m

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

OF THE

Museum of Comparative Zoology

f C/ I i / 0-'

The Great Basin Naturalist

VOLUME I

JULY 1939 — JUNE 1940

79U5"

^>* Zoology '^fc

OCT 21 1941

VASCO M. TANNER. Editor

Published at Provo, Utah, by

THE Department of Zoology and Entomology

OF Brigham Young University

TAliLK OF CONTENTS

VOM Nfh- 1

NUMBER 1— JULY 25, 1939

Jntroductory Note 1

Notes on the Gordiacea of L'tah 2

A Study of the Genus Scaphiopus: The Spadefoot Toads.

Vasco M. Tanner 3

Xotes on Charina Bottae in l'tah: Reproduction, V. M. Tanner

and W. W. Tanner 27

Studies in the Weevils of Western United States, No. Ill : New

Species from Utah, Vasco M. Tanner 31

NUMBER 2— JANUARY 28, 1940

A Chapter on the Natural History of the Great Basin, 1800 to

1855, Vasco M. Tanner Si

Spongilla Fragilis Found in Utah J.ake and Salem Pond ... 61

Dr. Pfouts Contributes Butterflies 61

Dr. Henry CHnton Fall (1862-1939) 62

.\ Preliminary Histological Study of the Ovary of the Kangaroo

Rat, Dipodomys Ordii Columbianus, Kenneth L. Duke . . 63

The Establishment and Maintenance of Territories by the Yellow- i

headed Blackbird in Utah. Reed W. Fautin 75

The Mexican Bean Beetle Taken at Provo, Utah 91

luiropean Journals and the War 92

Xotes on the Distribution of Nighthawks in Utah, C. Lynn Hay-
ward 93

NUMBERS 3 AND 4— JUNE 30, 1940

A Biotic Study ot the Kaij^arowits Region of L'tah, \ ascu M.

Tanner 97

The Flying Squirrel Collected in (iartield Couniw Ctah . . . 126

.\evv American Diplota.xis I Coleoptera-.'^carabaeidae ) . Mont A.

Cazier 127

Herpetological Specimens added to the I'.righam Young Uni-
versity Collection, Wilnier \\ . Tanner 138

John E. Blazzard Contributes Mammal Collection 146

Index to Volume 1 147

X'ouMF. T - Number 1

The Great Basin Naturalist

July 25, 1939

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introductory Note 1

Notes on the Gordiacea of Utah 2

A Study of the Genus Scaphiopus : The Spadefoot Toads

Vasco M. Tanner 3

Notes on Charina Bottae in Utah : Reproduction

F. M. Tanner and W. IV. Tanner 27

Studies in the Weevils of Western United .States, No. Ill: New
Species from Utah Vasco M . Tanner 31

Published at Provo, Utah, by the

Department of Zoology and Entomology ot

Brigham Young University

The Great Basin Naturalist

^ Published by the ( A(jp^'99y'

"J^y DEi>AKTMi:.\r OF Zoou)(;v and Entomoloc.v -

/ ' Brigham Ydunc Uxivkksity, Provo, Utah

\^OLl'ME I

JULY 25. 1939

XrMHKk 1

TXTRODUCTORV NOTE

This publicati(jn. to l)t" kiKnvn as Tin-: CiRiiAT ^Basin Xatikalist.
will contain in the main the results of investigations dealinii' with the
fauna of the Intermountain States. It has been apparent for scjme
time that such a publication would be (jf service, as an outlet for the
results of research, to the workers at the Brigham Young Univer-
sity, as well as other investigators of this region. It will also help
to make more available to students the printed results oi studies re-
lating to the natural histor^• of the Rock}' Mountain States. For \'ears
papers have been published in various periodicals in this countr\- many
of which are not accessible to the students of the universities, junior
colleges, and to the same extent the museums. The fauna of this re-
gion is far from being well known. The natural habitats are fast
becoming changed due to grazing of livestock, agricultural activities,
forest fires, and floods. Civilization is bound to bring about radical
ecological chanj^es. and the extinction of many of the endemic species.
l\ei)orts upon collections that have been made, and the results of field
studies, should be recorded. It will be our policy, therefore, to pub-
lish finished research papers, progress reports, and notes dealing with
the physiology, morphology, ecology, and taxonomy of the animal and
plant life of this region.

Numbers of this publication will be printed as the studies and
manuscripts are completed. When the volume has reached a sufficient
size, contents and indices will be prepared.

The Great Basin Naturalist will be sent to universities, libra-
ries, and museums. Exchanges of an equal nature are desired and
should be sent to Editor, The Great Basin Naturalist, Brigham Young
Uiiiz'ersity, Provo, Utah.

Vasco M. Tanner. Editor

Notes on the Gordiacea of Utah

An interesting record and oliservation on (iordius rohiistiis (Leidy) was made
in 1934, by Dr. Fred R. Taylor Jr., physician and snrgeon of Provo. Dr. Taylor
obtained a specimen of this species from the urine of one of his female patients.
He reported the matter to me, and a study of the specimen revealed that it was
G. i-obiistus. The conditions under which this roundworm lived in the women
is not known. Dr. Taylor said there was no doubt that it was passed through
the urinary tract.

Gordius robiistiis is fairly common in Utah ; specimens have been collected
in Daggett, San Juan, Sanpete, and Utah Counties of Utah.

Paracjordius varius (Leidy), a second species of Gordiacea was brought into
the laboratory in June, 1939. This species was found in a cricket, Gryllns assiinilis.
by Mr. Howard Feast of Provo. One evening w'hen Air. Feast was in his garden,
he saw a cricket moving slowly and in a groggy manner. He picked it up and
placed it in a bottle ; when to his surprise, the parasite began to emerge. At this
point the specimens were brought to the writer, and both were studied alive. The
cricket soon died, and was examined for eggs or embryos, but none were found.
This specimen of P. Z'arius is 13 inches long, which makes it interesting to think
of a worm of this length developing and being coiled in the abdomen of a cricket.
The abdomen did not appear to be greatly enlarged. These two species of
Gordiacea, Gordius robustiis Leidy and Paracjordius varius (Leidy), are new ad-
ditions to the faunal lists of Utah.— V. M. T.

A STUI)^' ( )F THE CiI':NUS SCAIMIIOPUS^^)
Thk Spade-foot Toads

AWSCO M. TANNER

Professor of Zoology and Entomolog\-

Brigham Young University

INTRODUCTION

It is a little more than a Inindred years since Holbrook, 1836,
erected the t;enus Scaplilopits descril)in,ij solifariiis, a species found
along the Atlantic Coast, as the type of the genus. This species, how-
ever, was described the year prevousl}-, 1835, by Harlan as Rana
Jiolhrookii : thus holhrookii becomes the accepted name of the genotype.
Many species and sub-species have been named since this time, the
great majority of them, however, have been considered as synonyms.
In this study I liave recognized the following species: holhrookii,
hitrtcrii, couchii, homhifrons, haminondii, and interttiontamis. A vari-
ety of holhrookii, described by Garman as alhiis, from Key West.
Florida, may be a vaUd form ; but since I have had only a specimen
or two for study. 1 have cHsregarded any discussion of it.

The study of the Scaphiopodidae made by Professor E. D. Cope
(1889) has been followed in the main, since it has been most valuable
in dealing with the anatomy of the species. In this study Cope pro-
posed that the S})adeff)0t Toads of the western United States should
be placed in a genus Spca. which he characterized as follows: "cranial
derm free from cranium ; the latter generally with a frontoparietal
fontanelle ; vomerine teeth present; toes w-ebbed ; cuneiform process
large." The following two species he assigned to the genus: haminondii
Raird found in the western United States and multiplicata Cope found
in the \'alle\- of Mexico. Cope also divided the species hanimoyidii
into three sub-species: those in North Dakota and Oklahoma, west-
ward into the Rocky Mountains, he called S. h. homhifrons ; those
from Walla Walla, Washington, south through Idaho, Nevada and
Utah, he separated ofif as S. h. interinonfana ; and those along the
Pacific Coast, from Washington to Lower Cailfornia and eastward
into Texas and Arizona, he considered as S. h. hammondii.

(1) Contribution No. 75.

4 VASCO M. TANNER Vol. I, No. 1,

In a number of recent studies^^* ^•" '"*' *-''*. tlie Spadefoot Tcjads found
within the range of " North Dakota and British Columbia to Okla-
homa, Texas and Mexico, west to the Pacific Coast States" have been
considered as a single species Scapliiopits haiuniondii P>aird. In 1934.
Hobart Smith proposed the re-establishment of Cope's boiiihifroiis as
a valid species, giving as its range western Kansas, Harding Count}" ;
South Dakota; western Oklahoma; northeastern New Mexico, and
Bannock County, Idaho. Since Smith proposed the establishment of
bomhifrons as a species, I have been engaged in a study of specimens
taken in the intermountain region, especially in Utah. In making this
study I have found it impossible to work out the relationsliips and
distributions of the species under discussion without specimens from
various parts of United States. Through the kindness of a number
of museums and workers, I have been able to study over five luindred
specimens.

In studying these specimens, an examination was made of the
cranial structures, cutting spades, appendages and body measurements,
color and texture of the skin, and distril)ution. Tadpoles of several
species were studied, but since so little material was available, only a
brief reference to this stud\- is included here. Mucli remains to ])e
done in carefully studying the larval stages of the several species.

From my study of the immature forms. I am convinced that a
great deal can l)e learned concerning the range and relationshi]) of
the various species through an investigation of this kind.

I found Drs. Wright's. ^^^ Storer's, and Smith's^''^ papers of value
in studying the mouth structures of the immature stages.

ack.\()\\!.i-:i)(;ml<:n'i s

The writer wishes to thank Mr. Joseph Slevin. Curator of llerpet-
ology at the California Academy of Sciences; Mr. L. M. l\]aul)er.
Curator of Herpetology at the San Diego Natural History Museum;
Dr. Edward H. Taylor of the Universit\' of Kansas; Dr. Leonhard

(2) Storer, Tracy T., 1925. "A Synopsis of the Ainpliibia of California," pp.
148-62. Univ. of Calif. Publication in Zoology, Vol. 27.

(3) Slevin, Jos. R., 1928. "The Amphibians of Western Xmtli America." pp.
84-87. Occasional Papers, California Acad, of Sci., Vol. 16.

(4) Tanner, Vasco M., 1931. "A Synoptical Study of Utali .\mpliibia." Utaii
Acad, of Sciences, Vol. 8, pp. 171-173.

(5) Stejneger, Leonhard, and 15arbour, Thomas, 193,v "C"hcck List of North
American .Ampliibians and Reptiles," p. 26.

(6) Wright and Wright, 19.W. Handbook of Im-oss and Toads, pj.. 40-41.

(7) Smith, Hobart M.. 19.34. "The Amphibians of Kansas," pp. 427-.^6.
.American Midland Naturalist, Vol. 15, No. 4,

July 25, 1939 gknus scAriiioPL's 5

Stejneger of the U. S. National Museum; Mr. Ross Hardy of llie
Dixie College for the loan of si)ecimens ; Dr. M. Graham Netting of
the Carnegie Museum at riusl)urg for suggestions; and James Uee
and Harry Chandler, graduate students at the P)righam Young I'ni-
versity, for aid in making drawings and labeling illustrations used in
this study.

THE GENUS SCAPHIOPUS

There seems to l)e little justification for Cope's separating the
western liammondii group of species from the eastern liolbrookii com-
plex for the founding of the genus Spca. It is true that the hanimondii
specimens have "derm distinct from cranium, which is usually only
ossified superficially in the superciliary bars," but while this differ-
ence, as well as others, exists between the two proposed genera,
Scaphiopus and Spca. there are also many similarities which, in m\'
opinion, hold the species under discussion in one genus. I am, there-
fore, reluctant to accept Professor Cope's proposal of establishing
a genus for the western species, but I do believe that it is of advan-
tage in discussing the genus Scaphiopus, to divide it into two sub-
genera, Scaphiopus and Spea. Geographicall}' the sub-genera are
fairly distinct, having evolved, it would seem, from a common center
of origin near northern Mexico, the sub-genus Scaphiopus having
radiated into the eastern United States, while the sub-genus Spca is
found in the western United States. These two sub-genera ma\- be
separated as follows ;

A. Parotoid distinct to indistinct. Head length
18.5 mm U) 22.5 mm, width between nasal
and orl)it greater than 5 mm, width between
orbits 5-7.4 mm, frontoparietal interorbital
space wide, not modified, and with the skin
rather tightly attached to the cranium, spade-
like process cycle shaped, long 3.9-5. 7mm.
Species found in eastern and southern states
into Texas. PI. T, Figs. 1-6; PI. H, Fig. 3;

PI. HI Sub-genus Scaphiopus

AA. Parotoid absent. Head length 15.6 mm to
16.5 mm. width between nasal and orbit less
than 4 mm, width between the orbits 4 to 4.8
mm, frontoparietal interorbital space narrow,
nasal modified by the presence of protuber-
ances or fontanelle or vallev without fonta-

6 VASCO M. TANNER Vol. L No. 1,

nelle. Skin somewhat glandular and loosely
attached to the cranium, spade-like process
cuneiform, short, 2.9 to 3.5 mm. Species
found in the northwestern states into Texas.
PI. I, Figs. 7-12; PI. TT, Fig. 1-2; PI. HI. . .
Su1)-genus S pea

THE SUB-GENUS SCAPHIOPUS

In the sub-genus Scaphiopiis the frontoparietal and nasal bones are
broad without fossae ; the head length and distance between the nasals
and orbits is greater than in the sub-genus Spea. The color and skin
texture is different, being brown to greenish with small uniform tu-
bercles on the back and sides, while the Spea group has a blackish
color on the back and whitish on the sides and venter with irregular
placed and variably sized warts on the head, back, and dorsal portions
of the legs. Species of this sub-genus are found in the eastern and
southeastern states into Mexico.

The three species assigned to the sub-genus Scaphiopus are Iwl-
brookii, Intrterii, and couchii. These species may be separated as
follows :

A. Pectoral glands present ; parotoid and tymj^a-
num distinct.

b. Mead length 18.5 mm, width of head 21.5
mm, Ijody length 50.8 mm, between the
nasal and orbit 5.2 mm, color brownish to

olive green holbrookii

1)1). Head length 22.3 mm, width of head 25.2
mm, ])()d}' length 66 mm, ])etween nasal
and orbit 5.9 mm, frontoparietal area just
back of the eyes elevated, glandular, and
with roughened minute round warls. Ctjlor
yellowish green to grey liiirU'rii

AA. No pectoral glands |)rescnl : ])ar()l()i(l and
tympanum indistinct.

c. Plead length l'J.7 mm, width of head 23.3
mm, l)ody length 56.3 mm. between nasal
and orbits 5.2 mm, frontoparietal area not
elevated or rugose. Skin tuberculate on

l)ack, color greenish couchii

July 25. 19vS9 gknus scaphiopus 7

DISCUSSION' OF THE SPECIES OF SUR-GEXUS SCAPHIOPUS

(1) ScAPHioPus HoLBROOKii (Haiiani. Solitan- Spaclefoot
PI. i, Figs. 1-2; PI. Ill

RcDia holbrookii Harlan, Med. Phys. Researches, 1835, p. 105.
Scaphiopits solifariiis Holbrook, N. Am. Herp., 1836, X'ol. 1, p. 85,
PI. XII.

Type locality : South Carolina.

Mea.surements : The following are measurements in millimeters
of five specimens of Scapliiopiis liolbrookii obtained by loan from the
U. S. Natural Museum. An average of the measurements of the
several specimens reported is included. No general description of the
species is given since it is believed that the measurements, keys and
illustrations are sufficient for the separation and limitation of the
species under discussion.

12 3 4 5 Ave.

Total length of body 54.0 52.0 54.0 42.5 51.5 50.8

Length of head 20.0 20.0 19.5 15.0 18.0 18.5

Width of head 22.0 22.0 22.5 18.0 21.0 21.1

Between nasal openings .... 4.3 3.8 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.7

Between nasal and orbit.... 5.5 5.2 5.5 5.0 4.8 5.2

Width of orbit 6.5 7.0 7.0 6.5 6.5 6.7

Between orbits 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.5 6.5 6.8

Forearm 13.5 12.0 15.0 11.0 12.0 12.7

Hand 11.0 10.0 11.0 10.0 10.0 10.4

Feninr 24.0 20.0 23.0 18.0 19.0 22.8

Tibia 19.0 17.0 19.0 15.0 16.0 17.2

Whole foot 30.0 28.5 32.0 24.0 25.0 27.9

Cutting spade 4.0 4.0 4.2 4.0 3.6 4.0

Number 1, specimen number 3710, collected at Cambridge, Mass.;
number 2 and 3, specimen number 71026 and 71025, collected at
Gainesville, Fla. by G. S. Miller; number 4, specimen number 31025,
collected at Bay St. Louis, Mo. by A. Allison; number 5, specimen
number 1673, collected at Pensacola, Fla.

Distribution of specimens studied: Cambridge, Mass.; Bay St.
Louis; Miss. (A. AlHson) ; Delair, N. J. (W. P. Seal) ; Gainesville,
Fla. ; Houston and Brownsville, Texas.

8 VASCO M. TANNER \'ol. I, Xo. 1,

Rrmakks: This distinctive species is widely distributed throus^h-
out the eastern United States. l)ut is scarcely met with, because of its
secretive nocturnal habits. They breed usualh' in teni|)orar}- pools and
puddles from March to September. The tadpole stages lasts about
30 days, when the small toads leave the puddles, if they are not al-
ready practically dried up, and begin life on the land l)y hiding during
the day in the soil ofttimes far removed from anv permanent water.

(2) ScAi'iiioi'Ls iiL'KTKKii Strcckcr. Hurter's Spadefoot
PI. I, Figs. 3-4; PI. 11, Fig. 3; PI. Ill

Scaphiopus hurterii Strecker, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, \(A 23,
July 23, 1910, p. 116, pi. II, figs. 3-4.

Type locality: Waco, Texas {ZlA miles east).

Measurements : The following are measurements in millimeters
of nine specimens of Scaphiopus hurterii obtained l)y loans from Dr.
E. H. Taylor of Kansas State University and Mr. L. M. Klauber of
San Diego, California.

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ave.

Total length of body... 62.5 63.0 68.0 62.0 71.0 69.0 72.0 61.0 71.0 66.0

Lengtli of head 20.0 22.0 22.0 22.5 22.0 23.0 24.0 22.5 23.0 22.3

Width of liead 23.0 25.5 25.0 24.0 25.5 26.5 27.0 25.0 26.0 25.2

Between nasal opening.s 4.0 5.0 5.0 4.6 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.8

Between nasal and orbit 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.9

Width of orbits 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.8 7.0 7.6 7.1

Between orbits 6.8 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.0 7.0 8.0 7.0 7.':^ 7.4

Forearm 16.0 16.0 17.0 16.0 1<).0 18.0 18.0 16.0 17.5 17.0

Hand 12.0 13.0 12.0 12.0 13.0 13.0 13.0 13.0 13.0 12.6

Femur 25.6 27.5 29.0 27.0 30.0 28.0 29.0 24.0 28.0 26.4

Tibia 20.0 21.0 23.0 22.0 24.0 24.0 24.5 21.0 22.0 22.4

Whole foot 34.0 32.0 3'J.O 34.0 3'».() 40.0 42.0 34.5 35.0 36.6

Cutting spade 5.0 5.6 6.0 5.6 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 6.0 h.7

Number 1, specimen number A 125, collected al ISenton, Atoscosa
Co.. Texas, June 5, 1932 by Taylor and Smith ; numbers 2-9, speci-
men numbers 30430, 30432, 30429, 30431. 30434, 30435, 30433, col-
lected seven miles southeast of Lvtle, Texas.

July 25, 1939 genus scaphiopus 9

Distribution of specimens studied: Benton, Atascosa, Co.,
Texas. Taylor and Smith; Lytle, Texas. (From L. M. Klauber Col-
lection, San Diego, California.")

Remarks: I am including Strecker's description of hurtcrn in
order that it may be compared with the measurements of the speci-
mens reported here. While the average size, especially of the whole
foot, femur, forearm, width of head and body length is greater than
liolbrookii, contrary to Strecker's description, I believe this may be
due to the fact that I have had a greater number of specimens for use
in this study from a different locality to that of Mr. Strecker. I am
in agreement with Dr. Hobart Smith that hiirtcrii is a distinct form.
The elevated rugose post interorbital area seems to be a most dis-
tinctive character.

Strecker's description of hurterii follows: "Size medium.
Length of head and body, 67 mm. Head short, length about equal to
width. (In liolbrookii the head at angle of jaws is much wider than
long.) Snout heavy and blunt, not extending beyond the mouth.
Parotoids nearly round, higher and even more conspicuous than in
the eastern species. Tympanum distinct but rather smaller than in
holbrookii. (In type hardly more than half the diameter of the paro-
toid.) Crown distinctly rugose. No black granules in space between
and in front of the eyes. Upper surfaces with small, closely set tu-
bercles very uniform in size and distribution. Many tubercles on
sides, buttocks and posterior portion of the abdomen. Many pustules
on upper surface of tibia. Glands on thorax present, conspicuous.
Enlargements resembling glands on inferior surface of femur (pres-
ent in both specimens). Spade-like process of foot narrowly mar-
gined with black. Palmar tubercles rather small. Fingers slender.
Tibia al)Out equal to that of S. liolbrookii but femur and foot mucli
shorter.

Color above, pale greenish, with a pale yellowish line from each
orbit ; these converge again on the coccyx. Upper surface of head
and area between the light lines, dark plumbeous. Parotoids olive.
Sides of head and under surfaces yellowish-white.

The Refugio specimen is, slightly smaller. (Length 63 mm) Col-
oration in life darker. Greenish above, light lines inconspicuous. In
form and other important characteristics resembling the type."

10 VASCO M. TANNKR \'ol. ] , X(J. 1 ,

(3) ScAiMiioi'Us COUCH II IJaird. Couch's Spadefooi
PI. I, Figs. 5-6; ]'l. Ill

Scaf'hiupus coitcltii liaird. I'roc. Ac. Xat. Sci. I'liila. ; XOl. 7, 1854,
p. 62.

Type locality: Rio Nasas, Coalniila. and Alatamoros, Taniauh-
pas, Mexico.

Measurements :

1234 5 6789 Ave.

Total length of body... 56.0 60.0 60.0 53.0 60.0 58.5 45.5 55.0 58.0 56.2

LeiiRth of head 20.5 21.0 21.0 20.0 20.5 20.0 15.0 19.5 20.0 19.7

Width of head 25.0 25.0 24.0 22.5 24.0 24.0 18.0 22.5 24.0 2^.2

Between nasal openings 3.5 ?>.? ^.2 3.0 3.2 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.4

Between nasal and orbit 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.0 5.0 3.5 5.5 5.5 5.1

Width of orbits 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 6.5 7.5 8.0 7.8

Between orbits 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.6 4.5 5.0 5.1

Forearm 17.0 17.0 17.5 13.5 17.0 14.0 11.0 16.5 17.5 15.7

Hand 13.0 12.5 12.0 12.0 13.0 13.0 9.5 12.0 12.5 12.2

Femur 26.0 25.0 26.5 24.0 26.0 26.0 20.0 23.5 25.0 24.7

Tibia 21.0 21.0 21.5 18.5 21.0 20.5 17.0 20.0 20.0 20.0

Whole foot 30.0 32.5 33.0 29.0 33.0 32.S 24.0 31.5 22.'? 29.8

Cutting spade 4.0 4.0 4.3 4.0 -i.O 4.0 2.8 4.0 4.2 3.9

Numbers 1-3, specimen numbers 47132, 47134, 47130, collected at
San Pedro, Lower California, Mexico, July, 1919 by Joseph Slevin ;
number 4, specimen number 13159, collected at Waco, McLennon Co.,
Texas; numbers 5-7, specimen numbers 35228, 35231, 35230, collected
at Fairbanks, Cochise Co., Texas; number 8, specimen number 17771,
collecteci at San Antonia, Bexer Co., Texas; numl)er 9, specimen num-
ber 29348, collected 2 miles ncjrth of the .San Xavicr Missicju, .\ri-
zona.

Dl.STKIHUTlON OF Sl'EClMENS STL'DIKD : ."^au IVhIto, L. Calif., Alex,
fjos. Slevin); Waco, Texas, (Strecker); San Anlonitj, Texas; Co-
lonia Dublan, Chihuahua Mex., (I). M P)eck) ; Fairbanks, Ariz..
(Jos. Slevin).

Remarks: Couchii is confined to the southwestern slates. Lower
California, into Mexico. It is next to liurtcrii, the lar}.,a^st Spadefoot
in our fauna. The frontoparietal bones are well formed extendini^-
well into the nasal area. In color hurlcril and couchii are similar.

July 25, 1939 genus scaphiopus U

Cnuchii does not have the elevated post interorhilal area found in
hurtcrli.

THE SUBGENUS SPEA

Throughout the Intermountain States to the Pacific Coast and
south into Texas and Mexico is a division of toads closely related in
external and skull characters. These are here considered under the
subgenus S pea. The general facies of this subgenus is such that it is
easily separated from the eastern Scaphiopus group. The head is
much shorter : the width between the nasal opening and the orbit is
noticeably less ; also the interorbital width is less, being modified as
in bomhifrons and intcrmontanus. PI. I, Figs. 9-12. Other distinctive
characteristics are the presence of a fontanelle or a modified one, with
the frontoparietal as well as the temporal bones greatly modified ;
also a cuneform spade-like process, in contrast to the cycle-shaped
spade found in subgenus Scaphiopus.

While the distribution of these two subgenera is poorlv known at
present, the only overlapping of the two appears to l)e in Texas.

Three species are included in the subgenus Spca; these may be
separated as follows :

A. Presence of an interorl;)ital boss.

1). Head width narrtnv — 18.5 mm.

c. Body smooth with few individual tuber-
cles or warts. Cutting spade narrow
and long; hand, femur, tibia, and whole
foot short ; color grayish above ; whitish
on venter. In preservative the speci-
mens are an olive green bomhifrons

AA. No interorbital boss present. ( In some speci-
mens of intcrmontanus there is a glandular
interorbital elevation which resembles the
true boss found in bomhifrons. This may be
removed and the true nature of the skull re-
vealed. PI. I, Figs. 9-12 show this difference.

bb. Head width wider 20.9-22.5 mm.

cc. Body rugose or with many individual
prominences or warts. Color mottled

12 VASCO M. TANNER Vol. T,No. 1,

whitisli and l)lack above; venter wliit-
isli ; in preservative the hack becomes
hlackish with some wliite areas. At
times tlie hack is streaked witli wliitisli
lines. X'enter white.

d. No frontoparietal fontanelle ; inter-
orbital space with prominent fronto-
parietal bones forming ridges as in
PI. 1, Figs. 9-10 or in some speci-
mens the interorbital space is filled
with a glandular prominence resem-
bling the bombifrons species; head
width 22.5 mm, whole foot 31.2,
confined in the main to the Great
Basin area intcrnioiifainis

(\d. A frontoparietal fontanelle present ;
interorbital space smooth ; size inter-
mediate between bombifrons and in-
tcrmojitaniis ; head width 20.9; wdiole
foot 28.8 ; found on the Pacific Coast
south into Arizona and Texas Iiaiiunondii

(4) ScAPiTTOPu.s ROMRiFRON.s (Cojie). Central Plains Spadefoot Toad
PI. I, Figs. 11-12; PI. Ill

Scaplnopits bo)iibifrons Cope. Proc. Ac. Phila. 1863, p. 53.
Spea hammondii bombifrons (Co])e). Pull. U. S. Nat'l i\lus. No.

34, 1889.
Scaphiopus bombifrons C()])e. ."-^mitli, Am. Midi. Xat.. \'ol. W\,

No. 4, 1939. ]). 427.

Type locality: Fort Union on Missouri River, Lai. 4S degrees N.

Measurements: The fcjllowing measurements were made possi-
ble through loans from Dr. E. H. Taylor of the Kansas University
and Mr. Joseph Slevin of the California Academy of 5>ciences, San
Francisco.

July 25, 1939 genus scaphiopus 13

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ave.

Total length of body... 48.0 4.5. .5 4.5.0 50.0 51.5 50.0 50.0 53.0 47.0 48.9

Length of head 15.0 15.5 14.5 16.0 16.5 16.0 15.0 16.5 15.0 15.6

Width of head 17.0 170. 16.0 20.0 20.0 19.5 20.0 20.0 19.5 18.8

Between nasal openings 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 5.0 4.5 4.5

Between nasal and orbit 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.2

Width of orbits 6.0 6.0 5.8 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 (>.() 6.0

Between orbits 5.0 4.5 4.2 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.3 4.2 4.8

Forearm 11.0 11.0 10.0 13.0 13.0 13.0 11.5 13.0 12.0 11.9

Hand 10.0 8.5 8.5 10.0 10.5 10.0 10.0 11.0 10.0 9.8

Femur 22.0 21.0 20.5 23.0 23.2 24.0 23.S 23.0 24.0 22.7

Tibia 17.5 16.0 16.0 18.5 19.0 19.0 18.5 20.0 18.0 18.0

Whole loot 16.0 23.0 23.0 28.0 27.5 28.0 27.5 28.5 27.0 25.4

Cutting spade 3.0 2.5 2.?^ 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.0 2.9

Xuinbers 1-3, specimen numbers 33118. 33117, 33119, collected at
( ioodniglit, Texas, June, 1910 by Strecker ; numbers 4-5, specimen
numbers AlOO, AlOl, collected at 2 miles north of Le.xinL^ton, Okla.,
June 3, 1932 by Taylor and Smith; Nos. 6-9. specimen numbers A131,
1632, 1633, 1634. collected 6 miles north of Elkhart. Morton Co.,
Kan., August 15, 1926 by I-:. IT Taylor and T. White.

Remarks: All specimens of hoiiibifrons liave an interorbital boss
which, upon the dissection of the head, is composed in the main of a
bon\' structure in contrast to the olandular structure found in some
specimens of internioiitaiius. Just what relationship exists between
these two species is not clear.

Reference to Plate ITI shows the distribution of the specimens ac-
tuall_\- studied at tlie time of this writing. Just how the species of
Spco are distributed in Colorado, Wyoming", and Montana is not
known because of lack of specimens from these states. Spade fo(jt
toads taken in the intermountain states are not common in collections.

(5) Scaphiopus intekmontanus (Cope). Great Uasin
Spade foot Toad

PI. I, Figs. 9-10; PI. II. Fig. 2; PI. IH

Spca haniiiioiidii iiitcniioiitaiui Cope. Proc. Ac. Phila., 1883. [). 14.

Type locality : Salt Lake City, Utah.

Measurements: The specimens reported here are all from the
southeastern part of Utah, while specimens collected b}- Dr. H. C.

14 VASCO M. TANNER \V)1. I.No. 1,

^'arrow at I'rovo, Utah; Capt. C. Ik-ndirc at Fort Walla Walla, Wash-
ington, and V. I'ailey and j. ( ). Sn}der at Pyramid Lake, Nevada

have been studied; due to lack of space their measurements are not
reported.

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 Ave.

'I'otal IciiKtli of hod.v... .51.5 55.0 56.0 51.0 55.0 63.0 53.0 5').0 53.0 55.2

Length of head 16.5 18.5 17.0 17.0 10.0 19.0 17.0 18.0 17.0 17.7

Width of head 22.0 23.5 22.5 23.0 24.0 26.0 21.0 2^.? 23.0 2i.2

Between nasal oi.)enin.t;s 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.7 5.5 5.0 4.0 4.5 4.8 4.7

Ik'tween nasal and orbit 3.0 ?,.5 i.':> 3.5 4.0 3.5 4.0 ^.? 3.0 3.5

Width or orbits 7.?^ 7 .h 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.0 7.? 6.5 7.2

Between orbits 4.5 4.8 4.5 ':^^ 5.0 5.0 4.5 5.0 5.0 4.8

Forearm 14.0 16.0 15.0 14.0 15.0 15.0 12.5 14.0 14.0 14.4

Hand 12.0 14.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 13.0 12.5 12.0 12.0 12.4

i-enun- 26.0 20.0 26.0 24.0 26.0 20.0 24.0 27.0 27.':^ 26.5

Tibia 20.0 23.5 21.0 21.0 21.5 21.5 18.0 21.0 22.0 21.0

Whole foot ?3.5 36.0 30.0 32.0 31.0 35.0 20.0 32.5 31.0 U.2

Cntting spade 4.0 4.0 3.9 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 3.5 3.8

Xunil)er 1, specimen number 50, collected at Gartield County, Utah,
lune 29, 1938 l)y \'asco M. Tanner and 1). \\. Beck; numl)er 2 and 3,
specimens numliers 55 and 799, collected at Willow Spring' Tank.
Kane County, Utali. June. 1936 l)y V'asco M. Tanner and James Bee;
number 4, specimen number 545. collected at mouth of I'rush Creek,
Uintali Count}-. L'tah, July. 1937 by James Bee; number 5, specimen
number 46. collected 10 miles south of dandy. Utah. June. 1928 by
Vasco M. Tanner and W. P. Cottam ; number 6. specimen number
1980. colk-cted at Ordcrvillc, Kane County. L'tah. August 4. 1938 l)y
La \'"oy h'splin ; n.um1)er 7. specimen numl)er 781. collected at Zion
National Park, Utah, Jul}', 1925 b}- Vasco M. Tanner; number 8,
specimen number 1977, collected at Steep Creek Lakes, Boulder Mt..
Garfield County. Utah, 6500 ft. elevation. June 29. 1938 by W. W.
Tanner ; number 9. specimen number 8686. collected at Price, Carl)on
Cf)unty. Utah. June. 1937 by Ross Hardy.

DisTKiiu'TioN OF spi'X'TMENs sTLDii'.D : ARIZONA: Jacobs Lake.
Kaibab Forest. July, 1927. \'. M. Tanner. IDAHO: Boise. Ada
County. July 19, 1917. Richard iM'win. NEVADA: Pyramid Lake.
June 14. 1889, C. A. Keeler ; June 26. 1893. V. Bailey; Joseph Slevin.
July 4. 1916; The Willows, New Pyramid Lake. J. O. Snyder; Me-
squite. V. M. Tanner. L^TAH. Utah County: Provo. H. C. Yarrow,
Payson. V. M. Tanner. Millard County: Candy. June. 1928. \'. 1\1.

fulv 25, 1939 GENUS scAPiiiorns 15

Tanner. Kane County: Orderville. July. 1937. Aug. 4. 1938, Truman
Swallow and La \'oy Esplin ; Willow Spring Tank, June. 1936, V. M.
Tanner and lames Bee; Alton, L. Al. Klauher. Washington County:
Zion National Park, July. 1925, 1928. 1933. \'. M. Tanner; Zion Na-
tional Park and Toquerville, L. ]\1. Klauher; St. George and Washing-
ton, V. M. Tanner. Garfield County: Posy Lake, Aquarious Plateau,
June, 1936, V. M. Tanner; Escalante, June. 1936, 1938, \'. M. Tan-
ner. W. W. Tanner, and D. E. Beck ; Steep Creek, Boulder Mountain,
June 29. 1938. W'. W. Tanner. D. V^. Beck, and Geo. Cannon; Bryce
Canyon National Park, July, 1927, \'. M. Tanner. Emery County:
North of Green River, L. M. Klauher; Green River City, June, 1927,
Clarence Cottam. San Juan Count}": Caroline Natural Bridge, June,
1927, V. M. Tanner, Anson Call, and 1). 1. Rasmussen. Carhon
County: Price, June, 1937, Ross Hardy; Helper and Price, June 16,
19.39, V. M. Tanner. W. W. Tanner, James Bee and Grant Harris;
Price, October, 1938. Horace Richards. Luntah County : ]\louth of
Brush Creek. July, 1937. James Bee. W^^SHTNGTON : Ft. Walla
Walla, C. Bendire.

Remarks: The evolution of the subgenus Spca seems to be from
hammondii through homhifroiis to iiitcriiiontamts. In these species
there is a progressive development of the osseous parts of the cranium
with a closure of the frontoparietal fontanelle in practically all speci-
mens of intcrmontanus. Intcrmontanus is a large fairly rugose species
capable of breeding under desert conditions in the brackish waters of
the Great Basin and High Plateaus. This species is common in the
southeastern part of Utah. More than a hundred specimens have l)een
collected around Price and Helper, Carbon County and the Escalante
Desert in Garfield County. Breeding specimens were taken in June
along the Price and Escalante Rivers. They also leave these streams
and are found from twenty to fifty miles out in the deserts, congre-
gated around intermittent spring seeps. Great numbers in copula were
observed at a small playa in Steep Creek, Boulder Mountain, Garfield
County, on June 29. 1938 by D. E. Beck, W. W. Tanner, Geo. Cannon
and James Bee. The playa developed after a rain storm which oc-
curred on the night of June 27. No specimens were observed until
after the storm, when they seem to come into this temporary pond
literally by the hundreds. Breeding commenced at once, the males
holding on to the females even after they were collected and placed
in cages at camp. On June 20, 1936 tadpoles of various sizes were
taken at Willow Spring Tank 50 miles south of Escalante. In a few

16 VASCO M. TANNER V'ol. I, Xo. 1,

Specimens iIk' liind legs had started to emerge. Tadpoles were col-
lected ill the Price City Reservoir, number 3, (jn June 16, 1939, 1)\- the
writer. Many of these were developing their hind legs at this date.

A i)i:s(Kii''ri()N OF tiik larvae of iN'tEKAioxTANis : An exami-
nation of lad])oles from tlie above mentioned localities shows a labial
disk surrounded ])y a continuous row of papillae, exce])t for a
slight interruption at tlie upper margin where there is a row of
teeth on the disk about 6 mm long. In some specimens there is
evidence of t\\() rows in some parts of the disk. The labial teeth
are in 2-4 rows; the to}) row is continuous extending to the corners
of tlie mouth ; the second row extends from the corners of the mouth
along the first row to about one-fourth its length ; the third and fourth
rows are short ; the iifth and sixth rows are continuous across the
lower portion of the mouth. The fifth row is three times as long as
one of the jjarts of the fourth row. The upper mandilde has a median
point with lateral edges serrate ; lower mandible is about the same
width as the upper one, with a median notch, but without the projec-
tion on tlie sides, the sides serrate and smoothl}' rounded off and ex-
tending to the angles of tlie moutli. The mouth structures diifer from
drawings by Drs. Smith, Storer and Wright. The tadpoles here re-
l)orted more closely resemble hauniiomlil than boinbifrous judged by
the drawing of the above mentioned workers. The mouth is 4.2 mm
across, the interorbital space is 3.5 mm, the distance from the mouth
to the nasals is 3.5 mm; while it is 1.7 mm from the nasals to the
orbits. The body length of tadpoles, with the hind legs sliowing,
is 23 mm; tail length 28 mm. In the water the larvae have a coppery
color; while in alcohol preservative they are a bluish black color.

fiiteniioiifaiius has a greater internarial distance tlian eitlier haiiihi-
fruns or liammondii; the average for 84 specimens is 4.6 mm. The
femur and whole foot are both larger in intcrmontaints. 1 have been
unable to use the tympanum and corneous tips of the toes in this study.
These characters are variable and in some specimens the corneous tij)
of the toes is not present.

(6) ScAPHiOPUS iiAMMONDii Baii'd. Hammond's Spadefoot Toad
PI. I, Figs. 7 and 8; V\. H. Fig. 1 ; IM. Ill

Scaphiopus hainnwndii Baird, Kept. Expl. Surv., IV, Reptil., 1859,
PI. fig. 2.

July 25, 1939 genus scai-hiupus 17

Tvpi-: i.otAi.iTN' : Fori Reading, California.

JNIkasukements : Tlie following' nine .si)eciniens arc clioscn for
rei^ort from a rather large collection loaned by Mr. L. M. Klaubcr of
.San Diego and Mr. Jo.s. Slevin of the California Academy of .Sciences.

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 '» Avr.

Total length of body... 47.0 48.0 46.0 .S6.0 49.0 .54.0 61.5 60.0 55.0 .52.9

Length of hrad 15.0 15.0 15.0 19.0 15.0 17.0 1').0 19.0 17.0 17.0

Widtli of head 19.0 19.0 18.0 2,V5 19.0 21.0 24.0 25.0 22.0 21.2

Between nasal openings 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 -1.0

Between nasal and orbit 3.5 3.5 3.5 4.5 3.8 4.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0

Width of orbits 5.7 5.8 5.5 7.5 6.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.0 6.6

IU>tween orbits 4.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 ' 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.7

h'orearm 12.0 12.0 11.0 14.0 11.0 14.5 14.0 15.0 13.0 12.9

Hand 11.0 11.0 10.0 12.0 10.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 11.5 11.3

l''enun- 21.0 23.0 21.0 23.0 19.0 25.0 26.0 25.0 23.0 22.9

Tibia 17.5 18.0 17.0 21,0 17.5 20.0 21.0 21.0 20.0 19.2

Whole foot 23.0 26.5 25.0 30.0 26.0 29.0 32.0 31.0 27.5 27.8

Cutting spade 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.S 3.0 3.5 4.0 3.6 3.5 3.3

Number 1 and 2, .specimens mnnher lOZ^S and lOZ.iH, collected at
Cochise County, Arizona, July, 1928; number .^, specimen number
10296, collected at Brewster County. Texas, July 22, 1930; number
4, specimen number 62922. collected 5 miles north of Bonsell, Califor-
nia, May 24, 1927; numlier 5, specimen number 7131, collected at San
Jacinto, Riverside County, California b}' L. M. Klauix-r; numl)er 6
and 7, specimens number 23359 and 240, collected at San Diego. Cali-
foi'nia b\' I.. M. Klauber : number 8, s[)ecimen number 2340l, colleclecl
at C)jos Negros, Lower California by L. M. Klauber; number 9, speci-
men mnnber 2714,5. collected at Punta Bunda, Lower California by
L. M. Klauber.

DisTKiFii'Tiox oi' SPECIMENS STUDIED: ARIZONA: Cochise Coun-
ty, July, 1928. CALIPT)RNTA : 3 miles N. of Bonsell, May 14, 1927;
San Jacinto. Riverside County, L. M. Klauber; San Diego, L. M.
Klauber; I'.erkeley, July, 1938. Tracy Storer. COLORADO: O.xford,
La Plata County, Sept. 7, 1920, Ivan M. Way. MEXICO: Ojos
Negros, and Punta Bunda, Lower California. L. M. Klauber. TEXAS:
Brewster County, July 22, 1930.

Rem.^rks : Specimens of iuuuuioiidn have shorter, narrower heads,
with less internarial space, shorter forearm, femur, and whole foot

18 VASCO M. TANNER Vol. 1, Xo. 1,

than intcrmoiitanus. The inlerorbital space is smooth, not possessing
ridges or a boss as in iiitcnnuiitaiius and boiiibifroiis. The fontanelle
is well developed. Specimens are not as wort}' as iiilcniioiitaiiKS.

