Revs beminta teense eee Coie tit Pat fe Sata egrgnargtinreec incite Corpora pe tener eres ‘aan Correct SERS 5 aes ese Ted SF ast tate vane petacaeran + Fibrary of the Museum COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS + Founded by private subscription, in 1861. Deposited by ALEX. AGASSIZ. ‘ - The Great Barrier Reef of Australia: Its ‘Products and Potentialities. By W. Saville Kent. With a chart, 48 ‘mezzotype plates, 16 chromo plates, and figures in the text. London: W, H. Allen & Co. 1893. 4to, pp. xii, 387. . J ySINCE the appearance of Dana’s magnificent /* Report on the Zoophytes of Wilkes’s Explor- ng Expedition’ nothing has been published ontaining so much new information regard- ng polyps as the superb volume before us. t contains a popular account of the fauna of the Great Barrier Reef by W. Saville Kent, ' Commissioner of Fisheries to the Government of West Australia. The report is also inte- esting to. the naturalist from the detailed ac- ount, accompanied by colored figures and pho- ‘ographs, of numerous species from life. ‘Unfortunately, the colored sketches are not as successful as the photographs. The hromolithographic plates of the fishes, the a-anemones, the holothurians, the aleyona jans, and echin as well as of other s living upon the reef, can hardly be compared for accuracy or for beauty to such illustrations as accompany Dana’s ‘ Zoophytes,’ per’s ‘Holothurians of the Philippine Islands,’ or some of the colo etches of tro- pical fishes published by the Godeffroy Mu- seum. Mr. Kent has, nevertheless, done more for those who have never had the good fortune to visit a reef than all the descriptions of former writers. Heis not only an excellent naturalist, but also a most skilful photographer. The forty-eight photo-mezzotype plates give us pic- tures of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia of the greatest beauty. It is difficult to imagine that any illustrations could convey to one who has not seen a coral reef so admirable an idea of its structure and appearance. The greater number of the reefs which have been described are tound in districts where the tide has but lit- tle rise and fall, so that naturalists have usual- ly limited their accounts of a growing reef to what could be seen through a water-glass, and from a boat floating over the submerged reef. Mr. Kent worked in a region where the tide has, in some cases, a range of eighteen feet, and was thus able to photograph extensive tracts or detailed portions left bare at very low tides. In some cases his camera has even reproduced patches of corals below the sur- face, so that it becomes an easy matter to imagine these vast fields of corals as they would appear when covered by the rising tide. The great rise and fall of the tides, subjecting parts of the reef to extreme at- mospherie influences, naturally explains the existence of extensive tracts of dead corals between the living banks and high-water mark. As Fish Commissioner, our author naturally devotes a good part of his volume to the practi- eal side of his subject. He has interesting chapters on the pearl and the oyster-fisheries, and deals also in a very interesting manner with the holothurian fishery, which is the most important of the Queensland marine industries, yielding about £23,000 a year. The béche-de- mer are collected by hand at low water and are prepared entirely for the Chinese market. As their food consists mainly of foraminiferal sand, they can hardly be called succulent. As soon as collected the holothurians are boiled for a short time, split open, gutted and smoked, and are shipped when dry and crisp. To a European they are not attractive, looking like properly seasoned. While we owe to Mr. Kent so valuable af account of the appearance of the Great Bar. rier Reef, he has added comparatively little té the description given by Jukes, between 184: and 1846, so far as it relates to the genera theory of the formation of coral reefs. Thi discussion by Mr, Kent of the coral-reef theor is limited to a reproduction of its essentic| points as given by Darwin, to a short stat ment of its acceptance by Dana, and furthe to the practical adoption of Bonney’s objec tions to the attacks on the Darwinian ree theory by Murray and others. Even grantin that subsidence has been in many districts th principal factor in the formation of coral reef; it by no means follows that subsidence is tl only explanation for the formation of cor reefs in an equal number of other district Many of those who oppose the Darwinie by theory merely state that it is not sufficient explain the simultaneous existence of fringity reefs, of barrier reefs, and of atolls in cer= tain areas, and they look for simpler natural so many charred sausages; as eaten in Japan, | altogether, as is frequently done, from the dis- cussion. The bases for the growth of corals may as well have been formed by elevation as by sub- sidence; there is no greater improbability in the one than in the other theory. In fact, many of the observations made by Mr. Kent fully sup- port the objections to the theory of subsidence as explaining the formation of all coral reefs; and were he more familiar with the recent lite- rature on the subject, he would have learned that the coral-reef theory is not quite as simple as he gives his readers to understand. It is be- coming more and more apparent that nothing short of a renewed study of the elevated reefs of some favorable locality, coupled with borings carried to great depthsthrough an atoll in are- gion of subsidence as well as through the outer edge of a barrier reef, will once for all settle questions which are now answered by more 01 less lucky guesses. Mr. Kent looks for the conditions of subsi- dence which have made the formation of the | Great Barrier Reef possible in the former un- doubted connection of Australia with Tasma- nia and New Guinea; and if that is not satis- factory, he is quite ready to call upon a still greater subsidence of the Australian Conti- nent as shown by its presumed connection with New Zealand. If, as is probable, and as Mr. Kent suggests, the Great Barrier Reef existed || as a narrow fringing reef in the late Ter- tiary, there has elapsed more than ample time also for its transformation into the Great Barrier Reef of to-day from other causes than those called upon by him. The Great Barrier Reef has entirely obliterated the Australian coast-shelf itself, and it may have found upon that all the conditions of depth ne- cessary for the vigorous growth, both vertical- ly and laterally, of the original insignificant fringing reef of the northeastern coast of Aus- tralia. The Government of Queensland is to be con- gratulated upon having placed so competent a naturalist as Mr. Kent in charge of the ex- ploration of the Great Barrier Reef, and also upon having published so valuable a contribu- tion to marine zodlogy. Nothing would do more for the practical objects which the Goy- ernment has in view than the establishment in Torres Strait of the Biological Station suggest- ed by Mr. Kent. The problems which the fisherman wishes to have solved can be attack- ed by naturalists only when working con- tinuously at a spot so admirably located for all } marine investigations as Thursday Island, and within easy reach of the rich fauna of the Great Barrier Reef. We may state for the benefit of instructors and others that twelve of the characteristic reef views have been enlarged for use as illus- trations, and are to be obtained separately from the publishers. Lantern slides of any of the photographs can also be purchased. causes to explain their growth. It is no an-[ those rerion ; ‘dol swer to their arguments to call the atolls of Dicey es iat it: . ) i 4 | Aira Whe 7, Po See ve V/A 4 “Boil [5G 4. ee Gh) BARR Pak lei Ole Sine, WEST PROMUCTS AND RPOTEN TLALTPIEES: By THE SAME AUTHOR Super Royal Svo, 3 Vols. (Text and Plates), £4 45. net. A MANUAL OF THE INFUSORIA, FLAGELLATE, CILIATE, & TENTACULIFEROUS PROTOZOA (BRITISH AND FOREIGN), AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORGANISATION AND AFFINITIES OF THE SPONGES. BY Wik SVANMNUIGIT SID IN AT, TLS, WhZAcSon isCe Lonpon: W. H. ALLEN & Co., LIMITED, 13, WATERLOO PLACE. ( at Ha@adwe Lado aA WOdH SNAWDEdS Twad0) CHHWaTa Gigs Pryipity AY, en? Seo a = oo oe See trite ar BARRIER. ERE OF AUSTRALIA; LESS OWOCRS AND “POTENTTALITIES. BY eee PEE KENT, Fs F-Z.S.. EF l.Insr, Past PRESIDENT ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND; FORMERLY ASSISTANT IN THE NaTuURAL History DEPARTMENTS OF THE British MusEuM ; COMMISSIONER OF FISHERIES TO THE GOVERNMENT OF WEST AUSTRALIA AND LATE OF TASMANIA AND QUEENSLAND. AUTHOR oF “A MANUAL OF THE InFusoria,” &c., &c. CONTAINING— An Account, with Copious CoLouRED AND PHOTOGRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS (THE LATTER HERE PRODUCED FOR THE FIRST TIME), OF THE CORALS AND CORAL REEFS, PEARL AND PEARL-SHELL, BECHE-DE-MER, OTHER FISHING INDUSTRIES, AND THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REGION. OOO: S Woh pALEE Nice €O., Limimep, 13, WATERLOO’ PLACE. S.W. \ ff. f\ hE! yi GsOOs SHO0,EUN | BAR Oli. soneiihe ast WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED, PRINTERS, EO Nee Sltkees viii WADKER “GRIP ERD Ey: K.C.M.G., QC, &c., CHTETE” VUSTICGE OF QUEEN SEAN PD LALE IPREMIER OF THE MINISTRY, UNDER WHOSE AUSPICES, AND WITH WHOSE ENCOURAGING SUPPORT, THE FACTS AND MATERIALS HEREIN SET FORTH WERE RENDERED ACCESSIBLE, Chis BWolume ON THE CRE reese ARR iE R REEE OF AUSTRAETA IS DEDICATED, AS A MARK OF ESTEEM, BY | ine AUTHOR b } ‘ n> F [ 2 ~~“ . j ’ 4 oP re: i ‘a ' ier M ivi 4 —_ A eae : =e oe 4 Pu: Kee’ 2 ae x ! é oe aa Pee ce . aa ' cio a tw { * ‘ ‘ ma " +> yee ‘ ip 1 c Sy ie te . 6 “a Le Ae antes ea oh 24 “ Thy way ts im the sea, and Thy paths im the great waters.” PSALM Ixxvii. v. 19. ss. oo ae ae es ce Epi . i . — os PaIVE ACE. DAY-DREAM of the author, when attached, in years gone by, to the Natural History Department of the British Museum, and for the nonce engaged in the arrangement and nomenclature of the magnificent collection of Madrepores or Stony-corals in that Institution, was to be afforded an opportunity of seeing those organisms growing in their native seas and in their wonderful living tints. That this day-dream, contrary to many of its order, has been substantially realised, this volume, to a large extent, bears witness. The impressions which the actual sight of growing coral-reefs yielded the author are here reproduced, with the fidelity that photography alone can compass, for the benefit of those who, possessing the desire, lack opportunity of making a personal acquaintance with this fairy-land of fact. The motives of this volume are, at the same time, manifold. A primary object is to place the reading public generally, and the scientific world in particular, in possession of more extensive and accurate information than has hitherto been at their disposal, concerning the external features and the detailed composition of coral-reefs, as represented by that largest existing coral structure, the Great Barrier Reef of Australia; also to bring forward evidence bearing upon the opposing theories concerning the telluric conditions under which that vast reef originated. Another prominent purpose of the work is to direct attention to the harvest-field, rich from both a commercial and a scientific standpoint, that this Queensland possession constitutes, with the hope that it may lead, on both sides, to a more thorough exploration and development of its marvellous resources. A leading feature in this volume is the series of monochrome illustrations. It is anticipated that they will assist materially towards demonstrating the capabilities of photo- x PREFACE. graphy for the delineation of coral-reef structures in the concrete, and of the _ living organisms associated with them. A few of these photographic illustrations, it may be men- tioned, were sent to England and exhibited, in the author's name, by Sir William Flower, F.R.S., at the conversaziones of the Royal Society at Burlington House in 1891, while a more complete series of them was displayed at the gatherings of the Royal Society held last year. It may be said that by no process other than that of photography is it possible to represent areas of coral-growths that are uncovered by the sea for such short and uncertain intervals, accurately. Considerable originality may be claimed for these pictures. With one or two exceptions, the most notable of which is an enlarged copy of a photograph of a small foreground area of a Fiji reef, taken by the Hon. R. Abercromby, on view in the coral gallery of the British (Nat. Hist.) Museum, the subject has not previously been dealt with under the camera. In no instance has it, as in this volume, been extensively or systematically treated ; and it is hoped that the results herein attained may lead to a much more extensive adoption, by biologists, of photographic processes, for the illustration of living corals and other aquatic organisms. In the matter of the life-coloured figures included in the chromo- lithographic plate series, it appears possible, as suggested in the concluding chapter, that the new source of artistic design exemplified by these delineations may sooner or later be turned to practical account. To those specially interested in the subject of reef-formation, the series of enlargements of a selected number of the more characteristic reef-views contained in this volume, which are issued by the same Publishers, will probably prove acceptable. In many instances, these enlargements serve to bring into prominent notice structural details and component organisms that are liable to escape attention in the smaller pictures. The extraordinary wealth of coral and other organic life prevalent throughout the Barrier district, whilst necessarily dealt with in this volume superficially, is perhaps sufficiently manifested to convey to biologists some idea of the rich field that it offers for original investi- gation. Sufficient also is probably submitted to win from them a unanimous endorsement of the author’s views, expressed in the concluding chapter, respecting the unparalleled suitability of the Great Barrier district in general, and of Thursday Island in particular, for the estab- lishment of an efficiently-equipped zoological station. The acknowledgments that have to be chronicled in this prefatory notice are numerous. The first and most substantial one is due to the Queensland Government, for the facilities and material assistance liberally accorded, which have enabled the author to place on record so PRERA GE. xl considerable an exposition of coral-reef organisation. In the same matter, and also for much personal hospitality during the investigation of the Torres Strait district, the Honourable John Douglas, Government resident at Thursday Island, and Mr. Frank Jardine, of Somerset and the Albany Pass, must have special mention. Valuable and willing assistance was rendered by the Harbourmasters and Customs officials of Cooktown, Cairns, Townsville, Mackay, Bowen, and other ports, which were made the bases of excursions to various districts of the Barrier. A few months’ residence in England, before taking up an official engagement with the Western Australian Government, has proved all too short for the working out of fully-detailed catalogues of the very extensive coral collections made throughout the Barrier district. The collection has been presented to the British (Natural History) Museum; and a detailed list of the species of the single genus Madrepora, numbering no fewer than seventy species identified, many of which are described as new, by Mr. George Brook, F.L.S., at present engaged on the compilation of a systematic catalogue of the British Museum collections, is added to this volume, in the form of an appendix, together with a rougher list, complete as to the generic identifications only, of the representatives of the residual mass, for which the author is responsible. Whenever the investigations now in progress are more advanced, and the necessary leisure is afforded him, the author hopes to complete, for contribution to one or more of the scientific societies, fully detailed reports upon the coral fauna of the Australian seas, including that of the Great Barrier and of the Northern and Western Australian districts. For assistance towards the accomplishment of this more comprehensive, and at the same time more purely technical, task, the author is indebted—as in the case of his earlier monograph on the Infusoria—for substantial assistance from the Government Scientific Research Fund, disbursed by the Council of the Royal Society. Acknowledgments are due to Professor F. J. Bell, M.A., of the Zoological Department of the Natural History Museum, for the specific identification of the greater number of the Holothuridze or Béche-de-mer figured and described in this volume, and for his indication to the author of such types among them as are new to science ; and a like indebtedness must be owned to Professor A. C. Haddon, M.A., of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, for services associated with the identification of the Torres Strait and Barrier Reef anemones. The warmest thanks are accorded Professor G. B. Howes, F.L.S., of the Royal College of Xl PREFACE. Science, South Kensington, for invaluable services rendered, in posting the author in the latest literature bearing upon many subjects dealt with in this volume, for placing him in com- munication with specialists working at certain of the more obscure groups, and for substantial assistance in the revision of the proof-sheets. The manner in which the author's photographs have been reproduced by the London Stereoscopic Company and Messrs. Waterlow & Sons, is excellent beyond comment, and Messrs. Riddle & Couchman have produced painstaking and faithful representations of the author’s original water-colour sketches. The thanks of the author are also due to the publishers, Messrs. W. H. Allen & Co., Limited, who have throughout seconded his efforts to place the illustrations before the reader in the most perfect manner possible, and who have spared neither trouble nor expense in every detail of the production. London, February 24, 1893. PASE SOE CONTE NES. ta) CHAPTER PAGE INTRODUCTORY ae : ae ose : “ae Se 508 fee I—3 I. Descriptive DetTatts oF PHOTOTYPE PLATES : Pee a a ia 4—67 II]. Cora-REEFS, THEIR GENERAL STRUCTURE AND THEORIES OF ORIGIN ape ses ee 68—g2 III]. THe AustRaLiaNn Great BaRRIER REEF - ae Bs ore ae --. 93—138 IV. Corats AND CORAL-ANIMALS ... 5a ate iat fies ws sin .-. 139—203 V. PEARL AND PEARL-SHELL FISHERIES ae ide x ws tists Sac ... 204—224 VI. BécHE-DE-MrER FISHERIES ee = ss at an se bd: ... 225—242 VII. Oysters AND OysTER FISHERIES OF QUEENSLAND a0 aoe a wes .. 243—278 VIII. Foop anp Fancy FISHES sia oe fa ae se “re or ... 279—310 IX. POTENTIALITIES ste sie ie BG oe tr gs si .-- 31I—335 DESCRIPTION OF CHROMO PLATES eds cf ah ae oe ee --- 337—368 erst Or (it OLrO-MEZZOTY PE PL Ags: FOR THE USE OF MUSEUMS, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, COLLEGES, SCHOOLS, ETC. The following twelve of the illustrations have been enlarged by photo-mezzotype process, and can be had from the Publishers, Messrs. W. H. ALLEN & Co., Limited, 13, Waterloo Place, London, S.W. :— Crescent Reef, Outer Barrier Series, No. 6 Porites Islet, Fringing Reef, Port Denison Madrepore Lagoon, Fringing Reef, Port Denison ... Charted Reef, Thursday Island, Torres Strait Crescent Reef, Outer Barrier Series, No. 7 Low Woody Reef, Outer Barrier Series, No. 3 Price 10s. 6d. each, or £4 4s. od. the inches ; mount, 243 inches by 19} inches. set of twelve, mounted complete. PLATE Bleached Coral Specimens from Great Barrier Reef I. Madrepore Istet, Fringing Reef, Port Denison me We Low Woody Reef, Outer Barrier Series, No. 5 bor XV. “Dog” Reef, Saddle-Back Island, Port Denison VIII. Skull Reef, Outer Barrier Series, No. 4 XIV. Stags’-Horn Reef, Outer Barrier Series, No. 1 O88 XII. Picture, 15 inches by 11 Tx. MADREPORE LAGOON, PORT DENISON SUBMERGED MILLEPORA, PALM ISLANDS REEF ... » No. 2. LopHosEris REEF, Port DENISON XI. WarRIOR ISLAND REEF, TORRES STRAITS SMG STAGS-HORN REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 1. SIU, ZN Low Woopy REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 2. A ass Low Woopy REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 3. XIV SKULL-REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 4. XV. Low Woopy REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 5. XVI. CRESCENT REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 6. XVII CRESCENT REEF OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 7 20 ets OF WhO hO-wEZZOLY PE Pi AES: PLATE FACING PAGE ie BLEACHED CORAL SPECIMENS FROM THE GREAT BARRIER REEF ... bits Frontispiece 1G CHARTED REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND, TORRES STRAITS... oe BaD Ae 6 Te IsoLATED CORAL-GROWTHS, CHARTED ReEEF, THURSDAY ISLAND ... xe Be 12 IV. No. 1. INSHORE REEF, PALM ISLANDS are dee ac ast att “03 | ‘. 20 ,, No. 2. EropEpD INSHORE REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND ... me wats ee 3a | V. No. 1. Maprepore IsLet, PorT DENISON... aa ace Se ae ase | , L 2 » No. 2. Porires IsLtet, Frincinc Reer, Port DENISON dete at Ks ae | VI. No. 1. Porires Istets, PALM IsLAND’s REEF es 3 ae ae ist | » No. 2. Mrxep Corats, witH Porites BASEMENT, PALM IsLAND’s REEF aoe oe | 3 VII. FRINGING REEF, PorT DENISON, WITH MILLEPORA ALCICORNIS_ ... a: ae 42 VIII. No. 1. Doc-RreEr, SADDLE-BAck ISLAND, PoRT DENISON Se Bee ve aa | 5 No. 2. MILLEPORA AND ALCYONARIA, FRINGING REEF, Port DENISON ... ee me | a IX. MapREPORE LAGoon, Port DENISON ase mas oes re wee 56 X. No. 1. SUBMERGED MILLEPORA, PALM ISLANDS REEF ... aie bes nafs in | » No. 2. LopHosEris REEF, Port DENISON _... Ane = ee sit act | a XI. Warrior ISLAND REEF, TORRES STRAITS 70 XII. STAGS’-HORN REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 1. ... Bae ae ar 76 UNE Low Woopy ReeEf, OuTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 2 | UBS Low Woopy REEF, OuTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 3 XIV. SKULL-REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 4. . g2 XV. Low Woopy REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 5. atic 500 ono aa 98 XVI. CRESCENT REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 6. 104 XVII. CRESCENT REEF OUTER BARRIER SERIES, No. 7 aes ane wae Er 112 XVI PLATE XVIII. XIX. XXII. No. 25 No. XXIII. XXIV. No. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. » XXXI. XXXII. XXXII. ” XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. ” No. B. A. tN LIST VOL PO TOMELZO TNE ae Aes: FACING PAGE OrGAN-PiPE-CoRAL REEF, ‘THURSDAY ISLAND, TORRES STRAITS... =. ae 118 ALCYONARIAN REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND, No. 1. ah ae = ant 126 ALCYONARIAN REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND, No. nN — L132 ALCYONARIAN REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND, No. 3. ou Se noe aa | : Giant ANEMONE, DiscosomMA Happoni a tvs Bee Aes ie 140 STINGING ANEMONE, ACTINODENDRON ALCYONOIDEUM | ‘ \ I STINGING ANEMONE, MEGALACTIS GRIFFITHSI ... | i MusHROoOM-CorRALS, FUNGIA CRASSITENTACULATA, EXPANDED, CONTRACTED, AND \ I Younc ATTACHED, CONDITIONS | = MusHROOM CORAL, WITH ATTACHED YOUNG \ 160 MusHroom-Corats, FULLY EXPANDED | LivinGc CorALs, wiTH EXPANDED POLYPS a0 ae ae ane Bop 168 OrGAN-PIPE-CORAL, WITH EXPANDED POLyPs _ ... S00 38 oe don 174 AuTHor’s METHODS OF PHOTOGRAPHING SUBMERGED CORALS AND BE&CHE-DE-MER_... 182 PaLM IsLANDS REEF, WITH SUBMERGED SEA-URCHINS ... re aoe RAE 188 OuTER BARRIER REEF, WITH GIANT CLAMS AND BECHE-DE-MER OuTER BARRIER REEF, WITH Empty SHELL OF GIANT CLAM ee FLoTsAM.—WRECK OF NEW GUINEA MISSION SCHOONER “ HARRIER” 202 JETSAM.—STORM-STRANDED CoraL-Rocks, CAPRICORN ISLANDS REEF see os HURRICANE-STRANDED CORALS, FRINGING REEF, PORT DENISON ... wala ae 210 SPECIMENS OF CoraAL-ROCK CONGLOMERATES... be one ae ae: 216 OuTER BARRIER REEF, WITH SUBMERGED BE&CHE-DE-MER... i} 224 Lapy E.uior IsLanD REEF, WITH EXTENDED B&CHE-DE-MER | BECHE-DE-MER, SMALL LOLLy-FisH, SpoTTeD-FisH, Trat-FIsH 500 or oe 230 SNAKE-LIKE B&CHE-DE-MER ; B—PRICKLY-FIsH ... aoe S00 500 500 238 Natives OF WARRIOR ISLAND, TORRES STRAIT, PREPARING BECHE-DE-MER FOR THE \ 244 CHINESE MARKET ... noe tee Se che me bas | QUEENSLAND PEARLS ae ac eas fee acc abe ae 252 MOTHER-OF-PEARL SHELLS AND ARTIFICIALLY-PRODUCED PEARL ... nee 090 258 MANGROVE OysTER-BANK, KEPPEL Bay; MANGROVE OysTERS, ENDEAVOUR ESTUARY 266 OystER REEF, KEPPEL Bay; Corat-RocK OysTERS eee wet At ob: 272 CULTIVATED OysTER-BANK, Morreton Bay; WHELK-OysTER-BANK, MoRETON Bay ... 280 BARRIER REEF SHELLS, ON SPONGE TABLE nae wae an sah a 2 BaRRIER REEF SHELLS, ARTISTICALLY UTILISED ... PLATE XLII, XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVII. XLVIII. LISLE OF “PHOTO-MEZZOLVPE PLATES. XVi FACING PAGE BARRIER REEF FISHES—1, GIANT PERCH; 2, NORTHERN MULLET; 3, Rock Cop; 4, | 204 TAYLOR; 5, GROPER; 6, FLATHEAD BARRIER REEF FISHES—1, QUEENSLAND ‘TRUMPETER; 2, SPINOUS SCHNAPPER; 3, | 300 SpoTttED DorrEy; 4, BLack Bat FIsH a wh re aon | BARRIER REEF FISHES—1, SUCKING-FISH; 2, WHITING; 3, Pic-FAcED BREAM; 4, | | 308 RiFLE-FIsH ; 5, Topacco-PipE Fish; 6, Ox-EyE HErrrinG | BARRIER REEF FisHES—1, KiNnG-FISH; 2, COOKTOWN SALMON; 3, SMELT; 4, | 314 QUEEN-FISH; 5, QUEENSLAND Ho.isuT; 6, GIANT HERRING | BARRIER REEF FISHES—1, STONE-FISH; 2, BANDED Gar-FIsH; 3, WHITE TREVALLY ; | Sg 22 4, BANDED Dorey; 5, PIKE-EEL | BARRIER REEF FisHES—1, PoUCHED LEATHER-JACKET; 2 & 3, Ox-Ray; 4, SHOVEL- | ws 328 NOSED SKATE; 5, CARPET SHARK | XIII. XVI. EST “OF He TR OMG ILLUSTRATING GREAT BARRIER REEF ANEMONES ILLUSTRATING GREAT BARRIER REEF ANEMONES GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER GREAT BARRIER REEF REEF REEF REEF REEF REEF REEF REEF REEF REEF REEF REEF REEF REEF ANEMONES AND ZOANTHARIA CORALS CORALS CoRALS CoRALS CoRALS CORALS ALCYONARIA ... CoRALS AND ECHINODERMATA HoLoTHURIZ OR BECHE-DE-MER MOoLLuUScCA AND PLANARIANS OYSTERS FISHES FISHES Pee de Ss INDTNODUCT ORY: HE Great Barrier Coral Reef of Australia, the marvellous structure and extent of which were first made known to the world through the explorations of Captain Cook, is one of the wonders of the universe. Its linear measurement is no less than 1,250 miles, be- ginning with its northern origin in Torres Strait, about 92° south latitude, in close proximity to New Guinea, and thence stretching away as far as Lady Elliot Island, the southernmost true coral islet in the system, situated in the parallel of 24°, somewhat south of the bold mainland promontory known as Bustard Head. Its whole area, as shown by the foregoing data, lies entirely within the territorial jurisdiction of Queensland, of which colony it constitutes, 7 esse and im posse, one of the most valuable possessions. Some idea of the monetary importance to Queensland of the Great Barrier Coral Reef area may be gained from the fact that raw material to the value of over £100,000 is obtained annually from the reefs and the intervening waters, and exported from the colony. This sum, moreover, probably represents but a fractional portion of what it will be worth when the prolific resources of the region have been fully developed. The items which have contributed in the past, and are likely to contribute in the future, most extensively towards the production of the substantial figures quoted are the pearl and pearl-shell and the Trepang (or Béche-de-mer) fisheries. These are capable of development to an almost unlimited extent, and in addition to them there are other fishing and allied industries which await but the advent of scientifically applied labour, and the necessary capital, to yield a rich increase to the Colony’s wealth. Reef along the Queensland The dis- The extreme linear measurement of the Great Barrier coast-line approximates, as above recorded, to no less than 1,250 English miles. tance from the mainland to the outer edge or boundary of this gigantic reef, or (more correctly) series of reefs varies somewhat in different districts. From Cape Weymouth, in the latitude of 123°, to the Trinity Opening, 164° south, or an extent of 240 geographical miles, the average distance of the Barrier’s outer edge from the mainland does not exceed B 2 THE GREAT BARRIER REEL thirty miles. At one or two isolated points, such as the promontories of Cape Melville and of Cape Direction, the distance is as little as ten or twelve miles. At the northern and the southern extremities of this relatively uniform reef-enclosed channel, the proximity of the outer wall or boundary of the Barrier from the mainland increases considerably. At its northern end it follows a course due north, the trend of the mainland being north-west by north, until, opposite Cape York, Queensland's extreme northern point, there is an intervening distance of over ninety miles. Eastward of Torres Strait the outer wall of the Barrier describes a north and slightly north-easterly course, embracing what is known as the Warrior Reef, Murray and Darnley Islands, and ending in close proximity to the New Guinea coast. South- ward from Cairns and the Trinity Opening, the outer edge of the Barrier for a stretch of nearly 180 miles lies off the mainland at a distance varying from forty to sixty miles. From this point it rapidly extends further seawards, its more northerly clearly-defined continuity dis- appears, and it becomes broken up into detached reefs and islets that are ultimately as remote as 150 miles from the Queensland coast-line. The area enclosed between the outer edge of the Great Barrier Coral Reef and the Queensland mainland is necessarily of very considerable dimensions, and may be set down, at the lowest approx- imate estimate, at some 80,000 square geographical miles. This extensive area, throughout the greater part of its length, may be said to consist of a perfect archipelago of detached reefs and coral islets, the majority of the former of which are completely submerged, or only partially exposed to view at ordinary low water. Although usually represented as forming, with the exception of certain well-defined passages, a continuous wall throughout its length, the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef must be more correctly described as consisting of a chain of detached reefs of variable lengths, with innumerable openings, only a few of which offer a secure passage for large-sized vessels. The list of these openings, enumerated and named on the Admiralty charts for the navigation of these waters, beginning with the Great North-East (or Bligh) Entrance in the extreme north, and ending with the wide and most southerly entrance of Curtis Channel, is as follows :— LIST OF NAVIGABLE PASSAGES THROUGH THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. *1. Bligh, or Great North-East Entrance. *12, One-and-a-Half Mile Opening. 2. Flinder’s Entrance. 13. Cook’s Passage (1770). 3. Yule Entrance. *14, Lark Passage. 4. Olinda Entrance. *15. ‘Trinity Opening. 5. Pandora Entrance. *16. Grafton Passage. 6. Raine Island Entrance. *17. Flora Pass. 7. Black Rock Entrance. 18. Palm Passage. 8. Quoin Island Entrance. 19. Magnetic Passage. g. Providential Channel (Cook, 1770). *20, Flinder’s Pass. 10. Second Three Mile Opening. *21, Capricorn Channel. 7 = First Three Mile Opening. *22, Curtis Channel. INTRODUCTORY. Gs The numbers in the above list associated with an asterisk indicate the only passages which are regularly used for navigation. Out of these, No. 1 represents the ordinary entrance through the Barrier of vessels of heavy draught proceeding from the east by what is known as the Outer Route, w@ Torres Strait, to India and China. The Raine Island Passage, No. 6, prior to the survey of the Great North-East Entrance, represented the main route from the east and south to Torres Strait; in consequence of the intricate and dangerous nature of its reefs and channels it is now, excepting for its occasional use by small craft, practically abandoned. Nos. 12 and 14 are commonly utilised by vessels sailing between Cooktown and New Guinea. Nos. 16 and 17 ‘afford convenient entrances to the ports of Cairns and of Geraldton, while Capricorn and Curtis Channels represent the wide navigable openings through which all vessels from the south gain entry, proceeding by what is known as the Inner Route to Torres Strait, the Indian Ocean, and China Seas. The linear chain of reefs that form the outer edge of the Barrier, together with the in- numerable secondary reefs that are congregated closely within its boundaries, constitute a natural breakwater against the ever-reverberating surges of the Pacific Ocean, and thus convert the “Inner Route” into a relatively shallow and tranquil inland sea, which the largest ocean steamers traverse, for the greater part of the year, with open ports and on an even keel. This inner passage being thickly studded with islets, reefs, and shoals, its navigation is necessarily intricate, and gives employment, where vessels of heavy tonnage are concerned, to a large staff of experienced and highly efficient pilots. All danger in this inner passage, it is scarcely necessary to remark, is further reduced to a minimum by the very excellent system of lighting and beaconing that has been established by the Queensland Government. For the introduction and organisation of the system, special credit is due to Captain G. P. Heath, R.N., who recently retired, after having been Port Master to the colony for a period of thirty years. The lighting and beaconing of the Queensland coast-line is, as a matter of fact, frequently cited by navigators, the world over, as among the most efficient of its kind. Further data concerning the structural features of the Great Barrier Reef, together with a summary and a discussion of the theories that have been most recently advanced with relation to the origin of coral formations, furnish the material for a separate chapter. CHAR Ra: DESCRIPTIVE DETAILS OF PHOLOIPESELAIES, has been thought desirable to devote this chapter to a detailed description of the forty-eight plates, comprising some sixty subjects, reproduced by photo-mechanical processes from the author's original negatives. These photographic subjects, including more particularly the reef-views, are referred to individually, or as a whole, or with reference to some specific detail, in various disconnected sections of the succeeding text. To many subscribers to this work the illustra- (\ Ba tions will, probably, prove the most prominent, if not the sole, attraction ; in their interests, a condensed description of the most noteworthy illustrative features is obviously demanded. PIL AMIDE, Il, BLEACHED CORAL SPECIMENS FROM THE GREAT BARRIER REEF, The initial plate in the series forms a fitting introduction to the main subject of this volume. It represents a typical collection of specimens obtained from the Great Barrier Reef in the neighbourhood of Port Denison, specially prepared by bleaching, for the export trade. Large quantities of this bleached coral are utilised, in conjunction with Barrier Reef shells, as the orthodox adornment of the innumerable oyster saloons throughout the Australian colonies, while many of the more ornamental varieties find a ready sale among retail purchasers for household decoration. The identification of the specific varieties included in this introductory plate will be facilitated by a reference to the accompanying diagrammatic plan, in which a cross with an associated figure occupies the approximate position of each individual coral. The majority of the specimens included in this group are referable to the extensive genus Madrepora, and are for the most part remarkable in life for their brilliant coloration. The large bouquet-shaped mass, No. 21, towards the left-hand corner of the foreground, is, in its living condition, intense violet and identical with TIVE DINOINV IPI SELENITE, IMOL The the variety of which a small fragment is represented by Fig. 3 in Plate IX. in 3 the coloured lithographs. It having proved on examination to be a hitherto undescribed species, Mr. George Brook, F.L.S.,—who is at present occupied in compiling a catalogue of all the Madreporaria in the National Collection,—has associated it in a recently published list, by way of com- pliment, with the author's name. In Nos. 12 and 24, occupying more central positions, are depicted a species closely allied to the form Fig. 17 of the same coloured plate. Like it, in life, they have the bases and main shafts of the branches buff colour, and all the terminations brilliant magenta. The more typical Stags’-horn corals, represented by Nos. 1, 3, 7, and 25 of the diagrammatic plan, vary, through innumerable shades of green, yellow, lilac, and brown. Occasionally, as in No. 15, Madrepora laxa, occupying the uppermost position on the right- hand side, the entire living corallum is, as depicted in Fig. 6 of the coloured plate previously quoted, a brilliant electric-blue. DIAGRAMMATIC KEY TO PLATE I. tit op a ie le: EXPLANATION. 1, 7, 25. Madrepora muricata var. 13. Galaxea Espert. 20 Madrepora Hemprichi var. 2, 5. Madrepora rosaria. 14. Seriatopora hystrix. 21. Madrepora Kentt. 3, 6, 10, 12, 24. Madrepora formosa. 15. Madrepora laxa. 22, 27. Fungia lacera. 4,11. Madrepora Bruggemannt. 16, 19. Pocillopora damicornis. 23. Lodobacia crustacea. 8. Sertatopora octoptera. 17, 28. Stylopora palmata. 26. Mussa multilobata. 9. Madrepora conferta. 18. Madrepora rosaria var. dumosa. 