves rounded at the base, and rather narrow, wavy, white petals, marked with pink or purple stripes at the base : this the student will refer to T. erythrocarpum. But the species principally found in the east- ern parts of the country has a short peduncle recurved under the leaves, so as nearly to conceal the much less handsome, dull white flower: this, it will be seen, is T. cernuum, the Nodding Trillium or Wake Robin. 565. Whenever the student has fairly studied out one species of a genus, he will be likely to know the others when he sees them, And when plants of another genus of the same order are met with, the order may generally be recognized at a glance, from the family resemblance. For instance, having first become acquainted with the Convolvulus family in the genus Calystegia (555), we recognize it at once in the common Morning- Glory, and in the Cypress- Vine, and even in the Dodder, although these belong to as many different genera. Having examined the common Mallow (552), we immedi- ately recognize the Mallow family (Mulvacece) in the Marsh-Mallow, sparingly naturalized along the coast, in the Glade Mallow, and the Indian Mallow, in the Hibiscus or Rose-Mallow, arid so of the rest : for the relationship is manifest in their general appearance, and in the whole structure of the flowers, if not of the foliage also. 5G6. So the study of one plant leads naturally and easily to the knowledge of the whole order or family of plants it belongs to : — which is a great advantage, and a vast saving of labor. For, although we have about one hundred and thirty orders of Flowering Plants represented in our Botany of the Northern States by about 2,540 species, yet half of these species belong to nine or ten of these orders ; and more than four fifths of the species belong to forty of the orders. One or two hundred species, therefore, well examined, might give a good general idea of our whole botany. And students who will patiently and thoroughly study out twenty or thirty well- chosen examples will afterwards experience little difficulty in determin- ing any of our Flowering Plants and Ferns, and will find the pleasure of the pursuit largely to increase with their increasing knowledge. 567. And the interest will be greatly enhanced as the student, rising to higher and wider views, begins to discern the System of liotany, or, in other words, comprehends more and more of the Plan of the Creator in the Vegetable Kinydom. LESSON 33.] NATURAL SYSTEM. 195 LESSON XXXIII. BOTANICAL SYSTEMS. 568. Natural System, The System of Botany consists of the orders or families, duly arranged under their classes, and having the tribes, the genera, and the species arranged in them according to their re- lationships. This, when properly carried out, is the Natural System ; because it is intended to express, as well as we are able, the various degrees of relationship among plants, as presented in nature ; — to rank those species, those genera, &c. next to each other in the classi- fication which are really most alike in all respects, or, in other words, which are constructed most nearly on the same particular plan. 569. Now this word plan of course supposes a planner, — an in- telligent mind working according to a system : it is this system, therefore, which the botanist is endeavoring as far as he can to exhibit in a classification. In it we humbly attempt to learn some- thing of the plan of the Creator in this department of Nature. 570. So there can be only one natural system of Botany, if*by the term we mean the plan according to which the vegetable creation was called into being, with all its grades and diversities among the species, as well of past as of the present time. But there may be many natural systems, if we mean the attempts of men to interpret and express the plan of the vegetable creation, — systems which will vary with our advancing knowledge, and with the judgment and skill of different botanists, — and which must all be very imperfect. They will all bear the impress of individual minds, and be shaped by the current philosophy of the age. But the endeavor always is to make thn classification a reflection of Nature, as far as any system can be which has to be expressed in a series of definite propositions, and have its divisions and subdivisions following each other in some O single fixed order.* * The best classification must foil to give more than an imperfect and con- siderably distorted reflection, not merely of the plan of creation, but even of our knowledge of it. It is often obliged to make arbitrary divisions where Nature shows only transitions, and to consider genera, £c. as equal units, or groups of equally related species, while in fact they may be very unequal, — to assume, oil 196 BOTANICAL SYSTEMS. [LESSON 33. 571. The Natural System, as we receive it, and as to that portion of it which is represented in the botany of our country, is laid before the student in the Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States. The orders, however, still require to be grouped, according to their natural relationships, into a considerable number of great groups (or alliances) ; but this cannot yet be done throughout in any easy way. So we have merely arranged them somewhat after a custom a y order, and have given, in the Artificial Key, a contrivance for enabling the student easily 10 find the natural order of any plant. This is a sort of 572. Artificial Classification, The object of an artificial classifica- tion is merely to furnish a convenient method of finding out the name and place of a plant. It makes no attempt at arranging plants ac- cording to their relationships, but serves as a kind of dictionary. It distributes plants according to some one peculiarity or set of pecu- liarities (just as a dictionary distributes words according to their first letters), disregarding all other considerations. 573. At present we need an artificial classification in Botany only as a Key to the Natural Orders, — as an aid in referring an unknown plant to its proper family ; and for this it is very needful to the student. Formerly, when the orders themselves were not clearly made out, an artificial classification was required to lead the student down to the genus. Two such classifications were long in vogue. First, that of Tournefort, founded mainly on the leaves of the flower, the calyx and corolla : this was the prevalent system throughout the first half of the eighteenth century ; but it has long since gone by. It was succeeded by the well-known artificial system of Linnreus, which has been used until lately ; and which it is still worth while to give some account of. 574. The Artificial System of LiniM'US was founded on the stameng Und pistils. It consists of twenty-four classes, and of a variable Dumber of orders, which were to take the place temporarily of the natural classes and orders ; the genera being the same under all classifications. paper at least, a strictly definite limitation of genera, of tribes, and of orders, although observation shows so much blending here and there of natural groups, sufficiently distinct on the whole, as to warrant us in assuming the likelihood that the Creator's plan is one of gradation, not nf definite limitation, even j>erhap* iO the species themselves. LESSON 33.] ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM OP LINNAEUS. 197 575. The twenty-four classes of Linnseus were founded upon something about the stamens. The following is an analysis of them. The first great division is into two great series, the Phce* nogamous and the Cryptogamous, the same as in the Natural System- The first of these is divided into those flowers which have the sta- mens in the same flower with the pistils, and those which have not ; and these again are subdivided, as is shown in the following tabular view. Series I. PH^ENOGAMIA ; plants with stamens and pistils, i. e. with rea} flowers. I Stamens in the same flower as the pistils : * Not united with them, H- Nor with one another. •w Of equal length if either 6 or 4 iu number. One to each flower, Class 1. MONANDRIA. Two " 2. DlANDRIA. Three " 3. TRIANDRIA. Four " 4. TETRANDRIA. Five " " 5. PENTANDRIA. Six 6. HEXANDRIA. Seven " 7. HEPTANDRIA. Eight " 8. OCTANDRIA. Nine " " 9. ENNEANDRIA. Ten " " 10. DECANDRIA. Eleven to nineteen to each flower, 11. DODECANDRIA. Twenty or more inserted on the calyx, 12. ICOSANDRIA. " on the receptacle, 13. POLYANDRIA. •M. -M. Of unequal length and either 4 or 6. Four, 2 long and 2 shorter, 14. DlDYNAMIA. Six, 4 long and 2 shorter, 15. TETRADYNAMIA •»- •*- United with each other, By their filaments, Into one set or tube, 16. MONADELPHIA Into two sets, 17. DlADELPHIA. Into three or more sets, 18. POLYADELPHIi By their anthers into a ring, 19. SYNGENESIA. * # United with the pistil, 20. GYNANDRIA. *&. Stamens and pistils in separate flowers, Of the same individuals, 21. MONO2CIA. Of different individuals, 22. DICECIA. Some flowers perfect, others staminate or pistillate either in the same or in different individuals, 23. POLYGAMIA. Series II. CRYPTOGAMIA. No stamens and pistils, therefore no proper flowers, 24. CRYPTOGAMIA 17* 198 ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM OF LINNAEUS. [LESSON 33. 576. The names of these classes are all compounded of Greek words. The first eleven consist of the Greek numerals, in succes- sion, from 1 to 11, combined with andria, which here denotes sta- mens ; — e. g. Monandria, with one stamen; and so on. The llth has the numeral for twelve stamens, although it includes all which have from eleven to nineteen stamens, numbers which rarely occur, The 12th means "with twenty stamens," but takes in any higher number, although only when the stamens are borne on the calyx. The 13th means " with many stamens," but it takes only those with the stamens borne on the receptacle. The 14th means "two stamens powerful," the shorter pair being supposed to be weaker ; the 15th, "four powerful," for the same reason. The names of the next three classes are compounded of adelphia, brotherhood, and the Greek words for one, two, and many (Monadelphia, Diadelphia* and Poly adelphia). The 19th means "united in one household." The 20th is compounded of the words for stamens and pistils united- The 21st and 22d are composed of the word meaning house and the numerals one, or single, and two : Moncecia, in one house, Dicecia^ in two houses. The 23d is fancifully formed of the words meaning plurality and marriage, from which the English word polygamy is derived. The 24th is from two words meaning concealed nuptials, and is opposed to all the rest, which are called Phcenogamous, be- cause their stamens and pistils, or parts of fructification, are evident. 577. Having established the classes of his system on the stamens, Linnaeus proceeded to divide them into orders by marks taken from the pistils, for those of the first thirteen classes. These orders de- pend on the number of the pistils, or rather on the number of styles, or of stigmas when there are no styles, and they are named, like the classes, by Greek numerals, prefixed to gynia, which means pistil Thus, flowers of these thirteen classes with One style or sessile stigma belong to Order 1. MOXOGYNIA. Two styles or sessile stigmas, to 2. DIOYNIA. Three " " 3. TRIGYNIA. Four " " 4. TETRAGYNIA. Five " " 5. PENTAGYNIA. Six " " 6. HEXAGYXIA. Seven " " 7. HEPTAOYNIA. Fight " " 8. OCTOGYNIA. Nine " " 9. ENNEAGYNIA. Ten " " 10. DECAGYNIA. Eleven or twelve " 11. DODECAGYNIA More than twelve * 13 POLYOYNIA. LESSON 34."] HOW TO COLLECT SPECIMENS. 199 578. The orders of the remaining classes are founded on various considerations, some on the nature of the fruit, others on the number and position of the stamens. But there is no need to enumerate them here, nor farther to illustrate the Linnrean Artificial Classifi- cation. For as a system it has gone entirely out of use ; and as a Key to the Natural Orders it is not so convenient, nor by any means so certain, as a proper Artificial Key, prepared for the purpose5 sue) as we have been using in the preceding Lessons. LESSON XXXIV. HOW TO COLLECT SPECIMENS AND MAKE AN HERBARIUM. 579. For Collecting Specimens the needful things are a large knife, strong enough to be used for digging up bulbs, small rootstocks, and the like, as well as for cutting woody branches ; and a botanical box, or a portfolio, for holding specimens which are to be carried to any distance. 580. It is well to have both. The botanical box is most useful for holding specimens which are to be examined fresh. It is made of tin, in shape like a candle-box, only flatter, or the smaller sizes like an English sandwich-case ; the lid opening for nearly the whole length of one side of the box. Any portable tin box of con- venient size, and capable of holding specimens a foot or fifteen inches long, will answer the purpose. The box should shut close, so that the specimens may not wilt : then it will keep leafy branches ancT nost flowers perfectly fresh for a day or two, especially if slightly moistened. 581. The portfolio should be a pretty strong one, from a foot to twenty inches long, and from nine to eleven inches wide, and fasten- ing with tape, or (which is better) by a leathern strap and buckle at the side. It should contain a quantity of sheets of thin and smooth, unsized paper ; the poorest printing-paper and grocers' tea-paper are very good for the purpose. The specimens as soon as gathered are to be separately laid in a folded sheet, arid kept under moderate pressure in the closed portfolio. 200 I1OW TO PRESERVE SPECIMENS, [LESSON 34 582. Botanical specimens should be either in flower or in fruit. In the case of herbs, the same specimen will often exhibit the two, and both should by all means be secured whenever it is possible. Of small herbs, especially annuals, the whole plant, root and all, should be taken for a specimen. Of larger ones branches will suf- fice, with some of the leaves from near the root. Enough of the root or subterranean part of the plant should be collected to show whether the plant is an annual, biennial, or perennial. Thick roots; bulbs, tubers, or branches of specimens intended to be preserved, should be thinned with a knife, or cut into slices lengthwise. 583. For drying Specimens a good supply of soft and unsized paper — the more bibulous the better — is wanted; and some convenient means of applying pressure. All that is requisite to make good dried botanical specimens is, to dry them as rapidly as possible between many thicknesses of paper to absorb their moisture, under as much pressure as can be given without crushing the more delicate parts. This pressure may be given by a botanical press, of which various forms have been contrived ; or by weights placed upon a board,— from forty to eighty or a hundred pounds, according to the quantity of specimens drying at the time. For use while travelling, a good portable press may be made of thick binders' boards for the sides, holding the drying paper, and the pressure may be applied by a cord, or, much better, by strong straps with buckles. 584. For drying paper, the softer and smoother sorts of cheap wrapping-paper answer very well. This paper may be made up into driers, each of a dozen sheets or less, according to the thickness, lightly stitched together. Specimens to be dried should be put ink the press as soon as possible after gathering. If collected in a port folio, the more delicate plants should not be disturbed, but the sheet* that hold them should one by one be transferred from the portfolio to the press. Specimens brought home in the botanical box must be laid in a folded sheet of the same thin, smooth, and soft paper used in the portfolio ; and these sheets are to hold the plants until they are dry. They are to be at once laid in between the driers, and the whole put under pressure. Every day (or at first even twice a day would be well) the specimens, left undisturbed in their sheets, are to bo shifted into well-dried fresh driers, :nid the pressure renewed, while the moist sheets are spread out to dry, that they may take their turn again at the next shifting. This course must be continued until the specimens are no longer moist to the touch. — LESSON 34.] AND FORM AN HERBARIUM. 201 which for most plants requires about a week ; then they may be transferred to the sheets of paper in which they are to be preserved. If a great abundance of drying-paper is used, it is not necessary to change the sheets every day, after the first day or two. 585. Herbarium, The botanist's collection of dried specimens, ticketed with their names, place, and time of collection, and sys- tematically arranged under their genera, orders, &c., forms a Hor- tus Siccus or Herbarium. It comprises not only the specimens which the proprietor has himself collected, but those which he ac- quires through friendly exchanges with distant botanists, or in other ways. The specimens of an herbarium may be kept in folded sheet? of neat, and rather thick, white paper ; or they may be fastened on half-sheets of such paper, either by slips of gummed paper, or by glue applied to the specimens themselves. Each sheet should be appropriated to one species ; two or more different plants should never be attached to the same sheet. The generic and specific name of the plant should be added to the lower right-hand corner, eilher written on the sheet, or on a ticket pasted down at that corner; and the time of collection, the locality, the color of the flowers, and any other information which the specimens themselves do not afford, should be duly recorded upon the sheet or the ticket. The sheets of the herbarium should all be of exactly the same dimensions. The herbarium of Linnaeus is on paper of the common foolscap size, about eleven inches long and seven wide. But this is too small for an herbarium of any magnitude. Sixteen and a half inches by ten and a half, or eleven and a half inches, is an approved size. 586. The sheets containing the species of each genus are to be placed in genus-covers, made of a full sheet of thick, colored paper (such as the strongest Manilla-hemp paper), which fold to the same dimensions as the species-sheet ; and the name of the genus is to be written on one of the lower corners. These are to be arranged under the orders to which they belong, and the whole kept in closed cases or cabinets, either laid flat in compartments, like large "pigeon- holes," or else placed in thick portfolios, arranged like folio volumes, and having the names of the orders lettered on the back. S&F— 10 GLOSSARY DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN DESCRIED ING PLANTS, COMBINED WITH AN INDEX. A, at the beginning of words of Greek derivation, commonly signifies a negative, or the absence of something ; as apetalous, without petals ; aphyllous, leaf- less, &c. If the word begins with a vowel, the prefix is an ; as ananther- ous, destitute of anther. Abnormal : contrary to the usual or the natural structure. Aboriginal : original in the strictest sense ; same as indigenous. Abortive: imperfectly formed, or rudimentary, as one of the stamens in fig. 195 and three of them in fig. 196, p. 95. Abortion : the imperfect formation, or non-formation, of some part. Abrupt: suddenly terminating; as, for instance, Abruptly pinnate: pinnate without an odd leaflet at the end; fig. 128, p. 65. Acaulescent (acaulis) : apparently stemlcss ; the proper stem, bearing the leaves and flowers, being very short or subterranean, as in Bloodroot, and most Violets; p. 36. Accessory : something additional ; as Accessory buds, p. 26. Accrescent : growing larger after flowering, as the calyx of Physalis. Accumbent: lying against a thing. The cotyledons are accumbent when they lie with their edges against the radicle. Acerose: needle-shaped, as the leaves of Pines; fig. 140, p. 72. Acetdbidiform : saucer-shaped. Achenium (plural achenia) : a one-seeded, seed-like fruit; fig. 286, p. 129 Achlamydeons (flower) : without floral envelopes ; as Lizard's -tail, p. 90. fig. 18U. Acicular: needle-shaped ; more slender than acerose. Acindciform : scymitar-shaped, like some bean-pods. Acines: the separate grains of a fruit, such as the raspberry; ilg. 289. Acorn: the nut of the Oak ; fig. 299, p. 130. Acotyle'donons .• destitute of cotyledons or seed-leaves. Acrdgenous: growing from the apex, as the stems of Ferns and Mosses. Acrogens, or Acrogenous Plants: the higher Cryptogamous plants, guch aa Forns, &c., p. 172. 204 GLOSSARY. Aculeate : armed with prickles, i. e. aculei ; as the Rose and Brier. Aculeolate : armed with small prickles, or slightly prickly. Acuminate: taper-pointed, as the leaf in fig. 97 and fig. 103. Acute: merely sharp-pointed, or ending in a point less than a right angle. Adelpkous (stamens) : joined in a fraternity (adef,phia) : see monadelphous and diaddphous. Adherent: sticking to, or, more commonly, growing fast to another body ; p. 104. Adnate: growing fast to ; it means born adherent. The anther is adnate when fixed by its whole length to the filament or its prolongation, as in Tulip- tree, fig. 233. Adpressed, or oppressed: brought into contact, but not united. Adscendent, ascendent, or ascending : rising gradually upwards.. Adsurgent, or assurgent : same as ascending. Adventitious: out of the proper or usual place; e. g. Adventitious buds, p. 26, 27. Adventive : applied to foreign plants accidentally or sparingly spontaneous in a country, but hardly to be called naturalized. ^Equilateral : equal-sided ; opposed to oblique. ^Estivation: the arrangement of parts in a flower-bud, p. 108. Air-cells or Air-passages : spaces in the tissue of leaves and some stems, p. 143. Air-Plants, p. 34. Ake'nium, or akene. Sec achenium. Ala (plural ahe) : a wing; the sid«vpetals of a papilionaceous corolla, p. 105, fig. 218, w. Alabdstrum : a flower-bud. Alar: situated in the forks of a stem. Alale: winged, as the seeds of Trumpet-Creeper (fig. 316) the fruit of the Maple, Elm (fig. 301), &c. Albescent : whitish, or turning white. Absorption, p. 168. Albumen of the seed : nourishing matter stored up with the embryo, but not within it; p. 15, 136. Albumen, a vegetable product; a form of proteine, p. 165. Albuminous (seeds) : furnished with albumen, as the seeds of Indian corn (fig. 38 39), of Buckwheat (fig 326), &c. Alburnum: young wood, sap-wood, p 153 Alpine: belonging to higli mountains above the limit of forests. Alternate (leaves): one after another, p. 24, 71. Petals are alternate icith the sepals, or stamens with the petals, when they stand over the intervals be- tween them, p. 93. Alrrolatf.: honeycomb-like, as the receptacle of the Cotton-Thistle. Ament: a catkin, p. 81. Amentaceous: cntkin-like, or catkin-bearing. Amorfihoiis : shapeless; without any definite form. Amphi(jdstrium (plural amphigastria) : a peculiar stipnlo-likr leaf of ccrtaii Liverworts Amphftropous or A mphffropaf ovules or seeds, p. 12.T, Pi jr. 272. Ample-riant : embracing. Ampterirnul (lonvos) : Hasping the stem by the base. Ampnlldcroits : swelling out like a bottle or Amylaceous : composed of starch, or starch-like. GLOSSARY. 205 Andnlherous : without anthers. Andnthous : destitute of flowers ; flowerless. Anastomosing: forming a net-work (anastomosis), as the veins of leaves. Andtropous or Andtropal ovules or seeds ; p. 123, fig. 273. Ancfpital (anceps) : two-edged, as the stem of Blue-eyed Grass. Androxium : a name for the stamens taken together, Androgynous : having both staminate and pistillate flowers in the same cluster or inflorescence, as many species of Carex. Androphore : a column of united stamens, as in a Mallow ; or the support on which stamens are raised. Anfrdctuose : bent hither and thither, as the anthers of the Squash, &c. Angiospermce, Angiospe'rnioas Plants : with their seeds formed in an ovary or peri- carp, p. 183. , Angular divergence of leaves, p. 72. Annual (plant) : flowering and fruiting the year it is raised from the seed, and then dying, p 21. Annular: in the form of a ring, or forming a circle- Annulate : marked by rings ; or furnished with an Annulus, or ring, like that of the spore-case of most Ferns (Manual Bot. N. States, plate 9, fig. 2) • in Mosses it is a ring of cells placed between the mouth of the spore-case and the lid, in many species. Anterior, in the blossom, is the part next the bract, i. e. external: — while the posterior side is that next the axis of inflorescence. Thus, in the Pea, &c. the keel is anterior, and the standard jtosterior. Anther: the essential part of the stamen, which contains the pollen; p. 86, 113. A ntheridium (plural antheridia) : the organ in Mosses, &c. which answers to the anther of Flowering plants. Antheriferoits : anther-bearing. Anthesis : the period or the act of the expansion of a flower Antkocdrpoiis (fruits) . same as multiple fruits; p. 133. Anticous : same as anterior. Antro'rse: directed upwards or forwards. Ape'talons: destitute of petals ; p. 90, fig. 179. Aphyllous : destitute of leaves, at least of foliage. Apical : belonging to the apex or point. Apfculdte : pointletted ; tipped with a short and abrupt point. Apocarpous (pistils) : when the several pistils of the same flower are separate, as in a Buttercup, Sedum (fig. 168), &c. Ajxfphysis : any irregular swelling ; the enlargement at the base of the spore- case of the Umbrella-Moss. Appendage • any superadded part. Appendiculate : provided with appendages. Appressed: where branches are close pressed to the stem, or leaves to the branch, &c. Apterous: wingless. Aquatic : living or growing in water ; applied to plants whether growing under water, or with all but the base raised out of it. Arachnoid: cobwebby ; clothed with, or consisting of, soft downy fibres. Arboreous, Arborescent : tree-like, in size or form ; p. 36 18 206 GLOSSARY. Archegdniiim (plural arc'uegonia] : the organ in Mosses, &c., which is analogous to the pistil of Flowering Plants. Arcuate : bent or curved like a bow. Are'olate : marked out into little spaces or are/dee. Aritlate (seeds) • furnished with an Aril or Arillus : & fleshy growth forming a false coat or appendage to a seed; p. 135, fig. 318. Arfstate: awned. i. e furnished with an arista, like the beard of Barley, &c. iristulate • diminutive of the last ; short-awned. ^rrow-shaped or Arroio-headed : same as sagittate; p. 59, fig. 95. Articulated: jointed ; furnished with joints or articulations, where it separates o» inclines to do so. Articulated leaves, p. 64. Artificial Classification, p. 196. Ascending (stems, &c.), p. 37 , (seeds or ovules), p. 122. Aspergflliform : shaped like the brush used to sprinkle holy water ; as the stigma* of many Grasses. Assimilation, p. 162. Assurgent : same as ascending, p. 37. Atropous or Atropal (ovules) : same as orthotropons. Aurfculate : furnished with auricles or ear-like appendages, p. 59. Awl-shaped sharp-pointed from a broader base, p. 68. Awn : the bristle or beard of Barley, Oats, &c. ; or any similar bristle-like ap- pendage. Awned: furnished with an awn or long bristle-shaped tip. Axil: the angle on the upper side between a leaf and the stem, p. 20. Axile : belonging to the axis, or occupying the axis ; p. 1 1 9, &c. ixillary (buds, &c.) : occurring in an axil, p 21, 77, &c. Axis: the central line of any body ; the organ round which others are attached; the root and stem. Ascending Axis, p. 9. Descending Axis, p. 9. Baccate: berry-like, of a pulpy nature like a berry (in Latin bacca} ; p. 127. Barbate : bearded ; bearing tufts, spots, or lines of hairs. Barbed : furnished with a barb or double hook ; as the apex of the bristle on the fruit of Echinospermum (Stickseed), &c. Bdrbellate: said of the bristles of the pappus of some Composite (species of Liatris, &c ), when beset with short, stiff hairs, longer than when denticulate, but shorter than when plumose. Barbdlulate : diminutive of barbellate. Bark: the covering of a stem outside of the wood, p. 150, 152. Basal : belonging or attached to the Base : that extremity of any organ by which it is attached to its support. Bast, Bast-fibres, p. 147. Beaked: ending in a prolonged narrow tip. Bearded: see barbate. Beard is sometimes used popularly for awn, more com- monly for long or stiff hairs of any sort. Bell-shaped: of the shape of a bell, as the corolla of Harebell, fig. 207, p. 102. Berry ; a fruit pulpy or juicy throughout, as a grape; p. 127. Bi- (or Bis), in compound words : twice; as GLOSSARY. 207 Biarticulate : twice jointed, or two-jointed ; separating into two pieces. Biauriculate : having two ears, as the leaf in fig. 96. Bicallose : having two callosities or harder spots. Bicdrinate: two-keeled, as the upper palea of Grasses. Bicipital (Biceps) : two-headed ; dividing into two parts at the top or bottom. Bicdnjugate : twice paired, as when a petiole forks twice. Bidentate: having two teeth (not twice or doubly dentate). Biennial : of two years' continuance ; springing from the seed one season flowering and dying the next ; p. 21. Bifdrious : two-ranked ; arranged in two rows. Bifid: two-cleft to about the middle, as the petals of Mouse-ear Chickweed. Bifdliolate: a compound leaf of two leaflets; p. 66. Bifurcate: twice forked ; or, more commonly, forked into two branches. Bijngate: bearing two pairs (of leaflets, &c.}. Bilabiate: two-lipped, as the corolla of sage. &c , p. 105, fig. 209. Bildmellate : of two plates (lamellae], as the stigma of Mimulus. Bildbed : the same as two-lobed. Bildcular : two-celled ; as most anthers, the pod of Foxglove, roost Saxifrages (fig. 254), &c. Binate : in couples, two together. Bipartite : the Latin form of two-parted ; p. 62. Bipinnate (leaf) : twice pinnate ; p. 66, fig. 130. Bipinndtifid : twice pinnatifid, p. 64 ; that is, pinnatifid with the lobes again pinnatifid. Biplicate : twice folded together. Bise'rial, or Biseriate : occupying two rows, one within the other. Biserrate : doubly serrate, as when the teeth of a leaf, &c. are themselves serrate. Biternate: twice ternate ; i. e. principal divisions 3, each bearing 3 leaflets, &c. Bladdery : thin and inflated, like the calyx of Silene inflata. Blade of a leaf: its expanded portion ; p 54. Boat-shaped: concave within and keeled without, in shape like a small boat. Brdchiate : with opposite branches at right angles to each other, as in the Maple and Lilac. Bract (Latin, bractea). Bracts, in general, are the leaves of an inflorescence, more or less different from ordinary leaves. Specially, the bract is the small leaf or scale from the axil of which a flower or its pedicel proceeds p. 78 ; and a Bractlet (bracteola) is a bract seated on the pedicel or flower-stalk ; .p 78, fig. 15& Branch, p. 20, 36. Bristles: stiff, sharp hairs, or any very slender bodies of similar appearance. Bristly: beset with bristles. Brush-shaped •• see aspen/illiform. Bryofot/y : that part of Botany which relates to Mosses. Bud: a branch in its earliest or undeveloped state ; p 20. Bud-scales, p. 22, 50. Bulb: a leaf-bud with fleshy scales, usually subterranean ; p. 45, fig. 73. Bulbiferoiis : bearing or producing bulbs. Bulbose or bulbou? : bulb-like in shape, &c. "208 GLOSSARY. Bulblets: small bulbs, borne above ground, as on the stems of the bulb-bearing Lily and on the fronds of Cistopteris bulbifera and some other Ferns: p. 46. Bulb-scales, p. 50. Bullate: appearing as if blistered or bladdery (from bulla, a bubble). Caducous : dropping off very early, compared with other parts ; as the calyx in the Poppy Family, falling when the flower opens. Ccespitose, or Ce'spitose: growing in turf-like patches or tufts, like most sedges, &c, Cdlcarate: furnished with a spur (calcar), as the flower of Larkspur, fig. 183, and Violet, fig. 181. Calculate or Cdlceiform : slipper-shaped, like one petal of the Lady's Slipper. Cd/lose : hardened ; or furnished with callosities or thickened spots. Cdlycine: belonging to the calyx. Calculate: furnished with an outer accessory calyx (calycidus) or set of bract? looking like a calyx, as in true Pinks. Catyptra : the hood or veil of the capsule of a Moss. Calyptriform : shaped like a calyptra or candle-extinguisher. Calyx : the outer set of the floral envelopes or leaves of the flower ; p. 85. Cambium and Cambium layer, p. 154. Campdnulate: bell-shaped; p. 102, fig. 207. Campi/l6tropous, or Campytdtropal ; curved ovules and seeds of a particular sort ; p. 123, fig. 271. Campt/lospe'rinous : applied to fruits of Umbelliferae when the seed is curved in at the edges, forming a groove down the inner face ; as in Sweet Cicely. Canaliculate: channelled, or with a deep longitudinal groove. Cdncellate: latticed, resembling lattice-work. Canescent: grayish-white; hoary, usually because the surface is covered with fine white hairs. Incanous is whiter still. Capilldceous, Capillary : hair-like in shape ; as fine as hair or slender bristles. Capitate: having a globular apex, like the head on a pin; as the stigma of Cherry, fig. 213; or forming a head, like the flower-cluster of Button-bush, fig. 161. Capite'llate : diminutive of capitate; as the stigmas of fig. 255. Capttulum (a little head) : a close rounded dense cluster or head of sessile flowers; p. 80, fig. 161. Capre'olate: bearing tendrils (from capreolus, a tendril). Capsule: a pod; any dry dehiscent seed-vessel; p. 131, fig. 305, 306. Cdpsular: relating to, or like a capsule. Carina: a keel; the two anterior petals of a papilionaceous flower, which are combined to form a body shaped somewhat like the keel (or rather the prow) of a vessel; p. 105, fig. 218, k. Cdrinate: keeled ; furnished with a sharp ridge or projection on the lower side. Caridpsis, or Cart/dpsis : the one-seeded fruit or grain of Grasses, &c., p. 130. Cdrncons: flesh-colored; pale red. ( 'n'rnw : fleshy in texture. O/'/yW, or ('d'pidinn, : a simple pistil, or one of the parts or leaves of which a compound pistil is composed ; p. 117. Cdrpdlary : pertaining to a carpel. GLOSSARY. 