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LIBRARY OF CONGRESs.

Sere Sap De...
Sele Grage

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Greenhouse Construction

A COMPLETE MANUAL

ON THE

Building, Heating, Ventilating and Arrangement

OF

GREENHOUSES

AND THE

Construction of Hotbeds, Frames and Plant Pits

B

biped og ess i ONES De

Professor of Horticulture and Landscape Gardening, Michigan Agri-
cultural College

I ee
LLUSTRATED

AY : Mp
STA Nn 8
OF Wasi
3 yond s\}
NEW YORK YS D4
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

1894

COPYRIGHT, 1893,
By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

we alll |

PREFACE.

In the summer of 1889 the writer crected two forc-
ing houses for the Michigan State Experiment Station.
They were designed to be experimental in their construe-
tion, and afforded means for a comparative test of vari-
ous methods of building, glazing and ventilating, and of
the relative merits of steam and hot water for green-
house heating. When the houses had been used one
season, a bulletin was issued, in which the construction
was described, and the merits or demerits of the methods
used were pointed out. During the winter a test of the
heating systems was made, and the results were given in
the same bulletin. The report was widely distributed,
and was copied in full by many horticultural and engi-
neering periodicals, while others gave it favorable notices,
which led hundreds of prospective builders of green-
houses, in all parts of the country, to apply for copies,
aud made a second edition necessary. J'rom nearly
every State in the Union came letters, asking advice
upon various points in greenhouse construction and
heating, all of which indicated, not only that there was
a widespread desire for information on these subjects,
but that the sources of information were quite limited.

At the request of the publishers, the preparation of
this book was undertaken, and the attempt has been
made to present the best methods of greenhouse con-
struction.

Although with fifteen years’ experience in green-
house management and a large experience in greenhouse

1V PREFACE.

construction, all of which has been in connection with
the agricultural colleges of various states, where there
was an excellent opportunity of testing the different
wrinkles in construction that have been, from time to
time,” brought out, the writer has availed himself of
yarious opportunities, during the past three years, to
visit the leading floral and vegetable growing establish-
ments of more than a dozen large cities, between Boston
and St. Louis, and has made a careful study of the
methods employed. Many of the leading florists have
submitted their ideas, either in personal interviews or
by correspondence, and from the pages of the American
Gardening, American Florist, Gardening, American
Agriculturist, and other periodicals, much useful infor-.
mation has been obtained.

Some of the firms that are engaged in the building
and heating of greenhouses have been in business for
many years, and have had a wide experience. From
them, too, many valuable points have been received, and
it is to their kindness that we are indebted for the illus-
trations of the exteriors and interiors Os some of the
most noted houses in the country.

The information here presented has, therefore, come
to us from a variety of reliable sources, and, instead of
being the author, the writer can only claim to be the
editor of this collaborative book.

With the multitude of persons who have aided us in
its preparative, 1t 1s impossible to render acknowledg--
ment to them individually, but to each and all are
extended the hearty thanks of

Fra eed Or Wh
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MICH.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE, : é : iii
CHAPTER I.
HISTORY OF GREENHOUSES, C 1
CHAPTER II.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF GREENHOUSES—EVEN SPAN, LEAN-TO,
SIDE-HILL, . ; 4 : ‘ A - : ‘ 6
CHAPTER III.
THREE-QUARTER SPAN HOUSES, . : F ; ; : 16
CHAPTER IV.
LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT, 5 ; : ; P A 21
CHAPTER V.
GREENHOUSE WALLS, A ; 24
CHAPTER VI.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE ROOF, 33

CHAPTER VII.
COMBINED WOOD AND IRON CONSTRUCTION,. . . . 40

CHAPTER VIII.

IRON HOUSES, ; : 5 44
CHAPTER IX.

THE PITCH OF THE ROOF, . . 49
CHAPTER X.

GLASS AND GLAZING, . A 3 4 56
CHAPTER XI.

GLAZING—METHODS AND MATERIALS, : : . 59
CHAPTER XII.

VENTILATORS, . ; : ; : : < ; 5 67
CHAPTER XIII.

GREENHOUSE BENCHES, ; : 76
CHAPTER XIV.

PAINTING AND SHADING, 2 C 85.
CHAPTER XV.

GREENHOUSE HEATING, r A 90
CHAPTER XVI.

PIPES AND PIPING, n ; A 5 : ; A 5 97

iV)

vi GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

CHAPTER XVIL.’
SIZE AND AMOUNT OF PIPING, ; 5

CHAPTER XVIII.
Hor WATER HEATERS, A 5
CHAPTER XIX.
STEAM HEATING, 5 . 5 =
CHAPTER XX.
COMPARATIVE MERITS OF STEAM AND HOT WATER,

CHAPTER XXI.

HEATING SMALL CONSERVATORIES,

CHAPTER XXII.
COMMERCIAL ESTABLISHMENTS, A

CHAPTER XXIII.
ROSE HOUSES, . 2 mp)
CHAPTER XXIV.
LETTUCE HOUSES, 3 :
CHAPTER XXYV.
PROPAGATING HOUSE, - :
CHAPTER XXVI.
HOTBEDS, : 7 :
CHAPTER XXVII.
CONSERVATORIES, * : A 5 i

CHAPTER XXVIII.
THE ARRANGEMENT OF GREENHOUSES,

CHAPTER XXIX.
GLASS STRUCTURES FOR AMATEURS,

Fig.

PPAR OVP to

LISF-OF ILEUSTRATIONS:

English Greenhouse of 17th Century,
First American Greenhouse,
Model Greenhouse of 1835,
First Chicago Greenhouse,
Even Span Greenhouse,

Ridge and Furrow Houses,
Lean-to House, :
Side-Hill Houses.
Three-Quarter Span House,
Curvilinear House,

Grout Wall,

Grout and Wooden Wall, P
Brick Wall with Wooden Sit,
Brick Wall with Iron Sill,
Wooden Wall, .

Wooden Wall with Glass Side,
Tron Post and Sill, ;
Sash Bar with Drip Gutters,
Plain Sash Bar, .

21, 22. Sash Bars for Butted G Glass,
Plain Sash Bar for Butted Glass,
Greenhouse with Portable Roof,
Elevation and Details for Wooden Roof,
Details for Iron and Wood Roof,
Gas Pipe Purlin, A
Tron Bracket for Roof,

Iron Posts and Braces, Z

31. Helliwell Patent Glazing,
Paradigm Glazing,

34. Galvanized Iron Sash Bars,
Effect of Glass at Different Angles,
Short Span to the South Houses,
Glazing Points, -

Paint Bulb,

Ives’ Putty Machine,

Gasser’s Glazing Strip,

New Methods of Glazing,
Arrangement of Ventilators,

A Simple Ventilating Apparatus,

New Departure Ventilating Apparatus,

Standard Ventilating Apparatus, .
Challenge Ventilating Senne

A Cheap Fixture,

Outside Shafting,

Wooden Benches,

Gas Pipe Bench Suppor ts,
Mendenhall’s ener:
Hill’s Bench,

Angle Iron Bench,

vil

vill

68,

oo

GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

Bench Tiles, . : - 5 ;
Wight’s Patent Bench,

Wood and Slate Bench,

The Slope of the Pipes,

Under Bench Piping (wide house), - :
Under Bench Piping (narrow house),

Overhead Piping (short span to the south house),

Combined Overhead and Under Bench Piping,
Combined Piping for Even Span House,
Combined Piping for Foreing HOURE,
Arrangement of the Coils,
Carmody Hot Water Heater, .
Hitchings’ Heater, .
Weathered’s Conical Heater,
69,70. Spence Heater,
Furman Portable Heater,
Furman Brick Set Heater,
Hitchings’ Base Burning Heater,
Interior of Steam He: ited House,
Barnard Heater,
Plan for a Small Establishment,
Modern Rose Houses (wood),
Extensive Rose Houses Gton),
Ground Plan of Above,
Section of Iron Rose House,
Interior of Rose House (iron),
Section of Rose House (wood),
Section of Lean-to Lettuce House,
Hotbed Frame, ; :
Hotbed with Sash,
Hotbed Shutter,
Hotbed Yard,
Cold Pit,
Large Attached (@) onser Vv ator y;
Modern Detached C onservatory,
Conservatory (section), :
Interior of Conservatory, .
Palm House of Piteher & Manda,
Stove Room (section),
Combined Stay e and Ore hia House,
Orchid House (section), ‘
Foreing Grapery (section),
Even Span Grapery (section),
Curvilinear Grapery (section), F
Greenhouses of Michigan Agric ultural () ollege ‘
Ground Plan of Same, . 2 :
Range of Houses by Weathered,
Range of Houses by Hitchings,
Ground Plan of Hitchings Range,
Range by Lord & Burnham Co.,
Ground Plan of Above,
Foreing House (section),
Rose House (section),
Veranda Conservatory, : :
Veranda Conservatory (section), r
Small Attached Conservatory,
A Cheap House, “ 5 . 7 5
Portable Conservatory, A ' 6
Portable Conservatory (sect ion),
Ground Plan of Basement Pit,
Details for Basement Pit,
Cellarway Conservatory, 5
Cellarway Conservatory (section), _ . :

GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

CHAPTER I.
HISTORY OF GREENHOUSES.

It is known that the old Romans were able to secure
fresh fruits and vegetables, for their banquets, the year
round, by both retarding and accelerating their growth.
As an indication of their skill, it is said that they even
forced the cucumber. They possessed no _ elaborate
structures for this purpose, but grew them in pits coy-
ered with large slabs of tale. Heat was obtained from
decomposing manure, and by means of hot air flues.
They are believed to have had peach and grape houses,
and it is claimed by some, that hot water in bronze pipes
was used to warm them.

In modern times the structures have undergone a
gradual development, from houses containing no glass
whatever, to the forcing house of to-day, which is
nearly ninety-five per cent. of glass. The first house of
which we have any record, was built by Solomon de
Caus, at Heidelberg, Germany, about 1619. It was
used to shelter over four hundred orange trees planted in
the ground, during the winter, and consisted of wooden
shutters placed over a span roof framework, so as to
form the walls and roof, It was warmed by means of
four large furnaces, and ventilated by opening small
shutters in the sides and roof, Jn the spring the frame-
work was taken down. This structure, in size, coms

1

2 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

pared well with the greenhouses of to-day, as it was two
hundred and eighty feet long and thirty-two feet wide.
On account of the expense of putting up and taking
down this framework, and of keeping it in repair, it
was replaced by a structure of freestone. This had an
opaque roof, and the openings in the sides were closed
with shutters during the winter. In 1684 Ray describes
a glass house (Fig. 1) used in the Apothecaries’ Garden,

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FIG. 1. ENGLISH GREENHOUSE OF 17TH CENTURY.

Chelsea, England, which evidently was quite similar to
the one at Heidelberg, except that it had glass windows
in the side walls; the roof, however, was opaque. It
was not until 1717 that glass roofs were used, and from
that time, for one hundred years, few improvements
were made.

During the first part of the present century consid-
erable attention was given to the slope of the roof, and
in 1815 the hemispherical form was first used, Before
the use of glass for the roof became common, the green-
houses often occupied the first floor of two-story struc-
tures, while the second floor was occupied by the gar-
dener as a residence, or was used as a storeroom.

The earlier greenhouses of this country were not
unlike those used in Europe during the eighteenth cen-

~

HISTORY OF GREENHOUSES. 3

tury. In the American Florist for Feb. 15, 1887, is
the description and figure of what is supposed to be the

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tint din \un WA Mer ngage me i Mi ONES W WZ: WZ4 2 Beh" 3 =
CLE arches UA UANY wrens “ AU (/p IW !

FIG. 2. FIRST AMERICAN GREENHOUSE.

first American greenhouse (Fig. 2), it having been
erected in New York, in 1764, for James Beekman.
Although the structures were less elaborate, the Ameri-
can builders took up and utilized any improvements in
construction and heating that were brought out in
Europe.
In Hovey’s Mayazine of Horticulture, for January
¥ 1836, is a description of &
model greenhouse, erected
by Mr. Sweetser, of Cam-
bridgeport, Mass. From
Fig 3, in which a cross sec-
tion is shown, it will be
seen that glass was used in
the entire south slope of
= the roof and in the south
wall. The north slope of
FIG. 3. MODEL GREENHOUSE the roof and the north wall
oF 1835. were of wood. The heat-
ing system combined the flue with hot water. The hot

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RAYQG_@CD

4 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

water system consisted of an open copper kettle, or
heater (/), from the top of which a four-inch copper
pipe passed across the end of the house, and then along
the opposite side, to a large copper reservoir (e); the
return pipe was located on a level, just beneath the flow,
entering the boiler near the bottom. The flue was car-
ried to one side until it reached the walk (¢), and then
ran under this to the other end of the house, where it
was connected with the chimney (¢).

In the West, greenhouse construction was more
backward, and yet, as early as 1836, a Mr. Thomas,

SILL TEL IEE.
Es a = — = =

FIG. 4. FIRST CHICAGO GREEN AOUSE.

according to the American Florist, erected one in Chi-
cago, of which an illustration is shown in Fig. 4. As
will be seen from the engraving, the three-quarter span
houses had even then come into use, although the entire
north slope, and half of the south slope of the roof,
were of wood,

Previous to 1850 there were comparatively few
greenhouses in the country, and, naturally, there were
no extensive builders, Among the first to engage in the
business was Frederic A. Lord, who erected his first
houses in Buffalo, in 1855. In 1870 he removed to
Irvington, and in 1872 entered into partnership with
W. A. Burnham, under the firm name of Lord &
Burnham. In 1883 the firm of Lord & Burnham Co. was

HISTORY OF GREENHOUSES. 0

incorporated. The earlier houses erected by this firm
were, for the most part, in the curvilinear style, which,
in a slightly modified form, is still used by them for
large conservatories.

In 1888 the firms of Hitchings & Co., and of Thos.
W. Weathered’s Sons, both of New York City, who for
many years had been engaged in greenhouse heating,
added departments for greenhouse construction. John
C. Moninger, of Chicago, is one of the best known build-
ers in the West. The systems of construction used by
the three first mentioned firms are much alike, their
better houses being put up with iron sills, posts, rafters,
purlins, ete., while the sash bars are of cypress, although
many of their commercial establishments have no iron
in their construction.

The puttyless glazing systems have been but little
used, except in large conservatories. The principal
firms controlling them are the Plenty Herticultural
Works of New York City, and A. Edgecomb Rendle & Co.
of Philadelphia and Chicago, each of whom have been
in business for some ten years, and have erected a num-
ber of large establishments. They also use the wooden
sash bars and putty glazing. Nearly every large city
has one or more dealers in structural iron work, who have
taken up greenhouse construction. Most of them use
galvanized iron, with or without a steel core, for sash
bars. The use of iron for the rafters and sash bars of
fixed roofs, has been quite general in England for eighty
years, as its permanency is there thought to more than
counterbalance the extra expense, breakage of glass, loss
of heat, drip and leakage, with this system, as compared
with wooden supports. In this country the winters are
much more severe, and, the conditions being less favor-
able for iron roofs, their use is not regarded with favor
by commercial florists. |

We have no description of the furnaces used by Dr.
Caus, in his orangery, but Evelyn tells us that the Chel-

6 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

sea greenhouse was heated by an open charcoal fire built
in a hole in the ground. Later on, a chimney was car-
ned through the greenhouse, and this developed into
the greenhouse flue, which is still in use. Although
steam was tried for heating greenhouses, in the last
quarter of the eighteenth century, it was not much used
until about 1816, when, for twenty years, it was in high
favor, but was superseded by hot water, which, in turn,
has, during the last few years, been crowded out, in
large plants, by steam.

CHAPTER II.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF GREENHOUSES.

While the various glass structures are generally dis-
tinguished according to their uses, as rose houses, palm
houses, stove houses, graperies, etc., for our present pur-
pose it will be well to first consider them from the build-
ers’ standpoint, as lean-to, span roof, three-quarter span,
and curvilinear houses. These names have been applied
from the various shapes that may be given to the houses.
While any of these forms of houses may be used for all
purposes, each one of them is particularly adapted for
the growing of certain plants, and as they each have
their special advantages and disadvantages, they should
have careful consideration.

SPAN ROOF HOUSES.

The form of glass structure which has come to be
known as the span roof is, more properly, the ‘‘even
span,” as the lean-to may be considered a ‘‘half span”
house, while we also have ‘‘two-third” and ‘‘three-
quarter span” houses. The typical ‘‘even span” house

DIFFERENT FORMS OF GREENHOUSES. v4

is generally from nine to twelve, or from eighteen to
twenty feet wide, with side walls from four to five feet
high. The two slopes of the roof are of the same extent,
and are arranged at the same angle, usually between
thirty and thirty-five degrees, which will bring the ridge,
in a house twenty feet wide, about ten feet above the
walk, in a house with walls four feet high, and the roof
at an angle of thirty degrees, and eleven feet high, when
it has a slope of thirty-five degrees.

Ina house of this size, it is desirable to have, at
least, two rows of ventilating sash, which may be on
either side of the ridge, or, if three rows are used, one

ie a

FIG. 5. EVEN SPAN GREENHOUSES.

may be located at the ridge and the others in the side
walls. The amount of ventilation desirable will, of
course, be determined largely by the plants to be grown
in the house.

Although less simple in construction than the lean-to,
they have a far greater variety of uses, and are much
more frequently erected. In fact, nearty all the houses
constructed for commercial purposes, prior to 1885,
were of what is known as the even span style (Fig. 5).

e

3 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

For ordinary growing houses for a commercial florist,
this form is as good as can be secured, although for
forcing houses the three-quarter span is preferable. One
of the special advantages of these houses is that they
may be run at almost any direction that the location
may necessitate. With this form of roof, the benches
can be placed at the same height, and the plants will
still be near the glass, while in other forms of roof, with
the same pitch, the ridge will be much higher.

The even span houses are usually run north and
south, as this not only brings the plants, on both sides
of the houses, into full sunshine during a part of the
day, but better than any other direction, or any other
kind of a house, provides for a perfect distribution of
_the rays of light and heat upon all sides of the plants.
For many purposes the east and west arrangement, with
one side facing the south, is preferable, as, during the
four hours of the day when the sun’s rays are most pow-
erful, they strike at right angles to the glass, and are
but little obstructed by the sash bars; while, were the
houses running north and south, more than half the
rays would be cut off between eleven and one o’clock,
and, as this part of the day is particularly valuable in
the forcing house, this arrangement is preferable for
them. The beneficial effects, however, will be confined
to about two-thirds of the house, on the side towards
the sun, while the other side will have much less sun
than were it in a house running north and south. If
designed as growing houses, this might not be objection-
able, as the north side could be used for ferns, violets,
or for plants at rest, which do fully as well in partial
shade.

The fact that the north third of the house is of little
value for forcing purposes, led, in part, to the construc-
tion of the first forms of two-third and three-quarter
span houses, which, so far as the slope of the roof is

DIFFERENT FORMS OF GREENHOUSES. 9

concerned, did not differ from the even span, the only
difference being that the back wall was run up at a point
which cut off the north third or fourth of the house.
Everything else being equal, the loss of heat from a span
roof house will be somewhat greater than from either a
lean-to, or uneven span house, especially if it, like the
others, runs east and west, on account of its having a
greater area of glass upon its north side. In the lean-to
there is no glass at all on the north side, while, in the
three-quarter span house, the glass area on the north side
will only be one-half as great as in the even span.

The even span houses may vary in width, from nine
to twenty-four feet outside. For the narrow houses
only one walk, situated in the center, with a bench on
each side (See Fig. 59),is used. When the walk is two
feet wide there will be room for two tables, each three and
one-half feet in width. These widths may be increased
to four feet for the beds, and two feet six inches for the
walk, 1f necessary, but twelve feet would be the extreme
width that could be used with comfort, when a house
with a single walk is to be used for most greenhouse
crops, especially if they are grown in pots. When two
walks are used, the houses would need to be increased
to a width of, at least, sixteen feet, and, for some pur-
poses, may be as much as twenty-four feet, which will
be as wide as will probably be used under any circum-
stances. A medium width, however, is preferable, and
the greatest economy of space and comfort, in caring
for the houses, will be obtained, when the houses are
uot less than eighteen feet, nor more than twenty, out-
side measurement.

While houses are often built with walks as narrow
as eighteen inches, it is better to allow two feet, in com-
mercial growing houses, and in private houses a width
of two and one-half feet for walks, will not be too great.
For the side benches, three feet and six inches will be

10 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

eee fe ee ee
))/ ee \: BE \' TT hy

FIG. 6. GROUND PLAN AND END ELEVATION OF RIDGE
AND FURROW HOUSES,

RIDGE AND FURROW HOUSES. il

found a convenient width, although four feet is often
used, If the greatest economy of space and convenience
of handling the plants is sought, the center bench should
be about seven feet in width. . They are, however, often
made as narrow as six feet, and when large plants are to
be grown, which will make a high roof desirable, the
width of the house may be increased to take in a
bench ten or eleven feet in width.

RIDGE AND FURROW HOUSES.

The even span form of roof has one advantage that
is possessed by no other (except by the short span to the
south, or the three-quarter span on a sidehill), as they
admit of the ridge and furrow construction, as it is com-
monly called. This should, however, be distinguished
from the ridge and furrow form used in England by Sir
Joseph Paxton and others, in which the roof was broken
up into a great number of ridges, and furrows run up
the main slope of the roof.

The principal gain is due to the fact, as shown in
Fig. 6, that when, say five, houses are built in this way,
only six walls will be required, and four of these can be
of light, cheap. construction, instead of the ten well-built
walls that would be necessary were the houses built
separately. Another advantage, which should not be
overlooked, is due to the fact that there will be only one-
fifth as much exposed wall surface, and that, when built
thus close together, one house on each side will protect
the others from the high, cold winds that come from
that direction. There will also be a considerable saving
in space, which will be worth considerable, especially in
cities.

Among the disadvantages of the ridge and furrow
style of houses, is the shading of the center houses dur-
ing the morning and afternoon, by those on either side,
by which, especially in the case of wide, high houses,

12 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

much light and heat is shut off; also the fact that when
houses are built in this way, side light and side ventila-
tion cannot be secured. While this is not even desira-
ble for some crops, for others it is quite necessary, and
whether crops are to be selected that are adapted to the
houses, or houses are to be erected that are to be suited to
the growing of certain crops, this should be understood.

It may be lail down as a rule that, aside from the
economy of erection, heating, etc., better results will be
obtained from wide houses, if they are built with inter-
vals of, at least, fifteen feet between them; but when
the erection of the extra walls, and the increase in fuel
and land are considered, for the ordinary florist, even
span houses, of a width of twenty feet or less, should be
erected. upon this plan, unless other special reasons might
exist. In sections where the snowfall is heavy, the gut-
ters will become filled, and, as the snow cannot slide
from the roof, with long houses, unless they are narrow,
and only built with three houses in a section, to allow of
the snow being thrown over the roofs of the side houses,
this will be a serious objection to the plan. For the
growing of small bedding plants, mignonette, helio-
trope, carnations, and for propagating houses, this
form of construction, with houses twelve feet wide, will
be quite satisfactory. Of course, any plants can be
grown in them, but a wider house seems preferable for
roses, carnations, lettuce, and for most forcing crops,
particularly as the amount of air enclosed is greater in
proportion to the amount of exposed glass surface, on
which account the temperature can be easier regulated,
and drafts of air prevented.

THE LEAN-TO HOUSE.

When it is desirable that the first cost shall be as
small as possible, and if the expense for fuel, rather than
the crops grown in the house, is considered, the lean-to

THE LEAN-TO HOUSE. 13

form, particularly if the structure is to be a small one,
will be found of value. An idea of the shape of the
house, and the reason for the name, can be obtained
from Fig. 7%. If the house can be built against the
south wall of a building, or against a steep sidehill,
these will be additional reasons, as affecting the cost of
erection and heating, for using this form of construction.
On the other hand, this shape for a greenhouse has, per-

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4
Yj
Y
y
4
Z
g
4
j
Z

FIG. 7. LEAN-TO HOUSE (Cross Section).

haps, more and greater objections than any other. One
serious fault is that for three hours in the forenoon, and
an equal period in the afternoon, the plants get little or
no direct sunlight; another objection is that the light
that they do get, coming all from the south side, is une-
qually distributed upon the plants, and the leaves are all
turned in that direction, thus giving the plants an uneven
appearance.

As grape or peach houses, the lean-to construction
answers very well, and, where one has a wall that can be

Tee te GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

utilized, the expense for building and heating will be
very small. A lean-to, with its roof sloping to the north,
answers very well as a propagating house. One of the
simplest ways of building one is to place it against the
north wall of a three-quarter span house, or by building
an even span house twenty-five feet wide, and cutting
off six and one-half feet on the north side, thus forming,
on one side, what is known as a north side propagating
house (See Fig. 61), and on the other a three-quarter
span forcing house. As a small house for an amateur,
quite satisfactory results can be obtained from a lean-to,
but a span roof house is to be preferred.

For the forcing of vegetables, the growers of lettuce
at Arlington, Mass., and vicinity, use wide houses con-
structed on the lean-to plan (See Fig. 83), and they give
excellent satisfaction. As a rule, lean-to houses are
built with a wall from four to six feet high, and with a
roof of a width in proportion to the width of the house ;
but they are sometimes built quite narrow, with a low
wall, just high enough to allow of bottom ventilation,
from which the side sash rises at an angle of from forty-
five to sixty degrees, to a height of eight or nine feet,
with a narrow ventilator connecting the top with the
back wall. A good idea of the form of this house can
be obtained from Fig. 97. The principal use of a nar-
row lean-to of this kind, would be as a cold grape or
peach house.

In a general way, the construction of a lean-to house
would be the same as of half of a span roof house, and,
so far as the building of these houses is concerned, they
will be treated under the same headings, and will receive
no further consideration as distinct houses.

SIDEHILL HOUSES.

A modified form of lean-to, which combines its
advantages with those of the three-quarter span house,

SIDEHILL HOUSES. 15

is sometimes known as the sidehill house. W. C.
Strong, of Massachusetts, erected a house of this kind at,
Brighton, and was well pleased with it. Other smaller
houses have since been erected, and, for vegetable forc-
ing, have given excellent satisfaction. A good idea of
the construction of the houses can be obtained from
Fig. 8. They should be located upon a hillside which
has a slope towards the south of about twenty-five de-
grees. Each section should consist of a lean-to structure
of any desired width, from ten to twenty-five feet. The
south wall is built the same as for any greenhouse, and,
for a structure fifteen feet wide, posts should be placed

FIG. 8. °SIDEHILL HOUSES (Section).

in the ground, as at a, for the north wall; a gutter
should be placed upon them, and this will answer for
the south gutter of the adjoining house. The sash bars
should be laid at the same angle as the slope of the hill,
against a ridge, g, which should be about two by four
inches, as should the sides of the gutters, e.

The ridge is supported by braces about two by four
inches, which are placed at intervals of two and one-half

,

16 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

feet, as is shown at #. The ventilators, the construction
of which is shown at d, are of wood, and will be found
convenient to walk upon in removing the snow and
making repairs, otherwise they could be of glass, if pre-
ferred. The benches may be arranged as is most con-
venient, the method shown in Fig. 8 being an excellent
one. The heating pipes may be arranged along the sides
of the walks, but should be so distributed that the lower
houses will have their share of the heat.

In Europe, houses of this form are very commonly
used, and vegetables of all kinds are grown out of season,
in much the same way as in the open air. Hundreds
and thousands of acres are thus covered with glass, and
the profits of a quarter of an acre are sometimes more
than from the best hundred acres used in general farming.

CHAPTER III.
THREE-QUARTER SPAN HOUSES.

As previously stated, the first form of three-quarter
span house was the same as three-quarters of an even
span structure, but the shape of the roof has been
somewhat modified, so that the plants will be nearer the
glass. The cost of building these houses is about the
same as for an even span, but owing to the fact that the
north wall is from six to eight feet high, there will be
less loss of heat from the north side of the roof, and the
south pitch of the roof will take in more of the light
and heat rays, than would be the case with a span roof
house.

The three-quarter span houses may be likened to a
lean-to house with the peak of the roof cut off. In the
lean-to the heat tends to rise into the angle of the roof,

THREE-QUARTER SPAN HOUSES. aly

and hence is not evenly distributed, but in the three-
quarter and even span houses there is less trouble from
this. The three-quarter span houses always run east
and west, and the north slope of the roof allows the light
to fall on the plants from all sides, so that the growth of
the plants will be stronger and more symmetrical. It is
the south slope that is principally relied upon to trap
the light and heat of the sun, and the angle at which
the glass is arranged is that which will be nearest at
right angles to the sun’s rays during the winter months.

This form of house is particularly adapted to the
forcing of roses, and of all other plants that need a max-
imum amount of light for their development. In Fig. 9

FIG. 9. THREE-QUARTER SPAN HOUSE (Section).

will be seen the usual form of forcing house of the three-
quarter span style. For adapting it to different crops,
the height of the walls, the slope and length of the sash
bars, and the width and height of the benches, can be
varied at pleasure. As a general rule, the three-quarter
span houses are from sixteen to twenty feet wide; the
south wall is from four to five feet high, and the north
one from six to eight feet, The south pitch of the roof

2

18 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

varies from twenty-six to thirty-five degrees, and the
north one from thirty-five to sixty-five degrees.

The side benches are each about three feet wide,
and are placed about one and one-half feet below the
plates. The center bench may be single (Fig. 63), with
a slope to the south, or double, as shown in Fig. 9, with
a narrow walk between the two parts. ‘This style of
house is also largely used for lettuce forcing, and for
this purpose the width is sometimes increased to thirty-
five feet.

CURVILINEAR ROOFS.

‘In this construction the sash bars aré more or less
curved, with the idea that, at all times of the day, some
of the glass will be at right angles to the sun’s rays.
This, of course, is secured, but the result of the curved
sash bars is to decrease the angle at which the rays strike
a majority of the panes, so that, after all, the curvilinear
construction is an injury, rather than a benefit. The
old style of curved roof had the sash bars leaving the
plate in nearly a vertical direction, and with most of the
curve in the lower third of the roof. As a result, the
upper half of the roof approached the horizontal, and
made a very small angle with the sun’s rays, especially
during the winter. The present form of curvilinear
roof has a more regular curve, and, as shown in Fig. 10,
is less objectionable. Whatever the material used, the
cost of the framework for a curvilinear house is consid-
erably more than for a straight roofed house. If, for
glazing the roof, glass bent to the proper angle is used,
the cost will be much more than for straight glass.
Ordinary sheet glass can, of course, be used upon curvi-
linear roofs, but, especially upon the old form of roof,
comparatively short panes must be used.

‘lo many persons the curve is a “line of beauty,”
and a curvilinear house has a more ornate and finished

CURVILINEAR ROOFS.

FIG

10

CU

R

VILINEAR G

REENHOUSE AND PIT

ERECTED BY LORD

AND BURNHAM CO.

20 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

appearance than one with straight sash bars and, in pri-
vate and public parks, where the increased cost is not
considered an objection, and where the houses would be
an ornamental feature of the landscape, curvilinear
houses have their place. This form of roof is also quite
desirable for large conservatories, although a roof made
with straight sash bars can be so broken up as to relieve
it of any barn-like appearance. The curvilinear con-
struction can be used in lean-to, even span, or three-
quarter span houses, but for the reasons given is not
particularly desirable in any form of low, narrow houses,
and, in fact, it is generally admitted that better plants
can be grown in houses with straight sash bars.

Some twenty years ago the curved construction was
in very common use in England, but the general verdict
seems to be expressed by a writer,* who says, ‘‘ Taken
as a whole, circular work may, in a few exceptional
instances, be introduced to obtain an architectural result,
or in molding the lines of a large winter garden or mag-
nificent palm house, but for ordinary growing purposes,
we may consider curvilinear roofs not so suitable as those
composed of straight lines.” As a result of this belief,
the curved roofs are no longer in favor, and few such
are being erected to-day.

*Fawkes, Horticultural Buildings, P. 54.

CHAPTER IV.
LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT.

When erected in connection with some other build-
ing, the aspect and slope cannot always be regulated ;
but, if possible, greenhouses for most purposes should
be on the south side, so that no rays from either east or
west will be cut off. For a lean-to or a three-quarter
span house the wall or building against which they are
erected should run east and west, and an even span house
should, in this case, run north and south, with its north
end against the other structure.

For the location of detached houses, if thorough
drainage can be secured, a level spot is not objectionable ;
while, if it is at the top of a south and westerly slope,
all the better, as there the sun can get in extra hours at
both ends of the day. In case the land on the most
available site is not level, it should be graded, in case it
can be done without too great expense. <A slope of per-
haps one or two inches in fifty feet, to carry off the
water from the gutters, is not objectionable, and, while
it is preferable that each house should be practically
level, if the land selected cannot be readily graded so as
to bring all of the houses upon the same level, there will
be no serious objection to haying the houses ranged, one
above the other, in regular tiers. For sidehill houses a
decided slope is necessary. In locating the houses,
means of thorough drainage, particularly for the boiler
room, should be the first desideratum. In arranging a
group of houses, the width and height of the different
structures, and the shape of the roofs, will have much

21

29 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

to do in determining their exact location. Unless
arranged in ridge and furrow style, a space of twelve or
fifteen feet between the houses is desirable. ‘The lean-to
and three-quarter span houses may be piaced in parallel
lines running east and west, and the even span houses
may run in either direction. Besides haying them so
located as not to shade one another, to prevent side ven-
tilation, or, if desirable, driving between them with a
horse and cart, they should be as near together as is pos-
sible, in order to save land, and for convenience and
economy in heating and operating the houses,

The convenience of arrangement assists, to a won-
derful extent, in the performance of the greenhouse
work, The potting and workrooms should be centrally
located, well lighted, and in every way convenient for
the work, and in commercial establishments the packing-
room should be so situated as to facilitate getting up the
orders. In retail establishments, when the salesroom is
in connection with the greenhouse, it should be conyen-
iently located for the customers, and should be fitted up
with counter, glass show cases, refrigerator and other
necessary furniture, Fig. 76. If properly arranged, with
the wire designs upon wall hooks, the baskets and simi-
lar supphes in glass cases, in fact, with a place for every-
thing, and everything in its place, the salesroom will be
attractive to customers and visitors, while its conyen-
lence, and the arrangements for preserving the flowers
and supplies, will soon repay all expense. We believe
the above equipment to be almost a necessity in a prop-
erly conducted business, and if there is a large retail
trade at the greenhouse, some attempt at decoration,
both in the salesroom, and in one house to be used in
whole or in part as a showroom, cannot fail to attract
visitors, and this will increase the trade.