SUMM.KKV

An examination was made of the cranial structures, cutting spades,
measurements of the appendages and body, color rmd texture of the
skin and distribution of specimens of Scaf'hiof'iis from various parts
of the United States and northern Mexico. This study supports the
conclusion that the genus Scaphiopiis may be divided, to advantage,
into the subgenera Scapliiof^iis and Spca: also that the following:
Jiolbrookii, hnrtcrii, conchii, hotnhifrons, iiifcnnointtaitus, ojid Itaiii-
mondii should be recognized as valid species.

The cranial structure, l)od\' size and markings, and larval char-
acteristics seem to support the proposal, made here, that we separate
the Utah and northern Great Basin Spadefoot Toads from the Pacific
Coast and Central Plains species, establishing iiitcniiontaints Cope as
a species.

A distributional study of Si-af^hioptis in the states west of the
Mississippi River should add much to our knowledge of the range of
the subgenus Spca here discussed.

Iliirtcrii also seems to be a valitl species.

l^idpoles of the various species shouUl be collected and stutlied.

Lrri£R.\TURE CITKI)

Con:, !■:. I).

ISSO. TIk' r.atrachia of Xortli .America. lUill. C. S. .\at. Mus.
Xo. 34. pp. 296-30).

lu.i.is. Max M.. and Ji'nus Hi:ni:)i:rsox

IQl,^. The i\mj)hibia and Reptiles of Colorado. L niw ot C'olo.
Studies, \"()1. X, Xo. 2.

K I'.i.iax ;t ; , \\E M I N ( ;'i"( > .v

1932. Mexican Tailless .\nipliil)ians in the Cnited .States Xational
.Museum, r.ull. C. S. Xat. Mus. Xo. U)0.

Sl.KVJN, b)S. R.

1928. The .\mphibians of Western X'^orth .America. ( )ccasional
Papers, California .\cad. of Sci., \'ol. 1(). pp. 1 1.^2. Pis.
1-23.

July 25, 1939 genus scapiiiopus 19

Smith. Hohakt M.

1934. The Anipliihians of Kansas. American Midlaiul Xaluralisl,
\(j1. 15. X(.. 4. PI-. 377-518, Pis. 12-20.

Stejnkger, Leon hard, and I^arboi'r, Thomas

1933. Check List of North ^American Am])hibians and Ivepliles.

Stoker, Tracy L

1925. A Synopsis of the Amphibia oi California. Cniv. of Calif.
Publication in Zoology, \ol. 27, pp. 1-308, Pis. 1-8.

.Strecker. John K.

1910. Descrijjtion of a New Solitar}' Spadefoot (Scapliiopits
luirtcrii) from Texas, with Other Herpetological Notes.
Proc. I'.iol. Soc. Wash., Vol. XXIII. pp. 115-122.

Tanner, Vasco M.

1931. A Synoptical Study of Utah Amphibia. Proc. Ctah Acad,
of Sciences. Vol. 8, pp. 150-198, Pis. 8-20.

Wright, A. H.

1929. S}'nopsis and Description of North American Tadpoles.
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 74, Art. 11, pp. 1-70, Pis. 1-9.

Wright and Wright

1933. Handbook of Fr(jgs and Tcjads, pp. 1-231.

Wru;ht, a. H., and Wright, Anna A.

1938. Amphibians (jf Texas. Trans. Texas Acad, of .Sci.. \ Ol.
XXI. pp. 1-36. Pis. 3.

20 VASCO M. TANNER Yol. T,Xo. 1,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

PLATE

Figures \, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 are drawings sliowing the dorsal skull
structures of the six species of Spadefoot Toads discussed in this
study.

Figures 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 are drawings of the cutting spades of
the six species of Spadefoot Toads under (Hscussion.

PLATE II

Figvn'es 1, 2, and 3 show^ the distinctive head and interorbital charac-
teristics ()\ S. lianDiioiidii, S. interinoiitamts, and S. Iinrtcrii.

PLATE HI

The distributional map shows the areas in the United States where
the six species of Scapliiopus, as here discussed, are found. The nia])
has been made from a study of the specimens available (kn-iuL; thi-
progress of this report. Records from the literature have not been
used.

^UDY or GENUS SCAPHIOPUS
VAZCO M. TANNEIR

FIG. I

F»(r. 3
SCAPHIOPUS HURTER.ll

SCAPH/0PU5 H0L8R0OKII

FIGr. 8

FIO. 12

FIG-. <a
SCA PHI OPUS /NT£RHOAfrA/^US

FI&. It
SCAPH/0PU5 eOflBIFRONS

Plate I

STUDY or GENUS SO^PHIOPUS

VASCO M. TANNER

J^ '

tfkW^tf^ 'Ca^Hft

^^HB^^^^^S^^^^^^M^HV

^^Hk -r ^-.~'*^^^vm^^^^

^^^Lr

*^^^^^^^^B^^I^^^^m

FIG. 1

PIG. 2

SCAPHfOPUS HAMMOND// SC/lP///0/^S /NTtRMONTANUS

r\o. 3

3CAPHI0PUS HUHT^ER/I

Plate E

^TdbY OF GENUS ^CAPHIOPUS
VASCO M TANNER

NOTKS ON CHARINA BOTTAE IN UTAH:
REPRODUCTION(i)

VASCO M. TANNER

Professor of Zoology and Entomology

Brigham Young University

and

WILMER W. TANNER

In charge of Biological Science

Provo High School, Provo, Utah

DISTRIBUTION

The follcnving notes are based upon specimens of the Rubber Boa,
collected in Utah, now in tlie herpetolos^dcal collection at the Brigham
Young University.

A number of specimens have been added to the collection since
the publication in 1933, by the senior author, of a" Study of the Vari-
ation of the Dorsal Scale Rows in Charina bottae."'^^^ This species
is not easily collected, being secretive in its habits. It seems to move
about during the twilight and early morning hours, then resting in
some cool place, probably in the grass or in the leaf mould during the
day. All the specimens we have collected have been taken during the
hours mentioned above.

Thirty-three specimens have been collected in Utah County :
twenty-two at Aspen Grove, Mount Timpanogos ; seven in Provo Can-
}'on ; two in Payson Canyon ; one in Rock Canyon, and one in Ameri-
can Fork Canyon.

At the annual meeting of the Utah Academy of Sciences, Arts,
and Letters, held at Salt Lake City, in May, 1939, Mr. Ross Hardy
reported the occurrence of the Rubber Snake in Carbon County. On
June 15, 1939, the writers, while on a collecting trip to Carbon and
Emery Counties, talked with Mr. Stanley Nelson, caretaker of the
Peerless Mine, tlie place where the specimen was collected. Mr. Nel-
son reported that his son collected the specimen on a hay stack. We
examined the area and found the hay had been stacked on a shed
which was built on a hill-side on which there was a thick growth

(1) Contribution No. 76.

(2) Tanner, Vasco M., 1933. A Study of the Variation of the Dorsal Scale
Rows of Charina bottac (Blainville). Copeia, July 20, 1933, No. 2, pp. 81-84.

27

28 TANNKR, TANNKR \'f)l. T. Xo. 1 ,

of oaks and other low shrul)S. Mr. Nelson also reported havinj^ seen
another specimen of Cliarina hotiac along a small stream, just olt the
main highway in Price Canyon, about two miles above the Peerless
Mine. The range of this snake in Utah is greatly extended, Ijy this
record from the High Plateaus and the two records from Payson
Canyon, which is only a short distance from the most southern part
of the Wasatch Range.

FOOD HABn\S

A number of specimens have been kejjt in the laboratory for pe-
riods of one to six months. In a number of cases, captive specimens
have eaten small mammals. A nest of Alicrotus p. modestus consist-
ing of four young were eaten; also three young Pcromyscus sp. The
snakes would not take tlie young rodents outside of the nest, but
would enter the nest and there feed upon thier prey. Several speci-
mens, when captured, regurgitated their last meal which consisted of
young rodents. In June, 1939, Mr. Ronald Dykes of the C. C. C. Camp
in Payson Canyon collected a Two-headed Snake. While he was hold-
ing the specimen by the tail, with the head dowaiward, three small
"mice" were regurgitated. We have made attempts to have Cliariiia
hotiac feed upon other animals such as insects, cold blooded verte-
brates and small birds, but have never l)een successful. According to
Cope (1900)^^^ and Van Denburgh (1922)^''^, this species has been
known to eat lizards of the genus Sccloporus. Our information con-
cerning the food habits of adult Cliarina hotiac to date supports the
belief that their food consists mainl)- of mammals.

REPRODUCTION

An interesting phase oi the life history oi llie Rubber Snake was
brought to our attention last summer ( 1938) when a specimen, num-
ber 690, collected at Aspen Grove in y\ugust, gave birth to three snakes
on September 9. The fact that the \-oung were ItoiMi alive so late in
the season prompted us to examine all tlie females in llie collection.
We were rewarded by finding four specimens with eggs in various
stages of development. Since the only reference in the literature to
reproduction in this species, we have been able to lind, is one by \'an
Denburgh (1922, Vol. 2, \). 642), we are presenting our i'mdings in the

(3) Cope, E. D., 1900. The Crocodilians. Lizards, and Snakes (if North
.\merica, Ann. Rept. U. S. Nat. Mus. for the year 18')S, pp. 15,M294.

(4) Van Dcnhursh, lolm, 1922. 'I'lie l\eptiles of Western Xortli .America.
Vol. 2, pp. 617-1028.

July 25, 1939 ctiarina bottai-: 29

hc'lief lliat the}' may l)e of some interest. I )i'. \ ;in I)enl)ui".!^h lias hut
one sentence on the suhject as follows: "A female caught in June e(jn-
tained larije ei^gs."

A lars^e specimen, numher 842. measurini;- 556 mm in length, col-
lected at Aspen Grove on Jul}- 30, 1926, contained five e^s^s. The
eij;,i;"S were in a membranous sac 215 mm lon<^, while each ej^t; was
surrounded by a thin sac or shell. The anterior e_<j^i:; measured 45 nnu
in length and 15 mm wide, while the posterior one measured 44 mm
by 14 mm wide. The three in between were similar in size. I'.ach et^i;'
had reached about the same embryolos^ical development. The embryo,
in all cases, was developing on the ventral central part of the egg. The
two ends and dorsal portions of each egg were composed of a brow nish
granular food material. The embryos were removed from the an-
terior and posterior eggs. The anterior one was 96 mm long, with a
head diameter of 4 mm, while the posterior one was 99 mm long, with
a head diameter of 4 mm and a body width at about the middle of
3.5 mm. The dorsal scales were developed along the sides but they
had not formed along the dorsal midline. The specimen in the an-
terior egg possessed sixteen rows of scales on one side and seventeen
on the other, while the posterior one had twelve rows on each side.

Another specimen, number 676, collected in Rock Can\on east of
Provo on August 17. 1938, contained only two eggs. The anterior
egg, however, was much larger than eggs in other specimens study.
It was 77 mm long and 9.5 mm in width. A small embryo was de-
veloping in the center of this egg; blood vessels could be seen scat-
tered through the food material which surrounded the embryo. The
posterior egg was small and undeveloped suggesting that it was not
fertile.

A specimen, number 1387, was collected at Aspen Grove on July
29, 1935, which measured 629 mm. This female contained eight eggs,
the greatest number found in any one specimen. None of the eggs
showed any embryonic development. The anterior egg measured 23
mm in length and 10.5 mm in width, while the posterior one was 28
mm long and 12 mm wide.

The largest specimen of this species in (jur collection, number 674,
was collected at Aspen Grove on August 4, 1938, and contained three
eggs. Xone of the eggs had undergone any apparent embryological
development. The total length of the three eggs before being dis-
turbed was 119 mm. The anterior egg was 39 mm long and 14 mm

30 TANNER, TANNER \ (»1. 1, Xo. 1,

ill widlli. The next one was 4v3 mm lonsj;' and 17 mm in widlli, while
the hist eg!4 was 37 mm long and 18 mm in width.

A fifth specimen. numl)er 690. taken on August 9. at As[)en Grove,
was kept alive in a breeding cage for food study purposes, h^resh grass
was i)laced in the cage three times a week, and insects placed in the
cage. On Sei)tember 9, while removing the (lr_\- grass, three small
snakes and an undeveloped egg were observed in the cage. The \oung
snakes were dead, prol)al)l}' due to the dryness of tlie soil and grass.
The S])ecimens were removed and ])reserved. The largest specimen
of the three measured 170 mm long, with a head wid.th of 6.1 mm and
a dorsal scale count of 42 scales.

It is interesting, at this point, to record the capture of a }()ung Rub-
ber Snake at \'ivian l*arl< in I'rovo Canyon on June 27 . 1939. It is
175 mm long, with a head width of 6.2 mm and a dorsal scale count
of 41. The color is a reddish-brown similar to the young snakes born
in cai)tivity to specimen number 690.

From our findings, it ap])ears that C. bottac in Utah gives birth
to her young in the fall of the \ear, or in some cases w^here develop-
ment commences late in the _\ear as in number 1387, in the earl}'
spring. It would seem that this is the case or else the young produced
in the fall grow but ver\- little, if any. l)efore winter hil)ernation. Just
what the young snakes feed upon is also unknown. Piecause of their
size, we surmise tliat their food must l)e other than mammalian.

STUDIES IX Tin-: \vi-:evils of tiii-: wi-.stI'Lkx uxiti-:!)

STATES, NO. Ill: NEW SPECIES FROM UTAH^D

VASCO M. TANNER

Professor of Zoology and Entomology
r>righam Young University

I'A'i'AcoDKkKS UTAHF.NSis Tanner, new s])ecies

Pxidy ohlong oval, moderately rohust. Rostrum with deep transverse im-
pression at l)ase, median sulcus sharply defined, with distinct foveae near the an-
terior and posterior ends. Lateral sulci deep, rather long, converging behind until
they meet the median sulcus at the transverse impression, surface covered with
bluish and lead black scales ; the front smooth with no trace of punctures. The
scrobes deep and extending obliquely below the eyes; the first joint of the funicle
twice as long and a third wider than the second joint. The anterior end of beak
as wide, 2 mm, as it is long from the transverse impression to the end. Pro-
thora.x cylindrical, sides slightly arcuate, apex and base truncate Y^ wider than
long. Median line indistinctly impressed, disk with rather deep closely set evenly
distributed punctures, surface lead black except for a triangular spot on each
side of the median line, and lateral vittae which are pale bluish scales. Elytra
oval, broadest behind the middle, 3 1/3 times as long as the prothorax ; more
than ; 1 as wide as long ; striae fine, feebly punctured, intervals flat, setae very
sparse and minute : surface with bluish and lead black scales with alternate in-
tervals darker, giving a definite \ittate appearance. Legs and under surface
plumbeous, tibiae not denticulate within. Length prothorax to apex of eh'tra,
male 7.5 mm ; female 9.5 mm.

TvpK locality: vSt. George. Washington Countw Utah. Two
specimens, male and female, holotype and allotype, taken in copula
l)y the writer in June, 192Q. now in the writer's collection at r'ris.i'ham
Young' University.

Utaheiisis belonijs l)etween (icniiiiafits Horn and varlus Lee. It
ma\' he distin».;"uished from (/ciiiiiialus hy the fovaelate medium sulcus
which joins two deep lateral sulci at the distinct transverse impres-
sion ; also hy the shape and color of the prothorax, in f/cininatus the
])r()thorax is widest at the base and "clothed with whitish scales with
a l)road plumbeous stripe on each side." In varius the medium sulcus
of the beak is broad and vague and the thorax and the elytra are not
vittate. The general facies of iitahciisis serves to distinguish it from
an\' other described species of this genus.

EuP.A.GODEkLS LT.\RDVT Tanner, new species

Form oval, elongate. Rostrum with transverse impression, the median sulcus
distinct but not deeply impressed, lateral sulci practically obsolete. The beak L5
times as long as wide, being only 1 nun wide. The scrobes are shallow and
narrow; the first joint of the funicle twice as long as the second one; the front

(\) Contribution No. 77.

31

32 VASa^ M. TANNKR \'(;1. I.Xo. 1,

and beak finely punctured. Thorax cylindrical, widest at the middle, deeply punc-
tured on the toi) and sides and covered with small chocolate brown scales through-
out w itiiout setae. The elytra wider just back of the middle, being 3.3 mm. wide
and 5.2 nun lon^. The striae are distinct, with definite punctures, intervals
slightly convex with decumbent short brown setae; covering small brown ana
plumbeous scales without any pattern. The color of the body, legs and antennae
is dark brownish. Total length of the body from prothorax to tip of elytra
7.1 mm.

Typi: localfty : North Fork of Prove Canyon, Utah County,
Utali, elevation 63()() feet. Collected by D. Elmo Hard}-. Type in the
writer's collection at I'ris^ham Young University.

Uardyi is closel}- related to gcuiinatus Init its elongate form,
brownish solid color of the b(Kly. head and legs, the distinct striae
and sliglith' convex intervals separates it iroxw otlier species of this
genus.

DoRYTOMi'.s Ki'iuDU.s Tauucr, new species

Oblong, flat above, sides parallel, integument rufo-testaceous thrnnghout, vesti-
turc, fine and whitish in color not (jbscuring the punctures of the tliorax and
intervals oi the elytra, longer on the legs and venter where it arises from the
conspicuous punctures. Head and beak with deep close punctures from which arise
decumbent whitish setae ; short channel between the eyes, beak carinate on upper
third, glabrous on anterior third, beak 1 mm long; scrobes from anterior fourth
to iK'ncatb the eyes, first article of the funicle as long as the second and third
combined, front deeply punctured. Prothorax 1 1/3 wider than long, sides prac-
tically parallel, slightly rounded at the base, no distinct constriction at the apex,
un formally and deeply punctured. Elytra 1/2 wider at the base than the thorax,
sides parallel 2.2 mm long; intervals rounded, separated by deep close set punc-
tures, intervals as wide as the punctures, small white setae arise in the punctures
.■nid slightly subdue the siiining red surface of the integument ; beneath deeply
punctured, each puncture with a short white decumbent setae, the legs deeply punc-
tured, but with longer setae; tootli on :uiterior femora distinctive, length 3 mm.

Tvi't: i.ocALiTY : St. George, Washington County, LUah. Holo-
ly])e in the writer's collection at llrigham ^'oung L'niversit\'.

Rithldus according lo Col. Casey's key runs to sqiuniKisits Lee. btU
is easilx' dislinginshed from this sjiecies In- ils distinctive ])rothorax.
In nihu/iis there is no dislincl constriction at the apex and the sides
are ])arallcl ; also (he sides and dorsum are deepK' puncttn-ed btil
Sjjarsel}' covered with setae; SiitianiiiMis is constricted at the a])ex, not
so dee])ly punctmcd, being covered with S(|uamiform setae. In nihidiis
the iii"st joint of the finucle is shorter than in Si/iiauidsiis. /\' tihid iix
is mtich more deei)ly and closely pimctin-ed on the entire bodv than
the s])ecimens of squauiosus from Kansas and Colorado, that are be-
fore me.

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NEW CtNTURY PRINTING CO., PROVO. UTAH

Volume I

Number 2

A^ Zoelegy 'V

APR 1 1940 "

The Great Basin Naturalist

January 28, 1940

^*

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A Chapter on the Natural History of the Great Basin, 1800 to
1855 Fiasco M. Tanner 33

Spongilla Fragilis Found in Utah Lake and Salem Pond , . .61

Dr. Pfouts Contributes Butterflies 61

Dr. Henry Clinton Fall (1862-1939) 62

A Preliminary Histological Study of the Ovary of the Kangaroo
Rat, Dipodomys Ordii Columbianus . . Kenneth L. Duke 63

The Establishment and Maintenance of Territories by the Yellow-
Headed Blackbird in Utah Reed W. Fautin 75

The Mexican Bean Beetle Taken at Provo, Utah 91

European Journals and the War 92

Notes on the Distribution of Nighthawks in Utah

C. Lynn Hayward 93

Published at Provo, Utah, by the

Department of Zoology and Entomology of

Brigham Young University

The Great Basin Naturalist

Vasco M. Tanner, Editor
C. Lynn Hayward, Assistant Editor

A journal published four times a year by the Department of
Zoology and Entomology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.

Manuscripts. Only original unpublished manuscripts, pertaining
to the Great Basin and the Western United States in the main, will be
accepted. Manuscripts are subjected to the approval of the editor.

Illustrations. All illustrations should be made with a view to
having them appear within the limits of the printed page. The illus-
trations that form a part of an article should accompany the manu-
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to be made under the supervision of the editor, and the cost of the
cuts is to be borne by the contributor.

Reprints. No reprints are furnished free of charge. A price
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Subscription. The annual subscription is $1.50, (outside the
United States, $2.00). Single number, 50 cents.

All correspondence dealing with manuscripts, subscriptions, re-
prints and other business matters should be addressed to the Editor,
Great Basin Naturalist, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.

The Great Basin Naturalist

1%U^

Published jiv iiik
1)i;pautmi:nt of Zoouji.v anh Knkjjiolocv
Bkigham Younc Univeksii V, Pko\(), Utah

\'\)LrMK ] JANUARY 28. 1940 N^•^rnl•:R 2

A chapti-:k ox the natural history ol' T1H<:

GREAT BASIN. 18CK) TO 1855 (1 i

VASCO AI. TANNKR

Prolossor of Zoology and EntoiiKilo.uy

I'ri.qham Ynung University

IX'IRODUCTIOX

This ])ai)er deals witli the carl\- natural history ot tlie Cii'cat J'asin
up to and including the year 1855. This, the largest desert area
of our countrx . 210,000 square miles, is small when compared with
the interior l)asins of other countries. The central desert area of Aus-
tralia is seven times greater than the Great liasin, while the Sahara
is sixteen times larger, and the interior of Asia is twenty-three times
its size. Since this interior province is characterized l)y an arid cli-
nuite, a chjsed drainage system, and old remnant mountain systems,
surrounded Ijy desert plains, it is a rather natural and unicpie area
with which to deal bitjlogically. In attempting t(; study various phases
of the natural history of Utah, I have found it very helpful, in lay-
ing a foundation and providing a background for such a study, to be
familiar with the historical development of the Western United States.
Therefore, in prei)aring this report, I have searched through man}-
volumes and diaries, dealing with the accounts of the early trappers,
explorers and pioneers.

Knowledge of the biota of North ^America has l)een accumulating
in a rather definite manner since the last of the seventeenth century.
Progress has been made during various well marked periods. I have
divided my findings into two periods. The first one from 1800 to 1843
known as the fur trader j^eriod. and tlie second one, the Mormon
Pioneer period from 1843 to 1855.

(1) Contribution No. 80.

33

The Great Rasin Naturalist
34 \-ASCC) M. TAN'NI-.K \'(>1. I,.\(). 2,

It has l)ccii \u\ aim to hi'in.L; to l»usy /.(xjlo^ists, tlu- liltli.' I<ii()\\ii
and liidden information dealing witli the natural history of the Great
Basin during;' these periods. I have briefly summarized Fremont's,
Stansbury's, and Remy & llrenchley's observations on the fauna and
flora of tlie basin, placing emphasis on the buffalo in L'tah. and the
California Gull-Mormon Cricket episode.

UISCOVICRY AND EX TENT OE THE (iREAT BASIN

The following,'- brief review of the discovery, extent, and character
of the (ireat liasin is j^iven in order that the reader ma\- develop an
a|)preciation of this ,qreat desert area.

The discovery of Great Salt Lake is an unsettled question. In the
winter and spring of 1824-25 a party of General William H. Ashley's
men visited the lake, eml)arked upon its waters in skin boats, and
determined that it hatl no outlet (2). Other ^\■hite men ma_\- have
seen this bod\' of water before Jim liridger and his companions, but
we have nothing authentic on the matter. The reports of the ex-
istence of a great lake by explorers and fur traders such as Baron
Lahontan. 1689 (3) (4) ; I^"^ather klscalante 1776 (5) ; ]\lr. Lawrence
1790 (6) ; possibly the Spanish slave traders who went as far north
as the Snake River by 1800 (7) ; Guthrie's maj). 1811 ; and some mem-
l)ers of parties going to Astoria in 1811-12, were in some instances,
probably, based upon actual visitations to the lake rather than infor-
mation from the Indians. Jim Bridger is, however, credited \\itli the
actual discovery of Great Salt Lake. Following the discover)' of the
Lake in 1824, it was visited by many trappers and explorers, a few
being I'eter Skeen Ogden in 1825; Ftienne Provot, 1825 and William
y\.shley, 1826; j. R .Walker, 1833; and Captain J.' C. Fremont in 1843.
Fremont's party was the second to set sail upon the waters of Great
Salt Lake. It is also to Fremont's (8) credit that the confines of the
Great Basin were pointed out and the name " Great Basin " given to
this desert area of the Western .States. Since Fremont's observations
were made about one hundred years ago and were so accurate, it
seems desirable to include the following extract :

(2) Chittemli-n. Tlu- .Vmerican Fur Trailer. Vol. 11, p. 794.

(.1) Stan.sbiiry. l'",.\iK'(litioii to the Great ."^alt Lake. \ip. \5\-^4. niai'. IS.iJ.

(4) Alter. .Some useful early l'tah Irulian rcfereiiees. Ttali llistory Ouart. \'ul. I,
1928, p. 26.

(5) Harris, 'riie Catliolie t'hureli in l'tah.

(6) Chittcmlen. Vol. II, i.. 794.

(7) Hosmer. The Kxpcditiou of Lewis and Glaik. WA. I, C hapter 1(>.

(8) Fremont. Report of the F.xplorinpr F.xiH'dition to tlu- Uoeky Moiuit.ilns in the year
1842 and to Orepon and N(n-th ('aliforni:i in the years 1S4,>-44. iij). J74-r6.

Jan. 2^, 1940 natukai. history oi" (,ki:at isasix 35

"In arrix'ilitj; at ihv Utah Lake, \\c had ciiuiilitid an innncnsc riixnil (j1
twelve degrees diameter nt)rtli and south, and ten degrees east and west : and
found ourselves in May, 1844, on the same sheet of water which we had left in
September. 1843. The Utah is the southern limb of tiie (ireat Salt Lake: and
thus we had seen that remarkable sheet of water both at its northern and southern
exlremity, and were able to fix its position at these two i)(jints. 'Jlie circuit
w'hich we had made, and which had cost us eight months of time, and 3,500 miles
of travelling, had given us a view of Oregon and of North California from the
Rocky mountains to the Pacific ocean, and of the two princii)al streams which
form bays or harbors on the coast of the sea. * * '■' '■'■ * *

"The structure of the country would require this furniatidn of interi(]r lakes;
for the waters which would collect between the Rocky mountains and the Colum-
bia or the Colorado, must naturally collect into reservoirs, eacli of wliich would
have its little system of streams and rivers to sup])ly it. This would be the
natural effect; and what 1 saw went to confirm it. The Great Salt Lake is a
formation of this kind, and quite a large one; and having many streams, and
one considerable river, four or five hundred miles long, falling into it. This lake
and river I saw and examined myself ; and also saw the Wah-satch and Bear
River mountains which enclose the waters of the lake on the east, and constitute,
in that ([uarter, the rim of the Great Kasin. .Xfterwards along the eastern base
oi the Sierra Nevada, where we travelled for forty-two days. I saw the line of
lakes and rivers which lie at the foot of that Sierra ; and wliicli Sierra is the
western rim of the Basin. In .going down Lewis's fork and the main Columbia.
I crossed only inferior streams coming in from the left, such as could draw their
water from a short distance only ; and I often saw the mountains at their heads,
white with snow ; which, all accounts said, divided the waters of the desert from
those of the Columbia and which could be no other than the range of mountains
which form the rim of the Basin on its northern side. And in returning from
California along the Spanish trail, as far as the head of the Santa Clara fork
of the Rio Virgen, I crossed only small streams making their way south to the
Colorado, or lost in sand — as the Mo-ha-ve ; while to the left, lofty mountains,
their summits white with snow, were often visible, and which must have turned
water to the north as well as to the south, and thus constituted, on this part,
the southern rim of the Basin. At the head of the .Santa Clara fork, and in the
Vegas de Santa Clara, we crossed the ridge which parted the two systems of
waters. We entered the Basin at that point, and have travelled in it ever since,
having its southern rim (the Wah-satch mountain) on the right, and crossing
the streams which flow down into it. The existence of the Basin is therefore an
established fact in my mind ; its extent and contents are yet to be better ascer-
tained. Tt cannot be less than four or five hundred miles each way. and nuist lie
principally in the Alta California; the demarcation latitude of 42° probably cut-
ting a segment from the north part of the rim. Of its interior, but little is known.
Tt is called a desert, and, from what I saw of it. sterility may be its prominent
characteristic ; but where there is so much water, there must be some oasis. The
great river, and the great lake, reported may not be equal to the report ; but
where there is so much snow, there must be streams ; and where there is no outlet,
there must be lakes to hold the accumulated waters, or sands to swallow them up.
In this eastern part of the Basin, containing Sevier, Utah, and the Great Salt
lakes, and the rivers and creeks falling into them, we know there is good soil
and good grass, adapted to civilized settlements. Tn the western part, on Salmon
Trout rivers, and some other streams, the same remark mav be made." (9)

(9) Gilbert. Lake Bonneville. 1890. v. S.

G. K. Gilbert, a distinguished American geologist. wIid inrMle ;l careful study of Lake
Bonneville, has the following to say of the Great Basin: "The maior part of the North
American continent is drained by streams flowing to the ocean, hut there are a few re-
stricted areas having no outward drainage. The largest of these was called by Fremont,
who first achieved an adequate conception of its character and extent, the " Great Basin,"
and is still universally known by that name

" The extreme length in a direction somewhat we«t of north and east of south is about
880 miles, the extreme breadth from east to west, in latitude 40° Ml. is 572 miles, and the

The Great Basin Naturalist

36 VASco ^r. tannkr \'o1. I.No. 2,

The MoniKjn Pioneers entered Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847
and l)v the last oi December (;t that year had explored some of the
islands of Great Salt Lake and launched a boat upon Utah Lake,
from which waters they obtained several species of fishes. In 1849-50
Captain Stansbury and his al)le assistant, Lieut, (iunnison explored
the shore line ot Salt Lake as well as all the islands.

THE I'UR TRADER PERIOD

Prior to tlie Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the Lewis and Clark
Expedition up the Missouri, across the Rocky Mountains, and down
the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean in 1804-6, practically nothint;-
was known about the natural liistory of the L^nited States west of
the Mississippi River (10). President Thomas Jefferson, a man
with some training, as well as interest in the biological sciences, pro-
posed in 1792 that a small party of trained men should be sent into
the Louisiana Territory for the purpose of studying among other
things the soil, plants, animals, and Indian tril)es. Due t(j the activi-
ties of Lewis and Clark ( 11 ), one hundred fifty-five plant specimens,
mostly collected on the return trip, were placed in the hands of the
young English I'otanist, Pursh. The maj(jrity of these plants proved
to be new to science. Man}^ of the bird and mammal species en-
countered on tlie trip were returned as skins and placed in Peale's Mu-
seum in Philadelphia. Alexander Wilson described some of tlie birds
in his pioneer work on North American birds.

At about this same time Zebulon Montgomer\- Pike was making
survey studies under the instruction of General Wilkinson. During
the years 1805 and 1806 Pike (\2) explored the source of the Missis-
sippi; in 1806 and 1807 he conducted an exijedition to tlie interior of
the Louisiana Territory along the Arkansas and Red rivers to the
Rocky Mountains; and finall)' in 1807 he made a tour through Xew
vSpain. Pike contributed very little, however, to the knowledge of the

total area is approximately 21(>,(MI() square miles. Of i)olitical divisions it inckules nearly the
whole of Nevada, the western half of Utah, a strip along the eastern horder of California
anil a large area in the southern part of the State, another large area in southeastern Ore-
gon, and smaller i)ortions of southeastern Idaho and southwestern \\'yoming. The south-
ern apex extends into the territory of Mexieo at the head of the peninsida of Lower Cali-
fornia."

(10) Meisel, M. 192<). A Bihliography of Ameriean .\atural History. Vol. II. p. 88.

(H) Meisel. Ihid. It is reported that in the Herharium of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia there are today " \7i recognizable species mostly in fair condition;
these include 5.S of Pursh's types recognized as species at the present time, with 38 addi-
tional ones now for various reasons not considered tenable." The species were described
by Pursh in 1814 in the first edition of " Florae .Vinericae Septentrionalis " of two volumes.
725 I'ages and 24 plates.

All the zoological specimens, with the jiossible exception of a single si)eciinen of Lewis's
woodpecker, have been destroyed.

(12) Meisel. Iliid. V. 117.

fan. 28, 1940 nattrat, history of crkat rasin 37

fauna and flora of these religions. These exi)e(Htions did serve, how-
ever, to arouse an interest in the newl}- acquired terrilorw especially
in the animal life from wliich i^reat incomes for the furs and ro1)es
could he obtained. This period l)et\veen 1804 and 1843 was a thrill-
ing one for the fur trader and explorer, and one we know hut little
about. Chittenden (13) has pointed out that these men were ihe
" Pathfinders of the west and not those later official explorers whom
posterity so recognizes. No features of western geograph}' were ever
discovered by government explorers after 1840. I^^verything was al-
ready known, and had been for fully a decade." Washington Irving
(14) concurs in this point of view saying:

" The consequence is tliat the Rocky Mountains and the interior regions from
the Russian possessions in the north, down to the Spanish settlements of Cali-
fornia, have been transversed and ransacked in every direction by bands of hunters
and Indian tribes ; so that there is scarcely a mountain pass, or defile, that is not
known and treaded in their restless migration, nor a nameless stream tliat is not
hunted by the lonely trapper."

During this period there were adventurous souls, other than the
trappers, wdio traversed the mountain states. The English naturalist,
John Bradbury, 1809-11, studied the plants and animals of the Missis-
sippi and Missouri River valleys. In his Travels in NortJi America
are to be found many interesting observations. Likewise Thomas
Nuttall and J. K. Townsend contributed to our knowledge of the
fauna and flora of the Missouri, as well as the Snake and Columbia
River valleys. In 1834 these two gentlemen observed and explored
much of this territory with the companies of N. J. Wyeth and Jason
and Lee. Many of the Nuttall and Townsend specimens of plants
and animals from the west were described during the late forties and
fifties by workers at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia,
which has been since its founding in 1812. one of the most noted in-
stitutions of this country. In the publications of this institution may be
found contributions bv such workers as John Bachman, J. J. Audubon,
George Ord, Thomas .Say, John L. LeConte, S. W. Woodhouse,
Thomas Nuttall, W'illiam Gambel, J. K. Townsend. John Cassin.
Joseph Leidy. and others, which appeared before 1850 and which deal
with the biota of the western states.

One of the earliest and most skillfully manned and equipped expe-
ditions, for the study of the territory between the Mississippi River
and the Rocky Mountains, was sent out by the Secretary of War, J. C.

(1.^) Chittenden. Op. Cit. Vol. I, Author's preface, p. x.

(14) Irving, W. 184,v The .\dventures ol Captain Bonneville, p. 2Ck

The Great Rasin Naturalist

38 \^\S(() M. tan.\i:k Vol. I, No. 2,

Callioun, under the direction of Major Stephen II. Lc)n<^(15), on
A/lay 5, 1819. The party left I'ittshuroh .i^oino- down tlie Ohio River
in a steamer, in which they reached St. Louis on June 9. From
here they traveled up the Missouri. The part\- consisted of Dr.
William Baldwin, botanist, physician and surgeon ; Major John IWddle ;
August E. Jessup, geologist; Mr. Thomas Say, zoologist; Mr. T. R.
Peale, assistant naturalist; Mr. Samuel Seymour, artist; Lieutenant
James D. Graham and Cadet William H. Swift, assistant topographers
and drillers; and Major .Stei:)hen H. Long, a topograj^hical engineer
and chief of the party.

After considerable disapp(jintment and change in the personnel of
the party it returned in October 1820, after visiting much of the terri-
tory along the Missouri and Arkansas rivers, the area around where
Denver is now located. Pikes Peak, and southward towards the Red
River. In spite of Say's losing his journals he made many contribu-
tions to our knowledge of the animals of this new territory (16).

Other parties, mainly under the direction of naturalists, studied this
region during the period 1804 to 1843. In 1785 Andre Michaux came
to North America and for several years collected and studied the
flora of the Louisiana Territory. He wrote a number of volumes
which have l)een used 1)}' explorers and students (17). Prince Paul
of Wurtemburg in 1823, as well as years later, collected along the
Missouri. In 1833 Maximilian, Prince of Wied, traversed the Mis-
souri River almost to its source. His observations are recorded in ( 18)
a volume which is rareh' seen by zoologists of the intermountain states.
J. N. Nicollet during the years 1836-40 explored much of the Missis-
sippi and Missouri River Valleys. Dr. John Richardson and William
Swanson as early as 1829 contributed considerable to our knowledge
of the zoology of the northern parts of r)ritish America. (19)

(15) Meisel. Vol. II, p. 394.

(16) I'^om Weiss and Ziegler's, Thomas Say, 19.U, \vc learn that "In addition tu what
has been noted, .Say described fossil shells, birds, snakes, shrews, s<inirrels. a deer, a lizard,
newt, a sand rat, and drew up descriptions of previously described animals such as wolves,
serpents, birds, toads, rats, the i)rairie dog, etc., all of which are recorded in footnotes in
the Long report. Insects are not described in this report and little notice is made of them.
Tliey were collectetl, however, and mention is made of an Otto warrior, "' Little black bear,"
who examined the expedition's collection at Engineer Cantonment and recognized a con-
siderable number, telling which inhabited the water and which the land and detailing with
™.uch accuracy the habits of soine species, but along with it also repeating some accounts

hich were absurd. Altogether several thousand insects were collected, of which hundreds

whic

were new to science

new lo science.

(17) Michaux wrote the Flora Boreali-Amerieana (2 Vols.) in l.SO.i. Fremont, on page
270, comments on the cottonwood along the Santa Clara Creek, which were then in fruit,
being different from species found in Michaux's .Sylva.

(18) Travels in the Interior of North America by Maximilian. Prince of Wied, with
numerous engravings on wood and a large map translated from the German by H. Evans
Llovd. To accomp.iny the original scries of eighty-one elahoratelv colored plates, size, Im-
perial Folio. London Ackermman \- Co., 96 .Strand. MDCCCNLIII.

(19) Fami.i Roreali-.'Xmericin.i. London, lolm .Murray, 182'X

Ian. 2(^, I'MO natikai. ims'iokn' of cri'.at hasin 39

Main iif the insects known to occur in the Great IJasin were de-
scri!)e(l in 1829 hv l'",schsch()ltz in his Zooloi^i'ical Atlas. These were
collected in Ivussian America and California l)y staff members of the
lm])eria] Kussian Navv h.xpedition durini^' the years 1823-26. In 1843
Alamierlieim published a Cfjleopterous fauna of California and Rus-
sian America wdiicli contained descriptions of 300 species. Later
])ai)ers ])y Alotscluilsk}' and Mannerliein increased the species of Cole-
optera known from I'acihc North America to more than 600 species.
Dr. J. K. Townsend made a collection of insects wdiich w as taken back
to Philadelphia and re])orted upon by Harris, Garmar, luMckson, and
Reiche (20).

Dr. F. A. Wislizenus of St. Louis published a small volume in
German in wliicli he reported on his observations made in 1839 while
exploring- in the Rocky mountains.

While none of tliese early explorers entered the Great Basin, they
were collecting- the common plant and animal species of the western
territor\- and taking them to centers of biological activity on the At-
lantic sea-board, as well as the museums of Europe. Thus by the
close of this period I have been able to list 60 species of mammals.
101 birds. 2 reptiles, 3 fish. 600 insects, and many plants that had
been described and are now found within the Great Basin.

During this fur trader period considerable ecological change was
taking place. The l^alance of nature was being upset by the white
man whicli resulted in a great reduction in numbers, as w"ell as a
change in distribution of many of the fur l)earers. The beaver, mink,
otter, foxes, buffalo, elk, moose, and mcjuntain sheep are some of tlie
species wliicli were most noticeabh' affected.

THE BUFFALO IX UTAH

( )t all the species encountered In- the trappers, tlie l)uft"alo, Biscui
hisdii bison ( L. ) was most sorely dealt with. It was tlie general
utilit}' animal of the plains, serving the hidians and trappers alike with
food, clothing, and shelter. During the colonial days this species
ranged from the Rocky Mountains in the west. Canada on the north,
the Gulf region on the south, to the Alleghenys on the east. Its num-
bers ran into the millions, yet by 1800 it was not to be found east of
the Mississippi, and by 1900 it was practically exterminated, save for
a few herds found in protected areas.

(20) LeC'ontc. Report upon Injects Collected on the .Survey. Vol. XII. Hook 11, Rail-
road survey reports, 1860.

The Great Basin Naturalist
40 VASC.O AF. TANNI-.k \'ol. J,No. 2.

We have very little definite informati(jn on the early distribution
of the buffalo west of the Rocky Mountains in the Great I'asin. Dr.
J. A. Allen (21) believed that there was "abundant proof of its form^-r
existence over a vast area west of this supposed boundary including a
large part of the so-called Great Basin of Utah, the Green River
Plateau, and the plains of the Columbia. It is probably not half a
century since it ranged westward to the Blue A'L'ountains of Oregon
and the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California."

Escalante (22), 1776, reports killing several buffaloes in Colorado,
before crossing the Green River (San Buenaventura) into Utah, but
he fails to mention seeing or tracking the buff'alo in Utah. Lewis and
Clark (23) found the buff'alo along the Missouri River until they en-
tered the mountains in Montana, from wliicli pf)int on to the Columbia
River and return they were without buff'alo meat. In 1825 General
Ashley (24) mentions the buffalo as being fairly common in Echo
Park at the confluence of the Yampa and Green Rivers. During the
winter of 1824-25 when Jedediah Smith made a trip down the Bear
River into Salt Lake Valley he reports that buffalo were plentiful all
along the way (25). Smith also found buffalo in Utah Valley in July,
1826, when he made his trip from Salt Lake Valley to Southern Cali-
fornia (26). Mr. J. R. Walker, a leader of one of Bonneville's parties,
reports that they killed buffalo in Great Salt Lake Valley in August,
1833 (27).

Captain Fremont (28) in August, 1843, while descending the Bear
River found the Indians poor and with little food, except some roots.
They complained because of the disappearance of the game, especially
the buffalo. At this date the buffalo had disappeared from Utah and
the Snake River valleys. The following extract from Fremont's jour-

(21) J. A. Allen. History of The American Bison. Ninth annual report U. S. Geo-
logical and Geographical Survey of the Territories hv F. V. Hayden, 1877.

(22) Harris, Dean. The Catholic Church in Utah, 1776-1909, p. 166.

(23) Hosiner. Ibid. Vol. I. Chapter XH.

(24) Dale. The Ashley-Smith explorations, 1822-29, p. 146, reports, " Here we found a
luxurious growth of sweet-bark on round-leaf Cottonwood and a number of buffalo.

(2.S) Ibid. Page 159.

(26) Ibid. Page 187. " My general course on leaping the .Salt Lake was .S. W. and
W. passing the little Uta Lake antl ascending Ashley's river which empties into the little
L^ta Lake. From this lake I found no more signs of buffalo. There are a few antelope and
mountain sheep and an abundance of black-tailed hares." (No doubt the L'ta Lake refers
to Utah Lake and Ashley river to the Sevier River.)