29. Herpetolitha talpina, The very delicate and profusely branched species, Madrepora rosaria var., No. 18, located in an almost central position in the group, is most usually of a pale lemon-yellow hue throughout, with the exception of the extreme tips or distal terminations, which vary from white to the palest mauve 6 THE GREAT, BARRIER eee. or flesh-pink. No. 26, towards the right-hand base, depicts one of the labyrinthine, coarsely- toothed Mussz, the deep sunk valleys of which, in life, are usually bright myrtle-green ; the intervening spinous ridges are a rich golden-brown. Typical illustrations of the life-colours of this genus are included in Plate V. of the chromo-lithographic series. Mushroom-corals, genus Fungia, with its elongated affinity Herpetolitha, are represented by Nos. 22, 27, and 29. None of these bleached specimens are characterised, in life, by brilliant coloration : in most instances they are of a light brownish hue. An allied form, however, /wngia crassitentaculata, illustrated in the Phototype plates XXIII. and XXIV., and also in Plate VI. of the chromographic series, is conspicuous for the brilliant hues of its living tissues. Galaxea Esperi, No. 13, occupying a sub-central position, is characterised by a corallum which, in its dried condition, may be aptly compared with one of those wonder-raising products of the confectioner’s skill which bristle with bleached almonds. Some idea of the aspect of the living coralla of the members of this generic group may be gained by a reference to No. IV. of the coloured plates, in which the dominant hues of the component polyps are typically illustrated. Among the more conspicuously tinted corals of this selected group, reference may be made to Nos. 8, 14, 16, 17, 19, and 28, representing the genera Seriatopora, Stylopora, and Pocillopora. The living coralla and associated polyps of the first two genera, in particular, usually vary in colour from the most delicate pale pink to brilliant rose, while in the third type, Pocillopora, a pale lilac or purplish hue prevails Typical illustrations of the corals and polyps of these several generic forms are included in Plate VII. of the coloured series. As there shown, they are seen to be very closely allied to one another structurally, the polyps in each genus being very simple, and furnished with but twelve symmetrical, knobbed, or capitate tentacles. The only prominent form that remains unnoticed is the broadly expanded foliaceous example, No. 23, located near the centre of the immediate foreground. In shape and aspect it bears no inconsiderable resemblance to certain encrusting fungi. This species, Podobacia crustacea, agrees very nearly in the structure of its corallum and living tissues with Lophoseris cristata, included in Plate VIII. of the tinted series. In that species the ground hue of the general surface is usually light brown or a delicate lemon-yellow, and the radiating star-like polyps are pale apple or emerald-green. Notwithstanding the extreme beauty of form and structure exhibited by the artificially- prepared corals that form the subject of this introductory plate, these exquisite fabrications of carbonate of lime, it will now be understood, represent but the whitened bones or skeletons of brilliant-hued living organisms. An intelligible analogy to the relationship that subsists between, and the comparative beauties that respectively characterise, these dry bones and the living polyps which they support, is afforded by their comparison with the more or less familiar lime-bleached skeleton leaves and floral envelopes that in former years enjoyed brief patronage for drawing-room decoration. The intricate lace-like traceries of woody fibre, of which these SLIWGUS SHddOL CNWIS] AWCSHOAY dada Cala Ho ‘day ‘09 aIdo0osdavajg UOpuoT 0J0Yg ‘JUay-a//IAeS ‘MY oe ARYL « GEA! ao LW AL Yd OM HAR PENOLOUVRE, “PLATE NO: TL: Ni vegetable skeletons consist, possess intrinsic features of beauty that in their special order can scarcely be surpassed, but are, at the same time, not comparable in hue and aspect with the same skeletal elements clad with their exquisitely-tinted living tissues. Rae AG ele CHARTED REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND, TORRES STRAIT. This first number of the series of reef-views, while by no means as attractive in aspect as many of the succeeding illustrations, possesses a specific value that claims for it a prominent position. It represents an area of reef, of the ordinary inshore or fringing variety, at the extreme south or seaward end of Vivien Point, Thursday Island, as exposed at an abnormally low spring- ‘tide on June gth, 1890. Throughout the greater portion of the year, including all ordinary springs and neaps, the larger portion of this coral-growing area is completely submerged. It occurred to the author that this area, being situated in so readily-accessible a position, immediately outside the grounds of the Government Residence, Thursday Island, offered excep- tional facilities for recording the much-needed data concerning the average rate of growth of the more important reef-forming coral species. Upon this subject there has hitherto been very little accurate information available. For the acquirement of such knowledge it is requisite that healthy coral-growths should, in the first instance, be selected; their respective dimensions and bearings with relation to one another should then be accurately determined, and corresponding measurements should be taken at systematic intervals. As an initial step in this direction, the author has made a rough diagrammatic chart of the vigorously-growing reef at the extreme outer edge of the area portrayed in the illustration now under notice. In this chart, the longest diameters of all the conspicuously-growing corals have been accurately measured and registered. An earnest appeal is here made, in the interests of science, to any residents in, or visitors to, Thursday Island, during favourable tides, to identify and measure these coral-masses, and by so doing to ascertain what growth they have made since their first measurement in the year 1890. This diagram of the Vivien Point reef-area was first published in association with the author's presidential address to the Royal Society of Queensland for the above-named year ; it is repro- duced overleaf, together with a list of the specific forms of corals growing on it more detailed than has been previously recorded. This diagrammatically-charted area, with relation to the reef- view, Plate II., applies exclusively to the isolated islet to the extreme left of the reef, and is practically composed of two large coral-masses, separated from one another by a deep and narrow channel. The outermost, or larger, of the two masses consists of a solid growth of an exceedingly minute-celled Porites, identical with, or nearly allied to, P. astrwoides ; its character- istic nodular surface-pattern is distinctly visible on the inner right-hand border of the mass in the photographic reproduction. This Porites colony-stock in its longest, diagonal, diameter io 2) THE GREAT BARRIER “REEF. = = INCLUDING A PORTION OF THE SAME LIGHT BROWN Porites A. Pocit.0PoRA. B. CON/ASTRAA C. Mussa. D. Maorerora Grey GREEN GONIASTREA Fic |. Grovwo Peaw or Living Conat MASSES AT THE EXTREME END OF Vivien Pons, Taursoay ISLAND, AS EXPOSED AT LOWEST EBB OF Sprwe Ti0£, June 91890 Tae AREA REPRESENTED 1S /DENTICAL WITH THE Pol oF THE REEF TO THE ExTREME LEFT IW Plate Tl. Cora MASSES TO THE LEFT OF THOSE IN FiG 2. GONIASTRAA-STOCK ON THE EXTREME R/GHT. Fic 3. GONIASTRAA. SYMPHYLLIA apa: Ey’ OC) eee eens Kaban > ie / Saree 0 oath een (BRS sean Sitmarged ws a Fe \MONTIPORA } = — Series eel eae ey i FiG 2. Represewrine MEASUREMENTS, AT SAME DATE, oF ForEGROUND Corats in Plate I DIAGRAMMATIC PLAN ano MEASUREMENTS of THURSDAY ISLAND CORAL GROWTHS. PL OROUNEE EPIL ATEE SNOW VIE 9 measures, as shown in the diagram, no less than nineteen feet. It is split up, on its seaward side, by two convergent intersecting gutters, and is separated on its northern, shorewards, face from the adjacent coral-mass by a channel over a fathom deep, which measured exactly two feet wide, at its narrowest point, when the two masses were awash at dead low spring tide. Notwithstanding its present massive proportions and irregularity of contour, this huge Porites began as a small, symmetrically convex, corallum a few inches only in diameter, or, to be more accurate, from a single polyp of microscopic dimensions—from such a one, in fact, as is delineated among the representations of this genus included in Plate VIII. of the coloured series. The mind conjures up, intuitively, the number of the centuries that must most assuredly have elapsed since the primeval nativity of this gigantic coral. In its present condition of growth, this Porites is living, and increasing in size, on its peripheral edge only, all vitality being arrested on its superior surface in consequence of its having attained to a vertical height that exposes it, periodically, to atmospheric influences inimical to healthy growth. This more elevated plane, although unfavourable to the further vertical enlargement of the Porites, is not unsuited to the growth of many other species, which are accordingly found flourishing on its dead horizontal surface. None of these superimposed corals were in June, 1890, of conspicuous size. The largest, a Coeloria, measured three feet four inches across its longest diameter, while the majority of the specimens, representing the several genera Pocillopora, Goniastrzea, Mussa, and Madrepora, in no instance, as shown in the accompanying diagram, exceeded a width of twelve inches. A systematic record of the further growth of these comparatively young corals is specially recommended, and should elicit data of high interest and importance. The second, more inshore, coral-mass indicated on the diagrammatic chart, is of smaller dimensions than the outer one, and measured but eight feet two inches in its longest diameter at the date recorded. It is also of a species distinct from that of the larger outside mass, being a Goniastraa, allied to G. eximia, in this instance greenish-white in hue, and having much larger constituent polyp-cells or corallites than the Porites. The channel separating these two contiguous masses was, as previously stated, at the date recorded, pre. cisely two feet wide. It would be instructive to ascertain the time that will elapse before this channel becomes filled up by the growing corals, or otherwise what progress towards the accomplishment of such a result will be made within the next few decades. As indicated in the diagram, a symmetrical colony-stock of one of the procumbent species of Madrepora, M. prostrata, three feet eight inches in diameter, is interposed between the two main coral-masses, occupying a position to the extreme left of the intersecting channel, A smaller, more deeply submerged, growth of the same species projects yet further into this channel at the point indicated by the dotted line. This highly porous, loosely-branched species of Madrepora, it may be confidently assumed, spreads peripherally at a much more rapid c 10 THE ‘GREAT BARRIERS (REET: rate than the solid coralla of the Porites and Goniastraea. It may consequently happen, within the course of a few years, that this Madrepora shall have intruded so far into the dividing channel as to exert a material influence on the inwardly approaching growths of the two more massive genera. One other coral-growth of conspicuous dimensions, included in the diagram, invites attention. This is a mass of the labyrinthine dark brown Symphyllia hemispherica, about three feet in diameter, which is growing on the south-westerly outer rim of the Porites. Its approximate size and position were duly charted; but the rapidly-rising tide intervened to prevent its precise measurement. In addition to the outermost reef-area, roughly outlined in Fig. 1 of the accompaying diagram, careful measurements were taken, at the same date, of the longest diameters of the several conspicuous coral-growths that form the immediate foreground of Plate II. The dimensions of these more inshore coral-masses are indicated in Fig. 2 of the diagrammatic plan. They include, towards the left, an irregularly-rounded, almost high and dry, mass of Goniastrwa Grayi, the commonest dark-brown species of a genus which enters so extensively into the composition of all inshore or fringing reefs throughout the Barrier district. This genus will be found most abundantly represented in the Palm Islands inshore reef, Plate IV., and also in the remarkable Skull Reef, illustrated by Plate XIV. The extreme right of the foreground is occupied by the dome-shaped corallum of one of the larger Brain-corals, Symphyllia, specifically identical with the specimen growing on the outer rim of the large Porites. Both this and the Goniastraea last referred to are, however, represented to much better advantage in the following plate. Among the coral-growths in the present reef-view, yet unnoticed, attention may be directed to the smaller submerged Porites just awash in the central foreground, and having growing upon it a Pocillopora that is almost completely dry. So soon as this Porites attains a few more inches of vertical growth, its entire superior surface, it may be anticipated, will become dead and eroded, after the manner of the large outlying mass that forms the main element of the diagrammatically charted reef. The third figure in the accompanying diagrammatic plan includes a couple of coral-masses that are located some twenty or thirty yards to the left, or east, of the foreground group in Plate II. They were photographed and measured at the same date, but do not embrace distinctive features requiring special illustration. It may be recorded, however, that the larger and nearer mass is a dark-brown Ceeloria with very short calicinal valleys that appears to be identical with Caloria sinensis (M. Ed. and H.), which, as shown in the diagram, has its upper surface obliquely weathered. The adjacent and hinder coral-stock represents a corallum of a Goniastraea that is eroded exteriorly and centrally in such manner as to exhibit a distinct crescentic outline. A conspicuous feature, not hitherto referred to, in the central portion of the exposed reef in this photographic illustration, is the luxuriant development thereon of various species of POM Oma wie Sy. INOS. gill. KAN DD LY. II Alcyonaria. These include, immediately to the rear of the charted area, a considerable surface that is entirely encrusted with a corrugated-leather-like species, apparently identical with the Alcyonium murale of Dana, that is yet more extensively developed, and herein fully described, in association with the lower of the two reef-views included in Plate XX. It remains to be mentioned that the high ground on the farther side of the water in Plate II. represents a portion of Prince of Wales’s Island, with its scattered pearl-shelling stations. These landmarks should prove of service in making a re-survey of this reef-area. A like condition of the tide and the same bearings being accurately obtained, a photograph taken a decade or two hence should reveal important data concerning coral-growth in this region. Peale Nal ES ee eden: ISOLATED CORAL-GROWTHS, CHARTED REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND. This illustration represents a nearer view of the coral-growths that occupy the foreground of the preceding plate, but from an opposite standpoint, looking shorewards instead of seawards. The identical coralla of the Goniastraeaa and Symphyllia are here shown to much greater advan- tage, the minute individual cells of the former, and the elegantly convoluted ridges and valleys of the latter, being remarkably distinct. The life-colour of this individual Brain-coral was a rich golden-brown ; it frequently happened, however, that while the septal ridges exhibited this golden tint the intervening valleys, or polyp-centres, were a rich velvety green. A fragment of such a more brightly-tinted variety is illustrated in Plate V. of the coloured series. Several coralla of the narrower-celled, ordinary Brain-coral occupy a somewhat lower level in this picture. The life-colours of these specimens were, when examined, lilac and brown, the former tint distinguish- ing the valley-like depressions, and the latter the intervening ridges. A coloured representation of this type is given in the plate last quoted. A noticeable feature in Plate III. is the background, consisting of a mass of lifeless sedimentary coral-rock encrusted with growing Alcyonaria of diverse varieties. Towards the right may be observed the fleshy, lobulated polyparies of Sarcophyton (Alcyonium) glaucum; the middle ground is occupied by Alcyonium flexibile, and the left-hand area by the proliferous colony- stocks of a species of Ammothea. The extent of surface that may be covered by these soft- fleshed representatives of the coral class is even more abundantly demonstrated in several sub- sequent illustrations, including, notably, Plates XX. and XXI. PRIA peel Viars NO. 1.—INSHORE REEF, PALM ISLANDS. This view is highly typical of the class of coral-reef that predominates on the intra-tidal areas of the Palm Islands group. It represents a portion of the foreshore that is left high and Cie 12 THE GREAT BARRIER REET dry with every spring-tide, and may be appropriately compared with an ordinary boulder-strewn beach on the British coast. Rock boulders are, however, here replaced by coral-stocks, while leathery, bright-tinted Alcyonaria growing upon them, take the place of the more familiar olive- brown seaweeds, or Fuci, of the British seas. The coral-masses thickly scattered throughout this reef-view belong almost exclusively to a single species of Goniastrzea, very nearly allied to the form illustrated in the two plates previously described. Sprinkled here and there among the Goniastraee, the somewhat larger-celled coralla of another Astrzid, or star-coral, Prionastraea sp., may be detected. Two initial growths, or it may be the isolated, last surviving, fragments, of an original massive corallum of this variety are conspicuous near the summit of the much- eroded block towards the left in the immediate foreground. In life, as shown in Fig. 8 of Chromo plate No. V., the centre of each polyp-cell, or corallite, is brilliant grass-green, the surrounding septal ridges being dark brown. The eroded block that forms the basis of these several coralla possesses an intrinsic feature of interest. Securely embedded within its substance, some half-a-dozen specimens of the so-called Frilled, or Furbelow, Clam-shell, Zridacna compressa, may be observed. The shells are usually pale yellow, while the membrane, or ‘“‘ mantle,” of the living animal, exposed to view betwixt these slightly gaping ‘ valves,” is resplendent with a variety of the most gorgeous hues. Some idea of the life aspect of these Frilled Clams may be gained by a reference to No. XIII. of the coloured plates, in which the entire lower portion of the picture is devoted to a representation of some of the more characteristic tints and markings with which these Molluscs may be arrayed. Every gradation of shade, from palest turquoise to the richest ultramarine, and peacock-blue or green, variegated with black spots and scribblings, commonly obtain. In other instances the ground colour is purple or rich brown, brilliant green or blue spots and streaks taking the place of the black markings of the series first referred to. This frilled clam, in comparison with its huge relation, Tridacna gigas, found growing on the same reefs, but usually farther out to sea, is of relatively small dimensions, rarely exceeding a length of ten or twelve inches, those embedded in the worn coral-block illustrated measuring about six. The manner in which these clams become so deeply embedded in the coral-masses has been a matter of conjecture. Although the process has not actually been observed, it may be taken for granted that the clams anchor themselves in some small crevice of the corallum selected, at a very minute and early stage of their existence. The pressure of their hard valves acts as a check upon the ingrowth over them of the soft-fleshed, coral-secreting polyps ; while, at the same time, it seems highly probable that, as in the case of many other shell-fish, they possess the property of eroding, or possibly of chemically dissolving, the dead coral matrix in their rear. On examining the picture with an ordinary hand-glass, one detects specimens of these clams established on many other coralla; and it is a moot point whether these shells do not contribute extensively towards the death and dismemberment of the corals upon which they have literally obtained a foot-hold. The encrusting Alcyonaria, CNWIST AWCSUNAL sddd CHLaWHO SALMOWS THa00 CALYTOSI day ‘09 oI1doosoavajg vopuo7 '020Yq ‘JuUay-aljiseg “MH Ao pt GOO CHEV Ika RPHOLOL MEER PEARLS NOS. TV. AND V. 13 which hang in thick festoons over so large a number of the coralla, are, however, undoubtedly responsible for a very large share of the work of decay and disintegration. The outer or seaward edge of this same Palm Islands reef, incorporating a much wealthier variety of coral-growths, finds characteristic illustration in several succeeding plates, among which Nos. VI. and X. may be specially referred to. NO. 2.—ERODED INSHORE REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND. This reef-view, at first sight, appears to embody but few points of interest, consist- ing for the most part of dead, much-eroded coral-rock, more or less encrusted with fleshy Alcyonaria, and the calcareous vegetable growths known as Nullipores. This picture is, however, of value, as it constitutes a highly characteristic illustration of a typical foreshore, or platform reef, at that point where the coral ceases to live, and where the rock-mass is almost exclusively composed of the consolidated débris of species formerly growing on the outer margin of the reef. A heap of these cast-up fragments, in their as yet unconsolidated state, may, in point of fact, be observed lying between the two large masses of peripherally-growing Goniastreee that occupy the foreground. The higher (or back) portion of the picture represents, in other words, that plane of elevation where corals cannot exist, in consequence of its prolonged exposure to the sun and air with every ordinary ebb-tide. The vital phenomena of the Goniastreee as depicted in this reef-view are, of themselves, highly interesting and instructive. In addition to illustrating the normal vertical growth limits of the species, it indicates the potentiality of the coralla to spread laterally to any unimpeded extent. The general aspect and plan of expansion of the coralla here illustrated may be said to constitute an epitomisation of the growth of the entire reef, pushing forward with vigorous energy on its outer edge, and leaving behind it a mass of loose or consolidated debris with scattered patches of semi- suspended vitality. PEI, Wo NO. 1.—MADREPORA ISLET, PORT DENISON. This exceedingly picturesque reef-view is typical of the coral-growth that predominates over a large area in the vicinity of Stone Island, Port Denison, on the North Queensland coast. Stags’-horn corals, belonging to the genus Madrepora, occupy a dominant position throughout this reef-scape, and are represented by several distinct species. The little islet in the central foreground comprises two varieties. The larger symmetrically ovate mass, Madrepora decipiens, is, as it grows, of a rich golden-brown hue, with whitish extremities. The smaller, irregularly-shaped 14 TLE, AGRIZA TS VBA TURILE IR, EG EAE FP mass to its right, Madrepora prostrata, was bronze-green with yellow tips; but it is a species subject to much colour variation. An illustration of a small fragment of this species, in which the green is of a more vivid tone, is illustrated by Fig. 1 of Chromo plate No. IX. The adjacent figure in the same plate illustrates a showy variety of this species in which the corallum is bright shrimp-pink, with yellow terminations. A yet more slender, erect, profusely branching species of Stags’-horn coral may be observed growing in dense patches near the centre of the picture. This is Madrepora pulchra, remarkable for its attractive coloration. The main stem and branches are usually pale yellow, or buff-white; and each relatively large terminal cell, or ‘“corallite,” is either a delicate china or brilliant turquoise-blue. The polyps associated with these larger terminal areas are, by way of contrast, light emerald-green. Among the few additional varieties discernible by close inspection in this reef-view, mention may be made of the encrusting, or foliaceous, coralla of a species of Montipora which varies through innumerable shades of purple, brown, and yellow. A large colony-stock of a golden- yellow variety with white edges may be observed in an almost completely submerged condition, immediately beneath the smaller of the two Madrepora masses, in the sub-central foreground group. Many patches of this same variety may be detected on the main body of the reef, and also, strewn over it, a considerable number of the rounded massive coralla of the cosmopolitan Gontastrea Grayi. Traversing this reef on foot, the author found innumerable mushroom-corals, Fungiz, inhabiting the intervening pools; the majority of these belonged to a finely-toothed, small-tentacled variety, resembling Fungia repanda. A remarkable example collected on this reef, supporting no less than ten young coralla, is delineated in the upper figure of Plate XXIV. A coral that likewise occurs very abundantly in this locality is the cup coral, Turbinaria cinerascens, which forms cup-shaped or variously convoluted foliaceous coralla of a golden-brown hue, the relatively large polyps that build it up being brilliant yellow. Coloured illustrations of this generic type are included in Chromo plate No. VIII. Although the time at the author's disposal did not permit of his making systematic measure- ments of selected coral-growths here, as at Thursday Island, this Port Denison area, which is depicted in the several succeeding reef illustrations, is readily accessible from the township of Bowen. These characteristic views might, consequently, be easily retaken by the camera, with such strict regard to the bearings and landmarks that the reproductions should fulfil the ré/e of a measured survey, and thus assist towards ascertaining the future growth of the more conspicuous coral-stocks. It may be observed, in this relation, that the high land on the horizon of the present reef-view represents Gloucester Island; Cape Gloucester, on the Queensland mainland, being to the extreme right. Saddle-back Island, which was the scene of several of the subsequent reef-views, lies in the dim distance, midway between the above landmarks. It is faintly visible in the original negative, and may be just discerned in some of the photo-mezzotype reproductions. PHOTORVRE “PEALES, NOS. V: AND V7. 15 NO. 2.—PORITES ISLET, PORT DENISON. This reef-view, while belonging to the same district as the preceding one, represents an area in the immediate neighbourhood of Adelaide Point on the mainland. The very conspicuous central figure in this illustration is a grand mass of Porites, apparently identical with the variety that forms the basis of the Thursday Island diagrammatic chart. Like that example, its exposed, horizontal, surface is for the most part dead and eroded, vitality being visible along its lateral borders only. The manner in which the most recent growths have developed, forming projecting lateral crests, is worthy of note. As in the Thursday Island example, the eroded upper surface has been adopted as a fulcrum of attachment by various coral types that flourish on a higher vertical plane, or, in other words, are better capable of surviving atmospheric exposure than the Porites. Sub- spheroidal Goniastreeee and a corymbose Madrepora, M. convexa, represent the most conspicuous species in this instance. A more clearly-defined example of the Madrepora is included in the nearer foreground, while numerous coralla of the same species of Goniastraea are thickly crowded in the background towards the left. Such is the ovate symmetry and peculiar incidence of the light upon these Goniastreez that, it transported to an ordinary landscape, they would pass for a flock of sheep. A noteworthy feature in this Adelaide Point reef-area is the abundant development thereon of a luxuriant crop of seaweeds of the olivaceous or Melanospermous order. The weeds are of slighter structure than the ordinary European Fucacee; but one dominant variety closely resembles the so-called Peacock-weed, Pavonia padina, of the British seas. An extensive crop of these algee, mixed with coral growths, is conspicuous in the foreground of this Porites Islet reef. PIG AMIE Whit. NO. 1.—PORITES ISLETS, PALM ISLANDS. This illustration represents a small portion of the outermost, tidally exposed, boundary of the reef whose inshore area has already been the subject of delineation and description. Two out of the three little coral islets included in this reef-view are, as in the preceding case, represented by a solid basement of Porites astreoides, or a very nearly allied form, upon whose eroded upper surface other coral species have become established. On the larger, or central, islet of the group, a considerable number of varieties may be recognised, including, most conspicuously, a finely- developed Brain-stone coral belonging to the genus Mzeandrina. The Porites basement in these two larger islets were coloured brilliant mauve, the same tint characterising the majority of the massive coralla of this species throughout the Palm Islands district. A point of interest that attaches itself to this little islet group is the circumstance that, in their varying conditions of development, the respective islets may be said to epitomise the several most characteristic 16 THE (GREAT, BARRIER VRE. coral-reef formations. In the largest (central) islet there is figuratively represented that com- monest type of reef formation which consists of more or less elevated land,—here represented by the spheroidal coral-masses,—surrounded by a low platform or fringing reef. In the second ’ (nearer) islet is typified the encircling or ‘‘ barrier” structural plan, in which an outer wall of growing coral is separated from the “land” by a lagoon channel. The third islet, to the right, requires but slightly further central hollowing to become like a typical lagoon island, or atoll, reposing, as described by previous writers, like a garland on the surface of the water. NO. 2.—PORITES AND MIXED SPECIES, PALM ISLANDS. The area delineated in this illustration represents a portion of the Palm Islands reef lying midway between the isolated islets in the preceding plate and the foreshore reef that forms the subject of Plate IV., No. 1. The entire foreground and a large portion of the central-ground in this reef-view consists of a huge mass of Porites some thirty or forty feet in diameter, and having a depth of from two to three fathoms around its outer margin. Its growing edges, in this instance completely submerged, are eroded and broken up into the most irregular outline, though it may be surmised that in its pristine condition, long ages back. it presented the smooth symmetry and modest proportions of such a coral-stock as the spheroidal Goniastrea growing near the centre of its weathered horizontal plateau. A large colony of specific varieties have established themselves, and are flourishing, on this extensive plateau, including, in addition to the Goniastrazea above referred to, a second species of the same genus, and numerous representatives of the several genera Mussa, Symphyllia, Cceloria, Mzeandrina, and other Astrzeacez. PENI ID, WEI FRINGING REEF, PORT DENISON. This reef represents one out of several of a series illustrating the characteristic aspect and composition of the fringing reefs skirting Saddle-back Island in the vicinity of Port Denison. The most noteworthy coral entering into the composition of this reef is the luxuriant growth of Millepora alcicornis, partly submerged, towards the right in the middle line. This species, as explained at length in the chapter specially dealing with coral organisms, belongs to a distinct order, that of the Hydrozoa, which is but rarely associated with a hard, calcareous skeleton or corallum. A second species, Millepora ramosa, is illustrated in Plate X., No. 1. It is a genus, however, that is by no means abundantly developed in the Great Barrier system, its zenith of development being associated with the tropical Atlantic or West Indian region, Other corals conspicuously represented in this reef-view include, near the central foreground, a large mass of a finely convoluted Brain-stone coral, Cceloria, having intercalated between it and the JIEIHOTOUVALE SALZATIES, IMOS, Walk, AUNIO) WATE, 17 picture margin the upper moiety of a corallum of Pocillopora damicornis. A second example of this last-named species occupies the centre of the reef-mass, with above, and a little to the right of it, a symmetrical colony-stock of the larger Brain-stone coral Symphyllia hemispherica. In the space between the Millepora and the Mzandrina a somewhat broken-up coral of a Prionastraea may be observed, belonging to that species usually distinguished, in life, by the brilliant green of its calicinal centres. Alcyonaria, and, as in one of the neighbouring Port Denison reefs previously described, brown Algee, contribute to the surface garniture of this reef-scape. We IC NAPE WAIN WA NO, 1.—DOG REEF, PORT DENISON. This view, in association with the preceding and the subsequent pictures, belongs to the Saddle-back Island series. Its most remarkable characteristic, the one, in fact, that has won for it its distinctive title, is the remarkable resemblance that one of the included coral-stocks bears to a swimming dog. The position of this singular freak of Nature scarcely requires special indication, being so conspicuously visible in the guise of a white-bodied, black-nosed bull-terrier, with half-closed eyes, and depressed, shortly-cropped ears, making its way across one of the intervening channels So forcible is this likeness that it has been commonly mis- taken for the object named by those who have seen the photograph. An equally (if not more) remarkable mimetic object-analogy will be found associated with the Skull Reef that forms the subject of Plate X1V. The dog-shaped coral-growth in the present reef-view represents, actually, a colony-stock of a Goniastrzea, allied to G. eximia, with its upper surface just awash at the particular state of the tide when the photograph was taken. A second, large, irregularly- shaped, high-and-dry corallum of this species forms a prominent object near the centre of the picture on the outer edge of the reef. A noteworthy peculiarity of this coral variety is the fact that, after very short exposure to the atmosphere, on the fall of the tide, the polyps recede so far into the substance of the corallum as to be not only invisible, but to leave its surface pure white, or with only a slightly greenish tinge, as though completely dead and bleached. When first observed by the author at Thursday Island, these white coralla were supposed to be defunct; but on their re-inspection the following day under a higher condition of the tide the polyps were exserted, and in a vigorous state of vitality. A species of coral included in this reef-scape, that has not entered into the composition of the views previously described, is the finely subdivided, spiked variety just raised above water a little to the left of the foreground centre. This is a species of Seriatopora, S. elegans, or S. hystrix, remarkable in life for its exquisitely delicate tints, which in the example referred to were a vivid rose-pink. Coloured figures of the corallum and polyps of this species are included in Plate VII. of the chromo-lithographic illustrations. A fine (in life, purplish) corallum of Pocillopora D 18 TLE, NG ERGATS PALL RS SRE damicornis occupies the centre of the same reef-mass, while a large, isolated dome of a golden- brown Brain coral, Cceloria, monopolises the nearest foreground. NO, 2.—MILLEPORA AND ALCYONARIA, PORT DENISON. This illustration represents, practically, a more comprehensive view of the reef delineated in Plate VII. The same coralla of Millepora, Symphyllia, and Cceloria, will be recognised in the centre of the picture, while new growths are included in both the background and the foreground of this central area. The isolated knoll, immediately to the front, supports a varied assemblage of coral species. Most conspicuous among these are the leather-like polyparies of Sarcophyton glaucum, which vary in colour from pale apple-green or bronze-green to lilac or golden-brown. These colours, as recorded in a later chapter, may change from time to time in the same individual polypary. Throughout all variations in hue of the leathery matrix, the essential living factors, or slender-stalked, eight-armed polyps, are, without exception, yellow, though exhibiting gradations of this hue that may range from palest primrose to the brightest cadmium. Illustrations of the diversely tinted polyparies of this Alycyonarian, together with its characteristic polyps, are included in the Chromo plate series, No. X. A few of the yellow polyps, in their semi-retracted state, may be distinctly discerned, with the aid of a hand-glass, near the lower edge of the polypary, situated farthest towards the left, in the uppermost group on this coral knoll. Closely associated, towards the back of this foreground mound, are coral growths which represent in the order of their disposition the genera Symphyllia, Pocillopora, and Millepora. The hemispherical mass that constitutes the main substance of this foreground mound would appear to be the long since dead, and much eroded, corallum of a giant Brain- stone coral, pertaining to the genus Cceloria. The rocks in the background of this reef-view are of interest, though, unfortunately, some- what out of focus. The attached objects which impart to those rocks a rough, nodulated appearance, are masses of the oyster, Ostrea mordax, of general occurrence throughout the Barrier district, and fully described and illustrated under the appropriate chapter heading. The interest attachable to these bivalves, in the present connection, is associated with the fact that their presence serves to illustrate the respective horizontal planes where the molluscs first appear, flourish, and cease to grow, the corals taking up the running. The most luxuriant growth-zone of this oyster species, it may be remarked, is represented by, as nearly as possible, half ebb of ordinary spring-tide. No corals are found growing at the vertical altitude of this mid-tide oyster plane; neither do the oysters descend to the coral zone. It will be obvious, from these remarks, that epochs of exceptionally low spring-tides are the only seasons in which these coral organisms can be approached for the purposes of study and photographic illustration under their natural conditions of vitality. PHOTOINMPE “PIRATES NOS, [Xe AND X: 19 IPL AN INI, IDSC e MADREPORE LAGOON, PORT DENISON. The scene of this illustration is in close vicinity to that of the Madrepore islet that forms the subject of Plate V., No. 1. Throughout its extensive area, it presents an almost uniform growth of Madrepora convexa. Here and there, however, may be recognised the expanded foliaceous growths of a Montipora, nearly resembling JZ. expansa, and the more shrubby coralla of Madrepora decipiens. The shadowy, half-tone presentments of the totally submerged corals constitute a specially artistic feature in the original negative of this reef-view; but it is scarcely conspicuous in the reproduction. From a practical standpoint, this calm lagoon is worthy of notice, since it represents a typical example of those areas which abound among the reefs, and are particularly adapted for the artificial culture of mother-of-pearl shell, sponges, and other marine products of commercial value. The facility of access to this lagoon, and to innumerable others like it, from the port of Bowen, merits attention. PEP AUIS EC BXee NO. 1.—SUBMERGED MILLEPORA, PALM ISLANDS REEF. The situation of this reef-view corresponds very nearly with that of Plate VI., No. 2. Its most noteworthy feature is the luxuriant growth of Millepora ramosa, visible in dense bush-like clumps immediately beneath the surface of the water, and for the most part rising from a depth of two or three fathoms. It represents the only area, with the exception of Port Denison, Plate VII., in which this Hydroid Coral has been found by the author to enter conspicuously into the composition of the Great Barrier Reef. This species may be readily distinguished from its Port Denison congener by the more slender, cylindrical, contour of its closely-crowded rami- fications, and by its thick, bush-like habit of growth, as compared with the compressed palmate growth-plan of Mzillepora alcicornis. Alcyonaria, of two specific varieties, including Alcyonium glaucum and A. flexibile, float loosely in the water to the extreme left, while immediately above them may be observed the irregularly- shaped corallum of a Goniastraea, into whose eroded base a number of Frilled Clams, 7rzdacna compressa, have wedged themselves, securing a firm anchorage. Among the variety of species scattered over the exposed surface of this reef there is one conspicuous type that has not yet been noticed. This specimen, which looks much like a spheroidal astreeid with abnor- mally large polyp-centres, is situated on the farther margin of the reef, a little to the right of the precise centre. It is, as a matter of fact, an example of the dark-indian, or brick-red, species of Mussa, M. corymbosa, illustrated in Chromo plate No. V. A second, commoner, green or m2 20 UIE (CARIEZN IS [axe SURSSRAI EIR, KSI ESE green-and-brown, representative of the same genus, Mussa multilobata, occupies a position a little farther to the left. The coral of a dark hue and finely nodular structure, immediately to the rear of the eroded Goniastraea, is a golden-brown Porites belonging to that obtusely branching growth of which P. furcata is a typical example. NO, 2.