In locating the various workrooms for a large estab-
lishment, it is well to have them in the center, with the

LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT. 23

houses running out from both sides, east and west. A
similar arrangement for the heating plant is also desira-
ble; thus, rather than have the boiler room at one end
of a long range of houses, the boiler house could be
placed in the center, and houses of half the length
arrauged on each side, and better results obtained. A
very convenient arrangement for the heating plant is
shown in an engraving of F. R. Pierson’s range of rose
houses, in Chapter Twenty-two, in which four houses,
each one hundred and fifty feet long, are supplied from
a boiler house so located that the extreme ends of the
houses are but little more than one hundred and fifty
feet away, instead of being over three hundred feet, as
would be the case were the boilers located at the end of
the range. Of course, with houses of one hundred to
one hundred and fifty feet, such an arrangement would
not be desirable. In many establishments it would be
convenient to widen the connecting passage-way, and
use it for potting, packing and like purposes. For a rose
forcing house, the potting and packing rooms need not
be as large nor as centrally located as for an ordinary
commercial establishment. In large private establish-
ments, the palm house is generally the central figure,
around which the others are grouped. For a small
range the one shown in Fig. 100 is well planned, while
that in Fig. 106 has as many merits as a large one.

CHAPTER V.
GREENHOUSE WALLS.

In erecting greenhouses, too little attention is usu-
ally paid to the construction of the walls. Not only
should their durability be secured, but the heaying by
the frost, and the lateral pressure of the roof, should be
guarded against. Owing toa lack of foresight regarding
some of these points, one seldom sees a greenhouse with
five years’ service that is in a satisfactory condition.
Greenhouse walls are constructed of wood, brick, stone
or grout, or of a combination of two of these materials.
Each of these methods of construction has its advocates,
but each of them has some disadvantages.

MASONRY WALLS.

The use of stone or grout (cement, sand and cobble-
stones), fur the construction of the foundation of brick
walls, is very common, and, as they make a durable wall,
would, no doubt, be largely used for the walls up to
the plates, were it not that they are rapid conductors of
heat. In small greenhouses, where the grade can be
carried up to the plate, so that none of the wall is ex-
posed to the outside air, they make excellent walls.

The excavation should be to a depth of three feet
below the proposed outside grade level, and of a width
to admit of a fifteen or eighteen inch footing course.
This should occupy the trench up to the level of the
interior of the house, at any rate, and even if brick or
other material is used for the upper part of the wall,
may extend to the level of the ground outside, which is

24

MASONRY WALLS. 95

often from two to five feet above that of the interior.
Stone conducts heat quite rapidly, and for that reason
will not be desirable as a wall above ground, unless made
very thick. This objection does not hold to the same
extent with grout, and where small stones can be readily
obtained, it makes a cheap and very durable wall. For
a house not over twenty-five feet wide, and when less
than five feet in height, a wall of
grout twelve inches thick will answer.
This should rest on an eighteen inch
footing course of the same material.
The materials required are, stones
from two to four inches in diameter,
gravel, and water lime, of Louisville
or a similar brand.

In making the wall, a box of the
desired width is made by driving
stakes along the line of the wall, on
each side, and setting up twelve inch
planks for the sides of the box. In
this a layer of stones is placed, which
should be packed in carefully, and
kept, at least, one-half inch away
from the planks. The cement is then
prepared by thoroughly mixing one
part with three parts of gravel, and
then adding water enough to thor-

Fig. 11. oughly moisten it. The best results

GROUT WALL. — are obtained, if it is of about the same
consistency as ordinary lime mortar. The water should:
not be added until the cement has been mixed with the
gravel. A layer of cement from two to three inches
thick, over the stones, will be sufficient ; this should be
well tamped down, filling all of the space between the
stones. Another layer of stones and cement can then be
added, and the process repeated until the box is filled,

rw)
oO

GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

requiring about three layers. One wall of the house can
be built at a time, although if planks are at hand it will
be well to allow one wall to set while a course is being
put in on another. After the grout has been setting for
five or six hours, the planks can be raised their own
width, and the box will thus be prepared for another
course. In this way a wall of any desired height can be
built, which will be found quite
durable and in every way satisfac-
tory. The appearance of the wall
can be improved if, after the last
course has been put on, the ex-
posed surface is given a thin coat
of Portland cement mortar. If
desired, the surface can be laid off
into squares, resembling blocks of
sandstone. ‘The appearance of a
wall built entirely of grout is
shown in Fig. 11, while Fig. 12
shows a wall half grout and half
wood,

BRICK WALLS.

Unless the very best materials
are used in their construction, the
greenhouse walls constructed. of
brick will be comparatively short-
FIG. 12, GROUT AND Jiyed, as the combined action of

WOODEN WALL. moisture and frost will disinte-
grate the mortar, and cause the outer tier of bricks to
crumble. Hard burned bricks should be selected, and
the best Louisville, or, better yet, Portland cement mor-
tar, should be used. Whatever the thickness of the
wall, there should. be, at least, one air space, to prevent
radiation of heat. This will also tend to render the wall
more durable, by preventing the capillary passage of the

WOODEN WALLS. 27

moisture. For all low walls, two tiers of brick, with a
one-inch air space, making a nine-inch wall, will answer ;
these should be firmly tied together every fourth course
vertically, and every three or four bricks along the walls,
Fig. 13. <A post once in eight feet will strengthen the
wall, and prevent the plates from spreading. For heavy
or wide structures, or if the wall is high, a third tier of
bricks on the inside, one-half, or,
perhaps, two-thirds the height of the
wall, will serve to strengthen it.
Fig. 14 shows the construction of
such a wall, as used with an iron sill.

WOODEN WALLS.

Probably nine-tenths of the
present greenhouses are constructed
with what might be called post and
board walls. In their erection, the
posts used should be of some durable
material, such as red cedar, locust
or cypress, and the size should vary
from four by four inches for low
walls and narrow houses, to six by
six inches for high walls and wide
houses.. The posts should be seven
to eight feet in length, except on the
back side of three - quarter span
houses, where a length of ten or
twelve feet will be necessary, which
will allow of their being set three
feet in the ground for the front wall, and four feet for
the rear one. The posts should be placed in a straight
line, about four feet apart, and unless the ground is
quite firm and solid, it is well to place a flat stone under
the post, and fill up the hole around ‘t with grout. This
will not only hold the post firmly in place, but it will

BIG.) lee
BRICK WALL WITH
WOODEN SILL.

28 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

have a tendency to preserve it. The durability of the
posts can also be increased by charring the lower end,
and then soaking it in crude petroleum. <A coat of coal
tar would be better than the petroleum, but it should
never be used about a greenhouse, as it will be injurious
to the plants.

The posts should then be sheathed upon the outside,
for which purpose a fair grade of matched lumber is

See

I

FIG. 14. BRICK WALL WITH IRON SILL.

desirable, although any kind of culled lumber will answer
(Fig. 15). It will always pay to cover the sheathing
with some kind of heavy building paper, avoiding all
brands that contain tar. For the outer covering the
novelty or patent siding will be found preferable to ordi-
nary clapboards. For rose and stove houses it may pay,

PLATES AND GUTTERS. 29

in exposed localities, to ceil wp the posts on the inside ;
but if this is done it will be best not to pack the enclosed
space with sawdust or similar material. This course
was recommended for many years, but, in practice, it
was found that the packing absorbed
moisture and caused a rapid decay of the
wall. In ceiling up the inside of the
posts, tight joints should be made, that
will exclude mice; otherwise, the en-
closed space may become a_ harboring
place for them, and thus prove a greater
injury than benefit. When used for
growing roses and other tall plants, that
require the bed to be situated at least two
feet below the plate, it is well to have a
row of sash im each of the side walls (Fig.
16). If houses run east and west, a row
along the south side will answer, although
one on the north side will be of advant-
age; in north and south houses the sash
should be placed in both sides. In nar-
row houses they may be fastened perma-
nently, but, if the houses are wide, it will FIG. 15.

be advisable to have, at least, a part of WOODEN WALL.
them on hinges, so that they can be opened if found
necessary (Fig. 50).

PLATES AND GUTTERS.

The wall plates may be placed level, on the top of
the walls, as in Fig. 12, or they may be at the same
angle as the roof. As arule, two-inch lumber is heavy
enough, although if a gutter is desired for catching the
roof-water, strips may be nailed to it, as shown in Fig.
12. Another method of arranging the gutter is shown
in Fig. 16. Whichever method is chosen, the posts,
where wooden walls are used, should all be cut off at

30 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

the same angle, and the plate securely fastened in place.
The arrangement shown in Fig. 16 is the neatest and
best, and the same form of plate, without the gutter,
can be used when one does not desire the latter, The
form illustrated in Fig, 12 will be a cheap and satisfac-
tory method of arranging the gutter, while that shown
in Fig. 15 is, perhaps, the cheapest and easiest way of
making a plate when a gutter is not
desired. When the under side of
the plate is level there should be a
small groove near each edge, to pre-
vent the water from working back
into, or down the wall.

In some cases a wooden wall
built in exactly the same way as the
wall of a dwelling house, is preferred
to the ‘‘ post and board” wall. For
this a foundation of stone, brick or
eront, extending to the outside
grade line, is necessary, and an ex-
cellent plan is to have two, or even
three feet of the wall below this
level, with a corresponding excava-
tion for the house, necessitating the
erection of a wooden wall of the
same height above. In this way the
FIG. 16. WOODEN exposed surface is greatly reduced,
WALL WITH GLASS and a durable and warm wall will be

SIDE. secured. The sill for this wall
should be two by four-inch scantling, with studding of
the same size, placed two feet apart., The sides and top
can be arranged in the same manner as when posts are
used (Fig. 12). If there is danger of lateral pressure,
the sills should be securely anchored to the foundation.
This form of wall is principally desirable for narrow
houses, and where side ventilation is not needed.

IRON POSTS AND SILLS. 31

IRON POSTS AND SILLS.

Although wood is now almost’ universally used in
the construction of commercial houses, many of the
more enterprising florists are employing iron and steel
in such portions of the house as do not form a part of
the exterior, particularly for
posts, sills, purlins and ridge.

One of the simplest and
best arrangements of this
kind was used by Lord & '
Burnham Co., in the con-
struction of a range of rose _
houses for F. R. Pierson, at
Scarborough, N. Y. (For
views and sections of these
houses see Figs. 78 and 79.)
The posts and rafters on each
side were made from one
piece of four by one-half inch
bar iron, bent at the gutter-
line, so that when the lower
end was vertical, to form the
post, the other would be at
the proper angle for the raf-
ter. The post end was placed
in an excavation three feet :
deep, resting on a flat stone, FIG. 17. IRON POST AND
and the hole was filled up SILL, WITH SIDE VENTI-
with grout. The upper end LATION.
of the rafter was securely bolted to its companion from
the other side, by means of an iron bracket. In some
cases an iron ridge of the same size of the rafters is used,
to which the rafters are fastened by means of angle
brackets.

The wall may be constructed in various ways, one of
which, illustrated in Fig. 9, will answer well for rose

32 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

houses. If desired, the entire wall beneath the plate
may be of wood, although the glass will generally be
found desirable. It will be noticed that the wooden por-
tions of the wall are bolted to the posts by means of
small iron lugs (Fig. 17).

The form of post used by Hitchings & Co. is rather
more elaborate and ornamental than the above. It con-
sists of a cast iron post base below ground, to which the
T iron wall post is bolted. The rafter is then bolted to
the top of the wall post by means of an ornamental iron
bracket. In the more elaborate conservatories, with a
brick or masonry wall, an iron sill, Fig. 17, is used (a
similar sill of iron can also be used upon the top of a
wooden post if desired), to which the lower end of the
rafters is fastened by iron lugs. ,

This 1s the best form of construction now in use,
and when ready capital 1s at hand for the erection of
good houses, 1t will be found most economical in the
end. Asa second choice, one of the forms of iron posts,
with a wall of wood, could be used. Even if the wooden
wall does decay, the posts, rafters and purlins will still
remain, forming a stiff and firm framework, which would
still support the superstructure. As a rule, the board
at the bottom will decay first, and if this is so put in
that it can be easily taken out and renewed, the wall can
be kept in repair for a long series of years at a small
expense.

CHAPTER Vi,
CONSTRUCTION OF THE, ROOF. s

The portion of the house to which the most atten-
tion is paid, are the strips supporting the glass. There
are dozens of patent sash bars, and methods of glazing,
and yet the old wooden sash bar is still preferred by the
commercial florist, while the sash bars m some of the
best modern houses are identical in size and shape with
those in use thirty years ago. Although the glazing
should be so tight that no water can pass through into
the house, there will be more or less condensed moisture
on the under side of the glass, and to prevent drip as
much as possible, it is well to have them with drip gut-
ters on each side. Some florists, however, prefer not to
have them.

Ordinary white pine makes a good sasn bar, and, if
kept well painted, will be found quite durable. The
southern cypress, however, is generally preferred. It is
straight grained, rather more durable than white pine
under the best of care, and much more so if they are
neglected. Cypress is also stronger and stiffer than
white pine, and the sash bars can be made rather smaller
on that account. For use with lapped glass, the best
form of sash bar, if drip gutters are wanted, is shown at
Fig. 18, while, if the drip gutters are not desired, a good
form is shown m Fig. 19. When glass from fourteen to
eighteen inches wide is used, the roof sash bars should
be from one and one-eighth by two inches to one and
one-fourth by two and one-half inches, according to the
distance between the purlins. The rabbets for the glass

3 33

3B4 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
should be about half an inch deep and five-sixteenths of

an inch wide. ‘The vertical sash bars for the sides and
ends should be about one and one-eighth by one and

FIG. 18. SASH BAR WITH £FIG. 19. PLAIN SASH
DRIP GUTTERS (Section). BAR (Section).

seven-eighths inches, the rabbet being of the same size
as for the roof sash bars. For butted glass, whether used
with or without glazing strips, either of the above forms

FIG. 20. FIG. 21. FIG. 22.
SASH BARS FOR BUTTED GLASS.

(Figs. 18 and 19) may be used. The patterns shown in
Figs. 20, 21 and 22 are, however, preferable for this kind
of glazing. ‘The sash bars (1) there shown are practically
alike, and the difference lies principally in the form of

PORTABLE ROOF. 35

the caps (2), those shown in Figs. 20 and. 21 being, per-
haps, preferable. In Fig. 23 is shown a form of sash
bar without drip gutters, for use with butted glass.

As a rule, the lumber working factories do not have
machinery for working (sticking) the drip grooves, and
it will be necessary to obtain them from some firm dea!-
ing in green-
house material.
There are several
large concerns
who deal in cy-
press, and fur- @ <«
nish everything [erin in| <| TAA
required in the cLa'ss |
construction, in-
cluding gutters,
ridge, plates,
rafters, sash
bars, ventilating
sash, doors, etc’,
all cut ready to FI@. 23. PLAIN SASH BAR FOR BUT-
put together. TED GLASS (Section).

This will be a great help to the small florist, as he can
secure his lumber of standard shapes and sizes, with
plans that will enable any carpenter to put it together.

PORTABLE ROOF.

An old plan of construction is to make a framework
for the roof, with two by six inch rafters and a heavy
ridge board (Fig. 24). The roof is covered with movable
sash, similar to hotbed sash, from three by six to four
by eight feet in size. If the house is narrow, one sash
on each side will cover it. The sashes may be screwed to
the plate and ridge, and thus make a tight roof. To se-
cure ventilation, some of the sash may be hinged, either at
the top, bottom, or sides, or they may be provided with

36 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

stops that will hold one end in place, while the other is
raised (see hotbed Fig. 85).

in wider ihamaeee in which the rafters measure more
than eight feet in length, the space between the top of
the sash and the ridge may be covered with a smaller
sash, the lower edge of which laps down upon the large
sish beneath. ~ Where two rows of sash are used in this
way, 1t is customary to have all of the upper row hung
on hinges (ig. 24), although if they are very large, not
more than every third one will be required for ventilat-
ing purposes, and the others can be screwed down. One

1s ‘ > ui
“Hedi er . i
ea et
NIN Rel Ny) }

| \ hl
as NES AY)

AN

Aas A THM TA bi
i mA a NN BN An Winds, i"
ft Vina a? y. a
SS NY yy Qe ‘we

Ny

: yay Aa
ON a pA ih
NNN AW i

Ar Ld iy y ii WN /))

7 inIln wanda Ly eee us

FIG. 24. GREENHOUSE WITH PORTABLE ROOF,

great objection to this kind of a house is that the rafters
obstruct the light and heat, and as the glass used for the
glazing of the sash is generally quite small, the sash bars
and the sash frame will also be a serious impediment.
Where only one row of sash on a side is required, this
trouble can, in a measure, be avoided, by dispensing
with the rafters and fastening the sash to the ridge.
This form of a roof is desirable when the houses are
of a temporary nature, and, to a certain extent, for
houses in which crops are forced during a part of the
winter only, as in growing hybrid perpetual roses. As

PERMANENT SASH BARS. 37

a rule, however, this style of house is not only more
expensive to build, but, for the reasons given, it is less
desirable than houses built with

PERMANENT SASH BARS.

While many houses are built without rafters, the
sash bars being all of one size, the usual forcing house
construction is to have every fifth sash bar of the nature
of a ra‘ter, either two by four inches, or, in large houses,
two by five inches. The ventilators are then placed in a
continuous row on one, or both sides of the ridge, oceu-
pying a space from fifteen to thirty inches in width,
each sash extending from one rafter to the next. When
this construction is used, a two by four-inch header is
mortised into the rafters just under the lower edge of
the ventilator, and the sash bars are fitted into this, —
at their upper end, the lower end being nailed to the
wall plate.

Another method of arranging the sash bars with a
continuous line of ventilators, is to have all of the sash-
bars run from ridge to plate, thus dispensing with the
heavy light-obstructing rafters, with short headers
between the sash bars, instead of the long ones between
the rafters. These short headers should be grooyed to
receive the glass on the lower side. The bars in the ven-
tilators should be arranged directly over the sash bars,
but even then, this method of construction is often
objected to, as obstructing too much light at the ridge.
This fault can, in a measure, be overcome by cutting off
every other sash bar, and supporting the headers between
those that remain.

A modified form of the rafter construction restricts
the ventilators to half the length of the ridge, and
admits of sash bars running from ridge to plate in the
remaining sections. One of the simplest methods of
construction is to cover the entire roof with sash bars,

38 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

and then cutting off every eighth sash bar four feet
from the ridge, and inserting a grooved header to sup-
port it. This will provide for a ventilating sash two to
three feet wide, by four feet long, every eight or ten
feet, according to the size of glass used.

RIDGE.

The ridge should be of either one and one-half or
two-inch stuff, and from six to eight inches deep, accord-
ing to the size of the house and of the sash bars.
It should have a groove for the glass on one side, in case
there is but one line of ventilators, or on both sides if
the ventilators are not continuous. ‘The arrangement of
the ridge is shown in Fig. 25. The ridge may be sur-
mounted by a cap, and, particularly if the building is a
conservatory, an ornamental cresting, with finials at the
extremities, should be added. Even in case of commer-
cial houses, their attractiveness is so much increased by
the addition of some simple forms of scroll finials, as
shown in Fig. 5, that the expense should not be consid-

ered extravagant.
DETAILS FOR ROOF.

From Fig. 25 the details for the construction of an
eyen span house eighteen feet wide can be obtained, and,
with slight modification, they can be used for any other
form. In addition to an end view of the house, the fol-
lowing sections are shown: A side wall with gutter;
wall with side plate; ridge and ventilator; purlin ;
double gutter for use when two houses are built, with a
wall in common; roof sash bar, and of end wall showing
gable rafter, end sash bar, and gable sill. The scale for
the elevation is three-sixteenths of an inch to the foot,
and for the details one-sixteenth of an inch to the inch.

In constructing the roof, the sash bars and end
rafters should be cut at such an angle as will make a

"eZ ‘Pla

“100U GNV STIVA AO STIVLGG GNY NOILVAGTE ANE

DETAILS FOR ROOF. 89

UO

SOOO
LLL

40 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

tight jomt with the ridge above and the plate below,
and then firmly nailed in place. If the plates are placed
at the same angle as the roof, the lower ends of the sash
bars should be let in to them about half an inch. As
the panes of glass are generally of scant width, if the -
sash bars are spaced so that they are exactly as many
inches apart, measuring from shoulder to shoulder, as
the glass is supposed to be wide, a good fit will be
obtained.

CHAPTER, VIL.
COMBINED WOOD AND IRON CONSTRUCTION.

The use of iron for posts and rafters has been re-
ferred to, and, as the growing opinion among greenhouse
men is, that the question of durability should be consid-
ered more than it has been in the past, there can be no
question but that, in the construction of greenhouses, in
the future iron will be quite largely used.

IRON RAFTERS AND PURLINS.

Various methods of construction are now in use, one
of the best combining a framework of iron with wooden
sush bars. For forcing houses, the rafters are about
three by one-half inch, as shown at (1) in Fig. 26, and
are surmounted by a wooden rafter cap. The rafters (2)
are fastened to each other and to the ridge by iron knees
or brackets (3). The purlins are of one and one-half to
two-inch angle iron, and are fastened to the rafters by
means of iron lugs (4). If desired, gas-pipe purlins can
be used. With large glass, and small sash bars, the pur-
lings should be quite near together, but as the size of the
sash bars increases, or that of the glass decreases, they may

IRON RAFTERS AND PURLINS. ge) |
be farther apart. While four feet will be none too little,
in one case, they may be as much as eight feet in the
other. When the ventilators are in long rows, either
side of the ridge, the upper line of purlins should be
under the lower edge of the sash, and should carry a
wooden header, into which the upper ends of the sash
bars are mortised. ‘To the other purlins the sash bars
are fastened by means of wood screws.

When the distance between the rafters or other sup-
ports is not over six or seven feet, one-inch gas pipes

FIG. 26, DETAILS FOR COMBINED IRON AND WOOD
ROOF,

will make quite a stiff roof. They can be inserted in
holes in wooden rafters when these are used, or can be
held up by means of small castings attached to iron raf-
ters. When the roof is constructed of sash bars, without
the use of rafters, a continuous line of pipe supported by
posts, at intervals of six feet, will form a good purlin.
Fig. 27 A sbows a gas-pipe purlin, and B shows the clips
for attaching the pipes to the sash bars. The pipe may
be cut in lengths of six feet, and screwed into the tees to
which the posts are attached, or, what is perhaps easier

42 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

to put up, the tees are reamed out, so as to allow the
pipe to slip through them. The lengths are screwed
together, and, if desired, can be used as water pipes.
If the purlin is connected by screw-joints with one or
more of the posts on each side, a hose can be attached,

> Sg and, although the effect
a Ok will not be lasting, the

water contained in the
pipes will have the chill
taken off.

When a pipe purlin
is used, with supports
more than eight feet
FIG. 27, GAS PIPE PURLIN. gnart, it does not give
good satisfaction, as it is more or less likely to sag. In
order to hold the sash bars firmly down on the purlins,
iron clips can be used, which should be screwed to, at
least, every other sash bar.

CENTER POSTS AND BRACES.

In narrow houses with a walk in the center, no center
post need be used, as, if the wall posts are firmly set, and
particularly if a truss bracket is used in the angle of the
roof (Fig. 28), there will
be no danger of its sag-
ging. As the width of
the house increases, a
necessity arises for either
supporting posts or truss
rods.

FIG. 28, IRON BRACKET FOR
ROOF.

In wooden houses over fifteen feet wide, where there
is no center walk, it is necessary to have a row of gas-
pipe posts, either one inch, or one and one-fourth inches
in diameter, to support the ridge pole, and if rafters are
more than eight feet long, another row should be used
to support them in the center.

CENTER POSTS AND BRACES. 43

In wide houses the rows of supporting posts should
be about six feet apart, one for each purlin. When the
posts would stand in the walk, if placed vertically, they
may be arranged as braces from the center posts, either
as shown in Fig. 29 or in Fig. 60. If the ridge is
supported there will be no danger of the walls spreading,
eyen if diagonal braces are used.

In one or two houses of recent construction the
posts have been used as legs for the center bed, by insert-
ing tees, into which the cross bearers for the bed are

FIG. 29. IRON POSTS AND BRACES.

screwed. ‘The upper ends of these posts are fastened,
by means of top castings, to wood or iron rafters, or by
means of the tees previously mentioned to the pipe pur-
lins. The lower end of the posts may be inserted into
cedar blocks, or rest on masonry piers, either upon flat
castings (Fig. 14), or in beds of cement.

When iron rafters are used, particularly if there is a
solid shoulder at the eaves, or if the roof is strengthened
at that point by a strong angle bracket, there will be no

44 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

necessity for supporting posts unless the house is very
wide; but a truss rod, if necessary, may be used to keep
the roof from crowding the walls out.

CHAPERE: VITE
IRON HOUSES.

We have, thus far, only considered houses con-
structed of wood, or partly of wood and iron, but, for
many years houses built entirely of iron and glass have
been used in Europe, and they are now frequently seen
in this country. In favor of these houses it is claimed
that they are almost indestructible, and that, if the iron
is galvanized, there will be no necessity of painting the
houses. In some cases, zinc or copper is used for the
sash bars, and the same claims are made for those houses.
For the most part, these claims are true, and, although
one could afford to pay an increased price for iron houses
that would need no outlay for repairs or renewal, pro-
vided everything else is equally desirable, there are sey-
eral serious objections to iron houses, that have, for the
most part, restricted their use to large conservatories,
and, even there, the combined wood and iron construc-
tion is fairly holding its own.

The objections may be stated as follows: Ist. As
iron is a rapid conductor of heat, the amount thus taken
from the house by the iron sash bars will be, perhaps,
three to five times as great as would be the case were
wooden sash bars of the same size used, and this requires
a noticeable increase in the amount of fuel consumed.
Several builders of iron houses, however, have so reduced
the amount of iron exposed to the outer air, that, so far
as radiation is concerned, there is, perhaps, no great
difference.

METALLIC SASH BARS. 45

2d. With several of the methods of glazing, the
packing used, although tight at first, soon becomes
loose, and allows the heated air to escape through the
cracks.

3d. Even if the roof is water-tight, there will be a
large amount of water congealed on the under side of
the sash bars at night, which, melting as the heat rises
in the morning, causes quite a shower. Frequently, in
systems where large glass is used, a metallic strip is
placed between the panes to act as a gutter, to catch the
moisture condensed on the glass. If it works all right
there should be no drip from the glass, but they fre-
quently become clogged.

4th. Even if such is not the case in England, it is
found, in our extremes of temperature, that unequal
expansion and contraction sometimes cracks the large
panes, unless everything is very carefully adjusted, so
that there is more or less broken glass.

These objections have most force with the sash bars
used for skylight glass, in conservatories, and do not
hold true to the same extent when used with smaller
panes in forcing houses. In conservatories, however,
although the drip is not desirable, it does far less injury
than in houses used for forcing and growing plants, and
one will need to place the greater durability and cheap-
ness of maintenance of the metal roofs against the ac-
knowledged increase of fuel required to heat the houses.
The use of iron sash bars with metallic glazing, for com-
mercial forcing houses, has not become general, as the
matter of drip and of fuel, to say nothing of the increased
first cost of the houses, are questions of considerable
moment with florists.

METALLIC SASH BARS.

Of the various forms of sash bars and methods of
metallic glazing, the two that have been longest and

46 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

most extensively used are the Helliwell patent system,
controlled by the Plenty Horticultural and Skylight
Works, and those in the hands of the A. E. Rendle Co.

HELLIWELL PUTTYUESS SYSTEM.

The Helliwell system makes use either of a steel
sash bar, as shown in Fig. 30, or of a zine or copper:
bar, as in Fig. 31. The glass is held in place by long

és
AOS
=

BIG. 20 SEBEL BAR: BIG; ol, = ZING BAR:
HELLIWELL PATENT GLAZING.

clips of zine or copper, drawn down upon the glass by
small bolts. It is claimed, by some, that the zine bars
are not stiff enough. The steel bar does not have this
objection, but it is considerably more expensive. In
Fig. 31 the sash bar is shown, resting upon a purlin,
to which it is attached by a bolt. Candle wicking is
used instead of putty.
PARADIGM PATENT GLAZING.

The Paradigm system of glazing, used by A. E.
Rendle Co., differs principally in the form of the sash
bar and in the fact that the glass is butted. The sash
bar is shown at A, Fig. 32. It is fastened to the pur-
lins by lugs, as shown in the section. The glass rests

GALVANIZED IRON SASH BARS 47

upon the vertical sides of the sash bar, and is held in
place by a copper cap, ), which is drawn down upon
the glass by a small boit, C. The sash bar serves as a
gutter, to carry down to the plate any water that may
enter between the cap and the glass. When sheet glass
is used, all that is necessary is to put it in place and bolt
down the cap. When large, rough plate glass is used,
cross gutters are inserted between the panes. Directly
beneath the points where the panes meet a section is
cut out of the sash bars, and a piece of copper, bent as
at #. is inserted. This
not only catches any water
that enters between the
panes, but the condensed
moisture on the inside of
the panes 1s trapped, as it
runs down the glass, and
is carried to the gutter in
the sash bars. If desired,
white lead can be used in
the joints, and an air-
FIG. 32. PARADIGM GLAZING. tight roof secured. There
should be no sag in this sash bar, and it seems to have
several features that are valuable.

i
|
SMMLULS Ln

SESS

tum |
. E

GALVANIZED IRON SASH BARS.

Within the last few years, galvanized iron has come
into use for greenhouse roofs. The framework consists
of angle and Tiron, put up in about the same way as
when wooden sash bars are used. The ridge cap, cor-
nice, gutters, and all exposed parts of the roof, are of
galvanized iron.

One of the simplest forms of iron sash bars is shown
in Fig. 33. It is made and used in the erection of
conservatories, by M. H. Crittenden & Son, of Minneap-
olis, Minn. As will be seen, it much resembles, in

48 GREENHOUSE ~-CONSTRUCTION,

shape, some of the forms of cedar sash bars, and consists
of heavy galvanized iron, bent as shown in the illustra-
tion. At the lower edge are broad drip gutters, which
will not be likely to become clogged. ‘The glass may be
laid, in any way desired, with putty. A V-shaped cap
(2) rests upon the top of the sash bar, and is held firmly
down upon the glass (3) by means of copper clips (4).
Unless the purlins are placed quite close together, it
would seem likely that the sash bars would sag, although

9

FIG. 33. WITHOUT CORE. FIG. 34, WITH STEEL CORE

GALVANIZED IRON SASH BARS.

a number of large houses are put up in this way, and are
said to be giving good satisfaction.

A form of sash bar that differs from the above, by
having a core of steel three-sixteenths of an inch thick
in the center to add to its strength (Fig. 34), is also
used. The clip holding the glass is drawn down by a
bolt. This, of course, is stronger than the other, but
the cost is more. From the form and method of putting
up these sash bars, there can be but little heat lost, from

GALVANIZED IRON SASH BARS. 49

radiation by the iron, and as the gutters seem to be
arranged to catch all of the moisture condensed, there
seems to be fewer objections to these sash bars than to
almost any of the metallic sash bars.

CHAPTER, IX.
THE PITCH OF THE ROOT.

All plants require light, in order to assimilate their
food; an optimum temperature is also desirable for the
proper performance by the organs of the plants, of their
functions. From the sun we obtain not only light and
heat, but chemical or actinic rays, whose effect on plant

_growth is not well understood. In the case of green-
house plants, the intensity of the sun’s rays is greatly
modified by the angle at which they strike the glass, as
well as by the thickness and character of the glass itself.
It has been found that about twelve per cent. of the
light rays are intercepted, in passing through ordinary
sheet glass, and sixty per cent. in their transmission
through opal glass.

This shows that much can be done by using clear
glass to prevent the interception of the rays, and as the
additional amount that is lost by reflection depends upon
the angle at which the rays strike the glass, the careful
adjustment of the slope of the roof should not be
neglected.

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION BY GLASS.

When rays of light fall upon sheet glass at a right
angle, they pass through without being turned from
their course, and there is no loss, except from absorp-
tion, which will amount to about twelve per cent.

4

50 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

When they meet the glass at an oblique angle, a portion
of the rays are reflected, and the remainder, less those
lost by absorption, pass through the glass, and leave it
in the same direction they had before entering.