209 Carpolofjy: that department of Botany which relates to fruits. Carpophore: the stalk or support of a fruit or pistil within the flower; as in • %. 276-278. Cartilaginous, or Cartilagmeous : firm and tough, like cartilage, in texture. Caruncle : an excrescence at the scar of some seeds ; as those of Polygala. Carunculate : furnished with a caruncle. CaryophtjUdceous : pink-like : applied to a corolla of 5 long-clawed petals ; fig. 200. Catkin: a scaly deciduous spike of flowers, an ament; p. 81. Caudate: tailed, or tail-pointed. Caudex: a sort of trunk, sucli as that of Palms ; an upright rootstock ; p. 37. Caulescent: having an obvious stem; p. 36. Caulicle: a little stem, or rudimentary stem; p. 6. Cauline : of or belonging to a stem (caulis, in Latin), p. 36. Cell (diminutive Cellule) : the cavity of an anther, ovary, &c., p. 113, 119 ; one of the elements or vesicles of which plants arc composed ; p. 140, 142. Cellular t tan tie of plants ; p. 142. Cellular Bark, p. 152. Cellulose, p. 159. Centrifugal (inflorescence) : produced or expanding in succession from the centre outwards ; p. 82. The radicle is centrifugal, when it points away from the centre of the fruit. Centripetal: the opposite of centrifugal ; p. 79, 83. Cereal: belonging to corn, or corn-plants. Cernuom : nodding; the summit more or less inclining. Chaff: small membranous scales or bracts on the receptacle of Composite; the glumes, £c. of Grasses. Chaffy : furnished with chaff, or of the texture of chaff. Chaldza : that part of the ovule where all the parts grow together; p. 122. Channelled: hollowed out like a gutter; same as canaliculate. Character : a phrase expressing the essential marks of a species, genus, &c. which distinguish it from all others ; p. 180. Chart dceous : of the texture of paper or parchment. Chlorophyll : the green grains in the cells of the leaf, and of other parts exposed to the light, which give to herbage its green color; p. 155. Cfirdmide: coloring matter in plants, especially when not green, or when liquid. Cicatrix : the scar left by the fall of a leaf or other organ. C&iate: beset on the margin with a fringe of cilia, i. e. of hairs or bristles, like the eyelashes fringing the eyelids, whence the name ^Cinereous, or Cinerw'.cous : ash-grayish ; of the color of ashes. Circulate: rolled inwards from the top, like a crosier, as the shoots of Ferns. p. 76, fig. 154 ; the flower-clusters of Heliotrope, &c. Circumscissile, or Circumcissile: divided by a circular line round the sides, as the pods of Purslane, Plantain, &c. ; p. 133, fig. 298, 311. Circumscription : the general outline of a thing. drrhfferous, or Cirrhose : furnished with a tendril (Latin, cirrhns) ; as the Grape. vine. Chrhose also means resembling or coiling like tendrils, as the leafc stalks of Virgin's-bower ; p. 37. Class, p 175, 177. Classification, p. 173. 18* 210 GLOSSARY. Cldthrate : latticed ; same as cancr-Uatc. Cldcate : club-shaped ; slender below and thickened upwards. Claw: the narrower stalk-like base of some petals, as of Pinks; p. 102, fig 200 Climbing : rising by clinging to other objects ; p. 37. Club-shaped : see cUtvate. Clustered: leaves, flowers, &c. aggregated or collected into a bunch. Clypeate : buckler-shaped. Coddunate : same as connate ; i. e. united. Coale'scent : growing together. Codrctate : contracted or brought close together. Coated Bulbs, p. 46. Cobwebby : same as arachnoid ; bearing hairs like cobwebs or gossamer. Coccus (plural cocci) : anciently a berry; now mostly used to denote the carpels of a dry fruit which are separable from each other, as of Euphorbia. Cochledriform : spoon-shaped. Cdchleate : coiled or shaped like a snail-shell. Cvelosfte'rmous : applied to those fruits of Umbelliferse which have the seed hol- lowed on the inner face, by the curving inwards of the top and bottom ; as in Coriander. Coherent, in Botany, is usually the same as connate; p. 104. Collective fruits, p. 133. Coll urn or Collar : the neck or line of junction between the stem and the root. Columbia : the axis to which the carpels of a compound pistil arc often attached, as in Geranium (fig. 278), or which is left when a pod opens, as in Azalea and Rhododendron. Column : the united stamens, as in Mallow, or the stamens and pistils united into one body, as in the Orchis family, fig. 226. Columnar : shaped like a column or pillar. Coma : a tuft of any sort (literally, a head of hair) ; p. 135, fig. 317. Cdmose: tufted ; bearing a tuft of hairs, as the seeds of Milkweed ; fig. 317. Commissure : the line of junction of two carpels, as in the fruit of Umbclliferae, such as Parsnip, Caraway, £c. Common : used as " general," in contradistinction to " partial " ; e. g. " common involucre," p. 81. Cdmplanate : flattened. Compound leaf, p. 64. Compound pistil, p. 118. Compound umbel, &c., p. 81 . Complete (flower), p. 89. Complicate : folded upon itself. Compressed : flattened on two opposite sides. Conduplicate : folded upon itself lengthwise, as are the leaves of Magnolia in the bud, p. 76. Cone : the fruit of the Pine family ; p. 133, fig. 314. Confluent : blended together ; or the same as coherent. Confdrmed : similar to another thing it is associated with or compared to; or closely fitted to it, as the skin to the kernel of a seed. Cong&ted, Conglomerate : crowded together. Cdnjuijtitt: : coupled ; in single pairs. Connate : united or grown together from the first. GLOSSARY. 211 Connective, Connectivum : the part of the anther connecting its two cells ; p. 113. Connwcnt : converging, or brought close together. Consolidated forms of vegetation, p. 47. Continuous : the reverse of interrupted or articulated. Contorted: twisted together. Contorted (estivation : same as convolute ; p. 109. Contortupucate : twisted back upon itself. Contracted: either narrowed or shortened. Contrary : turned in an opposite direction to another organ or part with whie it is compared. Cdnvolute : rolled up lengthwise, as the leaves of the Plum in vernation ; p 76^ fig. 151. In aestivation, same as contorted; p. 109. Cordate : heart-shaped ; p. 58, fig. 90, 99. Coriaceous : resembling leather in texture. Corky: of the texture of cork. Corky layer of bark, p. 152. Conn, Cormus : a solid bulb, like that of Crocus ; p. 44, fig. 71, 72. Corneous : of the consistence or appearance of horn, as the albumen of the seed of the Date, Coffee, &c. Corniculate : furnished with a small horn or spur. Cornute : horned ; bearing a horn-like projection or appendage. Corolla : the leaves of the flower within the calyx ; p. 86. Corolldceons, Corollme : like or belonging to a corolla. Corona : a coronet or crown ; an appendage at the top of the claw of some petals, as Silene and Soapwort, fig. 200, or of the tube of the corolla of Hound's-Tonguc, £c. Coronate : crowned ; furnished with a crown. Cortical : belonging to the bark (cortex). Cdrymb: a sort of flat or convex flower-cluster ; p. 79, fig. 158. Corymbose : approaching the form of a corymb, or branched in that way ; arranged in corymbs. Costa : a rib ; the midrib of a leaf, &c. Costate: ribbed. Cotyle'dons : the first leaves of the embryo ; p. 6, 137. Crater ifbrm : goblet-shaped ; broadly cup-shaped. Creeping (stems) : growing flat on or beneath the ground and rooting; p. 37. Cre'mocarp : a half-fruit, or one of the two carpels of Umbelliferae. Crenate, or Crenclled : the edge scalloped into rounded teeth ; p. 62, fig. 114 Crested, or Cristate : bearing any elevated appendage like a crest. Cribrose : pierced like a sieve with small apertures. Crinite : bearded with long hairs, &c. Crown :• sec corona. Crowning : borne on the apex of anything. Cruciate, or Cruciform: cross-shaped, as the four spreading petals of the Mu*. turd (fig. 187), and all the flowers of that family. Crustaceans : hard, and brittle in texture; crust-like. Crypldyamous, or Cry/itof/fimic : relating to Cryptogamia; p. 172, 197. Cucullate: hooded, or hood-shaped, rolled up like a cornet of paper, or a hood (cucullus), as the spathe of Indian Turnip, fig. 162. Culm : a straw ; the stem of Grasses and Sedges. Cuneate, Cuneiform : wedge-shaped ; p. 58, fig. 94. 212 GLOSSARY. Cup-shaped: same as cyathiform, or near it. Cupule : a little cup ; the cup to the acorn of the Oak, p. 130, fig. 299. Cupulate : provided with a cupule. Cuspidate : tipped with a sharp and stiff point. Cut : same as incised, or applied generally to any sharp and deep division. Cuticle : the skin of plants, or more strictly its external pellicle. Cyathiform : in the shape of a cup, or particularly of a wine-glass. Cycle: one complete turn of a spire, or a circle, p. 73. Cyclical, rolled up circularly, or coiled into a complete circle. Cyclo'sis : the circulation in closed cells, p. 167. Ci/lindraceous : approaching to the Cylindrical form ; as that of stems, &c., which are round, and gradually if at all tapering. Cymtxfform, or Cymbiform : same as boat-shaped. Cyme: a cluster of centrifugal inflorescence, p 82, fig. 165, 167. \Cymose: furnished with cymes, or like a cyme. V • Deca- (in composition of words of Greek derivation) : ten ; as Decdgynous : with 10 pistils or styles. Decandrous : with 10 stamens. Deciduous : falling off, or subject to fall , said of leaves which fall in autumn, and of a calyx and corolla which fall before the fruit forms. Declined: turned to one side, or downwards, as the stamens of Azalea nudiflora. Decompound : several times compounded or divided ; p 67, fig. 138 Decumbent: reclined on the ground, the summit tending to rise, p. 37. Decurrent (leaves)', prolonged on the stem beneath the insertion, as in Thistles Decussate: arranged in pairs which successively cross each other; fig. 147. Definite: when of a uniform number, and not above twelve or so. Deflexed: bent downwards. Deflorate: past the flowering state, as an anther after it has discharged its pollen A fiehiscence : the mode in which an anther or a pod regularly bursts or splits y open ; p. 132. Dehiscent : opening by regular dehiscence. t Deliquescent : branching off so that the stem is lost in the branches, p. 25. Deltoid: of a triangular shape, like the Greek capital A. Demersed : growing below the surface of water. Dendroid, Dendritic : tree-like in form or appearance. [Dentate: toothed (from the Latin dens, a tooth), p. 61, fig. 113. " Denticulate : furnished with dcnticulations, or very small teeth : diminutive of the last. Depauperate (impoverished or starved) : below the natural size. Depressed: flattened, or as if pressed down from above ; flattened vertically. Descending .- tending gradually downwards. Determinate Inflorrscpncp, p. 81, 83. Dextror/te : turned to the right hand. '- (in Greek compounds) : two, as (stamens) : united by their filaments in two sets ; p. Ill, fig- 227. having two stamens, p. 112. Diagnosis . a short distinguishing character, or descriptive phrase. GLOSSARY. 213 Diaphanous : transparent or translucent. Dichlamydeous (flower) : having both calyx and corolla. Dich6tomons : two-forked. Diclinous : having the stamens in one flower, the pistils in another ; p. 89; fig. 176, 177. Dicdccous (fruit) : splitting into two cocci, or closed carpels. '' DJtwtyledonous (embryo) : having a pair of cotyledons ; p. 16, 137. Dicotyledonous Plants, p. 150, 182. Didymous: twin. namous (stamens) ; having four stamens in two pairs, one pair shorter thaii the other, as in fig. 194, 195. Diffuse: spreading widely and irregularly. Diyitate (fingered) : where the leaflets of a compound leaf are all borne oil the apex of the petiole ; p. 65, fig. 129. Dif/ynous (flower) : having two pistils or styles, p. 116. Dimerous : made up of two parts, or its organs in twos. Dimidiate : halved ; as where a leaf or leaflet has only one side developed, or a stamen has only one lobe or cell ; fig. 239. Dimorphous : of two forms. / Dioecious, or Dioicous : where the stamens and pistils are in separate flowers oa """ different plants ; p. 89. Dipetalous : of two petals. Diphyllous : two-leaved. Dipterous : two-winged. Disciform or Disk-shaped : flat and circular, like a disk or quoit. Djsk : the face of any flat body ; the central part of a head of flowers, like the Sunflower, or Coreopsis (fig. 224), as opposed to the ray or margin; a fleshy expansion of the receptacle of a flower ; p. 125. Dissected : cut deeply into many lobes or divisions. Dissepiments: the partitions of an ovary or a fruit; p. 119. Distichous : two-ranked ; p. 73. Distinct: uncombined with each other ; p. 102. Divaricate: straddling; verv widelv divergent. Divided (leaves, £c.) : cut into divisions extending about to the base or the mid rib; p. 62, fig. 125. Dodeca- (in Greek compounds) : twelve; as Dodecdgynous : with twelve pistils or styles. Dodecandrous : with twelve stamens. Dolahri/brm : axe-sliapcd. j/arstd: pertaining to the back (dorsum) of an organ. ^-Dorsal Suture, p. 117. Dotted Ducts, p. 148. Double Flowers, so called : where the petals are multiplied unduly ; p. 85, 98. Downy : clothed with a coat of soft and short hairs. ^J^nTpe: a stone-fruit; p. 128, fig. 285. Drupaceous : like or pertaining to a drupe. Ducts: the so-called vessels of plants; p. 146, 148. Dumose: bushy, or relating to bushes. Duramen: the heart-wood, p. 153. Dwarf: remarkably low in stature. 214 GLOSSARY. E-, or Ex-, at the beginning of compound words, means destitute of ; as ecostate, without a rib or midrib; exafbuminous, without albumen, &c. Eared : see auriculate ; p. 59, h'g. 96. Ebrdcteate ; destitute of bracts. Echinate: armed with prickles (like a hedgehog). Echinulate: a diminutive of it- Edentate: toothless. Effete : past bearing, &c. ; said of anthers which have discharged their pollen. Eglandulose : destitute of glands. Eldters : threads mixed with the spores of Liverworts. Ellipsoidal; approaching an elliptical figure. Elliptical : oval or oblong, with the ends regularly rounded ; p. 58, fig. 88. Emdrginate : notched at the summit ; p. 60, fig. 108. Embryo: the rudimentary undeveloped plantlet in a seed; p. 6, fig. 9, 12, 26, 31 -37, &c., and p. 136. Embryo-sac, p. 139. Emcrsed : raised out of water. Endecdgynous : with eleven pistils or styles. Endecdndrous : with eleven stamens- Endocarp : the inner layer of a pericarp or fruit ; p. 128. Endochrome : the coloring matter of Algrc and the like. Endogenous Stems, p. 150. Endogenous Plants, p. 150. Endosmose : p. 168. Endosperm : another name for the albumen of a seed. Endostome : the orifice in the inner coat of an ovule. Ennea- : nine. Ennedgynous : with nine petals or styles. Ennedndrous : with nine stamens. Ensifonn : sword-shaped ; as the leaves of Iris, fig. 134 Entire: the margins not at all toothed, notched, or divided, but even ; p. 61. Ephemeral : lasting for a day or less, as the corolla of Purslane, &c. Epi-y in composition : upon ; as Epicarp : the outermost layer of a fruit ; p. 128. Epidermal: relating to the Epidermis, or the skin of a plant; p. 152, 155. Epiywous: growing on the earth, or close to the ground. Epfgynous: upon the ovary ; p. 105, 111. Epipelalous: borne on the petals or the corolla. Epiphyllous : borne on a leaf. Epiphyte: a plant growing on another plant, but not nourished by it; p. 34. Epiphytic or Epiphytal : relating to E/>iphyt<'.s : )>. 34. E pi sperm : the skin or coat of a seed, especially the outer coat. Equal: same as regular ; or of the same number or length, as the case may be, of the body it is compared with. Equally pinnate : same as abruptly pinnate ; p. 65. Equitant (riding straddle) ; p. 68, fig. 133, 134. Krose: eroded, as if gmnval. Erfatrate: not beaked. Essential Organs of the flower, p 85. : see it, &c. Hoimiijamous : a head or cluster with flowers all of one kind, us in Eupatoriuni. uniform in nature; nil of one kind, (leaves, £c.) : originating all round a stem, but all bent or curved round to cue side. GLOSSARY. 219 Homomdrphous : all of one shape. Hom&ropous or Hom6tropal (embryo) : curved with the seed; curved one way- Hood: same as helmet or galea. Hooded: hood-shaped; see cucullate. Hooked: same as hamate. Horn : a spur or some similar appendage. Horny : of the texture of horn. Hortus Siccus: an herbarium, or collection of dried plants; p. 201. Humifuse : spread over the surface of the ground. Hyaline : transparent, or partly so. Hybrid: a cross-breed between two allied species. ; Hypocrateriform : salver-shaped; p. 101, fig. 202, 208. Hypogce.au: produced under ground. Hypogynous: inserted under the pistil; p. 103, fig. 212. Icosdndrous : having 12 or more stamens inserted on the calyx. Imbricate, Imbricated, Imbricative: overlapping one another, like tiles or shingles on a roof, as the scales of the involucre of Zinnia, &c., or the bud-scales of Horsechcsnut (fig. 48) and Hickory (fig. 49). In aestivation, where some leaves of the calyx or corolla are overlapped on both sides by others ; p. 109. Immarainate : destitute of a rim or border. Immersed: growing wholly under water. Impari-pinnate : pinnate with a single leaflet at the apex ; p. 65, fig. 126. Imperfect flowers : wanting either stamens or pistils; p. 89. Imrqnilateral : unequal-sided, as the leaf of a Begonia. Incanous: hoary with white pubescence. Incised: cut rather deeply and irregularly ; p. 62. Included: enclosed ; when the part in question does not project beyond another. Incomplete Flower : wanting calyx or corolla ; p. 90. Incrassated: thickened. Incumbent : leaning or resting upon : the cotyledons are incumbent when tha back of one of them lies against the radicle; the anthers are incumbent when turned or looking inwards, p. 113. Incurved: gradually curving inwards. Indefinite: not uniform in number, or too numerous to mention (over 12). Indefinite or Indeterminate Inflorescence: p. 77. Indehiscent: not splitting open ; i. e. not dehiscent; p. 127. Indigenous: native to the country. Individuals: p. 173. Jndiiplicate: with the edges turned inwards ; p. 109. Indusium: the shield or covering of a fruit-dot of a Fern. Inferior: growing below some other organ; p. 104, 121. Inflated: turgid and bladdery. Inflexed: bent inwards. Inflorescence : the arrangement of flowers on the stem ; p. 76. Infra-axillary : situated beneath the axil. Infundibulifonn or Infundibular: funnel-shaped; p. 102, fig. 199. Innate (anther) : attached by its base to the very apex of the filament; p. 113. Innovation: an incomplete young shoot, especially in Mosses. Inorganic Constituents, p. 160. 220 GLOSSARY. Insertion : the place or the mode of attachment of an organ to its support ; p. 72. Intercellular Passages or Spaces, p. 143, fig. 341. Internode : the part of a stem between two nodes ; p. 42. Interruptedly pinnate: pinnate with small leaflets intermixed with larger ones, as in Water Avens , Intro. fdiaceo us (stipules, &c.) : placed between the leaf or petiole and the stem Introrse: turned or facing inwards, i. e. towards the axis of the flower; p. 113. Inverse or Inverted: where the apex is in the direction opposite to that of the organ it is compared with. involucel: a partial or small involucre; p. 81. Involucellate : furnished with an involucel. Involucrate: furnished with an involucre. Involucre : a whorl or set of bracts around a flower, umbel, or head ; p. 79. Involute, in vernation, p. 76 : rolled inwards from the edges. Irregular Flowers, p. 91. Jointed: separate or separable at one or more places into pieces ; p. 64, &c. Keel: a projecting ridge on a surface, like the keel of a boat; the two anterior petals of a papilionaceous corolla; p. 105, fig. 217, 218, k. Keeled: furnished with a keel or sharp longitudinal ridge. Kernel of the ovule and seed, p. 122, 136. Kidney -stiaped : resembling the outline of a kidney; p. 59, tig. 100. Lnbellnm : the odd petal in the Orchis Family. labiate: same as bilabiate or two-lipped ; p. 105. Lactmate: slashed; cut into deep narrow lobes (called hernias). Lactescent: producing milky juice, as docs the Milkweed, &c. Ldcunose : full of holes or gaps. Lcevigate: smooth as if polished. Lamellar or Lamellate: consisting of flat plates (lamella). Lamina : a plate or blade : the blade of a leaf, &c., p 54. Lanate : woolly ; clothed with long and soft entangled hairs. Lanceolate : lance-shaped ; p. 58, fig. 86. Lanugtnous : cottony or woolly. Latent buds: concealed or undeveloped buds; p. 26, 27. Lateral: belonging to the side. Latex: the milky juice, &c. of plants. Lax: loose in texture, or sparse; the opposite of crowded. Leaf, p. 49. Leaf-hnds, p. 20, 27. Leaflet: one of the divisions or blades of a compound leaf; p. 64. Lntf-like: same as Jbliaceous. Leathery : of about the consistence of leather ; coriaceous. Legume: a simple pod, dehiscent into two pieces, like that of the Pea, p. 131, fig. 303; the fruit of the Pea Family (Leguminosw), of whatever shape. r^egumine, p. 165. /.<•..J"..T BBnBBl .*"•. i.i:'.. 7" / . _"•>' .«:..fA... U.t :Os... 0.1. . *.•«.- c corky or cork-like hi sgitare. 177, 183. gi.lsisb, p. 1T6. £aifrdk, r | coavotae ia bod : p 110. fie borae above ta* axil, as soaw Mb ; p. X, %. A GLOSSARY. 233 Surculose: producing suckers, or shoots resembling them. Suspended: hanging down. Suspended ovules or seeds hang from the very summit of the cell which contains them ; p. 122, fig. 269. Sutured : belonging or relating to a suture. Suture: the line of junction of contiguous parts grown together ; p. 117. Sword-shaped: vertical leaves with acute parallel edges, tapering above to a point ; as those of Iris, fig. 133. Symmetrical Flower: similar in the number of parts of each set; p. 89. Syndntheroits, or Syngenesious: where stamens are united by their anthers ; p. 1 1 2; ft?. 229. Syncdrpoits (fruit or pistil) : composed of several carpels consolidated into one. System, p. 195. Systematic Botany : the study of plants after their kinds ; p. 3. Taper-pointed: same as acuminate ; p. 60, fig. 103. Tap-root : a root with a stout tapering body ; p. 32. Tawny : dull yellowish, with a tinge of brown. Taxdnomy : the part of Botany which treats of classification. Teynvm : a name for the inner seed-coat. Tendril: a thread-shaped body used for climbing, p. 38: it is either a bnmch, as in'Virginia Creeper, fig. 62 ; or a part of a leaf, as in Pea and Vetch, fig. 127. Terete : long and round ; same as cylindrical, only it may taper. Terminal: borne at, or belonging to, the extremity or summit. Terminology : the part of the science which treats of technical terms ; same as glossology. Ternate : in threes ; p. 66. Ternately : in a ternate way. Testa : the outer (and usually the harder) coat or shell of the seed ; p. 134. Tetra- (in words of Greek composition) : four; as, Tetracdccous : of four cocci or carpels. Tetradynamous : where a flower has six stamens, two of them shorter than th« other four, as in Mustard, p. 92, 112, fig. 188. Tetrdgonal: four-angled. Tetrdcnjnou* : with four pistils or styles ; p. 116. Tetrdmerous : with its parts or sets in fours. Tetrdndroits : with four stamens ; p. 112. Them : a case ; the cells or lobes of the anther. Thorn : see spine ; p. 39. Thread-shaped : slender and round, or roundish like a thread ; as the filament at stamens generally. Throat : the opening or gorge of a monopetalons corolla, &c., where the bordct and the tube join, and a little below. TTiyrse or Thyrsus : a compact and pyramidal panicle ; p. 81. Tdmentose : clothed with matted woolly hairs (tomentum). Tongue-shaped: long, flat, but thickish, and blunt. Toothed: furnished with teeth or short projections of any sort on ttie margin. used especially when these are sharp, like saw-teeth, and do not point fo» wards; p. 61, fig. 113. Top-shaped : shaped like a top, or a cone with its HOC* downwards. 234 GLOSSARY. Tdrose, Tdrulose: knobby ; where a cylindrical body is swollen at intenrali. Torus: the receptacle of the flower; p. 86, 124. Tree, p. 21. Tri-, in composition : three ; as Triade'lphous : stamens united by their filaments into three bundles; p. 112. Tridndrous : where the flower has three stamens ; p. 112. Tribe, p. 176. Trichdtontous ; three-forked. Tricdccous: of three cocci or roundish carpels. Tricolor: having three colors. Tricdstate: having three ribs. Tricuspidate : three-pointed. Tride'ntate: three-toothed. Triennial : lasting for three years. Trifdrious : in three vertical rows ; looking three ways. Trifid: three-cleft; p. 62. Trifdliate : three-leaved. Trifo'liolate : of three leaflets ; p. 66. Trifurcate : three-forked. Trigonous : three-angled, or triangular. Trfgynous: with three pistils or styles ; p. 116. Trijugate : in three pairs Trildbed, or Trilobate : three-lobed ; p. 62. Tritdcular: three-celled, as the pistils or pods in fig. 225-227. Trimerous: with its parts in threes, as Trillium, fig. 189. Trine'rvate : three-nerved, or with three slender ribs. Trioxious : where there are three sorts of flowers on the same or different indi- viduals ; as in Red Maple. Tripdrtible : separable into three pieces. Tripartite : three-parted ; p. 62. Tripetalous: having three petals ; as in fig. 189. Triphyllous : three-leaved ; composed of three pieces. Tripinnate : thrice pinnate ; p. 66. Tripinndtijid : thrice pinnately cleft ; p. 64. Triple-ribbed, Triple-nerved, &c. : where a midrib branches into three near the base of the leaf, as in Sunflower. friqudtrous : sharply three-angled ; and especially with the sides concave, like a bayonet. Triserial, or Triseriate : in three rows, under each other. Tristfchous : in three longitudinal or perpendicular ranki. Tristigmdtic, or Tristigmatose : having three stigmas. Trisulcate : three-grooved. Trite'rnate : three times ternate ; p. 67. Trivial Name : the specific name, Trochlear : pulley-shaped. Trumpet-shaped: tubular, enlarged at or towards the summit, as the corolla oi Trumpet-Creeper. Truncate : ns if cut off at the top ; p. 60, fig. 106. Tube, p. 102. Trunk : the main stem or general body of a stem or tree. Tuber: a thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch, provided with eye§ (buds) on the sides ; as a potato, p. 43, fig. 68. fuberde : a small excrescence. Tubercled, or Tuberculate : bearing excrescences or pimples. Tuberous : resembling a tuber. Tuberiferous : bearing tubers. Tulmlar: hollow and of an elongated form; hollowed like a pipe. GLOSSARY. 235 Tumid: swollen; somewhat inflated. Tunicate : coated ; invested with layers, as an onion ; p. 46. Turbinate : top-shaped. Turgid: thick as if ollen. Turio (plural tunmes) : young shoots or suckers springing out of the ground ; as Asparagus-shoots. Turnip-shaped : broader than high, abruptly narrowed below ; p. 32, fig. 57. Twin : in pairs (see geminate), as the flowers of Linusea. Twining : ascending by coiling round a support, like the Hop ; p. 37. Typical : well expressing the characteristics of a species, genus, &c. Umbel : the umbrella-like form of inflorescence ; p. 79, fig. 159. Umbellate : in umbels. Umbelliferous : bearing umbels. Umbellet : a secondary or partial umbel ; p. 81. Umbilicate : depressed in the centre, like the ends of an apple. Uwlwnate: bossed ; furnished with a low, rounded projection like a boss (u/nio). Umbrdculifonn ; umbrella-shaped, like a Mushroom, or the top of the style of Sarracenia. Unarmed : destitute of spines, prickles, and the like. Uncinate: hook-shaped ; hooked over at the end. Under-shrub : partially shrubby, or a very low shrub. Undulate : wavy, or wavy-margined ; p. 62. Unequally pinnate : pinnate with an odd number of leaflets ; p. 65. Unguiculate: furnished with a claw (unguis) ; p. 102, i. e. a narrow base, as the petals of a Rose, where the claw is very short, and those of Pinks (fig. 200), where the claw is very long. Uni-, in compound words : one ; as Unifltfrous : one-flowered. Unifdliate: one-leaved. Unifdliolate: of one leaflet; p. 66. Unijugate: of one pair. Unildbiate : one-lipped. Unilateral : one-sided. Unildcular : one-celled, as the pistil in fig. 261, and the anther in fig. 238, 239. Unidvulate: having only one ovule, as in fig. 213, and fig. 267 -269. Unise'rial : in one horizontal row. Unisexual: having stamens or pistils only, as in Moonseed, fig. 176, 177, &c. Univalved: a pod of only one piece after dehiscence, as fig. 253. Urce'olate : urn-shaped. Utricle: a small, thin-walled, one-seeded fruit, as of Goosefoot ; p. 130, fig. 350. Utricular : like a small bladder, Vdginate: sheathed, surrounded by a sheath {vagina}. Valve: one of the pieces (or doors) into which a dehiscent pod, or any similar body, splits; p. 131, 114. Valvate, Vdlvular : opening by valves. Valvate in aestivation, p. 109. Variety, p. 174, 177. Vascular: containing vessels, or consisting of vessels, such as ducts ; p. 146, 148. Vaulted: arched; same &$ fornicate. Vegetable Physiohgj, p. 3. Veil : the calyptra of Mosses. Veins : the small ribs or branches of the framework of leaves, &c. ; p. 55. 236 GLOSSARY. Veined, Veiny : furnished with evident veins. Veinless : destitute of veins. Veinlets : the smaller ramifications of veins. Velate : furnished with a veil. Velutinous : velvety to the touch. Venation : the reining of leaves, &c. ; p. 55. Venose : veiny ; furnished with conspicuous veins. Ventral: belonging to that side of a simple pistil, or other organ, which looks towards the axis or centre of the flower ; the opposite of dorsal ; as the Ventral Suture, p. 117. Ve'ntricose : inflated or swelled out on one side. Venulose: furnished with vein lets. Vermicular : shaped like worms. Vernation : the arrangement of the leaves in the bud ; p. 75. Vernicose: the surface appearing as if varnished. V&rucose: warty ; beset with little projections like warts. Versatile : attached by one point, so that it may swing to and fro, as the anthers of the Lily and Evening Primrose ; p. 113, fig. 234. Vertex : same as the apex. Vertical : upright ; perpendicular to the horizon, lengthwise. Verticil: a whorl ; p. 71. Verticillate : whorled; p. 71, 75, fig. 148. Ve'sicle: a little bladder. Embryonal Vesicle, p. 139. Vesicular.- bladdery. Vessels: ducts, &c. ; p. 146, 148. Ve'xillary, Vexillar : relating to the Vexillum: the standard of a papilionaceous flower; p. 105, fig. 218, 4. Vdlose: shaggy with long and soft hairs (villosity.) Vimineous: producing slender twigs, such as those used for wicker-work. Fine : any trailing or climbing stem ; as a Grape-vine. Virtiscent, Viridescent : greenish; turning green. Vfrgate ; wand-shaped, as a long, straight, and slender twig. Viscous, Viscid: having a glutinous surface. Vitta (plural vitfye) : the oil-tubes of the fruit of UmbelliferaB. Vdluble: twining, as the stem of Hops and Beans ; p. 37. Wavy : the surface or margin alternately convex and concave ; p. 62. Waxy : resembling beeswax in texture or appearance. Wedge-shaped: broad above, and tapering by straight lines to a narrow basnu p. 58, fig. 94. Wheel-shaped: see rotate; p. 102, fig. 204, 205. Whorl, Whorled: when leaves, &c. are arranged in a circle round the stew p. 71, 75, fig. 148. Wing: any membranous expansion. Wings of papilionaceous flowers, p. 105 Winged: furnished with a wing; as the fruit of Ash and Elm, fig. 30Q, 301. Wood, p. 145. Woody: of the texture or consisting of wood. Woody Fibre, or Wood-Cells, p. 146. Woolly : clothed with long and. entangled soft hairs ; as the leares cf Mullein. THE END. FIELD, FOREST, AND GARDEN BOTANY Jfielfc, Jf0rest, antr BOTANY, A SIMPLE INTRODUCTION TO THE COMMON PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI, BOTH WILD AND CULTIVATED. BY ASA GEAY, FISHER PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. IVISON, BLAKEMAtf, TAYLOR & CO., NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. Altered according to act of Congress, In the year 1808, by ASA GRAY, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts PREFACE. THIS book is intended to furnish botanical classes and generally with an easier introduction to the plants of this country than is the Manual, and one which includes the common cultivated as well as the native species. It is made more concise and simple, 1. by the use of somewhat less technical language ; 2. by the omis- sion, as far as possible, of the more recondite and, for the present purpose, less essential characters ; and also of most of the obscure, insignificant, or rare plants which students will not be apt to meet with or to examine, or which are quite too difficult for beginners ; such as the Sedges, most Grasses, and the crowd of Golden Rods, Asters, Sunflowers, and the like, which require very critical study. On the other hand, this small volume is more comprehensive than the Manual, since it comprises the common herbs, shrubs, and trees of the Southern as well as the Northern and Middle States, and all which are commonly cultivated or planted, for ornament or use, in fields, gardens, pleasure-grounds, or in house-culture, including even the conservatory plants ordinarily met with. It is very desirable that students should be able to use exotic as well as indigenous plants in analysis ; and a scientitic acquaintance with the plants and flowers most common around us in garden, field, and green-house, and which so largely contribute to our well-being and enjoyment, would seem to be no less important than in the case of our native plants. If it is worth while so largely to assemble around us ornamental and useful trees, plants, and flowers, it is cer- tainly well to know what they are and what they are like. To stu- dents in agricultural schools and colleges this kind of knowledge will be especially important. One of the main objects of this book is to provide cultivators, gardeners, and amateurs, and all who are fond of plants and flowers, with a simple guide to a knowledge of their botanical names and 10 PREFACE. structure. There is, I believe, no sufficient work of this kind in the English language, adapted to our needs, and available even to our botanists and botanical teachers, — for whom the only recourse is to a botanical library beyond the reach and means of most of these, and certainly quite beyond the reach of those whose needs I have here endeavored to supply, so far as I could, in this small volume. The great difficulties of the undertaking have been to keep the book within the proper compass, by a rigid exclusion of all extraneous and unnecessary matter, and to determine what plants, both native and exotic, are common enough to demand a place in it, or so uncommon that they may be omitted. It is very unlikely that I can have chosen wisely in all cases and for all parts of the country, and in view of the different requirements of botanical students on the one hand and of practical cultivators on the other, — the latter commonly caring more for made varieties, races, and crosses, than for species, which are the main objects of botanical study. But I have here brought together, within less than 350 pages, brief and plain botanical descriptions or notices of 2,650 species, belonging to 947 genera ; and have constructed keys to the natural families, and analyses of their contents, which I hope may enable students, who have well studied the First Lessons, to find out the name, main char- acters, and place of any of them which they will patiently examine in blossom and, when practicable, in fruit also. If the book an- swers its purpose reasonably well, its shortcomings as regards culti- vated plants may be made up hereafter. As to the native plants omitted, they are to be found, and may best be studied, in the Man- ual of the Botany of the Northern United States, and in Chapman's Flora of the Southern United States. This book is designed to be the companion of the First Lessons in Botany, which serves as grammar and dictionary ; and the two may be bound together into one compact volume, forming a comprehen- sive School Botany. For the account of the Ferns and the allied families of Cryptoga- moiis Plants I have to record my indebtedness to Professor D. C. Eaton of Yale College. These beautiful plants are now much cul- tivated by amateurs; and the means here so fully provided for studying them will doubtless be appreciated. HARVARD UNIVERSITY HERBARIUM, Cambridge, Massachusetts, August 29, 1868. PREFACE. 