(27) Chittenden. Vol. I, p. 407. " Walker's (a) party consisting of forty men left
Green River Jvily 24, \S^3. They went directly to the valley of Great Salt Lake where they
started to lay in their final supply of buffalo meat. The last buffalo was killed .-\ugust 4tb
and three days later the ]iarty bade farewell to the lake at its western extremity and took
a westerly course into the most extrusive and barren plains I have ever seen."

(a) This is reported by Mr. Zenas Leonard who was a clerk for Mr. Walker during
the 18,1^ California expedition. Leonard was a native of Pennsylvania and had spent two
years in the west engaged in hunting and trapping. He met Walker at the Green River
rendezvous and was engaged to assist in the westward trips.

(28) Fremont. Ibid. Pages 14.1-44.

Ian. 28. 1940 natural history of (;kkat hasix 41

nal is of value as it skives the i^eneral consensus of opinion as to the
movements and distribution of the hullalo in 1843:

"A great portion of the region inhabitated by this nation lornidiy ahdundud
in game; the buffalo ranging about in herds, as we had found them on the eastern
waters, and the plains dotted vvitli scattered bands of antelope ; but so rapidly
have they disappeared within a few years, that now as we journeyed along, an
occasional buffalo skull and a few wild antelope were all that remained of the
abundance which had covered tlie country with animal life.

■■ The extraordinary rapidity with which the buffalo is disappearing from our
territories will not appear surprising wdien we remember the great scale on which
their destruction is yearly carried on. With inconsiderable exceptions, the busi-
ness of the American trading posts is carried on in their skins ; every year the
Indian villages make new lodges, lor which the skin of the buffalo furnishes the
material; and in that portion nf the country where they are still found, the In-
dians derive their entire sui)port from them, and slaughter them with a thought-
less and abominable extravagance. Like the Indians themselves, they have been
a characteristic of the Great West; and as, like them, they are visibly diminish-
ing, it will be interesting to throw a glance backward through the last twenty
years, and give some account uf their former distribution through the country,
and the limit of their western range.

" The information is derived principally from Mr. Fitzpatrick. supported by
my own personal knowledge and acquaintance with the country. Our knowledge
does not go farther back than the spring of 1824. at which time the buffalo were
spread in immense numbers over the Green River and Bear River valleys, and
through all the country lying between the Colorado, or Green River of the Gulf
of California, and Lewis's fork of the Columbia River; the meridian of Fort
Hall then forming the western limit of their range. The buffalo then remained
for many years in that country, and frequently moved down the valley of the
Columbia, on both sides of the river as far as the Fishing falls. Below this point
they never descended in any numbers. About the year 1834 or 1835 they began
to diminish very rapidly, and continued to decrease until 1838 or 1840, when, with
the country we have just described, they entirely abandoned all the waters of the
Pacific north of Lewis's fork of the Columbia. At that time, the Flathead In-
dians were in the habit of finding their buffalo on the heads of the Salmon River,
and other streams of the Columbia ; but now they never meet with them farther
west than the three forks of the Missouri or the plains of the Yellowstone River.
" In the course of our journey it will be remarked that the buffalo have not
so entirely abandoned the waters of the Pacific, in the Rocky mountain region
south of the Sweet Water, as in the country north of the Great Pass. This par-
tial distribution can only be accounted for in the great pastoral beauty of that
country, which bears marks of having long been one of their favorite haunts,
and by the fact that the white hunters have more frequented the northern than
the southern region — it being north of the South Pass that the hunters, trappers,
and traders, have had their rendezvous for many years past ; and from that section
also the greater portion of the beaver and rich furs were taken, although always
the most dangerous as well as the most profitable hunting ground.

" In that region lying between the Green or Colorado river and the head
waters of the Rio del Xorte. over the Yampah. Kooya. White, and Grand rivers —
all of which are the waters of the Colorado — the buffalo never extended so far
to the westward as they did on the waters of the Columbia ; and only in one or
two instances have they been known to descend as far west as the mouth of
White river. In travelling through the country west of the Rocky mountains,
observation readily led me to the impression that the buffalo had, for the first
time, crossed that range to the waters of the Pacific only a few years prior to
the period we are considering ; and in this opinion I am sustained by Mr. Fitz-
patrick. and the older trappers in that country. In the region west of the Rocky
mountains, we never meet with anv of the ancient vestiges w-hich, throughout all

The Great Hasin Naturalist
42 VASCO i\I. TANNKR \()1. J , i\ (). 2,

ihe countrj- lying upon their eastern waters, are found in the great highways, con-
tinuous for hundreds of miles, always several inches and sometimes several feel
in depth, which the buffalo have made in crossing from one river to another, uv
in traversing the mountain ranges. The Snake Indians, more particularly those
low down upon Lewis's fork, have always been very grateful to the American
trappers, for the great kindness (as they frequently expressed it) which they did
to them, in driving the buffalo so low down the Columbia river.

" The extraordinary abundance of the buffalo on the east side of the Rocky
mountains, and their extraordinary diminution, will be made clearly evident from
tiie following statement: At any time between the years 1824 and 1836, a traveller
might start from any given point south or north in the Rocky Mountain Range,
journeying by the most direct route to the Missouri River; and during the whole
distance, his road would be always among large bands of buft'alo, which would
never be out of his view until he arrived almost within sight of the abode.^ of
civilization.

" At this time, the buffalo occupy but a very limited space, principally along
the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, sometimes extending at their southern
extremity to a considerable distance into the plains between the Platte and Arkan-
sas Rivers, and along the eastern frontier of New Mexico as far south as Texas."

Captain Fremont and General Chittenden both report that the vari-
ous fur companies, from about 1830 to 1840, annually took from the
west about 100,000 buffalo robes.

When the pioneers of 1847 entered the Salt Lake Valley they found
only the wasteing bones of the once abundant mammal of the American
Plains. Mr. Robert S. r>liss (29), a Mormon Battalion member, after
being discharged, returned from San Diego by way of Sutter's Fort,
Donner I^ass, across Nevada to Fort Hall, then south to Salt Lak-e
City, made the following entry in his journal on October 20, 1847:
" Continued down Sick Creek twenty miles and encamped ; saw many
])uff'alo bones since we left the Fort." (Fort Hall on the Snake River. )

Dr. J. A. Allen reports that " Mr. Henry Gannet, astronomer of
Dr. Hayden's Survey, informs me that the Mormon Danite. ' Rill '
Hickman, claims to have killed tlie last buffaloes in .Salt Lake Valley
about 18,^8." This seems to be an error, in the first place, as to the
date, since this is nine years before the Mormons re.'iclied tlie .Sail
Lake Valle\'. In the second place, if it did refer to 1848, we have no
evidence from ])ioneei" diaries, journals, or government reports, that
buffaloes were seen or lieaid of in Utah in 1847 or 1848.

Mr. Washburn Chipman, a ])i()neer of 1847 and one of the found-
ers of American Fork Citw had Jim I'ridger sta)' over night with him
in 1849, while he was living in llig Cottonwood. liridger reported
that, about 182<) to 18,M, the buiValo were common in ."^.-dt Lake and

(29) Bliss. Robert S. Journal. Tin- I'tali Historical (Quarterly. \"ol. 4. .\o. 4, 19.U.

Ian. 28, I'HO xatl'kai. hisi'orn- oi' (;ki-:.\'|' hasix 43

Utah Valk-}s, hut tliat (hie to a heavy snow storm all ot' them were
killed (30).

Mr. M. S. Garrctson's (31 ) interestin<j- hook i^ives a vivid ])icture
of the destruction of the huffalo. Thousands U])on thousands were
killed to supply meat for the men of the railroad camp or solely for
their rohes. Durinj? the years between 1868 and 1878 more than a
million robes were sold in .^t. Louis and Ft. Worth. Texas. The
shame of slaughter was not confined to men of our ccnmtry alone,
since sportsmen of wealth came from Russia, England, German \-, and
other parts of Europe to have a hand in the extermination.

In summarizing the findings on the bufi:"alo in Utah and the Great
Uasin. it appears that for hundreds of years it had been widely scat-
tered throughout the northwestern portion of the Basin, from the
."^ierra Nevada Mountains to eastern Oregon, then along the Snake
River X'alley into northern Utah. The evidence supporting this wide
distribution is based in the main upon semi-fossil and surface remains
found by fur trappers and explorers. On the other hand, there is much
evidence for the belief that the large herds of buffalo found along the
headwaters of the Bear, Snake, and Columbia Rivers between the
years 1817 and 1840 had been driven into the mountains by the west-
ern movement of civilization. It also appears that they were driven
back or exterminated l)y the trappers. Indians, and perchance a few
hard winters. In an\- event when Captain Fremont came to Utah in
1843 he found that the buff'alo had disappeared from the Great Basin.

(30) I am indebted to Dr. William J. Snow, Prof, of Western History at Brigham
Voung University, for the following extract from a paper written by Mr. L. B. Adamson
on " The Early History of American Fork." Brother Chipman relates that he remembers
seeing the remains of a buffalo carcass near the Niels Xelson Spring southwest of town,
and in the spring of 1849 while in Big Cottonwood, he had stay with him over night, a
frontiersman named Jim Bridger. This man was sandy complexioned and was clad in the
skins of animals. He related that fifteen or twenty years before, the country contained
many buffalo. An immense snow storm came on which piled the snow eighteen feet deep
in the valleys and completely covered the buffalo. The frontiersman claimed that he did
not see the sun for thirty -four days. He said in Salt Lake Valley while going over the
deep snow on snow shoes, that he came across breathing holes in the snow, below which
was a buffalo. The buffalo all perished.

From J. C. Alter's James Bridger, 192.S, page .^86, we quote: "Colonel Inman declared
that Bridger told him, and also many others, at various times, that in the winter of 18.^0
it began to snow in the valley of tfie Great Salt Lake, and continued for seventy days
without cessation. The whole country was covered to a depth of seventy feet, and all tlie
vast herds of buffalo were caught in the storm and died, but their carcasses were perfectly
preserved."

" When spring came, all I had to do," declared he, '" was to tumble "em into Salt
Lake an' I had pickled buffalo enough for myself and the whole Ute nation for years! "
He said that on account of that terrible storm which annihilated them there have been no
buffalo in that region since.

This sounds like one of Bridger's "tall" stories for which he was justly famous. It
will be recalled that Walker's party killed buffalo in Salt Lake Valley in the Autumn of
183.1. I believe the slaughter of the buffalo for its robe was the prime cause for its dis-
appearance from the Rocky Mountains and L'tah.

(31) Garretson. The .'\merican Bison. 1938.

The Great Basin Naturalist
44 VASCO M. TANNER \'ol. I, No. 2.

MORMOX PIONKER PERIOD (1R43-1855)

Captain John C. Frenionl, the Georgian niatht-matician, explorer
and politician, made the first noteworthy contriluition to the natural
history of the Great Basin. Under the orders of Col. j. J. Abert (32),
Chief of the Topographical Bureau, Fremont was instructed to con-
duct a survey of the Great West for the purpose of completing" a re-
connaissance of the interior territor}- of our countr_\- I)Ctween the
Rockv Mountains and the Pacific Ocean.

Fremont's party consisted of 39 men, among whom were Mr.
Thomas Fitzpatrick and Mr. Charles Preuss. Captain Fremont acted
as topographer, naturalist and journalist of the party. His comments
upon the plants and animals found along the course of the entire trip
marks him as a keen student of natural historw Through his efforts
many plants collected within the Great Basin were jointl}' described
with Dr. Torrey.

The following is a summary of the observations made upon the
flora and fauna by Fremont after he reached the l^ear and Roseaux
or Reed Rivers in northern Utah, on September 1, 1843. He remained
here until September \S, when he went on north to the Snake River,
and then to Vancouver on the Pacific Coast. In presenting the species
mentioned, 1 have recorded the observations as the\' occur in Vw-
mont's report as follows :

September 1, 1843. Plants: — " On tliis upper plain the .yrass was everywhere
dead ; and among the .shrubs with which it was ahnost exckisively occupied,
(arte-misia being the most abundant), frequently occurred handsome clusters of
several species of dictcria in bloom. Piirshia tridciitafa was among the frequent
.shrubs. Descending to the bottoms of Bear river, we found good grass for
animals, and encamped about 300 yards above tlie mouth of Roseaux, which here
makes its junction, without communicating any of its salty taste to the main
stream, of which the water remains perfectly pure. On the river are only willow
thickets, (salix loiu/ifolia), and in the bottoms the abundant plants are canes,
solidago, and helianthi, and along the banks of Roseaux are fields of malva ro-
litiidifolia. (Fremont was traveling southward between the Roseaux and Hear
Rivers.)

September 2. Birds : — "As we were stealing cpiietly down the stream, try-
ing in vain to get a shot at a strange large bird that was numerous among the
willows, but very shy, we came unexpectedly upon several families of Rool
Diggers, who were encamped among the rushes on the shore, and appeared ver.\-
busy about several weirs or nets which had been rudely made of canes and rushes
for the purpose of catching fish."

Moi.i.usKA : — " Immediately where we landed, the high arable plain on low-
flats, very generally occupied by salt marshes, or beds of shallow lakes, whence
the water had in most places evaporated, leaving their hard surface encrusted with
a shining white residuum, and absolutely covered with very small niik'aJvc shells."

September 3. Biuns : — " The water fowl made this morning a noise like

(32) Fremont. Jbid.

Jan. 28, 1940 XA'rrKAi. iiisTom- of r;Ki;AT basin 45

thunder. A pelican, < pclcciums (niocrolcilus). was killed as he passed by, and
many geese and ducks flew over the camp."

" Several of the people waded out into the marshes, and we had to-ni.uht a
delicious supper of ducks, geese, and plover."

Plants : — " On the dry salt marsh here, is scarce any other plant than
saliconiia hcrhacca." (These observations were made on the Bear River Marsh
area.)

September 3. Plants; — "Here we halted for a few minutes at noon, on a
beautiful little stream of pure and remarkably clear water, with a bed of rock
in situ, on which was an abundant water plant with a white blossom. There was
good grass in the bottoms ; and, amidst a rather luxuriant growth, its banks were
bordered with a large showy plant, ( ciipaforium purpurcitm) . which 1 here saw
for the first time. We named the stream Clear creek.

We continued our way along the mountain, having found here a broad, ])lainly
beaten trail, over what was apparently the shore of the lake in the sirring ; the
ground being high and firm, the soil excellent and covered with vegetation, among
which a leguminous plant, ( i/lycyrrhica Jcpidota). was a characteristic plant."

" X'ear a remarkable rocky point of the mountain, at a large spring of pure
water, were several hackberry trees, fccltis). probably a new species, the berries
still green; and a short distance farther, thickets of sumach (rluis)."

BiKMS : — "On the plain here T noticed blackbirds and grouse." (Today the
party was moving southward along the base of the Wasatch Mountains from
about where Brigham City is located.)

September 6. Plants : — " Leaving the encampment early, we again directed
our course for the peninsular biiffe across a low shrubby plain, crossing in the
way a slough-like creek with miry banks, and wooded with thickets of thorn.
(Crataegus), which were loaded Avith berries."

" So far as we could see, along the shores there was not a solitary tree, and
but little appearance of grass ; and on Weber's fork, a few miles below our last
encampment, the timber was gathered into groves, and then disappeared entirely.
As this appeared to be the nearest point to the lake where a suitable camp could
be found, w'e directed our course to one of the groves, where we found a hand-
some encampment, with good grass and an abundance of rushes, (cquisctuin
hycnialr)."

September 7. Plants: — "The bottoms along the river were timbered with
se\eral kinds of willow, hawthorn, and fine Cottonwood trees, (popuUis caiuulcusis) .
with remarkably large leaves, and sixty feet in height by measurement."

.AAtPHiBiA: — -"The summer frogs were singing around us, and the evening
was very i^Ieasant, with a tem])erature of 60° — a night of a more southern autunuL
For our supper we had yaiiipah, the most agreeably flavored of the roots, seasoned
by a small fat duck, wliich had come in the way of Jacob's rifle."

September S. Bruns: — "The evening was mild and clear; we made a jjleas-
ant bed of the young willows : and geese and ducks enough had been killed for
an abundant supper at night, and for breakfast the next morning. The stillness
of the night was enlivened by millions of water fowl." (On Weber R. delta.)

September 9. l>iRr)s ; — "All this place was absolutely covered with flocks
of screaming plover."

Insects: — "Among the successive banks of the beach, formed by the action
of the waves, our attention, as we approached the island, had been attracted by
one ten to 20 feet in breadth, of a dark-brown color. Being more closely ex-
ainined, this was found to be composed, to the depth of seven or eight and twelve
inches, entirely of the larvae of insects, or, in common language, of the skins
of worms, about the size of a grain of oats, which had been washed up by the
waters of the lake."

Plants : — " From the point where we were ; tancHng, the ground fell ofl" on
every side to the water, giving us a perfect view of the island, which is twelve
or thirteen miles in circumference, being simply a rocky hill, on which there is
neither water nor trees of any kind; although the Proiwutia z'crmicularis, which
was in great abundance, might easily be mistaken for timber at a distance. The

The Great Basin Naturalist

46 vAsco M. tanni:r NOl. I.Xo. 2,

l)lant seemed here tn deli.^ht in a cinij^enial air, .urcjwiiiK in extra(jr(linar\- luxuri-
ance seven to eifiht teet lii.u'i. ;iik1 was very aljundant on the upper parts of the
island, where it was almost the only i)lant. This is eminently a saline shruh ;
its leaves have a very salt taste ; and it luxuriates in saline soils, where it is
usually a characteristic. It is widely diffused over all this country. A chenopo-
diaccous shruh, vvhiclt is a new sjjccies of ohione, was equally characteristic of
the lower parts of the island. Tlese two are the striking plants on the island,
and belong to a class of plants which form a i)rominent feature in the vegetation
of this country. On the lower parts of the island, also, a prickly pear of very
large size was frequent. On the shore, near the water, was a woolly species of
pJi'jca ; and a new species of unhcUiferous plant, flcptotociiiid) . was scattered
about in very considerable abundance. Tliese constituted all the vegetation that
now aii])eared upon the island."

I'uJDS : — " In (iiu' excursions about the island, we did not meet with any kind
of animal ; a magpie, and anotlier larger bird, probably attracted by the smoke
of our fire, paid us a visit frcjm the shore, and were the only living things seen
during our stay. (This island is now known as Fremont Island.)

Septemlier 10. I'l axis: — " Lyiwsiris (jravcotcvs. and another new species of
Obione. (O. contertifolia — T(U-r. c'r I-rcin.). were growing on the low grounds,
witli interspersed spots of an unwliolesome salt grass, on a saline clay soil with
a few other plants."

". Irtciiiisia Iridciilatu was ver_\' abundant, but the plants were iirinciijally
saline; a large and vigorous chenopodiaceous shrub, five to eight feet hi.gli, being
cliaracteristic, with Fmiwiifia 7'cniiiciilaris. and a shrubby plant which seems to
be a new Stilironiia." (On tliis date l'>emont was back on tlie Weber River
delta.)

Sei)tember 12. Pi,.\N'is: — "This creek is here unusually well timbered with
a variety of trees, .\mong them were bircli (hctitla), the narrow-leaved poplar
I l^opulus aiu/iistifolia) . several kinds of willow (salix). hawthorn (crataciius) .
alder (alitiis viridis). and ccrasus, with an oak allied to qiicrciis allni. but very
distinct from that or any other species in the United States."

Birds: — "We had to-night a supixr of sea gulls, which Carson killed near
the lake."

lNsi:t is: — " Although cool, the thernuimeter standing at 47°, musquitoes were
sufficiently numerous to be troublesome this evening." (Near Brigham City.)

September \?>. Pi..\nts : — "One of these streams, which forms a smaller
lake near the river, was l)roken up into several channels; and the irrigated bot-
tom of fertile soil was covered with innumerable flowers, among which were
purple fields of cupahu-iuni purpiimnii. with helianthi, a handsome solida,go (S.
canadensis), and a \ariety of other plants in bloom."

September 14. Plants: — "We found on the way two families of .Snake
Indians, from whom we purchased a small quantity of Icooyah. They had piles
of seeds, of three different kinds, spread out upon pieces of buffalo robe; and the
stjuaws had just gathered about a bushel of the roots of thistle (circiutn J'irgin-
icuinni). They were about the ordinary size of carrots and, as I have previously
mentioned, are sweet and well flavored, requiring only a long preparation."

September 15. Plants: — " By the gift of a knife, I prevailed upon a little
boy to show me the hooyali plant, which proved to be I'ahi'rritina cditlis. The
root, which con.stitutes the kooyoli. is large, of a very bright yellou- color, with
the characteristic odor, l)ut not so fully developed as in the prepared substance.
It loves the rich moist soil of river bottoms, which was the locality in which I
always afterwards found it. It was now entirely out of bloom ; according to my
observation, flowering in the months of May and June. In the afternoon we en-
tered a long ravitie leading to a pass in the dividing ridge between the waters of
Bear river and the Snake river, or Lewis's fork of the Columbia ; our way being
very impeded, and almost entirely blocked up, by compact fields of luxuriant
artemisia. 'i'akiiig leave at this point of the waters of Bear river, and of the
geographical basin which encloses the system of rivers and creeks which belong

Jan. 28, 1940 xattral iiistokv of cikkat basin 47

t<i the (ji'cat Salt Lake, and whicli so riclily deserves a future detailed and aniiile
exploration, I can say of it, in general terms, that the hottoms of tliis river.
(Bear), and (jf some of the creeks which 1 saw, forin a natural resting and re-
cruiting station for travelers, now, and in all times to come. The hottoms are
extensive; water excellent; timber sut^icient ; the soil good, and well adapted to
the grains and grasses suited to such an elevated region. A military post, and a
civilized settlement, would be of great value here : and cattle and horses would
do well where grass and salt so much abound. The lake will furnish exhaustless
supplies of salt. All the mountain sides here are covered with a valuable nu-
tritious grass, called bunch grass, from the form in which it grows, which has
a second growth in the fall. The beasts of the Indians were fat uixm it; our
own found it a good subsistence; and its quantity will sustain any amount of
cattle, and make this truly a bucolic region."

Captain Frc-nioiit left Fort A'ancoiiver on bis return iri]), Xovem-
ver lOtb, !L,M)in^' 1)\- w av of " Tlaniath " lake in a southwesterly direc-
ti(jn. He a,£jain entered the Great IJasin traversinj^ the desert just east
of the Sierra Nevada, here he saw Pyramid Lake and the streams of
the reii^ion. Ephedra occidcnialis was fairly common and is frequently
mentioned as occtirrin^;" in other parts of the basin. Xuts from a ])ine
tree, ccjmmon in the ( ireat liasin, were _i;iven to tlie party l)y the In-
dians. Fremont rej)()rts this incident as follows:

"A man was di.scovered running towards the camp as we were about to start
this morning, who proved to be an Indian of rather advanced age — a sort of
forlorn hope, who seemed to have been worked up into the resolution of visiting
the strangers who were passing through the country. He seized the hand of the
first man he met as he came up. out of breath, and held on, as if to assure him-
self of protection. He brought with him in a little skin bag a few pounds of
the seeds of a pine tree, which today we saw for the first time, and which Dr.
Torrey has described as a new species, under the name of pinus vwiiophylhis : in
popular language, it might be called the nut j)ine. We purchased them all from
him. The nut is oily, of very agreeable flavor, and must be very nutritious, as
it contains the principal subsistence of the tribes among which we were now-
travelling."

It \\;is now mid-winter but Fremont was determined to cross the
Sierra Nevada Mountains and i^et new supplies at Sutter's Fort on
the Sacramento River. From January .^0, to February 25, 1844. they
strujj^'g'led through the cold and snow of the mountains. The part}'
reached Fort Sutter on March 6tb. and left on the 22nd. on their
homeward march. The}' traveled up the San Joacpiin X'alley, .goinj,^
south about 500 miles before the}' could get through the Sierra Ne-
vada Mountains by way of the pass discovered by Jose])h Walker.
From here the march was across the Great Basin desert to Las X'egas.
Nevada; then north to the Santa Clara Creek in southwestern Utah,
and on to L^tah Lake about 85 miles south of Weber River and Great
Salt Lake where Fremont spent several days in September. 1843.

Very little is said about the flora and fauna of .'^.outhwestern Utah

The Great Basin Naturalist
48 VASCO M. TANNER V(jl. 1, No. 2,

and the {(jllowin^' is about the on]\' ohservati(jii made on {he I lah
Lake hfe :

" Here the ])rincii)al plants in bloom were two, which were remarkable as
affording to tlie Snake Indians — the one an abundant supply of food, and the
other the most useful among the applications which they use for wotinds. Tliese
were the kooyah plant, growing in fields of extraordinary luxuriance, and coii-
vflUaria stellat. whicli, from the experience of Mr. Walker, is the best remedial
plant known among those Indians. A few miles below us was another village of
Indians, from wliicli we obtained some fish — among them a few salmon trcjut,
which were very much inferior in size to those along the California mountains.
The season for taking them had not yet arrived; but the Indians were daily ex-
pecting them til come uj) out r.\ the lake."

On the 27tli of May, Fremc^nt led his party up Spani.sli Fork Can-
yon then east alont; the soutli base of the Uintah Mountains, across
the Green River, (jr tlie Seeds-kee-dee, or prairie hen river, into Colo-
rado 1)}' way of ^'amija \'' alley. As a result of this expedition and ibe
publication of the fin(linij;s in 1845, there was available for the many
western Jxnmd caravans, a i^uide and source of information on the
i,a'eat western interior territor}'. h^or the hrst time it was ])oinle(l out
that the (ireat liasin, in the main, was a desert waste.

The MornKm pioneers entered the (ireat IJasin and commenced
the estal)lishment of a great inland empire on July 24, 1847. Much
to our regret, very little is found in the earl\- diaries, jotunials and
publications, concerning the plants and animals found in the Clah
territory. Yer\^ few. if any of the i)ioneers, had an\- scliooling or in-
terest in zoolog}' or botany, which no doubt accounts for the paucitx'
of recorded ol)servalions on the fauna and llora of this region. 'Die
following reports help to give a picture of the plant cover in die
valleys and along the foothills of the Wasatch Mountains.

Fremont repoits that Inmch grass was common along the Koseaux
and Bear Rivers, also in the Malade and Cache Valleys. From Mi".
John R. Young, a pioneer of 1847. we learn that Salt Lake \ alle\-
was covered with scattered bunch grass and prickley pear ( 3.^ ) . Mr.
Washbtnn C"]ii])man reported that in 1850 bunch grass and sage-brtish

(33) VouiiK-. .I'lliii K. KcminisLTiies cf J,,lui K. NdviiiK. 'riu- I'tah Historical (juartcr-
ly, Vol. 3, \o. .1, p. (>.i. " Kroni our cabin in tin- nuiutli o( City Creek Canyon in 18-47, one
could see a lone cedar tree on the plain southeast of us. and on the south fork of the
creek, about where Main and 'J'hird South .Streets intersect, stood seven wind swept,
scraggy cottonwood trees. On the north side of City Creek stood a large oak tree. Xo
other trees were visible in the valley.

" The plain was covered with scatterin.u bunch grass eiglit or ten inches high and
occasional patches of low flat prickly pears. W"e barefooted lads had to be careful where
we stepped. Along the banks of the creek were thin strips of willows, rose briars, and
squash bush. In the swamps were patches of coarse wire grass, bull rushes, and cat
tails. If ever Lawyer Haskin wet his moccasins while riding through the valley on horse-
back it would be because he rode across the sloughs. For several years, in the early days
of .Salt Lake, jieoide went to Tooele, American l-'ork, or Ogden to get liay."

Jan. 28. 1940 xati'rai. history of ckkat hasix 49

covered inucli ot the land aronnd American I'(»rlN norlli and east of
Utah Lake. J. \V. (nnniis(jn in 1852, say.s the lnll-si(K's furnish hunch
grass onl_\- during- tlie A\"arni montlis of the \ear { 34 i .

Escalante and l^^remont hoth mentioned the abundant j^iass for
pasturai,''e in Utali \ allew

The ,<,^rass and l)rusli ctjvered valleys and hench lands were soon
plowed and made to jiroduce food, by means of irrigation. I'.\- Aui^ust
26. eighty-four acres had been plowed and ])lante(l to corn, potatoes
and grain. Wy .'^e])tember 19th, 1847 tlie po])ulation of 147 was in-
creased to 1/00 jjersons, which made it necessar\- to ration the food
supplies. J^efore the winter was o\'er man\- of the inhabitants of the
valley resorted t(j the use of plant roots, such as the thistle, for food.
Game animals were fairly common, but in si)ite of tliis the pioneers
were many times during the first few \ears forced to live u])on roots,
like the native "Digger" Indians (35). In the s])ring of 1848, 5000
acres were ])lowed and planted to grain. The climate was favoraI)le
and indications were that a good crop would be ])r()duced. Then oc-
curred a biological episode in which two species, the California Gull,
Larus califoniicits Lawrence, and the Alcjrmon Cricket. .Uiahrus sim-
plex Hald., ])la\"ed the major roles.

THE GULLS AXD CRICKETS

That the crickets were abundant in .Salt Lalvc \'alle\ when the
pioneers came is evident from the following diar_\' entr\' made b\- Wil-
liam Clayton, wIk; was a member of an advanced group w liich entered
the valley through I'.migration Cannon :

" The ground seemed literally rdi\e w ith the ver\- large black
crickets crawling around on grass and bushes. The_\- look loathsome
but are said to be excellent for fattening hogs."

(34) Gunnison. Historv- <if tlie Mormons. 1852. ■'.\rtemisia.s and Salicornias contend
for a miserable existence on portions of the plains; and bunch grass furnishes grazing on
the hill-sides for antelope and deer. P. IS.

The valleys afford perennial pasturage, but the hill-sides furnish the bunch grass only
during the warm months of the year. It seeds in summer, and is germinated by the
autumnal rains, and grows under the snow covering of winter. P. 1".

(35) Gunnison. Op. cit., p. 20. " W^ild game aboinids for the table, in the antelope,
deer, tribes and feathered tribes — the bear, panther, and smaller animals of prey, for the
adventurous sportsman, range through hill, valley, and desert; and the angler can choose
his fish, either in the swift torrents of the kanyons, where the trovit delights to live, or in
the calmer currents on the plains, where he will find abundance of the pike, the percii,
the bass, and the chub. Along the brackish streams, from the saline springs, grows a
thick tangled grass, and the marshy flats are covered with fine reeds or dense festucas.
In early summer the shepherd lads fill their baskets with the eggs deposited in that cover
by the goose, the duck, the curlew, and plover; or, taking a skiff, they can row to the
Salt Lake islands, and freight to the water's edge with those layed for successive broods
by the gull, the pelican, the blue heron, the crane, and the brandt."

The Great Basin Naturalist
50 VASCC) Af. TANKKK X'ol. J,No. 2,

From Orson I'rall's journal under llic date of Jul}' 22, 1847 (36),
we find the followins^- :

" We found the drier places swarmhi^,^ with very lar.i^e crickets
about the size of a man's thumb."

George A. Smith in a letter to Henr}' W. Bigler, a member of the
Mormon battalion, dated July 29th, five days after entering the valley,
says "the whole face of the country was covered with large black
crickets." (37) Finally John Steele on August 29, 1847 reports that he
was "planting buckwheat, irrigating crops, killing crickets, etc." (38)

I'ecause the crickets have gone through c\"cles of abundance since
the episode under discussion, 1 am inclined to believe that they were
in 1847-48 at the peak of one of these cycles. In an\' event the thou-
sands of acres of grain in 1848 proved to be a clioice new area for
the moving hordes of crickets.

From Eliza R. Snow's journal, we iind that b}- May 2t>. 1848, tlie
crickets had l)egun to damage the crops. The winter was a mild one,
and the early spring made the hatching and development of the crick-
ets earlier than usual. Mrs. Snow reported in her journal, " This
morning's frost in unison with the ravages of the crickets for a few
days past produces many sighs, and occasionally some long faces with
those that for the moment forget that they are Saints." Hy June 4th.
Isaac C. Haight (39) reports considerable damage to tlie grain from
crickets. From letters written on June 9 and 21 (40), to President
Brigham Young, then in Missouri helping other Saints to reach the
Salt Lake Valley, we learn that the sea gulls had come to the aid of
the desperate saints. The following extracts from these letters tlu'ow
some light on the feelings of the people and their interpretation of the
episode.

June 9, 1<S48. " \.s to our crops, there lias been a lari;e amount of spring

crops put in, and they were doing well till within a few days. I he crickets have

(36) I am indebted to tlic L. 1). S. (.luncli and the otticials in the Historian's office
for the opportunity to read and use in this study, many notes taken from the Journal
History.

07) Utah Historical Ouarterly. \ol. .S, iVo. .1. p. 91.

(38) Ibid. Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 19.

(39) From Isaac C. Haight's journal, under date of June 4, IS4S, ue liave the follow-
ing:

" The weather is tiuite cool ami very dry in the \'alley. Crops begin to sutler for the
want of rain, llie crickets have destroyed some of the crops and are still eating the heads
of the grain as soon as it heads out. The jirospects for grain are discouraging. Many of
the Saints begin to think of leaving the Valley for fear of starvation, but I think we need
not fear, for the Lord, who, brought vis here, is able to sustain us even if our crops fail
us. The earth is the Lord's and the fullness thereof."

July 2, 1848, again Haight writes, " The last month has been one of great an.xiety to
the Saints; the destruction of crops by insects and the discouraging prospects is a great
trial to many."

(-40) Journal History, June 9 \- _'l. IMS.

Jan. 28, 1940 NATrkAi. history ()!■ ckkat hasix 51

done considerable damage to both wbeat and corn, wliicli has disconra.ued some,
but there is plenty left if we can save it for a lew days.

" The sea gulls have come in large Hocks from the lake and swee]) tlie
crickets as they go; it seems the hand of the Lord in our favor. Orrin P.
Rockwell has just arrived from California in company with Capt. Davis, and
after he rests a few days intends to go to meet you; if so, we will write vou
again...." From your brethren in tlie Covenant, (signed) Juhii Smith. Presi-
dent, Charles C. Rich, and John Young, Counselors.

June 21, 1848. "....The brethren have been Inisy for some time watering
their wheat, and as far as it is done the wheat looks well, and the lieads are long
and large. The crickets are still quite numerous and busy eating, but between
the gulls, our eltorts and the growth of our crops we shall raise much grain in
spite of them. Our vines, beans and peas arc mostly destroyed by frost and the
crickets; but many of us have more seed and we are now busy replanting and
feel assured that we will still raise many pumpkins, melons, beans, etc. .Some
of our corn has been destroyed, but many large fields look very well and tlie
corn now is growing very fast, as tlie days and nights are warm, and on the
whole we think there is as much good corn growing as we can till and irrigate,
though we are still planting early corn . . . ."

On July 17th, Tsaac Haii^ht (41 ) reiMjrts tliat the .^raiii crop was
fairly successful and harvestint,^ had commenced.

In 1849 the crops were s^^ood, the ,i;ulls liavinj^- attacl<ed llie crickets
early in the year, there being- practically no damage from that source.

A correspondent to the St. Louis Republican sent the following report on
Monday, July 16. 1849:' "There has been very little sickness in the valley, and
very few deaths. It is beyond doubt that this is a very healthy country. There
has been a vast amount of labour performed here — extensive farms made, hun-
dreds of houses built, roads made, in addition to ploughing and planting this
spring, and it is very encouraging to say that crops look well, and tliere is no
doubt there will be a considerable surplus raised this year : yet, I have no doubt
breadstuff's will be high, on account of many of the California emigrants de-
signing to winter here. Wheat will not be less than five dollars per bushel, and
corn 1 dollar and 50 cents, or 2 dollars. Many have already commenced harvest-
ing wheat, and it yields well. Five bushels of wheat, will make a barrel of hand-
some flour as ever was made into bread. Yet the wheat, in many places, will
not do as well as was expected, owing to its being sown too late.

"All the crops look exceedingly well so far: and if we had ])lenty nf rain
here it would be one of tlie greatest grain countires in the world. Irrigation
makes considerable labour, but when we have all things prepared for it, it will
be much less trouble. The crickets have not troubled us any this year. Hundreds
and thousands of gulls made their appearance early in the Spring, and as soon
as the crickets appeared, the gulls made war on them, and they have swept them
clean, so that there is scarce a cricket to be found in the valley.

"We look upon this as one of the manifestations of the Almighty, for the
mountaineers say that they never found gulls here till the Mormons came. It
was truly cheering to see the flocks of these saviors, extending several miles in
length, come from the lake early in the morning, and eating crickets all day.

(41) Haight's Journal. July 1", 1848. Klder Isaac Haight wrote a.s follows: "The
wlieat ill the Valley is better than was expected. Some of it has already been harvested;
it is very short for want of being irrigated in season, yet some is very fine, and the pros-
pects for crops begin to brighten, althoug some of the people have lost their crops by
insects and others will be a partial failure. Yet the prospects are that some fine crops of
corn and wheat will be raised — enough to sustain the yieople here. We have great reason
to thank the Lord for his mercy towards his people in bringing us to this healthy and
beautiful valley. There have been only a few deaths and very little sickness among us
since we arrived in this valley, but, notwithstanding this, some of the brethren want to
leave and go to some otlier country."

The Great Basin Naturalist

52 ■ Vy\sco M. TANNKR N'ol.J.No. 2,

tlicn at sun down form in a mass, and wint;" their way to the lake for a night's
rest.

" One curiosity about them is, they don't eat the crickets merely to live, but
after feeding themselves, they would vomit them up, and go to eating again, and
thus continue eating and vomiting throughout the entire day.

" It is a matter of astonishment how fast they will pick them up, and a per-
son could form but a poor estimate of the amount destroyed daily by these winged
saviors. Suffice it to say, that about three wrecks after the gulls made their ap-
pearance, scare a cricket could be seen. This is plainly a miracle in behalf of
this people, as the sending of the quails in the camp of the Israelites ; and what
makes it more manifest is, the fact that, although there were plenty of crickets
in the surrounding valleys, where there are no crops, the gulls camte by them to
the farms, and stayed there till they has cleared them ofif. although men were at
work around them at the time. There has been no damage done by crickets this
season."

In 1855 llif crickets, n<»l\\itlistan<lin<;' the activities of the ,i;ulls. sn
reduced llie crops that famine a^ain threatened llie fast-L;ro\\ ini;' ])oiiu-
lation of L'tali (42). Ihere Itave lieen a number of outhreal<s ot
crick'ets since the ]:)ioneer peri(jd, in fact in 1938-.^9, lari^e sums of
mone\' was S])ent 1)\' the United States llureati of I'.nlomoloL;}' in an
attemj^t U) control this same species in Idaho, Colorado, Utali and
Nevada. The California Gull still plays an im))ortant role in the con-
trol of crickets and i^rasshopjiers, feedin,i4 mainl\- upon llie ])esls found
around cultivated fields.

Tlie part played by tlte ,i;u]ls in savin.i;' the cro])s durini; the pio-
neer Years, so im]iressed man\' of tlte founders of this Stale that a
movement was started wliicli resulted in the Ituildini;" of the .Sea-(iull
Monument on Tem])le Stpiare in Salt Lake City. 1"1k' tuneilini; cere-
mon\' was lield on ( )ctol)er 1, 1915. Tlie monument, bi^;. 1, consists
of a concrete foundation, tipon wliicli is a granite l)ase, wei,i;hinL; about
twenty tons. From the l)ase rises a round column ot granite, fifteen
feet hi,yh capped l)y a granite ball. Upon this ,^"lobe are two seai^ulls
of bronze, covered witli leaf .^old. dhe birds \\eiL;h about li\e luui-
dred ])ounds and measure eii^ht feet arcoss their outstretched \\in,L;'s.

The followini,^ is an extract from an address by the lion. W. W.

Riter (45) at the dedication of the monument:

"We have met on this dccasion to celeb-rate, in a modest way. tiie un\eiling
of the monument (if tlie (iull, llie bird that i^laycd so important a i)art in the

(42) Keniy and lirencliley . Itiid. ]>. 465.

" Tlic year lcS,S5 was not favouralile towar(ts tlie close. Tlie locusts, (lespite the Kulls.
had ravaged every tiling, even the young trees; and the potatoes had been attact;ed hy a
destructive insect. The Summer liad been unusually dry. and everything w;is parchcil uj).
l-'amine was imminent; in the month of July flour was sold at eight dollars the hundred
l)Ounds. Amid all these trials, a miraculous circumstance, if we are to credit the Mormons,
sweetened their pill. During several weeks they collected a substance very like sugar,
which covered the leaves of all the trees with a layer the thickness of common glass.
Fortunately there was some relief. The locusts had destroyed the first crops, but their
ravages having occurred in the early part of the year, there was yet time to sow maize
:ind plant root-crops, so as in aul\iinii In get vvlierrwitli;il to carry them on. willi economy,
until the harvest of IS.Sfi."

(4.>) Coddard. Tile Sea-Cull .\h.iiunu nl . \.)nnv; W.inian's Journal. ^'c)l. 24. p. .^69,
I'JI.'-.

fan. 2(S, I'MO NA'ITKAI. HISTORY OF (;rkat I'.ASIN 53

preservation ul llic lives ul the Pioneers of 1S47 and 1S4S. It i> I'lttin.u tliat llu-
workirtanship, or art expression, portrayed in tliis bird should be the handiwork
of a son of the great leader, Brigham Young, who led these early pioneers into
this then sterile and forbidding country. I doubt if there are any present to
whom this event has a greater significance than to me. I was only a l)oy of 10
years when tiie event occurred, which we now have met to commemorate. I well
remember the gloom, almost despair, that fell upon us when the crickets came
down from the hills in such myriads that the ground was nearly covered with
them, and attacked with voracious appetites the then too scanty fields of grain,
which had been planted with toilsome hands. You will pardon me if 1 give you
some of my t)wn remembrances in regard to this event, for the\ are tlu' ones
most deeply imbedded in my memory.

" My father had planted eight acres of wheat up there in the Xineteenth
ward, on the ground immediately in front of Captain Hooper's old residence. It
grew fairly well until the crickets came, and then our glowing hope of a crop
was almost turned into despair. My father had put in a rude dam on the north
branch of City creek, near where the Odeon now stands, and turned the water
to irrigate his wheat down an old channel of the creek until it reached his field.
Hesides the myriads of crickets which were already devouring the tender plants,
this water brought down mj^riads of others that had come off the hills, and failing
to cross the water (for they were a clumsy insect) were washed down into his
field. The extremity was so great he offered Robert Pierce the contents of his
whole field for three barrels of flour reckoning that these three barrels of flotu^
W'Ould feed his family six months, and then we could die.

" The gulls came and gorged themselves on the crickets ; once filled they
could have given but little relief, for the number of crickets w'as so great ; but
the gulls disgorged the masses they had eaten and then continued the process
until the situation was saved.

"Brethren and friends. I witnessed this, and relate it to you in all truth and
soberness."

A number of references have been made to this episode (44) (45)
(46) (47), the most important one from a Itioloi^ical standjjoint, witli
which I am familiar, is a (Uscussion of tlie Mormon cricl<et 1)\' I )r.
W. W. Henderson (48).