—LOPHOSERIS REEF, PORT DENISON. The name associated with this reef bears reference to the fact that its basal mass is almost entirely composed of the foliaceous coralla of Lophoseris cristata, which has not been met with, in abundance, by the author, in any other part of the Barrier district. At first sight, the frondiferous coralla of this species appear to be of a weak, brittle consistence, unfitted to withstand the shock of the breakers or any other ungentle impact. As a matter of fact, the substance of the coralla is so dense, and the constituent laminz coalesce with one another in such manner, as to form a reticulate, cellular mass of such strength and rigidity that walking upon it with the heaviest boots makes no impression. This anastomosing growth-pattern of Lophoseris cristata is most clearly shown, in the accompanying plate, in the almost totally submerged corallum situated a little to the left of the centre of the immediate foreground. The general colour of the living corallum of this characteristic species, of which an example is given in Chromo plate No. VII., is usually light buff-white, the radiating calicinal centres and associated polyps varying from pale primrose to bright emerald-green. There are two other species of corals distinctly visible in this Port Denison, Stone Island, reef-view, that have not been asso- ciated with any of those previously described. These include, to the extreme left, an irregu- larly developed corallum of a Galaxea, near G. Esper, to which reference is made, and a charac- teristic illustration of a bleached corallum given in association with Plate I., Fig. 13. The second species, Turbinaria cinerascens, may be recognised as forming convolute, thickly-tuber- culated folia, immediately underneath the entire nearer border of the wide-spreading corallum of Madrepora convexa that occupies the lower right-hand corner. This species, whose corallum is of a golden-brown hue, with bright yellow polyps, is abundantly developed throughout the Port Denison reefs. Coloured illustrations of this and other species of the same genus are included in No. VIII. of the chromo-lithographic plates. The symmetrical rotundity of the specimen of Goniastrwa Grayi, perched on the growing mass of Lophoseris, is the only remain- ing salient feature that invites attention. For the type of artillery in vogue a century or so ago it would have made an excellent cannon-ball. IE NIE IS; SC Ih. WARRIOR ISLAND REEF, TORRES STRAIT. With this illustration begins the first of the series representing the typical Outer Barrier region in contradistinction to the inshore or fringing reef series to which all the previous eA EVNTD, SNE = > Zs (on) S| Fs) le xe) Ct [eet A ae) re i < ap) i ae a oO if) W. Saville-Kent, Photo. London Stereoscopic Co. Rep. No. 2. ERODED INSMORE REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND. MCZ LIBRARY HARV22D UNIVERSITY CAMBRIDGE. MA USA TAR OIOIE VATE, SPILZRIT A ISSO}, 2. 21 views pertained. The coral growth in this initial reef-view is highly characteristic of the equatorial region to which it belongs. Warrior Island or Tud, as it is known to the natives, is situated in the parallel of 9° 50° south latitude, the northernmost point of the associated reefs extending to within so short a distance as ten miles only, as the crow flies, of the New Guinea coast. The island, occupying the horizon-line to the extreme right of the photographic illustration, is of typical coral origin, elevated but a few feet above the level of high spring-tide, and having at its base a substratum of solidified coral débris. It will be shown, in the chapter dealing with the special subject of the Béche-de-mer industry, that it represents one of the most important Queensland outposts for the prosecution of this extensive fishery. The general facies of this Warrior Island reef is altogether distinct from that of any previously illustrated. The hummocky Goniastraeee, Meeandrinz, and other Astraeacez, invariably present in less or greater numbers throughout all the inshore or fringing reefs, are here con- spicuously absent. In place of these, the coral-growing area is almost exclusively occupied by innumerable species of delicately-branching, resplendent Madreporee. The luxuriant group that occupies the foreground on the right-hand side of the present reef-view is typical of the entire area. The symmetrical, bouquet-like coralla of Madrepora millepora represent the most conspicuous variety. The life tints of this species are remarkably beautiful; the general ground tint being usually light buff or cream colour, while all the terminations of the crowded branchlets vary from a delicate lilac to the brightest mauve. The more shrubby specimen, in the immediate forefront of this group, is an example of Madrepora hebes, a species that abounds with numerous variations of growth and colour, throughout the Great Barrier district. The individual specimen above referred to, and the many other coralla of this species included in this reef-view, were of a rich seal-brown hue, with the exception of the growing apices, which were pure white. Not unfrequently the colony-stocks of this coral are brilliant green, sometimes green with lilac tips, or, again, a brilliant lilac hue throughout. Characteristic illustrations of this very variable species, together with a representation of its living polyps, are included in Figs. 13 to 15 of Chromo plate No. IX. As attested in the special Coral- Descriptive chapter, this species of Madrepora is not only subject to much local colour variation, but the characteristic tints of an individual corallum may alter within relatively short time-limits. Intercalated among the corymbiform, or bouquet-shaped, Madrepore in the group under discussion, a large short-spined sea-urchin, or echinus, Spherechinus australie, may be discerned, though, to some extent, concealed by a mass of adherent seaweed. Although not visible in the illustration, the area it embraces abounded with other representatives of the Echinoderm class. Huge nodular, orange-and-red, star-fishes, Oreaster nodosus, of which an example is figured in Chromo plate No. XI., were thickly scattered over all the intervening (submerged) sandy tracts. Interspersed among them were numbers of the large Cushion-Star, Culcita grex, represented by Fig. 10 of the same coloured lithograph, whose aspect in the living state Ie (EVIBIA IE Wey ARIAT DICE IRI IIBIE. to tN may be aptly compared with pentagonal pin-cushions of various hues, thickly bedight with jewel-headed pins. In the example figured, the ground colour of the cushion was the much- admired old-gold, and the thickly studded pinheads were of that deep ultramarine-blue found, among precious stones, only in the lapis-lazuli. It was on this reef-area, also, that that remarkable Holothurian, Sywapta Beselii, was observed most abundantly, and of the largest dimensions. Many specimens as they lay outstretched in the pools measured over six feet long, and were usually variegated with mottled tints of pink and brown. A closely coiled-up example of this Synapta is represented by Fig. 8 of the Chromo plate No. XII. Among the few corals, other than Madrepore, distinguishable in this Warrior reef-view, refer- ence may be made to the fine, somewhat cauliflower-like, corallum of Pocillopora damicornis immedi- ately to the rear of the foreground specimen of Madrepora hebes that occupies the left-hand corner. A little to the right of the centre of the picture, one normally growing, and a second overturned, foliaceous corallum of Montipora foliosa, or a nearly allied species, constitute conspicuous objects. The life colours of the erect example were a deep violet, with creamy-white growing edges. An interesting coral, that requires a little more trouble for its detection, is situated to the left of the centre of the farther margin of the broad water space in the immediate foreground. The variety indicated is a species of Euphyllia, &. rugosa, which forms simply bifurcating tufts, a few inches only in diameter. The polyps in this genus are remarkable for their relatively large size and brilliant coloration, and are limited in their distribution to the most torrid, equatorial region, of the Great Barrier district. Plate IV. of the chromo-lithographic series is devoted more especially to the delineation of this generic group and its near allies. Among these illustra- tions, that example in which the polyp-tentacles are coloured lilac, with apple-green terminations, represents the variety visible in the reef-view. Should the reader possess the requisite patience, a small colony-stock of the Organ-pipe coral, 7ubipora musica, will be discovered so growing that it forms the head of the small promontory that projects into the foreground water-space, near its centre, on the left-hand side. This interesting type, as demonstrated by a subsequent illustration, may fulfil an important 7é/e in the function of reef construction. Another not very prominent, but at the same time interesting, coral-growth enters into the composition of this reef-scape. This is the variety represented by the small isolated cluster of digitiform terminations of a corallum that are exposed to view in the water-space on the extreme right-hand in the middle distance. This coral represents a species of Stylopora, agreeing in all essential details with the Sty/opora palmata of Milne Edwards and Haime, and is remarkable in life for its usually brilliant coloration. In this example, the tint of the exposed branches was a bright magenta-pink, rendering it, as may be anticipated, a conspicuously attractive object, more especially when, as in this instance, the species was observed growing i situ for the first time. A coloured representation of this handsome species, including magnified figures of the minute rose-coloured polyps, is contained in Plate VII. of the chromo-lithographic series. IMOMOUVIEE ISLVNIMES ISOS, 2S AUNIO) GEHL tN 1S) PIL IN AE 1, CII. STAGS-HORN REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, NO. 1. The preceding illustration, while characteristic of the Great Barrier Reef, pertains more essentially to its northern equatorial region. Plate XII. may be said to represent the first of the series that belongs specifically to the Barrier proper, as understood and resorted to from Cooktown, Townsville, and other of the North Queensland townships, for the prosecution of the Béche-de-mer industry. The scene of this photographic illustration is close to Lark Passage, one of the principal shipping channels used by vessels plying between Cooktown and New Guinea. As a reef-view it is unique. Almost the entire area is occupied by a luxuriant growth of the shrubby Stags’-horn coral, Madrepora hebes, the general aspect presented being not unlike that of a gorse-covered or heather-covered common. The life colours of the shrub-like coralla of this Madrepora plantation were not notable, as in some other instances, for conspicuous brilliancy, being chiefly of a warm brown hue with greenish-white terminations. Here and there, however, intervened colony-stocks of the same species in which brilliant green or lilac tints predominated. A bouquet-like growth of Madrepora australis occupies the centre of this reef- area, and a few coralla of Pocillopora damicornis, and more massive Astreacez, are sparsely scattered among the Stags’-horn thicket. PIL IA WIS SCM. (A.)\—LOW WOODY REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, NO. 2. The scene of this illustration is the outer limits of the reef around Low Woody Island, a small coral-islet a little to the south of Lark Passage. On account of its convenience of access from Cooktown, and also to the most prolific Barrier fishing grounds, it is commonly utilised as a Béche-de-mer headquarters fishing-station. The reefs around this islet, as exposed to view on the occasion of an abnormally low spring tide, have yielded some of the most varied and picturesque photographic reef-scenes that have been obtained. The wealth and variety of coral-species flourishing upon them is amply demonstrated in this and the five subsequent illustrations, which are all derived from the same locality. The most conspicuous coral-growths in this first example of the Low Woody Island series are the widely-expanding, vasiform, coralla of Madrepora surculosa, two fine examples of which occupy the central ground on the right-hand side, while smaller coralla of the same species may be observed growing on many other more distant areas of the reef. The life colours of this species are remarkable for their delicacy. The basal portions of the short, thickly-crowded, central branchlets are usually of a light, pinkish-brown hue, with their terminations a more decided pink, while those 24 lal (CGIABATE IBAIKIRISEIR IKIB IESE. developed around the peripheral, or growing, edges vary in separate colony-stocks from pale lilac to primrose-yellow. Among other luxuriant coral-growths conspicuous in this reef-view, those of Pocillopora damicornis, a little to the right of the central foreground, and of Madrepora australis, of which a fine corallum occupies almost the immediate centre, are the most noteworthy. (B.)-LOW WOODY REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, NO. 3. This reef-view, while delineating an area separated by a very short interval from that of the preceding illustration, includes a conspicuously distinct variety of coral species. The most prominent growths in this area are again referable to the genus Madrepora, but represent that loosely-branching, bush-forming section upon which the title of Stags’-horn corals is, par excellence, popularly conferred. Madrepora hebes, which monopolises so extensive a share of the Lark Passage view, Plate XII., reappears in this reef-scene, but accompanied by many additional branching species, including the elegant blue-tipped Madrepora pulchra, M. secunda, M. muricata, and other varieties. On the eroded Goniastreea, towards the right, may be observed. a small corymbose colony-stock of Madrepora Hemprichi, whose ordinary life-tints are a rich cream-colour, with the terminal inch to each branchlet a brilliant lilac. A larger and more distinct illustration of this very handsome coral is represented by Fig. 20 of the bleached specimen group embodied in Plate I. Pocillopora damicornis, as in the preceding view, contributes extensively to the coral fauna of the present reef-scape, and is distinguished in life by its purplish or rust-brown basal stems and light lilac or fawn terminal branchlets. The white mass growing on top of the Pocillopora coral- stock, in the left-hand corner of the foreground, is an encrusting, flexible Aleyonium that threatens to envelop and suffocate the rigid coral. ENON IAD MCU Wie SKULL REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, NO. 4> The raison a’étre of the title associated with this reef-view scarcely requires elaborate explanation. At a first glance, and in default of further information concerning its coral nature, this scene might be interpreted to be the deserted battle-field of some titanic Mongolian horde, who had left behind them decapitated heads and grinning skulls as grim trophies of their desperate encounter. In the remarkably symmetrical headpiece lying near the front, the very dint that laid it low seems visible on its forehead, while, close against the lachrymal outlet of its right eye, reposes the unmistakable vestige of an unevaporated tear. * In consequence of two Outer Barrier reef-views having had to make way for the introduction of other important subjects after copies of this and the succeeding plate were printed off, the original numbering associated with the titles has been accidentally retained. They should read, respectively, as Outer Barrier series, Nos. 4 and 5, in place of Nos. 6 and 7. IAI OIMOUNIAE SPILPNTILIES, INOS, ACN, AMID) OXIA to on A not uninteresting point associated with this remarkable reef-scape is the fact that it was photographed, as was the case with the dog-like effigy in Plate VIII, No. 1, without the slightest suspicion, at the time, of the grotesque and gruesome elements introduced. Indeed, the Skull Reef area, here reproduced, occupies but a small superficies of the original negative, and it is by enlargement only that its suggestive peculiarities have been made prominent. In the matter of Coral-reef photography, primary regard has to be given to the well-worn aphor- ism, ‘‘ Time and tide wait for no man.” The lowest tidally-exposed coral-growths do not remain uncovered for a longer space, possibly, than half an hour ; and in that brief interval the operator must crowd in all that he is able of rapidly-grasped eligible subjects, without wasting time over the comparison and selection of elaborate detail. The coral species that enters into the composition of the skull-like effigies in the present illustration is a small-celled variety of Goniastreea identical with, or nearly allied to, G. ext’mia— a species whose corallum, similarly, when left high and dry, becomes almost white through the abnormal retraction of the associated polyps and their intervening membranes. Other members of the same family group of the Astraeidee are represented by the solid coralla of Prionastraea and a larger-celled variety of Goniastreea. The minutely nodular corallum of considerable size that occupies the centre of the reef, on the right-hand side, is a species of Porites closely related to P. astreoides, The somewhat widespreading corymbiform or bouquet-shaped coralla of a species of Madrepora are pretty plentifully interspersed among the more massive Astraeaceee. These represent chiefly Madrepora millepora, the growing colour of which, as with several allied forms, is a creamy-buff with brilliant mauve-pink terminations to each of the erect, crowded branchlets. In many specimens it was observed that the rims of all of the more prominent lower corallites were similarly tinged with the brighter colour ; the distal terminations of some of the dried coralla of this Madrepore collected have retained a considerable increment of their original tint. Alcyonaria of diverse varieties enter extensively into the composition of this reef-view. Among these, the most notable species is the one of a white colour and frothy aspect that covers a large space near the outer margin of the reef to the extreme left. The natural tint of this species is a pale primrose-yellow, and it is identical with the type delineated in Fig. 2 of Plate X. of the chromo-lithographic series. IP VE JIE 1B, SO We LOW WOODY REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, NO, 5.* This reef-view, from an artistic standpoint, lays claim, perhaps, to the most prominent position among the collective series reproduced in this volume. The variety of coral species it * See Footnote to Preceding Plate. 26 TRE (GREAE BARRIER TREE. embraces, their promiscuous plan of intermixture, but, at the same time, separation into distinct groups by intervening water-spaces, combine to form what may be denominated a well-balanced picture. The coral patch on the right-hand side of this reef-scape is noteworthy for its luxuriant growths of Stags’-horn Madrepores, which embrace, in the immediate foreground, three or four separate species, distinguishable in their living condition, not only with reference to their relative dimensions and contours, but also by their diverse colouring. The most robust species, having only a few simple bifurcations elevated above the surface of the water, represents that more massive form of Madrepora decipiens which is delineated on Plate IX., Fig. 5, of the chromo- lithographs, whose living tints, as there indicated, are not unusually pale primrose-yellow throughout, with the exception of the terminal-growing inch, which is a delicate rose-pink. To the rear of this larger species is a denser clump of the finely-branching form Madrepora pulchra, having the larger terminal calicle of each branchlet turquoise-blue, while the remainder of the corallum is straw-colour or light buff. A little to the rear of these occur the branching coralla of Madrepora hebes and M. secunda, the former, in this instance, being a rich brown with white growing tips, while the latter, as in the small fragment reproduced in Chromo plate I[X., Fig. 7, is coloured throughout an intense violet. Luxuriant growths of Madrepora millepora, noticed in association with the preceding plate, two or three massive Astraeaceze, and a remarkably fine hemispherical colony-stock of Pocillopora damicornis, represent the remaining most prominent coral varieties on the right-hand side. The more extensive, irregularly broken-up coral patch towards the left contains but few visible specific varieties that are not represented in the right-hand section. The outlying strip in the farthest distance is noteworthy as being composed almost exclusively of an unmixed growth of Madrepora hebes. The most interesting feature on this side, however, is the large Frilled Clam, Tridacna compressa, snugly ensconced on the lee side of the Goniastreea in the imme- diate foreground. This very fine example of the species measures about one foot in length. A younger and much smaller specimen of the same bivalve may be observed, though not very distinctly defined, embedded in a crevice towards the left in the upper surface of the same coral mass. The georgeous colours of the exposed mantle-surfaces of these mollusca have already been a subject of comment in association with Plates IV. and VI. PIG INIT, ONAL CRESCENT REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, NO. 6, Low Woody Island again supplies the material for this reef-scape. It illustrates, undoubtedly, the most luxuriant expanse of living coral (condensed into a relatively narrow area) that the author has had the good fortune to photograph. The genus Madrepora, as is distinctly evident, enters most extensively into the composition of this reef. Conspicuously to the front, on the left-hand PEATE WV. W. Saville-Kent, Photo. London Stereoscopic Co. Rep. NOw 2 ORES SISLEL FP RINGING REEF, PORT DENISON. IIH OTNOU VIAE SAEZNITES IMO, XGUAL ZAUINID) XC VAIE 27 side is flattened, widely-expanding corallum of Madrepora surculosa. Many other coralla of this variety are visible on the reef, and notably a large isolated example well out to sea, near the centre of the picture. Growing at a lower level than, and a little to the right of, the foreground specimen, is a semi-submerged corallum of Madrepora gemmifera, a species conspicuous for its brilliant and varied tints. In some examples observed the corallum was bright violet through- out, with a tendency to magenta towards the tips of each separate branchlet; in others a creamy hue predominated, with violet or crimson extremities and growing points; while in a third series, the ground colour varied from light to dark sage-green, all the growing points, as in the preceding instance, being violet or crimson. Two of the digitiform branchlets of this species, embodying the conspicuous colour-variations last mentioned, are represented by Figs. g and 10 of the Chromo plate No. IX. The numerous other specific varieties of this same genus that are visible on this reef include, among the bouquet-shaped corymbiform series, Madrepora australis, mullepora, digitifera, and Hemprichi. Of the bush-forming, or Stags’-horn varieties, a luxuriant growth is conspicuous along the inner margin of the reef. The most massive coralla of this series, near the foreground centre, represent Wadrepora grandis, a species of which the ground colour is commonly bright yellow. A variety, of a light straw hue, with delicate lilac terminations, was obtained at the Palm Islands. A small terminal branch of the more ordinary yellow corallum of this species is included in the coloured plate last quoted. The very massive proximal, or basal, ramifications of this robust coral may be as much as three inches in diameter. Madrepora decipiens, muricata, hebes, pulchra, representing forms enumerated in association with previous illustrations, assist to swell the list of specific types that flourish on this luxuriant reef. The genus Pocillopora is abundantly represented in this reef-view, by the cosmopolitan variety P. damicornis; a few coralla of massive Astreeaceze are also visible. Among the latter, an abnormally smooth, hemispherical corallum, probably that of a Cyphastraea, occupies a central position on the reef, a little towards the right. PIG ANAT 1S WDM CRESCENT REEF, OUTER BARRIER SERIES, NO, 7. This reef-scape represents an end-on view of the outermost portion of the area included in the preceding plate. On comparing the two, several of the more prominent coral-stocks will be recognised as occupying conspicuous positions in both pictures. The hemispherical sub-central Cyphastreea is one of these, and also the fine corymbiform corallum of Madrepora australis that forms the principal coral-growth on the left-hand side of the immediate foreground. An enumeration of the associated varieties would be but a repetition of the description of the pre- ceding plate. There is one, more diminutive, thickly branching species of Madrepora, however, E 2 28 THE ‘GREAT, BARRIER UREEE: discernible in this nearer view of the same reef that has not been previously noticed. This is Madrepora rosaria, var. dumosa, of which a highly characteristic illustration is given among the bleached coral specimens illustrated by Fig. 18 of Plate I. of the photographic series. The life colours of this variety are usually olive-green, with the exception of all the terminal “cells” and growing points, which, together with the associated polyps, are, by way of contrast, pale prim- rose. Inthe more robust normal growth of this species, represented by Figs. 2 and 5 of the plate last quoted, the ground tint is commonly flesh-pink, and all the terminal corallites and grow- ing apices are white or pale yellow. PRevAWT exe Valeiele ORGAN-PIPE CORAL REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND, The interest attached to this illustration is associated with the fact that all the coral- growths visible upon it are those of the so-called Organ-pipe or music-coral, Tubipora musica. This well-known species belongs to the group or order of the Coelenterata, which is technically distinguished by the title of the Alcyonaria. All its members, as explained in a special chapter, differ from the ordinary stony-corals, or Madreporaria, in respect that their polyps invariably possess eight tentacles only, in place of the twelve, or of the very much greater num- ber found on all Madreporarian polyps. These eight tentacles of the Alcyonarian polyp are, moreover, in most instances, distinctly fringed or pinnate. The majority of the Alcyonarize are characterised by their association with a more or less flexible polypary, and, as far as they occur on exposed reefs, they usually take the form of encrusting or lobulate masses of various patterns, certain of which have been previously referred to. The Organ-pipe coral is unique of its kind, it representing, with but one exception—the Blue coral, Heliopora cerulea, figured and described in connection with the next succeeding plate—the only type of its class that develops a rigid corallum. This corallum consists of an irregular nodular mass of closely associated calcareous tubes of a deep crimson hue, which are bound together vertically by transverse plates, of the same substance, in such manner as to present a highly suggestive resemblance to the pipes of an organ with the supporting platforms. The polyps of the living corallum of Tubipora musica are a pale emerald-green, and have their eight tentacles very distinctly fringed. The photograph of a corallum of the natural size, with its polyps expanded, is reproduced in Plate XXVI., while a small fragment of the same coral, with the associated life colours, is included in Plate X. of the chromo-lithographic series. It may be observed of the Organ-pipe coral that, in common with other more ordinary Alcyonaria, it flourishes in areas where there is less tidal scour, and consequently more sedimentary matter, than is favourable to the growth of the typical reef corals. As a matter of fact, both here and in most other places where this type was observed, the coralla were PMOL OUNZE a EAMES! INOS. XOVLLT. VAN, XC 29 more or less covered with a fine alluvial deposit. It has been previously remarked that this species is represented in the present reef-area to the exclusion of all other coral varieties. Scattered over the surface of the exposed reef, there is, at the same time, a thick sprinkling of tufted algae ; while, projecting above the surface of the water in the farther pools, may be ob- served the projecting tips of the broad-bladed, grass-like, Zostera, or an allied plant, which constitutes the favourite food of the Dugong. The re-identification of the scene of this photographic view, with the included corals, can be easily accomplished in association with the conspicuous landmarks. The extensive foreground area represents a portion of the low foreshore at the back, or east side, of Thursday Island. The high ground that constitutes the entire horizon is a part of Hammond Island, recently brought into prominent notice through the discovery of conspicuous gold deposits; and the small islet in the middle distance is an ancient aboriginal burying-site, known as Dead Island. DAL VeN ADI: CIDE ALCYONARIAN REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND, NO. 1. This photographic reproduction has been selected with the object, generally, of illustrating the remarkable extent to which Alcyonarian corals may fulfil the ro/e of reef investiture, and for the purpose, specially, of indicating the natural aspect im sifu of that most interesting representative of the order, Heliopora cerulea. In relation to the general presentment, it may be observed that there is scarcely a spot throughout the area photographed that is not occupied by an Alcyonarian polypary. Close against the foreground, on the right-hand side, lies the disintegrated corallum of a defunct Madrepora. These, together with the traces here and there of a basement of more massive, lifeless, coral blocks, indicate that this was originally a luxuriant coral area that has been invaded and gradually smothered off by the insidious Alcyonaria. Several specific varieties of these fleshy representatives of the coral class may be recognised in this picture. The most conspicuous type is the one with large, obtusely-lobed polyparies, some- what resembling elephants’ feet in contour, that occupies the centre of the reef-area, and spreads obliquely down towards the left. This species, which received brief notice in association with Plate VIII., No. 2, is apparently identical with the Sarcophyton (Alcyonium) glaucum of Dana. As previously remarked, the polyparies vary in tint from glaucous or verdigris-green to golden- yellow or brilliant lilac, and may even change their tints individually within a few days. In their young, initial condition, these irregularly-lobate polyparies are, as in the illustration given in Plate X. of the coloured series, simply mushroom-shaped or peltate. The innumerable polyps, what- ever may be the tint of the associated polypary, are invariably bright yellow in hue and mounted on long, highly extensile and contractile footstalks. The second species of Alcyonium, which occupies 30 THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. the immediate central foreground, and the greater portion of the posterior area of the reef, differs from the preceding type in the more profusely divided, digitiform, prolongations of the peripheral edges of its polyparies. Its customary line tints are varying shades of lilac; it would appear to be identical with the Alcyonium flexibile of Dana. A third, but as yet undetermined, species of the same genus forms two slightly separated patches to the extreme left of the centre and the back- ground of this reef-view. It presents, in life, the appearance of closely crumpled leather of a golden-brown hue, and is apparently identical with the species illustrated by the lower figure of the following plate, and there associated with the title of Alcyonium murale. The so-called “ Blue coral,” Heliopora cerulea, of which a fine corallum is stationed in the centre of the near foreground, while a younger growth may be detected farther to the right, well merits the place of honour that it adventitiously occupies. The high interest attached to this species, as the only known living representative of the Alcyonarian order that fabricates a solid calcareous corallum, together with all essential data concerning its structure and affinities, is fully dealt with in the chapter that is devoted specially to coral organisms. In the Organ-pipe coral, Tubipora, which constituted the subject of the preceding plate, the corallum, while rigid and calcareous, is formed out of thin, loosely aggregated tubuli, while in the present form, Heliopora, it is as dense and ponderous as that of a Porites. The popular name associated with this species is derived from the deep indigo-blue colour of its internal substance as exhibited in sections when snapped asunder. The exterior surface is usually of an unattractive light slate, or bluish- grey hue; but in some instances the distal growing edges are light yellow. This lighter colour is very distinctly indicated in the luxuriantly growing corallum included in this reef-view, while an illustration of the natural lines of the corallum, and the aspect of the constituent polyps, is embodied in Figs. 1 and 2 of Plate X. of the chromo-lithographic ‘series. A very characteristic representative of the same Alcyonarian class remains to be noticed in association with this reef-view. The species referred to forms incrusting masses of sub- cylindrical or clavate polyps of semi-cartilaginous consistence that are closely united to each other by a reticulate, or intricately interlacing, basal rhizome. This species, which appears to be closely allied to Clavularia viridis, will be found represented by a large reticulated mass to the ex- treme right of the nearest foreground, other, less distinct, colony-stocks being recognisable at farther distances to the rear in the same straight line. In the condition illustrated by this reef-view, all the polyps are necessarily contracted. In their submerged condition, when fully expanded and associated together in dense clusters, they present an exceedingly beautiful spectacle. The individual polyps, as shown in Fig. 17 of the Chromo plate No. X., are of considerable size, and each of the eight tentacles is profusely clothed with brilliant golden-green pinnules. As the polyps are massed together in such numbers that their individuality is indistinguishable, the ex- panded colony-stocks present an aspect that may be most appositely compared with luxuriant tufts of some very brilliant hypnoid moss. This Clavularia appears to be confined to the equatorial IPIGOMOU WILE JPILTATIES ISOS, 2G AINMO 2G 31 regions of the tropics, being especially abundant in the vicinity of Thursday Island, but apparently absent on the reefs visited south of Torres Strait. The scene of this particular view, which embraces so rich a collection of Alcyonaria, is the Madge Reef, laid bare at spring-tides only, in the channel that separates Thursday and Prince of Wales Islands. PE AVA Es Xe Xe (A.)—ALCYONARIAN REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND, NO. 2. The site of this reef-scape is adjacent to that of the preceding one, being situated on an extremity of Madge Reef, with portions of Thursday and Prince of Wales Islands visible on the right and the left hands respectively. As in Plate XIX., the Alcyonaria monopolise the largest share of the exposed reef. A few stony corals, including, towards the central foreground, two or three spreading coralla of Madrepora prostrata, and a depressed, symmetrically ovate one of a species of Cyphastreea, are the most conspicuous members of their order. Among these, the Madrepore, almost without exception, already indicate the presence of parasitically attached Alcyonarian polyparies, and are, in consequence, threatened with early extinction. The species of Alcyonaria recognisable on this reef include the two types, Sarcophyton glau- cum and Alcyonium flexibile, associated with the preceding illustration. There is also an extensive growth of a species, having a minutely nodulated polypary, that is apparently referable to the genus Ammothea. The most remarkable representative of the Alcyonarian order visible in this reef-scape is undoubtedly, however, the symmetrical form, several feet in diameter, with uni- laterally-lobate radial plications, that fills a large area of the foreground on the left-hand side. In its general contour the polypary of this species appears to coincide very nearly with that of the Alcyonium latum reported by Dana from Fiji, with the name of which it is provisionally associated. In the Thursday Island example the polypary was coloured a rich golden- brown, while that reported from Fiji was green. A corresponding, or even greater, difference of tint may, as already recorded of Sarcophyton glaucum, obtain among individuals of the same species. (B.)