X= co- Si 3- m m ; r^ iZD la so GUIDE TO MARINE FISHES GUIDE TO MARINE FISHES By Alfred Perlmutter Bramhall House • New York © 1961 by New York University Library of Congress Catalogue Card No. 60-14491 Manufactured in the United States of America By arrangement with Washington Square Press, Inc. Design by Stefan Salter This edition published by Bramhall House, a division of Clarkson N. Potter, Inc. by arrangement with New York University Press. (A) TO RUTH CONTENTS Introduction 1 How to Identify Fishes and Fish-like Vertebrates 5 Identification Key 8 General Information 225 Lampreys 227 Sharks 228 Sawfish, Skates and Rays 253 True Fishes 271 Index Common Names 415 Scientific Names 423 INTRODUCTION The waters of our oceans teem with plant and animal life comprising numerous species, many as yet undiscov- ered. The animals may be divided into two main groups: invertebrates, that is, animals without backbones, such as the jellyfish, the starfish, clams and oysters, crabs and lobsters; and vertebrates, that is, animals with backbones, including lampreys, sharks, rays, skates, fishes, whales, and porpoises. In popular language the term "fish" includes the lam- preys, the sharks, the rays and skates, the bony fishes, and frequently even the whales and porpoises. With increased dissemination of scientific information, more people have come to recognize that the whales and porpoises are not fishes but belong to the class Mammalia which also in- cludes man. However, few realize that the lampreys, sharks, rays, and skates are no more true fishes than are whales or porpoises. The lampreys are members of the class Cyclostomata, the sharks, rays, and skates of the class Chondricthyes, and the bony fishes, or true fishes, of the class Osteichthyes. Without going into the technical reasons for assigning these various animals to different classes, it can be stated that the lampreys and the sharks, rays, and skates are as different from each other and from the bony or true fishes as are the whales and porpoises^. However, traditionally the ichthyologist has accepted responsibility for the study of the lampreys, sharks, rays, and skates along with the true fishes, and they are accordingly included in this publication. As far as the marine fishes and fish-like vertebrates are concerned, the American Atlantic coast may be divided into three zones: a cold-water zone north of Cape Cod, 1 2 Introduction Massachusetts; a warm-water zone south of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina; and a temperate-water zone between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras. The temperate-water zone borders the heavily populated states of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. Along their shores each year millions of persons from these and adjoining states swim and fish, go water skiing, boating, or beachcombing. Often as not, while engaged in such pursuits, they see or catch un- familiar marine fishes or fish-like vertebrates. The visitor is curious to know their names and habits. Unfortunately, although a considerable amount of scien- tific literature is available on the fishes in the region from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras, much of it is technical and difficult to follow for anyone other than a professional ichthyologist. While attempts have been made to bring this information to the general public in the form of field books or of faunal studies of a particular area, in my opinion they have had only limited success. The keys for identification of the various species have been restricted and complicated by adherence to natural biological group- ings such as orders and families. Or they have been difficult to follow because the differentiating characters were ob- scure, poorly defined, or hard to determine. In this guide, identification of the various species is based primarily on easily seen external characters which are employed for rapid identification of fishes in the field. Biological groupings are disregarded. Identifying charac- ters are illustrated on silhouettes of the fish, according to the method used successfully by our Armed Forces to teach highly technical information to their men during World War II. Thus the amateur will be readily able to identify most species, not only in the adult sizes but also in the young, at least in those sizes most likely to be seen. The species included in this guide are all of the marine fishes and fish-like vertebrates commonly found along the shores of the temperate-water zone from Cape Cod to Introduction 3 Cape Hatteras, together with some of the more common stragglers from the regions north of Cape Cod and south of Cape Hatteras and from the deep waters offshore. In the sections of the book deaHng with Species In- formation, both the most popular of the common names and the most generally accepted scientific name are given. The scientific name consists of three parts. The first italicized word, with the initial letter capitalized, is the genus; the second italicized word is the species; and the remaining word or words identify the person or persons who first described the fish. The genus given is always the one to which modern taxonomists assign the species. Where this assignment is still that of the original describer, his name follows the species without punctuation. Where the modem genus assignment differs from the original describer's, his name is enclosed in parentheses. The higher categories of classification, the subfamilies, families, suborders, and orders, have been only briefly and incompletely indicated in the General Information section preceding descriptions for each of the various groups: lampreys; sharks; sawfish, skates, and rays; true fishes. The incompleteness was deliberate, in order to avoid enter- ing upon an irrelevant scientific discussion of which of the many proposed systems of taxonomy (Jordan, Regan, Gregory, Berg) should be used. While every attempt has been made to use nontechnical terminology in describing the various species and aspects of their life history, some technical terms could not be avoided. These are listed in the following paragraphs to- gether with brief definitions. FISH and FISHES: The term ''fish" is used to describe one or more individuals belonging to a single species. If more than one species is being discussed, then the term "fishes" is used. BLIND SIDE: The side of a flatfish on which there are no eyes. EYED SIDE: The side of a flatfish on which there are two eyes. 4 Introduction DEMERSAL: Living on the bottom of the sea. FIN RAY: The skeletal rods supporting the fins. PELAGIC: Living in the open sea, commonly in the upper layers of the water. LANDLOCKED: Applied to fishes normally residing in the sea which have become residents of coastal ponds and lakes formerly accessible to and now cut off from the sea. PLANKTON: Microscopic and small plants and animals drifting freely in the open waters and carried by wind, tides, and currents. HOW TO IDENTIFY FISHES AND FISH-LIKE VERTEBRATES Before attempting to identify a fish or fish-like vertebrate (lamprey, shark, ray), the reader should become famihar with the meaning of a few terms used in the identification key which are listed below and illustrated on p. 6. 1. DORSAL FIN: an unpaired (or single) fin on the upper surface of the body. If more than one dorsal fin is present, the fin nearest the head is called the first dorsal fin, the next one behind it the second dorsal fin, etc. 2. ANAL FIN: an unpaired fin on the lower surface of the body, near the rear end. 3. PELVIC FINS: a pair of fins located on the lower surface of the body in front of the anal fin. 4. PECTORAL FINS: a pair of fins located one on each side near the front of the body. 5. CAUDAL OR TAIL FIN: a single, tail-like fin located at the rear end of the body. 6. LATERAL LINE: a broken line of pores fre- quently found along the length of the sides of the body. 7. CAUDAL PEDUNCLE: the narrow region of the body between the rear of the dorsal and anal fins and the caudal fin. 8. SNOUT: the region in front of the eyes. 9. SPIRACLES: small openings located behind the eyes of some sharks and rays. 10. ORIGIN OF FIN: the front of the base of a fin. 11. OPERCULUM OR GILL COVER: the bony cov- ering protecting the gill. In identifying a specimen always start at page 8. The identification key is based on a system of multiple choice. On each page, characters separating two groups of fishes are described under the headings I and II. If your specimen fits the description under one of these headings you may be referred to another page where again there will be offered a choice of characters under the headings I and II. Or you may be referred on the same page to a choice of characters under subheadings la and lb, and possibly to still further subheadings 1 and 2, a and b. The differ- entiating characters described under the various headings are illustrated in silhouettes of fishes, usually on the page opposite. After the fish has been identified the key refers the reader to a section in the rear part of the book (General Information), where the fish is illustrated and a descrip- tion given of its color, distribution, size, habits, and eco- nomic importance. Alfred Perlmutter 8 Head-~Fish~Like Vertebrates and True Fishes HEAD-FISH-LIKE VERTEBRATES AND TRUE FISHES I. Numerous (5-7) gill openings on each side of head Page 9, figs. A-C See Lampreys, Sharks, Rays, p. 10. n. One gill opening on each side of head Page 9, figs. D, E See HEAD— TRUE FISHES, p. 52. Head — Fish-Like Vertebrates and True Fishes Numerous gill openings on each side of head Single gill opening on each side of head 10 Lampreys, Sharks, Rays LAMPREYS, SHARKS, RAYS I. Body eel-shaped Page 11, fig. A See Sea Lamprey, p. 227. IL Body not eel-shaped Page 11, figs. B-E Ila. Body rounded and elongated; torpedo-shaped Page 11, fig. B See Hammerhead Sharks, Other Sharks, p. 12. lib. Body broad and flat Page 11, figs. C-E See Sawfish, Angel Shark, Rays, Torpedo, Skates, p. 36. Lampreys, Sharks, Rays Body eel-shaped A Sea lamprey Body not eel- shaped ^ 11 12 Sharks HAMMERHEAD SHARKS, OTHER SHARKS I. Head flattened laterally; shovel- or hammer-shaped Page 13, figs. A-D la. Head shovel-shaped Page 13, fig. B See Shovelhead Shark, p. 247. lb. Head hammer-shaped Page 13, figs. C, D 1. Front margin of head scalloped, notched at midhne Page 13, fig. C See Southern Hammerhead Shark, p. 248. 2. Front margin of head rounded and not notched at midline Page 13, fig. D See Common Hammerhead Shark, p. 249. II. Head not flattened laterally Page 13, fig. E See Thresher, Greenland, Other Sharks, p. 14. Hammerhead Sharks, Other Sharks 13 Head flattened laterally Shovelhead shark Southern hammerhead shark Common hammerhead shark Head not flattened laterally 14 Sharks THRESHER, GREENLAND, OTHER SHARKS I. Tail long; about same length as body Page 15, fig. A See Common Thresher Shark, p. 235. II. Tail shorter; length much less than that of body Page 15, figs. B-D Ila. Lower surface of body with only one pair of fins, pelvics; anal fin absent Page 15, figs. B, C 1. A spine in front of each dorsal fin Page 15, fig. B See Dogfishes, p. 32. 2. No spine in front of dorsal fins Page 15, fig. C See Greenland Shark, p. 251. lib. Lower surface of body with both pelvic fins and anal fin present Page 15, fig. D See Basking, Tiger, Mackerel, White, Other Sharks, p. 16. Thresher, Greenland, Other Sharks 15 Tail long Common thresher shark Tail shorter Greenland shark 16 Sharks BASKING, TIGER, MACKEREL, WHITE, OTHER SHARKS I. Lateral keel or ridge on caudal peduncle Page 17, figs. A, C la. Gill slits very long; extend almost full height of head and onto lower surface of head Page 17, figs. A, B See Basking Shark, p. 235. lb. Gill slits shorter; do not extend full height of head or onto lower surface of head Page 17, fig. C See Tiger, Mackerel, White Sharks, p. 34. II. No lateral keel or ridge on caudal peduncle Page 17, fig. D See False Cat, Whale, Other Sharks, p. 18. Basking, Tiger, Mackerel, White, Other Sharks 17 Lateral keel or ridge on caudal peduncle Basking shark No lateral keel or ridge on caudal peduncle 18 Sharks FALSE CAT, WHALE, OTHER SHARKS L First dorsal fin very long; base length more than half the distance from origin of pectoral fin to origin of pelvic fin Page 19, fig. A See False Cat Shark, p. 239. n. First dorsal fin much shorter; base length much less than half the distance from origin of pectoral fin to origin of pelvic fin Page 19, figs. B-D Ila. Two distinct ridges on each side of the body ex- tending from over gill slits to base of tail Page 19, fig. B See Whale Shark, p. 237. lib. No ridges on sides of body Page 19, figs. C, D See Nurse Shark, Chain Dogfish, Deep-Water Cat Shark, Other Sharks, p. 20. False Cat, Whale, Other Sharks 19 First dorsal fin very long False cat shark First dorsal fin much shorter Whale shark 20 Sharks NURSE SHARK, CHAIN DOGFISH, DEEP-WATER CAT SHARK, OTHER SHARKS I. Origin of first dorsal fin over or behind origin of pelvic fin Page 21, figs. A-C la. Origin of first dorsal fin directly over origin of pelvic fin Page 21, fig. A See Nurse Shark, p. 236. lb. Origin of first dorsal fin well behind origin of pelvic fin Page 21, figs. B, C 1. Irregular chain-like markings on sides of body Page 21, fig. B See Chain Dogfish, p. 238. 2. No chain-Hke markings on sides of body Page 21, fig. C See Deep-Water Cat Shark, p. 238. II. Origin of first dorsal fin well in front of origin of pelvic fin Page 21, figs. D, E See Sand Shark, Smooth Dogfish, Other Sharks, p. 22. Nurse Shark, Chain Dogfish, Deep-Water Cat Shark, Other Sharks 21 Origin of first dorsal fin over or behind origin of pelvic fin Nurse shark Chain dogfish Deep-water cat shark Origin of first dorsal fin well in front of origin of pelvic fin 22 Sharks SAND SHARK, SMOOTH DOGFISH, OTHER SHARKS I. Rear end of base of first dorsal fin over origin of pelvic fin Page 23, fig. A See Sand Shark, p. 231 II. Rear end of base of first dorsal fin far in front of origin of pelvic fin Page 23, figs. B-E Ila. Origin of anal fin in center of base of second dorsal fin Page 23, fig. B See Smooth Dogfish, p. 239. lib. Origin of anal fin slightly behind, under, or in front of origin of second dorsal fin Page 23, figs. C-E See Blue, Other Sharks, p. 24. Sand Shark, Smooth Dogfish, Other Sharks 23 Rear end of base of first dorsal fin over origin of pelvic fin Sand shark Rear end of base of first dorsal fin far in front of origin of pelvic fin Smooth dogfish 24 Sharks BLUE, OTHER SHARKS I. Long pectoral fins; length equal to distance from tip of snout to at least first gill slit Page 25, figs. A-D la. Origin of first dorsal fin far behind rear end of base of pectoral fin Page 25, fig. A See Blue Shark, p. 241. lb. Origin of first dorsal fin over rear portion of base of pectoral fin Page 25, figs. B-D See Cub, Dusky, Brown Sharks, p. 26. II. Shorter pectoral fins; length less than distance from tip of snout to first gill slit Page 25, fig. E See Paragaleus, Small Black-tipped, Lemon, Other Sharks, p. 28. Blue, Other Sharks 25 Long pectoral fins Blue shark Shorter pectoral fins 26 Sharks CUB, DUSKY, BROWN SHARKS I. Highest point of tail about on line with highest point of back Page 27, fig. A See Cub Shark, p. 244. II. Highest point of tail much above highest point of back Page 27, figs. B, C Ila. Length of front margin of first dorsal fin equal to distance from tip of snout to a point just back of eye Page 27, fig. B See Dusky Shark, p. 247. lib. Length of front margin of first dorsal fin equal to distance from tip of snout to first gill slit Page 27, fig. C See Brown Shark, p. 246. Cub, Dusky, Brown Sharks 27 Highest point of tail about on line with highest point of back Cub shark Highest point of tail much above highest point of back Dusky shark Brown shark 28 Sharks PARAGALEUS, SMALL BLACK-TIPPED, LEMON, OTHER SHARKS L Length of front margin of pectoral fin equal to distance from tip of snout to a point just before first gill slit Page 29, figs. A-C la. Base of first dorsal fin much longer than depth of head at third gill slit Page 29, fig. A See Paragaleus, p. 241. lb. Base of first dorsal fin about equal to or shorter than depth of head at third gill slit Page 29, figs. B, C 1. Length of front margin of first dorsal fin over three times the length of front margin of second dorsal fin Page 29, fig. B See Small Black-tipped Shark, p. 245. 