Unfortunately there is consideral)le confusion in tlie literature as
to the species of g'ull that participated in the destruction of the crickets
during the Pioneer Period. The species was, no doubt, the California
gull, not the Ft"anklin gull, since the California gull was the common
species found nesting on the islands of Great Salt Lake. b\- Captain
Stansbury in 1850(49). Regardless of the interpretation put u])on
this incident (50). it has had so profound an iniluence on the lives of
the Mormon people that very early in the history of the State a law
W'as passed protecting the gull. It has also served as a stimulus for
the erection of a monument that has attracted international attention.

(44") Henderson, Junius, 1927. The Practical \'olume of Birds; p. 126.

(4.S) Allen, 193n. "The Book of Bird Life; p. 264.

(46) Forbush, 1922. The Utility of Birds; p. 21.

(47) Roberts, 1910. Sea-Gvill Monunii-nt; p. .i48, Young W'oman's Tournal.

(48) Henderson, 19,^1. Crickets and Grasshoppers in I'tah : pp. l-.^S, Circular 96. I't.
Agri. Exp. Station.

(49) Behle, 1938. Highlights of Ornithological Work in I'tah; p. 166, the Condor,
Vol. 40.

(50) Young, 1928. A Story of the Rise of A Social Taboo; p. 449, the Scientific ^fonthly.

54

VASCO M. TANNKR

The Great Basin Naturalist

Vol. l,Xo. 2.

I'ig. 1. The Sca-tiull Moiumient, Temple Square, Salt 1-ake lity, Utah.
The unlv mmuiment ever erected U' coimneindrate the activities iil a bird.

Jan. 28. I'HO xaitkai. iiisTOkY ov (;ri-:at basiiN 55

STAXSBUKY'S I'.XPEDITIOX TO THE GREAT SALT LAKE
Followinj^ closel}' ui)on the first government expedition to tlie ( ireat
Basin, conducted by Cai)tain Fremont, was the second one under the
command of Captain Howard Stansl)ury ('51 ). This expechlion was
organized under the orders of Col. J. J. Abert, and sent to L tali for
the purpose of makini^' "a survey of the Great Salt Lake and ex])]ora-
tion of its valley." Tlie part}- reached Utah on Aui,uist 28, 1849.
After spending the winter in Salt Lake City, the party began a sur-
vey of the Lake in tlie spring of 1850. which was completed in time
for Stansbury to return to the states just one }ear to the day from
his arrival.

While in the valle}' of Salt Lake as well as enroute various mem-
bers of the party collected specimens of plants, a few mammals, birds.
reptiles, insects and fossils. Since there was no naturalist appointed,
for the expedition, probably most of the collecting was done by Cap-
tain Stansbury and Lieutenant Gunnison. All the plant specimens
were turned over to Dr. Torrey who lists ninety-three species from
L^tah. I have listed the plants found upon the Stansbury and Ante-
lope islands. It would be interesting to compare the plant life found
upon these islands today, with that of 1850 (52) (53). See Fig. 2.

Plants found upon the following islands in 1850 by Captain .Stans-
bury and Lieutenant Gunnison :

(51) Stansburv. Explorations and Survey of the \'allev of the Great Salt Lake of
tTtah. 1852.

(52) Jensen. Andrew. 1934. Building of I'tah and Her Neighbors. Deseret News.
Sat., Oct. 27. Mr. Tensen rejjorts the following from the writings of Mr. Albert Carring-
ton: "On April 19th. 1848. Thomas .1. Thurston, Joseph Mount, Madison D. Hambleton,
Albert Carrington, Jedediah M. Grant and William W. Potter started at 2 p. m. with a
skiff on wheels, for the ford of the Jordan, with a view of exploring the Great Salt Lake
and its islands for two weeks.'* . . . "On the 2nth we killed a mud-hen, from which cir-
cumstances we named our skifif " :\Iud Hen." . . . "We did not discover a living thing in
the water, but there was water fowl in great abundance. We went aboard again and
steered for the first island (Antelope), hauled our boat over a bar one-half mile, and when
one and a half, or two, miles off the island, the water again shoaled so that our boat struck
bottom. There were several Indian ponies and three Indians in sight on the island." . . .
"On the 21st we found the island covered with good grasses; bunch grass prevailing;
abundance of starch root; many sunflowers and rose bushes; some sage, a few service-
berry bushes, a few willows and some shrubbery in the ravines. A few antelope tracks,
one antelope and two prairie hens, were seen." . . . "Steered northwest for a small island
(Fremont's Island) and ran aground 4(K) yards before we reached the shore." . . . "Onion,
starch root and wild parsnips plenty; and also some sage and grease bush with mucli fine
rank bunch grass." . . . "We put 150 blue heron and geese eggs aboard, passed on to the
north point of the island and landed about sunset on a narrow rocky beach with ledges of
gneiss; distance from camp, twenty miles."

These interesting observations on the plants and animals found on some of the islands
were made in April. 1848. Mr. Carrington was employed as a surveyor by Capt. Stansbury
in 1850. and helped with the exploration of Great Salt Lake and its islands. He was also
prominent in surveying during the pioneer days of Utah.

(S,3) Remy and Brenchley. Ibid. Volume I, Page 179.

"These islands are nine in number, viz.: Antelope. Stansbury. Fremont. Carrington.
Gunnison, Egg. Dolphin, Mud, Hat. The largest of all is Antelope Island, which is sixteen
miles in length, five in breadth, and rises 3250 feet above the lake; cattle are bred there.
The next, Stansbury's Island is twelve miles in length, and twenty-seven miles in circum-
ference. Fremont's Island, which Fremont called Disappointment, and which the Mormons
call Castle Island, is fourteen miles in circumference; it has beautiful grass, notwithstand-
ing there is no water. The other islands are much smaller."

56

VASCO M. TANNKR

The Great Basin Xaturalist

Vol. l.No. 2.

Stansburv Isi.axij

Corydalis aurea Willd.

Cowania stansburiana Torr.

Spirea Dumosa Xutt.

S. opulifolia var. pauciflora Torr. & Gr.

Heuchera rubescens Torr. (n. sp.)

Aster oblongifolius Nutt.

Monothrix stansburiana Torr.

n. g. & n. sp.
Chenactis achilleaefolia Hook. & .-\rn.
Cirsium undulatum Spring.
Lygodesniia juncea Don.
Crepis acuminata Nutt.
Acerates decumbens Decaisne
Comandra umbellata Xutt.
Triglochin maritimum Linn.
Scirpus torreyi ? Olney.
Stipa juncea L.
Elvmus striatus Willd.

Calochortus luteus Xutt.
Malvastrum coccineum var. grossu-

lariaefolium (H. & A.)
Phacea moUissima var. Utahensis Torr.
Oenothera albicaulis Xutt.
Mentzellia ornata Torr. and Gr.
Erodium circutatium L'Herit.
Achillea millefolium Linn.
Stunted Cedars

Antei.oi'K Tsi.Axn
Sidalcea malvaeflora Gray.
Lupinus albicaulis Dougl.
Gayophytum ramosissimum Torr & Gr.
Juncus balticus Willd.
I'>iocoma cuspidata Xutt.
Koeleria cristata Pers.
Hordeum jubatum Linn.
Agropyrum repens Gaest.
Elymus striatus \\'illd.

The mammals collected upon this expedition were studied I)}" Prof.
S. F. Baird, who lists six species from Utah, one of which, the (ireat-
tailed Fox, J'lilpcs iiiacroiiriis, he descrihes as new.

Capt. Stansbur)' and Gunnison collected and observed thirty-one
species of birds in Utah. The Mountain Blue bird thoui^ht to be new
by Baird, was named Sidia niacropfcra. Important notes on the nest-
ing birds found on many of the islands are to be found in Capt. Stans-
l)urv's journal notes. For the first time the great iiesting colonies of
the gulls, pelicans, terns, and herons cm the islands of the (ireat Salt
Lake are reported. The eggs of the gull and pelican were used for
f(jod, I)}' the surveying parties. Besides the birds reported from L'tah,
Prof. Baird includes a " List of Birds inhabiting America west of the
Mississippi not described in Audubon's ( )rnitholog\'."' One hundred
fifty-three species are included in this list.

There were onl}- four species of reptiles collected b\- the members of
the expedition all of wliich proved to be new to science. These were
described ])y S. F. Ilaird and Charles Girard as follows: Ciioiiidopli-
onts li(/ris li. and (i., which is considered as a s\'n()n\'m of C. I. Icsscl-
lalits (Say) ; [Ha slaiishuriana !'. and (i., a new genus and species;
Sccloporus graciosus I>. and G. ; and Coluber tuoniioii W. and G. Then
included along \\\\h tlie re])ort on the rei)tiles is a " Monographic Fs-
say on the Cienus I'hynosoma" by Charles (iirard. Two species are
discussed as occurring in L'tah : Fhrynosonia doiKjIassi Cira\' rmd /'.
platyrhiiios which Girard descri])e(l as a new species.

Professor .S. .S. Ilaldeman was entrusted with the insects. He re-
ports eleven species from Utah, which inchules six new species and

Ian. 28. 1940

NATrRAL IIISI'OkY OF C.Rl'.AT I'.ASIN

57

one new genus. It was a difticult uialter to get natural liistor\' s])eci-
niens hack to the Eastern centers without greatly damaging them.

A letter from T. R. Peale on the larvae of insects found in the

Great Salt Lake is included. Mr. Peale reports in jjart as follows:

In the mass. I can detect fragments of the larvae shells of the pupa.

and small portions of a mature Chirononiits and other Tipulidae. More

than nine-tenths of the mass is composed of larvae and exuviae of

Fig. 2. ^[ap of Great Salt Lake and the tliree larqe islands.

.Antelope, Fremont, and Stansbury.

(From Crawford and Thackwell, Ut. Acad. Sci., Vol. VIII.)

Tile Great Rasin Naturalist

5M VAsco ^^. 'rANNh'.k X'ol. l.X'o. 2.

Cliiroiio)!! IIS, or some sjK'cies of nioS([uil.o — ])i"ol)al)1\' uii(K'Scril)C'(l ; llu-
I r;i!4incnts hcini; loo inipcrlrcl lo (lelcniiinc."

I'loni a nalural history standpoint this was a vei"}' important expe-
(hlion. I'aird behevcd it was the most important since Lonj^^'s expedi-
tion up tlie Missouri in 1S2(). ( )ne point of interest to tlie writer is
the lack of an\ nienlion in Mr. Stanshur\'s report, of the cricket
jilat^ue and the pari jilayed h\- ihe ^ulls in conlrolhn^ llieni.

A TIIIKM) (.OX l-:k.\Mlv\"l' ICXPKDITIOX UNDI-LR
CAI'TAIX J. W. CUXXTSOX

Captain |. W. (iunnison who ])layed such an im|)ortanl part in
Slansl)ur\'s exjK'chtion was sent hacl< to the west in ISS.t in cliars^e
of llie tliird government ex])e(htion to llie (ireat lUisin within ten
years. (Iunnison was assisted by K. (i. I'eckwith, in this I'acilic Rail-
road survey work, as well as by such scientific aids as V. Kreuzfeldt,
botanist, and I )r. James Schiel, surgeon and j^eoloj^isl. The i)arty after
enlerinj.;- L'tah crossed the CJreen River near the present town of Green
l^iver City. They then continued westward throut^h the Salina Can-
von and on lo the desert neai" l>elta, I'lah. On ( )cto]K'r 25. Ca])tain
Gunnison, Kreuzfeldt and several other men of the party were killed
by Indians on the Sevier River. As a result of this tra,yedy Beckwith
directed the allairs of the expedition which contributed \ery little to
our knowledge of the nalural hislor\ of ihe (ireal llasin (54).

Rl-.MY AXI) l'.Rl-:XCill.l^\' \ISir U'l'AM

In the fall of 1855 two h'rench scientists, Remy and llrenchle}'.
who had traveled wi(lel\ , reached Salt Lake City after a trip of two
months, on horse back, from Sacramento, California. So inlereslinj^'
and important are many of tlu' observations made by these gentlemen
during their month's stay in Ctah, that rather k'n^th}- exerpts are re-
produced here.

In I'A'bruary. 185(1, the Mormons established by law the Universil}'
of Deseret, the first university established west of the Mississippi
River. A museum was also established for the purpose of teachin<; as
well as handing on to posteritx information about the customs of vari-
ous i)eoi)les of the world. It was to houst' a collection of minerals.

(54) Pacific Railroad Ivcports. 1855. \'ol. H contains an accdnnt of this cxpctiition liy
Bccl<with. In Vol. X, 1859, tliere is a report on the birds of the survey by Haird. Some
of the Iiirds talven in 1855-54 are included in tliis report. Two species of nianinials are
listed.

[an. 2S, I'HO XATIRAI, IIIS'IOKN- OF CKI'.AT i;asi.\ 59

plants, animals, and astronomical c'c|ui])nK'nt. Kcnu' and llrfncliley

have the following' to say ahout the adventure of eslablisliin^ a nni-

seum :

" Ihe Mormons have for soine time been occupied l)y tiic idea of foundini;
a universal museum. They have already got together a considerable quantity of
t)bjects, and their numerous missionaries to all parts of the world materially con-
tribute to their opportunities of forming a very valuable collection. Brigham
Young, who thinks this a useful and practical institution, takes a particular in-
terest in its develo])ment ; but it is much to be regretted that for want of a person
sufficiently qualified to direct the collectors and classify the objects, the institution
is to this day nothing more tlian a mere lumber-room of disorder and con-
fusion." (55)

The French scientists not only l)ecame conversant with the reli-
gious and political afifairs of the Mormons, hut they traveled about
Salt Lake X'alley and in the nearl)\' mountains making observations
on the plants and animals. The following is a short but good sum-
mary of their findings:

" The greater part of the indigenous animals are few, whether as individuals
or species, which is to be attributed less to the barrenness of the soil, than to the
hunting parties of trappers and Indians. The bison, as we mentioned above, is
no longer found to the west of the Rocky Mountains, and the beaver has almost
entirely disappeared. Small herds of antelopes (A. furcifer) are to be found in
the mountain districts, as well as the American eland (Cervus canadensis), the
Virginian deer, the black-tailed deer (C. Lewisii), the black and grisly bear, to-
gether with another much smaller species. The mountain sheep (Ovis montana)
has become scarce, as well as a carnivorous animal known to the Americans
under the much too indefinite name of panther. Foxes, wolves, wolverines (Gulo
luseus), are common in the deserts at the foot of the hills. The racoon (Procyon
lotor) and the musk-rat (Fiber zibethinus) are often seen on the banks of rivers.
Hares are in plenty wherever there is pasturage. Of birds, there are several
species of grouse (Bonasia, Tetrao), a sort of pigeon, partridges, eagles, large
crows, owls, and curlews. On the banks of the lakes are seen geese, very many
kinds of ducks, pelicans, herons, gulls (Larus), large cranes, water-hens (Rallus).
and plovers. Nor is there any lack of sparrows on the watercourses and in the
thickets. Of reptiles, there are to be found flat-shaped lizards in abundance, and
also the rattlesnake. In Lake Utah there is salmon-trout with yellowish flesh,
weighing as much as thirty pounds : there are also perch, suckers, pike, rock-fish
or striped bass, and bull-heads. Fish is scarcer in the watercourses and alto-
gether wanting in the salt lakes." Volume II. pp. 2(')6-267.

The larger animals, such as the mammals and birds, seemed to

attract their attention resulting in 26 species of mammals and .vS

species of birds being listed (56).

(55) Remy and Brenchley. Ibid, Vol. II, p. 188.

(56) Though the Fauna of Utali is as yet very imperfectly known to naturalists, we
liave no hesitation in regarding it as poor, and of Httle variety, especially in the lower
classes of animals. This poverty is attributable to various causes, among which the most
prominent appear to us to be the geographical and hypsometrical conditions of the country,
the dryness of the climate, and the barrenness of the soil. We here give a list of mammi-
fers and birds which are with tolerable certainty known to exist in t'tah.

Mammifers

.\ntilocarpa americana. The American antelope.
Canis latrans. .Say. The true cayote.
Castor canadensis, Kuhl. The beaver.
Cervus canadensis. The American eland.
. . . Lewisii. The black-tailed deer.

The Great Basin Naturalist
60 VASCO M. TANNER \oI. 1, No. 2,

SUMMARY

Students (jf the natural liistoi}' of the (ireat liasin will tind the
discovery and development o\ the West most fascinating and protitable.
Scattered through the literature are to l)e found the beginnings, out
of which have grown our knowledge of the l)iota and its environment.
CJreat changes have been made in this environmental complex during
the past one hundred \ears. A number of species have been exter-
minated, many reduced in numbers and greatl}' changed in their range,
while introduced ones have over-run the basin. The means, b\- which
man has achieved his present status, as " Master of all he Surve}S "
has been a very questionable procedure. The wastage of animal and
plant resources has gone on to such a jjoint that we must recast all
policies that alifect these resources. A retrospective study, as the one
at hand, helps in pointing out ways of dealing with these problems.

. . . viiginiaiius. The Virginian deer.

Cynomys (.^rctomys) huiovicianus. Bainl. 'l"hc- j)rairit-c!i>.<j. rnr .\mericaii marmot.

FeHs coticolor, Linn. The American panther.

Fiber zibethinus, Linn. The musk-rat.

Cicomys, (species undetermined.) The American gopher.

tJulo luscus. Linn. The wolverine or glutton.

Lepus. Several species of hares and rabbits imperi'ectl\' observed.

Meles labradoria. .Sabine. The American carcajou.

Ovis montana, Desm. The mountain slieep or liig horn.

Procyon lotor, Storr. The racoon.

Putorius erminea, Linn. The ermine.

. . . vison, Linn. The mink, or minx.

Sciurus. Several species of squirrels not yet well determined.

I'rsus horribilis. The grizzly bear.

. . . americanus, Pallas. The black bear.

, var. cinnamoneus, Aud. and Bach.

\'ulpes macrurus, Baird. Long-teiled fox, confounded with the cayote.
. . . virginianus. Rich. The .\merican prey fox.

Birds

Accipiter fuscus, Bonap.

.'\nas boschas, Linn. The mallard.

Anser canadensis. Vieill.

. . . erythropus, Linn._

Athene (Strix) hypogaea, Cass. The buirowing owl.

Buteo Ijorealis, Bonap.

Clangula all)eola, Bonap. The liutter-ball.

Colymbus glacialis. Linn. The loon.

Tygntis americanus, Sharp. The American swan.

Dalfila acuta, Bonap. The duck.

Fuligula affinis, F.yton. The shuffler.

Grus canadensis, Temm. The brown crane, Ti'/L' f^f bctucen the tip's of the wings.

Larus, species undetermined. The American gull.

Leucosticte tephrocotis. Swains. The finch.

Mareca americana, .Steph. The bald pate.

Xiphaea oregona, .^ud. The snow-bird.

Numenius longirostris, Wils. The curlew.

Otocoris occidentalis, M'C'all.

Pelecanus trachyrhynchus, Lath. The iielic.-in.

Phalacrocorax dilopluis. -Sw. The cormorant.

Peucaea Lincolnii, Aud. A species of Americ.m finch.

Pterocyanca Rafflesii. King. The teal.

(}uerquedula carolinensis, Bonap. A species of tc.il.

kecurvirostra americana, Gm. The avoset.

Sialia macroptera, Baird. The blue bird.

.Sternella neglecta, Aud. The lark.

Symphemia semii)almata. Hart. The willet.

Tetrao urophasianus, Bonap. Tlie prairie hen; grouse. Vol. IL pp. .S27-S28.

Jan. 2(S. 1940 NATrKAi. history of (;kkat hasin 61

In this sludy wc liave iliscusscd tlic discover} . cliai aclcr, and (.■xlmU
of the Great Basin.

TIk" liistorx' of the hutfalo in I'lali is summarized. Tlie .Mormon
cricket-California .^ull episcjde is reviewed and some orii^inal source
material is included from the l.aUer-day .Saint Church journal llislory.

The plants and animals found, in Clah 1)_\- L;-o\'ernmenl explorin.L;
l)arlies led 1)\ h'remont. Stansl)ur\ and (iunnison. are discussed. Kemy
and l'.renchle\- visited Utah in the fall of 1S55 and made many obser-
vations on the natural hist(jr\- of the (ireal llasin. Tdieir \isit and
observations are briefly reviewed.

Uunch grass and sparsely scattered sa.s^ebrush were common on ihe
islands of Great Salt Lake and in the Utah, Salt Uake, ( )^(len and
Cache \'alle\s of Utah.

V>y the end oi the rear 1<S.^5, 101 jilants; Oil insects; h hsh : 7 am-
])hil)ians and rej^tiles ; 113 birds: and 93 mammal species were known
U) occur in the Great ]^)asin. L'tah was the type locality for 1.^ ])lanfs;
6 insects; 4 re])tiles ; 1 bird; and 2 mammal species.

Spongilla fragilis Found in Utah Lake and Salem Pond

The sponge Spniigilla frayilis Leidy wa.s known from only one locality in
Utah prior to October, 1939, when it was collected at the Brigham Young Uni-
vcrsit}- Lakeside Biological Laboratory, on tlie mouth of Provo River. It was
found to be rather conunon forming fairly larger growths on the willows and
tree Iiranches which have fallen in the river. This species was previously re-
liorted. by this writer, as occurring in Salamander Lake, on Mt. Timpanogos, in
the Proceedings Utah Academy of Sciences, Vol. IX, 1932, pp. 113-115. .An-
other sponge Sponcjilla laciistris (L.) known from Utah, also occurs in Utah
Lake. Spoiui'iUa frayilis was also collected in Salem pond, 15 miles south of
Prove 1, on Jan. 18, 1940, by Dr. D. E. Beck and students. Large specimens 10 to
12 inches in diameter were removed from the bottom of the pond. — V. M. T.

Dr. Pfouts Contributes Butterflies

A rather representative collection of the butterflies of Utali County, taken at
Payson and in Payson Canyon by Dr. L. D. Pfouts, dentist and amateur natu-
ralist, has been contributed to the Entomological Collection of the Brigham Young
LIniversity. This collection consists of 63 species and 730 specimens. Fourteen
specimens are topotypes of the new species Argyniiis pfoutsi Gund. 1 his collec-
tion is a welcome one, adding materially to the Tom Spalding collection of
Utali butterflies and moths which consist of more than 700 species. — V. M. T.

The Great Basin N'.Uuralist

62 \'..l. 1. X... 2,

DR. HENRY CLINTOX FALL (1S62-1939)

With the passing of Dr. Henry C. l'"all, students of the Coleoptera lost one
of their outstanding colleagues and authorities.

Dr. hall was born at Farmington, X. H. on December 2S. 1862. He received
from Dartmouth College the degrees of Bachelor of Arts in 1884 and Doctor of
Sciences in 1929. He died at Tjngsboro, Mass. on Xovember 14, 1939.

Because of his Iiealth, lie earjj' went to Southern California where he began
his serious study of the Colenptera. Vov more tl:an fort\-hvc years Dr. Fall
was a contributor to the literature on this group. .Students of the west coast
are greatlx indebted to him for liis careful studies of the beetles of this region.
The paper, ./ List of thr Colcnpfcra of Southern Calif oDiin. published in the
(Occasional Papers of the California Academy of Sciences in 1901, pages 1-282,
will long be of service to Entomologists of the Pacific Coast. Dr. Fall was not
indy a careful student of the Adephaga and Polyphaga, but he contributed much
In our knowledge df the Rhynchopohora. His papers, Ri-c'isiiiii of the Sf^eeies of
.\pio\i of . I iiieriea Xorth of Mexieo: .1 JSrief F-^evieii.' of our Speeies of Ma(/dalis
7<.'ilh .\(^tes Olid Descriptions cf Other Xortli Ainerieaii Rhyiicliophoru : Xew
Xorfh .huei'ieuii Speeies of Apiio\ uud Apteroiucehus ; and New Speeies of Ameri-
ca}! Coleoptera of the Tribe Zyaopini. are indispensable when studying the weevils.
i)r. b'all described 1,400 new species of Coleoptera of whicli 185 were weevils.

1 liad the jirivilege of \isiting with Dr. Fall wlien 1 was at Tyngsboro. Mass.,
on Au.gust ?. 1928. His home which is t\i)icall\- Xew F.ngland in style, is on a
little hill, surrounded with white pines, and overlooking the Merrimac River. He
owned the home in which the noted Coleopterist Frederick Blanchard lived and
died. I was received in a very cordial manner, being permitted to see specimens
from many families and when I left I was given a box containin.g 8v? species of
beetles in which T was interested. I was impressed with the wa\ he cared for
his large collection. Ever^thin.i; was in order, the si)ecimens were neatly mounted
and arranged in Schmitt boxes. It was alst) of interest to see how accurately
he studied his specimens with a small pocket lens. .\t this time he was greatly
handicapped in his work because of poor health. Two years before m\ visit he
had an operation on his right eye for an abscess. This had never healed u]),
it being necessary to dress it several times a day. This afTected his sight and
made his work extremeh' difficult. He informed me that his collection, which is
one of the most important private ones in this country, would be dejiosited in
the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard L^niversity.

Coleopterists of the future will find Henry C. brail's name inscribed along
with LeConte's. Blanchard's, and Bowditch's when they frequent the cabinets and
laboratories containing the thousands of specimens of Coleoptera tliat have been
named and passed on to posterity by these masters. — V. AL T.

A i'RKLLMlXARV lllSTOLOLilCAL S'rL"l)\' ()[•' TllK ( )\ ARV

OF THE KANGAROO RAT DIPODOMYS

ORDll COJ.UMIUANUS

ke.\.\"1':th l. uuke

Department of Zoology
Duke University, Durham, X. C.

IN TRODUCTIOX

The kaii;4ai'u(j rat, Dipodoinys ordii colunibiaiius Mcrriani, is a
inemheT of the Heteromyidae. and is well represented in the semi-
arid portions of the central Utah rei^itjn of the Great Basin.

The literature dealing directly with Dipodoniys appears to l)e
rather limited. Grinnell (1919, 1922. 1929) has described the geo-
graphic (listril)uti()n of Dijxxlomxs and some new species from Cali-
fornia. N'orhies and Ta\lor (1922) published a paper dealing with
the life liistor}- of the genus. The implantation of the blastocyst was
studied Iw' Lee (1918). and a brief analysis (jf the placentation and
fetal membranes was published by Mossman (1937 a). Midgle}'
( 1938) described the visceral anatomy from a comparative point of
view. Other papers dealing with iliis group may have been pub-
lished, but I have seen only those mentioned. In this paper a pre-
!iminar\ histohjgical study of the kangaroo rat ovary is described.

MATERIA!. AXD METHODS

The material consists of the ovaries of 42 animals. Thirt\' of the
specimens were taken alive, w hile 12 were dead in the traps. Although
a }ear-round collection is highl\' desirable for a study of this kind,
only animals taken during January (19 animals). March (1 animal),
April (2 animals), June (1 animal), July (3 animals). August (1
animal), and September (15 animals) have been available for study.

All the ovaries, with the exception of two sets, were fixed in
liouin's tluid. The two exceptions w-ere fixed in Allen's B-IS modi-
fication of liouin's liuid. Most of the ovaries were sectioned at seven
micra. although some were cut at ten. Sections were mounted seri-
ally and stained with hematox_\-lin (both Delafield's and Rhrlich's)
and eosin.

I wish to thank Dr. X'asco M. Tanner of Brigham Young Uni-
versity, Provo, Utah for sending me the ovaries of 18 of the animals.
The animals were collected about two miles north w est of Provo, Utah.

63

Tile Great Basin Naturalist
64 KENNETH L. DIKE \^f)l. I . No. 2,

OIJSERVATIOXS

General Description. The ovary of Dipodomys is small (1.3 x
1.3 X 1.9 mm.) and is non-lobulate. It is covered 1)\- a ver\ thin
ij^erminal epithelium whose nuclei are similar to those of mesothelial
cells. In some ovaries small i^roups of cells of the ijerminal epithelium
penetrate the thin tunica albuginea, and some of tlieir nuceli are en-
larged. Here and there oocytes are to be seen with their outer sur-
faces Hush with the surface of the germinal epithelium ( hg. 1 i.

The peripheral region of the ovary, below the tunica albuginea is
usuall) occupied b\- a \arying number of oocytes and growing folli-
cles. The o(jc\tes may occur singly or in nests of two or more (tig.
2 I. Follicles in which the granulosa is made up of several layers of
cells are usually found deeper in the ovar\- than are the smaller folli-
cles, although both large growing follicles and Graafian f(jllicles are
to be found relativel}' near the surface.

Unless degeneration overtakes a follicle the mature (jraahan folli-
cle frees its ovum into the oviduct by the process of ovulation. Some
or all (the origin of the corpus luteum is beyond the scope of this
paper) of the remaining cellular layers of the ruptured follicle are
modified into the lutein cells of the corpus luteum. If degeneration
occurs in any follicle in \\ hich the thecal layers are differentiated, the
cells of tlie theca interna metamorphose into the interstitial cells of the
ovar\-. IJetween the follicles are found spindle-shaped stroma cells,
interstitial cells, and fibrous connective tissue containing blood vessels.

The Growth oi" the Follicles. The primar}- ooc}tes usually
lie in ihe outermost i)art of the cortex. The}" are small ( 13-18 micra
in diameter) with a round, centrally located nucleus (10-12 micra in
diameter). The oocytes are naked, as a rule, excepting for one
or two small fibroblastic-like nuclei which lie against the cell membrane.
Oocytes are found: (a) immediately below the germinal epithelium;
(b) within the tunica albuginea: and (c) below the tunica in the
cortex. Throughout this paper the follicles will be designated as
types 1. 2. 3. and Ciraafian follicles.

Follicles of type 1 are as a rule ftjuiul below the tunica albuginea,
although in some instances they have been seen just beneath the ger-
minal epithelium. The ova of such follicles have a diameter of 16-26
micra with a centrall\- located nucleus approximately 12 micra in di-
ameter. The ova are surrounded l)y one complete layer of cubic
epithelial cells, resulting in a follicle of 26-48 micra in diameter. Oc-
casionallw especiall}' in the larger follicles of this type, a rather deli-

Jan. 28, 1940 histological study of kanmakoo rat 65

cale zona pellucida is seen around tlie ovum and also a basement
membrane can be seen between the follicle cells and the stroma.

The ova and nuclei of type 2 follicles are larger than those of
lyj)e 1. The follicular diameter measures 52-68 micra. the ova 26-48
micra. and the nuclei 12-18 micra in diameter. One complete layer
of follicular cells is always present and the beginning- of a second
la}er is not uncommon. The nucleus is still in a central position
within the ovum. The zona pellucida and the basement membrane
of the follicle cells are more distinct in this type (fig. 3) than in type
1. External to and contiguous with the basement membrane are
small fibroblastic cells and delicate fibres derived from the stroma.
These cells and fibres are the anlagen of the future thecal layers.
T\pe 2 follicles are usually located beneath the tunica albuginea.

T\pe ,^ follicles are always situated beneath the tunica albuginea
and are usuall}' rather deep in the cortical region. The ova of these
follicles are much larger than those of type 2. l)eing 52-68 micra in
diameter. The nucleus is also larger. 23-37 micra in diameter, and as
a rule occupies an eccentric position in the cytoplasm of the ovum.
Follicles of this type possess from three to nine or more layers of
follicle cells in the stratum granulosum. The increase in number of
follicle cells is the result of mitosis for different stages of the division
process are quite common, not only in type 3 follicles, but of types
2 and 1 as well. The zona pellucida is very distinct in most follicles
of this type and both thecal layers are present. The cells of the theca
interna are larger and oval, or even round, while those of the theca
externa are spindle-shaped. Mitoses are common in cells of the theca
interna, and tiny blood vessels vascularize the layer.

The Graafian follicles contain ova of about the same size (52-70
micra in diameter) and appearance as the ])receding type. One or
several iluid-fiUed antra of varying sizes are located in the stratum
granulosum. All stages of mitosis are to be seen in the follicle cells.
The theca interna of many Graafian follicles is a thickened and dis-
tinct structure in ccjmparison to the theca externa of the same folli-
cles. The ratio of cytoplasm to nucleus is much greater in cells of
the theca interna than it is in the theca externa, and the nuclei of the
former are large and oval or round while those of the latter retain
their resemblance to the stroma cells, with which they imperceptibly
merge. The vascularity of the theca interna is more apparent in this
type than it is in type 3 follicles. A comparison of the diameters of
ova and nuclei of the various follicular t}'pes is shown in fig. 7.

The Great Rasin Xatviralist
66 ■ KKXNETH I.. DIKE X^ol. I. No. 2,

FoLLiCL'LAK Atki'.sia. All}- (jf the above mentioned follicles ma}'
degenerate by the process of atresia. In general all the component
parts of a follicle undergoing atresia ultimately atrophy. But that
part of the follicle in which atresia is first recognizable is variable.
Table I indicates the amount (jf atresia observed in each ovary.

In some follicles (t3'pes 1 and 2 as a rule) the ovum seems to be
the first part of the follicle to exhibit signs of atresia. The cyto-
plasm of the ovum shrinks awa}- from the granulosa cells, thus giving
the ovum a shrunken, irregular appearance. The nucleus also becomes
irregular in shape and may disappear, leaving a hyalinized contorted
mass which stains heavily with eosin. The granulosa ma\' remain
intact (fig. 4). or it may disintegrate and some of its cells invade
the degenerating ovum.

In other follicles (Graafian, and usually those of t}'pe 3) the first
recognizable signs of atresia are general!}' seen in the follicular cells
and not in the ovum. The cells of the stratum granulosum imme-
diately surrounding the ovum pull away from the ovum, their nuclei
become pycnotic. and these pycnotic cells frecjuently invade the folli-
cular cavity (fig. 6).

The first maturation spindle may form in the ova of atretic folli-
cles of type 2 and 3 and Graafian follicles. (Occasionally in the latter
the first polar body ma\' be formed (figs. 5 and 6). The fate of the
thecal layers of atretic follicles will be considered in the following
section.

Interstitial Cells. In many ovaries, surrounding atretic folli-
cles and scattered throughout the stroma, are masses or blocks of cells
which I have called interstitial cells. The amount of this tissue within
an ovary varies, being practically absent in some and ver}- abundant
in others.

These patches or blocks of interstitial cells appear under low power
as rather homogenous light-stained areas containing several nuclei.
With high power, or better still with oil immersion, the cytoplasm
appears more or less vacuolar, cell membranes are very faint and often
absent, and the shape of the nuclei varies from a smooth oval or
round contour to an irregular, crenated-appearing contour.

The interstitial cells originate from the theca interna of atretic
foUicles. In some atretic follicles the theca interna has lost the ap-
pearance characteristic of normal follicles — the cell walls have dis-
appeared, the cytoplasm has become more vacuolar and has little or
no affinit\' for eosin, and the nuclei have a crenated or irregular shape.

^

Jan. 28. 194(1 ii isku.ock al .sttdv of k.\.\(;.\K()(i kat 67

Tliat the presi-iice of llicsc inlerstilial cells nia\' Ijc c\clic or peri-
odic i.s sugi.jested b_\- the varyiiii^- amounts in which the\- are found in
the \arious ovaries. Table 1 i^'ives the relatixe amount of interslilird
cells in each ovary.

EXPLAXATIOX OV T.\1'>LE I

It is realized at the outset that the surve\' summarized in thi.s
table is superficial and ])ossibly inade([uale. ^'el il will serve as a
basis for comparison of the animals makini^" u]) the collection here
studied.

These counts are of one section, as near the central jiortion of
ihe o\ary as could be determined, toi" each animal. The data on the
oocxtes and follicles and corpora Ir.tea are more accurate than that
on the interstitial cells, since the follicles, corjjora, etc. could be
counted, while in the case of the interstitial cells only an estimate
could be made since no \va\" has been found to make a i|uanlitati\e
slud\' of them.

hit.

T

ABLE I

.■iiiien

Date-

No.

Xo.

Co
Folk

> 1 1.

taken

oocytes

folk

atretic

78

1/16

13

15

47%

79

1/16

16

29

41

80

1/17

,1

27

S2

81

1/17

28

11

45

S2

1/17

18

17

41

83

1/17

S\

11

9

84

1/18

43

23

48

85

1/18

45

12

17

86

1/18

65

16

44

87

1/18

104

11

36

88

1/18

31

26

50

89

1/22

11

22

59

90

1/22

42

19

21

.Stase

Inst.

of

cells

pretr.

**

:;==;=

Ihlaminar

:|=:;:

blastocyst

*:■:

:f^^:

**=:=

ovulation

=i=.:

Bilaminar

blastocyst

-■j: ^: •■{•

:i:*

68

The Great Basin Naturalist
KF.NNETH L. DUKE Vol. I. No. 2,

TABLE I (cont.)

% Stage

Specimen Date No. No. Foil. Corp. Inst. of

No. taken oocytes loll. atretic lut. cells preg.

91 1/22 13 22 36 .. ''''

92 1/22 19 2,^ 30 .. =^*

93 1/22 57 10 -+(> ^ *** ^^ """• ^'i"'*^'>**^

94 1/22 15 14 71 1 '^=' -"^ i""^- t^mbryus

95 1/22 44 14 h4 2 ***

96 1/22 67 26 42 2 =^=-^=

12 3/10 6 10 30 2 **

97 4/5 62 11 36 .. **'=

98 4/5 19 27 ?>7 .. ***

70 6/5 Ti.ssuc unsuited for study 13 mm. embryos

74 7/2 5 3 0 1 ^'^

68 7/10 108 20 38 . . ''

1 7/30 52 9 11 •• **

3 8/20 4 5 20 .. ***

69 9/1 . . 14 50
76 9/2 14 7 57
9/3 5 '^ 44

//

75 9/4 13 11 18 .. **

72 9/7 25 1 / 6^ . . "^

71 9/8 Tissue unsuited for study

n 9/8 42 15 40 .. **

4 9/15 18 18 22 1 =^=* 8 mm. embryos

llilaminar

5 9/21 4 16 69 2 *** l)lastocyst

6 9/21 88 10 30 1 *=^=* Stage unknown

Jan. 28, 1940 iiistoi.ocicai. stidv of kancaroo kat 69

TAlil.E I (cont.)

%

Stage

imcii

r3ate

Xo.

No.

Foil.

Corp.

Inst.

of

o.

taken

ooc\tes

toll.

atretic

kit.

cells

preg.

7

9/22

85

8

0

1

;j:.-|:

8

9/22

32

20

45

2

***

16 mm. emliryos

9

9/22

81

21

19

;|: :|:

15 mm. eml)ryos

10

9/22

6

8

13

2

*«=|:

22 mm. eml)ry().s

11

9/22

41

5

60

*^==i=

DISCUSSION

It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the Hterature dealing
with ovarian histology and cytology, since that has been adequately
done by several workers. The reader is referred to Corner's discus-
sion and l)ibliography in Cowdry's Special Cytology (1932).

Post-natal and post-pubertal ovogenesis in mammals is still a field
for intensive investigation. Hargitt (1930 a and b) is convinced that
there is a continuous production of germ cells from the germinal
epithelium of the ovary of the albino rat throughout the reproductive
period. Mossman (1937 b) and Pliske (1938) have indicated that
the same is true in the pocket gopher and thirteen-lined ground squir-
rel. Mossman's paper is more a suggestion than a verified conclusion
of post-pubertal ovogenesis, since he deals with ovogenesis only inci-
dentally to a study of the so-called thecal gland. On the other hand,
Pliske's study on the ground squirrel deals directly with the problem
of the follicular cycle, and he concludes that the process of ovogenesis
continues in the adult. I'oth the type of germinal epithelium and
tunica albuginea of the ovary of Dipodomys suggest this animal as a
possible type for such a problem if the difficulties of determining the
age of specimens and of making large enough collections can be over-
come.

The term "interstitial cells" is one more of convenience than any-
thing else. This is due (1) to the fact that the interstitial cells of the
ovary constitute a point of controversy, different investigators differ-
ing in their conception of the term, and (2) the material used for this
study was not fixed for cytological study.

It would be worth while to study thoroughly the cytology and fate

The Great Rasin Xaturaiist
70 KKNNKTli T,. DIKK \()1. I, Xo. 2,

of these cells. As has been mentioned before, the\- ;n)])ear to he c\clie
or periodic in nature. The nuniher of these cells in an\- one ovary
varies; their degree of vacuolation varies; in some ovaries their cell
membranes can be seen while in others they cannot ; and in some
ovaries the nuclei of these cells are rather smooth in outline, while in
others they are very irregular. It is known that some other mammals
exhibit a cyclic production of interstitial cells; Rasmussen (1918) and
Guthrie and Jeffers (1938) found this to be the case in the wood-
chuck and ])at respectively. However, any similarity between the
woodchuck or bat and the kangaroo rat in this resjject would be lim-
ited, since the interstitial cell cycle in the woodchuck and bat is corre-
lated with hibernation, which in turn affects the reproductive cycle.
Evidence from this study indicates that the kangaroo rat does not
hibernate, viz., different stages of pregnancy have been found in Jan-
uary, March, June and September (see Table I). Then, too, Table
I seems to show no correlation between the number of interstitial cells
present and the time of year the animal was collected. All this would
seem to argue strongly for year-round activity, which in turn would
have its efifect upon the reproductive cycle.

Although the ovary of the kangaroo rat is probabl\- cjuite similar
to that of other rodents, yet it seems that the study of a complete
C}tologically lixed and well i)repared collection might ])ossibly \ield
some light on ])oints tliat are now controversial.

inr.LIOCRAPHY

Corner, G. W. 1932. " Cytology of the ovum, ovary and Fallopian
tube." Special C\toloqv, E. V. Cowdrv. vol. 3, pp. 1566-1607.
(Paul r.. Hoeber'lnc.'New York.)

Grinnell. Jos. 1919. " Five new five-toed kangaroo rats from Cali-
fornia." Unh'crsltv of Coliforuia Pithlirafions in Zoolo(/x, vol.
21, no. 2, pp. 43-47.

1922. "y\ geographical slu.dy of the kangaroo rals of Cali-
fornia." Uuivcrsilx of i'aHfoniio lUihlioalioiis in Zooloi/w noI.
24, no. 1. pp. 1-124".

and Linsdale, J. M. 1929. "A new kangaroo ral from ihe

upper Sacramento Valley, California." Unii'crsity of Calif oniia
Publications in Zoology, \o\. 30, no. 17, j)]). 453-459.

Guthrie. M. 11., and Jeffers, K. R. 1938. "A cytological study of
the ovaries of the bats Myotis lucifugus lucifugus and Myolis
grisescens." Jonr. Morph., vol. 62, pp. 523-557.

llargitt, G. T. 1930 a. The formation of the sex glands and germ
ct'lls of mammals. 111. "The histor\- of the fem.nle germ cells

Jan. 2S, I'HO iiisToi.ociCAi. s'lrnv oi' kancakoo kat 71

in the albino rat to the time of sexual niaturil\-." Jour. Morpli.