Fig. 35 illustrates the effect of a pane of glass, x y,
upon rays of light falling upon it at various angles, 4-
having ninety, B forty-five, and C’ fifteen degrees. A
passes directly through and emerges with eighty-eight
per cent. of its original intensity. B, on meeting the
glass, has four and one-half per cent. of its rays reflected
to B’ ; the balance, on entering the glass, are refracted,
or bent from their course, and, on leaving the glass,

FIG..35. EFFECT OF GLASS AT DIFFERENT ANGLES.

with eighty-three and one-half per cent. of their first
intensity, are refracted, or bent back to their original
direction at B”. The effect upon the rays at C, which
meet the glass at an angle of fifteen degrees, is not
unlike that upon 4, except that thirty per cent. of the
rays are reflected at C’, while only fifty-eight per cent.
emerge at C”. The refraction, if anything, especially in
the case of very oblique rays, is a benefit. The absorp-
tion increases with the thickness of the glass, and it is
evident that there would be more loss were it obliged
to take the course 1-5 than there is in its refracted
course 1-2, °

THE OPTIMUM PITCH. DL

The following table gives the amount of light lost
by reflection at different angles of incidence :

Angle of ray 60 degrees. Light lost 2.7 per cent.
“oe aa 50 oe ee ec 3.4 iad
“e ee 40 ee ee ee 5.7 6c
“ “ec 30 ee oe ee 11.2 se
“ se 20 “ee “ se QD se
“ oe 15 “ee “ Ld 30.0 iad
se i 10 oe a 41.2 “ec
oe oe 5 oe “ e 54.3 oe

_ During the short days of winter, when the sun is
only above the horizon for less than ten hours, as many
of the rays should be trapped as possible, especially pre-
vious to ten o’clock in the forenoon, and after two
o’clock in the afternoon. At the winter solstice, when
the sun is farthest to the south, it rises about twenty-
five degrees above the horizon at noon, and the slope of
the roof should be such that. the amount of light re-
flected while the sun is between the horizon and the
above altitude, should be the least possible.

When the pitch of the roof brings the glass at an
angle of twenty degrees, the sun, at five degrees above
the horizon, will strike it at an angle of twenty-five
degrees, and about sixteen per cent. of its rays will be
reflected, in addition to, at least, twelve per cent. of the
remainder, which will be absorbed in passing through
the glass. Had the roof been given a pitch of thirty-five
degrees, the sun at five degrees above the horizon would
strike the roof at an angle of forty degrees, when only
five and seven-tenths per cent. of the rays would be
reflected, or only about one-third as many as were lost
by reflection when the roof had a slope of twenty degrees.

THE OPTIMUM PITCH.

It is evident, from this comparison, that there
should be a slope of, at least, thirty to thirty-five de-
grees, to the roof, and that still better results in trap-
ping the rays of light will be obtained if the roof has a

52 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

slope to the south of sixty degrees, or more. The heat
and actinic rays, in their passage through the glass, are
subject to much the same laws of reflection and absorp-
tion as those of light ; and in the case of absorption, the
effect produced by semi-opaque glass iseven greater. In
determining the proper pitch for the roof of a green-
house, in addition to considering the requirements for
the transmission of the sun’s rays in their full intensity,
at the season when they are most needed, various practi-
eal considerations should be taken into account, among
which would be the height of the side walls, the width
of the house, the height of the roof above the plants,
and the effect upon the heating of the houses, as well as
upon the drip from the glass.

It will at once be seen that it is not desirable to have
a roof so steep as to greatly increase the glass area, and,
consequently, enlarge the consumption of fuel; while,
if it is understood that plants grow best when compara-
tively near the glass, it will be seen to be unwise, except
in *‘short span to the south” houses, to have the roof
at a very sharp incline, as it will bring the plants in the
center of the house at a considerable distance below the
glass. With flat roofs not only is the rain likely to beat
in between the laps of glass, but the amount of drip,
from moisture condensed on the under side of the panes,
will be greatly increased. When a roof has a slope of
thirty degrees (seven inches in a foot), or more, there
will be no trouble, but at anything under twenty-six
degrees (six inches in a foot) there will be more or less
drip, both from outside and inside moisture,

The use to which the houses are to be put should
also be taken into account, as if to be used only for win-
tering over plants, no growth being desired, it will be
economy, both in construction and heating, to have the
roof as level as possible, and as good results will be
obtained at a piteh of twenty-six degrees, as in a greater

MEASURING THE PITCH. 53

one. On the other hand, for crops that require an
abundance of light for their quick development, the
slope should not be less than thirty degrees, and if it
can be secured without interfering in any way with the
usefulness of the house in other respects, thirty-five
degrees would be better.

MEASURING THE PITCH.

The following table is given to show the angle that
will be made by the sash bars for various widths of
houses, and for different heights of ridge. In using the
table, it must be understood that the width is measured
from the bottom of the sash bar to a point directly under
the ridge, while the height is measured on 2 plumb line
from the upper end of the rafter to the level of the
lower end.

ANGLE OF ROOF FOR DIFFERENT HEIGHTS AND WIDTHS.

eae Height—Feet
| 4 5 6 7 8 9
| fe) / % e / | oO i. / oO Tm, nanare = of. - fe) S77
6 |) Sew! 39 48 45 49 24 53 8 56 18
ii 29 44 | 35 32 | 40 36 45 48 49 52 07
8 96 33 32 36 52 41 1 45 48 22
9 23 BT 29 3 33 5 37 52 41 38 45
10 21 48 26 33 30 58 35 38 39 41 59
11 94 26 28 36 32 28 36 2 39 17
12 22 57 26 33 30 15 33 41 36 52
13 912 | 24 47 28 18 31 36 34 42
14 93 12 | 26 34 99 44 32 44

From the table it will be seen that in an even span
house twenty feet wide (ten feet from plate to a point
plumb with the ridge), a slope of about thirty degrees
(30° 58’) can be obtained by raising the ridge six feet
above the level of the plate (the distances for both height
and width being measured from the ends of the sash
bars), while, if it is placed at a height of seven feet, a
slope of thirty-five degrees will be obtained. In the
same way, taking the figures for the width from the ver-
tical column at the left, and the height for the ridge
above the plate from the upper horizontal row, the num-

GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

“SaSOOH

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NOILVNYVO HLNOS HHL OL NVdS LYOHS

“9g ‘“DId

SHORT SPAN TO THE SOUTH. aD

ber of degrees in the slope of the roof will be found
where the corresponding lines intersect.

SHORT SPAN TO THE SOUTH.

The above remarks apply, for the most part, to the
pitch of the roof in even span, or in three-quarter span
houses, when the long slope of the roof is upon the south
side. It was stated, however, that if a slope to the
south of sixty degrees could be obtained, more of the
hght and heat of the sun could be trapped. During the
past two years several houses have been erected with a
short span to the south and the long one to the north (Fig.
36), differing from three-quarter span houses turned half
around only in having both walls of the same height.
As will be seen from the engraving (Fig 60), the houses
are built with three walks and two wide beds, the north
one being slightly lower than the other. It can be seen
at a glance that the plants upon the south bench are in
an extremely favorable location, and can hardly fail to
do well. The plants upon the north bed, however, are
from eight to thirteen feet from the glass through which
the sun’s rays come, and are more or less shaded by the
plants in the south bed. In theory, therefore, as a forc-
ing house this form seems desirable, so far as the south
bench is concerned ; but for the north bench it does not
seem, in any way, preferable to the even span house,
except that the snow does not remain upon the steep
south slope, so that there is less obstruction of light dur-
ing the winter. In practice, however (which should be
the real test), excellent results are claimed by Mr.
George W. Miller, of Hinsdale, Ill., and by others who
have tried it. As a summer greenhouse it has long been
known that this form is a desirable one.

CHAPTER X.
GLASS AND GLAZING.

In no portion of a greenhouse have as great changes
been made, perhaps, as in the glass and the method of
setting it. A comparatively few years ago, glass as small
as five by seven, and six by eight-inches was used ; it
was usually of only single strength, and was of such poor
quality that the leaves of the plants were badly burned.
The panes were often lapped for an inch or more, and
the putty was placed over, rather than under the glass.

The glass most commonly used to-day is known as
sheet glass, either single or double strength. The latter
costs somewhat more than the single strength, but it is
less likely to burn the plants, and as it will stand a
much harder blow, the breakage from hail storms and
by accidents will be much less, so that it will be cheaper
in the end. In selecting greenhouse glass, two points
should be borne in mind ; (1) it should be even in thiek-
ness, flat, and free from imperfections that would cause
sun burning; (2) the glass should be of good size.

DIFFERENT GRADES OF GLASS.

Glass is graded as ‘‘ Firsts,” ‘‘ Seconds,” ‘‘ Thirds,”
etc., the quality growing poorer as the numbers enlarge.
The imperfections in glass are caused by air bubbles,
unmelted specks, or yarious impurities. As the glass is
melted, the impurities settle to the bottom, leaving the
glass at the top quite clear. From this the ‘‘ Firsts” or
“‘Bests” are made; the ‘‘Seconds” come from a layer
just beneath, and so on to ‘‘Fifths” and ‘‘Sixths,”

6

56

THE SIZE OF GLASS TO USE. 5?

which are of quite poor quality. The lower grades are
made by less experienced workmen ‘than the ‘‘ Firsts,”
and not only are they more likely te contain imperfec-
tions, but they are less even in thickness.

In the past, *‘Seconds” of French or Belgian sheet
glass have been commonly used, and are still preferred
by most builders, but American natural gas glass is now
being extensively used, and it can be said that the
“Firsts” are fully as good as French ‘‘Seconds,” while
the American ‘‘ Seconds” make a very satisfactory roof.
The grade known as ‘‘A” quality American glass is Suit-
able for almost any purpose, while ‘‘B” quality will
answer for many classes of houses. The natural gas
elass is thought, by some, to be fully equal to the same
grades of European glass.

THE SIZE OF GLASS TO USE.

The size of glass has been on the increase, until
to-day we find panes twenty, and even twenty-four,
inches wide in use. While this extremely large glass
makes a very light house, well suited for growing roses
and lettuce, it_is generally thought that a smaller size is
preferable. For widths above eighteen inches the price
rapidly increases, and this extra cost will be an import-
ant question, both at the time of erection, and in case
of breakage. When the glass is to be butted, square
panes are preferable, as it is likely to have straight edges
at least one way. In sections of the country where the
snowfall is heavy, the danger of loss from breakage
increases as the panes are enlarged, and although twenty
inch glass may be used in the South, eighteen inches
will be a maximum width in the northern states, even
for forcing houses, while, for ordinary florists’ houses,
the sixteen, and even fourteen, inch glass is regarded as
the best to use, everything being considered.

Unless there is a decided change, the above widths,
in lengths of from twenty to twenty-four inches, are the

58 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

ones most likely to be used. This applies, of course,
only to sheet glass, as rough plate or skylight glass and
fluted glass may be used of a much larger size.

FLUTED AND ROUGH PLATE GLASS.

The fluted glass has, perhaps, a dozen ribs to the
inch, and is used, to.some extent, for large conserva-
tories. For houses of this kind, built with metal sash
bars, it is, perhaps, preferable to either sheet glass or
rough plate. The rough plate or skylight glass, as used
in gfeenhouses, varies from one-eighth to one-half an
inch in thickness, and from twenty-four by thirty-two
to perhaps thirty-two by forty-eight inches. While
well adapted for palm, and even for stove houses, it is
not desirable for growing houses of any kind, as these,
during the winter, need all the light they can wring
from the sun.

The amount of light and heat absorbed by glass
varies with its thickness, as well as its clearness, and as
the fluted and skylight glass are both semi-opaque and
quite thick, they will probably absorb fully half of the
light and heat that enters them, to say nothing of what
is reflected, and their thickness, although of advantage
in giving them strength, is an objection in growing and
forcing houses.

DOUBLE AND SINGLE STRENGTH.

On account of the increased obstruction to the heat
and light rays by the double strength sheet glass, as
compared with thin panes, many prefer the latter for
rose forcing houses, but it would seem that the amount
lost by the necessity of bringing the sash bars closer
together would more than counterbalance it.

While doubk ‘strength glass costs somewhat more
than the single, the greatly reduced loss in case of hail
storms, and the fact that the breakage by frost and other

GLAZING—METHODS AND MATERIAiS. 59

causes is less with the former than the latter, make it
preferable. It is generally believed that, when in good
condition, the danger from hailstorms is only from one-
third to one-half as great. The reports of the Florists’
Hail Insurance Association show that, although the
amount of double strength glass insured is in excess of
the single thick, the amount of glass broken is never
more than two-fifths as much, and in some years the
ratio is one to one hundred in favor of double glass.

CHAPTER XI.
: GLAZING—METHODS AND MATERIALS.

In setting the glass, the end desired is to so arrange
it as to haye the roof as nearly air and water-tight as
possible, and to have the glass held firmly in place. As
usually laid, the glass is lapped, with the upper pane
extending about an eighth of an inch over the one below
it. For curvilinear roofs this is practically a necessity,
and when the glass is straight and even, and well laid,
it makes a good roof. Nearly all panes are more or less
curved, and if two panes in which the curves are not
equal are placed together, there is likely to be a crack
either at the corner or in the center of the panes. Care
should therefore be taken to assort the glass and, if the
curves are of different angles, it is well to select those of
one angle for one row, and the others for another.

PUTTY.
For glazing on wooden sash bars, if the glass is to
be lapped, astrals should be selected with half inch rab-

bets (Fig. 18), which should first receive a line of putty
sufficient to fill the shoulder. The best grade of putty

60 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

should be used, and this should be mixed with pure
white lead, at tne rate of one part of lead to five of putty.
If a larger proportion of lead is used, it will make tlre
task of cleaning the bars a difficult one, in case of break-
age, while, if the bars are kept properly painted, the
mixture, as above, will hold for many years.

The putty should be worked rather soft, using lin-
seed oil if necessary, and it will be found to stick to the
wood best if it is as soft as can be used without sticking
to the hands when they are well coated with whiting.
Having apphed the putty to a number of sash bars, the
glass is laid on and carefully pressed into place, squeez-
ing out all surplus putty until the upper end of the pane
rests on the bar, and the lower upon the pane below,
with a lap not exceeding an eighth of an inch. Care
should be taken to have the curve of the glass up, if
drip gutters are used, and down if they are not. The
surplus putty, both inside and out, is then scraped off,
taking pains to fill any cracks that may be left. With
the old method of placing the putty on the upper side of
the glass, it was found that in one or two years the water
worked under the putty and it scaled off, leaving a crack
at the side of the pane, as well as underneath. This
both allowed the heat to escape and the water to enter,
besides permitting the glass to slip down or blo © off, if
its other fastenings became loosened.

GLAZING POINTS AND BRADS.

For holding the glass in place there are a dozen or
more kinds of points and brads. One of the best seems
to be an ordinary five-eighths inch wire brad (Fig. 37.4).

5S

This is stiff enough to hold the glass firmly in place,
and has such a hold upon the wood that, if properly
driven in, there need be no fears of its loosening and
allowing the panes to slip down. Another advantage of
this brad is that it is inconspicuous, and, consequently,

GLAZING POINTS AND BRADS. 61

not unsightly, and it offers little obstruction to the brush
when the sash bars are painted. One of the most com-
monly used glazing points is cut from thick sheet zine,
and appears as in Fig. 37 B. In shape they resemble
three-fourths inch shoe nails, which are also sometimes
used. When driven well in, this form of brad has a firm
hold, and, moreover, is quite stiff; the blunt end, how-
ever, tears its way into the wood, and, unless driven
home, is readily detached. It is also more conspicuous
than the wire brad, and is a slight hindrance to the
painting. ‘I'wo of these brads are used to hold the lower
corners of the glass down in place, and two others are
placed about an eighth of an inch from the upper edge,
where they serve to hold the pane in place and to keep
the pane above from slipping down. Large panes require
two other brads in the center.

Of the various points used for glazing, none is bet-
ter than the zinc triangle, No. 000 (Fig. 37 C). While
the smaller sizes may be used for the
small panes of glass, or for house win-
dow sash, where the putty is on the
outside, they are not large enough for
large greenhouse glass. One of these
points is placed at each of the lower
corners of the panes, with one angle
lapping over the edge. After driving
it in, this angle is bent down over the
edge of the pane so that it cannot slip
down. ‘Two other points are used in
the middle of the panes. The dia-
mond points (Fig. 37 D) are driven in
very rapidly with a machine, but are rather small for
large panes, except when the glass is butted. Another
point that is sometimes used is a double-pointed carpet
tack. This holds the glass firmly in place, but it is not
particularly ornamental,

HIG. Oo.
GLAZING POINTS.

62 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

Van Reyper’s glazing point (Fig. 37 #) differs from
the above in being bent in the center, so as to better fit
the lower edge of the pane, and to this extent it seems
to be an improvement. Eames’ glazing point (Fig. 37
F’) is double pointed, and is designed to both hold the
panes down in place and to keep them from slipping,
and it successfully accomplishes it. Ives’ point (Fig.
37 G) has a single point, with one corner bent to prevent
the slipping of the pane. It is rather thick, and as it
tears the wood when driven in, it does not have a very
firm hold, even with the shoulder at the point. One
objection to the last two kinds of points is that they are
‘‘rights and lefts,” which leads to more or less confusion
in using them, and another which applies to all double-
pointed points, is that im order to hold the pane securely
they must be very accurately driven into place.

BUTTED GLASS.

The method of setting greenhouse glass to which
this term is applied, has been frequently advocated, and
has been used, to some extent, for many years; but it
has never come into general use, principally on account
of its being somewhat more difficult to reset’ broken
glass and make a good joint, than when the glass is
lapped. This kind of glazing has many advantages over
the other, among the more important of which are, that
a tighter roof can be made, thus effecting a saving in
fuel; there is less danger of broken glass, either from
ice forming between the panes when lapped, or from
accidents, as, when a lapped pane is broken it frequently
cracks the one beneath; more benefit can be derived
from the sun, as with lapped glass soot and dirt collect
between the laps, causing an opaque streak, and even
when this is not so, the double glass at the lap obstructs
more light than the single glass. Moreover, admitting
the fact that it is sometimes hard to get a good fit m

BUTTED GLASS. 63

repairing butted glass, using the old method of glazing,
the labor of keeping a butted roof in good condition is
less than for caring for one that is lapped, as there will
be fewer breaks to repair, and using the new styles of
sash bars the panes can be very readily replaced.

The only objection to butting the glass in glazing is,
that upon flat roofs, after the glass has been set a few
years, water, in a driving rain storm, will find its way
between the panes and cause a good deal of drip. On
the other hand, upon roofs with an angle of 35° or more,
there will be sufficient adhesion between the water and
the glass to cause it to run down on the under side of
the panes to the plate, and thence to the ground, or, as
arranged in some houses, either into an inside gutter, or
through the wall into the outside gutter.

In laying glass upon the old style of sash bars, a
thin layer of putty, or a film of thick paint, is placed on
the sash bar, upon which the panes are laid and tacked
in place, taking care to securely fasten the bottom pane
in each row, to prevent slipping. In order to make the
roof both air- and water-tight, it is well to seal the crack
with white lead. ‘To do this mix pure white lead with
equal parts of good putty ; spread this in a thin layer on
a smooth board or pane of glass, and press the lower
edge of glass against it before placing on the sash bars.

In setting the panes, crowd them together so as to
force out all surplus material, leaving the lead to fill any
inequalities between the panes and act as a cement to
unite them. When this is properly done the rows of
glass will virtually consist of a single pane, and will
remain for several years, both air- and water-tight. In
time the lead will work out of the larger cracks, but if
they are so large as to prove troublesome they can be
refilled with but little trouble. ‘To make a good job in
butting glass, all panes with rough edges should be
rejected, or used only at top and bottom,

64 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

Having the panes nailed in place, the cracks at the
sides should be filled by applying thick paint with a
brush, or, as is preferred by some, by use of a putty

, bulb. The name of paint
j bulb would, perhaps, be as
appropriate for the latest
forms, which have a small
brush projecting beyond
the end of the tube, by
which the crack is filled,
and the surplus material
brushed off (Fig. 38). If
very much paint is used it
will be necessary to sift on
sand to keep it from run-
ning, but, when properly
done, there will. be little
X \“° need of using sand upon
LY \ it. If desired, the use of

\
oe \
aR \ paint or putty under the
scOLlay’, , 4
_Ciproven S\ \ glass can be dispensed
~ =

\ ae with, although unless the

~ glass fits snugly it will
lessen the amount of paint
that runs down between
the panes. Ives’ putty
machine (Fig. 39) is very
convenient for back-puttying in repairing roofs. Upon
the more recent forms of sash bars the glass may be
laid in paint or putty if desired, and the crack at the
side filled in the same way; or both may be dispensed
with, and the glazing performed by merely laving the
panes in place on the sash bars (filling the cracks
between the panes with white lead, if desired), and fas-
tening the wooden strips in place by means of screws,
thus holding them down,

FIG. 38. PAINT BULB.

GLAZING STRIPS. 65

GLAZING STRIPS.

For use with this method of glazing, Gasser’s glaz-
ing strip is considered very valuable by many who have
tried it. It consists of a narrow strip of zinc bent into
the form of the letter Z, as
shown in Fig. 40, which is
placed between the panes so
that one Jeg of the Z is under
the upper panes, and the
other over the under ones.
The cracks between the glass
and the strip should be filled
with white lead, or some
other lasting cement, which Fic. 39. IVES’ PUTTY
will fasten them _ together, MACHINE.

and thus make a tight joint. This will make a roof
water-tight much longer than when the lead alone is
used between the panes. If the strips are not properly
laid, or if they are not cemented securely to the glass,
the leakage will be much
greater than when no strips
areused. Aside from their
cost, and the labor of put-
ting them in, the strips
obstruct a small amount of

; “ light, but with large panes
FIG. 40. GASSER’S GLAZING none of these objections

STRIP. are of serious importance.

From the present light that can be obtained on the
subject, the best advice as to glazing of greenhouses and
forcing houses is, use one of the sash bars shown in Figs.
20, 21 and 22; have the roof with an angle of thirty-five
degrees; butt the glass, closimg the crack with white
lead, or, if a roof that will remain water-tight for many
years is desired, use the glazing strip. With glass of a

5

66 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

width greater than sixteen — eighteen inches, it will be
best to lap the panes. When butted glass, laid with the
convex side down, is used, there will be no necessity
for drip grooves in the sash bars upon steep roofs, if
there are no cracks at the
sides of the panes. One im-
portant feature of this meth-
od of glazing is, that when
resetting broken glass, in-
stead of bothering to fit the
panes, as is necessary with
ordinary sash bars, one needs:
only to loosen the screws that
hold the cap, and, slipping
up (or down) the remaining
panes, place the new one in
place at the bottom (or top),
FIG, 41. NEW METHODS and screw down the cap; or,

OF GLAZING. if the panes are cemented in
place, one can be selected that will fit the opening.

To be used successfully, glass, to be butted, should
be true and even; as, if panes with different curves are
placed together, water will be collected and drip, unless
the roof is quite steep. The difficulty increases with
large panes, and sizes over sixteen inches will need to be
very carefully selected, if used in this way, even with
the glazing strip.

NEW METHODS OF GLAZING.

Two other systems of glazing are shown in Fig. 41,
one of which is for butted glass, and the other for lapped
glass. In both, the sash bars are used without rabbets,
which makes a lighter roof than can be obtained in any
other way. In the first method, which was used by J.
D. Raynolds, of Riverside, Ill., the glass is butted, as
shown at A, and is held in place by a screw and washer,

VENTILATORS. 67

at the intersection of the panes. By breaking off a small
corner from each, the screw can be inserted, and the
washer will press the glass into place. By the other
method, which was described in the American Florist,
the glass is lapped, and held in place by a piece of sheet
lead, bent as at B. The lower corner of the panes
should be nipped off, and an opening made through
which a brad or screw can be inserted. If desired, a film
of white lead can be placed between the panes to close
up the joints, but no other painting will be necessary
upon the exterior.

CHAPTER -XIt.
VENTILATORS.

For all kinds of plants it is desirable, at some sea-
sons of the year, that means be provided for supplying
fresh air, and for removing surplus heat. It has been
found that, if openings are provided for the egress of the
air, fresh air can find its way in, and no necessity will
exist for considering that side of the question, except
during the summer months. As the air of greenhouses
is generally warmer than that outside, it will naturally
tend upward, and ventilation will be most effective if
provided at the highest part of the building. The ven-
tilators should be arranged so as to prevent direct drafts
of cold air upon the plants. They are sometimes placed
on both slopes of the roof, in order that the opening
may be opposite to the direction of the wind.

In some houses large ventilators have been placed,
at intervals, along the roof; but better results are ob-

68 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

tained when continuous lines of narrow ventilators on
one or both sides of the ridge are used.

CONTINUOUS VENTILATION.

When a continuous row of ventilating sashes is used,
a small opening will provide the necessary ventilation ;
but, if they are scattered at intervals along the roof, the
openings will need to be two or three times as large, and
the draft of cold air upon the plants will be greatly
increased. The openings at the ends of the sash invite
side drafts. It isa poor plan to have a continuous row

FIG. 42. ARRANGEMENT OF VENTILATORS.

of sashes, only part of which are used. Particularly if
on a high roof, where shafting is necessary to work
them, there will be constant trouble from the swelling
and sticking of the sash. Although not necessary, the
continuous working sash may be fastened together with
strips of band iron.

VENTILATING SASH.

The sash should be made in the same way as hot-
bed sash, with a thin strip for the lower edge. The

VENTILATING MACHINERY. 69

joints should be located over the middle of rafters or
sash bars. The glass used for the sash should be of the
same width as for the rest of the house, except the rows
at either end of each sash, which should be somewhat
narrower, to allow for the increased width of the side
strip of the ventilating sash.

HANGING THE SASH.

The old method of hanging the sash was to have
the hinges on the upper side (Fig. 42 A), but as, for
the same size of opening, a ventilator will be more effi-
cient when hinged at the lower edge (Fig. 42 6), that
method will be generally used, especially when there is
only one line of sash. When only one line is used, they
should be on the same side of the roof as the prevailing
cold winds come from, when hinged at the bottom, and
on the other side if hinged at the top.

VENTILATING MACHINERY.

In small houses, a simple method of opening the
ventilators is by means of what are sometimes called sky-
light fixtures, which are fastened to the lower edge of
the ventilator by screw eyes. They have holes at inter-
vals, through which a pin on the edge of the header is
passed, thus holding the sash at any angle desired. One
sash at a time only can be opened, and, for houses of
any length, some form of apparatus that will open all
the ventilators on a given line is desirable.

A SIMPLE APPARATUS.

One of the simplest is shown in Fig. 43. It con-
sists of lifters made of one inch by one-fourth band iron
(B), about two feet in length, fastened rigidly to the
lower edge of the ventilator (4), and extending down
into the house at right angles to it. A small wire cable
runs the length of the house, and near each ventilator a
cord (C’) is attached, which, after running through a

70 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

pulley, is fastened to the lower end of the lifter. The
cable is arranged so that it can be readily drawn through
the house, lifting all of the sash to any required height.
The motive power may be applied to a small rope run-
ning through pulley blocks, or by means of a small
windlass. As first made, they were closed by their own
weight, and, as they were not held down in any way,
accidents often happened in high winds. An improve-
ment (Fig. 43 D) is in an additional rope, attached to
the bottom of each sash, and running through a pulley
toa point beyond, where it is fastened to the main cable.
If the cable at the farther end of the house is carried

FIG. 43. <A SIMPLE VENTILATING APPARATUS.

over a pulley, and has a heavy weight attached to it, the
cable will be drawn back, when it is desired to close the
ventilators, and will hold them securely in place.

SHAFTING.

In nearly all other ventilating machinery, the power
is conveyed by means of a gas pipe shaft running along
under the ventilators. In some cases it passes through
a cross placed in the ridge post, about a foot from its
upper end, and in others, it is held in place by means
of a clamp fastened to the post. The usual method of
fastening is by means of small hangers screwed to the

5

SHAFTING. fale

rafters. When sashbars alone are used to form the
framework of the roof, some method of hanging the
shaft to the posts is desirable, but not necessary.
Various methods of applying the power have been
used, the most common of which is the common elbow

FIG. 44. NEW DEPARTURE VENTILATING APPARATUS.

fixture shown in Figs. 42 and 46. These are strong and
do their work well, except that they are applied at a dis-
advantage when the sash is just beginning to open, and
as this is the point at which they are most frequently

92 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

used, it will have to be regarded as a slight objection.
Another form of fixture is regarded as a ‘‘ New Depart-
ure,” by J. D. Carmody, the inventor. It has much
the shape of a meat saw (Fig. 44), and lifts the sash by
the action of the cogs on the shafting, upon those on
the fixture. It works easily, and the same force is
required to lift the sash, at whatever
height it may be. A form quite similar
* to this is used with the Little Victor
machine, and is recommended by the
inventor, E. P. Hippard, as valuable for
small sash.

Various contrivances have been ar-
ranged, by which the weight of the ven-
tilators, in closing, shall coil up a
spring, which, when it is desired to
open the sash, will furnish a large por-
tion of the power. One of the best of
these is known as the Ormsby Spring
balance. It has proven quite satisfac-
tory, and works very smoothly, opening,
with the expenditure of very little power,
a long line of sash. It is easy to put
up, and the only objection to the system
is that, after two or three years of use,
the springs wear out.

Of the machines used to work the
shafting, with its elbow fixtures, the
simplest is the kind generally used by
greenhouse builders. It consists of a large wheel upon
the shaft, worked by a worm upon the upper end of a
rod, to which the power is applied by means of a crank,
ora hand wheel. It will be found in several of the illus-
trations. Among the more recent candidates for favor
are the Standard and Challenge machines.

The former, shown in Fig. 45, is manufactured by
EK. Wippard, Youngstown, Ohio. It is a very easy work-

FIG. 40.
STANDARD.

SHAFTING. (3

ing machine, but does not work quite as fast as some
of the others. In the old machines, the large wheel on
the shaft sometimes slipped, or was pushed away from
the small pinion, but with the new double header there

i]
Il A
HA

||

HHI

FIG. 46. CHALLENGE.

should be no trouble. As will be seen from the engraving,
the power is applied, by means of a hand wheel and worm,
to the vertical shaft which works inside the post. At

G4 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

the upper end of the shaft is a pimion, or bevel gear, by
which the power is conveyed to the shaft. We have
found it a very satisfactory machine.
The Challenge machine (Fig. 46) is made by the
Quaker City Machine Co., of Richmond, Ind. It differs
from the Standard in using
459 sprocket wheels and an end-
less chain, instead of a ver-
tical shaft and gearing. The
first machines made had sey-
eral shght defects, but these
have been corrected in the
latest pattern, and the ma-
chine now does very good
work. While it does not
work as easily as the Stand-
ard, it gives a more rapid
movement to the sash, and
to that exteut is preferable
to that machine; the latter
excels in ease of operation,

FIG. 47. although either can be
A SIMPLE FIXTURE. changed by varying the size

of the gear and sprocket wheels.
CHEAP VENTILATING MACHINE FOR LOW HOUSES.

Tn low span roof houses a simple method of working
the shaft is shown in Fig. 47. It consists of a lever of
one inch gas pipe (A), perhaps foar feet long, fastened
to the shaft (D) by means of aT. By means of this, a
line of narrow sash fifty feet long can be opened or
closed, and can be held in place by means of a pin passed
through a strip of iron (2), as shown in the sketch.

OUTSIDE SHAFTING.

When the ridge is too low to admit of running the
shafting under the roof, it may be placed on the outside,

OUTSIDE SHAFTING. ria)

as shown in Fig. 48. In any house, if, for any reason,
the shafting is not desired on the inside of the house,
this arrangement, which is used by Hippard and others,
may be employed.

While a single wide line of ventilators will answer,
in houses less than twenty feet wide, two narrow lines
on opposite sides of the roof will be preferable. In wide

FIG. 48. OUTSIDE SHAFTING.

houses ventilating sashes in the vertical walls are desir-
able, and some builders of three-quarter span houses pre-
fer to have one row at the ridge and one in the south
wall, even in rose houses, to having the two rows at the
ridge. Ineven span houses there is less occasion for
side ventilation, except in wide houses. In Fig. 42 is
shown a variety of methods of arranging the ventilating
sash, and of attaching the ventilating machines.

CHAPTER XIII.
GREENHOUSE BENCHES

The benches used by the average florist are a con-
stant source of trouble and expense. Built as they usu-
ally are, of cheap or waste lumber, their life is a short
one, and they frequently break down while in use, either —
ruining the plants, or so mixing the varieties as to make
them of little value. A wooden bench generally has to
be renewed within five years, and in some cases three
years sees their period of usefulness at an end. Not
only is the florist required to pay for labor and material
for constructing a new bench, but, as frequently the
weakness is not discovered until the bed is being pre-
pared for use, the delay necessitated in planting the bed
may greatly lessen the profits. The best materials for
greenhouse benches are iron and tile, or slate, but, as
the average florist will think he cannot afford this kind
of a table, let us consider the next best thing.

WOODEN BENCIIES.

With a little attention in constructing and caring
for wooden benches, their durability can be doubled.
When wooden legs are used, they should be raised above
the level of the soil and walk, upon a brick or stone pier.
This will not only furnish a firm support, and thus pre-
vent the settling of the bench, but it will serve to keep
the lower portion dry, and check its decay. Red cedar
or locust will make the most desirable legs but, as they
cannot always be readily obtained, cypress or pine will
be generally used. When the walls of the house are of

76

WOODEN BENCHES. Ke

wood, the back ends of the cross bearers can be nailed to
the posts, or to the studding, and in houses constructed
upon a brick or grout wall this can readily be used for
supporting them. Measuring from the inner face of the
wall, the length of the cross bearer should be two inches
more than the width of the bench, thus admitting of a
free circulation of air in the rear. When the wall can-
not be used to support the backs of the side benches,
wooden legs can be used, the same as for the fronts, and
for the middle bench. These should be about two by
four inches, and from two to five and a half feet in
height, according to location and the character of the
house.

