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1

GUIDE,

OVE:

GALLERY OF BIKDs

IN THE

DEPARTMENT - OF ZOOLOGY,

BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY).

Part I, Niki

GENERAL SERIES.

SECOND EDITION.

WITH 1. PLATE. AND 7 TEXT-FIGURES:

LONDON.

PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES
OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

1921.

Price Two Shillings and Sixpence.

PRESENTED

The Trustees

OF

THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

GT Ey

TO THE

GALLERY OF BIRDS

IN THE
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY).

Panta,

General Series.

SECOND EDITION.

WihH 1 PLATE AND 7 TEXT-FIGURES:

LON DON:

PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES
OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

1921.

(All rights reserved.)

©)
{ FLAMMAM.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, FLERT STRHET.

Pwr eA Cok,
10 THE FIRST EDITION.

THis Guide to the General Series of Specimens in the Bird
Gallery has been prepared by Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant,
Assistant in the Zoological Department. He has also carried
out the arrangement of the Bird Gallery in its present form.
‘The visitor should notice that at the side of each recess in the
vallery the common names of the kinds of birds there exhibited
are displayed in large capitals, whilst a label is placed on the
glass front of each case showing the common name of any
specially interesting or well-known bird which is near the
label. Further, every specimen has now attached to its
stand, not only its name but a number which is a reference

number for the Guide.

E. RAY LANKESTER.
March 16th, 1905.

In view of the increased cost of printing, it has been thought
desirable to suspend the publication of the complete Guide to
the Gallery of Birds. This consisted of Parts I. and II.

lv PREFACE.

together, an Appendix on the structure of Birds and a series of
25 Plates. A First Edition of Part I., without the Appendix
and the Plates, appeared in 1905. The present Guide is
practically a reprint (with a few verbal corrections) of that
issue, with the addition of the Appendix and Plate XXYV.
Plates I—X XIV. can be purchased separately (price ls. 6d.).

The statements in the Preface to the First Edition are no
longer completely in accordance with the method of labelling

adopted in the Bird Gallery.

SIDNEY F. HARMER,
Director.

British Musnum (Narurat History),
Cromwell Road,
London, S.W. 7.
March, 1921.

CONT kN hs:

PAGE
DerscRIPTION OF THE SPECIMENS IN THE Birnp GALLERY. . ]
APPENDIX ON THE STRUCTURE OF BIRDS jee ee So ee WS37/

INDEX ee AN A ches On eee, Geen 151

we fi

: iy? : d Lat Ftp ue ;

ieak

PETE TITS

DESCRIPTION. OF THE SPECIMENS

IN ‘THE

fe) ine) Ae ee In

In this Gallery, which is devoted to the exhibition of mounted specimens

of the general series of birds, the contents are arranged continuously in
the pier-cases, the order commencing on the right hand as the visitor

enters, and finishing on the left.

Most of the cases occupying the centre and recesses of this Gallery
belong to a special series illustrating the nesting-habits of British birds

which are described in Part II, published separately, of the Guide.

The specimens in the wall-cases and detached cases not belonging to
the nesting-series have each a number attached which is referred to in

this guide by thick black figures enclosed in brackets.

All the species of birds recorded on the British list will be found
incorporated with the general series in their proper places, and marked
with one of the following numbers on differently coloured dises, which
indicate :—

(1) Resident. Breeds in this country,

(2) Regular summer visitor. Breeds.

(3) Regular autumn, winter or spring visitor. Does not
breed.

(4) Occasional visitor. Used to breed.

(5) Occasional visitor. Never known to breed.

In addition to the above a complete series of British birds will be
found exhibited in the pier-cases in the Pavilion at the end of the

Gallery.

2 BIRD GALLERY.

The arrangement adopted in the Gallery is as follows :—

AVES.
Subelass I. SAURURAE. (Lizard-tailed Birds.)

Order Archzopteryges.

FaMIy, Hnerisnh NaME, Cask.
Archeopterygide ........ Archeeopteryx, or Griffon- Right-hand side of
bird, entrance to Gallery.

Subclass IT. NEORNITHES. (Modern Birds.)

Section A. RATITA.

Order I, Struthioniformes.

Struthionidss a... .. Ostriches. 1 and central
case in bay.

Fuhentlac a. 100) | atthe aL Rheas. 1 & 2.

Order III. Dinornithiformes.

Dintornphidce a ween Moas. a:

Order [V. ASpyornithiformes.

Aipyornithids ........ Madagascar Moas. 3.

rder V. s liformes.
Order V. Casuariiform

JL, -UDrovinaiea "ee alae Emus. 4,
JU), (Cheewandlesy es Ru ass Cassowaries. 5 & 6 and

central case,
Order VI. Apterygiformes.

Apberyeidee sie eae Kiwis. 5.
Order VII. Tinamiformes.
Pinvamirdseeeey seta Le eee: Tinamous. Central table-case.

Section B. CARINATA.

Order I. Galliformes.

Suborder 1. PERISTEROPODES.

ieMerapodida: star: Megapodes, or Mound- pits
builders.
UiCracidsisi US Re wat aah Curassows and Guans. 7&8.

Suborder 2. ALECTOROPODES.
American Partridges,G uinca-
I. Phasianidee sternite w , Fowls, Turkeys, Pheasants,
Partridges, Quails.
EieMetraonidiee, - 0.8) askance Grouse, 17 & 18.

9-16 and
central case.

CLASSIFICATION.

Order II. Pterocletiformes.
Fami.y. Eneuisn Name.
Bteroclidses a. see. Sand-Grouse.

Order III. Turniciformes.

Case.
Table-case.

AMIMCIA 5 keel ns Hemipodes, or Bustard-Quails. Table-case.

Order IV. Columbiformes.

OD ae iain ts Dodo, Solitaire.
MesDidtnewldse ee see e Tooth-billed Pigeon.
PE *Columbide eee cases Pigeons.

Order V. Ralliformes.

Wee Ralivdese Ser eee ccs Rails.

PeHeliornithidss 3.5... Finfoots.
Order VI. Podicipediformes.
Podicipedide 9) fa... Grebes.
Order VII. Colymbiformes.
Wolymbidee 9 Giseas se Divers.
Order VIJI. Sphenisciformes.
' Spheniscide = ........ Penguins,
Order IX. Procellariiformes.
eWiomedeidsy sees 4s ce Albatvoses.
ieerocellaridse seuss): Petrels.
Order X. Alciformes.
led cere eee Races Auks.
Order XI. Lariformes.

I. Stercorariide ........ Skuas.

ie aridcaees > weegae ss Gulls and Terns.
Order XII. Charadriiformes.
ee Dromadide Wey es ee Crab-Plovers.

TPA Ohionididee ss" | asec eis ee Sheathbills.

EI Atiagides. aie Seed-Snipes.

DVeeCharadridse. — 9) )osnecee Plovers.

Wa @ursorideer vet) steno Coursers.
WileuGilareolidca yy secnete ae Pratincoles.
Waltieaearrid sae i cane heen. Jacanas,

Vililen Ckidienemiid se. uence seer Stone-Plovers.

TEX Otidide. - 9 teense? Bustards,

Order XIII. Opisthocomiformes.

Opisthocomide ......,, Hoatzins,

Table-cases, and
picture in cases 19-20,
19.
19 & 20,

22.
22.

ie
216
Central case.

23.
23 & 24.

24,

26.
25 & 26.

27.
27.
27.
27 & 28.
29.
29,
29,
29,
29 & 30 and
central case.

Table-case,

BQ

BIRD GALLERY.

Order XIV. Gruiformes.

Famizy, EnerisH Name. CASE.
J. Aramid nesses Limpkins. dl.
II. Rhinochetide j§ ........ Kagus. dl.
WO Lorre rer ey a a ineriarin Sun-Bitterns. 51.
DV MGariamidse eahn PP iat-iclstars |e % Cariamas. ol.
V.cPsophiidee yy an ea. Trumpeters. 51.
WAU Garnid'es sii), uetetanetereters Cranes. 31 & 32.
Order XV. Ardeiformes.
TeerArdeda 9s eiagomm Herons and Bitterns. 33 & 34.
II. Baleenicipitide ........ Shoe-billed Storks. 30.
ME Scopidee Siw ie emis Hammer-head Storks. 30.
TVeet@icontidg ie. pies Storks. 35 & 36.
Welindides 9 tcc Ibises. 30,
VI. Plataleidto ..-+0... Spoonbills. 36,

Order XVI. Anseriformes.

s < : 7_A9
RO ethic tye or gl ee Ducks, Geese, 37-42 and
Swans. central case.
Order XVII. Phcenicopteriformes.
Pheepicopteride ...-...< Flamingoes. 42,
Order X VIII. Palamedeiformes.
alamederdso an seeearisniaet Screamers. 42,
Order XIX, Pelecaniformes,
I. Phalacrocoracide ........ Darters, Cormorants. 43.
Slides says a ae Gannets. 48.
LilieeBelecanidcesss ss ue cescieeisie Pelicans. 44,
TV wiltrecatide 9 8. eres Frigate-birds. 44,
Veebhaethontide, 9 cuss. ns Tropic-birds. 44,
Order XX. Cathartiformes.
@athartidce a ee ceinerce Turkey-Vultures. 45 and table-case.
Order XXI. Serpentariiformes.
DSEPEMbATTG 9 Gi es sos Secretary-birds. 45,
Order XXII. Accipitriformes.
Ifsn, Worhkamecbas, 9 i |) Stoo ora Vultures. 45 & 46 and table-ease.
WE, Iteileomigk 4) ba Bao ee Hagles, Hawks. 46-53.
THUG eenmolionyyesy) Bibs 6 ans Ospreys. 53.
Order XXIII. Strigiformes.
IEeiiyomcCky = == Sago gust Horned and Wood-Owls. 54 and table-case.
Mi seirieidses keel. oe Barn-Owls. 54.
Order XXIV. Psittaciformes.
Miadesittacide 9 8) sca eas True Parrots. 55 & 56.
TL. florida a 2) cgay pda Lories or Brush-tongued 56.

Parrots.

CLASSIFICATION.

Order XX V. Coraciiformes,

Paminy. Eneuisu NAME.

I. Steatornithide ........ Oil-birds,
WteBodarpidee ike cas s Frog-mouths.
Ni eedimidaae us ese es Kingfishers.

IV. Leptosomatids ........ Kirombos.
Wes'Ooraciidzay ead ds! Rollers.
Wi Meropides 0 as. cage ee Bee-eaters.
Wkly Miomotidas, srt ae Motmots.
WALES Rodidasrt Ws, GT hri sees Todies.
EXC Upupidesn” 9 1). 1 i ae Hoopoes.
Mepucerotiday 7 ics a8 Hornbills.
AA Caprimuleidg vex. «si Nightjars or Goatsuckers.
DU @ypselidey sens eos Swifts.
NCHS Erochilidey We... 26 Humming-birds.
EORVEACOlIGE Ss BLE |) extatard ihre Colies.

Order XX VI. Trogoniformes.
Mrogonidier aw niwinals Trogons,

Order XX VII. Cuculiformes.

aGuculidesay oy esac. cya Cuckoos:
Hl Miusophapide on eas Touracos.

Order XXVIII. Piciformes.

I. Rhamphastide ........ Toucans.

TE Capitonides F | asses e Barbets.
Wii indieatorides: | a aes se Honey-guides.
UNS Bae” | 0 he al rcrnio ace Woodpeckers.
Wen uccomidee: | agiele= Puff-birds.
WEE Galbulideer, 7 y seek se Jacamars.

Order XXIX. Eurylemiformes.
Bumyleemidey, 7a. ccie ten Broadbills.

Order XXX. Menuriformes.

Merturidges = oy iistvaeesin Lyre-birds.

Order XX XI. Passeriformes.
Section A. MESOMYODI,

Group I. TRACHEOPHON.

i; Pteroptochide % ° Wie sss. - Tapacolas,
I, Conopophagide ~" -.°..... Conopophagas.
Til Hormicarids 9 eens. = « Ant-birds.
IV. Dendrocolaptide ........ W ood-hewers.
Group If. OLigomyop&.
UM Orayortaye (0s eee oe eter American Chatterers.
IU G, 2a eraclesy er ceca Manakins.
cy Oxyrhamphidie,” 4... 2... Sharp-bills.

DV Pyrannidse 9 wien ese Tyrant-birds.

59 & 60.
61,
61.
62.
63.

63.

64.
63.

65.
65.
65.
66.
67.
67.

67:

67.

Ug

VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.

XIII.

XIV.
XV.

XVI.

XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.
XXVI.

XXVII.
XXVIII.

XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIIL.

XXXIV.

XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.

XLL
XLII.
XLII.
DY.

Famity.

. Phytotomide
. Pittide

. Philepittidee
VIII.

Xenicidee

. Atrichornithidee
. Hirundinide
. Muscicapidee
. Campophagidee
. Pycnonotide
Val:

Timeliidee
Troglodytidee
Cinclidee
Mimidee
Turdide
Sylviidee
Vireonidee
Ampelidz
Artamidee
Vangidee
Prionopidee
Laniidee
Paride
Panuridee
Chameeidee
Regulide
Sittidee
Certhiidze
Zosteropidee
Dicxide
Nectariniide
Drepanididee
Meliphagide
Mniotiltides
Motacillidee
Alaudidze
Fringillidze
Coerebidee
Tanagride
Ploceidze
Icteridze
Oriolidee
Dicruridz
Kurycerotidee
Eulabetidee
Sturnidee

BIRD GALLERY.

eee eeoee

Eveuisu Nan.

Plant-cutters. -
Pittas or Ant-thrushes.
Wattled Ant-thrushes.

New Zealand Bush- Wrens.

Section B. ACROMYODI.

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aia bei ove 4; (ire.

Ce ee ee

Ptilonorhynchidee ........

Paradiseidee
Corvidze

¢

a eC

Serub-birds.
Swallows.
Flycatchers.
Cuckoo-Shrikes.
Bulbuls.

Babblers.

Wrens.

Dippers,
Mocking-birds.
Thrushes.

Warblers.
Greenlets.
Chatterers.
Swallow-Shrikes.
Madagascar Shrikes.
Wood-Shrikes.
Shrikes or Butcher-birds.
Tits or Titmice.
Bearded Tits.
Wren-Tits,
Golden-crested Wrens.
Nuthatches.
Tree-Creepers.
White-eyes.
Flower-peckers.
Sun-birds.

Hawaiian Honey-suckers.

Honey-suckers,
American Warblers.
Waetails and Pipits.
Larks.

Finches and Buntings.
American Creepers.
Tanagers.

Weaver-F inches.
Hang-nests.

Orioles.

Drongos.

Madagascar Starlings.
Tree-Starlings.
Starlings.
Bower-birds.
Paradise-birds.

Crows.

Cask.

73

12

75.

76.

83.

Central table-case.
Central case.
8&3 & 84.

STRUTHIOUS BIRDS. 7

[ Right-hand side of entrance

Subclass [. SAURURE. to Gallery. Restoration and

framed cast of fossil remains. |
Fossil remains, hitherto only found in the lithographic slate of

Solenhofen, in Bavaria, indicate that birds existed in the Upper Jurassic
geological age, differing in certain points from those now existing. The
Jaws were armed with teeth, and the three digits of the fore-limb were
furnished with claws. The tail consisted of a series of elongated
vertebra, gradually tapering to the extremity, each vertebra bearing a
pair of well-developed feathers. As the skeleton of the tail rather
resembled that of a Reptile than that of a modern Bird, the name
Saurure, signifying ‘ Lizard-tailed,’ has been applied to the group.

The best known representative of this subclass is the Archeopteryx
lithographica (1). A cast of the fossil remains of this remarkable form
is exhibited at the entrance to the Bird Gallery. For full particulars
the reader is referred to the ninth edition of the “ Guide to the Fossil
Mammals and Birds,” pp. 98-95 (1909).

Subclass II. NEORNITHES.

This Subclass includes all the remaining forms, both recent and
fossil, included in the Class Aves, and may be divided into two sections :
A. Ratite, and B. Carinate. The first contains the Struthious Birds
and the Tinamous, and the second all the existing Birds not included
in the previous division.

Section A. RATIT A.
STRUTHIOUS BIRDS AND 'TINAMOUS.

In this Subclass are included all the great flightless species of the
Ostrich-tribe commonly known as the Struthious Birds, as well as the
Tinamous. The name Ratitz is derived from the raft-like breast-bone
of the former, which is devoid of a keel for the attachment of the pectoral
muscles. As these muscles gradually ceased to be used they became
degenerate, the keel for their attachment disappeared, and, as a result,
the birds lost the power of flight. Though at the present period
represented by comparatively few members, which are confined to
Africa, the Papuan group of islands, Australia, New Zealand, and
South America, the “ Ratites ” were formerly much more numerous in
species, and ranged over parts of the earth where they have iong since
ceased to exist. A number of fossil forms are known.

The Ratite may be distinguished from all other birds by the bones
of the palate, the pterygoid never forming a jointed articulation with

8 BIRD GALLERY.

the palatine, but forming a close union either by fusion or by over-
lapping suture with the base of the vomer.

The majority of the members of this group have become flightless,
a fact which has brought about many modifications of the skeleton
and feathers. The ‘linamous alone have retained the power of
flight.

Tie Ratite are divisible into seven Orders, probably derived from
three distinct stocks. Hach Order can be readily defined, and presents
one or more points which indicate extreme specialization.

On account of the structure of the palate, the members of this section
may be regarded as the most primitive of living birds.

The seven Orders of the Ratitz are the following :—

1. Struthioniformes . One genus, Struthio.
2. Rheitormes ...... Two genera, Rhea and Pterocnemia.
3. Dinornithiformes -

eee Numerous genera. Extinct forms.
4., ee 5

5. Casuariiformes .... Two genera, Casuarius and Dromeus.

6. Apterygiformes... One living genus, Apteryx, and two
extinct genera.

7. Tinamiformes ... Numerous genera.

The characters by which the Orders are distinguished are fully
explained in the table-case in the first bay.

eres Order 1. STRUTHIONIFORMES. Osrricu-rerer.

in Bay. }|

Though closely allied to the Rheas, which they resemble in general
appearance, the members of this order may be at once distinguished
from all others by possessing only dwo toes. Of these the one corre-
sponding to the middle of the three anterior toes in ordinary birds (the
third of the complete set) is much the largest and supports the greater
part of the weight. It bears a stout pointed nail. The smaller outer
(or fourth) toe often wants the nail. The whole of the head and neck
as well as the legs are bare, or only covered with short down. The body-
feathers are single, having no aftershaft, aud the feathers of the wings
and tail (corresponding to the ‘remiges’” and ‘ rectrices”
birds) are of considerable size, but soft and plumose.

of ordinary

Family StrurHionip&., OstRicuEs.

The Ostriches, the largest of living birds, are represented by the
single genus Struthio, which contains at least four living species

OSTRICHES. 9

inhabiting Africa and Arabia. In former times their range was
much more extensive, and fossil forms have been found in the Pliocene of
the Siwalik Hills of India and in the Upper Miocene of Samos. The
Common or Northern Ostrich (S. camelus) (8) is found in Northern
and Western Africa, and ranges eastwards to Abyssinia, Arabia, and
South Palestine; a somewhat different form, the Masai Ostrich
(S. massaicus) (34), inhabits Hast Africa; in Somali-land and Central
Africa S. molybdophanes occurs ; andin South Africa its place is taken
by S. australis (2), which is exhibited in all stages of plumage, from
the nestling to the adult, in the central Case.

The males are larger than the. females, standing about eight feet
high, and in all the species are black with white wings and tail. They
may, however, be readily distinguished inter se, for S. camelus and
S. massaicus have the skin of the head and neck of a bright flesh-
colour, while in the other two species it is grey; S. camelus and
S. molybdophanes have a horny shield on the crown, which is wanting
in S. massaicus and S. australis. The plumage of the females and
young males is brownish-grey. The general tint of the eggs laid by
all four species is pale cream-colour, but the texture of the shell differs
greatly.

Ostriches inhabit the sandy wastes and deserts, as well as districts
studded with low bushes, and are often found associating with herds of
zebras and antelopes. ‘Though as many as fifty individuals may some-
times be seen in company, they are more often met with in parties of
five or six, especially during the breeding-season, when the polygamous
male is accompanied by several hens. ‘The hens belonging to one male
lay their eggs in the same nest, which is a shallow excavation dug in
the sand. As many as thirty eggs are sometimes deposited in the pit,
and many more are dropped around which are said to serve as food
for the newly-hatched young. The contents of an egg are equal to
about two dozen hen’s eggs. The male undertakes nearly the whole
duty of incubation, which lasts for six or seven weeks, being occasion-
ally relieved by the hens during the daytime. He especially looks
after the nest at night, and broods over the eggs, though in many
tropical countries the latter are covered over with sand and left to the
heat of the sun during the daytime.

The Ostrich was formerly much hunted for the sake of its curled
plumes, but since the establishment of Ostrich-farms the chase, except
for sport, has been almost abandoned. On the large South African
farms, where numbers of birds are annually reared, the plumes are
plucked every six or nine months.

[Cases
1 & 2.]

10 BIRD GALLERY.

Order II. RHEIFORMES. Ruea-rtrise.

In South America the place of the Ostriches of the Old World is
taken by an allied group of birds called Rheas, or “ American Ostriches,”
which are distinguished by certain structural characters, and externally
by the presence of three toes furnished with compressed claws, by the
fully-feathered head and neck, and by the absence of a conspicuously
feathered tail. The wings also are proportionately larger, and are
covered with long slender plumes. As in the Séruthionide, the
body-feathers are single, withont an aftershaft, a character which
separates these birds from the Emus and Cassowaries.

Family Raxipa. RuHeas.

The Rheas include three South American species, viz. :—Roth-
schild’s Rhea (Rhea rothschildi) (4), found from Southern Brazil and
Bolivia southwards; the Great-billed Rhea (R. americana) inhabiting
North-east Brazil; and Darwin’s Rhea (Pterocnemia pennata) (6),
from the southern part of the continent. All bear considerable
resemblance to their African allies, and are often called ‘‘ South
American Ostriches,” but they are smaller and easily distinguished
by the characters already mentioned.

They inhabit the great Pampas and scrub-covered plains in larger or
smaller flocks, often associating with deer and guanacos. In the month
of July the pairing-season begins, and the males then utter a deep
resonant booming noise and give vent to various weird sounds. ‘The
young males are driven from the flock, and the cock birds fight viciously
with one another for the possession of the females. The battles are
conducted in a curious manner, the combatants twisting their long
necks together and biting at each other’s heads with tleir beaks, while
they turn round and round in a circle, pounding the ground with their
feet. The females of the flock all lay together in a natural depression
of the ground, each hen laying a dozen or more eggs. If the females
are many, the male usually drives them away before they finish laying,
and commences to sit. ‘The hens then drop their eggs about the plains,
and, from the large number of wasted eggs found, it seems probable
that more are dropped out of the nest than in it. The colour of the
egg when fresh is a fine golden yellow. The young when hatched are
assiduously tended and watched over by the cock-bird, who charges
an intruder with outstretched wings.

Rheas take readily to water, and can swim across a river several
hundred yards wide, the body being almost entirely submerged. They
are easily acclimatized, and often kept in parks in this country, where
they frequently breed. The feathers are of little commercial value,

MOAS, 1]

Order III. DINORNITHIFORMES.

Family Dinornituip®. Moas.

New Zealand was formerly inhabited by a gigantic race of birds
called Moas, some species of which considerably exceeded in size the
modern Ostriches. The situation and state of preservation of the
abundant remains which have been found indicate that they existed till
comparatively recent times, and were probably exterminated by the
present Maori inhabitants of the islands. Feathers which have been
found associated with the bones show the presence of a large after-
shaft, as in the Emus and Cassowaries; but some of the species
resemble the Kiwis (Apteryx) in possessing a hind toe. Wings were
absent, and the shoulder-girdle was only represented by a vestige.

The Moas are represented by several genera, the largest member
being Dinornis maximus (1), a gigantic bird, of which a skeleton is
exhibited. Some of the species seem to have survived until about four
or five hundred years ago, or even later in the South Island, but being
flightless, their extinction by the natives, who hunted them for their
flesh, was an easy task.

Besides large quantities of bones, some of which have been obtained
from native cooking-places, portions of the skin and feathers have
been discovered, as well as pebbles used to aid digestion, and eggs both
whole and fragmentary. For further particulars the visitor is referred
to the ninth edition of the “ Guide to the Fossil Mammals and Birds,”
p- 92 (1909).

Order [V. AAPYORNITHIFORMES.

Family AlpyornirnHip®. Mapbacascar Moas.

Fossil remains from superficial deposits im Madagascar show the
existence, in a very recent geological period, of several species of Ratite
birds, which bear much resemblance to the Dinornithide. One of their
most striking characteristics was the enormous size (both absolute and
relative) of the egg, in which respect they resemble the Kiwis (Apteryz)
of New Zealand rather than the Moas. ‘The largest species, dipyornis
titan (8), of which a cast of the leg is exhibited, stood about 10 feet
high, and its eggs exceed all others in size, some of the shells containing
from two to three gallons of liquid, or an amount equal to the contents
of about one hundred and fifty hen’s eggs. An example exhibited
measures :—long circumference 2 ft. 9 ins., girth 2 ft. 5 ims. These
birds are believed by many to be identical with the famous “ Roc”

mentioned by the traveller Marco Polo, and it is supposed that some of

the species were in existence not more than two hundred years ago.

[Cf. Fossil Guide, p. 92 (1909).]

[Case 3.]

[Case 3.]

[Case 4.]

12 BIRD GALLERY.

Order V. CASUARIIFORMES. Emus anp CassowaRIEs.

In the two families (Dromeide and Casuariide) comprising this
order the wings are still more reduced in size and the “ fingers” are
represented by one claw-bearing digit. The body-feathers have an
aftershaft or accessory plume as long as the main feather.

Family I. Dromaipm. Emus.

The Emus agree with the Cassowaries in possessing a large after-
shaft to the body-feathers, but the bill is broad and flat, the head and
upper part of the neck have a scanty hair-like covering, and horny
casque, helmet and ornamental wattles are wanting. The wings are
exceedingly small and, like the tail, entirely concealed beneath the
general covering of feathers. The three toes have claws of similar
form and nearly equal size.

The only species surviving at the present time is the common Emu
(Dromeus nove-hollandie) (9), which inhabits Australia. A small
Black Emu (D. parvulus) was formerly found on the Island of Decrés
or Kangaroo, but is now extinct and known only from two specimens
preserved in the Paris Museum and from a skeleton in the Museum at
Florence. It is possible that a third species existed within recent times,
for the Tasmanian form was apparently distinct from the Australian
species. ‘These great birds frequent the desert sandy plains and open
bush-districts, feeding on fruit, roots, and herbage; they are very keen-
sighted, and, like their allies, run with great rapidity. Unlike the
Rheas and Ostriches, they are monogamous, though found in small
parties after the breeding-season. The female deposits her eggs, from
seven to thirteen or more in number, in a hollow scratched in the
ground, and the male performs the duties of incubation, which last for
about eight weeks. ‘The young are greyish-white, beautifully striped
with black, and the eggs when first laid are of a rich sap-green, but
this colour gradually fades to dull grcenish-black.

The female is rather smaller than the male, and both sexes possess a
remarkable pouch formed by the inner lining of the windpipe. This
pouch leaves the trachea through a slit in the anterior wall, and can be
inflated at the will of the bird. The inflation is probably connected
with the low, resonant, booming note uttered during the nesting-season.
Owing to the constant persecution to which they are subjected, Emus
are becoming scarcer year by year. Being hardy birds they are easily
domesticated and breed readily in parks both in this country and in
Europe.

A fossil species occurs in the Pleistocene of Queensland and New
South Wales.

CASSOWARIES. 13

Family II. Casvarrpe. Cassowarizs.

The Cassowaries (10-20) resemble the Emus (Dromeide) and the Moas [Cases 5,
(Dinornithide), inasmuch as the feathers clothing the general surface of tral Case]
the body appear to be double, the aftershaft or accessory plume being as
long as the main feather. They differ, however, in the peculiar structure
of the wing, which is extremely small and has the quill-feathers reduced
in number to five or six. These consist of stout bare shafts without
any barbs, and project conspicuously beyond the body-feathers. The
bill is compressed, the top of the head carries a horny casque or
helmet, varying in form in the different species, and some part of the
neck is bare, generally more or less ornamented with caruncles or
wattles and brightly coloured. The inner toe is armed with a long
sharp, powerful claw.

About fourteen species are known, and with the exception of the
Australian Cassowary (Casuarius australis) (10), which is found in the
Cape York Peninsula and extends as far south as Rockingham Bay, all are
natives of the Papuan group of islands extending eastward to New Britain.
They inhabit the dense forests and scrub, and are never met with in the
open plains. ‘The nest—a mere depression among the fallen leaves and
débris below bushes and undergrowth—contains from three to six large
eges of a bright green colour. Incubation lasts for about seven weeks,
and, as in the allied forms, is performed by the male bird, who also
tends the young when hatched. The nestlings are clothed in rusty
brown with darker stripes, and at a later period become more tawny,
finally assuming the glossy black hair-like plumage of the adult. The
wattles and bright colours on the neck are assumed at a compara-
tively early period, but the helmet is very gradually developed. Casso-
waries run with great swiftness, and when evading pursuit leap over
high obstacles with wonderful agility ; they are also strong swimmers,
and able to cross wide rivers with ease. Their cry is a loud, harsh,
quickly repeated guttural sound audible at a great distance. Their skin
is manufactured into mats and head-ornaments by the natives.

Order VI. APTERYGIFORMES.

Family Apreryerpm. Krwis. (Plate I.)

The Kiwis are the smallest of the flightless Ratite, and differ from all [Case 5.)
existing forms of Struthious birds in possessing a small hind toe or hallux
and in the length of the bill, the nostrils of which are placed near the
tip, instead of at the base as is the case in most birds. The feathers
have no aftershaft. The wings are so small that they are completely
concealed by the general body-clothing, and there is no visible tail.

[Case 15. ]

| Ceuitral
table-
case. |

14 BIRD GALLERY.

The legs and feet are very stout and the claws long, curved, and sharp-
pointed.

The four or five known species are all natives of New Zealand. They
are nocturnal birds and sleep during the day in some secluded retreat in
burrows in the ground or under tree-roots; in the dusk they are lively
enough, creeping quietly about in search of worms, insects, and berries,
for which they hunt with a continual sniffing sound, much lke that
made by a hedgehog. ‘Though formerly common at low elevations, they
are now chiefly met with on the slopes of the mountains, where the
dense undergrowth affords them some protection from their enemies.
{bough found in small flocks at certain seasons of the year, they
separate off in pairs in the breeding-season. The nest is merely an
enlarged space at the end of a burrow, lined with dry fern and herbage,
and contains one or two very large white eggs, enormous compared with
the size of the bird, and equal to about a quarter of its weight. The
male performs most, if not all, of the duties of incubation. The loud
whistling note, from whence the name Kiwi is derived, is chiefiy
uttered on bright nights. The Maories greatly esteem the flesh of these
birds, and the systematic way in which they are hunted must sooner or
later end in their extermination.

Mantell’s Kiwi (A. mantelli) (21), inhabiting the North Island,
Shaw’s Kiwi (A. australis) (22) [P1.I.],a smaller form from the South
Island, and 4. lawryi, of Stewart Island, are streaked species ; while
Owen’s Kiwi (A. oweni) (28) and Haast’s Kiwi (A. haasti) (24),
occurring both in the North and South Islands, belong to a dif-
ferently marked group, with the feathers transversely marked with
blackish bars.

Order VII. TINAMIFORMES.

Family Tinamipa. ‘Trnamovs.

The Tinamous are sometimes placed at the end of the subclass of
Carinate Birds, the sternum being provided with a keel, while all the
members are capable of flight; but they agree so well in their other
osteological characters with the Struthious group that they are here
included in the same subclass.

The Tinamous are Partridge-like birds inhabiting Mexico and Central
and South America, and vary in size from species as large as a Fowl
to birds no larger than a Quail. The bill is rather long and generally
somewhat curved, the head small, the neck long and rather thin, the
wings short and rounded, and the tail-feathers greatly abbreviated and
more or less concealed by the upper tail-coverts, from which in many
cases they are hardly distinguishable, Most of the genera possess four

TINAMOUS. 15

toes, the hind toe or hallux being generally developed. Powder-down
patches are present near the rump in certain forms. The eggs are
specially remarkable, being highly glossed or burnished, and unlike
those of any other bird.

Between sixty and seventy species are enumerated in the most recent
treatise on the group. All are essentially ground-birds, and rarely
perch, but haunt the undergrowth of thick forests, grassy flats inter-
spersed with bushes, or open pampas. They are great runners, and
generally difficult to flush; but once on the wing, their flight is strong
and swift. The cry is a mellow whistle composed of several notes, and
varies somewhat in the different species. The nest, a hole scraped in
the ground under the shelter of some bush or tuft of grass, is lined
with dry herbage and leaves, and, as in the Struthious birds, the male
undertakes the duties of incubation. The number of eggs is said
to vary from four to sixteen, the latter number being probably the
produce of more than one female. The eggs vary in colour in the
different genera, some being vinous, reddish-chocolate, or dull purple,
others dark blue, bluish-green, sage-green, or primrose-colour, and the
shell in all resembles glazed porcelain or burnished metal.

In all the Tinamous the plumage is inconspicuous, the general colour
being some shade of brown, greyish or buff, more or less mottled and
barred. One of the largest species 1s Tinamus solitarius (25), a native
of Paraguay and Southern Brazil; but the most familiar is the Rufescent
Tinamou (Rhynchotus rufescens) (27), found in the open pampas from
Brazil southwards, and known as the “ Perdiz grande.” It has been
introduced into England, and stands our climate well; but as a gvame-
bird it cannot be called a success, being of solitary habit and difficult
to flush. Once on the wing its flight is very fast and extraordinarily
noisy; with constantly vibrating wings, the bird flies straight away
for about 1000 yards before it slopes gradually to the earth. Of the
other genera belonging to this section possessing a hind toe (Tinamina)
examples will be found im Nothoprocta perdicaria (28) and several
species of Crypturus (29-82). Two genera have no hind toe and form
the section Tinamotidine; examples of these will be found in Tinamotis
pentlandi (83) and Calopezus elegans (84), the latter remarkable for its
long crest of black feathers.

16 BIRD GALLERY.

Section B. CA RINAT A. Carinate Brrps.

All existing birds which do not belong to the Ratite are included in
one great division—the Carinate—characterised by the fact that the
pterygoid bone articulates with the palatine by means of a joint. The
vomer is much reduced or absent.

In some few birds belonging to several different subdivisions of this
great group the keel of the breast-bone is extremely reduced in size,
and the power of flight is almost or entirely lost, as is the case in the
flightless Ratitze.

The division of the Carinate into orders and families, and the mutual
relations of these groups to one another, are subjects of great difficulty
upon which zoologists are by no means as yet agreed. ‘The classification
adopted in this gallery, which represents the general result of much
recent work, must therefore be looked upon as provisional.

Thirty-one Orders are recognised in this scheme.

Order I. GALLIFORMES. Game-Brrps.

This order is composed of the great bulk of the species commonly
known as “Game”-Birds. Nearly 400 different kinds are known,
forming a well-defined group.

The bill is short and stout, the upper mandible being arched and
overhanging the lower mandible. The body is well built and robust,
the great development of the pectoral muscles giving these birds a well-
fed, sturdy appearance. The legs and toes are fairly long and strong
and well adapted for walking and running, and the latter are provided
with stout curved claws, suitable for scratching and digging up roots,
insects, and other food. The hind toe is always present, but varies in
size and position.

The feathers covering the body are provided with a well-developed
aftershaft.

The young when hatched are covered with soft, beautifully patterned
down (except in the Megapodes, vide infra), and are able to rua within
a few hours of the time they emerge from the shell. The eggs, especially
of the smaller species, are often numerous, and, when spotted, have only
a single set of surface-marks, which are easily removed, none of the
pale underlying spots characteristic of the Sand-Grouse, Hemipodes,
and Wading-birds being found.

Two Suborders are recognised,

GAME-BIRDS, 7

Suborder I. PERISTEROPODES.

The first suborder of the Game-Birds includes two families, which are
easily distinguished by the following characteristics :—The hind toe
(hallux) is on the same level as the other toes, and the inner notch of the
breast-bone (s¢ernum) is less than half the length of the entire breast-
bone. The first family includes the Megapodes and Brush-Turkeys
(Megapodiide) ; the second the Curassows, Penelopes, and Guans

(Cracide) .

Family I. Mrearopitpm. Mucaronrs.

The Megapodes or Mound-builders are remarkable not only in having
the oil-gland at the base of the tail nude, but for their peculiar nesting.
habits, which possess the highest interest. The eggs, which are very
large for the size of the birds, are laid at considerable intervals, and
either deposited in holes dug in the sand or in a mound of soil and
decaying vegetable matter raised by one or more pairs of birds. The
young are hatched as in an incubator by the warmth of the mound or
sand, without the aid of the parent birds, and on leaving the shell
are fully feathered, able to fly and take care of themselves. In all the
species the legs and feet are very large and strong, and well adapted for
digging and scratching,

Of the true Megapodes—all dull-coloured birds—examples will be
found in Megapodius cumingt (81) and M. freycineti (38). Like most
of the other members of this family, they form a nesting-mound by
kicking the soil and dead vegetable matter backwards into a common
centre, thus forming a large heap, which is usually situated in dense
jungle. By the efforts of successive generations this sometimes
attains incredible dimensions, one instance being on record where the
circumference round the base of the mound was no less than 150 feet.
Each mound is said to be the property of one pair only, and the female,
having deposited her eggs and covered them up, leaves them to be
incubated by the heat of the accumulated decomposing matter.

As may be seen by the young of M. cumingi (81) taken from the
mound, the young bird when hatched is well-feathered and able to fly.
The egg is remarkably large in proportion to the size of the parent.

The most handsomely marked members of the group are Wallace’s
Megapode (Kulipoa wallacei) (40), from the Moluccas, and Lipoa
ocellata (41), from Southern and Western Australia. To the same
family belong the Australian Brush-Turkeys (Catheturus) (43) and
their allies from New Guinea (7Talegallus) (42). The most remarkable
is the Maleo (Megacephalon maleo) (89), a native of Celebes, with its
delicate pink breast and an ornamental bare knob on the head.

c

[Case 7. ]

18 BIRD GALLERY.

Unlike the other members, this bird makes no mound, but lays its eggs,
which are deposited at intervals of ten or twelve days, in holes in the
sand on the sea-beach just above high-water mark. The birds visit
the shore in pairs. Several females deposit their eggs in the same
hole, and having covered them with sand return to the forest and take
no further notice of them.

Family II. Cracrpz. CurRaAssows aND GUANS.

The Curassows and Guans are distingaished from the Megapodes
by having a tufted oil-gland, and differ entirely in their breeding-
habits. The eggs, which are white and usually two in number, are
laid in a nest made either in a tree or on the ground, and are incubated
in the usual manner. The young when hatched are covered with down.

Nearly sixty species are known, all inhabitants of the forest-regions
of Central and South America, where they seem to take the place of
the larger Game-Birds of the Old World.

They may be grouped into three subfamilies :—A. With the upper
mandible higher than broad (1. Cracine). B. With the mandible
broader than high and with the top of the head mostly naked, and
having an elevated cylindrical, occipital helmet (2. Oreophasine), or,
with the top of the head feathered and without a helmet (8. Pene-
lopine).

The true Curassows have the feathers on the top of the head
semierect and curled at the extremity, and are represented by Craw
alector (44), a native of the northern parts of South America. Some of
the allied species differ in having a swollen knob at the base of the
upper mandible, and wattles at the base of the lower. They are readily
domesticated in their native country and are valued as food.

One of the most remarkable is Lord Derby’s Mountain-Pheasant
(Oreophasis derbianus) (46), with its curious helmeted head, the sole
representative of its subfamily. This species is only found in
Guatemala, and is apparently restricted to the higher forests of the
Volcan de Fuego. Like the Curassows and Guans, it feeds on fruits
in the higher branches of the forest-trees during the early morning,
and as day advances descends to the underwood, where it spends its
time basking or scratching among the leaves.

The Guans and Penelopes form the last subfamily, which includes
six genera and contains the majority of the species. Of the Penelopes
(Penelope) (41-51), five species are exhibited, and may be recognised by
their naked chin and throat with a median wattle. The Black Penelope
(Penelopina nigra) ($2), from the highlands of Guatemala, is the sole
representative of the second genus, in which the sexes differ in plumage,

GAME-BIRDS. 19

the female being barred with rufous. The Guans (Orialis) (58-55), of
which three species are shown, are very similar birds to the two former,
but there is a thin band of feathers down the middle of the naked
throat, and no wattle. The remaining three genera, Pipile (56),
Aburria (51), and Chamepetes (58, 59), are remarkable in having the
inner web of the first two or three flight-feathers deeply excised.

Suborder II]. ALEctToOROPODES. TRUE Game-Birps.

This group includes the Pheasants, Partridges, and Grouse, which
normally nest on the ground. They are characterised by having the
hind toe (hallur) raised above the level of the other toes, and by
having the inner notch of the breast-bone (sternum) more than half
the length of the entire sternum.

Family I. Poastanip&#. Pueasants, Parrripges, AND QualILs.

The large number of Game-Birds comprising this family are
distinguished from the Grouse by the following characters. The
nostrils are never hidden by feathers, and the legs are either feathered
partially as in the Snow-Partridges (Lerwa) (164) or wholly naked and
often armed with one or more pairs of spurs. The toes are always
devoid of feathers and never pectinate along the sides, the horny
comb-like appendages so characteristic of the Bare-toed Grouse being
invariably absent.

This great family has been divided into the subfamilies Odonto-
phorine, Phasianine, and Perdicine, the first containing the American
Partridges and Quails, the second the Pheasants and Peacocks with
their allies the Turkeys and Guinea-Fowls, and the third the Old-
World Partridge-like forms.

Subfamily I. Odontophorine. American Partridges and Quails.

The Americai Partridges (Odontophorine) are distinguished by
having the cutting-edge of the lower mandible serrated or provided
with a tooth-like process, well marked in the great majority of species,
but in some instances less distinct.

The Scaly Partridge (Callipepla squamata) (60) is a native of the high
barren plateaus of Mexico and the States immediately to the north.
In both sexes the black edges to the feathers give the plumage a scaled
appearance.

Of the Crested Quails (Hupsychortyz) eight small species are known
to inhabit Central America and the north-west of South America. An
example of this group may be seen in the White-faced Crested-Quail

(E. leucopogon) (62).
c2

[Case 9.

j= 4]

[Case 9.]

20 BIRD GALLERY.

Closely allied to the Crested Quails are the Colins or Bob-whites
(Ortyx), of which ten different kinds are found in the United States of
N. America and Mexico, distinguished from the last genus by the
absence of a crest. Of these the best known is the Virginian Colin or
Bob-white (O. virginianus) (61), from the Eastern United States, which
has been introduced into various parts of the Old World. This is the
most prolific of North American Game-Birds, the number of eggs
varying from twelve to eighteen. As many as thirty-seven eggs have
been found in one nest, but they were doubtless the product of more
than one hen.

One of the most beautiful forms is the Plumed Partridge or
Mountain-Quail (Oreortyx pictus) (64), found in the Sierras of the
Western States of North America. Both male and female are nearly
alike in plumage, and have a very long crest composed of two
feathers.

The next genus includes three species, of which the beautiful Cali-
fornian Quail (Lophortyx californicus) (65) is a familiar example
frequently to be seen in aviaries. It inhabits the brush-covered hills
and cafions of the Western States of North America, ascending in
Lower California to an elevation of about 9000 feet.

The Harlequin-Quails (Cyrtonyx), often known as “ Fool-Quails” on
account of their extreme tameness, are found in Central America,
Mexico, and the States immediately to the north. Of the three species
known the Massena Quail (C. montezume) (66) is the handsomest, and
inhabits the rocky. ravines among the higher ranges, being found in
summer at elevations of from 7000 to 9000 feet.

Larger birds of this group are the Thick-billed Partridges (Odonto-
phorus) (67-69), of which more than a dozen species are known
from the forests of Central and South America. They seldom fly
if they can avoid doing so, and when flushed betake themselves to the
branches of trees.

Another forest bird is the Long-nailed Partridge (Dactylortyx
thoracicus) (10), a Central American form, remarkable, like the
Harlequin-Quails, for its very long and nearly straight claws.

Four rather large species of Long-tailed American Partridge (Den-
drortyx) (11, 12) are known from the mountain-forests of South Mexico
and Central America. Two of these are exhibited, and are easily
recognised by their short stout bill and comparatively long tail.

Between the second and third subfamilies of the Phasianide there
appears to be no real line of demarcation, the Pheasants and Peacocks
(Phasianine) and the Old-World Partridges (Perdicine) being in-
timately connected with one another by such forms as the Bamboo-

GAME-BIRDS, Pall

Partridges (Bambusicola), the Stone-Pheasants (Ptilopachys), and the
Indian Spur-Fowl (Galloperdiz). The shape of the wing is perhaps
the most important distinguishing mark, and when taken in connection
with the length of the tail is a useful, if somewhat artificial, character.
In all the Phasianine, with the exception of the two genera Phasianus
and Calophasis, the first flight-feather is much shorter than the tenth,
and it is only by using the combined characters of the shape of the
wing and length of the tail that the two groups can be separated.

Subfamily II. Phasianine. Pheasant-like Game-Birds.

The Pheasants and their allies the Turkeys and Guinea-Fowl may be
recognised by the following characters. The cutting-edge of the lower
mandible is not serrated or provided with a tooth-like process. The
first flight-feather is usually shorter, generally much shorter than the
tenth, rarely equal to it, except in the true Pheasants (Phasianus) and
the Barred-backed Pheasants (Calophasis), but as these possess very
long tails, they are at once seen to belong to the Phasianine.

The most perfect type of Pheasant-wing is found in the Argus
Pheasants (Argusianus), where the first flight-feather is the shortest and
the tenth the longest. As might be expected from the shape of the
wing these birds rarely fly, and always prefer to escape by running very
swiftly through the densest jungle.

The Turkeys (Meleagris) from North and Central America are
among the largest and handsomest members of the group. The chief
characteristics of adult birds are the fleshy wattles, which ornament
the naked head and neck, and the erectile fleshy process on the fore-
head. Of the four North American forms a representative will be
found in the American Turkey (M. americana) (18). This is a woodland-
bird, generally found in flocks, which seek their food on the ground by
day and roost in the highest trees. Though still found in considerable
numbers in the Southern and Central United States this species was
formerly abundant over a much wider range, but constant persecution
has exterminated it in the Northern and Western States, and changed
a once by no means shy bird into the most cunning and wary of all the
Game-Birds. The Mexican Turkey (M. gallopavo), a mountain species
inhabiting the high tablelands of North Mexico and the neighbouring
States up to an elevation of 10,000 feet, is interesting as being the
species from which the domestic breed of Turkey was originally
derived. It differs from the American Turkey in having the upper
tail-coverts and tail-feathers broadly tipped with white. ‘The most
beautiful is undoubtedly the Honduras Turkey (J. ocellata) (14),
from Central America, the colouring of the naked head, brilliant
metallic plumage, and ocellated tail combining to make up a

[Cases
9 & 10.)

|Case 10. }

(Central
Case. |

Case 10.]

59 BIRD GALLERY.

magnificent whole. It will be noted that the male of this species is
without the tassel-like bunch of bristles on the breast characteristic
of the males of the other species. .

The Guinea-Fowl, including five genera, are the representatives of
the Asiatic Pheasants in Africa, and form an intermediate link between
the latter and the Turkeys of America. In all the species the plumage
of the male and female is alike.

A very rare West African form is the Turkey-like Guinea-Fowl
(Agelastes meleagrides) (15), which ranges from Liberia to Gaboon.

The Helmeted Guinea-Fowls (Numida) (11) include eight species,
one of which (N. meleagris) (16) is the wild ancestor of our domestic
breed. Their chief characteristics are the naked head surmounted by
a more or less elevated bony helmet, the wattles on each side of the
gape, and the blackish plumage spotted with white. As a rule they are
found in flocks in the serubby brush. Their flight is comparatively
feeble, but they can run very rapidly, and if hard-pressed take refuge
among the lower branches of any convenient bush or tree, also roosting
there at night.

The Crested Guinea-Fowls (Guttera), of which several kinds are
known, may be distinguished from the last group by their black
crested head, pale blue-spotted plumage, and the white band along the
wing. An example of these will be found in the Curly-crested Guinea-
Fowl (G. cristata) (18) from East Africa.

Of the fifth genus the Vulturine Guinea-Fowl (Acryllium vul-
turinum) (80) is the sole representative. This very handsome bird,
with its brightly coloured hackles and long pointed tail, is a native of
East Africa, The legs of the male bear blunt knobs, which in some
examples number as many as five.

The Peafowl (Pavo) are the largest and most magnificently coloured
birds of the group. Only two species are known, the common
Peafowl (P. cristatus) (81), found throughout India, Assam, and
Ceylon; and the Burmese Peafowl (P. muticus) (82), from the Indo-
Chinese countries, the Malay Peninsula, and Java. The tail, composed
of 20 feathers, is long, but entirely hidden by the upper tail-coverts
which are enormously developed in the male, and form the “ train.”
The common Peafowl frequents broken and jungly ground, where
good cover and water are to be found, and is seldom met with at
elevations exceeding 2000 to 3000 feet. It prefers the neighbourhood
of cultivated fields, and, where numerous, does much harm to
cultivation. At night the male and his harem, consisting of four
or five females, roost on the lower branches of the highest trees.

Intermediate between the Pheasants and Peafowl is a beautiful
group known as the Peacock-Pheasants (Polyplectron). The dense

GAME-BIRDS. 23

jungles and lower hill-forests of the Indo-Malayan countries and the
islands of Sumatra, Borneo, and Palawan are their home. The leg of
the male is armed with two, three, and sometimes four spurs, the
number being rarely the same on the two legs. The Grey Peacock-
Pheasant (P. chinguis) (85) ranges from Sikhim to Tenasserim and
eastwards to the Laos country. The female when followed by her
chicks has a curious habit of carrying her tail widely spread, and the
young always remain hidden beneath it. They run forward when

called by the mother to pick up food, but, having eaten it, immediately _

retreat to their shelter. A very rare species may be seen in the
Bornean Peacock-Pheasant (P. schleiermacheri) (86), which is peculiar
to that island.

The Argus Pheasants are represented by two distinct types, both of
which are exhibited in the Central Case. The true Argus Pheasants
(Argusianus), as already stated, are remarkable for the shape of the
wings, in which the most perfect Pheasant-type is found, the first flight-
feather being the shortest and the tenth the longest. Hven more
remarkable are the enormously developed secondary quills of the male,
beautifully decorated with rows of large ocelli. The Argus Pheasant
(A. argus) (87) ranges from the Laos country and Siam through the
Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, its favourite haunts being the depths of
the evergreen-forests. Here a level spot, shut in by some dense cane-
brake, is chosen by the male, and cleared of all dead leaves and weeds
for a space of six or eight yards square, till nothing but the bare earth
remains. This spot is subsequently kept scrupulously clean, and used
as a dancing-ground. ‘The male spends the greater part of the day
there, and roosts at night on some tree close by. In Borneo a different
and somewhat smaller species (A. grayi) occurs.

Of the second genus (Rheinhardtius) a representative will be found in
Rheinhardt’s Crested Argus (R. ocellatus) (88), one of the rarest of all
the game-birds. In this species no extraordinary development of the
secoudary flight-feathers is found, but the tail is enormously long in
the male. For many years the existence of this bird was only known
from some tail-feathers in the Paris Museum, and it was not until 1883
that a few pairs were obtained by the French durmg the Tonkin war.
A second species has recently been discovered in the native state of
Pahang in the south of the Malay Peninsula.

Of the Jungle-Fowl (Gallus) at least four very distinct species are
known to inhabit the dense jungles of the Indian Peninsula, Indo-
Malayan countries, and the adjacent islands. The tail is carried low in
wild birds; it is only in domestic fowls that it is raised above the back.

During the moult in June, when the long tail- and flight-feathers are
shed, the hackles are replaced by short feathers like those of the

[Central
Case. |

[Case 10,]

[Case 10,]

| Cases
2:

24 BIRD GALLERY.

fernale. A second moult takes place in September, when the short
feathers of the neck are cast, and again replaced by hackles, the
wing- and long tail-feathers having by this time been renewed. This
temporary plumage is doubtless protective, and parallel cases may be
seen in the Black Grouse and in many of the Dueks.