2. Length of front margin of first dorsal fin only slightly more than length of front margin of second dorsal fin Page 29, fig. C See Lemon Shark, p. 243. IL Length of front margin of pectoral fin equal to dis- tance from tip of snout to a point about halfway be- tween hind margin of eye and first gill slit Page 29, figs. D, E See Sharp-nosed, Smooth-Tooth, Sickle-Shape Sharks, p. 30. Paragaleus, Small Black-tipped, Lemon, Other Sharks 29 Front margin of pectoral fin equal to distance from tip of snout to a point just before first gill slit Paragaleus Small black-tipped shark Lemon shark Front margin of pectoral fin equal to distance from tip of snout to point halfway between hind margin of eye and first gill slit 30 Sharks SHARP-NOSED, SMOOTH-TOOTH, SICKLE-SHAPE SHARKS I. Origin of second dorsal fin about over midpoint of base of anal fin Page 31, fig. A See Sharp-nosed Shark, p. 242. [I. Origin of second dorsal fin almost directly over origin of anal fin Page 31, figs. B, C Ila. Length of gill slits more than half the distance from tip of snout to front of eye Page 31, fig. B See Smooth-Tooth Shark, p. 243. lib. Length of gill slits less than half the distance from tip of snout to front of eye Page 31, fig. C See Sickle-Shape Shark, p. 244. Sharp-nosed, Smooth-Tooth, Sickle-Shape Sharks 31 Origin of second dorsal over midpoint of base of anal fin Sharp -nosed shark Origin of second dorsal over origin of anal fin Smooth-tooth shark Sickle-shape shark 32 Sharks DOGFISHES I. Origin of second dorsal fin behind end of base of pelvic fin Page 33, fig. A See Spiny Dogfish, p. 249. II. Origin of second dorsal fin over base of pelvic fin Page 33, figs. B, C Ila. Upper margin of tail strongly arched; highest point of upper margin of tail lower than highest point of back Page 33, fig. B See Black Dogfish, p. 250. lib. Upper margin of tail concave; highest point of upper margin of tail above highest point of back Page 33, fig. C See Portuguese Shark, p. 251. Dogfishes 33 Origin of second dorsal fin behind end of base of pelvic fin Spiny dogfish Origin of second dorsal fin over base of pelvic fin Black dogfish Portuguese shark 34 Sharks TIGER, MACKEREL, WHITE SHARKS I. Upper lobe of tail much more than twice length of lower lobe Page 35, fig. A See Tiger Shark, p. 240. II. Upper lobe of tail less than twice length of lower lobe Page 35, figs. B-D Ila. Caudal peduncle with a second keel below and to the rear of main keel Page 35, fig. B See Mackerel Shark, p. 232. lib. Caudal peduncle with only one keel Page 35, figs. C, D 1. Front margin of first dorsal fin longer than depth of head at first gill slit Page 35, fig. C See Sharp-nosed Mackerel Shark, p. 233. 2. Front margin of first dorsal fin about equal to depth of head at first gill slit Page 35, fig. D See White Shark, p. 234. Tiger, Mackerel, White Sharks 35 Upper lobe of tail much more than twice length of lower lobe Tiger shark Upper lobe of tail less than twice length of lower lobe Mackerel shark Sharp-nosed mackerel shark White shark 36 Sharks, Sawfish, Skates, Rays SHARKS, SAWFISH, SKATES, RAYS TORPEDO, SKATES I. Long fiat snout armed with teeth on each side Page 37, fig. A See Common Sawfish, p. 256. II. No long fiat snout Page 37, figs. B-E Ila. Distinct notches between the head and front margins of the pectoral fin Page 37, fig. B See Angel Shark, p. 252. lib. No notches between the head and front margins of the pectoral fins Page 37, figs. C-E See Lesser Devil Ray, Giant Devil Ray, Other Rays, Torpedo, Skates, p. 38. Sawfish, Angel Shark, Rays, Torpedo, Skates 37 Long fiat snout armed with teeth on each side Sawfish No long flat snout Angel shark 38 Skates, Rays LESSER DEVIL RAY, GIANT DEVIL RAY, OTHER RAYS, TORPEDO, SKATES I. Two distinct fleshy lobes projecting from front of head Page 39, figs. A-D la. Mouth on underside of head Page 39, figs. A, B See Lesser Devil Ray, p. 270. lb. Mouth extending along front of head Page 39, figs. C, D See Giant Devil Ray, p. 270. II. No fleshy lobes projecting from front of head Page 39, figs. ^G See Giant Butterfly, Lesser Butterfly, Sting, Other Rays, Torpedo, Skates, p. 40. Lesser Devil Ray, Giant Devil Ray, Other Rays 39 Torpedo, Skates Two distinct fleshy lobes projecting front of head Lesser devil ray Giant devil ray No fleshy lobes projecting from front of head 40 Skates, Rays GIANT BUTTERFLY, LESSER BUTTERFLY, STING, OTHER RAYS, TORPEDO, SKATES L No dorsal fin Page 41, fig. A la. Width of body much greater than distance from tip of snout to end of tail Page 41, figs. B, C 1. Spine on tail Page 41, fig. B See Giant Butterfly Ray, p. 266. 2. No spine on tail Page 41, fig. C See Lesser Butterfly Ray, p. 267. lb. Width of body much less than distance from tip of snout to end of tail Page 41, fig. D See Sting Rays, p. 50. n. One or two dorsal fins Page 41, figs. E-H See Eagle Rays, Cow-nosed Ray, Torpedo, Skates, p. 42. Giant Butterfly, Lesser Butterfly, Sting, Other Rays, Torpedo, Skates 41 No dorsal fin Giant butterfly ray Lesser butterfly ray One or two dorsal fins 42 Skates, Rays EAGLE RAYS, COW-NOSED RAY, TORPEDO, SKATES I. One dorsal fin Page 43, figs. A-D la. Snout elongated Page 43, figs. B, C 1. Top surface of body covered with conspicuous spots Page 43, fig. B See Spotted Eagle Ray, p. 268. 2. Top surface of body without conspicuous spots Page 43, fig. C See Eagle Ray, p. 267. lb. Snout flat; indented at midpoint Page 43, fig. D See Cow-nosed Ray, p. 269. II. Two dorsal fins Page 43, figs. E-G See Torpedo Ray, Barn-Door, Other Skates, p. 44. Eagle Rays, Cow-Nosed Ray, Torpedo, Skates 43 One dorsal fin Spotted eagle ray Eagle ray Cow-nosed ray Two dorsal fins 44 Skates, Rays TORPEDO RAY, BARN-DOOR, OTHER SKATES I. Caudal fin large; depth much greater than height of dorsal fins Page 45, figs. A, B See Torpedo, p. 257. II. Caudal fin very small or absent; when present, depth much less than height of dorsal fins Page 45, fig. C Ila. Pores on undersurface of body marked by black lines or dots Page 45, figs. D, E See Barn-Door Skate, p. 260. lib. Pores on undersurface of body without black lines or dots Page 45, fig. F See Smooth-tailed, Resetted, Other Skates, p. 46. Torpedo Ray, Barn-Door, Other Skates 45 Caudal fin large A Torpedo Caudal fin very small or absent C Barn-door skate 46 Skates SMOOTH-TAILED, ROSETTED, OTHER SKATES I. No thorn-like spines on rear third or quarter of upper surface of tail Page 47, fig. A See Smooth-tailed Skate, p. 263. II. One or more rows of thorn-like spines on entire upper surface of tail Page 47, figs. C-E Ila. Conspicuous dark rosettes on upper surface of body Page 47, figs. B, C See Rosetted Skate, p. 260. lib. No conspicuous dark rosettes on upper surface of body (dots and blotches may be present) Page 47, figs. D, E See Thorny, Clear-nosed, Little, Big Skates, p. 48. Smooth-tailed, Rosetted, Other Skates 47 No thorn-like spines on rear portion of upper surface of tail Smooth-tailed skate One or more rows of thorn-like spines on entire upper surface of tail Rosetted skate 48 Skates THORNY, CLEAR-NOSED, LITTLE, BIG SKATES I. A single row of thorn-like spines along the middle of the back Page 49, figs. A-C la. Mid-row thorns on tail considerably larger than other thorns on tail Page 49, figs. A, B See Thorny Skate, p. 262. lb. Mid-row thorns on tail about same size as other thorns on tail Page 49, figs. C, D See Clear-nosed Skate, p. 258. II. More than one row of thorn-like spines along the mid- dle of the back Page 49, figs. F, G Ila. Never more than 66 rows of teeth in upper jaw Page 49, figs. E, F See Little Skate, p. 259. lib. Never less than 80 rows of teeth in upper jaw Page 49, figs. E-G See Big Skate, p. 261. Thorny, Clear-nosed, Little, Big Skates 49 Single row of spines along middle of back Thorny skate Clear-nosed skate More than one row of spines along middle of back Little skate Big skate 50 Rays STING RAYS I. Outermost edge of pectoral fins broadly rounded Page 51, figs. A, B la. Distance between spiracles equal to distance from tip of snout to a point between the two eyes Page 51, fig. A See Say's Sting Ray, p. 265. lb. Distance between spiracles equal to distance from tip of snout to a point well before eyes Page 51, fig. B See Stingaree, p. 265. II. Outermost edge of pectoral fins more angular Page 51, figs. C, D Ila. Greatest diameter of orbit of eye much less than length of spiracle Page 51, fig. C See Northern Sting Ray, p. 264. lib. Greatest diameter of orbit of eye equal to or larger than length of spiracle Page 51, fig. D See Southern Sting Ray, p. 263. Sting Rays 51 Outermost edge of pectoral fins broadly rounded Say's sting ray Stingaree Outermost edge of pectoral fins more angular Northern sting ray Southern sting ray 52 Head — True Fishes I. Suction plate on top of head Page 53, figs. A-E See Remoras, p. 100. II. No suction plate on top of head See HEAD— TRUE FISHES, p. 54. Head — True Fishes 53 Suction plate on A top of head Remoras 54 Head — True Fishes I. Head horse-shaped Page 55, figs. A, B See Northern Sea Horse, p. 340. II. Head not horse-shaped See HEAD— TRUE FISHES, p. 56. Head — True Fishes 55 Horse-shaped head Northern sea horse 56 Head — True Fishes I. Snout tubular Page 57, figs. A, B la. Tail fin rounded Page 57, figs. C-E See Pipefishes, p. 108. lb. Tail fin forked; long filament at center Page 57, figs. F, G See Trumpet Fish, p. 341. II. Snout not tubular See HEAD— TRUE FISHES, p. 58. Head — True Fishes 57 Tubular snout Rounded tail fin Pipefishes Forked tail fin Trumpet fish 58 Head — True Fishes I. One or both jaws elongated Page 59, figs. A-K la. Both jaws elongated Page 59, figs. A-D See Needlefish, Billfishes, p. 102. lb. Only one jaw, upper or lower elongated Page 59, figs. :^G, H-K See HEAD— TRUE FISHES, p. 60. II. Jaws not elongated See HEAD— TRUE FISHES, p. 62. Head — True Fishes 59 Both jaws elongated One jaw elongated 60 Head — True Fishes I. Only upper jaw elongated Page 61, figs. A-E See Swordfish, Sailfish, Marlins, p. 104. II. Only lower jaw elongated Page 61, figs. F-J See Halfbeaks, p. 106. Head — True Fishes 61 Upper jaw elongated Lower jaw elongated 62 Head — True Fishes I. Long ray, fleshy lobe, spine, or several spines on top of head Page 63, figs. A-E la. Body flattened, wider than deep Page 63, fig. A See American Goosefish, p. 413. lb. Body not flattened, deeper than wide Page 63, figs. B-E See HEAD— TRUE FISHES, p. 64. II. No long ray, fleshy lobe, spine, or series of spines on top of head See TAIL REGION— TRUE FISHES, p. 66. Head — True Fishes 63 Ray, lobe, spine on head Body flattened American goosefish Body not flattened 64 Head — True Fishes I. Only one long ray, spine, or fleshy lobe on top of head Page 65, figs. A-C la. A single ray on top of head followed by a series of short hair-like rays continuing to the dorsal fin Page 65, fig. A See Four-bearded Rockling, p. 321. lb. A single spine or fleshy lobe on top of head, no short hair-like rays following Page 65, figs. B, C 1. Dorsal fin short, less than half the length of the body Page 65, fig. B See Filefishes, p. 110. 2. Dorsal fin long, much more than half the length of the body Page 65, fig. C See Tilefish, p. 385. II. More than one spine on top of head Page 65, fig. D See Sargassum Fish, p. 414. Head — True Fishes 65 One ray, spine, lobe on top of head Four-bearded rockling Filefishes Tilefish More than one spine on top of head Sargassum fish 66 Tail Region — True Fishes I. Tail whip-like, no caudal fin Page 67, figs. A, B See Cutlass Fish, p. 350. II. Tail not whip-like, caudal fin present Page 67, figs. C-K Ila. Caudal fin continuous with dorsal and anal fins Page 67, figs. C-J See TAIL REGION— TRUE FISHES, p. 68. lib. Caudal fin separated from dorsal and anal fins Page 67, fig. K See TAIL REGION— TRUE FISHES, p. 72. Tail Region — True Fishes 67 Tail whip-like, no caudal fin Cutlass fish Tail not whip-like, caudal fin present Caudal fin continu- ous with dorsal and anal fins Caudal fin separated from dorsal and anal fins 68 Tail Region — True Fishes I. No notches between caudal fin and dorsal and anal fins Page 69, figs. A-E See Cusk Eel, Arctic Eelpout, Tonguefish, American Eel, American Conger Eel, p. 116. II. Notch between caudal and dorsal fins or between caudal fin and both dorsal and anal fins Page 69, figs. F-J See TAIL REGION— TRUE FISHES, p. 70. Tail Region — True Fishes 69 No notches between caudal fin and dorsal and anal fins Notch between caudal and dorsal fins or between caudal fin and both dorsal and anal fins 70 Tail Region — True Fishes I. Notch only between caudal and dorsal fins Page 71, fig. A See American Ocean Pout, p. 403. II. Notch between caudal fin and both dorsal and anal fins Page 71, figs. B-D See Rock Eel, Wrymouth, Cusk, p. 108. Tail Region — True Fishes 71 Notch only between caudal and dorsal fins American ocean pout Notch between caudal fin and both dorsal and anal fins 72 Tail Region — True Fishes I. Caudal fin consists of two lobes of unequal lengths Page 73, figs. A-D la. Upper lobe of caudal fin longer than lower lobe Page 73, figs. A-C See Sturgeons, Sea Catfishes, Pigfish, p. 112. lb. Upper lobe of caudal fin shorter than lower lobe Page 73, fig. D See Flying Fishes, p. 114. II. Caudal fin consists of two lobes of equal length or of only one lobe Page 73, fig. E See TAIL REGION— TRUE FISHES, p. 74. Tail Region — True Fishes 73 Caudal fin consists of two lobes of unequal length Upper lobe longer than lower lobe Upper lobe shorter than lower lobe Caudal fin consists of two lobes of equal length or of only one lobe 74 Tail Region — True Fishes I. Many small fins between the dorsal and caudal fins Page 75, figs. A-E See TAIL REGION— TRUE FISHES, p. 78. II. Only one, or no small fins between the dorsal and caudal fins Page 75, figs. F-H See TAIL REGION— TRUE FISHES, p. 76. Tail Region — True Fishes 75 Many small fins between the dorsal and caudal fins Only one or no small fins between the dorsal and caudal fins 76 Tail Region — True Fishes I. One small fin between the dorsal and caudal fins Page 77, figs. A-G la. One small fin between the anal and caudal fins Page 77, figs. A-C See Round Scad. Mackerel Scad, p. 126. lb. No small fin between the anal and caudal fins Page 77, figs. D-G See Smelt, Trout, Salmon, Lizard Fish, p. 124. II. No small fin between the dorsal and caudal fins Page 77, fig. H See TAIL REGION— TRUE FISHES, p. 80. Tail Region — True Fishes 77 One small fin be- tween the dorsal and caudal fins No small fin between the dorsal and caudal fins 7S Tail Region — True Fishes I. Keels on each side of the body near the tail, on the caudal peduncle Page 79, figs. A-F la. No median keel; two keels, one above and the other below the center of the caudal peduncle; tail forked Page 79, figs. A-C See Mackerels, p. 126. lb. Median keel present; two other keels also present, one above and the other below the center of the caudal peduncle; tail crescent-shaped Page 79, figs. D-F See Frigate Mackerel, Bonito, Tunas, Spanish Mackerel, p. 118. II. No keels on each side of the body near the tail, on the caudal peduncle Page 79, figs. G, H See Leatherjacket, p. 363. Tail Region— True Fishes 79 Keels on caudal peduncle No keels on caudal peduncle Leather] acket 80 Toil Region — True Fishes I. Median keel on each side of the caudal peduncle Page 81, figs. A-F See Amber Jack, Rudderfish, Pilot Fish, Three-spined Stickleback, Nine-spined Stickleback, p. 128. II. No median keel on each side of the caudal peduncle Page 81, fig. G See TAIL REGION— TRUE FISHES, p. 82. Tail Region — True Fishes 81 Median keel on caudal peduncle No keel on caudal peduncle 82 Tail Region — True Fishes I. Small bony shields centrally located on the caudal peduncle on each side of the body Page 83, figs. A-F See Scads, Jacks, p. 130. II. No small bony shields centrally located on the caudal peduncle on each side of the body Page 83, fig. G See DORSAL FINS— TRUE FISHES, p. 84. Tail Region — True Fishes 83 Small bony shields on caudal peduncle No small bony shields on caudal peduncle 84 Dorsal Fins — True Fishes I. One dorsal fin, with or without a series of separate spines before it Page 85, figs. A-E See DORSAL FINS— TRUE FISHES, p. 86. II. More than one dorsal fin Page 85, figs. F-H See DORSAL FINS— TRUE FISHES, p. 94. Dorsal Fins — True Fishes 85 One dorsal fin, with or without separate spines before it More than one dorsal fin F 86 Dorsal Fins — True Fishes I. Separate spines before the single dorsal fin Page 87, figs. A-H See Threadfish, Butterfish, Harvest Fish, Other, p. 188. II. No separate spines before the single dorsal fin Page 89, figs. A-F See DORSAL FINS— TRUE FISHES, p. 88. Dorsal Fins — True Fishes 87 Separate spines before single dorsal fin 88 Dorsal Fins — True Fishes I. Short dorsal fin; length of base about same as length of head or less Page 89, figs. A-C See DORSAL FINS— TRUE FISHES, p. 90. II. Long dorsal fin; length of base much greater than length of head Page 89, figs. D-F See Hogchoker, Flounders, Sand Launces, Other, p. 158. Dorsal Fins—True Fishes S9 Short dorsal fin Long dorsal fin 90 Dorsal Fins — True Fishes I. Origin of dorsal fin near center of body Page 91, figs. A-D See DORSAL FIN— TRUE FISHES, p. 92. II. Origin of dorsal fin near rear part of body Page 91, figs. E-I See Trunkfishes, Lumpfish, Clingfish, Swellfishes, Box- fish, Porcupine Fish, p. 152. Dorsal Fins — True Fishes 91 Origin of dorsal fin near center of body Origin of dorsal fin near rear part of body 92 Dorsal Fins — True Fishes I. Last ray of dorsal fin prolonged in a filament Page 93, figs. A-C la. Mouth large; upper jaw reaches to well behind eye Page 93, fig. A See Tarpon, p. 286. lb. Mouth small; upper jaw reaches at most to front portion of eye Page 93, figs. B, C 1. Base length of anal fin much shorter than head Page 93, fig. B See Thread Herring, p. 292. 