—ALCYONARIAN REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND, NO. 8. This picture, also from the Madge Reef, Thursday Island, graphically illustrates the re- markable development to which an individual Alcyonarian polypary may attain. From the fore- ground to the water’s edge in the middle distance, a width of at least fifty or sixty feet, the entire superficial area is encrusted by one continuous rugose polypary of the Alcyonium murale of Dana. In its course of growth this polypary has, as evidenced by the local irregularities, overgrown many Madreporarian coralla, and it is as assuredly advancing against, and even beginning to encroach 32 THE GREAT BARRIER. REEF, upon, and overwhelm, the several masses of living Goniastraee that are conspicuous in the left- hand corner of the foreground. In aspect and colour this remarkable Alcyonarian bears a striking resemblance to coarsely-corrugated, newly-tanned leather. The polyps associated with this gigantic polypary are identical in form, size, and colour, with those of Sarcophyton glaucum, illustrated by Figs. 18 and 18a of Plate X. of the chromo-lithographic series. The total number of polyps contained in the continuous polypiferous encrustment embodied in this reef-view presents a problem whose solution would entail the registration of a portentous array of figures. PILATE IE DOK II GIANT SEA-ANEMONE, DISCOSOMA MADDONI, It will be readily comprehended that the anemone which forms the subject of this illustration is a very giant of its class, in association with the record that examples have been met with by the author in which the expanded disk measured no less than from eighteen inches to two feet in diameter. It is tolerably abundant throughout the Barrier district as far south as Flat Top Island off Mackay, occurring chiefly in the shallow pools at about half or three-quarters ebb. A characteristic feature of this species is the contour and aspect of the tentacles. When the anemone is fully extended and i complete repose, its disk presents the appearance of being covered with minute, perfectly spherular, bead-like papillae, which are distributed thickly on the periphery, and in gradually attenuating linear series towards the central mouth. On closer examination the spherular papillae are found to be mounted on short footstalks, these structures, as a whole, corresponding morphologically with the subulate tentacles of all ordinary sea- anemones. The slightly elongate and distinctly capitate contour of these modified tentacles may be recognised towards the superior, right-hand, margin of the periphery of the photographic reproduction, where a number of these organs are slightly pressed to one side. The almost globose shape of the tentacles, in their condition of fullest expansion, is not represented in this illustration in as marked a degree as frequently obtains. The anemone, when photographed, had been kept in a basin, with frequently-changed sea-water, for several days, and was in a somewhat abnormally puckered-up, contracted state. It is only towards the lower peripheral border, indeed, that any of the tentacles present a near approach to their fully-extended appearance. A more adequate idea of the characteristic aspect of the tentacles of this anemone in their normal condition of inflation may be obtained by a reference to Plate II. of the coloured series, and in which segments of the disks of two diversely-coloured individuals are delineated in their natural size. It will be observed that a brilliant-hued fish and a crustacean are included in this coloured plate. These both represent what are known technically as “commensal” species; they live on the most intimate terms of friendship with the anemone, swimming freely in and out of its mouth, and making its body or somatic cavity a harbour of refuge into which they adroitly retreat INHOPOUVALE TALSN TIES INOS, XOGE, INO) ROGGE us w on the near approach of any hostile object. The fish represented in this association is one of the Pomacentride, Amphiprion percula, and the crustacean a prawn, apparently referable to the genus Palemon. It is remarkable that these commensal representatives of two distinct zoological classes are similarly tinted, although in the case of the prawn the white ground colour is so trans- parent that its red and yellow spots only are visible as the animal swims. The two organisms, it 1s perhaps desirable to explain, are not found inhabiting the same individual anemone. This highly interesting subject of commensalism receives fuller attention in the chapter that deals specially with coral organisms. A feature worthy of note in association with the photographic illustration of this fine anemone, given in Plate XXI., is the presence in various areas of the disk, but notably immediately below the central mouth, of small, white, thread-like patches. These at first sight are liable to be mistaken by zoophytologists for the protruded ‘‘acontia,” or thread-cells, so highly characteristic of many species of British sea-anemones. As a matter of fact, they are ‘“craspeda” only— structures of an analogous nature that similarly enclose innumerable stinging cells, ‘ cnide,’ but that are not capable of independent protrusion and retraction through special openings ‘cinclides,” in the body wall. In their normal condition these craspeda form, as it were, binding cords to the free edges of the mesenteric tissues, and it is only through forcible rupture, or erosion of the integument, that they make their appearance, as here shown, on the surface of the disk, Another point of interest noticeable in this illustration is the presence of distinct eminences along the outer or distal border of the reflected inferior or aboral surface of the disk. These prominences are of a wart-like aspect, and resemble the tentacula of the superior surface in a state of extreme retraction. They possess a more or less adhesive function, and their presence in this form demands recognition as constituting an essential diagnostic feature. It not having been found possible to identify the species now under consideration with any previously-described kind, the author has bestowed upon it the title of Discosoma Haddont. The specific name is given by way of compliment to Prof. A. C. Haddon, of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, who has added much to our knowledge of the anatomy of the Anthozoa generally, in addition to having collected many of the species illustrated in this volume during his recent explorations in Torres Strait. IP IL JAN IP | ROK IEG STINGING ANEMONES, ACTINODENDRON AND MEGALACTIS. The anemones illustrated in this photographic reproduction present a remarkable contrast to the form delineated in the preceding plate. In place of the large disk and the simple, stunted, sub-spherical tentacles, we here have elegant ramifying structures of extreme com- plexity that extend a long distance on every side beyond the peripheral border. Both species F 34 TLE I GIRTLA TS SALUT ELE ELD are remarkable for their stinging or urticating properties, the form represented by the upper figure being most notable in this respect. The urticating property possessed by this type, as personally tested, is nearly as powerful as that of an ordinary stinging-nettle, and the rash produced on the skin through contact with the animal's stinging-cells or ‘“cnide” endures for several days. The habits of this sea-anemone are very distinct from those of the succeed- ing type, as it occurs most abundantly in the pools of water left on the sandy flats at half or even one quarter ebb. The crown of tentacles, which only is visible in the accompanying plate, surmounts an elongate, highly-contractile stalk, or column, penetrating the sand for eighteen inches or more, and affixed to some rock or dead and buried coral boulder. The attempt to dislodge the animal from the supporting fulcrum is almost invariably vain; and, in order to secure specimens without mutilating their elaborately branched tentacular crown, the plan was resorted to of thrusting a sharp knife as far as possible down the side of the column and there cutting it abruptly through. The photograph of the form here reproduced was taken of the zoophyte while basking 7 sifu in a sand-pool at Somerset, in the Albany Pass, the narrower, but since the Queffa wreck most commonly adopted, entrance to Torres Strait for vessels passing north from Queensland ports. Some difficulty has been experienced in identifying this species with any previously described form; the only one in which its essential features are to a certain extent symbolised being in the very crude illustration and description of Actinodendron alcyonoideum of Quoy and Gaimard, contained in the “Voyage a l’Astralabe,” 1833, with which type, in preference to multi- plying specific titles, it has been thought advisable to allocate it. In this decision the author is supported by Prof. A. C. Haddon, to whom this illustration was submitted, and by whom the same species has been obtained from an adjacent locality. The life colours of this Actinodendron, compared with those of many other members of its class, are lacking in brilliancy, being chiefly represented by varying shades of light brown and white, which are probably conducive to its advantage by assimilating it to the tint of its sandy bed. When fully extended, the compound tentacles are elevated to a height of eight or ten inches, and bear a remarkable resemblance to certain of the delicately branching, light-brown seaweeds that abound in its vicinity. The lower of the two figures in Plate XXII. represents a species which at first sight possesses much in common with the foregoing form. The tentacles are, however, relatively more elongate and more regularly pinnate, while the termination of each minute, ultimate, subdivision is per- fectly simple, in place of being distinctly bifid. In respect to their plan of ramification, the tentacles of this anemone accord with that structural type which, in a moss or fern frond, would be termed by botanists “ tri-pinnate,” each primary pinnule being further subdivided into secondary and tertiary pinnule. In the preceding figure of Actinodendron alcyonoideum it is con- spicuously manifest that the primary and secondary subdivisions of the tentacles, in place of PEATE Wie Zz S "U bd KI i io ze ex! to r+ Y A) c| lea Ss a) fe S| zs 'S ig) 2s) ies 2 London Stereoscopic Co. Rep. No. 2. MIXED CORALS WITH PORITES BASEMENT, PALM ISLAND'S REEF. PAOROTYV LIE AGATE NOD XXTT: (os) Loa exhibiting a pinnate plan of disposition, subtend from every side of their central axis, more nearly approaching, in this respect, a verticillate form of growth. In respect to their obvious pinnate character, the tentacles of this species more nearly resemble those of a Phymanthus, of which genus a typical variety is included in Plate III. of the coloured series. This fact has been recognised by Prof. A. C. Haddon, to whom the photographs were submitted, and who, in the first instance, was inclined to identify it with a species, also obtained by him from Torres Strait, upon which he has proposed to confer the title of Phymanthus muscosus. The relatively few tentacles, twenty-four only, possessed by this type preclude, however, its admission among the typical Phymanthi, and a further con- sultation of the older works of Zoophytology has determined the author upon relegating it, provisionally, to the genus Megalactis of Ehrenberg. As a hitherto undescribed species of that genus, it is associated in this volume with the title of Megalactis Griffiths: ; the specific name adopted being conferred by way of compliment to Sir Samuel Griffiths, the eminent Queensland statesman, to whom this work is dedicated. The habits of this new Megalactis differ in a marked manner from those of the preceding species. Instead of inhabiting sandy flats or tidal pools, in the full glare of the sun, it prefers the shelter of some rocky or coral boulder. Its column does not penetrate deeply beneath the sur- face, and it can be detached with comparative ease from its chosen fulcrum. The tentacles are usually a clear brown or French grey, with a distinct pale greenish stripe running up their centre. The central disk is distinctly marked with radiating lines that correspond with the subjacent mesen- terial divisions, which, as clearly shown in the accompanying photographic reproduction, present distinct features that accord with their corresponding mesenterial cycles. Thus, those that over- lie the primary developmental cycle are plainly indicated by the six longest and thickest white lines that radiate from the stomadzeum or oral aperture; those representing the second developmental cycle are as clearly defined by the six shorter white lines, intervening between the six primary ones, that do not reach the margin of the mouth. The two nearer of those secondary radial lines are somewhat obscured by the tentacular ramifications. The lines corresponding with the sub-divi- sion possessed by the three combined mesenteric cycles are represented by the twenty-four finer and more variegated lines that extend from between the outer ends of the preceding twelve lines to the extreme edge of the periphery. In consequence of the thickly intervening tentacular sub-divi- sions, only some half-dozen elements of this peripheral linear series are conspicuous in the photographic reproduction. It is, finally, worthy of note, that the lip of the siphonoglyphe or gonidial groove is clearly represented by a narrower indentation at the upper angle of the mouth or stomadeum. The fine specimen that furnished the subject of this illustration was photo- graphed on the Warrior reef, in Torres Strait. 36 THLE “GREAT BARTAER. REET: PACE exe Xe el MUSMROOM-CORALS, FUNGIA CRASSITENTACULATA. This plate illustrates the life aspects of one of the so-called Mushroom-corals, Fungia crassitentaculata, in various states of expansion, contraction, and development. The large, fully- expanded example on the left, and the contracted specimen forming the lower figure on the right- hand side, represent the same individual coral, photographed within a few minutes’ interval. In this last-quoted illustration, the entire outline of indurated calcareous corallum is conspicuously visible, and the close association of each contracted tentacle, with the inner, centrally abutting, end of its corresponding septal element, may be also distinctly traced. The expanded example on the left, excepting in one minute area, exhibits no trace whatever of its coral skeleton. Unaccompanied by an explanation, it might be pardonably mistaken by those familiar only with the Coelenterata of the British seas for a fine specimen of the so-called Dahlia-anemone, Tealia crassicornis. A photograph of this familiar species recently taken by the author in a rock-pool on the Devonshire coast might, in point of fact, have been almost indistinguishably substituted for the present illustration. The life-colours of this Mushroom-coral, however, vary in a direction that is not shared by its askeletal British homologue. In no instance, so far, would it appear that a brilliant green has been found associated with the Tealia. In the case of this particular Mushroom-coral it represents one of the dominant tints, as illustrated by the life-coloured imprint from the same photographic negative reproduced in Plate VI., Fig. 13, of the chromo-lithographic series. Rich olive greens and browns represent the additional more prevalent hues of this handsome species. These ground colours, including the brighter green, are usually variegated to the extent of the radiating septal lines, being indicated by conspicuous streaks of cream- or primrose-yellow, while the more or less inflated distal terminations of the tentacles are white or of a pale grey hue. It is noteworthy, in association with the illustration of the large specimen in its contracted state, that these light-coloured capitate extremities are retracted in such a manner that they present the aspect of sucking-disks or acetabule. The tentacles of this same species in their most attenuated condition are characteristically represented in the succeeding plate. The figure that occupies the right-hand upper corner of the plate now under notice is of extreme interest. It represents a Mushroom-coral in that early stage of development in which it is attached to the corallum of some distinct species of coral, or other convenient fulcrum, by a distinct footstalk. After attaining to a size approximating to, or a little larger than, that of the specimen figured, it becomes detached from the stalk, and lies freely at the bottom of the water. In this manner the life history or ontogeny of the Fungia recapitulates, or, more correctly, foreshadows, the developmental history of the Feather-starfish, Antedon, in which more highly- specialised invertebrate type the organism begins its existence affixed to an elongated LAH OMOUVAIZTE JEIEZNTTES INOS, P2OGIE FEUNID) OST 37 stalk, from which it subsequently breaks free. This chapter in the life history of the Feather-star has justified the conjecture that its original progenitors were permanently stalked like some of the few existing Crinoids, and exceedingly numerous fossil Encrinites, or Stone- lilies. It may be analogously surmised as probable that the existing unattached Mushroom- corals are the specially-modified descendants of a pre-existing, permanently-stalked coral-stock. What form this simpler ancestral type was represented by cannot at present be accurately pre- dicted ; but it is probable that, as in the case of the stalked Crinoidea, it attained to its maximum of development in the tranquil abysses of the ocean. A point of interest has to be recorded in association with the reproductive phenomena of the Mushroom-coral. It has been discovered that the stalk, after the separation from it of the terminal tentaculiferous disk, is by no means dead. Portions of the somatic tissue and of the septal elements are left behind ; and these sprout anew, and produce, in course of time, similar discoidal coralla. The specimen figured in the accompanying plate indicates very distinctly, by the scar and ragged septal edges exposed to view a little beneath the expanded disk, the line of demarcation across which the preceding young corallum became separated. By virtue of their reproductive functions, the title of ‘‘ Nurse-stocks”’ has been conferred upon these growth- forms of the genus Fungia. With reference to this plan of reproduction, the phenomena de- scribed undoubtedly correspond very nearly with those of the ‘Strobila” form of the Hydroid polyp, Cyanea capillata in which multiplication is similarly accomplished by repeated transverse segmentation and detachment. A somewhat abnormal example is figured in association with Plate VI. of the coloured series, in which two young Fungiz are in course of development from the truncated end of a simple cylindrical Nurse-stock. All the examples of this Mushroom- coral figured in both the coloured and the accompanying photo-mezzotype plate were obtained from the fringing reefs of Adolphus Island at the entrance to Torres Strait, and were photo- graphed in baths and other receptacles on board H.M.S. Rambler, then engaged in surveying the ground around the scene of the Quetta wreck, in which cruise, with the object of studying the fish and the coral fauna of the district, the author was privileged to travel as Captain Dawson's guest. PIL VAN ADI; DM OCIA MUSHROOM-CORALS, ATTACHED, YOUNG, AND FULLY-EXPANDED STATES. The lower of the two illustrations in this plate represents a group of the same species of Mushroom-coral, Fungia crassitentaculata, that occupies the entire area of the preceding plate. The individuals composing this group were originally collected at Adolphus Island in asso- ciation with H.M.S. Rambler's cruise, and were thence transported to one of the pearl-shell cultivation pools of the Thursday Island reef. In this situation they soon made themselves 38 TE (GREAT “BARRIER VRE at home, and were subsequently photographed. Being there subjected to surroundings precisely identical with those under which they naturally exist, their tentacles, as will be observed, were extended in a more complete measure than obtains in the specimen examined under the artificial conditions previously described. The upper illustration of Plate XXIV. depicts a species of the genus Fungia, apparently identical with /. discus, that is extremely abundant on the reefs in the neighbourhood of Port Denison. It differs from the preceding species in the finer serration of the septal edges and in the relatively small dimensions of the tentacles. The subject of the present illustration is of ’ interest as representing by far the most prolific colony of ‘‘Nurse-stocks” of this or any other species of Fungia that has fallen within the author’s observation. The supporting fulcrum is in this instance the dead corallum of an adult Mushroom-coral of the same species, having the lower third of its oral surface covered by an encrusting species of Montipora. Within the remaining superficial area are crowded together no fewer than thirteen stalked, immature, coralla of sizes varying from less than one quarter of an inch to one inch and a half in diameter. Ten of these are distinctly visible in the photographic reproduction, the remaining three being hidden beneath the expanded disks of the larger individuals. The extent to which they may be distorted by crowding is instructively illustrated by the misshapen contours of the impinging peripheries of the two contiguous pairs located near the centre of the selected fulcrum. It is a moot point whether this luxuriant colony of Nurse-stocks arose fortuitously from different sources, or in a single embryonic swarm from some more distant corallum, or whether they may not represent the product of the expiring vital energy of the defunct adult corallum to which they are united. This latter interpretation appears to be the most reasonable. It is worthy of note that in the majority of instances these attached juvenile coralla represent the first tentacular disk produced, the stalk being smooth and devoid of any scar. Ina few cases, however, including the smallest cup-shaped corallum visible towards the upper left-hand side, the cicatrix demonstrating the separation from the stalk of a previously developed tentacular disk is as conspicuous from a lateral point of view as in the figure of a Nurse-stock of /ungia crassitentaculata included in the preceding plate. Numerous Nurse-stocks of this same species, /. discus, were collected in the Port Denison reefs, but, with few exceptions, as single individuals only, attached to the dead coralla of other Madreporaria or to a rock foundation. As the season of the year exercises a probable influence on the greater or less abundant development of Fungia Nurse-stocks, it may be recorded that the Port Denison examples were gathered in the month of August, 1889, that being one of the coldest months south of the equator. The Adolphus Island examples of Fungia crassitentaculata were collected early in June, 1890, and were obtained as late as September in the previous year on the fringing reef of Albany Island, which forms the eastern boundary of the picturesque Albany Pass, situated within a few miles of Adolphus Island. IEUHOMOUNIE SPALZATAE, INO) XCWA 39 ee AG ES Xe XGV: CORALS WITH EXPANDED POLYPS. The figures included in this plate typify the living aspect of three essentially distinct coral genera. The first portrays a small colony-stock of Goniopora, apparently identical with G. lobata, the living polyps of which, in this specimen, were scarcely distinguishable in form and colour from those of Rhodarea fruticosa, illustrated by Plate VI., Fig. 4, of the chromo-lithograph series, the centres of the disks, or peristomes, and the tops of the tentacles being white, and the remaining surfaces a clear liver-brown. In common with other representative forms of the same genus, the polyps are capable of protrusion to a very considerable distance beyond the orifices of their corallites. In the photographic illustration given, these organs were only semi-extended. Other figures of the same coral, included in the coloured plate, will suffice to indicate the extensive range of colour variation that a single specific form may exhibit. The second figure represents a small colony-stock of Euphyllia rugosa attached to a dead branchlet of a Madrepora. The polyps in this instance, also, are only partially extended; but they exhibit at many points their characteristic capitate contour. The fine granulated texture of their cylindrical shafts is distinct in silver prints from the original negative, and is discern- ible, with the aid of a hand-lens, in the mezzo reproduction. [Illustrations of the colour varia- tion to which this species is subject are abundantly given in Plate IV. of the chromo- type series. The example photographically reproduced corresponded, among these, with the variety in which the shafts of all the tentacles were a delicate lilac, and their inflated extremities a pale apple-green. Both this and the Goniopora previously figured were obtained at Adolphus Island, Torres Strait, and photographed in extemporised aquaria on board H.M.S. Rambler. The third or lowest figure in Plate XXV. depicts a mature corallum of Pectinia Jardinei, of which a young, fully-expanded colony-stock, coloured from life, is represented in Plate IV., Fig. 7, of the chromo series. It undoubtedly represents one of the most beautifully-tinted members of its class, constituting, when fully extended, a very attractive object. This coral has been collected by the author on the Warrior Island reef, and also in the vicinity of the Albany Pass, Torres Strait. Like the Euphylliz, to which it is allied, it is apparently limited in its distribution to the equatorial zone. As shown in the coloured illustration, the corallum terminates inferiorly in a slender footstalk or pedicle, and is, in its earliest condition of development, attached to some supporting fulcrum. In all examples, however, collected by the author, including specimens less than half the size of the coloured one, the coralla were lying freely on the reef, and had evidently become detached at a very early period of their development. As thus collected in their natural condition, mostly just covered by the retreated 40 THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. tide, the tentacles and peristomial membranes were often expanded to twice the length and dimensions exhibited in the figure. In the example photographically reproduced in Plate XXV., the polyps exhibit.a condition of almost complete retraction, the tentacles amid such circum- stances losing their otherwise characteristic capitate contour. The genus Pectinia, to which the coral is referred, has hitherto been associated only with a tropical American, Atlantic habitat. In one important féature it differs essentially from the members of the genus hitherto described. In all the Atlantic species the calicinal systems coalesce laterally, and so form one compact corallum, whereas, in the Torres Strait type, these systems, while forming, in adult coralla, elongate, variously-contorted series, are widely separated from one another. This structural feature is very clearly shown in the corallum of the example here photographed, now in the British Museum collection. In respect to its loosely convolute structural modification, this species differs from all previously-known Pectiniz in the same manner as the representatives of the genus Mussa differ from Symphyllia; and it may eventually be found requisite, on this account, to institute a new generic, as well as specific, title for its distinction. The specific title associated with this form has been conferred as a slight recognition of the hearty assistance and hospitality, on many occasions, extended to the author by Mr. Frank Jardine, of Somerset, Cape York, while engaged in investigating the fish and marine fauna of the Albany Pass. JP IEiJe\ WIE DOK WEI ORGAN-PIPE CORAL WITH EXPANDED POLYPS. The natural growth-conditions of this interesting species have been already illustrated and described in association with Plate XVIII., reference being made, in the same connection, to the coloured delineation of the expanded polyps contained in Chromo plate No. X. The example here figured was obtained at Thursday Island, and photographed from life while expanded in an extemporised aquarium. It is desirable to mention that the original photograph was taken on an ordinary whole-plate negative, 84 in. x 64 in., and represented the corallum and polyps in their precise natural size. In the accompanying photo-mezzotype reproduction, details are enlarged to the slight extent of increasing the area of the surface, by an inch and a half, in each direction. In other words, the polyps and the associated tubes may be regarded as being, approximately, one-sixth part as large again as their natural size. TEMES ID, 2826 WEI AUTHOR'S METHODS OF PHOTOGRAPHING SUBMERGED CORALS, ETC. There are many workers with the camera to whom, probably, the practical illustrations given in this plate of the methods employed by the author to obtain photographs of naturally submerged PHORODTYVEE VPLATE INO. XX VIZ. 41 corals, or of specimens under artificially induced conditions, will prove welcome. The necessary plan, in either instance, is to arrange for the disposition of the camera in a vertical position. This was accomplished by extemporising a square frame into which the camera fitted, an extra leg, in addition to those of the ordinary tripod, being supplied to support it. A more elaborately- finished apparatus could doubtless be made; but the results obtainable with the simple means employed sufficed for the author’s purposes. A wide-angle lens is, of necessity, a sie gua non for the photography of objects of the natural size at short distances. In the upper of the two figures given, the apparatus is represented as employed, on the foreshore area of one of the Thursday Island reefs, for the photography of a large sea-anemone 7 sifu and under conditions precisely parallel to those under which the illustrations of the Stinging Anemone, Actinodendron, Plate XNXII., and the fully expanded Mushroom-corals, Plate XXIV., were obtained. In the lower of the two figures, the same apparatus is represented as erected on the beach of one of the Barrier coral islets, an abundant supply of suitable subjects for its employment having been collected together in the extemporised aquaria of various shapes and sizes, distributed around. The actual scene of this illustration is Rocky Island, about lat. 143° S., within sight of the islands known as the Lizard ard North and South Directions; it constitutes a favourite station for the prosecution of the Béche-de-mer fishing industry. The grass hut partly visible in the background represents the description of tenement commonly constructed for the accommodation of the “boss” or fore- man of the fishing and curing operations, and is also the one which the author occupied, as very comfortable headquarters, during two weeks spent in investigating and reporting upon the Béche-de-mer fisheries of this district. Some estimate of the varieties of Trepang or Béche-de-mer obtainable on the neighbouring reefs is afforded by the contents of the large bath in the foreground, which include over half-a- dozen of the most valuable Barrier Reef specific types. Among the occupants of the adjacent receptacles, waiting to ‘‘sit” for their portraits, the circular basin invites attention through being fairly filled up with a small specimen of the Giant Anemone Discosoma Haddont, which is repre- sented separately in Plate XXI. Before quitting the subject of the author's vertical photographic method, it seems almost superfluous to add that the focussing-cloth, while indispensable in actual practice, has been omitted in each illustration, with the express object of giving a clear view of the apparatus and its mode of utilisation. The method is in itself so simple of application that the hope is entertained that it will be adopted by many voyagers in tropical seas, who would thus be provided with golden opportunities of enriching science with a knowledge of the life-aspects of rare and interesting marine organisms that, even where artistic talent is available, it is almost impossible to render faithfully with brush and pencil. 42 Stihl (GISSBIAN TO TRAIAN BIR IRIBIE IE IPN WD IB, ESO WIDIEIL SUBMERGED SEA-URCHINS, PALM ISLANDS REEF. This plate, by way of comparison with the preceding ones, subserves the purpose of illus- trating the very varied nature of the fauna that inhabit distinct reefs, or even separate areas of the same reef. The prominent form in this instance is the long, slender-spined Sea-urchin, Diadema setosa, which abounds, in social clusters, just beneath the surface at low ebb-tide, over large areas of the Palm Islands fringing reef. In addition to the conspicuous groups occupying the central foreground, many scattered individuals may be detected, with the assistance of a hand- glass, ensconced among the more remote dead and living coral boulders. A wade through a reef, thickly tenanted with these organisms, necessitates treading circumspectly ; and it is almost impos- sible in the course of an enthusiastic search for novelties among the coral-stocks to escape scathe- less. Their spines are slender, eight or ten inches long, and sharper than needles. Their owners, apparently, possess an instinctive faculty for concentrating their serried ranks, and so present an impregnable chevaux-de-frise towards the approaching foe. Nevertheless, and notwithstanding accumulated experiences, these magnificent Echini always seemed to exert a fascinating influence, compelling the writer to make the attempt to pick one up with unprotected hands. Invariably, however, and though the creature was approached with the greatest pre- caution, the spines pierced one’s fingers at, seemingly, some distance before they were visibly reached. It was a common notion among the Béche-de-mer fishers that the animals could elastically, or telescopically, extend their spines to meet the intruding hand. The true inter- pretation of the phenomenon is, probably, to be found in the fact that the distal ends of the spines are of such extreme tenuity, that they are imperceptible through the surface of the water. In some instances, doubtless, a lack of knowledge of the common law of water refraction is accountable, in the case of an inexperienced experimenter, for the uncomtemplated precursory impalement and accompanying expostulations. The points of the spines of this Sea-urchin, though so easily embedded in the flesh, are very difficult to extract. Left alone, they in a week or two apparently disappear, and the author was of the opinion that, being almost pure carbonate of lime, they probably dissolved in the blood. Professor A. C. Haddon has, however, informed him that the spine points, like incepted needles, have, in his own experience, after a year's interval, worked their way out at remote distances from where they entered. The capacity for lime absorption probably varies in the blood of different individuals. A coloured representation of one of these long-spined Diademz is included in Plate XI. of the chromo-lithographic series. It serves to illustrate a feature conspicuous in the submerged living organism that does not appear to have been commonly observed. Reference is here made to the spheroidal structure located among the spines on the upper surface of the test. This ‘OJOYY ‘JUay-aljineg “A oy ‘day ‘09 oaI1doosoavaj}g uo} iy at Ce i <* An's AE WA ALY La PHOROTUPEMPIEATE NO. XEXCVLlys, 43 structure, on near examination, is found to be a pedunculated, bladder-like membrane connected with the vent, and communicating by a circular aperture with the exterior. On raising the Sea-urchin above the surface of the water, the structure is immediately withdrawn into the cavity of the body. It not improbably fulfils a respiratory function. Other structural points attract notice in the living organism. Disposed at equal distances around the aboral aperture, with its bulbous appendage, are five ovate pigment masses of a brilliant ultramarine-blue. These structures, in accordance with the results of the most recent research, would appear to possess all the essential elements of complex visual organs. In an allied, shorter-spined form, Astropyga Freudenbergi, obtained off the coast of Ceylon, recently described and illustrated in a magnificent monograph by the cousins Dr. P. and Dr. F. Sarasin, similar brilliant blue visual spots are developed in radiating lines throughout the surface of the shell or test, rendering the organism exceptionally beautiful Outside the blue eye-spots in Diadema, five somewhat large, irregularly ovate, pure white patches are usually visible. These are the discharged products of the reproductive organs, and are commonly composed of a tenacious, exuding mass of ova. The living corals conspicuous in this reef-view are few and far between. They embrace for the most part Brain-corals, Coeloriz and Goniastreee. Dead coralla, more or less encrusted with Alcyonarian polyparies, occupy the most extensive area; and many of these, where the Alcyonaria are absent, give support to colonies of the Frilled Clam, 7izdacna compressa, previously referred to as a characteristic denizen of the Palm Islands reefs. A species of starfish that is abundant in the Palm Islands reefs, and also throughout the Great Barrier district, is represented by Plate XI., Fig. 8, of the chromo-lithographic series. Its technical name is Linckia laevigata but it differs conspicuously from its European congeners in its unusual and exceedingly attractive colours. The entire body is dappled over with graduating shades of the purest Antwerp blue, while the long tubular locomotor suckers or pedicels are bright chrome-yellow. Two other members of the same echinodermatous, or sea-urchin and starfish, class, observed on the Palm Islands reefs, are depicted in the same coloured plate. These are the two Feather-starfish, Amtedon sp., represented by Figs. 7 and 7a, clinging to the corallum of the Gorgonia in the right-hand upper corner. In general form they resemble the English Feather-star, Comatula rosacea ; but they possess about forty, in place of the ten, pinnate arms of the European type. The variety of hues exhibited by this Barrier Reef species are legion, run- ning through every gradation of tint from pale yellow to rose-pink, deep crimson and black, and including every conceivable intermixture of those colours. One especially handsome racial variety of this Feather-star, obtained at Thursday Island, had its fern-like arms resplendent with shades of old-gold and bronze-green. The special biological interest attached to this Feather-star group of starfishes is that they begin life attached to submarine objects by a slender stalk. They subsequently become detached, and thenceforward lead a free-roving G 2 44 THE (GREAT, BARRIER. WEE. existence. In this respect their earliest or larval condition corresponds with the adult state of the permanently stalked and sedentary Crinoids or Sea-lilies, most abundant in earlier geo- logical epochs, but now represented by but a few comparatively rare abyssal forms. From an evolutionary point of view, the roving Feather-stars are consequently regarded as the direct descendants of the permanently stalked Lily-stars, with which, in all other essential anatomical features, they are found to correspond. ID IL IN IDI, COCO, (A.)