It is from the Red Jungle-Fow] (G. gallus) (89) that all the domestic
breeds of poultry are said to have been originally derived, and remark-
able examples of these varieties may be seen in the Central Hall of the
Museum. One of the most singular comes from Japan, and has extra-
ordinarily elongate tail-coverts, said in some cases to attain a length of
more than 12 feet. It is well known that the descendants of domestic
fowls which have been allowed to escape and run wild in some of the
islands of the Malay Archipelago soon revert to the wild type, and after
a few generations become indistingwishable from the Red Jungle-
Fowl of North India. In Ceylon a different species (G. lafayetti) (90)
is found, the breast-feathers of the male being orange-red, while in the
female they are white margined with black.

The Golden Pheasant (91) and Lady Amherst’s Pheasant (92), the
only representatives of the genus Chrysolophus, are natives of the
mountains of Western China and Eastern Tibet. The splendid plumage
of the males is not surpassed by that of any other bird of the Pheasant
tribe ; but the beautiful white cape and underparts and quieter colouring
of the Lady Amherst are, perhaps, more attractive than the more gaudy
plumage of the Golden Pheasant.

The true Pheasants (Phasianus and Calophasis) are, for many reasons,
the most important as well as the most beautiful of all the Game-Birds.
As already remarked, they are peculiar among the Phasianine in having
the first flight-feather considerably lonyer than the tenth. The most
familiar examples of the former genus are the Common Pheasant
(Phasianus colchicus) (95) and the Chinese Ring-necked Pheasant
(P. torquatus) (96). Both of these have been introduced into the greater
part of Europe and Great Britain. It is not exactly known when the
former, which is found wild in South-eastern Europe and Asia Minor, was
first brought to England, but it is mentioned in the bills-of-fare of the
Saxon kings. ‘The Chinese species, imported at a much later date, has
interbred so freely with the Common or “ Old English ” Pheasant, that
pure-bred birds of either species are now rarely met with in this country.

About eighteen different species of Phasianus are found in Asia, and
of these the majority resemble the Common Pheasant type in the
general colour of their plumage, and a number are shewn in the Case.

The Japanese Pheasant (P. versicolor) (97) and Scemmerring’s
Pheasant (P. semmerringi) (102), found in the same islands, are
somewhat different types, while Reeves’ Pheasant (P. reevesi) (104), from

GAME-BIRDS. 25

Northern and Western China, is the giant of the genus, and remarkable
for its enormously long tail, which in old males attains a length of 5 feet
or even more. This grand game-bird has been introduced into various
parts of Great Britain, but cannot be considered a success, for the males
drive off the Common and Ring-necked Pheasant and do not interbreed
freely with the females of either species.

It is well known that the Pheasants found in the semi-domesticated
state in this country are polygamous—that is to say, one male pairs
with many females ; but there is good reason for believing that this
habit has been acquired. All the evidence tends to show that in a
really wild state the various species of Phasianus are monogamous, the
cock bird remaining with the female during the period of incubation,

and taking part in the duties of protecting and rearing the young. In

this, as in other countries where Pheasants are reared for sport, the
greater number of birds killed are cocks, and hence in the following
spring there is generally a preponderance of females, which may account
for the polygamous habits of introduced birds.

The Barred-backed Pheasants (Calophasis), of which there are two
species, are represented by Elliot’s Pheasant (C. ellioti) (105), a rare
species from South-east China. The male is a particularly handsome
bird, the white belly and bands across the wings contrasting with the
fiery bronze-red of the rest of the plumage.

The Cheer Pheasant (Catreus wallichi) (196), of which only one
species is known, is a crested form peculiar to the Himalaya and
extending from Chamba to Central Nepal.

The Kalij Pheasants (Genneus), of which the Silver Pheasant (107)
is typical, include seven well-marked species and a number of inter-
mediate forms. They are met with in the lower and middle wooded
ranges of the Himalaya, Burma, South China, and Formosa. —

Considerable interest attaches to this group on account of the inter-
mediate links found between some of the Burmo-Chinese species.

Of the Himalayan Kalij Pheasants exhibited the White-crested Kali)
(108) is found from Hazara to Nepal, where the Nepal Kalij (109) takes
its place; in Sikhim and Western Bhotan the Black-backed Kali (110)
occurs ; while in Eastern Bhotan, Assam, and Northern Burma the
Black-breasted Kalij (111) is the only species found. Though these
four species touch in their ranges, so far as is known they never inter-
grade with one another. On the other hand, the Black-bellied Kalij
and Silver Pheasant from South China are connected by the complete
chain of closely allied geographical forms.

Swinhoe’s Kalij (112), from the Island of Formosa, is a somewhat
distinct form, and the male, as will be seen, is the handsomest of all
the Kalij Pheasants.

[ Cases
11, 12.]

[Case 18.]

[Case 14 |

26 BIRD GALLERY.

The Koklass Pheasants (Pucrasia) include half-a-dozen species found
in various parts of the Himalaya, Tibet, and China. The males have a
much longer crest than the females, and the feathers behind the ears
are greatly developed, forming two long tufts surpassing the crest in
length. The Common Koklass Pheasant (P. macrolopha) (113) is
common in the Western Himalaya from Kumaon to Chamba, and
generally found singly or in pairs. Its flesh is said to be superior
to that of every other Hill-Pheasant.

The Fire-backed Pheasants, represented by two small groups each
containing three species, are natives of the dense damp evergreen
forests of the Indo-Malayan countries, Sumatra, and Borneo. Of the
forms without a crest an example will be found in the Bornean Crest-
less Fireback (Acomus pyronotus) (114). The females in this genus
are remarkable for their entirely black plumage and from the fact
that their legs are armed with a pair of strong spurs as perfectly
developed as those of the male.

Two examples of the crested form are exhibited, the Malayan
Crested Fire-back (Lophura rufa) (115) and Diard’s Fire-back
(L. diardi) (116), both remarkably handsome species. The males are
provided with a pair of strong spurs, but the females are devoid of
these weapons.

The great Eared Pheasants (Crossoptilon) (111, 118) are inhabitants
of the high wooded mountains of Tibet and China, ascending to a
height of about 12,000 feet above sea-level. They are sociable in their
habits, and during the autumn and winter are generally met with in
large flocks. Like the Common Pheasant, they pass most of their time
on the ground searching for seeds, roots, and insects, and at night
roost in company on the pine-trees. The legs of the male are armed
with short stout spurs, and, unlike the majority of the Pheasants, the
plumage is alike in both sexes. The feathers forming the ear-coverts
are much lengthened and pure white in all the five species known.

A remarkable Bornean species will be seen in Bulwer’s Wattled
Pheasant (Lobiophasis bulweri) (119). The male has the head almost
devoid of feathers and ornamented with three pairs of blue wattles, and
the beautiful white tail is composed of no less than 32 feathers, by
far the largest number found in any Game-Bird. The female has
28 tail-feathers, or two pairs less, and the head is feathered and not
ornamented with wattles. This species has only been met with in
the lower mountain-forests of Sarawak, and it is essentially a ground
bird, and seldom seen on the wing.

Of the Moonal Pheasants (Lophophorus) four different species are
known, all being natives of the elevated forests of the Himalaya or
Western China. In all the plumage of the males is magnificent, but

GAME-BIRDS. S7

that of the Common Moonal (L. refulgens) (120) is perhaps the hand-
somest. This species is found throughout the higher wooded ranges of
the Himalaya, whence enormous numbers of skins were yearly imported
to this country for the adornment of ladies’ hats.

The splendid Horned Pheasants (Tragopan), commonly though
incorrectly called “ Argus”? Pheasants by Indian sportsmen, are repre-
sented by five different species, which inhabit the higher forest-clad
ranges of the Himalaya and China. The chief characteristics of the
males are the fleshy horns and the gular lappet, which are conspicuous
ornaments during the breeding-season, especially when the birds are
excited by passion, but barely crieeable during the winter.

The Crimson and Western Horned Pheasants (7. satyra (121) and
T. melanocephalus (128)), are two of the handsomest species met with
in the Himalaya. ‘Though both inhabit the thick cover of the higher
hills they are rarely, if ever, seen amongst the snow, and appear to
shun it as much as the Blood-Pheasant delights in it.

The Blood-Pheasants (Ithagenes) are very handsome Alpine birds
met with in the higher regions of the Himalaya, Tibet, and Western
China. The males are remarkable for the pale green colour of parts
of their plumage, and for the number of spurs on their legs, some
individuals having as many as four pairs. The species exhibited
(I. cruentus) (124) is met with in flocks in the higher forests of the
Eastern Himalaya, at elevations varying from 10,000 to sts feet,
and always in the immediate neighbourhood of the snow.

Among the Partridge-like birds with the Pheasant-type of wing are
the Stone-Pheasants (Ptilopachys) (125), represented by two African
species found in rocky ground in the neighbourhood of cliffs and
precipices ; the Bamboo-Pheasants (Bambusicola), with three species,
found respectively in North-east India, Southern China, and Formosa ;
and the Spur-Fowl (Galloperdix), with two Indian and one Ceylonese
species.

The Chinese Bamboo-Pheasant (Bambusicola thoracica) (126) is a
very handsome bird, resembling the Common Partridge in the general
colour of its plumage, which is alike in both sexes. It inhabits the
jungle-clad hills, roosting and often perching on the branches of
bamboos and other trees, where it is perfectly at home.

Of the Indian Galloperdix an example will be found in the Painted
Spur-Fowl (G. lunulata) (1271). As may be seen, the male and female
differ in plumage, and the legs of the former are armed with two and
sometimes three pairs of spurs, while those of the latter have usually
only one pair. Like the Bamboo-Pheasants, they are birds of the
forest and jungle.

[Case 15.]

[Case 15.]

28 BIRD GALLERY.

Subfamily III. Perdicine. Partridge-like Game-Birds.

As already mentioned, this subfamily includes the Old-World
Partridges and Quails, which may be distinguished by the following
characters:—The cutting-edge of the lower mandible is not serrated
or provided with a tooth-like process. The first flight-feather is
longer than or rarely equal to the tenth. In one or two of the species
of Francolin it is slightly shorter, but these may at once be recognised
as belonging to the Perdicine by their short tails.

The most perfect type of Partridge-wing is found in such forms as
the Snow-Partridge (Lerwa) and the Quails (Coturnix, Synecus, and
Excalfactoria), in which the first flight-feather is equal to or very
slightly shorter than the second, and the tenth is much the shortest.
These, as might be expected, are all birds with great powers of flight.

Four different species of Partridge (Perdiv) (129-132) are known.

As considerable interest attaches to the sexual differences in plumage
of the Common Partridge (P. perdiv) (129), wings of the male and
female have been exhibited to show the only reliable character for
distinguishing the sexes except in very young birds. It will be seen
that the lesser and median wing-coverts of the male are without the buff
cross-bars so conspicuous on the feathers of the female. Young birds—
that is to say birds of the year, whether male or female—may always be
distinguished from old birds by having the first flight-feather pointed at
the tip instead of rounded. The pointed first flight-feather, being re-
tained till the following autumn moult, is a better character for denoting
age than the colour of the feet. In the earlier part of the season the
feet of young birds are yellowish-brown, but at the commencement of
the hard weather they become pale bluish-grey like those of the adult.

A curious rufous variety of the Common Partridge was described by
Brisson in 1760, under the name Perdix montana (130). That it is
merely a strongly marked variety is clearly shown by the forms
exhibited, which show the intermediate stages between the most typical
rufous bird and the normal plumage. This chestnut phase of plumage,
which occurs in birds of either sex, was first recorded from the moun-
tains of Lorraine, where it appears to be fairly numerous. Since
that date similar examples have been procured from time to time
in most counties of England, notably in Northumberland, where the
rufous birds were supposed by some to be hybrids between the Red
Grouse and Common Partridge.

The Jungle Bush-Quails (Perdicula) (133) and Painted Bush-Quails
(Microperdix) (184) together include only five small species peculiar to
India. They differ from the true Quails in the shape of the wing, the
first flight-feather being comparatively short.

GAME-BIRDS. 29

In the Quails (Coturniz) (186-137), of which seven different kinds are
known, we find the most highly-developed type of Partridge-wing, the
first flight-feather being slightly shorter or equal in length to the
second (see wing exhibited). All the species are more or less migratory,
their movements being regulated by the changes of season, but the
Common Quail (C. coturniz) (185) is by far the greatest wanderer of
all. Though small numbers of this bird are resident and remain
throughout the year in suitable localities, the majority travel thousands
of miles every year, countless numbers going northwards in spring to
breed, and returning south to their winter-quarters in the autumn.
The Black-breasted or Rain-Quail (C. coromandelica) (181) is peculiar
to India and the countries to the east of the Bay of Bengal, migrating
during the monsoon (rainy season) from the damp low-lying districts to
the drier parts of Upper and Western India. The closely allied New
Zealand Quail (C. nove zealandie), though a common bird in the early
days of the Colony, is now doubtless quite extinct. Askin of this bird,
and that a female, recently sold for £75.

The Swamp-Quails (Synecus) (138, 189) are very closely allied to the
Common Quail and its allies. Van Raalten’s Swamp-Quail (139)
inhabits the islands of Timor and Flores, and is the handsomest of
the three species known.

The smallest of all the Game-Birds are the Painted Quails (Hwcal-
factoria) (140, 141). Only four tiny forms are known, the males
having the plumage very beautifully coloured. As in the other Quails,
the first and second quill-feathers are the longest, and the flight is
extremely rapid. These little birds are remarkable in possessing only
eight very short tail-feathers, or two less than any other bird of the
group. The common Painted Quail (140) is plentiful enough through-
out the Indo-Chinese countries, being chiefly found in open, swampy
grass-lands and meadows. Of recent years it has frequently been kept
in confinement in this country and breeds freely: the young, when about
a week old and scarcely larger than walnuts, are able to fly, and
when about six weeks old they are scarcely distinguishable in plumage
from their parents.

In the Crested Wood-Partridge (Rollulus) (142), of which only one
species is known, the male has a beautiful hairy crest, and both sexes
possess a tuft of long hair-like bristles on the forehead. The grass-
green plumage of the female is very remarkable, this colour being
almost unknown among Game-Birds, and only found elsewhere in the
Blood-Pheasants (Ithagenes).

The Tree-Partridges (Arboricola) (148, 144), of which fifteen species
are known, inhabit the Indo-Chinese and Indo-Malayan countries and
some of the adjacent islands. All the birds of this genus are peculiar

[Case 15. |

[Case 15. ]

[Case 15.]

[Case 15.]

[Case 15.}

[Case 16.]

[Case 16, }

[Case 16. ]

80 BIRD GALLERY.

in possessing a series of small bones above the eye, known as the
supra-orbital chain (see skull). The toes are provided with peculiar
long, nearly straight nails. With the exception of the Common Tree-
Partridge (A. ¢orqueola) (148) here exhibited, the plumage is alike in
both males and females. All are inhabitants of the thick jungle
covering the higher hills, the common species occssionally ranging
in the Outer Himalaya to an elevation of 14,000 feet above sea-level.
As their name implies, these birds are given to perching on trees,
especially on the approach of danger, but for the most part they live
on the ground, running actively to and fro in search of insects and
vegetable food. The eggs are pure white, with a fine, rather glossy shell.

The Crimson-headed Wood-Partridge (Hwmatortyx) (145) is a beau-
tiful form inhabiting the mountain-forests and jungles of North Borneo.
The legs of the male are armed with two or three pairs of spurs.
Other Malayan genera are the Ferruginous Wood-Partridge (Calo-
perdiz) (146) and the Black Wood-Partridge (Melanoperdiv) (141), a
peculiar type worthy of special notice on account of its unusually stout
and thick bill.

The Red-legged Partridges (Caccabis) (148-151) form a small group,
the members of which may be recognised by the brownish-grey tint of
their upper plumage and bold handsome barring on the sides. The males
and females do not differ from one another in plumage, but the former
may be recognised by the stout blunt spurs on the legs. Of the six
forms known, four are exhibited, including the black-headed Arabian
species, the largest member of the genus (161), the Common Red-legged
(149) and Barbary Partridges (150), which are the handsomest.

As will be seen on the small map showing its distribution, the Chukar
(C. chukar) (148), so well known to sportsmen, has a very wide range.
It varies immensely in size and colour in different localities, which is to
be expected of a bird which occurs from sea-level to an elevation
of at least 16,000 feet. The palest forms are found in such arid neigh-
bourhoods as Bushire at the head of the Persian Gulf, while the darkest
and most richly-coloured birds here exhibited inhabit the Ionian
Islands, Cyprus, Asia Minor, and the outer ranges of the Himalaya where
vegetation is more plentiful.

In the closely allied Seesee Partridges (Ammoperdix) (152), the sexes
differ from one another in plumage. They inhabit bare broken ground
and desolate hill-sides, where their colours harmonise with their
surroundings and afford them protection.

The Francolins (/rancolinus) (158-162) are a very numerous group
including nearly fifty different species, five of which are Asiatic and the
remainder African. With the exception of the Painted Francolin
(F. pictus) (164), the legs of the males and, in some species of the females

GAME-BIRDS. 31

also, are armed with one or more pairs of spurs. Of the species here
exhibited the Common Francolin (158), formerly met with in Southern
Europe, but now extinct there, is the most familiar, and known to Indian
sportsmen as the Kala titur or Black Partridge. Another species, only
found in the Terai of North India, is the Swamp-Francolin or Kyah
(158). Levaillant’s Francolin (156), with its chestnut flight-feathers,
belongs to the group known as “‘ Redwings,’’ in South Africa ; while the
Double-spurred Francolin (160) from West Africa represents a somewhat
different section of the genus. Hildebrandt’s Francolin (159) is specially
interesting, for the female not only differs entirely from the male in the
colour of the underparts, but has the legs armed with one or two pairs
of strong spurs, and was for some time regarded as representing a distinct
species.

The Cape Francolin (161) and Erckel’s Francolin (162) are among
the largest known species, the former being well-known in South Africa
as the “Cape Pheasant.’’? A closely allied African genus Pternistes
includes nine species of bare-throated Francolins, and an example of
these will be found in Gray’s Bare-throated Francolin (P. leucoscepus)
(168).

The Snow-Partridge (Lerwa) (164), the sole representative of its
genus, is an Alpine form generally met with at elevations ranging from
10,000 to 15,000 feet above sea-level. As indicated by the shape of thé
wing, the Snow-Partridge is a bird of rapid and powerful flight, but,
unlike the Quails, it does not appear to be migratory, merely shifting
its quarters to lower elevations when driven down by severe snowstorms.
The large Snow-Cocks (Tetraogallus) (165, 166), of which six species
are known, are also Alpine birds, very similar in their habits and mode
of life to the Snow-Partridges, but found at even greater elevations, the
Tibetan Snow-Cock here exhibited being met with up to 19,000 feet above
sea-level.

The handsome Long-billed Francolin (Rhizothera) (167), of which
only one other Bornean species is at present known, is distinguished
from its allies the Francolins by the long stout curved bill and by having
only twelve tail-feathers, all the latter possessing fourteen. As will be
seen, the male and female of this curious Malayan form differ con-
siderably in plumage.

Family I]. Turraonip%. Grovse.

The members of this family are distinguished from the Phasianidee
(Pheasants, Partridges and Quails) by several distinctive
characters. The nostrils are entirely hidden by feathers. The legs
are either partially feathered as in the Hazel-hens and Ruffed

[Case 16. ]

[Case 16.]

[ Cases
17183)

[Case 17.]

[Case 17.]

32 BIRD GALLERY.

Grouse, or entirely feathered as in the Capercaillies and Black Grouse,
etc., and never armed with spurs. The toes are either covered with
feathers as in the Ptarmigan, or naked and pectinate, that is to say with
a series of horny comb-like processes on each side, as in the Capercaillies,
Black Grouse, etc.

In no group of birds are the seasonal changes of plumage more
interesting and peculiar than in the Willow-Grouse, Red Grouse, and
the various kinds of Ptarmigan, and therefore worthy of special notice-
The seasonal changes are attained in three different ways:—(1) By
moult. (2) By gradual change of pattern in the old feathers without
a moult. (3) By the wearing off of the tips of the feathers. The quills
and tail-feathers are only renewed once a year at the general autumn-
moult, which is always the most complete.

Wild hybrids between some of the species of this family appear to be
more common than among any other group of birds, possibly because
they attract greater attention. In many Grouse the females which have
become barren from old age or from injury to the ovary assume a
plumage more or less resembling that of the male, and examples of this
peculiarity are exhibited in the groups of Capercaillie and Black Grouse.
More rarely the reverse obtains, and examples of males assuming the
female plumage are met with.

The Capercaillies (Tetrao), of which four European and Asiatic species
are known, are the largest members of the family. ‘The common Caper-
eaillie (7. urogallus) (169), inhabiting the pine forests of Europe and
Northern and Central Asia, is common in some of the eastern counties
of Scotland. Hybrids between this species and the Black Grouse (170)
are by no means rare, the male offspring, of which a fine example is
shown, being remarkably handsome birds with a violet gloss on the breast.

In the American bare-toed Grouse belonging to the genera Dendra-
gapus (111), Tympanuchus (118), Centrocercus (174), and Pediwcetes
(175, 176), of all of which examples are exhibited, the males are provided
with a pair of inflatable air-sacs situated one on each side of the neck.
These are not visible except when the bird is excited or showing off to
the females, but at such times they can be blown out like a bladder
and enable him to produce deep booming sounds which may be heard
at a great distance. The stomach of the Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus
urophasianus) (174), a native of the sage-brush plains of Western
North America, differs from that of other game-birds in being soft and
membranous, very different from the muscular gizzard found in all the
allied forms. As its name implies, this species is seldom found far
from the tracts of Sage-brush (Artemisia), the leaves of which form its
principal food, and during the winter months, when it eats little else, its
flesh is unfit for the table. The Prairie Hen (Tympanuchus americanus)

GAME-BIRDS. 33

(178), from the prairies of the United States, remarkable for the long
tuft of feathers on each side of the neck in the male, and the Sharp-tailed
Grouse (Pediwcetes phasianellus) (115),from the wooded districts and tun-
dras that border the British North-American lakes, are both well known
American game-birds, and are occasionally forwarded in a frozen state
tothe London market. Another handsome North-American species is
the Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus) (111), with a frilled ruffle of
fan-shaped feathers on each side of the neck. Closely allied we have
the Hazel-hens (Tetrastes), of which two or perhaps three species are
known from Europe and Northern and Central Asia. The common
Hazel-hen or Gelinotte (7. bonasia) (178), which inhabits the lower
pine-forests and birch-woods of the mountainous districts of Europe and
North and Ceutral Asia, is greatly esteemed as an article of food, its
flesh being white and delicate, and large numbers are frozen and imported
from Scandinavia and Russia to the London market. Other well-known
North American genera are the American Capercaillies or Dusky
Grouse (Dendragapus) (111) and the Canadian Grouse (Canachites)
(172), found in the dense thickets and evergreen woods of the middle
and higher mountain-ranges.

The two species of Black Grouse exhibited are the only known
members of the genus Lyrurus. Though evidently closely allied, a
remarkable difference is presented in their life-history. In the male of
the common Black Grouse (ZL. tetriv) (179) the young bird attains the
black plumage of the adult more or less perfectly at the first autumn-
moult, only a few of the feathers of the back retaining a mottled brown
appearance. The young male of the Caucasian Black Grouse
(L. mlokosiewiczi) (180) assumes a barred plumage at the first autumn
moult, most nearly resembling that of the adult female, and this is
retained till the second moult or possibly longer, the young male
exhibited having been shot on the 14th of May.

During the heavy autumn-moult, which takes place in July and
August, the old males of the common Black Grouse, commonly called
Black Cock, are entirely devoid of tails and generally incapable of flying
more than a few yards at most. At this season a temporary plumage like
that of the female (Grey Hen) clothes the head and neck, and the throat
becomes more or less white. This intermediate plumage is no doubt pro-
tective, for the black head and neck of the male are conspicuous objects,
while the rufous-buff feathers with their black bars and marks harmonise
perfectly with the surrounding objects and enable the defenceless birds to
escape observation. The barred feathers of the head and neck are not
cast and replaced by black ones till the rest of the plumage has been
renewed, and the bird is once more able to fly.

Interesting wild hybrids between Black Grouse and Red Grouse

D

[Case 18.]

[Case 18. ]

| Table-
case. |

34 BIRD GALLERY.

(186) and Black Grouse and Willow-Grouse (187) are exhibited, these
being much rarer than the hybrid with the Capercaillie.

In the circumpolar Willow-Grouse (LZ. lagopus) (188) and Ptarmigan
(L. mutus etc.) (181-183) there are three distinct changes of plumage,
in summer, autumn and winter in both male and female alike, the
winter plumage being white in all.

The great peculiarity of the Red Grouse (L. scoticus) (185), and one
without parallel among birds even of this genus, lies in the fact that
the changes of plumage in the male and female occur at differenti
seasons.

The male has no distinct summer- (nesting-) plumage, but has distinct
autumn- and winter-plumages, retaining the latter throughout the
breeding-season.

The female has a distinct summer- (nesting-) plumage, also a distinct
autumn-plumage which is retained till the following spring.

To put it more concisely, both male and female have two distinct moults
during the year, but in the male they occur in autumn and winter, and
in the female in summer and autumn, the former having no distinct
summer-, and the latter no distinct winter-plumage.

The Red Grouse is generally regarded as merely an insular form of
the Willow-Grouse, and it might naturally be supposed that as the
British species does not turn white in winter, such protective plumage
being unnecessary in the localities it inhabits, the winter-moult had been
gradually dropped. But as already shown, this is the case with the
female only, and the male, for some unknown reason, changes the newly
acquired buff and black autumn-plumage for a winter-garb of chestnut
and black, which is retained till the following autumn.

Order IT. PTEROCLETIFORMES.
Family Prrroctivz. Sanp-Grovse.

This small order includes only sixteen species, intermediate in their
affinities between the Pigeons and Game-Birds. The skeleton resembles
that of the Pigeons in many important points, but the digestive organs
are like those of the Game-Birds. The bill is very similar in shape to
that of the latter, but not so strongly developed, while in the outward
expression, general shape of the body, the soft and easily detached
plumage, and the long pointed wings, we find a marked resemblance to
the Pigeons. The feathers of the body are provided with a well-
developed aftershaft. As might be expected from the shape of the
wings and the great development of the pectoral muscles which work
them, all the Sand-Grouse are birds with immense powers of flight, able

SAND-GROUSE. 35

to traverse great distances in a remarkably short space of time. The
majority are migratory, some of them wandering thousands of miles.
As their name implies, they are for the most part inhabitants of the
sandy-deserts, where water is generally scarce and in the dry season
only to be met with at long intervals. Sand-Grouse cannot exist
without water, and drink regularly in the early morning and at evening,
when they visit the nearest pool in countless numbers, their powerful
wings rendering distance no obstacle. The legs and toes, which are
remarkably short, seem ill-adapted for walking, but the birds are
perfectly at home on the ground, and can run much more easily and
rapidly than might be supposed.

No nest is made, merely a slight hollow is scratched in the ground,
The eggs are nearly perfectly oval in shape, double-spotted (very similar
to those of the common Land-rail), and almost invariably three in number.
The young, which are able to run soon after they are hatched, are covered
with beautifully-patterned down, but quite different from the fluffy
down of young Game- Birds, each plume of the body being distinct and
almost scale-like in appearance. All the species are included in one
family and are well represented in the Table-case (192-198).

Great interest attaches to Pallas’s Three-toed Sand-Grouse (Syr-
rhaptes paradoxus) (192), on account of its irregular migrations into
Western Europe. Its true home, as may be seen on the map showing
its distribution, is the Kirghiz Steppes and Central Asia, but for some
unknown cause great numbers periodically visit Europe in the early
summer, even penetrating to Great Britain and other islands off the
western coasts. The first great visitation took place in 1863, and again
in 1888 enormous numbers spread themselves over Europe and bred in
various places, both eggs and young having been obtained. In other
years smaller flocks have been observed, but the species has never
succeeded in establishing itself permanently in Western Europe.

Order III. TURNICIFORMES.

Family Turnicip#. Hemipopes.

The Hemipodes or Bustard-Quails (Turnicide) form a family by
themselves. They are small birds resembling Quails, but distinguished
externally by the absence of a hind-toe, except in the Australian genus
Pedionomus (204), and internally by many structural characters of
importance. The female is always larger and more handsomely
marked than the male, who undertakes the duty of hatching the
' eggs and caring for the young. The latter are covered with patterned
down, like young wading birds, and are able to run soon after

D2

[Table-
case. |

[Cases
19 & 20.)

36 BIRD GALLERY.

they are hatched. The eggs, three to five in number, are double-
spotted with dark purplish-brown and lilac, and are laid in a slight
hollow in the ground lined with dry grass. Hemipodes are entirely
birds of the Old World, and are distributed over Africa, Madagascar,
India, and China, and extend throughout the Malayan Archipelago to
Australia.

The Andalusian Hemipode (Turnix sylvatica) (199) inhabits Southern
Europe and North Africa, and is said to have been met with on three
occasions in the South of England. Like the rest of its allies, it is
solitary in its habits, frequenting dry grassy plains and localities covered
with low trees and dense bushes, where it is difficult to flush, and
escapes from danger by running.

Order IV. COLUMBIFORMES. Picron-trisBe.

The birds of this large order possess so characteristic a physiognomy
that they may be easily recognised at the first glance. The bill is
rather slender and weak, covered at the base with a soft, more or less
swollen membrane, in which the nostrils are situated. Some portion of
the plumage has almost always a metallic gloss, and many of the exotic
species are gorgeously coloured. The legs and toes in the typical Pigeon
are short and not adapted for scratching up the ground like those of the
Game-Birds, and the legs are never armed with spurs.

All the species are monogamous, and both sexes assist in building the
nest, which isa loosely constructed cradle of sticks. The eggs are pure
white aud usually two in number, though there are many species which
lay only one. The young when hatched are blind and naked, but after
a little time become clothed with hairy down. They remain in the nest
for many days and are entirely dependent on the care of their parents,
who at first feed them with a milky fluid secreted by the crop and
afterwards with moistened food.

Pigeons are found all over the world, but are most numerous in the
Kastern Hemisphere, especially in the islands of the Indo-Pacific Ocean
and in Australia.

About 450 species are known, and are valuable to man on account of
the excellent quality of their flesh.

The species exhibited bring out very clearly three interesting
points :—the evidence of adaptation to an arboreal or to a ground-
dwelling life, the great contrast in size, and the wonderful range and
variety of coloration.

PIGEONS. Oo”

Family I. Dipip#. Dopos. (Plate IT.)

No more striking illustration of adaptation to a ground-dwelling life
can be found than that furnished by the Dodos (205) [ Pl. IL.] and their
ally the Solitaire (206), both long since extinct. Remains of these now
famous birds will be found in two of the Table-cases in this bay. Both
these relatively gigantic Pigeons were flightless, a condition probably due
to the fact that they lived on small islands uninhabited by man or other
enemies, and were able to procure food in abundance without resorting
to flight. As a result of this easy life the body gradually acquired a
greatly increased bulk, whilst the wings gradually decreased in size,
till flight at last became an impossibility.

The Solitaire (Pezophaps solitarius) (206), though less well-known
than the Dodo, was in some respects more remarkable, for the wings
of the males were armed with large bony knobs, apparently used as
weapons of offence. The Dodo (Didus ineptus) (205) inhabited
Mauritius, the Réunion or White Dodo (Didus borbonicus) (205 a),
Réunion, and the Solitaire Rodriguez, all islands in the Indian Ocean.
When these islands were first discovered by Huropeans both the Dodos
and the Solitaire existed in large numbers, but being unable to protect
themselves by flight, they were rapidly killed off for food; their ex-
termination being accelerated by the introduction of dogs, cats, and
swine. Probably by the end of the 17th century not one of these
birds survived, and what we know of their external appearance is derived
from a few old paintings and:from skeletons. The exhibited examples
of the Common and White Dodos are restoratious. One of the most
interesting paintings 1s exhibited in the adjoining Wall-case, and is a
portrait from life, painted in Holland by Roelandt Savery. This picture
was once the property of Sir Hans Sloane and was given by him to George
Edwardes, F.R.S., who presented it to the British Museum in 1759.

Family I]. Dipuncutipa#. Tooru-pittep PreEon.

Besides the two extinct types just mentioned, there are many other
species of Pigeons which have taken to a terrestrial life, and are hence
known as Ground-Pigeons. One of these is the Tooth-billed Pigeon
(Didunculus strigirostris) (207) of Samoa, which was reported to be
nearly extinct in 1863. It is now, however, said to be ouce more
increasing, having entirely changed its habits and taken to an arboreal
life. It feeds and roosts in the highest trees, and whereas it formerly
laid its single egg on the ground like the Dodo, it now builds its nest
in the branches. On account of its heavy bill, it bears some resem-
blance to the Dodo, and mainly on this account is held by some to be
an ally of that extinct bird,

[ Table-
cases &
Picture in
Cases 19 &
20. |

[Case 19.}

[Cases
19, 20.]

[Case 19. ]

[Case 20. ]

38 BIRD GALLERY.

Family III. Cotumsipa. PuicEons.

This family includes all the remaining species of the Order. Of the
Ground-Pigeons exhibited we may specially mention the Giant Crowned
Pigeons (Gouwra) (208, 209), the Grey-naped Ground-Pigeon (Otidiphaps
cervicalis) (210) from New Guinea, held by some to be an ally of.
Didunculus, the Nicobar Pigeon (Calwnas nicobarica) (243) with its
remarkable metallic plumage and long neck-hackles, the Wonga-wonga
(Leucosarcia picata) (214) from East Australia, and the beautiful
Bartlett’s Blood-breasted Pigeon (Phlogwnas crinigera) (215) from the
Philippines. In all these it will be noted that the length of the leg is
very conspicuously greater than in the tree-haunting type of Pigeon.

Above these will be seen the beautiful Bronze-winged Dove
(Chalcophaps indica) (227), and the diminutive Long-tailed African Dove
(Cina capensis) (228), one of the smallest of all the Pigeons. Next come
the more familiar species belonging to the genera Turtur and Columba.
Of the former the Turtle-Dove (7. turtur) (281) and the Eastern
Turtle-Dove (Turtur orientalis) (231 a), which is included in the British
List, may be specially mentioned, and of the latter the Stock-Dove (287),
the Rock-Dove (288), and the Wood-Pigeon (289), all common species
in the British Isles. The Rock-Dove is noteworthy, as from this
species all the domesticated varieties have been derived. The handsome
Reinwardt’s Cuckoo-Dove (Reinwardtenas reinwardti) (240) and the
Passenger Pigeon (Hctopistes migratorius) (241), of Eastern North
America, complete the more noticeable species in this Case. The latter
species 1s now extinct, though only a few years ago it was met with in
such countless flocks that a colony seen by the naturalist Wilson on
one occasion was estimated to consist of more than 2,230 millions !
As late as 1878 a “roost” of these birds, at Petosky in Michigan,
occupied an area twenty-eight miles long by three or four broad. During
the nesting-season millions of birds are said to have been slaughtered
without producing any appreciable reduction in their numbers.

Resplendent colours are characteristic of the Fruit-Pigeons, though
green may be said to be the predominant tone. Some, such as the
Chatham Island form (Hemiphaga chathamensis) (249), exhibited on the
floor of this Case, are of large size, and a curious crested species,
Lopholemus antarcticus (248) from New South Wales, will be found
near it. ‘The Nutmeg-Pigeon (Myristicivora bicolor) (250) from the
Malay Archipelago is a striking form, being pure white with the flight-
feathers and tip of the tail black. Among the more brilliantly coloured
forms are the Orange Fruit-Pigeon (Chrysenas victor) (262) from the
Fiji Islands, and the Jambu Fruit-Pigeon (Ptilopus jambu) (271) from
Borneo. The Red-crowned Pigeon (Alectrenas puleherrima) (261)
from the Seychelles represents a remarkable little group, one of which,

RAILS. 39

A. nitidissima of Mauritius, has become extinct within historic times.
Of the Green Fruit-Pigeons Sphenocercus (2718 c), Osmotreron (211),
(277 a), Treron (276), etc., a number are exhibited at the top of the Case,
and, as will be seen, the harmonious colouring of some of the smaller
species 1s wonderfully pleasing, and renders them almost invisible
among the foliage of the trees.

Order V. RALLIFORMES. Ratt-iiKe Birps.

The members of this Order are all adapted for a life among thick
undergrowth, such as is found along the banks of rivers, swamps and
pools, or among long grass in drier places. The body is laterally com-
pressed between the closely fitting concave wings, so that the bird is
enabled to glide easily and stealthily through reeds and other cover.
The legs are moderately long and the toes often extremely so. In spite
of their apparently weak and unprotracted flight, many are migratory,
and some, such as the Corn-Crake, are capable of making very long
voyages. Nota few from long disuse of their wings have lost the power
of flight, and of these, it may be mentioned, several have become extinct
during historic times. Rails are mostly good swimmers. The eggs are
numerous, generally from seven to eleven in number and double-spotted,
Of the species exhibited in this Case only the more interesting can be
referred to here.

Family I. Ratiipa. Raits.

The true Rails may be distinguished by the absence of a horny frontal
shield or plate on the forehead and of lobate webs on the toes. They
are distributed all over the world, being as a rule of sombre coloration
and of very retiring and partially crepuscular habits. The Water-Rail
(Rallus aquaticus) (298) and the Corn-Crake or Land-Rail (Crex crew)
(312) are both found in Great Britain, the former as a resident, the
latter as a summer visitor from South Africa. The Spotted (316),
Little (815), Carolina (313), and Baillon’s Crakes (814) are also
included in the British List, the former as a regular summer-visitor
and partial resident.

A number of large handsome Rails belong to the South American
genus Aramides (806-808), three species of which are exhibited.

The singular Wallace’s Rail (Habroptila wallacei) (805), from the
forests of Halmahera in the Moluccas, and the Weka Rails or Wood-
hens (Ocydromus) of New Zealand, are of special interest, having entirely
lost the power of flight, and are in consequence doomed ere long to
extinction. The common Weka Rail (O. australis) (804), a rather large
bird about the size of a hen, is much sought after by the Maoris, both for

[Case 22.]

[Case 22.]

[Case 22. }

[Case 21.]

4.0 BIRD GALLERY.

food and for the sake of its oil. Numerous forms allied to this genus
have already become extinct, such as Aphanapteryxr from Mauritius
and Leguatia gigantea from Rodriguez, which is described as standing
six feet in height and having a body as large as that of a Goose.

Other genera, such as the Purple Gallinules (Porphyriola, Porphyrio
(329-332) and Nofornis), are remarkable for the beauty of their plumage,
the great size of their bill and frontal shield, and the length of their
toes. The celebrated “ Moho” (Notornis mantelli), one of the most
interesting of the Purple Gallinules, is all but extinct. It is unable to
fly, and has now entirely disappeared from the North Island of New
Zealand, but in the South Island three have been obtained during the
past century, one as recently as 1881, and a few may still exist in remote
parts of the country. Strangely enough the species was first described
by Owen from an imperfect fossil skull, and was at that time believed to
be extinct. Shortly after, however, a living specimen was captured, to
be followed by the others already referred to. Allen’s Purple Gallinule
(P. allent) (829 a) has occurred once at Yarmouth. ‘The common British
Moorhen or Waterhen (Gallinula chloropus) (821) is nearly related to
the Purple Gallinules, though its colouring is much less brilliant. The
Coots (Fuliea), of which the common Coot (F. atra) (884) is the best
known, may be recognised from the rest of the family by the broad lobes
to the toes, their feet bearing a strong resemblance to those of the
Grebes. They are all good swimmers, spending the greater part of
their life on the water, and the species are distributed over most of the
world, though the majority belong to the South American region.

Family Il. Hevtorniruip%. Frnroors.

This family is represented by certain aberrant types undoubtedly
allied to the Rails, in spite of their curiously Grebe-like form.
Altogether three genera are recognised, two of which belong to the Old
World and the third is confined to South America. This latter genus
includes a single species of Finfoot (Heliornis fulica) (881). Peters’s
Finfoot (Podica petersi) (886) represents the Old World forms.

Order VI. PODICIPEDIFORMES.

Family PopicirepIpx. Gresus.

The birds which constitute this Order are an extremely interesting
group on account of the profound modifications which the skeleton has
undergone in adaptation to the requirements of a purely aquatic life.

The bones of the hip-girdle have become elongated and laterally com-
pressed to aremarkable degree. The thigh-bone is extremely abbreviated,
so that the legs are set very far back near the hinder end of the body, a
position which ensures the maximum of power when swimming, but
which leaves the bird almost helpless on land The front toes are

GREBEs. 41

provided with wide lateral lobes which are united with one another at
the base. The tail is inconspicuous, being a mere tuft of downy plumes.
As in the Divers, the plumage of the Grebes is much handsomer during
the breeding-season than it is in winter, and they are familiarly known
on account of the muffs and trimmings for dresses which are made
from their beautiful silvery-white breasts.

The Grebes are a nearly cosmopolitan family, though chiefly found in
the temperate regions of both Hemispheres. About twenty-five species
are known, all expert divers, but unlike some of the Auks and the
Penguins, which use their wings in diving, Grebes propel themselves
through the water by their curiously lobed toes alone.

In winter they migrate from the colder parts and are then often to be
found at the sea, but they breed exclusively on fresh water, attaching
their floating nest of weeds to any convenient patch of reeds. ‘The eggs,
which are from three to six in number, are bluish-white when first laid
but soon become stained with brown. Five species occur in the British
Isles, the Great Crested Grebe (Podicipes cristatus) (281) and the Dab-
chick (P. fluviatilis) (219) being residents, while the Red-necked (286),
Eared or Slavonian (284), and Black-necked Grebes (285) are autumn-
and winter-visitors. The latter also occasionally appears in spring and
summer, and is believed to have bred in Great Britain. The most re-
markable is the large Scuth American species (P. micropterum), which
is found on Lake Titicaca in Peru, 12,645 ft. altitude, and lacks the
power of flight.

Order VII. COLYMBIFORMES.

Family Cotymsip&. Divers.

The Divers, or Loons as they are also called, present precisely similar
modifications of the skeleton to those found in the Grebes. Indeed, the
two orders are very generally regarded as one. Like the Grebes, they
have a distinct breeding-plumage which differs conspicuously from that
worn during the remainder of the year. The front toes are fully
webbed, and the tail-feathers, though small, are normal. ‘The large
olive- or reddish-brown eggs spotted with black and grey are always two
in number, and laid in a slight depression of the ground close to the
water’s edge. Though essentially formed for swimming and diving,
when once on the wing they can also fly with great rapidity, but on land
their movements are awkward and clumsy.

Of the five species known to inhabit the Arctic and sub-Arctic
portions of the Northern Hemisphere, four visit Great Britain, two,
the Red-throated (290) and Black-throated Divers (291), nesting within
our limits, and two, the Great Northern (293) and the White-billed
Divers (292), visiting our shores in winter, the latter very rarely.
In autumn they change their summer-plumage for a more sober garb,

[Case 21.]

*

[Central
Case. |

[‘Table-

case. |

42 BIRD GALLERY.

becoming entirely white underneath. A comparison of the maps
showing the distribution of the Grebes and Divers clearly indicates
how the latter take the place of the former in the more northern
regions.

Order VIIJ. SPHENISCIFORMES.

Family Spueniscip#. Pseneurns. (Plate III.)

Penguins may fairly be considered to hold the same place among the
Birds that the Seals do among the Mammalia. At the present time they
are represented by comparatively few species, though they probably
played a more important part in prehistoric times. They date back at
least to the Upper Eocene, in which the gigantic New Zealand Penguin,
standing over six feet high, was discovered. Their wings are modified
into swimming-paddles covered with narrow scale-like feathers. Their
legs are included in the skin of the body, and their large clumsy feet
are placed so far back as to render their locomotion on land a somewhat
difficult operation. Their home is the sea, and when diving they propel
themselves solely by means of their wings, which they use alternately,
while their legs are used as a rudder. They breed on the desolate rocks
and islands in the Southern Ocean, where they are not often disturbed
by man, and extend up to the equator (Galapagos) in the Pacific.

All the known species, seventeen in number, may be grouped into
six genera. The best known are the large King-Penguins (Aptenodytes
patagonica) (850) [Figs. e & f], which generally stand with their head
and neck stretched out vertically and the tip of their beak pointed almost
directly upwards. When pursued on shore they can move with con-
siderable speed, and lying down flat on the belly, work both their legs
and wings wildly to assist them in their frantic efforts to escape. Still
larger birds are the Emperor-Penguins (4. forsteri) (851) from the
Antarctic continent. Both these and the King-Penguin have a remark-
able method of incubating, which is shared by male and female alike.
The large single egg is placed on the feet and pressed closely to a bare
patch on the lower abdomen, being kept in place by a peculiar flap
of thickly feathered skin. When the bird leaves the egg for feeding
purposes, it is immediately taken possession of by some other Penguin,
The Jackass-Penguins (Spheniscus) have received their name from their
cry, which resembles the braying of a donkey. The nest of S. magel-
lanicus (840) is a rudely constructed pile of grass-roots and other
materials. The Rock-hoppers (Catarrhactes (348-845) [ Figs. a & c]
and Meyadyptes (846) [ Fig. d]), with shorter bills, derive their name
from their curious mode of hopping from rock to rock with both feet
placed together. The smallest of all are the species of Hudyptula (352,
352 a) [ Fig. 6], which inhabit the coasts of South Australia and New
Zealand.

PETRELS. 43

Order IX. PROCELLARIIFORMES. Perrret-trise.

The Albatroses and Petrels bear a strong superficial resemblance to
the Gulls, to which, however, they are not even remotely related. They
may be distinguished by the curious shape of the nostrils, which have
tubular openings, while in the Gulls these are slit-like. The various
members of this Order vary greatly in size, the Albatroses, which are
the largest of the Petrels, possessing a wider spread of the wing than
any other known bird, while the Storm-Petrels are hardly larger than
a Swallow. All are endowed with great powers of flight and have a
peculiar musky odour, specially noticeable in the Giant and Fulmar
Petrels. The Albatroses build a fairly substantial nest and breed in
vast colonies in the open, but the great majority of Petrels deposit their
single egg in holes and crevices of the rocks or in burrows, using little
or no lining. The egg is dull white, often marked, especially in the
smaller species, with a ring of reddish spots round thelargerend. The
young when’ hatched are covered with thick white or grey down, and
are for a long time helpless and dependent on the care of their parents.

Family I. DiomepEipm. ALBATROSES.

The Albatroses, of which three genera and about fifteen species are
recognised, are the most powerful of all birds on the wing. One of the
largest and best known species is the Wandering Albatros (Diomedea
exulans) ($55), which measures nearly eleven feet across the expanded
wings. This bird breeds in great colonies on the high table-lands of
some of the islands in the Southern Ocean, repairing there in October
and building a mound of mud and grass with a slight hollow in the top.
The single egg is not hatched till January, and the young is for a long
time helpless and covered with thick white down, as may be seen in the
young Royal Albatros (D. regia) (857). The immense expanse of the
wings in flight is seen in the rare White-winged Albatros (D. chionoptera)
(358) exhibited at the top of the Case. It is interesting to note that a
specimen of the Black-browed Albatros (D. melanophrys) (856) was
captured in Cambridgeshire in 1897. Other species of the family are
the Yellow-nosed Albatros (Thalassogeron chlororhynchus) (859), and the
Sooty Albatros (Phebetria fuliginosa) (360).

Family I]. Procetnariipa#. PrtTress.

The most aberrant of the Petrels are undoubtedly the three species
included in the subfamily Pelecanoidine or Diving Petrels, which are
represented by Garnot’s Petrel (Pelecanoides garnoti) (861). Like the
Little Auk (404) (Case 24), which they closely resemble in general
appearance, they have a hurried flight and dive into the sea in pursuit
of their prey without any interruption in the action of their wings, and
emerge from beneath the surface flying. Unlike the other Petrels, they
are generally found singly or in pairs and nest sporadically.

[Cases
23, 24.]

[Case 25, ]

[Case 23.]

[Case 24.]

44, BIRD GALLERY.

The second subfamily Procellariine includes the true Petrels. The
Shearwaters (Puffinus) are numerously represented in all the great
oceans of the world, and derive their name from their curious habit of
skimming just over the surface of the waves. The Manx Shearwater
(P. anglorum) (810) is widely distributed over British waters throughout
the year, and breeds on many of the islands off the coast, while the
Greater (372), Mediterranean Greater (871), Sooty (868), and Little
Dusky (869) Shearwaters are visitors to our shores, the last being
much the rarest.

The allied genus (fstrelata, including some thirty species, is interesting
from the fact that three of the species have each been recorded once from
Britain. Of these a specimen of the Collared Petrel (CE. brevipes) (365)
killed in Wales is exhibited, also Schlegel’s Petrel (CZ. neglecta) (365 a),
but the Capped Petrel (Ci. hesitata) is so rare that only one example
exists in the Museum collection.

Bulwer’s Petrel (Bulweria bulweri) (864), a curious sooty-black form,
is common in the Madeiran waters, and has occurred once in Yorkshire
and once in Sussex, where a specimen was picked up dead. The Pintado
Petrel or “ Cape Pigeon” (Daption capensis) (863), as its name implies,
is numerous off the South African coast, and is well-known from its habit
of accompanying ships for the sake of the scraps of food thrown over-
board. Lastly we may draw attention to the beautiful Snowy Petrel
(Pagodroma nivea) (862), a native of the icy regions of the South.

On the floor of this Case will be found the Giant Petrel or “ Nelly ”
(Ossifraga gigantea) of the Southern seas, the largest of the true Petrels.
Apart from its size this species is remarkable for possessing both alight
(376) and a dark (877) phase of coloration, some individuals being dark
brown and others almost entirely white. Examples of both types are
shown, The Fulmar Petrel (Fudmarus glacialis) (879) is a well-kuown
inhabitant of the seas of Arctic Europe, and nests within our limits in
Scotland and the North of Ireland. Two phases of plumage are known,
some examples having the under surface white, while in others these
parts are grey. The Broad-billed Blue Petrel (Prion ariel) (880)
represents a small group remarkable for the presence on each side of the
bill of long lamellz, resembling those of the Ducks. Of the small long-
legged Petrels, commonly known as “ Mother Carey’s Chickens,” and
placed by some authors in a separate subfamily, Oceanitine, quite a
number appear on the list of British Birds. Two, the Storm-Petrel
(Procellaria pelagica) (881) and Leach’s Fork-tailed Petrel (Oceanodroma
leucorrhoa) (882), breed on some of the islands off the west coast of
Britain, while Harcourt’s Storm-Petrel (0. castro) (888), Wilson’s
Storm-Petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) (887), and the beautiful White-
breasted or Frigate-Petrel (Pelagodroma marina) (885) are accidental
visitors to our shores,

AUKS, 4.5

Order X. ALCIFORMES.
Family Atcip#. Avxs. (Plates IV., V.)

The Auks, Guillemots, Razor-bills and Puffins, included in this family,
form a group of exceptional interest on account of the modifications of
structure which they have undergone to adapt them to a purely pelagic
life. Though allied to the Gulls and more distantly to the Plovers, they
are now superficially very different, and as in the Grebes and Divers the
shape and carriage of the body are specially suited to their peculiar
habits. Their distribution is confined to the coasts of the North
Circumpolar region, none being found either in the tropical zone or in
the Southern Hemisphere. Black and white are the predominating
colours in the plumage of these birds. They breed generally on rocky
cliffs and islands in enormous colonies, make no nest, and the female lays
her one or, in some species, two eggs on the bare rock or, as in the case of
the Puffins, in a rabbit-burrow or hole tunnelled by the birds themselves.
The young are covered with down when hatched, and in their first
plumage differ but little from the adult.

The smallest members of the group are the little Auks, represented
on the top shelf of this case by several diminutive species. Least of
these is the Minute Auk (Simorhynchus pusillus) (890), remarkable on
account of its extremely small bill, while the Pigmy Auk (S. pygmeus)
(391) and the Crested Auk (S. cristatellus) (892) have an elongate frontal
crest of narrow feathers curving forward over the bill. In these species,
as in their allies the Puffins, the supplementary ornamental shields on
the bill are cast after the breeding-season, and the bill then appears much
smaller and of a dull brown colour, The Perroquet-Auk (Phaleris
psittaculus) (893) from the North Pacific is another curious little form,
and the Unicorn Puffin (Cerorhyncha monocerata) (394), from the North
Pacific and Bering Sea, has a peculiar horny excrescence at the base of
the bill during the breeding-season.

The Common Puffin or Sea-Parrot (Fratercula arctica) (391) [ Pl. 1V.],
acommon British species, the Horned Puffin (F. corniculata) (396), and
their ally the Tufted Puffin (Lunda cirrhata) (395), differ from all the
species already mentioned in having the claw on the inner toe very
strongly curved. During the breeding-season these birds have the bill
brilliantly ornamented, but in autumn a remarkable moult takes place,
and the coloured shields fall off, leaving the bill about half its former
size. This is clearly illustrated on the tablet exhibited in the Case,
where the head of the Common Puffin is shown with the recently cast
shields alongside the bill.