2. Base length of anal fin much longer than head Page 93, fig. C See Gizzard Shad, p. 294. II. Last ray of dorsal fin not prolonged in a filament Page 93, figs. D, E See Ocean Sunfishes, Herrings, Anchovies, Killifishes, Other, p. 132. Dorsal Fins — True Fishes 93 Last ray of dorsal fin a long filament Tarpon Thread herring Gizzard shad Last ray of dorsal fin not a long filament Q 94 Dorsal Fins — True Fishes I. Two dorsal fins Page 95, figs. A-E See DORSAL FINS— TRUE FISHES, p. 96. II. Three dorsal fins Page 95, figs. F-H See Haddock, Pollock, Cod, Tomcod, p. 98. Dorsal Fins — True Fishes 95 Two dorsal fins Three dorsal fins 96 Dorsal Fins — True Fishes I. Two dorsal fins separated by a space at least half the length of base of second dorsal fin Page 97, figs. A-D See Goatfish, Barracudas, Silversides, Mullets, p. 196. II. Two dorsal fins separated by a space much less than half the length of base of second dorsal fin Page 97, figs. E, F See Croakers, Drums, Other, p. 200. Dorsal Fins — True Fishes 97 Two dorsal fins separated by space at least half the length of base of second dorsal fin Two dorsal fins separated by space less than half the length of base of second dorsal fin 98 True Fishes HADDOCK, POLLOCK, COD, TOMCOD L Lateral line black; a dusky spot on body over pectoral fin Page 99, fig. A See Haddock, p. 316. n. Lateral line not black; no dusky spot on body over pectoral fin Page 99, figs. C, E, F Ila. Tip of lower jaw extends beyond tip of upper jaw; chin barbel, if present, very small Page 99, figs. B, C See Pollock, p. 317. lib. Tip of upper jaw extends beyond tip of lower jaw; conspicuous chin barbel Page 99, figs. D-F 1. Filament of pelvic fin less than one-fourth the total length of the fin Page 99, fig. E See Cod, p. 315. 2. Filament of pelvic fin about half the total length of the fin Page 99, fig. F See Tomcod, p. 318. Haddock, Pollock, Cod, Tomcod Lateral line black Haddock Lateral line not black 99 Pollock Cod Tomcod 100 True Fishes REMORAS I. Sucking plate large, more than twice length of head. Plate extends beyond tip of snout Page 101, figs. A, B See Spearfish Remora, p. 397. II. Sucking plate small, less than twice length of head. Plate does not extend beyond tip of snout Page 101, figs. C-F Ila. A conspicuous, longitudinal, sooty-brown stripe with white edges on each side of body Page 101, fig. D See Shark Remora, p. 396. lib. No stripes on sides Page 101, figs. E, F 1. Head plate longer than base of dorsal fin Page 101, fig. E See Offshore Remora, p. 396. 2. Head plate shorter than base of dorsal fin Page 101, fig. F See Swordfish Remora, p. 396. Remoras 101 Large sucking plate Spearfish remora Small sucking plate Shark remora Offshore remora Swordfish remora 102 True Fishes NEEDLEFISH, BILLFISHES I. A series of small fins between dorsal and anal fins Page 103, fig. A See Needlefish, p. 312. II. No small fins between dorsal and anal fins Page 103, figs. C, E, F Ila. Body less than one-half as thick as it is deep Page 103, figs. B, C See Flat Billfish, p. 310. lib. Body as thick as it is deep Page 103, figs. D-F 1. Caudal fin only slightly concave Page 103, fig. E See Billfish, p. 309. 2. Caudal fin deeply forked Page 103, fig. F See Agujon, p. 309. Needlefish, Bill fishes 103 Series of small fins between dorsal and anal fins Needlefish No small fins between dorsal and anal fins Flat billfish Billfish Agujon 104 True Fishes SWORDFISH, SAILFISH, MARLINS I. First dorsal fin short; base of fin shorter than distance from tip of sword to rear edge of gill slit Page 105, fig. A See Swordfish, p. 352. II. First dorsal fin long; base of fin longer than distance from tip of sword to rear edge of gill slit Page 105, figs. B-D Ila. Height of first dorsal fin much greater than depth of body Page 105, fig. B See Atlantic Sailfish, p. 352. lib. Height of first dorsal fin less than depth of body Page 105, figs. C, D 1. First dorsal fin pointed at apex; lateral line not visible Page 105, fig. C See Blue Marlin, p. 350. 2. First dorsal fin rounded at apex; lateral Une conspicuous Page 105, fig. D See White Marlin, p. 351. Swordfish, Sailfish, Marlins 105 Short first dorsal fin Swordfish Long first dorsal fin Atlantic sailfish Blue marlin White marlin 106 True Fishes HALFBEAKS I. Pectoral fins longer than distance from tip of snout to rear edge of operculum Page 107, fig. A See Flying Half beak, p. 311. II. Pectoral fins shorter than distance from tip of snout to rear edge of operculum Page 107, figs. B-D Ila. Pelvic fins located just before dorsal fin Page 107, fig. B See Balao, p. 311, lib. Pelvic fins located far in front of dorsal fin Page 107, figs. C, D 1. Body deep; depth about one-sixth the distance from tip of upper jaw to base of tail Page 107, fig. C See Half beak, p. 310. 2. Body slender; depth about one-eighth the dis- tance from tip of upper jaw to base of tail Page 107, fig. D See Pajarito, p. 311. Halfbeaks 107 Long pectoral fins Flying halfbeak Short pectoral fins Balao Halfbeak Pajarito 108 True Fishes PIPEFISHES I. Snout short; half or less length of head Page 109, figs. A, B See Northern Pipefish, p. 339. II. Snout long; more than half length of head Page 109, figs. C, D See Florida Pipefish, p. 340. ROCK EEL, WRYMOUTH, CUSK I. Pelvic fins absent Page 109, figs. E, F la. Head small; about equal to depth of body Page 109, fig. E See Rock Eel, p. 400. lb. Head larger; about twice the depth of the body Page 109, fig. F See Wrymouth, p. 401. II. Pelvic fins present Page 109, fig. G See Cusk, p. 321. Pipefishes, Rock Eel, Wry mouth, Cusk 109 Snout short Northern pipefish Snout long Florida pipefish Pelvic fins absent g Rock eel Wrymouth Pelvic fins present Cusk 110 True Fishes FILEFISHES I. Small spine on ventral flap; gill slits nearly vertical Page 111, figs. A, B la. Ventral flap well developed; extends beyond the ventral spine Page 111, fig. A See Fringed Filefish, p. 407. lb. Ventral flap small; does not reach beyond the ven- tral spine Page 111, fig. B See Common Filefish, p. 406. II. No spine on ventral flap; gill slits oblique Page 111, figs. C, D Ila. Length of base of dorsal fin greater than distance from origin of dorsal spine to origin of dorsal fin Page 111, fig. C See Unicorn Filefish, p. 408. lib. Length of base of dorsal fin about equal to dis- tance from origin of dorsal spine to origin of dorsal fin Page 111, fig. D See Orange Filefish, p. 407. File fishes 111 Small spine on ventral flap Fringed filefish Common filefish No spine on ventral flap Unicorn filefish Orange filefish 112 True Fishes STURGEONS, SEA CATFISHES, PIGFISH I. Barbels on mouth Page 113, figs. A-D la. Bony plates on various parts of the body Page 113, figs. A, B 1. Plates on back touching or overlapping Page 113, fig. A See Common Sturgeon, p. 284. 2. Plates on back separated from each other Page 113, fig. B See Short-nosed Sturgeon, p. 285. lb. No bony plates on body; skin naked Page 113, figs. C, D 1. Lower jaw with a single barbel on each side of head; barbels on upper jaw flat and much longer than head Page 113, fig. C See Gaff-Topsail Catfish, p. 299. 2. Lower jaw with two barbels on each side of head; barbels on upper jaw round and shorter than head Page 113, fig. D See Sea Catfish, p. 299. IF. No barbels on mouth Page 113, fig. E See Pigfish, p. 371. Sturgeons, Sea Cat fishes, Pigfish 113 Barbels on mouth Common sturgeon Short-nosed sturgeon ,,,,. , Gaff-topsail catfish Sea catfish No barbels on mouth Pigfish 114 True Fishes FLYING FISHES I. Pectoral fins long; reach beyond rear part of base of dorsal fin Page 115, fig. A See Atlantic Flying Fish, p. 312. II. Pectoral fins shorter; do not reach as far as rear part of base of dorsal fin Page 115, figs. B, C Ila. Dorsal fin directly over anal fin; base length of two fins almost equal Page 115, fig. B See Short-winged Flying Fish, p. 313. lib. Dorsal fin more forward on body than anal fin; base length of dorsal fin over twice that of anal fin Page 115, fig. C See Spot-Fin Flying Fish, p. 313. Flying Fishes 115 Long pectoral fins Atlantic flying fish Short pectoral fins Short-winged flying fish Spot-fin flying fish 116 True Fishes CUSK EEL, ARCTIC EELPOUT, TONGUEFISH, AMERICAN EEL, AMERICAN CONGER EEL I. Pelvic fins present Page 117, figs. A-C la. Pelvic fins attached at throat beneath eyes; each fin consists of a single barbel split at the end into two filaments Page 117, fig. A See Margined Cusk Eel, p. 404. lb. Pelvic fins attached at throat far behind eyes, in front of lower rear margin of operculum Page 117, figs. B, C 1. One eye on each side of head; body rounded Page 117, fig. B See Reticulated Eelpout, p. 404. 2. Both eyes on same side of head; body flattened Page 117, fig. C See Tonguefish, p. 330. II. Pelvic fins absent Page 117, figs. D, E Ila. Origin of dorsal fin far behind pectoral fin Page 117, fig. D See American Eel, p. 300. lib. Origin of dorsal fin immediately behind rear edges of pectoral fins Page 117, fig. E See American Conger Eel, p. 301. Cusk Eel, Arctic Eel pout, Tonguefish, American Eel, American Conger Eel 117 Pelvic fins present Margined cusk eel Reticulated eel- pout Tonguefish Pelvic fins absent American eel American conger eel 118 True Fishes FRIGATE MACKEREL, BONITO, TUNAS, SPANISH MACKEREL I. Two dorsal fins far apart; space between more than half length of head Page 119, fig. A See Frigate Mackerel, p. 344. II. Two dorsal fins close together; space between much less than half length of head Page 119, figs. B-F Ila. No scales on rear part of body below lateral line Page 119, figs. B, C 1. Lateral line with a distinct downward curve under second dorsal fin; four to six longitudinal stripes on side of body below lateral line Page 119, fig. B See Ocean Bonito, p. 345. 2. Lateral line without a distinct curve; dark, wavy, longitudinal bands in varied patterns above lateral line Page 119, fig. C See Little Tuna, p. 345. lib. Scales on entire body Page 119, figs. D-F See Tunas, Bonito, Spanish Mackerel, p. 120. Frigate Mackerel, Bonito, Tunas, Spanish Mackerel Two dorsal fins far apart 119 Frigate mackerel Two dorsal fins close together Ocean bonito Little tuna 120 True Fishes TUNAS, BONITO, SPANISH MACKEREL I. Pectoral fin much longer than head Page 121, figs. A, B la. Longest rays of second dorsal fin shorter than head Page 121, fig. A See Albacore, p. 348. lb. Longest rays of second dorsal fin much longer than head Page 121, fig. B See Yellowfin Tuna, p. 347. IL Pectoral fin about equal to or shorter than head Page 121, figs. C-E Ila. Horizontal black stripes on upper portion of sides of body Page 121, fig. C See Common Bonito, p. 344. [lb. No horizontal black stripes on upper portion of sides of body Page 121, figs. D, E See Tunas, Cavalla, King Mackerel, Spanish Mackerel, p. 122. Tunas, Bonito, Spanish Mackerel 121 Pectoral fin longer than head Albacore Yellowfin tuna Pectoral fin shorter than head Common bonito 122 True Fishes TUNAS, KING MACKEREL, CERO SPANISH MACKEREL I. Base of first dorsal fin shorter than head Page 123, figs. A, B la. Pectoral fin reaches to at least the origin of second dorsal fin Page 123, fig. A See Blackfin Tuna, p. 347. lb. Pectoral fin reaches to at most the rear portion of first dorsal fin Page 123, fig. B See Bluefin Tuna, p. 346. II. Base of first dorsal fin longer than head Page 123, figs. C-E Ila. Lateral line dips sharply under second dorsal fin Page 123, fig. C See King Mackerel, p. 349. lib. Lateral line descends gradually under second dorsal fin Page 123, figs. D, E 1. Origin of pelvic fins below origin of first dorsal fin; side with one or two longitudinal dark stripes Page 123, fig. D See Cero, p. 349. 2. Origin of pelvic fins behind origin of first dorsal fin; no longitudinal dark stripes on sides Page 123, fig. E See Spanish Mackerel, p. 348. Tunas, King Mackerel, Cero Spanish Mackerel 123 Base of first dorsal fin shorter than head Blackfin tuna Bluefin tuna Base of first dorsal fin longer than head King mackerel Cero Spanish mackerel 124 True Fishes SMELT, TROUT, SALMON, LIZARD FISH I. Origin of pelvic fins about in center of body Page 125, figs. A-C la. Origin of pelvic fins under origin of dorsal fin Page 125, fig. A See Smelt, p. 297. lb. Origin of pelvic fins well behind origin of dorsal fin Page 125, figs. B, C 1. Origin of pelvic fins under center of base of dorsal fin Page 125, fig. B See Rainbow Trout, p. 297. 2. Origin of pelvic fins under end of base of dorsal fin Page 125, fig. C See Atlantic Salmon, p. 296. II. Origin of pelvic fins far in front of center of body Page 125, fig. D See Lizard Fish, p. 302. Smelt, rout, Salmon, Lizard Fish 125 Origin of pelvic fins about in center of body Smelt Rainbow trout Atlantic salmon Origin of pelvic fins far in front of center of body Lizard fish 126 True Fishes MACKERELS I. Sides of body below lateral line have many light spots Page 127, fig. A See Chub Mackerel, p. 343. II. Sides of body below lateral line have no spots Page 127, fig. B See Common Mackerel, p. 342. ROUND SCAD, MACKEREL SCAD I. Shields on lateral line start under front part of second dorsal fin Page 127, fig. C See Round Scad, p. 356. II. Shields on lateral line start under rear part of second dorsal fin Page 127, fig. D See Mackerel Scad, p. 357. Mackerels, Round Scad, Mackerel Scad 127 Spots on lower sides of body Chub mackerel No spots on lower B sides of body Common mackerel Lateral line shields start under front of second dorsal fin Round scad Lateral line shields start under rear of second dorsal fin Mackerel scad 128 True Fishes AMBER JACK, BANDED RUDDER FISH, PILOT FISH, THREE-SPINED STICKLEBACK, NINE-SPINED STICKLEBACK I. Two dorsal fins Page 129, figs. A, B la. Origin of anal fin well in front of center of base of second dorsal fin Page 129, fig. A See Amber Jack, p. 362. lb. Origin of anal fin at or behind center of base of second dorsal fin Page 129, fig. B See Banded Rudder Fish, p. 361. II. A single dorsal fin preceded by a series of free spines Page 129, figs. C-E Ila. Base of dorsal fin much longer than head Page 129, fig. C See Pilot Fish, p. 362. lib. Base of dorsal fin about equal to head Page 129, figs. D, E 1. Usually three spines before dorsal fin; some- times four or five Page 129, fig. D See Three-spined Stickleback, p. 337. 2. Usually nine spines before dorsal fin; may vary from seven to twelve Page 129, fig. E See Nine-spined Stickleback, p. 338. Amber Jack, Banded Rudder Fish, Pilot Fish, 129 Three-Spined Stickleback, Nine-Spined Stickleback Two dorsal fins Amber jack Banded rudder fish Single dorsal fin preceded by free spines Pilot fish Three-Spined stickleback Nine-spined stickleback 130 True Fishes SCADS, JACKS I. Bony shields extend whole length of lateral line from behind head to base of tail Page 131, fig. A See Rough Scad, p. 357. II. Bony shields only on rear part of lateral line Page 131, figs. B-E Ila. Front portion of lateral line barely arched Page 131, fig. B See Goggle-eyed Scad, p. 356. lib. Front portion of lateral line strongly arched Page 131, figs. C-E 1. Breast without scales Page 131, fig. C See Common Jack, p. 357. 2. Breast with small scales Page 131, figs. D, E a. Straight part of lateral line starts under origin of second dorsal fin Page 131, fig. D See Blue Runner, p. 358. b. Straight part of lateral line starts beneath a point well back of origin of second dorsal fin Page 131, fig. E See Horse-Eye Jack, p. 359. Scads, Jacks 131 Bony shields along whole lateral line Rough scad Bony shields only on rear part of lateral line Goggle-eyed scad Common jack Blue runner Horse-eye jack 132 True Fishes OCEAN SUNFISHES, HERRINGS, ANCHOVIES, KILLIFISHES, OTHER I. No pelvic fins Page 133, figs. A, B la. Rear end of body with a lobe-like projection near center Page 133, fig. A See Sharp-tailed Ocean Sunfish, p. 413. lb. Rear end of body rounded and without a lobe-like projection Page 133, fig. B See Ocean Sunfish, p. 412. II. Pelvic fins present Page 133, figs. C-G See Herrings, Anchovies, Killifishes, Other, p. 134. Ocean Sunftshes, Herrings, Anchovies, Killi fishes, Other 133 No pelvic fins Sharp-tailed ocean sunfish Ocean sunfish Pelvic fins present 134 True Fishes HERRINGS, ANCHOVIES, KILLIFISHES, OTHER I. Pelvic fins under dorsal fin Page 135, figs. A-D See Herrings, Sheepshead Minnow, Ten-Pounder, Bone- fish, p. 136. II. Pelvic fins before or behind dorsal fin Page 135, figs. E-G See Round Herring, Anchovies, Killifishes, p. 142. Herrings, Anchovies, Killi fishes. Other 135 Pelvic fins under dorsal fin A Pelvic fins before or behind dorsal fin 136 True Fishes HERRINGS, SHEEPSHEAD MINNOW, TEN-POUNDER, BONEFISH I. Base length of dorsal fin about equal to base length of anal fin Page 137, fig. A See Menhaden, Sea Herring, Shad, Other Herrings, p. 138. II. Base length of dorsal fin about two or two-and-a-half times the base length of the anal fin Page 137, figs. B-D Ila. Origin of anal fin under rear part of base of dorsal fin Page 137, fig. B See Sheepshead Minnow, p. 305. lib. Origin of anal fin far back on body beyond end of base of dorsal fin Page 137, figs. C, D 1. Base of pelvic fins under front half of dorsal fin Page 137, fig. C See Ten-Pounder, p. 285. 