11 *#* In revising the sheets for the present impression, many small errors of the press, most of them relating to accentuation, have now been cor- rected. January, 1870. SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS. THE SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS employed in this work are few. The signs are : © for an annual plant. © " a biennial plant. Ij. ** a perennial plant. The signs for degrees, minutes, and seconds are used for feet, inches, and lines, the latter twelve to the inch. Thus 1° means a foot in length or height, &c. ; 2', two inches; 3", three lines, or a quarter of an inch. The latter sign is seldom used in this work. The dash between two figures, as "5-10," means from five to ten, &c. " Fl." stands for flowers or flowering. " Cult." " for cultivated. " Nat." " for naturalized. "N., E., S., W." for North, East, South, and West. The geographical abbreviations, such as "Eu." for Europe, and the common abbreviations for the names of the States, need no particular .$* explanation. 12 cc o i— i H H hH co d, di fc CO § W « J o « ii i ^ £ S >H S a 12 ^ 0 « i 3 CC B co W W « 0 M s ^" 0 Q ^ tf o o fc 0 ^ w aw A CC CO CO H £5 fe < 3 J J PH Pk CO CO p P 0 0 52; & 0 O P w pa ,J J £H h H H 0 O 0 0 1 "3 HH P M O 0 • iS CO ^ d O c O « M o H c 1 8 a co £ £ P s O t-i •5 1 l« II S 2 o S .i ^ 'S g S3 cJ if « O ^ S3 o y 1§ ^ Q -I o >• I &3 •£ 4^ A Su § 111 S S | « ^ a ^ §'? o c b i § e -3 ANALYTICAL KEY. 13 IOSPERMOUS, p. 33 US DIVISION, p. 14 US DIVISION, p. 20 US DIVISION, p. 24 fOSPERMOUS, p. 27 US DIVISION, p. 28 US DIVISION, p. 28 ITS DIVISION, p. 30 R ACROGENS, p. 30 e here omitted. ) p 3 2 M 1-3 q S 00 O 0 O ta o M rt PLANTS. UBCLASS I. A! POLYPETA MONOPETA III. APETA ICLASS II. GY S PLANT i. SPADIC: PETALOID I. GLUMAC] PLANTS. B 525 Hi PH CO 13 1 CC H p • y 0 8 CO p *"^ hH . cc O ^ . CO CO £ H i g . . 01 C § | • 03 0 PS CC «T O . iS 3 p3 o P . • "E* • H5 'to k 1 S -r 'S "rt 8 H a 1 . r^ ^^ HH h- 1 CO* & t ' | CO * O c 3 PH 1 i 8 p PS 0 c3 CO § c5 '&. • 1 1 I S. '« o c 1 o 5" 1: cS O i i tf 0 lot corolla-like, 1 8 1 0 4 1 1 O CO O JS 0 T, including Mo: OGENOUS b o 'o of wholly scpar united more or 1 o 'rt O o V 1 ' 5 >GENOUS e (H O pj 1 i § ¥ YPTOGAM in the leaves 1 i 1 K W 03 3 S s -5 i s c <^P P ^ t "c 1 tf o | I +3 t-i 1 i 5 0 I-E W £ rt | HH 1 1 CO en 1 0 1 j 1 l| S c3 CO CO -1 o 1 X? en i HH 1 .S 1 | CO I" ii 0 Q? fe 3 0 CH 00 1 CO r--< 1 P O x ^ it 'p o .2 "~ f C O t ^2 1 ,fl o O S o J= X o *— O c3 t? ^. 1 IN 11 s |1 § O g 1 c •§ i 1 § 1 £ i u CO •5, •s 1 || 1 i 6 en •S 1 to IB 0) i S3 51 14 ANALYTICAL KEY. o o> ^H m g • S^J g fe a • , * S. 'S £ C3 * 0 3 -a S "S " r-4 0 a: 1 ' • § '1* | 1 8 0 • — CO »-H «— 1 n CO 'i twice the nur ithers kidney ce pinnate. pinnate. lucent-dotted, 1 . - 1 8 s .s a cr . 03 7S 0 £ •S ' -3 .2 6 cc -2 g g -g i> - 1 'o -/. c3 1 g i! 1 C « •- ^S 1 | ej f • •o" u 1 • • PETALOU 0, and more tha, the corolla : ai led : leaves twi i I | i w c M "S r3 £ S ^ ^ It! iff- 8C^ ^ *r rS CJ 8 J= S Ji g ItlsH ' S ^ S 8 « c •i 1 ^ orne on the calyx, is borne on the receptacle. avcs centrally peltate : aquatic h saves peltate near the margin : w javcs not peltate, quite entire : tr Spiry-anisc-scented : petals nu Unpleasantly scented when brt avrs not peltate : herbs, or if wo > n s * c 0 1' 0 ;shy plants : petals unequal, cut shy : pod several-celled, several- 3 >" 5 "?: 3 ?* _£ T3 R 3, 11 -n -; |*M P^-I 2 = "=-- = cS <-"^>^OOnr*r-1 M 3 ^ JH s 's: ^3 j? C C c "^ ^ - o 2 •=. ••: H S £ UO •*-» •*-> i i 5 S S SiJjJfE'Sj* I 03 & % s CA cn § § t« g II c .2 .2 .a .2 « PH PH PH PH 1 S 2 1 5 a. x 'S. & ANALYTICAL KEY. 15 i-. O CO 00 •3 o "fcJC OS IM O .2 S .2 & o £ es .g W W i/} CO >-5 O t) 02 E CO II 1 r s! . '3 Podophyllum, BARBERRY CROWFOOT H O ? O • a B ROCK ROSE Polanisia, CAPER g ^ £T 1 I 3 w a 1 CACTUS stinging. . . LOASA £ 0 CB ^ M O »-5 E ij ^o S CO & i talk : ovary inferior MYRTLE ;heir stalk : ovary superior RUE PITCHER PLANT SUNDEW ostly peltate or rounded, equal-sided. WATER-LILY lal-sided, succulent: flowers monoecious. BEGONIA PURSLANE ation. lyx valvate in the bud : stipules (often deciduous). LINDEN '. i 4s . «s • cT • Si 8 2 CO , . .£2 • s r El vhich is mta, or otherwise showi mate or else phyllodia : stone fruit. II af QJ +J I § " s a §* c3 — • cs £ ... fi |4ll ens on the receptacle, d and dark dots, opposi H corolla opens or before : . S '•§ • s « g 11 gl 11 IS ° A3 II J "§ ^ 1 ll ;s, not jointed with then ;s, alternate, jointed wit 4 1 ll § & al -§2- •trap at the end. i or tubers under water, • alternate on stems, un< ent: pod I -celled, rubs), of ordinary confo le, mostly in 5 clusters : >" J £ A S a D '^ o It -iS 'x I |1 ?!'! S '3 3 ,2 -1 s 8 ?? i* B S? o t> J3 0 «t^ tn 0 o 1 f c rr " ^ . *^ 'o C3 V ^ — ja ,0 ^ -3 T3 11 rs ° o £ t| ^^ ° cs B sf tefi •§ B g r 1*1 § S & M. ^ « o .2 en ri se ^ 1-M If! B S 1 § is C o f3 CU £- d< 12 *+3 'i ° *- 1 i| 2 J S § g ^ 11 o c3 111 sis ~ ~ " S 3 g 11! I S 2 11 X X >> t*, |C-i ^ B r^» JJ II &: -5 0 '^ •2 •« '^ '£ 2 2 5 5 CJ CJ punctate i ;he root, i 0^8 •S S ^ baceous s )dy stems amens on « ^ ^ •— o o g g i 33 O J 1 1 c c rs z 0 ** o o tl 4s -5 £ ^ ^ ^ 5 co en .~ .„ ^ £ 5 rt 8 C3 CU p« & c ^ S3 Z3 c c c H M M 000 CQ CC 16 ANALYTICAL KEY. ANALYTICAL KEY. 17 — « t>- 00 in ID oo to fa fa fa <3 W fc *1 Z P? 5£g g H S '« (H P ovules in c ule in eac 8 ,c _c So0 •3 S G > s g o^ „ S 5: c g '3 ° V ^^ « «9 S n ,s ^ '^ -S "3 ^ « V C « CO 02 B S s g Iril s the petals al d dark dots, ^ s II S & §3 « ^ !l W {H ^ P5 ^g PH M ^ P • fa fa fa" fa fa fa Q 05 }H fa P5 p! a P5 OH << PH O < fe: H < H tf o SCS &S B g S^ S - (M J. — .. E.'s , »a >, t: .; fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa . VIOLET . SUNDEW TAMARISK PITTOSPORUM ROCK-ROSE . . CASHEW w WATER-WORT LOOSESTRIFE ; i - • • • - • c 'S • * . • • tL i- *£; * £ ,C . P^ • > • . V . • £. 1 . IT- g bL B ^ C C _C . 1 C I f C 0 . | . E 1" "7 ^ T 9 r! 1 - a C5 rr. B ^ x' h . >. 5 o 1 > — c S u c; | ci 1 B . £ m ^ x 7^ _= . • a p w 5 'P. .H * g I p s I 1 ^ QQ 1 ! S 1 . o 92 £- BQ c 0 0 • *C |l b* •• c _c '/. 'o ^~ 1 c >. stigma one : stigma one, i ~" P K C O s 1 >. c ei E V- C Is S c •£ "S u o ^ ll I? s OT O >. ^ I >, 1 o >> TT | >> c 13 c and seve c c w r. 0 H <5 fc ^5 K W W CH cc co 55 tt ri PH G g'l a! fcc fcc • •S 2 I I • o o a • 1 1 i— 5 1 s o 2 o o T; -— x I s I M 1 - 1 C 2 o c = i C- ? C7:c^scc:w 2 2 f 5 £ ^ o « - .. 5 c S ^ * ' fill II! = = c »la C o v ' b1 "" 0 >> ,- c I s 1 * - B - !a b-2 § a ^11 1 III S8.l?"!l-i HsIiH^ C-^"^^OO«W3 Cto^ f >«C f1-0 >> .. .« b .... a Illipll lii s r?-f * ggcc^^^^ 42 ^ ^ £ £ J ^ CO CO O2 CO CO CO 02 ^ o •- C O CO & III CO ANALYTICAL KEY. O f> j 1 i 1 1 1 1 j ( 1 ( '5 § 3^ H 1 < i * ' a ' :H ^H /> 5 p 00 5q i 3 ^3 united. . . . LOBELIA F. 208 )bes of the corolla. CAMPANULA F 209 M i .^ i n ^ i H ! ^ •*» i S ! s ; d 25 ^ a ^ 1 VALERIAN F. 177 •d. Linnwa, HONEYSUCKLE F. 169 d GE&iNEKIA F. ^iiM .ore or less monadelphous •po[.ioqAv ao fiZZ 'iT YVMn.T.S ' * UliNl im.N A 1< . I /tf MADDER F. 173 in a proper head. HONEYSUCKLE F. 169 -celled, 1 -seeded. . . TEASEL F. 178 w ^ o a • TL r* en cJ 3 S^ | 0 *"" C >> DIVISION OF £ 1 ! ilucre : anthers syngcn anthers separate. • dioecious, mous. with its very base. inetimes the filaments ens only as^nany as tl tamens twice as many ;s lobes, viz. ll "5 ^ ed : fruit very many-s< le number of its lobes * d .1 0 5 • 1 ruit twin, 2-seeded. icfly opposite : flowers involucrate head : ovar ^ o " S o ? **r ^ " V- ,;Z •4-1 *^ ^— vj 9 %4 3 OQ P S i ti 'li- JQ •4-i fee en >4 1 U O S tc 11? ^ r .« g,| 1 § 1 ^ v S §1 3 many a "5 'I U cj l| II. MONOPETA A. Calyx with its tube ( es j 1 en id the style, only 4 or 5. en in an involucrate head 1 ives alternate : flowers mo: rs commonly perfect, at m< ; corolla, or at most lightly : stamens with the 5 anth herbs* with some milky ji slfrubs, or evergreen and t tube of the corolla and fe\ arv sometimes 3-celled, bu in shorter : ovary -3-celled, and one shorter pair : ova corolla, twice or more tha en i! U S-8 -1 b ' I ' en .1 C "5 o I "3 ll fj _ 0 IS >. & -c ••— & Sib •• 0 !-> ~ '•z ^ ~ „- | J i sr f J & 2 ^ Q ^*^ £ C ci *: *^j ?[ *" O •" * -z: 1 C3 cj tn ^ u '* 1 if | «c .h £: li g^ 1 o ~o ° ^" C _0 0 II •|| e3 i :ube or ri ivolucrat |j pee * z z c 5 ,£ g ^ ^ Flowers i icns born 2 J 0 & J 1 s s 1 * 5 "5 "5 Without Without V •M "~* e H D 1 rt ^j 1 § ii cc cc 1 CO g •s g ^ O o O E s: ANALYTICAL KET. 21 B 0 0 X 22 ANALYTICAL KEY. ANALYTICAL KEY. 23 ANALYTICAL KEY. Oi Oi 1-1 CO Oi O Oi CO P-I t- O 0> O P^ PH PH PH PH fq E^ O W ^ q a q s H W a k> a ,_; W . BIRTHWOR ttNG PRIMROS X £ K c s" 1 Mollugo, PIN. LOOSESTRIF WITCH-HAZE LOOSESTRIF . K £ i ^ • _* '5 1" 3 w g £ s 03 S CJ J . cf • £ '3 § iT To • <5 H -1 • 0 3 • 0 <_ • . • X o S "t • 3 -/3 en C 0 g £ 1 • 0 ^ o ! *o S In 1 ' ! 1 - — 00 S 0) Flowers not in I obes of calyx • stamens 3. . f i t anoecious. 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V< § O = ~ Hn-3 I 1 S ! i fe -T /: ANALYTICAL KEY. 29 00 'N <3» 0» (N CO ^ o II • .2 « S ^ ~ g | c/s « P -S i i r^ o o - § £ o g 5 M •§ S z § .s e ^ (f 5iM|t I § -E -r' "7 .S a> ~" a3 « o (^ o S P I i i R. ANALYTICAL KEY. 31 CO t- «O O 0 03 I PQ s and some species of Ranunculus, CROWFOOT F. WATER-LILY F. JLlZAJtlrS-TAJLL ^. completely symmetrical. . . . ORPINE F. s thick and fleshy : polypetalous. FIG-MAK1GOLD *. tics WATER-MILFOIL F. . WATER-LILY F. iv-ovuled : fleshy, leafless plants. . CAL 1 Uo Jb. LEADWORT F. lenvcs opposite. . . Dianthus, &c., iiJNK*. nit : leaves alternate. Eryngium, &c., PARSELY F. p c < h h h ! . Acacias with pnyllodia, MimuoA JP. MELASTOMA F. . POLEMONIUM F. celled : leaves ribbed. . . 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DICOTYLEDONOUS OR EXOGENOUS PLANTS : Distinguished by having the wood or woody matter of the stem all in a circle between pith and bark, and in yearly layers when the stem is more than one year old : also the embryo with a pair of cotyledons or seed leaves (or several in Pines, uiH'ijunl sepals : i. e. the Jlower irregular and unsymmetrical. Leares palmately lobed or parted. Pods 1 -6. 18. DELPHINIUM. Upper sepal spurred; the spur enclosing the spurs of the upper pair of petals: lower pair of petals spurless or wanting. 19. ACONITUM. Upper sepals in the form of a hood or helmet, covering the two very long-clawed and peculiar little petals. ++ 4-v •«•+ -w- •»-* Petals large and flat, of ordinary shape. Sepals herbaceous and persistent! Flowers large, regular 20. P^EONIA. A fleshy disk surrounds the base of the 2 or more pistils, which form leathery pod"? in fruit. Seeds large, rather fleshy-coated. Perennials, with compound or decompound leaves: one species shrubby. CROWFOOT FAMILY. 35 1. CLEMATIS, VIRGIN'S-BOWER. (Ancient Greek name.) U Orna- mental climbers, the stalks of their leaves or leaflets clasping the support, and with somewhat woody stems, or a few are erect herbs. § 1. F/otcers (in spring) vert/ large and widely open (3' -6' across), ^oith usually many small petals or petal-like altered stamens : leaflets in threes. C. fldrida, GREAT-FL-. C. Cult, from Japan, not hardy N. ; the flower 3' - 4' across, its G or more sepals broad-ovate and overlapping each other, white, purplish, or with a purple centre of transformed stamens (var. SIEBOLDII); leaves often twice compound. C. patens, (also called C. CCERULEA, GRAXDiFLftRA, and various names for varieties.) Cult, from Japan, hardy. Flower 5' -7' across, with 6-9 of more oblong or Inntv-sluip d sepals, blue, purple, &c. ; leaflets simply in threes. C. verticillaris (or ATRAGENE AMERICANA), with flowers about 3' across, of 4 bluish-purple sepals, is rather scarce in rocky woods or ravines N. and in mountainous parts. § 2. Flowers (in summer) pretty large, of only 4 sepals, and no petals whatever, not white, solitary on the naked peduncle as in § 1. * Leaves (except the uppermost) pinnat$ or of 3 or more leaflets : climbers. C. Viticella, VIXK-BOWKR C. Cult, from Eu. ; a hardy climber, with flower "2'-',}' across; the widely spreading sepals obovate, thin, cither purple or blue ; akcnes with short naked points C. graveolens. HEAVY-SCEXTKD C. Cult, from Thibet, recently intro- duced, very hardy ; with open yellow flowers l£' across, long and feathery tails to the akeues, and sharp-pointed leaflets. C. Viorna, LEATHER-FLOWERED C. Wild from Penn. and Ohio S., in moist soil ; flower of very thick leathery sepals, purple or purplish, 1' long or more, erect, and with the narrow tips only spreading or recurved ; akenes with very feathery tails. * * Leaves simple, entire, sessile : low erect herbs : tails feathery. C. integrifdlia, EXTIRK-LEAVED C. Cult, from Eu., sparingly. Stem simple ; leaves oval or oblonjf ; flower blue, 1' long. C. OChroleilca, PALL: C. Wild from Staten Island S., but scarce, has ovate silky leaves and a dull silky flower. § 3. Flowers (in summer) small, ichite,panic!ed, succeeded by feathery-tailed akenes. C. recta, UPRIGHT VIRGIN 's-BowKR. Cult, from Eu. Nearly erect herb, 3°-4° hiLih, with large panicles of white (lowers, in early summer; leaves pin- nate ; leaflets ovate or slightly heart-shaped, pointed, entire. C. Flammilla, SWKKT-SCENTKD V. Cult, from Eu. Climbing freely, with copious sweet-scented flowers at midsummer; leaflets 3-5 or more, of various shapes, often lobed or cut. C. Virginiana, COMMON* WILD V. Climbing high, with dioecious flow- ers late in summer ; leaflets 3, cut-toothed or lobed. 2. HEPATIC A, LIVER-LEAF, HEPATIC A. (Shape of the S-lobed leaves likened to that of the liver.) Among the earliest spring flowers. 1J. The involucre is so close to the flower and of such si/.c and shape that it is most likely to be mistaken for a calyx, and the colored sepals for petals. H. triloba, ROUXD-LOHED H. Leaves with 3 broad and rounded lobes, appearing later than the flowers, and lasting over the winter; stalks hairy; flowers blue, purple, or almost white. Woods, common E. Full double- flowered varieties, blue and purple, are cult, from Eu H. acutiloba, SHARP-LOIIED H. Wild from Vermont W. ; has pointed lobes to the leaves, sometimes 5 of them, and paler flowers. VT& A. nemor6sa, WOOD A. Stctn 4'-10' high, bearing an involucre o; long-petioled leaves of M or f> leaflets, and a single short-peduncled flower ; sepals" ,, ^wliite, or purple outside. Woodlands, early spring. 4. THALICTRUM, MEADOW-RUE. (Old name, of obscure deriva- tion.) The following are the common wild species, in woodlands and low grounds. § 1. Flowers perfect, few, in an umbel: resembling an Anemone: scj>als 5-10. T. anemonoides, RUE-ANEMONE. A very smooth and delicate little £5-^^^^ plant, growing with Wood Anemone, which it resembles in having no stem- ~ reares except those that form an involucre around tin umbel of whit v (rir pinkish) flowers, appearing in early spring ; leaflets roundish, .'Mobed at the C" ;-nd, long-stalked: ovaries many-grooved, and with a flat-topped sessile stigma: otherwise it would rank as an Anemone. § 2. Flowers mostly dioecious and not handsome, small, in loose compound panicles; the 4 or 5 sepals falling early : stigma* .sYc nd< r : akenes scrcral -grooved and angled : leans icrnatrh/ drcum/'oiind (Lessons, fig. l.'JS), all alternate. ; the upper- most not forming an inrolwn . T. dioicum, EAKLV MI:AI>O\\ -Hi K. Herb glaucous, l°-2°high; flow- ers greenish, in early spring ; the yellowish linear anthers of the sterile plant hanging on long capillary filaments : leaves all on general petioles. Rocky T. purpurascens, PURPLISH M. Later, often a little downy, 2° -4 CROWFOOT FAMILY. 37 high ; stem-leaves not raised on a general petiole ; flowers greenish and pur plish ; anthers short-linear, drooping on capillary and upwardly rather thickened filaments. T. Cornuti, TALL M. Herb 4° -8° high; stem-leaves not raised on a general petiole ; flowers white, in summer ; anthers oblong, not drooping ; the white filaments thickened upwards. Low or wet ground. 5. ADONIS. (The red-flowered species i'ahled to spring from the blood of Adonis, killed by a wild boar.) Stems leafy ; leaves finely much cut into very narrow divisions. Cult, from Europe for ornament A. autumnalis, PHEASANT'S-EYE A. ® Stems near 1° high, it or the branches terminated by a small flower, of 5-8 scarlet or crimson petals, com- monly dark at their base. Has run wild in Tennessee. A. vernalis, SPRING A. U Stems about 6' high, bearing a large showy flower, of 10-20 lanceolate light-yellow petals, in early spring. 6. MYOSURUS, MOUSETAIL (which the name means in Greek). ® M. minimus. An insignificant little plant, wild or run wild along streams from Illinois S., with a tuft of narrow entire root-leaves, and scapes 1' -3' high, bearing an obscure yellow flower, followed by tail-like spike of fruit of l'-2' long, in spring and summer. 7. RANUNCULUS, CROWFOOT, BUTTERCUP. (Latin name for a little frog, and for the Water Crowfoots, living with the frogs.) A large genus of wild plants, except the double-Howered varieties of three species cult. in gardens for ornament. (Lessons, p. 183, fig. 3.">8 -361.) § 1. A/i'i'itic ; i/ie leaven all or mostly und leaves rounded and kidney-shaped, coarsely erenatc ; flowers small, in summer. 8. ZANTHORHIZA, SIIKUB YELLOW-ROOT. (Name composed ot the two (ireek words for ycl/oiv and root.) Only one species, Z. apiif61ia. A shrubby plant, l°-2° high, with dee]) yellow wood and roots (used by tin; Indians for OVeing), pinnate leaves of about f) cut-toothed or lobed leatlets, ami drooping compound raceme- of small dark or dull -purple flowers, in early sprm-, followed by little 1 -.-ceded pods: -n.\v.- in damp, shady places along the Alleghanies. 9. HYDRASTIS, ORANGE-ROOT, YELLOW PUCCOON. (Name from the (ireek, probably meaning that the root or juice of the plant is dras- tic.) U A single species, H. Canad^nsiS. Low, sending up in early spring a rounded 5 - 7-lobed root-leal, and a stem near 1° high, bearing one or two alternate .-mailer leaves above, just below the sin-le small llower. The 3 gnvm>h .-epaU fall from the \nid, leaving the many white stamens and little head of pi.-tils , the latter grow pulpy and ]i reduce a 'crimson fruit resembling a raspberry. Mich woods, from New York, W. & S. CROWFOOT FAMILY. 39 10. ACTJEA, BANEBERRY. (The old Greek name of the Elder, from some likeness in the leaves.) \\. Fl. in spring, ripening the berries late in summer : growing in rich woods. Leaflets of the thricc-ternate leaves ovate, sharply cleft, and cut-toothed. A. spicata, var. rubra, RED BANEBERRY. Flowers in a very short ovate raceme or cluster, on slender pedicels ; berries red. A. alba, WHITE BANEBERRY. Taller than the other, smoother, and flowe'ring a 'week or two later, with an oblong raceme ; pedicels in fruit very thick, turning red, the berries white. 11. CIMICIFUGA, BUGBANE. (Latin name, meaning to drive away bugs.) U Like Baneberry, but tall, with very long racemes (1° - 3°), and dry pods instead of berries ; fl. in summer. C. racemdsa, TALL B. or BLACK SNAKEROOT. Stem with the long raceme 4° - 8° high ; pistil mostly single, with a flat-topped stigma ; short pod holding 2 rows of horizontally flattened seeds. Rich woods. C. Americana, AMERICAN B. More slender, only 2° -4° high; pis- tils 5, with slender style and minute stigma ; pods raised from the receptacle on slender stalks, flatfish, containing few scaly-coated seeds. Allcghanies from Pcnn. S. ; fl. late summer. 12. CALTHA, MARSH-MARIGOLD. (Old name, from a word mean- ing (joblct, of no obvious application.) ty One common species, — C. pallistris, MARSH-MARIGOLD, wrongly called COWSLIPS in the country. Stem l°-2° high, bearing one or more rounded or somewhat kid- ney-shaped entire or eremite leaves, and a few flowers with showy yellow calyx, about 1^' across; folknvcd by a chaster of many-seeded pods. Marshes, in spring ; young plant boiled for " greens." 13. TBOLLIUS, GLOBE-FLOWER. (Name of obscure meaning) Flower large, like that of Caltha, but sepals not spreading except in our wild species; a row of small mctary-like petals around the stamens, and the leaves deeply palmately cleft or parted, y. Fl. spring. T. laxus, WILD G. Sepals only 5 or G, spreading wide open, yellowish or dull greenish-white ; petals very small, scorning like abortive stamens. Swamps, N. & W. T. Europseus, TRUE or EUROP.EAN G. Sepals bright yellow (10-20) broad and converging into a kind of globe, the flower appearing as if semi- double. Cult, from Eu. T. AsiatiGUS, ASIATIC G. Like the last, but flower rather more open and deep orange yellow. Cult, from Siberia. 14. COPTIS, GOLDTHREAD. (From Greek word to cut, from the divided leaves.) 1|. The only common species is, — C. tril61ia, THREE-LEAVED G. A delicate little plant, in bogs and cpjdjyjaods .N., sending up early in spring single white flowers (smaller than,; those of Wood Ancmony) on slender scapes, followed by slender-stalked leaves of three wedge-shaped leaflets ; these become bright-shining in summer, and last over winter. The roots or underground shoots are of long and slender ^yellow iibivs, used as a popular medicine. 15. HELLEEOBUS, HELLEBORE. (Old Greek name, alludes to the poisonous properties.) U European plants, with pedate leaves and pretty large flowers, in early spring. H. Viridis, GREEN H.. has stems near 1° high, bearing 1 or 2 leaves and 2 or 3 pale yellowish-green flowers : run wild in a few places E. H. niger, BLACK H., the flower called CHRISTMAS ROSE (because flow- ering in warmer parts of England in winter), has single large flowers (2' -3' across, white, turning pinkish, then green), on scapes shorter than the shining evergreen leaves, in earliest spring. Rare in gardens. 40 CROWFOOT FAMILY. 16. NIGELLA, FENNEL-FLOWER. (Name from the black seeds.) ® Garden plants from Eu. and Orient ; with leafy steins, the leaves finely di- vided, like Fennel ; known by having the 5 ovaries united below into one 5-styled pod. Seeds large, blackish, spicy ; have been used as a substitute for spice or pepper. N. Damasc6na, COMMON F. or RAGGED-LADY. Flower bluish, rather large, surrounded and overtopped by a finely-divided leafy involucre, like the other leaves ; succeeded by a smooth inflated 5-celled pod, in which the lining of the cells separates from the outer part. N. sativa, NUTMEG-FLOWER. Cult, in some old gardens ; has coarser leaves, and smaller rough pods. 17. AQUILEGIA, COLUMBINE. (From aquila, an eagle, the spurs of the petals fancied to resemble talons.) ]\. Well-known, large-flowered ornamental plants : flowers in spring and early summer, usually nodding, so that the spurs ascend. * North American species, with long straight spurs to the corolla. A. Canad&QSis, WILD C. Flowers about 2' long, scarlet and orange, or light yellow inside, the petals with a very short lip or blade, and stamens , . projecting. Common on rock*. * A. Skinneri, MEXICAN C., is taller, later, and considerably larger-flow- ered than the last, the narrower acute sepals usually tinged greenish ; otherwise very similar. Cult. A. cserillea, LONG-SPURRED C., native of the Rocky Mountains, lately introduced to gardens, and worthy of special attention ; has blue and white flowers, the ovate sepals often 1^', the very slender spurs 2' long, the blade of the petals (white) half the length of the (mostly blue) sepals, spreading. * # Old World species, with hooktd or incurved spurs to the corolla. A. vulgaris, COMMON GARDEN C. Cult, in all gardens, l°-3° high, many-flowered ; spurs rather longer than the blade or rest of the petal ; pods pubescent. Flowers varying from blue to purple, white, &e-, greatly changed by culture, often full double, with spur within spur, sometimes all changed into a rosette of plane petals or sepals. A. glandulbsa, GLANDULAR C. A more choice species, fi'-l° high, with fewer very showy deep blue flowers, the blade of the petals white or white- tipped and twice the length of the short spurs ; pods and summit of the plant glandular-pubescent. A. Sibirica, SIBERIAN C. Equally choice with the last, and like it ; but the spurs longer than the mostly white-tipped short blade, as well as the pods, £c. smooth. 18. DELPHINIUM, LARKSPUR. (From the Latin name of the dol- phin, alluding to the shape of the flower.) The familiar and well-marked flower of this genus is illustrated in Lessons, p. 91, 94, fig. 183, 184, l'J2. # Gardtn annuals from Eu., with only (he 2 upper petals, united into one bod//, one pistil, and leaves Jinchj and much divided : fl. summer and full. D. Consolida, FIELD L. Escaped sparingly into roadsides and fields , flowers scattered on the spreading branches, blue, varying to pink or white; pod smooth. D. Ajacis, ROCKET L. More showy, in gardens, and with similar flowers crowded in a long close raceme, and downy pods ; spur .shorter : some marks on the front of the united petiU were fancied to read AIAI = Ajax. * * Perennials, with 4 si-pamtc ]>rl - 7-cleft beyond the middle, and the divisions cut. into sharp lobes or teeth ; many flowers (in summer) in a long wand-like raceme, blue or purplish ; the 2-cleft lower petals prominently yellowish-bearded in the common garden form. There are many varieties and mixtures with other species, some double- flowered. 19. ACONITUM, ACONITE, WOLFSBANE, MONKSHOOD. (An- cient name.) 1J. Root thick, tuberous or turnip-shaped, a virulent poison and medicine. Leaves palmately divided or cleft and eut-lobed. Flowers showy: the large upper sepal iiom its shape is called the xist/ite or fie/met. Under it arc two long-stalked queer little Inxlies which answer for petals. See Lessons, p. 9:2, tig. 185, 186, 193. The following are all cult, from Eu. for ornament, except the first : fl. summer. A. uncinatum, WILD A. or MONKSHOOD. Stem slender, 3° -5°, erect, but bending over above, as if inclined to climb ; leaves cleft or farted into 3-5 ovate or wedge-lanceolate cut-toothed lobes ; flowers loosely panicled, blue ; the roundish helmet nearly as broad as high, its pointed visor turned down. Low grounds, from Penn S. & W. A. variegatum, VARIEGATED A. Erect; leaves divided to the base into rather broad-lobed and cut divisions ; flowers in a loose panicle or raceme, blue and often variegated with white or whitish ; the helmet considerably higher than wide, its top curved fonviiid, its pointed visor ascending or horizontal. A. Napellus, THI-K MOMCSIIOOD or OFFICINAL ACONITE. Erect, from a turnip-shaped root ; leaves divided to the base and then 2-3 times cleft into linear lobes ; flowers crowded in a close raceme, blue (also a white variety) ; helmet Abroad and low. A. Anthora, a low species, with very finely divided leaves, and crowded yellow flowers, the broad helmet rather high, occurs in some old gardens. 20. P.336NIA, P7EONY. (Ancient name, after a Greek physician, APOW.) U Well-known large-flowered ornamental plants, cult. Iiom the Old World, Leaves ternately decompound. Roots thickened below. # Herbs, with tingle-flowered stems, in $prutgt and downy pods. P. officinalis, COMMON P. Very smooth, and with large coarsely di- vided green leaves ; the great flowers red, white, &c., single or very double* P. peregrina, of Eu., in the gardens called P. PARODOXA, has leaves glaucous and more or less downy beneath, and smaller flowers than the last, rose-red, &c., generally full double, and petals cut and frinued. P. tenuilbiia, SLKNDER-LKAVED P. of Siberia, is low, with early crimson- red flo.wers, and narrow linear divisions to the leaves. * *- Herbs, wit/i s> veial-flowered stems, in summer, and smooth pods. P. albiflbra, WHITK-FL. or FRAGRANT P., or CHINKSE P. Very smooth alxHit 3° high, with bright green foliage, and white or rose-colored, often sweet- scented, rather small flowers, single, also double, and with purple varieties. S & F— 13 42 MAGNOLIA FAMILY. * * # Skrubhg : JJ. in sprinq and early summer. P. MoMan, TRKE PJEONY, of China. Stems 2° -3° high; leaves pale and glaucous, ample; flowers very large (6' or more across), white with purple base, or rose-color, single or double ; the disk, which in other sper-ics is a mere ring, in thi.s forms a thin-fleshy sac or covering, enclosing the 5 or more ovaries, but bursting, and falling away us the pods grow. 2. MAGNOLIACE^S, MAGNOLIA FAMILY. Trees or shrubs, with aromatic bitter bark, simple mostly entire alternate leaves, and solitary flowers ; the sepals and petals on the receptacle and usually in threes, but together occupying more than two ranks, and imbricated in the bud ; pistils and mostly the sta- mens numerous, the latter with adnate anthers (Lessons, p. 113, fig. 233) ; and seeds only 1 or 2 in each carpel ; the embryo small in albumen. I. Stipules to the leaves forming the bud-scales, and falling early. Flowers perfect, large. Stamens and pistils many on a long recep- tacle or axis, the carpels imbricated over each other and cohering into a ma-s, forming a sort of cone in fruit. These are the charac- ters of the true Magnolia Family, of which we have two genera. 1. LIRIODENDRON. Sepals 3, reflexed. Corolla bell-shaped, of 6 broad green- ish-orange petals. Stamen-* almost equalling the petals, v/ith slender fila- ments, and long anthers opening outwards. Carpels thin and scale-form, closely packed over each other, dry in fruit, :md after ripening separating and falling away from the slander axis ; the winw-like portion answering to style; the small seed-bearing cell at the bai-e and indehiscent. Leaf-buds flat : stipules free from the petiole. 2. MAGNOLIA. Sepals 3. Petals G or 9. Stamens short, with hardly any fil- aments : anthers opening inwards. Carpels becoming fleshy in fruit and forming a red or rose-colored cone, each when ripe (in autumn) splitting down the back and discharging 1 or 2 coral-red berry-like seeds, which hang on extensile cobwebby threads. Stipules united with the base of the petiole, falling as the leaves unfold. II. Stipules none. Here are two Southern plants which have been made the representatives of as many small orders. 3. ILLICIUM. Flowers perfect. Petals 9 -30. Stamens many, separate. Pis tii.5 several in one row, forming a ring of almost woodv little \> 4. SCHIZANDHA. Flowers monoecious. Petals mostly 6. Stamens 5, united into a disk or button-shaped body, which bears 10 anthers on the edge-* of the 5 lobes. Pistils many in a head, which lengthens into a spike of scattered red berries. 1. LIRIODENDEON, TULIP-TREE (which is the meaning of tin botanical name in Greek). Only one species, L. Tuiipifera. A tall, very handsome tree, in rich soil, commonest \V., where it, or the light and soft lumber (much used in cabinet-work), is called "WniTK-woon, and even I'OPLAK ; planted for ornament; fl. late in spring, yellow with greenish and orange. Leaves with '2 short si^le-lobcs, and the end as if cut off. 2. MAGNOLIA. (Named for the botanist ^faqnol.) Some species are called UMBRELLA-TRKKS, from the way the leaves arc placed on the end of the shoots; others, Ci ct MISKU-TKKKS, from the appearance of the young fruit. * Nat it'<- triis 'if't/tix ctiuntry, ojlt-n planted for ornaimnl. M. grandiflbra, UKKAT-FLOWKKKD MAGNOLIA of S., half-hardy in the Middle States. The only perfectly evergreen species ; splendid tree with CUSTARD-APPLE FAMILY. 