The cross bearers may range from two by four
inches for narrow benches, to two by six, or even two by
eight inches for wide ones. If
fastened to the legs, as shown in
Fig. 49 A, there will be little dan-
ger of their becoming detached and
letting the bench down. If these
supports are placed once in three
and one-half or four feet, the com-
mon six by one inch fence boards
can be placed longitudinally for
bottoms, when shallow rose beds
are desired, although the twelve- B
inch boards are better for the stag-
ing of pot plants. To provide for
thorough drainage, cracks three- FIG. 49,
fourths of an inch wide should be WOODEN BENCHES.
left between the boards. If deep beds are to be used,
or if large pot plants are to be placed on them, the dis-
tance between the supports may profitably be reduced to
three feet, or one and one-half inch boards used. For
the front and back of the benches strips of board from
three to six inches wide, in accordance with the kind of

78 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

plants to be grown on them, should be used. If the
legs are extended to the top of the front boards, as in
Fig. 49 B, they will be held firmly in place and will last
much longer. The legs and cross bearers, as well as the

Mv

SSS
RSSs“g“ssys

SSN

RN

FIG. 00. GAS PIPE BENCH SUPPORTS.

side pieces, should be thoroughly painted before they are
fitted together, and this will often double their period of
use. After the bench is completed, it will pay to give
the inside a thorough coating with Louisville cement, of
the consistency of thick paint.

IRON BENCHES. 79

The width of greenhouse benches varies, to a large
degree, with the width of the house, and the use to
which it is put. The side benches, in a rose house, are
sometimes as narrow as two feet and six, or, perhaps,
eight inches, and are seldom wider than three feet and
six inches, which should be the maximum. ‘The center
benches range from five to seven feet in width. When
properly built and well cared for, benches of this descrip-
tion will be far more economical, in the end, than the
cheap constructions generally seen in greenhouses.

IRON BENCHES.

Many florists who are not ready to try the iron and
slate bench, are using iron legs and cross bearers. The
simplest forms are ai
made of one-inch gas
pipe (Fig. 50), the
lower end of the leg
resting in a cedar
block sunk in the

wet
\
\

S
>
TS

AN

SSS

= d 1 tl 1-4 2
ground, and the up- WZ

per end supporting
the front end of the
cross bearer, by FIG. 51. MENDENHALL’S BENCH.
means of a malleable iron T, from the top of which a
short piece of pipe extends even with the top of the front
boards, thus holding it in place. The front boards can,
if desired, be placed outside the pipe, and held in place
by iron clips. The rear end of the cross bearer is
screwed into the wall post, or set in the masonry, when
possible, and if neither of these methods of support can
be used, gas pipe legs can be provided, the same as for
the front. For center benches a somewhat heavier con-
struction would be necessary, the cross bearers being of
one and one-fourth inch gas pipe. When houses are

yy ga

80 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

built on the ‘‘ridge and furrow” plan, the cross bearers
for the side benches may pass through the wall into the
adjoining house.

ANGLE IRON BENCHES.

One of the simplest forms of iron benches was re-
cently figured in the American Florist (Vol. VI, Page
983), as Mendenhall’s bench (Fig. 51). It rested upon
brick piers, and consisted of two or three inch angle
irons, placed so as to form the front and the back of the
bench. The bottom was of slate or boards, as desired.
By using intermediate strips of T iron, narrow strips of
slate, or bench tile could be used.

Another form of greenhouse bench has been tried in
the houses of E. G. Hill, Richmond, Ind. The cross
bearers and longitudinal strips are of a light street car T
rails, with bottoms of slate and sides of narrow boards,

held in place by narrow
strips of iron. The
bench is supported on
cedar posts (Fig. 52).
The cost of the iron rails
is given as eleven and
one-half cents per foot.
Thisis considerably
more than the cost of
the lighter grades of
angle iron, but as the
rails are much stronger,
the number of legs and
cross bearers is reduced,
which might bring it
down to the same cost. The least durable portions of
this bench are the sides and legs; the latter, however,
could be made of iron, if desired.

Perhaps the neatest form of iron bench is shown in
Figs. 14 and 53. The size of the iron required is accord-

FIG. 52. HILL’S BENCH.

ANGLE IRON BENCHES. 81

ing to the width of the bench, and the use to which it is
to be put. Fora rose house, the side benches can be
supported on one and one-half inch cross bearers of T
iron (D, Fig. 14), placed once in four feet, with one and

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ass
8.

SNAB

‘Sess
re
BS
\>
bs
in
yes
ah”
(a)
His

f
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Wie
erat

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faue

=
ee

ASSss S
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FIG. 53. ANGLE IRON BENCH.

one-half inch angle iron (@) for the front and back, and

two intermediate one and one-fourth inch T irons (#7).

Using twelve-inch slate, or tile, for the bottoms, the

bench will be three feet and two inches wide. For the
6

82 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,
/

legs, one inch gas pipe (Z’), or one and one-fourth incle
T iron can be used. The gas pipe can be flattened at
its upper end and bolted to the cross bearers, or it cam
be inserted into a casting (Fig. 14 #’and ¥”), which can:
then be bolted on. With such a casting at the top, and
a flat plate for the leg to rest in at the bottom, a very
neat bench can be made. If sides are desired to the
benches, larger angle iron can be used for the outer
edges of the benches, say three by two inches, or three
to five-inch strips of board can be used, and held in place
either by the edges of the angle iron, or by means of
screws put through holes in the angle iron.

BENCH BOTTOMS.

The bottom is, as a rule, the first portion of the
bench to decay, and if any part is to be of indestructible
materials, this should be the one. The most satisfactory

FIG. 54. TILES FOR BENCHES.

bench bottoms, in every way, are some of the forms of
“‘bench tile.” They are more or less porous, and pro-
vide both for drainage and for a thorough aeration of
the soil. Those invented by W. P. Wight, of Madi-
son, N. J., seem particularly desirable. They can be
made of any size desired, although about twelve by six
inches seems a good one, and differ from most of the
others in having a row of holes along the center (Fig. 54
A). The form shown in Fig. 54 Cis five inches wide
by twelve long, and Fig. 54 2 represents a tile seven by

“pla

Cr

Cr

[LVd S.CHDLM

+

5
v

“HONWA LN

BENCH BOTTOMS.

A ae
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83

84. GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

twelve inches, both of which are manufactured for ‘‘ fire-
proofing” the structural iron in modern fireproof blocks,
but answer very well for bench bottoms. By leaving
spaces between the tiles, ample drainage can be secured.
Mr. Wight has invented a bench (Fig. 55) to be used
with his tiles.

For the tables in the show house, or conservatory,
upon which large plants only are placed, large slabs of
slate, of the full width of the bench, may be used with-
out any covering. In the growing houses some covering
for the slate is desirable, and smaller sizes may be used.
Heavy roofing slate, about twelve by eighteen inches in
size, can be cheaply obtained, and, with a covering of
coarse gravel, makes an excellent plant table. When
used as bottoms for the tables in rose houses, and
for cutting beds, they are
less satisfactory than bench
S34 tile, as they allow of but
| imperfect drainage and aer-
ation, and the soil and
sand soon become sour.
With careful watering the
injury will be somewhat
lessened, but the tile will
be found more satisfactory. In Fig. 56 will be seen a
method of using slate for bench bottoms, with wooden
supports.

The use of boards for bench bottoms may be eco-
nomical where lumber is cheap, and the other materials
expensive, but the more durable materials will generally
be preferable.

RIGee DOs
WOOD AND SLATE BENCH.

SOLID BEDS.

For growing many crops the so-called solid bed will
be desirable. These are of the same widths and in the
same places as the raised beds, but, as a rule, are not as

PAINTING AND SHADING. 85

high above the walks. When the underlying soil is
light and sandy, the application of about six inches of
prepared compost will be all that is required to make
them, except the erection of barriers of wood or brick to
keep the soil in place. It is generally necessary to pro-
vide some kind of drainage, and for this purpose three-
inch drain tiles have been found excellent. By placing
them two feet apart and eight inches below the surface,
across the beds, ample drainage will be provided, and the
warming and aeration of the soil will be promoted.

CHAPIEE: XV:
PAINTING AND SHADING

In order to preserve the wood from decay, and the
iron work from rusting, the materials should be covered
with some substance that will render the woodwork
water proof, and prevent the oxidation of the iron.
There are on the market many patent paints that may
be suitable for certain purposes, but very few of them
will prove satisfactory for greenhouse painting. If pure
white lead and linseed oil, with a small amount of Japan,
are used, the results will be as satisfactory as can be
obtained from any mixed paint, and as the covering of
the framework of a greenhouse with some paint that
proved worthless for the purpose would lead to a large
expense, it is better to take something that is known to
be good, than to experiment with materials that, though
apparently cheap, may prove dear in the end. There
are several low priced brands of so-called ‘‘ white lead,”
that are composed largely of zine and baryta, and if
these are used the paint will peel off within a year.,

86 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

Tf the houses are to be painted white, a little black
should be added to take off the glare. However, some
other light color may be preferred to white, and a pleas-
ing one can be made by adding yellow and a small
amount of green, producing a very light shade of green.
With darker trimmings upon the house, this will be
found quite satisfactory. While it is desirable to use
pleasing tints for painting the greenhouses, preservation
of the timber is the main object to be sought.

PAINTING THE GREENHOUSE.

The priming coat should be given before the house
is erected. As soon as the parts have come from the
mill, the joints should be made, as far as is convenient,
and, if possible, the woodwork should then be soaked in
hot linseed oil. A long tank should be made, and by
placing the oil in it the parts can readily be dipped. If
steam pipes can be run through it, all the better. When
this cannot be done, the woodwork should be given a
thorough priming coat. The addition of yellow ochre,
or some similar material, to the oil, will be of advantage.

In putting up the house, too much pains cannot be
taken in coating every joint with pure white lead paint.
The average carpenter will not see the advantage of this,
but a coat of thick paint should be insisted upon.

As soon as the framework is up, a sécond coat
should be given it. Our best greenhouse builders use
two coats of paint for commercial, and three for private
establishments. If only two coats of paint are to be
given, every crack and nail hole should be filled with
good putty before the second coat is applied, but, if a
third coat is to be given, the puttying should be delayed
until the second coat is dry. When three coats are to
be given, it will be easiest to apply the last coat to the
interior of the house before the glass is set, although it
would serve to hold the putty in place under the glass if

REPAINTING. 87

ait were applied after the glazing is completed. What-
ever the number of coats, the last one to the exterior
should not be given until the glass has been set, as then
any crack that may remain at the sides of the panes can
be filled, and the roof will be made water tight. The
putty would also become softened, and would work out
were it not painted.

In drawing the sash, on the exterior, the paint
should be rather thicker than is used for ordinary paint-
ing, and it is an excellent idea if it is drawn out upon
the glass for, perhaps, an eighth of an inch. In this
way, the paint will serve as a cement to hold the panes
in place, should the other fastenings become displaced.

REPAINTING.

Whether two or three coats of paint are given the
‘houses at the time of erection, another should be applied
after one year, to the exterior, at any rate, although
when three coats have been used the painting of the
interior may be delayed another year. In order to keep
a greenhouse in the best repair, one coat should be given
to all exterior wood work each year, and to the interior
every second year. This frequent application of paint
is made necessary by the fact that, if cracks open at any
place, water will enter, and the rapid decay of the wood-
work will follow. If painting is long delayed, cracks
large enough to admit water often open between the
glass and the putty, and the latter, becoming softened,
is washed out. Through the openings thus formed, heat
will escape, and water can gain entrance.

PAINTING IRONWORK, PIPES, ETC.

Iron houses aiso require frequent painting, not only
‘in order to preserve the material, but to prevent the
‘rust that forms if the ironwork is not kept coated with
jpaint, from discoloring plants, walks, woodwork, and

88 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

anything else that it may fall upon, with the drip. All
ironwork that forms part of the greenhouse structure
proper, should be of the same color as the woodwork.
When iron tables are used they should be kept well
painted, using some color of asphalt or Japan paint,—
black asphalt being cheap and quite durable.

For the sake of the improved looks, to say nothing
of increasing their durability, the heating pipes should
also be painted. While asphalt will answer for this pur-
pose, it is known that a larger amount of heat will be
radiated from them if of a dull color, than if they are
smooth and glossy, and the efficiency of the pipes will
be increased by applying a mixture of lampblack and
turpentine. ‘The durability of the paint will be improved
by using linseed oil, but it will have a glossy appearance,
and if oil is used it should not form more than one-half
of the mixture.

SHADING.

In order to keep down the heat and prevent the
burning of the foliage of the plants, it is desirable t6, in
some way, obstruct the entrance of the heat rays. For
some classes of plants a permanent shading is desirable,
and this can be secured by the use of fluted or rough
plate glass. For most purposes, however, a temporary .
shading only is necessary, and some form of wash applied
to the glass is commonly used to give this, when shading
is necessary throughout the summer.

The application of lime or whitewash, either by
means of a large brush or syringe, is a cheap way of
shading the house, and is commonly used by commercial
florists; but it is hardly satisfactory, as, when thick
enough to keep out the heat rays, it obstructs too much
of the light. One reason for this is, that if a coat of the
proper consistency is given, it frequently peels off in
spots, and when a second application is made, to cover

TEMPORARY SHADING. 89

these openings, it is too thick upon the other portions
of the glass. This wash, too, has a glaring appearance,
that is not pleasing to the eye.

Perhaps the most satisfactory shading, is made by
the use of either white lead or whiting, in gasoline. A
very small amount of lead,—perhaps a teaspoonful,—
will suffice for a gallon of gasoline, but the quantity of
whiting required will be much larger. It will be best to
make a thin preparation, and, if found to be too thin,
more of the lead or whiting can be added. This wash
can be put on in a fairly satisfactory manner with a
syringe or small force pump, but it can be spread more
evenly and with greater economy of material with a large
brush, and, where the appearance is considered, this will
be a better way. It is generally desirable to put on a
thin coating early in the spring, and add a second one
in May or June. If not put on too thick, the fall rains
and frosts will loosen the shading, and it will disappear
as winter comes on. If this does not take place soon
enough, the roof can be wet down with a hose, and any
surplus rubbed off with a stiff brush.

TEMPORARY SHADING.

For orchid houses it is desirable to have a form of
shading that can be regulated at pleasure. Some of the
roller blinds answer well for this purpose, as they can be
lowered on bright, sunny days, and drawn up at night,
or in dull weather, to suit the needs of the plants. Cloth
shades of light canvas or fine netting are less desirable,
_ but answer very well. They can be used either outside
or inside the house, and, if hung on curtain or awning
fixtures, can be raised or lowered at pleasure.

When orchids are suspended from the sash bars, the
shutters, canvas, netting or other material used for
shading, must be placed above the glass, and, to allow a
circulation of air above the roof, iron rods should be so

a) GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

arranged that the shading material will be supported at
a height of twelve or fifteen inches. By means of ropes
and pulleys, the awnings can be easily raised or lowered.

For shading cutting benches, there is nothing better
than light frames covered with cotton cloth, although
lath screens are very useful.

CHAPTER XV.

GREENHOUSE HEATING.

In our climate, most of the plants grown in green-
houses require artificial heat to be maintained from six
to nine months of the year, in order that natural condi-
tions may be secured for them. While some plants are
not injured by exposure to thirty-two degrees, and thrive
best at forty-five to fifty degrees, the so-called stove
plants should have seventy degrees, or more, and to
secure these temperatures in greenhouses various meth-
ods have been devised.

The crudest method is by slowly decomposing vege-
table materials, and allowing the heat to radiate into
the air; 2d, the Polmaise system, which consists in pass-
ing cool air over a hot iron surface, and directing it into
the house; 3d, by burning wood or coal in a furnace,
and directing the gaseous products of combustion
through the house in a brick or tile horizontal chimney,
known as a flue; 4th, which differs only in the method
of conveying the heat, as in this it is taken up by water
and carried wherever needed in the form of steam, or by
the circulation of the water itself.

The first method is only employed in hot beds and
similar structures; the second, known as the Polmaise
system, is not adapted for greenhouse heating, although

HEATING WITH HOT WATER. 91
when combined with the flue, it is sometimes used. In
some sections of the country the flue is still made use of
in heating small greenhouses, but by most florists steam
or hot water is preferred.

Whatever the method of heating used, the average
person would consider, in making a selection, the first
cost and the durability, the economy of fuel and attend-
ance, and the efficiency, both as concerns the amount
and the regularity, of the heat supphed. Among other
things that would be taken into account, are the even-
ness with which the heat would be distributed, the
length of time the systems will run without attention,
and the effect of each upon plant growth.

HEATING WITH HOT WATER.

This system was one of the first to be used for the
heating of greenhouses in modern times, and it is claimed
that the circulation of hot water, as a means of convey-
ing heat, was used by the old Romans in warming their
dwellings. It went out of use, however, until 1777,
when a Frenchman, Bonnemain, reintroduced it. An-
cient as the method is, the hot water heating systems of
to-day are comparatively modern inventions, and bear
little resemblance to those used even fifty years ago; in
fact, the change has been so recent that many of the
systems in use to-day are built on quite different princi-
ples from those constructed according to the latest ideas.

HOT WATER IN THE EARLY DAYS.

The Romans are believed to have used bronze circu-
lating pipes, and the first pipes used for heating green-
houses were of copper, and measured four to five inches
in diameter. ‘The heaters used were also of copper, and
generally resembled an open kettle, resting upon a brick
furnace. From the kettle two four-inch pipes ran to
the other end of the house, where they entered a copper

92 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

reservoir (Fig. 3). The pipes were perfectly level, and
one left the heater at the top, forming the flow, while
the return entered at the bottom.

For thirty years previous to 1880, the usual method
of heating greenhouses was similar to the one described
above, except that closed cast-iron heaters were used,
from which cast-iron pipes carried the water about the
houses, ending in large open expansion tanks or distrib-
uting reservoirs.

MODERN HOT WATER HEATING.

Modern heaters are made in hundreds of designs,
and while each is generally claimed, by its inventor, to
surpass all others, it is a hard matter to decide which
one is really best. hey are made of both cast and
wrought iron (small ones may be made of copper, zinc,
etc.), and here, at once, arises a dispute as to the merits
of the two materials.

The wrought iron is more likely to rust and, during
the long summer months, when they stand unused in
the damp greenhouse stoke-holes, they often suffer severe
injury. The wrought iron is, also, more injured than
cast-iron, by the sulphurous and other gases of combus-
tion and, for these reasons, it is claimed by some that
cast-iron boilers will last much longer than those of
wrought iron. This has certainly been the case with
some heaters, but it has been due, in part, to the fact
that many heaters have been made of common gas pipe,
instead of the double strength pipe which should be
used. When this thin pipe is threaded, and the threads
are not made in, the surface exposed is quickly eaten
through. When no pipes smaller than one and one-
fourth inch are used, and these are double strength
boiler flue pipes, the durability of the wrought-iron
heaters will be increased.

POINTS FOR A HOT WATER HEATER. 93

POINTS FOR A HOT WATER HEATER.

Aside from durability, simplicity, and compactness
of construction, the following points in the make-up of
' the heater should be considered: 1. The amount and
arrangement of the direct heating (fire) surface, and its
proper adjustment to the grate area. 2. The arrange-
ment of the water sections, or tubes, and the circulation
of the water in the heater. 3. Ease of cleaning the
flues, and the arrangements for shaking, dumping,
removing the ashes, regulating the draft, etc. 4. The
character of the joints, and the ease with which leaks
can be repaired, and breaks mended.

If the first and second requirements are met, we
may have a heater that is efficient and economical of
fuel, but the points noted in the third have much to do
with the ease of firing and caring for the heater, while
those in the fourth will be desirable in case leaks occur.

1. ARRANGEMENT OF THE FIRE SURFACE.

It is well known that a surface arranged at right
angles to the fire is nearly twice as efficient as one
that is parallel to it. Unless this can be secured, it
necessitates a corresponding increase of the area of fire
surface, which will not only add to the cost of the boiler,
but will render it more cumbersome, and increase the
amount of circulation of water in the heater. When
the arrangement is such that horizontal surfaces cannot
be secured over the firepot, the same effect can be, in
part, obtained, if the direction of the draft is such that
the flames are drawn at right angles towards perpendicu-
lar tubes. When this can be brought about, it affords
very effective heating surface, and is not objectionable ;
on the contrary, it is desirable to so arrange the draft
and flues, that the products of combustion are carried in
as indirect a course as is possible, and yet secure a proper
draft for combustion, removal of smoke, etc. By doing

94 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

this, and by repeatedly bringing this heated air m con-
tact with the water sections, we can finally lower the
temperature down approximately to that of the water.
The nearer we approach this, the greater economy shall
we find in the heater.

While it is of importance that heaters have ample
grate areas and a good draft, the amount and arrange-
ment of the fire surface is of equal importance. To
obtain the best results, the grate area and fire surface
should be carefully adjusted; but for this no general
rule can be given, as some heaters have their surface so
nicely arranged that the heat liberated upon one square
foot of grate area can be taken up by fifteen square feet
of heating surface, while in other heaters thirty-five or
forty feet of fire surface will be insufficient. In a gen-
eral way, a square foot of grate surface will supply two
hundred and fifty square feet of radiating surface, but,
as a rule, it will be more economical if two hundred.
square feet of radiating surface is taken as the limit.

2. ARRANGEMENT OF THE WATER SECTIONS AND
TUBES.

The arrangement of the fire surface will, of course,
determine the position of the water in the sections and
tubes, but will not, necessarily, regulate the direction of
the flow, the amount of water, ete. The circulation of
the water in the ordinary heaters is vertical, horizontal,
in drop tubes, or a combination of two, or even all three
of these ways.

The circulation in the heater should be as short as
possible, and it is better to have the water spread out in
thin sheets, and with the arrangement such that the
water is divided into a number of portions, each of
which makes a single short circulation, than it is to have
the entire mass of water that flows through the heater
warmed by convection, or compelled to pass in a zigzag

POINTS FOR A HOT WATER HEATER. 95

course through a number of different tubes and sections.
In this way, too, the friction will be decreased and the
circulation improved.

So far as circulation goes, the vertical tube tends to
reduce friction, and to this extent it is desirable. On
the other hand, the friction produced by one circuit of
the water in a horizontal section is so shght that it is
often more than counterbalanced by the increased effi-
ciency of the horizontal fire surface.

The drop tubes used in many boilers present a very
good fire surface, as the ends are directly over the grate,
and, as the water circulation is vertical, they form a very
effective portion of the heater. When large tubes are
used there is little danger of their filling up with sedi-
ment, and the principal objection that can be urged
against them is that the water cannot be drawn off from
them.

Another thing that it is desirable to secure, if possi-
ble, is the bringing of the products of combustion, as
they are about to leave the heater, in contact with tubes or
sections containing the return water. It can be readily
seen that water at 175° coming back in the returns, can
still take up heat from gases that have been in contact
with iron surfaces that are 200° or more. In this way
considerable heat will be saved that would otherwise pass
up the smoke pipe.

3. ARRANGEMENTS FOR CLEANING AND FIRING.

It is self-evident that anything that adds to the con-
venience of a heater will be desirable, and the matter of
shaking, dumping, and regulating of drafts should be
considered. © Of especial importance, however, is the
matter of cleaning the flues. Unless thero is a great
loss of heat, a heater cannot be made in which there will
not be, in some portion, an accumulation of soot, and if
this is upon any of the heating surfaces it should be

96 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

frequently removed. <A heater in which the flues can-
not be kept clean is of little value, and the greater the
ease with which it can be done, the better. If the sur-
face requiring cleaning is small and easily cleaned, the
actual trouble wouid be very slight, and although the
flues of some heaters are practically self-cleaning, their
heating surface may be less effective, which would more
than counterbalance the cleaning required by the other.

4, SIMPLICITY OF CONSTRUCTION.

Many heaters are quite intricate in their construc-
tion, and the different parts are fastened with screw
joints, or, as is more common, the joints are packed and
the parts are drawn together with bolts. Everything
else being equal the fewer joints there are, the less
chance there will be of leaks, and in selecting a heater
this should be considered, as well as the character and
location of the joints. The screw joint is perhaps the
surest, but it has one ojection, particularly in wrought-
iron heaters, as the threads tend to increase the corrod-
ing influence of the sulphur gases. Packed joints ave
fairly reliable, but it is desirable that they be easy of
access, and so arranged that they can be repacked should
serious leaks occur. Some of the sectional heaters are
so constructed that, if one section is broken in any way,
it can be cut out of the circulation, and the heater can
then be used without it until the section is mended or a
new one procured. In case the section has to be replaced
by another, the arrangement should be such that the
change can be readily made.

While all of the points enumerated above are deemed
desirable in a heater, it can still be of great value if it
does not possess one or more of them; but in selecting
a heater, while the fact that one or more important fea-
tures were lacking might not prevent its being chosen,
it would be well to take the one which comes the nearest
to possessing them all.

CHAPTER XVI.
PIPES AND PIPING.

In the old styles of hot water plants, the pipes were
of four-inch cast-iron, put together with shoulders and
packed joints, and with large expansion and distributing
tanks at the ends of the runs, and at the points where
the branches left the main lines. In the modern system
two-inch pipe is the largest used for the coils, while one
and one-fourth inch and one and one-half inch are pre-
ferred for short runs.

Some of the advantages of the modern system may
be stated as follows: The lengths of pipe are from two
to nearly four times as long, and can be screwed together
instead of having to pack the numerous joints; there is
less chance of leaky joints or of cracked pipes; although
the cast-iron four-inch pipe has only twice the radiating
surface, it is necessary to provide four times the amount
of water for the circulation that the two-inch contains;
on account of the size and weight of the four-inch pipe
it is necessary to have them low down under the benches
but little above the level of the heater, while the small
wrought-iron pipe can be carried in the very angle of the
ridge if desired, and thus a far more rapid circulation
can be maintained than with large pipe; the large pipe
carrying a large quantity of water and giving a slow
circulation, is at a much lower temperature, particu-
larly on the returns, and a smaller radiating surface will
suffice when small pipe is used, so that some florists
count a two-inch wrought-iron pipe equivalent in heat-
ing capacity to a four-inch cast-iron pipe; from the

4 97

98 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. a

large pipe the amount of heat given off on bright, sunny
days when it is not needed, will be from two to four
times as much as from small ones, and this will neces-
sitate increased ventilation and perhaps cause serious
injury from drafts of cold air, to say nothing of the loss
of heat; finally, in addition to the points enumerated
aboye, the small pipes will give a much more econom-
ical circulation than the large ones, they can be carried
to a_much greater distance, and the heat will be far
more even.

It has been claimed that the large piping is safer to
use, as it will hold the heat longer. This is undoubtedly
true, if the fire is allowed to go out; but, with a well-
arranged system, a regular, even temperature can be
maintained with small pipes for ten to twelve hours, on
mild winter nights, and seven to eight hours on severe
nights, which is as long as it is desirable for the houses
to go without attention.

The term ‘‘ upward pressure” is often used in speak-
ing of hot water circulation ; but although it is a con-
venient one to use, it really has nothing to do with the
circulation, as there is no pressure of the kind exerted.
Hot water has a downward pressure equal to its own
weight, and the only reason for circulating is that the
weight of the hot water is more than balanced by the
weight of the cooler water in the pipe, and-it passes
upward, pressed out of the way by the heavier cool water
which pushes into its place. The same thing can be
seen in a kettle of water where the water in the center is
warmed and is pushed to the top, while the cool water
from above takes its place. The method of circulating
in a hot water apparatus can be best understood by
reference to one of the old styles, as shown in Fig. 3
(a represents the heater, e the expansion tank, and g the
flow and return pipe). Let us suppose that a fire is built
under the boiler, and that the water contained therein

HOW SHALL THE PIPES SLOPE? 99

becomes warm, the same as in an ordinary kettle. It is
known that water when warmed from 39° to 212° in-
creases In bulk one twenty-fourth. If the water in a
is warmed up to the boiling point it has decreased in
weight, per cubic inch, one twenty-fourth. The water
then in e is one twenty-fourth heavier than in a, and, to
establish an equilibrium, the water in e will pass along
the lower pipe to a, crowding the lighter water into the
upper pipe.

If the heat is continued, other particles are set in
motion the same way, and the rapidity of the circulation
will increase until it is balanced by the friction. The
circulating force is governed by the comparative weight
of the warm water in the different parts of the system.
The pressure of the water varies with the height of the
columns, as well as the temperature of the water. If
the height of the columns is increased, the difference
between the weights of the two columns will be increased
in about the same ratio, and as this difference in weight
is what causes water to circulate, the reason for the
success of the overnead system of piping can be readily
seen. The same effect could, however, be secured were
it convenient to do so by lowering the heater.

There has been considerable discussion for many
years as to the best way of running the pipes, but even
now very few persons agree as to the proper method of
arranging them.

HOW SHALL THE PIPES SLOPE?

Among the various methods are the ‘“ up-hill,”
**down-hill,” and ‘‘ level,” and these are shown in Fig. 57,
1, 2, and 3; the last, however, is not desirable when
small pipes are used. In each ease the height of the flow
pipe at the point where it starts to make a circuit of the
house is six feet above: the bottom of the boiler, but in
the first case the pipe rises one foot in passing through

100 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

the house ; in the second it falls a foot, and in the third
it does not change its level. In changing direction at
the farther end, a foot fall is made by each pipe, and on
the return a fall of one foot is made by the first and
second systems, while the third remains at the same
height until it has nearly reached the heater, when it
drops to the level of the bottom of the heater.

The “pressure” is determined by the relative weight
of the water on either side of the highest point of the

(1)

U}

asia Pees 2S eS

|
!
|
'
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
1

FIG. 57. THE SLOPE OF THE PIPES.

system, and it would have been a fairer comparison had
the flow pipe for the ‘‘up-hill” system left the heater at
a height of five feet rather than six, as the highest point
in each system would then have been six feet above the
bottom of the boiler. When the size and the length of
the pipe, the connections, etc., are the same, the system

HOW SHALL THE PIPES SLOPE ? 101

that is arranged to give the greatest difference between
the weights of the water on either side of the highest
point, will have the best circulation, everything else being
equal. For convenience let us consider that in each
system the ‘‘ flow” pipe extends from the heater to the
highest point of the piping, and the returns extend from
that point back to the boiler, entering at the bottom.
To secure a good circulation, the water in the flow pipe
should be as light (hot) as possible, and, that it may not
be subjected to cooling influences, the pipe should be as
short as possible. If the flow pipe is short, then the
highest point in the system must be near the heater.

In order that there may be a difference in the weight
of the two columns of water, that in the return pipes
should be as heavy (cool) as possible, and this can be best
secured, everything else being equal, if the distance is
considerable. Turning to the illustration we shall see
that the highest point in (2) and (3) is directly over the
heater, while in (1) it is at the extreme end of the system ;
the return in (1) is only one-half as long as in (2) and (3),
so that the cooling will be only about one-half as great.

As we wish to keep the water in the pipe between
the heater and the highest point of the system from
cooling, a large pipe should there be used, while, as it
is desirable to cool off the water in the returns, the
remainder of the system should be of small pipe. Con-
sidering the average temperature of the water in the flow
pipe to be 200° F., and that in the returns 170°, a cubic
foot of the latter will be one-eightieth heavier than a
cubic foot. of water at 200°. If a pipe one foot high
contains one pound of water at 200°, the same pipe will
hold 1.0125 pounds of water at 170°, and were the two
united there would be a ‘‘ pressure” of .0125 of a pound.
Were each pipe ten feet long, the water in one would
weigh ten pounds and in the other 10.125 pounds, and
there would be a pressure of an eighth of a pound,

102 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

while at eighty feet there would be one pound pressure,
or eighty times as much as at one foot.

It will thus be seen that the pressure increases with
the height of the columns. As we wish to have as much
weight as possible in the returns, they should be brought
back to a point near the heater at as near a level as pos-
sible, and at the greatest convenient height. As just
shown, if a flow pipe is filled with water at 200° and we
consider it to weigh one pound for each foot of pipe,
there will be a pressure of .125 of a pound from a return
filled with water at 170° F., if the pipes are each ten
feet high. This would be the pressure then in a hot
water apparatus under the above conditions, 7. e., the
flow pipe rises ten feet above the heater, and passing
through the house returns to a point over the heater,
without changing its height.

On the other hand, suppose that after passing to the
farther end of the house it drops perpendicularly five
feet and returns at that level to the heater. There will
then be a head of five feet where the water has a tem-
perature of 185° and of five feet when it has cooled down
to 170°, and we should have

(185°) 1.0057 55.0285
(170°) 1.0125 55.0625

10.0910—10.=.0910 Ibs.

As compared with a pressure of 0.125 of a pound when
the return was ten feet high, this shows a pressure of
only .0910 of a pound, or a loss of .034 of a pound as
compared with the other method. In order to allow the
air to escape, the pipes cannot be carried on a level, and
hence as the next best method they should be given a
gradual fall throughout their length, taking pains to
keep them as high as possible in order to secure pressure.
While it will be best to have long straight runs, with the
same slove throughout, if necessary there may be vari-

OVER VS. UNDER ‘BENCH PIPING. 103
ous changes in the level of the pipes, and circulation can
still be kept up, provided the necessary vents for remoy-
ing the air are provided, and the pressure, as explained
above, is sufficient to overcome all friction.

In some cases the down-hill piping (2), Fig. 57,
cannot be used to advantage, and the up-hill system (1),
will serve the purpose. With the slight difference in
level that can be secured in greenhouse heating, particu-
larly if the pipes are under the bench, the difference in
efficiency will hardly be noticeable. Theoretically, the
level piping, as in Fig. 57 (3), gives the greatest pressure ;
the down-hill system comes next, and the up-hill piping
gives the least pressure, although, as piped in Fig. 57 (1),
the pressure with a coil seven feet high is about the same
as with the level piping in a coil six feet high.