2. Base of pelvic fins under rear half of dorsal fin Page 137, fig. D See Bonefish, p. 286. Herrings, Sheepshead Minnow, Ten-Pounder, Bonefish 137 Base length of dorsal and anal fins about equal Base length of dorsal fin about two or two-and-a- half times the base length of anal fin Sheepshead minnow Ten-pounder Bonefish 138 True Fishes MENHADEN, SEA HERRING, SHAD, OTHER HERRINGS I. Head large; about one-third the distance from snout to end of body Page 139, fig. A See Menhaden, p. 293. II. Head smaller; between one-fourth and one-fifth the distance from snout to end of body Page 139, figs. B, D, F Ila. Origin of dorsal fin about halfway between tip of snout and end of body Page 139, fig. B See Sea Herring, p. 288. lib. Origin of dorsal fin much nearer to tip of snout than to end of body Page 139, figs. D, F 1. Upper jaw long; reaches to rear half of eye Page 139, figs. C, D See Shad, p. 291. 2. Upper jaw shorter; reaches to front half of eye Page 139, figs. E, F See Hickory Shad, Blueback, Alewife, p. 140. Menhaden, Sea Herring, Shad, Other Herrings 139 Head large Menhaden Head smaller Sea herring Shad 140 True Fishes HICKORY SHAD, BLUEBACK, ALEWIFE I. A straight line from tip of snout to origin of dorsal fin would pass well above eye Page 141, fig. A See Hickory Shad, p. 289. II. A straight line from tip of snout to origin of dorsal fin would pass through top of eye Page 141, figs. B, D, F Ila. Diameter of eye about equal to distance from tip of snout to front of eye; back, dark blue. Inner abdominal wall blackish Page 141, figs. C, D See Blueback, p. 289. lib. Diameter of eye longer than distance from tip of snout to front of eye; back, grayish green. Inner abdominal wall white Page 141, figs. E, F See Alewife, p. 290. Hickory Shad, Blueback, Alewife 141 Straight line from snout tip to dorsal fin origin passes above eye Hickory shad Straight line from snout tip to dorsal fin origin passes through top of eye Blueback Alewife 142 True Fishes ROUND HERRING, ANCHOVIES, KILLIFISHES I. Origin of pelvic fins to rear of dorsal fin Page 143, fig. A See Round Herring, p. 287. II. Origin of pelvic fins before dorsal fin Page 143, figs. C-E, G-I Ila. Large upper jaw; reaches far past hind margin of eye, almost to rear margin of operculum Page 143, figs. B-E See Anchovies, p. 144. lib. Small upper jaw; at most barely reaches front of eye Page 143, figs. F-I See Top Minnow, Lucy's Killifish, Other Killi- fishes, p. 146. Round Herring, Anchovies, Killifishes 143 Origin of pelvic fins to rear of dorsal fin Round herring Origin of pelvic fins before dorsal fin 144 True Fishes ANCHOVIES I. Origin of dorsal fin directly over origin of anal fin Page 145, fig. A See Common Anchovy, p. 294. II. Origin of dorsal fin farther forward on body than origin of anal fin Page 145, figs. B, C Ila. Origin of anal fin under rear half of base of dorsal fin Page 145, fig. B See Striped Anchovy, p. 295. lib. Origin of anal fin to rear of end of base of dorsal fin Page 145, fig. C See Silvery Anchovy, p. 295. Anchovies 145 Origin of dorsal fin over origin of anal fin Common anchovy Origin of dorsal fin farther forward on body than origin of anal fin Striped anchovy Silvery anchovy 146 True Fishes TOP MINNOW, LUCY'S KILLIFISH, OTHER KILLIFISHES I. Origin of dorsal fin over or behind rear end of base of anal fin Page 147, figs. A, B See Top Minnow, p. 308. II. Origin of dorsal fin in front of, over, or slightly behind origin of anal fin Page 147, figs. C-G Ila. Base of dorsal fin shorter than base of anal fin Page 147, fig. C See Lucy's Killifish, p. 306. lib. Base of dorsal fin equal to or longer than base of anal fin Page 147, figs. D-G See Rain-Water Fish, Fresh-Water Killifish, Other Killifishes, p. 148. Top Minnow, Lucy's Killifish, Other Killi fishes 147 Origin of dorsal fin over or behind rear end of base of anal fin Top minnow Origin of dorsal fin in front of, over, or slightly behind origin of anal fin Lucy's killifish 148 True Fishes RAIN-WATER FISH, FRESH-WATER KILLIFISH, OTHER KILLIFISHES I. Rear tip of pectoral fin beneath origin of dorsal fin Page 149, fig. A See Rain-Water Fish, p. 306. II. Rear tip of pectoral fin well in front of origin of dorsal fin Page 149, figs. B-F Ila. Base length of dorsal fin equal to distance from tip of snout to rear part of eye Page 149, fig. B See Fresh-Water Killifish, p. 307. lib. Base length of dorsal fin equal to distance from tip of snout to a point well behind eye Page 149, figs. C-F See Striped, Common, Ocellated Killifishes, p. 150. Rain-Water Fish, Fresh-Water Killifish, Other KilUfishes 149 Rear tip of pectoral fin beneath origin of dorsal fin Rain-water fish Rear tip of pectoral fin point well in front of origin of dorsal fin Fresh-water killifish 150 True Fishes STRIPED, COMMON, OCELLATED KILLIFISHES I. Snout long; distance from tip of snout to front of eye much longer than diameter of eye. Dorsal rays: 13-15 Page 151, figs. A, B See Striped Killifish, p. 304. II. Snout short; distance from tip of snout to front of eye about equal to or less than diameter of eye. Dorsal rays: 10—12 Page 151, figs. C, D Ila. Anal rays: 10-12. Common fish in middle Atlantic and southern New England regions Page 151, fig. C See Common Killifish, p. 302. lib. Anal rays: 9-10. Found only in Chesapeake Bay and farther south Page 151, fig. D See Ocellated Killifish, p. 307. Striped, Common, Ocellated Killifishes 151 Snout long Striped killifish " B Snout short Common killifish Ocellated killifish 152 True Fishes TRUNKFISHES, LUMPFISH, CLINGFISH, SWELLFISHES, BOXFISH, PORCUPINE FISH I. A hard shell covers most of body Page 153, figs. A-C la. A spine on each side of shell before anal fin and pointing to it Page 153, figs. A, B 1. A single spine before each eye Page 153, fig. A See Cowfish, p. 409. 2. No spines before eyes Page 153, fig. B See Common Trunkfish, p. 408. lb. No spines on any part of body Page 153, fig. C See Smooth Trunkfish, p. 408. II. No hard shell covering body Page 153, figs. D-G See Lumpfish, Clingfish, Swellfishes, Boxfish, Porcupine Fish, p. 154. Trunkfishes, Lump fish, Cling fish, Swellfishes, Box fish, Porcupine Fish 153 Hard shell covers most of body Cowfish Common trunkfish Smooth trunkfish No hard shell covering body 154 True Fishes LUMPFISH, CLINGFISH, SWELLFISHES, BOXFISH, PORCUPINE FISH I. Gill opening large: equal to half depth of body at rear margin of operculum Page 155, figs. A, B la. Head shorter than depth of body Page 155, fig. A See Lumpfish, p. 389. lb. Head longer than depth of body Page 155, fig. B See Clingfish, p. 405. II. Gill opening small: only a slit before pectoral fin and shorter than base of pectoral fin Page 155, figs. C-G See Swellfishes, Boxfish, Porcupine Fish, p. 156. Lumpfish, Clingfish, Swellfishes, Box fish, Porcupine Fish 155 Gill opening large Lumpfish Clingfish Gill opening small 156 True Fishes SWELLFISHES, BOXFISH, PORCUPINE FISH I. Entire body, including back, covered with prickles or spines Page 157, figs. A-F la. Small prickles on body making skin rough to touch Page 157, figs. A, B 1. Front and rear portion of tail has a broad dusky band Page 157, fig. A See Southern Swellfish, p. 410. 2. No bands on tail Page 157, fig. B See Northern Swellfish, p. 410. lb. Large spines on body Page 157, figs. C-F 1. Spines thick, not movable Page 157, figs. C, D See Spiny Boxfish, p. 411. 2. Spines slender, movable Page 157, figs. E, F See Porcupine Fish, p. 412. II. Back smooth, no prickles or spines Page 157, fig. G See Smooth Swellfish, p. 409. Swellfishes, Boxfish, Porcupine Fish 157 Entire body covered with prickles or spines Southern swellfish Northern swellfish Spiny boxfish Porcupine fish No prickles or spines on back Smooth swellfish 158 True Fishes HOGCHOKER, FLOUNDERS, SAND LAUNCES, OTHER I. Both eyes on the same side of head Page 159, figs. A-C See Hogchoker, Flounders, p. 162. II. A single eye on each side of head Page 159, figs. D-G Ila. Body elongated, eel-like; length from tip of snout to end of tail over eleven times the greatest body depth Page 159, figs. D, E 1. Dorsal rays: 50-60, mostly 53-59 Page 159, fig. D See American Sand Launce, p. 397. 2. Dorsal rays: 57-63, mostly 59-62 Page 159, fig. E See Ocean Sand Launce, p. 398. lib. Body deeper; length from tip of snout to end of tail less than six times the greatest body depth Page 159, figs. F, G See Dolphin, Deep Big-Eye, Blennies, Other, p. 160. Hogchoker, Flounders, Sand Launces, Other 159 Both eyes on same side of head Single eye on each side of head American sand launce Ocean sand launce 160 True Fishes DOLPHIN, DEEP BIG-EYE, BLENNIES, OTHER I. Origin of dorsal fin closer to rear margin of eye than to rear edge of operculum Page 161, figs. A-D See Dolphin, Deep Big-Eye, Blennies, p. 172. II. Origin of dorsal fin closer to rear edge of operculum than to rear margin of eye; or on body in back of head Page 161, figs. E-G See Wolf Fish, Common Big-Eye, Wreckfish, Other, p. 174. Dolphin, Deep Big-Eye, Blennies, Other 161 Origin of dorsal fin closer to eye than to edge of operculum Origin of dorsal fin closer to edge of operculum than to eye 162 True Fishes HOGCHOKER, FLOUNDERS I. No pectoral fins Page 163, fig. A See Hogchoker, p. 331. II. Pectoral fins present Page 163, figs. B-D Ila. Tail fin concave Page 163, fig. B See Atlantic Halibut, p. 322. lib. Tail fin rounded Page 163, figs. C, D 1. Fish heading toward the right when eyed side is up and gut section is toward observer Page 163, fig. C See Dab, YeJlowtail Flounder, Other Flounders, p. 164. 2. Fish heading toward the left when eyed side is up and gut section is toward observer Page 163, fig. D See Eyed, Small-Mouth, Other Flounders, p. 168. Hogchoker, Flounders 163 No pectoral fins Hogchoker Pectoral fins present Atlantic halibut 164 True Fishes DAB, YELLOWTAIL FLOUNDER, OTHER FLOUNDERS L Mouth large; upper jaw extends back to center of eye Page 165, fig. A See Dab, p. 323. IL Mouth smaller; upper jaw extends at most back to front of eye Page 165, figs. B-E Ila. Lateral line well arched in region over pectoral fin Page 165, fig. B See Yellowtail Flounder, p. 325. lib. Lateral line straight or only slightly arched over pectoral fin Page 165, figs. C-E See Gray Sole, Blackback Flounder, Smooth Flounder, p. 166. Dab, Yellow tail Flounder, Other Flounders 165 Mouth large Dab Mouth smaller i Yellowtail flounder 166 True Fishes GRAY SOLE, BLACKBACK FLOUNDER, SMOOTH FLOUNDER L Depth of caudal peduncle about equal to distance be- tween outer margins of eyes Page 167, fig. A See Gray Sole, p. 326. IL Depth of caudal peduncle much more than distance be- tween outer margins of eyes Page 167, figs. C, E Ila. Scales on area between eyes. Depth of caudal peduncle much more than length of pelvic fin Page 167, figs. B, C See Blackback Flounder, p. 324. lib. No scales on area between eyes. Depth of caudal peduncle about equal to length of pelvic fin Page 167, fig. D, E See Smooth Flounder, p. 325. Gray Sole, Blackback Flounder, Smooth Flounder 167 Depth of caudal peduncle about equal to distance between outer margins of eyes Gray sole Depth of caudal peduncle much more than distance be- tween outer margins of eyes Blackback flounder Smooth flounder 168 True Fishes EYED, SMALL-MOUTH, OTHER FLOUNDERS L Mouth small; upper jaw reaches at most to front of eye Page 169, figs. A, B la. Lateral line highly arched in front Page 169, fig. A See Eyed Flounder, p. 330. lb. Lateral line barely arched in front Page 169, fig. B See Small-Mouth Flounder, p. 329. II. Mouth larger; upper jaw reaches back beyond front of eye Page 169, figs. C-E See Sundial, Four-spotted Fluke, Northern Fluke, p. 170. Eyed, Small-Mouth, Other Flounders 169 Mouth small Eyed flounder Small-mouth flounder Mouth large 170 True Fishes SUNDIAL, FOUR-SPOTTED FLUKE, NORTHERN FLUKE L Front part of dorsal fin has long fringe-like rays Page 171, fig. A See Sundial, p. 327. IL Front part of dorsal fin has no long fringe-like rays Page 171, figs. B, C Ila. Four conspicuous black eye-spots on dark side of body. Only a narrow ridge between the eyes Page 171, fig. B See Four-spotted Fluke, p. 329. lib. Many black eye-spots on dark side of body. Space between eyes almost equal to diameter of eye Page 171, fig. C See Northern Fluke, p. 328. Sundial, Four-Spotted Fluke, Northern Fluke 171 Front of dorsal fin has long fringe- like rays Sundial Front of dorsal fin has no long fringe- like rays Four-spotted fluke Northern fluke 172 True Fishes DOLPHIN, DEEP BIG-EYE, BLENNIES I. Origin of dorsal fin over eye Page 173, fig. A See Dolphin, p. 353. II. Origin of dorsal fin behind eye Page 173, figs. B-D Ila. Base of anal fin about equal to distance from tip of snout to rear edge of operculum Page 173, fig. B See Deep Big-Eye, p. 369. lib. Base of anal fin about twice the distance from tip of snout to rear edge of operculum Page 173, figs. C, D 1. Body deep; greatest depth more than length of head Page 173, fig. C See Carolina Blenny. p. 400. 2. Body more slender; greatest depth less than length of head Page 173, fig. D See Striped Blenny, p. 399. Dolphin, Deep Big-Eye, Blennies 173 Origin of dorsal fin over eye Dolphin Origin of dorsal fin behind eye Deep big-eye Carolina blenny Striped blenny 174 True Fishes WOLF FISH, COMMON BIG-EYE, WRECKFISH, OTHER I. Base of anal fin about half or more the length of base of dorsal fin Page 175, figs. A-D See Wolf Fish, Sea Snails, Common Big-Eye, Butterfly Fishes, p. 176. II. Base of anal fin much less than half length of base of dorsal fin Page 175, figs. E, F See Wreckfish, Other, p. 178. Wolf Fish, Common Big-Eye, Wreckfish, Other 175 Base of anal fin about half or more length of base of dorsal fin Base of anal fin much less than half length of base of dorsal fin 176 True Fishes WOLF FISH, SEA SNAILS, COMMON BIG-EYE, BUTTERFLY FISHES I. Body elongated; total length over four times greatest depth of body Page 177, figs. A-C la. Origin of dorsal fin on top of head Page 177, fig. A See Common Wolf Fish, p. 402. lb. Origin of dorsal fin in back of head over pectoral fin Page 177, figs. B, C 1. Front part of dorsal fin separated by a notch from rest of fin Page 177, fig. B See Sea Snail, p. 389. 2. Front part of dorsal fin not separated by a notch from rest of fin Page 177, fig. C See Striped Sea Snail, p. 390. II. Body deeper; total length less than four times greatest depth of body Page 177, figs. D-F Ila. Tail fin concave Page 177, fig. D See Common Big-Eye, p. 370. lib. Tail fin rounded Page 177, figs. E, F 1. A large spot on body below rear part of dorsal fin Page 177, fig. E See Four-eyed Butterfly Fish, p. 384. 2. No large spot on body below rear part of dorsal fin Page 177, fig. F See Common Butterfly Fish, p. 383. Wolf Fish, Sea Snails, Common Big-Eye, Butterfly Fishes 177 Body elongated Common wolf fish Sea snail Striped sea snail Body deeper Common big-eye Four-eyed butterfly fish Common butterfly fish 178 True Fishes WRECKFISH, OTHER I. Tail rounded Page 179, figs. A-C la. Mouth large; upper jaw reaches to rear margin of eye Page 179, fig. A See Wreckfish, p. 369. lb. Mouth smaller; upper jaw reaches at most to center of eye Page 179, figs. B, C See Sea Bass, Tripletail, Gunner, Tautog, p. 180. II. Tail concave or forked Page 179, figs. D-F See Gray Snapper, White Grunt, Bermuda Chub, Other, p. 182. Wreckfish, Other 179 Tail rounded Wreckfish Tail concave or forked D 180 True Fishes COMMON SEA BASS, TRIPLETAIL, CUNNER, TAUTOG I. Pectoral fin long; hind tip reaches to about origin of anal fin Page 181, fig. A See Common Sea Bass, p. 368. II. Pectoral fin shorter; hind tip reaches a point far in front of origin of anal fin Page 181, figs. B-D Ila. Mouth large; upper jaw reaches beyond front margin of eye Page 181, fig. B See Tripletail, p. 370. lib. Mouth smaller; upper jaw does not reach front margin of eye Page 181, figs. C, D 1. Snout pointed; scales on rear part of operculum Page 181, fig. C See Cunner, p. 393. 2. Snout rounded; no scales on rear part of operculum Page 181, fig. D See Tautog, p. 393. Common Sea Bass, Tripletail, Cunner, Tautog 181 Pectoral fins long Common sea bass Pectoral fins shorter Tripletail Cunner Tautog 182 True Fishes GRAY SNAPPER, WHITE GRUNT, BERMUDA CHUB, OTHER I. Tail Concave Page 183, fig. A See Gray Snapper, p. 371. II. Tail forked Page 183, figs. B-F Ila. Mouth large; upper jaw reaches to center of eye Page 183, fig. B See White Grunt, p. 372. lib. Mouth smaller; upper jaw reaches at most to front of eye Page 183, figs. C-F 1. Origin of dorsal fin well behind base of pec- toral fin Page 183, fig. C See Bermuda Chub, p. 375. 