From the coasts and islands of the North Pacific and Bering Sea

[Case 24,]

[ Cases
25, 26.]

46 BIRD GALLERY.

come two diminutive forms of Guillemot represented by the Ancient
Auk (Synthliborhamphus antiquus) (889) and the Marbled Guillemot
(Brachyrhamphus marmoratus) (898). Of the true Guillemots (Uria)
two species, the Common Guillemot, Marrot, or Murre (U. troile) (402),
and the Black Guillemot or Tystie (U. grylle) (400), are British breeding-
birds ; the Bridled Guillemot (U. troile, var ringvia) (401) being generally
regarded as merely a variety of the former, though some consider it a
distinct species. It is not nearly so numerous as the common form and
always occurs in company with it. The wonderful range of colour and
markings in the eggs laid by the Common Guillemot is well illustrated in
the Case exhibited on the right-hand side of the staircase in the Central
Hall. The set of specimens showing the seasonal changes of plumage
in the Black Guillemot deserves special notice. Brtinnich’s Guillemot
(U. lomvia) (408), distinguished chiefly by its stouter bill and by having
the basal part of the upper mandible naked, occasionally visits our
coasts as a straggler from the Arctic Ocean. Another regular winter
visitor to Britain is the Little Auk or Rotche (Alle alle) (404). The
Razor-Bill (Alcea torda) (405) is chiefly interesting on account of its
resemblance and probable relationship to the Great Auk, which will be
found immediately below. The Great Auk or Gare-fowl (Plautus
impennis) (406) [ Pl. V.] is a bird of quite exceptional interest, being now
extinct. As may be seen from its diminutive wings it was quite unable
to fly, and its extermination was due largely, if not entirely, to the agency
of man. The last colony of this bird inhabited the islands near Iceland
and was finally exterminated in 1844. Specimens of this bird and its
eggs are now regarded as great treasures.

Order XI. LARIFORMES. Goutt- ripe,

The Gulls, Terns, and Skuas which make up this Order are closely
allied on the one hand to the Auks and on the other to the Plovers
which follow, and some zoologists regard these three groups as forming
but a single Order. Superficially the Gulls bear some resemblance to the
Petrels, but may readily be distinguished from the latter by their slit-
like nostrils. From the Plover-tribe they may be recognised by their
webbed feet, and from the Auks by their long wings and tail and by
the carriage of the body, which is horizontal instead of nearly vertical.

The predominating colour in the adult birds is white, with a mantle
varying in shade from grey to black. The young differ from the adults,
being usually mottled with brown or black, and the nestlings are
covered with beautifully patterned down. From one to four eggs are
laid, usually brown or green heavily blotched and spotted with brown,
black, and pale hlac.

GULLS. 47

Though most of the species are truly marine, they often wander far
inland, and many breed in large colonies in the proximity of fresh
water.

Family I. Stercorartipa. Skvuas.

On the floor of this Case will be found the Skuas or Parasitic Gulls,
mostly birds of a dusky or reddish-brown colour, and remarkable not
only in possessing a “ cere”’ or bare wax-like base to the bill, but also as
regards their habits. Though apparently well adapted both for swim-
ming and diving, they rather avoid the water, and obtain their food by
destroying other birds or by robbing them of their prey.

Four species of the Great Skuas (Megalestris) are known, of which
one, the “ Bonxie” (M. catarrhactes) (409), from the North Atlantic,
breeds in the Shetland Islands. One of the Southern forms (M1. ant-
arctica) (410), ranging from New Zealand to the Falkland Islands,
appears to feed almost entirely on Petrels, and closely resembles some
large hawk as it rapidly quarters the hill-sides in search of prey. Of
the smaller long-tailed species (Stercorarius), Richardson’s Skua
(S. crepidatus) (411) has both dark and light phases of plumage, and
nests in some of the islands off the north of Scotland; while Buffon’s
and the Pomatorhine Skuas (S. parasiticus (412) and S. pomatorhinus
(413)) are both winter visitors to our coasts. All three breed in
the high north and wander far south in winter. Their habits are very
similar; they single out a Gull, Tern or Gannet well-stocked with recently
caught fish, and after a hot pursuit force it to disgorge part of its booty,
which is seized ere it reaches the water,

Family II]. Laripm. Guts anp Terns. (Plates VI., VII.)

The Gulls may generally be distinguished from the ‘Terns by their
strong, curved bill and square tail. Many of the larger species are
almost omnivorous, feeding on small mammals, young birds, eggs, and
all sorts of carrion, besides fish. They may be divided into two groups,
those with a hood and those without. To the latter belong the Kitti-
wakes (Rissa), with the hind toe rudimentary or absent, of which R,
tridactyla (414) is a common British species, and a number of the larger
species of Larus such as the Common Gull (L. canus) (425), the Herring-
Gull (L. argentatus) (424) | Pl. VI.], the Greater and Lesser Black-backed
Gulls (LZ. marinus (421) and L. fuscus (423)), all of which breed in the
British Isles ; while the Glaucous and Iceland Gulls (ZL. glaucus (420),
L. leucepterus (419)), and the Ivory Gull (Pagophila eburnea) (416) are
occasional visitors to our coasts. Besides these a number of less familiar

[Case 26. ]

[Cases
25, 26.)

[Case 25, ]

[Case 26. |

[Case 26. |

48 BIRD GALLERY.

species are exhibited, one of the most noteworthy being the Pacific Gull
(Gabianus pacificus) (417), with its remarkably stout bill ; while Tschudi’s
(480), Hemprich’s (431), and Heerman’s (429) Gulls are specially inter-
esting forms on account of their peculiar dusky coloration. The hooded
Gulls comprise such species as our Black-headed Gull (L. ridibundus)
(482), the commonest British species, and the Bonaparte’s (L. philadel-
phia) (484), Mediterranean Black-headed (L. melanocephalus) (435),
Great Hooded (L. ichthyuctus) (486), and Little Gull (Z. minutus) (487),
all accidental visitors to Britain. In these birds the black hood is only
assumed during the breeding-season, at other times the head is white or
nearly so. Sabine’s Gull (Xema sabinei) (488) and the very rare Ross’
Rosy Gull (Rhodostethia rosea) (489) are aberrant forms; in the former
the tail is forked, in the latter cuneate or wedge-shaped. Both belong to
the Arctic Seas and are only stragglers to our coasts.

The Terns or Sea-Swallows may be recognised by their nearly straight,
pointed and comparatively slender bill, forked tail, and more slender
build. Specially interesting forms are the White Tern (Gygis candida)
(440) and the Noddy (dnous stolidus) (443), with its curious nest of
mud and seaweed, etc. placed on the bough of a tree. This bird has twice
been recorded from our shores. In the British Islands five species of Tern
(Sterna), viz.: the Common (S. fluviatilis) (452), Arctic (S. macrura)
(453), Little (S. minuta) (448), Sandwich (S. cantiaca) (455) [ Pl. VIL.],
and Roseate (S. dougalli) (454), are regular summer visitors and
remain to breed, the last being very much the rarest. Besides these,
seven other species of Tern have been recorded as accidental visitors,
viz. : the Sooty (S. fuliginosa) (446), Bridled (S. anestheta) (441),
Caspian (Hydroprogne caspia) (456), Gull-billed (Gelochelidon anglica)
(467), White-winged (Hydrochelidon leucoptera) (458), Whiskered
(H. hybrida) (459), and Black (H. nigra) (460). All these are repre-
sented in the Case, and the last-named may be considered a regular
visitor and formerly bred in England.

The most remarkable members of the family are the Scissor-billed
Terns, of which an example will be foundin Rhynchops flavirostris (462).
They have been given their trivial name on account of the peculiar
form of the bill, which is quite unique among birds. Both upper and
lower mandibles are compressed to a knife-like thinness, and the lower
is produced beyond the upper for a considerable distance. ‘This peculiar
modification appears to be for the purpose of catching fishes from
among the surface-swimming shoals. The lower jaw being used as a
sort of plough, catches up the prey as the bird flies along over the
surface. Five species are known, of which one is Asiatic, one African,
and three are Ainerican,

PLOVERS. 49

Order XI]. CHARADRITFORMES. Ptover-rrisBe.

The birds included in this Order present great variety im size, shape
and coloration, and it is interesting to notice that these differences are
generally traceable to peculiar methods of feeding. Though a few
species frequent arid plains, they are essentially birds of the fen and of
the sea-shore, or haunt the banks of streams and desolate marshes, feeding
on worms, small shell-fish, and crustacea. For the capture of these the
beak and legs have become modified in many ways. A considerable
number of species exhibit conspicuous changes in the coloration of the
plumage, adopting a distinct summer and winter dress ; others undergo
but little seasonal change. The richly coloured eggs do not ordinarily
exceed four in number, and are deposited in a slight hollow in the
ground with little or no preparation in the form of a nest. The young
are quite active when hatched and are clothed in a thick covering of
beautifully patterned down, the colour of which is more or less deter-
. mined by the surroundings amid which they are hatched.

Family I. Dromapipm. CRAB-PLOVERs.

On the floor of this Case, on the right-hand side, we find the sole
representative of this very aberrant and remarkable family, which
inhabits the coast-land and sandy islands of India, Arabia and East
Africa. The nesting habits differ entirely from those of every other
member of this order, for the Crab-plover (Dromas ardeola) (463)
breeds in deep burrows excavated in the sand-hills and lays a single
large white egg. The young are covered with greyish down and, like
young petrels, remain in the burrows during the day.

Family II. Cutonrpipm. SHEaTHBILLs.

The Sheathbills, of which three species are known, form another very
aberrant family, inhabiting the islands adjacent to the southern “ex-
tremity of South America and in the South Atlantic Ocean. The base
of the bill is covered with a saddle-shaped horny sheath, the cheeks are
naked, covered with wattles in Chionis alba (464), and the wings are
armed with spurs. The habits of the Lesser Sheathbill (Chionarchus
minor) (465) are described as resembling in some respects those of
Pigeons, while in their gait and flight they closely resemble Ptarmigan.
The rough nest of dried plant-stems is made in a hollow among the
rocks or occasionally in a Petrel’s burrow, and contains two or three
eggs thickly spotted and mottled with purplish-red., »

[Cases
27-30. ]

[Case 27. ]

[Case 27.]

[Case 27.]

540 BIRD GALLERY.

Family III. Arracipm. SxrED-SNIPEs.

This is another aberrant group of the Plover-tribe, peculiar to South
America. Two distinct genera are recognised, each of which is repre-
sented in the Case. Gay’s Seed-Snipe (Attagis gayi) (466) and
D’Orbigny’s Seed-Snipe (Thinocorus orbignianus) (467) are both re-
markably unlike Plovers, the former especially bearing a marked
resemblance to the ‘linamous.

Family 1V. Cuarapriipm. Purovers. (Plate VIII.)

To this very large family belong all the Snipes, Sandpipers, and Plovers.

They may be divided into several subfamilies. The first (Phalaropine)
includes the little Phalaropes, which inhabit the Arctic and Sub-polar
regions; they are extremely interesting birds, and the most aquatic
members of the Plover-tribe. As in the.Grebes and Coots the toes
are lobed, and they are able to swim with ease and spend much of
their time on the water. The female is larger and more handsomely —
coloured than the male, who undertakes the duties of incubation and
the care of the young. The Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus hyper-
boreus) (470) annually visits the British Islands, and still breeds on
some of the islets off the north and west coasts; but the Grey
Phalarope (Crymophilus fulicarius) (469) is only an irregular visitor
to our shores, while Wilson’s Phalarope (Steganopus tricolor) (468)
is a North American species. The great difference between the summer
and winter plumage of these birds is worth noting.

A precisely similar reversal of the sexual characters is found in the
Painted Snipe (Rostratula capensis) (412), examples of which may be
seen on the shelf above. Generally these birds are regarded as true
Snipe, but they are probably more nearly allied to the Sandpipers.
Three species are recognised, and occur in Africa and Southern Asia,
Australia, and South America respectively.

We now come to the true Snipe and Woodcocks, a cosmopolitan
group migratory in cold climates, distinguished by the peculiar round-
ness of the cranium, which brings the aperture of the ear directly
under the eye, and by the great length of the bill. The mottled plumage
is protective in character, harmonising with the bird’s surroundings and
thus concealing it from enemies. The long bill is well supplied with
nerves and extremely sensitive to touch, and like that of many of the
Sandpipers is very flexible, especially at the tip. The Common Snipe
(Gallinago gallinago) (416) and the Woodcock (Scolopaw rusticula) (471)
are both well-known British species, breeding throughout the Islands ;
while the Great, Double, or Solitary Snipe (Gallinago major) (417) and

PLOVERS. 5]

the Jack Snipe (Limnocryptes gallinula) (4173) are winter visitors, the
former, however, being comparatively rare.

The next subfamily, Totanine, occupying the remainder of Case 27 [
and the floor of Case 28, includes the Sandpipers and Godwits, most of ~~

which have distinct summer- and winter-plumages, as well as the Curlews.
Of these the Dunlin (486), Ruff (690), Greenshank (498), Redshank
(506), Common Sandpiper (502), Curlew (519), and Whimbrel (516)
breed in the British Isles, though the Ruff and Whimbrel are local and
rare. Many others, such as the Knot (484), Curlew- (483), Purple (482),
Wood- (499) and Green (497) Sandpipers, Little Stint (488), Sanderling
(491), Spotted Redshank (597), and the Bar-tailed (509) and Black-
tailed Godwits (508) visit our coasts regularly; while among the
occasional visitors are the Broad-billed (485), American Pectoral (481),
Bonaparte’s (480), Baird’s (489 a), Buff-breasted (493), Bartram’s
(494), Solitary (498), and Snipe-billed or Red-breasted (511) Sand-
pipers, the American (487) and Temminck’s (489) Stints, Spotted Sand-
piper (501), Ycllowshank (508), Marsh Sandpiper (504), and Eskimo
Curlew (518).

Among the typical Sandpipers, perhaps the most striking form on
account of its remarkable bill, is. the little Spoon-billed Sandpiper
(Eurynorhynchus pygmeus) (490), a native of Eastern Asia. As regards
variety of colour the polygamous Ruff (Pavoncella pugnax) (600) is quite
peculiar. During the breeding-season the face of the male becomes
covered with small yellow warts, the fore-neck develops an enormous
“puff” of feathers which can be erected or depressed at will, and the
head is adorned with tufts of feathers or ‘‘ ears ” which are also erectile.
Both “ruff” and “ ear-tufts ’ are specially remarkable for the range of
their colour, which may be white, rufous, or black, with or without bars,
the variation being endless and alike in no two individuals. In winter
both sexes are very similar in plumage, but the female, commonly called
the Reeve, may always be distinguished from the male by her smaller
size. The Ruff is polygamous, and the males during the spring are very
pugnacious, and have a curious habit of assembling in small parties to
contend in a kind of tournament for the possession of the females, which
are said to outnumber them.

The difference between the summer- and winter-dress of the Godwits
(Limosa) (508-510) is most conspicuous ; in the former bright chestnut-
red is the dominant colour, while in the latter the general tone is
grey and white. In the Curlews (Numenius) (613-519) these seasonal
differences are very slight.

The Ibis-billed Curlew (Jbidorhynchus struthersi) (520), from the
inland streams of Central Asia, China, and the Himalaya, is the unique
type of the next subfamily, and worthy of special notice. It is more
nearly allied to the Oyster-catchers than the Curlews and resembles the

former in its habits.
E 2

[Case 28.]

[Case 28. ]

52 BIRD GALLERY.

Of the Arenariine, the Turnstone (Arenaria interpres) (622), one of
the commonest of our shore birds, is almost cosmopolitan in its range,
nesting in the Arctic regions of both Hemispheres and ranging south
almost as far as land extends. It gains its trivial name of ‘Turnstone”
from its habit of turning over stones to secure the small crustacea hiding
beneath them.

The Oyster-catchers or “ Sea-Pies” (Hematopodine) (628-525), which
have the legs reticulated both in front and behind, derive their name
from their supposed habit of feeding on oysters. They live, however,
chiefly on mussels, whelks, and other shellfish, which are scooped from
their shells by the bird’s powerful bill. The common Oyster-catcher
(Hematopus ostralegus) (625) is a familiar British species, breeding on
the shores and sandy beds of rivers, and depositing its eggs in a slight
depression in the ground. As will be seen from the specimen of
H. unicolor (§28) in the Case, some species are entirely black.

Passing over the Peltohyatine, which includes only the Australian
Dotterel (Peltohyas australis) (5838), we come to the True Plovers
(Charadriine) which include a number of well-known forms, many of
which are found on the List of British Birds.

Commencing on the right-hand side of the fifth shelf we find the very
singular Wry-billed Plover (Anarhynchus frontalis) (632) of New
Zealand, which has the bill twisted towards the right, an adaptation
which enables the bird to pick up insects hiding under stones.

The Ringed (527) and Kentish (529) Plovers | Pl. VIII.], Dotterel
(535), Golden Plover (546), and Lapwing (544), are all well-known
British birds and breed in our islands ; the Little Ringed (528) and Grey
Plovers (541) are regular visitors on migration, and the Killdeer (534),
Caspian (537), and American Golden (547) Plovers are occasional
stragglers to our shores. The Dotterel (Hudromias morinellus) (585),
one of the most beautiful of the Plovers, was at one time a toler-
ably common British bird, but its numbers have greatly decreased
of recent years. The Grey Plover (Squaturola helvetica) (541) and
the Golden Plover (Charadrius pluvialis) (546) are conspicuous for the
marked changes of plumage during the summer and winter months, The
Lapwing, Peewit, or Green Plover (Vanellus vanellus) (644) is perhaps
the best known bird of the group on account of its eggs being so highly
prized as table-delicacies. The young of this species (545) exhibited in
the Case show the protective nature of the colour in the nestling down.

A number of the Plovers have the sides of the face in front of the
eye ornamented by brightly coloured wattles, which hang down on each
side of the bill, and some have a strong spur situated at the bend of the
wing and used as a formidable weapon of offence. As an example of
those with facial wattles only, we may draw attention to the Crested-

—

PLOVERS. 53

Wattled Lapwing (Sarciophorus tectus) (555). In the Black-thighed
(Xiphidiopterus cucullatus) (642) and Latham’s Wattled Lapwing

(Lobivanellus lobatus) (648), both wattles and spurs to the wings are

found; while others, such as the Cayenne Lapwing (Belonopterus cayen-
nensis) (§54) and the Egyptian Spur-winged Lapwing (Hoplopterus
spinosus) (648), have spurs only. The latter species is believed by some
to be the “ Crocodile-Bird ” of the earlier writers, and is said to enter the
mouths of Crocodiles to feed on the parasites attached to the gums.
The Sociable Plover (Chetusia gregaria) (652), which ranges from
South-eastern Europe and North-east Africa to Central Asia and India,
is interesting to British ornithologists as having been captured three
times in Lancashire.

The Avocets and Stilts (Himantopodine) (657-562), which complete
the series in this Case, are singularly interesting types, the former
especially so on account of the form of the bill, which is upturned and
drawn out into an extremely fine point. The common Avocet
(Recurvirostra avocetta) (561) at one time bred in considerable numbers
in the fen-country in the east of England, but now occurs only as a
visitor on migration. ‘The Banded Avocet (Cladorhynchus leucocephalus)
(560) of Australia, a remarkably handsome bird, represents an inter-
mediate form with the bill but shghtly curved upwards and the
feet partially webbed. The Stilts have remarkably long legs and
a straight slender bill and obtain their food by wading. The Black-
winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus) (657) has visited Britain on many
occasions, and is widely distributed over Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Family V. Cursorito#. Coursers.

This small group of Plover-like birds inhabits Africa and ranges
through Southern Asia to India and Ceylon. One species, the Cream-
coloured Courser (Cursorius gallicus) (664), breeds in the Canary
Islands and occasionally wanders to England. It frequents dry sandy
plains and deserts, running with extraordinary speed and rarely taking
wing, though at times its flight is protracted. Insects such as grass-
hoppers form its principal food, and its eggs, two in number, are deposited
on the bare ground, which they closely resemble in colour. An allied
genus is represented by the Two-banded Courser (Rhinoptilus bicinctus)
(565). One of the most interesting species is the Black-headed Plover
(Pluvianus egyptius) (868), also known as the “ Crocodile-Bird.”
Like the Egyptian Spur-winged Lapwing it is said to enter the mouths
of Crocodiles in search of leeches and other parasites which adhere
to the great reptile’s gums.

[Case 28. |

[Case 29, !

[Case 29,]

[Case 29, |

[Case 29, ]

54. BIRD GALLERY.

Family VI. Guarnonipa. PRATINCOLES.

The members of this family are all confined to the Old World, and in
general appearance bear little resemblance to Plovers. In their long
wings, mode of flight, and general appearance they recall the Terns,
while on account of their wide gape and from the fact that much of
their time is spent in hawking insects on the wing like Swallows, they
were actually placed with that group by Linneus. In the genus
Glareola, which includes the Common Pratincole (G. pratincola)
(567), the tail is deeply forked, but in the allied genus Galactochrysea
(569-570) it is either emarginate or square. The Common Pratincole
occasionally wanders to Britain on migration, and the Black-winged
Pratincole (G. melanopiera) (§68) has also occurred on the coast of Kent.

A remarkable long-legged form, Stiltia isabelia (566), has the first
flight-feather greatly lengthened and attenuated towards the tip.

Family Vil. Parripa. Jacanas.

The Jacanas closely resemble some of the Rails, but are nevertheless
more nearly allied to the Plovers. They are specially remarkable for
the great length of the toes and claws, the latter being enormously
elongated. Their widely spreading but extremely light feet enable these
birds to walk with ease over the jeaves of water-lilies and other floating
herbage. All the species have the wing armed with a spur placed at
the bend of the wing, but in some this weapon is long and very sharp,
while in others it is blunt and much less developed. Some, such as the
Australian Jacana (Hydralector gallinaceus) (616) and the common
South American species (Jacana jacana) (574), have conspicuous fleshy
wattles round the base. of the bill. With the latter species three very
beautiful nestlings are exhibited. The largest species is the Pheasant-
tailed Jacana (Hydrophusianus chirurgus) (577) of India and the
countries to the east, while the smallest form is the little African species
(Microparra capensis) (515).

Family VILI. Gipicnemip%. Srone-Piovers.

The Thick-knees, known also as Stone-Curlews and Stone-Plovers, are
allied to the Plovers, and form a connecting link between them and the
Bustard with which they are here associated. About twelve species,
grouped in three genera, are found throughout the temperate and tropical
portions of the Old World and in Central and South America. The
Common Stone-Curlew, Thick-knee, or Norfolk Plover ((dicnemus
edicnemus) (578), ranging from South and Central Europe to N. Africa
and India, is a summer-visitor to many parts of England and resident

BUSTARDS. 55

in the south-western counties, the open wolds and shingly parts
of the coast being its favourite resorts. The eggs, usually two in
number, are laid on the bare ground, often among stones which
they closely resemble in colour. As is indicated by their large eyes
these birds are to a great extent nocturnal in their habits, and they
are of service to man in destroying numbers of slugs, beetles, field-
mice, &c. Representatives of the other genera will be found in the
Australian Thick-knee (Burhinus grallarius) (880) and the Large-billed
Thick-knee (Orthorhamphus magnirostris) (819), which range from the
Malay Archipelago to the shores of Australia.

Family IX. Ortpips. Busrarps. (Plate 1X.)

The Bustards are an Old World group of heavily-built birds, and are
represented by numerous species presenting great variation in size.
All are inhabitants of the plains and deserts, and their stout legs and
short thick toes, recalling those of the Ostrich-tribe, enable them to
walk and run with great rapidity. In spite of their large, some-
what clumsy bodies, their flight is often rapid and prolonged, and three
species occasionally visit Britain during the colder half of the year.
Of these the Great Bustard (Otis tarda) (588) [ Pl. IX.] was formerly an
abundant resident on the extensive downs and plains of England, but has
long since disappeared, except as an occasional visitor ; while the Little
Bustard (Tetrav tetraz) (588) and the Houbara or Macqueen’s Bustard
(Houbara macqueeni) (889) are stragglers, the latter having occurred on
three occasions only. When courting the female, the male of the Great
Bustard has an extraordinary method of showing off, and when at the
height of his display presents one of the most curious sights imaginable.
The tail is turned up and laid flat on the back, being kept in position
by the long flight-feathers of the wings which are crossed above it ;
the pure white under-tail-coverts, inner secondary quills, and wing-
coverts are then fully exposed and ruffled up so as to form a frill covering
the entire back. At the same time the head is laid back between the
shoulders, and by filling a specially developed pouch with air the neck is
enormously inflated till only the crown of the head and ends of the long
“whiskers” are visible. In this extraordinary posture the bird struts
siowly in front of the female, springing round from time to time to
exhibit the white under-tail-coverts. In the Case in the centre of this
bay, the appearance of the Great Bustard while engaged in his love-
display has been admirably reproduced by Mr. G. Pickhardt. On the
floor of Case 29 the size and position of the inflatable neck-pouch will
be seen in the dissection made from a specimen which died in the
Zoological Gardens during the mating-season. It is not known whether

[ Cases
29, 30.]

[Central
Case. |

[ Table-

case 1n

window
of Bay. ]

[Cases
31, 32.]

56 BIRD GALLERY.

this pouch is retained in adult birds throughout the year or developed
afresh each season. A female of the Great Bustard with her downy
nestlings may be seen on the floor of Case 29.

The largest of all is the Paauw or Kori Bustard (Hupodotis kori) (892),
from the plains of Africa; and among the forms characterised by orna-
mental plumes on the crown and neck we may draw attention to
Macqueen’s Bustard already mentioned above, and the Lesser Florican
or Likh (Sypheotis aurita) (588), which is further remarkable for its
acuminate flight-feathers.

Order XIII. OPISTHOCOMIFORMES.
Family Opisrnocomip#. Hoarzin. (Plate X.)

The singular South American bird known as the Hoatzin (Opistho-
comus hoazin) (594) is the only representative of this Order, and has
been referred by different naturalists to the Game-Birds and other
groups. In spite of its external resemblance to the Guans, it is perhaps
more nearly allied to the Rails, while certain points of structure seem
to indicate considerable affinity to the Cuckoos. It inhabits the banks
of the Amazon and other great South American rivers, extending as far
south as Bolivia. The skeleton presents many remarkable modifications,
the sternum being unlike that of any other species of bird. The keel
is much reduced and its posterior termination is flattened-out into a
broadened surface which supports the greater part of the weight of
the body when the bird is at rest. The enormous size of the crop has
probably caused the curious modifications which the furcula, sternum,
and pectoral muscles have undergone. ‘The food consists of leaves and
fruit, and the birds after death have a very unpleasant odour which
prevents them being used as food. In spite of their large wings the
flight of these birds is very feeble and awkward, and when disturbed they
only fly for a very short distance. 'The nestlings, which can both see
and crawl soon after they are hatched, have a well-developed claw on
the pollex and index fingers of the wings by means of which they-creep
about among the branches assisted by the bill and feet. They can also
swim and dive well. The nest, a loose platform of spiny twigs, is
placed on branches overhanging the water, and the eggs closely resemble
those laid by the Corn-Crake and other Rails.

Order XIV. GRUIFORMES. Crane-tiket Birps.

This Order includes the Cranes and a number of allied but some-
what aberrant forms. In general external appearance they resemble

CRANES. 57

the Storks and Herons, but structurally they are very different Tor
instance, the nostrils in all Cranes (except the aberrant Kagu) are
pervious, communicating freely with one another, and not separated by
a bony partition (see p. 144), and the palate is schizognathous—that is
to say, the maxillo-palatine bones are not united with one another or
with the vomer (p. 145). The young are hatched covered with down,
and are able to take care of themselves soon after leaving the egg.

Family I. Aramipa. lLimpxins.

The Limpkins (598), including two American species, variously
known as the Clucking Hen, Caran, Courlan, Lamenting Bird, or
Crazy Widow, on account of their oft-repeated piercing cry, are large
long-billed birds forming a link between the Cranes and Rails. Osteo-
logically they are most nearly related to the former, but in their
external appearance, flight, and mode of life they resemble the latter.
The South-American Limpkin (Aramus scolopaceus) (698) ranges over
a large part of that continent, frequenting the beds of streams and
marshes. ‘The nest, which is placed among the rushes, contains ten or
twelve Rail-like eggs.

Family II. Rutnocuetips. Kaeus.

The only representative of this family is the Kagu (IRhinochetus
jubatus) (600), a native of New Caledonia. The shape of the bill and
crest give the bird a Heron-like appearance, which is emphasised by
the grey-coloured plumage. In a wild state its habits are said to be
nocturnal; but in captivity it is active enough during the daytime, and
exhibits considerable Crane-like dancing-powers.

Family Il]. Euryreyetp#. Sun-Birrerns. (Plate XI.)

These remarkable Rail-like birds are confined to Central and South
America. They resemble the Kagus in many points of structure and
in being provided with powder-down patches. Only two species are
known, and both possess remarkably handsome and variegated plumage.
The species exhibited (Eurypyga major) (599) is a native of Central
America and Colombia. It is mounted, with outspread wings, m a
position the bird is fond of assuming. The nest is placed in a tree, and
the nestlings, though covered with down, have to be fed by the parents
for some time before they can leave the nest.

[Case 31.]

[Case 31.]

[Case 31.]

[Case 31.]

[Case 31. ]

[Cases
31, 32.]

58 BIRD GALLERY.

Family IV. Cartamip&. Carriamas. (PI. XII. fig. 1.)

The position of these birds in the Avian system has given rise to much
discussion. Some authors have placed them in the Accipitres, near the
Secretary-bird, which they resemble in general appearance and in
certain habits; but the most recent work of anatomists seems to show
that their proper position is with the Cranes. The Brazilian Cariama
(Cariama cristata) (696) is a native of South-eastern Brazil, living on
the ground among the high grasses of the campos, where its loud
screaming cry may frequently be heard. The nest is placed on low
bushes, and the eggs are rounded and spotted like those of Cranes and
Rails. Like the Secretary-birds, it kills its prey, such as rats, by
striking down on them with its feet and reducing them to pulp.

Family V. Psoppupm. TRUMPETERS.

The Trumpeters, an example of which will be found in the common
form (Psophia crepitans) (695), include about half a dozen species, all
confined to South America. Their popular name is derived from their
curious trumpet-like call, which is probably produced by means of the
enormously developed trachea. Their favourite haunts are the moist
forests, where, being extremely sociable birds, they are generally met
with in flocks. The powers of flight are small, and being easily tamed,
they are often to be seen in the settlements of the Indians in a domes-
ticated condition. The nest is placed on the ground, and the eggs,
unlike those of the other members of the Order, are white.

Family VI. Gruipa. Cranes.

The true Cranes are long-necked, long-legged, stately birds, generally
with bright patches of colour on the head, and with the inner secondary
flizht-feathers developed into drooping ornamental plumes. They are
found in all parts of the world except South America. The character-
istic cry is a very loud trumpeting sound, uttered with the head thrown
back and the bill open, and produced by a peculiar convolution of the
windpipe within the hollow keel of the breast-bone. The length and
development of these convolutions depend on age, and they are entirely
absent in very young birds. In the Crowned Cranes (Balearica) the
windpipe is simple and does not enter the breast-bone.

Cranes are gregarious, and during their migrations travel in single
file or in V-shaped array, after the manner of wild Geese ; they frequent
marshes and plains, and are specially fond of the neighbourhood of
lagoons and fields of rice and corn. Their peculiar habit of dancing
and going through various graceful antics may be witnessed any day at

HERONS, 59

the Zoological Gardens. Of the eighteen different species known,
typical examples will be found exhibited. Of these we may call attention
to the Common Crane (Grus grus) (601), a regular summer-visitor
to Europe, the Sarus Cranes (Antigone), of which A. sharpei (605)
is common in Burma and A. australasiana (604) is well-known in
Australia as the “ Native Companion,” and the great African Wattled
Crane (Bugeranus carunculatus) (606). Two very elegant forms are
the Stanley’s Crane (Tetrapteryx paradisea) (608) and the Demoiselle
(Anthropoides virge) (668); but perhaps the most striking are the
Crowned Cranes (Balearica) (610, 611), with their curious brush-like
crests. The eggs, two or sometimes three i number, are laid in a more
or less extensive nest placed on the ground.

Order XV. ARDEIFORMES. Heron-triBe.

The Herons, Storks, and Ibises included in this Order difter from the
Cranes in possessing a bridged or desmognathous palate (see p. 145),
while their young are hatched in a helpless condition and have to be
fed in the nest for a considerable period.

In the true Herons the bill is almost always long, straight, pointed,
often serrated on the edges, and specially adapted for the capture of
fish, while the legs and toes are long and suitable for wading. In spite
of their structure, apparently so unsuited for an arboreal life, they perch
readily on trees, and many species build their loosely-constructed nests
of sticks among the branches, either singly or in colonies.

In flight the head is drawn back between the shoulders. Many of
the species assume ornamental plumage during the nesting-season,
either in the form of long crest-feathers or elongate plumes on the
breast or back. It is from the long “ dorsal train” of the Little Egret
(Garzetta garzetta) (642), the Snowy Egret (Garzetta candidissima),
and the American Heret (Herodius egretta), as well as from other
allied species [see Pl. XIII.], that the ornamental plumes known
> are procured.

The majority of the Herons lay eggs of a beautiful greenish-blue
colour, but those of many of the Bitterns are white or yellowish-
brown.

Rene CEC Vesaaane 2
among dealers as “ Ospreys

Family I. Arperp#. Herons. (Plates XIII., XIV.)

The Bitterns -(Botaurus), of which examples will be found on the
floor of Case 33, are seldom found far from marshes ; their flight
is laboured and slow, but they can run and climb among the water-
plants with surprising ease. ‘They frequently attempt to conceal
themselves by assuming an upright position with the bill held vertically,

[Cases
33, 34. |

[Cases
33, 34. |

60 BIRD GALLERY.

and their buff-striped breast turned towards the spectator. In this
position they so closely resemble the surrounding reeds that they easily
escape detection. The visitor’s attention is directed to the Little
Bittern (Ardetta minuta) (622) [Plate XIV.], which has been mounted
to illustrate this marvellous instinct of self-preservation. Owing to
the draining of the extensive reed-swamps and constant persecution
the Common Bittern (B. stellaris) (615) ceased to breed in this
country, though if continued as a winter-visitor in small numbers.
Now, thanks to protection, a few pairs nest annually in Hast Anglia,
aud its booming cry is again to be heard across the fens. The
American Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) (613) is an occasional visitor
to our shores.

Passing by the handsome Asiatic Bitterns (Dupetor) (617), the Buff-
backed Heron (Bubulcus lucidus) (621), and the Squacco Heron (Ardeola
ralloides) (620), we come to the Tiger-Bitterns (626-628), very hand-
some birds represented by several genera, and the Green Herons
(Butorides) (632-634), which form a connecting link between the
Bitterns and Herons.

A very remarkable type with wide, shoe-shaped bill will be found in
the Central American Boatbill (Cancroma) (629), a bird of nocturnal

[Case 34.] habits. On the floor of the next Case several species of the nearly
allied Night-Herons (Nycticoraz) (637-689) are exhibited, of which the
chestnut-backed species are the most handsome, and the common grey
species (N. nycticorax) (689) is an almost annual visitor to our shores.
The Reef-Herons (Demiegretta) (645) are noteworthy as possessing
two phases of plumage—a white form and a grey one. The same
phenomenon is exhibited in the Blue Herou (Florida cerulea) (641)
and in the Reddish Egret (Dichromanassa rufa) (646), where one form
of the species is white and the other rufous. One of the most graceful
and elegant species is the Great White Heron (Herodias alba) (848),
which ranges over a large part of the Old World. As already stated, it
is from Herons and Egrets [ Plate XIII.] in their nuptial plumage that
the ornamental plumes known as “ ospreys” are procured.

Passing by the handsome Purple Heron (Phoyx purpurea) (650), we
may specially draw attention to the Great Heron (Ardea goliath) (681),
which, as its name implies, is the giant of the group; and, most familiar
of all, the Common Heron (A. cinerea) (652). Heronries, as the
colonies of nests are called, are found in many parts of Great Britain and
Ireland. After the breeding-season is over, the majority of the birds
disperse over the country. Many go down to the coasts and remain
away during the autumn and winter, only returning in spring, but, if
the season is a mild one, they begin to lay in the beginning of March
or even earlier. Their appetite is insatiable, and they destroy large
numbers of fish, frogs, young water-fowl, and even water-rats.

STORKS. 61

The Storks, which form the next section of this order, include several
families represented by some remarkable forms.

Family I. Baranicreitipa. SHOE-BILLED STORKs.

The Whale-headed Stork or Shoe-bill (Baleniceps rex) (654) is
certainly the most striking and extraordinary of all the Storks. It is
confined to the marsh-countries of the Upper Nile, and thence ranges
southwards through the great system of lakes as far south as Nyasa.
Though it perches freely on trees, it places its nest in the reeds or high
grass immediately on the water’s edge. Its principal food consists of
fish and reptiles, and its strongly hooked bill seems specially adapted
to seize and rip open turtles and the mailed fishes with which the waters
of Central Africa abound.

Family III. Scoprp#. Hammer-nHeEap Srorks.

The Hammer-head (Scopus umbretta) (655), as in the preceding
instance, is the sole representative of a distinct family, which inhabits
Madagascar and a large part of the Ethiopian Region. It frequents
wooded districts, and is generally met with in pairs. The nesting-
habits are remarkable, for the birds build an enormous structure of
sticks lined with roots and clay, with an entrance in the side and
usually a flat top. ‘This mass, sometimes amounting to quite a cart-
load, is placed either on a tree or rock, and contains from three to five
white eggs.

Family IV. Cicontripm. Storks.

A number of genera are included in the true Storks. On the ground-
floor of the Case the visitor will find the ungainly and rather repulsive
looking Adjutant (Leptoptilus dubius) (656), with its bare pinkish-red
head and neck and pendulous pouch, which can be inflated at will and
is apparently merely ornamental. This species and its two close allies
all possess the beautiful soft under tail-coverts known as “ Marabou”
feathers, which are in demand for purposes of millinery. In India this
bird is protected on account of its utility as a scavenger, and may often
be seen in the streets of the towns, devouring carrion and fearless alike
of man and dog.

The genus Ciconia is represented by the White Stork (C. alba) (657)
and the Black Stork (C. nigra) (658), both of which are occasional
stragglers to Great Britain. As in their allies, the absence of the
so-called “intrinsic muscles” deprives them of voice, and the only
sound they can produce is a loud clatter made by beating the mandibles
rapidly together, If flying, they hold the neck straight forward like

[Case 35. ]

| Case 36, |

[Cases
35, 36.]

[Case 85. ]

[Case 35. |

[Case 36.]

62 BIRD GALLERY.

the Hammer-head, and may thus always be distinguished on the wing
from Herons. Many of the species are migratory, the common White
Stork being a summer-visitor to Europe, where it is carefully protected
and encouraged to build its nests on the houses and in the gardens.

A very large and striking species is the Saddle-billed Stork (Kphippto-
rhynchus senegalensis) (659), which inhabits Tropical Africa; and no
Jess handsome in their way are the Black-necked Jabiru (Xenorhyn-
chus) (660) and its American ally (Mycteria) (661). The Open-billed
or Shell-Storks (Anastomus) (664, 665) are remarkable for their nut-
eracker-like bill, so well adapted for breaking open molluses, which
form their principal food. The peculiar gap im the bill is not seen in
the young, but seems to develop as the birds get older.

Passing over the White-necked Stork (Disswra microscelis) (663), with
its curiously deeply-forked tail, and the White-bellied Stork (Adbdimia
abdimii) (662), which looks like a miniature Black Stork, we come last
to the Wood-Ibises, a somewhat isolated group, of which an example
will be found in the beautiful African species (Pseudotantalus ibis)
(666), with its striking white, black, and dull crimson plumage.

Family V. Inipipa. Isiszs.

The Ibises are numerously represented, and all may be readily dis-
tinguished from their near allies the Spoonbills and from the Storks
by the long, curved, “Curlew-like ” bill, with the nasal groove extending
nearly to the extremity. The White and Scarlet Ibises, belonging to
the genus Hudocimus (667, 668), are striking American species, espe-
cially the latter. The Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) (669) is of
special interest, having visited Great Britain on many occasions ; and
other striking forms will be found in the Giant Ibis (Thaumatibis)
(670) from Cochin China, the crested Madagascar genus (Lophotibis)
(671), the African Hadadah Ibis (Hagedashia) (675), the Wattled Ibis
(Bostrychia) (674), and the curious straw-necked Australian form (Car-
phibis) (671). The most interesting of all is, however, the Sacred Ibis
(Ibis ethiopica) (618), which was regarded with great veneration by
the ancient Egyptians, as is shown by'the many mummies of these birds
found in the temples.

Family VI. Puarateipa. SPoonsi.ys.

The Spoonbills, represented by three genera and several species, are
at once distinguished from all the other long-legged Storks and Herons
by their remarkably shaped flattened bill. One of the handsomest is
ihe Roseate Spoonbill of America (Ajaja) (679), and another striking
bird is the allied Australian form (Platibis) (680) ; but the most familiar
is the common species (Platalea leucerodia) (682), which once bred

DUCKS. 63

regularly in England, but is now only a strageler to our shores. Like
its allies, it almost always breeds in colonies ; the nest, a mass of twigs,
flags, or sticks, is sometimes placed in reed-beds or on low bushes,
but more usually ina tree. Tour or five rough white eggs with red-
brown spots are the full complement for a sitting.

Order XVI. ANSERIFORMES. DUCK-TRIBE.

Family Anatipa. Mereansers, Ducks, Gurse & Swans.

The cosmopehtan family Anatide, which alone comprises this Order, [Cases
includes the Mergansers, Ducks, Geese and Swans. They are all easily rare
recognised by their external characters, such as the flattened or partially Case. ]
flattened bili, short legs and fully webbed toes, which distinguish them
from the Screamers and Flamingoes. The majority of the species find
their food under the water, which is drained away between the lamelle
with which the edges of the soft-skinned bill are provided, and which
act like a sieve in retaining the substances or animalcules fit for food.

In the Geese these lamelle are harder and adapted for cutting grass,
while in the Mergansers they are recurved to prevent the captured fish
from escaping.

A curious feature about many of the Ducks, apparently peculiar to

all those species in which the male is more brightly coloured than the
female, is that after the young are hatched the male moults his bright
plumage and assumes a dull-coloured dress similar to that of the female.
This change is no doubt protective, for during the moult the male,
having cast all his flight-feathers, is practically helpless. The “ eclipse ”’
plumage lasts for several weeks till the quills have been renewed, and is
then replaced by new feathers of the normal bright livery.

On the lower shelves of this Case the visitor will find various species [Case 37.]

of ‘Saw-bills,” as the genus Merganser and its allies are commonly
called. The Red-breasted Merganser (M. serrator) (684), the Goosander
(M. castor) (685), and the beautiful Smew (Mergus albellus) (686) are
all three British species, the first two breeding in the north of Scotland.
The Merganser is much the commonest and is particularly hated
by fishermen on account of the enormous numbers of fish it catches,
including small trout and salmon-fry. A remarkably handsome species
is the North-American Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) (681),
which has occasionally been obtained in Great Britain and Ireland
during severe winter-weather. The Red-breasted Merganser hides its
nest among thick heather or coarse grass, but the other species men-
tioned almost always select a hollow tree.

The genus Merganetta, represented by the Chilian Merganser or

[Case 37. ]

[Case 37. |

[Case 38. |

64. BIRD GALLERY.

Torrent-Duck (M. armata) (688), frequents the high mountain torrents
of the Andes, and forms a link between the true Mergansers and the
stiff-tailed Diving-Ducks, but differs from the former in having no teeth
on the edges of the mandibles and in having the bend of the wing armed
with astrong spur. The New Zealand Soft-billed Duck (Hymenolemus
malacorhynchus) (689) is worthy of special notice on account of its
remarkable bill with a dependent membrane, suited for the capture of
insect larve on which it principally feeds.

The Stiff-tailed Ducks, so-called from tieir rather long, narrow, rigid
tail-feathers which are often carried erect when the bird is swimming,
include several genera of which representatives will be found in the
White-headed and Australian species of Hrismatura (690, 691),
the American Masked form (Nomonyx) (698), and the Musk-Duck
(Biziura lobata) (692). The latter, whose name is derived from the
strong musky odour of the sitting female, frequents the seas as well as
the lakes of Australia and Tasmania. It is much the largest species of
the group, and remarkable on account of the leathery chin-pouch found
in both sexes. The appendage opens under the tongue and is largest
in the male, giving the bird a very peculiar appearance. Like its
allies it is an expert diver and can remain for a long time submerged.
It seldom, if ever, flies in the daytime, but will do so at night. The
nest is placed in aswamp or in a bank, and contains two or three olive-
coloured eggs.

Of Sea-Ducks we may first mention the Eiders, which are all in-
habitants of northern waters, and are represented by Steller’s Eider
(Heniconetta stelleri) (694) and the King- and Common Eiders (Somateria
spectabilis (695) and S. mollissima (696)), all of which are included in
the British List. Their nests supply the “ Eider down ” which forms an
important article of export in countries such as Norway, where the
common species is protected by law and consequently exceedingly
numerous. It will be noted that the series exhibited shows the
changes from summer- to winter-plumage in both the old and young
drakes, the ‘eclipse ” or intermediate autumn-plumage being specially
interesting.

The South-American Rosy-billed Duck (Metopiana) (697) is often
kept on ornamental waters in this country. The Pochards (Netta
and Nyroca) include the Red-crested (698) and Ferruginous (701)
species, both of which occur in Great Britain as occasional stragglers, as
well as the Common Pochard (699) and the Canvas-Back (700) from
North America, famous for its excellent qualities as a bird for the table.
The Tufted Duck (Fuligula) (103) breeds plentifully on the lochs and
ponds of Great Britain and Ireland, and is easily recognised by the
long droopmg occipital crest developed in both sexes; the Scaup

DUCKS. 65

(104), belonging to the same genus, has been proved to breed
oceasionally in the north of Scotland. The drakes of both the
Golden-eye (106) and Buffel-headed (707) Ducks (Clangula) are very
handsome black-and-white forms and these species are included in the
list of British Birds, the former being a regular winter-visitor, but the
latter only a rare North American straggler. Another common winter-
visitor to our coasts, the Long-tailed Duck (Harelda) (108), is said to
breed occasionally in the Shetlands, but the remarkably handsome
Harlequin (709), which is placed next to it, is only an accidental
straggler from the north.

The Scoters (Gidemia), of which three species are exhibited, are all
British Sea-ducks. The males are easily recognised by their black
plumage, the common species (Gi. nigra) (710) being numerous
on our coasts, especially in winter. Lastly we come to the large
Steamer or Logger-head Duck (Tuachyeres) (118), from the coasts of
Chile and the Falkland Islands; only the young birds are able to
fly, the adults losing the power of doing so.

Passing by the curiously marked Freckled Duck (Stictonetta) (715)
of South Australia at the foot of the Case, we come to the various
species of Teal, a large group of smaller species referred to several
genera. Among the most striking we may mention the very hand-
some Cinnamon-Teal (Querquedula cyanoptera) (111). The Gar-
ganey (Q. circia) (119), the Blue-winged (Q. discors) (118), and the
American Teal (Net¢tion carolinense) (124) are all on the British List,
but the last two only appear as accidental visitors. Closely resembling
the last we have the Common Teal (N. crecca) (125), and may
draw attention in passing to the drake exhibited in complete “ eclipse-
plumage ” like that of the female. The most beautiful member of the
genus is, however, undoubtedly the Baikal Teal (N. formosum) (128),
and another very fine bird is the Falcated Teal (Hunetta falcata) (129)
with its green occipital! crest.

Of the genus Anas which follows several species will be found.
The Spotted-billed Duck (A. pwcilorhyncha) (132) is a familiar Indian
species, and one of the most striking is the Crested Duck (A cristata)
(184) from South America. The Wild Duck or Mallard (A. boscas)
(785) is shown in various stages of plumage, the drake of the middle pair
being in “ eclipse-plumage.”

At the foot of this Case we find some Ducks with remarkably
formed bills specially adapted for retaining small shells, insects, and
vegetable matter. The Shovelers (Spatula) (137 & 788) include
four species, two of which are exhibited, and the so-called Pink-eyed
Duck (Malacorhynchus membranaceus) (189), which has a patch of pink
feathers behind the eye. The Common Shoveler (S. clypeata) (138)

F

[Case <

(J)
Oo

|

[Case 39. |

[Case 39.]

[Case 40. ]

[ Case 40.]

[Case 41. ]

66 BIRD GALLERY.

breeds in many parts of Great Britain, and has greatly increased since
the Act for the Preservation of Wild Fowls was passed in 1876.

A rare and all but extinct form is the Flightless Duck (Nesonetta
aucklandica) (140), from the Auckland Islands, to the South of New
Zealand.

The Pintail (Dafila acuta) (142) and the Gadwall (Chaulelasmus
streperus) (143) both breed in Great Britain, but are very local; males
of both these species in “‘eclipse-plumage” resembling that of the female
are exhibited.

Next come the Wigeons (Mareca), of which the typical species (M.
penelope) (145) is one of the commonest British Ducks, while the
American Wigeon (M. americana) (746) occasionally visits our coasts as
a stragegler from North America.

The Sheld-Ducks (Tadorna and Casarca) ave represented by various
handsome species, but none more strikingly so than the common species
T. cornuta (150), which is an abundant resident on our coasts. The
female scarcely differs from the male in plumage, the markings being
only rather paler and less defined. This species has a curious habit of
breeding in burrows, which it either excavates for itself or appropriates
from other burrowing animals. The only other member of the genus
is the remarkable looking Australian form (7. radjah) (161). Of the
genus Casarca the most familar is the Ruddy Sheld-Duck (C. rutila)
(748), which occasionally visits our coasts in considerable numbers and
is frequently kept on ornamental pieces of water. The inter-tropical
genus Dendrocycna includes the Tree-Ducks, mostly birds of chestnut
or brown plumage. | They are remarkable for their long hind toe, and
habitually perch on trees, placing their nest, which contains from six
to twelve eggs, in a hollow tree, on a stump, or in long grass. The
geographical distribution of some of the species of Tree-Duck is very
remarkable, D. viduata (154) being found in S. America and the west
Indies as well as Africa and Madagascar, while D. fulva (153) ranges
from the United States and S. America across Africa and Madagascar
to India and Burma. The last species in this Case is the Egyptian
Goose (Chenalopex egyptiaca) (155).

Commencing at the foot of the next Case we come to the “ Grey”
Geese belonging to the genus Anser. Of these the Grey Lag (A. ferus)
(160) is the only species that breeds in Great Britain, a few pairs
remaining to nest in the north of Scotland and in the Hebrides. The -
Pink-footed (767), Bean (758), and White-fronted Geese (759) are all
regular visitors to our coasts during the colder months, while the Lesser
White-fronted (Anser erythropus) (169 a), and the Snow-Goose (Chen
hyperboreus) (161), 2 North American species, sometimes occur in very
severe weather, The Bernacle-Goose (Branta leucopsis) (168) is another

DUCKS. 67

regular visitor, being more numerous along our western shores, and its
handsome red-breasted ally (B. ruficollis) (165) very rarely wanders as
far west as Great Britain. The commonest species that visits us is
undoubtedly the Brent-Goose (Branta bernicla) (164), which is specially
numerous along the east coast and may sometimes be seen in almost
countless multitudes. The two forms of this bird are exhibited; the one
having the underparts pale whitish-grey, while in the other they are dark
grey or brown. Another familiar member of tiis genus is the large
Canada Goose (B. canadensis) (162), which has for more than two
centuries been domesticated in this country.

The Emperor-Goose (PAilacte) (166) and the Sandwich Island Goose
(Nesochen) (167) are two somewhat remarkable forms, the latter being a
very rare species which inhabits the craters and lava-flows on the
hills of the Hawaiian Islands.

To rather a different group belong the South American Upland-Goose
and its allies (Chloéphaga) (168-1170), the Abyssinian Dwarf-Goose
(Cyanochen) (111), and the Australian Maned Goose (Chenonetta) (1172).
The Upland Goose is a familiar bird to many, for being a large, hand-
some and hardy species, it is frequently kept on ornamental waters in
this country.