OVER VS. UNDER BENCH PIPING,

It is unquestionable that if all the pipes are above
the benches, the circulation will be better than if all, or
even a part of them, are below. If one or two pipes are
placed upon each plate, and the others near the puriins,
the amount of light obstructed will be comparatively
small ; the heat, however, will not be as well distributed
asif the pipes are spread out below the benches. Experi-
ments to test the matter have shown little if any differ-
ence in the results, whether all of the pipes are above or
below the benches, but with the feed pipe above the
bench and the coils below, there is an improvement in
circulation, and fully as good if not better growth of
plants as when all are below, and this plan should be
used whenever practicable.

The principal benefits from overhead piping are (1)
the melting of snow and ice on the roof, (2) taking the
chill from cold drafts of air and (3) drying off the
plants after syringing, all of which will be largely done
iby the overhead main. The overhead system, moreover,

lu4 GREENHOUSE: CONSTRUCTION,

carries the coils higher than they are in the under-
bench system and a more rapid circulation is secured.

Some houses have been piped with the flow pipes
under the side benches, and the returns above ‘the
benches. While this gives a good circulation, better
results can be obtained if the pipes are placed in the
same way except that the overhead pipes are attached
to the flow pipe from the boiler, and those under the
benches to the returns. The returns under the bench
can either be of the same size as those above, or of a
larger size. :

CHAPTER XVII.
SIZE AND AMOUNT OF PIPE.

The size of pipe best suited for the coils depends
upon the length as well as upon the height of the coils.
Considered as radiating surface only, one-inch pipe would
be preferable, but, except for very short runs, since the
friction increases as the size of the pipe decreases, a.
larger size should generally be used. Inch and one-
quarter pipe can be used to advantage in coils not over
forty feet long, and if the height is sufficient, the length
may be considerably increased. For coils up to seventy-
five feet in length, one and one-half inch pipe will be
entirely satisfactory. Two-inch pipe will work well up
to one hundred and fifty feet, but it is better in all
houses over one hundred feet long to use two or more
short coils of one and one-half inch pipe. In this way,
by having proper flow and return pipes connected with
the coils, houses three hundred feet long can be heated.
with hot water.

If it can be so arranged, however, it will be better
to have houses one hundred and fifty feet long on either

SIZE FOR MAINS. 105

side of a potting shed and connecting passage, which
will really make houses three hundred feet long while,
with the heater located at the center, they will be only
one hundred and fifty feet in length so far as the heat-
ing apparatus is concerned.

SIZE FOR MAINS.

In determining the size for the feed pipes the Jength
of the house and the height that the coils will have, should
be considered, as well as the number of square feet of
radiation to be supplied. For houses of average length,
and with the average height of/the coils six feet above
the bottom of the heater,

2 inch pipe will supply 200 to. 300 square feet of radiation.

3 6 “ e 600 to 800 “e “ee “cs
312 “ec “ec “ 800 to 1000 oy se “

With Jong coils and light pressure these figures will
need to be slightly reduced, but if the runs are short
and the coils elevated they may be increased fifty per
cent.

TO. ESTIMATE RADIATION.

In computing the amount of radiation required for a
house, the climate, exposure, construction of the house,
and the amount of exposed wall surface should be con-
sidered, as well as the temperature to be maintained.
When the walls are high or poorly built, or if the roof
is not tight, allowance should be made for it by adding
to the glass surface one foot, for every five feet of
exposed wall, and a corresponding increase for the poor
glazing.

In most parts of the country we can reckon that
1 square foot of pipe will lieat to 40° 4% square feet of glass.
1 ec “ce se oe oe 50° 4 oe sc “e
1 oe “ec 55° ble “ “ oe
1 “ oe oe ee a 60° 3 “ “ee
1 ee ae ae oe oe 65° 216 oe oe “ce
1

“ ae ee oe ae 70° 4 oe oe se

106 GREENHOUSE CGNSTRUCTION.

While a slightly higher estimate would be safe, it is
economy to have an abundant radiation, especially for
tropical houses.

In estimating the surface of wrought-iron pipe,

1 inch pipe is ieckoned at .344 square foot per linear foot.

WA +6 “cc oe 434 “ce 66 oe ee
14 “< 6c“ “ec 497 ee “ce ee “s
9 se oc sc“ .621 “cc ““ oe 6c

PIPING THE JLOUSES.

In arranging the heating pipes we can place them
all under the benches, have them all above the benches,
or the flow pipes may be over the tables and the returns
underneath. If the under-bench system is used, the
arrangement shown in Fig. 58 is a good one. When the
house is one hundred and fifty feet long a three-inch

FIG. 98. UNDER BENCH* PIPING, WIDE EVEN SPAN
HOUSE.

flow pipe will be needed for each of the side benches.
(A two-inch pipe will answer for a house one hundred
feet long.) When the coils are of one and one-half inch
pipe there should be two, each seventy-five feet long,
upon each side, or three of fifty feet each. With two coils

PIFING THE HOUSES. 107

the mains should enter the house close to the bottom of
the bench, and falling at the rate of one inch in twenty
feet should pass to the middle of the house, where a two-
inch branch should be taken off at the side by means of
a hot water T; the main should be continued by means
of a two-inch pipe to the farther end of the house, where
it should connect with the coil.

In a house one hundred feet long the two-inch feed
pipe should be run in the same way as the above, except

FIG. 59. UNDER BENCH PIPING FOR NARROW EVEN
SPAN HOUSE.

that the branches should be of one and one-half inch
pipe. If desired, however, the coil can be of two-inch
pipe, in one piece. The return pipes should fall towards
the heater at the rate of one inch in ten or twelve feet.
If the bench is too low to admit of a proper fall of the

108 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

flow pipe from, and of the return towards the heater, the
flow may be given a gradual rise to the farther end, and
thus a fall can be secured for the returns.

Another method that will be preferable to either of
the above when the bench is high enough to give a fall,
or if the return can be placed below the level of the
walk, is to attach the feed pipes to the coils at the end
nearest the heater. The coils can then be given a

FIG. 60. OVERHEAD PIPING, SHORT SPAN TO THE
SOUTH HOUSE.

fall from the heater, and the returns can come back
underneath. The arrangement of the pipes in a narrow
even span house to be heated to forty-five degrees is
shown in Fig. 59.

OVERHEAD PIPING.

In carnation and other cool houses where the amount
of pipe is so small that it can be carried upon the plate
and purlins, and particularly in ‘‘short-span to the south”
houses, the overhead piping will perhaps be desirable.
The feed ipe can be carried upon the ridge posts

PIPING THE HOUSES. 109

(Fig. 60), and the returns arranged as shown in the
sketch, or the flows, as several small pipes; may be above,
and the returns, as one or two large ones, below.

COMBINED OVERHEAD AND UNDER-BENCH PIPING.

For most commercial establishments the above
arrangement will be preferable to having all the pipes
above, or all under the benches. One method is illus-
trated in Fig. 61, in which the main is carried near the
ridge, and the returns in vertical coils upon the bench
legs. In the north-side propagating house, all of the

HY PIPING for 58°

WX) House 100 ‘long

FIG. 61. COMBINED OVERHEAD AND UNDER-BENCH
PIPING.

pipes are under the bench. For an even-span house one
hundred feet long and twenty feet wide to be carried at
sixty-five degrees, the arrangement illustrated in Fig. 62
will give good results.

With a good fall, one and one-half inch pipes in the
coil can be used for a long run, but it will generally be
better to make two coils on a side, each fifty feet long.
At the middle of the house, feed pipes (one and one-half
inch) can be taken off to feed the first coils, and the main
can be extended asa two-inch pipe to the end of the
house, where branch pipes can be connected with the
other coils. Fig. 63 illustrates a method of piping a

110 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

forcing house one hundred and fifty feet long and twenty
feet wide that is to be kept at sixty-five degrees. The
coils, as in Fig. 62, are placed horizontally, which prob-
ably makes them more efficient than when they are
arranged vertically. Fig. 81 shows a method of arrang-
ing the heating pipes under the benches that can be used
when there is a bench across the farther end of the
house. As the main is somewhat elevated, it has some
of the merits of the combined system. It will be noticed
that although Figs. 52, 63, and 81 are designed to illus-

NWaler /f°
Sreary /”

Width \| 20°

FIG. 62. COMBINED PIPING, EVEN SPAN HOUSE,
10020 FEET; 65 DEGREES.

trate methods of piping, they also show various ways
of building the walls, ventilators, posts and braces,
benches, etc.

PIPING NARROW HOUSES.

In low and narrow houses the same methods of
pipmg can be used, making proper reductions in the
number of the pipes in the coils, and in the size of the
main. ‘Thus, for a span-roof house twelve feet wide and
one hundred feet long, to be kept at fifty degrees, a two-
inch pipe at the ridge will feed three one and one-half

PIPING NARROW HOUSES. filie

inch returns under each bench, or, if the under-bench
system is to be used, a two-inch flow on each side will
feed two one and one-half inch returns. Still another
method would be to use two one and one-half inch flow
pipes under each bench, to feed the same number of
returns. y

The heating surface will be most efficient if it is
distributed evenly under the benches, but as they will
then occupy considerable space that could be occupied
by mushroom beds (Fig. 58) or for other purposes, it will
generally be preferable to group them under the side
benches.

In building the coils, cast-iron headers, or, better,
manifolds built up of T's and nipples, can be used at one

pw

So by, 2 for Wares
wT 1for Steam,

PRelurns
lean /*
Yarr ae

FIG. 63. COMBINED PIPING FOR FORCING HOUSE,
15020 FEET; 65 DEGREES.

end of straight runs, but on account of danger from
the unequal expansion of the pipes, a mitre should be
arranged if headers are to be used at both ends. The
coils can be carried across the end of the house and end
in headers at the center, to which branches from the
feed pipe can be attached, as in Fig. 64.

The overhead mains can be fastened to the posts by
means of cast-iron brackets, while under the bench they

112 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

can be supported by pipe hooks upon the bench legs.
The vertical coils can be fastened in the same way, and
the horizontal coils can be supported as in Fig. 63, or
upon pieces of gas pipe suspended from the bench cross-
bearers by iron hooks, as seen in Figs. 58 and 62.

VALVES AND EXPANSION TANK.

In order to regulate the flow of the water through
the coils, there should be angle or gate valves upon the
returns, or upon the branch feed pipes, and if it is desir-
able to arrange the house so that heat can be shut off for

FIG. 64. ARRANGEMENT OF THE COILS.

a portion of the winter, there should be valves on both
the flow and return mains where they enter the house,
with a draw-off cock so that the water can be removed.
The expansion tank should be raised as high above
the mains as possible, and connected with it (at the
highest point, in case the piping is down hill), by a pipe
from one to two inches in diameter, according to the
extent of the system. The elevation of the tank in no
way affects the circulation, as it merely raises the boiling

HOT WATER UNDER-PRESSURE. 113

point of the water. The tank may be of galvanized iron,
without a cover, with the expansion pipe connected with
the bottom, and an overflow pipe attached about two-
thirds the way up the side, or a riveted boiler-iron closed
tank with the same connections and a water gauge on
the side.

HOT WATER UNDER-PRESSURE.

When the down-hill system is used, many florists
combine a closed expansion tank with it. The tank
should be of boiler-iron with top and bottom securely
riveted on; thus far it does not differ from those com-
monly used in the open system. The only difference is
that there is no vent in the top of the tank, and that
there is a safety valve on the overflow, which, as in the
open tank, carries the waste water to a drain.

The closed tank has the same effect as does the
elevated one, and merely raises the point to which the
water can be heated without forming steam. One
advantage of this is that, when water is carried at 220°,
much less heating pipe is required than when it is only
160°, but a serious objection is that it now has one of
the faults of steam as, at this temperature, more heat
will be carried up the chimney with the products of
combustion, than when the water is 180°. It is an ex-
cellent plan to have the house supphed with sufficient
radiating surface to maintain the required temperature
in the average winter weather with an open tank, but to
have the system provided with a safety-valve, which
could be thrown on when it became necessary, in order
to keep up the temperature when the thermometer goes
down below zero.

Unless the down-hill ‘system, with the tank at the
highest point, is used, air vents should be provided,
wherever the pipe takes an upward turn, at the highest
points. Air cocks can be used, or quarter-inch gas pipes

8

114 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

carried above the level of the expansion pipe will answer,
and are preferable if the tank is not much elevated.

CHANGES OF DIRECTION AND LEVEL.

If for any reason it becomes necessary to change the
direction or the level of the pipes, it should be the least
amount possible, and, in doing it, 45° ells, reducing
tees, etc., should be used. If necessary, the main pipes
can be changed from their course and run over or under
an obstruction, and they can even be carried below the
level of the heater, but it should not be done unless
there isan abundant pressure. In all downward changes
of level, the force required to bring the water back to its
original level will be in proportion to the cooling that
takes place between the fall and rise. Every change in
direction increases the friction and decreases the flow.

CONNECTING THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS.

Tf there is a range of houses to be connected with
one system, the arrangements will need to be such as
will suit the conditions. If, as is very convenient, the
houses have a common head house, the heater can be
situated in the center, and the feed mains can be carried
along the wall of the head house, just above the doors
that open into the greenhouses, and the branches can
be taken off from this. The returns can be connected
in much the same way, but the return main will be below
the level of the coils.

FOUR-INCH HEATING PIPES.

Although an expensive method of piping and heat-
ing greenhouses, many florists prefer to use four-inch
pipes. The pipes must all be under the benches, upon
substantial brick piers. If air vents are provided at fre-
quent intervals the pipes may be level ; otherwise a slight
down-hill arrangement will be preferable. The joints
should be packed firmly with oakum or tarred rope, with

HOT WATER HEATERS. 115

iron cement or Portland cement between the layers, and
at the outer edge of the joint. If the runs are long the
pipes should rest on gas-pipe rollers, that expansion and
contraction may not break the joints.

PIPING IN GENERAL.

The same general rules as to the arrangement of the
pipes apply to all kinds of houses, and will only need to
be shghtly modified to suit the various conditions. For
large conservatories, particularly if the center of the
house is filled with plants growing in the ground, it will
be necessary to have all of the pipes arranged in stacks
along the sides, or, if desired, cast-iron radiators can be
used.

CHAPTER XVII.
HOT WATER HEATERS.

In the illustrations of heaters presented, the selec-
tion was made with the idea of showing the construction
of different types rather than of advocating the use of
any particular heat-
er. While we can
recommend most of
these from our own
experience, there
are other heaters
that may be fully as
effective.

The Carmody
heater (Fig. 65) is
selected as the type
of the vertical sec-
tional heaters. They are of a very durable construction
and, like others of the class, possess the important

FIG. 65. CARMODY HEATER.

116 {REENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

advantage of permitting the addition of other sections,
should it at any time become necessary. ‘The water cir-

Yyy thy ‘tit
Z og Yi; they Yy
WY Wp

FIG. 66. HITCHINGS’ HEATER.

culation, for the most part, is vertical, and the flues are
arranged to give an effective heating surface.

FIG. 6

¢. WEATHERED CONICAL HEATER.

In some respects similar to the Carmody, but differ-
ing in being non-sectional, are such well-known heaters

HOT WATER HEATERS. 11

as the Hitchings, Smith, and Weathered. They differ
principally in the arrangement of their fire surfaces. In
the Hitchings’ corrugated heater, of which a longitud-
inal section is shown in Fig. 66, the fire surface is
increased by means of aoaadee corrugations, while, in
the Smith, the corrugations are replaced by quite deep
square cells.

Few heaters, with equal grate areas, will surpass
those of this class in the amount of heat they will fur-
nish, or in the economy of their coal consumption. For
cool houses, or when carrying
about two-thirds of their full
radiation, they give very satis- fa
factory results. While their
fire surface is very effectively
arranged, it is rather small for
the grate area, and, in case
the heaters are working up to
their full capacity, in very
cold weather, there will be a
considerable loss of heat
through the smoke flue. With
these heaters, as with others,
it is economy to select one ig
that is a size larger than would
be really necessary. For small
greenhouses the Weathered
Conical Heater (Fig. 67) or FG 68. SPENCE HEATER.
others of similar construction will be found quite pow-
erful and efficient.

In Fig. 68 we present the Spence as showing the
general form of the horizontal sectional heaters. The
fire-pot is surrounded with a water jacket so that a fire-
brick lining is not required. The sections are arranged
parallel, one above the other, over the fire-pot. The
construction of the flues is such as brings the products

118 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

of combustion repeatedly in contact with the heating
surface, and if this is not sufficient to absorb all of the
heat, the difficulty can be corrected by the addition of
more sections. The first, third, and fifth sections are
shown in Fig. 69, and the second and fourth in Fig 70.
The water is spread out in a thin sheet in the sections
and cannot enter the feed pipes until it has made a com-
plete circuit of one section. By the arrangement of the
water column in the rear, the water having passed through
one section, is prevented from entering another. The
points claimed for this heater are, economy of fuel, per-
fect and rapid circulation, readiness of cleaning, few and
tight joints, and, in case of leakage or breaks, the readi-

i
\)

|
atl

=

FIG. 69. SPENCE HEATER. FIG. 70. SPENCE HEATER.
(1st, 3d and 5th Sections.) (2d and 4th Sections. )

ness with which repairs can be made. The Gurney,
(No. 300 Series) and the Palace King have much the
same construction, and are, very likely, fully as efficient.

The Furman heaters may be taken as the type of the
drop tube patterns. They are used either for steam or
hot water, the small sizes generally being portable (Fig.
71), and the large ones brick-set (Fig. 72). The Fur-
man hot-water heater is constructed on principles almost
exactly the reverse of those found in the Spence. It is
not sectional in the small sizes, and yet, as the parts are
screwed together, they can be taken apart if any of the
tubes are broken. ‘The cast-iron screw joints will prob-

HOT WATER HEATERS. 119

ably never leak. It will be noted that the heating sur-
face consists of oval drop tubes, with a diaphragm in the
center, so arranged that the water passes down on one
side and up the other. As previously stated, the vertical
circulation, as secured in the Furman, is the correct one,
as there is less friction than in horizontal tubes or sec-
tions. It gives a very rapid circulation, which is of
importance in taking up the heat and, also, in giving it
off in the coils. A happy illustration of the effect of a
rapid circulation upon the amount of Beas taken up by
the water, is the wind blow-
ing over a muddy road, the
faster 16 moves, the more
water it takes up. The
faster the water travels past
the fire, the more heat will
it absorb, and the less will
pass up the smoke pipe.
: In the Furman, the at-
tempt is made to secure the
direct action of the fire upon
the tubes, by means of lat-
eral draft between them;
this also tends to secure
perfect combustion to the FIG. 71. FURMAN PORT-
very edge of the fire-pot, ABLE HEATER (Steam).
From thee shape and arrangement, very little cleaning
of the flues is necessary.

Although constructed upon a general plan exactly
opposite that of the Spence, from our trial of the two
heaters here, it is not possible to decide which is the
correct one; if anything, however, the Spence is more
economical of fuel.

Where the size of the plant will warrant, it is better
to have two heaters in a battery, than one yery large one,
and where two large heaters will do the work on a pinch,

120 ° GREENHOUSE GONSTRUCTION.

it is desirable to have a third one to fall back on in severe
weather, or in case of an accident to one of the others.
If a single heater large enough to do the work in the
most severe weather is used, it will be twice as large as
will be required in the mild weather of Spring and Fall,
but, by having two heaters in a battery, one or both can
be used as may be necessary.

For use in small conservatories, there are many
forms of portable hot water heaters, of which that made
by Hitchings & Co., shown in Fig. 73, may be taken as
a sample. Most of them have coal magazines, and run
for eight or ten hours without attention. From the

os

FIG. 72. FURMAN-~BRICK-SET HEATER (Steam).

simplicity of the hot water apparatus as first used, it will
be seen that good results can be obtained from almost
any kind of a heater that provides for a proper connec-
tion. A simple can of copper, zinc, or galvanized iron,
resting over an oil stove, will provide heat for a small
conservatory ; but, if some arrangement can be made for
increasing the heating surface, better results will be
obtained.
THE SIZE OF HEATER TO USE.

Having determined upon the kind of heater to use,
the size to obtain is of considerable importance. All

THE SIZE OF HEATER TO USE. 121

greenhouse heaters are rated by the manufacturers as
equal to supplying a certain number of square feet of
radiation. Although most of them will do what is
claimed for them at a pinch, it will be at the expense of
an excessive amount of fuel and labor. The most eco-
nomical results with hot water can only be obtained with
a thin, slow fire in a large fire box, and as a rule it will
be well to deduct at least
twenty-five per cent. from
the manufacturers’ rating
in estimating the capac-
ity of a heater.

The comparative area
of grate and fire surface
in heaters varies with their
arrangement to such an
extent that, provided it is
ample to absorb the heat
produced by the combus-
tion, the latter may be left
out of the question for the
present. Basing the re-
quired grate area upon the
number of square feet of -
radiating surface, it has :
been stated that for econ-
omy the ratio of one to
two hundred should not ria. %3. HITCHINGS’ BASE
be exceeded. With large BURNING HEATER.
heaters this should suffice, provided the radiation itself
was ample, but in small establishments, with less than
one thousand feet of radiating surface, the proportion of
one square foot of grate surface to one hundred and fifty
square feet of radiating surface will be none too much for
the economical consumption of fuel. In establishments
where cheap fuel is used and a night fireman employed,

122 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

one square foot of grate surface will burn enough fuel,
with a good draft, to supply two hundred and fifty
square feet of radiation.

Of course, the ratio of radiating and glass surface
must be based, in addition to the temperature to be
maintained, upon the climate, the exposure, the con-
struction of the house, etc., but, as a rule, the average
temperature in a greenhouse may be taken as fifty de-
grees, and one foot of radiating surface will heat about
four square feet of glass. For an establishment then of
2,400 square feet of glass, 600 square feet of radiating
surface will be necessary, and a heater with a grate con-
taining four square feet will be required. If it contains
8,000 square feet of glass, 2,000 square feet of radiation
and ten square feet of grate surface will be necessary,
and for 16,000 square feet of glass the radiation and
grate surfaces will be respectively 4,000 and sixteen
square feet. In the first two cases the fires can be left at
night without attention for eight hours in zero weather,
but would require stoking once in three or four hours
when the grate surface is as small as given in the last
example.

CHAPTER XIX.
STEAM HEATING.

With the wonderful growth of commercial floral
establishments during the past ten years, a need arose
for something more efficient and applicable to larger
houses than the old-fashioned flue, or the hot water sys-
tem with four-inch pipes, and it was found in the modern
steam greenhouse-heating plants. In a general way, the
same rules and method of piping would answer here as
were given for hot water.

In steam heating we have the choice of two methods,
high or low pressure. In the first it 1s preferable to use
wrought-iron boilers rather than the average one of cast-
iron, although some cast-iron tubular boilers are claimed
by the inventors to withstand higher pressures than
those of wrought-iron. This method of heating is par-
ticularly applicable in large plants with more than
12,000 square feet of glass, where a regular night fire-
man can be employed. The principal arguments in its
favor are that less radiating surface is required than with
low pressure steam or with water, and that steam can be
carried to considerable distances, thus centralizing the
boilers, and enabling the most extensive ranges of house
to be heated from one boiler-room. For small plants
the low pressure system, carrying a maximum of five
pounds pressure, and generally not over two pounds, is
preferable.

STEAM BOILERS AND THEIR LOCATION.

Some of the horizontal tubular boilers are generally
used and give general satisfaction. For low pressure
123

124 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

there are dozens of cast-iron boilers, each of which has
points that, if we can believe the inventors, makes his
the best ; really, however, the difference in their real
efficiency is very slight. For small houses the locomo-
tive boiler seems to be a cheap and economical heater.
They are also used with success for hot water. As in
the hot water heaters, the requirements for a good steam
boiler are ample grate surface, good draft, and a fire
surface at right angles to the draft, with the flues so
arranged as to absorb the greatest possible amount of
heat.

In locating the boiler, pains should be taken to have
it low enough so that the water level will be at least two
feet below the lowest heating pipe, but if this is not pos-
sible without sinking the boiler in dark, poorly drained
pits, steam traps can be used, particularly with high
pressure, that will remove the water from the return,
and lift it to the water level of the boiler; with low
pressure they work more slowly and are less satisfactory.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE STEAM PIPES.

The method given for the arrangement of the hot
water pipes can be followed with few changes for steam,
whether high or low pressure. The main for each house
should be carried along under the ridge to the farther
end, running on a slight decline, where it should be
broken up to supply the coils. If constructed with
manifolds, a manifold valve should be used, or, if in sep-
arate lines, all but one pipe on each side should be
arranged so that it can be shut off in mild weather. In
making the coils, and in fact all connections, great care
should be taken to allow for expansion.

For short coils, one-inch pipe may be used, but if of
considerable length, one and one-fourth inch pipe is pre-
ferred by most florists. The slope of the coils should be
towards the boiler, when the flow is carried overhead, in

AMOUNT OF PIPE FOR STEAM. 25

order to return the condensed water. At the end of the
house the returns should be collected into one pipe, which
should enter the boiler below the water level.

There should be an automatic air valve on each of
the coils at the lower end, and on the return, near the
boiler, it is well to have both a valve and a check valve.

As recommended for hot water, it is well to have the
pipes somewhat distributed, and if, in addition to the
overhead mains, one return pipe is carried along on the
wall plate, it will tend to warm the cold air that enters
through the ventilators, or cracks in the glass, before it
comes in contact with the plants. With plants like
cucumbers and roses, that are susceptible to cold drafts,
this will be found a decided advantage.

AMOUNT OF PIPE FOR STEAM.

The amount of pipe, both for mains and coils, will
be much less than when hot water is used. For the
main it can be reckoned that a

11% ineh pipe will supply 200 square feet of radiation.

2 we ‘ 400 ee “ee Aad
214 a te ‘ 800 oe se. ad
3 ae ce My 1,600 Me ss =¢
4 O: us Ob 3,200“ es ss

The surface of the steam pipes is from thirty to fifty
per cent. warmer than that of hot water pipes, and a
corresponding decrease of the necessary radiating surface
can be made. For low pressure steam, in addition to the
mains, a house will require for each 1,000 square feet of
glass, to warm it to

45° to 50°, 140 square feet, or 300 linear feet, 114 inch pipe.

50° to 60°, 175“ MEF Prtgg fe te eth | oe Wee) “Ee

60° to 70°, 225“ CONS (te ce ie Oe
With high pressure, a considerable reduction can be
made from the above.

In figuring the capacity of a boiler, about fifteen
feet of heating (fire) surface should be reckoned as one

126 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

horse power, and in estimating the radiation that it will
supply, from fifty to ninety square feet of radiation per
horse power, according to the pressure, may be relied
upon with a good boiler. If we consider that for a tem-
perature of fifty degrees, which may be taken as about
an average, one square foot of radiating surface will take
care of six square feet of glass, one horse power will be
sufficient for 300 to 540 square feet of glass. As in the
case with hot water heaters, a large steam boiler will,
handle more glass to a square foot of grate than a
small one.

The size of grate for a given glass area will also de-
pend upon the draft of the chimney, the skill of the
fireman and the method of stoking used. With a poor
draft a much smaller amount of coal can be burned, per
square foot of grate, than when the draft is strong, and
a grate area considerably larger than in the latter case
will be required ; the same is true of a dirty fire as com-
pared with a clean one. For establishments with less
than 10,000 to 12,000 square feet of glass, a night fire-
man can hardly be afforded, and a large grate should be
used upon which a slow fire can be burned that will last
from six to ten hours. or this purpose the grate should
have an area of from fifteen to eighteen or even twenty
feet, according to the climate and other modifying con-
ditions. On the other hand, when a strong draft can be
secured, and in large establishments, where a night fire-
man is employed, one square foot of grate can readily
handie one thousand square feet of glass. In other
words, a steam boiler with twelve square feet of grate
can be made to heat with economy 12,000 square feet of
glass. Under fayorable conditions, eight square feet of
grate will heat a house containing the above amount of
glass to fifty degrees.

The matter is so important that it is well to again
mention the advisability of putting in a boiler with a

ANOTHER METHOD OF PIPING. 127

capacity twenty-five per cent. larger than is required
to do the work, and of arranging for ample radiating
surface.

The only other matter of real importance in arrang-
ing a system is to have the pipes with such a fall (one
inch in twenty feet will answer) that the water of
condensation can readily drain off. This can best be
secured, if there is a gradual descent in the pipes from

FIG. 74. INTERIOR OF STEAM-HEATED HOUSE.

the point where the main enters the house to where the
return leaves. If it becomes necessary to change the
direction of the slope, a one-inch drip pipe should be
connected with the underside of the main, at the point
where the direction of the pipe changes, and joined to
the returns.
ANOTHER METHOD OF PIPING.

Although the overhead main will generally give best

satisfaction, particularly in long houses, it is sometimes

128 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

preferred to have them all under the bench. The coil
can commence at the end of the house nearest the boiler,
and with a gradual fall to the other end, from which
point the return can descend to the heater. These coils
can be underneath the side benches or in the walk, and,
if desired, in wide houses under the center bench, also.
This method of distributing the pipes will be particu-
larly desirable when the plants are placed out on the
benches.

In short houses the coils can run entirely around the
house, although the short runs will be preferable. With
low pressure it is not advisable to have coils more than
two hundred feet in length. Even for houses of this
length, it will be very convenient to have the different
houses in the range connected in the center by a cross
gallery, in which the boilers may be placed, and through
which the mains and returns can be run and connected
with coils which will be half as long as the house. Tig.
4 shows one method of piping a small house for steam,
the furnace-room being at the farther end of the house.

Various methods of arranging steam pipes are shown
in Figs. 58-62. As a rule, a two-inch steam main
can be used instead of a three-inch hot water main, and
a one-inch steam pipe will be equivalent to an inch and
one-half hot water pipe in the coils for low pressure, and
a two-inch pipe if the steam is under high pressure.

CHAPTER XX.
COMPARATIVE MERITS OF STEAM AND HOT WATER.

The following are among the claims -made by advo-
cates of steam for their favorite heating system: (1) A
lower first cost ; (2) ability to maintain a steady temper-
ature; (3) readiness with which the temperature can be
raised or lowered if desired ; (4) economy of coal con-
sumption ; (5) ease with which repairs can be made.

The hot water men admit that these claims hold to
a large extent against hot water in four-inch pipes, but
they contend that the men who make these claims have
made no comparison with modern well-arranged hot
water plants, and that, under proper conditions, the lat-
ter system is preferable. Those who favor hot water
claim for that method that at the most only the first
claim of the steam men will stand, and that on the
other points, hot water can make as good, if not better
showing.

With regard to the first cost, as stated before, the
amount of radiation required for hot water with an open
tank is about forty per cent. more than with steam,
which will make the cost of the plant about twenty per
cent. more than the cost of a steam plant. Under pres-
sure, however, the cost will be little if any more, but we
shall lose in economy of fuel, as compared with the open
tank system, although it retains all of the other advan-
tages claimed for hot water. With a fireman giving
constant attention to the boilers, a steady pressure can
be maintained, and of course the pipes being all of the
time at the same temperature, there need be but little

9 129

130 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

variation in the house, provided the pressure is raised or
lowered, or the valves are used to regulate the amount of
radiation, according to the outside temperature.

In small plants, where regular firemen are not em-
ployed both for night and day, the pressure will vary to
a greater or less extent. In well-arranged plants, boilers
can be left iu severe weather for six or eight hours, and
pressure will be maintained, provided everything is all
right; but if for any reason the water in the boiler drops
below 212°, the steam pipes will cool, and serious harm
may result. With hot water, circulation will go on so
long as there is fire in the heater, and the water in the
pipes will give off heat even after that, until they cool to
the temperature of the house. It can then be claimed
for hot water, and no one can deny it, that in small
plants, hot water is safer than steam to use, and can be
left for a longer time without attention.

It is also urged in favor of steam, that in long runs
the hot water becomes cooled, and that the temperature
at the lower end of the coils will be less than at the
other. In a short house of one hundred and fifty feet
or less, this can be counteracted by using the overhead
main and underbench returns, and even in long houses
the difference, with this method of piping, should not
exceed five degrees in a house two hundred feet long.
If the continuous coils of one and one-half or two-inch
pipe running through the house and back are used,
which may be done where a fall of one inch in ten feet
can be secured, there may be even less difference than is
found in steam pipes.

There is, then, some ground for the claim of hot
water men that, even compared with large plants in
which night firemen are employed, the temperature at the
opposite ends of the houses will be as even as with steam,
and that the hot water system properly arranged will
maintain for eight or ten hours a temperature as even as
will be secured from steam by the average fireman,

EXPERIMENTAL TESTS. 131

The claim that steam can be used to better advan-
tage when it is desired to raise or lower the temperature
of the house, only applied against water in large pipes.
If desired, the entire circulation in the hot water coils
can be shut off, and the amount of heat in the water in
the pipes if given off at once would not raise the temper-
ature of the house a single degree, and distributed over
an hour or so, would not be noticed. With four-inch
pipes containing ten times the quantity of water, and,
especially as valves were not always provided for shut-
ting off the circulation, the heat given off was sufficient
to necessitate the early opening of the: ventilators on
bright mornings and a corresponding injury from cold
drafts upon the plants was caused. With small pipes,
starting with cold water or with a moderately low fire, a
normal temperature of the pipes can be secured as
quickly as with steam. When the question of economy
of fuel is considered, the general opinion of those who
have carefully tested steam against the modern hot water
system, is that the latter is about twenty-five per cent.
cheaper.

EXPERIMENTAL TESTS.