43 coriaceous oblong or obovate leaves, shining above, mostly rusty beneath ; the flowers very fragrant, white, very much larger than the next, in spring. M. glatica, SMALL M. or SWEET BAY. Wild in swamps N. to New Jersey and Mass. ; a shrub or small tree, with the oblong obtuse leaves white oV glaucous beneath, and globular white and fragrant Howers (2' -3' wide), in summer. The leaves are thickish and almost evergreen, quite so far south. M. acuminata, CUCUMBER M. or CUCUMBER-TREE. Wild from N. Y. W. & 8. ; a stately tree, with the leaves thin, green, oblong, acute or pointed at both ends, and somewhat downy beneath, and pale yellowish-green flowers (3' broad), late in spring. M. COrdata, YELLOW CUCUMBER M , of Georgia, hardy even in New England; like the last, but a snv.ill tree with the le.ivcs ovate or oval, seldom sordatc ; and the flowers lemon-yellow. M. macrophylla, GREAT-LEAVED M., of Carolina, nearly hardy N. to Mass. A small tree, with leaves very large (2° -3° long), obovatc-oblong with a cordate base, downy r.nd white beneath, and an immense opcn-bellshaped white flower (8'- 12' wide when outspread), somewhat fragrant, in earlv sum- mer ; petals ovate, with a purple spot at the base. M. Umbrella, UMBRELLA M. (also called M. TRIPETALA). Wild in Penn. and southward. A low tree, with the leaves on the end of the flowering branches crowded in an umbrella-like circle, smooth and green both sides, obo- vate-lanceolate, pointed at both ends, 1° -2° long, surrounding a large white flower, in spring ; the petals 2^' - 3' long, obovate-lanceolatc and acute, nar- rowed at the base ; the ovate-oblong cone of fruit showy in autumn, rose-red, 4' -5' long. M. Fraseri, EAR-LEAVED UMBRELLA M. (also called M. AURICUL\TA). Wild from Virginia S , hardy as the last, and like it ; but a taller tree, with the leaves seldom 1° long and auricled on each side at the base, the white obovate- spatulate petals more narrowed below into a claw ; cone of fruit smaller. * * Chinese and Japanese species. M. conspicua, YULAN of the Chinese, half-hardy in N. States. A small tree, with very large white flowers appearing before any of the leaves, which are obovate. pointed, and downy when young. M. Soulangeana is a hybrid of this with the next, moro hardy and the petals tinged with purple. M. purpurea, PURPLE M. of Japan, hardy N. A shrub, the showy flowers (pink-purple outside, white within) beginning to appear before the leaves, which are obovate or oval, and bright dark green. 3. ILLICIUM, STAR-ANISE. (From a Latin word, meaning to entice.] Shrubs, aromatic, especially the bark and pods, with evergreen oblong leaves. I. anisatlim, of Chinn, which yields an oil of anise, has small yellowisl flowers, is rare in greenhouses. I. Floridanum, WILD ANISE-TREE, of Florida, &c.; has larger darl purple flowers, of 20-30 narrow petals, in spring. 4. SCHIZANDRA. (Name from two Greek words, means cut-stamens.) S. COCcinea, a twining shrub of S. States, scarcely at all aromatic, with thin ovate or oblong leaves, and small crimson-purple flowers, in spring. 3. ANONACE^S, CUSTARD-APPLE FAMILY. Trees or shrubs, with 3 sepals and G petals in two sets, each sei valvate in the bud, and many short stamens on the receptacle, sur- rounding several pistils which ripen into pulpy fruit containing large and fiat bony seeds. Embryo small ; the albumen which forms the bulk of the kernel appears as if cut up into small pieces. Foliage and properties resembling Magnolia Family, but seldom aromatic, and no stipules. All tropical, except the single genus 44 BARBERRY FAMILY. 1. ASIMINA, PAPAW of U. S. (Creole name.) Petals ygjcpish OT yellowish, beeoming dark dull purple as they enlarge ; the 3 inner small. Pistils ft-\v in the centre of the globular hr:id of authors, making one or more large, oblong, pulpy fruits, sweet and eatable when over-ripe in autumn. Flowers in early spring preceding the leaves. A. triloba, COMMON PAPAW (wholly different from the true Papaw of W. Ind.), is a shrub or small tree, wild W. & S. and sometimes planted, with obo- . vatc-lanccolate leaves, and banana-shaped fruit 3' -4' long. ? A. parvifl6ra is a small-flowered, and A. grandifibra a large-flowered specjes of S^E, States, both small-fruited, and A. pygmsea is a dwarJLono with nearly evergreen leaves far South. 4. MENISPERMACE^E, MOONSEED FAMILY. Woody or partly woody twiners, with small dioecious flowers; their sepals and petals much alike, and one before the other (usu- ally 6 petals beibre a; many sepals) ; as many or 2 - 3 times as many stamens; and 2 — G pistils, ripening into 1-seeded little stone- fruits or drupes ; the stone curved, commonly into a wrinkled or ridged ring ; the embryo curved with the stone. Leaves palmate or peltate : no stipules. Anthers commonly 4-lobed. 1. COCCULUS. Sepals, petals, and stamens each 6. 2. MENISPERMUM. Sepals and petals 6 or 8. Stamens in sterile flowers 12 - 20. 1. COCCULUS. (Name means a little berry.) Only one species in U. S. C. Carolinus, CAROLINA C. Somewhat downy ; leaves ovate or heart shaped, entire or sinuate-lobed ; flowers greenish, in summer ; fruits red, as large as peas. From Virginia S. & W. 2. MENISPERMUM, MOOXSEED. (Name from the shape of the stone of the fruit.) Only one species, M. Canad&DSe, CANADIAN MOOXSEED. Almost smooth ; leaves peltate near the edge ; tlowcrs white, in late summer ; fruits black, looking like small grapes. 5. BERBERIDACE^E, BARBERRY FAMILY. Known generally by the perfect flowers, having a petal before each sepal, and a stamen before each petal, with anthers opening by a pair of valves like trap-doors, hinged at the top (Lessons, p. 114, fig. 236), and a single simple pistil. But No. G has nu- merous stamens, o and G have more petals than sepals, and the anthers of 2 and 6 open lengthwise, in the ordinary way. Tin-re are commonly bracts or outer sepals behind the true ones. All blos- som in spring, or the true Barberries in early summer. # Shmbs or shrubby: stamens 6 : berry few-seeded. 1. BERBERIS. Flowers yellow, in racemes : petals with two deep-colored spots at the base. Leaves simple, or simply pinnate. Wood air.i inner bark yellow. I.c:ivc* with sharp bristly or spiny teeth. 3. NAXDINA. Flcm-i.rs white, in panicles : anthers opening lengthwise. Leaves twice or thrice pinnate. # * Perennial herbs. «- mth one to iJiree twice or thrice ternattly compound leaves. 8. EPIMEDIUM. Stamens 4. Petals 4 hollow spurs or hoods. Pod sereral seeded. Leaflets with bristly teeth. BARBERRY FAMILY. 45 4. CAULOPHYLLUM. Stamens 6. Petals 6 broad and thickish bodies much shorter than the sepals. Ovary bursting or disappearing early, leaving tho two ovules to develop into naked berry-like, or rather drupe-like, spherical seeds on thick stalks." ^_ *_ With simply 2 - 9-parted Itavts, and solitary tcltite flowers : sepals falling when the blossom opens. Seeds numerous, parietal. Pistils rarely more than one ! 5. JEFFERSOMA. Flower on a scape, rather preceding the 2-parted root-leaves. Petals (oblong) and stamens mostly 8. Fruit an ovate pod, opening by a cross-line halt-way round, the top 'forming a conical lid. Seeds with' an aril on one side. 6. PODOPHYLLUM. Flower in the fork between the two peltate 5 - 9-parted leaves : root-leaf single and peltate in the middle, umbrella-like. Petals 6-9, large and broad. Stamens usually 12-18. Fruit an oval, large and ; sweet, eatable berry ; the seeds imbedded in the pulp of the large parietal placenta. 1. BERBEBJS, BARBERRY. (Old Arabic name.) The two sorts or sections have sometimes been regarded as distinct genera. § 1. TRUE BARBERRY; with simple leaves, clustered in the axil of compound spines. B. VUlgaris, COMMON B. of Eu. Planted, and run wild in thickets and bv roadsides ; has drooping many-flowered racemes, and oblong red and sour berries ; leaves obovate-oblong, fringed with closely-set bristly teeth, with a joint in the very short petiole (like that in an orange-leaf), clustered in the axils of triple or multiple spines, which answer to leaves of the shoot of the previous season (see Lessons, p. 51, h'g. 78). B. Canadensis, WILD B. In the Alleghanies from Virginia S., and rarely cult., a low bush, with few-flowered racemes, oval red berries, and less bristly or toothed leaves. § 2. MAHOXIA; with pinnate and evergreen leaves, spiny-toothed leaflets, and clustered racemes of early spriiifj Jiotvcrs : terries blue or black with a bloom. Planted for ornament. B. Aquifblium, HOLLY B. or MAHONIA, from Oregon, &c., rises to 30.40 ],;,,.)! . leaflets 5 - (J, shining, finely reticulated. B. ripens, CHEEPING or Low M., from Rocky Mountains, is more hardy, rises only 1° or less, and lias rounder, usuallv fewer, pale or glaucous leaflets. B. nervbsa, also called GLUMACKA, from the husk-like long and pointed bud-scales at th'e end of the stems, which rise only a few inches above the ground ; leaflets 11-21, along the strongly-jointed stalk, lance-ovate, several-ribbed from the base. Also from Oregon. B. Japonica, JAPAN M., tall, rising fully 6° high, the rigid leaflets with only 3 or 4 strong spiny teeth on each side, is coming into ornamental grounds. 2. NANDINA. (The native Japanese name.) A single species, viz. N. domestica. Cult, in cool greenhouse, &c., from Japan : very com- pound large leaves : the berries more ornamental than the blossoms. 8. EPIMEDIUM, BARREN-WORT. (Old Greek name, of uncertain meaning.) Low herbs, with neat foliage : cult, for ornament. E. Alpinum, of European Alps, has a panicle of odd-looking small flowers ; the yellow petals not larger than the reddish sepals. E. macranthum, LARGE-FLOWERED E. of Japan, with similar foliage, has large white flowers with very long-spurred petals. 4. CAULOPHYLLUM, COHOSH. The only species of the genus is C. thalictroides, BLUE COHOSH. Wild in woods, with usually only one stem-leaf and that close to the top of the naked stem (whence the name of the genus, meaning stem-leaf), and thrice ternate, but, having no common petiole, it looks like three leaves ; and there is a larger and more compound radical leaf, with a long petiole. The leaves are glaucous and resemble those of Thalictrum {as the specific name indicates), but the leaflets are larger. Seeds very hard, with a thin blue pulp. 46 WATER-LILY FAMILY. 6. JEFFERS6NIA, TWIN-LEAF. (Named for Thomas Jefferson.) J. diphylla, sonn-timcs called KIIEUMATISM-ROOT. Wild in rich woods, W. & S., sometimes cult. ; the pretty white llower and the leaves both long- stalked, from the ground, appearing in early spring. 6. PODOPHYLLUM, MAY-APPLE, or MANDRAKE. (Name means foot-leaf, the 5 — 7 -parted leaf likened to a webbed-foot.) P. pelt&tum. Wild in rich soil : the long running rootstocks (which are poisonous and medicinal) send up in spring some stout stalks terminated by a large, 7 - 9-lobed, regular, umbrella-shaped leaf (i. e. peltate in the middle), an:l sonic which bear two one-sided leaves (peltate near their inner edge), with a large white flower nodding in the fork. The sweet pulpy fruit as large as a pullet's 3gg, ripe in summer : rarely 2 or more to one flower. 6. NYMPH^IACE^E, WATER-LILY FAMILY. Aquatic perennial herbs, with the leaves which float on the surface of the water or rise above it mostly peltate or roundish- heart-shaped, their margins inrolled in the bud, long-petioled ; axil- lary 1-flowered peduncles ; sepals and petals hardly ever 5, the latter usually numerous and imbricated in many rows. The genera differ so widely in their botanical characters that they must be de>cribed separately. One of them is the famous Amazon Water- Lily, VICTORIA REGIA, with floating leaves 3 feet or more in diam- eter, and the magnificent flowers almost in proportion ; while the dull flowers of Water-shield are only half an inch long. 1. BIIASENIA. Sepals and petals eacli 3 or 4, narrow, and much alike, dull pur- ?le. Stamens 12-18: filaments slender. Pistils 4 - 18, forming indehiscent -3-seeded pods. All the parts separate and persistent. Ovules commonly on the dorsal suture! Embryo, &e. as in Water-Lily. 2. NELUMB1UM. Sepals and petals many and passing gradually into each other, deciduous. Stamens very many, on the receptacle, the upper part of which is enlarged into a top-shaped body, bearing a dozen or more ovaries, each tipped with a flat stigma and separately immersed in as many hollows. (Les- sons, p. 126, fig. 284.) In fruit these form 1-seeded nuts, resembling small acorns. The whole kernel of the seed is embryo, a pair of fleshy and 'farina- ceous cotyledons enclosing a plumule of 2 or 3 rudimentary green leaves. 8. NYMPH^EA. Sepals 4, green outside. Petals numerous, many times 4, pass- ing somewhat gradually into the numerous stamens ( Lessons,' p. uy, fig. 198): both organs grow attached to the globular many-celled ovary, the former to its sides which they cover, the latter borne on its depressed summit. Around a little knob at the top of the ovary the numerous stigmas radiate as in a poppv-head, ending in long and narrow incurved lobes. Fruit like the ovary enlarged, still covered by the decaying persistent bases of the petals : numerous seeds cover the partitions. Kipe seeds each in an arillus or bag open at the top. (Lessons, p. 135, fig. 318.) Embryo, like that of Nelumbium on a very small scale, but enclosed in a bag, and at the end of the kernel, th« rest of which is mealy albumen. 4. NLTIIAR. Sepals usually 6 or 5, partly green outside. Petals many small and thickish bodies inserted under the 'ovary along with the very numerous short stamens. Ovary naked, truncate at t'lie top, which is many-rayed by stigmas, fleshy in frnft: the internal structure as in Nymphocu, only there is no arillus to the seeds. 1. BRASENIA, WATER-SHIELD. (Name unexplained.) One species, B. pelt&ta. I" still, rather deep water : stems rising to the surface, slen- der, coated with clear jelly, hearing floating oval centrally-peltate leaves (2' -3' long), and purplish small flowers, produced all summer. * 2. NELUMBIUM, NELUMBO. (Ceyloncse name.) Rootstocks inter- rupted and tuberous, sending up, usually out of water, very long petioles and PITCH ER-1'L ANT FAMILY. 47 peduncles, bearing very large (l°-2° wide) and more or less dish-shaped or cup-shaped centrally-peltate entire leaves, and great flowers (5' -10' broad), in summer. Seeds, also the tubers, eatable. W. luteum, YELLOW N. or WATER CHINQUEPIN. Common W. & S. : introduced, by Indians perhaps, at Sodus Bay, N. Y., Lymc, Conn., and below Philadelphia. Flower pale dull yellow : anther hook- tipped. N. specidsum, SHOWY N., LOTUS or SACRED BEAN of India, with pinkish flowers and blunter anthers : cult, in choice conservatories. 3. NYMPH^JA, WATER-LILY, POND-LILY. (Dedicated to the Water- Nymphs. ) Long prostrate rootstocks, often as thick as one's arm, send up floating leaves (rounded and with a narrow cleft nearly or quite tc> the petiole) and large handsome flowers, produced all summer : these close in the afternoon : the fruit ripens under water. N. Odorata, SWEET-SCENTED WHITE W. Common in still or slow water, especially E. Flower richly sweet-scented, white, or sometimes pinkish, rarely pink-red, variable in size, as are the leaves ; seeds oblong. N. tuberbsa, TUBER-BEARING W. Common through the Great Lakes, and W. & S. Flower nearly scentless (its faint odor like that of apples), pure white, usually larger (4' -9' in diameter), as are also the leaves (8'- 15' wide) ; petals broader and blunter ; seeds almost globular ; rootstock bearing copious tubers like " artichokes," attached by a narrow neck and spontaneously separating. N. CSerillea, BLUE W., of Egypt, &c., cult, in aquaria ; a tender species, with crcnate-toothed leaves, and blue or bluish sweet-scented flowers, the petals fewer and acute. 4. NUPHAR, YELLOW POND-LILY, or SPATTER-DOCK. (Old Greek name.) Rootstock, £c. as in Nymphaea: leaves often rising out of water : flowers by no means showy, yellow, sometimes purplish-tinged, pro- duced all summer : fruit ripening above water. N. advena is the common species, everywhere ; has 6_unequ.al sepals or sometimes more ; petals, or what answer to them, truncate, shorter than the stamens and resembling them ; the thickish leaves rounded or ovate-oblong. N. luteum, rare N. ; has smaller flowers, with 5 sepals, petals dilated upwards and more conspicuous, and a globular fruit with a narrow neck : the var. pumilum, a small variety, has flowers only 1', and leaves l'-5' in diameter ; rather common N. N. sagittif61ia, ARROW-LEAVED N., from North Carolina S. ; has sagit- tate leaves (1° by '2'), and 6 sepals. This and the last produce their earlier leaves under water and very thin. 7. SARRACENIACE^l, PITCHER-PLANT FAMILY. Consists of one South American plant, of the curious DARLING- TONIA CALIFORNICA in the mountains of California, and of the following : — 1. SARRACENIA. (Named for Dr. Sarrasin of Quebec.) SIDESADDLE- FLOWER, a most unmeaning popular name. Leaves all radical from a per- ennial root, and in the form of hollow tubes or pitchers, winged down the inner side, open at the top, where there is a sort of arching blade or hood. The whole foliage yellowish green or purplish. Scape tall, naked, bearing a single large nodding flower, in earlv summer. Sepals 5, with 3 bractlets at the base, colored, persistent. Petals 5, fiddle-shaped, incurved over the pel- tate and umbrella-shaped 5-angled petal-like great top to the style. Stamens very numerous. Ovary 5-celled. Pod many-seeded, rough-warty. ^ov~c* ^ ?J- J- ' S. puvpurea, PURPLE S. or PITCHER-PLANT of the North, where it is „ common in bogs. Leaves pitcher-shaped, open, with an erect round-heart- shaped hood and a broad side-wing, purple-veiny ; flower deep purple. 48 POPPY FAMILY. S. rilbra, RED-FLOWERED TRUMPET-LEAF of S. States ; sometimes cult, in greenhouses. Leaves trumpet-shaped, slender, a foot long, with a narrow wing ami an erect ovate pointed hood ; flower crimson-purple. S. Drumm6ndii, GREAT TRTMPET-LKAF of Florida : sometimes cult, leaves much like the last, bat 2° or .3° long, upper part of the tube and the roundish erect hood variegated and purple-veiny ; and the deep-purple flower very large. S. psittacina, PARROT PITCHER-PLANT of S. States, and rarely cult. Leaves short and spreading, with a narrow tube, a broad wing, and an inflated globular hood, which is incurved over the mouth of the tube, spotted with white, flower purple. S. variolaris, SPOTTED TRUMPET-LEAF of S. States. Leaves erect trumpet-shaped, white-spotted above, longer than the scape, with a broad wing, and an ovate hood arching over the orifice ; flower yellow. S. Hava, YELLOW TRUMPET-LEAF of S. States : cult, more commonly than the rest, as a curiosity, and almost hardy N. Leaves trumpet-shaped, 2° long, erect, yellowish or purple-veiny, with a narrow wing, and an erect round- ish but pointed hood, a tall scape, and yellow flower. 8. PAPAVERACE^E, POPPY FAMILY. Herbs with milky or colored juice, regular flowers, a calyx mostly of 2 sepals which fall when the blossom opens, petals twice or 3 -5 times as many, numerous stamens on the receptacle, and a com- pound 1-celled ovary, with 2 or more parietal placentas. Fruit a pod, many-seeded. Juice narcotic, as in Poppy (opium), or acrid. No. 5 has watery juice, with the odor of muriatic acid, and the calyx like a cap or lid ; No. 7 has no petals and few seeds. * Petals crumpled in the flower-bud, which droops on its peduncle before opening. 1. PAPAVER. Stigmas united into a many-rayed circular body which is closely sessile on the ovary. Pod globular or oblong, imperfectly many-celled by the projecting placentae which are covered with numberless seeds, opening only bv pores or chinks at the top. Juice white. 2. STYLOPRORU'M. Stigma 3 - 4-lobed, raised Ion a style. Pod ovoid, bristly, opening from the top into 3 or 4 valves, leaving the thread-like placenta? be- tween them. Juice vellow. 3. CHEL1DONIUM. Stigma 2-lobed, almost sessile. Pod linear, with 2 placentae, splitting from below into 2 valves. Juice orange. * * Petals more or less crumpled in iht bud, which is erect before opening. 4. ARGEMONE. Stigma 3-6-lobed, almost sessile. Sepals and oblong pod prickly ; the latter opening by valves from the top, leaving the thread-like placentae between. Juice yellow. 6. E-SCHSCHOLTZIA. Sepals united into a pointed cap which falls off entire. Receptacle or end of the flower-stalk dilated into a top-shaped body, ofren with a spreading rim. Stigmas 4-6, spreading, unequal ; but the placentae only 2. Pod long and slender, grooved. Juice colorless. * * * Petals not crumpled in the bud, which does not droop. 6. SANGUINARI A. Sepals 2 : but the petals 8-12. Stigma 2-lobed, on a short style. Pod oblong, with 2 placentae. .Juice orange-red. * # * * Petals none. Flowers in panicles, drooping in the bud. 7. BOCCONIA. Sepals 2, colored. Stigma 2-lobed. Pod few-seeded. Juice reddish. 1. PAPAVER, POPPY. (Ancient name.) We have no truly wild spe- cies : the; following arc from the Old World. # Annuals, Jlowerhi'/ in uniinni-r : cult, nml ?/WY/.S of cultivation. P. SOmniferum, OPH.M I'oi-rv. Cult, for ornament, especially double- flowered varieties, and for medical uses. Smooth, glaucous, with clasping and wavy leaves, and white or purple flowers. FUMITORY FAMILY. 4J> P. Rhdeas, CORN POPPY of Eu. Low, bristly, with almost pinnate leaves, and deep red or scarlet flowers with a dark eve, or, when double, of various colors ; pod obovate. P. dllbium, LOXG-HEADED P. Leaves with their divisions more cut than the last ; flowers smaller and lighter red, and pod oblong-clavate : run wild in fields in Penn. * * Perennial : cult, for ornament : flowering in late spring. P. orientale, ORIENTAL P. Rough-hairy, with tall flower-stalks, almost pinnate leaves, and a very large deep-red flower, under which are usually son.o leafy persistent bracts. Var. BRACTEA.TUM, has these bracts larger, petals still larger and deeper red, with a dark spot at the base. 2. STYLOPHORUM, CELANDINE POPPY. (Name means style- bearer, expressing a difference between it and Poppy and Celandine.) 1J. S. dip hy Hum. From Penn. W. in open woods ; resembling Celandine, but low, and with far larger (yellow) flowers, in spring. 3. CHELIDONIUM, CELANDINE. (From the Greek word for the Swallow. ) @ 1|. C. majus, the only species, in all gardens and moist waste places ; 1° -4° high, branching, with pinnate or twice pinnatifld leaves, and small yellow flowers 3*w>. % • )b in a sort of umbel, all summer ; the pods long and slender. 4. ARGEMONE, PRICKLY POPPY. (Meaning of name uncertain.) ® A. Mexicana, MEXICAN* P. Waste places and gardens. Prickly, 1°- 2° high ; leaves sinnate-lobed, blotched with white ; flowers yellow or yellowish, pretty large, in summei'. Var. ALBIFL6RA has the flower larger, sometimes very large, white ; cult, for ornament. 5. ESCHSCHOLTZIA. (Named for one of the discoverers, Eschscholtz, - the name easier pronounced than written.) (T) E. Californica, California!! annual, now common in gardens ; with pale Q£t-/«$4* dissected leaves, and long-peduncled large flowers, remarkable for the top- shaped dilatation at the base of the flower, on which the extinguisher-shaped calyx rests : this is forced off whole by the opening petals. The latter are bright orange-yellow, and the top of the receptacle is broad-rimmed. Var. DouGLAsn wants this rim, and its petals are pure yellow, or sometimes white; but the sorts are much mixed in the gardens ; and there arc smaller varieties under different names. 6. SANGITINARIA, BLOOD-ROOT. (Name from the color of the juice.) U S. Canad6nsis, the common and only species ; wild in rich woods, hand- some in cultivation. The thick red rootstock in early spring sends up a rounded reniform and palmate-lobed veiny leaf, wrapped around a flower-bud : as the leaf comes out of ground and opens, the scape lengthens, and carries up the hand- some, white, many-petalled flower. 7. BOCCONIA. (Named in honor of an Italian botanist, Bocconi.) 1J. B. COrdata, CORDATE B., from China, the only hardy species; a strong root sending up very tall leafv stems, with round-cordate lobed leaves, which are —:ny and glaucous, and large panicles of small Avhite or pale rose-colored flow- , late in summtr. s vein ers 9. PUMARIACE^E, FUMITORY FAMILY. Like the Poppy Family in the plan of the flowers ; but the 4- petalled corolla much larger than the 2 scale-like sepals, also irreg- ular and closed, the two inner and smaller petals united by their 50 FUMITORY FAMILY. spoon-shaped tip?, which enclose the anthers of the 6 stamens in two sets, along with the stigrna : the middle anther of each set is 2-celled, the lateral ones 1 -celled. Delicate or tender and very smooth herbs, with colorless and inert juice, and much dissected or compound leave-. * G>rolla heart-shaped or 2-spurred at base : pod several-seeded. 1. DICKNTRA. Petals slightly cohering with eacli other. Seeds crested. 2. ADLUMIA. Petals all permanently united into one slightly heart-shaped body, which encloses the small pod. Seeds crestless. Climbing by the very compound leaves. * # Corolla, with only one petal spurred at base. 8. CORYDALIS. Ovary and pod slender, several-ceded. Seeds crested. 4. FUMAKIA. Ovary and small closed fruit globular, 1-seeded. 1. DICENTRA (meaning two-spurred in Greek). Commonly but wrongly named DICLYTRA or DIELYTUA. 1J. Fl. in spring. # Wild species, low, with delicate decompound leaves and few-flowered scapes sent up from the ground in early $prwg. D. Cucullaria, DUTCHMAN'S BREECHES. Common in leaf-mould in woods X. Foliage and flowers from a sort of granular-scaly bulb ; corolla white tipped with yellow, with the two diverging spurs at the base longer than the pedicel. D. Canad6nsis, CANADIAN* D. or SQUIRREL-CORN. With the last N. Separate yellow grains, like Indian corn, in place of a scaly bulb ; the corolla narrower and merely heart- shaped at base, white or delicately flesh-colared, sweet-scented ; inner petals much crested at tip. D. eximia is rarer, wild along the Alleghanics, occasionally cult., has coarser foliage, and more numerous flowers than the last, pink-purple, and pro- duced throughout the summer, from tufted scaly rootstocks. * * Cultivated exotic, taller and coarser, leafy-stemmed, many-flowered. D. spectabilis, SHOWY D. or BLEEDING HEART. From X. China, very ornamental through spring and early summer, with ample Peony-like leaves, and long drooping racemes of bright pink-red heart-shaped flowers (!' long) : the two small sepals fall off in the bud. 2. ADLtfMIA, CLIMBING FUMITORY. (Named in honor of a Mr. Adlum.) (a) The only species is A. Cirrhbsa. Wild in low shady grounds from Xew York W. & S. and cult. ; climbing over bushes or low trees, by means of its 2 -3-pinnately com- pound delicate leaves, the stalks of the leaflets acting like tendrils ; flowers flesh- colored, panicle*!, all summer. 3. CORYDALIS. (Greek name for Fumitory.) Our species arc leaiv- stcmmed, ® or (a), wild in rocky places, fl. spring and summer. C. glauca, PALE CORYDALIS. Common, f>'-«3° high, very glaucous, with the whitish flowers variegated with vcllow and pink, a short and rounded spur, u'ld erect pods. C. flayula, YELLOWISH C. From IVnn. S. & W. : has the flowers pale yellow, with the tips of the outer petals wing-crestnl ; seeds sharp-edged : other- wise like the next. C. aiirca, GOLDEN C. From Vermont W. £ S. Low and spreading ; flowers golden-yellow with a longish spur, and crestlcss tips, hanging pods, and smooth blunt-Gaged seeds. 4. FUMARIA, FUMITORY. (Name from fumus, smoke.) © Low, '••aty-stcmmcd, with finely cut compound leaves. P. officinalis, COMMON F. Common in old gardens, waste places, and /£ * /.dung-heaps ; a delicate small weed, with a close spike of small pinkish crimson- ' tipped flowers, in summer. MUSTARD FAMILY. 51 10. CRUCIFERffi, MUSTARD FAMILY. Herbs, with watery juice, of a pungent taste (as exemplified in Horseradish, Mustard, Water-Cress, &c.), at once distinguished by the cruciferous flower (of 4 sepals, 4 petals, their upper part gen- erally spreading above the calyx in the form of a cross), the tetra- dynamous stamens (i. e. 6, two of them shorter than the other four) ; and the single 2-celled pistil with two parietal placenta?, forming the kind of pod called a silique, or when short a silicle. (See Lessons, p. 92, fig. 187, 188, for the flower, and p. 133, fig. 310, for the fruit.) The embryo fills the whole seed, and has the radicle bent up agaii^t the cotyledons. Flowers in racemes, which are at first short, like simple corymbs, but lengthen in fruiting : no bracts below the pedi- cels. The blossoms are all nearly alike throughout the family ; so that the genera are mainly known by the fruit and seed, which are usually to be had before all the flowers have passed. ^ 1. Fruit a true pod, opening lengthwise by two valves, which fall aicay and leave the thin persistent partition when ripe. * Seeds or ovules more than two in each cell. •*-Pod benked or pointed beyond the summit of the valves, or the style with a conical base. Seeds spherical, the cotyledons wrapped around the radicle. 1. BRASSICA. Flowers yellow. Pods oblong or linear. -t- •*— Pod not beaked or conspicuously pointed, ft- Neither flattened nor 4-sided, but the cross-section nearly circular. 2. SISYMBRIUM. Pods in the common species shortish, lance-awl-shaped, close- pressed to tho stem. Seeds oval, marginless. Flowers small, yellowish. 3. NASTURTIUM. Pods shortish or short (from oblong-linear to almost spherical). Seeds in 2 vows in each cell, globular, marginless. Flowers yellow or white. 4. HESPKRIS. Pods long and slender, with a single row of marginless seeds in each cell (as broad as the partition); the radicle laid against the back of one of the cotyledons. Flowers rather large, pink-purple. Stigma of 2 erect blunt lobes. 5. MALCOLMIA. Pods somewhat thickened at the base. Stigma of 2 pointed lobes. Otherwise as No. 4. 6. MATTHIOLA. Pods long and narrow : seeds one-rowed in each cell (as broad as the partition), flat, wing-margined; the radicle laid against one edge of the broad cotyledons. Flowers pink-purple, reddish, or varying to white, large and showy. +-*••*-*• Pod lonr/ and slender, linear, 4-sided (the cross section square or rhombic), or if flattened hariny a strong salient midrib to the valves. Seeds maryinless, mostly single-rowed in each cell. Flowers yellow or oranye, never white. a. Lateral sepals sac-shaped at the base. 7. CHEIRANTHUS. Seeds flat; the radicle laid against the edge of the broad cotyledons. Flowers showy. Leaves entire. b. Sepals nearly equal and alike at the base. 8. ERYSIMUM. Seeds oblong; the radicle laid against the back of one of the narrow cotyledons. Leaves simple. 9. BARBAREA. Seeds oval; the radicle laid against the edge of the broad cotyledons. Leaves lyrate or pinnatifid. . 2. SISYMBRIUM. Seeds oblong; the radicle laid against the back of one of the cotyledons. Flowers small. Leaves twice pinnatifid. HH. ** ++ Pod flattened parallel to the partition ; the valves flat or flattisli : so are the seeds: radicle against the edge of the cotijledons. Flowers white or purple. 10. ARABIS. Pod long and narrow-linear, not opening elastically ; the valves with a midrib. Seeds often winged or margined. 11. CARDAMIXK. Pods linear or lanceolate; the valves with no or hardly any midrib, opening elastically from the base iipwards. Seeds marginless and slender-stalked, one-rowed in each cell. No scaly-toothed rootstock. 52 MUSTARD FAMILY. 12. DOTARIA. Tods, &c. as in the preceding. Seed-stalks broad and flat Stem 2- 3-leaved in the middle, naked below, springing from a horizontal scaly-toothed or irregular fleshy rootstock. 13. LUNARIA. Pods oval or oblong, large and very flat, stalked above the calyx. Seeds winged, 2-row^d in each cell. Flowers pretty large, purple. 14. DRABA. Pods round-oval, oblong or linear, flat. Seeds wingless, 2-rowed in each cell. Flowers small, white in the common species. -M. •*-+• ++ *-*• Pod shorty Jlattish parallel to the broad partition. Flowers yellow, small. 16. CAMKLIXA. 1'ods turgid, obovate or pear-shaped. *H. .»-*. +f .*-*• t-t- Pod shoi'f, very mm h flattened contrary to the narrow partition ; the valves therefore deeply boat-shaped. Flowers while, small. 7J. CAPSELLA. Pods obovate-triangular, or triangular with a notch at the top <; * Seeds or the ovules single or sometimes 2 in each cell. Pods short andjlat. -»- Corolla irregular, the petals being very unequal. 17- IBERIS. Flowers in short and flnt-topped clusters, white or purple ; the two petals on the outer side of the flower much larger than the others. Pods scale-shaped, roundish or ovate, much flattened contrary to the very narrow partition, lotched at the wing-margined top. •*- •*- Corolla regular, small. )8. LEPID1UM. Pods scale-shaped, much flattened contrary to the very narrow partition, often notched or wing-margined at the top. Flowers white. 19. ALYSSUM. Pods roundish, flattened parallel to the broad partition. Seeds Hat, commonly wing-margined. Flowers yellow or white. § 2. Fruit indehiscent, tving-like, 1-seedcd. 20. ISATIS. Flowers yellow. Fruit 1-celled, 1-seeded, resembling a small samara or ash-fruit. § 3. Fruit fleshy, or when ripe and dry corky, not opening by valves, 2 -many-seeded. 21. CAK1LE. Fruit jointed in the' middle ; the two short joints 1-celled, 1-seeded. Seed oblong. 22. RAP H ANUS. Fruit several-seeded, with cellular matter or ^ith constrictions between the spherical seeds. 1. BRASSICA, CABBAGE, MUSTARD, &c. (Ancient Latin name of Cabbage. Botanically the Mustards rank in the same genus.) ® (5) Cult, from Eu., or run wild as weeds ; known by their yellow flowers, beak-pointed pods, and globose seeds, the cotyledons wrapped round the radicle. B. oleracea, CABBAGE. The original is a sea-coast plant of Europe, with thick and hard stem, and pretty large pale yellow flowers ; the leaves very gla- brous and glaucous ; upper ones entire, clasping the stem, not auricled at the base : cult, as a biennial, the rounded, thick, and fleshy, strongly veined leaves collect into a head the first year upon the summit of a short and stout stem. — Var. BROCCOLI is a state in which the stem divides into short fleshy branches bearing clusters of abortive flower-buds. — Yar. CAULIFLOWEH haa the nour- ishing matter mainly concentrated in short imperfect flower-branches, collected into a flat head. — Var. KOHLRABI has the nourishing matter accumulated in the stein, which fonns a turnip-like enlargement above ground, ben.