The last section of the Anatide includes the Spur-winged Geese
(Plectropterus), represented by the N.E. African form P. riippelli (173),
characterised by its high frontal knob, and the Muscovy Duck (Catrina
moschata) (174) of Tropical South America, with its bare red face
and fleshy wattles, frequently kept in a domestic state both in this and
other countries. Another remarkable form is the Indian and N. African
Black-backed Goose (Sarcidiornis melanonota) (115), the bill of the male
being ornamented with a fleshy comb which is about 2 inches high in
the breeding-season. Both these and the Muscovy Ducks (774) nest in
hollow trees.

The White-winged Wood-Duck (Asacornis scutulata) (116) and the
Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) (111), the only members
of their respective genera, are both peculiar to the Indo-Burmese
countries. The colouring of the latter is specially remarkable, the
delicate pink head and neck being quite unlike that of any other Duck.
The Pigmy Geese or Cotton-Teal (Nettopus) (778-780) are all natives
of the Old World, and several species representing these handsome little
birds are exhibited. The lovely Summer-Duck (782) of N. America, and
the still more splendid Mandarin-Duck (781) from N.E. Asia and Japan,
constitute the genus 4x. With the full-plumaged male of the former
will be found another example in complete “ eclipse-plumage ” like that
of the female.

The Black-and-White Goose (Anseranas semipalmatus) (188) is the

F2

[Case 41. ]

[Case 42. ]

[Case 42. |

[Central
Case. |

[Case 42
and
Central
Case. |

68 BIRD GALLERY.

representative of a distinct subfamily, with the toes only half-webbed
and the hind toe very long and on a level with the other toes. Another
striking semipalmate form, also the type of a different subfamily, is the
Cape Barren Goose (Cereopsis nove hollandie) (184) from South-east
Australia and Tasmania.

In the large central Case in the middle of the Gallery will be found
the Swans, which constitute the last subfamily, Cygnine. Three species
visit the British Islands, viz. the Mute or Polish Swan (Cygnus olor) (185),
commonly seen on ornamental waters, the Whooper and Bewick’s Swans
(C. musicus (181) and C. bewicki (188)). Other forms exhibited are
the North-American Trumpeter-Swan (C. buccinator) (186), the
South-American Black-necked Swan (C. melancoryphus) (190), and,
most graceful of all, the Australian Black Swan (Chenopsis atrata) (189),
which may be seen with its cygnets in the middle of winter on the
ornamental waters in the London Parks. Lastly the Coscoroba
Swan (Coscoroba candida) (191), from the southern parts of South
America, which forms a connecting link between the Swans and
Geese.

Order XVII. PHCANICOPTERIFORMES.

Family Po@nicopreripm. FLAMINGOES.

The Flamingoes, with their enormously long neck and legs and curious
decurved bill specially adapted for sifting their food, are so familiar that
they require no description. They are found over the temperate and
tropical regions of both the Old and New Worlds, the best known being
the Common Flamingo (Phe@nicopterus roseus) (192). This bird is a
migrant to Southern HKurope and a rare straggler to Britain during the
summer. It usually frequents the brackish and salt-water marshes near
the sca-coast, where it congregates in large colonies and builds mud-
nests which rise like little islands some inches above the surface of the
water [see group in Central Case]. It was long supposed that the birds
incubated their single egg by standing astride their nests with their feet
resting in the water, but it has now been ascertained that their legs
are doubled up under them and their long necks gracefully curled away
over their backs. As in the Ducks, the young are able to run as soon
as they are hatched. Other forms shown are the Ruddy Flamingo
(P. ruber) (198) from ‘Tropical America, and the Small Flamingo
(Pheniconaias minor) (194), which ranges from Africa to India.

SCREAMERS.—PELICANS. 69

Order XVITT. PALAMEDEIFORMES.

Family PataMeprip#®. ScrReEAMERS.

This Order includes only three species referable to two genera, which,
though most nearly allied to the Ducks, differ from them in many
important particulars. The bill is short and fowl-like with a decurved
tip, without lamine or tooth-like processes on the sides, and the long
toes are only partially united by rudimentary webs. The skeleton
shows some very remarkable peculiarities, such as the absence of uncinate
processes to the ribs.

The three known species are all peculiar to South America, and are
represented by the Derbian Screamer (Chauna chavaria) (195), a heavy
looking bird with the wing strongly armed with a couple of powerful
spurs. They frequent marshes and shallow water, wading and swimming,
and in spite of their weight are birds of powerful flight, soaring in
immense spiral circles till they are almost out of sight. Standing with
head thrown back, both male and female utter a very loud cry, which
may be heard at a distance of two miles.

Screamers are often kept by the natives in a state of domesticity, and
prove efficient guardians of the poultry-yard against birds of prey and
other enemies.

Order XIX. PELECANIFORMES. PeEtuicans AND ALLIES.

The members of this Order, often called Steganopodes, are character-
ised by having the hind toe united to the second toe by a web, so that
all four toes are webbed. In this respect they differ from all other
birds. They are sociable in their habits, and as a rule feed and nest in
companies, their food consisting almost exclusively of fish.

Family I. PHatacrocoracip&. DartEeRs AND CoRMOoRANTS.

The four species of Darters or Snake-birds (Plotus) (191-199), two
of which are exhibited on the lowest shelf of this Case, are fresh-water
divers inhabiting the tropical and warmer temperate regions of the
world. They are remarkable looking birds, with the bill long and
pointed and the edges of the mandibles serrated to enable the bird to
hold its slippery prey. As may be seen by examination of the skeleton
(798), the articulation of the cervical vertebree is very remarkable and
the curious “ kink ” in the neck, so characteristic of these birds, is really
a spring-like arrangement worked by powerful muscles. When the
bird spears a fish the “spring” is released and the bill darts forward

[Case 42. |

[Cases
43, 44.]

[Case 43. ]

[Case 43. |

[Case 43.]

70 BIRD GALLERY.

with lightning speed and unerring aim, and the prey is transfixed in a
moment. The bird then rises to the surface, and jerking the fish into
the air dexterously catches and swallowsit. The flight is laboured, but
in the water they are perfectly at ease, swimming with only the head
and neck exposed, or, if danger threatens, with only the beak above the
surface. When diving in pursuit of fish, the wings are but little used,
the feet acting as powerful paddles. The nest, which is made of sticks
and lined with roots or moss, is placed in a tree or bush, generally
in company with many others. The eggs are from two to five in
number, chalky greenish-blue, and much like those of Cormorants but
smaller.

About forty species of Cormorants (Phalacrocorax) (800-806) are
known, distributed over almost the entire face of the globe. The bill
is more raptorial than in the Darters and furnished with a hook at the
end. ‘Two species occur commonly on our coasts, the Common
Cormorant (P. carbo) (800) and the Green Cormorant or Shag
(P. graculus) (801). The ornamental white plumes on the head and
neck of the former and the crest on the latter are only assumed during
the breeding-season and are afterwards shed. Examples of both these
species in adult and immature, brown or brown-and-white, plumage are
exhibited. Almost all the species are black, or black and white, more or
less glossed with purplish, blue, or green. A number of very handsome
white-breasted species inhabit the colder parts of the Southern Hemi-
sphere, ranging from South America to New Zealand. An example of
these will be found in the White-bellied Cormorant (P. albiventer)
(802); and two handsome little species from New Zealand and Australia,
the Frilled and White-throated Cormorants (P. melanoleucus (805) and
P. brevirostris (806) ), are also exhibited.

Family II. Sunip#. GaAwNNETs.

The Gannets or Boobies (Suda) (807-810) are a widely distributed
group of oceanic birds represented by about a dozen species. ‘They are
easily recognised by their long, stout, tapering bill, sharply pointed at
the tip and serrated on the cutting edges of the mandibles, their long
pointed wings and wedge-shaped tail. All are birds of very powerful
flight and capture the fish on which they prey by diving, the headlong
plunge being made with great velocity from a considerable height.
One of the most familiar is the Common Gannet or Solan Goose
(S. bassana) (801), a well-known British species which nests at several
stations, such as Lundy Island, Grassholm, the Bass Rock, Ailsa Craig,
St. Kilda, the Little Skellig, &c. The nest, a mass of seaweed and
grass, is placed on a ledge of rock or, in some cases, on a low tree, and

PELICANS, 71

the eggs have a pale blue shell overlaid with a chalky white coating.
The closely allied Australian species (8. serrator) (808), also exhi-
bited, differs in having the two middle pairs of tail-feathers black. A
more slender and widely distributed form is the Red-footed Gannet
(S. piscator) (809); and a different type is shown in the Brown
Gannet or Booby (S. sula) (810), which has an almost cosmopolitan
distribution.

Family Il]. Petecanips. Perticans.

Pelicans (Pelecanus) (811-815) are so extraordinary in their appear-
ance that, when once seen, they can never be mistaken for any other
bird. The great ungainly body, long flat bill hooked at the tip,
enormous gular pouch, short iegs, and waddling gait make up a truly
remarkable whole. About nine species are known to inhabit the tropical
and temperate parts of the world, frequenting not only tidal waters
but lakes and swampy districts, where, being very gregarious in their
habits, they often congregate in great numbers.

In spite of their ungainly appearance they are perfectly at home both
on the wing and in the water, and with head drawn back between the
shoulders and legs extended beneath the tail, fly with great power.
They frequently soar in a spiral to great altitudes, and with alternate
flapping and sailing movements circle for hours.

The food, which consists almost exclusively of fish, is generally
captured by diving, but not infrequently a number of birds combine
together and forming single, double, or even triple lines across a sheet
of water, drive the fish before them towards the shallows, where they
are easily captured. The White Pelican (P. onocrotalus) (811) is the
most familiar, and in former times was a native of Great Britain. The
Dalmatian Pelican (P. crispus) (812) is the largest of all and has a
curious crest of loose curled feathers, and the handsome Brown Pelican
(P. fuscus) (815) is the smallest. The Australian form (P. conspicil-
latus) (818) has a bare space round the eye enclosed by a ring of feathers.

The North-American White Pelican (P. erythrorhynchus) (814) is
remarkable for the curious horny excrescence which is developed on the
upper mandible during the breeding-season and afterwards shed. Two
of these horny discs, the castings of previous years, are exhibited with
the head of this species.

Family IV. Freearipa#. Fricars-Birps.

This family is represented by two species only, which are exhibited in
the Case. Both the Greater Frigate-Bird or Man-of-war Bird (fregata
aguila) (816) and the Lesser Frigate-Bird (F. arie/) (817) inhabit the

[Case 44, ]

[Case 44. ]

[Case 44, ]

[Case 44, ]

Case 45. ]

7D) BIRD GALLERY.

intertropical oceans, and in outward appearance, as well as in habits,
resemble some of the lower Birds of Prey, such as Kites. Their strongly
hooked bill, large gular pouch, very short legs feathered to the toes
which are only united by very small webs, immensely long wings, and
deeply forked tail, are all striking characters. Their powers of flight
are perhaps superior to those of any other bird, aud they employ their
great speed to overtake and rob the smaller sea-birds, harassing them
till they drop or disgorge their prey, which is dexterously caught in
mid-air and swallowed. They also kill and devour numbers of young
birds, even those of their own species. ‘The nest is made of sticks and
placed in trees or bushes, sometimes on the bare rocks. The single
egg is very similar in appearance to that laid by the Cormorant, and
both sexes take part in the duties of incubation.

Family V. PHazrnontips#. 'Tropic-Birps.

Only six species of Tropic- or Boatswain-Bird (Phaéthon) (818-822)
comprise this small family and, as their name implies, inhabit the inter-
tropical oceans. They are easily distinguished from the other Pelican-
like birds by their sharp-pointed bill serrated along the edges, and by
the middle pair of tail-feathers being greatly elongate and attenuated.
The legs are so very short that the gait on land is awkward and
shuffling, and they can only rise with difficulty from the level ground.
Tropic-Birds are often met with hundreds of miles from land, and their
rapid flight is performed by quick pulsations of the wings. They
will often follow vessels for hours, sometimes soaring high overhead in
circles or settling on the rigging. No nest is made, and the single
mottled purplish-brown egg is generally laid in a hole or crevice of the
cliff, though sometimes a hollow tree is resorted to. Of the three
species exhibited the most striking is perhaps the Red-tailed Tropic-
Bird (P. rubricauda) (818) with its silver-white plumage and scarlet
streamers, while the Fulvous Tropic-Bird (P. fulvus) (820) from the
Indian Ocean is another remarkable form.

Order XX. CATHARTIFORMES.

Family Carnartipa., TurKey- VULTURES.

These aberrant Birds of Prey are found only in America. In their
habits they closely resemble the Vultures of the Old World, but they
differ so much from the true Accipitrine Birds in their anatomy and
osteology that they are now placed in a separate order. We may specially
mention the peculiarity of the nostrils, which are pervious and not
divided from one another by a bony septum or partition (p. 144, fig. 9).

VULTURES. 73

Chief of the New World Vultures is the gigantic Condor of the
Andes (Sarcorhamphus gryphus) (824), exhibited in one of the central
Cases in the Bay. It is one of the largest living birds, the expanse of
the wings in some examples attaiming to nine feet or more, as may be
seen by an inspection of the fine adult male mounted with its wings
partially expanded. Other remarkable birds of this group (Case 45) are
the Californian Vulture (Pseudogryphus californianus) (825), now only
found in Southern and Lower California, but formerly extending much
farther north to British Columbia; the King-Vulture (Gypagus papa)
(826), with its brilliantly coloured bare face; and the Black Turkey-
Vulture (Catharistes urulu) (821) and its allies, common in the towns
and villages: from the Southern United States southwards. These latter
when not molested become remarkably tame and fearless, walking about
the streets in search of carrion.

Order XXI. SERPENTARIITFORMES.

Family SerPentarupm#., SxEcreTARY-Birps. (Plate XII. fig. 2.)

This remarkable group of the Birds of Prey includes only two African
species belonging to the genus Serpentarius; S. serpentarius (828)
being confined to the southern and eastern parts of that Continent,
while S. gambiensis ranges from Senegambia to Southern Abyssinia.
‘The name ‘‘ Secretary ”’ is derived from the tuft of long feathers hanging
over the back of the head, which are supposed to resemble the quill-
pens an ideal secretary would carry behind his ear. The legs are
abnormally long, the toes partially webbed, and the middle pair of
feathers of the wedge-shaped tail are greatly elongate. ‘These birds
live almost exclusively on Reptiles and, as they destroy large numbers
of poisonous snakes, are strictly protected by law. The Secretary
usually kills its prey by delivering rapid forward kicks with its powerful
feet, beating to pulp rats and such-like; but if a venomous snake is
attacked the body is carefully shielded with its outspread wings. It is
said to kill reptiles occasionally by carrying them aloft and dropping
them. The huge nest of sticks etc. is placed in a bush or tree, and the
two or three eggs are white with rusty markings.

Order XXII. ACCIPITRIFORMES.
Vuttures, Hawks, anp Ospreys.

This Order includes all the remaining Birds of Prey, characterised by
their short, strong, sharp-edged beak, with the upper mandible curved
downwards and terminating in a pointed hook, and by having all four

| Table-
case. |

[Case 45. ]

[ Cases
45-53.]

[ Cases
45, 46,

and
Table-

case. |

[Case 45, |

[Table-
case. |

[Case 45.]

[Case 46. |

[Case 46. |

4 A BIRD GALLERY.

toes armed with strong curved claws. By means of these powerful
weapons they are able to seize and kill their prey and to tear up the
flesh. ‘Chey are monogamous, and the female is generally larger than
the male. ‘The eggs are few in number, and the young when hatched
are in a naked and helpless condition,

Three families are recognised, the first including the Vultures
(Vullturide), the second the Kagles and Hawks (Halconide), and the
third the Ospreys (Pandionide).

Family I. Vuururipa. Vuvrures.

These Birds of Prey inhabit the tropical and subtropical portions of
the Old World, where they represent the Turkey-Vultures (Cathartide)
of America. As has already been mentioned above, they differ from the
latter birds in many important particulars, but in their habits they are
very similar, ‘They feed chiefly on the careases of dead animals which
their keen sight enables them to discover, and though many naturalists
have maintained that it is chiefly by the sense of smell that they find
their prey, there can be no doubt that this is a mistake, as has been
proved by experiments. Their claws being short and rather blunt,
Vultures rarely attack and kill living animals; they are cowardly
sluggish birds, endowed with extraordinary powers of flight.

The Cinereous or Black Vulture (V. monachus) (829), ranging from
Southern Europe to China, is the only representative of the genus
Vultur. It is rather solitary in its habits, breeding singly in trees and
not in colonies like the Griffon-Vultures (Gyps fulvus) (880), ali stages
of which, from the nestling to the adult, will be found exhibited in the
adjoining Cent ‘al Case. ‘This southern Huropean species is one of the
most familiar, and is specially numerous in Spain, where it breeds
in caves in the perpendicular crags of the Sierras. Another represen-
tative of the genus is the Himalayan Griffon-Vulture (G@. himalayensis)
(831). A closely allied form, the White-headed Vulture (Lophogyps
occipitalis) (832), will be found on the floor of the next Case, together
with the Sociable or Eared Vulture (Otogyps auricularis) (833) and the
Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) (884), which has on more
than one occasion wandered to Great Britain.

Family II. Fatconip®. Eaaurs ann Hawks.

(Plates XV., XVI., XXV.)

Almost all the remaining Birds of Prey are included in this family,
and are divided into six subfamilies, the Caracaras (Polyborine), the
Long-legged Hawks (Accipitrine), the Buzzards (Buteonine), the
Bearded Vultures (Gypaétine), the Kagles (Aquiline), and the Falcons

HAWES. 75

(Falconine). The Carrion-Hawks or Caracaras are represented by the
three American genera Polyborus (836 & 836), Zbycter (831 & 838),
and Milvago (839), which differ from all the other subfamilies in having
the inner as well as the outer toes united to the middle one by a web.
The brightly coloured naked skin of the cheeks and throat gives them
a very Vulturine appearance, and their food consists largely of carrion
supplemented by birds, reptiles, and frogs, ete. They are more or less
terrestrial in their habits, their long legs enabling them to walk and run
with ease, and their partially webbed feet assist them in traversing
marshy ground in search of their food. They are more or less gregarious,
often hunting in families or small parties and roosting in companies.

The first of the Long-legged Hawks (Accipitring) is the curious
Banded Gymnogene (Polyboroides typicus) (840), from tropical Africa,
which feeds almost entirely on lizards and frogs. Next come the
Harriers (Circus), of which a good many different species are known
and easily recognised by their long slim form and the curious facial
ruff, which gives them a superficial resemblance to the Owls. Three
species, the Hen-Harrier (841), Montagu’s Harrier (842), and the
Marsh-Harrier or Moor-Buzzard (844), are found in Great. Britain, but
owing to their well-known partiality for eggs and young birds their
numbers have been greatly diminished. All make their nest on the
ground and lay white eggs. Other allied genera represented are the
Harrier-Hawks (Micrastur) (846 & 847) from S. America, and the
Black Goshawk (Geranospizias niger) (845).

The One-banded Buzzard (Parabuteo) (849) and the Chanting Gos-
hawk (Melierax) (850) require no special remark, but the latter is
said to utter a mellow piping song. Of the true Goshawks (Astur),
of which many species are known, attention may be drawn to the
remarkable white Australian species (A. nove-hollandie) (851), the
Common Goshawk (A. palumbarius) (861), which still occasionally
occurs in the British Islands and is greatly valued in Falconry for the
pursuit of hares and rabbits, etc., and its North American representative
(A. atricapilius) (858). A somewhat different Crested Goshawk will be
found in A. trivirgatus (860). Closely allied to these, but distinguished
by the longer, more slender legs and feet and the very long middle toe,
the Sparrow-Hawks ( Accipiter) are represented by the common species
(A. nisus) (866), a plentiful bird in the British Isles in spite of the
numbers that are annually destroyed by gamekeepers and others, It
is sometimes trained in this country to take Partridges, Quails, or
Blackbirds, and in India and Japan is still prized by falconers. The
smallest member of the genus is the Little Sparrow-Hawk (A. minullus)
(865) from South Africa, and one of the largest is Cooper’s (A. cooperi)
(862) from temperate North America. After the rare Radiated

[Case 46. }

[Case 47. }

[Case 47. |

[Case 48.]

[Case 48.]

[Case 48, ]

76 BIRD GALLERY.

Goshawk (Erythrotriorchis radiatus) (861), the Brown Buzzard (Hetero-
spizias meridionalis) (868), and the Long-winged Buzzard (Tachytriorchis
albicaudatus) (869), we come to the true Buzzards (Buteo), which
somewhat resemble small Eagles in their flight and habits, preying
on the smaller mammals such as rabbits, rats, and mice, as well as
reptiles and insects. ‘They do not capture their prey on the wing, and
consequently seldom kill birds except young poultry. They must be
regarded as useful birds to both farmer and agriculturist. A very
handsome species is the Red-backed Buzzard (B. erythronotus) (810)
from S. America. The Common Buzzard (B. buteo) (875) is still fairly
numerous in various parts of Great Britain. As will be seen from the
specimens exhibited on the lowest shelf of the Case, the plumage varies
greatly, some old birds being almost uniform dark brown above and
below. A large South American form will be found in the Giant
Buzzard (Geranoaétus melanoleucus) (816).

Next come the Buzzard-Hawks of America represented by several
genera, Buteola (811), Asturina (878), and Rupornis (879), and the very
handsome black-and-white species such as the White-spotted Buzzard
(Leucopternis melanops) (881).

The Harpies include six very large powerful species placed in five
genera, of which four are represented in the Case. The Crowned Harpy
(Harpyhaliaétus coronatus) (884), the Guiana Crested Harpy (Morphnus
guianensis) (885), and the true Harpy (7hrasaétus harpyia) (886) are
all long-crested forms from South and Central America ; and the latter,
whose range extends into Mexico and Texas (where the species is locally
known as the “ Lobo volante ” or ‘‘ Winged Wolf ”’), is one of the most
splendid as well as the most powerful of all the Birds of Prey. It feeds
chiefly on mammals, including fawns, monkeys, foxes, and moderate
sized pigs. An allied form, Harpyopsis nove-guinee (887), found in
New Guinea, has the general appearance of a great Goshawk and is
said to prey on Tree-Wallabies. The sixth species is the great Monkey-
eating Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) (887a) from the Philippine Islands.

The Bearded Vultures or Limmergeiers (888) form the next sub-
family Gypaétine, which includes two very large species, one found
from South Europe to the Himalaya and the other in Africa.
They are much like Vultures in their habits but not such foul feeders.
Like the Egyptian Vultures (Neophron) they are said to obtain the
marrow from bones by carrying them up into the air and letting them
fall from a great height, and land-tortoises are similarly treated. Hence
the name “‘ Bone-breaker ” by which they are often known. Their flight
is grand in the extreme, but the stories of their having carried off children
are highly improbable, for in spite of their spread of wing they lack
the strength of foot to do so.

EAGLES. 77

The Eagles (Aqguiline) are divided into two sections. The first, with
the legs feathered to the toes, includes some of the best known Birds
of Prey such as the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaétus) (890), ranging over
Kurope, N. Asia, and N. America, the Imperial Eagle (A. heliaca) (891),
and its Spanish ally (4. adalberti) (898), the Spotted Eagle (4. maculata)
(892), Verreaux’s Nagle (4. verreauxi) (894), and the Great Wedge-tailed
Eagle of Australia (Uroaétus audax) (895), which forms a connecting
link between the true Hagles and the Lammergeiers. The Golden Eagle
still breeds in some numbers in the highlands of Scotland and in Ireland,
and the Spotted Kagle is an occasional straggler to our shores. The
immature Golden Hagle has a large amount of white on the basal half of
the tail-feathers, and is often mistaken for the young of the Sea-Hagle,
a very different species [see Case 51].

Next in order come the Rough-legged Buzzards, or Buzzard-Eagles as
they have been called (Archibuteo), represented by A. lagopus (896),
which ranges over Europe and Siberia to Alaska, and its N. American ally
(A. sancti-johannis) (897), the former being a fairly common autumn-
visitor to Great Britain, The Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle (Lopho-
triorchis kieneri) (898) is a remarkably handsome crested form from
India and the Indo-Malayan countries, and it is interesting to note that
another species of the genus is a native of North-western South America.

The Booted Eagle (Hutolmaétus pennatus) (899) and Bonelli’s Eagle
(ZH. fasciatus) (900), both from Southern Europe and India, are well-
known birds; and a very striking African ally, the Black-crested Eagle
(Lophoaétus occipitalis) (801), is also shown. The Bird-nesting Eagle
(Ictinaétus malayensis) (902), inhabiting the Indo-Malayan countries,
spends most of its time on the wing hunting for nests and lives entirely
on eggs and young birds. It not infrequently carries off nest and all
in its talons, and examines the contents as it sails lazily away.

Other allies are the Hawk-Eagles (Spizaétus and Spiziastur) (903-
907), represented by four species, of which the finest is undoubtedly the
magnificent Crowned species (S. coronatus) (904) from Tropical Africa.
All the remainder of the Aqui/ine belong to the bare-legged section with
the tarsus unfeathered. The African Buzzard-Eagle (Asturinula mono-
grammica) ($08) and the Laughing Hawk (Herpetotheres cachinnans)
($08) are among the smaller members, the former, like the Chanting
Goshawk already mentioned above, being remarkable among Birds of
Prey for its mellow whistling.

At the foot of this Case will be found the Short-toed Eagle (Cire-
aétus gallicus) (911) of Southern and Central Europe, etc., and several
species of Serpent-Eagle (Spilornis), the crested form (8. cheela) (914)
of India being a specially handsome bird. As their name implies, both
these and the Short-toed Eagles feed principally on snakes and other

[Case 49. ]

[Case 50. ]

[Case 50. |

[Case 51.]

[Case 51.]

{Central
Case. |

[ Case 52.]

[ Case 52. |]

78 BIRD GALLERY.

reptiles, while small mammals, birds, frogs, fish, crabs, and insects are
also devoured. Another Oriental genus is represented by the Grey-
faced Buzzard-Hagle (Butastur indicus) (916) ; and the Bateleur Eagle
(Helotarsus ecaudatus) (917), which is placed next it, is a peculiar short-
tailed African form, and with its fiery-red face and feet is one of the
handsomest Birds of Prey.

Next come the grand Sea-Eagles (Haliaétus), which are fully
represented by no fewer than five species. The White-tailed Sea-Hagle
or Erne (H. albicillus) (918), which formerly bred round the coasts of the
British Isles, is now probably only an autumn- and winter-visitor to
our shores; the White-headed or Bald Sea-Eagle (H. leucocephalus)
(919) is the North American representative form, and the handsomest
of all is perhaps the Vociferous Sea-Eagle (H. vocifer) (920) from
Africa. Few kinds of fish, flesh, fowl, or carrion come amiss to these
birds. In the large Central Case a very fine series of Steller’s Sea-
Eagle (H. pelagicus) (922) [Pl. XV.] is exhibited; the adult male,
with the pure white shoulders and tail, is an unusually light-coloured
specimen of its kind and no doubt a very old bird.

In this Case are placed the Kites and Honey-Buzzards : commencing
on the floor we find the handsome chestnut and white Brahminy Kites
(Haliastur) (928, 924), the lovely Swallow-tailed Kite (Elanoides fur-
catus) (925) from America, and the Common and Black Kites (Milvus
milvus and M. korschun) (926, 927). Though once a common bird in
Great Britain, only a few pairs of the Common Kite or ‘‘ Gled ” have
escaped destruction and nest in this country at the present time;
the Black Kite has occurred twice as an accidental straggler to our
shores.

Baza subcristata (928) represents the rather large genus of Cuckoo-
Falcons, extending from India through the Malay Peninsula to
Australia, Madagascar, and Africa. They are all rare birds, and
are remarkable in having two “teeth” in the upper mandible. Next
to it will be seen Swainson’s Kite (Gampsonyx swainsoni) (929), a
beautifully marked diminutive form from Central and South America,
the curious Hook-billed Kites (Leptodon) (930), their slender-billed
ally (Rostrhamus leucopygus) (932), and the handsome Lead-coloured
Faleon (Ictinia plumbea) (938), all from the same continent. After the
Square-tailed species (Lophoictiniaisura) (934) from Australia, we come
to the Black-shouldered Kite (H/anus) ; aspecimen of E. ceruleus (986)
is said to have been obtained in Ireland in 1862, but the evidence
appears to be insufficient. Lastly the curious South-American Double-
toothed Faleon (Harpagus bidentatus) (931), which resembles the
Cuckoo-Falcons (Baza) in having the upper mandible doubly notched,
is worthy of special notice,

FALCONS. 79

The Honey-Buzzard (Pernis apivorus) (988) is a regular summer-
visitor to Great Britain, and a few pairs still breed where they are
afforded protection. Andersson’s Pern (Macherhamphus anderssoni)
(939), an allied African form also shown, is a very rare bird with
crepuscular habits and feeds, partly at least, on bats.

The Falcons [ Falconine | are characterised by their short powerful bill,
which is provided with a tooth-like process on each side of the upper
mandible. This sub-family includes the most typical raptorial birds, such
as the Peregrine Falcon (Falco pereyrinus) (951) [ Pl. XVI.] and its allies,
in which the compactly built body is formed so as to combine the
maximum of strength with the greatest possible speed on the wing. At
the foot of the Case are placed the Jer-Falcons (Hierofalco), which
include some of the largest species, inhabiting the colder parts of the
Northern Hemisphere. The most beautiful of these noble birds is un-
doubtedly the nearly white Greenland form (H. candicans) ($42), which,
like its allies the Iceland and Scandinavian Jer-Falcons (H. islandus (944)
[Pl]. XXV.] and H. gyrfalco (945)), occasionally visits Great Britain.
Jer-Falcons were formerly held in high esteem by falconers for,
though less bold than the Peregrine, their greater strength enables
them to take quarry for which the Peregrineis no match. In the latter
bird, various races of which are distributed over the Old and New Worlds,
we have the most highly specialised Bird of Prey and the one most
highly prized in Falconry at the present time. Besides the Common
Peregrine a fine example of the Shahin (F. peregrinator) (950), a darker-
coloured Indian form, may be seen as well as the Lanner, Barbary, and
Laggar Falcons (F. feldeggi, F. barbarus, and F. jugger) (947, 948, 949).
Among the smaller Falcons will be found the Hobby (F. subbuteo)
($52), and the Merlin (F. esalon) (958), both well-known British species,
and the Red-headed Merlin (Ff. chiquera) (954), a very handsome
Indian species.

The Black-legged Falconet (Microhierax cerulescens) (956) represents
a group of diminutive Falcons inhabiting the Indo-Malayan region.
In spite of their small size they are bold and dashing in their habits,
and besides insects, capture birds as Jarge as Quails. The allied genus
Poliohierax, represented by Feilden’s Falcon (987), is remarkable among
birds of this group in having the sexes entirely different in plumage,
the back of the female being dark chestnut. The Kestrels (Cerchneis), a
somewhat numerous genus, are represented by the common species
(C. tinnunculus) (958), plentiful in the British Isles and valuable to
the farmer as a destroyer of mice, voles, and insects, and by the Lesser
Kestrel (C. nawmanni) (959), which appears on the British List as an
occasional visitor from Southern Europe. In the Red-footed Falcon
(Erythropus vespertinus) (962), as in the true Kestrels, the sexes differ

[Case 53. ]

[Case 53.]

{ Case 53. |

[Case 54.]

80 BIRD GALLERY.

in plumage. Other forms represented are the Madagascar Kestrel
(Dissodectes zoniventris) (961), the Australian Quail-Hawk (Hieracidea
berigora) (963), and the Bush-Hawk (Harpa australis) (964).

Family III. Panpionip#. Ospreys.

The last family includes the Ospreys and Fishing-Eagles, which occupy
a somewhat intermediate position between the Hawks and Owls. They
resemble the latter in possessing a reversible outer toe, which can be
turned backwards or forwards at will, and the soles of the feet are pro-
vided with spicules to enable them to hold the fish on which they
prey. The Osprey or Fish-Hawk (Pandion haliaétus) (965) is a cosmo-
politan species and, though now a very rare bird in Great Britain,
bred till within a few years ago in one or two places in the North of
Scotland. The other allied genus, Polivaétus, includes three species
of Fishing-Eagles inhabiting the Indo-Malayan region. The Grey-
headed form (P. ichthyaétus) (966) haunts rivers and its food consists
almost entirely of fish.

Order XXIII. STRIGIFORMES. Owss.

The Owls form a well-marked group of Birds of Prey and are mostly
nocturnal in their habits. They are easily distinguished from all the
Hawks, except the Harriers, by the facial disc surrounded by a ring of
short crisp feathers and by the absence of the cere or naked wax-like
skin at the base of the bill seen in almost all the true Accipitres. The
large eyes are directed obliquely forwards and the upper eyelid shuts
over the eye, and not the lower as in birds generally. The external
opening of the ear is large and often extremely complicated in structure,
while in some genera the right and left openings are asymmetrical. The
outer and fourth toe is reversible at will, enabling the Owls to perch
with either one or two toes behind. The eggs are oval in shape and
white in colour, and vary in number from two to ten, the larger species
as a rule laying fewer eggs than the smaller forms. The nesting-site is
very varied ; some breeding in holes in trees or in deserted birds’ nests,
while others prefer the ground, and Speotyto, the American Burrowing-
Owl, uses the burrows of prairie-marmots and other small mammals.
Many species are dimorphic, that is to say have two phases of coloration,
a grey and a rufous. ‘Two families are recognised, distinguished by
yarious anatomical differences,

OWLS. 81

Family I. Busonrio#. Hornev ann Woop-Ow ts.

The first group to be considered are the Fishing-Owls (Ketupa)
exhibited on the top shelf. Like the Ospreys, these birds have the soles
of the feet covered with spicules, and their bare legs are also well-
adapted for the capture of the fish which form their principal food.
Four species are known and inhabit various parts of the Indo-Chinese
and Malayan regions. Of the two exhibited, the Tawny Fishing-Owl
(K. flavipes) (967) ranges from the Himalaya to China, while the
Brown form (K. ceylonensis) (968), which, according to Mr. Hume,
varies its diet with mammals, land-birds and crabs, occurs in the Indian

Peninsula and Ceylon. Pel’s Owl (Scotopelia peli) ($69), an allied.

species from Tropical Africa, lacks the feathered tufts or horns, but is
otherwise very similar.

The Eagle-Owls (Bubonine), of which examples are exhibited in a
separate Case in the centre of the Bay, include the largest of all the
Owls. The Great Eagle-Owl (Bubo ignavus) (910), common on the
Continent though rare in Great Britain, is partly diurnal in its habits
and extremely destructive, its great strength enabling it to kill not
only large game-birds, rabbits and hares, but even fawns. Its rare
Siberian ally (B. turcomanus) (971) from Central and Southern Asia,
and the handsome Spotted Eagle-Owl (B. maculosus) (912) from
S. Africa, are also represented.

The Snowy Owl (Nyctea) (973), another very large species, inhabits
the Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere and is a not infrequent
visitor to the British Islands. Its habits are diurnal, and it preys on
hares and other smaller rodents, as well as birds and fish. The female
is more profusely barred with black than the male, whose plumage is
sometimes pure white.

The Hawk-Owls, represented by the North European species (Surnia
ulula) ($74) and the American subspecies (8. caparoch) (9178), are also
diurnal in their habits, both appearing on the British List as accidental
stragglers to our shores.

The Scops- or Tufted-Owls (Scops) include a very large number ot
species and are found in nearly every part of the Werld. They are all
birds of small size and of nocturnal habits. Several species are exhibited,
including the common European form (S. scops) (976), which on many
occasions has visited Great Britain, and the Screech Scops-Owl (S. asio)
($77) of N. America, of which both the grey and rufous phases are
exhibited.

Another genus, the Brown Hawk-Owls (Ninoz), with numerous species,
ranges from Asia through the Pacific islands to Australia. WN. scutulata
(981) is a common Indian form, while N. strenua (982) and N. connivens

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82 BIRD GALLERY.

(983) are Australian, the former, as its name implies, being the giant of
the group.

The Little Owl (Athene noctua) (984), which was probably originally
imported from Holland, is now a common bird in some parts of the
British Isles.

The allied genus of Pigmy Owlets (G/aucidium) contains numerous
diminutive forms distributed over most regions of the Globe, and
includes the smallest species of Owls, such as the Collared Pigmy Owlet
(G. brodiei) (986) from the Himalaya, and the Common Pigmy Owlet
(G. passerinum) (981) of Northern and Central Europe. Of special in-
terest is the Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) (989) of America, a
small long-legged species, which lives in large communities in the burrows
of the Prairie-marmot and other Mammals, and is mainly diurnal in
habits.

The genus Nyctala is represented by both its members, Tengmalm’s
Owl (N. tengmalmi) (990), which inhabits the forests of Northern
Europe, Siberia, and Arctic America and occasionally visits Great
Britain, and the Saw-whet Owl (N. acadica) (991) from North America
and Mexico.

Next come the Eared-Owls (Asio), including two well-known British
species, the Long-eared Owl (A. otus) (998), and the Short-eared,
Marsh- or Woodcock-Owl (A. accipitrinus) (994). The former almost
always breeds in trees, using deserted nests of crows or squirrels, while
the latter invariably makes a nest on the ground. During the vole |
plague on the Scottish Borders in 1890-92 enormous numbers of Short-
eared Owls made their appearance in the infested districts and remained
as long as food continued plentiful.

To the genus Syrnium belong the Tawny, Brown or Wood-Owl
(S. aluco) (996) of Great Britain, and a number of other species such as
the Mottled and Ural Wood-Owls, S. ocellatum (996) and S. uralense
(998), from India and Northern Europe respectively. Of the Tawny
Owl both the grey and rufous phases of plumage are represented.
Closely allied to these is the Great Grey Owl (Scotiaptex cinerea) (999),
the Arctic American representative of the Lapp Owl. The last member
of this family is the Bay Owl (Photodilus badius) (1000), a peculiar form
from the Indo-Malayan region, which occupies an intermediate position
between the Bubonide and the Strigide.

Family II. Striegipz. Barn-Ow1s.

The Barn- or Screech-Owls (Striw) representing this family are
nocturnal in their habits, and, as they feed almost exclusively on small
rodents, are extremely useful birds and entitled to protection. They are

2

PARROTS. 83

nearly world-wide in their distribution, but do not extend very far to the
north. The most familiar form is the Common Barn-Owl (S. flammea)
(1003), generally distributed throughout the British Islands and locally
common in Europe and North Africa.

Order XXIV. PSITTACIFORMES. Parrot-tripe.

The Parrots include about 500 species, which are grouped into
about 80 genera and 2 families. They possess certain characteristics
which isolate them from the majority of birds, and have in consequence
been placed in very varied positions in the numerous schemes which
have been propounded for the classification of birds. On account
of their superior intelligence some ornithologists have placed them
at the head of the series, while others have associated them with the
Picarian or climbing-birds on account of their zygodactyle foot with
two toes directed forwards and two backwards. Their most natural
position in a linear arrangement of birds appears to be after the Hawks
and Owls and before the Picarian birds. Like the latter as well as
many of the Owls, Parrots nest in holes and lay white eggs, while the
cere or waxy skin covering the base of the bill is a characteristic feature
shared with the Hawks. The form of the short, stout and strongly
hooked bill, with the upper mandible moveable and articulated to the
skull, is the most distinguishing character and one by which all Parrots
may at once be recognised. The nestling, when first hatched, is
completely naked but is subsequently covered with thick grey down.

Family I. Pstrracipm. True Parrors.

On the floor of this Case we find the Owl-Parrot or Kakapo (Stringops
habroptilus) (1006) (the type ofa distinct subfamily Stringopine), which,
though possessing fully developed wings, is incapable of flight, and like
many other New Zealand birds in a similar condition is rapidly
disappearing. It derives its trivial name from the disc of feathers round
the eye and from its nocturnal habits. During the day it hides in holes
under roots of trees and rocks, but at sunset it emerges to feed on grass,
seeds, berries and roots, ete., which form its principal food. It generally
remains on the ground but occasionally climbs trees, when the wings are
used to balance the body as the bird jumps from one bough to another.
No nest is made, and the two or three large white eggs are deposited in
a burrow under some root or rock. The Kakapo is said to be a very
clever and intelligent bird and makes an affectionate and playful pet.

In the next subfamily, Psittacine, which includes the bulk of the
species, we commence with two ground-species resembling the remarkable

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84. BIRD GALLERY.

Kakapo in general appearance, viz., the Ground-Parroquet (Geopsittacus
occidentalis, (1007) and the Grass-Parroquet (Pezoporus formosus) (1008),
both natives of Australia. Among the examples of the well-known
Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) (1009), a remarkably handsome
yellow variety will be seen; and, on the shelf above, the curious crested
form known as the Horned Parroquet (Nymphicus cornutus) (1011),
which inhabits the island of New Caledonia.

Among the many long-tailed Parroquets found in India, the Malay
Archipelago, and Australia, and represented by such genera as Cyano-
rhamphus, Neophema, Barnardius, Platycercus, Pyrrhulopsis, Apros-
mictus, Polytelis, and Paleornis (1012-1039), many beautiful forms will
be found, including many well-known cage-birds such as the Rosella or
Rose- Hill and Pennant’s Parroquets (Platycercus eximius and P. elegans),
(1024, 1025), the Red-shouldered Parroquet (Ptistes erythropterus)
(1020), the King-Parroquet (Aprosmictus cyanopygius) (1021), and
the lovely little Turquoisine Green Parroquet (Neophema pulchella)
(1030), all from Australia. Of the well-known species of Paleornis,
so often seen in captivity, several are exhibited; the Long-tailed
Parroquet (P. longicauda) (1084) from Borneo, illustrating the nesting-
habits of the group, will be seen on the floor of the Case; while the
common Indian Rose-ringed species (P. torquata) (1088) and others
are placed on the second shelf. Of the Australian genus Polytelis the
Barraband’s Parroquet (P. barrabandi) (1081) is remarkable for the
great difference in plumage between the male and female, and Queen
Alexandra’s Parroquet (P. alewandre) (1089) is equally noteworthy on
account of its extreme rarity.

On the third shelf the small Love-Birds (Loriculus, Agapornis, and
Bolbopsittacus) (1040-1046) are represented, and of the numerous
species known many are favourite cage-birds.

On the top shelf the curious Racquet-tailed Parroquets (Prioniturus)
(1047, 1048), from the Philippines and adjacent islands, and the Great-
billed Parroquet (Tanygnathus megalorhynchus) (1049) from the same
region will be found ; also the Red-sided Eclectus (Kclectus pectoralis)
(1050), the male of which is green and red, while the female is bright
red and blue. Perhaps the best known member of this subfamily is the
African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus) (1052), a favourite cage-bird
on account of the extraordinary facility with which it learns to talk
and imitate sounds of all kinds.

On the floor of this Case we find the remarkable looking Pesquet’s
Parrot (Dasyptilus pesqueti) (1056) from New Guinea, and the well-
known Amazon Parrots ( Chrysotis) (1057-1060), of which several species
are exhibited, and above these various allied South American genera such
as the Conures (Conurus) (1069-1073) and the gaudy Macaws (dra)

PARROTS. 85

(1079-1081), which are placed at the top of the Case. The last genus
of this subfamily includes the smallest of the group and is represented
by the Pigmy Parrot (Nasiterna pusio) (1978), which with its congeners
is confined to the Papuan subregion. On the top shelf are placed the
Great Black Cockatoo (Microglossus aterrimus) (1089), the Ganga
(Callocephalum galeatum) (1090), and the Yellow-and-Black Cockatoo
(Calyptorhynchus xanthonotus) (1091).

The third subfamily Cacatuine includes the Cockatoos, most of which
are well known in captivity. Commonest of all perhaps is the Cockateel
(Calopsittacus nove hollandie) (1082); and of the various species of
Cockatoo (Cacatua and Licmetis), ranging from the Philippines to
Australia, the handsomest is undoubtedly Leadbeater’s Cockatoo
(C. leadbeateri) (1087), while the most curious is the bare-eyed form
known as the Slender-billed Cockatoo (Z. nasica) (1088).

Family II. Lortip#. Loriss ok Brusd-toncuep Parrots.
(Plate XVII. fig. 1.)

The Brush-tongued Parrots may be divided into three subfamilies, the
Loriine or Lories, the Cyclopsittacine or Lorilets, and the Nestorine or
Kaka Parrots.

To the first belong the genera Chalcopsittacus, Hos, Lorius, Vini,
Coriphilus, Trichoglossus, etc. (1092-1106), all of which are represented
and include some of the most lovely species of the group, many being
familiar cage-birds.

The Lorilets include a number of small forms ranging from New
Guinea to Australia and will be found duly represented by an example
of the Mysol species (Cyclopsittacus diophthalmus) (1107).

The third subfamily is represented by the Kaka Parrot (Nestor
meridionalis) (1108) [Pl]. XVII. fig. 1], a native of New Zealand.
Special interest attaches to this group on account of the carnivorous
habits of the closely allied species known as the Kea (N. notabilis),
which of recent years has developed an extraordinary liking for flesh.
At first these birds contented themselves with devouring sheeps’ heads
and other offal thrown out from the slaughter sheds, but as the taste
for meat increased and became universal, they took to attacking living
sheep, tearing open their backs to devour the kidney fat, and inflicting
injuries that generally proved fatal. So destructive, indeed, have they
become on some of the sheep-runs, that a price is paid by the Govern-
ment of New Zealand for their destruction and their final extermination
is probably only a matter of time.

[Case 56. ]

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86 BIRD GALLERY.

Order XXV. CORACIIFORMES. Picartan Birps.

This Order contains a number of families including the Oil-birds,
Frog-mouths, Kingfishers, Rollers, Bee-eaters, Motmots, Todies,
Hoopoes, Hornbills, Nightjars, Swifts, Humming-birds, and Colies.
They differ greatly from one another in outward form, structure, and
habits, possessing hardly a single feature in common by which they can
be distinguished from other allied orders.

Family I. SrearornitHipé. Ol1L-BIRDS.

The Oil-bird or Guacharo (Steatornis caripensis) (1110), the sole
representative of this family, inhabits the caves in the northern and
north-western portions of South America, and is also found in the
island of Trinidad. Both in its general outward appearance and in its
crepuscular habits the bird bears a strong resemblance to the Nightjars,
with which it has generally been associated and to which it is evidently
closely allied. It differs, however, from these birds in its strongly-
hooked and deeply-notched bill, feeds mainly if not exclusively on
fruits, and lays from two to four pure white eggs. The large cheese-
shaped nest, made of clay-like material and exhibited in the Case, is
placed on ledges or holes in caverns. When about a fortnight old, the
young become extremely fat and as it were enveloped in a thick layer of
yellow grease. They are then destroyed in large numbers by the natives,
who melt down the fat into a colourless oil known as guacharo-butter,
which is used for purposes of illumination and for cooking.

Family II. Poparcipm. FRoc-mMourus.

The Owl-like birds comprising this family are only met with in the
Indian and Australian regions, and are closely related to the Nightjars,
but differ entirely in their mode of nesting and, like the Oul-bird, the
majority lay white eggs. Three genera are recognised, Podargus and
Atgotheles being confined to New Guineaand Australia, while Batrach-
ostomus is found in the Indo-Malayan countries and islands.

The Common Australian Frog-mouth (P. strigoides) (1111) makes
a slightly constructed flat nest of sticks placed in the fork of a
horizontal branch, and lays two white eggs, which are incubated by
both parents. During the day these birds sleep in an upright position
on the dead branch of a tree, the colour of their plumage harmonising
so closely with their surroundings that they are almost invisible. Their
prey appears to consist chiefly of insects such as mantis and locusts,
captured on the tree-stems in a state of repose. The Eared Frog-mouth

PICARIAN BIRDS. 87

(B. auritus) (1118) represents a group of smaller but closely-allied
birds with very handsomely coloured plumage; the most diminutive
members of the family are the Owlet-Nightjars such as 4. nove-
hollandie (4114), which live in holes in trees during the day and
capture their prey on the wing like the true Nightjars, though their
flight is said to be less tortuous.

Family III. Aucrpinrip#. Kuinerisours. (Plate XVIII.)

This large family, comprising about 160 species, is universally but
very unequally distributed over the globe. The majority come from
the Malay Archipelago, from Celebes to New Guinea, and from this
centre they radiate in every direction. In all, the eggs are round, white
and glossy, and deposited in a hole in a tree or bank. The species
are divided into two subfamilies, the Water-Kingfishers, Alcedinine,
and the Wood-Kingfishers, Dacelonine. The former, characterised
by their long, slender, compressed bill with a distinct keel or ridge
along the upper mandible, are mainly fish-eating species; while the
latter, with a stouter, wider bill, prey on insects, crustacea, reptiles,
and occasionally on birds and small mammals.

To the subfamily Alcedinine belong the Stork-billed Kingfishers,
such as the Burmese species (Pelargopsis burmanica) (1115), which
occasionally varies its fish diet with small reptiles and young birds,
and the members of the genus Ceryle, distributed over the Old and
New Worlds, and remarkable among birds of this group on account of
the difference in the markings of the sexes. One of the largest is the
Ringed Kingfisher (C. torquata) (1116), belonging to the grey-backed
section of the genus, while the green-backed South American species
are represented by C. superciliosa (1118), one of the smallest of all the
Kingfishers. The best known member of this section is the Common
Kingfisher (Alcedo ispida) (1120) [Pl]. XVIII.], the brightest of our
indigenous birds and a familiar ornament of our rivers and lakes.
Other smaller allied forms are the Malachite-crested Kingfisher (Cory-
thorns cristata) (1121), and the Little Blue Kingfisher (Alcyone pusilla)
(1123), which has only three toes.

The first of the Dacelonine to be mentioned are the diminutive
members of the genus Ceyw (1124), which, like Adcyone, have only
three toes, but frequent forests rather than streams; the equally small
and beautiful forms of Jspidina (1125, 1126) found in Africa; the
curious Saw-billed species (Syma flavirostris) (1121) from Australia ;
and the Black-cheeked Carcineutes melanops (1128). The large genus
Halcyon, containing more than fifty species, is represented by a number
of very beautiful forms, of which we may specially mention the

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88 BIRD GALLERY.

Sumatran and Lindsay’s Kingfishers (H. coneretus and H. lindsay?)
(1136, 1137), and the strikingly handsome white-and-green species
(H. saurophagus) (1139). Other notable forms are the Hooded and
Blue-and-White Kingfishers (Monachalcyon monachus and M. fulgidus)
(1189 a, 1140), the Sanghir Kingfisher (Cittura sanghirensis) (1141),
the Huahine Kingfisher (Todirhamphus tutus) (1142), and the graceful
Racquet-tailed species (Tanysiptera) (1148-1145), ranging from the
Moluccas and the Papuan Islands to N.E. Australia. On the ground
floor will be found the extraordinary Shoe-billed Kingfisher (Clytoceyx
rex) (1146) from New Guinea, in which the sexes are somewhat
differently coloured; the Hook-billed Melidora macrorhina (1141), and
the “ Laughing Jackasses”’ of Australia (Dacelo) (1148-1150). These
latter derive their trivial name from their extraordinary laughing
note, familiar to many who visit our Zoological Gardens, and, unlike
most of the Kingfishers, they thrive well in captivity.

Family 1V. Lerrosomatip®. KiromsBos or Mapaeascar Roiiers.

The Kirombo or Vorondreo (Leptosoma discolor) (1151) inhabits the
islands of Madagascar, Mayotte, and Anjouan, while a somewhat
smaller form occurs in Great Comoro Island. These are the only
representatives of this rather remarkable family, characterised by having
the base of the bill hidden by recurved plumes, the nostrils linear and
placed far forward in the middle of the upper mandible, and the fourth
toe partly reversible. As will be seen in the Case, the male and female
are quite different in plumage. Like the true Rollers, these birds have a
habit of playing in the air, ascending to a great height, and then rapidly
descending in a curve with nearly closed wings; they also nest in holes
and lay white eggs.

Family V. Coraciuipa#. Ro.uers.

These brilhantly coloured birds, distributed over the greater part
of the Old World, may be divided into two subfamilies. The first,
Brachypteraciine, includes some curious ground forms peculiar to
Madagascar, and represented by dtelornis pittotdes (1162), Uratelornis
chimera (1153), and Geobiastes squamigera (1154). They are forest-
dwelling species, and almost entirely terrestrial and crepuscular in their
habits, seeking their insect-food on the ground at dusk.

To the second subfamily, Coraciine, belong the true Rollers, of
which the common species (Coracias garrulus) (1155) is a well-known
European bird, which occasionally visits Great Britain during the
spring and autumn migrations. Another very handsome example,
from Southern Abyssinia and Somali-land, is Lort Phillips’ Roller

PICARIAN BIRDS. 89

(C. lorti) (1156), mounted flying to display its brilliant colouring.
The Broad-billed Rollers (Hurystomus) (1160, 1161) represent the
second, less brightly coloured, genus. All are active, noisy birds
and their trivial name is derived from their peculiar habit (specially
noticeable during the breeding-season) of rolling or turning somer-
saults in the course of their flight. The glossy white eggs are usually
deposited in holes in trees or banks, in a very slight nest.