2. Origin of dorsal fin over or before base of pec- toral fin Page 183, figs. D-F See Northern and Southern Porgy, Other, p. 184. Gray Snapper, White Grunt, Bermuda Chub, Other 183 Tail concave Gray snapper Tail forked White grunt Bermuda chub 184 True Fishes NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN PORGY, OTHER I. Dorsal spines long; third spine half or more length of head Page 185, figs. A-C la. Depth of body unchanging between origin of dorsal fin to origin of anal fin Page 185, fig. B See Northern Porgy, p. 372. lb. Depth of body gradually decreases in the region from origin of dorsal fin to origin of anal fin Page 185, fig. C See Southern Porgy, p. 373. JI. Dorsal spines shorter; third spine less than half length of head Page 185, figs. D, E See Holbrook's Porgy, Pinfish, Sheepshead, p. 186. Northern and Southern Porgy, Other 185 >rsal spines long Northern porgy ^H Southern porgy ^^^^B^^^P^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^H Dorsal spines shorter ^V^^l mg 186 True Fishes HOLBROOK'S PORGY, PINFISH, SHEEPSHEAD I. A conspicuous black saddle on the caudal peduncle Page 187, fig. A See Holbrook's Porgy, p. 373. II. No conspicuous black saddle on the caudal peduncle Page 187, figs. B, C Ila. Base of anal fin about equal to depth of head at center of eye Page 187, fig. B See Pinfish, p. 374. lib. Base of anal fin much less than depth of head at center of eye Page 187, fig. C See Sheepshead, p. 374. Holbrook's Porgy, Pinfish, Sheepshead 187 Black saddle on caudal peduncle Holbrook's porgy No black saddle on caudal peduncle Pinfish Sheepshead 188 True Fishes THREADFISH, BUTTERFISH, HARVEST FISH, OTHER I. Front rays of dorsal and anal fins extended in long streamers Page 189, fig. A See Threadfish, p. 359. II. Front rays of dorsal and anal fins not extended in long streamers Page 189, figs. B-H Ila. No pelvic fins Page 189, figs. B, C 1. Row of large pores on back near base of dorsal fin Page 189, fig. B See Butterfish, p. 353. 2. No row of pores on back Page 189, fig. C See Harvest Fish, p. 354. lib. Pelvic fins present Page 189, figs. D-H See Cobia, Sticklebacks, Other, p. 190. Thread fish, Butter fish, Harvest Fish, Other 189 Front rays of dorsal and anal fins long streamers Threadfish Front rays of dorsal and anal fins not long streamers Butterfish Harvest fish 190 True Fishes COBIA, STICKLEBACKS, OTHER I. Body slender; greatest depth about equal to or less than length of head Page 191, figs. A-C la. Dorsal fin long; extends from above rear tip of pectoral fin to about caudal peduncle Page 191, fig. A See Cobia, p. 365. lb. Dorsal fin short; extends from far behind the rear tip of the pectoral fin to before the caudal peduncle Page 191, figs. B, C See Sticklebacks, p. 192. II. Body deep; greatest depth much longer than length of head Page 191, figs. D-G See Moonfish, Black Rudder Fish, Round Pompano, Common Pompano, p. 194. Cobia, Sticklebacks, Other jgj Body slender Cobia Body deep 192 True Fishes STICKLEBACKS I. Seven or more dorsal spines Page 193, fig. A See Nine-spined Stickleback, p. 338. II. Less than seven dorsal spines Page 193, figs. B, D, F Ila. Bony ridge on each side of belly. Sides without plates Page 193, fig. B See Four-spined Stickleback, p. 336. lib. No bony ridge on each side of belly. Sides usually have plates Page 193, figs. D, F 1. A strong cusp at the base of each pelvic spine Page 193, figs. C, D See Two-spined Stickleback, p. 338. 2. No strong cusp at the base of each pelvic spine Page 193, figs. E, F See Three-spined Stickleback, p. 337. Sticklebacks 193 Seven or more dorsal spines Nine-spined stickleback Less than seven dorsal spines Four-spined stickleback Two-spined stickleback Three-spined stickleback rear view, right pectoral spine 194 True Fishes MOONFISH, BLACK RUDDER FISH, ROUND POMPANO, COMMON POMPANO I. Origin of dorsal fin above the pectoral fin Page 195, figs. A, B la. Pelvic fin short; length less than diameter of eye Page 195, fig. A See Moonfish, p. 360. lb. Pelvic fin long; length more than half length of head Page 195, fig. B See Black Rudder Fish, p. 355. II. Origin of dorsal fin well back of rear tip of pectoral fin Page 195, figs. C, D Ila. Greatest height of dorsal fin longer than length of head; 19-20 rays in dorsal fin Page 195, fig. C See Round Pompano, p. 364. lib. Greatest height of dorsal fin shorter than length of head; 23-24 rays in dorsal fin Page 195, fig. D See Common Pompano, p. 363. Moonfish, Black Rudder Fish, Round Pompano, Common Pompano 195 Origin of dorsal fin above pectoral fin Moonfish Round pompano Common pompano 196 True Fishes GOATFISH, BARRACUDAS, SILVERSIDES, MULLETS L Origin of first dorsal fin about over origin of pelvic fin Page 197, figs. A-C la. Double barbel on chin Page 197, fig. A See Northern Goatfish, p. 342. lb. No barbel on chin Page 197, figs. B, C 1. Origin of first dorsal fin over rear portion of pectoral fin Page 197, fig. B See Great Barracuda, p. 336. 2. Origin of first dorsal fin over a point well in back of pectoral fin Page 197, fig. C See Northern Barracuda, p. 335. XL Origin of first dorsal fin above a point well behind rear end of base of pelvic fin Page 197, figs. D-H See Silversides, Mullets, p. 198. Goatfish, Barracudas, Silversides, Mullets 197 Origin of first dorsal fin about over origin of pelvic fin Northern goatfish Great barracuda Northern barracuda Origin of first dorsal fin over point well behind rear end of base of pelvic fin 198 True Fishes SILVERSIDES, MULLETS L Origin of second dorsal fin well behind origin of anal fin. A silver streak on the sides Page 199, figs. A-C la. Body rough to touch when stroked from tail to- ward head Page 199, fig. A See Rough Silverside, p. 333. lb. Body smooth to touch when stroked from tail to- ward head Page 199, figs. B, C 1. Origin of anal fin under first dorsal fin Page 199, fig. B See Northern Silverside, p. 332. 2. Origin of anal fin at a point behind first dorsal fin Page 199, fig. C See Tide-Water Silverside, p. 332. IL Origin of second dorsal fin almost directly over origin of anal fin. No silver streak on sides Page 199, figs. D, E Ila. Conspicuous dark stripes along rows of scales on sides of body. Eleven anal spines plus rays Page 199, fig. D See Striped Mullet, p. 334. lib. No dark stripes on sides of body. Twelve anal spines plus rays Page 199, fig. E See White Mullet, p. 334. Silversides, Mullets 199 Origin of second dorsal fin well behind origin of anal fin Rough silverside Northern silverside Tide-water silverside Origin of second dorsal fin almost directly over origin of anal fin Striped mullet White mullet 200 True Fishes CROAKERS, DRUMS, OTHER I. Lateral line continues onto tail Page 201, figs. A-D See Croaker, Black Drum, Other, p. 202. II. Lateral line does not continue onto tail Page 201, figs. E-G See Sea Raven, Look-down, Common Trigger Fish, Other, p. 210. Croakers, Drums, Other 201 Lateral line continues onto tail Lateral line does not continue onto tail 202 True Fishes CROAKER, BLACK DRUM, OTHER I. One to many barbels on lower jaw Page 203, figs. A-C la. A single barbel on lower jaw Page 203, fig. A See King Whitings, p. 204. lb. Many barbels on lower jaw Page 203, figs. B, C 1. A row of short, slender barbels located only on each side of chin Page 203, fig. B See Croaker, p. 380. 2. Numerous small barbels located all along lower jaw from chin to region below center of eye Page 203, fig. C See Black Drum, p. 381. II. No barbels on lower jaw Page 203, figs. D, E See Channel Bass, Spot, Banded Croaker, Other, p. 206. Croaker, Black Drum, Other 203 One to many barbels on lower jaw *^ Croaker Black drum No barbels on lower jaw 204 True Fishes KING WHITINGS I. Scales on chest much smaller than scales on sides Page 205, figs. A, B See Gulf King Whiting, p. 379. II. Scales on chest about same size as scales on sides Page 205, fig. C Ila. Sides have dark oblique bands, the last band on back of head and the first band on body forming a V. Length of front spine of first dorsal fin equal to distance from origin of first dorsal fin to well behind origin of second dorsal fin Page 205, fig. D See Northern King Whiting, p. 377. lib. Sides plain or with obscure oblique bands which do not form a V at back of head. Length of front spine of first dorsal fin equal to distance from origin of first dorsal fin to about origin of second dorsal fin Page 205, fig. E See Southern King Whiting, p. 378. King Whitings 205 Scales on chest much smaller than scales on sides Gulf king whiting Scales on chest about same size as scales on sides Northern king whiting Southern king whiting 206 True Fishes CHANNEL BASS, SPOT, BANDED CROAKER, OTHER I. One or more spots on upper side of caudal peduncle Page 207, fig. A See Channel Bass, p. 381. II. No spots on caudal peduncle Page 207, figs. B-E Ila. Dark spot on body just behind upper edge of operculum Page 207, fig. B See Spot, p. 379. lib. No dark spot on body behind upper edge of operculum Page 207, figs. C-E 1. Upper parts of sides have 7-9 dark vertical bars Page 207, fig. C See Banded Croaker, p. 382. 2. No dark vertical bars on sides Page 207, figs. D, E See Silver Perch, Silver Sea Trout, Spotted Sea Trout, Gray Sea Trout, p. 208. Channel Bass, Spot, Banded Croaker, Other 207 One or more spots on upper side of caudal peduncle Channel bass No spots on caudal peduncle Spot Banded croaker 2(^ 7 rue Fhh^t SfLVEk PERCH, SILVER SEA TROLT, «K/r;ED SEA 7ROLX GRAY SEA TROLT / /fod^ 4ef/tr, y/e/jfAf th/4n len;(th of h^ad See S?l/e? Perch, p, 3%3, I/, /?/>'^//? /^;f th/An len'^th of head Itee ^I'/e/ Sea T/r/ut, p, 'Ml. y^^. VO, hp,. (., h Pa^ y/j, ff^ C %tt Sp'/f^e/i Se;?» Inrutt p. 376, Pa^ 2//>, f/^ /^ SaPiwr f^r*v*. Sl5^«a: p«d5i. $ja>«r $««ii ttiwtft ^^UlW' ^V.s . Vv . Vjk*y $»Ml ttVHi* 210 True Fishes SEA RAVEN, LOOK-DOWN, COMMON TRIGGERFISH, OTHER I. Base of first dorsal fin about twice length of base of second dorsal fin Page 211, fig. A See Sea Raven, p. 388. II. Base of first dorsal fin only slightly longer or much shorter than base of second dorsal fin Page 211, fig. B-E Ila. Front portion of second dorsal and anal fins greatly elongated Page 211, fig. B See Look-down, p. 361. lib. Front portion of second dorsal and anal fins not greatly elongated Page 211, figs. C-E 1. Pelvic fins poorly developed, represented by a single spine Page 211, fig. C See Common Triggerfish, p. 406. 2. Pelvic fins well developed Page 211, figs. D, E See Spotted, Red, and White Hakes, Toadfish, Other, p. 212. Sea Raven, Look-down, Common Triggerfish, 211 Other Base of first dorsal fin about twice length of base of second dorsal fin Sea raven Base of first dorsal fin only slightly longer or much shorter than base of second dorsal fin Look-down Common triggerfish 212 True Fishes SPOTTED, RED, AND WHITE HAKES, TOADFISH, OTHER I. Each pelvic fin consists of one long filament forked at end Page 213, figs. A-C la. First dorsal fin has a conspicuous black dot. Both dorsal fins about same height Page 213, fig. A See Spotted Hake, p. 319. lb. First dorsal fin has no black dot. First dorsal fin higher than second Page 213, figs. B, C 1. Upper jaw reaches to shghtly behind center of eye Page 213, fig. B See Red Hake, p. 320. 2. Upper jaw reaches to rear margin of eye Page 213, fig. C See White Hake, p. 319. II. Pelvic fins not filamentous Page 213, figs. D-G Ila. Fleshy irregular flaps on various parts of head Page 213, fig. D See Toadfish, p. 404. lib. No fleshy irregular flaps on head Page 213, figs. E-G See Sea-green, Naked, and Ginsburg's Gobies, Other, p. 214. Spotted, Red, and White Hakes, Toadfish, Other 213 Pelvic fin a long forked filament Spotted hake Red hake White hake Pelvic fin not filamentous Toadfish 214 True Fishes SEA-GREEN, NAKED, AND GINSBURG'S GOBIES, OTHER I. Pelvic fins united to form a suction cup Page 215, fig. A la. Pectoral fin reaches to a point behind origin of second dorsal fin Page 215, fig. B See Sea-green Goby, p. 395. lb. Pectoral fin reaches to a point under rear part of first dorsal fin Page 215, figs. C, D 1. Pelvic fin cup extends about half the distance from its base to the vent Page 215, fig. C See Naked Goby, p. 394. 2. Pelvic fin cup extends two-thirds of the distance from its base to the vent Page 215, fig. D See Ginsburg's Goby, p. 395. II. Two pelvic fins, not united to form a suction cup Page 215, fig. E See Sea Robins, Sculpins, Other, p. 216. Sea-green, Naked, and Ginsburg's Gobies, Other 215 Pelvic fins united to form a suction cup Sea-green goby Naked goby Ginsburg's goby Pelvic fins not united to form a suction cup 216 True Fishes SEA ROBINS, SCULPINS, OTHER I. Base of pectoral fin wide; at least half depth of body at rear edge of operculum Page 217, figs. A-D la. Pectoral fin long; reaches back to a point well beyond origin of second dorsal fin Page 217, figs. A-C 1. No long spine-like projections at the lower rear margin of the operculum Page 217, figs. A, B a. Dusky or brownish stripe along length of lower part of sides Page 217, fig. A See Striped Sea Robin, p. 392. b. No stripe on sides Page 217, fig. B See Common Sea Robin, p. 391. 2. A long spine-like projection at the lower rear margin of the operculum Page 217, fig. C See Flying Gurnard, p. 391. lb. Pectoral fin shorter; reaches back to a point about under origin of second dorsal fin Page 217, fig. D See Sculpins, p. 218. II. Base of pectoral fin narrow; much less than half depth of body at rear edge of operculum Page 217, figs. E-H See Stargazer, Striped Bass, White Perch, Other, p. 220. Sea Robins, Sculpins, Other 217 Base of pectoral fin wide Striped sea robin Common sea robin Flying gurnard Base of pectoral fin not wide 218 True Fishes SCULPINS I. Uppermost cheek spine short; reaches back to a point less than half the distance from its base to the rear edge of the operculum Page 219, figs. A-D la. Total length more than nine inches Page 219, fig. C See Shorthorn Sculpin, p. 386. lb. Total length less than nine inches Page 219, figs. C, D 1. 13-14 anal rays Page 219, fig. C See Shorthorn Sculpin, p. 386. 2. 10-11 anal rays Page 219, fig. D See Little Sculpin, p. 386. II. Uppermost cheek spine long; reaches back almost to rear edge of operculum Page 219, figs. E, F See Longhorn Sculpin, p. 387. Sculpins 219 Uppermost cheek spine short Shorthorn sculp in Little sculpin Uppermost cheek spine long Longhorn sculpin 220 True Fishes STARGAZER, STRIPED BASS, WHITE PERCH, OTHER I. Base of second dorsal fin shorter than head Page 221, figs. A-C la. Mouth opening on top of head Page 221, fig. A See Northen Stargazer, p. 398. lb. Mouth opening about in center of front of head Page 221, figs. B, C 1. Sides have dusky, longitudinal stripes Page 221, fig. B See Striped Bass, p. 366. 2. Sides have no stripes Page 221, fig. C See White Perch, p. 367. II. Base of second dorsal fin longer than head Page 221, figs. D-G See Whiting, Bluefish, Spadefish, Bumper, p. 222. Stargazer, Striped Bass, White Perch, Other 221 Base of second dorsal fin shorter than head Stargazer Striped bass White perch Base of second dorsal fin longer than head 222 True Fishes WHITING, BLUEFISH, SPADEFISH, BUMPER I. Greatest depth of body about equal to or less than length of head Page 223, figs. B, D, E la. Pectoral fin reaches back to a point beneath space between the two dorsal fins or front part of second dorsal fin Page 223, figs. B, D 1. Side of head mostly scaled Page 223, figs. A, B See Offshore Whiting, p. 315. 2. Side of head only partly scaled Page 223, figs. C, D See Whiting, p. 314. lb. Pectoral fin reaches back to a point beneath center of first dorsal fin Page 223, fig. E See Bluefish, p. 364. II. Greatest depth of body at least twice length of head Page 223, figs. F, G Ila. Pectoral fin reaches back to a point about under the front part of first dorsal fin Page 223, fig. F See Spadefish, p. 384. lib. Pectoral fin reaches back to a point well past origin of second dorsal fin Page 223, fig. G See Bumper, p. 360. Whiting, Bluefish, Spadefish, Bumper 223 Greatest depth of body about equal to or less than length of head Offshore whiting Whiting Bluefish Greatest depth of body at least twice length of head Spadefish Bumper PART TWO GENERAL INFORMATION Lampreys 227 LAMPREYS The lampreys are primitive aquatic fish-like vertebrates belonging in the Class Cyclostomata. Their skeletons are cartilagenous and the skull is very simple and barely dif- ferent from the vertebral column. They have no true jaws, ribs, or paired fins. Only a single species, the sea lamprey, occurs in the marine waters of the American Atlantic coast. Sea Lamprey Petromyzon marinus Linnaeus Color: Adults: ground color of upper surface of body various shades of brown, green, red, or blue, with mottles of a darker shade of the same color. Belly white, gray, or lighter shade of ground color of upper surface of the body. Young: silvery blackish blue above, white beneath. Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the Atlantic. In the western Atlantic it is found from Greenland to Florida and in a landlocked form in some of the American lakes. Size: Reaches a length of about 3 feet and a weight of over IVa pounds. General Information: Specimens of Sea Lamprey found in salt water are not mature. In this stage it obtains nourish- ment by fastening to the sides of various marine fishes with its sucker-like mouth and by movement of the horny-toothed tongue rasping away at the flesh of the fish to encourage the flow of blood which is its food. This blood-feeding form remains in the sea from one to two years, then runs up coastal streams and rivers to fresh water, where it 228 Sharks spawns. Spawning takes place on stony or pebbly bottoms. The male and female make a "nest" for the eggs by re- moving pebbles from the nesting site with their sucker-like mouths until an irregular depression about 6 inches deep and 2 or more feet in diameter is formed. The adults die after spawning. Actually, once they enter the streams and rivers and their gonads ripen, their digestive system de- generates and they can no longer assimilate food. The eggs hatch into small, blind, toothless animals called ammocoetes. These ammocoetes burrow into the mud and live on the microscopic animals in the upper part of the bottom mud. They remain in the mud for about 3 to 4 years, reaching a length of about 6 inches. About this time the eyes develop and the sucking mouth is formed, and the lamprey now moves down to sea and starts to feed on the blood of fish. Economic Importance: Impassable dams have drastically reduced the population of Sea Lampreys along the coast. Formerly this species was used for food, but few are now taken for this purpose. In recent years the landlocked form of this animal has spread through man-made channels into the Great Lakes where it has reportedly reduced the populations of the most important food fishes, particularly the lake trout. SHARKS Characters: Sharks are fish-like vertebrates with well de- veloped jaws and bony teeth. The skeleton consists of cartilage. The skin is covered with small, tooth-like enamel projections (denticles). There are 5-7 gill slits on each side of the head. The gill slits open separately to the out- side of the body. All or part of the gill openings are on the sides of the body. General Information: The body is usually torpedo-like but in a few exceptional species is flattened. Sharks are widely distributed from the subpolar to the tropical zones. They are mostly found in salt water, but some species enter brackish and even fresh water. Sharks 229 Fertilization is internal. Located on the inner edges of the pelvic fins of the male is a pair of organs (claspers) used to introduce the sperm or sexual products of the male into the two sexual openings of the female. These female sexual openings are located within the one large opening on the ventral surface of the body, the so-called cloacal opening. Both intestinal and urinary wastes and young are discharged through the cloacal opening. Only a few species of sharks lay eggs. In most species the young are born alive. Compared with the true fishes, the number of young born at any one time is small, usually considerably less than 80. In the true fishes the number of eggs laid may range from several hundred into the miUions. Sharks are mostly flesh eaters. The larger, more active species may feed on other sharks, seals, and sea turtles, as well as on fish. Some with crushing teeth regularly eat crabs, lobsters, and shellfish. The whale shark and the basking shark, two of the largest species, feed on small shrimp-like animals and on small fishes. Most sharks are scavengers, and they will often concentrate in areas where garbage is being dumped. The sense of smell is well de- veloped in sharks. Blood appears to excite them, and an injured, bleeding person is more likely to be attacked by some of the more aggressive species (such as the tiger, white, or hammerhead sharks) than is a casual swimmer. Shark attacks are most common in tropical waters and are more liable to occur at night than in the day. They are also more apt to happen in deep waters offshore than along shallow beaches. Economic Importance: There is ajimited fishery for sharks throughout the world in areas where they are abundant. The hide is used for leather; the liver oil of some species is a source of Vitamin A. The fins of certain species are considered a delicacy in the Far East. Many kinds of shark are regularly sold for human consumption, or are processed for use as feed for poultry and livestock. Classification: The scientific classification of the sharks found in the area from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras is as follows : 230 Sharks Class: Chondrichthyes (Elasmobranchs and Chimaeroids) Subclass: Elasmobranchii (Sharks, Rays, Skates) Order: Selachii (Modern Sharks) Suborder: Galeoidea Family: Carchariidae (Sand Sharks) Carcharias taurus — sand shark Family: Isuridae (Mackerel Sharks) Lamna nasus — mackerel shark, porbeagle Isurus oxyrinchus — mako, sharp-nosed mackerel shark Carcharodon carcharias — white shark, man-eater Family: Cetorhinidae (Basking Sharks) Cetorhinus maximus — basking shark Family: Alopiidae (Thresher Sharks) Alopias vulpinus — common thresher shark Family: Orectolobidae (Carpet Sharks) Ginglymostoma cirratum — nurse shark Family: Rhincodontidae (Whale Sharks) Rhincodon typus — whale shark Family: Scyliorhinidae (Cat Sharks) Scyliorhinus retifer — chain dogfish A prist urns profundorum — deep-water cat shark Family: Pseudotriakidae (False Cat Sharks) Pseudotriakis microdon — false cat shark Family: Triakidae (Smooth Dogfishes) Mustelus canis — smooth dogfish Family: Carcharhinidae Galeocerdo cuvier — tiger shark Paragaleus pectoralis — Paragaleus Prionace glauca — blue shark Scoliodon terrae-novae — sharp-nosed shark Aprionodon isodon — smooth-tooth shark Negaprion brevirostris — lemon shark Sand Shark 231 Carcharhinus falciformis — sickle-shape shark Carcharhinus leucas — cub, ground, bull shark Carcharhinus limbatus — spot-fin ground shark, small black-tipped shark Carcharhinus milberti — brown shark Carcharhinus obscurus — dusky shark Family: Sphyrnidae (Hammerhead Sharks) Sphyrna tibura — shovelhead, bonnet shark Sphyrna diplana — southern hammerhead shark Sphyrna zygaena — common hammerhead shark Suborder: Squaloidea Family: Squalidae (Spiny Dogfishes) Squalus acanthias — spiny dogfish Centroscyllium fabricii — black dogfish Centroscymnus coelolepis — Portuguese shark Family: Dalatiidae Somniosus microcephalus — Greenland shark Suborder: Squatinoidea Family: Aquatinidae - Squatina dumeril — angel shark Sand Shark Carcharias taurus Rafinesque Color: Gray-brown on upper surface of body, gray-white on belly; yellow-brown oval or round spots on sides of body and caudal and dorsal fins. 232 Mackerel Shark Distribution: Cape Verdes, Canaries, tropical West Africa and the Mediterranean. In the western Atlantic from the Gulf of Maine to southern Brazil. Size: May reach about 10 feet in length and weigh more than 250 pounds. A fish almost 9 feet long weighed about 250 pounds. General Information: Very common. The most abundant shark on the coast from Cape Cod to Delaware Bay. A sluggish shark living near the bottom close to shore. Often found in less than 6 feet of water off beaches. Feeds mainly on small fish, crabs, and squid. Matures when over 7 feet long. Most sand sharks caught are between 4 and 6 feet and are immature. Economic Importance: Not important in the commercial fisheries. Frequently taken by the sport fisherman while surf casting. Mackerel Shark, Porbeagle Lamna nasus (Boimaterre) Color: Dark blue-gray above, becoming white on lower sides and undersurface. Distribution: From the Murman coast and Norway south to the Mediterranean and northwestern Africa. In the west- ern Atlantic from the Newfoundland Banks to South Carolina. Most common north of Cape Cod. Appears as a stray from New York south. Size: Reported to reach almost 13 feet in length. Most comm.on size, 4-5 feet. General Information: An active species ranging from the bottom to the surface of the water. It has been taken in Sharp-nosed Mackerel Shark 233 depths down to 480 feet and may go deeper. Feeds largely on schools of herrings and mackerel but also on other available fishes. Young are large at birth and may be over 2 feet long and weigh over 25 pounds. From 1 to 5 young are born at a time. Economic Importance: Of minor importance in the com- mercial fisheries. It is of little interest to the angler because of its sluggishness when hooked. Sharp-nosed Mackerel Shark, Mako Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque Color: Deep cobalt to blue-gray on the upper parts of the body, snowy white below. Distribution: Mediterranean, tropical West Africa, and north to Norway. In the western Atlantic from the Gulf of Maine south to Brazil. Common offshore from southern New England to Maryland. Size: Reported to reach a length of 13 feet. Recorded weights of specimens: 8 feet, about 300 pounds; 9 feet, 700-800 pounds; 10^2 feet, 1,000 .pounds. General Information: An active, strong-swimming shark often found offshore near the surface of the water. Feeds mostly on fish, both the smaller school types such as her- rings and mackerels and larger fish such as the swordfish. Economic Importance: Of limited value in the commercial fisheries. Some are marketed. Its habit of leaping when hooked makes it one of the most desirable of sharks for sport fishing. 234 White Shark White Shark, Man-Eater Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus) Color: Color of upper part of body varies among indi- viduals. May be gray-brown, gray-blue, dark gray, or almost black. Lower part of body dirty white. A black spot near rear part of base of pectoral fin. Distribution: World-wide in tropical and subtropical zones and warmer waters of temperate zone. Not abundant in any particular region. Occurs erratically. Has been taken on the western Atlantic from Newfoundland to Brazil. Size: It is said to reach a length of 40 feet. Fish at 13 feet may weigh 1,300 pounds and at 21 feet 7,100 pounds. General Information: Typically an oceanic form, it fre- quently comes into shallow inshore waters, where it has been known to attack man and has therefore earned the title of "man-eater shark." An active, voracious species. It feeds on a wide variety of small fish and marine animals but is also known to swallow almost whole other sharks, seals, turtles, sturgeons, and tunas. Probably matures when over 13 feet long. Economic Importance: This species is too infrequently en- countered to be of much importance to the commercial or recreational fisheries. Its active, pugnacious nature makes it a dangerous adversary when hooked or harpooned. Basking, Common Thresher Sharks 235 Basking Shark Cetorhinus maximus (Gunnerus) Color: Brown-gray, medium gray, or nearly black on upper surface of body. Undersurface may be same color as upper surface, a lighter shade, or almost white. Distribution: World-wide in northern and temperate waters. Recorded in the western Atlantic from Newfoundland to the Falkland Islands, but nowhere abundant. Size: Reported to reach a length of 50 feet. Recorded as weighing 8,600 pounds at 30 feet. Immature fish under 13 feet have a long-drawn-out snout which gives them an entirely different appearance from the adult. General Information: A sluggish, harmless shark often found swimming slowly at the surface with its mouth open to collect the plankton in the water, its chief source of food. The plankton is carried into the open mouth with the water and sifted by fine comb-like gill rakers from the water as it passes over the gills and out of the gill slits. Economic Importance: Now of little importance on the western Atlantic coast. Formerly, when animal oils were used for lighting, the liver oil was extracted for fuel for lamps. Common Thresher Shark Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre) 236 Nurse Shark Color: Upper side and back variable; brown, blue-gray, dark gray or almost black. Lower sides a lighter shade of back color. Lower surface mostly white, sometimes mottled with gray. Distribution: World-wide in the subtropical zone and warmer waters of the temperate zone. In the western Atlantic, reported from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to north- ern Argentina, with most appearances recorded off south- ern New England. Size: May grow to over 20 feet in length. Fish 13-16 feet common. A fish 13 feet long weighs about 400 pounds. General Information: Usually found a few miles offshore swimming near the surface. Feeds on smaller schooling fishes including mackerel, bluefish, herring, bonito, and menhaden. The long, whip-like tail is used to splash the water to frighten the schools of fish into a concentrated mass while the shark gradually swims in a narrowing circle around them. Occasionally, two thresher sharks may work together. Sometimes the tail is used to lash out and stun the prey. Economic Importance: Of little importance in the com- mercial fisheries. Frequently caught by sport fishermen off the New York and New Jersey coasts. Nurse Shark Ginglymostoma cirratum (Bonnaterre) Color: Upper surface of body yellow-brown to gray-brown. Remainder of body lighter shade of same color. Distribution: Found on both sides of the Atlantic and in the American Pacific oceans in tropical and subtropical waters. In the western Atlantic most common in the Whale Shark 237 Caribbean-West Indian regions, but extending its range in summer to North Carolina. Occurs only as strays north of North Carolina. Size: Maximum length recorded, 14 feet. Sharks SVi feet in length weigh from 330 to 370 pounds. General Information: Chiefly found inshore in shallow waters, often less than 10 feet deep. A sluggish species commonly seen in small schools resting on the bottom. Feeds mostly on crabs, shrimp, squid, sea urchins, and small fish. Economic Importance: Where it is common, the skin may be used for leather. Whale Shark Rhincodon typus Smith Color: Back and sides red or greenish brown to dark gray and covered with scattered white or yellow spots; also some transverse white or yellow stripes. Lower surface of body white or yellow. Distribution: Widely distributed offshore in tropical waters of all oceans. In the western Atlantic found from New York to Brazil, but most abundant in the Caribbean-West Indian region. Size: The largest of the sharks. Reported to reach a length of 60 feet or more. A 38-foot specimen has been estimated to weigh 26,594 pounds. General Information: Little is known about its life history. It is often found in schools basking at the surface of the water. Like the basking shark, the whale shark feeds on plankton. Small fish, squid, and small shrimp-like forms are also eaten. 