&■ Physiol., vol. 49. pp. 277-331.
1930 b. 1\. " Continuf)us orii^in and dei^eneration of

germ cells in the female albino rat." Jour. MnrpJi. Sr I'liysiol.,

vol. 49, pp. 333-353.
Lee, T. G. 1918. " The implantation of the l)lastoc}'st and formation

of the decidual cavity of Dipodomys." ^Inat. Rvc, vol. 14, p. 43.
Midgley, E. E. 1938. " The visceral anatomy of the kangaroo rat,

Dipodomys." The JUologisf, vol. 19, pp. 135-136. (This is Init

a brief abstract of a paper read at the Indianapolis sessions of

the A.A.A.S.. December 28, 29, 1937.)
Mossman, H. W. 1937 a. " Comparative morphogenesis of the fetal

membranes and accessory uterine structures." Carnegie Iiisti-

tiifc, Cojifrib. to EmbryoL, vol. 26, no. 158, pp. 133-246.
1937 1). " The thecal gland and its relation to the repro-
ductive cycle ; a study of the cyclic changes in the ovary of the

pocket gopher. Geomys bursarius (Shaw)." .-liner. Jour. A)iat.,

vol. 61, pp. 289-319. '
Pliske, E. C. 1938. " The follicular cycle in the sexually mature

thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Citellus tridecemlineatus Mitch.)."

Jour. Morph., vol. 63, pp. 263-287.
Rasmussen, A. T. 1918. " Cyclic changes in the interstitial cells of

the ovary and testis in the woodchuck (Marmata monox)."

Endocrinology, vol. 2, pp. 353-404.
X'orhies, C. T.. and Taylor. W. P. 1922. " The life history of the

kangaroo rat." U. S. Department of .Iqriculture, Bull. 1091, pp.

1-40.

72

KENNETH L. DIKE

The Groat Rasin Naturalist

\'(A. 1. Xo. 2,

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES

Figures 1-6 were drawn with a camera lucida at the magnifica-
tions indicated.

List of abbreviations

bm

f ep

ge

ms

nu

oc

ov

pb

P f ep

th

zp

. l)asenient membrane

. folUcular epithehum

. germinal epithehum

. maturation spindle

. nucleus

. oocyte

. ovum

. polar body

. pycnoctic follicular epithelium

. undifferentiated thecal layers

. zona pellucida

PLATE I

Figure 1. Oocyte just below germinal epithelium, x 970.

Figure 2. Nest of four oocytes beneath the germinal epithelium.
X 970.

Figure 3. Follicle of type 2. The zona pellucida and basement mem-
brane are both clearly dift'erentiated. x 970.

Figure 4. Atretic follicle of type 2. The ovum is hyalinized and
shrunken. Granulosa layer (f ep) is intact, x 430.

Figure 5. (3vum of atretic Graafian follicle, showing first polar body.
X 430.

Figure 6. Ovum of an atretic follicle of type 3. Pycnotic cells of
follicular epithelium have become loosened and pulled away
from the ovum. Maturation spindle is present, x 430.

Figure 7. Chart showing the relationship of nuclear diameter to
ovum diameter in follicles of tyi)es 1, 2, 3, Graafian folli-
cles, and oocytes.

A STUDY or THE O/AFtY
OF THE KANGAROO RAT
ty KEhSETh L . DUKE

® S ^»®

Fiefc

Oocyfes Foll.typel Fblltypt2 Foil types. Oraaf. Foil

THE ESTATILISHMEXT AND MAINTENANCE OE

TERRITORIES P.Y THl-. YELLOW-Hl'.ADl'.D

BLACK r.lR]) JN CTAli'i'

REI-LD W. FAUTIN

(iraduate Student, Department of Zoology

University ot Illinois, Urbana, 111.

INTRODUCTION

Era^mentary and incidental observations on the life-histon' of the
\'ello\v-lieaded ]*>lackl)ii"<l XanfJiocephalus xaiithoccplialiis (Bonaparte)
date back to 1825 when Prince Charles Liicien Bonaparte first de-
scribed and figured this species in his "American Ornithology." C)l)-
servations on this species have since been made by many American
ornithologists including Audubon (1842) ; Coues (1871) ; Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgvvay (1874) ; and Bendire (1895) ; but no really
serious eft'ort was made to study its life-history until 1909 when T. S.
Roberts kept a colony consisting of sixty-two nests under observation
for a period of thirty-two days. Since that time other short but careful
studies on the nesting habits of this bird have been made by Gabriel-
son (1914) in Iowa and Nebraska, by Wetmore (1920) in New Mexico
and by Linsdale (1938) in Nevada. In spite of all observations the
establishment and maintenance of territories was not noted until 1932-
34 by Einsdale, the results of whose observations were published in
1938.

During the spring and summer of 1937 the writer had the oppor-
tunit}' of studying two colonies of Yellow-headed Blackbirds in Utah,
studying them from the time they arrived in the spring until they mi-
grated in the autumn. Both colonies were located about five miles
west of Provo, Utah, in the vicinity of Utah Lake. The larger of
the two colonies was designated as the " Provo River Colony " be-
cause it was located at the mouth of the Provo River on the east
shore of Utah Lake. The other colony was designated as the " Lake-
view Colony " and was located northeast of the Provo River Colony
about two miles east of Utah Lake.

Because of the height and density of the vegetation in which the
Provo River Colony was situated it was difficult to identify particular

(1) Contribution No. 79, from the Department of Zoology and Entomology,
Brigham Young University and the Departament of Zoology, University of Illi-
nois.

75

The Great Rasin Naturalist

76 RKi:o w . F.MTix \ 01. I.Xfj. 2.

individual birds and lo determine the boundaries of their territories,
consequently the writer's observations on the establishment and main-
tenance of territories were largely restricted to the Lakeview Colony,
the location of which offered many distinct advantages for a study of
of this kind. This colony was very favorably situated in a low de-
pression surrounded by higher ground and open pastures so that the
entire area could be viewed from an}- one position around its border.
The size of the area restricted the number of birds present and con-
sequently greatly facilitated the identification and study of individual
birds and made possible the determination of the boundaries of each
territory.

DESCRIPTION OF COLONIES

The Provo River Colony occupied an area 2 hectares (5 acres) in
extent which was covered by a dense growth of tamarix Tamarix
gallica L. and willows Salix ssp. varying in height from 4 to 12 feet
and growing in water 5 to 19 inches deep. The Lakeview Colony oc-
cupied a small marsh lying in a low depression into which water
drained from the surrounding fields and pastures. The area occupied
by this colony was 0.15 hectares (0.37 acres) and was covered with
a dense growth of bulrushes Scirpus validus Vahl. and some sedges
Carex ssp. which were growing in water whose depth varied from
9^ to 30 inches.

As indicated by the difference in the kinds of vegetation occupied
by these two nesting colonies and since this same species was also
found nesting in cattails Typlia latifolia L. in other places around the
lake, it would seem that the species of vegetation is of little concern
to this bird in its selection of nesting sites. This fact is also sub-
stantiated by various other observers who have reported the Yellow-
head as nesting in many diff'ercnt kinds of vegetation: bulruslies
Scirpus, Roy (1903); Hags Iris. I'enl. (1908); reeds J' h ran mi Irs,
Roberts (1912) ; sedges Carrx, Kumlien ( 1897) ; cattails Typlia, 1 lealy
(1917) ; and willows Salix, Linsdale (1938).

No territories were established in areas where the vegetation was
not growing in water. Williams (1929") in northeastern North Da-
kota, Davis (1935) in Idaho, and Stephens (1937) in Jowa all cite
evidence of the ^'ellow-head failing to breed in areas from whicli tlie
water had disappeared even though there was sufficient moisture to
support the ])lants and although llie ])irds liad i)re\i()usl}- nested in
the areas when water was present.

Jan. 28, 1940 tiif. VF.r.i.ow -iif.adkd i'.i.acki-.ini) 1'/

ESTABLISH AIEXT OF TERRITORIES

The first Yellow-heads to arrive made their appearance April 5,
1937, in the vicinity of the Provo River nesting area. This flock con-
sisted of 9 mature males w^hich were not found in the area where the
colony was later established but were in the tamarix along the lake-
shore about an eighth of a mile south of the mouth of the Provo River.

One week later, April 12, 3 males were seen in the Provo River
nesting area. By April 18, when the spring migration of males was
at its height, this area was occupied by 250-300 male Yellow-heads
and about an equal number of male and female Red-winged Black-
liirds Agelaius phoeniceus ssp. At this time there was no evidence of
the Yellow-heads having begun the establishment of territories be-
cause both species flocked together and there was no segregation or
isolation of individual males.

Following this influx of male Yellow-heads there was a gradual
decrease in their numbers until by May 1, only 20-30 birds remained.
At this time there was no flocking and the remaining males were well
(listril)uted over the nesting area. The Yellow-heads had also become
so intolerant of the Red-wings that no Red-wings remained in the
area. Some later Yellow-head arrivals also established territories in
ihis area so that by tlie time the peak of the nesting season was
reached the male population amounted to 25-35 birds.

No ^^elhnv-heads were observed in the Lakeview area until April
25, three weel^s after tlie first males appeared at the Provo River area.
At this time 12 males were present, some having already established
their territories. Although the males of the Lakeview Colony arrived
somewhat later than those of the Provo River Colony, they l)egan tlie
establisliment of their territories immediately so that the establisli-
ment of territories began at about the same time in both colonies.

Ahliough as many as 20 males were sometimes seen in the nesting
area of tlie Lakeview Colony during the early part of the breeding
season, only 12 established territories. The first males to arrive se-
lected those parts of the marsh where the previous year's growth of
bulrushes was most dense and consequently best suited for the at-
tachment of nests. The later arrivals established territories around
the edge of the marsh outside the territories of the early arrivals.
A small part of the marsh which had been burned over so that the bul-
rush stumps extended only 6 to 8 inches above the surface of the
water was not occupied until all the other available parts of the nest-

The Great Rasin Xaturatist
78 KEED W. FAUTIN V'ol. I,No. 2,

mg area had been claimed (Fi<^. 1). This was the last territory to
be established and in which the last nest was constructed.

The size of the individual territories varied considerably and
seemed to be limited by competition for space and the suitability of
the habitat for nesting purposes. The territories were smaller and
more numerous in the more favorable than in the more open parts of
the marsh. The twelve territories of the Lakeview Colony varied in
size from 760 square feet to 2,275 square feet with an average of
1 ,294 square feet ( Fig. 1 ) .

No first year males established territories or were observed within
the nesting area although the}- were frequently observed in adjacent
areas.

POPULATION OF THE TERRITORIES

The males arrived early enough so that many of them had already
established their territories by the time the females made their appear-
ance. The first females to arrive at each of the nesting areas were
observed about two weeks after the arrival of the first males and at
the time when the male migration was at its height. The first females
were observed at the Provo River area, April 18. By April 25. the
female population of this area had increased to 70-100 birds and one
week later was estimated to be 150 although this number did not re-
main and nest in the area. The first females to arrive at the Lake-
view area were observed May 5. Five females were seen at this
time and two days later the number had increased to 14. The total
female population of 40 birds was reached about June 5. which to-
gether with the 12 males made a total population of 52 birds or
slightly over 4 liirds per territory.

Each territory was occupied by a single male and from one to five
females, however any one particular territory was not occupied at the
same time by the total number of females which occupied it during
the entire season, Init due to a prolonged nesting season and disturb-
ances of various kinds, certain females occupied a particular territory
at one time and others at another. 'J'here were three territories in
which four females nested at the same time; six in which three
nested; two in which two were present at the same time; and one in
which only one female was present at any one time. .\ few females
made second and third attempts at nest building so that the 44 nests
represented in figure 1 were constructed by 40 females.

Jan. 28, 1940 tiik >i:i.i.()\\ -iiF.ADKn i'.i.ackimrd 79

MAINTENANCE OF TERRITORIES

Durin.i;" the process of estahlisliiiii;' and niaintainins; iheir territories
the males made themselves as conspicuous as possihle hy displaying
themselves from the lii,i;hest perches within their territory and by
singing. This performance seemed to l)e a means of attracting the
females that were seeking places to liuild nests and also served as a
means of protecting their territories hy ncjtifying and warning other
males that the particukir area was occupied. With one foot placed
above the other or in a straddled jjosition with one foot grasping one
stem and the other another as near to tlie tips of the slender tamarix
and bulrush stems as would supi)ort their weight the males would
sway back and forth in the breeze and would do their best to produce
a song, which, though far from l)eing musical, could not help but
attract attention.

The display which accompanied their singing consisted of a pe-
culiar twisting of the neck, a tiutfing out of the feathers, a spreading
of the tail and a holding of the wings slightly out from tlie sides of
the body so that their white patches l)ecame very conspicuous. During
the course of the song the neck was stretched forward and downward
and then gradually raised so that by tlie time the climax of the song
was reached the beak was almost ])ointing skyward.

The song of the Yellow-head is very difficult to describe because
it is so unmusical and mechanical and because it would probably be
interpreted somewhat dii'ferently by ever}one who heard it. Taverner
( 19.^4 :37n describes the singing activities of this bird in the follow-
ing vivid manner: " The song of the Yellow-headed — if song it can be
called, as it lacks every musical quality — is like that of no other Ca-
nadian bird. Climl)ing stiiif-leggedl\- up a reed or tule stalk, the male,
with wings partly raised, lowers his head as if about to l)e violently
ill, and disgorges a series of rough, angular consonants, jerkily and
irregularly, with many contortions and writhings, as if their sharp
corners caught in the throat and they were born with pain and travail.
The}- finally culminate, and bring satisfied relief in a long-drawn, de-
scending buzz, like the unwinding and futile running down of the
machinery. The general eiTect of the performance ma}- be somewhat
suggested by the syllables — ' Klick-kluck-klee-klo-klu-klel-kriz-kri-
zzzzzzeeeeeee.' "

The males did some singing when the}- first arrived but it became
much more pronounced after they had established definite territories.

The boundaries of the territories were recognized and closely ad-

The Great llasiii Xatr.ralist
«S0 KKKl) W. rATTIX \'()]. I.X(j. 2.

licrcfl lo Ity hotli iIk' "owner" of iIk- k'rritory and b}- liis nci_i;iil)ors.
While in his terriloiy llie male was ever on the alert to guard it
and chose the highest percli ])ossil)le from which to watch over his
domain. One particular male had three perches around the periphery
of his territor}- whose boundaries he would partol by flying from one
perch to another at frequent intervals.

The boundaries ot individual territories were determined bv the
activities of the males, whicli included not only singing and display
l)ut also hghting. Whenever one male happened to enter another
male's territory he was immediately attacked by the owner and driven
out. On no occasion was the intruding male seen to resist expulsion
by the "owner" but in all cases immediately retreated. If the retreat-
ing male's territory- joined that of the pursuing male he would stop
after reaching his own territory and resist further pursuit b\- the
other male. L'sually the pursuing male would also stop and return
to his perch but on s(jme occasions, especially during the early part
of the season when territories were just being established, the pur-
suing male would c(jntinue his chase and a battle would ensue. Thus
the points at wliich the retreating males resisted further chasing and
where the ])ursuing males stopped or engaged in combat with the
other males were used as an indication of the boundary lines (jf the
individual male territories.

Some feeding was done \vithin the territories, especially during
ihe early part of the nesting season, but the Yellow-heads obtained
most of their food outside the nesting area. Feeding within the terri-
tory was much more prevalent in the Provo River Colony wdiere there
was an abundance of midges Chironoinns on the vegetation than in
the Lakeview C"olony, where most of the feeding w'as done in the ad-
jacent ])astures and fields and where at frecjuent intervals during the
day the males left their territories to forage. Several of them usu-
ally left the nesting area together and when outside the confines of
their respective territories seemed to lose most of their intolerance,
feeding ver\- complacently together. Since most of their feeding was
done outside the nesting territories the amount of time spent within
the territories was reduced considerably and varied with diflr'erent in-
dividual birds and with different parts of the nesting season. The
average ])ercentage of time spent within the territories during the
day was forty-five. This was shortl}- after the territories had been
established and when mating activities were at their height.

(Jn a numl)er of dijtcrent {jccasit)ns when one male left the nest^

Jan. 2<S. I'MO tiik vkllow-iieaded hlackrird 81

ing area and his neighbor remained, the remainin;.,^ male would assume
temporary dominion over both his own territory and his neighbor's
until the return of the rightful owner. If some male other than the
owner tried to invade either of these territories, he was immediately
driven out.

Most of the males maintained their territories until about the
time they began to moult but some of them had abandoned their terri-
tories b\' June 1. Just prior to the time the first males left their
territories, a cold rain storm occurred. ]\Iay 30. accompanied b\- a
sti'ong wind which destroyed many nests and caused the death of
many nestlings. Whether this storm was responsible for the early
abandonment of some of the territories by the males is difficult to
say, but it would appear that the storm may have had some influence.

After some of the males had deserted their territories the remain-
ing males appropriated the abandoned territories adjoining their own
so that the original twelve territories of the Lakeview Colony were
occupied by seven males during the latter part of the nesting season,
(Fig. 1). In figure 1 the original 12 male territories are indicated by
solid boundary lines and numbered in the order of their establishment.
Broken lines are used to indicate the expansion of certain territories
(numbered with Roman numerals) after others w^ere deserted. The
boundaries of territories 4 and 5 remained unchanged throughout the
season. The males that remained longest were those within whose
territories the late nesting females occurred.

Although very intolerant of each other within the confines of their
l)ersonal territories, the males were very cooperative in times of dan-
ger. Whenever any member of the colony, male or female, emitted
,an alarm call, all the other members of the colony immediately re-
sponded and often flew to the place from which the alarm was sounded.
Here in the presence of a common enemy they would enter into the
combat in a most cooperative spirit. After the intruder had been ex-
pelled from the nesting area the males would return. to their respective
territories and reassert their intolerance for each other.

The females seemed to exercise dominion over a small area imme-
diately surrounding their nests but did not recognize the boundaries
of the male's territory in which they nested. As previously described,
several females nested in the same male's territory, and although the
different females in a few cases constructed their nests less than a
meter apart, yet they were generally intolerant of each other in the
vicinity of their own nests and more frequently occupied opposite

The Great Basin Naturalist
82 KEKD \V. FAUTIN Vol. 1, No. 2,

extremities of the same male's territory (Fig. 1). When one female
aj^proached within two or three feet of another female's nest the
owner oi the nest would immediately attack the intruder driving her
away ivom the immediate vicinity of the nest hut not necessarily out
of the male's territory within which she was nesting. At no time
were the females observed to help the males defend thetr territories.
The }oung fledglings and their mother usually remained relatively
close to tlie nest for several days after leaving it but eventually made
their way into territories other than the one in which they were
hatched. There was no evidence of the males objecting to this but
in mr)st cases the territory- which the fledglings entered had been
aliandoned l)y the original " owner."

RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER SPECIES

Linsdale (1928) has pointed out that the nesting habits of different
species of birds are sufficiently varied so that they may occupy the
same general area and yet not l)e competing with each other for nest-
ing sites. The idea that each species of animal has a ])articular niche
in nature intcj whicli it fits is generally true. l)ut the more closely re-
lated the species are, the more similar the niches into which they fit
usually become, so thai in some cases there may be very marked com-
petition for these niches. Such seems to be true in the case of the
Vellow-headed and Red-winged Blackbirds. As previously mentioned
the Red-wings flocked \\\th the ^'ellow-heads at the time of spring
migration, before the Yellow-heads had established their territories,
and they also flocked together in the late summer and autumn after
the nesting activities were over but the\- were incompatible during
the nesting season. The Yellow-heads were restricted to vegetation
growing in water yet the Red-wings very often preferred this same
ty])e of habitat. Five pair of Red-wings nested in the Lakeview area
hut none of them were in the immediate vicinity of the Yellow-heads'
territories ( h'ig. 1 ). Two of their nests were located in bulrushes in
a ])art of the marsli which was not occupied ljy any Yellow-heads and
the others were in sedges, a ty])e of vegetation which is much less
rigid and less sul)Stantial than the bulrushes and in which no Yellow-
heads established territories. Actual combat between the species dur-
ing the early jnirt of the nesting season gave evidence that the Red-
wings nested in the sedges not l)ecause the\' chose to do so but be-
cause there were no ^'ellow-heads there.

Before the Yellow -heads arrived at the I'roMt Kiver area, several

Jan. 28. 1940 Tin: vki.i.ow-hk.adkd hla(KI5ikd 8.^

.Marsli Wrens. l^^lDuitodyfcs pahtslris plcsius (Oljerliolser) were ob-
served among the tamarix but shortly after Yellow-heads came, the
wrens disappeared and were neither seen nor heard again until after
tlie Yellow-heads had practicall}' all vacated the area, l^ven at this
late date the w^rens nested and two nests were found which contained
newly hatched young as late as July 22.

American Coots. Fiilica a. anicricaiia Gmelin nested in both areas.
Ten nests N\ere located in the Provo River area, and there were prob-
ably man}- more, and six in the Lakeview area. The nests of the
coots were often within a few feet of the Yellow-heads' nests and
yet there was no evident contention between these two species, the
reason probably being that they occupied two entirely different strata
in the same biotic community, one nesting on the water and the other
in the vegetation above the w-ater, whereas the Yellow-heads and Red-
wings are members of the same stratum and thus come more directly
into competition with each other.

Western Yellow-throats, Geotlilypis triclias occidcntalis Brewster
nested in both areas but no nests were found within the confines of
Yellow-head territories although they were suspected of having nested
within some territories.

The Xevada Cowbird. Malotlwus afcr artcniisiac Grinnell was ob-
served in the vicinity of both Yellow-head colonies but no Yellow-head
nests were found parasitized by it. One Western Yellow-throat nest
was found which contained two cowbird eggs.

A pair of Alarsh Hawks, Circus hiidsoiiiiis (Linnaeus) nested in
the marsh of the Lakeview area. Their nest was located in a part
of the marsh where the bulrushes were very thick and wdiich seemed
to be the type of habitat preferred by the Yellow-heads but within
lifteen or twenty meters of which the Yellow-head did not nest, un-
doubtedly because of the presence of the hawks (Fig. 1 ). The hawks
were already incubating at the time the Yellow-heads arrived and
although they gave no evidence of molesting the Yellow-heads yet the
blackbirds would become very much excited whenever the hawks were
flushed from their nest and would fly over the colony. This reaction
toward the Marsh Hawks was also exhibited by the Yellow-heads
when hawks of other kinds flew over the colony and also when the
colonies were visited by Black-crowned Night Herons, A'ycticorax
iiycticnrax hoactli (Gmelin).

Four White-faced Glosy Ibises. Plcijadis guaranna (Linnaeus)
came to the Lakeview area June 10 where they built two roosting

Tile Great liasiii Xaluralist

84 rfa:d \\. FAUTiN \'()1. l.Xo. 2.

plal forms on the north and east sides of the marsh outside any terri-
tories of the Yellow-heads. They chose that part of the marsh wliicli
had been occupied by the Marsh Hawks but was now abandoned I)}-
them. The presence of the Ibises seemed in no way to disturb die
Yellow-heads.

DISCUSSION

Since Howard (1907-1914) first published his work concerning
territory in the life of birds as exhibited by some of the Uritish
warblers, many investigators have been interested in this phenomenon
in the life histories of many species with the result that the term
"territory" has come to be very loosely anil indisci'iminalel)' used.
Nice (1933) points out that if the concept of "territorx" is to ])c sig-
nifiicant this term must be used with a definite meaning. Although
each investigator may not have precisely the same concept of terri-
tory yet it w^ould be ver}- helpful if he would clearly define' his con-
cept of the term as applied in his description and interi)rctalion ot
the territorial relations of the species under discussion.

The investigations which have l)een made indicate that tliere art-
man\' types of territories in bird life and that methods of establish-
ment and maintenance of these territories may var\- with the species
of bird studied. Mayr (1935) has made an attem])t to classify bird
territories on the basis of the purpose of the occupied space. I'nder
this classification, he lists fcjur types, only one of which is designated
as a " true territory." This type of territory serves as a " Matmg sta-
tion and feeding ground for the young (Buntings, some w aiblers) ."
(Mayr 1935, p. 33). Nice (1933. p. 90) says. " Territory cannot
mean just the nest spot when the adults feed in connnon ; this ma}'
be 'nest territory.' l)ut is a very different matter from a lei^ritory in
its strict sense to which the parents confine themseKes during the
breeding season. Again, the very essence of territory lies in its e.\-
clusiveness; if a bird's range is not defended, it is not a true terri-
tory." According to these concepts only those birds wliich defend
an area large enough to insure the i)arents and offspring ;ui adecpiate
food supply could be considered as having "true territories." ( )ther
investigators have spoken of certain birds as having true territories
although they temporarily desert the area in which tlie nest is located
going to other areas to feed yet which they tenaciousl\ defend w lien
present. Mayr lists the I'untings as having true territories yet 1 loward
(1920. p. 125) in his (lescrii)tion of their territorial behavior savs.
" Buntings desert their territories temj)orarily and colled in llocks on

Tan. 28. 1940 the yellow- it e.\ded hl.vckbikd 85

llie newly .sown fields of i,n-ain." He also says. ( 1920. p. 235 i ihat,
" Earl}' in the season it establishes a territory, and because f(jo(l is
then scarce it is forced to seek it elsewhere than on the small plot
of ground wliich it has acquired ; and so makes its wav to some sp<Jt
where the supply is abundant, and there, meeting with other species
bent on a similar errand forms with them a flock. I'art time is spent
in the territfjry and part on tlie feeding ground, and l)ctween these
two points a highway is formed 1)y the l)ird passing constant!}' to
and fro." In comparing the territories of the Guillemot, which re-
(|uires but a few square feet of cliff, with the Peregrine which may
exercise dominion over several square miles of barren moor. Howard
(1920, p. 298) says, "One species must occup}- sufficient ground to
enable it to secure food for its young ; another requires sufficient, but
no more, upon which to deposit its eggs . . . ."

The writer's concept of territory- as descril)ed b\- various investi-
gators and as exhibited in the life history of the Yellow-headed Black-
bird is as follows: To have a true territory the male bird must isolate
itself; must make itself conspicuous, by song, dispkn- or both; must
I)e intolerant of males of its own species and other species whose
nesting hal)its are enough alike to induce competition for nesting sites
and other nesting necessities ; and must defend a definite area whose
boundaries can 1)e ascertained l)\' oI)serving the behavior of the l)ir(l.
This defended area ma\' or ir.ay not be large enough to provide an
adequate food suppi}' for the parents and offspring but it should be
a place of mating and afford protection against interferences during
the nesting cycle from invaders of the same species or different species
whose nesting habits may 1)e enough alike to result in competition.

liernard Altum (1868) was first to advance the theory that the
])rimary purpose of territory in the lives of 1)irds is to separate them
sufficiently during the nesting season so that an adequate food sup-
ply will be insured for l)oth the parents and offspring. He even went
so far as to sa}' that the size of territory depended on the relative
abundance of food. Later Howard (1920 and 1935) pointed out that
the availabilit}' of food close to the nest rather than the total quantit}'
or relative abundance within the territor\'. which w(ndd result in the
accommodation of a maximum number of pairs, is of greatest signifi-
cance. The Lacks (1933 and 1936) contend that a "food territory"
is not indispensable in bird life and give evidence that it is as yet un-
proven that this is the significant thing in many typically territorial
species. Tucker (1935) intimates that food may not have the same

The Great Basin Naturalist
86 KF.ED W. FAUTIN \'ol. ],No. 2,

.significance; in all territorial species but considers that the abundance
of food is the most plausible working hypothesis to account for the
size of territories in those species whose territory includes much more
than the immediate mating and nesting area, thus intimating that a
defended mating and nesting area is a territory. Lack (1935) con-
siders that the large territories of the polygamous Bishop-bird are not
correlated with food. Harrison and Buchan (1934) show that the
St. Kilda Wren obtains food f rcjm only a small fraction of its territory.
Venables and Lack (1936. p. 69) found that in the Great Crested
Grebe, " The territory does not usually include the feeding ground of
the pair, and is in all cases deserted when the young hatch," and
" The territory seems to be an individual affair, of no fundamental
significance to the species." Thus many of the more recent investi-
gators have found that food is not as significant in the lives of terri-
torial birds as was once supposed and have come to assign mating
(Mayr, 1935) ; the insurance of non-interference during the nesting
cycle (Nice, 1933) ; and success in reproduction (Nethersole-Thomp-
son, 1934) as equally or more important purj)oses of territory.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there is a definite need for further investigation into
the territorial relations of the Yellow-headed Blackbird the following
tentative conclusions have been drawn from the data thus far ob-
tained :

1. The "W-llow-headed lUackbird nests in ct^lonies in A\liicli each
male establislies and maintains a definite territory.

2. The males are polygamous and from 1-5 females nia\- nt'st in
the same territory.

3. The male establishes his territor}- onl}- in vegetation which is
growing in water although he seems to exercise little choice
in kinds of vegetation.

4. The females exercise dominion over a small area immediately
surrounding their nests but give no evidence of recognizing the
boundaries of the males' territories and do not help the males
in defending their territories.

5. The males arrive before the females in the spring and may
have their territories established by the time the females make
their appearance.

Jan. 28. 1940 thk yellow- hf.adkd nLAc-Kniko 87

6. Most of the food is obtained outside the nestini^ area.

7. The purpose of territory in this species seems to be :

a. T(j insure adequate nesting sites.

b. To aid the females in obtaining mates.

c. To atTord protection from various interferences during nest-
ing season.

ACKXOWLEDGMEXTS

The writer wishes to thank I'rofessor C. Lynn Hayward of the
I'righam Young University under whom this study was begun for his
suggestions and ever-willing helpfulness; the writer's brother, "Bobby"'
Fautin for helping to record data in the field and in helping to meas-
ure the areas studied; and Dr. S. Charles Kendeigh of the University
of Illinois for his helpful criticism and suggestions concerning the
preparation of this paper.

LITERATURE CITED

Altum. Bernard

1868. Der Vogel und sein Leben. ^lunster (1st ed.) 168 pp.
1898. (6th ed.) 300 pp. (Translation by Mayr. 1935)
Audubon, John James

1842. Birds of America. London : Robert Havell & Sons. \'ol.
4, 365 pp.
Baird, S. F., T. M. Brewer, and Robert Ridgway

1874. A History of North American Birds. Boston: Little. Brown
& Co. Vol. 2, 590 pp.
Bendire, Charles

1895. Life Histories of Xorth American Birds. Special r.ull. Xo.
2. U. S. Xat'l Mus. ; 518 pp.
Bent, A. C.

1908. Summer Birds of Southwestern Saskatchewan. Auk 25 :
25-35
Bonaparte. C. L.

1825. American Ornithology. Philadelpliia : Carey. Lea &' Carey.
\'ol. 1. 105 pp. '^'

CouES, Elliott

1871. The Yellow-headed Blackbird. Am. Xat.. 5: 195-200. 1 fig.
Davls, William B.

1935. An Analysis of the Bird Population in the A'icinit}- of Ru-
pert, Idaho. The Condor 37 :233-238
Gabrielson. Ira N.

1914b. Breeding Birds of a Clav County. Iowa Farm. Wilson
Bull. 26: 69-81

The Great Basin Naturalist
88 KEKD W. FAUTIX \'()1. I, Xo. 2,

Harrison, T. H. and J. N. S. Ulciian -

1934. A Field Study of the St. Kilda Wren Tro(/lodyics Irolodytes T
hcrfcnsis. Jour. Animal Ecology 3: 133-145

Healy, L. E.

1917. Alinncsota lUrding. Tlie Oologist. 34: 106-109

Howard, H. E.

1907-1914. The British Warbler, a History, with Prohk-ms of
Their Eives. London: 6 vols., 9 pis.

1920. Territory in Bird Life. London: John Murray. 308 pp

1929. An Introduction to the Study of Bird Behayifir. Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 136 pp.
Lack, David

1935. Territory and Polygamy in the Bishop-l)ird,i:n/^/rr/t\v /;or-
deacca Iwrdcacco (Linn.) Ibis 1935: 817-826
Lack, D. and L. Lack

1933. Territory Review. Brit. Birds 27: 179-199

1936. Territory. Some recent American work. Brit. Birds, 29 :
255-258

KUMLIEN, LuDWIG

1897. Correction of a Frequent Misstatement. Osprey 1 : 117
Ltnsdale, Jean M.

1928. Some Environmental Relations of tlie Birds in the Missouri
River Region. Wilson Bull. 40: 157-177

1938. Environmental Responses of Vertel)rates in the Great luisin.
Am. Midi. Nat. 19: 1-206
Mayr, Ernest

1935. Bernard Altum and the Territorx' 7diet)r\-. Proc. Linn. Soc.
N. Y. Nos. 45, 46: 24-38
Neth ersole-Thompson. De.smond

1934. Some Aspects of the Territory Theorw Oologist Record
14: 15-23
Nice. Margaret M.

1933. The Theory of Territorialism and its Develo])ment. Fifl\-
Year's Progress of American ( )rnithol()g'S'. 1883-1933. Lan-
caster, I'enn. Am. Ornith. Union 249 i)p. (89-100)
Ray. Milton S.

1903. A List of the Land Birds of Lake \'alley. Central Sierra
Nevada Mountains, California. Auk 20: 180-193, Pis. 8
and 9
Koi'.i-.k'i's, Thomas S.

1000. A Study of a Breeding Colony of Yellow-headed Black-
birds. Auk 26: 371-389. Pis. '5-14

fan. 28. 1940 thk YEi.T.(n\"-H haded blackhikd 91

1912. The Yellow-headed r.Iackl)inl. T-ird Lore 14: 250-253
Stephens, T. C.

1958. T]ie Summer Birds of the Lake Okoboji Kei^ion of Iowa.
L'niversity of Iowa Studies 17: 277-340
Taverner. p. a.

1934. r.irds of Canada. Canada Dept. of Mines Bull. No. 72,
445 pp.

Tucker. B. W.

1935. Some Rellections on Territory. Brit. Birds 28: 247-248
\'exabl]:s, L. S. \'. AND D. Lack

1936. Further Notes on Territory in the Great Crested Grebe.
B.rit. Birds 30: 60-69

AX^ETMORE, Alexander

1920. Observations on the Habits of Birds at Lake Burford, New
Mexico. Auk 37: 393-412.
Williams. H. V.

1926. Birds of the Red River Valley of Northeastern North Da-
kota. Wilson Bulletin 38: 91-110.

The Mexican Bean Beetle Taken at Provo, Utah

Specimens of the Mexican Bean Beetle, Ef^ihichiia cnrni/^ta Muls., were col-
lected on the Brigham Young Universit.v campus, by a student of entomology,
Mr. George Cannon, in October, 1939. This extends the distribution of this species
in Utah since it was last reported by this writer in the Pan-Pacific Entomologist,
\^ol. Y, pp. 183-86, 1929.— Y. M. T.

The Great Basin Naturalist

92 \'ol. I. Xo. 2,

European Journals and the War

Tlie nun-Tfceipt by a siibscriher oi' any European chemical or other scientific
journal seriously needed as research material slinuld be jiromptly reported to the
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Tlie Cultural Relations Committee of ADI, which cooperates closely with
the Cultural Relations Division of the Department of State, is working on this
problem, and hopes to be able to surmount such war obstacles as interrupted
transportation, embargoes and censorship, wihcli so grievously affected the prog-
ress of research during the last year.

The principal should be established, if possible, that the materials of research
having no relation to war shall continue to pass freely, regardless of the countries
of origin or destination.

Reports, with full details of where subscription was placed and name and
address of subscriber, volume, date and number of last issue received, should be
addressed to :

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NOTES OX THE DlSTRllJUTK )X OF NIGHTHAWKS

IN UTAH w

C. LYXN HAYWARl)

Assistant Professor of Zoology and Entonu)los;y

Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah

A study of a small collection of nighthawks kindly determined for
Brigham Young University by Dr. H. C. Oberholser seems to \varrant
a few comments upon the distribution cjf the subspecies of Chordcilcs
niiiior in Utah.

For reasons to be indicated in the f(jllo\\ing paragraphs it is evi-
dent that considerable collecting and held ol)servation must still be
done before breeding ranges and migratory courses of the several sub-
species are thoroughly understood. Far from oiifering a solution to
these problems, it is the purpose in this paper to record certain in-
formation that will, it is hoped, shed some light upon the situation,
and at the same time call attention to the need of further published
records based upon collections of liotli birds and nesting data.

1. CuoKDKiLKs MINOR HOWKLLi Oberholscr. Hcnvell's Nighthawk

Published Records: Ciwrdcilcs popetitc var. Iicnryi Allen, 1872,
p. 179 (Kansas to Utah) ; Henshaw. 1874, p. 8 (Mts. of Utah, breed-
ing up to 7,000 feet.) ; Ridgway. 1877. p. 568 (Parley's Park and
Uintah Mountains, Utah).

Chordcilcs virginiamis howclli Oberhcjlser, 1914, p. 64 (Parley's Park,
Wasatch Mountains (June 21, 1869, July 24, Aug. 13 and 16, 1869).

Chordcilcs iniiior lunvclli ( in part). Tanner and Ilayward. 1934 p. 226
(La Sal Mountains, Grand and San juan Cos., July, 1934; La Sal,
San Juan Co., June, 1927, breeding).

J5RIGHAM YouNc; UNIVERSITY Recokds : One adult female ; La
Sal. San Juan Co., June 16, 1927; taken from nest containing two
eggs (C. Cottam). One adult female; Warner Ranger Station, La
Sal Mts., Grand Co.. el. 9,400 ft., July 5. 1934 ( C. L. Hayward).
One adult male. Geyser Pass, La Sal Mts., San Juan Co., el. 10,600
ft., lulv 27, 1934 (D. E. P.eck).

(1) Contribution Xo. 78 from tlie Department of Zocjlogy and Entomology,
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.

93

The Great Basin Natiualist
94 C. LYNN ITAVWAKD \'()1. ] . No. 2,

2. CiKjKDEiLKS MINOR sENNKTTi Coues. Seiinc'tt's Xii;lulia\\k

Published Records: As far as tlie writer knows there is no
previous published record for Utah.

Brigham Young University Record: ( )nc female, east sh<jre
Utah Lake, near Provo, Utah Co., August 29, 1931 ( C. L. Hayward).

3. Chordeiles minor ifenryi Cassin. Western Xii^hthawk

Published Records: Chordeiles inluor hciiryl Presnall, 1935, p.
202 (Region surrcjunding Zion National I'ark, W'ashington Co.).

Brigham Young University Records : (Jne adult. 10-mile spring,
south of Escalante, Garfield Co., June 22, 1936 (1). F.. Beck) ; one
adult female and two immature young unable to llw Jensen. Uintah
Co., July 23, 1937 (J. W. Bee and C. L. Hayward) ; one adult male
and one female, Warner Ranger Station, Grand Co., July 14, 1934
(H. Hutchings).

4. Chordeiles minor hesperis Grinnell. Pacific Nighthawk

Published Records: Chordeiles popetue luaird, Allen, 1872. p.
179 (Ogden. Utah).

Chordeiles popetiie heiiryi Ridgvvay, 1875. p. 30 (Salt Lake \^alley,
Utah ) .

Chordeiles virginiamis hesperis Grinnell. Oberholser, 1914. pp. 49 and
51 (2 specimens. Buckskin Valley, Iron Co., Sept. 1, 1908, collected
bv W. II. Osgood; two specimens, Fairheld, Utah Co.. June 21 and
27, 1890. collected l)y V. Bailey).

Chordeiles minor hesperis Stanford. 1938. p. 138 (several specimens
Logan. Cache Co., September 19. 1930; Logan Canyon. Cache Co.,
July 29, 1937; Promontory. B.o.xelder Co., July 22. 1931.

Brigham Yoi'ng University Records: One adult. Tremonton.
Hoxelder C^)., June 27, 1931 (C. L. Playward) ; one adult female,
east side of I'ear Lake. Rich Co.. June 27. 1926 (C. Cottam) ; one
adult male. Geyser Pass, La Sal Mts.. San Juan Co.. July 27, 1934
(D. E. Beck) ; one adult male, St. George, Washington Co., Sept. 11,
1933 (F. Atkin) ; one adult male. Ute Mountain, near state boundary.
San fuan Co., Utah and Montezuma Co.. Colorado, taken from a nest
containing two eggs, June 23, 1927 (V. M. Tanner).

Jan. 28. 1940 nich'iiiaw ks ix itaii 95

Dl.SCUSSlOX

TIic ncstiii'^ records of C. in. lioTcclli from tlic W'asatcli Mountains
and from La Sal tend tcj substantiate the breeding range as indicated
on (3berh()lser's map (1914. pi. III). However, the breeding ranges
of C. ni. Iicspcris and C. ni. hcnryi appear to deserve considerable
extension within the state.

It seems plausible to the writer that G". m.Mospoyhi im^ C. ui. Jicnryi
must extend its breeding range northward along the drainage of the
Colorado and Green Rivers for a much greater distance than has been
l)reviously known. This view is substantiated by the fact that speci-
mens were taken in San Juan, Grand, and Garfield Counties during
ihe breeding season, and that a female with young still in the nest
was collected at Jensen. L'intah Count}-. The spread of this sub-
S])ecies across the southern part of the state is indicated by Pressnall's
report of its occurrence at Zion Can^'on, Washington Countv (1935,
p. 202).

The nesting record of C. ui. hcs/'cris on Ute Mountain near the
I'tah-Colorado state line and close to the southern extremity of the
l»oundar_\- would seem to extend the lireeding range of this subspecies
for a considerable distance eastward. Its breding range in Utah was
previously ( Oberholser, 1914, i)l. Ill) designated as the northwestern
])art of the state. The collection of this sul)species in the La Sal
INIountains. eastern L^tah, July 27, 1934, further substantiates its
breeding in the southeastern part of the state, although the specimen
taken there ma_\- have been an earh' migrant.

It is (jf interest to note that during the course of field work in
the La Sal Mountains during the summer of 1934 nighthawks aj)-
peared regularly in the late evenings feeding alxiut the clearings and
forests at elevations of 9.000 to 10,600 feet. Six specimens taken
from these indivduals included all three subspecies as follows: C. ui.
howcU'i 3. C. III. Iiciiryi 2. C. in. licspcris 1. This information, together
with the nesting data alread}' referred to. seems to indicate an over-
lapping of the breeding ranges of the three subspecies in southeastern
I trdi. Continued and intensive collecting of breeding Inrds. particu-
larly in the southeastern part of the state is greatly needed to throw
more light upon the exact ecological niches of these birds that appar-
entl}' breed in the same geographical area.

The sjiecimen of C. in. scnnetti collected at Utah Lake was un-
doubtedly a migrant individual. This bird in company with a number
of other ifighthawks was found sittini' on the bare sand a few rods

The Great Basin Naturalist
96 C. i.VXN IIAYWAKD X'ol.I.Xo. 2.

from the water. W'licther or not tlie other iiuHviduals were of the
same subspecies cannot be determined since no other collections were
made. The question of the regularity of the migration of sciiiictti
through L'tah can be answered only through future collection.

ri:ferEx\ces cited

Allkn, J. a.'

1872. List of the birds collected in the vicinity of Ogden, Utah
Territory from Septemljer 1 to Octoljer 8, 1871 ; with anno-
tations. J kill, of the AIus. of Comp. Zool., Caml)ridge,
Mass., 3 (6) : p. 179.

Hrnshaw, H. W.