Family VI. Merorpipa#. Bre-naters.

These extremely brilliant and graceful birds inhabit the temperate
and tropical portions of the Old World, being most numerous in the
Kthiopian region. As their name implies, their food consists of bees,
wasps, and similar insects, which are captured on the wing. In
districts where Bee-culture flourishes they are most injurious and are
destroyed in large numbers. Like the Sand-Martins, the majority at
least of the Bee-eaters breed in colonies in sandy river-beds, excavating
tunnels from three to ten feet in length which terminate in a breeding-
chamber, where from four to six glossy white eggs are deposited.

To the genus Merops, which has the central tail-feathers elongated,
belong a number of species, the Common Bee-eater (MM. apiaster)
(1166) being the most familiar, This bird is well known in Europe as
a summer-visitor, and is occasionally met with as a straggler in
Great Britain. Another striking member is the Nubian Bee-eater
(M. nubicus) (1168), remarkable for its brilliant crimson plumage.
Of the numerous other forms exhibited we may draw special attention
to the larger and brilliantly-coloured species of Nyctiornis (1173, 1174)
found in the Indo-Malayan countries, and reported to nest in holes in
trees.

Family VII. Momotip#. Mormots.

The Motmots are restricted to the New World, and range from
Mexico through Central and South America. Like their allies, the
Todies, they have the edges of the bill serrated, and are generally to
be distinguished by the long graduated tail, the median and longest
pair of feathers being frequently racquet-shaped. rom observations
made from living specimens of Motmots in the Zoological Gardens, it
seems fairly certain that the shape of the middle tail-feathers is
artificially produced by the birds themselves biting off the vanes from
the shafts. They frequent the dense forests, and, like Flycatchers, dart
out after passing insects, which are caught in the air, though they also
feed on small reptiles and fruits. They nest in holes in trees or banks,
and lay creamy-white eggs. The birds shown include examples of three

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90 BIRD GALLERY.

of the seven genera recognised; Momotus (1176) and Prionirhynchus
(1177) having racquet-shaped middle tail-feathers, while in Baryphthengus
(1178) these feathers are normal.

Family VIII. Topps. Topizs.

This family includes four diminutive West Indian species of the
genus Todus (1179-1180), closely allied in structure to the Motmots,
but differing from them externally, and resembling the Flycatchers in
general appearance and habits. Like their allies, they nest in holes in
banks and lay glossy white eggs.

Family [X. Urupipa. Hooposs.

The birds comprising this family are distributed over Europe, Asia
and Africa, and are divided into two subfamilies—the true Hoopoes
(Upupine), and the Wood-Hoopoes (Jrrisorine). To the former belong
rufous-coloured species with large crests, such as the Common Hoopoe
(Upupa epops) (1181), which is a regular visitor to Britain, and is
occasionally known to breed in the south of England. It is widely
distributed over temperate Europe and Asia, migrating southwards in
winter to India, Arabia, and North Africa. These birds walk well, and
pass much of their time on the ground hunting for insects and worms,
the long bill being used to probe the soil; they also capture flies on the
wing, and may frequently be seen climbing rocks or branches of
trees in search of food. The nest is placed in a hole in some tree,
wall, or rock, and being composed of slight materials cemented
together with ordure, has a very offensive smell. The eggs are from
four to seven in number and of a pale greenish-blue colour; the
young resemble their parents in plumage, even the crest being well
developed at an early stage. The trivial name is derived from the
ery, which resembles the syllable “ hoop ” uttered two or three times
in succession.

The Wood-Hoopoes, represented by the genera Irrisor and Rhinopo-
mastus, are peculiar to Africa, and all are long-tailed, dark-coloured
birds with more or less metallic green, blue, or purple plumage. Their
habits and mode of life are very similar to those of the Hoopoes. One
of the most remarkable in colour is Jackson’s Wood-Hoopoe (Jrrisor
jacksoni) (1184), which has the head and throat nearly white ; the
species of Rhinopomastus (1185, 1186) are also noteworthy on account
of their long and extremely curved bill, which is specially adapted for
probing the crannies of trees in search of insects.

PICARIAN BIRDS. 9]

Family X. Bucrrotipa. Horners. (Plate XIX.)

These remarkable looking birds, ranging from Africa and the Indo-
Malayan regions to the Solomon Islands, derive their name from their
immensely developed bill, surmounted in most of the genera by a
variously-shaped casque, which is often of large dimensions and gives
them a singularly top-heavy appearance. In spite of their size, the bill
and casque are not nearly so weighty as one would suppose, being
merely a horny shell supported internally by a cellular bony tissue
of extreme delicacy. ‘This structure may be seen in the sections of heads
exhibited in the Case, that of Dichoceros bicornis (1190) [Pl. XIX. figs. c
& d] illustrating the normal type; while Bucoraa abyssinicus (1188)
and Rhinoplax vigil (1212) are peculiar, the former in having the casque
open anteriorly, the latter in having the anterior wall solid and the
posterior part nearly filled up with parailel bony columns. The bones
of the skeleton are also unusually pneumatic. The edges of the
mandibles are generally roughly serrated, and the eyelid is furnished
witli strong lashes. The feet have broad soles, the second, third, and
fourth toes being partially united. Though often prolonged for
considerable distances, the flight is heavy, slow, and extremely noisy,
the sound, which has been likened to the rushing of an express train,
being probably caused by the air passing between the open bases of
the quills at each beat of the wings.

The nesting-habits of these birds are peculiar, and of extreme interest.
After the eggs have been laid in the hollow of a tree, the female
commences to incubate, and the male (sometimes assisted by his mate)
closes up the entrance to the nest with a very hard clay-like substance,
leaving only a small slit through which the female can protrude her bill
and receive the fruits he brings her. If the male is killed, other males
are said to take his place and provide the female with food. The object
in closing in the female is no doubt to protect her from. the attacks of
monkeys and other enemies.

The female is said to remain imprisoned until the young are fully
fledged, and in some species at least the wings and tail are shed and
renewed during this period, the moulting of these feathers being no
doubt a welcome relief to the bird in its cramped and stuffy cell. The
adjacent table-case, containing the nesting-site of one of the smaller
African Hornbills (Lophoceros melanoleucus) (1204) illustrates all these
interesting facts.

The numerous species are divided into two subfamilies, Bucoracine
and Bucerotine ; the former including only two very large African
species of Ground-Hornhills characterised by their long legs, which are
well-adapted for walking. The Abyssinian Ground-Hornbill ( Bucorax

[Cases
59, 60. |

[Case 61. ]

92 BIRD GALLERY.

abyssinicus) (1188) is almost omnivorous, devouring small mammals,
reptiles, and all kinds of insects, and sometimes uniting with its fellows
to attack and kill large snakes, against which they advance in company.

The Bucerotine including ail the remaining species, about sixty in
number, are characterised by their comparatively short legs suited to their
arboreal habits. ‘They frequent dense forest and tall jungle, but at
times descend to the ground to bathe, and dig up the loose soil with
their bills. The food consists chiefly of fruit and berries; but small
mammals, reptiles, and even fish are sometimes eaten.

The different genera are chiefly characterised by the shape of the
casque, which varies greatly in form, and in some cases is very slightly
developed.

The species, as may be seen by the examples shown in the Case, differ
immensely in size, the Rhinoceros-Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros) (1189)
and Homrai (Dichoceros bicornis) (4190) [ Pl. XIX. figs. ce & d| being
very large birds, while Cassin’s Pigmy Hornbill (£. camurus) (1194) is
comparatively small. Some species, such as the Rufous-necked Hornbill
(Aceros nepalensis) (1199) [Figs. a& 6] and the West African Hornbill
(Ceratogymna atrata) (1208), have the plumage of the sexes entirely
different in colour, and these, as well as many other forms, are provided
with large crests. One of the most noteworthy is the Helmet-Hornbill
(Rhinoplax vigil) (1212), from the Malay countries, with its solid-fronted
casque (already alluded to) and its unusually long middle tail-feathers.
The ivory-like part of the casque is much used by Kastern artists for
carving and making brooches.

Family XI. Carrimuterpa. Nicutars. (Plate XVII. fig. 2.)

The Nightjars, or ‘ Goatsuckers ” as they are often called, include a

large number of species with soft Owl-like plumage ranging over the
greater part of the world, but apparently absent from the Eastern
Pacific Islands. They are mostly nocturnal in their habits, feeding on
insects which are captured on the wing, but some species, such as the
American Chordiles (1223-4), hawk in the full glare of the sun. The
ery is generally harsh, aud often loud and distinct, as in the North-
American “ Whip-poor- Will” (Caprimulgus vociferus) (1219). The two
beautifully marbled oval eggs are usually laid on the bare ground
without any nest; and the young, though helpless when first hatched,
are covered with down, The species of Phalenoptilus are an exception
to the rule, and lay white eggs like their close allies the Oil-Birds and
Frog-mouths.

Two subfamilies are recognised, viz., the Caprimulgine, characterised
by having the claw of the middle toe pectinate or furnished with a kind
of comb, and the Nyctibiine, in which the claw of the middle toe is

PICARIAN BIRDS. 93

normal. To the former group belong our Common Nightjar (Capri-
mulgus europeus) (1216), a summer-visitor to Britain, and a_ bird
regarded with superstition by all Huropean nations on account of its
supposed habit of milking goats, though its food consists exclusively of

»” sound uttered

moths, beetles, and such like. The peculiar “ churring
by the male on summer evenings is familiar to most residents in the
country. ‘Two other members of this genus, the Red-necked Nightjar
(C. ruficollis) (1217) and the Egyptian Nightjar (C. egyptius) (1218),
have occurred as accidental stragglers to our shores.

Among the more remarkable forms we may call special attention to
the African species Macrodipteryx macrodipterus (1221) and Cosmetornis
vevillarius (1216) (Pl. XVII. fig. 2], which carry ornamental wing-plumes.
In the former the ninth primary quill is enormously lengthened and
ends in a “ racquet,” and in the latter it is even more extended, forming
a sort of train when the bird is flying. In Scotornis climacurus (1282)
from North Africa, and in the South American species of Hydropsalis
(1281) and Macropsalis (1214) some of the tail-feathers are greatly
lengthened. Nyctidromus (1228) is remarkable for the length of its
legs, and is more terrestrial in its habits than the other species, being
able to walk well. The Indo-Malayan species of Lyncornis (1229,
1230) have the feathers on the sides of the head elongate, forming
ear-tufts.

The second subfamily includes certain Tropical American Nightjars
belonging to the genus Nyctibius, and represented by N. ethereus
(1233). These birds appear to breed in hollows of branches or stumps
of trees, and not on the ground, as is shown by the nesting-site of
N. jamaicensis (1234) exhibited on the floor of the Case.

Family XII. Cyprserip#. Swirts. (Plate XX.)

The Swifts owe their trivial name to their extraordinary rapid flight,
which is practically unlimited in duration, and in some of the species,
notably the spine-tailed forms of the genus Chetura, is unsurpassed in
speed by any other bird. Though resembling the Swallows in their
outward appearance and habit of hawking insects on the wing, they
differ widely from these birds in important points of structure. They
are found all over the globe except in the extreme northern and
southern regions. Three subfamilies are recognised—the Cypseline or
true Swifts, the Cheturine or Spine-tailed Swifts, and the Macroptery-
gine or Crested Swifts. In the first of these groups all four toes are
directed forwards, but in the last two the hind toe is said to be
occasionally versatile. Their toes, though well adapted for clinging,
are so small that walking is difficult, and these birds experience great

[Case 61. ]

[Case 61. ]

94. BIRD GALLERY.

difficulty in rising from the ground. The nesting-habits vary greatly
in the different genera: the species of Cypselus (1285-1231) (of which
our Common Swift is typical) conceal their nests in holes and under
eaves; Panyptila (1289) constructs an enormous pendent tube of
interwoven seeds suspended from an overhanging rock by the saliva of the
bird; Collocalia (1244-1241) [Pl. XX.] builds in caves, the well-known
edible nests being composed of dried secretions of the salivary glands ;
and Macropteryx (1243) makes a small exposed nest on a branch or
stump. The eggs, varying in number from one to five, are invariably
pure white and devoid of gloss; the young are hatched naked.

To the first subfamily belongs our Common Swift (Cypselus apus)
(1235), which, like most of its allies, is migratory, arriving in Europe
early in May and departing to its winter quarters in Africa early in
autumn. The Alpine Swift (C. melba) (1236), an occasional visitor to
Britain, is a well-known summer-visitor to all the high mountains of
Central and Southern Europe, breeding in the high crags and towers.
The group of old and young birds exhibited in the case were taken
from the old tower of the cathedral at Berne, formerly a well-known
breeding-place, but now replaced by a new spire. The American
genera Panyptila (1288) and Aéronautes (4249) have the toes feathered ;
the extraordinary nest built by the former has already been referred to.
The Palm-Swifts (Tachornis), with the toes naked and arranged in
pairs, attach their tiny nests, made of cotton-down and feathers, to the
leaves of palms or to the grass roofs of native huts. A nest of
T. phenicobia (1248) is shown in the Case. The Cheturine include the
Spine-tailed Swifts (Chetura), with the shafts of the tail-feathers pro-
duced into a point or spine. Of these, C. caudacuta (1241), which
nests in Siberia and migrates to Australia, is specially interesting,
having occurred in Britain on more than one occasion.

The American genus Cypseloides (1240) calls for no special remark ;
but the species of Collocalia (1244-1247), ranging from the Indo-
Malayan countries to Australia, are interesting on account of their
nests, which furnish the birds’-nest soup so much esteemed by the
Chinese. As may be seen by the various specimens exhibited in the
Case, the nests vary greatly in texture; the best, termed “ white” or
“first quality,” are entirely glutinous and highly prized, while the
“brown nests,” largely mixed with foreign substances, are considered
hardly worth collecting. These birds breed in dark caves in huge
colonies, sticking their nests close together on the rocky walls, or even
joining them in masses.

The last subfamily imcludes only the handsome Crested Swifts
(Macropterya) (1248), ranging from India to Papuasia. Their peculiar
nesting-habits have been briefly referred to above. The nest is a half.

PICARIAN BIRDS. 95

saucer made of bark and feathers gummed by saliva to a branch, and
is so small that the sitting bird entirely conceals it. Only one egg
is laid.

Family XIII. Trocuizipz. HumMING-BiRDs.

The Humming-birds or Hummers, so called from the sound often pro-
duced by their vibrating wings, are exclusively a New World group, and
must not be confounded with the Passerine group of Sunbirds (Nec-
tariniide), which inhabit the Indian and African regions, and somewhat
resemble them in outward appearance and habits. About five hundred
species are known ; and of these the majority inhabit Central and South
America, but some are found in the southern United States, and
Selasphorus rufus (1818) migrates northwards in summer to Canada
and even Alaska. Eustephanus galeritus (1218 a) frequents Tierra del
Fuego even in snowy weather; while Oreotrochilus chimborazo (1804)
and Q. pichincha (1808) are natives of the Andes of Ecuador, close to
perpetual snow, at a height of 16,000 feet. All are very small birds,
the largest being the Giant Humming-bird (Patagona gigas) (1808),
about 94 inches long, while the smallest forms, such as Mellisuga
minima (1326) and Chetocercus bombus (1326 a), are little larger than a
bumble-bee and only measure 24 inches in length.

The tongue of these birds is very peculiar, being slender, very long,
and extensile. When drawn within the bill, the two branches of the
hyoid bone which support its base curve upwards around the back of
the skull, and then forward over the top of the head, as in the Wood-
peckers (see preparation in Case). This arrangement allows the tongue
to be suddenly protruded to a considerable distance and as quickly with-
drawn. Unlike that of the Woodpeckers, the tongue is hollow and
divided at the free end into two slender branches, each of which bears
a thin membranous fringe on its outer margin,

The plumage is usually of a brilliant metallic nature, produced by
the prismatic surfaces of the feathers, and in many forms crests, ear-
tufts, neck-frills, and other ornamental plumes add to the gorgeous
effect.

The wing-muscles are greatly developed, and enable the birds to
sustain their untiring flight, which is more like that of a hawk-moth
than a bird. The little creatures hover in front of a flower, suspended
as it were in the air, their wings vibrating so rapidly that they merely
appear like a grey film; an instant they remain poised, and then, with a
flash of metallic colour, vanish with incredible speed.

The length and shape of the bill varies greatly in the different genera ;
some have the edges of the mandible strongly serrated towards the tip,
while in others this serration is faint or absent. In the absence of

[Case 62. ]

[Case 62. ]

[Case 63. ]

96 BIRD GALLERY.

more definite characters the absence or presence of the serration has
been used in grouping the numerous genera, but the classification of
the Humming-birds is extremely difficult, many of the genera being
hard to define and grading imperceptibly into one another.

The first flight-feather is at times attenuated, as in the genera
Althis (1821), Agleactis (1810), and others, or the shafts of the quills
may be broad and stiffened, asin the Sabre-wings, Sphenoproctus and
Campylopterus (1292). The shape of the tail, too, varies enormously, but
all these differences in structure are best appreciated by a careful study
of the comparative preparations exhibited on the tablet in the Case.

The small round, or sometimes purse-shaped, nest, generally composed
of the down of plants, felted and covered with spiders’ webs and soft
lichens, is placed on a branch or suspended from a leaf. The eggs are
white and one or two in number, and the young when hatched are
blind and naked.

Among the more remarkable forms we may draw special attention
to the Sword-billed Humming-bird (Docimastes ensiferus) (1298) with an
enormously lengthened bill, which enables the bird to probe the long
tubular flowers in search of tiny insects. Hutoweres (1288) has the bill
curved in almost a semicircle, and feeds on spiders which it catches
in the crevices of trees and walls. oddigesia mirabilis (1809) is one
of the rarest and most marvellous members of the family on account
of its remarkable tail. In the female and young male ten rectrices or
tail-feathers are present as usual, but in the adult male there are only
four, a very small pairin the middle and a greatly elongate pair on
the outside, which cross one another and end in a “racquet.” This
species was discovered in Northern Peru by a botanist named Matthews
in 1836, and the single specimen then procured remained unique till,
in 1881, the locality was rediscovered by M. Stolamann. A number of
specimens have since been brought to Europe.

Family XLV. Conitpm, Cotes.

The position of the Colies in the classification of birds has been much
discussed, but it is now generally admitted that they should be placed
among the Cyraciiformes, and in close proximity to the Trogons.

The family includes only the genus Colius (1860-1363), with nine
brownish or greyish crested species, all of which are natives of Africa,
where they are known as Mouse-birds on account of their creeping habits.
The plumage of the sexes is similar. All four toes are directed forwards,
but the first ean be turned backwards at will. They are all fruit-
eaters, and live in small bands among the thick bushes, where they
climb and creep about among the branches, the bill being used to aid

TROGONS. 97

their movements. At night they roost in thickly-packed companies,
hanging head downwards in a cluster in the most remarkable attitudes.
The cup-shaped nest is placed in the thickest bushes a few feet from
the ground, and the eggs are dull white, sometimes streaked with
orange or brown.

Order XXVI. TROGONIFORMES. ‘Trocon-rr1Be.

The birds constituting this very distinct Order are chiefly remarkable
on account of the unique structure of the foot, in which the first and
second toes are directed backwards and the third and fourth forwards,

Family Trocontp™. Trogons.

The single family (Zrogonide) includes nearly fifty species, all birds
-of bright plumage, some, such as the Quezal, being unsurpassed in
brillancy of colouring. ‘The various genera are distributed over Africa,
India, and the Indo-Malayan region, as well as Central and South
America, where the majority of the species occur. That the Trogons
are a very ancient type of bird-life and once inhabited the Palzarctic
region, 1s proved by the discovery of the fossil Trogon gallicus in the
Lower Miocene of France. Their plumage is of the softest description,
and the skin of the body so delicate and thin that it resembles damp
tissue-paper, and consequently these birds are the most difficult of all
to preserve. They frequent the thickest forest, and are of rather
sluggish habits, feeding chiefly on fruits and insects which are captured
on the wing. The eggs, which are white tinged with bluish or buff,
are deposited in a hole bored in some rotten stump or branch, and the
young when hatched are said to be naked.

The most splendid member is the Quezal (Pharomacrus mocinno)
(1365), from the highlands of Central America, with the upper wing-
and tail-coverts greatly lengthened and forming brilliant metallic-green
ornamental plumes. This species has been adopted as the national
emblem of the Republic of Guatemala and figures on the postage-
stamps of that country. Of the other South American genera we
may mention the Cuban species Prionotelus temnurus (1368), with the
plumage alike in both sexes and the tail-feathers deeply excised, and
the many species belonging to the genus Trogon (1869-78), several of
which are shown. In Africa the group is represented by three species
belonging to the genus Hapaloderma (1874), and in the Indo-Malayan
region by Harpactes (1815-11), and Hapalarpactes (1318).

[Case 63, }

[Case 64.]

98 BIRD GALLERY.

Order XX VII. CUCULIFORMES. Cuvucxoo-rrisz.

The birds comprising this Order form a fairly well-marked group, and
are divided into two families, the Cuculide or Cuckoos, and the Muso-
phagide or Turacos. In the former the foot is of the true zygodactylous
type, with the first and fourth toes turned backwards and the second
and third forwards; but in the Turacos the fourth toe is less completely
reversed, and we find what is known as a semi-zygodactylous type,
similar to that seen in the Madagascar Rollers.

Family I. Cucutipm. Cucxoos. (Plate XXI. fig. 1.)

The Cuculide are a cosmopolitan family, feeding on insects and
fruits, and specially interesting on account of the peculiar parasitic
habits of many of the species, which impose the burden of hatching
their eggs and rearing their young on other birds. One or more eggs
are placed in the nest of some suitable foster-mother, whose own young >
are subsequently ejected by the young Cuckoo. Many Cuckoos,
however, are not parasitic, but build their own nests and rear their
young in the ordinary manner.

Six subfamilies are recognised; the first, including the true Cuckoos
(Cuculine), are hawk-like birds and our common Cuckoo (Cuculus
canorus) (1385) [Pl. XXI. fig. 1], from whose note the family derives
its name, is the type. It is a summer-visitor to Great Britain,
Europe, and Asia, migrating southwards in winter as far as Australia
and South Africa. The female deposits her egg on the ground, and
conveys it in her bill to the nest of the foster-parent, the latter being
generally some insectivorous bird such as a Pipit, Wagtail, or Warbler,
etc. The eggs laid by different individuals differ greatly in colour,
and often resemble those of the host; the most remarkable type of
ege is blue, and generally found in nests of the Redstart, when it is
only to be distinguished by its greater size. The large Hawk-Cuckoo
(Mierococcyx sparverioides) (1884) of the Himalaya and Eastern Asia
closely resembles in appearance and flight a species of Sparrow-Hawk
(Accipiler virgatus) found in the same countries. This resemblance is
quite unexplained ; but, as it is sufficient to cause great alarm to small
birds in general, is possibly connected with the breeding-habits.
Another well-known member is the so-called “ Brain-fever-Bird”
(Cacomantis merulinus) (1386).

A well-known European and African species is the Great Spotted
Cuckoo (Coccystes glandarius) (1382), a rare straggler to Great Britain.
The host selected by this bird is usually a Magpie or Crow, and from
four to eight eggs have been found in one nest. The Drongo-Cuckoos
(Surniculus) (18838) are small black species closeiy resembling the

CUCKOOS. 99

Drongos (Dicrurus) (see p. 133), in whose nests they are said to place
their eggs. The smallest members of the group are the beautiful little
species of Chrysococcyx found in the Old World, and of these the
Emerald Cuckoo (C. smaragdineus) (1881) of Africa is the most
lovely. The hosts selected by these birds are Sun-birds and Finches.
In America the subfamily is represented by the genus Coccyzus, the
members of which are not parasitic but build their own nests, and
are said to be most affectionate parents. The Yellow-billed Cuckoo
(C. americanus) (1891) has on several occasions visited Great Britain.
The Indian Koel (Hudynamis honorata) (1896) represents a fruit-eating
Oriental genus in which the plumage of the sexes is unlike, the male
being black and the female brown, variously barred, mottled and spotted
with black and white. The eggs are greenish, blotched with grey
and brown, and are placed in the nests of Crows. Lastly we must
mention the extraordinary Channel-bill Cuckoo (Scythrops nove-
hollandie) (1398), with its great grooved bill, ranging from Celebes to
Australia. This bird places its eggs in the nests of the Piping Crows.

[Case 64. ]

The Crow-Pheasants or Lark-heeled Cuckoos (Centropodine) include

but a single genus, Centropus (1892-1394), including more than thirty
species ranging from Africa and Southern Asia to Australia. They are
not parasitic, but make a large globular nest, generally with an entrance
in the side, and may often be seen walking on the ground. The Common
Coucal (C. sinensis) (1892) and several allied forms are exhibited.

The third subfamily, Phenicuphaine, includes a number of non-
parasitic forms, with very inferior powers of flight, inhabiting the thick
bush of the Old and New Worlds, and spending much of their time on
the ground. ‘To this group belong the various American species of
Saurothera (1899-1400), Hyeternis (1401), and Piaya (1402-1404),
locally known as “ Rainbirds” ; the Malkohas of the genera Zanclostomus
(1407), Rhopodytes (1407 a), Pheenicophaés (1408), Rhamphococcyzx
(1409-1410), Rhinortha (1405), and Taccocua (1406) from Eastern Asia
and the neighbouring islands ; the remarkable Philippine species Dasy-
lophus superciliosus (1412) and Lepidogrammus cumingi (1413) ; and the
various species of Madagascar Cuckoos (Coua), of which the blue
species C. carulea (1415) is a striking example.

The fourth subfamily, Neomorphine, includes the large and handsome
Pheasant-Cuckoo (Carpococcy« radiatus) (1416) from Borneo, the well-
known Road-runner or Chaparral-cock (Geococcyx mexicanus) (1418),
from the thinly wooded or barren plains of South-western N. America,
and one or two other New World forms.

Diplopterus nevius (1419) and Dromococcye phasianellus (1420)
represent the fifth subfamily Diplopterine, found in Central and South
America.

Lastly the Crotophagine, also a New World group, includes the

H2

[Case 63. ]

[Case 65.]

100 BIRD GALLERY.

White Anis (Guira) (1422) and the Black Anis (Crotophaga) (1421). The
latter are remarkable on account of their nesting-habits, the females
forming huge co-operative nests, in which they deposit their eggs
and sit in company. The eggs are blue, with a peculiar overlying
chalky incrustation.

Family I]. Musorpnacip®. Tovuracos.

These birds, often called Plantain-eaters, and locally known as
“ Lowries,” include about twenty-five species grouped in six genera.
All are peculiar to the forests of Africa, generally frequenting the
highest trees, and feeding on various fruits and insects. Like the
Pigeons they build a flat nest of twigs, and lay rounded greenish- or
bluish-white eggs. Many of the species are beautifully coloured, while
others are mostly grey. To the former category belong the numerous
species of Turacus (1425), and a few included in Gallirex (1428) and
Musophaga (1429). All these birds have the flight-feathers mostly crimson
and yield a pecuhar pigment called Turacin, which contains copper
and may be reduced to a powder. [Sce preparation in Case.] This
is so soluble that the colour is washed out of the quills during heavy
rains, though subsequently renewed. ‘The green colour in these birds
is also of peculiar interest, being due to the actual presence of green
pigment in the feathers. This colour is not found in any other bird
(see p. 143). The Violet Touraco (Musophaga violacea) (1429) represents
the only species lacking a well-developed crest, but possesses an orna-
mental frontal shield somewhat similar to that foundin the Common Coot.
The Great Crested Touraco (Corytheola cristata) (1480), the largest
member of the family, is also a very hafidsomely-coloured bird, but the
species of Schizorhis (1481) and Gymnoschizorhis (1432), the tworemaining
genera, are dull-coloured and mostly of a grey or greyish-brown tint.

A remarkable fossil form (Necrornis) occurs in the Middle Miocene
of France, indicating that the family is one of great antiquity.

Order XX VIII. PICIFORMES. Woonprrckerrs AND ALLIES.

The Toucans, Barbets, Honey-Guides, and Woodpeckers representing
this Order possess many structural characters in common, such as their
zygodactylous foot, with the first and fourth toes directed backwards
and the second and third forwards.

Family I. Ruamenastip®. Toucans.

The Toucans are a large and brightly-coloured group, plentifully
represented in the forests of Central and South America, especially in

TOUCANS. 101

the great wooded regions of Amazonia. They are easily recognised by
the extraordinary shape and size of the bill, only rivalled by that of
the Hornbills, and may be regarded as representing the latter birds in
South America. In spite of its great bulk, the bill, though strong, is
remarkably light, the thin external walls being supported by a delicate
network of bony fibres, forming cells to which the air has constant
access. ‘They feed chiefly on fruit, varying this diet with insects, eggs,
and young birds. The peculiar long, very slender tongue, with barbed
edges, is not adapted for conveying food to the pharynx, and each
morsel is swallowed by throwing back the head and allowing it to drop
into the gullet. In spite of their zygodactylous feet these birds do not
climb like the Woodpeckers, but jump from branch to branch after the
manner of Hornbills. Not only the long, soft plumage, but the bill
and naked parts of the face are ornamented with the brightest colours.
When roosting, Toucans have a remarkable habit of raising the tail and
bending it forwards over the back, as shown in the mounted example
of the Orange-breasted Toucan (Rhamphastos vitellinus) (1489). They
are able to assume this position owing to the perfect ball-and-socket
articulation of the caudal vertebrae. About sixty species are recognised
and grouped into the five genera Rhamphastos, Andigena (1440-1442),
Piteroglossus, Selenidera, and Aulacorhamphus, and all, so far as is known,
deposit oval white eggs in the hollow limbs of tall trees; the young are
hatched naked. The largest members belong to the genus Rhamphastos,
of which R. toco (1486) is one of the most robust, and the most brilliant
are the Aracaris (Pteroglossus) (1443-1449). The members of the genus
Selenidera (1450-1451) are remarkable in having the plumage differently
coloured in the male and female, and the Green Toucans (Auwlaco-
rhamphus) (1462-1455) are at once recognisable by their uniform style
of plumage, which imitates the colour of the forest-leaves.

Family I]. Carrrontipa. Barserts,

The members of this family are small, rather heavily-built birds, with
a large stout bill, usually beset with strong black bristles, and generally
with brilliantly-coloured plumage. They inhabit the forests and well-
timbered districts throughout Tropical Asia, Africa, and America, and
are strictly arboreal in their habits, hopping from branch to branch,
and sometimes climbing up and down the trunk in search of insects.
In their habits they are remarkably inactive, and often sit motionless
for hours at a time, uttering their noisy ringing note, which may be
heard at intervals throughout the day and on moonlight nights. In
some species the sound is singularly metallic, and has gained for them
such appropriate names as ‘‘Copper-smith ” (Xantholema hamato-

[Case 65. |

102 BIRD GALLERY,

cephala) (1474), “Tinker-bird” (Barbatula pusilla) (1464), and “ Tron-
smith” (Cyanops) (1471-1473). Fruits, buds, and insects form their
principal food, but in captivity they will eat meat or small birds.
From three to five oval white eggs are laid in a hole in a soft-wooded
or dead tree excavated by the birds, who cut a neat circular entrance
sunilar to that made by the Woodpeckers. More than a hundred
species are recognised and are grouped into some twenty genera, nearly
all of which are represented in the Case.

Among the more striking we may draw attention to the tooth-billed
forms such as Pogonorhynchus dubius (1456), with the base of the bill
hidden by dense tufts of bristles, and its allies belonging to the genera
Lybius (1457, 1458), and Tricholema (1459, 1460). In all the other
genera the edge of the upper mandible is entire. An exception to
the gaudy plumage and striking contrasts in colour is found in the
West African forms Gymnobucco calvus (1461), with its curious bare
head, and Heliobucco bonapartei (1462) ; also in Calorhamphus hayi (1466)
from the Malay Peninsula; all three are birds of singularly plain
appearance. One of the largest is the Great Himalayan Barbet (Mega-
lema marshallorum) (1467), and the most brilliantly coloured members
are found in the Oriental genus Cyanops (1471-14173) and the South
American Capito (1480-1484), which are remarkable in having the
plumage of the sexes different.

Family II. Inpicatrorrpm. Honry-Guinss.

[Case 65.] This small family of dull-coloured birds includes about a dozen
species mainly confined to Africa; but two species occur in the
Oriental region, one inhabiting the Himalaya, and the second the
Malay Peninsula and Borneo. ‘The popular name is derived from the
curious habit of certain African species, which lead men to bees’ nests
for the sake of sharing the spoil. On observing a man the bird comes
fluttering from branch to branch, uttering a shrill ery to attract
attention, and, if followed, gradually leads him to a nest of bees, its
object being to obtain the portions of the comb containing the grubs.
The two Oriental species are not known to share this peculiar habit ;
but, so far as is known, the food of all the Honey-Guides consists of
Hymenoptera. The white eggs are deposited in a hole in the stem or
branch of a tree, and the birds are said to utilise the old nest-hole of a
Barbet or Woodpecker for the purpose. The species of Indicator, of
which the Common Honey-Guide (1486) is a well-known example, have
a stout, rather finch-like bill, while in Prodotiscus regulus (1488) and its
allies it is more slender and pointed.

WOODPECKERS. 103

Family IV. Pictpm. Wooprrckers. (Plate XXII.)

This large and important family of scansorial birds’ with zygodac-
tylous feet, including nearly four hundred species, ranges over almost
the whole of the temperate and tropical regions of the world, but is
absent from Madagascar, Polynesia, and Australia. It is divided into
three subfamilies: the true Woodpeckers (Picine), the Piculets (Picum-
nine), and the Wrynecks (Iyngine). The bill is generally strong and
wedge-shaped and modified into a powerful cutting weapon. With the
chisel-like tip of the upper mandible propelled by the powerful neck-
muscles, the bird can cut away the bark of trees to look for insects,
open with ease hard-shelled fruits such as nuts, and make deep holes in
the trunks or brauches for its nest. In the ground-feeding forms, such
as the species of Colaptes (1496), the bill is more curved. The tongue is
excessively long and vermiform, pointed and barbed at the tip and cap-
able of great protrusion ; itis supplied with sticky mucus from the large
salivary glands, which causes insects and their larve and eggs to adhere
to it. In nearly all the cornua or “horns” of the hyoid bone which
supports the tongue are of enormous length, and slide round the skull,
passing in a muscular sheath from the side of the gullet round the
occiput to the base of the upper mandible. This extraordinary struc-
ture is well shown in the preparations of the head of the Green Wood-
pecker (Gecinus viridis) (1496, 1497) exhibited in the Case.

The eggs are round and glossy, and the young when hatched are
naked.

The subfamily Picine includes the great bulk of the species,
distinguished by having the tail composed of stiff pointed feathers
which support the bird when climbing. Of the species which feed on
the ground, examples will be found in Geocolaptes olivaceus (1489) of
S. Africa, and the Golden-winged Woodpecker or Flicker (Colaptes
auratus) (1490) of N. America. The genus Gecinus includes a number
of nearly allied species, the most familiar being the Green Woodpecker
or “ Yaffle” (G. viridis) (1492), a common resident in many parts of
England and Wales, and ranging across Europe to Persia. It feeds
largely on ants, and may frequently be seen on the ground. Lewis’s
Woodpecker (Asyndesmus torquatus) (1494), of Western N. America,
is remarkable in having the feathers of the collar and underparts
with the barbs disconnected. [See preparation.] Another handsome
American genus is Melanerpes (1507-1510), of which five types are
shown, the Ant-eating species (MM. formicivorus) (1521), exhibited on the
floor of the Case, being depicted in the act of laying up its winter store
of nuts which it places in holes in the bark. The Rufous Woodpecker
(Micropternus pheoceps) (1502), from South-eastern Asia, represents a

[Case 66. ]

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104 BIRD GALLERY.

peculiar type of coloration. The large genus Dendrocopus is represented
in England by two species, the Greater Spotted Woodpecker (D. major)
(1518) [| Pl. XXIJ.] and the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (D.minor) (1522),
the latter being shown with its nesting-hole on the floor of the Case.
Another species, which is said to have been twice procured in England,
is the American Hairy Woodpecker (D. villosus) (1528). ‘Two well-
known European birds are the Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides
tridactylus) (1524), representing a genus in which the first toe is
wanting, and the Middle Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocoptes medius)
(1520), noteworthy as having the sexes almost alike in plumage, the
crown of the female being only slightly less brilliant m colour. The
smallest members of the Picine belong to the genus Jyngipicus (1525) ,
and among the largest forms will be noted the Great Black Woodpecker
(Picus martius) (1518) of N. Europe, the still larger Ivory-billed Wood-
peckers of America, of which the Mexican species (Campophilus
imperialis) (1511) is shown, and the Great Slaty Woodpecker (Hemi-
lophus pulverulentus) (1495) from the Indo-Malayan countries.

The second subfamily Picumnine includes about forty very small
Woodpeckers known as Piculets, with the tail-feathers very short and
rounded, They are distributed over Central and South America, West
Africa, and the Indian region. Representatives of two of the four
genera recognised will be found in Hargitt’s Piculet (Picumnus un-
dulatus) (1515) from Guiana, and the Rufous Piculet (Sasta ochracea)
(1514) from North India and Burma, the latter possessing only three
toes, the first being absent.

Of the Wrynecks, representing the third subfamily Jyngine, four
species are known, all included in one genus, Iynv, They are charac-
terised by their long tail, composed of soft flexible feathers, and by
their mottled plumage somewhat similar to that of the Nightjar. The
Common Wryneck or ‘ Cuckoo’s-mate” (J. torguilla) (1516), a well-
known summer-visitor to Great Britain, is found throughout almost
the whole of Europe and Asia and migrates southwards in winter to
India and Africa. As a nesting-site it makes use of any convenient
hole in a tree, or occasionally in an earth-cutting or sand-bank. Its
food, which consists largely of ants, is mostly procured on the ground.
The other species, one of which (J. pectoralis) (1517) is shown, are
confined to Atrica and have the fore-neck and chest rufous.

amily V. Bucconipa. Purr-Birps.

The Puff-birds are mostly dull-coloured birds, and natives of Central
and South America. ‘They differ from the Woodpeckers in various
anatomical characters, and may be recoguised externally by their stout

JACAMARS. 105

curved bill, hooked at the tip in the genus Bucco (1537-44), and thickly
beset with bristles. There is no aftershaft to the contour-feathers.
They inhabit the dense forests, and are said to resemble Bee-eaters or
Flycatchers in their habits, most of the insects on which they feed being
captured on the wing. Very little is known of the nesting-habits, but
the Swallow-wing (Chelidoptera tenebrosa) (1582) is known to breed
in holes in banks and lay white eggs. More than forty species are
recognised and grouped into seveu genera, and representatives of four
of these are exhibited in the Case.

Family VI. GatButipm, JAcAMARS.

The distribution of this family, like that of the nearly allied Bucco-
nide, is Central and South American. In general appearance they
resemble the Bee-eaters. The bill is long, slender and pointed, the
plumage often metallic, and the contour-feathers have an aftershaft.
The feet are zygodactylous, and in the genus Jacamaralcyon (1854) the
hind toe is absent. Their habits and mode of feeding are very similar
to those of the Puff-birds, but the Jacamars more often frequent the
outskirts of forests in the neighbourhood of streams. They nest in
holes in banks, and possibly in holes in stumps, and lay white eggs.
About twenty species are known, belonging to six genera, all of which
will be found represented. All belong to the subfamily Galbuline except
the Great Jacamar (Jacamerops grandis) (1586), which, on account of
its curved bill and other structural characters, is placed in a second
subfamily, Jacameroperine.

Order XX1IX. HURYLAIMIFORMES.

The members of this Order appear to form a connecting-link between
the Picarian birds and the Passeres. They resemble the latter in having
the palate egithognathous and in other anatomical characters, but differ
in having the deep plantar tendons which serve the toes united by a
vinculum or band, the hind toe being thus incapable of independent
action. Only one family is recognised.

Family Eurytamipa. Broap-BiLts.

As their name implies, these birds are characterised by their broad
flat bill. They inhabit the forests of South-eastern Asia and the adjacent
islands, feeding mostly on insects, or, in some cases, on berries and
fruits, and leading a quiet inactive existence. The nest---a large oval
structure, composed of grass, moss, and fibres—has an opening at the
side and is suspended from a thin branch. The eggs are white or

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106 BIRD GALLERY.

cream-coloured, and in some species heavily spotted towards the larger
end.

To the subfamily Calyptomenine belong three beautiful species with
the nostrils hidden by the erect frontal plumes and the plumage mostly
vivid green. All three are represented in the Case; Calyptomena white-
headi (1559), the largest, and C. hosei (1560), with its bright blue
breast, both very rare birds, being peculiar to the highlands of Borneo,
while the smaller C. viridis (1561), a pair of which are mounted
with their nest, is more widely distributed in the Indo-Malayan
region.

The second subfamily, Hurylemine, includes a number of handsome
forms, such as Horsfield’s Broad-bill (Eurylemus javanicus) (1563),
the Long-tailed Broad-bill (Psarisomus dalhousie) (1566), and the
sombre-coloured Dusky Broad-bill (Corydon sumatranus) (1567), with
its remarkably wide flattened bill like that of a Frog-mouth. The
Black-and-Red Broad-bill (Cymborhynchus macrorhynchus) (1565) is
shown with its large globular nest made of grass.

Order XXX. MENURIFORMES.

The remarkable Australian forms constituting this Order have usually
been associated with the Passeres, but differ in various anatomical points
and the nestling is covered with dense down. Only one family is
known.

Family Menurip#. lLyre-Birps. (Plate XXIII. fig. 1.)

The three large species of Menura (1568) included in this family are
all natives of Australia and inhabit the precipitous rocky gullies in
thick forests with tangled undergrowth, feeding on moliusca, worms,
beetles, and other insects. They are remarkable for their immensely
developed legs and feet, with long, stout, slightiy curved claws, with
which they scratch up the soil like Game-birds in search of msects, and
for the extraordinary shape and structure of the tail-feathers in the
male, the outer pair being curved like a lyre. In the female the tail is
long and normally shaped, The natural cry is a loud hquid gurgling
sound, but these birds also possess great powers of reproducing the song
and calls of other birds and animals, or any other sound they may hear.
The oval domed nest (1569), placed sometimes on the ground, some-
times on trees, contains one large egg, blotched and marked with purplish-
brown.

PERCHING-BIRDS. 107

Order XXXI. PASSERIFORMES. Percuine-Birps.

This Order, comprising the rest of the living members of the class
Aves, includes between five and six thousand species, nearly all being
birds of small size.

The feet are adapted for perching, three of the toes being directed
forwards and one backwards. The front toes are generally separate
from one another to the base. The hind toe is long, inserted low down
and moved by a separate tendon from that which serves the front toes,
so that it is capable of being powerfully opposed to them, like a thumb.
The palate is egithognathous, the vomer being broad and truncate and
the maxillo-palatine bones separate from one another (Appendix,
p- 145). This arrangement of the deep plantar tendons of the foot,
which is termed “ passerine,” combined with the egithognathous palate,
is characteristic of the Order.

Passerine birds are divided into two sections, the Acromyodi or
Singing- Birds, and the Mesomyodi or Songless Passeres. ‘This division,
however, is based on the anatomical structure of the syrinx or lower
larynx, in which the voice is produced, rather than on the actual power
of producing melodious notes in a certain sequence. In the Acromyodi
the intrinsic muscles of the syrinx are complex and consist of numerous
pairs fixed to the ends of the bronchial semi-rings; while in the Meso-
myodi the muscles are simple, consisting in many cases of only one pair,
inserted into the middle of the bronchial semi-rings (Appendix, p. 148).

All our song-birds belong to the Acromyodian group, but there are
numerous Passerine birds possessing the less complicated Mesomyodian
apparatus which can utter notes more deserving of the term song than
some, such as the Crows, referred to the former division.

Section A. MEHSOMYODI. Soneuess Brrps.

The Mesomyodian Passeres are further divided into two groups—
Tracheophone and Oligomyode—the former having the lower end of the
trachea modified to form an organ of song, while in the latter the
reverse obtains.

Group I. T'racHzoPHonZ.

Four familics are recognised, characterised by the shape of the
sternum and by the structure of the tarsal scutes. In the Pteruptochiae
and Conopophagide the sternum has four posterior notches, in this
respect differing from all other Passeres; while in the Mormicartide and
Dendrocolaptide there are only two notches.

[Cases
68-84. |

[Case 68. ]

[Case 68. ]

[Case 68. ]

108 BIRD GALLERY.

Family I. Preroprocuip®. TaPpaco.as.

These small Wren-like birds, characterised by their large robust feet
with straight claws, range from Costa Rica through South America to
Patagonia and the Falkland Islands, and occur up to an altitude of
9000 or 10,000 feet. They are shy and retiring in their habits, hiding
themselves in thick cover, where they hop actively from bough to bough,
or run like mice on the ground, the tail beg carried in an elevated
position, which adds to their general Wren-like appearance. Little is
known of their nesting-habits, but in some forms the nest is made of grass
or moss and placed near the ground, while others, such as Pteroptochus
(1570) and Aylactes (1571-2), are reported to nest in burrows.

Rather more than twenty species are recoguised and grouped into
eight genera, some of which will be found represented in the Case.

Family Il. ConororpHacipa. CoNnopopHagas.

About a dozen species, all found in South America, comprise this
family. The species of Conopophaga (1517) and Corythopsis (1578), the
two genera recognised, are very imperfectly known, and nothing appears
to have been recorded concerning their habits.

Family II]. Formicartip#. ANT-BIRDSs.

This large and characteristic South-American group of about 260
species is chiefly confined to the tropical forests of the north, ranging
thence in diminishing numbers to Central America, Chile, and Argentina.
They are mostly birds of very retired habits, creeping silently about
among the lower branches or searching for insects and their larve on the
ground in the densest and thorniest thickets. Though commonly known
as ‘‘ Ant’’-birds, it is now believed that they do not feed on ants, but
on the insects driven up by the swarms of foraging ants.

The nesting-habits are very imperfectly known, but some build on
or near the ground and lay white or variously coloured spotted eggs.

The species vary greatly in outward appearance, and are divided into
three subfamilies, viz.:—Zhamnophiline, or Ant-Shrikes, which have
the strong hooked bill toothed at the extremity, and greatly resemble
the true Shrikes (Lanzus, etc.) both in appearance and habits ; Formi-
cariine, which recall ‘hrushes and Warblers; and the long-legged
Grallariine, which look like the Pittas except in coloration.

Among the more notable forms of the Thamnophiline we may call
attention to the giant of the group, Batara cinerea (1580), with its
formidable hooked bill, no doubt used for the destruction of smaller
birds as well as large insects, and Neoctantes niger and Clytoctantes alixi,
two abnormal types with curious upturned bills.

PERCHING-BIRDS. 109

The numerous genera of the Formicariine are difficult to define, and
merge into one another. The larger species have a Thrush-like aspect,
while the smaller and more delicate forms have more the appearance of
Warblers and Wrens, and all spend the greater part of their lives on
the ground. Pithys albifrons (1698) is remarkable for its crested head
and lengthened throat-feathers.

The Grallariine (1606-9) are easily recognised by their long legs and
short tail. They are entirely terrestrial in their habits, and resemble
the Pittas in form and the Ground-Thrushes in their style of coloration.

Family IV. Denprocotartip”2. Woon-Hewers.

The Wood-Hewers form another large and typical South-American
group, including about 280 species of birds of small size. They are
dull-coloured, the prevailing tint of the plumage being brown, while
in a large proportion of the species the tail is uniform chestnut.
Five subfamilies are recognised, the Dendrocolaptine and Sclerurine
being characterised by the stiff spiny shafts of the tail-feathers and by
having the outer toe more or less connected with the middle toe, while
in the Philydorinw, Synallaxine, and Furnariine the shafts of the tail-
feathers are soft or not very spinous and the outer toe is free.

The subfamily Dendrocolaptine includes a number of scansorial
species resembling Woodpeckers and Tree-creepers in outward appear-
ance as well as in their habits. Their short legs and large feet armed
with sharp claws and their stiff spiny tails enable them to run up the
stems of the tree-trunks in search of insects, and their white eggs are
deposited in holes. The larger forms, such as Xiphocolaptes major
(1610), Nasica longirostris (1612), and Dendroplex picus (1621), with
its straight pointed bill, are very like Woodpeckers ; while Xiphorhynchus
procurvus (1614) and X. irochilirostris (1615), with their long, slender,
curved bills, are typical of the Creeper-like forms, and Glyphorhynchus
cuneatus (1617), with its short, stout, upturned bill, has more the
appearance of a Nuthatch.

The second subfamily, Sclerurine, includes half a dozen spiny-tailed
species of the genus Sclerurus (1618), with somewhat longer legs and
terrestrial habits.

Of the Philydorine, which include a number of bush-bunting forms,
we may call special attention to the “ Firewood Gatherer” (Anumbius
acuticaudatus) (1652), shewn with its nest on the floor of the Case. The
nest is a bulky structure built of sticks, with an entrance at the top and
a spiral passage leading down to the nesting-chamber, which is lined
with grass and usually contains five white eggs. It is generally placed
on isolated trees, but sometimes, as in the present instance, the cross-
arms of a telegraph-post are selected as a site, which greatly interferes

[Case 68. ]

[Case 68, ]

‘Case 69. ]

110 BIRD GALLERY.

with the working of the lines. Xenops rutilus (1629) is a curious little
form, worth noting on account of its much compressed, upturned bill.

The Warbler-like Synallavine embrace a number of small forms fre-
quenting the bushes and low undergrowth, and are interesting on account
of their remarkable nesting-habits. Some of the species of the genus
Synallaxis (1631-6) make enormous nests of sticks and twigs, lined
with hairs and feathers etc., large enough to fill an ordinary wheel-
barrow, and generally divided into two chambers united by a passage.
More than one of these great structures may often be found in the same
tree. The species of Siptornis (1637-8) have very similar habits.
Another member, the Thorn-tailed Warbler ( Oxyurus spinicauda) (1642),
has the shafts of the tail-feathers stiffened and bare towards the tips.

The last subfamily, Furnariine, includes a number of soft-tailed
terrestrial species. The most curious nests of all are the oven-shaped
clay structures built by the Oven-birds (Furnarius) (1651), and usually
placed in the most exposed situations, such as the top of a post or on a
bare rock. Although the eggs may not be laid till September or
October, the birds often begin to build in the middle of June, and may
be found at work in any month of the year. ‘The winter-)uilt nests are
said to be the best and to withstand the rain and heat for a year or
more. As the clayey mud of which they are composed becomes almost
as hard as brick, it is no easy matter to break in and extract the eggs.
Geositta cunicularia (1649), reminding us of a Wheatear in appearance
and habits, is also worthy of note. It excavates a burrow from 2 to 6
feet long, terminating in a round cavity lmed with soft grass, in which
four or five white eggs are deposited.

Group II. Oxzreouyopz (p. 107).

Family I. Corineipa. AMERICAN CHATTERERS.

This important family contains more than 100 species ot fruit-eating
birds, distributed over Tropical America from South Mexico to the
northern borders of Argentina. The habits of these woodland birds
are very imperfectly known, but in some species at least their diet is
supplemented by molluscs, insects, and even lizards. Six subfamilies
are recognised. The Gymnoderine are rather large birds with a
Crow-like bill, and include such remarkable forms as the Umbrella-
birds (Cephalopterus) (1659 60) and the Bell-birds (Chasmorhynchus),
in which the extraordinary ornamental appendages are especially
remarkable. The males of the black Umbrella-birds, so called on
account of their peculiar umbrella-like crest, have a long cylindrical
or flattened plumed wattle hanging down from the throat. This
ornament is much less developed in the females, which are otherwise

PERCHING-BIRDS. 111

very similar in appearance. The common Bell-bird or “ Campanero”
(C. niveus) (1654) carries on its forehead a long fleshy erectile appendage,
ornamented with short white feathers; while C. ¢ricarunculatus (1655)
has three long vermiform wattles, one on the base of the bill and two
lateral ones at the angles of the gape, and C. variegatus (1657) has the
naked throat covered with a beard of long straggling bristles. Only the
male Bell-birds bear these ornaments. Their note is loud and clear,
like the sound of a bell, and in the stillness of a tropical evening may
be heard at a distance of several miles. Other striking forms are
the bare-necked Gymnoderus fotidus (1658), which has a decidedly
vulturine appearance, the naked-faced Gymnocephalus calvus (1661),
the handsome crimson Hematoderus militaris (1662), and the great
Pyroderus scutatus (1664), one of the largest members of the group.