-arh the eluster of leaves. — KALE is more nearly the natural state of the species, the fleshy leaves not forming a head. B. Camp6stris, of the Old World ; like the last, but with brighter flowers ; the lower leaves pinnatitid or divided and rough with stiff hairs, and the upper auricled at the ha>e, is represented in cultivation by the Yar. Coi./ \ or KATE, with small animal root, cult, for the oil of the seed. — Yar. TIKM r ( I>. N AITS) ; cult, as a biennial, lor the nourishment accumulated in the nupiform white root. — Yar. IXITAKACA or SWKIMSII Tt I;N:I-, lias a longer and yellowish root. B. Sinipastrum, or Sinapis arvensis, CIIYKI.<>< K. A troublesome weed of cultivation in graintields, animal, with the somewhat rough leaves barely toothed <>r little lobed, and nearlv smooth pods spreading in a loose raceme, thu seed-bearing part longer than the conical (usually empty) beak. B. (or Sinapis) alba, Win IT; Mi si MM>. Cult, and in waste places, an- nual ; the leaves all pinnatitid and rough-hairy ; pods spreading in the raCcma, MUSTA^b FAMILY. 53 bristly, the lower and turgid few-seeded portion shorter than the 1 -seeded stout and flattened beak ; seeds large, pale brown. B. (or Sinapis) nigra, BLACK MUSTARD. Cult, and in waste places ; leaves less hairy and less divided than the last ; pods erect in the raceme or spike, smooth, short, 4-sided (the valves having a strong midrib), and tipped with the short empty conical base of a slender style; seeds dark brown, smaller, and more pungent than in the last. 2. SISYMBRIUM, HEDGE MUSTARD. (The ancient Greek name.) * S. ofncinale, COMMON H. (D Coarse weed in waste places, with branch-"^ ing stems, runcinate leaves, and very small pale yellow flowers, followed bjr^ '' X*^-- a.vl-shaped obscurely 6-sided pods close pressed to the axis of the narrow spike. ^ S. canescens, HOARY H. or TANSY-MUSTARD. ® Commonly only S. & W., hoory, with finely cut twice-pinnatifid leaves, minute yellowish flow- ers, and oblong-club-shaped 4-sided pods on slender horizontal pedicels. 3. NASTURTIUM, WATER-CRESS, HORSERADISH, &c. (Name from nasus torttts, convulsed nose, from the pungent qualities.) Here are combined a variety of plants, widely different in appearance : the following are the commonest. # Nat. from Eu. : ths white petals twice the length of the calyx, ty N. officinale, WATER-CRESS. Planted or nm wild in streamlets, spread- ing and rooting, smooth, with pinnate leaves of 3-11 roundish or oblong leaf- lets ; fl. all summer ; pods broadly linear, slightly curved upwards on their spreading pedicels. Young plants eaten. N. Arinoracia, HORSERADISH. Planted or run wild in moist soil ; with very large oblong or lanceolate leaves, chiefly from the ground, crenate, rarely cut or pinnatifid ; pods globular, but seldom seen. The long deep root is a familiar condiment. * * Indigenous species, in wet places : petals yellow or yellowish. N. pallistre, MARSH-CRESS. A very common homely weed, erect, 1°_-J high, with pinnatifid or lyrate leaves of several oblong cut-toothrd leaflets, small ' yellowish flowers, and small oblong or ovoid pods. N. sessiliflbrum, like the last, but with less lobed leaves, very minute sessile flowers, and longer oblong pods, is common from Illinois S. And there arc 2 or 3 more in some parts, especially S. 4. HESPERIS, ROCKET. (Greek for evening, the flowers being then fragrant.) 1J. H. matronalis, COMMON or DAME R. Tall and rather coarse plant in country gardens, from Eu., inclined to run wild in rich shady soil ; with oblong or lanceolate toothed leaves, and rather large purple flowers, in summer, fol- lowed by (2' -4') long and slender pods. 5. MALCOLMIA. (Named for W. Malcolm, an English gardener.) M. maritima, MAIION STOCK, called VIRGINIA STOCK in England, but comes from tlu- shares of the Mediterranean : a garden annual, not much cult., a span high, with pale green oblong or spatulate nearly entire leaves, and pretty pink-red flowers changing to violet-purple, also a white var. (much smaller than those of true Stock) ; pods long and slender. 6. MATTHIOLA, STOCK or GILLIFLOWER. (Named for the early naturalist, MultkioU.} Cult, garden or house plants, from Eu., hoary-leaveu, much prized for their handsome and fragrant, pretty large, pink, reddish, or white flowers, of which there are very double and showy varieties. M. incana, COMMON STOCK. 1J. Stout stem becoming almost woody : not hardy at the N. M. anil li a, TEN-WEEK STOCK. ® Probably only an herbaceous variety of the last ; flowers usually not double. 54 MUSTARD FAMILY. 7. CHEIRANTHUS, WALLFOWER. (Cheiri is the Arabic name.; Like Stocks, hut slightly if at all hoary, and the flowers orange, hrown-red dish, or yellow. 1J. C. Cheiri, COMMON- WALLFLOWER. Cult, from S. Eu., not hnrdy N.. n much-prized house-plant ; stem woody, crowded with the narrow and pointed entire leaves. 8. ERYSIMUM. (Name from Greek, and meaning to draw blisters, from the acridity.) E. asperum, WESTERN WALLFLOWER. Wild from Ohio W. & S. ; like the wild state of the Wallflower, with bright yellow or orange flowers, but the seeds are different, and the long pods quite square in the cross-section ; the leaves somewhat toothed and hoary, (a) 1J. E. cheiranthoides, TREACLE-MUSTARD or WORMSEED MUSTARD. A rather insignificant annual, wild or run wild in waste moist places, with slen- der branches, lanceolate almost entire leaves, and small yellow flowers, followed by shortish and obscurely 4-sided pods on slender spreading pedicels. 9. BARB ARE A, WINTER-CRESS. (The Herb of Santa Barbara.) Different from the last genus in the seeds, divided leaves, and in the general aspect. Leaves used by some as winter salad, but bitterish. ® 1| B. vulgaris, COMMON W. or YELLOW ROCKET. Smooth, common in old gardens and other ricli soil, with grcerulyratc leaves, and bright yellow flowers, in spring and summer ; pods erect, crowded in a dense raceme, much thicker than their pedicels. B. praBCOX, EARLY W. or SCURVY-GRASS. Cult, from Penn. S. for early salad, beginning to run wild, probably a variety of the last, with more numerous and narrower divisions to the leaves ; the less erect pods scarcely thicker than their pedicels. 10. ARABIS, ROCK-CRESS. (Name from Arabic.) Fl. spring and summer. Leaves mostly simple and undivided. * Wild species, on rocks, frc. : flowers white or whitish, not showy, (a) A. lyrata, Low R. A delicate, low, nearly smooth plant, with a cluster of lyrate root-leaves ; stem-leaves few and narrow ; bright white petals rather conspicuous ; pods slender, spreading. A. hirstlta, HAIRY R. Strictly erect, l°-2° high; stem-leaves many and sagittate ; small greenish-white flowers and narrow pods erect. A. Isevigata, SMOOTH R. Erect, l°-2° high, glaucous; upper leaves sagittate ; flowers rather small ; pods 3' long, very narrow and not very flat, recurving ; seeds winded. A. Canadensis, CANADIAN or SICKLEPOD R. Tall, growing in ravines ; stem-leaves pointed at both ends, pubescent; petals whitish, narrow ; pods 3 long, scythe-shaped, very flat, hanging ; M-rds broadly winged. * * Wild, on river banks : flowers pink-purple, rather showy. © 1J. A. hesperidoides, ROCKET R. Smooth, erect, l°-3° high; with rounded or heart-shaped long-petioled root-leaves, ovute-laiieeolute stcm-lenven (2' -6' long), the lower on a winded petiole or with a pair of small lateral lobes; petals long-clawed ; pods spreading, narrow : seeds windless. Bunks of the Ohio and S. \V. * * * Garden species : flowers white, shoicy. U A. alpina, ALPINE R., and its variety ' A. ALBIDA, from Eu., low and tufted, hairy or soft-downy, arc cult, in gardens ; fl. in early spring. 11. CARDAMINE, BITTER-CRESS. (Ancient Greek name.) U C. hirstlta, SMALL B. A low and branching insignificant herb, usually not hairy, with slender fibrous root, pinnate leaves, the leaflets angled or' toothed, and small white flowers, followed by narrow upright pods : common in moist soil, 11 spring and summer. MUSTARD FAMILY. 55 C. pratdnsis, CUCKOO-FLOWER or LADIES' SMOCK. Stem ascending from a short perennial rootstock ; the pinnate leaves with rounded and stalked entire small leaflets ; flowers in spring, showy, pink or white : in bogs at the north, and a double-flowered variety is an old-fashioned plant in gardens. C. rhomboidea. Stems upright from a small tuber, simple, bearing rather large white or rose-purple flowers in spring, and simple angled or sparingly toothed leaves, the lowest rounded or heart-shaped, the upper ovate or oblong : in wet plaees northward. 12. DENT ARIA, TOOTHWORT. (From the Latin dens, a tooth.) U D. diphylla, TWO-LEAVED T., PKPPEK-ROOT, or CRINKLE-ROOT. So called from the fleshy, long and toothed rootstocks, which are eaten and taste like Water-Cress ; there are only 2 stem leaves, close together, each of 3 rhom- bic-ovate and toothed leaflets, and the root-leaf is similar ; flowers quite large, white, in spring. Woods in vegetable mould, N. D. laciniata, LACINIATE T. Rootstock necklace-form or constricted in 2 or 3 places, scarcely toothed ; stem-leaves 3 in a whorl, each 3-parted into linear or lanceolate leaflets, which arc cut or cleft into narrow teeth, or the lateral ones 2-lobed ; flowers purplish, in spring : banks of streams. 13. LUNARIA, HONESTY or SATIN-FLOWER, (Name from Luna, the moon, from the shape of the broad or rounded pods.) @ U L. biennis, COMMON* HONESTY. Not native to the country, but cultivated in old-fashioned places, for the singular large oval pods, of which the broad white partitions, of satiny lustre, remaining after the valves have fallen, are used for ornament ; leaves somewhat heart-shaped ; flowers large, pink-purple, in early summer. L. rediviva, PERENNIAL HONESTY, is a much rarer sort, with oblong pods ; seldom met with here. 14. DRABA, WHITLOW-GRASS. (Name is a Greek word, meaning acrid.) Low herbs, mostly with white flowers : the commoner species are the following : fl. early spring ; winter annuals. D. Caroliniana. Leaves obovate, hairy, on a very short stem, bearing a short raceme or corvmb on a scape-like peduncle 1' — 4' high ; petals not notched ; pods broadly linear, much larger than their pedicels : in sandy waste places. D. verna. A diminutive plant, with a tuft of oblong or lanceolate root- leaves, and a scape l'-3' high; petals 2-cleft ; pods oval or oblong, in a ra- ceme, shorter than their pedicels : in sandy waste places. 15. CAMELINA, FALSE-FLAX. (An old name, meaning dwarf-flax-, the common species was fancied to be a degenerate flax.) ® C. sativa, COMMON F. A weed, in grain and flax-fields, l°-2° high, with lanceolate leaves, the upper ones sagittate and clasping the stem ; small pale-yellow flowers, followed by obovate turgid pods in a long loose raceme ; style conspicuous. 16. CAPSELLA, SHEPHERD'S-PURSE. ( Name means a little pod.} <£ C. Bursa-Past6ris, COMMON S. The commonest of weeds, in waste- places ; root-leaves pinnatifid or toothed, those of the stem sagittate and partly An* e -ds, so as to become necklace- form. 11. CAPPARIDACE^I, CAPER FAMILY. In our region these are herb*, resembling Crucifcrce, hut with stamen-* not tetradynamous and often more than G. no partition in the pod (which is therefore 1-celled with two parietal plairentte), and kidney-shaped seeds, the embryo rolled up instead of folded to- gether : the leaves commonly palmately compound, and the herbage bitter and nauseous instead of pungent. But in warm regions the Cress-like pungency sometimes appears, as in capers, the pickled flower-buds of CAPPAKIS SPINOSA, of the Levant. This and iu near relatives are trees or shrubs. IMTTOSPORUM FAMILY. 57 1. CLEOME. Calyx 4-cleft. Petals 4. Stamens 6, on a short thickened recep- tacle. Ovary and many-seeded pod in ours raised above the receptacle on a long stalk. Style very short or none. Usually an appendage on one side of the receptacle. 2. GYNANDROPSIS. Sepals 4. Stamens borne on the long stalk of the ovary far above the petals. Otherwise as in No. 1. 8. POLAN1SIA. Sepals 4. Stamens 8-32. Ovary and pod sessile or short- stalked on the receptacle. Sryle present. Ochervvise nearly as No. 1. 1. CLEOME. (From a Greek word meaning closed, the application not obvious.) (i) C. puiigens. Tall (2° -4° high), clammy-pubescent, with little spines or prickly points (whence the name) in place of stipules, about 7 broadly lanceolate leaflets, but the bracts simple and ovate or heart-shaped, and a raceme of large and handsome flowers, with long-clawed pink or purple petals and declined sta- mens. Cult, from S. America, for ornament, and run wild S. C. integriiblia, much smaller, very smooth, with 3 leaflets and the pink petals without claws, is wild in Nebraska, £c., and lately introduced to gardens. 2. GYNANDROPSIS. (Greek-made name, meaning that the stamens appear to be on the pistil.) (Lessons, r-. 125, fig. 276.) G. pentaph^lla. Nat. from Carolina S. from West Indies, is a clammy- pubescent weed, with 5 leaflets to the leaves and 3 to the bracts ; the white petals on claws. 3. POLAJNTSIA. (Greek-made name, meaning many -unequal, referring to the stamens.) P. graveolens. A heavy-scented (as the name denotes), rather clammy, * jw herb, with 3 oblong leaflets, and small flowers with short white petals, about il scarcely longer purplish stamens, and a short style ; fl. summer. Wild on gravelly shores, from Conn. W. 12. RESEDACE^I, MIGNONETTE FAMILY. Herb?-, with inconspicuous flowers in spikes or racemes ; rep- resented by the main genus, 1. &ESEDA, MIGNONETTE, £c. (From a Latin word, to assuage, from supposed medical properties.) Calyx 4-7-parted, never closed even in the bud. Petals 4-7, unequal, cleft or notched, those of one side of the flower appendagcd within. Stamens 10-40, borne on a sort of disk dilated on one side of the flower. Ovary and pod composed of 3 - 6 carpels united not quite to the top into a 3 -*6-lobcd or 3 - 6-horned 1-cellcd pistil which opens at the top long before the seeds are ripe. The seeds are numerous, kidney- shaped, on 3 - 6 parietal placenta?. Leaves alternate. R. Odorata, COMMON MIGNONETTE. Cult, (from N. Africa) as an an- nual, for the delicious scent of the greenish-white flowers ; the anthers orange ; ,petals C, the posterior ones cut into several fine lobes ; stems low ; some leaves entire and oblong, others 3-lobcd. R. Luteola, DYER'S M. or WELD. Nat. along roadsides, tall, with lanceolate entire leaves, and a long spike of yellowish flowers ; petals 4. 13. PITTOSPORACE.aE, PITTOSPORUM FAMILY. A small family of shrubs and trees, belonging mostly to the south- ern hemisphere, in common cultivation represented only by one house-plant, a species of 1. PITTOSPORUM. (Name means pitchy seed in Greek, the seeds being generally covered with a sticky exudation.) Flowers regular, of 5 sepals, 58 VIOLET FAMILY. 5 petals, and 5 stamens ; the claws of the petals sometimes slightly united . ovary one-celled with three parietal placentae, a single style and stigma, Fruit a globular woody pod, many-seeded. P. Tobira, COMMON 1'. A low tree, cultivated as a house-plant (from Japan), with ohovate and rctusc evergreen leaves crowded at the end ol the branches, which are terminated by a small sessile umbel of white fragrant Hovers, produced in winter. 14. VIOLACE^E, VIOLET FAMILY. Commonly known only by the principal genus of the order, viz. VIOLA, VIOLET. (Ancient Latin name.) Sepals 5, persistent. Pet- als 5, more or less unequal, the lower one with a sac or spur at the base. (Lessons, p. 91, fig. 181, 182.) Stamens 5, short: the very broad Hat ti la- ments conniving and slightly cohering around the pistil, which they cover, all but the end of the style and the (usually one-sided) stigma, bearing the anthers on their inner face, two of these spurred at the base. Ovary and pod 1 -celled, with 3 parietal placenta?, containing several rather large seeds. — Herbs, with stipules to the alternate leaves, and 1-flowered peduncles. * STEMLESS VIOLETS, with leaves and peduncles all from creeping or sub- terranean rootstocks, there being no proper ascending steins : all flowering in spring, also producing inconspicuous flowers and most of the fruitful pods, all summer, concealed among the leaves. •+- Garden species, from Europe : fragrant* V. Odorata, SWEET VIOLET. Cult, from En., the tufts spreading by creeping runners : leaves rounded heart-shaped, more or less downy ; flowers purple-blue (violet-color) varying to bluish and white, single or in cultivation commonly full double. Hardy ; while the ITALIAN VIOLET, the variety used for winter-blooming, with leaves smoother and brighter green and flowers paler or grayish-blue, is tender northward. •«- -i- Wild species : slightly sweet-scented or scentless. •*-*• Flowers blue or violet-color. V. Selkirk!!, SELKIRK'S V. Small, only 2' high, the rounded heart- shaped leaves spreading flat ou the ground ; the flower large in proportion, its thick spur nearly as long as the beardless petals : on shady banks, only N. V. sagittata, ARROW-LEAVED V. One of the commonest and earliest ; leaves varying from oblong-heart-shaped to ovate and often rather halln-rd- shaped, the earlier ones on short and margined petioles ; flower large in propor- tion ; spur short and sac-shaped, as in all the following. V. cucullata, COMMON BLUE V. The tallest and commonest of the •"blue violets, in all low grounds, with matted fleshy and scaly-toothed rootstocks, ct and heart-shaped or kidney-shaped obscurely serrate leaves, with the siea V. Striata, PALE V. Not rare N. & W , low ; flowers creamy-whittv with lower petal purple-lined ; spur short; stipules large in proportion, strongly fringe-toothed. V. canina, DOG V., the Amer. variety : common in low grounds ; low, with creeping branches or short runners, fringe-toothed stipules, and spur half the length of the violet flower. V. rostrata, LONG-SPURRED V. Shady hills N. & W. ; 6' high, with fringe-toothed stipules, and slender spur longer than the pale violet petals. V. Canadensis, CANADA V. Common in rich woods N. & W., taller than the others, l°-2° high, larger-leaved, with entire stipules; flowers all summer, the petals white or purplish above, the upper ones violet-purple under- neath ; spur very short and blunt. # * * PANSY VIOLETS, from Europe, with leafy and branr/iiny stems, and large leaf-like stipules : flowering through t/ie ftpring and summer. V. tricolor, PANSY or HEART'S-EASE. Cult, ot running wild in gardens, low, with roundish leaves, or the upper oval and loAvcst heart-shaped ; stipules lyrate-pinnatifid ; petals of various colors, and often variegated, and under culti- vation often very large and showy, the spur short and blunt. — Var. ARVENSIS, is a field variety, slender and small-flowered, thoroughly naturalized in some places. (.1) (?; J/ V. COrnuta, HORNED V. From the Pyrenees, cult, in borders of late ; has stipules merely toothed, and light violet-purple flowers with a very long and slender spur. 1}. 15. DROSERACE.SI, SUNDEW FAMILY. Bog-herbs, with regular flowers, on scapes ; leaves in a tuft at the root, glandular-bristly or bristly-fringed, and rolled up from the apex in the bud, in the manner of Ferns ; the persistent sepals and withering-persistent petals each 5; stamens 5- 15 with their anthers turned outward ; and a 1 -celled many-seeded pod. Represented by two genera. 1. DROSERA. Stamens 5. Styles 3-5, but 2-parted so as to seem like 6-1C Ovarv with 3 parietal placentae. Reddish-colored and sticky-glandular. 2. DION.^EA. Stamens 15. Style 1: sti.cma lobed and fringed. Ovules and seeds all at the broad base of the ovary and pod. Leaves terminated by a bristly-bordered fly-trap. 1. DROSERA, SUNDEW. (Name means in Greek deu-i/, or beset with dew-drops, the gland surmounting the bristles of the leaves producing a clear and dew-like drop of liquid, which is glutinous, and serves to catch small flies.) Flowers small, in a 1-sided spike or raceme, each opening only once, in sun- shine, in summer. 2/ * Flowers small, white : leaves with a Made. D. rotundif61ia, ROUND-LEAVED S. The commonest species in bogs, white round leaves on long petioles spreading in a tuft. When a " "or other insect is caught by the sticky glands on the upper face of the leaf, 60 ROCK-ROSE FAMILY. the bristles of the outer rows very slowly turn inwards, so that their glanr»« help to hold the prey ! D. longiiolia, LOXGEK-LKAVED S. In very wet l>ogs or shallow water, with Bpatulato-obloog leaves, M>me of them erect, on km;: petioles. D. brevifblia, SHOUT-LLAVKD S. In wet sand, only at the S. ; small; scape only 2' - 5' high, few-flowered ; leaves ^horr, wedge-snaped. * * Flowers rose-purple : no blade to t/ie leaf. D. filifblia, THRKAD-LKAVF.D S. In wet sandy soil near the coast, from Plymouth, Mass., to Florida; leaves erect, thread-shaped; scape G'- 12' high, from a bulb-like base ; flowers handsome, £' or more broad. J. DIONJEA, VENUS'S FLY-TRAP. (Named for the mother of Venus.; 2/ Only one species, D. muscipula. Grows only in sandy bogs near Wilmington, N. Car., TDUt kept in conservatories as a great curiosity. (See Lessons, p. f>2, fig. 81, for the leaves, and the way they catch insects !) Flowers white, borne in an umbel-like cyme on a scape 1° high, in spring. 16. CISTACE^S, ROCK-ROSE FAMILY. Shrubby or low herbaceous plants, with regular flowers ; a per- sistent calyx of 5 sepals, two of them exterior and resembling bracts ; the petals and stamens on the receptacle ; the style single or none ; ovary 1-celled with 3 or 5 parietal placentae (Lessons, fig. 261), bearing orthotropous ovules. Represented in greenhouse? by one showy species, CiSTtrs LADANIFERUS of Europe (not common), and in sandy woods and fields by the following wild plants. ^. HELI ANTHEM UM. Petals 5, crumpled in the burl, fugacious (falling at the close of the first day). Stamens and ovules many in the complete flower: placentae 3. Style none or short. 2. HUDSONIA. Petals as in the last. Calyx narrow. Stamens 9-30. Style slender. Ovules few. 3. LECHKA. Petnls 3, persistent, not longer than the calyx. Stamens 3-12. Style none. Pod partly 3-eelied, 6-seeded. 1. HELIANTHEMUM, FROSTWEED. (Name from Greek words for sun and //Wvr, the blossoms opening only in sunshine. Popular name, from crystals of ice shooting from the cracked bark at the root late in the autumn.) Low, yellow-flowered, in sandy or gravelly soil. ^ ••H. Canadense, CANADIAN or COMMON F. Common, and the only one .N. ; has lar>cc-oblonLr leaves hoary beneath ; flowers produced all summer, some with showy corolla 1' broad and many stamens ; others small and clus- tered altm^ the stem, with ineonspicuous corolla and 3-10 stamens ; the latter produce small lew-seeded pods. H. COrymbbsum, only a'on^ the coast S., is downy all over, with smallei -flowers clustered at the top of the stem, and larger ones lon^-pcduncled. ^ H. Carolinianum, grows only S., is hairy, with green leaves, the lower obovate and clustered ; flowers all largc-petalled and scattered, in spring. 2. HUDSONIA. (For an English Ixrtunist, William Hudson.) Heath-like 5 little shrubs, ()'- \'2' lii^li, nearly confined to sandv shore-- of the ocean and ff Great Lakes, with minute downy leaves closely covering the branches, and smaii yellow flowers, opening in sunshine, in spring and summer. ^H. ericoides, HKATII-LIKK II. Greenish; leaves awl-shaped ; flowers pedunclcd. From New .Jersey N. ^H. toment6sa, DOWNV H. Hoary with soft down ; leaves oblong or oval and close pressed ; peduncles short or hardly any. From New Jersey tv Maine and Lake Superior. ST. JOIIN'S-WORT FAMILY. 61 3. LECHEA, PINWEED. (For Leche, a Swedish botanist.) Small, homely herbs, with inconspicuous greenish or purplish flowers, and pods about the size of a pin's head, whence the popular name : common in sterile soil ; fl. summer and autumn. 2/ L. major, LARGER P. Stem upright, hairy, l°-2° high; leaves ellipti- cal, mucronate ; flowers densely clustered. Borders of sterile woodlands. L. minor, SMALLER P. Stems low, 6' - 18' high, often straggling, minutely hairy; leaves linear; flowers loosely racemed on the branches. Open sterile ground. 17. HYPERICACE.SI, ST. JOHN'S -WORT FAMILY. Distinguished from all other of our plants by the opposite and entire Simple and chiefly sessile leaves, punctate with translucent and commonly some blackish dots, perfect flowers with the stamens (usually many and more or less in 3 or 5 clusters) inserted on the receptacle, and a pod either 1 -celled with parietal placenta? or 3 — 5- celled (see Lessons, p. 120, %. 260, 262, 263), filled with many small seeds. Juice resinous and acrid. All here described are wild plants of the country. * No fjlands between the stamens. Petals convolate in the bud. 1. ASCYRUM. Sepals 4; the outer pair very broad, the inner small and narrow. Petals 4, yellow. Stamens many. Ovary 1-celled. 2. HYPKRICUM. Sepals and (yellow) petals*5. Stamens many, rarely few. # * Large yland between each of (he 3 sets of stamens Petals imbricated in (he bud. 3. ELODKS. Sepals and erect flesh-colored. Petals 5. Stamens 9 to 12, united in 3 sets. Ovary 3-celled. Flowers axillary. 1. ASCYRUM, ST. PETER'S-WORT. (Greek name means without roughness, being smooth plants.) Leafy-stemmed, woody at the base, with 2-edged branches ; wild in pine barrens, &c., chiefly S. Fl. summer. % * A pair ofbractlets on the pedicel : styles short. A. Crux-Andrese, ST. ANDREW'S CROSS. From New Jersey to Illinois & S. ; stems spreading ; leaves tliinnisb, narrow-oblong and tapering to the base; flowers rather .-mall, with narrow pale yellow petals and only 2 styles. A. stans, COMMON ST. PETKR'S-WORT. From New Jersey S. ; stems 2° - 3° high ; leaves thickish, closely sessile, oval or oblong ; flowers larger, with obovate petals and 3 or 4 styles. * # No bractlets on t/ie pedicel : styles lonqer titan ovary. A. amplexicatlle, CLASPING-LEAVED S. Only found S., with erect stein's many times forking above, and closely sessile heart-shaped leaves ; styles 3. 3. HYPERICUM, ST. JOIIX'S-WOKT. (Ancient name, of uncertain derivation.) Fl. in summer, in all ours vellow * Shrubs or perennial kerbs : stamens very many •*- Sti/les 5 (rarely more) united below into one . })od ^-celled. H. pyramidatum, GREAT-FL. S. Herb, 2° -4° high, with ovate-oblong partly-clasping leaves, and large flowers, the petals rather narrow, 1' long, and 5 clusters of stamens.. River-banks N. & W. H. Kalmianum, KALM'S S. Low shrub, with glaucous oblanceolata leaves and rather large flowers. N. W. : rare, except at Niagara Falls. t- -t- Styles 3 partly united, or at first wholly united to the top into one (see Lessons, p. 118, fig. 256) : sejia/s leafy, spreading. f* Shrubby, deciduous-leaved, both Northern and Southern. H. prolificum, SHKCBBY S. Like the last, but leaves scarcely glaucous, lance-oblong or linear ; pod 3-celled. 62 ST. JOHN'S-WORT FAMILY. +•*• ** Shrubby, evergreen or nearly so, only Southern. H. fasciculatum, FASCICI,I:I> S. Leaves narrow-linear and small, and .with shorter ones clustered in the axils ; pod narrow. Wet pine barrens. H. myrtifblium, MTKTLK-LEAVED S. Leaves heart-shaped and partly clasping, thick, glaucous ; ])od conical. \Vet pine barrens. H. aureum, CJOLDEX S. Leaves oblong with a narrow base, glaucous beneath; thick; flowers mostly single, very large (2' broad), orange-yellow; p/d ovate. Kiver- banks towards the mountains. H. nudiflbrum, XAKKD-CLUSTKKLD S. Shrubby and evergreen S., less fcO in Virginia, &c., has 4-angled branches, oblong pale leaves, and a pcduneled naked cynic of rather sinal' ilowers ; pods conical. •*-*••»-*••»-*• Hei'lxiceous, timpl&steanned, Northern $* Western. H. sphserocarpon, SI-IIKKICAL-FKUITKD S. About 2° high; leaves diverging, oblong-linear ('2' long), obtuse ; flowers numerous, small, in a naked flat cvmc ; sepals ovate ; pod globular, 1 -celled. Rocky banks, W. H." adpressum, UIMMGHT-LKAVED 8. A foot high; leaves ascending, lanceolate, often acute ; flowers f;-w and rather small ; sepals narrow ; pod oblong, partly 3-celled. Low grounds, Pennsylvania to Rhode Island. H. ellipficum, ELLII>TICAL-LKAVEI> S." Barely 1° high ; leaves spread- - . , * ing, ol)long, thin ; flowers rather few in a nearly naked cyme, pale ; the pod purple, oblong-oval, obtuse, 1 -celled. Wet soil, X. •«- •*- •«- Styles 3 wholly separate (sue Lessons, fig. 255) : herbs. •«• Ovary and pod 3-cellcd : petals black-dotted : styles mostly diverging. H. perforation, COMMON* S. The only one not indigenous, nat. from Eu., a troublesome weed in fields, &c. ; spreads by runners from the basej upright stems branching ; leaves oblong or linear-oblong, with pellucid dots ; flowers rather large in open leafy cymes ; the deep yellow petals twice the length of the lanceolate acute sepals. The juice is very acrid. H. corymbbsum, COKYMIJKI> S. Common N. in moist ground; stem 2° high, sparingly branched ; leaves oblong, slightly clasping, having black as well as pellucid dots ; flowers rather small, crowded ; petals light yellow and black-lined as well as dotted ; sepals oblong ; styles not longer than 'tin- pod. H. maculatum, SPOTTED S. Common's, has somewhat heart-shaped or more clasping leaves, lanceolate sepals, and very long and slender styles -• otherwise like the last. •*•+ ++ Ovary I -eel led : stem strict: leaves ascending, acute, closely sessile, short. Cx * .14-- H. anguibsum, AXGLKD S. Wet pine-barrens from New Jersey S. * /f-9-L .Stcm sharply 4-angled (l°-2° high), smooth; leaves ovate or lance-oblong; flowers scatteretT along the ascending branches of the cyme, small, cor-jjcr- yelhnv ; styles slender. ~~IT pilbsum, HAIRY S. Wet pine-barrens S. Stem terete, and with the lance-ovate leaves roughish-downy ; styles short. # # Annual, low and slender, small-flowered herbs: stamens 5— 12 : ovary and brown-purple pod strictly \-cettedt .sTyA.s .3, w-parate : sepals narrow, erect: petal f> narroir. •*- Leaves conspicuous and tpreodiitg : floirers in ci/mcs. H. mtltilum, SMALL S. Slender, much branched and leafy up to the flowers; leaves partly clasping, thin, 5-nerved, ovate or oblong;' petals pale yellow. Everywhere in low grounds. H. Canad6nse, CANADIAN S. Stem and branches strictly erect ; leaves linear or lanceolate, o-ncrvcd at the base ; petals copper-yellow. Wet sandy soil. -1- •*- Lcar. C'omnion in dry steril. soil, with minute awl-shaped appressed scales for leaves, ilowers sessile on the c wiry branches, and slender pods much exceeding the calyx. PINK FAMILY. 63 3. ELODES, MARSH ST. JOHN'S-WORT. (Greek for marshy.) In water or Avct bogs, with pale often purple-veined oblong or ovate leaves, and close clusters of small flowers in their axils, produced all summer. Petals pale purple or flesh-color, equal-sided, erect. ^ E. Virginica, the commonest, has the roundish or broadly oblong le clasping by a broad base. E. petiolata, commoner S., has the leaves tapering into a short petiole. 18. ELATINACE^I, WATER-WORT FAMILY. Little marsh annuals, resembling Chick weeds, but with mem- bianaceous stipules between the opposite leaves, and seeds as in preceding family. Represented by 1. EL ATINE, WATER- WORT. (Greek name of some herb.) Sepals, petals, stamens and cells of the ovary and stigmas or styles of the same num- ber, each 2, 3, or 4, all separate on the receptacle. Seeds straightish or curved. Flowers minute in the axils of the leaves. E. Americana. Creeping and spreading on muddy shores of ponds, £c., about 1 ' high, not very common ; leaves obovate ; parts of the flower 2, rarely 3 ; pod very thin. 19. TAMAKISCINE.S}, TAMARISK FAMILY. Shrubs or small trees of the Old World, represented in ornu mental grounds by 1. TAMARIX, TAMARISK. (Named for the Tamarisci, or the river Tainan's, on which these people lived.) Sepals and petals 4 or 5, persistent, or the latter withering, and stamens as many or twice as many, all on the receptacle. Ovary pointed, 1-ccllcd, bearing many ovules on three parietal placentae next the base : styles 3. Seeds with a plume of hairs at the apex. Shrubs or small trees "of peculiar aspect, with minute and scale-shaped or awl-shaped alternate leaves apprcsscd on the slender brauclies, and small white or purplish flowers in spikes or racemes. The only one planted is T. Gallica, FRENCH T. Barely hardy N., often killed to the ground, a picturesque, delicate shrub, rather Cypress-like in aspect, glaucous-whitish, the minute leaves clasping the branches, nearly evergreen where the climate permits. 20. CARYOPHYLLACE.3E, PINK FAMILY. Bland herbs, with opposite entire leaves, regifiar flowers with not over 10 stamens, a commonly 1 -celled ovary with the ovules rising from the bottom of the cell or on a central column, and with 2-5 styles or sessile stigmas, mostly separate to the base. (See Les- sons, p. 120, fig. 258, 259.) Seeds witli a slender embryo on the DJtside of a mealy albumen, and usually curved into a ring around it. Calyx persistent. Petals sometimes minute or wanting. Divides into two grent divisions or suborders, viz. the true PINK FAMILY, and the CHICKWKED FAMILY, to the latter of which many plants like them, but mostly >ingle-seeded and without petals, are appended. I. PINK FAMILY PROPER. Sepals (5) united below into a tube or cup. Petals with slender claws which are enclosed in the calyx-tube, and commonly raised within it, with the 10 stamens, on a sort of stalk, often with a cleft scale or crown at the junction of the blade and claw. (Lessons, p. 101, fig. 200.) Pod mostly open- ing at the top, many-seeded. 64 PINK FAMILY. * ddyx toith a scaly cup or set of bracts at its base: styles 2. 1. DIANTHUS. Calyx cylindrical, faintly many-striate. Petals without a crown. Seeds attached by the face: embryo in the albumen and nearly straight! * # Calyx naked at base : seeds attached by the edye : embryo curved. 