1874. Annotated list of birds of Utah. Annals of N. Y. Lyceum
of Nat. Hist.. 11 : pp. 1-14.

Oberholser, H. C.

1914. A monograph of the genus Cliordeiles Swainson, type of a
new family of goatsuckers. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 86:
pp. LVn'and 1-120. 6 pis.
Presnall, C. C.

1935. The birds of Zion National Park. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci.,
Arts and Letters, 12: pp. 197-210.
RiDGWAV, Robert

1875. Lists of birds observed at various localities contiguous to
the Central Pacific Railroad, from Sacramento Cit}', Cali-
fornia, to Salt Lake Citv, L^tah. Bull. F.ssex Inst., 6: ])p.
30-40.

1877. U. S. Geological ]''xplorations of the fortieth parallel. Part

III Ornithology, pp. 303-669.
Stanford. J. S.

1932. Birds of desert, marsh, field and mountains in northern

Utah. I'roc. Utah Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, 9: pp. 71-77.
1938. An annotated list of the Ijirds in the U^. S. A. C. Zoological

Museum. I'roc. L'tah Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters. 15: pp.

135-146.
Tanner, V. M. and C. L. Mavwakd

1934. A biological study of the La Sal Mountains. L'tah Report

No. 1 (b'cologv). Proc. Utah Acad. Sci.. Arts and Letters.

11 : pp. 209-233, pi. N.

BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY

PROVO, UTAH

(FRANKLIN S. HARRIS, President)

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For further information write:

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HEW CENTURY PRINTING CO.. PROVO. UTAH

Volume I ^ oto^mi^T-x Numbers 3 & 4

Zoology '* \

oCT 21 1941

The Great Basin Naturalist

June 30, 1940

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A. Biotic Study of the Kaiparowits Region of Utah, Vasco M.

Tanner 97

The Flying Squirrel Collected in Garfield County, Utah . . . 126

New American Diplotaxis (Coleoptera-Scarabaeidae), Mont A.

Cazier 127

Herpetological Specimens added to the Brigham Young Uni-
versity Collection, Wilmer \\' . Tanner 138

John E. Blazzard Contributes Mammal Collection 146

Index to Volume I 147

Published at Provo, Utah, by the

Department of Zoology and Entomology of

Brigham Young University

The Great Basin Naturalist

Vasco M, Tanner, Editor
C. Lynn Hayward, Assistant Editor

A journal published four times a year by the Department of
Zoology and Entomology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.

Manuscripts. Only original unpublished manuscripts, pertaining
to the Great Basin and the Western United States in the main, will be
accepted. Manuscripts are subjected to the approval of the editor.

Illustrations. All illustrations should be made with a view to
having them appear within the limits of the printed page. The illus-
trations that form a part of an article should accompany the manu-
script. All half-tones or zinc etchings to appear in this Journal are
to be made under the supervision of the editor, and the cost of the
cuts is to be borne by the contributor.

Reprints. No reprints are furnished free of charge. A price
list for reprints and an order form is sent with the proof.

Subscription. The annual subscription is $1.50, (outside the
United States, $2.00). Single number, 50 cents.

All correspondence dealing with manuscripts, subscriptions, re-
prints and other business matters should be addressed to the Editor,
Great Basin Naturalist, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.

The Great Basin Naturalist

Published by the ^^-'^of Cam^

Departmknt ok Zooi.O(;y and Entomolocv

'*" 7o...ov'"*'5^

'}qU 6

Bkicham Young University, Pkovo, Utah C)CT 21 1 941

VoLUMK I JUNE 30, 1940 Nos. 3 & 4

A BIOTIC STUDY OF THE KAIPAROWITS RI-.GTOX

OF UTAH (1)

VASCO M. TANNER

Professor of Zoolog}' and Eiitoinolot;y

Brigliam Yoims University

INTRODUCITON

The Kai])arowits region because of its aridity, ruggedness, and in-
accessibility has remained practicall}' unknown biologically. Located
between parallels 37° and 38° and meridians 110° 45' and 112° 30'.
it is bounded on the southeast by the Colorado River, on the south by
the Arizona l^tate line and the west by the Paria River — Bryce Can-
yon area, w Idle to the north is the Aquarius Plateau and on the north-
easl 1 1 alls Creek and the Henry Mountains. This region as designated
by (iregor) and Moore (2) has an area of about 5,400 square miles.
A bird's-eye view of the area, looking north from the Utah-Arizona
state h'ne, is shown in Figure 1. Not all the region shown in this
figure has been traversed by members of the surveying parlies. In-
stead we have confined our efiforts, in the main, to studying the Esca-
lante River drainage.

In this the first of a series of reports on the region, we propose to
briefly outline the purpose and extent of the investigation to date.
and then discuss the biotic formations and certain animal groups.

This work was begun on June 8. 1936. when the writer, D. I'",.
Heck, James Bee and C. L. Hayward spent 810 man hours in various
parts of the Escalante River drainage. In September 1937, C. L. Hay-
ward and the writer spent 180 man hours in the Paria valley. The

(1) Contribution No. 8.^ — Dept. of Zoology and Entomolooy, Brigliam Yoini.u
University.

(2) Gregory, H. E. and 'Moore, R. G., Tlie Kaiparowits Region. .\ Geo-
graphic and Geologic Reconnaissance of Parts of Utah and .\riznna: U. .S. Geol.
.Survey Pmf. Paper 164, 10.^1.

97

VASCO M. TANNER

The Great Basin Naturalist

Vol. I.Nos. .'^.4.

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BIOTTC STUDY OF K A r PAROWITS RP:GI0N

99

work was carricMl on in 1938-39-40 by Dr. Ikck who si)eni 700 man
Ikjui's in 1938 with a party of three besides liimsell'. consisting of
James Bee. Wilmer W. Tanner and George Cannon. ( Fig. 2 ). Jn 1939,
Dr. Reck. Harr\- Chandler. Tom Peterson, bjsiali Darker and Jesse
Spencer, the latter two men from Escalanie acting as ])ack horse guides,
spent .^90 man liours. They worked mainly during die mondi of
August, exploring the course of the l.sialanle l\i\e]- fiom die mouth
of Calf Creek to the Colorado Ri\ei". dien m»u11i foui- miles to d'e

Figure 2. Members of the lyJiS parly. Leil u> ii^lu- IJ. L. Beck. George Can-
non, Wilmer Tanner and James Bee. (By permission ni Utah Magazine.)

"hole in die rcjck.'" famous crossing of die LOloraclo made 1)\" Mormon
I'ioneers in the winter of 1879-80. Dr. Heck i)laced a bronze pioneer
marker on a prominent ledge over which the intrepid colonizers strug-
gled to get their 80 wagons. 1200 head of live stock. 200 men and
women, and 50 children down and across the river. This pioneer im-
dertaking ranks as one of the most notable and daring arlventures.
engaged in by the Mormon colonizers, in soudiern Ctah.

In 1940, Dr. Beck and Trvin McArthur spent 70 man hours dur-
ing the last of May and the early pail of June collecting and photo-
graphing the area east of the Willow .'>))ring Tank down to the
h.scalante River.

TOI'OI.R.M'HY

This area was chosen for faunistic study because it is a part of the
Colorado Plateau province in south central I'tah which until recenth'

The Great Basin Naturalist
100 VASCO M. TANNER ^^ol. T. NoS. 3, 4,

has been practically inaccessible. The topographic features are pla-
teaus, mesas, isolated clififs and buttes and deeply intrenched canyons
in sedimentary rocks, mainly Mesozoic in age. The present topography
is due to water and w ind t-rcjsion combined with folding and faulting.
As one looks out over this great expanse from the auto highway on
Table Clifif pass a thrilling panorama of the results of the action of
erosion is beheld. From this point to the sf)utheast across Glen Can-
yon, at the end of the Kaiparowits Plateau, 90 miles distant, may be
seen Navajo Mountains ( k"ig. 1 ) . A little northeast and at a distance
of 65 miles the Henr\- ^fountains stand out conspicuously. INlost of
the area within this triangle is the Escalante River drainage area of
approximately 1,900 s(|uare miles. The A(|uarius Plateau to the north,
in which the Escalante River and man}' of its tributaries originate, has
an elevation of 10.000 to 11.600 feet. From this lava capped, forest
covered plateau, the country sloj^es to the south ; Glen Canyon at the
junction of the I'.scalante River being only 3,305 feet in elevation.
All this area is very well drained, small as well as deep gullies and
washes are almost endless. As a result of this the scant precipitation
is soon conveyed to the Colorado River. Travel over much of this
region is practically impossible without a guide and jiack horses.

CLIMATE

Froiu the records on precipitation kept at a numbers of towns in
the Kai|)arowits region it is evident that the rainfall is insufficient for
the production of crops without the aid (jf irrigation. The annual
mean rainfall al I'.scalante. elevation 5.700 feet, for the years 1901
lo 1927. was 12.14 inches and for Cannonville during the years 1890
lo I'MS ii was 11.37 inches. Along the Colorado River from Halls
(Veck lo Lees Ferr}' the mean annual rainfall varies from 5 to 8
inches. 1 )uring the months of Jul}', August and September from one
third to one half of the annual rainfall is precipitated as thunder
showers, ofttimes causing Hoods and being of little benefit to the
count}' because of the rapid runofi:" and evaporation.

The amiual. as well as dail}', lem])crature variation is verA' great,
definitely affecting the plant and animal life of the region. Through-
out this entire region subzero temperatures may be ex]ierienced dur-
ing the winter. .\t (."annonville, altitude 6,000 feet, a record of 32°
below zero was recorded for the irionth of February. During the
summer months high tem]ieratines up to 120° are fairly common,
riu'n. too, the dail}' changes are considerable. On June 21, 1936 al
Willow .'spring Tank, in the l-'-scalanle Pesert, the atmospheric tern-

[uiK- .^0, 1940 BioTic sTri:)>' oi' km I'akdw lis ki'.ciON 101

piTaturt' rcaclu'd lOS"^ while the surlace si)il reached 134'. ( )ii the
followiiiL; inoniiiig, June 22. at 4:40 .\. M. the alniosplierie tempera-
ture was 49''. a ditiereiice in less than twelve hours of S9', and this
in spile of clear cloudless skies. The zt)olo>4ist soon learns that he
nuist collect in the evening and early mornings in this desert country.
.\fter sundown the hiding' species of the desert hegin their forageing
and one is socmi made aware of the statement thai the "night has a
thousand eyes."

PREVIOUS WORKERS

Finally because of the nature of the country, desert conditions,
with extremes in temperatures, and the pavicity of biological infor-
mation we decided to collect and study the fauna and flora of this
region. While considerable has been written about the geology of the
area b)- Powell (3), Button (4). Gilbert (5), and Gregory and Moore
(6), very little has been published on the ])iota. In 1922 Drs. Moore
and llungerford (7) repcnled upon the water insects collected in this
region. They listed eight species which were collected by Dr. Moore
while engaged in his studies on the geology of this region.

The reptiles and amphibians of Bryce Can}-on National Park were
discussed b}- Tanner (8) in 1930, and this same year Chamberlin and
|-5erry (9) listed the Mollusca the\' had collected in the Henry Moun-
tains.

Miss Helen Dixon (TO) spent considerable time during several
summers studying the plant associations of the southern High Pla-
teaus of Utah. Most of her study was carried on in Wayne County
tt> the north of the area under consideration. In May, 1931, Mr. W. D.
Stanton ( 11 ) completed a master's thesis for the P>otany Department

(3) Powell, J. W., Exploration of the Colorado River uf the \\'est and its
tributaries. Smithsonian Institution, 1875.

(4) Button, C. E., Report on the Geology of the High Plateau.-, of Utah.
U. S. Geog. and Geol., Survey Rocky Mts. Region, 1880.

(5) Gilbert, G. R., Report on the Geology of the Henrv Mountain^, ind
Edition, 1880.

(6) Idem. 1931.

(7) Moore, R. C. and Hungerford, H. B., Water insects from a portiun oi
the Southern Utah desert: Kansas Univ. Sci. PniU. Vol. 14, pp. 409-422, 1922.

(8) Tanner, V. AI., The Amphibians and Reptiles of Bryce Canyon Na-
tional Park, Utah: Copeia, Xo. 2, June 30, pp. 41-43, 1930.

(9) Chamberlin, R. V. and Berry, E., Mollusca from the Henry Mountains
and some Xeighboring Points in Utah. Bull. Univ. of Utah, Biol. Series, \'ol. 1.
No. 3. pp. 1-7, Oct., 1930.

(10) Dixon, Helen, Ecological Studies on the High Plateaus of Utah: Bot.
Gaz. Vol. 97, pp. 272-320, 1935.

(11) Stanton. W. D., A preliminary study of the Flora of the Henry IMoun-
tains of Utah. A masters Thesis; unpublished, Brigham Young Universitv, Mav,
1931.

Tlie r.ieat Basin Xiiuirulist
102 VASCO M. TAiNNKK Vol. T, Nos. O. 4.

at Brigham ^'oung L'niversity, in which he discussed the plant asso-
ciations or formations of the Henry Mountains. Mr. Stanton recog-
nized si.\ formations and e.\i>ressed the beHef that 60 per cent oi the
flora of the mountains had a northern origin.

Dr. Gregory (12i briefly discusses the plants (jf the area recog-
nizing three plant zones. 1 le also included a short list of forest ])lants
which was furnished l)y Wallace M. Riddle, forest supervis(jr.

These are the (Mily studies that have come l(j our attention in which
the plants and animals have l)een discussed. It is obvious from thi.s
that very little is known about the fauna of this portion of L'tah.
While much remains to be done in completing the ecological studies
and making the desired interpretations of the data collected, it is our
belief that the following discussion of the plant and animal associa
tions and the animals listed should l)e jjublished at this lime. The
writer desires to thanlc Mr. 11. \'. \\'al]<er, Park Naturalist of Zion
National I'ark- for the ])ermission to use Figures 1 and 10; J)r. 1 >.
ICldon Beck and Mr. ITarr}' Miller of the Utah Magazine for the use
of Figures 2. 3, 4 and 11 ; Dr. li. F. Harrison and Mrs. Desma Hall
Galway for aid in determination of the plants collected, and tlu-
various members of the collecting parties. The thrill, howevei-, of
exploring rmd collecting in this virgin, unstudied regi(jn is its own
reward.

r.lO'riC CO.M.M UNITIES

In making a stud}' of this kind it is of hrst ini])oi'laiice ihal llic
species oi the area be c<jllected, listed and iheir aJunidaucc and disti"i
bution determined. With information of this kind at hand it is
])OSsible, with knowledge of the toi)ography, climate and fauna, lo
make ;in inlerjjretalion and cla.ssitication of the ctmimunitii's.

I )I':S I'.RT-PR A I k 1 1'. ( ( ).\l .Ml' \ l'l'\-

The entire Kaiparowils region lieloiigs to ihr North .\mericaii
Grassland biome and much of il to the mi.xed I'rairie association, ii
we follow recent workers in l>io-ecolog\' (13). The Jvscalante Deserl.
altitude 4.250 to 5,200 feet, extending south along the straight cliffs
and east along the k.scalanle Uiver to (lien C.'uuon, contains !nan\
of the dominants, sub-dominants and inlluents of the mixed I'rairie
association. This area is, however, along an ecotone since there is a
noticeal)le merging of the mixed ])rairie with the non-grasslands; also

02) Idem, p. 24.

(13) Clements, ]•". F.. imd .Shcltord, V. E., Bio-Ecology, 1930.

lunc 30. 1940

I'.IOTir STCDV ol- KAllWkOWITS ur.(^io.\

103

many ni llu- luitU'r s|)ec-ics bt'luen tlie Lower and Upj>er Sonoran
, niios. arc cncounU'rc-d. I'.ecausc of ilic niixinj^ (if tlie desert and
prairie s|)ecies in w hal appearN to he a rather wide eeolone I |>refer tt»
rail this the I )esert 1 'rairic eonnnnnity to the Mixed I'rairie assoeia
tion now in eomnion nsaj^e. This desert may be divided into a nuniln-i-
ot" serai staj^es. Thr shii'iin<^ sands, steep walls of the washes and
ean\()ns. and water holes provide many dynamic serai i;roni)int;s ( Fii;s.
3. 4. 5. 6, 7. and Si. hisre^ardins^ tlicse seres at present, hnt listint^

Figure o. Death Hollr.w Iroin tlic .Skyline Hridgc on llie ro.id between P.milrler
and Escalantc. Practically no life is able to maintain itself upon tlie vteeii walN.
( I'.y pernn'ssion n\ I'tali Nfayazine.)

the dominants and influents we tind the following; species, all of which
were collected SO miles southeast of Escalante at Willow Spring Tank
and Hall Cave, water holes on the desert, between the straight cliffs
and the Escalante River and about 20 miles northwest of Glen Canvon :

Tlielirt-ai I'.asin Naturalist

KM VAscd ^r. tanner Vol. T, Nr)^. 3,4,

PLANTS
Ephedra iorreyaiia; J/ilaria iaiiicsii: .Iristida (jlanca; A. longiscla:
Slipa comata iiilcniicdia ; Ory:::opsis hyuiciioidvs; Sporoboliis flexiio
sus; Polypogoii iiioiispcHciisis; .U/rustis sp.; Foa fcndlcriana; Bromus
tectoruiii ; Elcocharis iiioiiluiia ; ) ttcca liarrimaiiiac ; Qiicrcus imdulata;
Q. turbinella; O. piiiujois; Erioyoiiuiii inflatuui; E. shockleyl; E.
immmnlarc; Eriogonuin sp.; Polygonum aviculare; Cyclolonia atrip-
licifolvmn; CHcnopodium album; Salsola pcstifer; /Imarantltiis blit-
oidcs; Tripicrocalyx pcdimculatus; Tripterocalyx cyclopterus; fibroma
alllptica; Clematis liqitsticifolia; Stanleya sp.; Lepidium sp.; Cleomc
hilea; Coleogyne ramosissima ; Cowaii'ia stansburiana; Kramcria glan-
dulosa; Astragalus americanus ; Linum aristatuiu; Chamaesyce parryi :
C. fendleri; Rhus utahetisis ; A', trilobata; S phaeralcea cocchiea; Opnn-
I'la rhodaiitlio:' : Mentrjella initltiflora ; Lepargyrca rotuiidifolia ; L. ar-
f/ciitea; Pachylophus margiiiatiis; .Isclepias cryptoceras; Cilia guuni-
soiiii; Euploca coiivolvulacea ; Cryptanthe crassisepala ; Solaiiii))! tri
flondii ; Peiitslcinoii anibiginis ; Coleosaiithus obloiigif alius linifoliiis ;
Chrysothanimis naitscusits; C. filif alius; ErigeroH bellidiastriim ;
Praiiseria aeaiithicarpa ; Xaiitliiitiii pe}isylvanicuin ; IVyethia scabra:
1 1 eUanllnis aiiomaliis ; l.apliaiiiia pahneria; Hymenopap pus eriopodiis ;
.Irtemisiii filifolia: .1. inexicaiia ; ./. ca)ia; and Pliloria panciflora.

MAMMALS

The following represent only the species collected in traps ur ob-
served ; a number of species were reported by some of the old settlers
to have been in that region when it was first occupied :

Perognathus I. arizonensls ; Dipodomys o. cupidinens : Per amy sens
manicidatus sonoriensis ; Lepus c. deserticola ; Citellus I. ciiiiuiiiia)iieiis :
Lasionycteris noctivagans ; Pipistrellus hespenis liespents; Thaniainys
h. absonus; and Ca)tis estor.

The pronghorn anteloi:)e, . Iiitilaeapra anierieaiia, was connnun in
this area in pioneer days, 1875, extending northward along the Colo-
rado River to the San Rafael Swell, the Green River and the Uinta
15asin. Today there are remnant herds in Emery County around the
San Rafael and d'een l\i\rv, scnith of the LHnta P>asin.

BIKDS
Onl\- the common species that are met with daily are listed:
Mill! us palyglottos leueopterus (A young specimen was collecled
|une 21, bv 1). 1^. P.eck ( 14) ; Chordeiles minor lienryi; Cvanoeephalus

(14) Tanner, Vasco M.. The Western Mocking Bird in Ut;ih, Proc. Ut.
Acad, of Sci., Vol. 13. pp. 185-87. 1936.

[ime 30. 194(»

I'.IO'IIC STCDV 111' KAII' AkOWITS UI'.C.ION'

105

cyanoccphaliis : luipltagiis cyuiioccpluilus ; Sayuniis soya saya ; Zcna'i
dura itiacroura niarginclla; Laiiiiis ludovicianus excubitorides ; Bidu
virgiiiianits pallascens; Sialta I'tirnicoidt's.

IXSJ'.C IS

111 ;nlililion lo Uie .uiualic iiisccls rcjiorkMl clsculicrc in lliis sliuh
llic tOlIouing' cliaractcrislic sj^ccics are listed:

Hesperoft'itix vividis; llel'iasliis aridus; Triiiicrolro/us rliiciiUiUi :
Cacania valvata; Riipagodcrcs sordidus; Eleodes ohsolcla var. f^or-
lata; li. cxlricata var. cof/jiala: /:. Iiispilahris: Erax barhahts: and
R. argyrosoiiia.

The grazing of sheep, horses and cattle in the Kaiparowits region
has made changes in the ])lant cover and the native fauna. Thousands

Figure 4. Natural Bridsjc. near the mouth of Calf Creek. (By permission of
Utah Magazine.)

106

VASCO ^r. TANXF.R

The fireat Ha<!in Naturalist

Vol. I. Xos. 3.4.

-^ JK '^"'iWi . *^'^ "

I'igurc 0. L (/li-of/yiu--KruiiiL-ria associf.s at \\i!li)\v ."^prinsi Tank lunking soiitli-
L-a.st showing the straight cliffs with Xaxajo .Mnuntain at the ciul. The hghl area>
(A) are mainlv Kravicria whiU- the- dark art-a^ (111 are niaiiil\- C'nlcdciviir Photo
by D. K. Reck, 1940.)

Figure 6. Tlic Hall, showing tlie manner in which tlie luitrada Sand^t()ne (Juras-
sic) weathers. The plant cover is mainlv lUackhrush. Colctuixiic rniiiiKussinia.
(Photo hv D. K. Reck. 1938.)

Tune 30. l')4(t

UmTIC >'!rD\- OF KAlPAKOWrrs Ul'CIdX

107

(if acres of saiidx deserl around llie Mall and Willow Si^rini; Tank,
f I'ij^s. 3&:()i. al present. li;i\r a plani eo\er, rslimaled ihrous^ii count
iui^' \arious ])lols. which is composed of I'lackhnish. i'olcof/yiic raniii
sissiiim. 7? per cent: Kvauieria, /\ rdinrr'ui (/lainhil()sa. H) ]K-y cent:

Figure 7. The Lliimney K'nck or Sentinel, near Willow Spring Tank. The sand
dune in the right corner is being held by fiphcdra torrcycnia. I he light colored
plants are Kraiiioria and the dark colored ones in the background are Cfllconyitf.
The Pocket Mon^e. rrroi/uallnis I. aricoiiciisis. and Kangaroo \i:a. Di/'ixhuys o.
ciil'idiiiiiis burrow into the sand dunes. (Photo by D. K. I'.cck, I'MO. )

■il#*'* ''*

Figure 8. Desert near Coyote Culch. Showing the grass Aristida loufjisrta (B)
in association with Cnlcooviic (A) and Rflinira torreyana (C). (Photo by D. E.
Beck.)

108

VASCO M. TA.XXF.k

Tilt; Great Basin Natviralisi

\'ol. 1, Nos. .\4.

Matchvveed, Guticrrczia spp., 5 per cent; Brigham tea, liphcdra lor-
reyana, 2 per cent and Prickley pear, Opuntia rhodaiillia.' 2 pc-r cent.
[t was also noted that there is consideraljle variation l)el\\een C'olco
gyne and Kramcria, with respect to their dominants. In P^i,i;ure 5 [\w
light areas are 70 to 80 per cent Kraiiieria while in the dark areas are
70 to 80 per cent Colcoiiync. This may be due to a number of factor.s
such as, S(/d and water, eitlier one or both. In Figure 7 in the right
hand side Ephedra is shown serving as a sand binder, while the plaiU
in the light foreground is niaiidy Kramcria and the dark pk-uu ex-
tending back to the chimney rock is Colcoiiync.

b'igiire 9. Pinyoiis ;ind Junipers at Escalantc, Utah. The Escalante J\iver in the
background is lined with cottonwoods, Popiilus frciiioiitii. (Photo bv D. E. l'>cclv,
1040.)

Between Collett Wash and Coyote Gulch are areas in which llie
grasses, .irist'ida cjlauca and ./. loiujiscta are common (Figure 8).
These grasses are not so palatable to live stock, as other species, which
may accoimt for their abundance at present.

PINYON-JU.\aPER A.SSori ATIOK

Surrounding the Fscalante desert on the foothills of the Aquarius
Plateau. Circle Clifis, Straight Cliff, Table Cliff, Potato Valley, and
Paria Valley is a Pinyon-Juniper association in the Woodland, Pinyon-
Juniper formation at an altitude of 5,500 to 7.000 feet (Fig. 9).

Some of the dominants of this association are :

lune 30. 1940 pioTir study of kaiparowits region 1'>^^

PLANTS

P'uiiis cditlis; Juuipcnts utaliciisis; FUraginlics commiDils ; Pucci
iicllia iiuftalliana ; Tradcscaitiia scopuloru\n : Jioicits ballicits; Jitiicus
longistylis; Oiicrcus wilco.vii; Coinandra pallida; kUoiic.v crispus; /\tri-
plcx confcrtifolia; Ccrcocarpns inlricatiis: . luiclaiicliicr spp.; Sphac-
ralcca iiiar()iiiata : S. iininnHiiio ; l\tmanx (/allica: I'ra.viiiits aitoniala;
I'rascra spcciosa; Apocyiium canuahhiitni : .isclcpias Inbcrosa; Gilia
suhnuda; Crvpfantlie feiidlrri; I'crhcua hracfeosa ; Casfillcja cxilis:
(rriiidclid squarrosa ; Pclradoria piiiiilla: Clirysotliaiiiiius f/ravcolriis ;
Aster hirfifoliiis; Cliaciiacfis doii(/lasii: .Irtcinisia fori^'oodii : ./. Iiido-
z'iciana; .1. carruih'n; Ptiloria cxiyiia.

MAMMALS

The following are common influent species found ranging in, as
well as above and below, this belt:

Neotoiua I. iiioiislrabilis; Eiitaniias adsifus; Citellus I. lateralis ;
C. V. Utah (15) ; C. I. cinnaiuoniciis ; Pcroiiiyscus sp.; Taxldea laxiix
berlaiidirri : Cynomys parvidcus ; and Sylvilagus a. li'arrcni.

BIRDS

Mdsi of the following birds were collected in the environs of Hen-
rieville:

Polio ptila c. anidenissima; I'ireo (jilviis s^vaiiisoiii ; Agclahts sp.;
Hedymcles iii. papago ; Guiraca c. intcrfusa; Passcrina auioeua; Pas-
sercidus s. nevadensis; Pipilo macidatns uwntaims; Pooecetes g. con-
finis; Chondcstes grammacus sirigatns; Spizella passcrina arizonac ;
S. brciveri brcweri; Zonotrichia I. ganibclii; Acronauics s. saxatalis ;
Prtrorhclidon a. albifrons; .Iphclocoina c. xvoodhousii; Cinclus inexi-
C(ini(s iinicolor; Baeolophns i. griseus; Troglodytes aedon parkmanii.

Tlie insects in this association were so generally distributed in the
associations above and below that no list is reported.

The Pinyons and Junipers cover in the main the mesas and tool

(\S) iM-nm a study of the skins available ()1 the two subsi^ecies C. v. f/rnin-
nninis and C. i'. niah taken in various parts of southern Utah and with the aid
of A. H. Howell's Xorth American h'auna No. 56, 1938, we have not been able
to make a satisfactory determination of the ranges of these subspecies in Utah;
however, the following represents our ])resent decision in the matter. Specimens
from St. George (1), Washington County: La Sal Mts. (2), San Juan County;
and Woodside (2), Emery County, are C. v. (iraiuiiuinis ; w-hile skins from Aspen
Grove (1), Vivian Park fl), Grove Creek i\Iount Timpanogos (1), Provo (2),
Utah Comity; Mount Nebo (1). Juab County: Aurora (1), Sevier County;
Beaver (2), Beaver County; Cedar City (1), Iron County: Hennrieville (1).
Moki Tanks (1). Circle Clififs. in Garfield County: and Fruita (1), Wayne
County, agree with the descriptions given for C. v. utnh.

VA.SCO M. TANNF.K

The Great Basin Naturalist

\"f)l. I. Nos. 3.4.

June M). I'Mit ruoTic study ov kaipakdwits rkgion 111

hills; in some places almost pure stands of these dominants are t'ound
interspersed with scattered sai^e hrush. .Irlonisia fridciilala, and
-Mountain ^Taho^any, Ccrcocurpiis iiilricalus. {V\ii. 10).

^■ i-:i .1 ,( )w FIX i:-( ) A k-m .\ .\ z.\ \ i ja ( < ).\i m u x n A'

l-.xtendinm' in a northeasterly direction from the south end of
Table Cliif Mountain ( Fi^. 10) beyond llirch Creek. I'ine Creek.
I'oulder Creek to Steep Cree]< at an elevation of 7.000 to 8..^(X) feet
is a belt of "S'ellow T'ine interspersed with Oal< brush and Manzanita.

This is a distinctive connnunity, apjjearinj^- as an ecotone between
the Desert .Scrub Climax below the Montane Forest Climax above.
Here the Man/.anita, then the Hak, and ^'ellow I'ine are associated
in separating the I'inyon- Juniper from the Asi)en-r>alsam-.Spruce for-
est. The donu'nants and inlluents of this assemblage mix or dove-tail
into the contact associations to a verv noticeable extent.

The following are some of the common plants:

PLANTS

Piiiits hracliyptcra ; J iiiii f^cnis scopiilontin ; . i (/ropvroii sp: FrltU-
luria atro purpurea; Salix pscitdoinyrisiuitcs; Bctiila foutinalis ; Qiicr-
ciis itfaliciisis; Monolcpis intttalliaua: .irenaria acnlcofa; TliaHctrmii
sp.: Clicirinia data; Ribcs rcrciiiii: Fulriifilla conciiina: Geiiiit macro-
phylliim ; Rosa sp.; Primus iiiclauocarpa : J'icia trifida; L'nnnii Icwisii;
. Ir/oslaphylos platyphylla ; Coiii'ohi'ulus arveusis; Erujcroii com posifus
iiiccrtiis: . I iitciniario micro pliylla : .Iclinca aricoiiicus : .\chUlca lauii
losa alplcola: . Irlciuisiu Iridculala.

^lAM.NtAL.S A\-|) lURDS

The following mammals and birds were taken in the ( 'ak brudi
of this association :

Neosorcx p. luiv'uiator : 7'lioinom ys fossor : Acoloiiui cincrca cliicr
ca: Cyauocifla s. coffanii: A^ucifilofja coluinhiana : Trooh^dytcs acdoii
parkiuanii.

THE SPRUCE-r.ALSAM-ASPI'.X ASSOCIATK )X

The face of the Acjuarius Plateau, at elevations between 8.500 to
10.000 feet, above the Yellow Pine. r)ak Ijrush to the rim of the Pla-
teau is rather distinctly marked otf from the Coniferous-Al])ine mead-
ow cover of the plateau proper. This belt is noticeable at the Table
Cliff pass. Pine Creek. Posy Lake highway and Boulder Highway on
the Boulder Mountain. Tt extends over great areas of the plateau.
At Table Clif¥ Plateau and Mt. Roger both about 10.000 feet arc
great stands of spruce, balsam and aspens surrounding open meadows.

The Great Basin Naturalist
112 VASCO M. TANNER \'ol. 1, NoS. 3,4.

Dumiiuuits and iiilluents follow:

PLANTS

Pintis urislatu; Funis flexilis; Ficca pnngcns ; Fscudotsiiga mucro-
iiata; Juuipcnts sibirica; Calauiagrostis iiicxpaiisa : Cotabrosa aquati-
ca; Poa feiidlcnaiia ; Glyceria striata: Festuca thurberi; Carex fest'i-
vella; Vagir-cra stcUata; V. Uliacea; CoraUorhiza macnJata; Fopuius
aurca; Salix bebbiana ;Urlica brctucri; Fersicaria amphibia; Oreo-
broma pygniaciwi ; .llsiiic jamesiaiia; Ccrastium berringianuui; Aneo-
inonc globosa; Radicida tcrrcstris; Physaria ncwbcrri; Lcsqucrella
kiitgii ; Sophia soiiuci; Ribcs montigenuin; Potcntilla coiiciiinacforniis ;
Dasiphora friiticosa; Rosa ivoodsii; Astragalus chaniaclcuce ; Jlcia
americano ; Viola nioiifaiieiisis; Epilobiiini stramineum; Gayophyfiim
raniosissijiiuvi ; Hippnris vulgaris; Cogsiucllia sp.; Gilia aggregaia ;
Pofciuomuui viscosuui; Flacclia hctcrophylla; Moldavica parviflora:
Mentha sp.; Peutsteiuon catoni; Fcntstcmon sfrictus; P. procerus;
Mimulus gutlatns; Veronica serpyllifolia; Castilleja linoriae folia; C.
coiifusa; Sanibucus caerulca; S. uiicrobotrys; Syinphoricarpos vacci-
iioides: Chrysopsis villosa; Erigeroii flagcllaris ; Hynicnopappus ciii-
ereus: Actinea richardsoiri; Helciiiuni hoopesii; Achillea lanulosa:
Senerio spartioides; Leoiitodon taraxacum.

BIRDS AND MAMMALS

Ochotoma sp.; Thomoinys sp.; Citcllns lateralis lateralis : Microtis
sp.; Myostis v. interior; Microtns mordax ; Eutaniios uiiuiinus coii-
snbriiius; Eutamias adsitns; Hyclocihla guttata auduboni; Myadestes
!ii;cnsendii: Juiico cauiccps; Colapfes c. coUaris; Sphyrapicus varius
nil (-lid! is: .Sphyrapicus f. nataliae.

i:\'(;i-:l.\l\nx spruce-alpine meadow assocl\tio\"

This zoiu' is very irregular, mixing down into the Balsam-Aspen
l)rli helow. Ilie Aquarius Plateau with an elevation of 10,500 to
1 1.600 feel. is. in places, covered with extensive forest of /';Vt'(/ eiigel-
iiKinuii. Tliis may be contrasted with Mount Timpanogos in the W'a-
sakli Mountains which is practical!) treeless, above 10,500 feet. The
ex))osure and heat absorbing qualities of the surface cover are ini
|)orlant factors in these cases. The y\(|uarius Plaleau is i-atlier tlat
and mesa-like which makes it possible for trees lo become established.
also the heat and moisture is fairly well distributed and held. The
opposite to this is more or less true in the case of Mount Timpanogos
which is steep and rugged without areas for jilatU growth. This

[line 30, 1940 riotic stitdy of kaiparowits region 113

wduld seem to emphasize llie poinl iliat the exposure and heat ab-
soihin.L; ([ualities of an area are more important than actual alii hide
in determining- the biota. Dwarfed asi)ens extend up to 10,600 feet.
The alpine meadows, xerophytic and mesophytic, due to present drain-
a,t:e and wind, as well as giaciation during the Pleistocene, liave many
herbaceous ]ilanls wIiicIt IjIooui dui'ing tlie last of Jime and July.

PJ.ANTS

Some of the si)ecies are as follows:

Aster glaucodes; Antennaria rosnlata: .Irlcniisia caita: Chrysopsis
7'i/losa; Hcleninm hoopesii; Lcoiitodoii iaraxacuiii : L. lyratuiii : Scfic-
ci<> spartioides; S. sitk^dorfii: Thlaspi rjlaucuin; Astragalus cliamac-
Iciicc; Gilia snhnuda: Polemonium vlscosuu]: Oreohronw pyginaciiin ;
h'aiiunculus scclcratus ; Potent'iUa conciiuiacjonuls: Rosa woodsii:
rnifslcuion procerus: and Veronica spcrpyUifolia.

MAMMALS r\Nl) BIRDS

.Species of mammals and birds that were taken are as follows:
Ochotoma spp.; Thomomys spp.; Peroiiiyscus spp.; Taiuiasciurus
spp.; Drvobates thyroides nataliae; Anus p. plotyrhynchas, (Found
breeding at Cyclone Lake, several young ducks were collected and
observed "i ; Spizella passerina arizonae ; J unco caiiiceps; Dendrica u.
audubonii : Sialia curriecoides; Numenius a. anicrlcanus; Spinus p.
pin us: Pooecefcs gramineus confinis; Plesperiplwna vespertina brook-
si ; Aclilis inacularia: Pulica a. americana : and Myochanes r. richard-
soni.

INSECTS

The greatest amount of collecting was done in ihe ."^iMUce- IniLsam
Aspen and the Engelmann-Alpine formations. Insects were foimd
abundant and easy to collect. The following are some of llie most
characteristic species which were taken:

Okanagana bella; Orphia canora; Circatettix Verrucidatus ; Cicin-
dela I. inontana: C. I. laurenti; Rhagiuin lineatnin; Magdalis leconlei
var. tencbrosa: Peritoxia uniformis; Crocidenia nigriae ; Thereva
frontalis: Crypto pagan bimaeula: St cno pagan rnfibarbis; Crytapagon
plansar : and Laphria janus.

LISTS OF ANIMAL SPECIES

The following Hst of Mollusca. Aquatic insects. Amphibians, and
Reptiles represent some of the interesting animal species of this area.

114

VASCO M. TANNER

The Great Basin Naturalist

Vol. I, Nos. 3, 4,

It is impossible at this time, because of space, to list other groups.
The collectors are reported by their initials: D. M. B., D. Elclon Beck :
H. C, Harry Chandler; W. W. T., Wilmer W. Tanner; J. B., James
Bee; and V. M. T.. Va.sco M. Tanner.

LAND SNAILS — Mollusca

Sphaeriidae

i'lsiDiUM ABDiTUM Haldeman

Localities: Specimens of this species were collected at Fosy
Lake. Steep Creek Lakes and in a small pond south of the Table
Clifif Pass, at elevations from 8,500 to 9,500 feet. Collections were

Figure 11. Posy Lake, A(|uarius Plateau, elevation 9.250 feet. .\ stand ul aspens
in the background. (Py permission of Utah Magazine.)

made in June. 1936 by V. M. T. and D. ]■".. !'... and in 1939 by H. C.
Haiutat: The lakes of the Aquarius Plateau are small natural
|)()iids. var\ing from less than an acre to 8 or 10 acres in surface area
and about 1 to 20 feet deep (Fi,!.;. 11). The following are some of
the ])lants found in and about these ponds: Polanioijcloii nchardsonn;
P. hitcrlor; Cliara s/^.; Carc.v (u/itatiliis ; Lciiina frisuica: Sali.v bcddi-
(iiia; Urtica brczvcri; Alsinc bar calls; .iqiiilcgia cacrulca albiflora:
Naintnciiliis sccJcralus ; Tlialictnmi majacarpmu : Arahis druuiinoudii;

June 30. 1940 biotic study of KAirAKowrrs Ki-.r.io.x ]]?

Geranium cacspitosimi ; I'iola sp.; Flcninniuni occidoitalc ; Saiiibitciis
lucntla: and J'cronica aincricaua. Tlic fresli water sponge. SpongiUa
laciistris was collected in a number of tlie lakes. The following Am-
j)hibians are common in these ponds, feeding upon the a([uatic insects
and mollusca : .liiibystoiiia figriiium ; Sraphiopits iiitennoiitdims : and
Psendacris iriseriata. Fish have been introduced into sonu' of ilu-
ponds such as Posy Lake, and will continue to succeed if ilic [jonds
arc noi overstocked, since the food grade of this lake is high.

Helicidae
\ ALLONIA CYCI.OPIIOKELI.A AncCV

Locality: .'Several specimens of this s])ecies were collected in
August. 1939. along the Escalante l\i\er by H. C.
Hrkoitelix strtc.osa dkpkessa (Cockerell)

T,orALiTi?:s : This species was found to be common on TabK-
Cliff' Mountain. 20 miles west of l%scalante. at an elevation of 9,300
feet. Collections were made on June 11. 1936, by A'. M. T.

Habitat: Common under decaying logs of P. flcxilis, and P.
ciu/clniaiiiiii. This species is also found in the leaf litter in the aspen
groves, as well ;is in rock slides and ledges. It is common in most
parts of eastern Utah.
]\lKK()rn^>~i"LA ixcKKsoi.Li (Bland)

LocALIT^■ : .Specimens were taken on the A(|uarius Plateau aboxe
Posy Lake, lune 26. 1936. b}' D. I',. V>. Tliese were taken under log.s
while collecting C'ollembola.

Pupillidac

\'ertigo roLOKADENsis fCockerell)

Locality: Harr}- Chandler collected a number of specimens at
."^teep Creek in August. 1939.

Zonitidac
\'lKTKINA ALA.SKAXA Dall

Localities: This species was found to be fairl\- common at ."^teep
Creek and along the Escalante River on August. 19,^9. by Harry
Chandler.
l'2ucoNULUS FULVus ALASKENSis (Pilsbry")

Localities: Harry Chandler collected s])ecimens of tliis species
at Steep Creek anrl Calf Creek in August, 1939.
ZoNiTOiDES arborea (Say)

Localities: This species was collected at vai-ious places along

The Great Basin Naturalist
116 VASCO M. TANNER \'ol. I. XoS. 3,4.

the Escalante River to the Colorado River and at Steep Creek, in
August, 1939, by H. C.

Succineidae
SucciNEA AVAKA Say

Locality : This species has only been collected in the Steep Creek
Lakes by V. M. T. in July. 1936 and by H. C. in August. 19.^9.

Endodontidae

GoNYODiscus cKoNKiiiTKi (Nevvconib)

Locality : A few specimens collected at Steep Creek in August.
1939, by H. C.

Lymnaeidae

Lymnaka palustris nuttalliana (Lea)

Localities : Specimens of this species collected at Posy Lake.
Steep Creek, Boulder Mountain on July 1, 1936, by V'. M. T. Speci-
mens were also taken at Steep Creek on June 23, 1938, by D. E. l\.
and W. W. T. and Cyclone Lakes, June, 1938, by W. W. T.
Lymnaea modicella modicella (Say)

Localities : This species was found to be fairly common b}-
Y. M. T. in the streams running into and from Posy Lake, in )une,
1936.

Planorbidae

Helisoma TRivoLvis TRivoLvis (Say)

Localities: Collections of this species were made at Posy Lake,
and Steep Creek in June and Jul\. 1936. by \'. M. T. and D. L. B. ;
also in June, 1938, r)y W. W. T.

GyRAULUS VERMICULARIS VERMICILARIS (Gould)

Localities: A common species in the bea\er ponds near Houl
der and in the lakes at Steep Creek in June and Jul}. 1936. Collec-
tions wx're made In- V. M. T. and D. I".. I'..

Physidac

['iivsA amphllacea (Gould)

Localities: A common species in the streams of Boulder \ al
ley in June, 1936, and 1938. Specimens were collected l)y \'. M. T.,
D. E. B. and W. W. T.