The second subfamily, Colingine, includes a number of birds of
brilliant plumage, notably the members of the genus Cotinga, of which
C. cayana (1674) and C. cincta (1675) are striking examples ; the dark
crimson Xipholena pompadora (1665), the curious swallow-tailed
Phibalura flavirostris (1876), and the diminutive species of Jodopleura
(1669-70), the smallest birds of the group.

To the third subfamily, Rupicoline, belong the splendid Cocks-of-the-
Rock (Rupicola) (1680-2), with their extraordinary compressed crest, and
the Red Chatterers (Phenicocercus carnifex) (1683). In the males of
the former the end of the first flight-feather is curiously attenuated,
while in the latter the fourth flight-feather is shortened and terminates
in a horny filament. In the breeding-season the males of Rupicola
have been observed by Schomburgk to dance with outspread wings and
leap into the air before an assembled flock of their kind, much after the
manner of Blackgame. The nest of mud and sticks is fastened to the
rocky projections of caves, and the eggs are buff spotted with reddish-
brown and lilac.

Attila thamnophiloides (1684) represents the subfamily Aftiline, a
dull-coloured group with a strongly hooked bill; and the fifth subfamily,
Lipaugine, an equally sombre-coloured assemblage, includes the genera
Lathria (1685), Aulia (1686-7), and two others.

The sixth subfamily, Tityrine, is worth noting on account of the
excessively short second flight-feather characteristic of the males of the
group. Examples will be found in 7ityra cayana (1688), Hadrostomus
aglaie (1689), and Pachyrhampnus viridis (1690).

Family I]. Pipripa#. Manakins,

This family comprises about 70 small species, closely related to the
Cotingide, but distinguished by the different scaling of the tarsi and by
having the outer and middle toes more closely bound together at the

[Case 69, ]

[Case 69. ]

[Case 70. |

[Case 70. ]

112 BIRD GALLERY.

base. They inhabit the dense forests or thick undergrowth of Central
and Seuth America, and resemble Tits in their habits; but their food
consists of fruits, berries, and seeds rather than insects, and their
shallow nests are suspended from the branches of low shrubs. ‘Two
subfamilies are recognised—the Piprine, including the smaller species
in which the sexes are usually dissimilar, the males being brilliantly
coloured and the females dull, and the Péilochlorine, birds of large size,
mostly with dull plumage. Among the Piprinw we may call attention
to Chloropipo flavicapilla (1683), with its elongate wings and tail, to
Cirrhopipra filicauda (1698), with the shafts of the tail-feathers ending
in long stiff filaments, to the members of the genera Metopia (1695)
and Masius (1696-7), with their erect frontal plumes, and to the
numerous species of brilliantly coloured Pipra (1700-5). Machero-
pterus deliciosus (11707) is remarkable for the extraordinary structure of
the secondary flight-feathers in the male, and Chiroviphia linearis (110Ta)
for the thickened shafts of the primary quills and the greatly length-
ened middle tail-feathers. The allied C. caudata (11708) is known in
Brazil as the “ Dansador” or ‘‘ Fandango-bird,’ on account of its
peculiar habit of dancing. When several individuals are assembled
together, one often sits and pipes, while the remainder dance up and
down to the music. When the musician becomes exhausted, he joins
the dancers, and another takes his place. Of the Ptilochlorine examples
will be found in Péilochloris squamatus (11716) and the sombre-coloured
Heteropelma turdinum (1714).

Family IT. Oxyruampuip®. SHARP-BILLS.

The three representatives of this family belong to the genus Ovy-
rhamphus (1719), found in Central and South America. They are
easily distinguished from the Tyrannidw by the straight sharp-pointed
bill and by the strongly serrated outer web of the first primary quill in

the male.

Family IV. Tyrannip#. TyRantT-BIRDs.

This large and much varied group, numbering over 400 species, is
entirely restricted to the New World, and is distributed over every part,
except the extreme north, in greater or less abundance. Some ef the
species are migratory, breeding in North America and wandering south
in winter to Central and South America. They appear to take the
place of the Flycatchers (Muscicapide) of the Old World, and, as in
these birds, the majority have the bill greatly flattened and beset with
bristles. From the other Oligomyodian families of the Mesomyodian
Passeres they are distinguished by the scaling of the tarsi and by having
the toes nearly free, as in the typical Passerine groups.

PERCHING-BIRDS. 1i3

The name “Tyrant” is specially applicable to the larger birds of this
group, on account of their pugnacious disposition, and they frequently
attack other birds, often of superior size and strength. They are
mostly clad in dull colours, but a few are ornamented with erectile
crests, as in Muscivora (1758), or brilliantly coloured, as in Pyrocephalus
(1761).

Four subfamilies have been recognised, the first being the Tenio-
pterine, which includes a number of dull-coloured grey and black
species. The most noteworthy form, on account of its abnormal tail,
is Alectrurus tricolor (1782), from the Pampas district of South
America, and the Yiperu (Cybernetes yetapa) (1788), one of the largest
forms, has a very long and deeply forked tail.

The second subfamily, Platyrhynchine, embraces a number of small
Flycatcher-like birds with flattened bills and dull olive-coloured plumage.
Among the examples shown we may draw attention to the crested form
Colopterus galeatus (1736), in which the outer flight-feathers of the
male are curiously abbreviated, and to Euscarthmus gularis (11174),
which, with its dome-shaped nest with the entrance at the side, is to be
found on the floor of the Case.

The Elaineine, or Olive Tyrants, form a third subfamily, with the
bill more compressed and the bristles at the base much less developed.
The general colour of the species is olive-green or sombre brown, in
harmony with the dense forests to which they mostly resort, and the
majority have an orange or red vertical spot on the top of the head.
The bright-tinted reed-frequenting Cyanotis azare (1743) is an exception
both in colour and habits. Hlainea ridleyana (17176) and its uear allies
build a small cup-shaped nest of moss and lichen ; while Myiozetetes
similis (1778) makes a loosely-constructed domed nest of fibre with an
entrance at the side. These will be found on the floor of the Case.
The largest species is Myiodynastes bairdi (1151), a bird about the size
of a Thrush.

Of the fourth subfamily, Tyrannine (which includes all the largest
members of the family, with flattened bills and well-developed bristles),
the most remarkable are the long fork-tailed species Milvulus tyrannus
(1772) and M. forficatus (1778) ; the King-Tyrant (Museivora regia)
(1758), with its tiara-like crest of orange feathers tipped with shining
purple; and the scarlet-plumaged Pyrocephalus rubineus (1161), repre-
senting the only brilliantly coloured genus of the Tyrannine.

Family V. Puyroromip#. Pxrant-currers.

The few Finch-like species of the genus Phytotoma (1780-1) in-
cluded in this family are all natives of South America. They are
I

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114 BIRD GALLERY.

interesting as representing the Finches among the Mesomyodian
Passeres, and closely resemble those birds in their habits and mode of
vesting. In young plantations they are said to do much damage with
their strongly serrated bills, cutting off plants close to the ground with
no apparent object.

Family VI. Pirripa#. Puirras or Ant-THRUSHES.

With the exception of the three species which inhabit Africa, the
fifty long-legged thrush-like species comprising this family are natives’
of the Oriental and Australian regions. Almost all the species of Pitta
(1782-96) are birds of brilliant plumage, and some have supplementary
ornamental plumes on the head and neck, as in Anthocichla phayrii
(1797). They frequent the densest jungle and scrub, and are chiefly
terrestrial in their habits, their long legs enabling them to hop with
great agility and escape with speed at the slightest alarm. Molluscs,
insects, and worms form their principal food, and are searched for
among the fallen leaves. The nest is a round open structure placed on
the ground or in a very low fork, and the eggs are creamy-white spotted
with red or purplish-black.

Family VU. Painerrrriv#. Warriep Anr-THRUSHES.

The sole representatives of this peculiar family are two species of
Philepitta (1799), foundin Madagascar. ‘They appear to be most nearly
allied to the Pittas (Pittide), but differ in various particulars of their
structure, such as the naked orbits surmounted by the fleshy wattle
in the male, and the scaling of the tarsi. They appear to be entirely
terrestrial in their habits.

Family VIII. Xenicip#. New-ZEatanp Busu-Wrens.

The members of this family are distinguished by various anatomical
characters, the arrangement of the syringeal muscles being Mesomyodian.

These tiny Wren-like birds are peculiar to the highland forests of
New Zealand. The three known genera, Xenicus, Acanthidositta, and
Traversia, include five species only. The Rifleman (A. cAloris) (1800)
is almost entirely arboreal in its habits, actively searching the trees for
insects, and places its bottle-shaped nest in holes in trees and in other
cavities, laying from three to five white eggs. .

PERCHING-BIRDS. 115

Section B. ACROMYODI. Styetne-Brxps (p. 107).

Family I. ArricHornirHip&. ScruB-BiRDs.

Only two small Australian species of the genus Aérichornis (1801)
are included in this family, peculiar among Passerine birds in having
the clavicles (merry-thought) rudimentary. The wings are so small
that the powers of flight are limited, and they live among the dwarf-
ferns and dense thickets, where they are only to be detected by their

loud note.
Family 1]. Hrrunpinina#. Swattows.

This well-defined cosmopolitan family, formerly associated with the
Swifts (Cypselide) on account of their similarity in general appearance
and habit of hawking insects on the wing, are now recognised as
belonging to the Passerine Birds. The long powerful wings, feebly
developed feet, small flattened bill and wide gape are the most striking
external features, possessed in common with the Swifts; but the latter
may always be distinguished by having 10 instead of 12 tail-feathers.
The anatomical differences between the two families are many and
striking. Many of the Swallows breed in colonies, and two or even
three broods are reared in a season. About 116 species are recognised
and divided into two subfamilies—the Hirundinine, including the true
Swallows and Martins, and the Psalidoprocnine, or Rough-winged
Swallows (1815), in which the outer margin of the first flight-feather is
provided with hooked barbs.

Of the former the Common Swallow (Hirundo rustica) (1808) is
typical, and one of the most familiar and beloved of our summer visitors.
It ranges north in summer over Europe and Asia, extending beyond
the Arctic Circle, anc winters in South Africa and the Malay Peninsula.
Many other species are equally migratory, and traverse immense
distances on their periodical journeys. The Red-rumped Swallow
(H. rufula) (1808a) has been recorded from Kent as an accidental
visitor. Two other well-known visitors to the British Islands are the
House-Martin (Chelidon urbica) (1802), which builds mud-nests under
the eaves of houses and on the ledges of cliffs, and is easily recognised
by its feathered toes; and the Sand-Martin (Cotile riparia) (1805),
which excavates a tunnel in a bank terminating in a nesting-chamber.
Both these birds lay pure white eggs, but those of the Swallow are
spotted with reddish-brown and lavender-grey.

Family III. Muscicarprips. Frycarcuers.

This somewhat vaguely defined family includes a very large number
of insect-eating species peculiar to the Old World, and may generally be

ne

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116 BIRD GALLERY.

recognised by their flattened bill beset with bristles. Some of the
forms included in the Flycatchers, such as Cryptolopha (1846) and
Polioptila (1851), might well be placed in the Warblers (Sy/viide), and
it seems doubtful if any real line can be drawn between the two families,
while the mottled or squamated plumage of the nestling seems to indi-
cate a close relationship to the Thrushes (Turdide). One of the best
known is the Common Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa grisola) (1828),
one of our later summer-migrants, which arrives from Africa in May.
It feeds solely on insects captured on the wing, the bird darting at
them from some branch, to which it again returns for a fresh sally.
Another less numerous summer-visitor is the Pied Flycatcher (M. atri-
capilla) (1821), while the Red-breasted Flycatcher (M. parva) (1829) is
an occasional visitor from Eastern Europe and Asia. The Brown Fly-
catcher (Alseonax latirostris) (1830) is said to have occurred in Kent.
Among the more striking exotic forms we may mention the Australian
“ Robins,” Petreca phenicea (1881) and P. rhodinogaster (1882), with
their scarlet and pink breasts ; the lovely Narcissus-Flycatcher (Xantho-
pygia narcissina)(1841),from China and Japan; the Paradise-Flycatchers
(Terpsiphone) (1866), with the middle pair of tail-feathers greatly
lengthened in the male ; the numerous species of Rhidipura (1853-6),
with wide fan-shaped tails, which are frequently outspread as they dance
from branch to branch, and their remarkably neat cup-shaped nests,
several of which are exhibited on the floor of the Case ; the Australian
Restless Flycatcher (Sisura inguieta) (1814), known to the colonists as
the “ Grinder,” on account of the peculiar grinding note which it utters
while hovering in the air like a kestrel before descending on its prey ;
and, lastly, the Niltavas (1863-5), with their brilliant plumaged males,
said to be less typical in their habits and to eat berries.

Family 1V. Campopnacipa., CuCKOO-SHRIKES.

The members of this Old-World family seem to constitute a link
between the Flycatchers and the Shrikes, and, as in the latter family,
the plumage of the nestling is cross-barred and not mottled or squamated.
They are chiefly distinguished by the spiny character of the rump-
feathers, and the majority possess a strong hooked bill. A remarkable
form, the Pheasant Cuckoo-Shrike (Pteropoducys phasianella) (1815),
with a long forked tail and stout legs, isa native of Australia, and lives
chiefly on the ground. Other larger forms of a somewhat similar type
belonging to the genera Graucalus (1816, 18717), Artamides (1878, 1879),
and Campophaga (1882, 1883) are arboreal and feed on insects which
they pick off the leaves. The most attractive members of the family
are the Minivets (Pericrocotus) (1884, 1888), mostly birds of brilliant
plumage, the predominant colour of most of the males being scarlet and

~

PERCHING-BIRDS. 117

of the females yellow. The numerous species inhabit the wooded regions
of India and the Indo-Chinese countries and islands, and are generally
met with in small flocks searching the leaves for insects.

Family V. Pycnonorinpz. BUuLBUts.

The members of this numerous and fairly well-defined family of
somewhat Thrush-like birds are peculiar to the Old World and found
throughout the Ethiopian, Indian, and Malayan regions. They are
generally characterised by well-developed bristles round the gape, a
short metatarsus, and a rounded concave wing. They are birds of
feeble flight and arboreal habits, and frequent gardens, low jungles
and forests, feeding chiefly on berries and fruits. Many of the species
are gregarious. ‘The nestis generally an open structure of sticks, grass,
and moss, placed in a low tree or creeper, and the eggs are almost
invariably marked and spotted. Many of the species, especially those of
the genera Otocompsa (1958, 1959) and Pycnonotus (1960-1963), have a
sweet song and are favourite cage-birds.

The usual coloration is olive or brown, but brilliant exceptions are to
be seen in the Fairy Blue-bird (Jrena puella) (1980), the beautiful green
species of Chloropsis (1981-1984), and the red-throated, orange-breasted
Rubigula dispar (1956) from Java.

Family VI. Timenipa#. Basnsiers.

The characters and limits of this large Old-World family, which
includes a somewhat varied assemblage of species, is still imperfectly
understood. They may be generally characterised as Thrush-like birds
with well-developed bristles at the gape, short, rounded, concave wings,
fitting closely to the body,*and strong metatarsi. The majority are
decidedly terrestrial in their habits, creeping about singly or in small
companies among thick undergrowth; but some, such as the Chinese
“Robin” (Liothria lutea) (1940) and its allies, as well as the thick- billed
Paradowxornis (1941) and the smaller, more Tit-like Suthora (1942), are
more arboreal and should probably be associated with the Paride. Six
subfamilies are recognised, but we can only briefly note some of the
more remarkable forms. In the Crateropodine we find the curious
spinous-tailed species (Orthonyw spinicauda) (1892), the handsome
Cinclosoma punctatum (1898), and the ‘‘ Coach-whip” bird (Psophodes)
(1899), which has a note like the crack of a whip, all three being
natives of Australia; the curious Hupetes (1894), with somewhat the
appearance of a long-legged Woodpecker, the Scimitar-Babbler (Xipho-
rhamphus superciliaris) (1912), remarkable for its very long, slender,
curved bill, and the Laughing Thrush (Dryonastes chinensis) (1907),

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118 BIRD GALLERY.

a favourite cage-bird. To the Timeliine belong such remarkable forms
as the Fluffy-backed Babbler (Ptilocichla falcata) (1982) and the Hairy-
backed Babbler (Macronus ptilosus) (1926), in which the feathers of the
back are enormously developed ; also the large yellow species of Malia
(1936) from Celebes. The third subfamily, Brachypterygine, includes
some long-legged terrestrial forms, the largest and handsomest of which
are the Whistling-Thrushes (Myiophoneus) (1950) and the smallest the
Short-wings (Oligura) (1945). Among the representatives of the fourth
subfamily, Siding, we may draw attention to the Long-tailed Sibia
(Sibia picaoides) (1951) and Yuhina nigrimentum (1952), exhibited with
its well-concealed nest. To the Liothrichine belong the beautiful
Chinese “ Robin ” (Lrothria Jutea) (1940) mentioned above, a familiar
cage-bird with Tit-like habits, and the handsome Cutia nipalensis (1989),
from Nepal. ‘The so-called Crow-Tits (Paradoxornithine) form the
sixth subfamily, a very isolated group, and may be recognised by their
short deep bill, most developed in the species of Paradowornis (1941)
and less so in Suthora (1942).

Family VII. TrocLtopytina. Wrens.

This family embraces a number of small birds which are spread over
the greater part of the globe, bemg very abundant in the New World
but absent in the Australian and Ethiopian regions. They have no
bristles at the base of the bill, build domed nests, and in many cases
have remarkable powers of song. The best known is the Common
Wren (Anorthura troglodytes) (2001), a familiar British bird, ranging
across Hurope as far east as Persia and southwards to the Atias Mountains
in N. Africa. One of the largest is the Great Bay Wren (Cinnicerthia
unirufa) (1989), a native of Colombia and Ecuador.

Family VILL. Crnciipa. Dirrers.

The Dippers or Water-Ouzels are large aquatic Wrens inhabiting the
mountain-streams of the northern parts of both Hemispheres as well as
the higblands of Central America and the Andes of South America.
They are perfectly at home in the water, diving with ease, and using
both wings and legs to propel themselves below the surface. Aquatic
insects and moiluses found among the stones at the bottom of streams
and rivers form their principal food, and though they are generally
supposed to devour the ova of fish, and for this reason constantly
destroyed as vermin, no fish-spawn has ever been found in their stomachs,
The domed nest (2012), made of moss &c., is placed close to the water,
and from four toseven dull white eggs are laid. The young are able to
swim as soon as they leave the nest. Of the twelve or more species, all

PERCHING-BIRDS. 119

included in the genus Cinclus, the most familiar is the Common Dipper
(C. aquaticus) (20017), which frequents the more rapid rocky streams in
the British Islands and ranges eastwards over Central and Western

Kurope.

Family IX. Mrurpa#. Mockine-sirps.

The Mocking-birds are an American family allied to the Thrushes
and ranging over the greater part of the New World. The young are
mottled, as in the 7urdide. Some, like the Common Mocking-bird
(Mimus polyglottus) (2014) of the eastern United States, are famous not
only for their powers of mimicry, but for the brilliant execution of their

natural song, which is rich and varied. Another well-known songster

is the Cat-Bird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis) (2017), which, in addition to
its attractive song, utters mewing sounds. Leconte’s Thrasher ( Harpo-
rhynchus lecontet) (2026) haunts more arid situations than the species
already mentioned, but, like them, places its large nest of sticks, &., in
some low tree or thorny bush. The only brightly coloured member of
the family is the Rose-breasted Rhodinocichla rosea (2022), found in

Colombia and Venezuela.

Family X. Turpipa. 'Turususs.

The Thrushes, Redstarts, and Chats form a very large family distri-
buted over the whole world and include a number of familiar species,
many of them being splendid songsters and favourite cage-birds. Un-
like their allies, the Warblers, they have no spring moult, and the
young in their first plumage differ from the adult and are always pro-
fusely spotted. Many species are migratory. Some of the Thrushes
are met with at great elevations, reaching altitudes of 17,000 feet in
some latitudes. They feed chiefly on insects and worms, most of their
food being procured on the ground, but they are also partial to fruit.
Of the nine subfamilies recognised, the first, Myiedestine, includes a
number of American forms of somewhat uncertain affinities. The
beautiful species of Cochoa (2034), from the Indo-Chinese countries,
represeut the second subfamily. Of the Zurdine or True Thrushes, a
number appear on the British List, the Song-Thrush (2060), Mistle-
Thrush (2058), Blackbird (2086), and Ring-Ouzel (2056) being breeding-
species ; the Red-wing (2062) and Fieldfare (2054) regular visitors ;
and the Siberian (2065), Black-throated (2055), Dusky (2055 a), White’s
(2045), and Rock- (2063) Thrushes, accidental stragglers. Our common
Hedge-Sparrow (decentor modularis) (2066) is a resident and the
Alpine Accentor (d. collaris) (2067) an occasional visitor to Britain, and

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120 BIRD GALLERY.

represent the fourth subfamily; while the few Australian species of
Ephthianura (2068-2070) constitute the fifth.

The Henicurine includes the fork-tailed species of Henicurus (20171)
and Hydrocichla (2072), inhabiting the mountain-streams of the Indian
Region, and resembling Pied Wagtails in general appearance and habits.

To the Ruticilline belong our Common (2074) and Black (2075) Red-
starts, Robin (2082), Nightingale (2080), and Northern or “ Sprosser ”
Nightingale (2089 a), which has been recently procured in Kent, as well
as the Blue-throat (2079), an irregular visitor to our coasts; also the
Ruby-throats (Calliope) (2083), Chat-Thrushes (Cossypha) (2094-5),
and Shamas (Cittocincla) (2092), the latter much prized as cage-birds
on account of their sweet song, °

The Chats (Savicoline) form the eighth subfamily. The British
breeding-species belonging to this group are the Stonechat (2099),
Whinchat (2100), and Common Wheatcar (2107), while the Eastern
Stonechat (2099 a), Isabelline (2106). Black-throated (Sazicola occi-
dentalis) (2114), Black-cared (S. stapazina) (2114 a), Western Black-
eared (S. catarine) (2114b), and Desert Wheatears (2115) have
occurred as stragglers.

The ninth and last subfamily (Szaliine) contains some strikingly
handsome forms, such as the American Stadia sialis (2118) and Grandala
celicolor (2111), found on the highest parts of the Himalaya at elevations
of from 15,000 to 17,000 feet.

Family XI. Syivirp#. Warsiers.

The numerous representatives of this family are distributed over the
Old World and include some of our finest songsters, such as the Black-
cap. They are distinguished from the Thrushes by having a double
moult, one in spring and one in autumn, and their young in first
plumage resemble the adult, but are rather more highly coloured.
With few exceptions they are birds of plain plumage. The majority
are migratory and traverse immense distances, but some, such as the
Grass- Warblers (Prinia and Cisticola), are quite sedentary and incapable
of protracted flight. The food consists of insects, but most of the
species at certain times of the year feed on fruits, &. No less than
twenty-five species are included in the British List, twelve of which are
regular summer-visitors, while the remainder are accidental. To the
former category belong the Grasshopper- (2118), Sedge- (2123), Marsh-
(2119). and Reed- (2121) Warblers, the Wood-Wren (2144), Willow-
Warbler (2145), Chifichaff (2148), Dartford Warbler (2134), Garden-
Warbler (2140), Blackcap (2137), Whitethroat (2189), and Lesser
Whitethroat (21388). The latter include Pallas’ Grasshopper- Warbler

PERCHING-BIRDS, 121

(2118 a), the Rufous (2117), Aquatic (2122), Great Reed- (shewn with
its nest at the foot of the Case) (2141), Melodious (2133), Icterine (2182),
and Radde’s Warblers (2142), the Northern (2145 a), Greenish (2152),
Pallas’ (2163), and the Yellow-browed (2154) Willow-Wavrblers, the
Northern Chiffchaff (2148 a), the Sub-alpine (2155), Barred (2156),
Orphean (2157), Sardinian (21574), and Cetti’s (2157h) Warblers ;
while Savi’s Warbler (2158), to be seen with its nest at the foot of
the Case, formerly bred in the Hastern counties of England, but has
disappeared since the draining of the fens. The Tailor-birds (Swtoria)
(2124) are specially interesting on account of the skill they display in
the construction of their nests. By sewing the edges of one or more
leaves together they form a pocket in which they build a nest of fine
grass, cotton, down, and hair.

Far the most brilliant forms are found among the beautiful little
species of the genus Malurus (2159-68), chiefly found in Australia; and
the Emu-Wren (Stipiturus malachurus) (2161) from the same country
is worthy of note, on account of its long spiny tail-feathers with curious
decomposed webs.

Family XII. Vireonip&. GREENLETS.

This small family, including about sixty arboreal species, mostly
olive or greenish in colour, is peculiar to the New World. Though
evidently allied to the Shrikes, which they resemble in the notched bill
beset with bristles, the young in first plumage do not differ much from
the adults and are never barred, and in this and other respects they
resemble the Warblers. The species of Vireo (2174-7) suspend their
firm cup-shaped nest from a horizontal fork and lay white eggs, spotted
with red and purple.

Family XIIf. Ampgtipm. CHATTERERS.

The Chatterers form a somewhat ill-defined family, belonging to the
group of Passeres, which possesses only nine primary quills. They are
chiefly northern im their habitat, but certain tropical genera are found
in North and Central America. The best known of the Chatterers is
the Waxwing (Ampelis garrulus) (2179), which is found in the northern
parts of both hemispheres and occasionally visits Britain m some
numbers. Its name is derived from the sealing-wax-lke tips of the
secondary quills. The movements of this species are very irregular and
uncertain; on the approach of winter it appears here and there iu

immense flocks in quest of seeds and berries. The nest is made of

twigs and moss lined with feathers, and the eggs are stone-grey, spotted
with blackish-brown. Another well-known species is the American

Cedar-bird (A. cedrorum) (2180).

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122 BIRD GALLERY.

Family XIV. Arramipm. SwaLLow-Surikes.

The Wood-Swallows, as they are sometimes called, constitute a small
group of birds characterised by their pointed greyish-blue bill and long
pointed wings. In their actions and mode of life they closely resemble
the Swallows. With the exception of one West African species, all are
found in the Indian and Australian regions and belong to the genus
Artamus (2183-7). The common Australian species (4. sordidus) hasa
curious habit of hanging in great clusters, like a swarm of bees, from
the underside of a branch.

Family XV. Vanecip#. Mapacascar SHRIKES.

This small family of Shrikes includes six genera and twelve species,
all peculiar to Madagascar. Representative forms of Vanga (2188) and
Leptopterus (2189) are shewn.

Family XVI. Prionoripm. Woop-Surikes.

The Wood-Shrikes comprise a large number of species ranging from
Africa and Southern Asia to New Guinea, the Polynesian Islands, and
Australia, Most of the species are dull-coloured birds, the predomi-
nating colours being brown, grey, and black. They frequent trees and
bushes, feeding on insects, mollusca, and fruits. Among these many
forms we may call attention to the so-called Magpie-Lark (Grallina
picata) (2190), a familiar bird about many Australian homesteads ;
Riippell’s Wood-Shrike (Hurocephalus rueppellt) (2193), exhibited with
its nest, and the helmeted species of Prionops (2202), both from Africa ;
the Jay-Shrike (Platylophus ardesiacus) (2201), with its remarkable
long crest, from the Malay Peninsula; and the peculiar Hypocolius
ampelinus (2205) from South-west Asia. The systematic position of
the latter bird (a pair of which are exhibited with their nest) has
given rise to much discussion among ornithologists, some placing it
in one family and some in another. Probably it should be associated
with the Chatterers, which it resembles not only in its structure but
in its habits. Its eggs are white with greyish-black spots.

Family XVII. Lanttpm. Surikes or BurcHer-Birps.

The Shrikes are a nearly cosmopolitan family of birds, being found
everywhere except in South America. The typical forms are character-
ised by their strongly hooked notched bill, which somewhat resembles
that of a Falcon. The young in their first plumage differ from the
adult and have the plumage barred. The smaller and weaker members
of the group are insectivorous, but the larger forms prey on small
imaminals, birds, and reptiles.

PERCHING-BIRDS. 1D

Of the four subfamilies recognised the Gymnorhine include some of
the large forms such as the Piping Crows (Gymnorhina and Cracticus)
(2206-8), of Australia, and the remarkable red and black Pityriasis
gymnocephala (2269), from Borneo. ‘The true Shrikes or Butcher-Birds
(Laniine) derive their name from their habit of impaling their prey
upon the thorns which surround their nest, and mice, birds, frogs, and
insects are to be found hanging in the “larders” of these birds. The
most familiar is the Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio) (2218), a
summer visitor, breeding in England and the South of Scotland. The
Great Grey (2214), the Lesser Grey (2215), and the Woodchat (2219)
Shrikes are occasional visitors to Britain, and there is evidence that the
last species has bred on more than one occasion in the south. The
Masked Shrike (Z. nubicus) (2217) is said to have been procured in Kent
once,

Among the African subfamily Malaconotine we find some most
brilliantly coloured forms, such as the species of Laniarius (2223-80).

The Pachycephaline are a large group of smaller forms ranging from
Australia and Polynesia to Borneo and the Philippines. One of the
largest and most handsomely marked species is the Australian Falcun-
culus frontalis (2243), a pair of which are exhibited with their nest.

Family XVIII. Paripa. Tirs or Trrmice.

‘The numerous small birds comprising this family are spread over all
the northern parts of the Old and New World, and extend their range
southwards throughout Africa, but are not met with in South America
or in the Australian region. As a general rule the species are not
migratory. ‘They are characterised by their stout conical bill. As in
the Crows the metatarsus is strongly scaled. The plumage is alike in
both sexes, and there is only one moult, which takes place in autumn.
Except during the breeding-season they congregate in flocks, and, in
company with Golden-Crested Wrens, Tree-Creepers, Nuthatches and
other small birds, traverse the woods in search of insect-food. The
majority place their somewhat roughly made open nest in holes in trees
or walls, but the Long-tailed Tits (dgithalus) (2244-6) build a beautiful
domed nest of moss and lichen, thickly lmed with feathers, with an
opening near the top, while the species of Remiza (2247-8) construct
a purse-shaped nest of felted down with a tubular entrance. Six
species are found in Great Britain, viz: the Great (2258), Coal-(2266),
Marsh- (2266), Blue (2251), Crested (2263) ,and Long-tailed Tits (2244),
the latter being one of our smallest birds. The Northern Marsh-Tit
(2266 a) is an accidental visitor. Of the exotic species, one of tie most
striking is the Sultan-Titmouse (Melanochlora sultanea) (2262)trom the
Indo-Chinese countries, conspicuous on account of its long yellow crest.

[Case 77.]

[Case 77. ]

[Case 77.]

[Case 77. |

[ Case 77, |

124. BIRD GALLERY.

Family XIX. Panurip#. Berarpep Tits.

The sole representative of this family is the Bearded Tit or Bearded
Reedling (Panurus biarmicus) (2249), which is still found as a resident
in the Norfolk Broads and ranges across Europe to Central Asia. It»
was formerly more widely distributed over the southern counties of
England, but the draining of the reedy-fens destroyed its breeding-
grounds. Its affinities are somewhat doubtful, but its natural position
appears to be near the Tits. The male is more handsomely marked
than the female, which lacks the grey head and black moustache. The
food consists of insects and mollusea, for which it searches among the
reed-beds. The nest, made of dead flags, grass, &c. and lined with reed-
flowers, is built among aquatic plants near the water. The eggs are
white, streaked with wavy lines of brownish-black.

Family XX. Coamaip#. Wren-Tirs.

Three American species of Chamea (2268), peculiar to the dried
plains and bushy hill-sides of Oregon and California, are the repre-
sentatives of this family. In their habits and general appearance they
resemble the Wrens.

Family XXI. Recutipz#. GoLpEN-Crestep WRENS.

About a dozen species of tiny birds inhabiting the northern parts of
the Old and New Worlds comprise this family, which is intermediate
between the Titmice and Warblers. The Common Gold-crest (Regulus
cristatus) (2269), a resident British species and the smallest of our native
birds, ranges across Kurope and Northern Asia. Its cup-shaped nest of
moss and feathers is suspended below the end of a branch and may contain
as many as twelve tiny white eggs suffused with yellowish-brown. 'The
Fire-crest (2. ignicapilius) (2270) is an irregular visitor to our shores,
A very handsome species is the North American Ruby-crest (R. calen-
dula) (2272), which differs from the other species in having a red
crest.

Family XXII. Sirtipa. Nurnarcues.

The Nuthatches, of which our common species Sitta cesia (2274) is
typical, are closely allied to the Titmice, but may be distinguished by
their strong, elongate, wedge-shaped bill. They have the general
appearance of small Woodpeckers and climb trees with almost the same
facility, but unlike these birds they have a short, square tail composed
of soft-plumaged feathers. The well-timbered districts and forests of

PERCHING-BIRDS. 125

North America, Europe, and Asia are their home, and eastwards, allied
forms (Neositta) (2279-81) occur in New Guinea and Australia, while
one genus (Hypositta) is found in Madagascar. Like its allies, the
Common Nuthatch is a resident species, and ranges from Central and
Southern Kurope to North-West Africa. As its name implies, it is
extremely partial to hazel-nuts, with which it varies its insect diet. The
nut is firmly wedged by the bird in some chink of bark and the shell is
then broken by repeated blows from the strong bill. The nesting-site
is almost always a hole in a tree, and should the entrance be too large, it
is neatly plastered up with clay and reduced to the required size. The
extraordinary nest (2282) exhibited in the Case was placed in the side
of a haystack and measured thirteen inches in length, the weight of
clay being eleven pounds. The Australian Neositta makes a small
funnel-shaped nest placed in a forked branch of a tree (2281).

Family XXIII. Certuips#. Trexu-Creepers.

The typical Tree-Creepers (Certhia) (2848-50) are distinguished from
other Acromyodian Passeres by having long stiff-pointed tail-feathers,
like those of a Woodpecker, but all the other members comprising this
family, though they climb with equal facility, have a soft, nearly square
tail. The bill is long and curved, well adapted for extracting insect-
food from crevices in the bark of trees or in rocks. The family ranges
from North and Central America, Europe, and Asia, eastwards to New
Guinea and Australia, and the majority of the species inhabit wooded
districts. The Common Tree-Creeper (Certhia familiaris) (2348), a well-
known British resident, places its nest in holes and crevices in trees and
walls and lays white eggs spotted with red and lilac. The beautiful Wall-
Creeper (Tichodroma muraria) (2353), which inhabits the mountains of
Southern Europe and Asia, nesting in some crevice of the rocks, has
on two occasions visited England.

Family XXIV. ZostERopip#. WHITE-EYEs.

The numerous small species of Zosterops (2283-1) derive their name
‘““ White-eye’”’ from the ring of white feathers which encircles the eye in
all. ‘he sexes are alike in plumage and the predominating colours are
olive-green and yellow. The various species range from Africa and
Southern Asia to Japan, and through the Malay region and Polynesia
to Australia and New Zealand. Their habits and notes are Tit-like
and they generally feed in small flocks, searching the trees and bushes
for insects,

[Case 77, ]

[Case 77.]

[Case 77. ]

{Case 77.]

126 BIRD GALLERY.

Family XXV. Dicmipm. FrLower-Peckers.

These small birds are allied to the Sun-birds, but are distinguished
by having a much shorter bill which is serrated along the edges of both
mandibles.

They range from India and the Indo-Malayan countries, through New
Guinea to Australia, and a few representatives are found on the West
Coast of Africa. The plumage is generally brilliant in the males, plainer
in the females. In their habits and choice of food they resemble the
Sun-birds. The species of Diceum build beautiful purse-shaped nests
suspended from a slender branch. They are either made entirely
from the cotton-like substance which fills the seed-vessels of many
plants (2288), or have an outer coating of moss and lichen (2289-90).
The more Tit-like Australian species of Pardalotus (2292), which have
a stouter bill, breed in holes in trees, walls, or banks, and construct a
round nest of roots, grass and feathers.

Family XX VI. Necrariniuip#. SuN-BIRDs.

In their brilliant metallic plumage and outward appearance the
Sun-birds bear a strong superficial resemblance to the 7rochilide, and
are often mistaken for them. A notable case is that of Cinnyris osea
(2305), a species inhabiting Palestine, and known to the English
residents as the “ Jericho Humming-Bird.” The numerous species are
confined to the Old World and range from Africa and Southern Asia to
New Guinea and Australia. The bill is long, curved and slender, finely
serrated at the extremity ; the tongue, extensile and tubular like that
of the Woodpeckers and Humming-Birds; and the sexes are generally
very different from one another in coloration, except in Arachnothera
(2307). Sun-birds resemble the Tits and White-eyes in their habits,
generally hunting for insects among the trees and bushes in pairs or
small bands. With their long tongue they extract the nectar from
flowers while clinging to the stems, for they are unable to poise them-
selves in the air after the manner of Humming-Birds. The elaborate
nest is either hung from the end of a branch, as in the case of Attho-
pyga magnifica (2809), or attached to the underside of a leaf, as in
Eudrepanis pulcherrima (2810). The eggs are two in number and
invariably spotted.

The nest of the Spider-hunter (Arachnothera robusta) (2801) sewn to
the under side of a broad leaf, displays a different type of structure.

Family XX VII. Drepanipip#. Hawaiian Honey-Suckers.

This small but interesting family includes a number of curious forms
peculiar to the hill forests of the Sandwich Islands. Some, such as the

PERCHING-BIRDS. 1237

Long-billed Hemignathus (Hemignathus procerus) (2841), resemble the
Sun-birds, but the bill is not serrated, others have the bill stout and
Finch-like, while in one remarkable form, Pseudonestor (2846), it is
Parrot-like. The splendid feather-cloaks, waist-bands, and mask-
decorations of the former Hawaiian Kings were chiefly composed of
the yellow plumage of the “ Mamo” (Drepanis pacifica) (2841) and the
scarlet feathers of the ‘‘ Jiwi” (Vestiaria coccinea) (2342). The former
bird, a drawing of which is exhibited in the Case, is now almost
extinct.
Family XXVIII. Mevirnacips. Honry-suckers.

The Honey-suckers are one of the most characteristic families of [Case 78.]

birds met with in Australia, and range to New Guinea, the Moluccas,
and Polynesia. ‘They are chiefly remarkable in possessing an extensile
tongue, forked at the tip and broken up into numerous horny fibres, so
as to form a brush specially adapted for gathering honey and small
insects from the cups of flowers. ‘Two subfamilies are recognised: the
Myzomeline, cluding the smaller species such as Myzomela (2315-1) ,
with the general appearance of Sun-birds ; and the Meliphagine. .The
latter contain all the remaining forms, some being larger birds of the
size of a Thrush. In many species parts of the head are bare, and
wattles on the sides of the head and throat are often developed. Among
the species exhibited we may call attention to the following :—Ptilotis
gracilis (2825), the representative of a large and widely distributed
genus, characterised by the ornamental yellow ear-tufts. Its neatly
woven cup-shaped nest is suspended from a forked branch. The remark-
able Tui of New Zealand (Prosthemadera nove zealandie) (2330), com-
mouly known to the colonists as the “‘ Parson-bird” on account of the
peculiar white feathers which adorn its throat and their fancied
resemblance to the clerical bands. It is a favourite cage-bird on
account of its sweet notes and powers of mimicry. The Large Wattled
Honey-eater (Acanthochera carunculata) (2389), a native of Australia, is
exhibited with its nest and eggs. The Friar-Bird (Philemon corniculatus)
(2829), also from Australia, has a bare head and curious horn at the
base of the bill. It will be noted in the skeleton of this species that
the horn is supported by a bony core. Lastly, Turati’s Honey-eater
(Melidectes emilii) (2821), a curious form with large wattles on the
throat, is peculiar to New Guinea.

Family XXIX. Mnrorintipa. AMERICAN WARBLERS.

These birds are entirely confined to the American region and may be
regarded as representing the Sylviide of the Old World. Generally
speaking they resemble the Warblers in their mode of life, but some,
such as Mniotilta varia (2869), are more like Creepers and run up trees

[Case 78. |

[Case 78. ]

128 BIRD GALLERY.

with almost the same facility. They differ from our Warblers in having
only nine primary quills and in being more brightly coloured. About
a hundred and fifty species have been distinguished, but it is doubtful
whether some of the genera included in this family should not be placed
elsewhere, the “ American Redstarts” (Setophaga) (2866-1) being
referred by certain authors to the Flycatchers, which they resemble in
appearance and habits, while others appear to have more affinity to the
Wrens, Greenlets, and Tanagers respectively. The most numerously
represented genus Dendraca (2854-8) includes nearly forty species, of
which the Golden Warbler (D. estiva) (2854) is one of the most familiar
North American birds. A specimen obtained in Durham in May 1904
was supposed to have been an accidental strageler. The cup-shaped
nest of this bird and other allied forms is placed in trees and bushes,
and the eggs are spotted with reddish brown, lilac, and grey.

Family XXX. Moracituipm. Wacraits anv Pirits.

The nine-quilled Passeres included in this family range over the
greater part of the World, but are absent in Polynesia. Asin the Larks,
the inner secondary quills are greatly lengthened and as long as the
primaries. With the exception of two species which occur in North-
west America, the Wagtails (Motacilla) (2868-74) are entirely confined
to the Old World. They are almost entirely terrestrial in their habits and
frequent the vicinity of water, both fresh and salt, meadows, and damp
ground. With quick running movements and constantly vibrating tail,
they catch flies and other insects, occasionally capturing them on the
wing. Of all birds Wagtails are the most graceful both in their form
and movements. Five species visit and breed in the British Islands,
viz.: the Pied (2369), White (2370), Grey (2871), Yellow or Ray’s
(2372), and Blue-headed (2378) Wagtails. Of these, the first-named is
by far the commonest, while the last, although it has been known to breed,
can only be regarded as an irregular visitor on migration. The Grey-
headed (M. viridis) (2873 a) and the Black-headed (M. melanocephala)
(2878 b) have also been recorded, the former as breeding. The Pipits
(Anthus) are generally to be distinguished by their sombre brown coloring,
the most notable exception being the Kast African Tmetothylacus tenellus
(2883), which has most of the plumage yellow. In external appearance
and habits they are very similar to Larks, and the males soar in the air
while they sing. On the British List we find the Tree- (2875), Meadow-
(2376), and Rock- (2877) Pipits, which are common and breed; the
Norwegian form of the Rock-Pipit (A. rupestris) (2378), which only
occurs on migration; and the Red-throated (2878), Tawny (2380),
Richard’s (2381), and Water- (2882) Pipits, all accidental stragglers to
our shores. The African genus Macronyx (2886-7) includes several

PERCHING-BIRDS. 129

species with brightly coloured under parts bearing a strange superficial
resemblance to certain American species of ‘“* Meadow-Lark ” (Sturnella)
belonging to the family Icteride (p. 182). The Common Cuckoo fre-
quently places her egg in the nests of Wagtails and Pipits, the Titlark
or Meadow-Pipit (A. pratensis) (2376) being‘a favourite host.

Family XXXT. Ataupip#. Larks.

Of the hundred or more species recognised, the majority are inhab-
itants of the Old World, but the Horned or Shore-Larks (Otocorys)
(2394-6) are also found in America, where they range as far south as
Colombia in Sonth America. Larks are almost entirely terrestrial in
their habits and generally frequent open grassy plains or desert districts,
but the species of Mirafra (2392) and Lullula prefer the vicinity of
bushes or copses, and frequently perch, while Otocorys, except during the
winter months, dwells on the high upJands. The habit of soaring while
utiering their song is common to the group, and with the exception of
afew species of Mirafra, all nest on the ground. The eggs are generally
white, closely spotted with brown and grey. Asin the Wagtails and Pipits
the inner secondary quills are greatly developed and equal in length to
the primaries, but the Larks are distinguished from these and other
Passerine birds by having the hinder aspect of the metatarsus scutel-
lated or covered with scales. The Sky-Lark (Alauda arvensis) (2389),
and the Wood-Lark (Luilula arborea) (2890) are the only resident
species in the British Islands, but the European Horned Lark (Otocorys
alpestris) (2894) is a more or less regular winter visitor, and the Crested
(2388), Short-toed (2399), White-winged (2400), and Black (2400 a)
Larks are occasional stragglers to our shores. The Finch-Larks
(Pyrrhulauda} (2391-8) have short thick bills, and form a rather
distinct genus with the sexes differing in colour.

Family XXXII. Frineryipa. Frncues and Buntrnes.

The Finches form one of the largest families of Song-birds and
number about six hundred species, which are nearly universally distri-
buted. As may be inferred from the structure of their short, stout,
conical bill, they live principally on seeds. In many species the summer-
dress is gained not by moult, but by the shedding of the edges of the
winter plumage, so that the underlying pattern comes into prominence.
The change thus effected is specially marked in the male of the Snow-
Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis) (2413), the rufescent winter dress
becoming entirely black and white in summer. Three subfamilies are
recognised : the Grosbeaks (Coccothraustine), the true Finches (Fringil-
line), and the Buntings (Eméerizine), characterised in the typical forms

K

[Case 78.7

[Cases

79, 80.]

[Case 80. }

130 BIRD GALLERY.

by marked differences in the shape of the bill. To the former belong
the Hawfinch (Coccothraustes) (2404) and Greenfinch (Chloris) (2412),
both well-known British species, as well as a large number of thick-
billed forms, such as the brilliantly coloured Crested Cardinals
(Cardinalis) (2411), chiefly found in America.

Of the Fringilline many are included in the British List. Those that
breed are the Chaffinch (2419), Goldfinch (2422), Siskin (2426),
Linnet (2483), Lesser Redpoll (2434), Twite (2431), House-Sparrow
(2439), Tree-Sparrow (2438), Crossbill (2454), and Bullfinch (2461) ;
the Brambling (2420) and Mealy Redpoll (2432) are winter-visitors ;
while the Serin Finch (2457), Citril (2457a), Snow-Finch (2457),
Parrot Crossbill (2458), Two-banded Crossbill (2459), Rose-Finch
(2458), and Pine-Grosbeak (2509) are accidental visitors. ‘he Crossbill
is an instance of peculiar modification, the mandibles crossing each
other in front, and enabling the bird not only to open fir-cones, on
the seeds of which it principally feeds, but to use its bill for climbing
like a Parrot. Other notable forms are the Saffron-Finches (Sycalis)
(2447) of South America, frequently kept as cage-birds, but generally too
pugnacious to live with other species ; the handsome Rhynchostruthus
socotranus (2484 a), peculiar to the island of Sokotra; and the brilliant
scarlet Sepoy-Finch (Carpodacus sipahi) (2449) from the Himalaya.

The Buntings (Emberizine) are also well represented in the British
List, the breeding-species being the Common or Corn- (2467), Yellow
(2471), Cirl (2470), Reed- (2463), and Snow- (2478) Buntings, while
the Black-headed (2462), Ortolan (2465), Yellow-breasted (2466),
Siberian Meadow- (2475), Meadow- (2475 a), Rustic (2476), Little
(2477), Large-billed Reed- (2463 a), and Lapland (2474) Buntings are
accidental visitors. A large number of American genera are also
included in this group; some, such as Cyanospiza (2482-4) and
Paroaria (2506), containing brightly coloured species.

Family XXXIII. Caresipa#. AMERICAN CREEPERS.

The American Creepers or Quit-Quits are a nine-primaried family,
allied to the Tanagers, but in their habits and other points they resemble
the Tits (Paride) and Creepers (Certhiide) of the Old World. The bill
is usually slender, sometimes conical or strongly hooked at the tip as
in Diglossa (2516-9), and the extensile tongue is forked and fringed at
the extremity. They belong exclusively to the tropical forest-clad parts
of the New World, ranging from Southern Florida to Bolivia and
South-east Brazil. Like the Tanagers, their plumage is a combination
of the brightest colours, and hence some species, such as the Blue Creeper
(Cyanerpes cyanea) (2528), have become an article of trade for the orna-
mentation of women’s hats, The Banana-Quit (Cwreba flaveola) (2529)

PERCHING-BIRDS. 131

of Jamaica and other allied species build their domed nests in low trees
or bushes where wasps have constructed their paper nests. The object
- of the bird is evidently to secure a position rendered safe from intruders
by the presence of these formidable insects, with whom a league of
amity is established.

Family XXXIV. Tanacripm. Tanacers.

These brilliantly coloured nine-primaried birds of the New World
are closely related to the Finches, but may generally be distinguished
by possessing a notch towards the end of the upper mandible. Some are,
however, very closely related to the Finches, others to the Cwrebide and
Mniotiltide. About threehundred and fifty species are recognised, many
of which are well known on account of their gorgeous plumage, remark-
able even among the richly coloured birds of South America. The
most striking forms belong to the genera Chlorochrysa (2534-5),
Calliste (2548-53), Rhamphoceelus (2561), and Pyranga (2565-17) ; some
of which are frequently imported as cage-birds into Europe.

Family XXXV. Puroceip#. Weaver-Fincurs.

The Weaver-Birds are nearly related to the Finches, but may be
distinguished by possessing ten primary quills. They form a somewhat
numerous family of brightly coloured birds, distributed over the African,
Indian, and Australian regions. The trivial name is derived from the
skill shown by the typical members of the family in weaving their
remarkable nests, which are most ingeniously calculated to ensure the
safety of their young. Numerous examples of their architecture will be
found exhibited in the Case. Many species have two seasonal plumages,
a fact which is especially noticeable in the males. In winter they are
mostly dull-coloured and striped with brown, but in the breeding-
season they are richly coloured, as in the species of Heterhyphantes
(2686), Ayphantornis (2688-40), and Ploceus (2641); while some develop
long ornamental tail-feathers such as Vidua (2584), Penthetria (2585),
and Chera (2586).

Two subfamilies are recognised, the Viduine, in which the first
primary is very small and falcate, and the Ploceine, with the first
primary large and obtuse.

To the first section belong the Viduas or Whydah-birds (Vidua prin-
cipalis (2584) and Chera progne (2586)), remarkable for their habit of
soaring during the breeding-season. Rising to a considerable height ,
they hover in the air, with long arched tail and flapping wings, and
presently descend with great velocity. With these are associated many
well-known and attractive smaller forms frequently kept as cage-birds,

K2

[Case 80. |

[Case 81. |

Cases
81 & 82.}

132 BIRD GALLERY.

such as the species of Munia (2610-4), Poéphila (2624-5), and Estrilda
(2628-31), and the lovely Erythrura (2619-20). Of the numerous
species that build in colonies the Sociable Weavers (Phileterus socius)
(2645) of South Africa is perhaps one of the most interesting. By
the united workmanship of a large number of birds, an umbrella-
shaped structure of sticks and straw is erected among the branches of a
tree, and from the underside of this thatched roof each pair suspend
their nest woven of dry grass, and rear their young, secure from the
attacks of snakes and other enemies.

Of the Ploceine, the most familiar is the common Indian species,
Ploceus baya (2641), which suspends its flask-shaped nest with a long
tubular entrance from a branch overhanging the water. This species
invariably lays white eggs, but some of the African forms of Hyphant-
ornis (2688-40) and Pyromelana (2588-9) lay eggs of several types,
and the same nest may contain white, pale blue, or green eggs, uniform
or spotted with red.

Family XXXVI. Icreripm. Hane-nests. (Plate XXI. fig. 2.)

These birds represent the Starlmgs and Weavers in the New World,
and include a large number of species possessing only nine primary
quills. Five subfamilies are recognised. The Cassiques (Cassicine)
are forest-birds mostly of large size, one of the largest being the Central
American (Gymnostinops montezume) (2647). The Maize - Birds
(Ageleine) are ground-haunting species frequenting the open pastures,
prairie-lands, and pampas. ‘They include the Bobolink (Dolichonyx
oryziworus) (2654) and the especially interesting Cow-birds (Molothrus)
(2655) [ Pl. XXI. fig. 2], in which the polygamous and parasitic habits of
some of the Cuckoos of the Old World are repeated. The Bobolink,
one of the finest American songsters, is perhaps only rivalled by
the Baltimore Oriole (Icterus baltimore) (2610), a well-known repre-
sentative of the true Hang-nests (Icterine). This species and many
of its allies are of brilliant black-and-yellow plumage, and for
this reason are generally known as American “ Orioles,” but they
must not be confounded with the Orioles of the Old World, which
they superficially resemble. Quiscalus major (2682) may be taken
as a type of the next subfamily, Quiscaline, characterised by the long
stout metatarsi suited to a terrestrial life. Lastly, the Sturnelline,
including the Troupials (Zrupialis) (2668 a) and ‘ Meadow-Larks ”
(Sturnella; (2668), are remarkable on account of their extraordinary
mimetic resemblance to the Pipits, more especially of the genus
Macronyx (p. 128), their lengthened inner secondaries and strong feet
adapting them to their purely terrestrial life. Many of the species

PERCHING-BIRDS. 133

breed in colonies, the Ageleine and Quiscaling making cup-shaped nests,
while the Jcterine and Cassicine build elaborate structures, which rival
those of the Weavers.