238 Chain Dogfish, Deep-water Cat Shark Economic Importance: None. Chain Dogfish Scyliorhinus retifer (Garman) Color: Upper part of body red-brown, lower part yellow- ish. Series of chain-like black markings over body. Distribution: Found on the outer part of the Continental Shelf from New York to North Carolina in depths of 250-750 feet. Size: Probably does not grow longer than IV2 feet. Most caught smaller than \V2 feet. General Information: Little is known about this species. It appears to be most abundant along the Continental Shelf off Chesapeake Bay. Economic Importance: None. Deep-water Cat Shark Apristurus profundorum (Goode and Bean) Color: Grayish brown. Distribution: Deep water off Delaware Bay. Size: Largest specimen taken about 20 inches. Maximum size not known. General Information: A rare deep-sea shark about which little is known. Economic Importance: None. False Cat Shark, Smoojh Dogfish 239 False Cat Shark Pseudotriakis microdon Brito Capello Color: Body a uniform browp-gray. Distribution: Both sides of the North Atlantic. Rare. In western Atlantic a single specimen reported washed ashore near Amagansett, Long Island, New York. Size: Maximum length recorded, 9% feet. General Information: Has been captured in the eastern Atlantic at depths of 980-4,840 feet. Economic Importance: None. Smooth Dogfish Mustelus canis (Mitchill) Color: Upper part of body olive-gray, slate gray, or brown. Lower part yellow, white, or gray-white. Distribution: Mouth of Bay of Fundy south to Uruguay. Most common from Cape Cod to Virginia. Size: Attains a maximum length of about 5 feet, but 3-4- foot specimens are more common. General Information: This is one of the most numerous sharks in the southern New England and Middle Atlantic areas. It is commonly caught in bays and estuaries and along ocean beaches in depths of 60 feet or less. Crabs are its chief food. Also eats small fish, squid, shellfish, and 240 Tiger Shark worms. In some areas lobsters comprise a large part of its diet. The spiny dogfish matures when about 3 feet long. Normally 10-20 young are born at one time, but smaller litters have been reported. Young are born in summer in the northern part of the species' range. Economic Importance: Frequently taken in large numbers by the commercial fisheries, but only a limited quantity is marketed. A common catch of the surf-caster and recrea- tional boat fisherman. Tiger Shark Galeocerdo cuvier (LeSueur) Color: Body gray or brown-gray, lighter hued on sides and belly than on back. Specimens under 6 feet marked with brown spots fusing into irregular bars on sides. Distribution: World-wide in tropical and subtropical waters. In the western Atlantic recorded from Cape Cod to Uruguay. Most abundant in the Caribbean-South Florida region. Only a few recorded north of Florida as summer visitors. Size: Reported to reach a length of 30 feet. Most speci- mens taken are less than 14 feet. A tiger shark 13-14 feet long weighs 1,000-1,400 pounds. General Information: The tiger shark is found in both inshore and offshore waters. It often enters bays and river mouths in the south. A noted scavenger, it feeds on animal debris thrown from ships or dumped from shore. Eats a wide variety of foods. Crabs, horse-shoe crabs, spiny Paragaleus, Blue Shark 241 lobsters, fish, other sharks, skates, and sting rays have been found in stomach of this shark. Gravid females have been found to carry 10-80 young. Economic Importance: The skin of this shark has been used for leather. In some localities it is taken incidentally by anglers fishing for other species. Paragaleus Paragaleus pectoralis (Garman) Color: Brown-gray. Distribution: Known from only a single specimen caught off the coast of southern New England. Size: Specimen was slightly over 25 Vi inches long. General Information: Nothing is known about this shark. Economic Importance: None. Blue Shark Prionace glauca (Linnaeus) Color: Dark blue along the back, clear brilliant blue on sides. Belly, clear white. Distribution: World-wide in subtropical and temperate waters of all oceans. In the western Atlantic from New- foundland Banks to Argentina. Infrequent visitor in sum- 242 Sharp-nosed Shark mer in the southern New England and middle Atlantic area. Size: Reported to reach a length of 20 feet. A 9-foot blue shark weighed 164 pounds. General Information: Usually found offshore but often comes inshore. Feeds on small fishes, particularly herring and mackerel, and is also an active scavenger. Probably does not mature until over 7 feet long. From 28 to 54 young have been counted in gravid females. Economic Importance: Of limited commercial value. A few are eaten. A powerful swimmer, prone to make repeated rushes when hooked, it is a desirable species for the recreational fisherman. Sharp-nosed Shark Scoliodon terrae-novae (Richardson) Color: Upper part of body brown to olive-gray. Lower part of body white. Distribution: Tropical and subtropical waters on both sides of the Atlantic. In the western Atlantic from the Gulf of Maine to Uruguay. Most abundant in the Carib- bean and Gulf of Mexico. Common summer visitor along the coast of South Carolina. Rare from Chesapeake Bay north. Size: Maximum size reported, about 3 feet. General Information: Commonly found in shallow waters along beaches, in bays, and in estuaries. Feeds chiefly on small fish. Also eats shellfish and shrimp. Matures when 26-30 inches long. Newborn sharks are 11-16 inches long. Economic Importance: Too rare a species from Chesapeake Bay north to be of any importance. Smooth-tooth, Lemon Shark 243 Smooth-tooth Shark Aprionodon isodon (Miiller and Henle) Color: Blue-gray above, gray-white on lower sides, and pure white below. Distribution: Tropical waters on both sides of the Atlantic. In the western Atlantic, off Cuba, in the Gulf of Mexico and as a stray along the east coast of the United States as far north as New York. Size: Maximum length reported, 4 feet. General Information: Nothing is known of its life history. Rare in the region from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras. Economic Importance: None. Lemon Shark Negaprion brevirostris (Poey) Color: Upper part of body usually yellow-brown, some- times dark brown or blue-gray. Lower sides yellowish or olive-green. Lower part of body olive-gray or pale yellow. Distribution: Northern Brazil to North Carolina, and, rarely, north to New Jersey. Size: Maximum length about 11 feet. A 9^/2 -foot specimen is reported to weigh 265 pounds. 244 Sickle-shape, Cub Sharks General Information: Common around docks, in creeks, and in sounds from Florida to North Carolina. Probably feeds on fish. Matures at 1-1 V2 feet. Breeds in spring and summer in Florida waters. Economic Importance: Part of the commercial catch of sharks in Florida waters. Sickle-shape Shark Carcharhinus falciformis (MuUer and Henle) Color: Upper surface of body dark gray, underside gray- white. Distribution: Both sides of the Atlantic in subtropical and tropical waters. In the western Atlantic most common in the Caribbean region, but reported as a stray on the Continental Shelf off Delaware Bay. Size: Maximum size not known. A 10-foot specimen has been reported. General Information: Little is known about this species. Economic Importance: None. Cub Shark, Ground Shark, Bull Shark Carcharhinus leucas (Miiller and Henle) Color: Light to dark gray on upper parts of body; white below. Small Black-tipped Shark 245 Distribution: The western Atlantic from southern Brazil to North Carolina, and as a stray north to New York. Size: Maximum size probably more than 10 feet. A 10- foot specimen weighs about 400 pounds. General Information: A slow-swimming species most fre- quently found in shoal, inshore waters. Feeds on crabs, fish, and any animal refuse. Matures at about 7 feet. Birth probably occurs in late winter and early spring. From 5 to 6 young are born at one time. Economic Importance: Common in the catch of the com- mercial shark fishery in Florida. Small Black-tipped Shark, Spot-fin Ground Shark Carcharhinus limbatus (Muller and Henle) Color: Grayish brown, brayish blue, or dark gray on upper parts of body. Lower part of body white or yellow-white. Pectoral fins tipped with black. Distribution: Possibly world-wide in tropical and sub- tropical waters. In the western Atlantic found from south- ern Brazil to North Carolina, and as a stray off the coasts of New York and southern New England. Size': Maximum length probably 3 feet. A 5 V^ -foot speci- men weighed slightly over 68 pounds. General Information: Found both near the shore and off- shore. An active, fast-swimming shark, often appearing in schools at the surface of the water. When surfaced it fre- quently will leap clear of the water. Fish appears to be principal food. In Florida waters young are born in spring. From 3 to 6 are produced at one time, and they are about 2 feet long at birth. 246 Brown Shark Economic Importance: Of minor importance in the com- mercial and recreational fisheries of Florida. Brown Shark Carcharhinus milberti (Miiller and Henle) Color: Brown, brown-gray, or slate gray on upper part of body. Lower part of body lighter shades of these colors or white. Distribution: Reported from the Mediterranean Sea and European Atlantic. In the western Atlantic from southern Brazil to southern New England. Occasionally abundant off the coasts of New York and New Jersey during the summer. Size: Maximum length about 8 feet; weight at this length was near 200 pounds. General Information: Fairly abundant near shore in the Middle Atlantic area. Found commonly in shoal water of harbors, bays, and estuaries. Feeds chiefly on fish, shell- fish, crabs, and other crustaceans. Matures at about 6 feet. On the coast of New York young are released from June to August. From 6 to 13 young are born at a time, 22 inches long and weighing IVi pounds at birth. Economic Importance: Of limited commercial value. Caught incidentally by the angler. Dusky, Shovelhead Sharks 247 Dusky Shark Carcharhinus obscurus (LeSueur) Color: Back and upper sides light to dark gray or blue- gray; lower sides and belly white. Distribution: Both sides of the Atlantic in tropical and warm temperate waters. In the western Atlantic from southern Massachusetts to the Bahamas. Taken frequently from Delaware Bay north to Woods Hole, Massachusetts, but often confused with the Brown Shark or the Cub Shark. Size: Reported as reaching a length of 14 feet. General Information: Little is known about this shark. It probably is most common offshore but frequendy is found in shoal waters inshore. Economic Importance: None. Shovelhead, Bonnet Shark Sphyrna tibura (Linnaeus) Color: Upper part of body gray or brown-gray; a lighter shade of same color below. 248 Southern Hammerhead Shark Distribution: Reported from both sides of the Atlantic and on the American Pacific coast. In the western Atlantic found from Massachusetts Bay to southern Brazil. Un- common north of North Carolina. Size: Reported to reach a length of 6 feet. General Information: Frequents shallow waters along the coast. A sluggish species feeding largely on crabs and other crustaceans. Also eats shellfish and small fish. Ma- tures when 3Vi-4 feet long. From 6 to 9 young are born at a time. Economic Importance: None. Southern Hammerhead Shark Sphyrna diplana Springer Color: Upper surface of body light gray, shading to white below. Distribution: Tropical and warm temperate waters of the Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic, recorded from southern New Jersey to Brazil. Size: Grows to at least 10 feet. General Information: First described in 1941, it has been confused in the past with the Common Hammerhead. Little is known about this shark. Economic Importance: None. Common Hammerhead Shark, Spiny Dogfish 249 Common Hammerhead Shark Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus) Color: Upper part of body dark olive-gray or brown-gray, sides lighter. Undersurface gray-white. Distribution: World-wide in warm and temperate waters. In the western Atlantic found from Uruguay to southern New England and as a stray as far north as Nova Scotia. Size: May grow to 13 feet and over 900 pounds. General Information: Often seen near the surface of the water both offshore and inshore. In summer, large schools are frequently reported moving along the shores of New York and New Jersey. Feeds mainly on fish, but squid, crabs, and shrimp are also eaten. Matures at 7-8 feet. From 29 to 37 young have been counted in a single gravid female. The young are probably 19-20 inches long at birth. Economic Importance: Used to some extent for meal, oil, and leather in Florida and the West Indies. Readily takes a bait and is frequently caught by the angler. Spiny Dogfish Squalus acanthias Linnaeus Color: Upper portion of body slate gray; lower portion pale gray to white. Scattered white spots over body of smaller specimens. 250 Black Dogfish Distribution: World-wide, chiefly in temperate and sub- arctic waters. In the western Atlantic, found from south- eastern Labrador to North Carolina. Size: Maximum length about 4 feet with a weight of 15-20 pounds. Most fish range between 2 and 3Vi feet in length and weigh 7-10 pounds. General Information: A rather sluggish shark often oc- curring in large schools. Common inshore but likely to be found anywhere between the surface of the water and the bottom to depths of 600 feet. The dorsal spines are used for defense. The fish curls itself into a bow-like position in striking. The spines are thought to be slightly poisonous. Chief food is fish, although squid, worms, crabs, and shrimp are also eaten. Males mature at 24-31 inches and females at 27-39 inches. Birth occurs in the Middle Atlantic region in late winter. From 2 to 1 1 young are born at a time, with 4-6 the average. Newborn young range from 6Vi to 13 inches in length. Economic Importance: Widely utilized in Europe as a food. Unsuccessful attempts have been made in the United States to market the Spiny Dogfish, both as a food and as fish meal and oil. Although frequently they are so abun- dant locally as to hamper commercial fishing, only a small quantity can be marketed. While not an active enough species to attract a recreational fishery, the Spiny Dogfish is often caught incidentally by the angler. Black Dogfish Centroscyllium fabricii (Reinhardt) Color: Upper surface of body chocolate brown; darker, almost black, below. Portuguese, Greenland Sharks 251 Distribution: Both sides of the North Atlantic in depths over 900 feet. In the western Atlantic, common from south- western Greenland to the eastern end of Georges Bank off the coast of Massachusetts. Extent of range south un- known, but occurrences reported in the deep waters off the coast of New York. Size: Reported to reach a length of VA feet. General Information: A deep-water species found at 900- 3,500 feet. Little is known about this species. It feeds on small shrimp-like animals, squids, octopi, and jellyfishes. Economic Importance: None. Portuguese Shark Centroscymnus coelolepis Bocage and Capello Color: Entire body a dark chocolate brown. Distribution: Both sides of the North Atlantic in depths over 1,100 feet. In the western Atlantic, specimens have been taken from the Newfoundland Grand Banks south to the Continental Slope off Nantucket, Massachusetts. Size: Length of largest specimen taken slightly less than 4 feet. General Information: Little is known about this shark. Economic Importance: None. Greenland Shark Somniosus microcephalus (Black and Schneider) 252 Angel Shark Color: Whole body the same color, but variable from one specimen to another. Color of body may be dark brown, black, or different shades of gray. Sides may or may not be tinged with violet and may or may not have faint dark bands or faint white spots. Distribution: On both sides of the Atlantic, mostly in arctic and subarctic waters. In the western Atlantic, found from Hudson Strait to the tip of Cape Cod, but most com- mon in the north. Size: Said to reach a length of 24 feet. A 21 -foot specimen is reported to have weighed 2,250 pounds. General Information: In Greenland and Labrador it is re- ported as coming to the surface in winter. In summer it has been caught in depths of more than 3,900 feet. Food consists of a wide variety of fishes, including herring, salmon, pollock, cod, haddock, and halibut. Seals and sea birds as well as a varied assortment of other forms of sea animals have been found in the stomachs of Greenland Sharks. It is also reported to be an active scavenger. Economic Importance: The liver oil is used in Europe and the dried meat is fed to dogs in Greenland. Not utilized on the American Atlantic coast. Angel Shark Squatina dumeril (LeSueur) Color: Upper surface of body light gray or blue-gray; head tinted with red. Lower surface of body white; a Sawfish, Skates, and Rays 253 reddish spot on the throat, on the belly, and near the tail. Distribution: Found from southern New England to Jamaica. Sometimes common off the coasts of Maryland and Virginia. Size: Maximum length reported, about 5 feet. A 4-foot specimen weighed 60 pounds. General Information: Most frequently found in only a few feet of water, but it has been taken in depths down to 4,200 feet. Feeds on crabs, shellfish, and fish. Probably matures when 3-3 Vi feet long. Economic Importance: None. SAWFISH, SKATES, AND RAYS Characters: The sawfish, skates, and rays are fish-like vertebrates with well-developed jaws and bony teeth. The skeleton consists of cartilage. The skin is covered with small, tooth-like, enamel projections. There are 5 pairs of gill slits, all located on the lower surface of the body. The front edges of the pectoral fins are united with the head. General Information: Most of the forms in this group have a flattened, disc-like body. The Sawfish, however, is more shark-like in body form. The various species are widely distributed from the subpolar to tropical zones. In the cooler waters of the temperate and subpolar zones. Skates are most numerous both in number of species and in indi- viduals. In the warm waters of the tropical and subtropical zones the Sawfish and Rays predominate. Like the sharks, the males of^ this group of fish-like vertebrates possess a pair of copulatory organs (claspers), elongated appendages situated along the inner margins of the pelvic fins. Fertilization is internal. Members of the Skate family lay eggs enclosed in a horny capsule (p. 254, fig. 1). In all of the other families the young are born alive. In general the members of this group are sluggish ani- mals living on or near the bottom and frequently burying 254 Sawfish, Skates, and Rays themselves partially or completely in the mud or sand. The species that commonly act in such fashion have large openings {spiracles) behind the eyes. In breathing, water passes into the spiracles over the gills and out of the gill slits. Little or no water is taken into the mouth as is characteristic of species with small spiracles. Some excep- tional species such as the Eagle and Cow-nosed Rays and the Devil Rays are active animals and are frequently seen vigorously swimming near the surface of the water or leaping clear of the water. Shellfish, crabs, worms, small