AUL'Alli- IXSI-A'IS
MAVl'XIES — Order I'.plK-mcrida
Baetis SP.

LoC/VLiTN' : Several s]H'einiens of this s|)ecies were collected in

June 30. 1940 p.iotic study u[- kaiparowits ricgiok 117

llirch Creek, eiijlit miles west of Escalante on June 15, 1936, b\
\'. M. T. The Mayflies repcjrted here are common in the streams of
llie Wasatch and Hi.^ii Plateaus of L'tah.

I'.PHEMEkELLA INEKMIS EatOU

Locality: Five specimens were taken in Birch Creek, at the
Green Ranger Station on June 15. 1936, 1)\- \ . M. T.

RlTHROGENA MIMUS EatOH

Locality : Collected by \'. M. T. in Birch Creek below the Green
Ivanger Station, June 15, 1936.

STOXEFLIES — Order Plecoptera

I'teronarcella badia (Hagen)

Locality : Xaiads of this species were taken in Birch Creek
above the Green Ranger Station, elevation 6,500 feet, June 15, 1936,
by V. M. T.

CADDIS FLIES — Order Trichoptera

LiMNOPHILUS SP,

Locality : Taken in a small pond above Green Ranger Station
on Birch Creek, June 15, 1936, by D. E. Beck. The cases were made
of Molluscan shells, Psidhtni ahditiim.

DRAGON FLIES AND DAMSEL FLIES — Order Odonata
LlIiELLULA QUADRIMACULATA L.

Locality : This species is fairly common throughout the Esca-
lante River drainage. Specimens were taken around the small lakes
at Steep Creek, Boulder JMountains in July, 1936 and June, 1938 by
V. M. T. and W. W. T. ; also along the seeps of Collett Creek south
of Escalante, June 17 and 23, 1936, by V. M. T.

Sympetrum corruptum (Hagen)

Localities: This is the common dragon fly in this region. It
was taken along Collett Creek, Garfield County, June 15, 1936, and
Willow Tank Springs, Kane County, June 18, 1936; Escalante River
near the town of Escalante, June 8, 1936 and Boulder, June 27, 1936
by \^ M. T. D. Eldon Beck and Harry Chandler collected this sjjecies
at Calf Creek, August, 1939.

Lestes uncatus Kby.

Locality : Several specimens collected along Collett Creek on
Tune 21. 1936, bv V. M. T.

The (ui-ra P>:isiii Nuiur;ili-.l
\\& VASCO M. TANNER \'<il. 1. XoS. 3,4,

Enallagma cyathigerum (Charpentier )

Localities: Specimens taken on the Aquarius Plateaus at Ml.
Rogers, Posy Lake, and Steep Creek : also at Boulder and Escalanie
in June. 1936, by V. M. T.
Argia vivida Hagen

Localities : This species was abundant along the Escalante River,
near the town of Escalante, on June 8, 1936. A few individuals were
taken at Steep Creek on July 1, 1936, by V. M. T.
Amphiagkion abbreviatum (Selys)

Localities: This common Utah species was collected at Esca-
lante on Collett Creek in June, 1936, by V. M. T.
Leucorrhinia INTACTA (Hagcn)

Locality : This species has only been taken at a lake on Boulder
Mountain, 9,000 feet elevation, in June, 1938, by W. W, T.
Leucorrhinia hudsonica (Selys)

Localities: This species known only from Tryol Lake in the
Uintah Mountains of Utah where it was collected b}' the writer in
July, 1930, at an altitude of 10,000 feet : was also collected at Boulder
on June 28. 1936, and Notom. Wayne Count}-, Utah, July 2, 1936, by

V. "m. t.

.WATER BUGS — Order Hemiptera
Arctocorixa AiiDOMiNALis (Say)

Localities : This common species was taken in water puddles at
I'-scalante. Collett Creek, Willow Spring Tank and Boulder, in June,
1936, by V. M. T. It was taken l)y 1). E. P.. and H. C, at Calf Creek
on the Escalante River in x-\ugust, P^39.
Notonecta insulata Kby,

Localities: This common Utah species was collected at Willow
Spring Tank, Collett Creek, Escalante, Birch Creek, Pos\' Lake. C\-
clone Lake, Boulder Creek and Steep Creek, in June, 1936 by V. M. T.
.Specimens also were taken at Calf Creek and on the Escalante Rivei'
by D. E. B., H. C, and W. W. T. in 1938 and 1939.
Notonecta simnosa Hungerford

Locality: Specimens were taken at Escalante, L'tah, June 8.
1936, by V. M. T. This species was named by Dr. Hungerford from
specimens taken at Lehi, Utah County, L'tah.
Lethocerus americanus (Leidy)

Locality: Several adult specimens were taken on tlie Ivscalante
River near its Junction with llie Colorado River, in August. 1939, by
D. E. B. and H. C.

lunc 30. 1940 lilOTlC STl'DV OF KAITAKOWITS UF.GION' 119

Gk.lastocoris oculatus Fab.

Localities : This species is common on the sand bars of the Es-
calante River. Collett and Boulder Creeks.
RiiAOOVKLiA KXCELLKNTis Drake and Harris

Lo(.:ahtie.s : This species was fairly common on the I'.scalanu-
River and Boulder Creek. A total of 83 specimens taken in 1936, by
the writer and 1939 by D. E. B. and H. C. agree perfectly with the
specimens of R. excclleiitis which are before me. Mr. Torre-Burno.
in 1921, reported R. dist'uicia Champ, from the Yampa River in N. W.
Colorado which leads the writer to suspect that this record may prove
to be excellentis. A large series of specimens of distincta have been
studied and they are very different to any species found in this por-
tion of the Colorado River.
Gekri.s remigis (Say)

L0CALITIE.S : Collected at Boulder and Steep Creek in June, 1936,
by V. M. T.
Gerris orba Stal.

Locality : Several specimens were taken at Boulder in June,
1936, by V. M. T. It has been reported from Bluff, Utah.
Gerkis gillettei Leth. and Sen.

Localities : A common species at Posy Lake and in Boulder
Creek in June, 1936. It was collected by V. M. T.
Gerris notabilis Drake and Harris

Localities : Taken at Posy Lake, Bovilder Creek and Escalantc
River in June. 1936, and August, 1938 and 1939. by V. M. T., D. E. B.
and H. C.
Metrobates trux (Burno)

Localities : The specimens are on the whole a little smaller than
those from San Marcus. Texas, taken b\- D. l-Lldon Beck, June 18,
1934 . The Escalante River specimens are not so black but wdth much
more grey, silvery pubescence on the dorsal portion of the thorax.
The L^tah specimens also lack the distinct fiavous pattern found on
the head and thorax of the Texas specimens. The male clasping struc-
tures are similar in the Utah and Texas specimens I have examined.

We have 93 specimens which were taken in August, 1939, by
D. E. B. and H. C. at the mouth of the Escalante River. Kane County,
L^tah. This is a new record for Utah.

MiCROVELIA SP.

Localities: On June 17, 1936 eight specimens were taken at a
small seep near Hall Cave (Fig. 6) in Kane County, 55 miles south

Tlie Gnat Basin N'aturall-it
120 VASCO M. TANNER \()1. I , Xos. ,\ 4.

of Escalante hy V. M. T. In August. 1939 Beck and Chandler col
k'cted 24 specimens at Calf Creek on the Escalante River. \\ c uiv
unai)le to rei)ort definitely uj)on this species at present.

iMlvSOVELIA SI*.

Locality: Ueck and Chandler collected four si)ecimens on tlie
Escalante River near its junction with the Colorado River, in August,
1939. This may he a new species and a new state record tin- Utah.

BEETLES — ( )rder Cok-opteni

Omophron ohlitkratum vak. ltknsk Csy.

EocALiTY : Harry Chandler collected a large series of this and
the following species at the Mouth of Calf Creek and the Escalante
River in August, 1939.

HOMOPHRON AMERICANUM VAR. TEXANUM Csy.

Locality : Taken with O. obliteratum at Calf Creek on the Es-
calante River by Chandler in August, 1939. A large series of this
species was taken at Moab in Grand County by the writer, in June,
1927. This is a new record for the state of Utah.

Peltodytes callosus Lee.

Locality : Several specimens collected by Harry Chandler at the
Mouth of Calf Creek in August, 1939. This is a new Utah record for
this species.

LixcoPHiLus decipiens Lee.

Locality : Several specimens taken at a water seep ten miles
south of Escalante, June 16, 1936. by V. M. T. This is the first time
this species has been report for Utah.

Hydroporus .striatellus (Lee.)

Localities : Several specimens of this species were collected by
D. E. Beck in June, 1940, in Coyote Gulch, five miles east of Willow
Spring Tank, Kane County. Specimens of this species were collected
in Several Uintah Mountain Lakes, in July and August, 1930, by the
writer. This is the first time this species has been reported for Utah.

I h'DROPORUS planiusculus Fall

Localitie-s : Five specimens were collected in the Escalante River
near its junction with the Colorado River. August. 1939, by D. E. I>.
and H. C. This species was also taken in the Uintah Mountains in
1930, by the writer. These are new records for Utah.

AciABus cordatus (Lcc.)

Locality: A number of specimens were taken at a seep, ten

liinc oO, I'HC r.ioTic >'rrDY of kaipauowits region 121

miles south of l'>scalante on June lO. 1936, I)y \'. M. T. This is a
ticw record for Utali.
Agabus SERiATis (Say)

Locality: Tliree specimens collected fi\e miles east of Willow
Spriui^ Tank, Kane (.Dunly. hy I). I'.. 1'.. and I. M.. [une. 1940.

Agabus lugens (Lee.)

Localities: A number of si)ecimens are in the c(jlIection, some
from the Escalante River near its junction with the Colorado, taken
in August, 1939, by D. E. 1'.. and H. C, and others from Hanksville,
Wayne County, collected by \\ . D. Stanton and determined by the
late H. C. Fall. This is the first time this species has been reported
as occurring in Utah.

Agabus perplex us Sharp

Locality : Beck and Chandler collected this species at Calf Creek,
in August. 1939. This is a ne\v record for L'tah.
Rhantus iunotatus (Harr.)

Locality : This species was common in the lakes of the Aqua-
rius I'lateau in June, 1936 and 1938. .Specimens collected by V. M. T.
and W. W. T. "
Dytiscus dauricus Gebl.

Locality : Two specimens of this interesting species taken b)
by W. W. T. in a small lake at Steep Creek, Boulder Mountains, in
June, 1938. This species has been reported from Colorado by Wick-
ham, but it is a new record for Utah.

Thermonectes marmoratus (Hope)

Localities : Collected at Willow .Spring Tank, Kane County,
June. 1936. by \'. M. T., and five miles east of Willow Spring Tank,
June, 1940, by D. E. B. and L M.

Gyrinus picipes Aube

LocALiTV : At least two species of this genus were collected on
the Aquarius Plateau and the Escalante River in June, 1936, by
V. M. T., but we have not been able to get one of them determined
satisfactorily..

Berosus sp.

Locality : A species of Berosus not yet determined was collected
at Collett Creek in June, 1936, by V. M. T.

Hydrophilus lineatus Lee.

Locality : This large striking species was common at Coyote
Gulch in June, 1940; Beck and McArthur collected 15 specimens. A

The Great Basin Xaturalist
122 VASCO M. TANNER Vol. I, NoS. 3,4,

specimen was collected at Moab, Grand County in June. 1927 by the
writer. Tliis is llie first time this species has l)een reported for Utah.
Tropisternus ellipticus (Lee.)

Locality: Specimens of this species were taken at Escalante in
lune, 1936, by \ . M. T. This is an eastern species and is a new rec-
ord for Utah.
Donacia hirticollts Kby.

Locality: Collected at Posy Lake on the Aquarius Plateau in
June. 1936, by V. M. T. and June, 1940. by D. E. B.

FLIES — Order Dipteru
SiMULIUM SP.

Locality: Larvae of a species of Biackfly were abundant on tlie
rocks in Birch Creek on June 15, 1936. Larvae and pupa, but no
adults, were collected. The collection was made by V. M. T.

TOADS AND FROGS — Amphibians

Ambystoma TiGRiNUM (Green)

Localities : A common amphibian in all the lakes we studied on
the Aquarius PlateavL In some ponds hundreds of individuals were
found within a few square yards of water near the shore.
Scapiiiopus intermontanus Cope

Localities : A common species at Willow Spring Tank, Posy
Lake, Steep Creek, Calf Creek and Escalante River. Specimens taken
by V. M. T., W. W. T., D. E. B., J. B., and H. D.. in 1936, 1938,
and 1939.
BuFO BOREAS BOREAS (Baird and Girard)

Localities : Loa and Fruita, Wayne County ; W. W. T. 1938.
BuFO PUNCTATUS (Baird and Girard)

Localities: Willow Spring Tank, Kane County; Junction of
Boulder Creek and Escalante River, Garfield County; \'. M. T. 1936,
and W. W. T. 1938.
BuFO wooDHOusii (Girard)

Localities: Fruita and Notom, Wayne County; Boulder, Steep
Creek, Tropic, Escalante, and Junction of Boulder Creek and Esca-
lante River, Garfield County.

While collecting at Calf Creek on June 28, 1938 D. E. Beck and
W. W. Tanner counted, at evening, the amphibians along the creek.
The following three species were collected in one hour : Scaphiopus
intermontanus 3 adult specimens; Bufo punctatus 14 specimens; and

JUIK' 30, 1*)4() IJIUTIC STUDY Ol" K Al I'AkOWITS KKGIOX 123

Ihifo woodJwnsil 93 specimens. Tliese were observed in a distance
of about one-half mile. No frogs were seen.

PSEUDACRIS TKISliKlATA (Wicd.)

LocALiTiE-s: r>oulder Mountain Lakes, from .Steep C"rcek to F^osy
Lake. Garfield County.

LIVLA ARE N I COLOR CopC

Locality: Three specimens were taken by D. L. 1'.. and 11. C.
near the Junction of the Coloradc; and I'^scalante Rivers.
Rana PIPIEN.S Schreber

LocALiTiE.s : Orderville, Alton and the Junction of the Colorado
and Escalante Rivers, Kane County ; Panguitch, Garfield County. CoL
lected by V. M. T.. D. E. B. and H. C.

LIZARDS AND SNAKES — Reptiles
Crotophytus collakis BAiLEYi (Stejneger)

Localities: Paria, 50 miles south of Cannonville and Henrie-
ville, Kane County. Collected by Byron Davis and \'. AL T.
Crotaphytus wislizenii Baird and Girard

Localities : Hall Cave and Willow Spring Tank, Kane County.
Collected by J. B., D. E. B. and ^^ M. T., June 1936.
Sauromalus op.esus (Baird)

Locality: Collected on Warm Creek, Kane County, by Byron
Davis, May 1939.

This is the first record for L^tah dutside of Washington Count\'.
Uta LEVIS Stejneger

Localities : Fruita and Torrey, Wayne County ; Escalante, Mo-
ki Tanks and Junction of Calf Creek and Escalante River, Garfield
County; collections were made by W. W. T., D. E. B., II. C. J. B.,
and V. M. T.
Uta s. stansburiana Baird and Girard

Localities: Fruita, Kane County; Escalante, Willow Tank, Can-
nonville, and Junction of Calf Creek and Escalante River, Garfield
County. In 1936 J. B. and A'. M. T. made collections. In 1937 and
1938 A\ M. T. and W. W. T. collected this species at Cannonville.
ScELOPORUs UNDULATUS ELONGATUS (Stejneger)

Localities : Fruita and Torrey, Wayne County ; Cannonville,
Escalante and Junction of Calf Creek and Escalante River, Garfield
County.

This is a very common species in this area. Specimens were col-
lected by W. W.T. 1938, V. M. T. 1937, D. E. B. and H. C, 1939.

The Great Basin N'aturalist

124 VASco .\r. taxm:r Vol. 1, Xos. o, 4,

ScF.LoPORUS G. GRACiosus ( liaiiHJ aiul (iirard)

Localities: Fruita and Torrey, Wayne Count}; Aloki Tanks.
Lower Steep Creek, Junction of Calf Creek with Escalante River,
and Tropic, Garfield County ; Orderville and mouth of l^scaiante
River. Kane County. Collectors, W. W. T. and J. B., 1938. I). E. B.
and H. C. 1939.
.S(|.:[,()i^()ius iNTAGisTEK (Hallowell)

LocAi.iTiKs : Willow Sprint^ Tank. Hall Cave, and Wahweap
Creek'. Kane County.

Si)ecimens were collected by V. M. T. and J. B., 1936; and Byron
Davis, 1938.
Phrynosoma douc;la.^.sii ornatissimum (Girard)

Localities: Table Cliffs and Ac|uarius Plateau above Posy Lake,
Garfield County ; (Jrderville. Kane County. In 1936 specimens were
collected by D.' E. B., J. B. and Y. M. T.
Cnemidophorus sexlineatls I'ERi'LEXis (Baird and Girard j

Localities: Cannonville and Escalante. Garfield County, Order-
ville, Kane County.
Cnemidophorus t. tessellatus (Say)

Localities: Notom and Fruita, Wayne County; Junction of Calf
Creek and Escalante River, Garfield County ; Hall Cave, Wahweap
Creek and Mouth of Escalante River, Kane County. Specimens were
collected by W. W. T., D. E. B., J. B., H. C. and V. M. T. in 19.36,
1938, and 1939.
Coluber t. taeniatus (Hallowell)

Localities: Paria, Kane County; Escalante, Garfield County.
Collected by W. W. T., and Walter Astel, Forest Ranqer at Escalante.
PiTUOPHis catenifer deserticola Stejneger

Localities: Fruita and Torrey, Wayne Count)'; Tropic and Es-
calante. (larfield County ; Orderville, Wahweap Creek and Willow
.Sprini^- Tank, Kane County. Specimens were collected by C, L. Hay-
ward, 1937, W^ Astel, 1939, W. W. T., 1938.
Lampropeltis getulus boylii Girard

Locality: A larqe female specimen was taken by D. E. B. June
2, 1940, 30 miles south of Escalante, near the Garfield-Kane County
line. The specimen measure 1320 mm in length and is identical with
the Boyle King snakes taken in Washington County. This is an in-
teresting new distribution record for this species in Utah.
Thamnophis ordinoides vagrans (Baird and Girard)

Localities: Torrey, Notom and h^mita, \\'aync County; Steep

June 30. 1940 biotic sttdv of kaif'arowits region 125

C'lX'fk. West I ).eer Lake. Cyclone Lake, and Pos\- Lake, Loulder. I'-s-
calante. i'ryce Canyon National Park. Tropic and the Junction of
Calf Creek and the h'.scalante River, Garfield County; and Orderville,
Kane County. Specimens have been collected by members of all the
jiarties during the course of tliis study.
Ckotalts viridis lX'Tosus Klaul)er

LocALiTiKS : llryce Cannon Xational Park, (iarfield County; Or-
derville and Kanal). Kane County. Specimens have been collected b\'
\ . M. T. ' . '

CivOTAi.rs \iRiDis DECOLOR Klaubcr

Localities: Tropic. Escalante Desert, and Escalante River .^0
miles below Escalante, Garfield County; Hall Cave. Willow Sprint;-
Tank, and Wahweap Creek, Kane County. In 1936 several specimens
were taken in the Escalante desert by J. B., Y. M. T. and D. I*",. 1).

It is interesting to note the close association of the two species of
Rattlesnakes in this area. Specimens taken on top of the i'lateau.
within ]_5ryce Can^'on National Park, are lutosus while those taken
onl}- fifteen miles to the east in the Paria valley are decolor.

SUMAIARY

In this preliminar} study, biotic information about the Kaiparowits
re,:i;ion of south central Utah is presented. The five divisions proposed
namely: — the Desert-l'rairie Community; the Pinyon-Juniper Asso-
ciation: the "S'ellow Pine-Oak-Manzanita Community; the Spruce-
Ralsam-Aspen Association and the Engelmann Spruce- Alpine Associa-
tion seem to be natural ones, plants and animals being in rather dis-
tinct and separate groupings. The majority of the plant and animal
species are northern in origin. The southern species are more numer-
ous in the desert and Colorado River portions of this region, suggest-
ing that the Colorado River is serving as a southern portal for the
invasion of Sonoran species. As these associtions are studied in more
detail it will be possible to divide each one into a number of seres.
The springs and seep of the desert and the small running streams of
the deep, steep walled canyons and gulleys have hydrophytic serae
which seem to support distinct species in separate areas of the region.
Xerophvtic conditions and species are predominant in the Escalante
River area.

In this studv 225 si)ecies of ])lants : 24 species of mammals ; 42
species of birds; 63 species of insects; L^ species of mollusca; 8 s])e-
cies of amphibians and 19 species of reptiles are re]>orte(| and asso-

The Great Basin Naturalist
126 VASCO M. TANNER \'ol. I. XoS. 3.4.

ciated with definite localities and communities. Twelve species of
aquatic insects are reported for the first time for the state of Utah.

The Flying Squirrel Collected in Garfield County. Utah

A flying squirrel, Glaiicomys sabrinns lucifuf/us Hall, was collected on No-
vember 22, 1939, ten miles southwest of Bryce Canyon National Park. Garticld
County, Utah, by Mr. Lowell Hansen, who turned the specimen over to the writer.
It was submitted to Dr. E. Raymond Hall, acting director of the Museum oi
\crtebrate Zoology. Berkeley. California, who kindly compared it with the t> pc
-pccimen. Dr. Hall reports as follows concerning his comparison :

'"The specimen agrees with Glaucomys sabrinns lucifugus in that (1) the
breadth of the rostrum (measured at the anterior margins of the anterior palatine
foramina) amounts to less than 5.3 per cent of the length of the nasals, (2) the
face is light colored, and (3) the underparts. including the underside of the tail,
are light colored. The upper parts, including the upper side of the tail, are darker
than in the type specimen but lack the red of bangsi. The upper parts match
those of a specimen at hand from Camp Tendoy, near Pocatello. Idaho, labeled
hti)i<;si but which general comparisons indicate is tending toward lucifugus. Ex-
cept in this one feature, darker color of upper parts, the specimen agrees with
(/". s. lucifugus. and this darker color of the upper parts is of slight amount:
it may be only individual variation."

According to Dr. Hall's records, this is the fartherest south in the western
states this species lias been taken, outside of California. This species was first
definitely reported as occurring in Utah by the writer in 1927 in the Journal of
Mammalogy, Vol. 8. p. 251. as Glaucouiys sabriinis bangsi. In 1934, in the Occa-
sional Paper, No. 296 of the Museimi of Zoolog}-, of the University of Michigan.
Dr. E. R. Hall gave the Utah specimens the subspecific name of lucifugus. All
the specimens collected in Utah previous to this one have been taken in the I'intah
and Wasatch Mountains. This new record is 200 miles south in the high Plateaus
of Utah. The skin and skull upon which this record is ba.sed are now in the
mammal collection of the Brigham Young Universitv. — \'. M. T.

XEW AMERICAN DIPLOTAXIS (COLEOrTERA-
SCARABAEIDAE)

MOXT A. CAZIER
University of California. Berkeley, Calif.

The following new species were found among material submitted
If) the writer for determination by various museums and friends. The
writer is greatly indebted to the late Mr. H. C. Fall for the privilege
of studying his many types in the genus and for a number of speci-
mens presented to the Avriter. Thanks are also due Dr. P. J. Darling-
ton of the Museum of Comparative Zoolog}-, Cambridge, for permit-
ting the writer to study the Le Conte types in his charge. Individual
acknowledgments are to be found under each species.

The descriptions are arranged so that the diagnostic portion in-
cludes the main characters used by FalP (1909^ in his key. This will
enable the reader to refer directly to the most closely allied species.

DiPLOTAXis iMPRESsiFRox.< Cazicr. sp. nov.

Medium sized, dark reddish brown: upper surface glabrous; labrum broadly,
arcuately emarginate : mentum strongly declivous at anterior third, margin with-
out raised line, setae absent at middle : hind femora with few small punctures,
hind coxae sparsely punctate in outer half ; prothorax with impressed line along
anterior margin.

Head with punctures separated by alxait their own widths, dense toward
clypeus. front shallowly impressed posterior to shallow, post clypeal, obtuse ridge ;
rlypeus densely punctate, punctures coalescent. clypeal suture interrupted medi-
ally, clypeal margins evenh", shallowly reflexed, anterior margin truncate, angles
< \-enly rounded, side margins shallowly sinuate, angulate in front of eye ; an-
tennae ten-segmented. Pronotum with side margins obtusely rounded, widest at
middle, front angles rather prominent: surface evenly rather deeply punctate,
punctures separated by about their own widths, dense laterally. Elytra with dis-
tinct costae. intervals irregularh" punctate, costae with dorsal row of small punc-
tures : humeral umbone prominent : sides subparallel to apical third. Beneath
sparsely clothed with short yellow pile ; metathorax with both long and short
} ellow hairs, densely punctate laterally; anterior tibiae tridentate, basal tooth
median, tarsal claws with inner, truncate tooth slightly ante-median. Length
1 1 mm., width 5.5 mm.

Holotype in the writer's collection, taken at Cedarvillc. Modoc
Count}-. Cahfornia, May 30, 1939 (P. C. Ting. J. A, Downes. T, G. H.
Aitken, M. A. Cazier). Collected by beating Juniper at night. One

(1) Fall. H. C. 1909. Revision of the Species of Diplotaxis of the United
States. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 35:1-97.

127

The Great Basin Naturalist
128 MONT A. CAZIER \'ol. I, NoS. 3, 4,

paratype collected in the Warner Mountains, Lake County, Oregon.
June 19, 1922 (E. C. VanDyke) deposited in the collection of the
California Academy of Sciences. Fifty-seven designated topotypical
paratypes deposited in the collections of L. W. Saylor, O. L. Cart-
wright, M. W. Sanderson, H. J. Reinhard, L. P. Wehrle and the
author.

This species appears to be the most closely related to D. liaydeni
Lee. and will key to that species in Fall's paper. It can be distinguished
b\- its dark reddish brown color, less acute anterior thoracic angles,
larger and more dense punctuation throughout and by the distinct
angulation of the canthus. (Jccasional specimens have a row of setae
across the mental margin and will, therefore, key to D. parallclo Fall.
Piplotaxis iiiiprcssifroiis can be distinguished from this species bv its
darker color, robust shape, deeper, more dense punctuation, by having
the sides of the pronotum less abruptly constricted antcriorh .md the
pronotal angles less produced.

DiPLOTAXi.s sAYLORi Cazicr. sp. nov.

Medium sized, robust ; elytra sub-connate, wings rudimentary ; color dark-
brown, opaque ; upper surface glabrous ; labrum broadly, arcuately emarginate :
mentum flat posteriorly, distinctly decliv<ius at anterior third, declivity margined
by acute, arcuate raised line and a row of erect setae; thoracic angles not ini
pressed, sides not bisinuate; front without post-clypeal convexity; metasternum
short, length between coxae equal to length of second abdominal segment.

Head broad, vertex with small smooth area, front rather deeply, densely
l)unctate ; clypeus with punctures large, nearly coalescent, front margin evenly
reflexed, shallowly emarginate medially, side margins sinuate anterior to clj''peal
suture, abruptly angulate in front of eyes, clypeal suture distinct throughout :
antennae nine- segmented. Pronotum shallowly convex, side margins c^enl>
rounded, widest at middle, prominent, almost reflexed; surface sparsely, sliallowly
punctate, punctures separated by about twice their own widths, median inipro-
sion shallow, smooth posteriorly. Elytra with humeral umbones reduced inU evi-
dent, sides evenly rounded; surface without distinct costac. punctures of firsl
interval irregular, remainder arranged in rows, punctures shallow, separated i)\
about twice their own widths. Beneath sparsely clothed with short yellow piK- ;
legs with all tarsi setiferous, claws cleft at apex, inner tooth the shortest, liind
femora with upper surface sparsely, finely punctate medially, anterior tibiae tri-
dentate. basal tooth small, ante-median in position. Length 12 mm., width 6 mm.

Holotypc from Oak Flat, Mt. Graham, Arizona, June 27, 1910 (A.
Wetmore) returned to L. W. Saylor of the United States I'iological
.Survey for Deposition in the United States National Museum. One
])aratype from Graham Mts., Arizona, altitude 9200 ft., June 13. 1914
iV.. G. Holt) in the writer's collection. The writer takes pleasure in
naming the species after L. W. Saylor who has done much to fiu'ther

June 30, 1940 xew amkricax diim.otaxis 129

the knowledge of the Scarabaeidae and who i^ave the specimens to the
writer for description.

As can be seen from the diagnostic characters D. saylori belongs
with D. connata Schffr. and D. macronycha Fall in Fall's key. It ap-
pears to be most closely related to these species but is easily sepa-
rated. It can be separated from both species by its larger size, brown
color, broad, flattened pronotum. small humeral umbones, the smaller,
sparser punctuation of the pronotum and jjy the nine-segmented an-
tennae. From D. connata it can be further distinguished by the broad-
ly reflexed clypeus, abrupt angulation of the canthus in front of the
eye, prominent side margins of the pronotum and the small, sparse
punctures of the hind femora. In D. cojutata the punctures of the
hind femora are larger, rather deep, distinctly elongate and more abun-
dant. Diplotaxis saylori can be separated from D. macronycha by its
distinct clypeal suture, angulation of cantlius anterior to the eye, the
evenly rounded side margins of the pronotum, the antemedian front
tibial tooth and by the apically cleft tarsal claws.

Diplotaxis aeou.vtjs Cazier. sp. nov.

Alediuin '•ized. dark l)ro\vn : upper >iiri'acc .ulahrous : labruni broadly arcu-
ately emarsinate : mentum nearly Hat posteriorly, declivous in front, the declivity
margined by arcuate raised line and row of erect setae : thoracic angles not im-
pressed, sides not bisinuate : front nearly Hat; metasternum longer than length of
second abdominal segment ; ungual tooth strongly post-median ; clypeal margin
only sliglitly emarginate, nearly truncate: ungual tooth subapical : sides of pro-
tliorax moderately arcuate, only slightly narrowed behind middle: clypeus nearly
flat: punctures of head close; punctures of elytral disk broadly confused, inter-
<.tices of punctures devoid of minute punctuation ; front bi-impressed l)ctween
ryes ; labrum broadly impressed ; claws similarly toothed in both sexes.

Head with punctures on front separated by about one-half their own widths ;
clypeus with front margin shallowly reflexed, side margins shallowly sinuate,
angulate in front of eyes, surface with deep punctures, nearly confluent ; clypeal
■-uture entire; antennae ten-segmented. Pronotum with side margins prominent,
widest at middle-; posterior margin wider than anterior ; upper surface with shal-
low median impression, punctures rather deep, separated by about their own
widths, dense laterally, a shallow impression in front of middle laterally. Rlytni
with costae evident, punctures rather irregular, interspaces irregularly punctured,
punctures separated by about three times their own widths, surface irregular be-
tween punctures, minutely alutaceous. Beneath sparsely clothed with short yellow
])ile; hind coxae rather densely punctate, basal tooth of front tibiae slightly ante-
median, hind femora sparsely punctate throughout; tarsal claws cleft subapically.
iimer tooth obliquely truncate, equal in length to outer tooth, hind tarsi as long
as hind tibiae. Length 12 mm., width 6 mm.

Holotype in the writer's collection, taken at Globe. Arizona. July
27. 19.^5 (V. H. Parker 1. Two paratyix's fi-nm Pinal Mountains. .\ri-

The Great Basin Naturalist
130 MONT A. CAZIF.R \^ol. I. NoS. 3. 4.

zona. Auj,nist 2<^, 1933 ( F. II. I'arker ) and one I'loni Pinal Mountains.
Arizona, Alay 22, 1938 (F. H. Parker) deposited in the collections of
Frank H. Parker and O. I.. Cartwright. One paratype from I'rescolt.
Arizona, April 1919 (A. Kusche) in the collection of the California
Academy of Sciences. One paratvjje from Pinal Mountains, Arizona
(C. W. Leng) in the writer's collection.

This species is apparently most close!}" allied to D. anthracina Fall
to which it runs in Fall's key. It can be readily separated from D.
anthracina, however, by its brown color, larger size, longer tarsi, larger
pronotal punctures, fattened front of the head, the larger punctures
of the elytra and by the roughened elytral surface. Superficially D.
aequalis resembled D. peniiisitlaris Fall but can be distinguished frctm
it by the key diiTerence, In" the less emarginate front margin of the
clypeus. the longer clypeus, less closely punctate front and pronotum
and by the irregular elytral surface.

The writer is indel)ted to Frank Parker for the privilege of study-
ing specimens in his extensive collection of Arizona insects.

DiPLOTAXis FULGiDA Cazier, sp. nov.

Small, light reddish yellow, shining; glabrous above; labrum broadly arcu-
ate ; nientum declivous in front, the declivity margined by acute raised line and
setae ; thoracic angles not impressed, sides not bisinuate ; front without convexity ;
metasternum longer than length of second abdominal segment; ungual tooth post-
median: clypcal margin truncate; mental ridge well defined; base of i>ronotum
witlKuil imjircssed line; antennae ten-segmented; front and clypeus densely i)une-
tate.

1 1 ciitl w itli ])uni-(urcs deii-f on front, often conlhient; clvjical suture nai"ni\\ly
interrupted medially, impression distinct ; clypeus narrowed in front, margins
siiallowly reflexed. side margins not sinuate, no angulation in front of eyes.
rronoluiii widest at middle, broadly rounded behind, graduallx' narrowed ante-
riorly ; front and hind margins eciual in width ; surface with median puncttn"es
separated by about twice their own widths, dense laterally. Elytra with costae
evident, intercostal spaces irregularly punctate, surface between punctures broadly
wrinkled, smooth. Ju'iicafli clothed with short yellow pile; front tibiae witii basal
tooth median, iu'nd coxae punctate, hind femora with few small irregular punc-
tures. Length 6 mm., width 3 nun.

1 lololype in the author's collection, taken in .Smith C'ouiUy, Texas,
Jtnie 1, 1937 (\\. 1,. ( )\\en Jr.) in a Texas .\gricnhiiral Ivxptriiuenl
.Station Light Traj). h'our designated topoly])iea] i)ai"at\pes in llie
Texas Agricultural k.xperiment Station collection. ( )ne paral\ i)e from
McLennan County. Texas, June 7. 1934 ( F. F. liibby) in the wfiler's
collection. The writer is indebted to 1 )r. 11. ]. Keinhard for (lie op-
IKirliuiily of studying tlie malerial in liis charge.

This species keys Id IK (irciidhi VaU l)in can al (Hiee bi' sepai'ated

June 30. 1940 nf.w amf.rica.x diplotaxis 131

frcjni that species l)y its smaller size, shiniiij^ appearance, deej) elytra I
I'unctures, by the raised areas between the elytral punctures and li\
the distinct elytral costae. From />. diihia J.ec. it can be distinguished
by the shajjc of the jironotum. the less denscK punctate pronotum,
more constricted cl\'])cus and by liaxin^ the male tarsi devoid ot' exti'.i
hair.

I )i I'l.oT AX IS ACo.xo.x icrs Ca/ier. s|). nov.

Nfedium sized, reddish brown, alutacemis ; ii])pcr surface tjlahrous ; lahnnn
arcuatcly emarginate ; mcntum strongly concave beginning at basal tliird. willidut
fracc of transverse ridge; punctuation sparse, punctures separated by about their
own widths ; angles of prothorax not impressed.

1 1 did convex in front, ijunilurcs se])arati'd I)\' about tlieir own widths. den.-el\
jilaccd toward cl\i)eus : cl\])cal suture (h'slinct llu'oughout. front niar.uin sliahowlx-
emarginatc. narrowly reticxed. punctiu'cs sep.'irat(.'d l)y about <ine third tlieir own
wi(hhs. side margins not on same plane as cantlii : canthi obtusely angulate in
front of eyes; anteiniae ten-segmented. I'rdiioln in about one and one-half times
wider than long, side margins evenly, areuatelx rounded, widest near base; siu^-
face with shallow, medium sized punctures separated by about their own widths.
JUylra without elevated costae ; strial punrtures irregularly ]ilaced and of \arying
sixes and shapes, all punctures separated bv about their own widths. Bciiculli
sparsely clothed with yellow pile, hind cox;ic ])u:uiate ; le.es with hind femora
sj^arsely punctate, claws with short, truncate anti-median tooth, front tibiae with
tiasal tooth barely anti-median in position. Length 9.5 mm., width 5 mm.

Tlolotype in the writer's collection, taken in the Huachuca Moim
l;iins. Arizona, September 17, 1935 b\ !■'. II. !';irker who kindly pre-
sented the specimen to the writer.

Di/'lotaxis acoiioniciis is closely allied to D. parvicol/is I'all but
c;ni be separated from that species by the angulate canthi. largt-r and
inoi-e dense ])tnictuation of the head and clypeus. less constricted front
angles of tlie ])ronotum. the larger and more dense punctuation of the
pionotimi and b\- the lack of well defined elytral costae. In /). par-
-rirollis the lateral margins of the clypeus are on the same i)lane as the
canthi although there is a shallow sinuation immediatel}' in front ot
the c-anthi.

Dll'T.CtTAXIS Al'LACOCHKT.A Cazicr. S]). nov.

^Tedium sized, head and pronotum .piceous, elytra dark reddish brown, shin-
ing; upper surface glabrous: labrum deeply divided; mentum excavated in tront;
front feebly impressed.

Head with front densely i)unctate, i)uncturcs separated by less than their own
widths above, nearly coalescent below; clypeus with front margin narrowly re-
ilexcd. shallowly cmarginate medially, side margins continuous with canthi. clypeal
suture interrupted at middle, impression distinct throughout ; antennae ten-seg-
mented. Pi-oiwfuii! with side margins obtusely angulate medially, widest at mid-

The Great Basin Naturalist

132 MONT A. CAZIER Vol. I, Nos. 3, 4,

(lie; front and hind marjiins subetiual in width, front margin sinuate, slightly
produced medially ; surface irregularly punctate, punctures separated by one to
two times their own widths, dense laterally, interspaces smooth, shining, ante-
rior angles with an oblique, shallow impression behind, surface depressed along
side margins. Elytra with costae well defined, only first intercostal space irregu-
larly punctate, interspaces flat and smooth, punctures separated by about twice
their own widths. Beneath sparsely clothed with short yellow pile, hind coxae
punctate ; legs with hind femora irregularly, sparsely punctate, front tibiae with
basal tooth median in position, claws with subapical truncate tooth, tarsi short.
Length 9 mm., width 4.7 mm.

Holot}'pe in the collection of the Texas Agriculture l'..\periiiient
.Station, taken at Presidio, Texas, June 28, 1930 (W. L. Owen jr.)
and l<indl}- loaned to the writer by H. J. Reinhard.

This s])ecies is most closely allied to D. fissilabris Fall hut can
readily he separated from it hy the reddish hrown elytra, shining ap-
pearance, by lacking the sinuate side clypeal margins, by having the
anterior pronotal angles more pronounced, the pronotal surface irreg-
ular punctuate with the intervals flat and smooth, and the elytra!
surface smooth with punctures separated and no irregular impressions
present. In D. fissilabris the pronotum is rather evenly punctured, the
surface between the punctures is minutely alutaceous and sparsely
covered with small punctures, the elytra! interspaces have irregular
impressions that often connect the ]nmctures with one another thus
giving tlic surface a rough, dull ap])carance.

Dii'LOTAXis UNGULATUS Cazicr. sp. nov.

Medium sized, dark rcddisli l)rown, shining; upper surface glabrous; labrum
broadly, arcuately emarginatc ; meiitum strongly declivous from apical third, with-
•"lUt raised line or setae ; hind femora nearly imputictate, tooth of tarsal claws
median iii position; liind coxae nearly impunctate.

Head with impunctate area on vertex, front sparsely, minutely punctate above,
more densely punctate below where punctures are shalU)w and separated by about
their own widths ; clypeus with anterior margin rather broadly flexed, shallowly
emarginatc. side margins shallowly sinuate in front of eye. surface with shallow
imncUires separated by about tlieir own widths, clyi)eal suture distinct through-
nut ; antennae ten-segmented. I'rouotuiii about twice as broad as long, side mar-
gins evenly arcuately rotmded. widest at middle, angles obtuse: front margin
little narrower than hind margin; surface fmclx alutaceous, punctures small, sepa-
rated by about twice their own widths. iUyIra with costae well defined, inter-
costal spaces finely alutaceous, irregularly inuictate, punctures separated by about
twice their own widths. Beneath with metasternum sparsely punctate laterally,
impunctate medially; legs witli basal Indth of front tibiae median in position,
tarsi longer than tibia, claws two-thirds tiic Icngtli of fifth tarsal segment. Length
10 mm., width .^ mm.

!!(il(>t\pc ill llic writer's colltxiion. ta]<cn in tin- Wliite Mountains,

JUIR' 30. 1*^40 Xl.W .\Mi:kl(.\X DIl'F.iilAXlS 133

Arizona, July. 1930 I)y I). K. Duncan anil kindly presented lo the
writer by F. II. I'arker.

IMost closely allied to D. Icvicoxa Fall but distingui.shable by its
smaller size, narrow form, shallow, sparsely i)unctate front and clype-
us, continuous cl\])eal suture, sinuate side cl\'peal margins, evenly
rounded canthi, by the lack of the small |)unclures of the elvtral in-
terspaces and by the longer hind tarsi, in 1). Icvicoxa the side mar-
i^ins of the clypeus are not sinuate, the canthi are annulate, the elytral
interspaces are minuteh' punctate and llie hind tarsi are shorter than
the tibiae.

DiPi.OTAXis I'EKSISAK Cazier, sp. now

Medium sized, head and i)ronotiiin black, elytra piceous ; upper ^uri'ace glab-
rous ; labrum broadly arcuately emarginate ; mentuni nearly Hat ])osteriorly,
-.trongly concave from basal third; punctuation of upper surfact- rather dense.

Head with front shallowly convex, punctures small, separated by about their
own widths ; clypeus with front margin narrowly reflexed, shallowly emarginate
medially, side margins straight, canthi obtusely rounded, clypeal suture not inter-
rupted, impression prominent, flattened, sparsely punctate ; antennae ten-segmented.
Pronotittn with side margins evenly, arcuately rounded, widest at middle ; front
angles deeply impressed, hind angles shallowly but broadly impressed, surface of
impressed area rough, opaque ; surface with punctures separated by about their
own widths, interspaces finely punctate, f.lytra with costae well defined, inter-
costal spaces wide, irregularly punctate, punctures separated by about one and
one-half times their own widths. Beneath sparsely clothed with short yellow pile ;
legs with hind coxae punctate, hind femur sparsely punctate on inner surface,
front tibiae shallowly tridentate, basal tooth slightly in frcmt of middle, tarsal
claws cleft subapically, inner tooth truncate, short, hind tarsi about two-thirds
as long as tibiae. Length 9 mm., width 4.5 mm.

Holotype in the writer's collection, taken in the Chiricahua Moun-
tains, Arizona, September 14, 1935 by F. H. Parker. The writer is
pleased to name this species in honor of Mrs. F. FI. Parker who has
contributed much to the knowledge of the insect fauna of Arizona
through her collecting efforts.