—OUTER BARRIER REEF, WITH GIANT CLAMS AND BECHE-DE-MER. This reef-scape is highly typical of those vast areas of the Outer Barrier district from which the richest harvests of Trepang or Béche-de-mer are systematically obtained. Examples of the Béche-de-mer, outstretched at ease, may be discerned beneath the surface of the shallow, glass- clear water that, at the lowest tide-ebb, still covers the most considerable area of the reef-surface. The most conspicuous object in this illustration is undoubtedly, however, the huge mass in the immediate foreground, which, excepting for its sinuous upper edge, might be readily mistaken for an eroded coral-boulder. This represents, on its native reef, that most colossal of living bivalve molluscs, the Giant Clam, 7ridacna gigas. The specimen here figured measured just three feet six inches in length, but it by no means illustrates the largest dimensions that may obtain. A measurement of as much as four feet, with an associated weight, with the enclosed living animal, of at least six or seven hundredweight, frequently occurs. The largest pair of shells of this species displayed at the International Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883, were obtained from Singapore. They weighed 3cwt. 3qrs. 14lbs., and measured three feet four inches in length. This record could, undoubtedly, have been easily beaten from the Queens- land Barrier, had the necessary time and money been expended in searching for, and _trans- porting, the bulkiest specimens. Rumours are indeed rife along the Barrier district, and more especially within striking distance of Cooktown, of huge monsters over ten feet long, and weighing at least a ton. Such specimens inhabit deeper water, and the labour and appliances necessary to raise them from their rocky bed are not forthcoming without special inducements. The prodigious dimensions of as much even as fourteen feet were reported on one occasion to Captain G. P. Heath, R.N., Portmaster of Queensland, from the reefs off Cooktown. The freely- offered use of such boats and gear as might be required for transporting this monster of the deep from its coral fastness did not, it is to be regretted, result in its successful capture. The great Barrier Sea-serpent, run to earth in a succeeding chapter, was at this critical time, it may be mentioned, awaiting discovery. A fallacy very widely prevails concerning the growth-conditions of the Giant Clam. It is commonly stated, in popular works on natural history, that the animal is firmly attached to the INMOIOM VATE IPILZHIND, INO DOGO AS coral rock by a byssus, of such size and strength that the aid of an axe is required to release it from its moorings. Asa matter of fact, these Clams, in their adult condition, possess neither byssus nor other anchoring ligament, but le entirely free on the surface of the reef. Similar growth-conditions obtain also in the case of the smaller spotted or Bear's-foot Clam, //ippopis maculatus, that abounds on the same reefs; it being only the more ornate Frilled, or Furbelow, Clam, 7ridacna compressa, that is permanently attached. The anchoring cable in this species, more- over, is not a bundle of thread-like filaments, or ‘‘byssus,” of the more familiar type, but rather a solid fleshy, cartilaginoid plug. The colours of the mantle membranes, conspicuously visible between the slightly gaping valves, in the living animal of the Giant Clam, are by no means brilliant, like those of the last-named species, being almost invariably light-brown, with trans- verse streaks of a darker hue of the same tint. From the references made to this species, Tridacna gigas, in many natural-history works, and accounts of voyages of discovery, including Jukes’ ‘Voyage of H.M.S. Fly,” Vol. I, p. 6, it is very evident that the permanently attached and most commonly coral-embedded Tridacna compressa has been mistaken for the young of its gigantic relative. Under the title of “Gigantic Cockles,” these Barrier Reef Clams were first recorded by Captain Cook (‘First Voyage Round the World,” Vol. IL, 1821), who attests to their excellent edible properties. Where, however, so many other shell-fish abound, of more tender and delicate substance and flavour, these colossal bivalves are, except by the natives, held in very little account. A considerable trade is, at the same time, carried on with the ordinary large-sized shells, which are obtained chiefly by the Béche-de-mer fishers, and retailed for decorative purposes at an average rate of 41 a pair. A brief examination of the reef-scape now under discussion will reveal the presence of two other large Tridacnze, a little more towards the background, on the same side of the picture. This suffices, to some extent, to indicate their gregarious habits. These more remote speci- mens have much younger, smoother, shells than the foreground example, and exhibit very distinctly their typical fluted contour. In the case of the older shells, it not unfrequently happens that they are so thickly encrusted with corals, sponges, and other marine growths, that their real identity is almost completely disguised. It is under such conditions that they un- doubtedly constitute a formidable source of danger to those whose calling necessitates spend- ing the greater portion of their days in collecting the highly valuable commercial products of the reefs, by wading or diving. A foot inadvertently inserted betwixt the gaping valves of a large Tridacna is held with a grip as firm and unyielding as that of the strongest steel man-trap, and, unless the assistance of a comrade, with a stout knife, or axe, or crowbar, is at hand, the victim stands little or no chance of escaping a watery grave. Should such misadventure befall the fisherman when wading, death approaches slowly with the rising of the tide; his fate in this case being a less enviable one than if trapped by the bivalve when diving, under which circum- stances drowning ensues speedily. Several instances of loss of life among the native Béche-de- 46 THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. mer fishers on the Queensland Barrier, through the direct agency of these colossal shell-fish, have been reported to the author. (B,)—OUTER BARRIER REEF WITH EMPTY SHELL OF GIANT CLAM. This plate, which might have been appropriately labelled ‘House to Let, with Immediate Possession,” represents, as its central object of attraction, the gleaming, white internal surface of a recently defunct Tridacna. Actually, it is a specimen with the body removed preparatory to transportation; the almost snowy whiteness of the porcelain-like lining of the ponderous shells forms a striking and picturesque contrast against the somewhat dim, fast-fading light that illumines the surrounding reef-scape. On the distant horizon a wooded coral islet, the fac-simile of hundreds scattered throughout the Great Barrier region, is upreared against the sky. The tide, rapidly rising, has left but few coral heads uncovered; the most notable among these are the bouquet- shaped coralla of Madrepora millepora, resplendent in life with contrasting tints of cream and mauve, and the more robust terminal branchlets of the brilliant green variety of the Stags’-horn coral, Madrepora hebes. In the most immediate foreground is a well-defined patch of a golden- brown Alcyonarian, referable to the genus Spongodes. IIL JAAP a, KOK OK (A.)—FLOTSAM, WRECK OF MISSION SCHOONER © HARRIER.” “Flotsam and Jetsam,” the collective title of this plate, is suggestively represented in the former association (Fig. A) by the stranded hulk of the schooner Harrier, formerly belonging to Her Majesty’s Navy, but within recent years made over to the New Guinea Mission Service. While making one of her customary passages from Port Moresby to Cooktown, and after having safely threaded the Lark Pass and other intricacies of the Outer Barrier, she ran hopelessly aground on what is known as F reef, some twenty miles only from her port of destination. Fortunately, no lives were lost on this occasion. The author was associated with the honour of discovering and rescuing the captain and crew from their perilous position, while returning in the Queensland Government schooner Governor Cairns from an excursion to the Barrier fishing-stations. It would be a matter of congratulation if similar immunity from loss of life could be recorded of every wreck recently associated with the Great Barrier region. One most noteworthy and painful instance, only too fresh in the mind of every Queenslander, was the loss of the good ship Quetta at the entrance to Torres Strait on the night of February 28, 1890. This magnificent PHOLOTLVUPE VPEATE “NO, XXX. 47 steamer had a gross register of 3,480 tons, and was one of the finest vessels of the British India and Australian Steam Navigation Company’s fleet, built for the special object of carrying Her Majesty’s mails between Queensland Ports and London. After having safely navigated all the dangers and intricacies of the Barrier Inner-channel, north of Break-sea Spit, and while under full steam along the charted course between Albany and Adolphus Islands, an unknown rock was suddenly struck, and, within so short a space of time as three minutes, the vessel was at the bottom of the sea in a depth of thirteen fathoms. Of the 282 souls, all told, on board, as many as 120 perished, while the escape of the 162 survivors was, in certain instances, almost miraculous. Notable among these, were the cases of two young lady passengers, one of whom a Miss Lacy, aged sixteen, swam and floated on the surface of the water for no less a period than thirty-five hours before being discovered and picked up by one of the rescue boats. The other, a Miss Nicklin, after swimming and drifting on a plank for an almost equal period, gained the shore of Adolphus Island, whence she was rescued by the Q.G.S. Albatross, which was despatched to the scene of the wreck from Thursday Island, immediately on receipt of intelligence of the catastrophe. The cargo on board the Quetta when she sank included 2,278 bales of wool, 4,260 cases of meat, 60 tons of silver ore, and 260 tons of tallow. By combined diving and blasting opera- tions, a small percentage of this cargo was recovered, though with great difficulty, by reason of the abnormally strong tidal currents. The bulk of it, however, remains at the bottom of the sea, and, in consequence of the costliness of salvage operations, is scarcely likely now to be recovered. The preliminary investigations made by the divers, and confirmed by the subsequent surveys of H.M.S. Rambler and Q.G.S. Paluma, revealed the fact that the rock upon which the vessel struck—tearing her side open for nearly two-thirds of her total length—was a pinnacle of growing coral. This fact is of very considerable importance, since it tends to demon- strate that coral grows at a much more rapid rate than is generally supposed, and indicates the desirability of making new surveys of vessel-tracks through coral-growing areas at intervals of at least every few decades. The local charts in use up to the date of the Quetta wreck were compiled chiefly from the Admiralty surveys made by Captains Flinders, Blackwood, Stanley, Yule, and Denham, R.N., within dates varying from 1802 to 1860. It is, in the author's opinion, highly probable that the coral pinnacle upon which the Quwetta struck with such fatal force grew up to within striking distance of deep-draught vessels subsequently to the survey made thirty or forty years before. In this association, the investigations initiated at Thursday Island, with the direct object of ascertaining the growth rate of specific varieties of coral, referred to at length in connection with the ‘‘ Charted Reef,” Plate II., possess, as will be recognised, an important bearing. In order, however, to arrive at an absolutely correct standard for comparison, it will be necessary to take measurements of permanently submerged coral-masses growing amid conditions identical with those that surround the Quetta rock. This could be accomplished at a 4 (oe) WS GE (EL ASRAID Te SISIR IOI IRI BIBIE. very moderate expenditure, with the co-operation of the diving community at Thursday Island, and would undoubtedly constitute a legitimate and exceedingly important auxiliary subject for investigation in association with the Admiralty survey. ) The title of ‘Flotsam and Jetsam,” introduced with the opening paragraph of the plate descrip- tion, invites reference to one other somewhat analogous, but much earlier, event. In this instance, all painful associations of loss of life are, happily, absent, the narrative resolving itself into an almost romantic record of discovered treasure-trove. The good fortune of its discovery on this occasion fell to the lot of Mr. Frank Jardine, the genial owner of the cattle ranche and fishing station at Somerset, in the Albany Pass, to whose ready aid and unlimited hospitality, ex- tended to them in their day of sore distress, the survivors from the Owetta accident owe their life-long gratitude. In the minds of many, doubtless, there will seem to be an almost providentially directed connection betwixt those good deeds and this later episode. It so happened that one of Mr. Jardine’s boats, prospecting in pastures new for a remunerative fishing ground, was driven, through stress of weather, to take shelter in one of those naturally-protected coves that abound among the Barrier reefs. Lying to in the selected haven, the flukes of a time-worn anchor were discerned at a short distance from the boat at low ebb-tide. Acting on the idea that the instrument might in some way prove useful, steps were taken to remove it. The surprise and gratification experienced on a mass of coin being laid bare on the immediate resting-ground of the eroded anchor, can be well imagined. Further investigation led to the discovery of a larger mass of coin than could be transported by the fishing lugger in a single voyage, several trips from Somerset being eventually undertaken before the little mine was exhausted. The specie exhumed proved on examination to be Spanish, chiefly silver, dollars, bearing various dates within the first two decades of the current century. Mingled among these were discovered a fair sprinkling of golden coins of the same epoch. The state of preservation of the dollars recovered was remarkable. The greater portion of them were, as it were, soldered together by their flat surfaces in roulette form, after the manner of the familiar gelatine lozenges when allowed to get damp. Solid silver masses of many pounds weight were thus in many instances produced, from which, however, the more superficial coins could in most instances be cleanly detached with a deft tap of chisel and hammer. The aggregate value of the treasure thus recovered represented, as may be anticipated, a sum total of several thousand pounds. So far as it is possible to determine, the vessel originally carrying this coin was of Spanish nationality, and either laden with specie for the payment of the civil and military staffs of the Spanish colony of Manilla or equipped for trading among the spice-bearing islands of the Malay Archipelago, and in either case driven out of its course probably by the north-west monsoon, and wrecked on the scene of the anchor-and-coin discovery. Among the very few other objects disinterred at the same spot, mention may be made of a number of fragments W. Saville-Kent, Photo. x MILLEPORA AND ALCYONARIA FRINGING RI PLATE VIII. wa BEY, 4 Ee ORD DENISON, BOS eS it ye 3 IAOMOUVILIE JAIL AITE INO. %OOG, 49 of coloured glass, which, it is anticipated, formed part of the captain’s or officers’ mess equipment. Doubtless many another treasure lies hidden, and will probably never be recovered from, among the coral mazes of the Great Barrier Reef. There is one sunken treasure, however, of classic interest to all Australians, of which knowledge is certain, though the exact Jdocale cannot be fixed, that has again and again been the object of strenuous exertion to recover. These are Captain Cook’s guns, six in number, cast overboard from his exploring ship, the Endeavour, when temporarily aground on a reef within sight of Cape Tribulation, a little to the south of Cooktown, in the course of that earliest scientific survey of the Queensland and East Australian coast. The position given by Captain Cook in the original description of his travels (Vol. II., p. 135, 1821) as the scene of the disaster which so nearly wrecked his vessel, is lat. 15° 45° S., and between six and seven leagues from the mainland. The ground in the vicinity has been searched with the aid of divers, though so far without result, and it is of course by no means improbable that the guns have long since been buried beneath an impenetrable mass of growing coral. (B.)—JETSAM, STORM-STRANDED CORAL-ROCKS. “Jetsam,” the title most appropriately associated with the lower of the illustrations of Plate XXX., is represented by a reef-scene in the Capricorn Islands group, depicting huge masses of the consolidated coral-rock torn off its outer edge and hurled far up on the face of the level platform reef. Phenomena of this description are abundantly illustrated throughout the length and breadth of the Barrier, and ate mostly associated with the cyclonic storms that, during the prevalence of the north-west monsoon, occasionally sweep the reefs with irresistible force, though, fortunately, over limited areas. The larger rock-masses stranded on this reef-view are, respectively, over a ton in weight, and consist exclusively of a conglomerate of coral fragments varying from minutely comminuted particles, which constitute the main bulk of the mass, to almost entire, though much eroded, coralla, inches or feet in diameter. The much-weathered, uneven surfaces of these stranded coral-rocks offer a secure, permanent anchorage, or a tempo- rary lodgment to a considerable host of molluscan and other littoral organisms. Barnacles, multivalve Chitons, and the coral-rock oyster, Ostrea mordax, are distributed more particularly over the upper surfaces of these rock-masses, while their ground storey, or excavated under- surface, usually shelters a number of Holothuride or Béche-de-mer, Holothuria atra and H. coluber, which, during the rising of the tide, extend themselves on all sides in search of food. The rock-masses in this reef-view are entirely covered at high water. It frequently happens, however, more especially on the outer or weather edge of the reef, that the detached storm-stranded blocks are of such dimensions that their crowns are elevated several feet above high-water mark. Under these conditions their upper surfaces become perfectly H 50 THE “GREAT. BARTER Auer, black and weathered; and, standing up in bold colour, are in contrast with the snow-white line of breakers. They are popularly known as ‘nigger heads.” Jukes, in his “ Voyage of the Fly,’ attests to examples of analogous blocks resting on the Barrier margin, twelve miles south-west of Raine’s Islet. They are situated about two hundred yards from the outer edge of the reef, and measure, in some instances, no less than from twenty to twenty-five feet long and ten or twelve feet high; their summits are, in some cases, elevated as much as eight feet above high-water. The general surface of these rocks is very rugged and honeycombed, and passes upwards in sharp points and crags, and it was only in the sheltered hollows one could detect that they were composed almost entirely of a species of Porites, with the cells for the most part directed upwards in apparently their natural position of growth. Commenting on these huge dimensions, Mr. Jukes was doubtful whether or not to regard the blocks as remnants of a much larger mass that had been gradually eaten away and eroded by the action of sea and weather, and as furnishing evidence of elevation in this region. The fact that these huge blocks seemingly passed down into the main body of the reef lent support to this suggestion. This embedment in, or solid union with, the main body of the roof is, however, characteristic of all similar stranded masses of any antiquity, and is of itself corroborative evidence of the augmentation of the reef conglomerate that is constantly, though slowly, progressing within intra-tidal areas. To go further, it will be hereafter shown that the deep embedment of those cast-up rock-masses in the substance of the reef is direct evidence of subsidence rather than of elevation. Mr. Jukes’ doubts as to the possibility of the masses he described being lifted to their position on the reef by any conceivable storm may be set aside in face of the ocular evidence, in both this and the succeeding plate, of what can be effected by storm-waves in confined channels and relatively shallow water. On the outer face of the Barrier, with the whole mass of the fathomless Pacific to draw upon, the hydraulic lifting power of the gigantic storm- begotten rollers, while practically incalculable, is sufficient to account for the transport of the rock-masses above described. Pale AWiink = xXexexe le MURRICANE-STRANDED CORAL-MASSES, PORT DENISON. A still more graphic exposition of the réle enacted by cataclysmic influences in the making and unmaking of coral-reefs, and the associated products, is furnished by the accompanying plate. It represents the north-west shore of Saddleback Island, Port Denison, which has already furnished the subjects of several illustrations. The coral-masses piled up here in inextricable confusion represent the complete wreckage, by a hurricane, of the fringing reef that skirted this side of the island. The massive Astraeaceee, Meandrinas, and Symphyllias have been IVA OIROUVALE SPLATT. IMOk XOOTE. 51 torn up and rolled together like small pebbles on an ordinary beach, until the superficial characters of their corallites are in many instances well-nigh obliterated and their normal irregular contours are ground into sub-spherical symmetry. The fate of the branching Madrepore, which must have entered largely into the composition of this reef, is suggestively illustrated by the mass of finely triturated material en evidence in the central foreground. This scene of chaos represents the effect of a hurricane of only a few hours’ duration. The parallel of such a storm is fortunately unknown in British latitudes at the present day. It is an open question, however, whether similar meteorological conditions did not prevail in that earlier Tertiary period when crocodiles and hippopotami consorted in the Valley of the Thames, or in the more remote European reef-coral- producing days of the Oolitic epoch. On our own south-coast shores, the boulder-heaped expanse of the Chessel beach bears a remarkable general resemblance to the Saddleback Island view, and was, not improbably, primarily fashioned under corresponding cataclysmic conditions. Tt is fortunately possible to fix the precise date of the Saddleback Island storm, it being coincident with a cyclone of exceptional severity that swept through the vicinity of Bowen. A graphic account of it, which appeared at the time in a local paper, is herewith reproduced. It amply accounts for the chaotic coral scene portrayed.— A REPORT ON THE CYCLONE AT BOWEN, 30TH JANUARY, 1884. By Mr. CHRISTISON, MANAGER OF THE PooLE IsLAND Mrat FREEZING WoRKS. At eight o’clock p.m. on Tuesday evening, the 29th of January, 1884, I went my usual rounds over the premises, The refrigerating machinery had been working satisfactorily for some days ; four chambers in the freezing house were full of quarters of beef, containing in all about 200 carcasses. The temperature of the rooms showed 20° above zero. Two of the rooms contained quarters of frozen beef bagged ready to ship on board the Mado at daybreak on the following (Wednesday) morning. The success of this company seemed to be at last assured. At ten o’clock p.m. an ominous silence augured a change from the northerly weather which had prevailed for some time past. ‘This silence had lasted but a short time when a strong wind rose from a point S. 25° W., increasing in velocity and pursuing a complete circle, When it reached S. 45° E., about one a.m. on Wednesday, it blew with terrific violence, the sea rising fully ten feet higher than any drift-marks previously seen upon the island. Two miles out to sea, forming two-thirds of a circle, there appeared a continuous phosphorescent light, very brilliant, with a background of impenetrable darkness. A dashing rain was falling with a force of wind so powerful that it was impossible to stand without a fast hold of something stationary. The night passed, and as day broke the tempest increased, the wind, meanwhile, having veered round to N. 20° W., leaving but a small space to complete the circle. Man was powerless to attempt anything, the convulsed elements warring against each other with maddening din. The cyclone was at its height from daylight until noon. The steam launch, punts, and boats were driven from their moorings, and disappeared. The jetty, after a gallant tussle with the wind and sea, next gave way, its massive timbers being broken into fragments and driven on to the pumping machinery, constructed to supply the works with 30,000 gallons of sea water per hour. By noon the wreck was complete, and although the damage done has not yet been fully ascertained, it cannot fall short of £12,000. Only to an eye-witness could the full force of this cyclone be realised. Some H 2 THE “GREAT. BARRIER VREEE to ou conception of it may, however, be gained from the fact that rocks of tons’ weight disappeared from their beds, and stones, fully roolb. in weight, were thrown in masses fully 30 feet high. Volumes of water rose 50 feet high, which the wind separated into spray and then disappeared as mist. Even the sea-birds were killed, and trees, apparently of fifty years’ growth, were snapped like carrots. The sea appeared to know no bounds, and had it risen about 15 feet higher, the entire island would have been submerged. The occurrence at Java being still fresh in our memories we feared that this culminating catastrophe was about to happen. Had it done so, none would have been left to tell this tale. The sea has now gone back and the sun re-appeared, leaving the island strewn with wreckage. It is worthy of note, in association with the present plate, that a high bank of coral boulders is thrown up among the vegetation, in the extreme background, to a considerable height above the reach of the highest spring-tides, of which the vegetation marks the normal limit. This phe- nomenon fully substantiates the record concerning the abnormal ingress of the sea embodied in the foregoing account of the same disastrous cyclone. PIL A IE I CCRC IIL SPECIMENS OF CORAL ROCK CONGLOMERATES. The special purpose of this plate is to illustrate the structural composition of the bulk of the material of which coral-reefs are composed. The multiform and multi-coloured coral-growths, whose life aspects have been variously portrayed in a large number of the preceding plates, represent a thin superficial crust that overlies a relatively small and chequered surface of the entire reef-mass. The solid basis upon which these corals grow, and the vast expanses of solid coral rock that are accumulated at a considerably higher plane than that wherein the coral polyps can exist, is built up almost exclusively of the finely triturated detritus of the skeletons of preceding polyp generations, combined with that of the calcareous shells of molluscs and other lime-secreting organisms. The local tides and currents are a main factor in determining the ultimate composition of this coral rock, sweeping the finer or coarser constituents into defined areas when they become solidified in forms varying in aspect and texture from that of the finest grained limestone and oolite to the coarsest conglomerate. The larger rock fragment illustrated by Fig. 5 of the accompanying plate furnishes a very typical example of the character of the main mass of the ordinary inshore or platform reefs that skirt the shore of every coral islet or mainland-fringing reef, or that, again, composes the most elevated stratum of the innumerable isolated reefs of the Barrier system that are awash at ordinary low tides. The specimen above referred to was separated from one of the storm-detached masses of the platform reef at Rocky Island. Its composition, as may be recognised on examination with a hand-glass, consists mostly of minutely triturated coral and shell fragments less than one-eighth of an inch in diameter, eroded, and subsequently so encrusted with molecular calcareous deposits that their individual LEH OTOUVINE SAL AITE INO, ODM, 5a identity is indeterminable. Here and there, however, may be recognised the discoidal tests of the Foraminifer, Orbitolites ; and, on the opposite side to that illustrated, a fragment of the corallum of a Goniastreea, nearly an inch in diameter, is conspicuously embedded. The fine molecular or granular calcareous deposit that encrusts the coarser constituent particles of the platform-rock specimens above referred to represents a very important element in the function of reef-rock construction. It is, in point of fact, the paste-like cement that binds all these independent elements into one consolidated mass, previously held in solution in the sea- water, and precipitated by its evaporation on the retreat of the tide. This cementing action of the sea-water in coral seas, through its saturation with carbonate of lime, is particularly well illustrated on the foreshore of Thursday Island, immediately below ordinary high-water mark ; this area, after submersion and complete infiltration with salt water, is then left for a long interval to the active evaporating agency of the tropical sun. Not only are shell and coral fragments bound together by the lime cement, but even granite pebbles of considerable size are found, on attempting to pick them up separately, to be firmly coherent. In a similar manner, washed-up shells, apparently freshly-deposited and lying loosely on the surface of the platform rock, prove to be firmly attached to it by an almost invisibly thin film of lime cement. The upper figures, Nos. 1 to 4 of Plate XXXII, illustrate this binding property of the repeatedly evaporated, lime-impregnated sea-water in a highly instructive manner. These specimens were collected by the author on the foreshore of Sweer’s Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Nos. 3 and 4 represent a loosely coherent breccia formed of small, almost perfect shells and larger shell-pieces, mingled with fragments of various species of coral, in which the coralla of the several genera Madrepora, Turbinaria, and Porites may be distinctly recognised. Scattered among these, there is finally a considerable intersprinkling of ironstone gravel. In neither of these two specimens is there any admixture or infiltration of finer grit or sand, the entire constituent fragments being loosely adherent, and falling readily asunder if roughly handled. In Nos. 1 and 2 from the same beach there is a substantial basis of red feruginous siliceous sand, so consolidated as to form a compact sandstone, among which shells and ironstone gravel, without any admixture of coral, are irregularly scattered. This inter-tidal area throughout the lime-saturated, tropical, coral seas undoubtedly re- presents one of the most active and visibly effective of Nature’s petrological laboratories. Loosely- aggregated breccia, conglomerate, or limestone of such fine and solid texture that it rings with the hammer, with every intermediate variety, are here in visible course of manufacture with a celerity unparalleled under any other conditions. How far the study of this active rock-forming phe- nomenon may or may not aid ina final settlement between the conflicting beliefs in subsidence -and elevation under which the Great Barrier Reef of Australia is thought to have been originally constructed is a matter which will receive some attention in the following chapter. Had space permitted, another highly interesting and instructive photograph would have 54 RHE (GREAT BATITAER” Weer. been reproduced here, viz., a view of the low sand cliff immediately facing the beach on Sweer’s Island, where the specimens just described were collected. As since ascertained, it was the subject of observation by Captain King, and is referred to in Vol. II. of his “ Surveying Voyage to Australia.” The composition of the cliff is described by Captain King as ‘“‘a stalactite concretion of quartzose, sand, and fine gravel, cemented by reddish carbonate of lime.” The aspect of this cliff is very singular, its exposed face being, as it were, evenly fluted, and composed of closely-aggregated sand tubuli, which are continued perpendicularly through the substance of the cliff, such structure giving detached portions of the mass, when viewed vertically, a coarsely-honeycombed appearance. Some twenty years ago Sweer’s Island was visited by a devastating hurricane, which well nigh wrecked the homestead established there, and during it this cliff, ranging from ten to twenty feet in height, was more or less completely submerged. Similar invasions of the sea have, no doubt, occurred at irregular intervals throughout many centuries. These cataclysmic inundations, supplemented by the showers of spray thrown abundantly on the face and shore borders of the cliff by ordinary storms, amply account, taking into consideration the lime-saturated and cementing properties of the sea-water, here attested to, for this remarkable aggregation of lime and silica. The action of the latest hurri- cane, and accompanying inundation, it may be here mentioned, was to undermine an extensive area of the face of the cliff, to such an extent, that a large portion has fallen down and lies scattered in huge, heaped-up blocks at high-tide level. A little way inland, out of the reach of the sea and spray, the stratum of siliceous sand and ironstone gravel occurs without any admixture of carbonate of lime. JOAN I, ROMO WIE I (A.)-OUTER BARRIER REEF, WITH SUBMERGED BECHE-DE-MER. This reef-scene is taken from an area closely abutting upon the one(Plate X XIX.) illustrating the natural habitat of the Giant Clam-shell, Zvidacna gigas. The specimens of Béche-de-mer, dimly visible through the water in the foreground, towards the left, are what are known as “ordinary Red-fish,” Actinopyga obesa, one of the most valuable commercial species. The several small fishing vessels discernible on the distant horizon represent the description of shallow- draught craft most commonly employed in this fishery, and manned with native crews, by whom a clean sweep will presently be made of the many thousands of Béche-de-mer, similar to those in the foreground, scattered over the vast surface of the reef. There is a conspicuous coral-growth in this reef-view that does not enter into the composition of the preceding plates. This is represented by the obtusely-lobed, or clavate, masses nearest to the front on the left-hand side, and by an isolated corallum in the lower right-hand corner. This species, A/veopora retusa, is remarkable for the extremely porous, almost lace-like, delicacy of its superficial corallites. SPAGKOIOT WAPIE SEAL YAM IES INOS, 2 POSTE _7AUNID) POO 5 On The polyps which secrete it closely resemble those represented in Chromo plate No. VIII. Fig. 3, being delicate apple-green in hue, and protrusible to long distances beyond their coral basis. A little to the rear of the larger colony-stock of this species are several corymbiform coralla of the brilliant lilac Madrepora gemmifera. (B.—LADY ELLIOT ISLAND REEF, WITH EXTENDED BECHE-DE-MER, Lady Elliot Island reef, delineated in this plate, is interesting, in addition to the associated Béche-de-mer, on account of its belonging to the most southern coral islet of the Great Barrier system. It lies in lat. 24° 5" S., a little south of Bustard Head, is elevated some eight or ten feet only above high-tide line, and is the site of a substantial lighthouse. The corals entering into the composition of the reef include a number of species identical with those recorded in association with the Port Denison reefs; Madrepora millepora, Pocillopora danucornis, Lophoseris cristata, and a species of Caloria being most conspicuously visible. Long-spined Diademz and Frilled Clams, 7ridacna compressa, referred to in association with the Palm Islands reefs, were abundant on this reef. The attenuate, fully-extended Béche-de-mer in the foreground of this picture represents one of the commonest Barrier Reef species, Holothuria atra. It is, unfortunately, of little com- mercial use, shrinking up to an almost hollow skin when boiled and smoked in the ordinary manner; but it is, nevertheless, occasionally blended in small quantities with the better sorts by unscrupulous dealers. It is possible, with the aid of the hand-lens, to distinguish the individual outstretched tentacles of the specimen here illustrated. As may be observed, its hinder extremity 1s inserted within a crevice of the coral rock, into which, on being disturbed, it speedily retreats. In like manner it not unfrequently happens that a dozen or more individuals of this species may be seen protruded to their full length from beneath a hollow coral rock. Such abundant development of the species is, however, most conspicuous farther inshore, where there are but few growing corals, and where the reef is strewn with rock masses torn off and trans- ported from the outer edge of the reef. In all cases, as in the specimen here illustrated, the extended bodies are seen to lie in shallow water. IP IA AD IE, OKI VARIETIES OF TREPANG OR BECHE-DE-MER. This plate illustrates the life aspects of three species of Trepang or Béche-de-mer, two of which, Nos. 1 and 3, are extensively collected and prepared for the Chinese market, while No. 2 is disqualified in the same manner as the variety associated with the preceding plate, in 56 RHE “GREAT (BA RISEN RT! Lilie consequence of the tenuity of its muscular layers, which shrink to unprofitable proportions in the curing process. Like that form, however, it is occasionally mixed among the better kinds, to aug- ment their bulk. No. 1, Holothuria sanguinolenta, much resembles, at first sight, the black species extended in the foreground of the Lady Elliot Island reef-view. It differs from it, how- ever, in several essential respects. In the first place, it does not discharge, when irritated, a stream of cottony-white adhesive filaments, ‘‘Cuvierian organs,” as does its ally. On the other hand, it exudes a purplish fluid from the surface of its integument when handled roughly. The popular title assigned to this variety of Béche-de-mer is that of the ‘Small Lolly-fish.” The origin of the title is somewhat obscure, but the name has been apparently applied to it in respect of its near resemblance to an allied species, Holothuria vagabunda, known as ordinary, or ‘‘ Large Lolly-fish,” found more plentifully on the outer reef-areas, whose skin surface, when dried, presents the appearance of being divided into roughened lozenge-shaped areas. The second species of Béche-de-mer figured, Holothuria (Bohadschia) argus, is remarkable for its conspicuous colour ornamentation. The ground tint in this variety is usually bright lilac, superimposed on which tint are chain-like series of rounded or ovate spots of a golden-brown hue; these spots are commonly encircled by adark-brown inner line and a whitish outer line. No two individuals, however, are precisely similar in their pattern of decoration. A coloured illustration of the species is given in Fig. 7 of Plate XII. of the chromo-lithographic series. Like the common black inshore Holothuria atra, it discharges a copious stream of tenacious cotton-like filaments when handled, and is of but little commercial use. The third species illustrated in Plate XXXIV. represents the most valuable marketable variety. The commercial title applied to it is that of the ‘ Teat-fish,” the name having reference to the series of mammiform excrescences developed along each side; these are most conspicuous in living examples, but are also more or less prominent in the cured fish. With reference to the peculiar tooth-like armature of the vent, this Béche-de-mer is referable to the genus Actinopyga; and, in the absence of any discoverable prior intelligible specific description, it is here associated by the author with the combined generic and specific titles of Actinopyga mamullata. IPA ID TE OOO YS VARIETIES OF TREPANG OR BECHE-DE-MER, Of the two species of Holothuriaz or Béche-de-mer illustrated by this plate, the upper figure represents a type, Holothuria coluber, or the snake-like Béche-de-mer, that much resembles in aspect and general habits the common black H. atra, previously referred to. It may easily be distinguished from that form, however, by the pale primrose-yellow tint of the extensile tentacles, and by the fact that it does not discharge cotton-like Cuvierian filaments when irritated. NOSINSG LYOd NOOSWT FxOddUCUA AO GERIG IZ Kol IPITOIROUVAAE SEEZNTMES, INOW 2A OO, ANID) POO, 57 Its muscular tissues are at the same time, as in the above-named species, so thinly developed that it yields no profit to the curer. A coloured illustration of the anterior portion of this species, with its characteristic primrose tentacles, is given in Chromo plate No. XII. The second or lower figure in Plate XXXV. illustrates one of the largest and most remark- able of the Barrier series. The specimen when photographed from life was in a contracted state, and is represented less than one half of its natural size. When fully expanded and distended with water it is not unfrequently three or four feet long, and some six or seven inches broad. Its whole dorsal and lateral surfaces are beset with somewhat rosette-shaped or stellate outgrowths of the substance of the integument; these, in their attenuated and flaccid condition, when the animal is lifted freshly from the water, impart to it a fleecy aspect, which renders the organism appropriately comparable to a washed-out strip of a sheepskin doormat. On contraction, as shown in the illustration, these fleshy appendages exhibit clearly an irregularly stellate contour, and are of the same leathery texture as the integument from which they spring. When dried and cured, these appendages assume the aspect of short pointed thorns, and the species is hence known in the trade by the suggestive title of ‘ Prickly” or ‘Red Prickly-fish,” the longer name serving to distinguish it from an allied form denominated “Green Prickly.” Stichopus variegatus is the scientific appellation of the Red Prickly-fish, and was conferred upon it with relation to specimens originally collected in the South Sea Islands. The colours of this Béche-de-mer, while subject to an extreme range of variation, are usually associated with a distinctly reddish ground tint, as particularised in the chapter dealing specially with this animal group. Reference may be also made to that chapter for an account of the incident which led to this Béche-de-mer, once the most valuable of the Barrier Reef species, commanding of late years a very low figure in the Chinese market. Rae Ar iy Bs eee Vi. NATIVES OF WARRIOR ISLAND, TORRES STRAIT, PREPARING BECHE-DE-MER FOR THE CHINESE MARKET. This plate constitutes a fitting accompaniment to the descriptive account given in a subse- quent chapter of the processes employed in preparing and curing the famous Barrier Reef Trepang or Béche-de-mer for the Chinese market. The scene is at Tud or Warrior Island, once noted for the warlike prowess of its native chieftains, and now one of the most important head- quarters of the Béche-de-mer fishing industry. Situated a little to the north of the centre of Torres Strait, it commands access to the productive Warrior reefs, which extend. to within ten miles only of the New Guinea coast. Among the apparatus and appliances conspicuously visible in the accompanying illustration may be noticed the two large cauldrons in which the “fish” are boiled—literally ‘stewed in their own juice.” From the cauldrons they are ladled out with the long-handled net lying on the ground in front of them. The fish are then ready I THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. ou oe’ for manipulation by the natives, who slit them open with a sharp knife and remove the viscera. They are then spread out in the sun for a short interval, previously to being carried to the smoke-house, some of the larger specimens, ‘Teat-fish,” more particularly, being pegged open with short wooden skewers. This is the particular stage of the process represented in Plate XXXVI. Among the other accessories visible in this illustration, attention may be directed to the native bamboo pipe lying, end on, midway between the two figures on the right-hand side, first filled with tobacco smoke by one of the aboriginal belles, and then circulated, after the manner of a “loving cup,” among the assembled company. Farther towards the foreground, in the same straight line, is a utensil of universal use in Torres Strait. This is the so-called “Bailer-” or Melon-shell, Cymbium athiopicum, commonly carried in the native canoes for bailing out sea-water, and put to almost as many uses as an Indian gourd. PLATE and are then popularly known as ‘‘nigger-heads.” Although most abundantly cast up on the south-eastern (or normal weather) side of the reefs, these conglomerate boulders may, as in the present case, occur on the northern face, which represents, in point of fact, that aspect 9 ON ‘SHIMHS MHIMdWE AHLNO AHHH LNHOSHa) day ‘09 91d0080auajg uopuo7 ‘0]04q ‘quay-a//IAeS “Mf fe ho : avi Lat pr 7 ———— — ae TAX HLV Ld THE AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. 