2. LYCHNIS. Styles 5, rarely 4. Calyx not angled, but mostly 10-nerved. 3. SILENT. Styles 3. Calyx not angled, mostly 10-nerved. 4. VACCARIA. Styles 2. "Calyx pyramidal, becoming 5-wing-angled. 6. SAPONARIA. Styles 2. Calyx' cylindrical or oblong, not angled, 5-toothed[ Pod 4-valved at the top. 6. GYPSOPH1LA. Styles 2. Calyx bell-shaped, 5-cleft, or thin and delicate below the sinuses. Pod 4-valved. Flowers small and panicled, resembling those of Sandwort, £c. II. CHICKWEED FAMILY, &c. Petals spreading, without claws, occasionally wanting. Sepals (4 or 5) separate or united only at ba>e, or rarely higher up. Flowers small, compared with the Pink Family, and the plants usually low and spreading or tutted. * Without stipules, generally with petals : {>od several-seeded. 7. SAGINA. Styles and valves of the pod as many as the sepals and alternate with them (4 or 5). Petals entire or none. Small plants. 8. CKRASTIUM. Styles as many as the sepals and opposite them (5). Petals notched at the end or 2-cleft, rarely none. Pod mostly elongated, opening at the top by 10 teeth. 9. STKLLARIA. Styles fewer than the sepals (3 or sometimes 4) and opposite as many of them. Petals 2-clefr, or sometimes none. Pod globular or ovoid, splitting into twice as many valves as there are styles. tO. ARENAHIA. Styles (commonly only 3) fewer than the sepalg and opposite as many of them. Petals entire, rarely none. Pod globular or oblong, splitting into as many or twice as many valves as there are styles. * * With scarious stipules between the leaves, conspicuous and entire petals, and a many-seeded 3 - 5-vulved pod. 11. SPERGULARIA. Styles usually 3. Leaves opposite. 12. SPKRGULA. Styles 5, us many as the sepals and alternate with them. Leaves in whorls. * * * Without petals : the fruit (utricle) l-seeded and indehiscent. 13. ANYCHIA. Sepals 5, nearly distinct. Stamens 2-5. Stigmas 2, sessile. Stipules and flowers minute. 14. SCLKRANTHUS. Sepals (5) united below into an indurated cup, narrowed at the throat where it bears 5 or 10 stamens, enclosing the small utricle. Styles 2. Stipules none. * * * * Without petals, but the 5 sepals white and petal-like inside: stipules obscure if any .• fruit a 3-i-elled many-seeded pod. 15. MOLLUGO. Stamens generally 3, on the receptacle. Stigmas 3. Pod 3-valved, the partitions breaking away from the seed-bearing axis and ad- hering to the middle of the valves. 1. DIANTHUS, PINK. (Greek name, meaning Jove's own flower.) All but the first species cultivated for ornament : fl. summer. * Flowers sessile and nidtit/ in of (In- claw. % L. COronaria, MULLEIN-LYCHNIS or MULLEIN PINK. Cult, in gar- dens; the flower crimson and like that of CORM-CoCKLB ; but teeth of the calyx short and slender ; plant white-cottony ; leaves oval or oblong. @ ^ L. Plos-J6vis, JUPITER'S L. Less common in gardens, downy-hairy or cottony and whitish ; leaves lance-oblong ; flowers many and smaller, in a head-like long-peduncled cluster, reddish-purple ; petals obcordate. L. Chaicedoriica, MALTESE-CROSS or SCARLET L. Very common in country-gardens; tall, rather hairy and coarse, with lance-ovate partly clasping green leaves, and a very dense flat-topped cluster of many smallish flowers ; the bright scarlet or brick-red petals deeply 2-lobcd. L. grandiflora, LARGE-FLOWERED L. Cult from China; smooth, with oblong green leaves tapering to both ends, and the branches bearing single or scattered short-peduncled flowers, which are 2' or 3' across ; the red or scarlet petals fringe-toothed at the end. L. Viscaria, VISCID L. Rather scarce in gardens ; smooth, but the slen- der stem glutinous towards the top ; leaves linear ; flowers many in a narrow raceme-like cluster, rather small , calyx tubular or club-shaped ; petals pink- red, slightly notched : also a double-flowered variety. L. Plos-CUCUli, CUCKOO L. RAGGED ROBIN is the double-flowered variety, in gardens ; slightly downy and glutinous, witli lanceolate leaves, and an open panicle of pink-red petals, 'these cleft into 4 narrow-linear lobes. L. diurna, DAY-BLOOMING L. Double-flowered form also called RAGGED ROBIN in the gardens ; smoothish or soft-hairy ; leaves oblong or lance-ovate, the upper ones pointed ; flowers scattered or somewhat clustered on the branches, rose-red. L. Vespertina, EVENING-BLOOMING L. A weed in some waste grounds, like the last, and more like the Night-flowering Catchfly ; but has 5 styles and a more ovate enlarging calyx ; the flowers are commonly dia-ckuui. white, and S// open after sunset, the root biennial. But a full double-flowering variety in gar dens is perennial, day-flowering, and is a white sort of RAGGED ROBIN. 3. SILENE, CATCHFLY. (Both names refer to the sticky exudation on stems and calyx of several species, by which small insects are often caught.) Besides the following, some other wild or cultivated species are met with, but not common. Fl. mostly all summer. S&F— 14 GO PINK FAMILY. * All aver sticky-hairy : naturalized from Europe. (T) S. noctiflora, NIGHT-FLOWERING C. Tall coarse weed in cult, or waste grounds ; lower leaves spatulate, upper lanceolate and pointed ; flowers single or in loose clusters terminating the branches, with awl-siiaped calyx-teeth and white or pale rosy 2-parted petals, opening- at nightfall or in cloudy weather. # # Smooth, a part of each of the upper joint of stem glutinous : flowers small. (T) S. Arnieria, SWEET-WILLIAM C. In old gardens or running wild, from Europe; stem about 1° high, branching into flat-topped cymes of many flowers, which are rather showy ; calyx club-shaped ; petals notched, bright pink, or a white variety, opening only in sunshine ; leaves lance-ovate, glaucous. S. antirrhina, SLEEPY C. Wild in sandy or gravelly soil ; stem slen- der, 6' - 20' high, rather simple ; flowers very small, panicled ; calyx ovoid ; petals rose-color, obcordate, opening only at midday in sunshine ; leaves lan- ceolate or linear. # * * Somewhat sticky-pubescent, at least tli<> m/y.r, which is nit/ana, tubular, or club-shaped : irild species, with red or pink showy flowers. ^/ S. Pennsylvanica, PENNSVLVANIAN C. or WILD PINK. In gravelly VtOy JJ/O- gojj • stems 4'-§' high, bearing 2 or 3 pairs of lajiceobite leaves and a cluster of short-stalked middle-sized flowers, in spring ; petals pink-red, wedge-shaped, slightlv notched. S. Virginica, VIRGINIAN C. or FIRE PINK. In open woods W. & S. ; 1° - 2° high ; leaves spatulate or lanceolate ; flowers few, peduncled ; the pretty large bright crimson-red petals 2-cleft. S. r6gia, ROYAL C. Prairies, &c., from Ohio S. ; like the last, but 3° high, with lance-ovate leaves, numerous short-peduncled flowers in a narrow panicle, and narrower scarlet-red petals scarcely cleft. # # # # Not sticky : mfy.r inflated and bladdery : petals rather small, white. If. S. stellata, STARRY CAMPION. Wild on wooded banks; stem slender, 2° -3° high ; leaves in whorls of 4, lance-ovate, pointed; flowers in a long and narrow panicle ; petals cut into a fringe. . S. inflata, BLADDER CAMPION. Wild in fi_elds_E., but nut. from Ku., *. glaucous or pale and very smooth, 1° high, with ovate-lanceolate or oblong 20 - IfrjO 'leaves, and an open cyme of flowers ; the bladdery calyx veiny ; petals 4. VACCARIA, COW-HERB. (Name from Latin mem, a cow.) © V. VUlgaris, COMMON C. In gardens or running wild near them, from Eu. ; smooth, l°-2° high, with pale lanceolate partly clasping leaves, and a loose open cyme of flowers ; petals pale red, naked, not notched ; fl. summer. 5. SAPpNARIA, SOAPWORT. (Latin and common names from the mucilaginous juice of the stem and root forming a lather.) From Furope. J 1^. I y^'/ S. officinalis, COMMON S. or BOUNCING BET. A rather stout, l°-2° high, nearly smooth herb, in gardens, and running wjjd by roadsides ; leaves w^. 9*0+1.3 - 5-ribbed. the lower ovate or oval, upper lanceolate; flowers rather large, • •liistejvd; p"Hri p*1" r'w" "nlor or almost white, Hatched at the end. The double-flowered is most common. 2/ 6. GYPSOPHILA. (From Greek words meaning lover of i/i/psitm or chalk, growing on calcareous rocks.) Plants with the small and often pan- ieled flowers and foliage of Arenaria or Stellaria, but the sepals united into a cup as in the true Pink Family, usually by their thin white edges, however, so that to a casual glance they may Appear distinct. Cult, in choicer gardens, from ICu. and the Fast, ornamental, especially for dressing cut flowers, &c. Fl. all summer. G. paniculata, PANIC-LED 0. Very smooth, pale, l°-2° high; with lance-linear leaves, and branches repeated forking into very loose and light cymes, hearing innumerable very small and delicate white flowers. ^/ G. elegans, FI.K<;ANT (J. Less tall or low, loosely spreading; with lanceolate leaves, much larger (V broad) ami fewer flowers, white or slightly rosy. PINK FAMILY. 67 7. SAGINA, PEARLWORT. (Latin name, means rich nourishment, which, however, these small and insignificant plants can hardly be.) There are four or five species in the country, none very common ; the most so is S. procumbens. Springy places and damp shores, &c., N. ; a smooth little plant, tufted and spreading, l'-3' high, with almost thread-shaped leaves; the blunt sepals, short white petals, stamens, and styles 4 or rarely 5. 8. CERASTIUM, MOUSE-EAR CHICKWEED. (Name in Groek refers to the horn-shaped pod of some species. The popular name is from the shape and soft hairiness of the leaves of the common species.) # Flowers inconspicuous, the deeply 2-cleft petals being shorter or little longer than the cali/x ; the pods becoming much longer and curving more or less, flower- ing all summer, white. C. VUlgatum, COMMON M., from Penn. S., but scarce N., in grassy places. An insignificant soft-hairy weed; stems erect, 4' -9' high, slightly clammy; leaves ovate or obovate, small ; pedicels even in fruit and petals shorter than the calyx. (T) C. viscdsum, CLAMMY M. Common in grassy places ; stems spreading, 6' - 15' long, clammy-hairy ; leaves oblong ; pedicels becoming longer than the r>. L. , u calyx ; petals as long as the calyx. © 2/ C. nutans, NODDING-FRUITED M. Common in moist or shady grounds, wild. Clammy-pubescent, erect, 6' -18' high, becoming very loosely-flowered and branched ; leaves oblong-lanceolate ; petals longer than calyx ; pods long, nodding on the slender flower-stalk and curved upwards. (T) # # Flowers conspicuous, the snoin/ white petals 2 or 3 times the length of the calyx: pod shorter : plants forming matted tufts. ^ C. arv6nse, FIELD M. Dry fields, &c. Downy but green ; leaves vary- ing from narrow-oblong to linear; flowering stems 4' -6' high, few-flowered ; petals notched at the end. C. tomentbsum, COTTONY M. Cult, from Eu. for borders, &c., its spreading shoots, crowded with oblong white-woolly leaves, making dense silvery mats ; petals deeply 2-cleft. 9. STELLABJA, STARWORT-CHICKWEED. (Name from Latin stella, a star.) Petals white, but sometimes small or none. Fl. spring and summer. None cultivated ; but the first is a weed in every garden. * Stems weak and spreading, /narked with pubescent lines : leaves broad. S. mddia, COMMON S. or CHICKWEED. In all damp cult, grounds; leaves ovate or oblong, the lower on hairy petioles ; petals shorter than the calyx, 2-parted ; stamens 3 - 10. (T) S. pubera, GKEAT S. Shaded rocks, wild from Penn. S. & W. ; leaves oblong or oval, sessile ; petals longer than the calyx, 2-cleft. # * Stems i n '<•( or s/ircading, and whole plant smooth : leaves narrow, sessile. ^ S. longifdlia, LONG-LEAVED S. or STITCHWORT. Common in damp grassy places N. ; stem weak, 8' -18' high; leaves linear, widely spreading; flowers numerous on slender spreading pedicels in a very loose cyme ; petals 2-parted, longer than the calyx. S. borealis, NORTHERN S. Wet grassy places N. ; stem 3' -10' high, *.~ forking repeatedly and with flowers in the forks of the leafy branches ; leaves 3- wi-f •*"••_ broadly lanceolate; or narrow-oblong ; petals shorter than the calyx, or none. 10. ARENARIA, SAND WORT. (So named because several grow in sand or sandy soil.) All the following are wild, also some others li-ss com- mon. Fl. spring and summer. * Petals inconspicuous, white. A. Serpyllif61ia, THYME-LEAVED S. An insignificant little weed, iu sandy or gravelly waste places, 2' -6' high; steins erect, roughish, much branched; leaves' ovate, pointed ; petals scarcely longer than the 3 - 5-nerved pointed sepals. © 68 PINK FAMILY. A. diffusa, SPREADING S. Shady grounds S. Plant soft-downy ; stems prostrate, 1° or more long; leaves lanceolate; peduncles lateral, 1 -flowered ; petals shorter than the sepals or none. Ij. # # Pf-tn/s fitnsi>iriif>Ks, longer than the calyx, ic/tite. ^ c^vA^v - A. Iaterifl6ra, SlDE-FLOWERINO S. Gravelly shores and banks N. j^lf,0}^ Plant minutely downy ; stem erect, 3' - 10' high, sparingly branching! pedun- ' / cles few-flowered, soon becoming lateral by the farther growth of the leafy stem ; leaves oval or oblong. A. Strieta. Rocky or shady banks X. Tufted, smooth, 4'- 6' high ; stems crowded with slender almost bristle-form leaves ; flowers several in a terminal open cyme ; sepals sharp-pointed. , )fZ A. squarrbsa, PINK-HAUKKN S. In sand, coast of New Jersey and S. jr^j.Bcnscl v tufted on a d.vp root, 3' - 5' high; leaves much crowded, short, awl- smaped, smooth ; the flowering branches or few-flowered peduncles glandular ; Id • / 1 - several-celled: stiymas capitate. Involucre prem -it/. Herbs, shrubs,' or tret$. * Involucre of several or many bracts. 12. MALVAVISCUS. Branches of the style and stigmas 10, twice as many n* the cells of the ovary. Petals not separating and spreading. Fruit berry-like: cells l-seeded. 13. KOSTELETZKYA. Branches of the style and stigmas 5. Pod 5-celled; the cells single-seeded. 14. HIBISCUS, liranclu-s of tlie style or stipmus and cells of the ovary 5. Pod 6-celled, loculicidal; the cells man v- seeded. * * Involucre of 3 large « nd ficurt-sh a/ied leaf-like bracts. 15. Q083TPIUM. Styles united into one: stigmas 3 -5, as many as the cells of the pod. Seeds numerous, bearing cotton. MALLOW FAMILY. 71 1. MALOPE. (Ancient Greek name for some kind of Mallow.) Herbs, resembling Mallows, from the Mediterranean region ; cult, as garden annuals : fl. summer. M. triflda, THREE-LOBED M. Smooth, with rounded leaves, the upper ones 3-lobed ; the handsome flowers 2' or more broad, rose-color, veined with purple or rose-red, also a white var. (i) M. malacoides is rarer, hairy, low, with oblong-ovate toothed leaves, long peduncles, and rose-colored flowers. % 2. KITAIBELIA. (Named for Paul Kitaibel, a botanist of Hungary, where the plant grows wild.) Fl. summer. The only species is K. vitifblia, VINE-LEAVED K. Cult, in gardens; a rough-hairy herb, 2° - 3° high, rather clammy at the summit, with acutely 5-lobed and toothed leaves, involucre longer than the true calyx, and dull -white corolla l£' broad when expanded. 1L 3. ALTHJEA. (From Greek word meaning to cure, used in medicine as an emollient.) Tall herbs (the Shrubby Altkcea belongs not to this genus, but to Hibiscus), natives only of the Old World : fl. summer and autumn. A. officinalis, MARSH-MALLOW. Rarely cult., but has run wild on the coast E. ; a rather coarse downy plant, with ovate, sometimes a little heart- shaped or 3-lobed leaves, and clusters of short-peduncled flowers in their axils ; corolla I' broad, rose-color. The thick root is used for its mucilage, and for making Marsh- Mai low jxiste. 11 A. r6sea, HOLLYHOCK. Cult, from Syria, with tall and simple hairy stem, rugose rounded and heart-shaped angled or 5 — 7-lobed leaves, and large flowers on very short peduncles, forming a long spike ; corolla of all shades of rose, purple, white, or yellow, single or double, 3' - 4' broad. © 4. LAVATERA. (Named for the brothers Lavater, of Zurich.) A sort of Mallow, sometimes cult, in gardens, from Europe : fl. all summer. L. trimestris, THREE-MONTH L. or FLOWERING MALLOW. Smooth or smoothish, l°-2° high ; lower leaves ixmnd-kidney-ahapcd, eremite, upper heart- shaped, uppermost 3-lobed; flowers 2' - 3' broad, ro: e color, rarely white ; in fruit a broad disk-shaped or umbrella-like expansion of the top of the axis com- pletely covers the carpels. (T) L. Thuringiaca. GERMAN L. Rather downy, smaller ; leaves mostly 3-lobed; flowers long-peduncled, U'-2' broad, rose-color; in fruit the axis pro- jects much beyond the ring of carpels as a pointed cone. If. L. arb6rea, TREE MALLOW. Not quite hardy N., has a stout stem 2°-6° high, woody below, rounded 5-9-lobed rather downy leaves, pale purple flow- ers l£' broad, on short pedicels, in a terminal raceme or narrow panicle; the axis of the fruit (like that of Mallow) not projecting beyond the carpels. 1J. 5. MALVA, MALLOW. (Latin alteration of an old Greek word, mean- ing soft or emollient.) All from Europe or the Orient, but several have run wild in fields and along roadsides : 11. all summer and autumn. * Flowers small, white or whitish., not conspicuous nor handsome, j^^^^c^ 2 M. rotundifblia, COMMON or ROUND-LEAVED M. Weed iu cult./ 7 grounds ; with procumbent stems from a strong deep root, rounded kidney shaped crenate leaves on very long petioles, rather slender peduncles, and fruit not wrinkled. (?) 2/ M. crispa, CURLED M. In country gardens, rarely in waste places ; with erect stem (4° -6° high) leafy to the top', rounded 5 -7-lobed or angled leaves very much crisped round the margin, flowers clustered and almost sessile in the axils, and fruit slightly wrinkled. # * Flowers larger, more or less showy, l£'-2' in diameter ; the purple, rose-color, or sometimes white petals much exceeding the calyx : stem erect. M. Mauritiana, sometimes called TREE MALLOW. Cult. ; 3° - 5° high, with rounded 5-lobed smooth or smoothish leaves, and clusters in their axils of 72 MALLOW FAMILY. flowers l£' in diameter, the petals pale rose-color or white, striped with dark purple or violet veins, (i) M. sylv^Stris, HIGH M. Gardens and roadsides; 2° - 3° high, branch- ^- ing, witJi rather sharply 5-7-lobed leaves, and purple-rose-colored flowers rather $4^*»». smallcr,thau in the last ; fruit wrinkled-veiny. (f 7/ M. Alcea. Gardens ; 2° -4° high, hairy, with stem-leaves parted almost KcM to the base into 3 - 5 divisions which are again :j-5-elcft or cut-toothed ; and C-yj-j^ showy flowers in clusters or terminal racemes; corolla deep rose-color, l£'-2' r broad ; fruit smooth, minutelv wrinkled-veiny. 2/ rti V>*M. moschata, MUSK M. Gardens, and escaped to roadsides, l°-2° Lfthiton> rather hairy, with the herbage faintly musk-seentc'l.'leaves about" thrice - •'•^parted or cut into slender Ijnear lobes, and short-pedunclcd flowers somewhat clustered or racemed ; corolla l£ broad, rose-color or wjiite ; fruit downy. 6. CAIiLIRRHOE. (A Greek mythological name, applied to N.American plants.) Species chiefly farther W. and 8., becoming rather common in choice gardens. Flowers crimson, mauve, or red-purple, very showy, pro- duced all summer. * Root thick, often turnip-shaped, farinaceous : stems roughish-hairy or smoothish. 2/ C. triangulata. Dry prairies from Wisconsin S. ; stems erect, 2° high ; leaves triangular, halberd-shaped, or the lowest heart-shaped, the upper cut- lobed or 3 - 5-cleft ; flowers somewhat panieled and short-peduneled ; involucre as long as the calyx ; corolla 1 £' or less in diameter ; carpels of the fruit even on the back, tipped with a short point. C. involucrata. Wild from plains of Nebraska S., and cult, for orna- ment; stems spreading on the ground, l°-3° long; stipules conspicuous; leaves rounded, 5-parted or cleft and cut-lobed, shorter than the axillary pedun- cles ; involucre shorter than the calyx ; corolla 2' or more broad ; carpels of the fruit reticulated, tipped with a flat and inconspicuous beak. C. Papaver. Wild in rich woodlands from Georgia to Texas, and spar- ingly cult. ; stems short, ascending, few-leaved ; leaves 3 — 5-partcd with lance- linear divisions, or the lowest rather heart-shaped and cleft into oblong lobes ; axillary peduncles very (often 1°) long; involucre of 1-3 bracts or none; corolla 2' or more broad ; carpels of the fruit wrinkled or reticulated and with a stout incurved beak. C. digitata. Wild in prairies of Arkansas and Texas ; 1° high ; leaves mostly from the root, 5 - 7-parted into long linear sometimes 2 -3-cleft divis- ions ; peduncles long and slender ; involucre none; corolla 1^'- 2' broad, the petals fringe-toothed at the end ; fruit nearly as in the last. # # Hoot slender or tapering : herbage smooth. ® (D C. pedata. Wild in E. Texas; not rare cult. ; stem erect, l°-5° high, leafy ; leaves rounded, 3-7-lobed or parted and the wedge-shaped divisions cleft or cut; peduncles slender, longer than the leaves ; involucre none; corolla about 1^' broad, the petals minutely eroded at the end ; carpels of the fruit smooth and even on the back, and with a stout conspicuous beak. 7. NAPJEA, GLADE-MALLOW. (From Greek name for glade or nymph of the groves.) Only one species, N. diolca. In valleys, chiefly in limestone districts of I Vim., Virginia, and W. A rather coarse, numhish herb; stem 4° - 7° high; leaves !)-ll- parted and their lobes cut and toothed, the lowest often 1° in diameter ; flowers small, in panielcd corymbs, in summer. &. ANODA. (Origin of the name obscure.) Low herbs from Mexico, Texas, &c., sparingly cult, for ornament. Stems, <&c. hirsute: peduncles long and slender, 1-flowered. Fruit in the form of a many-rayed star, sup- ported by the spreading 5-rayed calyx : when ripe the rim of each carpel falls away with the seed it embraces, the sides or partitions disappearing. © A. hastata has mostly halberd-shaped leaves, and blue or violet torolla only 1 ' - 1^' in diameter; lobes of the calyx ovate, scarcely pointed. MALLOW FAMILY. 73 A. cristata has mostly triangular or obscurely halberd-shaped and toothed leaves, and purple or rose-colored corolla 2' in diameter ; lobes of the calyx triangular, taper-pointed. 9. SID A. (Ancient name, of obscure meaning-.) Mostly rather small-flow- ered or weedy herbs, with 5-12 styles and carpels : fl. summer and autumn. * Peduncles axillary, \-flowered: corolla yellow. S. spinosa. So named from the little pointed projection or tubercle at the base of the petiole, but which can hardly be called a spine ; stems much branched, 10' -20' high; leaves lance-ovate, serrate, minutely soft-downy; peduncles very abort ; flower very small ; pod ovate, of 5 carpels, each splitting at top into 2 points. A common weed S. of New York. i S. rhombifblia. But the leaves arc hardly rhombic, usually lance-oblong, short-petioled, serrate, pale and whitish downy beneath; stems l°-3° high, much branched; peduncles rather long; flower small; fruit of 10 or 12 one- pointed carpels. A weed only 8. © S. Elliottii. Nearly smooth, l°-4° high; leaves linear or lanceolate, serrate, short-petioled; flower 1' broad, on a short peduncle; fruit of 10-12 nearly blunt carpels. Woodlands S. 11 * Peduncles bearing a corymb of several white flowers from the upper axils. S. Napsea. Smooth; stem simple, 4° -7°high ; leaves rounded, 5-cleft, the lobes toothed and taper-pointed ; corolla about 1' broad; styles and cells of the pod 10. Wild in S. Pcnn. and Virg. Cult, in old gardens. 2/ 10. ABUTILON, INDIAN MALLOW. (Origin of name obscure.) Resembles Sida, but cells more than one-seeded ; flowers usually larger. A. Avicennse, VKLVKT-LKAF. Cult, soil and old gardens, 3° -5° high; leaves roundish heart-shaped, taper-pointed, soft-velvety ; peduncles shorter than petiole, 1 - 3-flowered ; corolla orange-yellow; fruit of 12-15 united hairy carpels Avith spreading beaks. Fl. autumn. i A. Striatum, STHIIMCD AWTILON. Cult, in greenhouses, &c. from Bra- zil ; a tall shrub, verv smooth, Avith rounded heart-shaped 3-lobed leaA'es, the lobes very taper-pointed, and pretty large solitary flowers hanging on a very long and slender peduncle ; corolla not spreading open, orange-colored, with deeper or brownish Arcining or stripes. 11. MODIOLA. (The shape of the depressed fruit likened to the Roman measure modiolns.) Procumbent or spreading, small-floAvered, Aveedy plants. M. multifida. Virginia and S., in IOAV grounds; leaA'es 3-7-cleftand cut, or the earlier ones rounded and undivided; flowers red, £' broad; fruit hairv at the top. ® 11 12. MALVAVISCUS. (Name composed of Malva, MalloAv, and viscus, birdlime, from the glutinous pulp of the berry-like fruit.) Shrubby plants, Avith showy scarlet flowers, of peculiar appearance, the petals not expanding, but remaining convolute around the loAvcr part of the slender projecting and soon tAvisted column, held together as it were by a little side-lobe near the base of the inner edge. M. arb6reus, the common West India species, cult, in some hot-houses, has heart-shaped leaves longer than broad, and yelloAvish fruit. M. Drummondii, of Texas, if housed in winter floAvers all summer in open ground, is soft-downy, Avith more rounded and somcAvhat 3-lobed leaves, and scarlet fruit. 13. KOSTELETZSKYA. (Named for a Bohemian botanist, Kosteletzsky .) Like Hibiscus, only the cells of ovary and fruit l-seeded. Fl. summer. K. Virginica, VIRGINIAN K. In and near salt marshes, from NCAV York and New, Jersey S. : roughish-hairy, 2° -5° high; leaves heart-shaped or mostly 3-lobcd, often halberd-shaped; flowers somewhat racemed or panicled, rose- purple, l'-2' broad. 11 74 MALLOW FAMILY. 14. HIBISCUS, HOSE-MALLOW. (Anciem name, of obscure origin.) Flowers showy, usually large, in summer and autumn. * Tall slirtilts tit s'unrtiiitfs rn/ti rated, ta/l and lartly. •*- •«- Exotic low species, in gardens or cultivated grounds. 0 H. Tribnum, BLADDKK KKTMIA or FLOWER-OF-AN-HOUK. Rather hairy, l°-2° high, with the leaves toothed, or the upper 3-partcd into lanceolate lobes, the middle lobe much longest; calvx inflated and bladdery ; corolla about 2- broad, sulphur-yellow with a blackish eye, open only in midday sunshine. # # # Herbs, with calyx splitting down one side, and (/curra/li/ failing off at once, and with long or narrow pyramidal or angled ftod : natir/ ' J'^ast IndiiK. H. escul6ntU8, OKRA or GUMBO. Nearly smooth, with rounded heart- shaped f)-lobcd toothed leaves, greenish-yellow flowers on slender peduncle (invo- lucre falling early), and narrow poils :}' or 4' long, which are very mucilaginous, and when green cooked and eaten, or used to thicken M>ups : cult. S. © H. Man i hot. Smoothiah, with leaves 5 — 7-parted into long narrow divis- ions ; the large and showy corolla pale vello\v with a dark eve ; the leaves of the involucre hairy and soon tailing off : introduced or cult. S. W. 2/ 15. GOSS^PIUM, COTTON. (Nsinir given by Piiny, from the Arabic.) Plants now diffused over warm countries, most valuable for the wool on the seeds : the species much mixed up. G. herbaceum, COMMON COTTON. Cult. S. Leaves with ."> >hort and roundish lobes ; petals pale yellow or turning rose-color, purple at base. i G. Barbad6nse, BARBADOEB <>K SI-.A-NI.AND c. Cult, on the coast s. Inclining to be shrubhv at base ; branches black-dotted ; leaves with ."> longer Ianee-o\ate and taper pointed lobes; leaves of the involucre with very long and slender teeth ; petals yello\\i>h or whitish with purple ba-e. G. arbbreum, TKKK C. Cult. S., only for curiosity, has 5-7 nearly lane(;olate and taper-pointed lobes to the leaves, leaves of involucre slightly toot bed, and a purple corolla with a darker centre. CAMELLIA OR TKA FAMILY. 75 23. STERCULIACEJE, STERCULIA FAMILY. Chiefly a tropical family, to which belongs the THEOBROMA or CHOCOLATE-TREE ; in common cultivation known here only by a single species of 1. MAHERNIA. (Name an anagram of Hermannia, a genus very like it.) Calyx, corolla, &c. as in the Mallow Family; but the stamens only 5, one before each petal ; the filaments monadelphous only at the base and en- larged about the middle, and the anthers with 2 parallel cells. The edges of the base of the petals rolled inwards, making a hollow claw. Ovary 5-celled, with several ovules in each cell : styles 5, united at the base. M. verticillata. Cult, from Cape of Good Hope, in conservatories pro- ducing a succession of honey-yellow sweet-scented small blossoms, on slender peduncles, all winter and spring ; a sort of woody perennial, with slender and spreading or hanging roughish branches and small green irregularly pinnatifid leaves ; the specific name given because the leaves seem to be whorled ; but this is because the stipules, which are cut into several linear divisions, imitate leaves. 24. TILIACE.S1, LINDEN FAMILY. Chiefly a tropical family, represented here only by an herbaceous COKCHORUS on our southernmost borders, and by the genus of fine trees which gives the name. 1. TILIA, LINDEN, LIME-TREE, BASSWOOD. (The old Latin name.) Sepals 5, valvate in the bud, as in the Mallow Family, but decidu- ous. Petals 5, imbricated in the bud, spatulate-oblong. Stamens numerous ; their filaments cohering in 5 clusters, sometimes with a petal-like body in each cluster; anthers 2-celled. Pistil with a 5-celled ovary, having 2 ovules in each cell, in fruit becoming a rather woodv globular 1 - 2-seeded little nut. Style 1 : stigma 5-toothed. Embryo with a slender radicle and leaf-like lobed cotyledons folded up in the albumen. Trees with mucilaginous shoots, fibrous inner bark (bast], soft white wood, alternate roundish and serrate leaves more or less heart-shaped and commonly oblique at the base, deciduous stipules, and a cyme of small, dull cream-colored, honey-bearing flowers, borne in early summer on a nodding axillary peduncle which is united to a long and narrow leaf-like bract. # A petal-like scale before each petal, to the base of which the stamens are joined. T. Americana, AMERICAN LINDEN or COMMON BASSWOOD. A hand- some and large forest-tree, with leaves of rather firm texture and smooth or smoothish both sides, or in one variety thinner and more downy but not white beneath. T. heterophylla, WHITE LINDEN. Along the Alleghany region from Penn. and Kentucky S. ; has larger leaves silvery white with a fine down under- neath. * * No scales with the stamens. Natives of Europe. T. Europaea, EUROPEAN L., embraces both the SMALL-LEAVED variety, which is commonly planted about cities, and the LARGE-LEAVED or DUTCH L., with leaves as large and firm as those of our wild Basswood. 25. CAMELLIACE^E, CAMELLIA or TEA FAMILY. Trees or shrubs, with alternate and simple feather-veined leaves, and no stipules ; the flowers large and showy, mostly axillary, reg- uiar, with both sepals and petals imbricated in the bud ; the very numerous stamens with filaments more or less united at the base with each other and with the base of the corolla : anthers 2-celled : ovary and thick or woody pod 5-celled, with one or more seeds in 7o CAMELLIA OR TEA FAMILY. each cell. The petals themselves are commonly more or leas united at their base ; they are 5 or sometimes 6 or even more in number in natural flowers, and in cultivated plants apt to be in- creased by doubling. * Exotics, from China, Japan, tjV. : some, of (he inner slnmens entirely separate : commonly there is a yradution from bracts to sepals and petals. 1. CAMELLIA. Numerous separate inner stamens within the ring or cup formed by the united bases of the very numerous outer stamens. Style 3 - 5-cleft. Seeds large, usually single in each cell ot' the thick and woody pod. Leaves evergreen, serrate. 2. THE A. Separate interior stamens only as many as the petals (5 or G): other- wise nearly like Camellia: flowers less showy; bracts under the calyx incon- spicuous. * * Natives of Southeastern States: stamens all united at the base. 3. GOKDONIA. Stamens in 5 clusters, one attached to the base of each petal. Style columnar: stigma 5-rayed. Seeds several, more or less winged. Leaves coriaceous or thickish. 4. STUART1A. Stamens uniformly united by a short ring at the base of the fila- ments. Seeds 2 in each cell, wingless. Leaves thin and deciduous. 1. CAMELLIA. (Named for G. Camellus or Kamel, a missionary to China in the 17th century.) C. Jap6nica, JAPAN CAMELLIA, with oval or oblong pointed and shining leaves, and terminal or nearly terminal flowers, simple or double, red, white, or variegated, of very many varieties, is the well-known and only common species ; fl. through the winter, hardy only S. 2. THEA, TEA-PLANT. (The Chinese name.) Genus too slightly dif- ferent from Camellia. Shrubs, natives of China and Japan, sparingly cult. for ornament. T. viridis, GUKKX or COMMON T. Leaves oblong or broadly lanceolate, much longer than wide ; the white flowers (I' or more broad) nodding on short stalks in their axils. T. Bohea, BOHEA T. Leaves smaller and broader in proportion ; proba- bly a mere variety of the other. 3. GORDONIA. (Named for Dr. Gordon and another Scotchman of the same n.une.) G. Lasianthus, LOBLOLLY BAY. A handsome shrub or small tree, in swamps near the coast from Virginia S., with evergreen and smooth lance- oblong leaves tapering to the ba.sc and minutely serrate, and showy white (low- ers 2' -3' across, in spring and summer, on a slender peduncle;" the stamens short, on a 5-lobcd cup. G. pUb^SCens, also called FUANKM'NIA, after Dr. Franklin. Grows only in Georgia and Florida ; a tall, ornamental shrub or small tree, with thinner and deciduous leaves whitish downy beneath, as are the sepals and (white) :md longer style and filaments, the latter in f> distinct parcels one on the base of each petal. 4. STTJARTIA. (Named for Jnhn Xtnort, the L»r<1 Hut,- at the time of the American Revolution.) Ornamental shrubs, with thin leaves and handsome white flowers '2' or .'>' across, in late spring or early summer, wild in shady- woods of Southern State.