Diplotaxis pcrsisate is apparently- most closely allied to D. costulahi
Fall but can be readily separated by its smaller size, unim])ressed front,
impressed front angles of pronotum, impressed, opa(|ue hind pronotal
angles, more widely separated punctures and by the shorter tarsi.
From the other four species in this section, D. brcvicoUis Lee, D.
seniifovcata Fall, D. parvicoUis Fall, and D. acanoiiicns Cazier it can
be distinguished by the opaque impressed hind pronotal angles and the
larger and more dense punctuation throughout.

DiPLOT.wi.s PARKERi Cazier, sp. nov.
Medium sized, shining black ; upper surface glabrous ; labrum broadly arcu-

The Gicat Basin Naturalist
134 MONT A. (AZll'.k \ 1)1. I. Xus. .\4.

;itel\ L'liiarginatc ; ineiituiu cltclivnus hum anterior third, the decli\ity luargined
I)0.steriorly hy an acute raised line and a mw oi' erect setae; thoracic angles not
impressed, sides not bisinuate ; Mont williont post-clypeal convexity; metasterniim
longer than second abdominal segment ; ungual tooth subapical ; clypeal margin
scarcely emarginate medially ; sides of pronotum strongly arcuate, widest at
middle; tarsi not hairy beneath, all claws similarly toothed.

Head with front rather densely, deeply punctate below, punctures separated
by about one-half their own widths, above by about their own widths, front
shallow!)' impressed on each side of median line; clypeus with front margin
broadly reFlexed, angles obtusely rounded, side margins continuous with canthi,
nut sinuate, surface deeply, densely punctate, clypeal suture distinct throughout;
antennae ten-segmented, l^ronotnui with posterior margin slightl}- wider than
anterior margin, surface siudotli, punctures deep, separated by abimt twice their
own widths, scarcely more abvnidant laterally. PJytra with costae ubscure except
for row of small median punctures, first intercostal space irregularly punctate,
second with an irregular single row. Hcneaih sparsely clothed with short yellow
pile ; legs with hind femora sparsely punctate, hind coxae densely punctate, front
tibiae tridentate, basal tooth median in position, posterior tarsi as long as tibiae.
Length 11 mm., width 5.5 mm.

Holotype in the writci's collection, taken in the I'inal Moinitains,
Arizona, May 19, 1935 by F. 11. I^arker in whose honor tlTe writer is
pleased to name the species. One topotypical paratype in the collec-
tion of F. H. Parker.

Althou.yh n. f^arkcrl runs to P. acerba Fall in Fall's ke}- it is in
reality, more closely allied to D. anthrachw Fall. It can be distin-
j.^uished from P. accrha by its larger size, black color, bi-impressed
front, unsinuale side clypeal margins, single irregular row of junic
lures ill second costal interval and by the longer tarsi. From D. aii-
lliraciiia it can be separated by its more elongate clypeus, bi-impressed
froiil, more angulate pronotal side margins, larger pronotal and elytral
])unctures, by having only a single irregular row of punctures in the
second costal interval and b\' having the basal tooth of front tibiae
median in position. In D. aiitliracina the second costal interval has
two irregular rows oi ])iinctures and the basal front tibial tooth is
distinctlv nearer the a])e-\ than the base.

Dii'i.oTA.xis Mickoi's Cazier, sp. nov.

Small, narrow, rufotestaceous ; upper surface glabrous; labrum broadly arcu-
ately emarginate; mentum declivous in front, posterior margin of declivity with
acute raised line and row of erect setae ; thoracic angles not impressed, sides not
bisinuate ; front without post-clypeal convexity ; metasternum longer than second
abdominal segment ; ungual tooth subapical ; clypeal margin angulate on each side
of shallow medin emargination ; tarsal segments not conspicuously hairy beneath ;
punctures of elytral intercostal spaces confused ; elytra with minute alutaceous
sculpturing.

JlllK-oO, 1940 .\i;U- AMI-.KKAN D1I'U)TAX1S 13S

Head with front densely punctate througlujiit, punctures coaleseent or nar-
rciwly separated: eyes exposed for alxnit tlie same distance as widtli of cantlii ;
rl_\ pcus strongly flexed, side margins nearly straight, strongly angulate and con-
necting with canthi at point of angle, surface with median punctures indistinct,
idges with coalescent punctures ; clypeal suture absent except for small smooth
spot at corner of eye on junction of front and clypeus ; antennae short, nine-
segmented. Proiwtuiii with sides rather strongly, obtusely angulate, widest at
niidcile, more strongly constricted behind middle; anterior margin as wide as
posterior, shallowly emarginate medially; surface with punctures separated by
about their own widths, dense laterally, interspaces with small punctures inter-
spersed ; disk with small spot devoid of large punctures, sparsely covered with
>mal! punctures. Elytra with costae indistinct, punctures on top of costae irregu-
lar and nearly as large as strial 'punctures, first intercostal space punctures sepa-
laled h\ about t\\ ice their own widths, those of second by about their own widths.
lioicath clothed with short yellow^ pile; legs with hind femora sparsely punctate
witli large punctures, hind coxae and metasternum densely punctate, front tibiae
with basal tooth median in position, hind tarsi with first segment about half
length of second, hind tarsi subequal in length tri hind tibiae. Length 7 mm.,
width 3.5 mm.

Holotype in the author's collection, taken at Cochise Stronghold,
Cochise County, Arizona, April 29, 1938 (H. F. Tate) and very kindh*
presented to the writer by Dr. L. P. Wehrle. Paratopotype in Dr.
Wehrle's collection at the University of Arizona. A third damaged
specimen in the collection of the Southern California Academy of
Sciences was collected in Sabino Canyon, Santa Catalina Mountains,
Ariozna. June 10, 1919 (D. Roberts) and was kindly loaned to the
writer by Dr. W. D. Pierce of that institution.

The paratype specimen is like the holotype in all major features
exce])t for size. It measures 9 mm. in length, 4.2 mm. in width and
may possibl\- be the female of this species. The third specimen is in-
termediate in size between the other two.

In Fall's ke\" D. microps will run to D. errans Fall but is readily
tlistinguishable from that species b}' its wider mental declivity, un-
sinuated side clypeal margins, lack of the clypeal suture, the small
eyes, by the median position of the basal tooth on the front tibiae and
b\' its shorter, nine-segmented antennae.

A brief note attached to the type by Dr. Wehrle indicates that this
species does some damage to peach trees and other deciduous fruits.
The adults hide in the soil near the trunks of the trees during the day
and come out at night to feed on the young growth. This is one of
few reported cases of members of this genus doing damage to culti-
vated plants.

DiPi.OTAXi.^ RF.CTiCANTHUS Cazicr, sp. nov.

Small, narrow, ruf otestaceous ; upper surface glabrous ; labrum broadly, arcu-

Tlu> Great Hasin Xaturalist

136 MONT A. CAZii-.R Vol. I, Nos. 3, 4.

atcly cinarsiiiate : mentuni declivous at anterior third, declivity margined behind
by an aeute raised line and row of setae; thoracic angles not impressed, sides not
bisinuatc; front without post-clypeal convexity; metasternum longer than second
abdominal segment ; ungual tooth subapical ; clypeal margin distinctly angulate
on each side of middle sinuation, the angles rather sharply defined, not denti-
form ; tarsi not conspicuously hairy beneath : elytral punctuation confused in all
intercostal spaces, with indication of minute alutaceous sculpturing ; pronotuin
widest a little behind the middle ; eyes small.

Head with punctures large and dense, separated by less than one-half their
own widths or coalesccnt ; e\es little wider than angulation in front composed
of canthi and clypeus ; clypeus with front margin broadly flexed, side margins
scarcely flexed ; side margins bisinuatc, posterior angles rounded, protruding out-
ward beyond anterior angles of canthi which are obtusely angulate, clypeal suture
evident only laterally ; antennae ten-segmented. Pronotuin widest a little behind
the middle, posterior portion more strongly constricted than anterior, posterior
margin about same width as anterior margin ; surface with punctures separated
by about their own widths, interspaces finely punctate. Elytra with costae dis-
tinct, punctures of intercostal spaces separated by about their own widths, second
intercostal space with two and three irregular rows of punctures. Beneath sparse-
ly punctate and clothed with short yellow pile ; legs with hind femora inipunc-
tate, front tibia with basal tooth short, median in position. Length 7.5 mm.,
width 3.8 mm.

Holotype in the writer'.s collection, taken in the White Alountain.s,
Arizona, September (D. 7\. Duncan) and verv kin(ll\ i^iven t(^ the
writer by F. H. Parker.

Diplotaxis rccticantlius will run to the dichotomy includini^ IJ.
punctata Lee. and D. chiricaliuac Fall in Fall's key but can be sepa-
rated from either of these species by the small e}es, the angulate
canthi, the broadly flexed anterior clypeal margin, and the bisinuate
side clypeal margins. It appears to be most closely allied to D. dcscria
Fall, which also belongs in this group, but can be distinguished l)y its
larger size, darker color, more prominently refiexed front clypeal mar-
gin, strongly angulate canthi, smaller eyes, larger pronotal and el\tral
])tnicltn-es and bA' the double, irregular rows of punctures in the sec-
ond intercostal space. From D. plnolica Fall it can be distinguished
b\' its small eyes, more rellexed front clypeal margin, obscure clypeal
suture, angulate canthi, by having the interspaces of the pronottnn
fmely punctate, and by tlie less alutaceous sculpturing of the elytra.

1 )ii'i.()'CAXis i!ki:vTfORNis Cazier. sp. nov.

Small, narrow, rufotestaceous ; upi)er surface glabrous; labrum broadly arcu-
atcl\ , emarginate: nientum declivous in front, declivity margined posteriorly by
rather indistinct raised line and row of erect setae; thoraic angles not impressed,
side margins not bisinuate ; front without post-clypeal convexity ; metasternum
longer than second abdominal segment; ungual tooth apical; clypeal margin an-

Jiiiu'.iO. 1**40 xi.w AMi;ki( AX Dii'i.orAxis 137

filiate on each side of median siniiation ; tarsi not conspicuously iiairy beneath;
elytral punctuation confused only in the subsutural area, elsewhere arranged in
nearly regular series ; interocular width of front about three times tiie width of
llie eye.

Head with punctures of front separated by about their own widths; clypeus
more densely punctate, front margin broadly Hexed, side margin less so, shallow-
ly sinuate, canthi angulate before junction with clypeal margins; antennae ten-
>egmeuted, club short, equal in length to terminal segment of maxillary palpi.
I'ronotiiin with side margins arcuately rounded, widest slightly behind middle,
l)osterior i)ortioii more strongly constricted than anterior; posterior margin sub-
r(|ual in width to anterior margin; surface with punctures somewhat irregular,
uenerally separated by about their own widths, interspaces with smaller punc-
tures. Elytra alutaceous, punctures not well defined, separated by about twice
their own widths. Boicath sparsely clothed with short yellow pile, sparsely punc-
tate throughout, laterally the punctures are separated by at least their own w idths ;
legs with hind femora impunctate, hind coxae punctate, anterior tibiae with basal
tootli median in position, posterior tarsi as long as tibiae, inner tooth of claws
apical, scarcely truncate. Length (» mm., width 3 mm.

Holotype in the collection of the Southern California Academy of
.Sciences, taken at Pyramid I'eak. Dona Ana County, New Mexico.
August 8. 1930 (F. R. Fosberg) and kindly loaned to tlie writer by
Dr. W. D. Pierce. Twenty-three topotypical paratypes deposited in
the same collection as the holotype and in that of the writer.

This species is most closely allied to D. misella Fall but can be
distinguished by its less acute anterior clypeal angles, smaller and less
dense pronotal and elytral punctuation and by its shorter antennal
club.

NOTES OX THE HERPETOLOCilCAL SPECIMENS ADDED
TO THE URIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY VERTE-
BRATE COLLECTION DURING 19.^9^"

WILMER W. TANNER
In charge of Biological Science
Provo 1 figli School, Provo, Utali

During ihe season ui 1939 cunskk-rablc herpet(jl()gical collecting
was clone by the Zoology staff of the Brigham ^'oung Universit\.
Collecting parties visited many parts of the state of L lah and adjoin-
ing states. Considerable time and effort \vas spent in an attempt to
collect those specimens which were not well represented in the her-
petological collection of the University. This goal, wliile not com-
pletely reached, was brought much closer to a point of realization.
Several of the species which had been considered as rare Utah rcj)
tiles, were found to be Cjuite numerous, for example, fifteen (l.^i
specimens of Hypsiglena ochrorhynchus Cope were taken from many
localities throughout the wide area covered. Also, this extensive col-
lecting has provided us with a number of important notes, some of
which are included in this report. Emphasis has been i)laced on ob-
taining information on the feeding and reproductiiMi habits of our
more common species.

The s])ecimens collected U) date indicate two interesting p(jinls in
connection with the distribution of reptiles in Utah. First, L'tah i.s an
area in which the distribution limits of many forms is reached. The
Smooth-grass snake (Ophcodrys vamalis) and the Red-barred garter
snake (Thaninophis s. parietalis) have invaded the state from the east
and north. To the south we have at least sixteen (16) species which
are found in only a narrow margin of Utah, principally VV'ashingion,
Kane and San Juan counties. Second, only a few species appear to
have a slate-wide distribution. Such an interesting distribution is e.\-
plainetl in part, by the great variety of environmental habitats.

The following collectors are responsible for the large number of
specimens collected: Dr. V'asco M. Tanner, Dr. D. Eldon P>eck, James
Bee, I'^ldon Randall, Burton Hunt, and the writer. 1 wish also, to
thank Mr. H. \'. Walker, Zion National Park Naturalist, for the ma-
terial and notes contrilnUed \)\ him.

(1) Contribution No. 84, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Brighani
Young University.

138

luiu- M). 1040 iii'.Kri'.Toi.ocicAi. roi.i.ixTiox 139

LIST UF SPF.CIES

A^rnvsTo.MA tuikixlm ((jreeiii

Helper, C'arlHin Count). L'tali ; junclioii of Sieaml)oat and Ntjrth
rni|)t|ua Rivers. 1 )ouglas Count}-. ( )rei.;()n.
."-^r \niioiT,> i.\Ti:k.MONTANis (Cope)

llelper and Price. Carhon Ccnuit}' ; P'airheld. C'tah Counl}-, Ctali.

The specimen taken at Fairiield is one of the few specimens taken
in iliis part of ilie state. Its morpholog}' is typical for the Utah forms.
!>i'id I'.ouj AS i;(»ki:A.s (Baird and Girard)

l'air\ iew . Sanpete County, Ctah ; Fairheld, Camas County, Idaho;
( iliile. ] )ouglas County, Oregon,
r.i I'o wooDHOUSii Girard

Fairfield, Utah County, Utah.

1 'SF.UDACKI.S NTGRITA TRISERIATA (Wied I

Delco, Cassia County, Idaho.

I 1 VLA ARENICOLOR Cope

Zion National Park, W^ashington Countw I'tah.
Is-AXA AURORA AURORA (Baird and Girard)

Moods Canal. .Seabeck. Kitsap Countv, Washington.

Rax A ROYLii r.oYLii (Baird)

Junction Steamboat. Xorth Umpcpia Rivers. Douglas County. Ore-
gon.
Rax,\ riPiENs Schreber

Fairfield, Utah County: Fairview. Sanpete County; Redmond, Se-
vier County; Helper, Carbon County; Castle Dale, Emery County,
I 'tah. Delco, Cassia County, Idaho.

Tliis species is the most common frog in Utah. It has a state wide
distribution.
Ran A PRETiosA PRETiosA (Baird and Girard)

Fairview, Sanpete County. Utah; Pine. Gila County. Arizona.

The record from Fairview extends the known range of this species
in LUah. I found them quite numerous in this area.

Three specimens were taken at Pine, Gila County, Arizona, by
Piurton Hunt, Jul\- 7. 1939. These specimens, while showing some
variations, are quite the same as those taken in Utah Counay, Utah.
This record greatly extends the known range for this species. Until
these records were taken no specimens had been collected south of
PTah County. So far as the writer knows this is a new state record
for Arizona.

The Great Basin Naturalist

140 wiLMi.iv w . TANNKu Vol. I, Nos. 3, 4.

Crotaphytus collaris baileyi (Stejneger;

Chimney Rock Pass, Utah Count)-; White \ alley, Millard C(junt\,
Utah.
Crotaphytus wislizenii Baird and Girard

Chimney Rock Pass, Utah County; ten miles north of Lynnd\l.
Juab County; White Valley, Millard County; Desert near Lund, Iron
County. Utah.
Sauromalus obesus (Baird)

Boulder Dam, Clark County, Nevada.
Uta LEVIS Stejneger

Price Can\on above Castle Gate, Standardville, Carbon County ;
I'uckhorn Wash, San Rafael, Emery County, Utah.
Uta ornata symmetrica (Baird)

Pine, Gila County, Arizona.
Uta s. stansburiana (Baird and Girard)

Chimney Rock Pass, and four miles west of Lehi, Utah County ;
Price, Carbon County, Utah.

ScELOPORtJS undulatus consobrinus (Baird and Girard)

Pine, Gila County, Arizona.
.ScELOPORUS UNDULATUS ELONGATus (Stejneger)

Price, Standardville, and Peerless Mine, Carbon County; Buck-
horn Wash. San Rafael, Emery County. Utah.

ScELOPORUS OCCIDENTALIS BISERIATUS (Hallowellj

Chimney Rock Pass, Utah County ; White X'alley, and the craters
west of Fillmore, Millard County, Utah.
ScELOPORUS G. GRACiosus (Baird and Girard)

Price, Standardville, and Price Canyon, Carbon County; Castle
Dale, Emery County; four miles west of Lehi and West Canyon, Utah
County; Zion National Park, W'ashington County; ten miles north of
Lynndyl, Juab County; Cove Port and White X'alley, Millard County:
and h'airview. .S;ui])eU- County, Utah. Rexburg, Madison County.
Idaho.

This species is distributed over the entire state of Utah. No other
lizard is so widely distributed or common throughout the state. The
distribution limits for this species are not well defined. It does, how-
ever, occur in all adjoining states.
ScEi.OPORUS GRACiosus GRACILIS (lu'iird and Girard)

Junction of Steamboat and the \orth Umixjua Rivers, Douglas
County, Oregon.

lune 30. 1940 herpetological collection 141

SCELOPOKUS MAGISTER Hallowell

Cactus Flats on Hii^lnvay 91. \\ asliin^ion Ccjunty. Itah.

1'hrynosoma douglassii ornatjssimum (Girard)

Willow Creek. Duchesne County: Near Kxunc. L tali - Caiixm
County lines; Fairview. Sanpete Countw Utah.

PHRYNOSOMA DOL"GI,ASSlI OKNATUM ((iirard)

Four miles west of Lebi. Utali County; T'ort Dousjlas. Salt Lake
t'ounty. Ctab.

I'liRYNOsoMA pLAiYRHiNOS Girard

Four miles west of Lelii. Cbinme}- Kock Pass. L'lab Count}-:
('actus Flats, on Highway 91. Washington County. Utah.

I'llK^NOSOMA UOLGLASSII HKkNANDKST (Girard)

Pine. Gila County. Arizona.

GeRKHONOTUS ML'LTICARINATUS SCINCICAI'DA (."^kiltdU)

Glide, Douglas County, Oregon.
Cnemidophokus t. tessellatus (Say)

Chimney Rock Pass, Utah County. Utah.

CxEMiDOPHORLs PERPLEXUS lUiird and Girard

Zion National Park. \\'ashingtun Cmnity. Utah.

C.NEMIDOPIIORLS SEXLINEATUS ( LiuUC )

Gary, Lake County. Indiana.

I'luMECES FASCiATUs (Uiune)

Reelfoot Lake, Obion Count}'. Tennessee.

EuMECES s. SKiLTONiANUS (Baird and Girard)

West Canyon (Cedar Valley) and Diamond Fork Can} on. L'tab
County, Utah. Junction of .Steamboat and North Umpqua Rivers.
Douglas County, Oregon.

Charina bottae (Blainville)

Provo Canyon and American b'ork Can}on. I'tah Count}. I'tali.

DiADOPHLs REGALis REGALis (Baird and Girard)

Circleville. Piute County, Utah; Preston. Franklin Count}. Idaho.

The Idaho record is, so far as the writer is aware, the first time
this species has been reported from that state. It was collected by a
student on April 20. 1939. The specimen was later given to Dr. J. .S.
Stanford of the Utah State Agricultural College at Logan. Utah. Dr.
Stanford permitted the writer to study it. The specimen does not
differ in any important details from those specimens collected in south-
ern Utah. The scale countv are: scale rows 17-17-15; ventrals 226;

The Great Basin Naturalist
142 VMLMER \V. TANNER \ol. I . XoS. 3. 4.

raiidals (>4 ; supra-labials l-"/ \ infra-labials 7-8; posl-oculars 2-2: prc-
oculars 2-2; loreal 1-1 ; temporals 1-1 ; total length 526 mm.

At this time I also wish to report a specimen collected by Dr. J. .'-^.
.■Stanford and students in the Deep Creek Mountains. Juab County.
Ctah. These northern records would indicate that Diadophis r. rcgalis
has an extensive distribution over the entire state of Ctah and South-
ern Idaho. An interesting observation on the feeding habits of the
/yiadopliis r. rcf/alis was made by IVIr. Id. A'. Walker, w Ikj found a
large specimen in Zion National I'ark feding on a small J'Uuopli'is c.
deserticula.
'>Fiii:oDKYs \'KKN.\Lis (Harlan)

Payson Cannon, Ctah Countw L'tali.
Opiieodkys AE.sTivu.s (Linne)

Reelfoot Lake, Obion Count}', Tennessee.
Coluber c. MOR]\roN (Baird and Girard)

Logan. Cache County; Fort Douglas, .Salt Lake Count}-; Farming-
f(jn, Davis County ; four miles west of Lehi. L^tah County. Utah. Cald-
well. Can}on County, Idaho.
Coluber t. taeniatus (Hallowell)

Chimney Rock Pass, and four miles west of Lehi. L'tah C"ounl} ;
Uuckhorn Wash. San Rafael, Emery County, lUah.
Coluber flagellum frenatu.s (Stejneger)

St. George. Washington County, LUah.
Salvadoka c;. iie.xalepis (Cope)

Zion National Lark, Washington Count}, Utah.

During a short stay at Zion National Lark, Ma}- 1-2. 1*J.V». the
writer examined the herpetological specimens found in the park nui
seum. A specimen labeled "Bull Snake." which was said b}- the ))ark
olficial to have ben collected in the park, proved to be a fine specimen
of Salvadora grahaiiiiac liexalapeis (Cope). No <lata, date or col-
lector's name had been recorded. A second specimen was collected b}'
Mr. 11. V. Walker, Park Naturalist, during the summer of 1939. It
was taken on the lawn a short distance l)elow the park museum. Later
in the summer this specimen was lost. More recenth'. May 15, 1940.
Mr. Walker collected a third specimen, near the Park museum. T
have studied these two specimens and hnd them to conform w ith other
specimens taken in southern Utah. Li both the scale rows are: P)-17-
13; ventrals 198 and 191 ; candals 81. the last siiecimen collected has
a broken tail. .Supra-labials 9-9; infra-labials 10-10; pre-oculars 2-2
and 3-3; post-oculars 2-2. in l)o|h. Total lengths 705 and 650. The

June 30, 1940 herpetological collection 143

lar,i;est I tali specimen studied l)\' llu' w I'iler is the one Ironi the park.
I'otli specimens are females. The lm(hnt; nt' ihe I'atcli-nose snake in
Zion National Park is a new reptile recoid for tlie Park.

.\vailable records for I'tah now total eii^lit (8), se\en (7), of
w hich have been taken in W'ashiniiton C'ountx'. tlie other specimen is
listt'd for Cottonwood Cannon, jiresumahl} .Salt Pake County, Utah,
i'rrrorii i.s catenifek de.sekticoi.a Stejneger

Thistle Canyon; Chimney Rock Pass, four miles west of l.chi.
1 lah County; Fort Douglas, Salt Pake Count}'; Pevan and ten mill's
north of Pynnchl, Juab County; Price, Carbon County; .Sterling Kes-
er\oir. Sanpete County; Marysvale Canyon, .Sevier Covmiy; Milford,
.Millard C"oimt_\' ; Pogan and .Sniithlield, Cache Cou;i!\. Plah. Swan
Lake and Pocatello. Bannock Coinily: C'olsom Creek. .S;ilni(in l\i\rr.
Pemhi Count}', Idaho.
Lamfkoi'eltls getulus I!(,)Ylii (Baird and Girard i

Hurricane, ^^^■lshington County, PTfah.

Pami'kopeltis TRIANGULUM GENTiLis (Baird and Girard)

Alpine and Pehi, Utah County; Mt. Pleasant, .Sanpete Count}',
Utah.

Specimens have been collected in eleven of the twenty-nine coun-
lies of PJtah, extending from Tooele on the northwest to Washington
on the southwest and to P^intah on the northeast. From our records
il appears that this species, while not numerous or connnon in an}'
part of the state, has a state wide distribution.
Rhinocheihts lecontet Baird and Girard

(h\ August 8. 1939, Mr. Peed Faulin collected a specimen ot
h'liiiiocliciius Iccoiiici, in White \ alley, Millard Count}', Utah. The
specimen was taken in the evening as it was moving from one clump
of desert shrub to another. Mr. Fautin recently collected a second
s|)ecimen also in White Valle}'. The specimen collected in August.
P^39, was contributed to the Brigham Young University collection b}'
Mr. Fautin. These specimens extend the range of the Pong-nose snake
w ell into the upper Sonoran Zone of Utah.

While discussing the Pong-nose snake 1 wish to make a correction
lo Mr. Ross Hardy's statement concerning the known records for
Utah. He writes. "A long-nose snake was taken May 19, 1939, at
\'e}'o. Washington County. This is the second record of this species
for the state of Utah." (Proceedings Utah Academy of Sciences.
Arts and Petters, Vo]. 16, 1939.) In 1935 Dr. Vasco il. Tanner, re-
porting on the "'Western Wormsnake, Siagonodon Jiuiuilis (Baird and

The Great Basin Xaturalist
144 WILMER \V. TANNER \'oI. J. XoS. .\ 4.

riiiard). fuund in L'tah," (Utah yVcadeniy of Sciences. Ails and
Letters. \'oI. 12) reported three specimens for the St. George legion.
< )ne specimen c(jllected in 1917 h\- Dr. 'J'anner is in the Calif(jrnia
Academy of .Science collection. 'I'luis from available records, six
specimens of the Long-nose snake liave heen taken in LUah, four from
|]ie .^1. (ieorge area, and two from western Millard County. Utah.

At this time 1 also wish to report a specimen of Rhiiioclicihts taken
hy the w liter on the road two miles south of Bunkerville, Clark Coun-
ty. Nevada. April 28. 1940.

SoNoKA s. SEMI ANN LLATA ( IWiird and Girard )

During the summer of 1938 a specimen of Sonora was taken in the
park hy Mr. H. V. Walker. Since then several specimens have l)een
collected. One of my students fcnmd a com[)lete Sonora skin in the
grass near the museum. The scale counts for the specimens examined
are identical with those collected near St. George, Washington Count\ .
Utah. A specimen taken about ten miles above Lake Mead on the
\ irgin River by Dr. j. S. Stanford, also has a very close resemblance
to the .St. George specimens.

The .Sonora is also a new record for Zion National Park.

Til AM Norms koues (Reuss)
I'ine, (iila County. Arizona.

Til AMNoi'itis oKDiNoiDi:s oKDiNoiDES (Baird and (iirard)

Anacortes and liellingham, Walsom County; Seabeck-. Kitsap
County, Washington. Glide. Douglas County, Oregon.

riiAMNoi'ii IS (). VAGKANs (Baird and Girard)

Sterling Reservoir and Fairview, Sanpete County; I'ricc. Larbon
<. "ounty ; Castle Dale. Emery County ; West Canyon, Cedar X^alley,
(Tab County, Utah. Science Lodge, twenty-eight miles west of Boul-
der County, Colorado.

This species is distributed over the entire state of Utah, trom
which it overlaps into all adjoining states. Just where its limits of
distribution and areas of intergradation are is not as yet clear. Lhah,
however, might well be considered the area providing the most typical
specimens from the vagroiis species.

Thamnoimiis sirtalis concinnls (llallowell)

Junction, Steamboat and the North Umpqua Rivers. Douglas
County, Oregon.
Tiiamnopiiis siKTAEis i'.\Kii:TAi.i s (Say)

Logan and Dry Lake. Cache County, LUah.

June 30, 1940 hf.kpetological collection 145

Hypsiglena DC HRORHYcnrs ("ope

Castle Dale. Emen- Couiilx' : Chimney Rock F'ass. anrl the west
side of Utah Lake. Cedar Valley. Utah County ; St. Cieor^e and Zion
National Park. Washin.ijton County. L'tah.

Onl}' a start has been made on the .^alherini,^ (if data im the dis-
tribution of this secretive little snake.
Trimokphodon lyropiianes (Copej

Two specimens collected by Dr. D. ]-l. lleck and Mr. Arthur Tax-
man at St. George. Utah, were reported by Dr. Tanner in the Pro-
ceedin.us of the Utah Academ\- of Sciences, Arts and Letters, ^"ol. 12.
1935.

.Since 1935 several sjjecimens have lieen collected w ithin VVashinjj-
ton Count}-. In April. 1938. Dr. \ . M. Tanner collected two additional
si)ecimens at .Saint George. (Jne of these specimens is the largest }el
taken within the state of LTtah. It is bS7 mm. in length.

On May 20. 1936, Dr. D. E. Beck found a large si)ecimen on the
road just north of the bridge in Zion National Park. The specimen
was badly damaged, but not beyond the p(jinl of preservation. The
specimen does not seem to differ. exce|)l for individual variations,
from the specimens taken at .St. George. The scale counts are: scale
rows 22-22-15; ventrals 229; candals 69; candals 2; supra-labials
9-10; infra-labial 12-12; pre-oculars .>-2: post-oculars 3-4; loreal 2-2;
temjxjrals 3-5 on both sides; sex, female. Total length 611 mm.; tail
length 102 mm. This specimen, in so far as the writer is aware, is
the first to be taken within Zion National Par]<. h'oiu- specimens are
in the Rrigham Young University herpetological collection.
Tantilla utahensis Blanchard

Schwitz Indian Reservation. Washington C'ounty, LTah.

At present we have six specimens from the type locality, some ot
which are paratype specimens.
Crotalls viridus lutosus ( Klauber)

West side of Cedar Valley, Chimney Rock Pass and four miles
west of Lehi, Utah County, Utah; Fairfield, Camas County. Idaho.

With the exception of the southeastern part of L'tah, Carbon,
I'juery, ( irand, San Juan and eastern parts of W^ayne, Garfield, and
Kane Counties in which the sub-species decolor is found, lutosus is
found very commonly in other parts of Utah. Its main area of dis-
tribution in Utah is the Great Basin, although it does invade certain
areas of the high plateaus.

Elevation records for this species are 8.900 at P.ryce National

The Great Basin Naturalist
146 WILMER W. TANNER Vol. I, NoS. 3. 4.

I 'ark and about 8,000 at Mt. Timpanogos, in Utah County. It has
been taken in the lower Sonoran zone along the Virgin River south of
St. George and into Arizona.

Ckotabus molos.su.s molos.su.s (Baird and Girard)
Pine, Gila County, Arizona.

SUMMARY

1. Two new state records are reported: Diadopliis r. regalis for
idalio, and Rena p. prctiosa for Arizona.

2. Three new records for Zion National Park are reported. This
increases the known reptile species for the park to 24; 11 snakes and
1.3 lizards.

3. Notes on the general distribution within Utah and information
of general interest are recorded for many of the species.

4. 320 specimens and 57 species are included in this report.

John E. Blazzard Contributes Mammal Collection

In 1928 Mr. John E. Blazzard hctian making ;i mammal collection which he
continued until 1938. During this time 63 .specimens (including skins and skulls)
were prepared and labeled. Tliis collection is represented by 36 species which
were collected in Iron, Washington, Kane, Beaver, Garfield, Boxelder, and Cache
Comities. The following are some of the interesting species in the collection :
Dipodomys mcrriami ntcrriavn Mearns, ( $ ? , St. George, Washington County.
Utah, March 13, 192S) ; P. ordil coliiiiibiaiiiis ( Merriam) {$, Cedar City, Iron
County, Utah, March 11, 1928); D. ordii cnpidineiis Goldman ($ 9, Kanab.
Kane County, Utah. March 5, 1928); D. microps cclsns Goldman ($. Hurricane,
Washington County, Utah, March 28, 1928) ; Pcroinysciis !wylii rozclcyi Allen
(St. George, Washington County, Utah, March 13, 1928); and Maniwta fliivi-
ventris eiificlharti Allen ($, Cedar Mountain, Iron County, Utah, June 2. 1929).

We want to thank Mr. Blazzard for this collection, as it adds a number of
locality records to the collection of mammals in this University. Mr. Blazzard
is an ahnnnus of the Brigham Young University. He was a member of the class
of 1927 receiving a Bachelor of Science degree with a major in zoology.-- A. M.T.

INDEX TO \'f)I.lTMK I

Agabus curdatus (Lee). 120.

lugens (Lee), \2\.

perplexus Sharp, \2\.

seriatus (Say), 12 L
.\gelaius phoeniceus sp., 77.
\inbystoma tigriimrn (Green), 122, 139.
Amphiagrion abbreviatum (Selys), 118.
Arctocorixa abdominalis (Say), 118.
Argynnis pfoutsi Gund., 61.
Argia vivida I lagen. 118.

liactis .sp., 1 1().

Hern.sus sp., 121.

Riotic communities, 102.

Biotic study of the Kaiparowits Region

of Utah, 97.
lilazzard, Tohn E.. 14^i.
Buffalo in "Utah, 39.
I^jufo boreas boreas (Baird and Girard),

122, 139.

woodhousii Girard, 122, 139.

punctatus (Baird and Girard), 122.

lazier, Mont A., article by, 127.
Lliarina bottae in Utah. 27.

bottae (Blainville), 141.
I'hordeiles minor, 93.

minor henryi Cassin, 94.

minor hesperes Grinnell, 94.

minor Oberholser, 93.

minor sennetti Coues, 93.
Cnemidophorus perplexus Baird and

Girard, 141.

t. tessellatus (Sayj, 124, 141.

sexlineatus (Linne), 141.
Coluber c. mormon (Baird and Girard),

142.

riagellum frenatus (Stejneger), 142.

t. taeniatns (Hallowell), 124, 142.
Crotahis virichis lutosus (Klauber), 125,

145.

viridus decolor (Klauber), 125.

molossus molossus (Baird and Gi-
rard), 146.
Crotaphvtus collaris bailevi (Stejneg-
er). 123, 140.
Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae. 127.

Desert-Prairie community, 102.
Diadophis regalis regalis (Baird and

Girard), 141.
Diplotaxis impressifrons Cazier, 127.

acononicus Cazier, 131.

aequalis Cazier, 129.

aulacochela Cazier, 131.

brevicornis Cazier, 136.

fulgida Cazier, 130.

microps Cazier, 134.

parkeri Cazier, 133.

l)ersisae Cazier, 133.

recticanthus Cazier, 135.

saylori Cazier, 128.

ungulatus Cazier, 132.
Dipodomys merriann' merriami Mearn^,

146.

ordii columbianus Merriam, (j3, 146.

ordii cupidineus Goldman, 146.

microps celsus Goldman, 146.
Discovery and extent of the Great

Basin, 34.
Dorytomus rubidus Tanner, 52.
Donacia hirticollis Kby., 122.
Duke, Kenneth L., article by, 03.
Dytiscus dauricus Gebl., 121.

iMiallagma cvathigerum ( ( 'liarpentier)
118. '

luigelmann spruce-alpiiic meadow as-
sociation, 112.

Establishment and Maintenance of ter-
ritories by the Yellow-headed Black-
bird of Utah, 75.

Epilachna corrupta Aluis., 91.

Ephemerella inermis Eaton, 117.

Euconulus fulvus alaskensis (Piiilsbry),
115.

l-".umeces fasciatus (Linne), 141.

I'.umeces s. skiltonianus, 141.

Kupagoderes hardy i Tanner, 31.
utahensis Tanner, 31.

luiropean journals and tlie War, 92.

h'all. Dr. Henry Clinton (1862-1939),

52.
I'^autin, Reed D., article by, 75.
I'lying Squirrels collected in Garfield

County, Utah, 126.
I'^ood habits (Charina bottae), 28.
h'ur trader period, the, 36.

(ielastocoris oculatus Fab., 119.
(ierrhonotus multicarinatus scincicauda

(Skilton), 141.
(ierris gillettei Letli. and Sen., 119.

notabilis Drake and Harris, 119.

orba Stal., 119.

remigis (Say), 119.
(ilaucomys sabrinus lucifugus Hall, 126.
(ionyodiscus cronkhitei (Newcomb),

116.
Gordiacea of Utah, 2.
Gordius robustus (Leidy), 2.
Great Basin, Chapter on the natural

history of, 33.
Gulls and Crickets, 49.

147

148

INDKX TO VOLUME I

Gyraulus vcrmicularis vermicularis
(Gould). \\(>.

^iyriiius picipes Aube, 121.

Hayward, C. Lynn, article by, 93.
Helisoma trivolvis trivolvis (Say), 110.
Herpetological specimens added to the

Brigham Young University, etc., 138.
Homopbron atnericanuni vas. texanuni

Csy., 120.
Hydrophilus lineatus Lee, 121.
Hydroporus paniusculus Fall, 121.

striatellus (Lee), 120.
Hyla arenicolor Cope, 123, 139.
Hypsiglena ocbrorhynchus Cope, 144.

Kangaroo Rat, 63.

Lampropeltis getulus boylii (llaird and

Girard), 124, 143.

triangulum gentilis (Baird and Gi-
rard), 143.
Leccophilus decipiens Lee, 120.
Lestes uncatus Kby., 117.
Leucorrhinia intacta (Hagen). 118.

Hudsonica (Selys), 118.
Lethocerus americanus (L^idy), 118.
Libellula quadrimaculata L., 117.
Limnophilis sp., 117.
Lymnaea niodicella modicella (Sav),

116.

plaustris nuttalliana (Lea), 11().

Mammal collection, 146.

Marmota Haviventris engclharti Allen,

146.
Aletrobates trux (Burno), 119.
Mesovelia sp., 120.
Microphysula ingersolli (Bland), 115.
Microvelia sp., 119.
Mexican bean beetle taken at Provo,

Utah, 31.
Mormon pioneer period, 44.

New American I)ipU)taxis (Coleo]Uera-
Scarabaeidae), 127.

Nighthawks, 93.

Notes on the I)istril)utiiin ol' night-
hawks in Utah, 93.

Notonecta insulala Kby., 118.
spinosa Hungerford, 118.

Omopbron obliteratus var. utense Csy.,

120.
Opheodrys aestivus (Linne), 142.

vernalis (Harlan), 142.
Oreohelix slrigosa depressa ((."ocke-

rell), 115.

Paragordius varius (Leidy), 2.
Peltodytes callosus Lee, 120.
Peromyscus boylii rowleyi Allen, 140.
P fonts, Dr. Contributes Butterflies, 61.
Pinyon-juniper association, 108.

Pisidium abditum Haldeman, 114.

Physa amphullacea (Gould), 11').

Pituophis catenifer deserticola (Stej-
neger, 124, 143.

I^hrynosoma douglassii licrnandesi (Gi-
rard), 141.
douglassii ornatissimum (Girard),

124, 141.
platyrhinos Girard, 141.

Pseudacris triseriata (Wied. ), 123, 139.

Pteronarcella badia (Hagen), 117.

Preliminary Histological study of the
ovary of the Kangaroo Rat, 63.

Rana aurora aurora (i'aird and Gi-
rard, 139.

boylii boylii (Baird), 139.
pipiens Schreber, 123, 139.
pretiosa pretiosa (Baird and Girard),
139.

Red-winged blackbird, 77.

Remy and Brenchley visit Utah, 58.

Reproduction (Charina bottae), 28.

Rithrogena mimus Laton, 117.

Rhagovelia excellentis Drake and Har-
ris, 119.

Rhantus binotalus (Harr.). 121.

Rhinocheihis lecontei I'aird and (iirard,
143.

.Salvadora g. hexalepis (Cope), 142.
Scaphiopus intermontanus Cope, 122,

139.
.Scaphiopus, 3.

Sub-genus Scaphiopus, 4.

.Scaphiopus couchii Baird, 10.

Scaphiopus holbrookii, 7.

.Scaphiopus hurterii Streker, 8.
.Sub-genus Spea, 11.

Scaphiopus bombifrons (Cope), 12.

.Scaphiopus intermontanus, 13.

.Scapiiiopus hammondii P.aird, 1().
.Sauromalns obesus (Baird), 123, 140.
Sceloporus undulatus con s o 1) r i ii u s

(Baird and Girard), 140.

undulatus elongatus (Stejneger), 123,

140.

occidentialis biseriatus (Hallowell).

140.

g. graciosus (Baird and Girard), 124,
140.

graciosus gracilis ( i'aird and Gi-
rard), 140.'

magister Hallowell, 124, 141.

INDEX TO VOLt'ME 1

149

Sinmliuni sp., 122.

Sonura s. scinianmilata ( Baird and

Girard), 144.
Spongilla fragilis found in Utah Lake

and Salem Pond, 61.

lacustris (L.), 115.
Stansbury's expedition to the Great

Salt Lake, 55.
Study of the Genus Scaphiopus, 2.
.Studies of the Weevils of Western

United States, 31.
Spruce-F>alsam-Aspen Association. 111.
Succinea avara Say. 116.
Sympetrum corruptum (Hagen), 117.

Tanner, V. M., articles by, 2, 3, 27, ,51,

31, 33, 61, 62, 61, 97, 126, 146.
Tanner, W. W., articles by, 27, 138.
Tantilla utahensis Blanchard, 145.
I liamnophis ordinoides ordinoides

(Baird and Girard), 144.

eques (Reuss), 144.

o. vagrans (Baird and (iirard), 124,
144.

sirtalis concinnus (Hallowell), 144.

sirtalis parictalis (Say), 144.
i'hermonectes inarmoratus (Hope), 121.

Third government expedition under

Captain J. W. (junnison, 58.
Trimorphodon lyrophanes (Cope), 145.
'i'ropisternus cllipticus (Lee). 122.

LJta levis Stejne,gcr. 123, 140.
ornata symmetrica (Baird), 140.
s. stansburiana Baird and (iirard, 123.
140.

X'allonia cyclophorella Ancey, 115.
\'ertigo colorandensis (Cockerell), 115.
\'itrin;i alaskana Dall, 115.

Weevils, 31.

Xathocephalus xathoccphalus, 75.

^'ello\v-headed Blackbird, 75.

Description of colonies, 76.

Mstablishment of territories, 7iS.

Maintenance of the territories, 79.

Population of the territories, 78.

Relationship witli other species, 82.
Yellow Pine-Oak-Manzanita Communi

ty. 111.

Zonitoidis arborca (Say), 115.