105 upon which the most violent storms, of hurricane force, strike the reefs during the prevalence of the north-west monsoon. The extreme edge of Westari reef, having its position indicated by rippling waves, in Plate XXX., is very ragged and precipitate, and hollowed out into deep gulches, from which, probably, the stranded rock boulders in the foreground were originally torn. The reef-rock itself is full of ‘‘ potholes,” sometimes several fathoms deep; and among them it is necessary to tread circumspectly. These hollow potholes teem with brilliantly-coloured and grotesquely- shaped fish of innumerable varieties, constituting veritable aquaria with side walls composed chiefly of living corals of various tints. In photographs taken nearer the edge of the reef, when the tide was a foot or two lower, its surface is shown to be covered to a considerable extent with the growing coralla of two corymbiform species of Madrepora, pronounced by Mr. G. Brook, F.L.S., to be Madrepora prostrata and a variety, compacta, of Madrepora millepora. Other species of the genus, collected during an hour or so’s exploration of this and the neigh- bouring ‘‘ North-West” reef, included, as identified by the above-named authority, Madrepora hebes, fruticosa, decipiens, gemmuifera, seriata, pectinata, surculosa, variabilis, sarmentosa, recumbens, beodactyla, digitifera, with Madrepora (Isopora) palifera and cuneata. In addition to these, a host of Astraeacezee and other Madreporaria that yet await identification were obtained. The growth habit of the iast-named species of Madrepora, M. cuneata, is peculiar. This species, with a few other varieties, has been referred by Dana to the sub-genus Isopora, on account of the fact that the subdivisions of the coralla are not associated with a single, usually larger, terminal, or growing, corallite, as is usual among all the ordinary representatives of the genus. In this particular species, 1. cuneata, the coralla on the Westari and the North- West reefs are encrusting forms, spreading out in ridges from a central point over areas of the platform-reef, which, having a thin sheet of water flowing over them from the inner lagoon, at even the lowest tide, are thus continually submerged. In deeper water on Westari reef, the same species of coral, in company with Madrepora palifera, forms robust, erect folia, of considerable dimensions. The life-colours of the coralla of this species are not so attractive as those of many of the members of the genus. They are chiefly light buff in hue, but variegated, to the extent of the edges of the corallites and their contained polyps being lemon or primrose colour. The beach near high-water mark of North-West Island yielded many specimens of interest that had been thrown up from deep water in heavy weather. These included the remarkable flexible coral, Zsis hippuris, a representative of the Gorgoniacez, in which the corallum is composed of alternate joints of black horn-like and white calcareous matter, which will be found illustrated by Chromo plate XI, Fig. 1. A red Hydroid coral, Distichopora coccinea, and the Black coral, Antipathes abies, both of which are delineated in the same plate, together with some very fair c = ‘ 2 . 5 examples of sponges, having as fine a texture as many of the ordinary commercial species, were P 106 THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. collected from the drift accumulations on North-West reef. These subjects will receive atten- tion under their respective headings. A few casts with the dredge and tangles, made off the reef in a depth of about twenty fathoms, produced an abundance of corals, referable to two single species only, of the genera Seriatopora and Pocillopora, together with a few speci- mens of the Solitary coral, Heteropsammia Michelini. Before leaving the Capricorn group of reefs and islets, it has been thought desirable to include a further abstract from Mr. Jukes’ narrative of H.M.S. Fly's survey of this particular area, in which are embodied many interesting data concerning the geological composition of the reefs. As a geological specialist, he was in a position to speak ex cathedra upon this subject. Two coral islets, One-Tree Island and Heron Island, the latter visible on the horizon of the photographic view reproduced in Plate XXX., were the field of Mr. Jukes’ explorations. The diary of his experiences is as follows :— “Jan. 11.—Landed on this (One-Tree) island, which exhibited the same general features as Bunker's first island, with some modifications. The external ridge of loose coral fragments was loftier and steeper, owing, I believe, to this island being rather more on the weather, or at least the south side of the reef. Inside, the island sloped down every way towards the centre, forming a shallow basin, in the middle of which was a small hole of salt-water at or near the level of the sea. The inside slope was covered with low succulent plants with pink flowers (Mesembryanthemum) and low trailing bushes. On this green carpet were multitudes of young terns that fluttered before us like flocks of ducklings, with the old birds darting and screaming over our heads. In the single tree (which was, in fact, a small clump of the common Pandanus of these seas with its roots exposed above ground) was a large rude mass of old sticks, the nest of some bird of prey, probably the osprey. To the northward and eastward of the island stretched the shoal lagoon, its bottom of clean white sand, and dark patches of dead and living coral, bounded by the usual rim of snow- white breakers. Just round the island, part of the body of the reef was now exposed at low water. This was a flat surface of about a quarter of a mile in width, dotted here and there with pools and holes of water. It consisted of a compact, tough, but rather soft and spongy rock, many loose slabs of which, two or three inches thick, were lying about. It was rather fine-grained, and only here and there exhibited any organic structure or remains. There were no signs of living coral, except a few stunted specimens in some of the deeper holes of the reef, where also were some dead masses still standing in the position cf growth. The whole was very different from any precon- ceived notions of a coral reef, and I erroneously imagined it must be an exception to their general character; it looked simply like a half-drowned mass of dirty brown sandstone, on which a few stunted corals had taken root. ‘Jan. 12.—We were anchored a few miles farther to the N.W. in the centre of a group of reefs and islands, under one thickly wooded island that afterwards obtained the name of Heron Island. In attempting to land at low water, we were compelled to quit the boat soon after getting Tel FSUOSTOACAIEICAING (GIISIZATO SpA ICIUBIK WI RIOTE, 107 on the edge of the reef, and wade ashore a distance of a third of a mile. The bottom was very irregularly, but pretty equally, divided between white sand and blocks of dead and living coral, principally the former. On many of the rough blocks of coral there was scarcely a few inches of water, and many large masses, particularly along the outer edge of the reef, were high and dry. All the sandy spots, however, were about three or four feet deep, and as neither the sandy spots nor the coral-masses were anywhere continuous for more than a yard or two, we had a succession of wading and scrambling that was rather laborious. Arrived at the island, the first thing that took my attention was a large development of hard brown rock, like that on Bunker’s Island. Both the island and the reef were elongated in an east and west direction, the island being half a mile long, and not more than 300 yards broad. It consisted in the interior of piles of loose sand, covered by a dense wood of pretty large trees, with broadish leaves, most of which had a white brittle wood, and grew in a singularly slanting position, the stems frequently curving at an angle of 45°, although three or four feet in circumference. The beach of the island was steep, about twenty feet high at low water, and composed partly of sand and partly of stone. The sand was very coarse, composed wholly of large grains and small angular pieces of comminuted corals and shells, with some larger worn fragments of both intermixed. The stone was of precisely the same materials, but very hard, and dark brown externally, although still white inside. It sometimes required two or three sharp blows with the hammer to break even a corner of it off. Its surface was everywhere rough, honeycombed and uneven; the beds from one to two feet in thickness, with, occasionally, in the fine-grained parts, a tendency to split into slabs or flags. It was perfectly jointed by rather zig- zag points crossing each other at right angles, and splitting the rock into quadrangular blocks of from one to two feet in the side. As far as external appearance and character went, it might have been taken for any old roughly stratified rock. As to position, the strike of the rock was parallel to the direction of the long diameter of the island and reef, or east and west ; and it dipped on the north and south sides of the island to the north and south respectively ; or from the island towards the reef at an angle of 8° or 10°. At the east end of the island it was not visible, but at the west it appeared from under the sand in two places, in one being horizontal, and in the other having a slight flexure or anticlinal line, which ranged also east and west. The rock was in many places much worn by the wash of the breakers, which had also a good deal undermined it in some places, and many blocks had fallen down in a line. The joints were parallel to the dip and strike respectively. The rise and fall of tide here was fourteen or fifteen feet, and at high water the upper part of the rock was just about covered ; at low water the reef was dry for a small space all round the island. Now the question is how or under what circumstances did the loose calcareous sand and fragments become hardened into solid stone, acquire a regular bedding and a jointed structure, and the plane of stratification assume an inclination of 8° or 10°. If it be supposed that a regular deposition and slope of 8° took place every high tide, and a gradual and successive in- duration went on, why does not the same thing take place now ? or why did not the loose sand P 2 108 WIEMB (GIRIBANTD ISVAVIRISSUBIR, IRS BISSE. which composes the greater part of the beach in the same position become consolidated? Per- manent springs containing carbonate of lime are, of course, improbable in so small a heap of low sand as the islet is composed of. Either, then, the stratification and consolidation is the result of a gradual deposition beneath the level of low water, in which case a movement of elevation must have taken place, which in so small a spot seems a difficult and gratuitous hypothesis ; or else the present structure must have been produced in the ferior of a mass of loose sand by the in- filtration of sea or rain water, or some other cause of which we are ignorant. I say in the interior, for had it been on the outside, what was to defend it from the wash of the sea that is now breaking down the hard solid rock, and shifting and washing backwards and forwards the loose sand of which the present beach is composed? After the interior of such a mass of sand had been con- solidated, the loose exterior may have been washed away and the solid rock exposed. The speculation concerning the structure of this little island may seem a very unimportant circumstance even to the geologist ; but it is not so, as this same rock is found along every beach and on every island among the coral-reefs of Australia, and I believe in other parts of the world also.” The geological data and speculations connected therewith, embodied in Mr. Jukes’ diary, herein reproduced im extenso, receive further notice in a later page of this chapter. Whether or not Mr. Jukes’ description of a living coral-reef, as ‘‘a half-drowned mass of dirty brown sandstone, in which a few stunted corals had taken root,” is actually as universally applicable as the associated context would seem to imply, is a subject which may be left to the decision of the reader already familiar with the photographic reef illustrations in this volume. To the majority of voyagers and explorers, however, who cannot pick and choose the most favour- able times and tides for landing on them, the earliest, and it may be the most frequently renewed, acquaintanceships with coral-reefs and banks are equally productive of disappointment. Many a veteran fisherman, indeed, who has been connected for the greater portion of his life with the Barrier Béche-de-mer and pearl-shell fishing industries, and to whom copies of the original photographs were submitted, was unacquainted with reefs laid bare, and exposing their coral groves and thickets to the extent portrayed in many of the accompanying plates. Immediately north of the Capricorn Islands group, the wide entrance passage to the Inner Route, known as the Capricorn Channel, intervenes. This gap, which may be designated the chief entrance to the Inner Route from the south, is no less than sixty miles wide, and carries soundings of from thirty to over seventy fathoms that gradually shelve in from the open ocean. The outer boundary of this channel is represented by the Swain reefs, an archipelago of several hundred tidally-exposed reefs, very similar in character to Westari reef of the Capricorn group, which jut out oceanwards, forming part and parcel of the Barrier to a distance of one hundred , and fifty miles east of the mainland. With the exception of two insignificant sand patches known as Bell Cay and Hixson Cay, this entire reef system is submerged at high water. A brief account of the aspect of one of the reefs belonging to Swain’s group, on which THE AUSTRAEIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. 109 Mr. Jukes landed, is thus given in his “ Journal”: “Feb. 4, 5, 6.—Running along and delineating the eastern edge of this large body of reefs, sometimes standing out into the offing to sound, and taking care on the approach of night to run into some of the openings, and anchor in a sheltered position among them. These reefs consist of a compact body of coral- masses, intersected by narrow channels of deep water; each mass varies in extent from one to several miles, some of them being almost dry at low water, others having lagoons or hollows of greater or less depth. A very common feature among them is a line of great detached blocks lying a little back from the outer edge of the reef, frequently not altogether covered even at high tide, and always quite exposed at low water. I landed on one reef from our anchorage on the evening of the 5th. We carried blue water from the ship for about half a mile, and then began to see the bottom in about seven fathoms, from which it shoaled gradually, but rapidly, till the boat touched the top of the coral branches. Scraping on, however, over these, and winding among the more solid masses of Mceandrina and Astrea, we reached some of the large dry blocks on the seaward edge of the reef. I found some of them to be huge masses of Mcean- drina, six or eight feet in diameter, much waterworn and lying upside down, having been torn by some heavy sea from their place of growth on the weather edge of the reef, and washed two or three hundred yards back from it. Others were a species of massive Porites, while others again consisted of various corals, all matted and compacted together.” On the trend of the coast-line in a north-westerly direction, a considerable archipelago of islands, which present a distinct character from the reefs and islets hitherto enumerated, is encountered. The latter islets have been entirely of coral origin. We now, however, meet with a linear series of island-groups, which stretch for nearly two hundred miles, and are composed of igneous or metamorphic rocks, identical in character with those of which the foundations of the mainland are composed. The Percy, the Northumberland, the Cumberland, and the Whitsunday Islands represent these several groups in their consecutive order of occurrence, voyaging up the coast. They all lie within comparatively short distances, varying from ten to fifty miles, from the mainland shore, and in some instances rise to a considerable height. In the Cumberland and the Whitsunday groups more particularly, there are mountain peaks, such as those of Scawfell, St. Bees, Carlisle, and Hook Islands, whose heights exceed 1,000 feet. In these two more northern groups the irregular rocky cliffs and hillsides are, for the most part, covered with a dense growth of a handsome species of pine, Araucaria, which, when viewed from the steamer’s deck, communicates a very picturesque, almost Scandinavian, facies to the associated landscapes. A nearer approach, however, eradicates this first impression, by revealing the ad- mixture among the pines of palms, pandani, and many other plants of a tropical character. The ordinary steamer track through the Whitsunday Passage is justly regarded as one of the most picturesque bits of scenery on the Australian coast-line. Among other points of interest to which the traveller's attention will probably be directed is the remarkable aspect of Lion, or 110 Wah (CASIBZN TU IAI ASU BT 82 IRIBAB IP. Pentecost, Island, which for some distance, from a westerly point of view, presents the most perfect contour-resemblance to a lion couchant, with its head raised, after the manner of Landseer’s masterpieces in Trafalgar Square. Although coral does not represent the main element in the composition of the island groups now under notice, almost all of them are intimately associated with fringing reefs of it, and have interspersed, between and among them, detached banks and reefs of a purely coral origin. The outer border of the Barrier along this area is as remote as from eighty to one hundred miles from the mainland coast, while between its margin and the groups of islands above enumerated there intervenes a labyrinth of coral-reefs and shoals, all more or less completely covered at high water, similar in character to those which enter into the composition of Swain’s reefs, previously referred to. A conspicuous feature of the fringing reef of M island, belonging to the Northuinberland group, and of others in the same neighbourhood, was the predominance of the large, robustly branching or sub-foliaceous Stags’-horn coral, Madrepora (Isopora) palifera. This species abounds on the seaward margins of the reefs, growing to within a short distance of the surface at low-tide mark, from depths of two to three fathoms. The occurrence of this species in company with an allied variety, Madrepora (I[sopora) cuneata, has been already noted in association with Westari reef in the Capricorn group. The considerable rise and fall of the tide, in the vicinity of the Percy and Northumberland Island groups more especially, is attested in Mr. Jukes’ narrative, and in the Queensland Ports Office Sailing Directions. In Broad Sound, in the vicinity of St. Lawrence Creek, the spring tides exhibit a range of variation of not less than from eighteen to thirty feet. A few hours’ sailing along the Inner Route, in a north-westerly direction, brings the voyager abreast of Port Denison and Gloucester Island, just twenty-five miles from Hayman Island, the most northerly islet of the Whitsunday group. Gloucester Island itself is separated by a very narrow passage from the mainland, and between it and the outer margin of the Barrier, now about seventy miles from the shore, only one or two small islets of primitive rock-formation intervene. The entire remaining area, excepting the central navigable channel, is thickly studded with semi-submerged reefs and shoals similar in character to those of the Swain and the Capri- corn series. ‘The fringing reefs in the neighbourhood of Port Denison, including Saddleback Island, which is just outside Gloucester Island, have contributed extensively to the collection of photographic reef-views reproduced in this volume. Their diversified character is well exem- plified in Plates V., Nos. 1 and2; VII., VIII., Nos. 1 and 2; IX. and X., No. 2, of the Photo- mezzotype series. To these plates, in association with the descriptive letterpress in Chapter L., the reader who desires further information concerning the features and composition of the. reefs of this district may be referred. The frontispiece, Plate I., of the photographic series, it may be mentioned, is exclusively representative of coral species collected in this Port Deni- son area of the Great Barrier district. THE AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. III Following the inner route along its north-westerly course for another seventy miles, no other island group of primitive rock formation is encountered. The outer edge of the Great Barrier has, from its greatest distance from the mainland (one hundred and fifty miles off the Swain’s reefs) trended gradually inwards, and is now, opposite Cape Bowling-Green, within the narrower, but still considerable, distance of fifty miles from the Queensland coast. At this particular point we arrive at the third considerable, or navigable, gap in the Barrier, which has received the name of Flinders’ Passage. The Curtis and the Capricorn Channels, at the extreme southern limits of the Great Barrier, have been enumerated as constituting the first and the second passages. There is a feature of interest associated with Flinders’ Passage and the two more southern Barrier openings, to which brief attention only will be drawn at this point, whose most important significance is reserved for future notice. This is the mouth of a river, the Burdekin, having an extensive watershed, immediately opposite Flinders’ Passage gap. The watershed to the south, adjoining that of the Burdekin, is of much more considerable dimensions ; it drains all the back country for an approximate superficial area of 40,000 square miles, in the united streams of the Mackenzie, Comet, Dawson, and Fitzroy rivers, and discharges itself into Keppel Bay, immediately opposite the wide portals of the Capricorn Channel. The next watershed of any importance, farther south, is that of the Burnett River, whose estuary immediately faces the Curtis Channel. Fifty miles more sailing in the same north-westerly course, after leaving the parallel of Cape Bowling-Green and the Flinders’ Passage, brings the voyager abreast of the Palm Islands, he having previously, some ten miles back, passed Magnetic Island, a short distance off the coast, in the neighbourhood of Townsville, Queensland’s northern capital. With the excep- tion of this island, and Hobourne Island and Nares Rock off Cape Gloucester, the entire distance, about 150 miles, between the Whitsunday and Palm Islands groups, is uninter- rupted by any elevated rocks or islands of metamorphic or stratigraphical nature. Archi- pelagoes of coral-reefs and shoals abound, however, as throughout the superficies of the Great Barrier region. Some half-a-dozen islets are included in the Palm Islands group. They occupy an area ranging from ten to twenty miles off the mainland coast; and their abundant fringing reefs have, as in the case of those of Port Denison, been extensively utilised for the illustration of this work. The Photo-mezzotype Plates Nos. IV., VI., X., and XXVIII. yield fair evidence of their diversity of aspect and composition. The collection of coral specimens made on these reefs was very considerable, and included many types that were not obtained farther south. The genera Oculina, Echinopora, and Tridacophyllum are especially noteworthy. Of the genus Madrepora, or Stags’-horn corals, some thirteen specific forms were collected, comprising the brilliant electric-blue variety of Madrepora laxa, represented by Plate IX., Fig. 6, of the chromo-lithographic series. 112 THE (GREAT BARLUED RIA TE The precipitous land of the Palm Islands group is of granitic formation, and includes some peaks of considerable height. The Great Palm Island is over 1,800 feet high; Orpheus Island, 568 feet; and Pelorus Island, 924 feet. The coastal island of Hinchinbrook, within clear view, and lying some ten miles only to the north-west of the Palm Islands, attains, in accordance with the Admiralty charts, to an elevation of no less than 3,650 feet. As originally defined by Mr. Jukes, it is made up of broken masses of hills, covered with rugged knolls and sharp, inacessible pinnacles, and furrowed by deep and precipitous gullies and ravines. There are two minor navigable entrances (Palm and Magnetic Passages) through the Great Barrier, opposite the Palm Island and the Hinchinbrook groups. Although fifty miles from the mainland, they are significantly parallel with the estuary of the Herbert River, which drains the watershed next in order, northwards, to that of the conjoint Mackenzie, Dawson, and Fitzroy basin. No feature of special interest is associated with the reefs intersected by the navigable course for the next seventy miles, northwards, from Hinchinbrook, all the reefs and shoals being of the uniform coral tormation as those previously referred to. At about the point indicated, three openings occur in relatively close proximity; and the edge of the Barrier, at the same point, approaches to within thirty miles of the mainland coast. The reef passages referred to are, in their consecutive order from the south, the Flora Pass, the Grafton Passage, and the. Trinity Opening. All three are contained within the narrow limits of less than forty miles, and probably represent the delta-like subdivision ot a primarily single channel. The soundings immediately outside the Trinity Opening, more particularly, are deeper than those at any point so far passed. From Break-sea Spit up to the gaps now under notice, soundings taken off the immediate edge of the Barrier, as recorded in the Admiralty charts, fluctuate between one hundred and two hundred fathoms, with the exception of a single one of 365 fathoms, a little to the south of the Flora Pass, and opposite the estuary of the Johnstone River. Close against the outer edge of the Barrier at the Trinity Opening, as great a depth as 650 fathoms is recorded, with several in the near vicinity of over 250. On referring to the land chart, to ascertain whether. in this case also any river estuary, by coincidence or otherwise, harmonises in its bearings with this Barrier gap, it will be found that the Barron River discharges its waters in such position, a little to the north of Cairns. This river is remarkable for its rugged, precipitous course and mighty waterfalls in the back country, one of which is seven hundred feet high. During the tropical flood seasons, the Barron River brings down a deluge of water that would materially affect the coral life of a reef lying across its track at a less distance than the present Barrier opening. The reefs northwards of the Trinity Opening are much more continuous, or wall-like, along the Barrier’s outer periphery than to the south of that passage. The interior reefs also are much more extensive, and constitute, in this respect, favourable collecting grounds for prosecutors of the Béche-de-mer fishing industry. Green Island, some ten or twelve miles only out to sea 2 ON SHINES YHISews AHLNO Ade LNAOSHYD ‘day ‘09 o1doasoauayg vopuo7 ‘oJ0Yg ‘2Uay-a/jiAeg ‘Mf wee sation Lane 20 a chy aries eee eats | Youre Rae TIAX Hel ai RHE MAUSERALLIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. 113 re) from Cairns, is a much-frequented central station for the collection and curing of all of the most valuable commercial species. A few days’ encampment sufficed to supply the author with an extensive representative series of these esculent Holothuridz, since contributed to the National Museum, and with a comprehensive collection of Madreporaria. ‘The corals, in their general features, corresponded so essentially, although on a less luxuriant scale, with those of Rocky Island, dealt with a little later, that special notice of them at this point may be dispensed with. A little north of the Trinity Opening, the outer margin of the Barrier approaches to within a little less than thirty miles from the mainland. The same near approximation to the coast is maintained for the next two hundred miles, at which point, about latitude 14°S., in association with the promontory of Cape Melville, its nearest approach, to within a distance of only twelve miles from the mainland, is found. This area includes some of the most prolific Béche-de-mer fishing grounds in the Barrier district, which are extensively worked from the most northern mainland port of Cooktown. Low reefs and islets of purely coral formation constitute the dominant feature of the fishing grounds south of Cooktown and Cape Bedford. North of this point, however, there are a good many scattered islets of granite, or other primitive rock formation, which attain to a considerable height. Lizard Island, a little over twenty miles off the mainland coast, and about forty-five miles north of Cooktown, is one of the most con- spicuous. It is composed of granite, and, rising to a height of 1,167 feet, is a useful beacon for the navigation of the mazes of the reefs. The two islands of North and South Direction, in the vicinity of the Lizard, are of the respective heights of 610 and 567 feet. Rocky Island, some ten miles due south of the Lizard, is about 200 feet high, and is associated with three or four outlying islets of similar granitic formation. Rocky Island, above mentioned, and Low Woody Island, of coral formation, about ten miles farther south, are stations in whose vicinity the author obtained the most remarkably luxuriant photographic reef-views reproduced in this volume. These two islands constituted convenient centres for the acquisition of some of the most varied collections of Madreporaria derived from the Barrier district. No fewer than twenty-four species of the genus Madrepora alone were obtained from the Rocky Island reefs, and in addition to these a host of other varieties whose identification awaits accomplishment. The names of the species of the genus Madrepora which have been carefully worked out by Mr. Brook, are included in the following chapter on corals and allied organisms. The prolific character of the coral-growths on the Low Woody Island reefs is well exemplified by the Photo-mezzotype Plates, numbering XIII. to XVII. inclusive, whose descriptive details are embodied in pages 23 to 27 of Chapter I. The Lark Passage reef-view represented by Plate XII. is also within easy sailing distance of Low Woody Island, and was visited the same excursion. All the illustrations enumerated assist to demonstrate the existence within this area of the Q 114 THE (GREAT. VBATKRIER, VRE. Barrier district of an abundant development of coral-reefs that present to the eye, under favour- able conditions, a more pleasing aspect than that of ‘a half-drowned mass of dirty brown sandstone, on which a few stunted corals had taken root,” applied, as quoted from Mr. Jukes’ work on a previous page, in a wholesale fashion to the reef-scapes ordinarily exposed to view. On one occasion, a little to the north of the area now under discussion, Mr. Jukes appears to have fallen in with a luxuriant patch of growing coral very much akin to certain of those represented in the Low Woody views, although, from the context, it is evident that even in this instance the growing coral was not completely uncovered, but visible only through the clear, superjacent water. In their general features, however, the aspect and colours described so closely accord with those associated with the Low Woody and other analogous reefs illustrated in this volume that Mr. Jukes’ descriptive paragraphs are herewith reproduced. Besides furnishing corroborative testimony concerning the brilliant hues of the growing reefs, recorded by the author in the plate-descriptive chapter, they endorse the evidence respecting the living tints of many of the individual corals and reef-fishes associated with the series of coloured plates. The paragraphs in Mr. Jukes’ journal are as follow : “‘T had hitherto been rather disappointed by the aspect of the coral-reefs so far as beauty was concerned, and though very wonderful, | had not seen in them much to admire. One day, however, on the lee side of one of the outer reefs, near the wreck of the /ergzson, I had reason to change my opinion. In a small bight of the inner edge of this reef was a sheltered nook, where the extreme slope was well exposed, and where every coral was in full life and luxuri- ance. Smooth and round masses of Moeandrina and Astraea were contrasted with delicate leaf- like and cup-shaped expansions of Explanaria, and with an infinite variety of branching Madre- pore. and Seriatoporee, with some mere finger-shaped projections, others with large branching stems, and others again exhibiting an elegant assemblage of interlacing twigs of the most delicate and exquisite workmanship. ‘Their colours were unrivalled—vivid greens contrasting with more sober browns and yellows, mingled with rich shades of purple, from pale pink to deep blue. Bright red, yellow, and peach coloured Nulliporae clothed those masses that were dead, mingled with beautiful pearly flakes of Eschara and Reteporz; the latter looking like lace work in ivory. In among the branches of the corals, like birds among trees, floated many beautiful fish, radiant with metallic greens or crimsons, or fantastically banded with black and yellow stripes. Patches of clear white sand were seen here and there for the floor, with dark hollows and recesses, beneath overhanging masses and ledges. All these, seen through the clear crystal water, the ripple of which gave motion and quick play of light and shadow to the whole, formed a scene of the rarest beauty, and left nothing to be desired by the eye either in elegance of form or brilliancy and harmony of colouring. “This beautiful portion is, however, only to be seen on the extreme verge, and outer slope of a coral-reef, when circumstances are favourable for its examination, which is not often THE AUSTRALIAN (GREAT BARRTER KEEF-. 115 the case. The flat surface of the reef is a dull affair enough, though many elegant corals may be seen in the detached pools, or in the parts which are permanently covered by water.” As recorded in Mr. Jukes’ diary, and also by Darwin and other naturalists practically acquainted with coral life, the most luxuriant banks of growing coral are found on the least weather-exposed, or lee, sides of the reefs; and it is from such situations that the photographs reproduced in this volume were mainly obtained. Nevertheless, many of the apparently easily- injured species, such as the delicate vase-like coralla of Madrepora surculosa, are found flourishing beside the most robust forms amidst the weather-side breakers at lowest tide-mark, Charac- teristic photographs of such growths were taken by the author on the weather-side of Rocky Island; but the violence of the gale during the operations caused a vibration of the camera that rendered the negatives useless for the purposes of photo-mechanical illustration. Luxuriant as is the growth of coral in many of the reef-scapes reproduced in this volume, this luxuriance is much exceeded on sheltered portions of the reefs that are permanently submerged. Their sloping edges, down to a depth of three or four fathoms, as seen on a calm day over the boat’s side, often reveal terrace upon terrace, or literally hanging gardens, of coral growth of every variety of form and colour. Specifically, these submerged corals do not differ materially from the types accessible on the surface or near the edges of the reefs at extremely low spring-tides, although in these more sheltered and permanently submerged positions they usually exhibit a more exuberant growth. In different localities, or separate portions of the same reefs, the dominating representatives of the more distinct specific types are as prevalent as on the tidally-exposed areas illustrated. Thus, one almost perpendicular bank may be completely covered with the spreading vasiform coralla of Madrepora surculosa or pectinata, usually of a pale- lilac or pink-brown hue, with pale-primrose or flesh-pink growing edges. Another submarine reef is as completely clothed with the brilliant rose-pink, minutely divided, clumps of Seriatopora hystrix. A third bank may include robust branching Stags’-horn varieties, resplendent with intermingling tints of electric-blue, grass-green, and violet, and comprising such specific forms as Madrepora grandis, laxa, decipiens, and arbuscula, Over a very large extent of the submerged reefs, the comparatively solid, smooth-surfaced, and more or less hemispherical, coralla of the Astraeaceze and Poritidaee monopolise the growing space, to the exclusion of the branching species; or, as abundantly illustrated in the photographs of the tidally-exposed reefs, almost every gradation of intermixture may obtain. The area of the Great Barrier district now under notice embraces some of the most interesting land and coast marks associated with its earliest exploration by Captain Cook. A little below Cooktown, 15° 45’ S., is situated the Endeavour reef, upon which Cook’s vessel of the same name stranded, and so narrowly escaped total wreck. The mouth of the Endeavour River, now the site of Queensland’s most northern mainland town of Cooktown, is the natural harbour into which he managed to navigate his disabled vessel; the presumptive spot where he careened, One 116 THE (GREAT BARRIER REEF. and repaired the various damages it sustained being now marked by a handsome monument to his memory. The summit of Lizard Island is the station from which Captain Cook reconnoitred the reefs, and decided upon attempting to pass out through the Barrier eastwards. He did so ata small gap in latitude 14° 32’ S., now known on the Admiralty charts as Cook’s Passage. The two islands of North and South Direction were so named by this explorer on account of their utility, in conjunction with Lizard Island, as beacons. Captain Cook’s re-entry within the mazes of the Barrier was accomplished through a similar narrow gap, named by him Providential Channel, some 150 miles farther north, whence he discovered the route to Torres Strait, now daily navigated, between the outer Barrier and the mainland coast. Captain Cook was not aware of it; but there were, in the near vicinity of Lizard Island, two passages through the Barrier far more practicable than the one he penetrated. One of these, known as the One and a Half Mile Opening, is less than ten miles north of Cook’s Passage, and the other, the Lark Pass, just forty miles south of the same point. None of the three passages, nor, indeed, any other that penetrates the Barrier farther north, is of the wide, open character that characterises the channels and openings to the south, previously enumerated ; and it is significant in association with this phenomenon, that no large rivers, draining a considerable extent of back country, fall upon the northern side of the eastern coast. Such larger rivers as do exist flow westward to the Gulf ot Carpentaria. At the same time, some correlation might possibly be established between the Endeavour River estuary and the Lark Passage, and between the estuary of Kennedy River and the First Three Mile opening, a little to the north of Cape Melville. In both instances the Barrier gaps lay some little distance to the north of the rivers’ mouths, and the connection between the two is consequently not so obvious as in the examples previously recorded. North of the promontory of Cape Melville, at which point the outer edge of the Barrier approaches to within twelve miles from the mainland, there is for the next 160 miles, or as far north as Cape Grenville, but little difference in the physical and geological features of this great reef area. The margin of the Barrier follows the trend of the coast at a distance vary- ing from twenty to forty miles. Its main area is similarly occupied with half-sunken reefs and coral islets, supplemented occasionally by a few sheltered rocks or island groups of primitive formation. One such island group, known as the Howicks, occurs in the area just passed, some twenty miles south of Cape Melville. The highest point on the largest island of this series does not exceed 180 feet. The Flinders’ group, situated off Princess Charlotte’s Bay, the indentation to the west of the same cape, embraces some half-dozen exceedingly rugged islands, the largest ot which yields an altitude of 829 feet. Within recent years this last-named group of islands has been the subject of attention in respect of the considerable quantity of oysters it produces, which are systematically collected and shipped to Thursday Island, Normanton, and Croydon. The species, Ostrea nigromarginata, is a large, coarse variety that TE YVAUSTRALTAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. 