-. S. Virginica, grows in the low country from Virginia S. ; shrub 8° - 12° high, with finely serrate leaves soft-downy underneath, pure white petals, purple stamens, one style, and a roundish pod. S. pentagyna, belongs to the mountains S. of Virginia, and in cult, is hardy N. ; has smoother leaves and rather larger very handsome flowers, their petals jagged-edged and tinged with cream-color, the sepals often reddish out- side, 5 \ let, and a "wangled pointed pod. GERANIUM FAMILY. 77 26. LINAGES, FLAX FAMILY. A small family, represented here only by the main genus, 1. LINUM, FLAX. (The classical Greek and Latin name.) Flowers (see Lessons, p. 89, fig. 174, 175, and p. 93, fig. 191) usually opening- for only- one day, and in sunshine, regular and symmetrical ; the persistent sepals, deciduous petals, slightly monadelphous stamens, and mostly the styles 5, hut the latter are sometimes fewer, occasionally partly united : ovary and pod with as many 2-secdcd cells as there are styles, or mostly twice as 'many and one-seeded, each cell being divided more or less by a false partition. Seeds with a mucilaginous coat and a large straight oily embryo. Leaves simple, nearly sessile, and entire. Fl. all summer. * Wild species, annuals or scarcely perennials, with small yellow flowers. L. Virginianum, the commonest WILD FLAX, in dry woods, 2° high, with spreading or recurving terete branches at the summit" of the stem ; the leaves oblong or lanceolate, only the lower spatulate and opposite ; flowers scattered ; styles separate ; pod little larger than a pin's head. L. striatum, also common, mostly in boggy grounds, like the first; but has the branches shorter, scattered along the stem, and sharply 4-angled with intermediate grooves (whence the name) ; most of the stem-leaves opposite and oblong ; flowers more crowded. L. SUlcatum, much less common, in dry soil, also has grooved (upright) branches, but the leaves are linear and scattered ; flowers and pods twice as large ; sepals sharp-pointed, 3-nerved and with rough glandular margins ; styles united half-way up. * * Cultivated, hardy, herbaceous, with 5 styles and largish handsome flowers. Pt*JC- L. USitatissimum, COMMON FLAX. Cult, from Old World, and inclined ^»"**4r<* . ,c.ofrto run wild in fields ; with narrow lanceolate leaves, corymbose rich blue flow- J^*^T //-ers, and pointed sepals. 0 L. perenne, Pi KI.NMAL FLAX. Cult, from Eu. in some varieties, for ornament, wild beyond the Mississippi ; less tall than the foregoing, narrower- leaved ; sepals blunt ; petals sky-blue, sometimes pale, at least towards the base. Jl L. grandiflbriim, LAKGE-FL. RED FLAX. Cult as an annual, from North Africa ; 1° high, with linear or lanceolate leaves, and showy crimson-red flowers. 0 ^ # * * Cultivated in conservatories, shrubby, with 3 styles and large, flowers. L. trigynum, of India, has rather large elliptical leaves, and a. succession of large and showy bright-yellow flowers. 27. GERANIACEJE, GERANIUM FAMILY. As now received a large and multifarious order, not to be char- acterized as a whole in any short and ca^y way, including as it does Geraniums, Nasturtiums, Wood-Sorrels, Balsams, &c., which have to be separately described. §1. Flowers regular and symmetrical: sepals persistent. Herbs. 1. OXALIS. Sepals and petals 5, the former imbricated, the latter convolute in the bud. Stamens 10, monadelphous at base, the alternate ones shorter. Styles 5, separate on a 5-celled ovary, which becomes a membranaceous several-seeded pod. Juice sour and 'watery. Leaves commonly of three obcordate or two-lobed leaflets, which droop at nightfall. Flowers usually open only in sunshine. 2. LIMNAN THKS. Sepals and petals 5, the former valvate, the latter convolute in the bud. Glands on the receptacle 5. Stamens 10, separate at the base. Style 1, five-lobed at the apex, rising from the centre of a deeply five-lobed ovary, which in fruit becomes 5 separate thickish and wrinkled akenes. Leaves pinnate ; the leaflets cut or cleft. 7S r.KKAXHIM FAMILY. 3. FL'KRKKA. Sepal*, small petals, stigmas, and lobes of the ovary 3 ; and stamens 6 : otherwise like Limnanthes. 4. GK KAN I I'M. Sepals ami petals 5, the Conner imbricated, the latter commonly convolute in the bud. Glands on the receptacle 5, alternate with the petals. Stamens 10, monadclphous at the base, the alternate filaments shorter, but u-uallv bearing an -hers. Style 5-cleft. Ovary 5-celled, 5-lobed, the lobes separating when ripe into 5 two-ovuled but one-seeded carpels or little pods, which remain hanging by their long naked recurving styles as these split off, from below upwa d<, from a long central beak or axis. (Lessons, p. 125, fig. 277, 278.) Leave* with stipules Herbage scented. 6 ERODIUM. Stamens witli anthers only 5. Styles when they split off from the beak bearded inside, often twisting spirally : otherwise as Geranium. * 2. Flowers somewhat irreyulir, Geranium-tike. Shrubhy or fleshy-stemmed. i PELARGONIUM. Sepals and petals 5 ; the base of one sepal extends down- ward on one side the pedicel forming a narrow tube or adherent spur, and the two petals on that side of the flower differ from the rest more or less in size or shape. Stamens witli anthers fewer than 10, commonly 7. Pistil, &c. as in Geranium. Herbage scented. Leaves with stipules. $ 3. Flowtrs very irregular, sjturrtd, also unsymtnttrical. Tender herbs. 7- TROl'jEOLUM. Sepals 5, united at the base, and in the upper side of the flower extended into a long descending spur. Petals 5, or sometimes fewer, usually with claws : the two upper more or less different from the others JJnd inserted at the mouth of the spur. Stamens 8, unequil or dissimilar ; filaments usually turned downwards and curving. Ovary of 3 lobes sur- rounding the base of a single stvle, in fruit becoming 3 thick and fleshy closed separate carpels, each containing a single large seed. Herbs, climbing by their long leafsta'ks ; the watery juice with the pungent odor and taste of Cress. Leaves alternate : stipules none or minute. Peduncles axillary, one-flowered. 8. IMPAT1ENS. Sepals and petals similarly colored, the parts belonging to each not readily distinguished. There are 3 sm.ill outer pieces plainly sepals, on one side of the flower : then, on the other side, a large hanging sac contracted at the bottom into a spur or little tail; within are two small unequally 2-lobed petals, one each side of the sac. Stamens 5, short, conniving or lightly cohering around and covering the 5-celled ovary, which in fruit becomes a several-seeded pod : this bursts elastically, flying in pieces at the touch, scattering the seeds, separating into 5 twisting valves and a thickish axi>. Style none. Seeds rather large. Krect, branching, succulent-stemmed herbs, with simple leaves and no stipules. 1. OXALIS, WOOD-SORREL. (Nanu> from Greek words meaiiin- -S-OMJ-- salt, from the oxnlntcs or " sal t-oi -sorrel " contained in the juice.) # Native species, flower inv slender pods. (T) ^ [Jjt^l/f O. AcetOS&la," TKCK W. Common in' mossy woods N. ; the leafstalks ^ c and L -flowered scapes 2' -4' high from a creeping scaly-toothed rootstoek ; flower rather large, white with delicate reddish veins. ^J O. Violacea, VHH.KT W. Common S., rarer N., in rocky or sandy soil ; leafstalks and slender scape from a scaly bulb, the flowers several in an umbel, middle-sized, violet. 2/ * # Cultivated in conservatories, from ('n/>f <>t <><1 Hope. O. B6wiei, a stemless species, with a small bulb on a spindle-shaped root; leafstalks ;md few-llowered >capes <>'-lo' hi^li ; broad ohcordatc leaflets almost 2' Ion;; ; petals deep rose-color, 1' long. O. speci6sa i- more hairy ; leaflets obovate and scarcely notched, com- monly crimson underneath, only I'lon-': scapes short, 1 -flowered; petals 1^' Ion-, pink-red \\ith a yellowish base. O. flava, from a strong bulb sends up to the surface a short scaly in>u : Jl»/rers small : stems or branches herbaceous or half herbaceous, vpr&iding or straggling. P. capitatum, HOSE-SCENTED P. Soft'.y hairy, with the rose-scented leaves moderately lobed, the lobes short and broad ; peduncle bearing- many sessile flowers in a head ; petals rose-purple, barely £' long. P. toment6sum, PEPPERMINT P. Densely soft-hairy ; branches long and thickish ; leaves rather large, round-heart-shaped and with 5- 7 open lobes, velvety-hairy both sides ; flowers on long pedicels in paniclcd umbels, insignifi- cant ; petals white, the 3 lower a little longer than the calyx. P. odoratissimum, NUTMEG-SCENTED P. Branches slender and strag- gling, from a very short scaly stem or base ; leaves rounded and crcnatc, soft- velvety, small ; flowers on short pedicels, very small ; petals white, scarcely exceeding the calyx. * * Leaves not sireet-scoit-d : Jlmrers Innjc, pinlc, purple, irhite, $~c., the tiro upper petals longer mid broader (Imn the three lower and streaked or spotted: shrnbbij and erect. (A/I much mi.r«l.) P. CUCUllatum, COWLED P. Soft-hairy, the rounded kidney-shaped leaves cupped, soft-downy. P. COrdatum, HEART-LEAVED P. Like the last or less hairy, with flat ovate-heart-shaped leaves. P. angulbsum, MAPLE-LEAVED P. Harsher-hairy; the leaves rigid, in- clined to be lobed, truncate or even wedge-shaped at the base (scarcely ever heart-shaped), sharply toothed. § 4. Leaves decided/. t/ lobed or cut, in some species compound or decompound, # Smooth and pale or glaucous, rounded, palmatelij 5 - 1 -cleft. P. grandiflbrum, GREAT-KLOWERED P. Shrubby; peduncles bearing about 3 large flowers, with white petals 1^' long, the two upper larger ami ele- gantly veined or varii-gated with pink or rose-color. # * Silky-hoary, pinnate/y veined and somewhat pinnattfuL P. tricolor, THREE-COLORED P. Low, rather shrubby ; the long-pctioled small leaves lance-oblong ; pedunc'es bearing 2 or .'5 showy flowers ; the three lower petals white, the two upper crimson, with a dark spot at their base, and rather smaller, £' long : not common. # # # SoJ^hoary or velvety , palmatefy 3'pctrted, snutU : ito obvious stipules. P. exstipulatum, PEVNV-KOYAL P. Low, rather shrubby ; leaves with the sweet BCCnl of 1 Vuuy-lloyal or I.ergamot, .',' wide, the lobes wedge->haped and cnt-tOOthed ; (lowers small and insignilieant, white. * # * # I/ain/, ront/liish, or doiniu : /nins »<«,•< <>r A.ss pinitntifid or pi/niafc/i/ compound or ///<• nmin lobes <>r divisions pinnate/id, balsamic «r stnmij- •'< iilis pr< si-tit. P. QUercifolium, OAK-LEAVED P. Shrubby, hairy and glandular ; leaves deeply jiiniiaie-pinnatifid, with wavy-toothed blunt lobes (the lowest RUE FAMILY. 81 ones largest, making a triangular-heart-shaped outline), often dark-colored along the middle, unpleasantly scented ; petals purple or pink, the two upper (!' long) much longest. P. graveolens, HEAVY-SCENTED P. Shrubby and hairy like the last ; leaves palmately 5 - 7-lobed or parted and the oblong lobes siiiuatc-pinnatifid ; petals shorter. P. Radula, ROUGH P. Shrubby, rough and hairy above with short bris- tles ; the balsamic or mint-scented leaves palmately parted and the divisions pinnately parted or again cut into narrow linear lobes, with rcvolute margins ; peduncles short, bearing few small flowers ; petals rose-color striped or veined with pink or purple. P. flilgidum, BRILLIANT P. Shrubby and succulent-stemmed, downy ; leaves mostly 3-parted, with the lateral divisions wedge-shaped and 3-lobed, the middle one oblong and cut-pinnatirid ; calyx broad in the throat ; petals obovate, scarlet, often with dark lines, |' long. P. triste, SAD or NIGHT-SCENTED P. Stem succulent and very short from a tuberous rootstock, or none ; leaves pinnately decompound, hairy ; pet- als dull brownish-yellow with darker spots, sweet-scented at night. 7. TROPJEOLUM, NASTURTIUM or INDIAN CRESS. (Name from a Greek word for a trophy, the foliage of the common sort likened to a group of shields.) Cult, from South America, chiefly Peru, for ornament, and the pickled fruits used as a substitute for capers, having a similar flavor and pungency : fl. all summer, showy. T. irtajus, COMMON N. Climbing high, also low and scarcely climbing ; **^^ leaves roundish and about 6-angled, peltate towards the middle ; petals much longer than calyx, varying from orange to scarlet and crimson, pointless, entire or a little jagged at the end, and the 3 lower and longer-clawed ones fringed at the base : also a full double variety. (f) T. minus, SMALLER N. Smaller; petals paler yellow and with a pointed tip. Now less common than the preceding, but mixed with it. (T) T. tub6r6suni, TUBEROUS N. Less common ; leaves with 5 rather deep lobes ; petals entire, orange, scarcely longer than the heavy-spurred orange- red calyx ; tubers edible. 2/ T. peregrinum, CANARY-HIRD FLOWER. Climbing high ; leaves deeply 5 - 7-lobed and cut ; spur hooked or curved ; petals light yellow, the 2 upper lobed, the 3 lower small and fringed. © 8. IMPATIENS, TOUCH-ME-NOT, JEWEL -WEED, BALSAM. (Name from the sudden bursting of the pod when touched.) Ours are all tender and succulent-stemmed annuals : fl. all summer. I. pallida, PALE T. Wet ground and moist shady places, commonest N l°-4° high, branched; leaves alternate, oval; flowers panicled, pale yellow JU/; /«i dotted with brownish-red (rarely spotless), the sac broader than long and tipped with a short incurved spur. I. fulya, SPOTTED T. Commoner S. ; has smaller orange-cdored fl< spotted with reddjsh-brown , sac longer than broad and tapering into an inflexed^ spur (spots and spur rarely wanting). I. Balsamina, GARDEN BALSAM, from India. Low, with crowded lan- ceolate leaves, the lower opposite, a cluster of large and showy short-spurred flowers in their axils, on short stalks, of very various shades (from white to red and purple) ; the liner sorts full double. 28. RUTACE.&J, RUE FAMILY. Known by the transparent dots or glands (resembling punctures) in the simple or compound leaves, containing a pungent or acrid bitter-aromatic volatile oil ; and stamens only as many or twice as many (or in Orange and Lemon more numerous), inserted on the base of a receptacle (or a glandular disk surrounding it) which 82 RUE FAMILY. sometimes elevates more or less the single compound pistil or the 2-5 more or less separate carpels. Leaves either opposite or alter- nate, in ours mostly alternate, without stipules. Flowers only in No. 2 irregular. Many species are medicinal. § 1. Perennial, strony-scenled, hardy (exotic) herbs : flowers perfect : stamens 8 or 10: ovary 4-5-lobea, 4-5-celled: seeds several. 1. RUT A. Sepals and petals 4 or 5, short, the latter roundish and arching. Sta- mens twice as many as the petals. Style 1. Pod globular and many-seeded. Leaves decompound. 2. DICTAMNUS. Sepals and petals 5; the latter long and lanceolate, on short claws, the lower one declining, the others ascending. Stamens 10; the long filaments declining and curved, partly glandular. Styles 5, nearly separate. Ovary a little elevated, deeply 5-lobed, in fruit becoming 5 flattened rough- glandular 2 - 3-seeded pods, each splitting when ripe into 2 valves, which divide into an outer and an inner layer. Leaves pinnate. $ 2. Shrubs or trees, hardy, with /polygamous, dioecious, or sometimes perfect, small (yretttislt or rohitish) jlowers: stamens 4 or 5, as many as the petals : seeds single or in pairs. * Indigenous : leaves jrinnate or of 3 leaflets, deciduous. 3. ZANTHOXYLUM. Flowers dioecious. Pistils 2 -5; their styles slightly co- hering ; the ovaries separate, ripening into rather fleshy at length dry and 2-valved little pods. Seed black, smooth and shining. Prickly trees or shrubs: leaves pinnate. 4. PTKLKA. Flowers polygamous. Pistil a 2-ceIied ovary tipped with a short style, forming a 2-celled 2-seede 1 and rounded wing-fruit or samara, iu shape like that of the Kim. Not prickly: leaflets 3. * * Exotic : leaves simple and entire, everyreen. 5. SKIMMIA. Flowers polygamous or perfect. Ovary 2 -5-celled, with a single ovule from the top of each cell, in fruit becoming a red berry or drupe. $ 3. Shrubs or trees, exotic, not hardy, with sweet-scented foliage and perfect flowers, haviny numerous (20 - 60) stamens. 6. CITRUS Petals 4-8, usually 6. thickish. Filaments irregularly united more or less. Ovary many-celled, encircled at the base by a conspicuous disk (see Lessons, p. 1^5, fig. 281), in fruit becoming a thick-rinded many -seeded large berry, branches usually spiny. Leaves evergreen, apparently simple, but with a joint between the blade and the (commonly winged or margined) petiole, showing that the leaf is a compound one reduced to the end-leaflet. 1. RUTA, RUE. (The ancient name.) Natives of the Old World. # B. grav&olens, COMMON RUE. Cult, in country gardens ; a bushy herb, woody or almost shrubby at the base, with bluish-green and strongly dotted oblong or obovate small leaflets, the terminal one broader and notched at the end, and corymbs of greenish-yellow flowers, produced all summer ; the earliest blossom has the parts in lives, the rest in fours. Plant very acrid, sometimes even blistering the skin. J 2. DICTAMNUS, FRAXINELLA. (Ancient Greek name.) Native of Southern Kurope. ^ D. Praxin^lla. Cult, for ornament ; herb with an almost woody base, viadd-glandaiar, and with a strong aromatic .scent; the leaves likened to those of Ash on a smaller scale (whence the common name) of 9-13 ovate and ser- rate leaflets ; the large flowers in a terminal raceme, in summer, in one variety pale purple with redder veins, another white. 3. ZANTHOXYLUM, PRICKLY ASIL (Name composed of two ( i reek words, meaning jfeUotP »'/':}-:}] leaflets. * Poisonous to tlic tonr/i for most /H/I\ tin- jnin rrsi,/o:is : fl»ir< r.s in s/ciulrr ii.ril- /tirij i>ffi, in sniiiiiii •/• : fruit MUXt/l, ir/iit<- or dun-Color. R. Toxicod6ndron, POISON IVY or POISON OAK. Common in low grounds, climbing by rootlets over rocks, &c., or ascending trees ; leaflets :{, rhombic-ovate, often sinuate or cut-Iob-d, rather downy beneath. A \ ile pest. R. Venenata, POISON Si M v< n, P. KI.MKH. or P. Dociwooi). In swampy ground; shrub <>0-1,S° hi.urh, smooth, with pinnate leaves of 7 - \:\ obovate entire leaflets, and very slender panicles. More virulent than the foregoing. # # Nut jHiisoiuins : fruit r«l tiinf Ixsil ir/tli rxfdisfi Imirs, tvry arid. +- Leaves pinnate : //<»//•»/•>• irliiti^li, in //f and very compact terminal in null/ siniuiHr, xiicr«(//' crimson fruit. II. typhina, Si AHIIOKN Sr>i \( ii. Shrub or tree, on hillsides, «£c., 10°- 30° hij:h, with resinous-milky j uice, brownish-yellow wood, velvety-hairy V1NK FAMILY. 85 branches and stalks, and large leaves of 11 -31 lance-oblong pointed and serrate leaflets. Worthy to be planted for ornament. R. glabra, SMOOTH S. Shrub 2° -12° high, in rocky places, like the last, but smooth, the leaflets whitened beneath. — Var. LACINIATA, in Penn., has the leaflets cut into narrow irregular lobes : planted for ornament. R. copallina, DWARF S. Shrub l°-5° high, in rocky or sandy ground, spreading by subterranean shoots ; with downy stalks or branches, petioles winged or broadly margined between the 9-21 oblong or lance-ovate oblique leaflets, \vhich are thickish and shining above ; juice resinous. •*- -i- Leaves of 3 cut-lobed leaflets: floivers light yellow, in spring before the leaves appear, dioecious, in small scaly -bracied and catkin-like spikes. R. aromatica, FRAGRANT S. A straggling bush in rocky places, from Vermont W. & S., with the small rhombic-ovate leaflets pubescent when young, aromatic-scented. 32. VITACE^E, VINE FAMILY. Woody plants, climbing by tendrils, with watery and often acid juice, alternate leaves, deciduous stipules, and small greenish flow- ers in a cyme or thyivus ; with a minutely 4 - 5-toothecl or almost obsolete calyx ; petals valvate in the bud and very deciduous ; the stamens as many as the petals and opposite them ; a 2-celled ovary with a pair of ovules rising from the base of each cell, becoming a berry containing 1-4 bony seeds. Tendrils and flower-clusters opposite the leaves. 1. V1TIS. Calyx very short, a fleshy disk connecting it with the base of the ovary and bearing the petals and stamens. 2. AMPELOPSIS Calyx minutely 6-toothed : no disk. Petals expanding before they fall. Leaflets 6. 1. VITIS, GRAPE-VINE. ( The classical Latin name. ) Fl. in late spring. § 1. TRUE GRAPES. Petals and stamens 5, the former lightly cohering at the top and thrown off without expanding : the base of the vert/ short and trun- cate calyx ^filled with the disk, irhich rises into 5 thick lobes or glands between the stamens : leaves simple, rounded and heart-shaped, usually 3 - 5-lobed. * Flowers all perfect, somewhat fragrant : exotic. V. vinifera, EUROPEAN GRAPH. Cult, from immemorial time, from the East, furnishing the principal grapes of our greenhouses, &c. ; some varieties nearly hardy N. : leaves green, cottony only when very young. * * F/oinrx more or less polygamous (some plants inclined to produce only stami- nate Jlowers) , exhaling a fragrance like that of Mignonette: native species. •*- Bark of stem early separating in loose, strips : panicles compound and loose. V. Labriisca, NORTHERN FOX-GRAPE, the original of the CATAWBA, ISABELLA, and furnishing most of the American table and wine grapes ; com- mon in moist grounds N. & W. : leaves and young shoots very cottony, even the adult leaves retaining the cottony wool underneath, the lobes separated by roundish sinuses ; fruit large, with a tough musky pulp when wild, dark purple or amber-color, in compact clusters. v . sestivalis, SUMMER GRAPE. Common N. & S. ; leaves green above, and with loose cobwebby down underneath, the lobes with roundish open sinuses ; clusters slender ; fruit smaller and earlier than in the foregoing, black with a bloom, pleasant Original of the CLINTON GRAPE, &c. V. cordifdlia, WINTER or FROST GRAPE. Common on banks of streams : leaves never cottony, green both sides, thin, heart-shaped, little lobed, but coarse- ly and sharply toothed ; clusters loose ; fruit small, bluish or black with a bloom, very sour, ripe after frosts. Var. RIP\RIA, the common form along river-banks W. has broader and more cut or lobed leaves. ft() BUCKTHORN FAMILY. •«- -t- Bark of stem close and smooth, pale. V. vulpina, MUSCADINE, BULLACE, or FOX-GRAPE of the South. River- hanks from Maryland and Kentucky S. : leaves rather small, round in outline, seldom and slightly lohed, glossy and mostly smooth hoth sides, the margin cut into coarse and broad teeth ; clusters small; fruit large, £'-$' in diameter, purple, thick-skinned, musky, or pleasant-flavored, ripe in early autumn : the original of the Sci:pi'i;i;.NONed : Jiotuers mostly perfect : berries not larger than peas, not eatable. # Wild species S. fy W., smooth, usually with 5 stamens and petals. V. indivisa, a species with simple leaves like those of a true Grape, heart- shaped or ovate, pointed, coarsely-toothed, hut not lohed ; flower-clusters small and loose ; style .slender. V. bipinnata, a hushy or low-climbing plant, with few tendrils, and de- compound leaves, the small leaflets cut-toothed. * * Exotic species, with mostly 4 stamens and petals. V. heteroph^lla, from Japan, a form with the leaves blotched or varie- gated with white (small, thin, variously 3-5-lobed), and small blue berries, is hardy in gardens ; cult, for the variegated foliage. V. discolor, from Java, cult, in hothouses, for its splendid foliage ; leaves lance-oblong with a heart-shaped base, crimson underneath, velvety-lustrous and dark-green shaded with purple or violet, or often mottled with white, on the upper surface, the shoots reddish. 2. AMPELOPSIS, VIRGINIA-CREEPER, (Name from Greek words, meaning like, the Vine : indeed, it is hardly distinct enough from the second section of Vitis.) A. quinquefdlia, the only genuine species : in all low grounds, climbing extensively, sometimes by rootlets as well as by the tendrils, the latter specially fitted for ascending walls and trunks, to which they attach themselves firmly by sucker-like disks at the tip of their branches (Lessons, p. 38, figs. G2, 63) ; leaf- lets 5, digitate, lance-oblong, cut-toothed, changing to crimson in autumn ; flowers cymose, in summer ; berries small, black or bluish. 33. RHAMNACE.S3, BUCKTHORN FAMILY. Shrubs or trees, of bitterish and astringent properties, with simple chiefly alternate leaves and small flowers; well marked by the .-tn- mens of the number of the valvate sepals (4 or ;>) and alternate with them, i. e. opposite the petals, inserted on a disk which lines the calyx-tube and often unites it with the bnse of the ovary, this having a single erect ovule in each of the (2 - 5) cells. Branches often thorny : stipules minute or none : flowers often apetalous or polygamous. Petals commonly hooded or involute around the sta- inen before it. (Lessons, p. 120, fig. 282, 283.) * Calyx free from the ovary. 1. BKRCHEMIA. Twining climbers, with straight-veined leaves. Petals 5, with- out claws, rather longer than the. stamen*. Disk thick, ne:irly filling the bot- tom of the calyx. Ovary 2-celled, becoming a 2-celled smallstone-fruit, with purple and thin pulp. BHAMNUS. Erect shrubs or trees, with loosely-veined leaves. Petals 4 or 5. with short claws. Stamens short. Ovary 2- 4-celleu, h/coming ;i black berry-like fruit, containing 2-4 cartilaginous seed-like nutlets, which are grooved un the hack, as is the contained seed. Cotyledons foliaceous. l'K.\N< I I'l.A. Like Ik'hainnus, but with straight-veined leaves; the nutlet* not grooved but convex on the back: cotyledons thick. STAFF-TREE FAMILY. 87 * * Calyx with the disk coherent with the base of the ovary and fruit. 4. CEANOTHUS. Erect or depressed shrubs or iindershrubs. Petals 5, hood- shaped, spreading, their claws and the filaments slender. Ovary 3-celled, when ripe becoming a cartilaginous or crustaceous o-seeded pod. 1. BEBCHEMI A, SUPPLE-JACK. (Probably named for some botanist of the name of Berchem.) B. VOlubilis. Common in low grounds S., climbing high trees, smooth, with very tough and lithe steins (whence the popular name), small, oblong- ovate and simply parallel-veined leaves, and greenish-white flowers in small panicles terminating the branchlets, in early summer. 2. BHAMNTJS, BUCKT.HORN. (The ancient name ) Flowers green- ish, axillary, mostly in small clusters, commonly polygamous or dioecious, in early summer. Berry-like fruit mawkish. * Flowers with petals, the parts in fours: leaves minutely serrate. B,. catharticus, COMMON BUCKTHORN. Cult, from Eu., for hedges, run wild in a few places ; forms a small tree, with thorny branchlets, ovate or oblong leaves, and 3 - 4-seeded fruit. B. lanceolatUS, NARROW-LEAVED B. Wild from Penn. S. & W. ; shrub not thorny, with lanceolate or oblong leaves, and 2-seeded fruit. # * Flowers without petals: stamens and lobes of the calyx 5. B. alnifblius, ALDER-LEAVED B. Wild in cold swamps N. ; a low shrub, with oval acute serrate leaves, and 3-seeded berry-like fruit. 3. FBANGULA, ALDER-BUCKTHORN. (From franco, to break, the stems brittle.^ Elowers greenish, generally perfect, and the parts in fives. F. Caroliniana. Wild in wet grounds, from New Jersey and Kentucky S. ; a thornless shrub or low tree, with oblong and almost entire rather large leaves; flowers solitary or in small clusters in the axils, in early summer; the 3-S'jeded fruit black. 4. CEANOTHUS. (An ancient name, of unknown meaning, applied to these N. American plants.) Flowers in little umbels or fascicles, usually clustered in dense bunches or panicles, handsome, the calyx and even the pedicels colored like the petals and stamens. ( hirs are low undershrubby plants, with white flowers. In and beyond the Rocky Mountains, especially in California, are many species, some of them tall shrubs or small trees, loaded with showv blossoms. C. Americanus, NEW-JERSEY TEA or RED-ROOT. Wild in dry grounds, 1° — 2° high from a dark red root ; leaves ovate or oblong ovate, finely serrate, downy beneath, 3-ribbed and veiny, deciduous (used as a substitute for tea in early times, the use lately revived) ; flowers crowded in a dense slender-pedun- cled cluster, in summer. C. OValis. Wild on rocks N from Vermont to Wisconsin : lower than the preceding and smoother, with smaller narrow-oval or lance-oblong leaves, and larger flowers on a shorter peduncle, in spring. C. microphyllus, SMALL-LEAVED C. ])ry barrens S. : low and spread- ing, much branched ; leaves evergreen, very small, obovate, 3-ribbed ; flower- clusters small and simple, in spring. 34. CELASTRACE^EJ, STAFF-TREE FAMILY. Shrubs, sometimes twining, with simple leaves, minute and decid- uous stipules or none, and small flowers with sepals and petals both imbricated in the bud, and stamens of the number of the latter, alternate with them, and inserted on a disk which fills the bottom of the calyx and often covers the 2-o-celled few-ovuled ovary ; the seeds usually furnished with or enclosed in a fleshy or pulpy aril. 88 SOAPBERRY FAMILY. Represented both as to native and cultivated plants by two genera : 1. CELASTRUS. Flowers polygamous or dioecious. Petals and stamens 5, on the edge of a concave disk which lines the bottom of the calyx. Filaments and style rather slender. Pod globular, berry-like, but dry. Leaves alternate. 2. EUONYMUS. Flowers perfect, flat; the calyx-lobes and petals (4 or 5) widely spreading. Stamens mostly with short filaments or almost sessile anthers, borne on the surface of a flat disk which more or less conceals or covers the ovary. Pod 3-5-lobed, generally bright-colored. Leaves opposite: branchlets 4-sided. 1. CELASTRUS, STAFF-TREE. (Old Greek name, of obscure mean- ing and application.) C. scandens, CLIMBING BITTER-SWEET or WAX-WORK. A twining high-climbing shrub, smooth, with thin ovate-oblong and j>ointed finely serrate leaves, racemes of greenish-white flowers (in early summer) terminating the branches, the petals serrate or eremite-toothed, and orange-colored berry-like pods in autumn, which open and display the seeds enclosed in their scarlet pulpy aril : wild in low grounds, and planted for the showy fruit. 2. EUONYMUS, SPINDLE-TREE. (Old Greek name, means of good repute.) Shrubs not twining, with dull-colored inconspicuous flowers, in small cymes on axillary peduncles, produced in early summer; the pods in autumn ornamental, especially when they open and display the seeds enveloped in their scarlet pulpy aril. * Leaves deciduous, finely serrate. : style short or nearly none. •*- North American species : anthers sessile or nearly so. E. atropurpiireus, BURNING-HUSH or SPIXDLE-TUEE. Tall shrub, wild from New York W. & S., and commonly planted ; with oval or oblong petiolcd leaves, flowers with rounded dark dull-purple petals (generally 4), and smooth deeply 4-lobcd red fruit, hanging on slender peduncles. E. Americanus, AMERICAN STRAWBERRY-BUSH. Low shrub, wild from New York VV. & S., and sometimes cult. ; with thickish ovate or lance- ovate almost sessile leaves, usually 5 greenish-purple rounded petals, and rough- warty somewhat: 3-lobed fruit, crimson when ripe. Var. OBOvAxus, with thinner and dull obovate or oblong leaves, has long and spreading or trailing and rooting branches. -•- •*- Exotic : antliers raised on evident filament*. E. Europaeus, EUROPEAN SPINDLE-TREE. Occasionally planted, but inferior to the foregoing ; a rather low shrub, with lancc-ovato or oblong short- pjtiolcd leaves, about .'Mlowered peduncles, 4 greenish oblong petals, and a smooth 4-lobcd red fruit, the aril orange-color. * * Leaves everyreen, serrulate : filaments and style rather slender. E. Japonicus, JAPAN S. Planted S. under the name of CHINESE Box, there hardy, but is a givenhous;-, plant N. ; has obovate shining and bright green leaves (also a form with white or yellowish variegation), several -flowered peduncles, 4 obovate whitish petals, and smooth globular pods. 35. SAPINDACE^I, SOAPBERRY FAMILY. Tree.-, shrulis, or one or two herbaceous climbers, mostly with compound or lolx-d leaves, and un-ymmetrical flowers, the stamens sometime* twice, a> many as die petals or lobes of the calyx, but commonly rather fewer. wh.Mi of equal number alternate, with the petals ; these irnhrirated in the bud, inserted on a disk in the bottom of the calyx and often coherent with it: ovary 2 - 3-celled, sometimes 2 - 3-lobed, with 1 - .'5 (or in Stapliylea several) ovules in eacli cell 1 he. common plants belong to the three following >uborders. SOAPBERRY FAMILY. 89 I. BLADDER-NUT FAMILY ; has perfect and regular flowers, stamens as many as the petals, several bony seeds with a straight embryo in scanty albumen, arid opposite compound leaves both stipulate and stipellate. 1. STAPHYLEA. Erect sepals, petals, and stamens 5; the latter borne on the margin of a fleshy disk which lines the bottom ot' the calyx. Styles 3, slen- der, separate or lightly cohering: ovary strongly 3-lobed, in fruit becoming a bladdery 3-lobed 3-celled and several-seeded large pod. Shrubs, with pin- uately compound leaves of 3 or 5 leaflets. II. SOAPBERRY FAMILY PROPER; has flowers often, polygamous or dioecious, and more or less irregular or unsymmetri- cal. only 1 or 2 ovules, ripening but a single seed in each cell of the ovary, the embryo coiled or curved, without albumen. No stipules. * Leaves alternate. Pod bladdery-inflated, except in No. 4. 2. CARDIOSPERMUM. Herbs, with twice ternate and cut-toothed leaves, climb- ing by hook-like tendrils in the flower-clusters. Sepals 4, the inner pair larger. Petals 4, each with an appendage on the inner face, that of the two upper large and petal-like, of the two lower crest-like and with a deflexed spur or process, raised on a claw. Disk irregular, enlarged into two glands, one before each lower petal. Stamens 8, turned towards the upper side of the flower away from the glands, the filaments next to them shorter. Styles or stigmas 3, short: ovary triangular, 3-celled, with a single ovule rising from the middle of each cell/ Fruit a large and thin bladdery 3-lobed pod: seeds bony, globose, with a scale-like heart-shaped aril adherent to the base. 3. KCELKKUTERIA. Small tree, with pinnate leaves. Sepals 5. Petals 3 or 4 (the place of the others vacant), each with a small 2-parted scale-like appen- dage attached to its claw. Disk enlarging into a lobe before each petal. Stamens 5-8, declined: filaments hairy. Style single, slender: ovary trian- gular, 3-celled, with a pair of ovules *in each cell. Pod bladdery, 3-lobed, 3-celled. 