There are on record a large number of so-called
tests of the economy of steam and hot water, but in
nearly every case the hot water was in four-inch pipes.
The only experimental tests that have come to the
notice of the writer, where the houses and plants were
of similar construction, and the tests were carried on at
the same time, was the one by Prof. Maynard, at the
Massachusetts Experiment Station at Amherst, and those
of the author at the Michigan Experiment Station. In
each case piping was arranged in both houses with ovyer-
head mains and underbench coils, and although an
attempt was made to have each plant as perfect as possi-
ble, the conditions for either system were no more fayor-

132 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

able than could be secured in any forcing house. The
houses at Amherst were seventy-five by eighteen feet,
and those at Lansing twenty by fifty feet each.

The tests were continued in each place for two years
with the following results :

AVERAGE TEMPERATURE. COAL CONSUMED.

| Water House. | Steam House.|| Water House. | Steam House.
|

52.80° 50.80° 69.54 1Ds. 91.48 Ibs.

Amherst,

Lansing, 54.87° 53.022 94.53 * 45S)
Average, 53.84° 51.912 || 82.04 103.01 «4

|

Or almost exactly twenty-five per cent. more fuel was
required for steam than with water, although the steam
houses averaged about two degrees cooler.

In both places the hot water house was more ex-
posed to the cold winds than the steam house, and, at
Lansing, where the results were less favorable for water
than at Amherst, although the houses were piped for
maintaining a temperature of forty-five to fifty degrees,
they were kept at a temperature of fifty-five degrees,
necessitating a considerably higher temperature of the
water than should have been carried for the greatest
economy of fuel, which would make less difference with
the steam system. In proof of this, additional pipes
have now been put in, and the hot water house is now
carried at sixty degrees with no more fuel than was used
at fifty-five degrees.

COMPARATIVE COST OF FUEL.

With steam it is claimed that a cheaper grade of
fuel can be used than with hot water, but boilers for hot’
water are now made that can secure better results from
soft coal than is obtained by steam, provided similar care
is given. It is also claimed for steam that it admits of
the boilers being located in a battery at one point, rather
than scattered in different houses as is generally the case
with hot water. With modern systems of piping, the

CONCLUSIONS. 133

same arrangement can be used, and the water can be car-
ried in large mains with less waste than when steam is
used.

Regarding the last claim in fayor of steam, 7. e., the
economy of repairs, it may be said that when the same
size pipe is used for coils in both systems, a break can
be repaired with the same ease in one as in the other.
Moreover, there is more likely to be a break in the steam
boiler than in the hot water heater, and while a steam
return is rusted through in from five to seven years, a
hot water pipe will be found in good condition inside,
and the outside can be kept from rusting by painting
once in two or three years with lampblack and oil.

CONCLUSIONS.

Considered from the point of efficiency only, there
is little to choose between the systems, although the
steam heater will need more constant attention, and
ordinarily the temperature of the houses will be less
regular than with hot water, either with open tank or
under pressure.

The steam plant will cost fifteen to twenty per cent.
less than the open tank water system, and somewhat less
than the pressure system, and when the first cost of the
plant is any object, this may decide for that system. On
the other hand, the cost of fuel with a well-arranged hot
water plant, will be twenty to twenty-five per cent. less
than with steam, and as this will pay for the extra cost
of the plant in three or four years, it becomes a matter
well worth considering. It then comes to the question
whether there shall be a large cost at first, with a com-
paratively small outlay for fuel and repairs, or a smaller
first cost, and a larger outlay for fuel and maintenance.

Everything considered, the man who has less than
10,000 square feet of glass, will find hot water with an
open tank the best method to use. Above 12,000 feet of

sie GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

glass, it will pay to have a night fireman, and, as the
first cost for a plant of this size is considerable, the
average florist will prefer to use steam, although hot
water will give fully as good results, and the extra ex.
pense of the plant will be saved in fuel within four years.
So far as expense for fuel is concerned, hot water under
pressure will be classed with steam ; it gives more even
results, however, and the cost of the system is little if
any more. In arriving at these conclusions, no account
is taken of the effect of the different systems upon plant
growth, as we believe that when equally~ well cared for
there will be little or no difference.

CHAPTER XXI.
HEATING SMALL CONSERVATORIES.

For amateur conservatories, with over 300 square
feet of glass, unless joined to a residence which is
heated by hot. water or steam, it will be found desirable
to use some of the small portable hot water heaters that
are manufactured by several firms. When these are used
in connection with a well arranged system of piping, the
care of the house is greatly simplified, and there will be
little risk of injury to the plants by cold. It will bea
desirable thing, if the dwelling is heated with stoves or
a hot air furnace, to purchase a heater large enough to
warm a part or all of the house, and put in pipes and
radiators.

In arranging the heating system for the conserva-
tory, the heater should be placed in the cellar of the
house, and the feed pipes should pass up through the
floor and connect with the radiating pipes, which are
generally best if arranged in a wall coil, with manifolds

THE BARNARD HEATER. 135

at each end. An air valve will be needed at the higher
end, and an expansion tank should be connected with
some part of the system. It should be of galvanized
iron, although an old paint keg would answer. It should
hold a gallon for each hundred feet of one and one-fourth
inch pipe, and a gallon for the heater and mains. Ifthe
tank is situated where harm to floor or walls will be done
if it boils over, it is well to have a tight cover on the
tank and run an overflow pipe from half. -way up the side
of the tank to a drain.

For conservatories which are too ini to heat with
an oil stove, a home-made water heater might be used.
The radiating coil and attachments would be similar to
those just described. A small heater could be made by
using a small coil of one-inch pipe containing eight
linear feet of heating surface, inside one of the large
sized kerosene heating stoves. This would warm one
hundred and fifty lear feet of one-inch pipe, and would
heat a conservatory six by ten feet with three sides and
roof of glass. Were the conservatory upon a veranda
where only the roof, side and one end were exposed, the
capacity would be sufficient to warm about six by fifteen
feet, and if the roof were of wood, it could heat a space
eight by twenty feet.

THE BARNARD HEATER.

In 1890 Charles Barnard described in the American
Garden a very simple heater that gave good satisfaction
in a detached greenhouse. The heater was of zinc with
four tubes of one-inch gas pipe (Fig. 75 A); the diam-
eter was six inches and the height twenty-seven inches.
From this, connections were made with the coils which
were of two-inch pipe, although one and one-quarter
inch pipe would be preferable. The heater was placed
over an oil stove or gas burner, and was surrounded by a
jacket of sheet iron (Fig. 75 B) from which a small pipe

136 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

ran to the outside of the house to convey the smoke and
gases. Another form of heater is made in the shape of
a hollow truncated cone, nine inches in diameter at the
bottom and six at the top, and twenty-four inches high.
The water is one inch in thickness and is confined between
the inner and outer shells of the heater. This is placed
over an oil stove and arranged in much the same way as
the one last described.

HEATING BY MEANS OF FLUES.

In small houses where one does not have the means
to put in hot water or steam, fairly good results can be
obtained with the old-fash-
ioned flue. This consists of a
furnace in which the fuel is
burned, and a horizontal chim-
ney passing through the house.
If the house is not over fifty
feet in length, and if a rise of
two or more feet can be se-
cured, a fair draft can be ob-
tained by haying the chimney
at the farther end; but in
longer houses, or where the
flues must be run on a level,
it is best to bring them back,
so that they can enter a chim-

BARNARD HEATER. ney built over the furnace.

A direct connection with the chimney can be made_
when the fire is first started, and then, after the chimney
has become warm, a damper can be turned which will
force the smoke to pass around through the house, giving
off its heat as it goes. The furnace can be constructed
for burning either coal, or wood cut in lengths of from >
three to five feet. A grate containing three to four
square feet will answer for a house containing 600 square

FIG. 7d.

THE POLMAISE SYSTEM. 137

feet of glass. If wood is used, the furnace should be
eighteen inches wide inside, and of the required length,
but no increase of the size of the grate will be necessary.
There should be an ash pit of suitable size, and iron
doors should be set in the masonry at the end of the
furnace, for both the fire-pot and ash pit. The top of
the furnace may be supported either by a brick arch or
by heavy iron bars. The inner lining of the heater
should be of fire brick laid in fire clay, and the same
material should be used for the first fifteen feet of
the flue. Beyond this point, common stock brick will
answer, forming a flue eight by twelve to sixteen inches,
or eight to ten-inch glazed tile may be used.

For a house twelve feet in width, one flue will
answer; but if fifteen to twenty feet wide, it is well
either to have a return flue on the other side, or to
divide the flue and carry up a branch on each side,
either under the walks or beneath the side benches.

A hot water coil can be economically combined with
a flue by using cross-pieces of one and one-half inch
pipe, connected by return bends, across the side walls and
supporting the top of the heater, and connecting them
with the radiating pipes. If a flue is used care should
be taken that no woodwork comes in contact with the
bricks within thirty feet of the furnace. When houses
are very long, furnaces may be placed at both ends and
the flues can be carried half the length of the house and
brought back on the opposite side.

THE POLMAISE SYSTEM.

The Polmaise system was so-called from the French
town where it was first used. The original system con-
sisted in bringing a current of air over a heated surface,
and then carrying it into the greenhouse, on its way
passing through a wet blanket, that its drying effect
might be lessened. ‘The system itself is of no value, but

138 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

a modified form of if may be used in connection with a
flue. By building an air chamber around the furnace
and admitting the air, much as in common hot air fur-
naces, it will be warmed, and can be carried through the
house in ¢i/es much as are the products of combustion.

The cost of a flue is less than half that of a hot
water or steam plant, and especially if combined with
hot water, as described, very satisfactory results can be
obtained. 'The modified Polmaise system could also be
employed with profit, if the coil is not used.

FIRE HOTBEDS.

Tn addition to warming hotbeds by means of decom-
posing manure, various other methods of heating have
been tried, the simplest being a modified form of the
ordinary flue as just described. The beds can be single,
for sash six feet long, or can be double span-roofed struc-
tures, with a row of sash on each side. For the single
beds the arch or furnace need not be over one foot wide
inside, eighteen inches high, and four or five feet long.
It should be arched over with brick and the whole then
coyered with soil. In order to secure proper slope for
the flues, the hotbeds should be located on a hillside
sloping to the south, and the flues should have a slope of
about one foot in twenty, although more is desirable.
The tile used for the flues should be glazed for the first
twenty feet at least, and six inches in diameter, and
should be laid in two lines, three feet apart; at the
farther end the tile should be turned up at right-angles .
forming a chimney. An ordinary hotbed frame should
be set over this. The soil at the furnace end should
then be spread on, covering the arch to the depth of
twelve to fifteen inches, and the pipes at the chimney
end about six inches. The draft can be regulated by a
plate of iron resting against the end of the arch. The

(s

structure will last several years, and will prove a great

STEAM AND HOT WATER HEAT. 139

convenience where one does not have a greenhouse in
which to start vegetable plants, and where wood is cheap.
For the span-roof hotbed, two arches or furnaces
and four flues, arranged as in the other case, will be
required.
STEAM AND HOT WATER HEAT FOR HOTBEDS.

If it is desired to warm hotbeds by means of steam,
it can be done by running a one and one-quarter inch
steam pipe up in one line of four-inch drain tile, and
back in another line laid as described for the flues with
the narrow beds, while four lines would be required for
a bed twelve feet wide. When exhaust steam is at hand
it can be used withont the steam pipe by merely dis-
charging it into the tile.

A frame can be heated by hot water or steam if a
two-inch hot water or an inch and a quarter steam pipe is
run around the inside, next to the plank. Boards should
then be placed so as to shut off all direct heat from the
plants. Ifa crack two inches wide is left between the
top of the boards and the glass, the heat will be diffused
and will not dry out the plants.

CHAPTER XXII.
COMMERCIAL ESTABLISHMENTS.

A florist just starting in pusiness may be compelled
by lack of means to commence upon a small scale.
While he would find a lean-to house the cheapest to
erect—provided he built it against the south wall of a
building—the excess of cost for a span-roof house would
be so slight, and the results obtained would be so much
greater, that he would be wise in selecting that form for
a house. The size for the house must be determined by

*%

140 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

the business to be done, but for most purposes a house
of twenty feet in width is preferable to anything nar-
rower, and an enterprising florist shovld be able to utilize
one that is fifty feet long. It is desirable to have both

PROPAGAT/ NG

POTTING BENCH
FLO’:

WORK FROOM FY OUSE

TABLE

DALES FooM

HOUSE

FIG. 76. PLAN FOR A SMALL ESTABLISHMENT.

a cool and a warm house, and this can be secured by run-
ning a glass partition across the house,

If this amount of glass is not sufficient, a second
house can be built similar to the first one, and then he
will have one house to be kept at a temperature of fifty-
five to sixty degrees and another that can be kept at
forty-five to fifty degrees. Although other houses are

COMMERCIAL ESTABLISHMENTS. 141

desirable, a good selection of plants can be grown in two
such houses with fair success. If business develops, as
it should, it will be desirable to add a rose house. This
should be of the three-quarter span form, eighteen and
one-half feet wide, and will give an opportunity for the
erection of a north side propagating house, which can not
only be used for propagating, but will be excellent for
ferns, violets, pansies, and for the starting of seeds and
bulbs. The even span houses could run north and south
with a workroom at the north end twenty-five by twenty-
five feet, while the rose house could join the end of the
workroom and run east and west, as shown in Fig. 76.
A convenient arrangement for the workroom and store
is shown in the illustration, which can readily be under-
stood.

If still other enlargement of the establishment be-
comes necessary, the additional buildings van be put up
parallel to the present ones, or they can be run out the
other way from the workroom. Another method would
be by lengthening the buildings already put up, but for
small establishments it will hardly be desirable to extend
them beyond a length of one hundred and fifty feet.

In addition to the general: florist and vegetable
grower, we find to-day engaged in greenhouse work
many specialists, and among these the commercial rose
grower and the lettuce grower, from the extent of their
business, are especially worthy of notice. As in every-
thing else, we find, as a rule, that these specialists who
have turned their every effort to the doing of one thing
well, are masters of their business, and have been quick
to avail themselves of all the latest improvements.

CHAPTER XXIII.
ROSE HOUSES.

The form and general arrangement of the houses
used for forcing roses, is practically the same the country
over, and when one speaks of a ‘‘rose house,” he is
readily understood. A rose house may be briefly defined
as a three-quarter span greenhouse, about eighteen feet
wide, with two narrow beds at the sides, and with two
somewhat wider ones in the center. No form of house
has been tried for this purpose that is on the whole as
satisfactory as this, of which a good example of an ex-
terior will be found in Fig. 77.

They are cheapest to build and easiest to heat if con-
structed with wooden walls up to the plate, as shown in
Fig. 82, but many of our best rose growers are of the
opinion that the extra cost of erection and maintenance is
more than repaid by the results obtained, when there is
from eighteen to twenty-four inches of glass in the south
wall and ends under the plate. There seems to be a diver-
sity of opinion as to the best width for rose houses, the
range being from sixteen to twenty feet ; but it is the gen-
eral idea that in the houses sixteen feet wide there is a
lack of economy of space, unless the walks are made
rather narrow. With the side walks eighteen to twenty
inches wide, and a walk between the center benches with
a width of twelve inches, there will be room for four
benches of average widths; but for convenience the walks
at the side should not be less than two feet in width, and
the center walk from fifteen to eighteen inches. A con-
venient width for the front bench is thirty inches, which

142

ROSE HOUSES. 143

will answer for three rows of plants; the center beds
should be three feet and six inches, each holding four
rows, and the back bed two feet in width with two rows
of plants. If the front wall is made six inches, and the
rear one eight inches in thickness, with the benches
set out to prevent drip from the plate, a house with
the above widths for walks and benches will be about
eighteen feet and six inches to the outside of the walls.
In locating the height of the benches, the tops of the
cross bearers for the front and back bench should be
about twenty inches below the plates; the south center
bench should be at the same height as the front bench,
and the north one about eighteen inches higher. Some
growers prefer to have both of the center benches level,
but if careful attention is given to the watering, rather
better results will be obtained if they are given a shght
slope to the south, say of eight inches in the width of
one bench or of eighteen inches between the walks
(Fig. 63).

It is quite desirable in arranging the roof to have
the ridge and purlin come over the walks. If an iron
frame-work is used with a truss at the ridge, there will
be no necessity for a support under the ridge; but if the
roof is of wood, particularly if there are no principal
rafters, a post should be used, and the ridge should be
so located that the post can pass down at the north side
of the center bench. While one purlin with one row
of posts—in addition to the one under the ridge—will
support a roof of this width, hghter material can be
employed, and there will be less trouble from drip if two
of each are used, with the posts coming down at the
south side of each of the center benches.

Particularly in rose forcing houses, it is desirable to
have the slope of the roof arranged to trap as much as
possible of light and heat from the sun during the win-
ter months, and, everything else considered, the south

GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

144

*SNOS

8

6

GquaqHLIVaAM “M “SOHL Ad

GgdLodud “SHSQOH ASOU SHYIM ‘d *M

LL ‘pla

145

ROSE HOUSES,

FIG.

78

15)

R.

PIERSON’S ROSE HOUSES.

ERECTED BY L

ORD & BURNHAM CO.

146 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

pitch of the roof should slope at the rate of about two
feet for every three feet in width of house. With the
ridge posts at a distance of fourteen feet from the out-
side of the south wall, the bottom of the ridge should
be about eight feet higher than the top of the south wall,
or twelve feet from the ground level, with the south wall
four feet in height. This will require a rafter slightly
less than sixteen feet in length on the front, and six feet
on the rear slope of the roof, when the rear wall is eight
feet in height. Another good form for a commercial
rose house is the one described in Chapter III., with the
sides of the roof fifteen and seven and one-half feet, and
the height of the front and back walls five and seven
feet respectively. Ina house of this shape there should
be a line of glass under the plate of the south wall (Fig.
v7). While the even-span house is not as well adapted
for rose forcing as the three-quarter span house, it is fre-
quently used, and will give very fair results. These
houses may be eighteen to twenty feet wide, with four
benches, about three and one-half feet each, in width.

The best results seem to be obtained from benches
not over four inches in depth, although this varies with
the character of the soil, as three and one-half inches of
heavy soil will be equal to four and one-half inches of
soil of a sandy nature. In selecting the material for the
bottoms of rose benches, a first choice would be for tile,
second slate, and third wood. In planning our rose
houses everything has been arranged upon the presump-
tion that shallow beds were to be used, as this seems to
be the favorite method of growing them.

When there is no glass beneath the plate on the
south wall, the custom in the past has been to have a
single line of ventilators at the ridge, but many of the
more recently constructed houses have a line of sash on
each side of the ridge; if these are properly used, the
draft of air upon the plants is greatly decreased. The

147

ROSE HOUSES.

SS

ROTTING ROaM

PROPACATINCG

<PA S8ACE

HEATER

Ano

FIG.

TOS

GROUND PLAN OF F. R. PIERSON’S RANGE.

148 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

use of ventilating sash in the south wall is also quite
common.

During the last five years many large and well
arranged commercial rose houses have been erected, and
we are glad to be able to show illustrations of two plants
that contain many of the latest ideas. In Fig. 77 will
be seen a perspective view of the rose houses erected for.
W. P. Wight of Madison, N J., by Thos. W. Weath-

FIG. 80. SECTION OF IRON ROSE HOUSE.

ered’s Sons of New York City. _ From this we can get an
idea of the general appearance of the better class of
commercial rose houses. They are each about three
hundred feet long by twenty feet wide.

One of the best arranged and most thoroughly con-
structed commercial greenhouse plants in the country is
shown in Fig. 78. It was built in 1890 at Scarborough,
N. Y., for F. R. Pierson, by Lord & Burnham Co. As
will be seen by the ground plan, Fig. 79, there are eight
houses, each measuring one hundred and fifty by twenty
feet. They are placed in pairs, end to end, except for a
narrow passage way which affords a ready means .of
communication with the different houses and with the

ROSE HOUSES. 149

potting shed. At the rear of the second line of houses
is a propagating house, nine feet wide and three hundred
feet long, or really two houses each one hundred and
fifty feet. The construction is the same as is recom-
mended in Chapter VII., the rafters and posts being of
iron, with the lower ends of the latter set in cement in
the ground. ‘The purlins and ridge are also of iron and
all woodwork of cypress. The benches have an iron
frame and slate bottom. The heat is furnished from
steam boilers located as shown in the ground plan. <A
cross section of one of these houses is shown in Fig. 80,
from which one can obtain a good idea of the slope of
the roof and of the interior arrangement, while Fig. 81
shows another method of construction.

A house of this description can be erected for about
$25.50 per running foot, including the steam-heating
apparatus. With hemlock benches the cost would not
be over $20.75, and were the glass left out under the
south plate, leaving only one line of ventilating appar-
atus at the ridge, the cost could be reduced to $20.00 per
linear foot. This would give double strength, French
**seconds” or American ‘‘ firsts” glass, and two coats of
paint. Reckoning the steam-heating apparatus at $4.50
per linear foot, the house complete as above, with cheap
wooden benches and without heating apparatus, would
cost something over $15.00 per foot. When iron benches
with wooden bottoms are used, the house with one row
of ventilating apparatus and steam-heating apparatus,
would cost not far from $22.00 per foot. If one does not
care to use the iron construction, cypress lumber can be
obtained for the erection of a rose, or, in fact, of any
kind of a greenhouse, all gotten out in the most ap-
proved sizes and shapes, ready to be fitted together.

There are a half-dozen or more firms who make a
specialty of cypress for greenhouse building, among the
oldest of which is the Lockland Lumber Co., of Lock-

GREENHOUSE

CONSTRUCTION.

INTERIOR OF ROSE HOUSE, ERECTED BY PLENTY HORTICULTURAL WORKS.

81.

FIG.

ROSE HOUSES. 151

land, Ohio. By request they have prepared a ground
plan, cross section and details of a rose house such as
they furnish, and they are here presented as suggestions
to prospective builders. The cross section is shown in
Fig. 82 and is so clear that any carpenter could put the
house together. The details are shown in Chapter VI.
and afford us an idea of some of the best shapes for the
different parts of a greenhouse, and the way to put them
together. The patterns do not differ materially from
those used by other dealers in greenhouse materials, and

FIG. 82. SECTION OF ROSE HOUSE (WOOD).

perhaps the best advice that could be given to a person
intending to build a rose house would be, in case one
could not afford to build a house with an iron frame-
work, to write to the nearest dealer in cypress lumber for
plans and estimates for the proposed structure.

As a partial guide in the matter, the following esti-
mate is offered as the probable cost of cypress lumber
for the erection of a three-quarter span rose forcing
house. This includes all lumber required above the
walls for a house with one glass gable; the lumber being

152 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

dressed upon four faces and worked to proper shape with
dimensions as given, including door and one row of
ventilators.

ESTIMATE FOR CYPRESS LUMBER FOR A THREE-QUARTER SPAN
FORCING HOUSE, 100 FEET BY 20 FEET.

Gable Plate, 134 x 7 20?) long @ $0.07144 $1.50
Side Gutters, Bottoms and two sides, 2007 @ 11% 23.00
Ridge Pieces, TAM Xx 134 10” @ 08 8.00
Ridge Cap, 114" x 3147 10” @ 0215 2.50
Purlin, 134 x 314” 10/0 @ 034, 3.50
End Rafters, 147x3/ 72°F 71 ge @ 038, 161
2 of 1673
Gable Sash Bars, For one gable, 80” @ 0134, 1.40
Roof Sash Bars, 820f 7) 1 ese @ 021, 43
82 of 1675
Header, 134 x Quy 10” @ 021, 2.50
Ventilators, 3/ wide 134” 100 @ 16 16.00
Door and Frame, Door 3/ x 7 x 134’ 4.75

$107.19

For the construction of the walls twenty-six posts
seven feet long, and costing about twelve cents each for
cedar, and twenty-one posts twelve feet long, which will
cost about twenty-five cents each, or about ten dollars
for posts, will be required. Red cedar will cost two or
three times as much, and locust, which will be found
very durable, will vary in price but will generally cost
less than red cedar. For sheathing the building 1,300
feet of matched hemlock, costing from $10.00 to $15.00
per thousand, will be required, and the outside siding
will take 1,500 feet, which will cost about $20.00 per
thousand. A small amount of finishing lumber, build-
ing paper and nails will complete the exterior, with the
exception of the painting and glazing. The interior will
require tables and walks, gas-pipe posts and ventilating
and heating apparatus, which, with hinges and other
hardware for door and ventilators, will cover the neces-
sary materials for the erection of a forcing house.

The cost of the lumber will be about $230.00;
glass, 2,500 feet at $3.50 per box for double strength B,
$175.00; ventilating apparatus, $30.00; nails and hard-

ROSE HOUSES. 153

ware, $6.00; paint and putty, $50.00; building paper,
$5.00; gas-pipe posts, $12.50; making a total cost of
materials for the house, exclusive of labor, of about
$500.00 to $525.00. The heating apparatus, water sup-
ply, etc., will be additional. The former will cost about
$400.00 if hot water is used, and not far from $340.00
for steam, including labor. If the house is erected by
hired labor the cost will be from $250.00 to $300.00 for
the carpenters and painters, according to the experience
of the men and the wages paid.

Briefly summarized then, the cost of a three-quarter
span forcing house complete with heating apparatus
will be:

[Mens P aor mae NUIS. Cho Boao nt rodeaD sepucodd dacaceeadacune $60.00
ee Humbertorroofsand freq. «ace. 0-5 cce0rees avis 6.01 115.00
MUMS LODO CIES Sccretactecn.cetie es steaiviccitodysiey v Siehtjaaioheve 45.00
AUMV OEE LOM WwialcS) Fee e cietc eelvasle eisai cieje) ste ays cite rne 6 10.00
Glasse 50 DOES AG! SQA. Say ka sews e canesayentesee cs 175.00
Letihanc he Ii vin aeons pa Conor Sepene AASaG ACOom Ere Seer oee 50.00
Ventilating apparatus..............5..-5..- Eee oyheleearels 30.00
RATAN VAT Oise sees oa voce Ao cemo ne «je oeie a ee othe seals iets 6.00
issrudchlave’ 16) o(sie seabed <Soo Sabon cObron Oppo nebo Sone ay ae 5.00
Gas-pipe posts, 114 inch ana ARONGINS ¢ 5822. eeswrede eee tos 12.50
Mabor Carpemberse,... aaj yons css creep lzocOONbO 10:00
Painters and pie Hoe Aan ran neoeca soe 125.00 to 150.00
Heater, smoke pipe, ete...............2.... 200.00
Pipe, valves, and fittings..:............... 100.00 to 150.00

I LEY ayo) Wyma Ab socic cco pert eancadr Sedan coo oO mAse 40.00 to 50.00
INOUE) Be SatrsmceGe waoaehe so ete ae $1,098.50 to $1,208.50

Or, $11.00 to $12.25 per linear foot.

In the above estimate, the grading, drainage, water
supply, and the cost of a potting shed, furnace cellar,
ete., are not considered. Of course, the cost of the
lumber and the expense for labor, etc., would vary in
different localities, so that no estimate can be made that
will apply in all cases, but where lumber can be obtained
at from $12.00 to $20.00 per thousand, according to the
grade, and labor of carpenters and painters is not over
$2.50 per day, the above will be sufficiently reliable to
furnish a fair idea of the cost. The cost of an even-

154 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

span house will be about the same, and, if the back wall
has to be built for a lean-to, it will cost fully as much as
the others for the same width of house. In this esti-
mate oyer $300.00 is allowed for labor, and as many
florists would do most of the work themselves, a consid-
erable reduction could be made ih this item.

CHAPTER XXIV.
LETTUCE HOUSES.

Although we still find many growers of lettuce using
houses of lean-to or narrow even span construction, the
wide houses are rapidly superseding them. Perhaps
the largest house ever erected for the purpose was con-
structed by W. W. Rawson of Arlington, Mass., who
has been engaged in the growing of lettuce and other
garden produce for the Boston market for many years.

This house is three hundred and seventy fect long
and thirty-three feet wide. It is of the three-quarter
span form, and measures fifteen feet high at the ridge,
with a south wall three and one-half feet high, and the
north one twelve feet in height. The glass is double
strength, twenty by thirty inches. The crop from this
one house is about two thousand dozen heads, which
sometimes brings from $2,000.00 to $2,500.00. Three
crops are grown ina year besides a crop of cucumbers.
While this is the largest house of the kind, there are
many smaller ones constructed upon the same general
lines, and they seem to be uniformly successful.

LEAN-TO LETTUCE HOUSES.

The lettuce is a plant that sueceeds well in a lean-to
lettuce house, such as is used by many of the lettuce

LEAN-TO LETTUCE HOUSES. 155

s

growers in the vicinity of Boston, of which a cross sec-
tion is shown in Fig. 83. Like all lean-to houses these
are easily warmed and are cheaply constructed, but they
do not have a sufficient pitch to the roof to secure the
most benefit from the sun. ‘They are commonly given a
pitch of about eighteen degrees, but even at this slope,
a lean-to roof on a house thirty-three feet wide would |
require a north wall about fifteen feet high, while a
three-quarter span house can have a pitch of twenty-two
degrees, and the north wall need not be over ten or
twelve feet high.

With houses up to a width of twenty-five feet, a
proper slope can be secured without carrying the north

FIG. 83. LEAN-TO LETTUCE HOUSE (Section).

wall to an undue height, or raising the glass too high
above the plants; unless upon a sidehill, this width
cannot be very much exceeded with this style of house.
The three-quarter span house can readily be made eight
or ten feet wider than the lean-to, without carrying the
roof to a greater height, while the north wall will be
considerably lower than it. would be in the lean-to. Hav-
ing determined upon the width and style of roof for the
house, the construction will be very simple, if the sug-

156 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

s
gestions given in Chapters VY. and VI. as to the best
methods of erecting the walls and roof are followed.

Lettuce houses should have from eighteen to thirty
inches of glass in the south wall, and, on many accounts,
it is desirable that the alternate sash at least be arranged
as ventilators. Particularly in the wide houses with flat
roofs, the sash bars should be somewhat heavier than for
small houses with steep slopes, and should be very care-
fully supported. For lean-to houses twenty-five feet wide,
there should be at least three rows of purlins and purlin
posts.

A house of this description will require a back wall
at least ten feet high, if built on level ground. <A post
and double-boarded wall will be fully as satisfactory as
one built of brick or masonry of any kind. For con-
venience in handling the soil, and to assist in ventilation,
it is well to have small windows, perhaps two and one-
half feet square, once in ten fect, in this wall. When
solid beds are used, the south wall should not be more
than three and one-half feet high, although it may be
somewhat higher if the lettuce is grown in raised beds.

The side-hill houses (Fig. 8) will also be found quite
desirable for lettuce forcing, as they are nothing more
than a.number of lean-to houses placed .close together,
and they will be found not only economical in construc-
tion and heating, but in land and in labor of handling
the crops, although the three-quarter span houses are
generally preferred to either of the above styles.

CHAPTER XXV.
PROPAGATING HOUSE.

In connection with every greenhouse there should
be a bench for the rooting of cuttings, and in large
establishments one or more houses will be required for
this purpose. The simplest method of erecting a prop-
agating bouse, when one has a rose or other three-quarter
span house, is shown in Fig.61. The structure is known
as a ‘‘north-side house,” and, if it is not entirely needed
for propagating purposes, can be utilized for ferns, vio-
lets, and other plants that thrive without direct sunlight.
In arranging some establishments, a narrow house,
connecting the ends of the main houses, is often a con-
venience. If upon the north, or even on the east or
west ends, as it generally is, this head house can be made
seven feet wide, with a lean-to roof, and will serve an
excellent purpose as a propagating house. When any of
these locations cannot be utilized, a narrow even-span
house can be used for this purpose, and will be well
adapted for it.

The construction of the house will not differ from
that of a similar house for other purposes, but its in-
terior arrangement should be somewhat different. Asa
table for a propagating house, an ordinary greenhouse
bench will answer, but, in order to secure and control
the necessary bottom heat, the front of the bench should
be boarded up, with one board on hinges so that it can
be used to regulate the temperature. For the propaga-
tion of most plants this bench will answer as well as a

157

158 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

more elaborate construction. The heating pipes should

all be under the bench, and should give a radiating sur-
face about twenty-five per cent. greater tban would be
required in a growing house for the same plants as are
to be propagated.

WATER BENCH.

The use of the old-fashioned wooden water bench
has been abandoned, although the galvanized iron water
bench is quite common. If this is used the trough
should be about four inches deep, and of the width and
length of the proposed cutting bench. It should. be well
supported, so that there will be no danger of its settling
at any point. ‘The bottom of the cutting bench, upon
which the sand is to be placed, should be just above the
tank. The tank should be connected at each end by
means of one and one-fourth inch pipes with a hot water
heating apparatus. When the heating pipes in the sys-
tem are all below the level of the tank, no cover will be
required, but, if at any point the piping is overhead, a
closed tank will be necessary, or an independent heater
can be used for the propagating house, in which case
the water tank will answer as the expansion tank for the
system. When tanks are used, the heating pipes should
be sufficient to maintain a temperature of forty-five to
fifty degrees without the tank.

PROPAGATING CASE.

While cuttings of most plants require thorough ven-
tilation, many stove species can only be struck with
success in a close, moist atmosphere. When only a few
are to be rooted, the required conditions can be secured
by the use of a bell glass, or hand glass, but, if many
are to be struck, a propagating case will be a necessity.
This can readily be constructed upon the bench, prefer-
ably at the warmer end. The ends and front can be

HOTBEDS. 159

made of sash bars and glass. <A portion of the front,
however, should be of glass sash, arranged to slide by one
another and give ready access to all parts of the case.

CHAPTER XXVI.
HOTBEDS.