117 grows in abundance on the rocks at about half-tide mark, and requires considerable force to detach it from the rocks. An elongate shell of this species is illustrated by Plate XIV., Fig. 7, of the chromo-lithographic series. A further reference to the habits and characters of the species will be found in the chapter dealing specially with the oyster and oyster fisheries of the Barrier district. Three lightships are stationed along the course between Cape Melville and Cape Gren- ville, to guide the passage through the intricate maze of reefs and shoals. The first, known as the Piper Islands Lightship, is a mile or so off Cape Melville. The Claremont Isles Light- ship, the second, occupies a position a little less than ten miles off the mainland, about half- way between the two capes named. The most northern one, Piper Island, is twelve miles due south of Cape Grenville. Both the last-named stations have yielded specimens of interest. From the neighbourhood of the Claremont Lightship, more particularly, varieties of coral which have not been collected elsewhere, have been obtained by the lightship keepers, Mr. and Mrs. Wilson. Among these is Madrepora ornata, a new species, so named by Mr. Brook, a fragment of which is represented by Plate IX., Fig. 4, of the coloured series. The living tints are, as there shown, a brilliant grass-green, with whitish terminal corallites. It has, so far, been collected only from a depth of two or three fathoms, and with the aid of native divers. From the neighbourhood of the Claremont and also the Piper Lightships, some excellent quantities of sponges belonging to the honeycomb, Hippospongia, and so-called finest Turkish, Euspongia, generic, types have been obtained. This subject will receive attention in another chapter. The Forbes, Sir Everard Home, and Sir Charles Hardy, groups, all within a twenty- mile radius of Cape Grenville, are the chief islands of primary-rock formation north of the Flinders’ group, in the sectional area now under notice. The largest of these islets, in the Forbes group, scarcely exceeds a mile in diameter, has a hill-summit 340 feet high, and is twenty miles from the mainland. The Sir Charles Hardy group includes three small islands located in the centre of the reef-area, almost due east of Cape Grenville; their highest point, on the northern islet, is 320 feet. The rock formation of this group is described by Jukes as “siliceous, hard, brittle, and of a brown colour; sometimes putting on the appearance of flinty slate, at others it seemed to be passing into porphyry, containing here and there crystals of red feldspar.” In this respect their composition was found by Mr. Jukes to correspond precisely with the rocks of Cape Grenville. Among the smaller rocky islets worthy of notice in the present association, which commonly attract the attention of passengers by the coasting steamers, is one in the immediate neighbourhood of Restoration Island and Cape Direction, about latitude 12° 50" S. Viewed from the north-east, it presents a remarkable resemblance to the semi-submerged head of an Egyptian sphinx, while, by a singular coincidence, the outlying flank of Cape Direction represents, in combination with it, the contour of a perfect pyramid. In addition to the two gaps in the Barrier between Capes Melville and Grenville, already 118 THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. mentioned, and distinguished as the First Three Mile Opening and Cook's Providential Channel, that of the Second Three Mile Opening occurs, almost midway between the two, in latitude 13° 5’ S. A very little farther north than Cape Grenville,—this promontory being utilised as the mainland landmark to steer for in association with it—the Raine Island entrance is arrived at. This passage, it will be recollected, was referred to in an early page of this chapter as the one formerly used most extensively by vessels bound from the south or the east for Torres Strait, and as the one which H.M.S. Fly was specially commissioned to survey and define more accurately. Raine Island and the immediate neighbourhood was, in consequence, made the head- quarters for some little time of the surveying staff; and Mr. Jukes, the naturalist and geologist to the expedition, made good use of the opportunity of examining and reporting upon its structure. An abstract of Mr. Jukes’ original description of this island may be here reproduced.— ‘“Raine’s Islet is about 1,000 yards long, by 500 wide, and in no part rises more than twenty feet above high-water mark. It is formed of a plateau of calcareous sandstone, which has a little cliff all round, four or five feet high, outside of which is a belt of loose sand, forming a low ridge between it and the sea. Some mounds of loose sand rest upon the stones, especially at its western end. The length of the island runs in about a N.N.W. and S.S.E. direction. It is surrounded by a coral-reef that is narrow on the lee side, but to windward, or towards the east, stretches out for nearly two miles. The surface of this reef is nearly all dry at low water, and its sides slope rapidly down to a depth of 150 or 200 fathoms. The island is covered with a low, scrubby vegetation, partly of reed-like and umbelliferous plants, and partly with a close green carpet of a plant with succulent leaves and stem, which we subsequently found was good to eat, and so went with us by the name of ‘spinach.’ The central part of the island had a rich black soil several inches deep, and here we commenced to dig a well, having brought pickaxe and spade, to try if we could find water. We dug about five feet deep, but found the rock too hard and tough to allow us to proceed further. The following was the section :— Feet. Inches. Good black vegetable mould ae ne a o 6 Stone, brown mottled with white, hard and coarse grained o 3 Rich moist black soil, like bog earth ... a oe I Stone of a light brown colour, rather soft but tough, and yielding slowly to the pickaxe — 306 3 © 5 I “The stone was made up of small round grains, some of them apparently rolled bits of coral and shell, but many of them evidently concretionary, having concentric coats. It was | not unlike some varieties of oolite in texture and appearance. It contained larger fragments of coral and shells, and some pebbles of pumice, and it yielded occasionally a fine sand that was not calcareous, and which was probably derived from the pumice. Some parts of it made SIIWaIS SHddOL CUNWTS] AWCSUNAL Fee TWYO0-adId-NW9YO "0}0Yq ‘Juay-ajiaeg ‘MY TIAN GLE Ta THE AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. ima) a very fair building stone, but it got softer below, till it passed downwards into a coarser coral sand, unconsolidated and falling to pieces on being touched. In the quarries that were opened next year for the beacon, many recent shells, more or less perfect, were found compacted in the stone, and one or two nests of turtle eggs were discovered, of which in some cases only the internal cast had been preserved, but in others the shell remained in the form of white carbonate of lime. Some dusty cavities also were found in the stone, containing crystals of gypsum, or sulphate of lime. The presence of this mineral seems very odd, as I do not see whence the sulphuric acid could proceed. It is evident from the fossil turtle eggs that the consolidation of the stone had taken place after it was raised above the sea. It was due, probably, to the infiltration of the rain water percolating through the calcareous sand, that had been gradually piled above high-water mark by the combined action of the wind and waves. The thickness of the vegetable soil in its centre shows that it has been above water for a great length of time. “The whole surface of the island was covered with old and young birds. These consisted of frigate-birds, boobies, gannets, noddies, and black and white terns, the only land birds being landrails. The frigate-birds had a small colony for themselves; their nests consisted of a platform about a foot high, in each of which was one young bird. There were young of all ages—some able to fly, others just hatched, and covered with yellowish-white down. Those which could not fly assumed a fierce aspect as we approached, and snapped their beaks at us. The boobies and gannets each formed separate flocks, but few of them had either eggs or young ones. All the rest of the island was covered with the eggs and young ones of the terns and noddies. The terns’ eggs lay scattered about the ground without any nest, and how each bird found its own again among so many was a marvel to us. The young terns were also of all ages, some fluttering up into the air from under our feet, others just hatched. Each one seemed unalterably attached to the spot where it had been hatched, and immediately returned to it on being driven off. We had picked a clean spot on the sand, just on the top of the beach, for our bivouac; but there was one young tern there, a few days old, that we could not keep away from among our things, and the old one kept hovering and sailing and screaming, just above our heads, to look after it. The whole island stank like a foul hen-roost, and we were covered with bird-lice and ticks after sleeping in the sand. We dined upon young boobies and frigate- birds and terns’ eggs—the latter were excellent, and the former very good, especially when cooked with a little curry powder. As night closed in, it was curious to see the long lines and flocks of birds streaming from all quarters of the horizon towards the island. The noise was incessant and tiresome. On walking rapidly into the centre of the island, countless myriads of birds rose shrieking on every side, so that the clangour was absolutely deafening, like the roar of some great cataract.” Raine Island has within recent years been turned to profitable commercial account. The 120 THE GREAT “BARIIER REEF. myriads of birds mentioned by Mr. Jukes, whose habits are so graphically described in the foregoing quotation, have accumulated, during the countless centuries in which they probably enjoyed unmolested occupation, and lived and bred there, a vast deposit of guano little inferior in quality and value to the far-famed Peruvian variety. The essential chemical difference between the two is that, whilst the Peruvian guano abounds in ammonia as well as in phosphates, that obtained from Raine Island is composed of phosphates only. The difference is accounted for by the fact that the guano imported from the South American coast-line is derived from a permanently arid and rainless district, whilst the site of the Raine Island accumulations is necessarily exposed to the heavy rainfall during the north-west monsoon. For many agricultural pur- poses this conservation of the pure phosphates only possesses advantages. Dealing with the subject of guanoes, it may be recorded that hopes originally ran high respecting the possible utilisation of the vast deposits of bat excreta in caves in the Rockhampton (Keppel Bay) district of Queensland, although to all appearance resembling guano of the highest class, it is found on analysis to be altogether destitute of phosphates, and has so far been turned to no practical account. Concerning the Raine Island guano, it may be observed that the deposits occur under three distinct conditions: Firstly, in layers some fifteen inches thick, immediately beneath the upper crust of coral conglomerate, which constitutes the encircling plateau described by Mr. Jukes; secondly, in pothole-like hollows in the same location; and thirdly, in trench-like depressions in the central black earth basin. The deposits are so extensive that the present proprietors have found it worth while to import a locomotive and all the plant requisite for tramways over which to convey the material to the landing jetty. The work of collecting and shipping the guano began in the year 1882, and the supplies are apparently far from being exhausted. The birds that have been noticed in Raine Island, in addition to those mentioned in the list given by Mr. Jukes, include, as notified to the author by the present proprietor of the works, three white and one blue varieties of cranes, and a few stray pelicans. The main object of H.M.S Fly’s first visit to Raine Island, 1843, was the charting of the passage, through the Barrier at this point, that was most frequently followed by vessels bound for Torres Strait. The undertaking was accomplished. The subsequent year the F/y repaired thither again for the purpose of erecting a substantial and conspicuous beacon on the island, that should assist vessels in making a straight course for the passage from the outer ocean. The beacon was constructed of square blocks of coral concrete, quarried from the east end of the island, the lime for the mortar used being compounded on the spot by burning the large shells of Tridacna and Hippopus, which could be obtained in abundance from the reefs at low water. The general plan of the beacon, which is still standing, is that of a circular stone tower, forty feet high and thirty feet at the base, with walls five feet thick. Erected on the highest ground of the island, its summit is fully seventy feet above low-water mark. This Raine Island beacon was, unfortunately, not destined to fulfil WI5HE ZA ORS WIRAUGICAUN — (GISAETATE SEVAUKISIUIBISG VIE BS 121 so universally useful a mission as was originally anticipated. The intricacies of the navigation among the reefs, between the passage and the open channel near the mainland, occasioned so many wrecks and misadventures that the route was finally abandoned, by all but small craft, in favour of the much more open, although more remote, one known as the Great North-East or Blyth Channel, adjacent to the coast of New Guinea. The comparatively short distance (a little over eighty nautical miles) between the parallels of Raine Island and Cape Grenville, and Cape York and Torres Strait, presents no special features, with the exception that the outer edge of the Barrier (following a course almost due north, and ultimately north-east, the trend of the land being north-west by north), while within forty miles of the coast abreast of Cape Grenville, is eighty miles from it opposite Cape York, the most northern point of Queensland, or, indeed, of the Australian Continent. The greater part of this area, exterior to the navigable coastal channel, is one intricate maze of coral-reefs, islets, and shoals, to a large extent unexplored, and marked on the Admiralty charts as ‘dangerous navigation.” At several stages along the charted navigable route, north of Cape Melville, the steamers making for or hailing from Torres Strait are accustomed, unless it is particularly clear, to anchor for the night. The Cairn Cross Islands, a little coral group midway between Cape Grenville and Cape York, is one of these commonly chosen anchoring stations; and, if arrived at an hour or two before dusk, the opportunity of a brief run ashore is frequently afforded passengers. Such an opportunity occurred, and was utilised by the author, when on a voyage from Sydney to Port Darwin, by one of the China Navigation Company’s ships, in the year 1888, and represented, in point of fact, his first practical acquaintance with a coral reef. On this occasion only a portion of the inshore, or upper, platform reef was uncovered by the tide; but to one to whom such a scene was entirely new the experience was absorbingly interesting. In the shallow pools or thin sheets of water just covering the reef, black Béche-de-mer, Holothuria atra, and H. coluber, were extended in every direction, grasping sand and coral particles with their extended tentacles, which, being withdrawn, food-laden, were thrust, one after the other, into the circular mouths. Other varieties of Holothuria were found concealed under the broken slabs of reef-rock ; and from the same coign of vantage might be seen protruding on every side the long spinous arms of a brittle starfish, apparently identical with Ophiomastix annulosa, represented by Chromo plate XI., Fig. 11. The arms of the starfish, which are five, are exceedingly flexible. Numerous extensive membranous suckers are developed from their central groove; and they thus constitute very efficient prehensile organs, which extend in a tentative manner in all directions, while the body remains concealed, and seize and convey to the mouth any suitable substances. The same shallow pools on the Cairn Cross reefs were thickly tenanted by a delicate, transparent, pink Synapta, from six to eight or ten inches long, when expanded, which were extended, and feeding in the same manner as the larger Holothuriz. Chromo plate XII., Fig. 9, represents a group of Synapte of very similar R 122 THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. shape and size, but of more variable colours, that were dredged up in a tangled mass in Cleveland Bay, off Townsville. The high-water bands of flotsam and jetsam on the Cairn Cross beach contained, as do many of those coral-islets in the Barrier district, thousands of the chambered spiral shells of the Belemnitoid genus Spirula. The habitat and natural conditions under which this interesting little cephalopod flourishes are among the unsolved mysteries of science. It was expected that the Challenger expedition would throw a flood of light on the life phenomena of the type. A single perfect specimen dredged off Banda, in 360 fathoms, and some dead shells collected, as at Cairn Cross, on the beach of Raine Island, recently described, and a single dead shell from a depth of 2,000 fathoms off the north coast of New Guinea, are the sum total of the material illustrative of the genus Spirula obtained throughout the cruise, as recorded in the excellent report on the Cephalopoda of the expedition, drawn up by Mr. W. E. Hoyle, Naturalist on the editorial staff of the Challenger reports. It is remarked by Mr. Hoyle that the single shell, dredged from 2,000 fathoms north of New Guinea, had a dead shell of a barnacle attached to it, and that this Spirula had almost certainly fallen from the surface of the sea to the depth at which it was taken. A similar association of an originally floating fulerum with an attached organism, distin- guished a specimen found by the author on the Cairn Cross beach. This was represented by a rounded lump of pumice-stone, about 34 inches in diameter, to which two young coralla of the Madrepore, Pocillopora damucornis, were attached. The bases of the coralla are each about 13 inch wide, and the rudimentary tuberculate branchlets are about } of an inch high. This speci- men was thrown on the beach in a buoyant condition, as is evident by its still floating lightly even in fresh water. The attached Pocilloporee probably represent the growth of a few months only, and would, at an early date, have completely invested the pumice-stone fulcrum, and caused it to sink. Dredged up from deep water in a perfect, if dead, condition, this typical reef-coral, with the concealed pumice nucleus, would have proved a very apple of discord among biologists. In the condition in which it was found, the specimen throws a new light on the means of reef-coral distribution. The two attached coralla indicate the probability of coral-germs floating abundantly at the surface of the sea, and that by attaching themselves freely to such objects as floating pumice they may be distributed through the most widely-extended areas. The sudden and otherwise inex- plicable disappearance of tracts of floating pumice from districts where they have previously abounded, may be also easily accounted for by the attachment of coral or other organic germs. Evidence was elicited by the author, in connection with the specimen now under discussion, from a resident in Borneo, that the pumice-stone ejected during the eruption of Krakatoa, and distri- buted for thousands of square miles, disappeared within a short time over extensive areas through the abundant attachment of a species of barnacle to the floating masses. One of the strongest attractions to ordinary passengers favoured with an opportunity of THE VACSERALTANG GREAL BARRIER REEF. 12 ww landing on the Cairn Cross, Howick, or other of the numerous coral-islet groups scattered along the steamer route, is the chance of making a bag of the famous Torres Strait pigeons, Myristicivora spilorrhoa, a large white variety, highly esteemed for the table, which, arriving from the north, is distributed from October until the end of March throughout the tree-bearing islets and mainland coast as far south as Keppel Bay. The nests of this pigeon are usually built in the forked-branches of the mangrove and tee trees, that form such extensive thickets along the coast-line, and each contains two white eggs. A novel spectacle to the European traveller landing on these islands may probably be afforded by his first acquaintance with the nests of the Australian jungle fowl or scrub hen, Megapodius tumulus. These consist of huge mounds of dead leaves, grass, sticks, mould, and shells, scratched together by the adult birds in a well-shaded and sheltered situation among the Hibiscus or other bushes. The dimensions of the nest-mounds may be as much as twenty feet or more in diameter, and from ten to fifteen high, several pairs of birds commonly joining in their construction. When the mounds are completed, the birds burrow holes in the centre of them and deposit their eggs, which are then left to hatch by the moist heat ingendered by the decaying vegetation. As many as forty or fifty eggs, usually of a brown or brick-red colour, as large as those of a turkey, are sometimes found in the largest mainland nests. The eggs, as well as the parent birds, are excellent eating. An attractively plumaged bird, very plentiful in Cairn Cross and on other of the northern Barrier islets, is the Australian bee-eater, Merops ornatus. Mr. A, R. Wallace, writing of this bird in his “ Malay Archipelago,” says :— “This elegant little bird sits on twigs in open places, gazing eagerly around, and darting off at intervals to seize some insect which it sees flying near, returning afterwards to the same twig to swallow it. Its long, sharp, curved bill, the two long narrow feathers in its tail, its beautiful green plumage, varied with rich brown and black, and vivid blue on the throat, render it one of the most graceful and interesting objects a naturalist can see for the first time.” With Cape York, situated in lat. 10° 40" S., Queensland and the Australian Continent reaches its most northern limit. The outer edge of the Barrier, although now much more irregular and disjointed, together with the extensive reefs of its interior system, are continued considerably farther. The last link in the chain of reefs that forms the outer wall of the Barrier, and that has now been followed for over twelve hundred miles, is located on the south side of Flinders’ Entrance, in latitude 9° 40” S. The centrally-developed, widely-expanding Warrior reef, which, with the single break of Moon Passage, is thirty-five miles long, reaches to within ten miles of the New Guinea coast, in lat. 9° 15". The important Torres Strait group of islands, mostly of considerable elevation, and identical in their rock-composition with the strata of Cape York peninsula, constitute practically the western boundary of the Great Barrier area in this region, in the same manner as the mainland coast represents its limits farther south. The R 2 124 THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. number of islands in this Torres Strait group is about twelve; and, with the surrounding and intervening shoals and reefs, they stretch due north just half-way across the Strait. Prince of Wales Island (native name, ‘‘Muralug”), the largest of the group, is irregularly circular, about twelve miles in diameter; and _ its highest hill is 761 feet. Banks Island, “Moa,” a little over twenty miles farther north, is nearly as large as Prince of Wales Island. All the rest are considerably less. Thursday Island, or “ Waib&n,” with Port Kennedy, the headquarters of the Torres Strait pearl-shell fishery, and port of call and coasting station for the ocean steamers passing to or from India and China ports, although geographically one of the smallest islands of the group, necessarily takes precedence for commercial impor- tance and activity. The smallness of Thursday Island becomes apparent on seeking for it in the accompanying replica of the Admiralty Chart. Its name is not entered on the chart; but it is represented by the small speck, corresponding in size with the full-stop, in the adjacent name of C. York, that may be found close to the extreme north point of Prince of Wales’ Island, which is itself the centre of three other islands of more considerable dimensions. The largest, Horn Island, or “ Narupai,” is broadly ovate, and lies due east. Immediately north of it is Hammond Island, “ Keriri,” of narrow elongate form, its axis running north-east and south-west, while on the west side is located Friday Island, ‘“Gialtig,” of scarcely larger dimensions than Thursday Island. Although none of the names is entered on the chart, the islands that bear them can be easily localised from the foregoing explanation. The high character of the land in Prince of Wales’ Island, the largest of the group now under consideration, is clearly indicated in the reef-view reproduced in Plate II. of the Photographic series, in which the north shore of that island, with its scattered pearl-shelling stations, forms a prominent feature of the background. The population of the Thursday Island district, including the several adjacent islands above enumerated, numbered last census a little less than 3,000, out of which no fewer than 1,600 find employment in the pearl-shell and the béche-de-mer fishing industries. The number of nationalities included in this by no means very extensive population is probably in excess, comparatively, of what is to be found in any other quarter of the globe. Their names, as recorded in the annual report drawn up by the acting Government resident, Mr. Hugh Milman, for the year 1888, are as follows :— English Norwegian Burmese Scotch Russian Javanese Irish Natives of Australia Egyptian German Brazilian Africans French West Indian Cingalese Bengalese Manillamen Mauritius Danes Malays Kanakas Italians Chinese Japanese THE AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. 125 That list was compiled, it is worthy of remark, from the Thursday Island (Port Kennedy) gaol books for a single year. Concerning the residuum of nationalities whose more retiring dispositions precluded their registration in the public archives, history is silent. The material progress of Thursday Island is assured by the fact that it has been determined to make it a fortified station and military depot. The construction of the fort is in rapid progress. At the time of the author's last visit to the island (1891), it had already advanced so far on the path of luxury as to be the possessor of a hackney carriage. All of the islands of the Torres Strait group are more or less begirt with fringing coral-reefs, while innumerable independent reefs of every shape and size prove a bar to bee-line navigation in the intervening channels. The characteristic aspects of the reefs skirting the shores of Thursday Island, and of others in the immediate neighbourhood, are extensively illustrated in this volume. Reference may be made to the Photo-mezzotype plates Nos. II., III., IV. ps, XVIIL., XIX., and XX. a and pz. An illustration of the most northerly Warrior reef is photo- graphically represented by Plate XI. The more conspicuous features of those various reefs, together with their coral products, is fully discussed in Chapter I. As a centre for collecting and investigating the corals and the other marine products of Torres Strait, Thursday Island possesses incomparable advantages, and its special appropriateness for the establishment of a tropical biological station will be found advocated on a later page. The most considerable collection of corals representative of the Torres Strait area collected by the author, and contributed to the National Natural History Museum, were obtained from the neigh- bourhood of Thursday Island. The Warrior Island reefs, to the extreme north, also proved a very productive collecting-ground, while on the opposite, or south, side of the Strait, the Albany Pass, with the reefs around Adolphus and Albany Islands, were profitably explored. The majority of the Mushroom corals, Fungia, and species of Stinging Anemone, Actinodendron sp., illustrated in Plates XXII. to XXIV., were, as notified in the descriptive texts, obtained from this neighbourhood. The reefs around the more remote Murray and Darnly Islands, situated in the extreme north-east of the Barrier area, in the neighbourhood of Flinders’ Entrance, yielded a coral fauna closely akin to that of Thursday Island, the genus Euphyllia, illustrated by Chromo plate IV., as at all the other stations explored in Torres Strait, being conspicuously represented. Large flats of the Zostera-like sea-grass Posidonia australis, upon which the Dugong habitually feeds, form a characteristic feature of the Murray Island foreshore. These Posidonia beds abounded with the small banded sea-snake, apparently Chersydrus granulatus, which is reported to be highly venomous. The natives of the island give the snakes a wide berth; but it is note- worthy that the European pearl-shell divers handle them with impunity, and the author, while ignorant of their evil reputation, has handled them without their attempting to bite. That they possess poison fangs, which they are, fortunately, slow to use, is established. Both Murray and Darnly Islands, and also the small, more northern, islet of Bramble Bay, 126 THE (“GREAT BARRIER “REEF: all situated, as marked on the chart, on the extreme north-east area of the Great Barrier region, are composed, as originally described by Mr. Jukes, of rock formations that differ essentially in character from those of the Australian mainland, with the islands north and east of Cape York. In place of the granite and the feldspar which predominate on the mainland, the rocks of those north-eastern islands are explained by Mr. Jukes to consist partly of sandstone and conglomerate made of pebbles, or of lava and coral limestone, with some beds of finer tuff, and partly of large masses of dark, heavy, hornblendic lava. The eruption of these volcanic rocks, Mr. Jukes adds, ‘though probably of comparatively modern origin, geologically speaking, must yet historically be, of ancient date, as no traces of any craters are apparent. From the occurrence of pebbles of coral limestone, they are almost certainly of subsequent origin to the commencement of the coral-reefs here, but may yet date back into some tertiary period.” Geologically, this Murray and Darnly Island group would appear to have a much closer connection with New Guinea, to whose shores they are relatively near. The physical appearance of these islands is also much more Papuan; the coastal areas, and often a large portion of the hills, being similarly covered with dense groves of cocoa-nut palms, which are not found on the Australian mainland and its more nearly associated islands. The ethnological investigation of the Torres Strait region has revealed the fact that very marked distinctions characterise the racial affinities of the inhabitants of the eastern and the western sub-divisions of the Torres Strait areas; collectively, they are both physically and mentally vastly superior to the aboriginal tribes of the Australian mainland, and in this direc- tion also possess much more in common with the Malay and the Papuan races. This subject has within the past few years been specially investigated by Professor A. C. Haddon, of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, who spent a considerable time in the Strait amassing information con- cerning their racial distinctions, customs, ceremonies, superstitions, and legendary traditions. Before the advancing tide of colonisation, these island tribes have almost entirely lost their original individuality. In many instances, in fact, the tribes as separate entities are virtually extinct, and, under the most favourable conditions, are now represented by a dwindling population, of which the name only will be left a few decades hence. Professor Haddon has, in conse- quence, rendered valuable service to the science of ethnology, in gathering together and rescuing from oblivion a trustworthy record of the individual distinctions and affinities of these island tribes.* There is one other subject associated with the geographical aspect of the Great Barrier Reef that demands brief attention before proceeding to a consideration of the conditions under * Readers desiring full information on this highly-interesting subject are referred to Professor A. C. Haddon’s original paper, “On the Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Strait,” published in the Journal of the Anthropo- logical Institute for February, 1890 ; also to his papers, entitled, “Legends from Torres Strait,” published in Volume L., Nos. 1 and 2, 1890, of the journal v/h-Lore. T ON GNWISl AWCUSUNAL Adda NWIAYNOAOTY ‘day ‘09 o/doosoavaj}g UopUuoT "0JOUd ‘UBY-a//IAeg ‘MY <— \ een PE al Ng A, te XIX DLV Td CHE WACSTRALIAN (GREAT BARRIER REEF. 127 which it probably originated. No mention was made, while tracing its course from its beginning, a little north of Sandy Cape, of the few isolated islets and detached reefs that occur at more or less remote distances from its outer border. The Portlock reefs, lying some thirty miles to the north-east of the Flinders’ Entrance, are the most northern group. The Boot reef and the so-called Eastern Fields are intersected by the parallel of 10° S., at distances of thirty and seventy miles from the Barrier outer margin. With the exception of the somewhat ill-defined Ashmore reefs, ten miles south of the Boot reef and a little nearer to the Warrior, the chart is a blank until the neighbourhood of the Raine Island entrance. Within the area, embraced by thirty miles north and forty miles south of this point, the edge of the Barrier itself is broken up in such manner as to form a series of irregularly projecting prominences, and of reef-masses, that are completely separ- ated by deep-water channels from the main body of the Barrier. The Great Detached reef that forms the outlying southern boundary to the Raine Island entrance is the most con- spicuous. It is of an irregular elongate outline, about twelve miles long with an average of five miles wide, but with a projecting central loop on its weather, or. eastern, side. With the exception of its lee, or northern side, it 1s bounded by a continuous mass of reef that encloses a lagoon of from twenty to thirty fathoms deep. The lee, or inner, side, from which entrance may be gained to the lagoon, is an irregular bank of soundings, with scattered reef patches growing on it. Between this Great Detached reef and the main body of the Barrier there is a channel five miles wide, throughout which a bottom of 105 and 135 fathoms were obtained at two isolated points during the /7Zy’s survey. Six miles south of the Great Detached reef, and between three and four distant from the Barrier margin, is a second detached reef of irregularly circular outline, and about three miles in diameter, which is known as Yule’s Detached reef. This reef, as first described by Mr. Jukes, “rises from an unknown depth greater than one hundred fathoms, and seems to have a deep lagoon in the centre into which there is no entrance.” Special interest is attachable to these two detached reefs. They illustrate the existence of true atoll reefs in intimate association with the Great Barrier system in contradistinction to the atoll-like or false-atoll reefs exemplified by the separate elements of the Capricorn and the Bunker Island groups, within the southern area of the Barrier’s border, referred to on a previous page. The margin of the Great Barrier, immediately adjacent to Yule’s Detached reef, is one of those irregular divergent projections from the almost rectilinear contour that most usually distinguishes its outer rampart. This projection, which is about ten miles long, describes a curve in a south-easterly direction ; and, a similar crescent-shaped projection being developed towards its apex from a point a few miles farther south, in a north-easterly direction, they enclose, between them, an almost circular area, about twelve miles in diameter, which is known 128 Tie (GREAT BARRIER, REEF. as Wreck Bay. The depth in this bay was found by the fly to be very great, no bottom being reached except close to the reefs. South of Raine Island Passage, the Osprey reef, with soundings around it of 1,300 and 1,400 fathoms, lies a little over seventy miles off the Barrier border, its southern edge being intersected by the parallel of 14° S. The Bougainville, Holmes, and Flora reefs, all of which include small areas that dry more or less at low tide— and a sand cay on Holmes reef, which is permanently elevated to a height of six feet,—are all located some eighty miles to sea, approximately, opposite the Trinity Opening. The Flinders’ reefs, a scattered patch thirty-five miles long and fifteen broad, enclosing an irregular lagoon- shaped area with soundings of from twenty-six to thirty-three fathoms, with a sandy bottom, is situated fifty miles south-east of the Holmes reefs, and at about sixty miles distance from the Barrier’s edge. Several reefs occur further seawards, occupying parallels of latitude that roughly corres- pond with those of the Holmes and Flinders’ reefs,—ze., 16° to 18° S. They include the Willis group, Coringa Island, the Magdelaine and Herald Cays, Tregrosse and Diamond Islets, and Lihou reef and cays. The last-named group of combined reefs and sand cays forms an elongate atoll-shaped chain, sixty-five miles long by about twelve in width, its long axis having a north-east and south-west direction. Its nearest distance from the Barrier margin is as much as one hundred and forty miles. The latitude of 19° S. intersects the northern edge of Marion reef, having a pear-shaped contour, and a length of about twenty-five miles, with its wider, obtuse, end directed north-east by east; its distance from the Barrier margin is about eighty-five miles. Along the Barrier farther south, no other independent group of reefs occurs within a moderate distance of its outer edge until the latitude of the inner Barrier (Swain reefs) series is arrived at, in about 22° S. Here the detached series of reefs and cays collectively known by the title of Saumarez reef occur at a distance of eighteen miles only from the outer border of the Barrier. Like the Marion reef, it is pyriform in contour and twenty-five miles in length, but with its broadest end directed towards the Barrier. It has a well-defined lagoon, with depths of from fourteen to twenty-seven fathoms, while immediately outside its rim the shallowest soundings are from 150 to 190 fathoms, but more often charted with no bottom at 200 fathoms. In addition to the detached reefs now enumerated, which occupy a position sufficiently near to the Great Barrier to be incorporated within its geographical radius, there are a few others, more notably opposite its southern moiety, that, standing out farther seawards, form, as it were, points of connection with New Caledonia and the more remote islands of the Pacific. Notably mention may be made of the Avon Islands, in latitude 20° S., 350 miles distant from the Great Barrier, and but 300 from the north end of New Caledonia. Farther south, the groups of the Mellish, Frederick, Wreck, and Bellona reefs occupy similarly isolated positions at varying distances, ranging from two to four hundred miles from the Great Barrier’s edge. THE AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. 