Family XXXVII. Orrotip#. OriI0LEs.

The Orioles form a well-marked group of brightly coloured birds,
mostly of a golden yellow contrasting with deep black. They are
entirely confined to the Old World, and range from Africa, through
Europe and Asia, to Australia. They are arboreal in their habits, and
feed on fruits, especially cherries, and insects. The Golden Oriole
(Oriolus galbula) (2105) is an annual spring migrant to the south of
England, and, if unmolested, would breed there regularly. Its cradle-
like nest is skilfully suspended in the fork of a branch, and the eggs
are white, blotched with reddish-purple. Oriolus trailli (2712), with
its crimson and black plumage, represents a differently coloured section
of the genus, met with in Eastern Asia, and Sphecotheres (2710-1) is
the representative form in Australia and New Guinea.

Family XXX VIII. Dicrurtpm. Droneos.

These Crow-like Flycatchers form one of the best-defined families of
Passeres, and range from Africa, India, and China through the Malayan
Archipelago to Australia. In nearly all the species the plumage is
black and the tail strongly forked, especially in the species of Buchanga
(2699), and in some forms, such as Dissemurus (2100) and Bhringa (2101),
the outer tail-feathers are greatly prolonged, ending in a “ racket”? ;
while others, such as Chibia (2695), have a long hairy crest of barbless
plumes. They feed habitually on the wing, darting from some perch
on a tree to catch passing insects. The Larger Racket-tailed Drongo
(Dissemurus paradiseus) (21700) of India has a really fine song, aud is
perhaps the best singing-bird in the East. The cup-shaped or cradle-
like nest (2694 a) is placed in the fork of a tree, and the eggs are whitish
marked with various shades of red.

Family XXXIX. Eurycerorip#. Mapacascar STARLINGs.

Euryceros prevosti (2693), a native of Madagascar, is the sole repre-
sentative of this family, and is remarkable on account of its abnormally
deep and stout bill.

Family XL. Eviasetipa#. TRex-Srarwines.

The Starlings included in this family differ from the true Starlings
(Sturnide) in being strictly arboreal in theiv habits, in being provided

[Case 82.]

[Case 82.]

[Case 82,]

| Case 83. |

[Case 83. ]

[Central
Table-
case. |

134: BIRD GALLERY.

with bristles at the base of the bill, and in laying spotted eggs. They
range from Africa, through India and the Moluccan Islands, to
Australia. The most familiar are the Grackles or Talking Mynas
(Eulabes) (2127-8), many of which are well-known cage-birds, and can
be easily taught to repeat words or sounds.

To this group also belong the beautiful Glossy Starlings (Lampro-
colius) (2747-8) of Africa, the remarkable Yellow-breasted Cosmopsarus

regius (2741) of Somaliland, and Calornis (2136-8) of the Indian and
Australian regions.

Family XLI. Sturnip#. Srarwines.

This widely-distributed group is peculiar to the Old World. The
young in first plumage are streaked, and in this respect Starlings differ
from the Crows, but they resemble the latter in their mode of progres-
sion, walking, instead of hopping like Finches and most of the other
Passeres. The Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) (2716) is a common
resident in the British Islands, its numbers being augmented by an
additional host of migrants in the autumn and winter. Like its
allies, though principally an insect-feeder, it is extremely partial to
fruit, aud does great damage in cherry-orchards. Another species
which has occurred as a straggler in our islands is the Rose-coloured
Pastor (Pastor roseus) (2119). Basileornis (2123-4) is represented by
a fine crested species found in Ceram. A curious aberrant form is the
Ox-pecker or Rhinoceros Bird (Buphaga) (21751), so-called on account of
its habit, shared with other members of the family, of settling on the
backs of cattle, camels, &c., to extract the grubs which infest them.

Family XLII. Prironoruyncuips. Bowerr-Brrps.
(Plates XXIII. fig. 2, & XXIV.)

The Bower-Birds, which are undoubtedly closely allied to the Birds
of Paradise and Crows, are peculiar to New Guinea and Australia.
They have received their name from their peculiar habit of building
bowers or runs where the males meet to play or pay their court to the
females. The bowers are built long before the birds begin to construct
their nest, which is placed in a tree.

The species of Ptilonorhynchus (2162), Chlamydodera (2758-5), and
Sericulus (2786) construct arbour-like galleries of uncertain length,
ornamented with shells, bright feathers, and other decorative materials.
Newton’s Bower-Bird (Prionodura) (2151) erects an enormous structure
of sticks, sometimes eight feet in height and of a complicated archi-
tecture, the main structure being supplemented by dwarf hut-like
buildings. The Gardener Bower-Birds (Amblyornis) (2758) build a

PERCHING=BIRDS. 135

miniature cabin made of different mosses, and surround it with a tiny
verfectly-kept meadow of moss, studded with brilliantly coloured flowers,
fruits, and insects, which, as they become faded, are constantly replaced.

The drawings on the adjoining pillar represent the widely different
gardens and bowers of Amblyornis subalaris (2158 a) [Pl. XXIV.], and
A, inornata (21758) [ Pl. XXIII. fig. 2]. The beautiful “ Play-house ” of
the former species is exhibited in a separate case. It was recently
procured in the Owen Stanley Range, British New Guinea, and was
received in its present perfect condition. The handsome Green
Cat-Birds (luredus) (2169), so far as is known, are the only
members of the family which do not construct a bower.

Family XLIII. Parapiszip™. Parapisse-Birps.

The Birds of Paradise are among the most gorgeously attired
birds, and are confined to the forests of New Guinea and the neigh-
bouring islands, as well as Australia. Skins of some of the larger
kinds were formerly articles of commerce, and are still exported in
some numbers for decorative purposes. About a hundred and fifty
years ago it was the custom of the natives, in preparing the skins, to
tear off the legs, and sometimes even the wings. The constant arrival
in Europe of birds without these natural appendages gave rise to
the supposition that Paradise-birds were devoid of them. The male
bird was supposed to float about in mid-air, spreading out his
long flank-feathers, to form a bower, in which the female built her
nest! Thus it was that, in 1766, Linneus actually named the largest
form Paradisea apoda (10), or the Paradise-bird without legs. A glance
at the structure of the bill and feet will show that these beautiful
birds are in all respects extremely similar to Crows, which they resemble
in their nesting-habits, their chief characteristic being their fantastic
ornamental plumes. A very fine series, including representative forms
of almost every genus, is exhibited in the Central Case. The number on
each species refers to a special printed list, copies of which are mounted
in the Case.

An interesting preparation of the windpipe of an adult male of the
Purple-and-Violet Manucode (Phonygama purpureo-violacea) will be
found in the Case. It shows the remarkable convolutions of the
trachea between the skin and breast-muscles before finally entering the
lungs. The call-note of this species is described as being prolonged,
bass, and guttural.

[ Table-
case In
window. |

[ Central
Case. |

| Cases
83, 84.]

[Case 84. |

[Case 83.]

136 BIRD GALLERY.

Family XLIV. Corvips. Crows.

By almost common consent the birds of this family are placed at the
head of the Class Aves. Pre-eminence must be given to the members
of the genus Corvus, more especially to the Raven (C. coraa) (27198) of the
Northern Hemisphere, the bird perhaps best known from the most
ancient times.

In the Crow we find the most highly-developed type of wing and
foot. In the former every quill and wing-covert is perfectly formed ;
and in the latter all the scales on the metatarsi and toes are more
strongly indicated than in any other Passerine bird.

The distribution of the family is nearly universal.

Three subfamilies are recognised : the True Crows (Corvine), Magpies
and Jays (Garruline), and the Choughs (Fregiline).

Of the former the best-known examples are the Raven (2798),
Carrion-Crow (2798), Hooded Crow (2797), Rook (2792), and Jack-
daw (2801), all well-known British residents; also the Nutcracker
(Nucifraga caryocatactes) (2806), an irregular visitor to England. A
remarkable African form is found in Oorvultur (2794-5), which has
a greatly developed upper mandible.

Our Magpie (2810) and Jay (2828) represent the second subfamily
(Garruline), with which are also associated various striking Oriental
forms, such as Urocissa (2822), Dendrocitta (2819-20), and Cissa (2815-16),
and the American genera Xanthura (2831-2) and Cyanocorax (2829-80).

The third subfamily, Fregiline, includes our Common Chough (Gra-
culus) (2837) and the Alpine Chough (Pyrrhocorax) (2886).

Among the more aberrant forms also included in the family we may
draw special attention to the curious looking West African Bald-headed
Crow (Picathartes) (2840), the New Zealand Kokako or Wattled Crow
(Glaucopis) (2889), and the Huia (Heterolocha acutirostris) (2888). In
this New Zealand bird the two sexes exhibit a different form of bill, that
of the male being moderately powerful, while in the female it is slender
and sickle-shaped. The pair are said to hunt in company, and live on
the grubs which burrow in wood. The male attacks the more decayed
portions of the wood, chiselling out the concealed grubs like a Wood-
pecker, while the female inserts her long bill into holes, into which the
hardness of the surrounding wood prevents the male from penctrating.
When the male is unable to reach some larva, the female has been
observed to come to his aid, and with her longer and more slender beak
secure the hidden prey.

137

APPENDIX ON THE STRUCTURE OF BIRDS.

[The specimens illustrative of this subject are set out chiefly in the
recess No. 4 of the Central Hall. |

The Class Birds—Aves—may be briefly characterised as warm-
blooded, egg-laying (oviparous), vertebrate animals, covered with
feathers and having the fore-limbs modified into wings. Of these
characters, the covering of feathers is alone sufficient to distinguish
Birds from all other animals.

Feathers [Figs. 1.-3'.|—The feathers of Birds correspond to
the scales of Reptiles. A typical feather consists of a long tapering
shaft or stem (rhachis) (fig. 31), bearing on each side for the
greater part of its length a broad elastic web or vane (2). The part of
the shaft to which the vanes are attached is four-sided, solid, grooved
along its under surface, and very pliant. Below the vane, the stem is
hollow and transparent, and is known as the “quill” or calamus (3).
The vane is made up of a number of flattened plates know as barbs or
rami (fig. 834 1) set obliquely on the shaft and heid together by a
very complex arrangement of interlocking processes called barbules or
radii (fig. 34 2). Where these barbules are perfectly developed
and unite the barbs, the vane forms a continuous web, able to
withstand the resistance of the air encountered during flight, and
more or less impervious to water. In flightless birds the barbules
are degenerate, and the barbs of the feathers being no longer held
together are said to be discontinuous, as in the Ostrich-tribe, or in the
tail-feathers of the Lyre-bird.

In many feathers a small shaft bearing a discontinuous vane is found
attached to the base of the under surface of the main shaft where it
passes into the quill. This is called the aftershaft (hyporhachis)
(fig. 3 4). In the Cassowaries and Emus among the Ostrich-tribe,
and in the feathers of some nestling birds, this aftershaft equals the
main shaft in size.

Five kinds of feathers may be distinguished, viz. :—Contour-feathers,
Semiplumes, Down-feathers, Filo-plumes, and Powder-down feathers.

Contour-feathers are those which, as their name implies, determine
the outline of the body, that is to say, they are all that meet the eye in
the living bird. Those covering the head and body are more or less
firm in structure and have continvous vanes; those of the wings and

138 BIRD GALLERY,

Fig. 1,

Outline figure of the Topography of a Bird. Common Francolin (Francolinus

Francolinus).
1. Forehead. 15.
2. Crown. | 14.
3. Nape. 15.
4, Kar-coverts. | 16.
5. Lores. | Gs
6. Throat. 18.
7. Neck. 19.
8. Interscapular region (mantle). 20.
9. Scapulars. 21.
10. Back. 22.
11. Rump. 23,
12, Upper tail-coverts. 24,

Tail-feathers (Rectrices).

Primaries | Remiges or flight-
Secondaries feathers.

Major wing-coverts.
Median wing-coverts.
Minor wing-coverts.
Under tail-coverts.
Abdomen.

Flanks.

Breast.

Crop.

Tarso-metatarsus.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 139

Ly)
gn)
=
JA
=e

Upper surface of Right Wing of a Bird extended to show the relations between the
flight-feathers and coverts.

—

6. Minor coverts.

. Marginal coverts.

. Remiges of bastard wing.
. Scapulars.

. Primaries

. Secondaries
. Major coverts of primaries.

. Major coverts of secondaries.
. Median coverts.

Remiges.

ore cw bo
co OO NI

Under surface of Contour-feather showing aftershaft.

1, Shaft (Rhachis). | 3. Quill (Calamus),
2. Vane. 4, Aftershaft (Hyporhachis),

140 BIRD GALLERY.

Fig. 34.

= 2

Diagram showing (1) section of barbs (ram) and (2, 3) interlocking
barbules (radu). (After Pycraft.)

tail, in birds which possess full powers of flight, are always well-
developed and conspicuously large (p. 139).

Semiplumes are degenerate contour-feathers and have discontinuous
vanes. Sometimes they are of great size and beauty and are accordingly
much prized for decorative purposes. For instance ‘ Marabou” feathers
are the semiplumes of the Marabou and Adjutant-Storks.

Down-feathers are very delicate in structure, the shaft, when present,
being very short and weak, whilst the barbs are long and fragile.
They are almost always hidden below the contour-feathers, but are
occasionally exposed and they form the ruff round the neck of the
Condor and certain Vultures. In water-birds these feathers form a
thick underclothing recalling the under-fur of Mammals, and often,
as in the Swans and Eider-Ducks, have a considerable commercial
value. Some birds, such as the Game-birds, Pigeons, and Hornbills,
have no down-feathers.

Filo-plumes are long hair-like feathers bearing a minute vane at the
tip, and occur in clusters round the base of the contour-feathers. In
some birds, for instance in the Cormorants, they appear on the surface
of certain parts of the body, notably on the head and neck.

Powder-down feathers occur only in a few groups of birds, either
sparsely scattered over the body, as in Parrots and certain Hawks, or in
patches on the breast and thighs, as in the Herons. ‘They are remark-
able for their extreme friability, constantly breaking up at their tips
into a fine powder, which feels smooth and almost greasy to the touch.
Nothing is known concerning the development or use of these extra-
ordinary feathers.

The long stiff bristles, which occur round the mouth of certain birds,
such as the Nightjars, or form eyelashes in others, for instance in the
Ostrich and Ground-Hornbill, and the peculiar tuft which hangs from
the breast of the Turkey, are degenerate contour-feathers, which have
lost their vanes.

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 141

Except in the Penguins, the feathers of a bird are never evenly
distributed over the body, but are arranged in long rows or tracts
(pteryle) separated by more or less wide spaces (apteria). In those
birds which have no down the spaces may be seen at once by raising the
contour-feathers, The form and arrangement of these tracts and spaces
are definite, and characteristic of whole families or orders of birds, and
are important for purposes of classification.

The contour-feathers of the head and body overlap one another,
and their arrangement resembles that of the scales in a reptile or fish.
The large feathers, which fringe the hinder border of the wing and
those of the tail, have a peculiar arrangement. The former, called
the flight-feathers (remiges) (fig. 2 1&2), overlap one another laterally,
so that their free edges face outwards, towards the front of the extended
wing. They are divided into two series, primaries and secondaries.
The primary quills are closely attached to the bones of the hand and
vary in number from nine to twelve; while the secondary quills
extend from the wrist inwards to the elbow-joint, and vary from six
(Humming-birds and Swifts) to thirty-seven (Albatros).

‘The large quills of the tail (rectrices) (fig. 1 13) serve for steering
purposes. They rise, like the ribs of a fan, from a common base formed
by the last bone of the vertebral column.

Covering of Beak and Feet [Figs. 4, 8, & 9].—The beak is always,
and the feet are usuaily, devoid of feathers, and encased in a horny
covering. The beak is formed by the prolongation of the jaws, which
in modern birds never bear teeth, and its sheath (rhamphotheca) is
either formed of a single piece or made up of numerous separate
elements, when it is said to be compound. In some birds, such as
the Puffins, parts of the beak are periodically shed. The horny
covering of the feet (podotheca) is generally made up of numerous
small pieces which take the form of overlapping plates or scales
(fig. 4 5,6).

Oil-glands.—With few exceptions, birds have a singular apparatus
for secreting oil situated on the root of the tail. With the beak they
press out a drop of oil from this gland, to lubricate and polish their
plumage.

Moult.—The renewal of plumage is a process familiar to all under
the term “moult” (ecdysis). It occurs at least once a year, and
generally twice, in the spring and autumn, when the old worn-out
feathers are shed and replaced by new ones. ‘The spring-moult only
affects the smaller feathers, but in autumn the change is complete, and
generally results in considerable differences of colour constituting the
“seasonal plumages” of so many birds, such .as the Grebes, Divers,
and Weaver- Finches.

142 BIRD GALLERY.

Colour.—The colour of feathers is due to one of three causes :—
(1) It may arise from the presence of actual pigment, (2) from pigment
overlaid by colourless structures, or (3) from iridescence due to the effect
of light falling on the polished, ridged or pitted surfaces of the feather
which act as prisms.

Fig. 4.

me

Side view of Right Foot of a Purple Gallinule (Porphyrio) to show the
composition of the horny covering (podotheca).

1. Hallux or hind toe. 4. Outer toe.
2. Inner toe. 5. Seales (Scutelle).
3. Middle toe. | 6. Reticulate scales.

Yellow colour, like black, brown and red, is as a rule due to pigment
diffused throughout thesubstance of the feather. Some yellow feathers,
however, contain no pigment whatever, the colour being due to the

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 143

reflection of light from various ridges and furrows on the surface of the
feather. In other cases the yellow colour, like violet, blue and some
browns, is due to pigment in the deeper layers of the feathers combined
with peculiar structural modifications of the upper colourless layers.

Turacin is a remarkable crimson pigment found only in the flight-
feathers of the Touracos (p. 100).

Blue is never found as a separate pigment in feathers, and green only
in the case of the Touracos (p. 100). These colours are formed by the
combination of the underlying yellow, orange or brown pigment with
the specially modified outer layers of the feather from which the light
is refracted.

Metallic colours are those which change according to the relative
position of the spectator’s eye and the light. Their prismatic properties
are partly due to a dark brown pigment and partly to the structure of
the barbules of the feather which take the form of a series of overlapping
compartments.

White is never due to pigment and is produced by structural peculia-
rities of the feather.

Heart.—The heart of Birds, as in Mammalia, consists of two completely
separated halves, each of which is again divided into an upper chamber,
the auricle, and a lower, the ventricle. The blood maintains a high and
uniform temperature (from 100° (Gull) to 112° (Swallow) ), exceeding that
of most mammals by from 8° to 14°. This high temperature permits of
no intermission of the energy of the vital functions in cold weather. No
Bird, therefore, hibernates as do certain mammals, but such kinds as are
unable to obtain their food during the winter-season are obliged to
migrate to milder climates.

Lungs.—Vhe lungs are very spongy in texture and are closely attached
to the roof of the thoracic region of the body-cavity.

Air-sacs.—-The bronchial tubes, which form the termination of the
windpipe, after ramifying through the lungs, open into certain thin-
walled receptacles known as the air-sacs. These lie along the roof
and upper portion of the side-walls of the body-cavity and are filled with
air, which is drawn from the Jungs. There are five pairs of these sacs
in the body-cavity, and they not only assist in the ventilation of the
lungs, but serve as reservoirs of air to increase the voice during long-
sustained singing, as in the Sky-Lark.

Additional air-sacs in connection with the nasal passages and with the
mouth occur in some Birds and serve as sexual ornaments. Such are
the throat-pouches of the Adjutant-Stork and Bustard. [ Cf. preparation
in Case 29.] Further, numerous Birds possess smaller air-sacs more
or less directly connected with the lungs, penetrating many (and in
some cases all) of the bones of the skeleton ; while in a few Birds such as

144 BIRD GALLERY.

the Gannets and Screamers, these sacs also penetrate between the muscles
and beneath the skin. The bones which contain these air-sacs are
hollow or pneumatic and consequently have no marrow. In the Albatroses,
Gannets and Pelicans, which possess great powers of flight, almost every
bone in the body becomes pneumatic, but the Swifts and Swallows, which
possess equal powers, have the long bones filled with marrow, as is also
the case in Penguins, Grebes, Divers, and the smaller Petrels.

Skeleton [Plate XXV. figs. 5-7].—As regards the details of the
structure of the Birds’ skeleton, we can only refer here to those points
which are either generally characteristic of the Class or which are
strikingly correlated to the peculiarities of their life. The bones of the
cranium (Pl. XXV. fig. 51) become united (coalesce) early in life,

Head of a Falcon (HMierofalco islandus) to show (1) impervious nostrils,
and (2) tooth-like process of the bill.

Fig. 9:

Head of the Black Turkey-Vulture (Catharistes urubu) to show (1) pervious nostrils.

about the period when growth ceases, so that the sutures between the
bones, which are persistent for so long a period in the Mammalian and
also in the Reptilian skull, disappear entirely. As in Reptiles, the skull
is joined with the neck by means of a single hinge or condyle (fig. 61),
the orbits are of very large size in accordance with the great development
of the eye (fig. 54). The facial bones are more or less prolonged and
united to form the beak, which is covered with a horny sheath, the edges
of which may be notched (Barbets and Falcons) (fig. 82) or serrated
(Mergansers), but teeth are invariably absent in living forms. The
external nostrils are either pervious (fig. 91) or separated from one

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS, 145

another by a septum (fig. 81). The bones of the palate (fig. 62)
present four distinct types of structure, which are of considerable
importance for purposes of classification. The differences between the
four types may be studied in the recess No. 4 of the Central Hall and
in the window-case illustrating the classification of the Carinate. ‘The
lower jaw is suspended from the skull by means of a movable bone known
as the quadrate (fig. 52). The two halves of the lower jaw (fig. 5 3)
are united in front, forming a symphysis, and are covered with a bony
sheath in front, like the upper jaw.

In the vertebral column four divisions may be distinguished, viz.
the cervical, thoracic, syusacral. and caudal. (1) The cervical or neck
division (fig. 55) possesses an extraordinary degree of flexibility,
which is necessary owing to the anterior limbs having become exclusively
organs of locomotion, and most of the complicated movements executed
by those limbs in Mammals and Reptiles have to be performed in Birds
by the bill. The number of vertebree of this division varies from eight
to twenty-three. (2) In many birds the thoracic vertebre (fig. 5 6) are
fused and form a solid bar of bone. ‘The condition is not necessarily con-
nected with strong powers of flight, for though found inall Falcons it does
not occur in Eagles, in which the vertebree are free. (3) The synsacrum
(fig. 5 7) is a long bone, generally formed of the last thoracic vertebra
and the united lumbar, sacral, and anterior caudal vertebre, to which the
iliac bones are immovably attached. Although only two of the segments
of this series of fused vertebree can be regarded as true sacrals, the whole
series 1s sometimes described as the sacrum and varies in number from
eleven to twenty. (4) Of free or movable caudal vertebra (5 8)
there are eight or ten, the last being remarkable for its size, shape, and
function. From its shape it has been called the ploughshare-bone
(pygostyle). An examination of very young birds shows that in early
life it is composed of from four to ten free vertebree which become
completely fused together in the adult, and form the single bone which
supports the tail-feathers and to which strong muscles are attached.
Thus, although the tail of a typical adult bird is apparently reduced to
a short series of a few segments well adapted for the execution of
powerful movements, embryology shows that originally this portion of
the vertebral column is very much longer. For instance, in the young
Swan it consists of not less than twenty-seven vertebra, a condition which
considerably lessens the apparently great difference between the tail of
an adult Swan and that of a Reptile or Archeopteryx.

All the thoracic and some of the posterior cervical vertebree bear
movable ribs (fig. 5 9), their connection with the sternum being effected
by means of short sternal ribs (fig. 510). In order to strengthen the
thorax, the ribs are connected with one another by bony spurs known

L

146 _ BIRD GALLERY.

as the uncinate processes (fig. 011 & fig. 71). These are flat blade-
shaped bones attached to the middle of one rib and sliding over the
outer surface of that immediately behind it.

The breast-bone or sternum (fig. 512) is a large, broad, more or less
convex bone which protects not only the thorax, but also a part of the
abdomen. In all birds in which the fore-limbs act as the principal
organs of locomotion, this breast-bone is provided with a deep crest
or keel (13) for the attachment of the muscles of flight. In proportion
as the power of flight is diminished, this crest becomes less prominent
and may disappear altogether.

The pectoral arch or shoulder-girdle consists of three pairs of bones—
the pillar-like coracoids (fig. 5 14), the scapulze or shoulder-blades (15),
which are narrow and sabre-shaped, and the clavicles or collar-bones
(16), which are generally united at their lower end and form a
V-shaped bone, the furcula, commonly known as the “ merry-thought.”
The principal support of the attachment of the wing to the trunk is the
coracoid, which is broadly joined to the anterior extremity of the
sternum and forms, together with the scapula, the base of attachment
for the humerus or upper arm-bone. ‘The fore-limb consists of the
following parts:—the upper arm-bone (humerus) (17), forearm (ulna
and radius) (18, 19), two small free wrist-bones (20, 21) (carpals), an
elongate hand (carpo-metacarpus) (22), and three fingers (digits). Of
the latter, the thumb ( pollez) (23) is a single stylhform bone joined to the
first metacarpal and bearing the so-called “ bastard-wing” (fig. 28) ;
the second or index-finger (24) is the longest, composed of two or
three joints, and forms the extremity of the wing, while of the third
(25) there is only a vestige. The thumb and index digit are sometimes
furnished with a claw.

The pelvis of Birds is open in front, a union or symphysis of the
pubic houes (26) occurring only im the Ostriches. The shape of the
pelvis is remarkable from the great forward prolongation of the iliae
bones (27), which may extend forwards on to the ribs. The acetabulum
or socket for the articulation of the hind hmb occupies a position about
half way between the extremities of the pelvis; the centre of the cavity
is unossified and appears as a round perforation.

The hind limb consists of the following parts :—the thigh-bone
(femur) (29); lower leg (composed of the united ¢2bza and fibula (30, 31), to
which are fused the proximal elements of the ankle or ¢arsws) ; the foot
(tarso-metatarsus (32), composed of the distal elements of the tarsus
fused with the metatarsus and forming a long bone, generally though
incorrectly called the leg) ; and normally four toes (digits). The most
characteristic bone of the leg is the tarso-metatarsus, which terminates
in three articular heads for the attachment of the three front toes in the

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. ; 147

majority of Birds, the first toe (hallux) (34), which is directed back-
wards, being articulated with a short separate metatarsal (33). The
number of joints of which the toes are composed increases from within
outwards, from the first or hind toe possessing two to the outermost
(37) which has five.

This general description of the skeleton does not apply in every
detail to all groups of Birds; some of them, especially the Ostrich-tribe,
showing modifications of certain parts, the most important of which
will be found exhibited in a special Case in the Gallery.

Brain.—The brain is much more developed in Birds than it is in
Reptiles, and entirely fills the spacious cranial cavity.

Eye.—The power of vision is perhaps more developed in Birds than
in any other vertebrate. The eyes are always of large size and pro-
tected by two movable eyelids as well as a transparent membrana
nictitans. The eyeball is strengthened by a broad ring of overlapping
bony plates (Pl. XXV. fig. 6%.) which enables the bird to focus
distant objects, and acts as a telescope.

Ear.—The sense of hearing is very acute, but no external ear is
developed, and the opening is hidden by the plumage.

Smell, Taste, and Touch.—The senses of smell, taste, and touch are
much more imperfect, but some Birds possess one or other of these senses
in a higher degree than the rest; for instance, that of smell in the
Apteryx, that of taste in the Parrots, and that of touch in the Snipes
and Ducks.

Digestive System.—W ith regard to the digestive system, it has already
been noticed that teeth are invariably absent in existing birds, but were
present in certain types of the Jurassic and Cretaceous pericds. The
beak and the generally slender horny tongue are the organs of pre-
hension, the former being frequently used to divide the food into small
pieces.

The gullet is long, like the neck, and generally dilated into a crop,
where the food is stored, detained, and softened for a longer or shorter
period. Before entering the stomach or gizzard, the gullet forms a
second dilatation with thickened walls, known as the proventriculus, in
which numerous glands secreting the gastric juices are lodged. In this
antechamber the food is suhjected to the chemical action of the
digestive process, whilst the stomach proper fulfils only a mechanical
function. In birds feeding on vegetables, grain, etc., the walls of the
stomach are extremely muscular, with a thick horny lining, which
(assisted by small pebbles, purposely swallowed by the bird) forms a
grinding apparatus capable of crushing the hardest seeds to pulp. Ju
flesh-eating birds the stomach has thin walls and is much more.
capacious.

L2

148 BIRD GALLERY.

The intestinal canal terminates in a cloaca or cavity through which
the products of the urino-genital organs also pass.

Trachea or Windpipe —Finally as an important anatomical peculiarity
of this class of Vertebrates, we have to mention that the trachea or
windpipe is composed of a series of entire osseous rings. The organ
of voice is not the larynx as in the mammals, but is formed by a peculiar
modication of the lower end of the windpipe called the syrinx. The
syrinx may be formed either by the trachea or by the bronchi only, but
most commonly the lowest rings of the trachea as well as the bronchi
participate in its formation. The modifications of the voice or song of
a bird are regulated by a pair of “extrinsic” and, in the Song-
Birds, several pairs of “intrinsic”? muscles. The former, possessed
by all birds, generally pass from the trachea to the sternwm and
furcula, The intrinsic muscles may be absent or represented by five
or seven pairs. These differences afford important characters for the
purpose of classifying certain orders of Birds (cf. p. 197).

Nest and Eggs.—Birds are, without exception, oviparous. The
majority deposit their eggs in a nest which they specially prepare for
their reception. Incubation lasts for a shorter or longer period and
varies from 11 to 56 days.

The eggs are on the whole fewer in number than is the case in
Reptiles; they possess a large amount of yolk and are invested with
a hard porous calcareous shell.

Young.—The young when hatched differ greatly in the relative
degree of development which they have attained. In the most primi-
tive condition the nestling emerges from the shell clothed in down and
capable of considerable activity, but in the most specialised it is blind,
naked and helpless when hatched, and requires to be fed and cared for
by its parents for some time.

Mental Faculties—With regard to their mental faculties, Birds as a
class seem to occupy a position intermediate between Mammals and
Reptiles. Intelligence of a high order manifests itself im their social
relations with one another and in their various methods of obtaining
food. These faculties are still more developed in individuals which
come in contact or live with man.

Migration —The difficulty or impossibilty of obtaining food when
the cold of winter destroys insect-life, or snow hides seed or other
vegetable nourishment, compels most birds to leave the locality where
they breed. Those which are stationary or range over only a limited
extent of country in search of food are termed resident birds. Their
movements are of an uncertain, erratic nature, and depend on external
and atmospheric conditions. But others, as soon as food becomes
scarce, following a common impulse, migrate at fixed times and by

STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 149

ascertained routes far away from the place of birth into milder or
tropical climates. Recent observations tend to show that tle farther
north a species breeds in the Northern Hemisphere, the higher is the
southern latitude in which it passes the northern winter. Immense
distances are thus traversed by some migrants twice in every year, in
their northern and southern movements.

Geological History.—Our knowledge of the geological history of Birds
is very scanty. The oldest known bird from Jurassic formations is the
remarkable Archeopteryx, which has a long tail furnished with a row of
feathers on each side. A number of swimming and wading Birds lived
in the Cretaceous period, and in some of these the jaws were furnished
with teeth. Among the Tertiary Birds there are many Birds widely
different from those now living, but they are associated with nearly
all the principal types now in existence. The majority occur in
Miocene formations. For further particulars the reader is referred to
the ninth edition of the “ Guide to the Fossil Mammals and Birds,”
p. 86 (1909).

The number of species of Birds at present known is probably not
less than thirteen thousand.

150 BIRD GALLERY.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV.
Fig. 5.

Left side view of the Skeleton of a Bird. Iceland Falcon (Hvere/alco islandus).

1, Cranium. | 13. Keel of Sternum, | 26, Pubis.
2. Quadrate. | 14. Coracoid. 27. Ilium.
3. Mandible. | 15. Seapula. 28. Ischium.
4, Orbit. | 16. Furcula. | 29, Femur.
5. Cervical vertebree. | 17. Humerus. | 30. Tibia.
6. Thoracic vertebree. | 18. Ulna. 31. Fibula.
7. Synsacral vertebrie 19. Radius, 32, Tarso-metatarsus.
(hidden in a side view of 20. Radial Carpal. 33. Metatarsal of digit 1
the skeleton by the, 21. Ulnar Carpal. (Hallux).
iliac bones]. 22. Carpo-inetacarpus. 34, Hallux or hind toe.
8. Caudal vertebree. | 23. Pollex. 35, Inner or 2nd toe.
9. Thoracic rib. 24. Ise Phalanx of 2nd 86. Middle or 3rd toe.
10. Sternal rib. . digit. 37. Outer or 4th toe,
11. Uncinate process, | 25. Ist Phalanx of 3rd
12. Sternum. | digit.

Hig. 6.

Under surface of the Skull of a Bird showing the bones of the palate (2), and the
single occipital condyle (1) for the articulation of the skull with the neck.

Fig. 64

Sclerotic Ring of bony plates.

Bi

Portions of three Ribs to show the position of the uneinate processes (1).

de

0g

PLATE XXV

SKELETON OF IcELAND Faucon (Hierofalco islandus). No, 944.

Abdimia, 62.
Aburria, 19.
Acanthidositta, 114.
Acanthochera, 127.
Accentor, 119.
Accentor, Alpine, 119,
Accipiter, 75.
Accipitriformes, 4, 72,
Accipitrine, 75.
Aceros, 92.
Acomus, 26.
Acromyodi, 6, 115.
Acryllium, 22.
Adjutant, 61, 140, 143.
Aigithalus, 128.
Atigotheles, 86.
Atluredus, 135.
Atpyornis, 11.
Aipyornithide, 2, 11.
Aéronautes, 94.
Aithopyga, 126.

wv, 67,
Agapornis, 84.
Agelastes, 22.
Agleactis, 96.
Ajaja, 62.
Alauda, 129.
Alaudide, 6, 129.
Albatros, Black-browed, 43.
, Royal, 438.
——, Sooty, 43.
——, Wandering, 48.
——, White-winged, 43.
, Yellow-nosed, 43.
Albatroses, 3, 43, 141, 144,
Alca, 46.
Alcedinide, 5, 87.
Alcedo, 87.
Alcide, 3, 45.
Alcyone, 87.
Alectoropodes, 2, 19.
Alecirenas, 38.
Alectrurus, 118.
Alle, 46.
Alseonax, 116.
Amblyornis, 134.
Ammoperdix, 30.
Ampelide, 6, 121,
Ampelis, 121.
Anarhynchus, 52.
Anas, 65,

| Archeopteryx, 2, 7,

| Apterygide, 2, 13.

| Argus, Rheinhardt’s Crested, |

Artamide, 6, 122,
| Artamides, 116.
| Artamus, 122.

TN DEX.

Anastomus, 62.
Anatide, 4, 63.
Andigena, 101.
Anis, Black, 100.
—, White, 100.
Anorthura, 118.
Anous, 48.
Aunser, 67.
Anseranas, 67.
Anseriformes, 4, 63.
Ant-birds, 5, 108.
Ant-Shrikes, 108.
Ant-Thrushes, 6, 114.
Ant-Thrushes, Wattled, 6, |
114.
Anthocichla, 114.
Anthropoides, 59.
Anthus, 128.
Antigone, 59.
Anumbius, 109.
Aphanapteryx, 40.
Aprosmictus, 84,
Aptenodytes, 42.

Apteryx, 8, 11, 14, 147.
Aquila, 77.

Ara, 84.

Aracaris, 101.
Arachnothera, 126,
Aramide, 4, 56.
Aramus, 57.
Arboricola, 29.
Archeopterygide, 2.

145,
149.

Archibuteo, 77.

Ardea, 60.

Ardeide, 4, 59.

Ardeiformes, 4, 59.

Ardeola, 60.

Ardetta, 60.

Arenaria, 52.

Argus-Pheasant, 21, 28.

, Bornean, 23.

23.
Argusianus, 21, 23.

Asacornis, 67.

| sto, 82.

Astur, 70.

Asturina, 76.
Asturinula, 77.
Asyndesmus, 103.
Atelornis, 88.
Athene, 82.
Atrichornis, 115.
Atrichornithide, 6, 115.
Attagide, 3, 50.
Atthis, 96.

Attila, 111.

Auk, Ancient, 46.

» Crested, 45.
——,, Great, 46.
—., Little, 46.
—, Minute, 45.
——., Perroquet, 45.
, Pigmy, 45.
Auks, 3, 45.
Aulacorhamphus, 101.
Avocet, Banded, 53.
, Common, 53.

| Babbler, Fluffy-backed, 118.

, Hairy-backed, 118.
, Scimitar, 117.
Babblers, 6, 117.
Baleniceps, 61.
Balenicipitide, 4, 61.
Balearica, 58, 59.
Bamboo-Pheasant, 27.
, Chinese, 27.
Bambusicola, 21, 27,
Barbatuta, 102.
Barbet, Great Himalayan,
102.
Barbets, 5, 101, 144.
Barn-Owls, 82.
Barnardius, 8+.

| Baryphthengus, 90.

Bastleornis, 134.
Batara, 108.

Bateleur Eagle, 78.
Batrachostomus, 86.
Baza, 78.

Bee-eater, Common, 89.
; Nubian, 89.
Bee-eaters, 5, 89,
Bell-bird, 110,
Belonorterus, 58.

152

Bhringa, 133.
Bittern, 59.
, American, 60.
— , Asiatic, 60.
—, Common, 60,
——. Little, 60.
PShtimes 5 Ore
, Tiger-, 60.
3itterns, 4, 59.
Biziura, 64.
Blackbird, 119.
Blackeap. 120.
Black Cock, 33.
Black Grouse x Caper-
caillie, 31.

x Red Grouse,

38.
—— <x Willow
Grouse, 34.
Blue-bird, 120.
= , Fairy, 117.
Blue-throat, 120.

Boatbill, Central American, |

60.
Boatswain-Bird, 72.
Bobolink, 182.
Bob-white, Virginian, 20.
Bolbopsittacus, 84.
Bonasa, 33.
3one-breaker, 76,
Bonxie, 47.
Boobies, 70.
Bostrychia, 62.
Botaurus, 59, 60.
Bower-Bird, Gardener, 13+.
, Newton’s, 134.
Bower-Birds, 6, 134.
Brachypteractine, 88.
Brachyrhamphus, 46,
Brain-fever bird, 98.
Brambling, 180.
Branta, 66.
Broad-bill. Dusky, 106.
- ——, Horsfield’s, 106.
Long-tailed,

106.
Broad-bills, 5, 105.
Brush-Turkeys, Australian,
life
Bubo, 81.
Bubonide, 4, 81.
Bubulcus, 69.
Buceco, 105.
Bucconide, 5, \O4.
Buceros, 92.
Buccrotide, 5, 91.
Buchanga, 138.
Bucorax, 91.
Budgerigar, 84.
Bugeranus, 59.
Bulbuls, 6, 117.
Bulliinch, 130,
Bulweria, 44.
3unting, Black-headed, 130.
, Cirl, 180,
——, Common, 130.
=, ©orn-,, 130:
——, Lapland, 130.

’

INDEX.

Bunting, Little, 130.

, Meadow-, 130.

——,, Ortolan, 130.

——, Reed-, 180.

—, Reed-, Large-
billed, 150.

—, Rustic, 130.

-——, Siberian Meadow-,
130.

——, Snow-, 129, 130.

——, Yellow, 130.

, Yellow-breasted, 130.

Buntings, 6, 129.

Buphaga, 134.

Burhinus, 5d.

Bush-Quails, Indian, 22.

, Painted, 28.

Bush-Wrens, New Zealand,

6, 114.
Bustard, Great, 55, 143.
, Houbara, 55.
= CONDO.
——, Little, 55.
, Macqueen’s, 45.
Bustard-Quails, 3, 35,
Butasiur, 78.
Butcher-birds, 6, 122.
Buteo, 76.
Buteola, 76.
Butorides, 60.
Buzzard, Brown, 76.
, Common, 76,
Buzzard-Eagles, 77.
Buzzard, Giant, 70.
Buzzard-Hawks, 76.
Buzzard, Honey-, 79.
, Long-winged, 76.
——, One-banded, 75.
——, Red-backed, 76.
——, Rough-legged, 77.
——, White-spotted, 76.

Cacatua, 89.
Caccabis, 80.
Cacomantis, 98.
Cairina, 67.
Calliope, 120.
Callipepla, 19.
Calliste, 131.
Callocephalum, 895.
Calenas, 38.
Caloperdix, 30.
Calopezus, 15.
Calophasis, 21, 25.
Calopsitiacus, 85.
Calorhamphus, 102.
Calornis, 134.
Calyptomena, 106.
Calyptorhynchus, 89.
Campanero, 11].
Campophaga, 116.
Campophagide, 6, 116.
Campophilus, 1O4,
Campylopterus, 96.
Canachites, 53.
Cancroma, 60.
Cape Pheasant, 31.

Cape Pigeon, 44.
Capereaillie, 32.

, American, 33,

< Black Grouse, 31.
Capito, 101.
Capitonide, 5, 101.
Caprimulgide, 5, 92.
Caprimulgus, 92, 93.
Caracaras, 79.

Caran, 57.

Carcineutes, 87.
Cardinalis, 130.
Cardinals, Crested, 130.
Cariama, 58.

Cariama, Brazilian, 58.
Cariamide, 4, 58.
Curtnate, 2, 16, 148.
Carinate Birds, 16.
Carphibis, 62.
Carpococeyx, 99.
Carpodacus, 130.
Carrion-Crow, 136.
Casarca, 66.

Cassiques, 132.
Cassowaries, 2, 15, 137.
Cassowary, Australian, 15.
Casuariide, 2, 13.
Casuarius, 8, 18.
Catarrhactes, 42.
Cat-Bird, 119.

Green, 135.
Catharistes, '73, 144.
Cathartide, 4, 72.
Catheturus, 17.
Catreus, 25,
Cedar-bird, 121.
Centrocercus, 32.
Centropus, 99.
Cephalopterus, 110.
Ceratogymna, 92.
Cerchneis, 79.
Cereopsis, 68.
Cerorhyncha, 45.
Certhia, 125.
Certhiide, 6, 125.
Ceryle, 87.

Ceyx, 87.

Chetocercus, 25,
Chetura, 94,

Chetusia, 58.
Chaffineh, 130.
Chalcophaps, 88.
Chalcopsittacus, 85.
Chamea, 124,
Chameide, 6. 124.
Chamepetes, 19.
Chaparral-Cock, 99,
Charadriide, 3, 50.
Charadrius, 52.
Chasmorhynchus, 110.
Chat-Thrushes, 120.
Chats, 120.

Chatterers, 6, 121.

, American, 5, 110.
Red sili
Chaulelasmus, OG.
Chauna, 69.
Cheer-Pheasant, 25.

Chelidon, 115. |
Chelidoptera, 105.
Chen, 66.

Chenalopex, 66.
Chenonetia, 67.
Chenopsis, 68.

Chera, 13).

Chibia, 133.
Chiffchaff, 120.

, Northern, 121.
Chionarchus, 49.
Chionidide, 3, 49.
Ciionis, 49.
Chiroxviphia, 112.
Chlamydodera, 134.
Chloephaga, 67.
Chloris, 180.
Chlorochrysa, 131.
Chloropipo, 112.
Chloropsis, 117.
Chordeiles, 92.
Chough, Alpine, 136.
, Common, 136.
Chrysococcyx, 98.
Chryscenas, 38.
Chrysolophus, 24.
Chrysotis, 84,

Chukar Partridge, 30.
Ciconia, 61.
Cicontide, 4, 61.
Cinclide, 6, 118.
Cinclosoma, 117.
Cinclus, 119.
Cinnicerthia, 118.
Cinnyris, 126,
Circaétus, 77.

Circus, 75.
Cirrhopipra, 112.
Cissa, 136.

Cisticola, 120.
Cittocinela, 120.
Cittura, 88.
Cladorhynchus, 53.
Clangula, 65.
Clucking-Hen, 57.
Clytoceyx, 88.
Clytoctantes, 108,
Coach-whip, 117.
Coccothraustes, 130.
Coccystes, 98,
Coceyzus, 98.

Cochoa, 119.
Cockateel, 85.
Cockatoo, Ganga, 85.
, Great Black, 85.
——, Leadbeater’s, 85.
——,, Slender-billed, 85.
, Yellow-aud-Black, 85,
Cocks of the Rock, 111.
Cereba, 130.
Cerebide, 6, 180.
Colaptes, 103.

Colies, 5, 96.

Coliide, 5, 96.

Colin, Virginian, 20
Colins, 20.

Colius, 96.

Collocalia, 94.

INDEX.

Coleus, 139.
Colopterus, 113.
Columba, 38.
Columbide, 3, 38.
Colymbide, 3, 41.
Condor, 73.
Conopophaga, 108.
Conopophagas, 5, 108.
Conopophagide, 5, 108.
Conures, 84.

Conurus, 84.

Coot, Common, 40,
Copper-smith, 101.
Coracias, 88.
Coractide, 5, 88.
Coriphilus, 85.
Cormorant, Common, 70,
, FKrilled, 70.
——., Green, 70

——, White-bellied, 70.
, White-throated, 70.
Cormorants, 4, 69, 140.
Corn-Crake, 39.
Corvide, 6, 136.
Corvultur, 136.

Corvus, 136.

Corydon, 106.
Corytheola, 100,
Corythopis, 108.
Corythornis, 87.
Coscoroba, 68.
Cosmetornis, 93.
Cosmopsarus, 134.
Cossypha, 120.

Cotile, 115.

Cotinga, 111.
Cotingide, 5, 110.
Coturnix, 28, 29.

Coua, 99.

Coucal, Common, 99,
Oourlan, 57.

Courser, Cream-coloured, 53.

, Two-banded, 53.
Coursers, 3, 53.
Cow-birds, 132.
Crab-Plovers, 3, 49.
Cracide, 2, 18.
Cracticus, 123,
Crake, Baillon’s, 39.
, Carolina, 39.
——,, Corn-, 39.
——, Little, 89.

, Spotted, 39.

| Crane, African Wattled, 59,

, Common, 59.

| ——, Orowned, 58, 59.

——, Demoiselle, 59.
——, Sarus, 59.

, Stanley’s, 59.
Oranes, 3, 58.
Crateropodine, 117.
Crax, 18.

Crazy Widow, 57.
Creeper, Blue, 130.

, Tree-, 125.

, Wall-, 125.
Creepers, American, 6, 130,
Crex, 39.

Crocodile-bird, 53.
Crossbill, 130.

, Parrot, 130.

, Lwo-banded, 130.
Crossoptilon, 26.
Crotophaga, 100.

Crow, Bald-headed, 136.
, Carrion-, 136.
——, Hooded, 136.
——, Piping, 123.

, Wattled, 136.
Crow-Pheasants, 99,
Crows, 6, 136.
Crow-Tits, 118.
Crymophilus, 50.
Cryptolopha, 116.
Crypturus, 15.

Cuckoo, Channel-bili, 98.
, Common, 98.

| ——, Drongo-, 98.

Cuckoo- Dove, 38.
Cuckoo, Emerald, 98.

| Cuckoo-Falcons, 78.

Cuckoo, Great-spotted, 98.

, Hawk-, 98.

——, Lark-heeled, 99.

——, Madagascar, 99.

, Pheasant, 99.

Cuckoo-Shrike, Pheasant,
116.

| Cuckoo-Shrikes, 6, 116.

Cuckoo, Yellow-billed, 98.
Cuckoo’s-mate, 104.
Cuculide, 5, 98

Cuculus, 98.

| Curassows, 2, 18
| Ourlew, 51.

, Eskimo, 51.

| ——' This-billed, 51.

, Stone-, 54.
Cursortide, 3, 53.
Cursorius, 53.
Cutia, 118.
Cyanerpes, 130.
Cyanochen, 67.
Cyanocorax, 136,
Cyanops, 102.
Cyanorhamphus, 84,
Cyanospiza, 130.
Cyanotis, 113.
Cybernetes, 118,
Cyclopsittacus, 85.
Cygnus, 68.
Cypselide, 5, 93.
Cypseloides, D4.
Cypselus, 94.
Cyrtonyx, 20.

| Dabchick, 41.

Dacelo, 88.
Dactylortyx, 20.
Dafila, 66.
Dansador, 112.
Daption, 44.
Darters, 4, 69.
Dasylophus, 99.
Dasyptilus, 84.
Demiegretta, 60,

154:

Dendragapus, 31, 33.
Dendrocitta, 186.
Dendrocolaptide, 5, 109.
Dendrocoptes, 104.
Dendrocopus, 104.
Dendrocycna, 66.
Dendreea, 128.
Dendroplex, 109.
Dendrortyx, 20.

Diceide, 6, 126.

Diceum, 126.

Dichoceros, 91.
Dichromanassa, 60.
Dicruride, 6, 138.
Didide, 3, 37.
Didunculide, 3, 37.
Didunculus, 37.

Didus, 37.

Diglossa, 130.

Dinornis, 11.
Dinornithide, 2, \1.
Diomedea, 48.
Diomedeide, 3, 48.
Diplopterus, 99.

Dippers, 6, 118.
Dissemurus, 138.
Dissodectes, 80.

Dissura, 62.

Diver, Black-throated, 41.
, Great Northern, 41.
—— ., Red-throated, 41.

, White-billed, 41.
Divers, 3, 41, 141, 144.
Docimastes. 96.

Dodo, 3, 37.

——, Réunion or White, 37.
Dolichonyx, 132.
Dotterel, 52.

, Australian, 52.
Dove, Bronze-winged, 38.
, Hastern Turtle-, 38.
, Long-tailed African,
38.
38.
, Rock-, 38.

— , Stock , 38.

, Turtle-, 38.
Drepanidide, 6, 126.
Dromadide, 3, 49.
Dromeide, 2, \2.
Dromeus, 8, 12.

Dromas, 49.
Dromococcyx, 99.
Drongo, Racket-tailed, 133.
Drongos, 6, 135.
Dryonastes, 117.

Reinwardt’s Cuckoo-, |

Duck, Australian Sheld-, 66. |

, Australian Stiff-tailed,
64.

——., Buffel-head, 65.

——, Canvas, 64.

——, Common Hider-, 64.

——, Crested, 65.

——., Hider-, 64.

-——, Ferruginous, 64.

———., Flightless, 66.

——, Freckled, 65.

INDEX.

Duck, Golden-eye, 65.
--—, Harlequin, 65.
——, King Hider-, 64.
——,, Loggerhead, 69.
-——., Long-tailed, 65.
——., Mandarin, 67.

——, Masked Stiff-tailed, 64.

——, Muscovy, 67.

—, Musk, 64.

——, Pink-eyed, 65.
—-, Pink-headed, 67.
———, Pintail, 66

——, Rosy-billed, 64.
——, Ruddy Sheld-, 66.
——., Sheld-, 66.

-—., Shoveler, 65.

——.,, Soft-billed, 64.
——.,, Spotted-billed, 65.
——., Steamer, 65.

——,, Steller’s Hider-, 64.
——, Stifftailed, 64.
——,, Summer, 67.

—., Torrent, 64.

--—, Tree, 66.

—., Tufted, 64.
White-headed Stiff-

,

tailed, 64.

67.
, Wild, 65.
Ducks, 4, 63, 147.
, Sea-, 64.
Dunilin, 51.
Dupetor, 60.

Eagle, African Buzzard-, 77.
, Bald Sea-, 78.

——., Bateleur, 78.

——., Bird-nesting, 77.
-_—, Black-crested, 77.
-——, Bonelli’s, 77.

——-, Booted, 77.

— , Crowned Hawk-, 77.
-——, Golden, 77.

—, Grey-faced Buzzard-, |
o

——, Imperial. 77.

, Monkey-eating, 76.

Eagle-Owls, 81.

Hagle, Rufous-bellied Hawk-,
Ute

——, Serpent-, 77.

—, Short-toed, 77.

-—-, Spanish Imperial, 77.

——, Spotted, 77.

——., Steller’s Sea-, 78.

-—-, Verreaux’s, 77.

———, Vociferous Sea-, 78.

——, Wedge-tailed, 77.

——, White-headed
78.

, White-tailed Sea-, 78.

Eagles, +, 7+.

Eclectus, 84.

Eclectus, Red-sided, 84.

Ectopistes, 38.

Egret, American, 59.

, Australian Plumed, 59.

Sea-,

Egret, Little, 59.