Among the moyable plant structures, we have what
are known as hotbeds and cold frames. They differ
only in the degree of heat they receive, the cold frame
being without artificial heat, while the hotbed is heated
by fermenting vegetable substances, generally stable ma-
nure, leaves, and other refuse. The hotbed, in some of
its forms, is a very de-
sirable, and, in fact,
almost a necessary ad-
junct to the green-
house, for all florists
and market gardeners.
On the other hand,
while a large business
can be carried on with
hotbeds alone, the possession of a greenhouse, small and
cheaply constructed though it be, will be a great con-
venience, particularly to the market gardener, for the
starting of young plants during the severe weather of
mid winter.

The simplest kind of a hotbed, and the one gener-
ally used, is about six feet wide, and of any desired
length, with the sash sloping toward the south. While
hotbeds are often made of one-inch boards, or are
cheaply constructed of waste pieces of lumber, they will
be more satisfactory if constructed of lumber that is one

FIG. 84. HOTBED FRAME.

160 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

and one-half or two inches thick, carefully framed
together and painted. A very satisfactory hotbed can
be made from three pieces of two-inch hemlock lumber
one foot wide and twelve feet long. In order to give
the sash a proper pitch to the south, one side of the bed
should be made six inches wider than the other. When

planks with a width of twelve inches are used this can .

be readily secured, by sawing a strip three inches wide
from the edge of one, and nailing it to the edge of
another, Fig. 84. In this way we secure a plank nine
inches wide (B) for the south side of the bed, while that
for the north side (4) will have a width of fifteen inches.
The ends should be cut six feet long, and the proper
slope can be given them by sawing off a triangular strip
from one end, and nailing it upon the other cnd of the
piece, as at C, in Fig. 84.

PORTABLE FRAMES.

A portable hotbed frame is often used, and as it can
be taken apart and stored out of the sun and rain for

FIG. 8&5. FRAME AND) SASH.

six months of the year, it will last for many seasons.
By fastening irons of proper shape to the ends of
each of the side boards, and boring holes to correspond
in the end pieces, the frame can be held together by
washers and pins, as shown at #, Fig. 84. Cross bear-
ers. D, four inches wide and one inch thick, dovetailed
into the edges of the front and back boards, will keep
the bed from spreading, and will serve as slides for the

MATS AND SHUTTERS. 161

sash. If a strip of one-inch board is fastened to the
middle of the upper side of each cross bearer it will serve
to strengthen it, and to hold the sash in place. Another
method of ventilating the bed is illustrated in Fig. 85.
For the purpose of retaining the heat in cold weather,
straw mats and wooden shutters are desirable.

MATS AND SHUTTERS.

For the mats, a supply of long rye straw, tarred
rope, and strong linen twine are necessary. There are
yarious ways of making the mats, one of the simplest
being upon a frame of two by four inch lumber of the
same size as the mats. With long straw, a mat six and
one-half feet square can be made, but the usual size is

q

FIG. 86. HOTBED SHUTTER.

about four, or five, by seven feet. The tarred rope is
stretched lengthwise of the frame, so as to bring the
strands one foot apart and six inches from each side, and
fastened to stout pegs. For a mat six and one-half feet
square, the straw should be, at least, four feet long.
Bundles of straw as large as can be enclosed by the
thumb and middle finger, are placed on the frame, with
the butts even with the sides, and are tied in place with
stout hemp twine. The bundles thus lap in the center
about two feet, and the ends will keep the center even
with the sides. With straw still longer than this, a mat
about five feet wide can be made without any laps of the
straw, by placing the butts alternately to the right and

11

162 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

Jeft, one length of straw reaching across the mat. If
the mats are kept covered with the shutters, and are
stored where the mice cannot destroy them, they can be
used for many years.

The shutters, Fig. 86, for covering the mats should
be six and one-half feet long, and three feet to three feet
and six inches wide. Made of half-inch matched Jum-
ber, with cleats at the ends and across the middle, and
with handles, they form a useful addition to one’s
equipment.

HOTBED YARD. *

Unless they can be placed where they will be shel-
tered by buildings, a tight board fence upon the north,

Fia. 87. HOTBED YARD.

east and west sides will be desirable. The land should,
if possible, slope slightly to the south, and the rows of
frames should be regularly arranged. In Fig. 87 will be
seen a convenient arrangement for a frame yard. There
is an opportunity for a team to pass entirely around the
frames, and through the center in either direction.
There should be a hydrant for furnishing water at the

MAKING THE BED. 163

center of the plat, A, or at some other convenient point.
1, 2 and 3 are sheds for the storage of sash, shutters, ete.
If one has but a few frames it wili be desirable to have
them seven feet apart, which will give space for the sash
to be drawn off, and will allow a cart to dump its load
of manure or soil: between the frames. When a large
number of frames are used, and especially if the land is
valuable, it will be better to have the rows from two to
three feet apart. The shutters and sash can then be
placed in piles at the end of the rows. If only a small
amount of ventilation is needed, the sash can be slipped
up or down, or can be raised, as seen in Fig. 85.

MAKING THE BED.

For a winter hotbed, the heating material should
have a depth of from two to two and a half feet, while
in the spring one-half that depth will answer. An exca-
vation two feet wider than the frame, and of the required
depth, should be made, in order to prevent the frost
from working into the bed, although for spring use the
same result may be effected by piling fresh manure about
the frame. The heating material is generally fresh
horse manure. Unless it contains a liberal amount of
straw, or similar bedding material, something of the
kind should be added, so that it will not be more than
one-half of clear manure. Oak leaves, also, make a
good material to mix with the manure, as they will hin-
der, and, consequently, prolong the decomposition of
the mass, thus giving an even heat.

About two weeks before the bed is wanted, the
material should be placed in a pile about eight feet wide
and four feet bigh, with a flat top and vertical sides.
The pile should preferably be made in a shed or manure
cellar, but may be in the open air, or even in the frame
itself. In three or four days it will be fermenting rap-
idly, and should then be forked over, throwing the out-

164 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

side portion to the center; at the end of two or three
days the pile should be well warmed up, and the bed
may be made, or, if it has not warmed evenly, it should
be again turned over, before being placed in the frame.
In working over the pile, all coarse lumps should be
broken up, and the heap should be left as light as possi-
ble, to encourage fermentation. If, when the material
is placed in the frame, it is quite warm, it may be ley-
eled off and firmly tramped down, filling it up to within
six or eight Inches of the glass. Should it not be as
warm as is desirable, it may be best to delay the final
tramping for a couple of days.

The bed is now ready for the soil, which should be
a rich compost. For many crops the soil and manure

MII Yi Uj

FIG. 88. COLD PIT.

from an old bed will answer. The best materials would
be equal parts of pasture sods, decomposed manure, gar-
den soil, and sand enough to make a light mass and pre-
vent baking, spread over the manure to the depth of six
inches. For two or three days there will be a violent
heat in the bed, but this will soon go down and the bed
will be ready for seeds or plants. If, while preparing

DETACHED COLD FRAMES AND PITS. 165

the manure for the bed, it is found to be dry, it should
be moistened with tepid water from a watering can.

In caring for hotbeds, the mats and shutters should
be taken off on pleasant days, as soon as the sun is well
up, and on bright days the beds should be given air
about the same as in a forcing house. The beds should
be closed, at least, two hours before sunset, and the cov-
ers should be put on as the sun goes down. /

While hotbeds are a great convenience after the first
of March, they are each year becoming less used for the
growing of winter crops. ‘The cost of forcing houses is
but little more, and they are much more convenient and
in every way more satisfactory.

DETACHED COLD FRAMES AND PITS.

The most common form of cold frame (a hotbed
frame and sash without any heating material) is a low
structure used to carry through the winter pansies, vio-
lets and other half hardy plants, or for the growing of
vegetables and bedding plants, before the danger of frost
in the open ground is over in the spring. For many
purposes, however, a deep frame or pit is desirable. In
Fig. 88 is a cross section of such a structure. If made
eight feet wide inside, five or six feet deep at the plate,
and of any length, it will be found one of the most use-
ful ‘‘rooms” in a greenhouse establishment. The walls
may be of wood, brick, stone or concrete, and the top
should consist of plates, firmly anchored to the walls, a
ridge, rafters and hotbed sash. For a pit eight feet
wide inside, the sash on one side should be about six by
three feet, and cn the other four by three feet, or if ten
feet wide, an even span roof can be made, with sash six
by three feet on both sides. With mats and shutters,
frost can be kept out from a deep pit of this kind. As
in Fig. 88, a double use can be made of such a frame,
By placing a plank floor about one foot below the plate,

166 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

the upper portion can be used for violets and similar
plants, while bulbs for winter forcing can be plunged in
sand upon the bottom. It can also be used for winter-
ing a great variety of plants. In Fig. 10 can be seen a
very convenient frame against a greenhouse wall. By
means of slides in the wall, a sufficient supply of heat
can be admitted from the greenhouse if desired.

CHAPTER XXVII.
CONSERVATORIES.

As usually applied, this term refers to small green-
houses attached to dwellings, in which, although plants
may be grown; the real object is to have plants shown
that are attractive, either in foliage or flower. In a
strict sense, however, a conservatory is a structure in
which plants that have been developed in narrow and
comparatively low greenhouses, known as growing houses,
are shown during their period of flower. They may be
attached to the dwelling or other building, Fig. 89, but
are generally detached buildings surrounded by the vari-
ous growing houses. In another chapter descriptions
will be found of various small structures adapted to the
wants of amateurs, but at present we shall consider vari-
ous combinations of glass structures, consisting of con-
servatories or show houses, with the necessary subsidiary
growing houses, such as would require the care of a pro-
fessional gardener.

In addition to the large number of public institu-
tions where large conservatories are desirable, the num-
ber of private individuals who have the means to erect
and maintain establishments of this kind, and taste to
appreciate the beauties of the flowers and plants grown

16%

ONSERVATORIES.

C

FIG.

%,

LARGE ATTACHED CONSERVATORY.

Lrected by Lord & Burnham Co.

168 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

in them, is constantly increasing. ‘The use of plants for
purposes of lawn and house decoration, and of flowers
for embellishing the table, the parlor, or the person, has
become so common that where one can afford it, the pos-
session of a greenhouse has become yery desirable, and
almost a necessity in some cases.

Conservatories, in proportion to their length, are
much wider and higher than the growing houses, and,
in fact, there is practically no limit to their size, except
the money to erect and maintain them. They are usu-
ally erected upon a brick or stone foundation about two
and one-half feet high, and with vertical glass sides
above this to the height of from six to ten feet above the
masonry. The width of the house may vary from twenty
or twenty-five feet, to eighty or one hundred and even
more, and the length may be as desired. For narrow
houses, up to a width of thirty feet, the even span roof
with straight rafters, continuous from ridge to plate,
will be the least expensive ; it will grow the best plants,
and, if made in proportion, will not be displeasing.

For a house of this kind the slope of the roof should
be about thirty-five degrees. ‘Twenty years ago it was
the custom to surmount conservatories of this kind with
a lantern top about six feet wide, Fig. 90, two feet high
at the plate, and three at the ridge, running the length
of the house. These had ventilators in the side walls,
which were desirable in summer, but during the winter
they added greatly to the consumption of fuel. The
lanterns were so narrow that they were of little use,
except to add, in a slight degree, to the appearance of
the house. They are now no longer used except upon
very wide conservatories, where they are so constructed,
as shown “in Fig. 91, that they add from five to ten feet
to the height of the house, and are of such a width that
this space can be utilized by tall plants. The straight
sash bars can also be used in wide houses, but they will

09 P hquard fig paja4g7

"KUOLVAUATSNOO GAHOVLEG NUAdOon

“pit

06

CONSERVATORIES.

169

170 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

have a barn-like appearance, unless the roof is broken by
gables and secondary slopes. This method of building
greenhouses has many things in its favor, that are wor-
thy of commendation. It is in the wide conservatories
that the curvilinear roofs are particularly desirable. In
themselves they are quite ornamental, and they moreover

FIG. 91. coNSERVATORY (Section).

form a convenient method of arching over any wide
space, as shown in the cross section, Fig. 91, and in
perspective in Fig. 105,

IRON HOUSES.

For any structure of this kind, wood is too perish-
abie, and the necessary strength could only be secured
by the use of a heavy framework. Of all materials at
present available, architectural iron seems best adapted
for this work, and all sills, posts, rafters, braces, ridges,
purlins and supports should be of this material. There
seems to be but little choice between cypress and metal
sash bars for large conservatories, aside from the larger

IRON HOUSES.

FIG.

92.

INTE

RIOR OF C

1

ONSERV

A

TORY

172 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

expense that must be incurred for the latter. If the
latter are used, it is desirable that they should have a
steel core, as, if constructed of copper, zinc, or galvan-
ized iron, they are likely to bend and crack the glass.

The first cost of the iron roof is considerably more
than for cypress, and, in order to be lasting and free
from rust, it will need to be painted fully as often. A
metallic glazed house is harder to heat than a putty
glazed one, and after a year or two is likely to leak heat
from, and rain into the house. With the same attention
to painting and repairing a wooden roof as is necessary
with an iron one, the house will be tighter, easier to
heat, there will be less drip, and it will be in a good
state of preservation at the end of twenty-five or thirty
years. Although practically indestructible, the glazing
strips used in the iron houses will have become so bent
and out of shape that many of them will require renewal
even before this time.

INTERIOR ARRANGEMENT OF THE CONSERVATORY.

In arranging the interior of the conservatory, it will
be well to use all of the center of the building for large
palms, bananas, bamboos, tree ferns, and other tall-
growing plants, Fig. 92. They should be planted in
the ground, and so arranged as to present as natural an
appearance as possible. The walks should be of gener-
ous widths, and so arranged as to bring into view all
parts of the house. The portion of the house next to
the walls may be arranged in the same manner as the
center, but it is desirable to have a portion of it, at least,
supplied with tables, upon which plants in flower may
be displayed. If they are combined with ferns and
ornamental-leaved plants the effect will be very pleasing.
This is really the purpose of a conservatory, since, as is
usually the case, if it is kept at a temperature of fifty-
five to sixty degrees when plants are brought in from

173

RVATORY.

7
4

NGEMENT OF CONSE

INTERIOR ARR

F

IG.

93
Pitche

INTE
(jae 2

RIOR OF

A

I

Manda, Short Hilts,

ALM HOU

N. J.

SE

174 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

the stove and other warm rooms, the flowers will be con-
served, and will last must longer than if kept at a high
temperature. Frequently the large rooms are used for
growing collections of the more ornamental palms, and
are known as palm houses, Fig. 93.

THE STOVE HOUSE.

As first used, the term ‘‘stove” was applied to
greenhouses in which artificial heat was supplied by
means of stoves. As is frequently the case, the name of
the object became attached to the building in which it
was used, and a stove house to-day is merely a hothouse
with a temperature of sixty-five to seventy-five degrees.
As a rule, these are considerably narrower and lower
than the conservatories or palm houses. They are sel-

oa
‘ an
‘
'

FIG. 94. sTOVE ROOM (Section).

dom wider than twenty or twenty-five feet, and from
twelve to twenty feet in height. If built upon a ma-
sonry foundation two and a half feet high, the vertical
side walls are usually about two and one-half or three
feet high, with side ventilators. The roof has an angie
of thirty to thirty-five degrees, with ventilators on each
side of the ridge.

This house should have side tables, and-a wide cen-
ter table may be used, or, if the plants are large, they

"G6 “SId

‘aSQNOH GIHOWO GNV GAOLS GHANIGAWOD

AND ORCHID HOUSES,

io

176 GKEENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

may be planted or plunged. In Fig. 94 is seen a cross
section of a stove house with a curvilinear roof, while in
Fig. 95 an interior view of the same house is seen.

When one does not desire the curvilinear roof for
itself, a stove room built with straight sash bars will
give fully as good results. A very pleasing effect may
be produced when stove plants and orchids are grown in
the same room. So far as the construction of the house
itself is concerned, a stove house does not differ from
others of the same general style, except that to obtain
the proper temperature, the radiating surface, provided
in the steam or water pipes, must be considerably larger
than for most houses.

COOL HOUSES.

In all establishments of this kind there should be,
at least, one house in which a maximum night tempera-
ture of fifty degrees is maintained, for such plants as
do not require the stove room heat. In a general way,
their construction would be the same as for a stove
house, although, as a rule, a narrower house will answer.
Where many bedding plants are used for lawn decoration
in the summer, a similar house will be required for that
purpose. If desired, a portion of this room could be
used for propagating purposes, or a narrow house could
be erected especially for propagation.

When large palms, and other similar plants, are
used upon the lawns during the summer, they should be
stored in a cool house, and if no other place is at hand,
a lean-to against a shed or other building can be cheaply
erected, and a proper temperature can be maintained at
very little expense. J°or many of the broad-leaved ever-
greens, that should be kept in a dormant condition dur-
ing the winter, a north side Jean-to house is quite
desirable,

ORCHID HOUSES. 177

ORCHID HOUSES.

As indicated above, orchids can be grown in stove
houses with other plants, and for many amateurs no
special orchid house need be provided, but when the col-
lections are large, it will be wel! to have houses set apart
for their use. It is genere'' admitted that no form of
construction is better adapted for orchid culture than
the span roof house. Many growers have made the mis-
take of erecting high and wide nonses, while, had they
confined themselves to structures not over sixteen or
eighteen feet wide, and ten or eleven feet high, they

— Sw

FIG. 96. ORCHID HOUSE (Section).

would have obtained more satisfactory results, to say
nothing of the loss in cost of construction and fuel.

The orchids are divided into three groups,—stove,
intermediate and cool house,—from the temperature in
which they thrive best, and houses should be provided
accordingly. If an orchid house sixty to seventy-five
feet long is erected, it can be divided by cross partitions
into three rooms, which can be adapted for the differ-
ent classes of orchids by a proper adjustment of the
heating pipes. _

For small plants, a house only twelve feet wide and
eight feet high at the ridge will be even easier to erect
and heat, but the moisture and temperature cannot be

12

178 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

controlled as well as in a wider house. For some of the
cool house orchids, a lean-to house answers quite well,
and where Cattleyas are grown in large quantities for
market, the three-quarter span house will give good
satisfaction.

In Fig. 96 will be found a section of an orchid
house, showing the arrangement of the tables and yenti-
lators. At least two feet of the side walls should be
above the masonry, giving sixteen or eighteen inches of
glass. There should be two lines of ventilators at the
ridge, and some means of bottom ventilation should also
be provided. In the intermediate and Mexican houses
the vertical sash in the side walls may be used as venti-
lators, but in the stove or East Indian house all drafts
of cold air are injurious, and it is preferable to admit
the fresh air under the tables.

All orchids require very careful shading during the
summer. <A thin permanent shading may be given in
the spring, but the main reliance should be upon blinds
or curtains of canvas or netting, that can be drawn up
except while the sun is shining bright. In dull weather
a thick permanent shading would be injurious to the
plants.

GRAPERIES.

The large, choice varieties of European grapes are
not hardy in our latitude, and some protection must be
provided for them if we are to grow them. Many yarie-
ties can be grown in.a glass house even without heat,
and to such a building the name of ‘‘cold grapery” has
been given. Some varieties require heat to bring them
to maturity, while others can be brought in quite early
if started in winter with artificial heat, and for such
purposes the ‘hot grapery” is used, although the name
‘“forcing grapery ” is also applied to it.

While almost any greenhouse will answer for grow-
ing grapes, experience has shown that certain forms are

GRAPERIES. 179

better than others. For the forcing grapery nothing
seems to be better than the narrow lean-to or two-third
span, such as is seen in cross section in Fig. 97, as it
furnishes a warm back wall against which the vines can
be trained, and, like all lean-to houses, it is cheaply con-
structed and heated. The three-quarter span houses are
also excellent for either forcing or cold graperies, but
unless one has walls that can be used for this purpose it
will be preferable to build span roof houses running

t

a
a
4
4
4
&

FIG. 97, FORCING GRAPERY (Section).

north and south, except when grapes are to be forced in
the winter. The span roof house, Fig. 98, encloses a
larger body of air than either of the other houses, and it
will be easier to regulate the temperature and the moist-
ure in such a house than in a narrow one. In addition
to the above reason the wide houses are preferable, as
they have longer rafters and afford more space for train-
ing the vines.

The curvilinear roof is frequently used for vineries,
and in Fig. 99 is shown a section of a curvilinear house.
They give somewhat longer rafters for training the vines,
but they have no other advantage, except, perhaps, in

150 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

appearance, and this will not counterbalance the in-
creased cost.

The even span greenhouses, with straight sash bars,
seem to be the favorite form for graperies. In their
general construction they do not differ from even span
structures of similar dimensions used for other purposes,
and for the details of construction reference is made to
Chapters V and VI. There are, however, certain points
that should be considered in erecting a grapery. If the

FIG. 98. EVEN SPAN GRAPERY (Section).

house is a wide one, the slope of the roof may be less
than if it is comparatively narrow, and thirty-five, or
even thirty degrees pitch will be sufficient in one case,
while forty, or perhaps forty-five degrees, may be desir-
able in another.

In choosing a site for a grapery, it is well to have it
somewhat sheltered from the north and’ east, and, by all
means, it should be well drained to the depth of three
feet, that the border may not become wet. The situa-
tion should be such that it will not be affected either by
the shade, or the roots of large trees, which might get
into the border and steal from the vines,

GRAPERIES. 181

The wall of brick or stone, if either be used, should
extend for a foot or so aboye the level, and if a portion
of the border is to be on each side of the wall, arches
should be left in the wall at intervals of about three feet,
with openings at least one foot square through which
the roots can make their way. Upon this wall there
should be one of wood two feet high, with continuous
side ventilation (see Fig. 95). If it is desired to make the
first cost as low as possible, the side walls may be built
of wood, without the use of a stone foundation, but in
the damp border it will not be very durable, and the
form of wall described above is preferable. The roof

FIG. 99. CURVILINEAR GRAPERY (Section).

should be somewhat stiffer than for an ordinary green-
house, but it need not be different in construction from
those described in Chapter VI. There should be, at
least, one line of ventilation at the ridge, and preferably
two in a wide house.

While steam could be used for heating vineries, it
has not to any extent, hot water being relied on for the
most part. The flue is not satisfactory and is but little
used. In arranging the pipes, it is best to have them
three or four feet from the vines, as, if in close proxim-
ity, they might unduly dry out the border, and would
tend to invite the development of the red spider. ‘The

182 GREXZNHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

radiation should be ample, and so supplied with valves
that the amount of heat furnished can be regulated at
pleasure.

Some arrangement should be made for training the
vines, and perhaps the simplest form of trellis will be
made of No. 12 galvanized wires, arranged one foot
apart, and suspended about fifteen inches below the
sash bars (Figs. 97 and 98).

ORCHARD HOUSES.

In many sections of the country some of our
choicest fruits, such as peaches, nectarines, apricots,
sweet cherries, etc., cannot be grown in the open air,
and if their cultivation is attempted it must be under
glass. In Europe fruit houses are very common, and
for many years have formed an important part of the
greenhouses, not only upon the large estates, but in con-
nection with the cottages of the middle classes. On this
side of the Atlantic, the ease with which these crops can
be grown in favorable localities, and the abundance and
cheapness of the sub-tropical fruits from Florida and
California, have united to ‘restrict the use of orchard
houses. While it is doubtful if they can be made profit-
able as commercial ventures, except under unusually
favorable conditions, many persons find them very desir-
able to furnish a supply of fresh fruit out of season for
their own tables.

In their construction, orchard houses do not greatly
differ from graperies. The walls are built in the same
manner, but should have a height of six feet, at least
one-half of which should be of glass. They may be
constructed of wood or iron posts and boards up to a
height of two feet, or they may haye a masonry founda-
tion with a brick wall above. The glass in the side walls
should be from three to four feet high, and at least one-
half of it should be in the form of ventilators, hinged at

ORCHARD HOUSES. 183

the top. The roof may be either of movable sash, jor
of fixed sash bars, the latter being preferable if the house
is to be a permanent one. In this case iron posts, raf-
ters, purlins and ridge, with cypress sash bars, can, be
used to advantage. With the high walls, to give room
for the trees at the sides of the houses, it will be desir-
able, particularly if the house is a wide one, to, give the
roof a comparatively low pitch, in order ,to,, bring the
glass down as near as possible to the plants in the center
of the house. A slope of twenty-six degrees will answer,
and if the house is more than twenty-five feet wide,
twenty degrees will be preferable, Ample means of
ventilating the houses should be provided. In addition
to the row under the plate, there should, be one, in nar-
row houses, and two in wide ones, at the ridge, and doors
or ventilators in the ends are also desirable.

While any form of house, lean-to, even, span, ,.or
three-quarter span, curvilinear or straight, may, be used,
the wide even span will be most satisfactory, as the hight
will be more evenly distributed than in either of the
other forms, and the temperature and moisture will be
easier to regulate than in a lean-to or in a narrow house.
While mee not over twelve or fifteen feet wide will give
fair results, a width of eighteen, twenty, or, better yet,
twenty-five feet will be prolerabie. The lean-to will be
a cheap form to erect, when it can be built against the
south wall of a building, but when this cannot be done,
an even span house will cost no more, and will be much
more satisfactory. With a lean-to construction, a house
about fifteen feet wide can be built when the south wall
is five or six feet high and the north one fourteen or fif-
teen feet. While not really desirable, a narrow lean-to
house six to ten feet wide can be used, The construc-
tion would be about the same as that of a narrow lean-to
grapery. In this kind of a house the trees are generally
trained upon the north wall. With proper care in reg-

184 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

wlating the heat and moisture, and in ventilating, fair
results will be obtained. If to be used as fruit-forcing
houses, the three-quarter span house, with the long slope
either to the north or to the south, can also be used.

While some growers plant the trees in the border,
others grow them in pots or boxes, and are then able to
pack the trees away, and use the house for other pur-
poses until it is necessary to start the trees in the winter
or spring. In narrow houses there is only one walk,
the trees being arranged upon either side, but in wide
span roof houses, although this arrangement is often
made, it is preferable to have two walks, one on either
side, about four feet from the walls, thus securing the
peak of the roof as an additional space for tall trees.
When there is a walk in the center of houses over fifteen
feet wide, it is necessary to have a narrow walk upon
either side, for convenience in watering and caring for
the plants.

FIRE HEAT.

Even when only used as growing houses, it is desir-
able to have the houses provided with heating apparatus.
While dormant it frequently happens that the tempera-
ture may drop so low that the buds will be injured,
since, as a rule, the buds are not as well ripened as when
grown in the open air, and will be more susceptible to
cold. It is after the buds start, however, that the dan-
ger of injury by cold is greatest, as, if the temperature
falls below the freezing point while the trees are in
bloom, the crop will be lost and the trees greatly injured.

Although steam or hot air flues may be used for
heating, hot water will be found more satisfactory. The
piping should be sufficient to keep the temperature of
the house at forty-five degrees in the coldest weather
that is likely to occur after the trees are started. If
peaches or other fruits are to be forced, they should be

ARRANGEMENT OF GREENHOUSES. 185

started as soon as March 1, and the foreing may com-
mence as early as January. In the forcing house a tem-
perature as high as fifty or fifty-five degrees at night is
necessary for the best results, and in estimating the radi-
ation this should be kept in mind.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
THE ARRANGEMENT OF GREENHOUSES.

When a large number of houses that are used for
different purposes are to be combined, considerable skill
is necessary in order to secure the best results. The
arrangement depends largely upon the kind of houses,
as well as their size and shape, and as there are, at least,
ten or a dozen houses that go to make up a complete
plant, in the very selection of the houses for the estab-
lishment there would be opportunity for hundreds, and
even thousands, of combinations. We have outlined
above the structural peculiarities of seven or eight of the
more important houses, and have elsewhere described
the rose house, propagating house, forcing house, etc.,
and now offer for consideration perspective views and
ground plans of, greenhouse establishments, designed by
the leading horticultural architects and builders of the
country.

The first illustration, Fig. 100, shows a part of the
greenhouses at the Michigan Agricultural College, and
in Fig. 101 a ground plan of the houses is shown. This
range of houses is not an elaborate one, but it is well
arranged, and in connection with a grapery and two
forcing houses makes a fairly complete establishment.
It contains a palm house, or conservatory, fifty-eight by
twenty-five feet, a stoye room twenty-five feet square,

CONSTRUCTION.

ENHOUSE

=
4

GRI

000110) [D.InqyNnIWby UDLHYY IV 9YZ WD sasnoyUaasb ayy fo UorY

Lod

‘SHSQOHNETUY JO AYNVU TIVNS ‘QOL ‘DId

ARRANGEMENT OF GREENHOUSES. 187

a cool house of the same size, a rose room eighteen by
twenty-five feet, two propagating (hot and cold) houses
for the growing of bedding plants, each twelve by fifty
feet, and another room twenty-five by twenty-four feet,
that is used as occasion demands. The workroom is
twenty-five by fifteen feet, and is over the heaters. The
gardener’s house, as shown in the illustration, is joined
to the conservatory.

The houses shown in perspective were erected in
1892, by Lord & Burnham Co., and are of their iron

Propagtiting House.
ROom

worn ale CARDENERS HOUSE

OFFICE

(|

jose Cool Stove
Room Room FRooom

~
Ss
g
x
x
Ms
2
1)

FIG. 101. GROUND PLAN OF MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL
COLLEGE GREENHOUSES.

frame construction, with all outside work of cypress.
The walks are of cement, the tables of angle iron with
gas pipe legs, and with slate tops in some rooms and tile
in others. The houses are heated by a No. 8 Furman
hot water heater, put in by the Herendeen Manufactur-
ing Co., of Geneva, N. Y. The method of constructing
the walls, roof, benches, and the heating coils is shown

CONSTRUCTION.

7
u

GREENHOUSI

185

*SUOS S.PILayWIAL “AL “SoZ, ha paqoatg
“SHSA0M YNIMOUD GNV AUOLVAUASNOD

‘COT §=9Td

ARRANGEMENT OF GREENHOUSES. 189

in Figs. 14, 17 and 26, except that the coils here used
are double. Hach room is piped independently, and
each coil is so arranged that heat can be shut off in
whole or in part from one room without affecting the
others. In the rear of the new greenhouses, as shown
in the ground plan, are three other houses, that were
erected some fifteen years ago. They are entirely con-
structed of wood, and although kept well painted, are
showing signs of decay in some places. They are heated
by a Spence hot water heater, and the radiating surface
is supplied by two-inch flow pipes and one and one-half
inch returns.

Similar in construction, in many respects, to the
new greenhouses described above, are those shown in
Fig. 102. The principal difference is in the form of the
roof of the conservatory, which is curvilinear, and in
.the arrangement of the growing houses. This range
was erected by Thos. W. Weathered’s Sons, at New
Dorp, Staten Island.

A larger and more expensive range of houses is
shown in Fig. 103. The ground plan of these houses is
illustrated in Fig. 104, and from this the size and uses of
the different rooms can be escertained. The expense of
such a range of houses, complete with iron tables and
heating apparatus, will not be far from $16,000. They
were erected by Hitchings & Co., of New York City.
The range, as will be seen, consists of an elongated hex-
agonal palm house with a curvilinear roof. The side
walls are quite high, and, with the pitch of the roof,
affords room for growing quite large plants. From each
side of the conservatory, facing east and west, extend
two span roof growing houses, which can be used for
stove house, cool stove, and hot and cold propagating
houses, or houses for carnations and other flowering
plants. At the end of the north houses will be seen a
long three-quarter span rose house and a large work-

190

& CO." RANGE OF GREENHOUSES.

XK

G

PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF HITCHIN

FIG. 103.

191

ARRANGEMENT OF GREENHOUSES.

«
b
GREEA HOUSE REENHOUSE Pees sl ee
Sax2o So’ x 20° Fal of 0
= ae &
PATH a4 wl
o
: Be. ze |g
ALM: hed =
—————_— Pacngfouse rae
ond Gi fe}
GREENHOUSE 4 REENHOUSE oon es
So'x2o So'x2o ©)

sen

FIG. 104. GROUND PLAN OF HITCHINGS & CO.’S RANGE.

Rose-House
So'’x 2o

GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

192

0D UDYWING P PLOT Ng paywaLgy
‘SHSNOH HO HONVU HAISNALXY

‘GOT “S1d

ARRANGEMENT OF GREENHOUSES. 193

room. The method of construction used by Hitchings
& Co. is not particularly different from the one used by
Lord & Burnham Co., the principal difference being
that the former generally make the rafters and posts in
separate pieces, which are clamped together by an iron
bracket at the plate, and use iron gutters and eave

El

PALM HOUSE
carte 40x40’

CREEN HOUSE 20x67’ | I

UT I store
oo Bee:
POTTING ROOM
16" x 32°
:

TROPICAL HOUSE 22x74’

FIG. 106. GROUND PLAN OF LORD & BURNHAM CO.
RANGE.

troughs, while the latter use wooden gutters, and forge
the posts and rafters from one piece.

If anything more elaborate is: desired, it can be
found in the range shown in Fig. 105, the ground
plan of which can be seen in Fig. 106.. It was designed
and erected by Lord & Burnham Co., at Yonkers, N. Y.,
and, as will be seen from the illustrations, consists of an

13

.

194 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

octagonal curvilinear conservatory forty by forty feet,
which is shown in cross section in Fig. 91; a stove or
tropical house, with a curvilinear roof, twenty-two by
seventy-four feet, Fig. 94; a cool house twenty-two by

FI@. 107%. FORCING HOUSE (Section).

thirty-seven feet, also curvilinear; a span roof green-
house twenty by sixty-seven feet; a forcing house, with
a three-quarter span roof, eighteen by sixty-seven feet,

]

FIG. 108. ROSE HOUSE (Section).

Fig. 107; an even span orchid house, Fig. 96, eighteen
by forty-five feet; a three-quarter span rose house, Fig.
108, twenty by ninety-seven feet ; a cool vinery, Fig. 99,
twenty-two by sixty feet, and a hot vinery, both curyi-

GLASS STRUCTURES FOR AMATEURS. 195

linear, twenty-two by fifty-two feet, besides -a potting
room and office.