129 The point is now arrived at when, following upon a brief descriptive summary of the physical features of the Great Barrier Reef, attention may be directed to the evidence throw- ing light upon the telluric conditions under which this vast coral rampart was originally fabricated. As shown in the accompanying map, and made manifest in the foregoing descriptive narration, the Great Barrier Reef, throughout its extent, follows, more or less closely, all the sinuosities of the intra-tropical north-east coast-line of Australia, and is concurrent in the extreme north with the shallow soundings of Torres Strait. Its most prominent factors have been shown to consist of a long linear chain of reefs, that constitutes its eastern boundary, outside whose limits water over 100 fathoms deep is immediately reached. The distance of the outer margin of the Barrier from the mainland has been found to vary from as little as ten or twelve miles, at certain isolated points, to as much as ninety miles off Cape York, in the extreme north, and to 160 in the vicinity of Swain’s Reefs, in the extreme south. Its average distance from the mainland, however, through the greater portion of its length, is from twenty to thirty miles. The area enclosed within the outer boundary of the Barrier includes a navigable lagoon channel, with an average depth of from fifteen to thirty fathoms. The remaining very extensive superficies is for the most part occupied with coral islets, and with shoals and reefs of every conceivable shape and size. Scattered among them are a few islands of higher elevation, and compounded of the same granitic or bed-rock formation, as the strata of the mainland. A few reefs and cays, with surrounding depths of over 500 fathoms, occur at more or less remote distances from the Barrier’s outer border ; they, for the most part, exhibit an atoll-like plan of construction. Well-defined channels and passages interrupt the continuity of the Barrier at a few irregular intervals. The most conspicuous of these are associated with its southern moiety, and are opposite to, though at very considerable distances from, important river estuaries. Although no direct evidence has been adduced to indicate that the Great Barrier Reef of Australia originated under those movements of subsidence, claimed by Mr. Darwin for the formation of barrier reefs in general, it has, up to within a recent date, been tacitly conceded that the structure now under consideration could have come into existence under no other more logically explicable conditions. Mr. Jukes sought diligently, in the earlier days of the Barrier’s survey, for any positive evidence of a motion of upheaval. The huge blocks of coral rock lodging near the outer margin of the Barrier a little north of Raine Island, referred to on another page, and the observed phenomenon of pumice-stone cast up on mainland beaches, in various localities, many feet above the normal limits of the tide, are the most substantial testimony that he could bring forward. In the former instance, however, there can be little or no doubt that the rock-masses he described, are of the same storm- Ss 130 DAE, “GREAT (BAT RET Ualalole. stranded nature as those represented in Plate XXX. of this volume, and the intrinsic lightness of the pumice-stone would allow of its being blown during a hurricane, with the ocean foam, far above high-water mark. The small significance which Mr. Jukes himself attached to this evidence is made manifest in his final verdict concerning the Barrier’s origin. In this he explicitly states: ‘I tried hard to find any substantial objection to this [Mr. Darwin’s] hypothesis, and must confess I failed to do so. After seeing much of the Great Barrier reefs, and reflecting upon them, and trying if it were possible, by any means, to evade the conclusions to which Mr. Darwin has come, I cannot help adding that his hypothesis is perfectly satisfactory to my mind, and rises beyond a mere hypothesis into the true theory of coral-reefs.” Some attention was recently given to this subject by Professor A. C. Haddon during his sojourn in Torres Strait, but, as recorded in a paper on the geology of the district,* without his discovering any tangible evidence indicating a movement of upheaval. The author has been on the outlook for such testimony, during several years’ investigation of this region, but with negative results, so far as evidence indicating any extensive upward movement was concerned. These investigations, nevertheless, elicited testimony indicative, apparently, of a slight local elevation of the coast-line in certain well-defined areas. This evidence, which was originally embodied by the author in his presidential address to the Royal Society of Queensland, for the year 1890, is here reprinted verbatim.— “At many stations throughout the Barrier region, the circumstance may be noted that large expanses of dead coral intervene between high-water mark and the living banks. The dead coral here referred to, is not the broken débris that has been cast up by storms, such as commonly exists all along extreme high-water mark, but occurs at a lower level, 7 situ, as it originally grew, and lacks vitality only, to. distinguish it from the growing reefs. The Albany Pass, between Cape York and Albany Island, yields a prominent illustration of this phenomenon. On either side of the passage there is a fringing coral-reef, the living inner margin of which, composed chiefly of a branching Madrepora, M. millepora, is only exposed at the lowest spring-tides. Immediately ad- joining this living bank, between it and the foreshore, there is a belt of the same species of coral, but entirely dead, and brittle, like rotten ice, to walk upon. Within a few more years, this dead belt will no doubt be broken up, by the action of the waves and chemical disintegration, and be added to the existing inshore area of coral mud and débris. An examination of the circumstances that have brought about the present condition of the reef, show that this dead belt of coral is now exposed to atmospheric influences which are antagonistic to its growth, with every ordinary spring- tide ; while the living coral, as before observed, is only visible above the water at the exceptional or lowest springs. At such period as the inner belt of dead Madrepora was alive, and that from its state of preservation cannot have been long ago, it must have grown at a similar lower level * Prof. A. C. Haddon, ‘“ Notes on the Geology of Torres Straits.” Report British Association, p. 587, 1889. RHE. AUSIERALIAN GREAT. BARRIER REEF. 131 to that now living; and nothing but the general upheaval of the area on which it throve can logically explain the fact of its decadence. The fringing reef off Magnetic Island, near Townsville, presents closely analogous phenomena. Dead bivalve shells of large size, such as 7ridacnas and Pinnas, also occupy their original positions here, in close contiguity to the dead corals. Further substantial evidence of slight upheaval in this district was afforded by a station-holder on Magnetic Island, and by whom I was informed that, within the time he had been iocated there, a very perceptible change had taken place in the small bay facing his property. In former years boats could approach the landing place at all tides, excepting very low springs, whereas now it was not possible to bring a boat in, at even ordinary low tide. The shallowing of the water could not be accounted for by the silting-up of the bay, there being no fresh water flow into it, while the rocky bed of the bay itself had apparently been raised to a higher level.” It is difficult to associate the phenomena described in the foregoing record with any other than a movement of upheaval ; but, accepting this as proven, and premising for the nonce that the whole length and breadth of the Barrier region exhibited a similar testimony of emergence, the amount raised, a foot or two only, would be as nothing compared with the latitude of movement in one direction or the other that is required to account for the construction of the Barrier’s mass. Had the Great Barrier been fashioned during a prolonged epoch of upheaval, substantial evidence of such movement would be yielded by the strata of the seaboard which it skirts ; but of this there is virtually none. The hypothesis that originated with Mr. Darwin, and received endorsement at the hands of Mr. Jukes, that this famous reef, in company with others of its kind, must have been built up during a prolonged period of subsidence, has up to a very recent date been accepted without demur, and so far as it applies to the great Barrier individually, is propounded, as an elementary axiom, in the leading Australian handbooks. In the face, however, of Dr. Murray’s indictment of the subsidence theory, fully reported in the preceding chapter (see pp. 83, e¢ seg.), and having regard more particularly to his uncom- promising dictum (London Institution Lecture, Mature, Feb. 28, 1889)—‘“it seems impos- sible, with our present knowledge, to admit that atolls or barrier. reefs have ever been developed after the manner indicated by Mr. Darwin,’—the compilers, doubtless, have already made provision for substituting the Murrayan interpretation in forthcoming editions. In this they will be well advised to ‘bide a wee.” The Darwinian subsidence theory is by no means utterly defunct, and, from within the borders of the Great Barrier Reef and its environ- ments, may yet receive the increment of direct evidence that is needed to rehabilitate it on a more substantial basis than that upon which it was originally founded. Mr. Darwin himself, in his famous work, “Coral Reefs,” ed. iii, p. 128, frankly admits that “direct proofs of a subsiding movement are hardly to be expected, and must ever be most difficult to obtain.” Mr. Guppy, whose views and evidence in favour of the anti-subsidence theory have been quoted, makes use of an expression, in the substance of a controversial letter to Nature, Vol. XL., Su 132 THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. 1889, to the effect that the arguments in favour of Mr. Darwin’s hypothesis ‘nearly all hinge on assumptions that cannot be proved.” The Great Barrier Reef of Australia not having, so far, been cited as a direct witness, one way or the other, in the difference between Dr. Murray and Mr. Darwin, such evidence as it can be made to disclose is invested with special interest. The most extensive reef-formation of the Barrier class throughout the universe, it occupies a crucial position with relation to the controversy—that, in fact, let it be premised, of the last line of defence, or inmost citadel of the Darwinian subsidence theory; whence, should the case for the defendants be made good, the enemies’ camp can be invaded and despoiled. And now to our guns! Attention has been already drawn, pp. 110 and 111, to the fact that all of the few big breaches in the Barrier’s outer rampart—to wit, the Trinity Opening, Flinders’ Passage, and Capricorn and Curtis Channels—are opposite large estuaries, though at the present time too remote from them (thirty to sixty or eighty miles) to be influenced by their streams. Although seemingly an unprovable assumption, it is maintained that these breaches in the outer Barrier wall were once in close proximity to the mouths of the rivers, and, in fact, owe their origin to the restraining influence of fresh waters on the coral-growths. To substan- tiate this assumption we resort to a magazine of ammunition that, whilst near at hand, has hitherto been unbroached. What, it may be asked, is the logical significance of the following facts ? In the equatorial island of New Guinea there are birds and mammals identical with, or most nearly related to, forms living on the North Australian (Queensland) mainland. The flightless Cassowary, Caswarius, among birds, is one of the most notable of these; but it is in the mammalian list that we find the most substantial evidence. The Spotted Cuscus, Cuscus maculata, of New Guinea and that of North Queensland are specifically identical; and the same may be said of the species of the so-called Native Cats, Dasyurus, and of the Ring- tailed Opossums, Pseudochirus. The interesting group of Tree Kangaroos, genus Dendrolagus, hitherto supposed to be confined to New Guinea, has recently been found to possess a Queensland species, D. Lumholtzi, while an ordinary Grass Kangaroo, genus Macropus, nearly allied to M. major, most abundantly found on the Australian Continent, is an inhabitant of New Guinea also. Several species of the Flying Opossums, genus Petaurus, and allied types, are represented both in New Guinea and throughout Australia; and the same formula of distribution applies to the slender-limbed Bandicoots, of the genus Perameles. The essentially Australian group of the Monotremata, including the Echidna and the Platypus, its only living members, is represented in New Guinea by a species originally referred to the first-named of these genera, but on account of certain anatomical differences associated with the separate generic title of Proechidna.* * Readers wishing to pursue this most interesting subject are referred to that very admirable handbook, “Mammalia, Living and Extinct,” by Professor (now Sir William) Flower, F.R.S., and Mr. R. Lydekker. PLATE XX. A. ALCYONARIAN REEF, THURSDAY ISLAND, No. B. ALCYONARIAN RE} ‘) Ga London Stereoscopic Co. Rep. EF, THURSDAY ISLAND, No. 2) Vv. THE AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. 133 The facts above related infallibly demonstrate that the countries of New Guinea and North Queensland were in former times connected. The very conspicuous racial distinctions between the human inhabitants of New Guinea, the Torres Strait Islands, and the Australian con- tinent, indicate, notwithstanding the near affinities of the lower mammalia, that the separation of the districts must have been accomplished in prehistoric times, probably in a middle tertiary epoch. This separation, moreover, could not have been effected by any other telluric move- ment than that of subsidence, and this, as shown by the Admiralty charts, to an extent of at least six or seven fathoms. The restoration of the land to a higher level, by the few fathoms required to indicate the former continuity of New Guinea with Cape York Peninsula, would have the effect of reducing the depth of the lagoon, or Inner Route Channel, between the Barrier and the mainland from Cape Flattery northwards, to such an extent that this route would, in many portions of its course, be virtually impracticable. In the southern moiety of its area, where the large rivers previously mentioned join the sea, the depth of the water is so much greater, twenty to thirty fathoms and over, that the existing route would not be materially affected, while the mouths of the rivers would not be brought much nearer to the outer edge of the Barrier. Repairing to the southern extremity of the Australian continent, we find a large detached island, Tasmania, or Van Diemen’s Land, of inconsiderable size as seen in the general map of Australia, but actually as large as Ireland. This island is separated from the Australian mainland by Bass’s Strait, having a width of one hundred and fifty miles, and a minimum depth of about forty fathoms. An examination of the fauna of Tasmania reveals the fact that it, too, notwithstanding its present isolated position, must in an historically ancient, but geologi- cally comparatively recent, period, have formed an integral portion of the Australian mainland. The longer period that must have elapsed since the separation of Tasmania, as compared with New Guinea, from Australia, is a natural corollary of the greater depth of the intervening channel, and is supported by the following evidence concerning the present and the past con- ditions of the island and the continental faunas. It is particularly noteworthy that the two unique carnivorous marsupials known as the Tasmanian Tiger or Wolf, Thylacinus cynocephalus, and the Tasmanian Devil, Sarcophilus ursinus, are found living at the present day only in the Island of Tasmania. Remains of animals generically identical with both of these types, but representing larger and more formidable species, occur as Pleistocene fossils on the Australian mainland. The majority of the mar- supial forms are, however, still common to both the continental and the island faunas, or are represented by closely allied species. The ordinary (or Great) Kangaroo, Macropus major ; the common Opossum, or Vulpine Phalanger, Trichosurus vulpecula; the Ring-tailed Opossums Pseudochirus Cooki; the Wallaby, Macropus ruficollis; and the Native Cat, Dasyurus viverrinus, are all represented both in Tasmania and on the mainland. Neither is there any substantial 134 THE (GREAT, BARRIER. REET distinction between the island and the continental individuals of those most interesting oviparous monotremes, the Duck-billed Platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, and the so-called Australian Porcupine, Echidna, although in the last-named instance the colder climate of Tasmania has evolved a finer-spined but more hirsute race, distinguished as EF. aculeata, var. setosa, while the remaining varieties are retained for the continental type. There are numerous other mammalia whose representatives are generically, but not specifically, identical on the northern and on the southern shores of Bass’s Strait. These include the Wombat, represented in Tasmania by Phascolomys ursinus, and on the continent by two, if not three, distinct forms. The Rat- and Jerboa-Kangaroos, genera Hypsiprymnus and Bettongia, while represented by single species only in the island, number three or four distinct continental types. The fresh-water fauna of Tasmania exhibits similar evidence of original continuity with the fauna of the Australian continent. The so-called cucumber mullet of Tasmania, and Yarra herring of Victoria, Prototroctes marana, is a species nearly allied to the European grayling, common to the rivers both of Tasmania and of Southern Australia; and the same remark applies to the almost unique fresh-water representative of the cod family, Gadopsis marmoratus, familiarly known to colonists as the Blackfish. The largest known fresh-water crustacean, Astacopsis Franklini, a species of fresh-water crayfish, which grows to a weight of eight or ten pounds, is confined to the northern rivers of Tasmania, its nearest ally on the mainland being a smaller and more roughly spinous form, distinguished by the technical name of Astacopsis serratus. The Ringarooma district of Tasmania possesses a huge species of earthworm, Megascolides tasmanicus, three or four feet long, and over an inch in diameter, which has a counter- part on the Australian continent. The “early bird” to devour this worm is represented on both sides of Bass’s Strait by the Australian Ostrich, or Emeu, Dromaus nove-hollandie. The Australian continent, as hereafter shown, produces vestiges of some still earlier birds, evidences that shed a most interesting light on the question of the original junction of Australia with other and yet more remote countries. The evidence as to the close alliance between the faunas of Tasmania and of the Australian mainland is accepted by all geologists, as, in the case of New Guinea and of North Queens- land, incontestable proof of a bygone continuity of the lands, and also of the present combined area having subsided to at least the depth of the water in the intervening Strait. Subsidence, as has been already shown, was contemporaneously progressing on the extreme north of Australia, and it may be reasonably assumed that the same movement operated throughout the eastern Australian seaboard. The reader, by referring to the accompanying chart of the Barrier region, and elevating in imagination the sea bottom by forty fathoms (the minimum depth of Bass’s Strait) throughout the Great Barrier Inner Channel and reef area generally, will arrive at results suggestive of the configuration of the land at the time of the union of Australia and Tasmania. The Great Barrier, as a barrier, will be non-existent ; THE AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. 135 all the soundings inside its outer margin will be obliterated, through the uprising of the land; the mouths of the big rivers will discharge their water almost directly into the ocean; and coral-growths will exist under no other conditions than those of a small fringing reef. The contention of Mr. Darwin and the supporters of the subsidence theory is that the initial condition of a barrier reef is a fringing reef which, by the slow subsidence of its founda- tion, the upward growth of the coral-masses, and the widening of its lagoon channel, becomes gradually separated from the land, and abuts externally on the deep water of the ocean. At such time as the shores of Tasmania and of Victoria were continuous, and Bass’s Strait was a dry highway for the free passage and intermingling of the primitive marsupial populations, the Great Barrier must have been such a relatively insignificant fringing reef, and it must have built up a very considerable proportion of its present mass during the hollowing out of the channels of both the Bass and Torres Straits. The foregoing geological evidence being trustworthy and true, the construction of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia under conditions of subsidence, and in accord with the original hypothesis of Mr. Darwin, is proved. Should further geological evidence be desired to prove that the marine areas on the southern and the eastern regions of Australia have undergone a vast movement of subsidence, it is ready to hand. Attention has been drawn by the accom- plished naturalist, Mr. A. R. Wallace, in his well-known works, “The Geographical Distribu- tion of Animals” and ‘Island Life,” to the peculiarities of the New Zealand fauna and flora, which, in a hitherto almost inexplicable manner, indicates a bond of affinity with those of Australia. From the Australian continent, New Zealand is distant no less than 1,200 miles, and for the most part an abyssal ocean intervenes. The most striking affinity is between the wingless or Struthious birds, represented in New Zealand by four living species of Apte- ryx, the kiwis of the natives, and several recently extinct species of Dinornis or Moas. The last-named birds resembled the emeus and cassowaries of Australia, equalling or even excelling them in stature. The skeleton of one species, Dinornis maximus, contained in the British Natural History Museum, is, in its ordinary standing attitude, eleven feet high. There is abundant evidence of various species of the genus having existed until within a few years before the settlement in New Zealand of Europeans; this evidence includes the plentiful discovery of their remains in the native cooking places, and also of eggs, in some instances containing portions of the embryos. An ingenious and satisfactory interpretation of the seeming anomaly of the near alliances has been advanced by Mr. Wallace in his “Island Life,” ed. ii, p. 473. He shows, with the assistance of a map, which he has courteously permitted the author to reproduce, that a distinct, although narrow, bank of soundings, of less than 1,000 fathoms, hereafter referred to as “Wallace’s bank,” runs up from New Zealand in a north-westerly direction, embracing 136 TTE GRIBAT. VRARRILETR SRLS EE Lord Howe Island, and ending some three hundred miles off the Australian coast. In another work by Mr. Wallace, more recently seen by the author (the volume on “ Australasia,” in Stanford’s Compendium of Geography), a more comprehensive chart shows that a more exten- sive bank, with soundings of less than 1,000 fathoms, completely unites New Zealand, wa Nor- folk Island and the Ballona and Bampton Shoals, with the Barrier Reef and Torres Strait. The presence of these shoal banks indicates, in Mr. Wallace’s opinion, the former union of New Zealand with New Guinea and the north-eastern, or tropical, portion of the Australian conti- nent. The affinities of many smaller New Zealand birds and plants support this interpreta- tion, their alliances being conspicuously with tropical Australian and New Guinea types, rather than with temperate Australian species. Concerning the primeval union of New Zealand and the North Australian areas, Mr. Wallace distinctly indicates that this union must have obtained at a very remote period, and thus summarises his deductions.— “ The total absence (or extreme scarcity) of mammals in New Zealand obliges us to place its union with North Australia and New Guinea at a very remote epoch. We must either go back to a time when Australia itself had not received the ancestral forms of its present marsupials and monotremes, or we must suppose that the portion of Australia with which New Zealand was connected was then itself isolated from the mainland and was then without a mammalian population . . . We must on any supposition place the union very far back, to account for the total want of identity between the winged birds of New Zealand and those peculiar to Australia, and a similar want of accordance in the lizards, the fresh-water fishes, and the more important insect groups of the two countries. From what we know of the long geological duration of the generic types of these groups, we must certainly go back to the earlier portion of the tertiary period at least, in order that there should be such a complete disseverance as exists between the characteristic animals of the two countries; and we must further suppose that, since their separation, there has been no subsequent union, or sufficiently near approach, to allow of any important intermigration, even of winged birds, between them.” The author, through his recent residence in Queensland, has been in a position to draw Mr. Wallace’s attention to additional evidence recently derived from the fossil deposits of that colony. This is no less than the discovery of remains of the nearest possible ally to the New Zealand Kiwi, Apteryx, in the Queensland (Darling Downs) deposits. The type, of which a few characteristic bones have so far been exhumed, has been described by Mr. C. W. De Vis, the curator of the Brisbane Museum, in the Proceedings of the Linnzean Society of New South Wales, Vol. VI., ser. 2, 1891, under the title of Metapteryx bifrons. This interesting discovery had been preceded by the identification of bones, obtained from the same deposit, of a species of Dinornis (generically identical with the New Zealand Moa), upon which Mr. De Vis has conferred the name of Dimornis Qucenslandie. A third type, differing in certain peculiarities from Dinornis, has been associated with the separate generic title of Dromornis. THE AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF. 37 The deposits in the Darling Downs that have yielded these rich treasures are referred by Mr. De Vis to an epoch not later than early Pliocene.* The foregoing record of the remarkable interblending affinities of the Queensland and the New Zealand avi-fauna, whilst seemingly, at first sight, a digression from the subject of S S § Rois & == Sn inf ym TASMAN] AS SS med = SSS AUCK LAN is foo = «lo Siftzo Cid [30 40 hse MAP SHOWING DEPTH OF SEA AROUND AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. (AFTER DR VAS IRs WALLACE.) The light tint indicates a depth of less than 1,000 fathoms. The dark tint indicates a depth of more than 1,000 fathoms. the Great Barrier Coral Reef, is fraught, in relation to it, with far-reaching significance. To the author's mind, the moderate subsidence which brought about the separation between * Readers who have followed the line of argument developed in the later pages of this chapter, will doubtless be struck by the singular identity of the New Zealand native name for this recently extinct Struthious bird, “ Moa,” and the aboriginal title of the island in Torres Strait now called Banks’ Island. The coincidence—it may be nothing more—is remarkable. pk 133 Wiell® (GSKIBZATE ISPAIKIRIUBIS. IRIBIBIE. ‘Tasmania and the Australian mainland suffices to prove that this Barrier Reef originated, some- where about the period of the later tertiaries, as a simple fringing-reef, and that it could have been produced by no other telluric conditions than those of prolonged subsidence. ‘To minds dissatisfied as to the sufficiency of the bathymetrical subsidence to account for the building up of so vast a coral edifice, a blank cheque on Wallace’s Bank of New Zealand, to be filled in to the amount of as many hundred fathoms, more or less, as they may elect to draw upon, is cheerfully conceded. CHAPTER Iv: CORALS AND CORAL-ANIMALS. ONCERNING the nature and organisation of the living animals by whose agency, direct and indirect, the vast edifice of the Great Barrier and all kindred coral-reefs are chiefly fabricated, much has been already said in the opening paragraphs of Chapter II. It was there distinctly demonstrated that the hard-dying, popular notion of an industrious coral insect that lived independently of the coral, and, with consummate skill and patience, built up the reef on the same principle as ants or bees construct their nests or waxen cells, had no foundation in fact, and should be permanently consigned to the limbo of exploded fallacies. It was also fully explained that coral-animals, in the restricted sense of the term, were organisms that agreed essentially in structure with ordinary polyps or sea-anemones, with the exception that they possessed the pro- perty of secreting within their tissues a distinct calcareous skeleton. It is proposed in this chapter to devote some space to a detailed account of the leading modifications of the innumerable species that are included by biologists in the coral-producing polyp class, associating such account with descriptions and illustrations of the more typical and attractive varieties which are comprised in the marine fauna of the Great Barrier Reef. It is scarcely necessary, perhaps, to reiterate here that the main mass of the Great Barrier, and of all other coral-reefs, is chiefly composed, not of the perfect polyparies or coralla of growing corals, but of a sort of indurated concrete, built out of the broken-up and reconsolidated debris ot coral-stocks that have either undergone natural disintegration, or have been forcibly torn by storms from their original position on the reefs. This indurated reef-rock, as previously remarked, may vary in texture from a fine, close-grained limestone, that rings under the hammer, to coarse, loosely-constructed conglomerate, in which coralla of every size and description, and every possible condition of conservation or of erosion, are bound together by a fine calcareous cement. Sufficient prominence, however, has not been previously given to the fact that the entire, or more or less fragmentary, calcareous skeletons of a large number of organisms, in addition to those of coral polyps, enter into the composition of the reef limestone or conglomerate. The class of the TP 2 140 THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. mollusca, as abundantly represented on the reefs by the ponderous-shelled bivalves, Tridacna and Hippopus, the mother-of-pearl shells, oysters, and a host of other forms, contributes probably the most considerable portion of the supplementary lime supplies. The Echinodermata, includ- ing the several groups of the star-fishes, sea-urchins, and Holothuridz or Béche-de-mer, all of which are the possessors of more or less substantial calcareous skeletons, abound on every reef, and rank second, probably, to the mollusca as accessory lime contributors. The crustacaea, so called with relation to their indurated calcareous armour, are, as far as the larger species are con- cerned, conspicuously scarce among the reefs, not being represented even by the smaller species of crabs usually present in crowds upon ordinary rocky shores. The interpretation of this phenomenon, it is suggested, may be found in the fact that the crabs have no chance of establishing colonies on the coral-reefs, since their helpless larvee or “Zoe” would fall immediate victims to the extended tentacles and hungry mouths of the countless millions of polyps that clothe the entire superficies of the living areas. As an interesting commentary on his suggestion, a crustacean is hereafter described, and figured in Chromo plate II., whose chief abiding-place and citadel of refuge is within the mouth-portals of a huge anemone. Of organic groups, other than those mentioned, which contribute their modicum of calcareous débris to the reef-mass, mention must be made of the Protozoic group of the Foraminifera, whose calcareous shells or tests, mostly of microscopic dimensions, are present in myriads on every reef and at every depth throughout the Barrier district. One special generic type, Orbitolites, represented by a flat discoidal test that is commonly from one-quarter to three-eighths of an inch in diameter, is so abundant among the reefs that it constitutes the chief mass of the material of the white so-called ‘‘sandy-patches” that intervene between the coral banks, and which is brought up adhering to the anchor-flukes by vessels halting for the night, as is customary, at stages in the more intricate northern moiety of the charted course. The shells or tests of this and other species of Foraminifera enter very extensively into the composition of the finer-grained coral-rock such as is represented by Plate XXXII., Fig. 5, wherein, in the original specimen, the embedded shells of Orbitolites and many smaller species can be readily detected with the aid of a magnifying glass. There is also a small vegetable group, that furnishes a considerable quota towards the composition of the characteristic coral-rock. It is that of the peculiar seaweeds or lower alge known as Corallines or Nullipores. They are distinguished by the encrustment of their tissues with carbonate of lime, to such density that their vegetable nature is completely disguised ; and, excepting for the absence of the characteristic pores, they might in many instances be mistaken for the coralla of the Hydroid coral Millepora. These Nullipores, referable to the genus Melo- besia, form either encrusting lichen-like expansions, irregularly nodulated, or short obtusely- branched growths, that often more or less completely cover the surfaces of the indurated coral- rock to a height considerably above that whereon Madreporaria are found growing. The colour aZIS TWN * ds WWOSO) og) Id ANOWANY INWIO ‘day ‘09 a/d00s0aua}g UopuoT "0J0Yd ‘JUAY-a//iAeg ‘MY IXX ALVId CORALS AND CORAL-ANIMALS. 141 of these rock-incrusting Nullipores being usually pink or lilac, they impart, where they are abundantly developed, a very characteristic feature to the reef-scape. In the deeper rock-pools, and on the sea-bottom generally, in the neighbourhood of the reefs, another generic form, Halimeda, belonging to the same Nullipore tribe, is locally abundant. This type forms erect, branching tufts, often several inches in length, of which the branchlets are composed of flattened, irregularly polygonal, or more or less fan-shaped, calcareous disks, strung together, as it were, in a moniliform or chain-like order. While growing, this Nullipore is a brilliant grass-green, but it bleaches, when dead, to a pure white. The bleached discoidal segments of its disintegrated fronds often occur in great abundance among the mixed calcareous components of reef-rocks and coral sand. A familiar representative of this Nullipore family that abounds on the British coast is known by the name of Corallina officinalis, so-called on account of its formerly supposed valuable medicinal properties. Its elegantly divided fern-like fronds are composed of slender, cylindrical, calcareous joints that vary through every shade of pink and lilac. Before entering upon a detailed description of the organic class which constitutes the prime factor in the construction of all coral-reefs, a brief outline sketch of its leading modifi- cations and limitations is desirable. The significance of all typical coral structures as_ the skeletal elements of animals, essentially identical in aspect and organisation with ordinary skeletonless polyps or sea-anemones, has been already indicated. Hence it is that all of the organisms, typified by the soft, askeletal, sea-anemones, and the skeleton- or coral-secreting polyps, that enter into the composition of the living coral-reef are associated together by naturalists into a single comprehensive animal group or sub-kingdom, upon which the title of the Ccelenterata has been conferred. The Ccelenterate, or polyp class, as, in non-technical lan- guage, it may be more conveniently termed, contains, moreover, an infinity of forms that, as it were, bridge over the hiatus between the solitary skeletonless sea-anemones and those polyps which in their myriads represent the chief agents in the building up of the massive reef. There are, in the first place, intermediate polyp species which, while not possessing a definite skeleton or “‘corallum,” as it is technically termed, have their tissues so filled and strengthened with microscopic calcareous deposits or ‘‘spicules” that their sub- stance is distinctly tough and coriaceous. This group is most prominently represented among the constituent elements of the ccral-reef, by what are known as the Alcyonaria, having as their type in European seas the so-called ‘‘Dead-men’s fingers,”