4. SAPINDUS. Trees, with abruptly pinnate leaves. Sepals and petals each 5, or rarely 4; the latter commonly with a little scale or appendage adhering to the short claw. Stamens mostly 8, equal. Style single: ovary 3-lobed, 3-celled, with a single ovule in each cell. Fruit mostly a globular and fleshy 1-celled berry (the other cells abortive), filled with a large globular seed, its coat crustaceons: cotyledons thick and fleshy. « * Leaves opposite, c>/*5 - 9 digitate leaflets. Pod leathery, not inflated. 6. jESCULUS. Trees or shrubs. Calyx 5-lobed or 5-toothed. Petals 4 or 5, more or less unequal, on claws enclosed in the calyx, not appendaged. Sta- mens 7, rarely G or 8: filaments slender, often unequal. Style single, as also the minute stigma: ovary 3-celled, with a pair of ovules in each cell. Fruit a leathery pod, splitting* at maturity into 3 valves, ripening 1 -3 very large, chestnut-like, hard-coated seeds: the kernel of these consists of the very thick cotyledons firmly joined together, and a small incurved radicle. III. MAPLE FAMILY ; has flowers generally polygamous or dioecious, and sometimes apetalous, a mostly 2-lobed and 2-celled ovary, with a pair of ovules in each cell, ripening a single seed in each cell of the winged fruit. Embryo with long and thin coty- ledons, coiled or crumpled. (See Lessons, p. o, fig. 1-3, &c.) Leaves opposite : no stipules. 6. ACER. Trees, or a few only shrubs, with palmately-lobed or even parted leaves. Calyx mostly 5-cleft. Petals as many or none, and stamens 3 - 8 or rarely more, borne 'on the edge of the disk." Styles or stigmas 2, slender. Fruit a pair of samaras or key-fruits, united at the base or inner face and winged from the back. Occasionally the ovary is 3-celled and the fruit 3-winged. 7. NEGUNDO. Trees, with pinnate leaves of 3 -7 leaflets, and dioecious very small flowers, without petals or disk.; the calyx minute: stamens 4 or 5- Fruit, £c. of Acer. g&F_15 90 SOAPBERRY FAMILY. 1. STAPHYLEA, BLADDER-NUT. (Name from a Greek word for a bunch of grapes, little applicable.) S. trifolia, AMERICAN B. Shrub 8° -10° high, with greenish striped branches, .'3 ovate pointed serrate leaflets, deciduous stipules, and hanging rarrnic-like clusters of white flowers at the end of the branchlcts of the season, in spring, followed by the large bladdery pods. Low ground, common N. & W. S. pirmata, EUROPEAN B., occasionally planted, is very similar, but has five leaflets. 2. CARDIOSPERMUM, BALLOON- VINE, HEART-SEED. (The latter is a translation of the Greek name.) C. Halicacabum, the common species, wild in the S. W. States, is cult. in gardens, for the curious inflated pods ; it is a delicate herb, climbing over low plants or spreading on the ground, with small white flowers, in summer. 3. KCELREUTERIA. (Named for Kcdreuter, a German botanist.) K. panicillata, a small tree from China, planted in ornamental grounds ; has pinnate leaves of numerous thin and coarsely toothed or cut leaflets, and a terminal ample branched panicle of small yellow flowers, in summer, followed by the bladdery pods. 4. SAPINDUS, SOAPBERRY. (Sapo Indus, I e. Indian soap, the berries used as a substitute for soap.) S. marginatUS, wild S. & W. : a small tree, with 8-20 broadly lanceolate falcate leaflets on a wingless but often margined common stalk, and small white flowers in panicles, in summer, the whitish berries as large as bullets. 6. JESCULUS, HORSE-CHESTNUT, BUCKEYE. (Ancient name of an Oak or other mast-bearing tree, applied to these trees on account of their large chestnut-like seeds. These, although loaded with farinaceous nourishment, are usually rendered uneatable, and even poisonous, bv a bitter narcotic principle.) Flowers in a terminal crowded panicle, in late spring or early summer. § 1. TRUE HORSE-CHESTNUTS : natives of Asia, with broad and spreading petals on short claws, and fruit more or less beset with prickly points. IE. Hippocastanum, COMMON H. Tall fine tree, with 7 leaflets, and large flowers of 5 petals, white, and spotted with some purple and yellowish ; stamens 7, declined : of late there is a double-flowered variety. JE. rubiciinda, RED H. Less tall, flowering even' as a shrub, with brighter green leaves of 5 - 7 leaflets, flowers with 4 rose-red petals not so spreading, and mostly 8 stamens less declined. Probably a hybrid between Horse-Chestnut and some red Buckeye. § 2. Californian, with 4 broad spreading petals on rather slender JE. Califomica, CALIFOUXIAX II. Low tree, of f> slender-stalked leaf- lets, and a long very compact racem.slike panicle of small white or rosy-tinged llowers ; stamens 5-7, slender ; fruit large, with some rough points. § 3. BUCKEYES : of Atlantic U. S., with 4 erect mid smaller petals on slender claws, JE. parvifl6ra, SMALL BUCKEYE. Wild in the upper country S., and planted N. ; shrub 3° - 9° high, with 5-7 leaflets soft, downy underneath, slen- der raceme-like panicle 1° long, and e-ipillary stamens very much longer than the narrow white petals; flowering N. as late as midsummer; fruit smooth ; seeds small, almost eatable. -23. glabra, FETID or Onto HrcKi.vi:. W. of the Alleghanies ; tall tree, with f> nearly smooth leaflets a short panicle, stamens moderately longer than the somewhat uniform pale yellow petals, and fruit prickly roughened like that of Horse-Chestnut. -3D. flava, YELLOW or SWEET BUCKEYE. W. & S. ; tree or shrub, with 5-7 smooth or smoothish leaflets, a short dense panicle, oblong calyx, and SOAPBERRY FAMILY. 91 stamens not exceeding the connivent light yellow petals, these of two dissimilar pairs, the longer pair with very small blade ; fruit smooth. Var. purpurascens, PURPLISH B., has both calyx and corolla tinged with purple or reddish, and leaflets generally downy underneath. JE. Pavia, RED BUCKEYE. S. & W. ; shrub or low tree, like the last, but leaves generally smooth ; the longer and tubular calyx and the petals bright red : showy in cultivation. 6. ACER, MAPLE. (The classical Latin name.) Mostly fine trees. * Flowers in late spring or early summer, appearing more or less later than the leaves, in usually drooping racemes or corymbs, commonly terminating a 2 - 4-leaved shoot of the season, greenish or yellowish, with petals : stamens more than 5, generally 8. t- EUROPEAN MAPLES, planted for ornament and shade. A. Pseudo-PlatanilS, SYCAMORE M. A fine tree, with spreading branches, ample 5-lobed leaves whitish and rather downy beneath, on long reddish petioles, the lobes toothed, long racemes, and moderately spi-eading wings to the pubescent fruit. A. platanoides, NORWAY M., here so called. A handsome, round- headed tree, with thin and broad smooth leaves, bright green both sides, their 5 short lobes set with 2-5 coarse and taper-pointed teeth, a small corymb of flowers, and flat smooth fruit with wings 2' long, diverging in a straight line. Juice milky • leaves holding green later than the others. •*- •*- OREGON and CALIFORNIAN MAPLES, beginning to be planted East. A. circinatum, ROUND-LEAVED or VINE M. Tall, spreading shrub with thin and rounded moderately 7 -9-lobed leaves, their lobes serrate, small corymbs of purplish flowers, and wings of fruit diverging in a straight line. A. macroph^llum, LABOK-LKAVED M. Small timber-tree, with thick- ish leaves 6' - 12' across and deeply 5 - 7-lobed, the lobes with one or two sinuate lobes or coarse teeth, many yellowish floAvers in a compact raceme, and hairy fruit with ascending wings. H- H- •*- NATIVE STRIPED and MOUNTAIN MAPLES. A. spicatlim, MOUNTAIN M. Tall shrub, common N., with slightly 3- lobed and coarsely toothed leaves downy beneath, and upright dense racemes of small flowers, followed by small fruits with diverging narrow wings. The latest- flowering species. A. Pennsylvanicum, STRIPED M., also called MOOSE-WOOD and STRIPED DOGWOOD. Small tree, common N., with light-green bark striped with darker lines, large thin leaves finely sharply serrate all round, and at the end with 3 short and very taper-pointed lobes, slender hanging racemes of rather large green flowers, and fruit with diverging wings. * # SUGAR MAPLES. Flowers appearing with the leaves in spring, in umbel- like clusters, on long drooping pedicels, greenish-yellow, without petals: sta- mens 1 or 8. A. saccharinum, ROCK or SUGAR M. Large tree, common especially N., valuable for timber and for the sugar of its sap ; with rather deeply 3 - 5- lobed leaves pale or whitish beneath, the sinuses open and rounded, and the lobes with one or two sinuate coarse teeth ; calyx bell-shaped and hairy-fringed ; wings of fruit ascending, barely 1' long. Var. nigrum, BLACK SUGAR M., a form with leaves green or greener and more or less downy beneath, even when old, the sinus at the base apt to be deep and narrow. v * * * SOFT MAPLES. Flowers in earliest spring, much preceding the leaves, in iimhel-like clusters from separate lateral buds : pedicels at first short, the fruiting ones lengthening and drooping : stamens 3 - 6 : fruit ripe and fall- ing in early summer. A. dasycarpum, WHITH or SILVER M. A handsome tree in low grounds, w'ith long and spreading or drooping branches, soft white wood, very 92 POLYGALA FAMILY. deeply 5-lobed leaves silvery-white and when young downy beneath, the narrow lobes coarsely cut and toothed ; flowers greenish, in earliest spring, without petals; fruit woolly when young, hut soon smooth, 2' -3' long including the great diverging win-is. A. rilbru.in, HKIJ or $WAMI» M. Rather small tree, in wet grounds, with sol't white wood, reddish twigs, moderately 3 - 5-lobed leaves whitish be- neath, the middle lobe longest, all irregularly serrate ; flowers scarlet, crimson, or sometimes yellowish (later than in the foregoing species) ; fruit smooth, with the slightly spreading wings 1' or less in length, often reddish. 7. NEGTJNDO, ASII-LKAVED MAPLE, BOX-ELDER. (Obscure or unmeaning -name.) N. aceroides. A handsome, rather small tree, common from Penn. S. & W., with light green twigs, and drooping clusters of small greenish flowers, in spring, rather earlier than the leaves, the fertile ones in drooping racemes, the oblong fruits half the length of the very veiny wing ; leaflets ovate, pointed, coarsely toothed, very veiny. A variety with white-variegated leaves is lately cult, for ornament. 36. POLYGALACEJE, POLYGALA FAMILY. Bitter, some of them medicinal plants, represented mainly, aiid here wholly, by the genus 1. POLYGALA, MILKWORT. (Name from Greek words, meaning miicA milk; but the plants have no milky juice at all; they are thought to have been so named from a notion that in pasturage thev increased the milk of cows.) Flowers remarkably irregular, in outward appearance as if papiliona- ceous like those of the next family, but really of a quite different structure. Calyx persistent, of 5 sepals ; three of them small, viz. two on the lower, and one on the upper, side of the blossom ; and one on each side called wings which are larger, colored, and would be taken for petals. Within these, on the lower side, are three petals united into one body, the middle one keel-shaped and often bearing a crest or appendage. Stamens 8 or sometimes 6 ; their filaments united below into a split sheath, separating above usually in two equal sets, concealed in the hooded middle petal : anthers 1 -celled, opening by a hole at the top. Style curved and commonly enlarged above or variously irregular. Ovary 2-celled, with a single ovule hanging from the top of each cell, becoming a small rlattish 2-seeded pod. Seed with an appendage at the attachment (caruncle) : embryo straight, with flat cotyledons in a little albu- men. Leaves simple, entire, without stipules. Our native species are nu- merous, mostly with small or even minute flowers, and are rather difficult to study. The following are the commonest. § 1. Native species, low herbs, mostly smooth. * Powers yellow, some turning green in dn/ing, in drnsr spikes or heads : Iran's alternate. Growing in low or wet places in pine-barrens, S. E. Fl. summer. ••- Numerous short spikes or heads in a corymb. P. cym6sa. Stem l°-3° high, branching at top into a com]x>nml corymb of spikes ; leaves linear, acute, the uppermost small ; no caruncle to th« From North Carolina S. P. rambsa. Stem G'-l^' high, more branched : lowest leaves obovate or spatulate, upper ones lanceolate ; a caruncle at base of seed. Delaware anil S. •»- H- Short and thick spikr nr li«i; iA, and CuAXTiirs, plants from Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, with showy (lowers and bladdery-inllate.d la (like Colntea), are sometimes cult, in conservatories, but are not com- mon enough to find a place here.) PULSE FAMILY. P7 C. Leaves odd-pinnate : sterns i>nnmg : snpels obscure : stipules small. 28. WISTARIA. Woody, high-climbing, with numerous leaflets, and large showy bluish flower?, in hanging terminal deu-e racemes. Calyx with 2 short teeth on the upper and longer ones on the lower side. Standard large, roundish, turned back: keel merely incurved, blunt. Pod knobby, several-seeded. 29- APIOS. Herbs, twining over bushes, with 5-7 leaflets, and sweet-scented chocolate-purple flowers, in dense and short racemes: peduncles axillarv. Calyx with 2 upper very short teeth, and one longer lower one, the side teeth nearly wanting. Standard very broad, turned back: keel long and scy*he- slmped, strongly incurved, or "at length coiled. Pod linear, flat, almost straight, several-seeded. d. Leaves of 3 leaflets (pinnately 3-foliolate) or rarely one, commonly stipellate. 1. Shrubby, or from a woody bast : winys and sometimes keel, s mull and inconspicuous SO EKY THRINA. Stem, branches, and even the leafstalks usually prickly. Flowers large and showy, usually red, in raceme*. Calyx without teeth. Standard elongated: wings often wanting or so small as to be concealed iti the calyx; keel much shorter than the standard, sometimes very small. Pod stalked in the calyx, linear, knobby, usually opening only down, the seed-bearing suture. Seeds scarlet. 2. Herbs, mostly twiners, icith icings and keel in ordinary proportion. = Flowers not yellow : seeds or at least the ovules several: leaflets stipellale. 81. PHASEOLUS. Keel of the corolla coiling into a ring or spiral, usuallv with a tapering blunt apex: standard rounded, turned back or spreading. * Stvie coiled with the keel, bearded down the inner side: stigma oblique or lateral. Pod linear or scimetar-shaped. Flowers usually clustered on the knotty joints of the raceme. Stipules striate, persistent. 32. DOLICHOS. Keel of the corolla narrow and bent inwards at a right angle, but not coiling. Style bearded under the terminal stigma. Stipules small. Otherwise nearly as Phasoolus. 33. GALACTIA. Ke'el straightish, blunt, as long as the wings: standard turned back. Style naked. Calyx of 4 pointed lubes, upper one broadest. Pod flat- tened, mostly linear. Flowers clustered on the knotty joints of the raceme: flower-buds 'taper-pointed. Stipules and bracts small" or deciduous. 34. AMPHICARP.EA. Keel and very similar wings nearly straight, blunt: the erect standard partly folded around them. Style naked. Calyx tubular, 4-toothed. Flowers small; those in loose racemes above often sterile, their pods when formed scimetar-shaped and few-seeded ; those at or near the ground or on creeping branches very small and without manifest corolla, but very fertile, making small and fleshy, obovate or pear-shaped, mostly sub- terranean pods, ripening ons or two large seeds. Bracts rounded and per- sistent, striate, as are the stipules. 35. CENTROSEMA. Keel broad, incurved, nearly equalling the wings: standard large and rounded, spreading, and with a spur-like projection behind. Calyx short, 5-cleft. Style bearded only at the tip around the stigma. Pod long, linear, with thickened edges bordered by a raised line on each side. Flowers showy. Stipules, bracts, and bractlets "striate, persistent. 36. CLITO'RIA. Keel small, shorter than the wings, incurved, acute: standard much larger than the rest of the flower, notched at the end, erect. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed. Style bearded down the inner side. Pod oblong-linear, flattish, not bordered. 'Flowers large and showy, 1 -3 on a peduncle. Stip- ules, bracts, and bractlets persistent, striate. 37. HARDENBERGIA. Keel small, much shorter than the wings, incurved, blunt : standard large in proportion, rounded, spreading. Calyx short, 5-toothed, the 2 upper teeth united. Style short, naked. Pod linear, not bordered. Flowers rather small, in racemes. Stipules and bracts small, striate, mostly deciduous. Leaflets mostly single. 88. KENNEDYA. Keel incurved, blunt or acute, mostly equalling or exceeding the wings: standard broad, spreading. Calyx 5-lobed: 2 upper lobes partly united. Style naked. Pod linear, not bordered. Flowers showy, red, single or few on the peduncle. Bracts and stipules striate. = = Flowers yellow (sometimes purple-tinged outside): ovules only 2: podl-2-seeded. 89. RHYNCHOSIA. Keel of the corolla incurved at the apex: standard spreading. Calyx 4-5-parted or lobed. Pod short and flat. Flowers small. Leaves mostly soft-downy and resinous-dotted, sometimes of a single leaflet. i US PTTLSE fc 4. Herbs, irith abruptly pinnate leaves, the common petiole terminated by a tendril, by ichir supports itst If, or in many low f/itcits tJte ttndril reduied t<> (i inert bristle or tip <>r in Cicer, wliiili lias toothed leaflets, T< n KKOOM. Shrub, from Europe, 3° - 5° high, smooth, with long and tou^h erect angled and green branches, bearing small leaves, the lower short-petioled and with 3 obovato leaflets, the upper of a single sessile leallet, and in the axils lar-e and showy golden vellow Mowers on slender pedicels : calvx with '2 short and broad lips; style and stamens slender, held in the keel, but disengaged and suddenly start- Wig upward when touched (as when bees alight on the dellexed keel), the style miliug spirally ; pod hairy on the cd-es. Hardy in gardens N. ; running wild in Virginia : fl. early summer. IKI-II I',I:M, so called, but is from Portugal, is another species, not hardy here. Si- \\i-n lii;o<>M is SI-AIMUM JIM 1:1 M, of another genus. C. Canai'idnsis, from the Canary Islands, is cultivated in conservatories; a shrub with crowded slender branches, soft -hoary leaves of 3 very small obovato leaflets, and small yvllow sweet-scented flowers, produced all winter. PULSE FAMILY. 101 5. LABURNUM. (Ancient Latin name. Genus separated from Cytisus from the different appearance, and the seeds destitute of strophiole or append- age at the scar.) L. vulgare, COMMON LABURNUM, GOLDEN-CHAIN, or BEAN-TREFOIL- TKEE of Europe. Planted for ornament, a low tree, with smooth green bark, slender-petioled leaves of 3 oblong leaflets (2' -3' long), and pretty large showy golden-yellow flowers hanging in long racemes, in late spring ; pods with one thicker edge. 6. TRIGONELLA. (Old name, from Greek word for triangular, from the shape of the corolla or the seeds.) Low herbs. T. C^R^LEA is the plant used in Switzerland for imparting the flavor like that of Melilot to certain kinds of cheese.) T. Fcenum-Greecum, FENUGREEK. Occasionally cult, in gardens, in Europe a forage and popular medicinal plant, strong-scented ; with wedge- oblong leaflets, one or two nearly sessile small flowers in the axils, yellowish or whitish corolla, and a linear long-pointed and somewhat curved pod 2' -4' long, with veiny sides. © 7. MEDIC AGO, MEDICK. (The old name of Lucerne, because it came to the Greeks from Media.) All natives of the Old World : a few have run wild here. Fl. all summer. * Flowers violet-purple or bluish. "H M. sativa, LUCERNE or SPANISH TREFOIL. Cultivated for green fodder, especially S. : stems erect, l°-2° high, from a long deep root; leaflets obovate- oblong ; racemes oblong ; pod several-seeded, linear, coiled about 2 turns. # # Flowers yellow. © @ M. lupulina, BLACK MEDICK, NONESUCH. A weed or pasture plant, in dry or sandy lields, £c. : low, spreading, downy, with wedge-obovatc leaflets, roundish or at length oblong heads or spikes of small flowers, and little kidney- shaped 1 -seeded pods turning black when ripe. M. maculata, SPOTTED M. Waste sandy places, S. & E. : spreading or trailing ; with broadly inversely heart-shaped leaflets marked with a dark spot, 3 - 5-flowered peduncles, and a flat pod compactly coiled three or more turns, its thickish edge beset with a double row of curved' prickles. M. dentictllata, like the last, but rarer, with pod of looser coils, sharp edge, and mostly shorter prickles. M. SCUtellata, SNAIL MEDICK, BEEHIVE. Cult, occasionally in gardens for its curious pods, which are pretty large, coiled up like a snail-shell, in many turns, smooth and even. 8. MELILOTUS, MELILOT, SWEET CLOVER. (From Greek words for honey and Lotus, i. e. Sit'f-f-t Lotus .- foliage sweet-scented, especially in drying.) Natives of the Old World ; somewhat cult, in gardens, &c., and running wild in waste or cultivated ground : fl. all summer. © (2) M. alba, WHITE M., BOKHARA or TREE CLOVER. Tall, 3,°- 6° high, '.iranching, vith obovate or oblong leaflets truncately notched at the end, and loose racemes of white flowers. Has been cult, for green fodder. M. officinalis, YELLOW M. Less tall, 2° -3° high, with merely leaflets and yellow flowers. 9. TRIFOLIUM, CLOVER, TREFOIL. (Latin name : three leaflets.) # Low, insignificant weeds, nat. from Europe in dry waste fields, Sfc. © •*- Flowers i/r-llow, in round heads, produced through late summer and autumn, rcftexed and turning chestnut-brown, drj_ and. pg.pery_ with age. T. agrarium, YELLOW lIop-C. Smoothish, 6' -12' high, with obovate- ooT'T^ oblong leaflets all nearly sessile on tliajmd of the_petiole ; heads rather hr/;;-e. ju L . T. procumbens, Low Hop-C. Smaller, spreading, rather downy, the wedge-obovate leaflets notched at 'the end, the middle one at a littlo distance from the others. 102 PULSE FAMILY. •*- •»- Flowers flesh-color or whitish with a purplish spot, in a very soft silky head. T. arv^nse, RABBIT-FOOT or STOXK C. Erect, silky-downy, especially' the oblong or at length cylindrical grayish heads or spikes, the corollas almost concealed by the plumose-silky calyx ;" leaflets narrow. » # Larger, rose-red -flowered Clovers, cult, from Europe for fodder, or running wild : fiends thick and dense : corolla tubular, withering away after flouoei'- ing : flowers sweet-scented, in summer. ^ T. prat^nse, RED C. Stems ascending ; leaflets obovate or oval, often notched at the end and with a pale spot on the face ; head closely surrounded by the uppermost leaves. T. medium, ZIGZAG C., with a zigzag stem, more oblong entire and spotless leaves, and head usually stalked, is rare, but has run wild E., and passes into the last. # # # Low, wild Clovers, or one cult, from Europe, with spreading or running stems, and mostly pale or ivhite flowers (remaining and turning brownish in fading) on pedicels, in round umbels or heads, on slender naked peduncles : fl. spring and summer. T. refl6xum, BUFFALO C. Wild S. and. especially W. : somewhat downy, with ascending stems G' - 12' high, obovate-oblong finely-toothed leaf- lets, heads and rose-red and whitish flowers fully as large as in Red Clover, calyx-teeth hairy, and pods 3-5-secded. (T) © • T. Stolonil'erum, RUNNING BUFFALO C. Prairies and oak-openings W. : like the last, or a variety of it, but some of the stems forming runners, leaflets broadly obovate or inversely heart-shaped, flowers barely tinged with purple, and pods 2-seeded. © "^ T. Carplinianum, CAROLINA C. Fields and pastures S. : a little downy, spreading in tut'ts 5'- 10' high, with small inversely heart-shaped leaflets, broad stipules, and small heads, the purplish corolla hardly longer than the lanceolate calyx-teeth. If. T. ripens, WHITE C. Fields, &c. everywhere, invaluable for pasturage : smooth, with creeping stems, inversely heart-shaped leaflets, long and slender petioles and peduncles, narrow stipules, loose umbel-like heads, and white corolla much longer than the slender calyx-teeth. 2/ 10. PETALOSTEMON, PRAIRIE CLOVER. (Name composed of the Greek words for petal and stamen combined.) In prairies, pine-barrens, £c. W. and S. : flowers never yellow. ^ * Heads crowded in a corymb, leafy-bracted : fl. late in autumn. P. COrymbbsilS. In southern pine-barrens ; 2° high, with leaves of 3-7 filiform leaflets, and white flowers, the slender teeth of calyx becoming plumose. # # Heads or mostly spikes single terminating stems : fl. summer. P. violaceus. Prairies W. : smoothish or pubescent, l°-2° high, with mostly 5 narrow-linear leaflets, a short spike even when old, rose-purple flowers, and hoary calyx. P. carneilS. Dry barrens S. : smooth, with branching stems, 5-7 linear leaflets, long-pcduncled short spikes, flesh-color or pale rose flowers, and gla- brous calvx. P. cahdidllS. Prairies W. & S. . smooth, 2° -3° high, with 7-9 lan- ceolate or linear-oblong leaflets, long-pedmicle.d spikes, with awn-pointed bracts, and white* flowers. There are besides one or two rarer species W., and several more fnr W. & S. 11. DALE A. (Named for an English botanist, Thomas Dale.) There arc many species S. \V. hevoiul the Mississippi. D. alopecuroides. Alluvial river banks W. & S. ; with <3rect stem 1° - 2° high, smooth leaves of many linear-oblong leaflets, and \vhitish binail flower* in a dense silky spike, in summer. (D PULSE FAMILY. 103 12. AMORPHA, FALSE INDIGO. (Name, amorphous, wanting the ordinary form, from the absence of four of the petals.) There are usually little stipels to the leaflets. Fl. summer. A. frutic6sa, COMMON A. River-banks from Penn. S. & W. ; a tall or middle-sized shrub, smoothish, with pctiolcd leaves of 15-25 oval or oblong leaf- lets, violet or purple flowers in early summer, and mostly 2-scedcd pods. A. herbaeea (but it is not an herb) of low pine-barrens S., 2° -4° high, often downy, has the leaflets more rigid, dotted, and crowded, villous calyx- teeth, later blue or white flowers, and 1 -seeded pods. A. can^SCens, called LEAD-PLANT ; in prairies and on rocky banks W. / and S. W. ; l°-3° high, hoary with soft doAvn, with sessile leaves of 29 -51 * elliptical leaflets, smoothish above when old, violet-purple flowers in late summer, and 1 -seeded pods. 13. PSORALE A. ( Greek word for snirfy, from the roughish dots or .rlands on the leaves, calyx, &c.) Wild S. £ W. : ll. early summer, violet, bluish, or almost white. ^ * Leaves pinnate! y 3-fol!olate, i. e. the side-leaflets a litt'e below the apex of the common petiole, or the uppermost of a single leaflet. P. Onobrychis. River-banks, Ohio to Illinois and S. : 3° - 5° high, nearly smooth, with lance-ovate taper-pointed leaflets 3' long, small flowers in short-peduncled racemes 3' - 6' long ; pods rough and wrinkled. P. melilotoides. Dry places, W. & S. : l°-2° high, somewhat pubes- cent, slender, with lanceolate or lance-oblong leaflets, oblong spikes on long peduncles, and strongly wrinkled pods. * * Leaves digitate, of 3-7 leaflets. P. Lupinellus. Dry pine-barrens S. : smooth and slender, with 5-7 very narrow or thread-shaped leaflets, small flowers in loose racemes, and obliquely wrinkled pods. P. fioribunda. Prairies from Illinois S. W. : bushy-branched and slen- der, 2° -4° high, somewhat hoary when young, with 3-5 linear or obovate- oblong much dotted leaflets, small flowers in short panicled racemes, and glan- dular-roughened pods. P. canescens. Dry barrens S. E. Bushy-branched, 2° high, hoary- pnbescent, with 3 (or upper leaves of single) obovate leaflets, loose racemes of few flowers, and a smooth pod. P. argophylla. Prairies N. W., mostly across the Mississippi, widely branched, lu-3° high, silvery white all over with silky hairs, with 3-5 broad- lanceolate leaflets and spikes of rather few largish flowers. P. escul^nta, POMME BLANCIIK of the N. W. Voyageurs ; the turnip- shaped or tuberous mealy root furnishing a desirable food to the Indians N. W. : low and stout, 5' -15' high, ronghish hairy, with 5 lance-oblong or obovate leaflets, a dense oblong spike of pretty large (i' long) flowers, and a hairy oointed pod. I A. ONOBRYCHIS, SAINFOIN. (Name from Greek, means Asses- food.) O. sativa, COMMON S. Sparingly cult, from Europe as a fodder plant, but not quite hardy N. ; herb l°-2° high, with numerous oblong small leaf- lets, brown and thin pointed stipules, and spikes of light pink flowers on long axillary peduncles, in summer, the little semicircular pod bordered with short prickles or teeth. 2/ 15. STYLOSANTHES, PENCIL-FLOWER. (Name from Greek words for column and flower, the calyx being raised on its stalk-like base. The application of the popular name is not obvious.) S. elatior, of pine-barrens from New Jersev and Illinois S., is an incon- spicuous low herb, in tufts ; the wiry stems downy on one side ; leaflets lan- ceolate, with strong straight veins ; flowers orange-yellow, small, in little clusters or heads, in late summer. ^ 104 PULSE FAMILY. 16. LESPEDEZA, BUSH-CLOVER. (Named for Lesptdez, a Spanish Governor of Florida. ) All grow in sandy or sterile soil; 11. late summer and autumn. ^ * Native species : stipules and bracts minute. H- Flowers in dose Spike* or heads on u/ trig fit (2° -4° h'njh) simple rigid stems: cttro'iti (•/•• •nut-rotor or white with a purple spot, about the length of the siikij- downy calyx. L. capitata. Leaflets oblong or sometimes linear, silky beneath, thickish ; peduncles and petioles short; flowers in short spikes or heads ; calyx much longer than the pod. L. hirta. Leaflets roundish or oval, hairy or downy ; petioles and pedun- cles slender ; spikes becoming rather long and loose. •«- •*- Flowers violet-purple, scattered or in open panicles or clnstzrs, slender-pedun- <•/('/<-. L. striata. Introduced (more than 25 years ago) in some unknown way into the Southern Atlantic States, now rapidly spreading and occupying old fields and waste places, to the great benefit of the country, lie-ing greedily fed upon by cattle ; it is low and spreading, 3'- 10' high, much branched, almost smooth, with oblong or wedge-oblong leaflets i'-£' long, and 1 -3 small pur- plish flowers almost sessile in the axils. 17. DESMODIUM, TICK-TREFOIL. ( Name from Greek, means found together, from the connected joints of the pod.) 11 We have many native species, common in open woods and copses ; fl. late summer : the following are the more common. § 1. Native species : the little joints of the pod adhere to clothing or to the coats of animals : flowers sometimes turning greenish in withering, * Pod raised far above the calyx on a slender stalk of its own, straightish on the upper margin, divided from below into not more than 4 joints : flowers in one hng-staflced nuked terminal raceme or panicf-e : plants smooth, 1° — 3° high : stipules bristle-form. D. nudifldrum. Flower-stalk and leaf-bearing stem rising separately from a common root ; the leaves all crowded on the summit of the latter, and with broadly ovate bluntish leaflets, pale beneath. D. acuminatum. Flower-stalk terminating the stem, which bears a cluster of leaves; the large leaflets (4' -5' long) round-ovate with a tapering point, or the end one blunter, green both sides. * * Pod littk if at a I! raised above the cali/r. •«- Stems erect, 3° - 0° high : stipules large, orate or lance-ovate and jtointcd, stn'ate, persistent, t/i" bracts similar hut deciduous : fjnirers large for the genus: racemes panicled : pods of 4-7 rhombic-ol>lo»g joints, each joint about V long. D. CUSpidatum. Very smooth, with a straight stem, lancc-ovato and taper-pointed leaflets (3' -5' long) longer than the common petiole, and pod with smoothish joints. D. can6scens. Hairy, with branching stems, pale leaves ; the ovate bluntish leaflets about the length of the common petiole, reticulated beneath and both sides roughish with fine close pubescence ; joints of pod very adhesive. PULSE FAMILY. 105 +- H~ Stems erect, 2° - 6° high : stipules and bracts mostly awl-shaped, small and inconspicuous or early deciduous : racemes panicled. *+ Common petiole slender : flowers smallish : joints of pod 3-5, unequal-sided. D. viridiflbrum. Stem and lower surface of the broad ovate blunt leaf- lets clothed with white and soft-velvety down. Pine-barrens, from New Jersey S. D. laevigatum. Stem and the thickish ovate and bluntish leaflets smooth or nearly so. From New Jersey S. D. Dillenii. Stem and the oblong or oblong-ovate bluntish thin leaflets finely pubescent ; the latter 2' - 3' long. D. paniculatum. Smooth or nearly so throughout ; leaflets lanceolate or lance-oblong, tapering to a blunt point, 3'— 5' long ; panicle loose. D. Strictum. Slender stems smooth below, above and the narrow panicle rough-glandular; leaflets linear, blunt, reticulated, very smooth, l'-2' long. From New Jersey S. •*-+• •*•+• Common petiole very short. Q*™*-*Jb+**~*~~ ^* D. Canad6nS6. Sten^ hairy. 3° - 6° high, leafy up to the panicle ; leaf- lets lance-oblong, blunt, 2' - 3' long ; racemes dcnse^ the pink-purple flowers larger than in anv other, fully ^ long ; bracts large, conspicuous before flower- ing. Chiefly N.&W. D. sessilifolium. Stem pubescent, 2° -4° high ; the long panicle naked ; common petiole hardly any ; leaflets linear or linear-oblong, blunt, reticulated, rough above, downy beneath ; flowers small. Penn. to UK & S. +-•*-*- Stems ascending or spreading, 1 ° - 3° long : stipules and bracts awl- shaped and deciduous : panicle naked, loose : flowers small : pod of 2 or 3 small oval or roundish joints. ^^^w«oft.