This establishment is very complete, and seems to
be well arranged. If plain curvilinear houses are de-
sired, the forms shown here have been thoroughly tested,
and have been found quite satisfactory.

CHAPTER XXIX.

GLASS STRUCTURES FOR AMATEURS.

Many lovers of gardening, who are restrained from
indulging in their favorite pastime by our long six
months of winter, would gladly erect small glass struc-
tures in which to prosecute many of the lighter opera-
tions of gardening, but are deterred by what they imag-
ine to be the excessive cost. In this chapter an attempt
will be made to outline methods of constructing several
forms of small greenhouses that can be cheaply erected,
and which will be found very useful and entirely satis-
factory. Upon many town, as well as country places,
we often find small cold frames, or cold pits, in which
half hardy plants can be stored through the winter, and
in which many of the hardier vegetable and budding
plants can be started and grown. At best, they are of
little value in forwarding plants during the severe parts
of the winter, and are far from satisfactory in every way.

For our present purpose a house is needed, perhaps
ten by fifteen feet in area, convenient to or attached to
the dwelling, that can be attended to in all weathers
without exposure, and that can be cheaply constructed
and maintained.

ATTACHED CONSERVATORIES.

It is frequently desirable to have, in connection
with the dwelling, a room enclosed with glass, in which

196 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

flowers can be grown or exhibited. The large structures
that are sometimes seen do not differ, in their principal
features, from detached conservatories, and need no con-
sideration here. Although the best results, so far as
the growth of the plants is concerned, cannot be obtained
in a lean-to structure, the fact that small conservatories
can be placed in an angle of the dwelling, where the
walls of the house will form the end and rear of the con-

a SUES :
“im Oe aah

Me its Giana ean Wi ine i A

= sal Hes } Ml AAV i pi Min Ny

& a gin oy A h pe fi ‘\ eur a
NING OLS ee

FIG. 109. VERANDA CONSERVATORY.

servatory, and thus greatly reduce the cost of construc-
tion, leads to their use when the first outlay is consid-
ered. These attached conservatories, in the lean-to
style, may vary in width from six to fifteen feet, but if
anything wider than this is desired, it will be best to
have detached houses, or to use some other form of roof.

The simplest kind of a conservatory of this style is
made from an ordinary veranda, in which the spaces

ny

ATTACHED CONSERVATORIES. 19%

between the side posts are filled in with glass sash.
These can be taken out in the summer, if desired, and
the veranda restored to its ordinary use. By the addi-
tion of a glass roof, far better results can be obtained,
however, and if a veranda conservatory is to be built, it
will be found cheaper. than a wooden or a tin roof. It
should be eight or nine

feet wide, to secure the By
best results, although a |~™~
veranda five feet wide
will answer as a con-
servatory.

In constructing aw,
these veranda conserva-
tories, Fig. 109, a loca-
tion on the south side | ¥
of the house should be |e <S
selected, as a rule, al- [Ey Wes af
though for ferns and | 1, 2s
similar plants, the east, aie
or even the north side

is preferable. The = df
framework of the con- q :
servatory should be put se at

Z i,

up in a permanent man- j y 7 ay
ner, as should the en-#4
UBT, ZA CAZ)

tire roof, but it will be

sometimes found best, FIG. 110. VERANDA coN-

if the glass in the side SERVATORY (Section).

and ends ‘is of temporary sashes, so arranged that they
can be taken out, as seen in cross section, Fig. 110. The
floor should be at the same height, and constructed in
the same manner as for an ordinary veranda, although a
cement floor may be used if desired. In case a wooden
floor is used, the veranda should be closed in below, or
ceiled against the floor joists.

198 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION,

If designed as a conservatory for flowers, a doorway
in the wall of the dwelling should be arranged in the
middle, either of the side or end, and in case the con-
servatory is a large one, it will be convenient to have an
outer door. As a rule, these doors should be opposite
ach other. It is also an excellent plan to have the por-
tion of the wall of the house adjoining the conservatory,
of glass. The posts should be from five to seven feet
high, and placed five feet six inches apart. At the
height of two feet a sash sill should be placed, and the
space beneath should be filled in to correspond with the
finish of the house. The walls of the veranda above this
sill may be of permanent sash bars and glass, or, as is
better, unless it is to be used as a conservatory through-
out the year, the spaces between the posts may be filled
in with glass sash that can be taken out during the
summer.

If a veranda is made eight feet high at the eaves,
this will admit of the placing of a ventilating sash in
the front wall, but in low structures it will have to be
placed in the roof. The conservatory roof should have
rafters of two by four inch cypress running from each
post to the wall of the house. The remaining frame-
work of the roof will consist of two by one and one-
eighth inch sash bars. In Fig. 110 is shown a cross sec-
tion of a house six feet wide, from which the details for
the construction of the walls and roof can be ascertained,
while Fig. 109 gives an idea of the exterior appearance of
the same conservatory.

If the amount of glass exposed is not too large, nec-
essary heat can be supplied from the adjoining living
room for so-called cool house plants, but it will be desir-
able to have heat directly supplied to the room. Hot
water or steam heating pipes, arranged as in Fig. 110,
will be desirable, but if nothing better is available, one
or two large kerosene heating stoves can be used, pro-

199

CONSERVATORIES.

HED

1

ATT A(

FIG.

111

.

SMAL

L

ATTACHE

D CON

SERV

Erected by Lord & Burnham Co.

ATORY

200 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

vided pipes are arranged to carry off the gases of
combustion.

If more elaborate structures are desired, they should
be of a style that will correspond with that of the resi-
dence. ‘he location at the corner of the house, as seen
in Fig. 111, is desirable, as light can be obtained from
three sides, and better results can be obtained than in a
veranda conservatory.

DETACHED GREENHOUSES FOR AMATEURS.

It frequently happens that for some reason it is not
desirable to have the conservatory attached to a building,
in which case there will be a great variety of structures
from which to select. Here, again, the lean-to form
will be found a cheap one to
erect, and the same direc-
tions apply here as in a large
house. In Fig. 112 is pre-
sented a cross section of a
house built by Chas. Bar-
nard, and described in the
American Garden, October,
1890. The walls were built
as shown in the engraving,
sheathed on both sides, and
with a layer of hair felt
inside. A cheaper wall
: could be erected by double

FIG. 112. A CHEAP boarding the outside, and

HOUSE (Section). having a layer of heavy
building paper between the boards. The outside board-
ing of the north wall extends one foot above the roof,
to act as a wind-break. ‘The walls measure five feet six
inches outside, and the roof is formed of hotbed sash,
the joints being made tight with battens. Ventilation
is secured through a cupola in the center of the ridge.

PORTABLE CONSERVATORIES. 201

The base of this is twelve inches square, and the circu-
lation of air is controlled by a damper, as will be seen
from the engraving. If other forms of houses are
desired, they will only be miniatures of the large ones
described in previous chapters.

PORTABLE CONSERVATORIES.

Several builders make a specialty of supplying
houses of the kind. Fig. 115 shows one of these houses
put up by Hitchings & Co., and in Fig. 114 is seen the
same house with a portion of the sash removed. As
will be seen, the houses are built with an iron frame,
similar to that used in large houses, and covered with
sash that can be very quickly put in place. They are
supphed with hot water heating apparatus, and ventilat-
ing machinery. Besides being portable, the houses are
extensible, and another section can be added with little
trouble at any time. A house eight by sixteen feet, with
heating and yentilating apparatus, costs about $360. It
makes a very durable house, and is, in every way, first
class.

If one cannot afford so expensive a house, a very
satisfactory conservatory can be built by using four by
four inch posts for the walls, set four feet apart, and
with every other post four feet high, the others being
cut off at the height of two and one-half feet ; sash, sills,
plates, end rafters and ridge pieces can be obtained, cut
in the desired shapes, at any wood-working factory, or
from dealers in greenhouse materials. The rvof may be
made of fixed sash bars or of temporary sash.

The heating apparatus for a narrow house will cost
from four to five dollars per linear foot, and the venti-
lating apparatus from ten to fifty cents, according to the
kind used. The lumber can be estimated at about $3.00
per linear foot, and the glass will not be far from $1.50
per foot, while the labor of carpenters and painters will

CONSTRUCTION,

_
vi]

GREENHOUSI

202

(a

aroads.

lag) KYOLY

AYHSNOO NOUL FIV LYOd

SIT

Ola

203

RVATORIES,

~
uv}

ONSE

C

+
v

PORTABLE

FIG.

114

PORTABLE IRON

C

ON

s

ERVATORY

(

Section)

204 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

be about $2.50 per foot, or a total of $225 to $250 for a
substantial house fifteen by twenty feet, with heating
apparatus and benches.

THE BASEMENT PIT.

There are some objections to the structure to which
the above name has been given, the principal ones being
that it is somewhat difficult of access, that it is incon-
spicuous, and that the plants grown there do not give
the pleasure they would, were-it entirely above ground

ea

FIG. 115. GROUND PLAN OF BASEMENT PIT.

and separated from one of the living rooms by a glass
partition, The points claimed for the basement pit are,
that it is very easily heated, owing to the comparatively
small area of exposed class, and its cheapness of con-
struction, and every one of the objections urged against
it could be overcome by raising the structure to the
ground level and supplying the needed glass partition
and door.

For the location, it is best to select the south side of
the dwelling, if possible, although the west, or east, or a
point between would answer. If it can be situated
where a cellar window is located, all the better. The
wall is torn away so as to afford an opening three feet

THE BASEMENT PIT. 205

wide, in which a glass door should be placed. The exca-
vation is then made, and the wall of masonry laid up
to the general level outside (Fig. 115). The highest
point of the roof should be located four feet above the
top of the foundation. Four by six inch sills, Fig. 116,
(a) should then be put down, and upon these four by
four inch posts (0) twenty inches high, and with rabbets
for glass, should be placed at the corners and at inter-
vals of five feet along the side 5
and ends. The two by five
inch plate is then placed, as

seen at (c), and a four by two %
inch fascia (d) should be set
into the tops of the posts
along the front, and two by
four inch rafters (f) should
extend from the top of the
posts to the wall of the house,
where they should be sup-
ported by a four by one inch
ridge board. A gutter (e), if
desired, will complete the ex-
terior of the structure, with
the exception of the sash bars, FIG. one DETAILS FOR

purlins, ventilators, and glaz- BASEMENT PIT,

ing, which will not differ from the same parts of a green-
house. The interior arrangement will depend upon the
uses to which it is to be put. The doorway may be in
the center of the back wall, or, better yet, about three
and one-half feet from the east end. If desired, a flat
table (C’) three feet wide, for starting cuttings and seed-
Iings, and for the growing of vegetable and bedding
plants, can extend along the west and south sides, and
on the east (4) and north (B) sides tiers of shelves may
be placed, on which the larger plants can be arranged.
The amount of heat required for such a house will

DD

206 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

depend considerably upon the kinds of plants to be
grown, as for many greenhouse plants a temperature of
forty-five to fifty degrees is ample at night, and if it
occasionally drops below forty degrees no harm will be
done, while most of the so-called stove plants would be
injured if the temperature remains below sixty degrees
for any length of time. If the pit opens into a large
cellar, particularly if it contains a hot air furnace, or
other heating apparatus, there will be little danger of
frost, except in severe cold weather, when an oil stove
placed in the room will be all that is necessary. For

|

MMT
Pe

tL

FIG. 117%. CBLLAR-WAY CONSERVATORY (Perspective).

stove plants, the use of a second stove in severe weather
would probably be required. If the dwelling is heated
by hot water or steam, of course the matter of heating
would be very simple, and, if not, the next most satisfac-
tory plan will be to use a small hot water heater, or to
obtain heat by placing a coil in a hot air furnace and
connecting it with hot water heating pipes in the con-
servatory. Directions for arranging the pipes, etc., will
be found in the chapter on Heating Greenhouses.

Where only a small cold frame or hot bed is wanted,
it can be arranged just outside a cellar window. If a
frame four by two feet is sunk in the ground and covered
with a hotbed sash, the pit thus made can be used for —

THE BASEMENT PIT. 207

growing quite a variety of greenhouse plants, and for
starting plants in the spring. In severe weather a light
covering may be required to keep out frost, although if
the cellar contains a furnace this will not be necessary,
in ordinary winters, except in the colder sections of the
country. A writer in American Garden describes a cold

WANS

WAALS BAVA
SAS VV SASS VSS

f
i:
SY

FIG. 118. CELLAR-WAY CONSERVATORY (Section).

pit arranged in the outside cellar-way of a house.
The doors should be removed and replaced by hotbed
sash, as in Fig. 117, which shows the appearance of the
cellar-way from the outside. The stairs, Fig. 118, can
be used as shelves for the plants, and it will make a good
place for wintering any half-hardy plants. By the use

208 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

of shutters and mats the frost can be kept out, even
without opening the inner doors. If artificial heat can
be provided, a variety of plants can be grown.

INDEX.

Amateurs, greenhouses for 195
Arrangement of houses......... 21
JAIN ALG NEAL. Sere ciere in 135
Bench bottoms, slate.........:. 84
Bench bottoms, tile............. 82
Bench bottoms, wooden........ 77
Bench frame, angle iron........ 80
Bench frame, gas pipe for...... 79
Bench frame, wooden........... 76
Benches, greenhouse ....... wae tO
Bower, Stzeor, £0, USe:. --.-...).-. . 126

Boilers, steam, and their loca-
MIRCHI S Cnt yene ote etait win stile e's 123
TACES ANG POStS:: - 2.2.26. ese oe 42
Bracket brace for roof.......... 42
Brads and points for glazing... 60
Brick walls, construction of.... 26
Builders, greenhouse........... 4
BGC CGNONASS |S hestciic sawn nitiscte 2 62

* Challenge” ventilating ma-
GUL as alates ttre ncrpe sort vohereee 74

Changes of direction and level
in heating pipes.-......:.... 114

Cheap ventilating machine.... 74
Cold frames and pits............
Combined wood and iron

THOUS ES setae ctie eaten eelel erate 40

Commercial establishments.... 139
Connecting different systems.. 114
Conservatories, attached....... 196
Conservatories, iron frame..... 170
Conservatories, portable....... 201
Conservatories, small, heating

(0) DEAR BRE IIe Cede okie 134
Conservatories, use and con-

SUBIC OM Olieis revels cis <el aapic oars 166
Conservatory, basement........ 204
Conservatory, cellarway ....... 206
Continuous ventilation. ........ 68
NGDOUMMOUSES ciao nclees.ccicla’ vicveesieiss s 176
Curvilinear houses.............. 18

Dealersin greenhouse material 35
Details for iron and wood roof 41

Details for wooden roof ........ 38
Double and single strength
PIAS y Seeice vale te wl ae ce 58
Drip gutters in sash bars....... 34
ven span NOUSES. 2.2525 sets ce 6
Fire heat for orchard houses... 184
ire NOvbeds-ueecetn- ere ee 138

Fire surface, arrangement of.. 93

Fluted and rough plate glass.. 58
Flues for heating conservato-

WS facie ar a tanele eve tia oreo Neca) ects 136
Forms of greenhouses .........- 6
TAM CSS. COLA 2 ears aisle cate cc: ceieleicie 165
Galvanized iron sash bars...... 47
Glassrandyelazimes--iecs.ce eer nets 56
GHASSHOTAMES I Ol we se nerelsiasts ceo vie 56
Glass, refraction of light by.... 50
GUIASSHSIZ EOE: Sas tea. foams sete sare 57
Glass; SuReMeS CM Ofer. «2 jae oe 58
Glazing, methods! OF 2-2. .. 1)... 59
Glazime Strep soc ete ateis ee as 65
Graperies, forms and construe-

THOMV OLS: te -njeceo earenioe cates 178
Greenhouse, a cheap, for ama-

OU S ie tees ee liee acetic ae 200
Greenhouse benches............ 76
Greenhouse heating............, 90

Greenhouses, arrangement of.. 185

Greenhouses for amateurs ..... 195
Grout walls, construction of... 25
Gutters; WOOGEN Ie. 2.5. 228 ci oes 29
Heater VB aM ARG sai. aries sicievent er 135
Heater, Carmody... o-s.-- - sett ils)
Heater, Rurmany.....s 6 occ scet 119
Heater, Hitchings’ base burn-

1 FY dood tid Beep Su Otaeor eS Honnc 121
Heater, BUNCH gs: corrugated. 116
Heater; SPENCE. Gasceccueaeeeees 117
Heater, Weathereds’ conical... 116
Heaters, hot water, forms of.. re 215

Heaters, hot water, size to use 120
Heating, experimental tests... 131

Heating; Hues TOL... ones eo 136
Heating greenhouses .......- S2 90
Heating, Polmaise system of... 137
Heating with hot water........ 91
| Heating with steam............. 123
Helliwell patent glazing ....... 46
History of greenhouses.......-. 1
EVOtD ES! ARES ie eset os cela: an cesar 138
Hotbeds, the making of ........ 163
ip oylotctel ae Rel Pee As coctisopoc denen 162

Hot water heaters, points for.. 93

Hot water under pressure...... 113
Hot water vs. steam ............ 129
Interior arrangement of con-
SCLVAUOTUCS eres ec tereys=ie- steerer 179
EP OM MOUS OS rete ci. teeiteteralocs!coseicccteters 44
Iron posts and sills ............. 34

209

210

Iron rafters and purlins
Iron sash bars, galvanized.
Lean-to houses. esceeus
Lettuce houses, construction of 154

Location and arrangement of
TLOUSES) 2.0 see cit eeeneenre enrages 2
Machinery, ventilating......... 69
WIR Koay Wey lib oesmananeeders aca: 24
Mats and shutters............... 161
Measuring the pitch............ 53
Narrow houses, piping for...... 110
New departure ventilating
EKO WINKS) eeriod Bp AdSAnns Goo oan S 72
New methods of glazing........ 66
North side propagating houses 157
Orchard houses,construction of 182
Orchid houses, construction of. 177
Ontside shaprtiie. 2.2 ee sees 7
OWwerNeaa pup ee ee eccreerclelale real 108
Over vs. under bench piping... 103
ath Gy POU ceveeevsvelstelstsis/ toe akares ares 64
Painting and shading........... oH)
Paradigm patent glazing....... 47
Permanent sash bars........... 37
Pipe, amount and size of, for
Ii WEAK eps done has asnonoes 104
Pipe, amount and size of, for
SHERRI, chigaonoGncopEcobaoUn nes 125
Pipes, slope Of.........-..+..++.. 99
Pipes and piping for hot water 97
Pipes and piping for steam .... 124
Piping, arrangement of, for hot
\ toi her bende cane voto ng ooDe 115
Piping, arrangement of, for
TGH NV SpponrAactesbadetodcesoo 124
Piping, over vs. under bench .. 103
(PRs DASCINEMD coc ace ccm mceies 204
1 eit iparol Va RS OS aS peaeto ono amonoaS 165
Pitch, the optimum.........:... 51
Peele OtebMeivO Ol, 1): sicioe ciel 49
Plan for commercial establish-
PGW Geos dnc so DopeReoS.csHSe 141
Plates and gutters ........ 25.5.6. 29
Points and brads, glazing...... 60
Polmaise system of glazing.... 137
Portable conservatories........ 201
Portable frames................. 160
PontabheOo feces eee celones 35
Posts and braces, iron.......... 43
Rosts:andgrsills, ON. -- )-..6 0.2 << 32
Potting room, arrangement of. 22
BrODALAWMNES CASO... cies crercicteleers = 158
Propagating houses, construe-
TOTO Leen t-te cites eo rere 157
Purlins SAS PUPS. <r. - so mine weiere 42

GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

Purlins and rafters, iron....... 40
Putty and its application....... 59
Putty bulbs and machines ..... 64
Rafters and purlins, iron....... 40
Refraction of light by glass.... 50
Repainting greenhouses........ 87
| Ridge and furrow houses....... 11
| Ridge, size and form) Obi... 2c. 38
Roofs, construction of.......... 33
Roots; details forsesnos cee nice 38
ROOFS; PLLC Of ee eek eee 49
Rose houses, benches for....... 140
| Rose houses, construction of... 142
Rose houses, cost of............- 149
Sash, ventilating s --- c-ceck se sae 68
Sash bars) LOLIMSIOR se. ..eeeeie ee 34
Sash bats; metallic ...cs scene 45.
| Shading greenhouses........... 88
Short span to the south......... 5
Shublersyaq Gd Mats nn. ceee 161
| Sicde=hall WOWSOS eels «= sae terest ee
| Sills and posts, iron............. 32:

Size and‘amount of pipe for hot
Waterss feces acta cies sete 104

Size and amount of pipe for
SUTCAM ete eerste see ere 125
Size of glass. APO hot ooks. UY6
| Slate for benches..........+..... 84
SIOPElOL WUPES es «< cee lewis ee eters 9
SolidsbedsSijice sess mc see ecco 84
SPAN VOOM MOMSES coy ee! clertae 6.

“Standard” ventilating appa-
VALUS A iseminde sige sc ceieiis 72:
| Steam Neahiliges sameeren ieee 123.
Steam vs. hot water............ 129
Stove houses..... aisiais aetelee) oa 174
Strip, Gasser’s glazing.......... 65
Three-quarter span houses. 16
Tile sfor DeEnGhes: ite. - --cesce sere 82
Valves and expansion tank . A Ub.

Ventilating machine, a ¢ heap.. 74

Ventilating machine, “ Chal-
lence va. .oc occ hee ener 74
Ventil: Uting machine, “New De-
parture” Weecaesupascnacoddes 72
Ventilating machine, ‘Stand-
BAT 2 cyaeicisiewieeecie ee cteciate omelets 72
Ventilating shafting............ 70
Wemnbil ators. cues aeieinee erelerete 67
Veranda conservatory......-- 196-
Wallis for greenhouses.......... 24
Water bench for propagating
INOUSES 2) ciciceeteiera chee eee é

Wooden walls, construction of oT
Work room, arrangement of. 22

SENT FREE ON APPLICATION.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE

meee ON ee

RURAL BOOKS,

Containing 116 8vo pages, profusely illustrated, and giving
full descriptions of nearly 600 works on the following subjects:

FARM AND GARDEN,
Fruits, FLowers, ETCc.,
CaTTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE,
Docs, Etc., Horses, Rrpinc, Erc.,
PouLTRY, PIGEONS, AND BEEs,
ANGLING AND FISHING,
BoaTING, CANOEING, AND SAILING,
FIELD SPoRTS AND NATURAL History,
HUNTING, SHOOTING, ETC.,
ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING,
LANDSCAPE GARDENING,

HOUSEHOLD AND MISCELLANEOUS,

PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS.

ORANGE. {UPD COMPANY,
52 & 54 Lafayette Place, New York.

2 STANDARD BOOKS.

Mushrooms. How to Grow Them.
For home use fresh Mushrooms are a delicious, highly nutritious and
wholesome delicacy; and for market they are less bulky than eggs,
and, when properly handled, no crop is more remunerative. Anyone
who has an ordinary house cellar, woodshed, or barn cau grow Mush-
rooms. This is the most practical work on the subject ever written,
and the only book on growing Mushrooms ever published in America.
The whole subject is treated in detail, minutely and plainly, as only a
practical man, actively engaged in Mushroom growing, can handle it.
The author describes how he himself grows Mushrooms, and how they
are grown for profit by the leading market gardeners, and for home
use by the most successful private growers. The book is amply and
pointedly illustrated, with engravings drawn from nature expressly
for this work. By Wm. Falconer. Is nicely printed and bound in
cloth, “Pricey post-paid osoc..-aea see aaa ae ee 1.50

Allen’s New American Farm Book.
The very best work on the subject ; comprising all that can be con-
densed into an ayailable volume. Originally by Richard L. Allen.
Revised and greatly enlarged by Lewis F. Allen. Cloth, 12mo.-_- 2.50

Henderson’s Gardening for Profit.
By Peter Henderson. New edition. Entirely rewritten and greatly
enlarged. The standard work on Market and Family Gardening.
The successful experience of the author for more than thirty years,
and his willingness to tell, as he does in this work, the secret of his
success for the benefit of others, enables him to give most valuable
information. The book is profusely illustrated. Cloth, 12mo--- 2.00

Fuller’s Practical Forestry.
A Treatise on the Propagation, Planting, and Cultivation, with a de-
scription and the botanical and proper names of all the indigenous
trees of the United States, both Evergreen and Deciduous, with Notes
on a large number of the most valuable Exotic Species. By Andrew
8. Fuller, author of ‘‘ Grape Culturist,” ‘‘Small Fruit Culturist,”’ nee
1.5
The Dairyman’s Manual.
By Henry Stewart, anthor of ‘‘The Shepherd’s Manual,” “ Irriga-
tion,” ete. A useful| and practical work by a writer who is well
known as thoroughly familiar with the subject of which he writes.
Cloth; 12m0..- 3 esos ee sans sofas ncnccee one ese ee eee 2== 12:00

Truck Farming at the South.
A work giving the experience of a successful grower of vegetables or
““orain truck’? for Northern markets. Essential to any one who con-
templates entering this promising field of Agriculture. By A. Oemler,
of Georgia. “Illustrated: “Cloth; 12mo---2....---2n22---2--oe een oe

Harris on the Pig.
New edition. Revised and enlarged by the author. The points of the
various English and American breeds are thoroughly discussed, and
| the great advantage of using thoroughbred males clearly shown. The
work is equally valuable to the farmer who keeps but few pigs, and to
the breeder on an extensive scale. By Joseph Harris. Illustrated.
Cloth; 12mo.2 2224222222 5 eee ee eee 1.50

Jones's Peanut Plani—Its Cultivation and Uses.
A practical Book, iustructing the begiuner how to raise good crops
of Peanuts. By B. W. Jones. Surry Co., Va. Paper Cover,-... -50

STANDARD BOOKS, 3

Barry’s Fruit Garden.
By P. Barry. A standard work on fruit and fruit-trees ; the author
having had over thirty years’ practical experience at the head of one
of the largest nurseries in this country. New edition, revised up to
date. Invaluable to all fruit-growers. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00

The Propagation of Plants.
By Andrew 8. Fuller. Illustrated with numerous engravings. An
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ent modes by which cultivated plants may be propagated and multi-
Dpliedsy Cloth ylpmorec. soe ne nanan Secs nae eee ans o 1.50

Stewart's Shepherd’s Manuai.
A Valuable Practical Treatise on the Sheep, for American farmers and
sheep growers. It is so plain that a farmer, or a farmer’s son, who
has neyer kept a sheep. may learn from its pages how to manage a
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shepherd may gather many suggestions from it. The results of per-
sonal experience of some years with the characters of the various mod-
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as the methods of management called for under our circumstances, are
here gathered. By Henry Stewart. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo-.-- 1.50

Allen’s American Cattle.
Their History, Breeding, and Management. By Lewis F. Allen. This
Book will be considered indispensable by every breeder of live stock.
The large experience of the author in improving the character of
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edition lustrated: \-C@loth;, 12mo-. 452-22. -2-2-2---25260 85 2 50

Fuller’s Grape Culturist.

By. A. 8. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works on the culture
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White’s Cranberry Culture.
CONTENTS :—Natural History.—History of Cultivation.—Choice of
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ing.—Keeping. —Profit and Loss.—Letters from Practical Growers.—
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calgrower. Ilustrated. Cloth,12mo. New andrevisedediticn. 1.25

Herbert’s Hints to Horse-Keepers,

This is one of the best and most popular works on the Horse in this
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bert (Frank Forester), Beautifully Illustrated, Cloth, 12mo--.. 1.75

4 STANDARD BOOKS.

Henderson’s Practical Floriculture.
By Peter Henderson. A guide to the successful propagation and
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Harris's Talks on Manures.
By Joseph Harris, M. S., author of ‘ Walks and Talks on the Farm,”
‘Harris on the Pig.’? etc. Revised and enlarged by the author. A
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Waring’s Draining for Profit and Draining for Health.
This book is a very complete and practical treatise, the directions in
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land drainage by which the sanitary condition of any district may be
greatly improved, even to the banishment of fever and ague, typhoid
and malarious fever. By Geo. E. Waring, Jr Illustrated, Cloth 12mo.

1.50
The Practical Rabbit-Keeper.

By Cuniculus. Tllustrated. A comprehensive work on keepmg and
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Quinby’s New Bee-Keeping.
The Mysteries of Bee-keeping Explained. Combining the results of
Fifty Years’ Experiénce, with the latest discoveries and inventions,
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@loth:- 12m 07 a2 soos oe oe ee eee eae ee 1.50

Profits in Poultry.
Useful and Ornamental Breeds and their Profitable Management. This
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trated and forms an unique and important addition to our poultry lit-
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Barn Plans and Outbuildings.
Two Hundred and Fifty-seven Illustrations. A most Valuable Work,
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Parsons on the Rose.
By Samuel B, Parsons. A treatise on the propagation, culture, and
history of the rose. New and revised edition. In his work upon the
rose, Mr. Parsons has gathered Ae the curious legends concerning
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former times. A simple garden classification has been adopted, and
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Heinrich’s Window Flower Garden.
The author is a practical florist, and this enterprising volume em-
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period. New and enlarged edition. By Julius J Jeinricit. Fully
Dlostratedss Cloths lomo 2-s6-c=- 59-3252 5~- 8 sae ee eens Ati)

Liautard’s Chart of the Age of the Domestic Animals.
Adopted by the United States Army. Enables one to accurately de-
termine the age of corses, cattle, sheep, dogs, and pigs.......... 00

Pedder’s Land Measurer for Farmers.
A convenient Pocket Companion, showing at once the contents of
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feet either way, with various other useful farm tables. Cloth, 18mo;
.60

How to Plant and What to Do with the Crops.
With other valuable hints for the Farm, Garden and Orchard. By
Mark W. Johnson. Illustrated. ConTENTs : Times for Sowing Seeds.
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Herbs, etc.; Tree Seeds ; Flower Seeds ; Fruit Trees; Distances Apart
for Fruit Trees and Shrubs ; Profitable Farming; Green or Manuring
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Rotation of Crops; Varieties ; Paper Covers, post-paid_.....-.. 00

Your Plants.
Plain and Practical Directions for the Treatment of Tender and Hardy
Plants in the House and in the Garden. By James Sheehan. The
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tical.”? The author, acommercial florist and gardener, has endeavored,
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extended-scale. Price, post-paid, paper covers--------.-------- 40

Husmann’s American Grape-Growing and Wine-Making.
By George Husmann of Talcoa vineyards, Napa, California. New and
enlarged edition. With contributions from well-known grape-growers,
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The Scientific Angler.
A general and instructive work on Artistic Angling, by the late David
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Anvler:2°5 Clothy lomoOs- 200 -"4- se eede-se ace se ene aoe eee 1,50

6 STANDARD BOOKS.

Keeping One Cow.
A collection of Prize Essays, and selectionsfrom a number of other
Essays, with editorial notes, suggestions, ete. This book gives the
latest information, and in a clear and condensed form, upon the man-
agement of a single Milch Cow. Mlustrated with full-page engray-
ings of the most famous dairy cows. Recently published. Cloth,
MMO cases <2 25 Wo anne a nae eon sens seem e nan seme eo oe neo 1.00

Law's Veterinary Adviser
A Guide to the Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Domestic
Animals, This is one of the best works on this subject, and is especi-
ally designed to supply the need of the busy American Farmer, who
can rarely avail himself of the advice of a Scientific Veterinarian. It
is brought up to date and treats of the Prevention of Disease, as well
as of the Remedies. By Prof. Jas. Law. Cloth, Crown 8yo----- 3.00

Guenon’s Treatise on Milch Cows.
A Treatise on the Bovine Species in General. An entirely new trans-
lation of the last edition of this popular and instructive bock. By
Thos. J. Hand, Secretary of the American Jersey Cattle Club. With
over 100 Illustrations, especially engraved for this work. Cloth, 12mo.

The Cider Maker’s Handbook.
A complete guide for making and keeping pure cider. By J. M. Trow-
budge: Hullyilnstrareds, iClothy l2mos ==. --=s2--5-e eee 1.00

Long’s Ornamental Gardening for Americans.
A treatise on Beautifying Homes, Rural Districts, and Cemeteries. A
plain and practical work at a moderate price, with numerous illus-
trations, and instructions so plain that they may be readily followed.
By Elias A. Long. Landscape Architect. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo,
2.00

The Dogs of Great Britain, America and Other Countries.
New, enlarged and revised edition. Their breeding, training and
management, in health and disease ; comprising all the essential parts
of the two standard works on the dog, by ‘‘ Stonehenge,” thereby fur-
nishing for $2 what once cost $11.25. Contains Lists of all Premiums
given at the last Dog Shows. It Describes the Best Game and Hunt-
ing Grounds in America. Contains over One Hundred Beautiful En-
gravings, embracing most noted Dogs in both Continents, making to-

ether, with Chapters by American Writers, the most Complete Dog
ook ever published.” Cloths 12movss.. -eseeese a] ae ee eae 2.00

Stewart's Feeding Animals.
By Elliot W. Stewart. A new and valuable practical work upon the
laws of animal growth, specially applied to the rearing and feeding
horses, cattle, diary cows, sheep and swive. Jllustrated. Cloth, Tao

How to Co-operate.
A Manual for Co-operators. By Herbert Myrick. This book describes
the how rather than the wherefore of co-operation. In other words it
tells how to manage a co-operative store, farm or factory, and co-op-
erative dairying, banking and fire insurance, and co-operative farmers’
and women’s exchanges for both buying and selling. The directions
given are based on the actual experience of successful co-operative en-
terprises in all parts of the United States. The character and useful-
ness of the book commend it to the attention of all men and women
who desire to better their condition. 12mo. Cloth.-..--------- 1.50

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