, Reddish, 60.
——., Snowy, 99.
Hider-Ducks, 64, 140.
Elainea, 115.
Hlanoides, 78.
Elanus, 78.
Emberizine, 129.

| Emu, Black, 12.

, Spotted, 12.
Emus, 2, 12, 1387.
Emu-Wren, 121.
Eos, 85.
Ephippiorhynchus, 62.
Ephthianura, 120.
Mrismatura, 64.

Erne, 78.

Hrythropus, 79.
Lyrythrotriorchis, 70.

Lrythrura, 132.

——, White-winged Wood-,

EKstrilda, 182.
Ludocimus, 62.
Hudrepanis, 126.
Hudromias, 52.
Hudynamis, 98.
Eudyptula, 42.
Hulabes, 134.
Kulabetide, 6, 138.
Kulipoa, 17.
EHunetta, 69.

Hupetes, 117.
Eupodotis, 56.
Kupsychortyx, 19.
Eurhynorhynchus, 51,
Hurocephalus, 122.
Kuryceros, 153.
Hurycerotide, 6, 133.
Kurylemide, 5, 105.
Kurylemus, 106.

| Eurypygqa, 57.

Kurypygide, 4, 57.
Hurystomus, 89.
Huscarthmus. 118.
Hustephanus, 95.
Yutolmaétus, 77.
Hutoxeres, 96.

| Lucalfactoria, 28, ~9.

| Falco, 79.

Falcon, Barbary, 79.

, Cuckoo, 78.

——., Double-toothed, 75.
——., Feilden’s, 79.-
——, Greenland, 79.
——, Iceland, 79, 144.
——, Laggar, 79.

——, Manmereno:

——., Lead-coloured, 78.
——-, Peregrine; 79.
——, Red-footed, 79.
Scandinavian Jer-,

’

79.

, Shahin, 79.
Falconet, Black-legged, 79.
Faleonide, 4, 74.

Falcons, 79, 144.
Faleunculus, 128.
Fandango-bird, 112.

Fieldfare, 119.

Finch, Citril, 130.
Finch-Larks, 129.
Fineh, Serin, 130.
Finches, 6, 129.
Finches, Saffron-, 130.

, Weaver-, 6, 131.
Finfoot, 3, 40.

-—, Peters’s, 40.
Fire-crest, 124.
Firewood Gatherer, 109.
Fish-Hawk, 80.
Fishing-Owls, 81.
Flamingo, Common, 68.
, Ruddy, 68.

, Small, 68.
Flamingoes, 4, 68.
Flicker, 103.

Floriecan, Lesser, 56.
Florida, 60.
Flower- peckers, 6, 126.
Flycatcher, Brown, 116.
——, Narcissus, 116.
——, Paradise, 116.
——., Pied, lib.

—— ., Red-breasted, 116.
—-, Restless, 116.
——, Spotted, 116.
Flyecatchers, 6, 115.
Formicariide, 5, 108.

Francolin, Bare-throated, 31. ;

--——, Cape, 31.

——, Common, 3}, 138.

——., Double-spurred, 31.

— ., Erckel’s, 31.

——, Gray’s Bare-throated,
3l.

——, Hildebrandt’s, 31.

-—, Levaillant’s, 31.

—, Long-billed, 31.

, Swamp-, 3l.

Francolinus, 30, 188.

Fratercula, 45.

Fregata, 71.

Fregatide, 4, 71.

Friar-Bird, 127.

Frigate-Bird, Greater, 71,

, Lesser, 71,

Fringillide, 6, 129.

Frog-mouth, Common
Australian, 86.

, Eared, 86,

Fruit-Pigeons, 38.

Fulica, 40.

Fuliqula, 64.

Faulmar, 44.

Fulmarus, 44,

Furnarius, 110,

Gabianus, 48.

Gadwall, 66.

Galactochrysea, 54.

Galbulide, 5, 105.

Galcoscoptes, 119.

Gallinago, 50.

Gallinula, 40.

Gallinule, Allen’s Purple,
40,

INDEX.

Gallinule, Purple, 40, 142.
Gallirex, 100.

Galloperdix, 21, 27.
Gallus, 23.

Game-Birds, 16-86, 140.

, Pheasant-like,

21.
Gampsonyx, 78.
Gannet, Australian, 71.
, Brown, 71.
—- —, Common, 70.
——., Red-footed, 71.
Gannets, 4, 70, 144.
Garden- Warbler, 120.
Garganey, 65.
i Garzetta, 59, 60.
Gecinus, 108.
Geese, 4, 63, 66.
Gelinotte, 33.
Gelochelidon, 48.
Genneus, 25.
Geobiastes, 88.
Geococcyx, 99.
Geocolaptes, 103.
Geopsitiacus 84.
Geositta, 40.
Geranoaétus, 76.
Geranospizias, 75.
Glareola, 54.
Glareolide, 3, 54.
Glaucidium, 82.
Glaucopis, 1386.
Gled, 78.
Glyphorhynchus, 109.
| Goatsuckers, 5, 92.
' Godwit, Bar-tailed, 51.
, Black-tailed, 51.
/ Golden-crested Wren, 124.
| Goldfinch, 130.
Goosander, 63.
| Goose, Abyssinian Dwarf,
FOP

——.,, Bernacle, 66.

—., Black-and-White 67.
——, Black-backed, 67.
——, Brent, 67.

——, Canada, 67.

——, Cape Barren, 68.
——, Egyptian, 66.

—--, Grey Lag-, 66.

66.
, Emperor, 67.
——., Pigmy, 67.
| ——, Pink-footed, 66.
| ——, Red-breasted, 67.
| ——-, Sandwich Islaid, 67.
|
|

——, Snow-, 66.

——, Solan, 70.
| ——., Spur-winged, 67.
| ——, Upland, 67.
, White-fronted, 66.
Goshawk, American, 75,
, Australian, 75,
-——, Black, 75.
——., Chanting, 75.
-—, Common, 75.

——, Australian Maned, 67.

, Lesser White-fronted, |

|

!

155

Goshawk, Crested, 75.
—~, Radiated, 75.
Goura, 38.

Grackles, 134.

Graculus, 136.

Grallina, 122.

Grandala, 120.
Grasshopper-Warbler, 120.
Graucalus, 116.

Grebe, Black-necked, 41.
-—-, Eared, 41.

—-, Great Crested, 41.
——., Little, 41.

——, Red-necked, 41.
—, Slavonian, 41.

——, South American, 41.
Grebes, 3, 40, 141, 144,

Greenfinch, 130.

Greenlets, 6, 121.
Greenshank, 51.
Griffon-Bird, 2.
Grinder, 116.
Grosbeak, Pine, 130.
Grosbeaks, 129,
Grouse, 2, 31.
, American Bare-toed,

32.
-~-—, Bare-toed, 19.
—-—, Black, 33.
-——, Canadian, 33.
——, Caueasian Black, 33.
——, Common Blaek, 33.
——., Dusky, 33,
= Iie BEL
——, Ruffed, 33.
——., Sage, 32.
——.,, Sharp-tailed, 33.
, Willow-, 34.
Gruide, 4, 58.
Gruiformes, 56.
Grus, 59.
Guacharo, 86.
Guans, 2, 18.
Guillemot, Black, 46.
——, Bridled, 46.
—., Briinnich’s, 46.
——, Common, 46,
, Marbled, 46.

_ Guinea-Fowl, Crested, 22.

--—-—, Curly-crested,
22.

- ——, Helmeted, 22.

—— -——.,, Turkey-like, 22,

, Vulturine, 22.

Guinea-Fowls, 2, 21, 22.

Guira, 100.

Gull, Black-headed, 48,

-—, Bonaparte’s, 48,

——, Common, 47.

——, Glaucous, 47.

— , Great Hooded, 48.

-—, Greater Black-backed,
47

| ———, Heerman’s, 48.

——, Hemprich’s, 48.
——, Herring-, 47.
——, Iceland, 47.
——, Ivory, 47.

156
Gull, Lesser Black-backed,

47,
——, Little, 48.
, Mediterranean Black-
headed, 48.
, Pacific, 48.
——, Parasitic, 47.
——, Ross’ Rosy, 48.
, Sabine’s, 48.
Gull-tribe, 46.
Gull, Tschudi’s, 48.
Gulls, 3, 47, 148.
Guttera, 22.
Gygis, 48.
Gymnobuceo, 102.
Gymnocephalus, 111.
Gymnoderus, 111.
Gymnogene, Banded, 75,
Gymnorhina, 128.
Gymnoschizorhis, 100.
Gymnostinops, 132.
Gypaétus, 76.
Gypagqus, 73.
Gyps, 74.

Habroptila, 39.
Hadrostomus, 111.
Hematoderus, 111.
Hematopus, 52.
Hematoriyx, 30.
Hagedashia, 62.
Hateyon, 87.
Haliaétus, '78.
Haliastur, '78..
Hammer-head Storks, 4, 61.
Hang-nests, 6, 152.
Hapalarpactes, 97.
Hapaloderma, 97.
Harelda, 65.
Harpa, 80.
Harpactes, 97.
Harpagus, 78.
Harpies, 76.
Harporhynchus, 119.
Harpy, 76.
, Crowned, 76.
, Guiana Crested, 76.
Harpyhatliaétus, 76.
Harpyopsis, 76.
Harrier-Hawks, 75.
Harrier, Hen-, 75.
, Marsh-, 75.
—-, Montagu’s, 75.
Hawfinch, 130.
Hawk, Australian Quail-, 80.
, Bush-, 80.
——, Carrion-, 75.
, Common Sparrow-,

75.
——., Cooper’s, 75.
Hawk-Eagles, 77.
Hawk, Laughing, 77.
——, Little Sparrow-, 75.
, Long-legged, 75.
Hawk-Owls, 81.
Hawks, 4, 74, 140.
Hazel-hen, Common, 39.
Hedge-Sparrow, 119.

INDEX.

Heliobucco, 102.
Heliornis, 40.
Heliornithide, 3, 40.
Helotarsus, 78.
Hemignathus, 127.
Hemignathus, Long-billed,
127.
Hemilophus, 104.
Hemiphaga, 38.
Hemipode, Andalusian, 86.
Hemipodes, 5, 35.
Hen-Harrier, 75.
Heniconetta, 64.
Henicurus, 120.
Herodias, 59, 60.
Heron, Blue, 60.
, Buff-backed, 60.
——, Common, 60.
——, Great, 60.
——., Great White, 60.
——, Green, 60.
-——, Night-, 60.
—., Purple, 60.
=—, Reel-, 60.
, Squacco, G4),
Herons, 4, 59, 140.
Heron-tribe, 59.
Herpetotheres, 77.
Herring-Gull, 47.
Heterhyphantes, 131.
Heterolocha, \36.
Heteropelma, 112.
Heterospizias, 76.
Hieracidea, 80.
Hierococcyx, 98.
Hierofalco, 79, 144.
Himantopus, 53.
Hirundinide, 6, 115.
Hirundo, 1195.
Hoatzin, 8, 56.
Hobby, 79.
Homrai, 92.
Honey-Buzzard, 78.
Honey-eater, Large Wattled,
127.
- —, Turati’s, 127.
Honey-Guides, 5, 102.
Honey-suckers, 6, 127.
, Hawaiian,

6, 126.
Hoopoe, Common, 90.
—— , Jackson’s W 00d-, 90.
Hoopoes, 5, 90.
, Wood-, 90.
Hoplopterus, 58.
Hornbill, Abyssinian
Ground-, 92.
——, African, 91.
——, Cassin’s Pigmy, 92.
——, Ground.-, 91.
——, Helmet, 92.
-——.,, Nepal, 92.
—, Rhinoceros-, 92.
, West-African, 92.
Hornbills, 5, 91, 140,
Houbara, 55.
Huia, 156.
Humming-bird, Giant, 95.

Humming-bird, Jericho,
126.

- ——, Sword-pilled,
96.

Humming-birds, 5, 95, 141.
Hydralector, b+.
Hydrochelidon, 48,
Hydrocichla, 120.
Hydrophasianus, 54.
Hydroprogne, 48.
Aydropsalis, 93.
Hyetornis, 99.
Hylactes, 108.
Hymenolemus, 64.
Hyphantornis, 131,
Hypocolius, 122.
Aypositta, 125.

[bidide, 4, 62.
[hidorhynchus, 51.
This, 62.

[bis, Giant, 62.

, Glossy, 62.
—, Hadadah, 62.
——, Madagascar, 62.
——., Sacred, 62.
——, Scarlet, 62.
—--., Straw-necked, 62.
——, Wattled, 62.
——, White, 62.
Thises, 4, 62.

, Wood-, 62.
Ibycter, 75.

Icteride, 6, 132.
Icterus, 132.
Ictinaétus, 77.
Ictinia, '78.
Indicator, 102.
Indicatoride, 5, 102.
Irena, 117.
Jron-smith, 102.
Trrisor, 90.

Ispidina, 87.
Ithagenes, 27.
Tyngipicus, 104.
Tyna, 104.

Jabiru, Black-necked, 62.
Jacamar, Great, 105.
Jacamars, 5, 105.
Jacamaralcyon, 105,
Jacamerops, 105.

Jacana, African, 54.

, Australian, 54.
—, Common, 54.

, Pheasant-tailed, 54.
Jacanas, 3, 54.

Jackasses, Laughing, 88.
Jackdaw, 136.

Jay, 136.

Jay-Shrike, 122.
Jer-Faleons, 79.

Jiwi, 127.

Jungle-Fowl, 23.

, Ceylonese, 24.
—— - -— , Red, 24.

Kagus, 4, 57.

Kakapo, 83.

Kalij, Black-backed, 25.
——, Black-bellied, 25.
—., Black-breasted, 25.
—,, Nepal, 25.

——, Swinhoe’s, 25.
—-—., White-crested, 25.
Kea, 85.

Kestrel, Common, 79.

, Lesser, 79.

, Madagascar, 80.
Ketupa, 81.

Kingfisher, Black-cheeked,87.

——, Blue-and-White, 88.
-———, Common, 87.
—, Hooded, 88.

——, Hook-billed, 88.
——, Huahine, 88.
——., Lindsay’s, 88.
——,, Little Blue, 87.
——, Malachite-crested, 87.
— ., Racquet-tailed, 88.
——,, Ringed, 87.

——,, Sanghir, 88.

——, Saw-billed, 87.
——, Shoe-billed, 88.
——., Stork-billed, 87.

, Sumatran, 88.
Kingfishers, 5, 87.

——, Water-, 87.

——-, Wood-, 87.
Kirombos, 5, 88.

Kite, Black, 78.

, Black-shouldered, 78.
——, Brahminy, 78.
——, Common, 78.
——, Hook-billed, 78.
——., Slender-billed, 78.
——.,, Square-tailed, 78.
——, Swainson’s, 78.

, swallow-tailed, 78.
Kittiwakes, 47.

Kiwi, Haast’s, 14.

, Mantell’s, 14.
Owe sol:

, Shaw’s, 14,

Kiwis, 2, 13.

Knot, 51.

Koel, Indian, 98.
Kokako, 136.

Koklass Pheasants, 26.
Kyah, 31.

Limmergeiers, 76.
Lamenting Bird, 57.
Lamprocotius, 134.
Land-Rail, 39.
Laniarius, 123.
Laniide, 6, 122.
Lanius, 123.
Lapwing, 52.

-—, Blackthighed, 53.
-—, Cayenne, 53.
——-, Kgyptian

winged, 53.

, Latham’s Wattled, 53.
Laride, 3, £7.

Spur-

INDEX.

Lark, Black, 129.
—-, Crested, 129.
——, Finch-, 129.
——, Horned, 129.
——, Magpie-, 122.
——-, Meadow-, 129, 132.
——, Shore-, 129.
-——, Short-toed, 129,
——, Sky-, 129.

——, White-winged, 129.
, Wood-, 129.
Larks, 6, 129.

Larus, 47.

Lathria, 111.
Legquatia, 40.
Lepidogrammus, 99.
Leptodon, 78.
Leptopterus, 122.
Leptoptilus, 61.
Leptosoma, 88.
Leptosomatide, 5, 88.
Lerwa, 19, 28, 31.
Leucopternis, 76.
Leucosarcia, 38.
Ticmetis, 85.

Likh, 56.
Limnocryptes, 51.
Limosa, 51.

Limpkins, 4, 57.
Linnet, 130.

Liothrix, 117.
Lipaugine, 111.
Lipoa, 17.
Lizard-tailed Birds, 2, 7.
Lobiophasis, 26.
Lobivanellus, 53.

Lobo volante, 76.
Loddigesia, 96.
Lophoaétus, 77.
Lophoceros, 91.
Lophodytes, 65.
Lophogyps, 74.
Lophoictinia, 78.
Lopholemus, 38.
Lophophorus, 26.
Lophortyx, 20.
Lophotihis, 62.
Lophotriorchis, 77.
Lophura, 26.
Loriculus, 84.
Lories, 4, 85.
Lovriide, 4, 85.
Lorilets, 85.
Lorius, 85.
Love-Birds, 84.
Lullula, 129.
Lunda, 45.
Lybius, 102.
Lyncornis, 93.
Lyre-birds, 5, 106, 187.

Macaws, 84.
Macherhamphus, 79.
Macheropterus, 112.
Macrodipteryx, 93.
Macronus, 118.
Macronyx, 128.

Macropteryx, 94,

157

Magpie, 136.
Magpie-Lark, 122.
Maize-Birds, 132.
Malacorhynchus, 65.
Maleo, 17.

Malia, 318.

Malkohas, 99.
Mallard, 65.

Malurus, 121.

Mamo, 127.

Manakins, 5, 112.
Man-of-war Bird, 71, 140.
Marabou, 61, 140.
Mareca, 66.

Marrot, 46.

Martin, House-, 115.

. Sand-, 115.
Masius, 112.
Meadow-Bunting 130.
, Siberian, 1380.
——— - ark, 129; 132.
- Pipit, 128.
Megacephaton, 17.
Megadyptes, 42.
Megalema, 101.
Megalestris, 47.
Megapode, Wallace’s, 17.
Megapodes, 2, 17.
Megapodius, 17.
Melanerpes, 103.
Melanochlora, 128.
Melanoperdix, 30.
Meleagris, 21.
Melidectes, 127.
Melidora, 88.
Melierax, 75.
Meliphagide, 6, 127.
Mellisuga, 95.
Melopsittacus, 84.
Menura, 106.
Menuride, 5, 106.
Merganetta, 63.
Merganser, 63.
Merganser, Chilian, 63, 144.
, Hooded, 63.

, Red-breasted, 63.
Mergansers, 4, 63, 144.
Mergus, 63.

Merlin, 79.

——, Red-headed, 79.
Meropide, 5, 89.
Merops, 89.
Mesomyodi, 5, 107.
Metopia, 112.
Metopiana, 64.
Micrastur, 75.
Microglossus, 85.
Microhierax, 79.
Microparra, 54.
Microperdix, 28.
Micropternus, 103.
Milvago, 75.

Milvulus, 113.

Milvus, 78.

Mimide, 6, 119.
Mimus, 119.

Minivets, 116.
Mirafra, 129,

158

Mistle-Thrush, 119.
Mniotilta, 127.
Mniotiltide, 6, 127.
Moas, 2, 11.

——, Madagascar, 2, |1.
Mocking-Birds, 6, 119.
Modern Birds, 2.

Moho, 40.

Molothrus, 132.
Momotide, 5. 89.
Momotus, 90.
Monachaleyon, 88.
Moonal Pheasant, 27.
Moor-Buzzard, 65.
Maorhen, 40.

Morphnus, 76.
Motacilla, 128.
Motacillide, }, 128.
Mother Carey's Chickens,

Motmots, 5, 89.
Mound-builders, 2, 17.
Mountain-Pheasant, Lord
Derby’s, 18.
Munia, 132.
Murre, 46.
Muscicapa, 116.
Muscicapide, 6, 115.
Muscivora, \18.
Musophaga, 100.
Musophagide, 5, 100.
Mycteria, 62.
Myiodynastes, 113.
Myiophoneus, 118.
Myiozetetes, 118.
Mynas, Talking, 134.
Myristicivora, 38.
Myzomela, 127.

Nasica, 109.
Nasiterna, 85.

Native Companion, 59.
Necrornis, 100.
Nectariniide, 6, 126.
Nelly, 44.

Neoctantes, 108.
Neophema, 84.
Neophron, 74.
Neornithes, 2, 7.
Neositta, 125.
Nesochen, 67.
Nesonetta, 65.

Nestor, 85.

Netta, 64.

Nettion, 65.

Nettopus, 67.
Night-Heron, 60.
Nightingale, 120.
——, Northern, 120.
——, Sprosser, 120.
Nightjar, Common, 93,
-——, Egyptian, 93.
—— , Pennunt-winged, 93.
——, Red-necked, 93.
Nightjars, 5, 92, 140.
Niltava, 116.

Niltavas, 116.

Ninox, 81.

INDEX.

| Noddy, 48.
| Nomonye, 64.

Nothoproeta, 15.
Notornis, 40.
Nucifraga, 136.
Numenius, 51.
Numida, 22.
Nuteracker, 156,

Nuthatches, 6; 124, 127.

Nyctala, 82.
Nyctea, 81.
Nyctibius, 93.
Nyeticorax, 60.
Nyctidromus, 95.
Nyctiornis, 89.
Nymphicus, 8+.
Nyroca, 64.

Oceanites, 44.
Oceanitine, 44.
Oceanodroma, 44.
Ceydromus, 39.
Odontophorine, 19.
Odontophorus, 20.
(Edemia, 65.
(Edicnemide, 8, 54.
Udicnemus, D4.
(Ena, 38.
(Estrelata, 44.
Oil-birds, 5, 86.
Oligomyode, 110.
Oligura, 118.
Opisthocomide, 3, 56.
Opisthocomus, 5G.
Oreophasis, 18.
Oreortyx, 20.
Oreotrochilus, 5.
Oriole, Baltimore, 132.
, Golden, 133.
Orioles, 6, 135.
-——, American, 132.
Oriolide, 6, 133.
Oriolus, 133.
Ortalis, 19.
Orthonyx, 117.
Orthorhamphus, 55.
Ortyx, 20.
Osmotreron, 39.
Osprey, 80.
—_—, Grey headed, 80.
Ospreys, 4, 73, 80.
Ossifraga, 44.
Ostrich, Common, ¢.
——, Masai, 9.
-——, Northern, 9.
——, Somaliland, 9.
, South-African, 9.

Ostriches, 2, 8, 9, 187, 140,

146.

, American, 10,
Otidide, 3, 55.
Otidiphaps, 88.

Otis, 55.

Otocompsa, 117.
Otocorys, 129.
Otogyps, 74.

Ouzel, Ring-, 119.
Ouzels, Water-, 118.

Oven-birds, 110.

Owl, Barn-, 82.

——, Bay, 82.

—— ,, Brown, 82.

——, Brown Fishing-, 81.

—-, Brown Hawk-, 81.

——, Burrowing, 82.

——, Common Barn-, 83.

——, Eared, 82.

-——, Great Eagle-, 81.

——, Great Grey, 82.

—., Little, 82.

——, Long-eared, 82.

——, Marsh-, 82.

—., Mottled Wood-, 82.

North American
Hawk-, 81.

——.,, Pel’s, 81.

-——, Saw-whet, 82.

——, Scops-, 81.

, Screech-, 82.

——,, Screech Scops-, 81.

——, Short-eared, 82.

——, Siberian Eagle-, 81.

——, Snowy, 81.

——. Spotted Eagle-, 81.

——,, Tawny, 82.

-——, Tawny Fishing-, 81.

——, Tengmalm’s, 82.

—, Tufted, 81.

——, Ural Wood-, 82.

——, Wood-, 82.

—, Woodeock-, 82.

Owlet, Collared Pigmy, 82

_ Owlet-Nightjars, 87.

Owlet, Pigmy, 82.
Owls, 80.

——, Barn-, 4, 82.
——, Horned, 4, 81.

, Wood-, 4, 81.
Ox-pecker, 134.
Oxyrhamphide, 5, 112.
Oxyrhamphus, 112.
Oxyurus, 110.
Oyster-catcher, Black, 52.
Oyster-catchers, 52.

Pachycephaline, 123.
Pachyrhamphus, 111.
Pagodroma, 44.
Pagophila, 47.
Paleornis, 84.
Palamedeide, 4, 69.
Pandion, 80.
Pandionide, 4, 80.
Panuride, 6, 124.
Panurus, 124.

| Panyptila, 94.

Parabuteo, 75.

Paradisea, 135.
Paradisé-birds, 6, 135.
Paradiseide, 6, 135.
Paradoxornis, 117, 118.
Pardalotus, 126.

Paride, 6, 123.

Paroaria, 130.

Parride, 8, 54.

Parroquet, Barraband’s, 84,

Parroquet, Grass-, 84.

, Great-billed, 84.

———, Ground-, 84.

-——, Horned, 84.

——, Long-tailed, 84.

——, Pennant’s, 84.

——, Queen Alexandra’s, 84.

——, Racquet-tailed, 84.

— , Red-shouldered, 84.

——., Rose-Hill, 84.

——, Rose-ringed, 84.

=, Tlomelay, He

, Turquoisine Green, 84.

Parrot, African Grey, 84.

, Amazon, 84.

——., Brush-tongued, 4, 85.

——, Kaka, 89.

nO wilemooe

——, Pesquet’s, 84.

——, Pigmwy, 89).

Parrots, 4, 83, 140, 147.

Parson-bird, 127.

Partridge, American
legged, 30.

——-, Barbary, 30.

————, Beal ig, Bille

——, Common, 28.

—-, Common Tree-, 30.

, Crested, 29.

Partridge-like Game-Birds,
28

Red-

Partridge, Long-nailed,
2
——, Long-tailed, American,
20.
———., Mountain-, 28.
——, Plumed, 20.
——, Scaly, 19.
——, Seesee, 30.
——, Snow-, 3l.
Partridges, 2, 19, 28.
, American, 2, 19.
——, Bamboo-, 20.
——, Red-legged, 30.
——, Thick-billed, 20.
==, Maes, 4)
Pastor, 134.
Pastor, Rose-coloured, 134.
Patagona, 95.
Pauuw, 06.
Pavo, 22.
Pavoneella, 51.
Peacock-Pheasant, Bornean,
23.
, Grey, 23.
Peacock-Pheasants,
Pea-Fowl, 22.
-—--, Burmese, 22.
, Common, 22.
Pediacetes, 32.
Pedionomus, 35.
Peewit, 52.
Pelagodroma, 44.
Pelargopsis, 87.
Pelecanide, 4, 71.
Pelecanoides, 43.
Pelecanoidine, 45.
Pelecanus, 71.

99

mins

INDEX

Pelican, Brown, 71.
, Dalmatian, 71.
North American
White, 71.
-——, White, 71.

| Pelicans, 4, 71, 144.

Peltohyas, 52.

Penelope, 18.

Penelope, Black, 18.

Penelopes, 12.

Penelopina, 18.

Penguin, Emperor-, 42.

——, Jackass-, 42.

-—., King-, 42.

Penguins, 3, 42, 141, 144.

Penthetria, 131.

Perching-Birds, 107.

Perdicine, 23.

Perdicula, 28.

Perdizx, 28.

Perdiz grande, Ld.

Peregrine, 79.

Pericrocotus, 116.

Peristeropodes, 2, 17.

Pern, Andersson’s, 79.

Pernis, 79.

Petrel, Broad-billed Blue, 44.

, Bulwer’s, 44.

——, Capped, 44.

——, Collared, 44,

———, Frigate-, 44.

——, Fulmar, 43.

——, Garnot’s, 45.

--—, Giant, 44.

-——, Harcourt’s Storm-, 44.

——, Leach’s Fork-tailed,
44.

—, Pintado, 44.

——., Schlegel’s, 44.

-——, Snowy, 44.

-——, Storm-, 44.

——, White-breasted, 44.

——, Wilson’s Storm-, 44.

Petrel-tribe, 43.

Petrels, 3, 43, 144.

——, Diving, 43.

Petreca, 116.

Pezophaps, 37.

Pezoporus, 84.

Phaéthon, 72.

Phaéthontide, 4, 72.

Phalacrocoracide, 4, 69.

Phalacrocorax, 70.

Phalenoptilus, 92.

Phalarope, Grey, 50.

——, Red-necked, 50.

——, Wilson’s, 5U.

Phalaropus, 50.

Phaleris, 45.

Pharomacrus, 97.

Phasianide, 2, 19.

Phasianus, 21, 24.

Pheasant, Argus, 21, 23.

, Barred-packed, 25.

——, Bornean Crestless, 26.

—-~—, Bulwer’s Wattled, 26.

—-, Cape, 1.

——., Cheer, 25,

159

Pheasant, Diard’s Fireback,

, Chinese Ring-necked,
24.

-——, Common, ?4.

——, Common Koklass, 26.

——, Crimson Horned, 27.

=, Bihtotis, 25:

——, Golden, 24.

——., Japanese, 24.

——-, Lady Amherst’s, 24.

——, Malayan Crested, 26.

-——, Moonal, 26.

——, Old English, 24.

——, Reeves’, 24.

——,, Silver, 25.

——., Semmerrine’s, 24.

-——, Western Horned, 27.

Pheasants, 2, 19, 21.

, Barred-backed, 21.

——, Blood-, 27.

——, Crow-, 99.

——., Eared, 26.

-——, Fire-backed, 26.

——, Himalayan Kalij, 25.

———— Horne dsl

——, Kalij, 25.

-——,, Stone-, 27.

, Prue, 24.

Phibalura, 111.

Philacte, 67.

Phileterus, 182.

Philemon, 127.

Philepitta, 114.

Philepittide, 6, 114.

Philydorine, 109.

Phlogenas, 38.

Phebetria, 43.

Phenicocercus, 111.

Pheniconaias, 68.

Phenicophais, 99.

Phenicopteride, 4, 68.

Phenicopterus, 68.

Photodilus, 82.

Phoyx, 60.

Phytotoma, 113.

Phytotomide, 6, 113.

Piaya, 99.

Picathartes, 136.

Picide, 5, 103.

Picoides, 104.

Piculet, Hargiti’s, 104.

—-, Rufous, 104.

Piculets, 10%, 104.

Picumnus, 104.

Picus, 104.

Pigeon, LBartlett’s
breasted, 38.

-—, Chatham Islanu,

— , Giant Crowned, 38.

——, Grey-naped Groun.
38

Blood-

——, Jambu Fruit-, 38.
——, Nicobar, 38.

——,; Nutmeg-, 38.

—— , Orange Fruit-, 38,
——,, Passenger, 38.
——, Red-crowned, 38,

160

Pigeon, Tooth-billed, 3, 37.
—-—, Wood-, 58.

Pigeons, 3, 38, 140.

, Fruit-, 38, 140.

——, Green Fruit-, 39.
-——, Ground, 38.
Pigeon-tribe, 36.

Pipile, 19.

Pipit, Meadow-, 128.

——, Norwegian Rock-, 128.

— , Red-throated, 128.
== Richards, 28:
——, Rock-, 128.
—, Tawny, 128.
——, l'ree-, 128.
, Water-, 128.
Pipits, 6, 128.
Pipra, \12.
Pipride, 5, 112.
Pithecophaga, 76.
Pithys, 109.
Pitta, 114.
Pittas, 6, 114.
Pittide, 6, 114.
Pityriasis, 123.
Plant-cutters, 6, 113.
Plantain-eaters, LOU.
Platalea, 62.
Plataleide, 4, 62.
Platibis, 62.
Platycercus, 84.
Platylophus, 122,
Plautus, 46.
Plectrophenax, 129.
Plectropterus, 67,
Plegadis, 62.
Ploceide, 6, 131.
Ploceus, 181.
Pilotus, 46, 69.
Plover, American Golden,
52

, Black-headed, 53,
-——, Caspian, 52,
———, Crab-, 3, 49:
——, Crested-Wattled, 53.
=—— Golden, 52.

—., Green, 52.

——, Grey, 52.

, Kentish, 52,

, Kildeer, 52.

-—-—, Little Ringed, 52.
——, Norfolk, 54.
——, Rinecd, 52.

——., Sociable, 53.
——,, Stone, 2, 54.

, Wry-hilled, 52.
Plovers, 3, 50. y
Pluvianus, 3.

Pochard, Common, 64.
——, Red-crested, 64.
Pochards, 64.
Podargide, 5, 86.
Podargus, 86.

Podica, 40.
Podicipedide, 3, 40.
Podicipes, 41.

Poéphila, 132.
Pogonorhynchus, 102,

INDEX.

Polioaétus, 80.
Poliohierax, 79.
Polioptila, 116.
Polyboroides, 75.
Polyhorus, 70.
Polyplectron, 22.
Polytelis, 84.
Porphyrio, 40, 142.
Porphyriola, 40.
Prairie-Hen, 32.
Pratincole, Black-winged,
ot
, Common, 54.
Pratincoles, 3, 54.
Prinia, 120.
Prion, 44.
Prionirhynchus, 90.
Prioniturus, 8+.
Prionodura, 134.
Prionopide, 6, 122.
Prionops, 122.
Prionotelus, 97.
Procellaria, 44.
Procellariide, 3, 48.
Prodotiscus, 102.
Prosthemadera, 127.
Psarisomus, 106.
Pseudogryphus, 79.
Pseudonestor, 127.
Pseudotantalus, 62.
Psittacide, 4, 83.
Psittaci formes, 4, 80.
Psittacus, 84.
Psophia, 58.
Psophiide, 4, 58.
Psophodes, 117.
Ptarmigan, 34.
Pteroclide, 3, 34.
Pternistes, 31.
Pterocnemia, 8, 10.
Pteroglossus, 101,
Pteropodocys, 116.
Pteroptochide, 5, 108.
Pteroptochus, 108.
Ptilochloris, 112.
Ptilocichla, 118.
Prtilonorhynchide, 6, 134.
Ptilonorhynchus, 184.
Ptilopachys, 21, 27.
Ptilopus, 38.
Ptilotis, 127.
Ptistes, 84.
Pucrasia, 26.
Puff-birds, 5, LO:k.
Puffin, Common, 45, 141.
, Horned, 45.
——— Matted) 4:5:
——, Unicorn, 45.
Puffinus, 44.
Pycnonotide, 6, 117.
Pyenonotus, 117.
Pyranga, 131.
Pyrocephalus, 113.
Pyroderus, 111.
Pyromelana, 132.
Pyrrhocorax, 136.
Pyrrhulauda, 129.
Pyrrhulopsis, 84,

Quail, Black-breasted, 29.

, Californian, 20.

——, Common, 29.

——-, Kool, 20.

—-—, Painted, 29.

——, Harlequin-, 20.

——, Massena, 20.

——, Mountain-, 20.

-——, New Zealand, 29.
——, Rain-, 29.

, Van Raalten’s Swamp-,
29,

, White-faced Crested,

ie)
Quails, 2, 19, 28, 29.
, American, 19.
—, Bustard-, 35.
——, Crested, 19.
——, Painted, 29.
, Swamp-, 29.
Querquedula, 65.
Quezal, 97.
Quiscalus, 182.
Quit, Banana, 130.
Quit-Quits, 130.

Rail, Land-, 39.
, Wallace’s, 39.
——, Water-, 39.
——-, Weka, 39.
Rails, 3, 39.
Rainbirds, 99.
Rallide, 3, 39.
Rallus, 39.
Ratite, 2, 7.
Raven, 136.
Razor-bill, 46.
Recurvirostra, 58.
Red Grouse X Black Grouse,
83

ov.
Redpoll, Lesser, 130.
-—-, Mealy, 130.
Redshank, 51.
— —, Spotted, 51.
Redstart, American, 123.
, Black, 120.
, Common, 120.
Red-wing, 119.
Reed-Bunting, 130.
Reed-Warbler, 120.
Reedling, Bearded, 124.
Reeve, 51.
Regulide, 2, 124.
Regulus, 124.
Reinwardtenas, 88.
Reniza, 128.
Rhamphastide, 5, 100.
Rhamphastos, 101.
Rhamphococeyx, 99.
Rhamphocelus, 131.
Rhea, Darwin’s, 10.
, Great-billed, 10,
, Rothsehild’s, 10.
Rheas, 2, 10.
Rheide, 2, 10.
Rheinhardtius, 28.
Rhinoceros-Bird, 134.
Rhinochetide, 4, 57,

Rhinochetus, 57.
Rhinoplax, 91, 92.
Rhinopomastus, 90,
Rhinoptilus, 53.
Rhinortha, 99.
Rhipidura, 116.
Rhizothera, 31.
Rhodinocichla, \\9,
Rhodonessa, 67.
Phodostethia, 48.
Rhopodytes, 99.
Rhynchops, 48.
Rhynchostruthus, 130.
Rhynchotus, 15.
Rifleman, 114.
Ring-Ouzel, 119.
fissa, 47.
Road-runner, 99.
Robin, 120.

, Australian, 116.
, Chinese, 117.
Roc, 11.

Rock-Dove, 38.
Rock-hopper Penguin, 42.
Rock-Pipit, 128.
Roller, Broad-billed, 89.
, Common, 88.

, Lort Phillips’, 88.
Rollers, 5, 88.

, Madagascar, 88.
Rollulus, 29.

Rook, 1386.
Rose-Finch, 130.
Rosella, 84.
Rostratula, 50.
Rostrhamus, 78.
Rotche, 46.

Rubigula, 117.
Ruby-crest, 124.
Ruby-throat, 120.
Ruff, 51.

Rupicola, 111.
Rupornis, 76.

Sabre-wings, 96.
Sage-Grouse, 32.
Sanderling, 51.
Sand-Grouse, 3, 34.
, Pallas’s 'Three-toed, 35.
Sand-Martin, 115.
Sandpiper, American Pec-
toral, 51.
, Baird’s, 51.
——, Bartraim's, 51.
——, Bonaparte’s, 51.
_—, Broad-billed, 51.
-——, Buff-breasted, 51.
—— , Common, 51.
——, Curlew, 51.
——, Green, 51.
= Marsh) oll’;
——, Purple, 51.
-——, Snipe-billed, 51.
--—, Solitary, dl.
—~-—, Spoon-billed, 51,
——., Spotted, 51.
——, Wood-, 51.
Sarcidiornis, 67.

INDEX.

Sarciophorus, 53.
Sarcorhamphus, 73.
Sasia, 104.
Saurothera, 99.
Saurure, 2, 7
Saw-bills, 63.
Saxicola, 120.
Schizorhis, 100.
Scissor-bill, 48.
Sclerurine, 109,
Sclerurus, 109.
Scolopax, 50.
Scopide, 4, 61.
Scops, 81.
Scopus, 61,
Scoter, Common, 65.
Scotiaptex, 82.
Scotopelia, 81.
Scotornis, 93.
Screamer, Derbian, 69.
Screamers, 4, 69, 144.
Serub-birds, 6, 115,
Seythrops, 99.
Sea-Hagles, 78.
Sea-Parrot, 45.
Sea-Pies, 52.
Sea-Swallows, 48.
Secretary-Birds, 4, 73.
Sedge-Warbler, 120.
Seed-snipe, d’Orbigny’s, 50.
——, Gay’s, 50.
Seed-Snipes, 3, 50.
Selasphorus, 95.
Selenidera, 101.
Sericulus, 134.
Serin-Fineh, 130.
Serpent-Hagles, 77.
Serpentariide, 4, 78.
Serpentarius, 73.
Setophaga, 128.
Shag, 70.
Shahin, 79.
Shamas, 120.
Sharp-bills, 5, 112.
Shearwater, Greater, 44.
——, Mediterranean Greater,
44,
——, Little Dusky, 44.
——, Manx, 44.
——, Sooty, 44.
Sheath-bill, 49.
——, Lesser, 49.
Sheath-bills, 3, 49.
Sheld-Duck, Common, 66,
Shoe-billed Storks, 4, 61.
Shore-Larks, 129.
Short-wings, 118.
Shovelers, 65.
Shrike, Great Grey, 123.
---—, Lesser Grey, 123.
——, Masked, 1238.
——, Red-backed, 128.
——-, Woodchat, 123.
Shrikes, 6, 122.
——, Cuckoo-, 116.
——, Madagascar, 6, 122.
——, Wood-, 6, 122.
Stialia, 120.

16]

Sibia, 118.

Sibia, Long-tailed, 118.
Simorhynchus, 45.
Singing-Birds, 115.
Siptornis, 110,

Siskin, 130.

Sisura, 116.

Sitta, 124.

Sittide, 6, 124.

Skua, Great, 47.

——, Pomatorhine, 47.
——, Richardson’s, 47.
Skuas, 3, 47.
Sky-Lark, 129, 148.
Smew, 63

Snake-Birds, 69.

Snipe, Common, 50.

| ——, Double, 50.

——, Great, 50.

——, Jack, 51.

——, Painted, 50.

, Solitary, 50.
Snipes, Seed-, 3, 50.
Snow-Bunting, 130.
Snow-Cock, Tibetan, 31.
Snow-Cocks, 31.
Snow-Finch, 130.
Snow-Partridge, 28.
Solan Goose, 70.
Solitaire, 3, 37.
Somateria, 64.

Songless Birds, 107.
Sparrow, Tree-, 130,
Sparrow-Hawks, 75,
Sparrow, House-, 130.
Spatula, 65.

Speotyto, 82.
Sphecotheres, 133.
Spheniscide, 3, 42.
Spheniscus, 42.
Sphenocercus, 39.
Sphenoproetus, 96.
Spilornis, 77.
Spizaétus, 77.
Spiziastur, 77.
Spoonbill, Australian, 62.
— , Common, 62.

— —, Roseate, 62.
Spoonbills, 4, 62.
Spur-Fowl, 27.

, Indian, 21.

— , Painted, 27.
Squatarola, 52.
Starling, Common, 134.
, Yellow-breasted, 134.
Starlings, 6, 134.

, Glossy, 134.
— , Madagascar, 6, 138.
, Tree-, 6, 133.
Steatornis, 86,
Steatornithide, 5, 86.
Steganopus, 50.
Stercorariide, 3, 47.
Stercorarius, 47.
Sterna, 48.

Stictonetta, 65.

Stilt, Black-winged, 58.
Stiltia, 54.

M

162

Stint, American, 51.
——, Little, 51.

——, Temminck’s, 51.
Stipiturus, 121,
Stock-Dove, 58.
Stonechat, 120.

, Hastern, 120.
Stone-Curlew, 54.
Stone- Pheasants, 21, 27.
Stone-Plovers, 3, 54.
Stork, Black, 61.

, Open-billed, 62.
——, Saddle-billed, 62.
-——, Shell-, 62.

— , Whale-headed, 61.
——, White, 61.

——, White-bellied, 62.
, White-necked, 62.
Storks, 4, 61, 62.

, Shoe-billed, 4, 61.
Strigide, 4, 82.
Strigiformes, 80.
Stringops, 83.

Strix, 82.

Struthio, 8.
Struthionide, 2
Struthious Birds, 7.
Sturnella, 129, 132.
Sturnide, 6, 134.
Sturnus, 134.

Sula, 70.

Sulide, 4, 70.
Sun-birds, 6, 126.
Sun-Bitterns, 4, 57.
Surniculus, 98.
Suthora, 117, 118.
Sutoria, 121.

Swallow, Common, 115.
——, Red-rumped, 115.
, Rough-winged, 115.
Swallows, Sea-, 48.
Swallow-Shrikes, 6, 122.
Swallows, 6, 115, 143, 144.
—— Wood-, 122.
Swallow-wing, 105.
Swan, Bewick’s, 68.
-—, Black, 68.

——, Black-necked, 68.
——, Coscorovba, 68.
——, Mute, 68.

——,, Polish, 68.

——, Trumpeter, 68.
——, Whooper, 68
Swans, 4, 68, 140.
Swift, Alpine, 94.

——., Common, 94.
——,, Orested, 94.
——, Esculent, 94.
——, Palm-, 94.

-——.,, Spine-tailed, 94.
Swifts, 5, 98, 141, 144.
Sycalis, 130.

Sylviide, 6, 120.

Syma, 87.

Synallaxis, 110.
Synecus, 28, 29.
Synthliborhamphus, 46.

, Hammer-head, 4, 61.

INDEX,

Sypheotis, 56.
Syrnium, 82.
Syrrhaptes, 35.

Taccocua, 99.
Tachornis, 94.
Tachyeres, 69.
Tachytriorchis, 76.
Tadorna, 66.
Tailor-birds, 121.
Talegallus, 17.
Tanagers, 6, 131.
Tanagride, 6, 131.
Tanygnathus, 84.
Tanysiptera, 88.
Tapacolas, 5, 108.
Teal, eaerican! 65.
——, Baikal, 69.

——, ; Blue-winged, 65.
——, Oinnamon-, 65.
——, Common, 65.
——., Cotton-. 67.
— , Falcated, 65.
Tern, Arctic, 48.
——., Black, 48.

—, Bridled, 48.
—,, Caspian, 48.
——, Common, 48.
——,, Gull- billed, 48,
——, Little, 48.

——, Roseate, 48.
——, Sandwich, 48.
——,, Svissor-billed, 48.
——, Sooty, 48.

——, Whiskered, 48.
—.,, White, 48.

, White-winged, 48.
Terns, 3, 47.
Terpsiphone, 116.
Tetrao, 31.
Tetraogallus, 31.
Tetraonide, 2, 31.
Tetrapteryx, 59.
Tetrastes, 33.

Tetrax, 5d.
Thalassogeron, 43.
Thaumatibis, 62.
Thick-knee, 54.

, Australian, 55.
——, Large-billed, 55.
Thinocorus, 50.
Thrasaétus, 76.
Thrasher, Leconte’s, 119.

Thrush, Black-throated, 119.

——, Dusky, 119.
——., Laughing, 117.

|; ——, Mistle-, 119.

—., Rock-, 119.
——,, Siberian, 119.
—, Song-, 119.

, White’s, 119.
Thushes, 6, 119.

, Chat-, 120.
——, Wattled Ant-, 114.
, Whistling-, 118.
Tichodroma, 125
Timeliide, 6, 117
Tinamide, 2, 14.

|

Tinamotis, 15,

Tinamou, bees eo 1/5).
Tinamous, 2, 14.

Tinamus, 15.

Tinker-bird, 102.

Titlark, 129.

Titmouse, Bearded, 6, 124.
, Blue, 128.

——, Coal, 123.

| ——, Crested, 128.

a Gredtalieas
-—., Long-tailed, 123.
——, Marsh-, 123

, Northern Marsh-,
128.

, Sultan, 128.
Tits, 6, 123.

, Bearded, 6, 124.
——, Wren, 6, 124.
—., Orow-, 118.
Tityra, 111.
Tmetothylacus, 128.
Todide, 5, 90,

| Todies, 5, 90.

Todirhamphus, 88.
Todus, 90.
Totanine, 51.
Toucan, Green, 101. ~
— Orange-breasted, 101.
Toucans, 5, 100.
Touraco, Great Crested, 100.
Touraco, Violet, 100.
Touracos, 5, 100, 148.
Tracheophone, 107,
Tragopan, 27.
Traversia, 114.
Tree-Creepers, 125.
Tree-Pipit, 128.
Treron, 39.
Trichoglossus, 85.
Tricholema, 102.
Trochilide, 5, 90.
Troglodytide, 6, 118.
Trogon, 97.
Trogonide, 5, 97.
Trogoniformes, 97.
Trogons, 5, 97.
Tropic-Bird, Fulvous, 72. -
, Red-tailed, 72. aati
Tropic-Birds, 4, 72.
Troupials, 132.
Trumpeters, 4, 58.
Trupialis, 132.
Tin; 127.
Turacus, 100.
Turdide, 6, 119.
Turkey, American, 21.
—-—, Hondaras, 21.
EER, pale
Turkeys, 2 , al, 140.
Turkey- Vultures, 4, 72.
Turnicide, 3, 35.
Turnix, 36.
Turnstone, 52.
Turtle-Dovye, 38.
Turtur, 38.
Twite, 180.
Tympanuchus, 31, 32.

Tyrannide, 5, 112.
Tyrant-birds, 5, 112.
Tyrant, King-, 113.
Tyrants, Olive, 113.
Tystie, 46.

Umbrella-birds, 110.
Upupa, 90.
Upupide, 5, 90.
Uratelornis, 88.
Uria, 46.

Uroaétus, 77.
Urocissa, 136.

Vanellus, 52.
Vanga, 122.
Vangide, 6, 122.
Vestiaria, 127.
Vidua, 131.
Viduas, 131.
Vint, 85.

Vireo, 121.
Vireonide, 6, 121.
Vorondreo, 88.
Vultur, 74.
Vulture, Bearded, 76.
= Black: 74:

——, Black Turkey-, 73, 144.

—.-, Californian, 73.
——, Cinereous, 74.
a COUCOL a:
———, Diannael, 7a
——, Egyptian, 74.
———, Grifton-, 74.

——, Himalayan Griffon, 74.

——, King-, 73.

——, Sociable, 74.

, White-headed, 74.
Vultures, 4, 74.

, Turkey-, 4, 72.
Vulturide, 4, 74.

Wagtail, Black-headed, 128.
——, Blue-headed, 128.
——, Grey-, 128.

——, Grey-headed, 128.
a=, Biel Ash

———,, Ray's, 128.

——, White, 128.

, Yellow, 128.
Wagtails, 6, 128.
Wall-creeper, 125.
Warbler, Aquatic, 121.
-, Barred, 121.

ee Cotiis las

——, Dartford, 120.
——, Garden-, 120.
——. Golden, 128:

INDEX.

Warbler, Grass-, 120.

, Grasshopper, 120.

| ——, Great Reed-, 121.

| ——, Greenish Willow-, 121.

———sicterime se

| ———, Marsh-, 120.

—., Melodious, 12].
| ——, Orphean, 121.
, Pallas’s Grasshopper,
120.
——., Pallas’s Willow-, 121.
——, Radde’s, 121.
——, Reed-, 120.
——, Rufous, 121.
——, Sardinian, 121.
| eee, Syme, 2.
——, Sedge-, 120.
——, Subalpine, 121.
——., Thorn-tailed, 110.
——, Willow-, 120.
——, Willow-, Northern,
12.
, Yellow-hrowed,
Willow-, 121.
Warblers, 6, 120.

, American, 6, 127.
Waterhen, 40,
Water-Ouzels, 118.
Water-Rail, 39.

| Waxwing, 121.

| Weaver-Finches, 6, 131, 141.

Weavers, Sociable, 132.

Weka Rail, 39.

Whieatear, Black-eared, 120.

, Black-throated, 120.
——, Common, 120.

(i ——* Deserta 20):

| ———, Jsabelline, 120.

| ——, Western Black-eared,
120.

Whimbrel, 51.

Whinchat, 120.

Whip-poor-Will, 92.

W hite-eyes, 6, 125.

| Whitethroat, 120.

, Lesser, 120.

| Whydab-birds, 131.

Wigeon, 66,

——, American, 66.

Willow-Grouse x Black
Grouse, 34.

Willow-Warbler, 120.

, Northern, 121.
Winged Wolf, 76.
Wonga-wonea, 38.

_ Wocdcock, 50.

| Wood-hens, 39.

| Wood-hewers, 5, 109.

THE END

163

W ood-Hoopoes, 90.
Wood-hark, 129.
Wood-Partridge, Black, 30.
, Orimson-headed, 30.
——, Ferruginous, 30.
Woodpecker, Ant-eating, 103.
———, Golden-winged, 103.
—-—, Great Black, 104.
——, Great Slaty, 104.
—, Greater Spotted, 104,
——, Green, 103.
——, Ground.-, 108.
-——, Hairy, 104.
——, lvory-billed, 104.
——., Lesser Spotted, 104.
—, Lewis’s, 103.
——, Middle Spotted, 104.
——-, Rufous, 103.
, Three-toed-, 104.
Woodpeckers, 5, 103.
W 0od- Pigeon, 38.
Wood-Shrike, Ruppell’s, 122.
Wood-Shrikes, 6, 122.
W ood-Swallows, 122.
Wood-Wren, 120.
Wren, Hmu-, 121.
Wren, 118.
, Fire-crested, 124.
——., Golden-crested, 6, 124.
——, Great Bay, 118.
Wren-Tits, 6, 124.
Wren, Wood-, 120.

| Wrens, 6, 118.

Wryneck, Common, 104.

| Wrynecks, 103.

Xantholema, 101.
Xanthopygia, 116.
Xanthura, 136.
ema, 48.
Xenicide, 6, 114.
Xenicus, 114.

| Xenops, 110.

Xenorhynchus, 62.
AXiphidiopterus, 53.
Xiphocolaptes, 109.
Xipholena, 111.
Xiphorhanphus, \17.
Xiphorhynchus, 109.

Yafile, 105.

| Yellowshank, 51.

Yiperu, 113.
Yuhina, 118.

Zanclostomus, 99.
Zosteropide, 6, 125.
Zosterops, 125.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STRERT,

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