shrimp-like animals comprise the bulk of the food of the sawfish, skates, and rays. The Torpedo Ray has two electric organs, one on each side of the front third of the body. These may possibly be used for defense or for stunning their prey. Among the Sting Rays, the long, whip-like tail is armed with one or more poisonous spines. Spines are also present on the tails of some of the Butterfly Rays, the Cow-nosed Ray and the Eagle Rays. The spine may be as long as 5 inches in some species. Sting Rays can be dangerous when acci- dentally disturbed by the swimmer or when captured. The long tail can be lashed vigorously and a severe wound in- flicted by the poisonous spines. Economic Importance: The pectoral fins (wings or saddles) of some of the larger species are marketed for food. Many species are used for bait in crab and lobster traps, and more recently as a source of fish meal. The spines of the Sting Rays have been used by primitive tribes for needles and spear tips. Fig. 1. Egg cases of Skates Classification 255 Classification: The scientific classification of the sawfish, skates, and rays in the area from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras is as follows: Class: Chondrichthyes (Elasmobranchs and Chimaeroids) Subclass: Elasmobranchii (Sharks, Sawfish, Skates, Rays) Order: Batoidei (Sawfish, Skates, Rays) Suborder: Pristoidea Family: Pristidae (Sawfishes) Pristis pectinatus — common sawfish Suborder: Torpedinoidea Family: Torpedinidae (Torpedoes) Torpedo nobliana — electric ray, torpedo Suborder: Rajoidea Family: Rajidae (Skates) Raja e giant eria — clear-nosed, brier skate Raja erinacea — little skate Raja garmani — rosetted skate, leopard skate Raja laevis — barn-door skate Raja ocellata — big skate Raja radiata — thorny skate Raja senta — smooth-tailed skate Suborder: Myliobatoidea Family: Dasyatidae (Sting Rays) Dasyatis americana — southern sting ray Dasyatis centroura — northern sting ray Dasyatis sahina — stingaree Dasyatis say — Say's sting ray Family: Gymnuridae (Butterfly ^ays) Gymnura altavela — giant butterfly ray Gymnura micrura — lesser butterfly ray Family: Myliobatidae (Eagle Rays) Myliobatis freminvillii — eagle ray Aetobatus narinari — spotted eagle ray Family: Rhinopteridae (Cow-nosed Rays) Rhinoptera bonasus — cow-nosed ray 256 Common Sawfish Family: Mobulidae (Devil Rays) Mobula hypostoma — lesser devil ray Mania biros tris — giant devil ray Common Sawfish Pristis pectinatus Latham Color: Upper portion of body dark gray to black-brown; light yellow, white, or gray-white below. Distribution: Tropical and subtropical waters on both sides of the Atlantic and in the eastern Mediterranean. In the western Atlantic, commonly found from Brazil to north- ern Florida. A summer visitor to the north as far as New York. Size: Maximum size over 18 feet. A specimen about 16 feet long weighed 700 pounds. General Information: The Common Sawfish almost always occurs near land, in a few feet of water, often in bays and estuaries. It is found in brackish as well as salt water and will ascend rivers into fresh water. Observations in Texas indicate that at least in this locality birth takes place from late spring through autumn. The young are about 2 feet at birth. From 15 to 20 young are carried by a gravid female. Economic Importance: None. A nuisance to the commer- cial fishermen in southern waters, often becoming en- tangled in their nets. Torpedo, Electric Ray 257 Torpedo, Electric Ray Torpedo nobliana Bonaparte Color: Dark chocolate brown to purple-brown or almost black on upper surface of body. White below. Distribution: Both sides of the Atlantic and in the Medi- terranean. In the western Atlantic, from Cuba to southern Nova Scotia. Size: The largest specimen reported almost 6 feet long. Relationship of length to weight varies greatly depending on fatness of fish. Heaviest fish recorded has been esti- mated at 200 pounds. General Information: Little is known about this ray. It probably lives on the bottom partly buried in the sand or mud. Chief food is fish. The electric organs, located in the front third of the body, are able to discharge moderate amounts of electricity by means of which it is believed fish are stunned for more ready capture. While some specimens of the Electric Ray have been taken near shore in only a few feet of water, it is likely that they are most numerous in waters of 60-360 feet or deeper. Economic Importance: None. 258 Clear-nosed Skate Clear-nosed Skate, Brier Skate Raja e giant eria Bosc Color: Upper surface of body light and dark brown; brown spots and bars. Lower surface white. Distribution: Massachusetts Bay to Florida. Size: Maximum length recorded slightly over 3 feet. A specimen 31 inches long weighed 6Vi pounds. General Information: Abundant seasonally from New York to Virginia. It occurs in shallow waters along beaches and out to depths of 400 feet. Feeds on crabs, shrimp, squid, and fish. In the north, matures when 2-3 feet long. The eggs are probably laid in spring. Young are about SVi inches long when hatched. Economic Importance: Common in the commercial catch of the fisheries in the Middle Atlantic area. The pectoral fins or "wings" of the largest specimens are occasionally used for food. The Clear-nosed Skate is frequently caught by the surf-caster fishing off the shores of New York and New Jersey. Little Skate 259 Little Skate Raja erinacea Mitchill Color: Upper surface of body light to dark brown; scat- tered dark brown spots. Lower surface white or light gray. Distribution: Massachusetts Bay to Florida. Size: Largest size recorded about 21 inches long. A speci- men of this length weighs about 2 pounds. General Information: Common in shallow waters along the coast, but has been taken in depths down to 480 feet. Crabs and shrimp form an important part of its diet. It also feeds on squid, shellfish, worms, and small fishes in- cluding the silversides, sand launces, and herrings. The Little Skate matures when 18-20 inches long. The eggs are laid in early spring and summer. Newborn young are 3>V2-A inches long. Economic Importance: One of the commonest skates along the coasts of New England and the Middle Atlantic. Often taken in quantity by the commercial fisheries, but most of the catch is discarded. Small quantities are used as bait in eel and lobster traps. The Little Skate is probably the species of skate most frequently caught by the angler. 260 Rosetted, Barn-Door Skates Resetted Skate, Leopard Skate Raja garmani Whitley Color: Upper surface of body. light to dark brown; scat- tered small light and dark brown spots; also conspicuous dark rosettes formed of a half dozen or more dark brown or brown-black spots arranged around a central spot. Distribution: From southern New England to Florida in the deep waters of the Continental Shelf. Size: A specimen 17 inches long has been recorded. Maxi- mum length is not known. General Information: Little is known about this skate. It appears to inhabit waters deeper than 240 feet. Economic Importance: None. Barn-Door Skate Raja laevis Mitchill Big Skate 261 Color: Upper surface of body brown, with darker spots of various sizes scattered over its surface. Lower surface white, often with gray blotches; mucous pores in snout region with black dots. Distribution: Grand Banks of Newfoundland south to North Carolina. Size: Reported to reach a length of 6 feet. Specimens 4- AVi feet weigh 30-38 pounds. General Information: The Barn-Door Skate is often found close to shore but is most common offshore in depths of 30-500 feet and has been taken in depths down to 1,400 feet. It feeds chiefly on crabs, shrimp, and lobsters but also eats shellfish, squid, worms, and a wide variety of fishes. The eggs are laid in winter, and the young are about 7 inches long at hatching. Economic Importance: A common species growing to a large size, it comprises the bulk of the commercial catch of skates marketed on the American Atlantic coast. Barn- Door Skates are frequently caught by anglers "deep-sea" fishing off the coasts of New York and New Jersey. Big Skate Raja ocellata Mitchill Color: Upper surface of body light brown with scattered round, black spots. Outer or hind part of pectoral fin often has 1-4 dark brown or blackish spots edged with white. Lower surface white, with irregular brown patches. 262 Thorny Skate Distribution: Grand Banks of Newfoundland south to North CaroUna. Size: Maximum length about VA feet. A specimen IV2 feet long weighs about 7 pounds. General Information: Commonly found both in the shoal waters along the shore and down to depths of 240 feet. It has been recorded at a depth of 360 feet. The main food of this skate is crabs, but worms, shrimp, shellfish, and small fishes are also eaten. In southern New England the eggs appear to be laid throughout the year. Newly hatched young are AVi-S inches long. Economic Importance: Fairly common in the catch of the offshore otter trawl fishery. The larger specimens are some- times marketed for food. Some are processed into fish meal. Thorny Skate Raja radiata Donovan Color: Upper surface of body brown. Lower surface white, sometimes with brown or gray blotches. Distribution: Both sides of the North Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic, found from Labrador to South Carolina. South of Cape Cod occurs mostly in depths of 900-1,800 feet along the Continental Slope. Size: Maximum length recorded slightly less than W2 feet. General Information: Most common north of Cape Cod. Feeds on crabs, shrimp, worms, and small fishes. Eggs ap- pear to be deposited throughout the year. Newly hatched young are about 4 inches long. Smooth-tailed Skate, Southern Sting Ray 263 Economic Importance: None. Smooth-tailed Skate Raja senta Garman Color: Upper surface of body pale brown with numerous dark spots. Lower surface white. Distribution: Gulf of St. Lawrence to South Carolina. Size: Maximum length recorded is 2 feet. General Information: A deep-water species. South of Cape Cod it has been taken in depths of from 300 to 2,800 feet. Little is known about this skate. Economic Importance: None. Southern Sting Ray Dasyatis americana Hildebrand and Schroeder Color: Upper surface of body gray, brown, or brownish green; a gray or white spot on center line of snout immedi- ately in front of eyes. Lower surface white. Distribution: Found in coastal waters from Brazil to New Jersey, but occurs only as a straggler north of North Carolina. 264 Northern Sting Ray Size: Largest specimen recorded was 5 feet wide. A speci- men about 3 feet wide weighed 58 pounds. General Information: Uncommon in the region north of North Carolina. It is usually found inshore in shoal water. It feeds on crabs, clams, shrimp, worms, and small fishes. Newborn young are probably about 8 inches wide. Economic Importance: None. Northern Sting Ray Dasyatis centroura (Mitchill) Color: Olive-brown or dark brown on upper surface of body; white on lower surface. Distribution: Coastal waters from Georges Bank and Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras. Size: Probably the largest sting ray in the western North Atlantic. Maximum width reported nearly 7 feet. Maximum length possibly 13-14 feet. A specimen 7 feet wide was said to weigh 350 pounds. General Information: Often found in shoal waters near inlets and in bays but has also been taken in depths of 120-180 feet. Common in summer off the coasts of south- ern New England and the Middle Atlantic. Feeds on crabs, clams, squid, and worms. Little is known about its life history. Economic Importance: None. Commonly taken by the commercial fisheries. Often caught by surf-casters along the New York and New Jersey beaches. Stingaree, Say's Sting Ray 265 Stingaree Dasyatis sabina (LeSueur) Color: Yellow-brown or brown on upper surface of body. White below. Distribution: Coastal waters from the Gulf of Mexico to Chesapeake Bay. Size: A small species of sting ray. The largest specimen recorded was 2 feet wide. General Information: Found commonly close to shore in bays and estuaries in depths of less than 8 feet. It often enters brackish waters. Main foods are small shrimp-like animals and worms. The young are probably born from spring through autumn. Young just ready for birth have been reported to be about 4 inches wide. Economic Importance: None. Say's Sting Ray Dasyatis say (LeSueur) 266 Giant Butterfly Ray Color: Upper surface of body red-brown, green-brown, gray-brown, or greenish gray. Lower surface white. Distribution: Found regularly in coastal waters from Brazil to Virginia and as an occasional straggler north as far as southern Massachusetts. Size: Maximum size reported as about 3 feet wide. General Information: Common in depths less than 10 feet and has never been taken in depths below 30 feet. It feeds mostly on worms and shellfish but also eats shrimp, crabs, and fish. Observations in subtropical and tropical waters indicate that the young are probably born in these zones at all times of the year. They are 6-7 inches wide at birth. Economic Importance: None. Giant Butterfly Ray Gymnura altavela (Linnaeus) Color: Color very variable. Upper surface of body dark red-brown, gray-brown or coffee brown. Scattered darker or lighter dots or blotches. Lower surface white. Distribution: Tropical and temperate waters on both sides of the Atlantic. In the western Atlantic, found from south- ern Massachusetts to Argentina. Size: The maximum size reported from the western Atlantic was almost 7 feet wide. General Information: Relatively rare on the American Atlantic Coast. Most often found in shoal water but has been taken at a depth of 180 feet. Newborn young are probably 15-18 inches wide. Economic Importance: None. Lesser Butterfly, Eagle Rays 267 Lesser Butterfly Ray Gymnura micrura (Bloch and Schneider) Color: Upper surface of body green, purple, brown, or gray with dots and markings of lighter and darker shades. Lower surface white. Distribution: Found regularly in tropical and temperate waters from Brazil to Virginia. A summer straggler north as far as southern New England. Size: Maximum size probably 4 feet wide. General Information: In summer common on sandy bot- toms in Chesapeake Bay. It feeds on shellfish, shrimp, and fish. The young are born from May through August in Chesapeake Bay and are 6-9 inches at birth. Economic Importance: None. Eagle Ray Myliobatis freminvillii (LeSueur) 268 Spotted Eagle Ray Color: Upper surface of body gray, brown, or red-brown. Lower surface pure white or tinged with color of upper surface. Distribution: Found from Brazil to New York and as a straggler north to Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a width of about 3 feet. General Information: Not common at least in the north- ern part of its range. Feeds on crabs, lobsters, clams, and other shellfish. Young are probably 10 inches wide at birth. Economic Importance: None. Spotted Eagle Ray Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen) Color: Upper surface of disc greenish brown or chestnut brown; pectoral fins darker. Conspicuous white, green, or yellow spots, rings, and streaks over whole surface. Lower surface white. Distribution: World-wide in tropical and warm temperate waters. In the western Atlantic, from Brazil to North Carolina and as a stray to Chesapeake Bay. Size: Maximum size recorded was IV2 feet wide. A speci- men between 7 and IV2 feet wide has been estimated to weigh 400-500 pounds. General Information: Common in some years along the coast of North Carolina in summer. It is frequently seen leaping out of the water. The main foods appear to be clams and oysters. Newborn young range from 6 to 14 inches wide. Cow-nosed Ray 269 Economic Importance: Of no commercial value. This ray can be very destructive to oyster and clam beds. Cow-nosed Ray Rhinoptera bonasus (Mitchill) Color: Upper surface of body light to dark brown. Lower surface white or yellow-white. Distribution: Coastal waters from Cape Cod to Brazil. Size: The maximum size reported was 7 feet wide. General Information: Nowhere very abundant. In various years in different localities throughout its range large schools have been sighted. It feeds on such shellfish as clams, oysters, and large snails as well as on crabs and lobsters. Shellfish' buried in the bottom are said to be stirred up by the flapping of the pectoral fins. Newborn young are probably 14 inches wide. Economic Importance: None. 270 Lesser and Giant Devil Rays Lesser Devil Ray Mobula hypostoma (Bancroft) Color: Upper surface of body black or dark blue. Gray- white or yellow-white below. Distribution: Found regularly from Brazil to North Caro- lina and as a straggler farther north. Size: Maximum size recorded was 4 feet wide. General Information: Nowhere abundant, although they have been described as swimming in schools on the coast of North Carolina. They often leap out of the water high above its surface. Chief foods are small shrimp-like ani- mals and small fishes. Economic Importance: None. Giant Devil Ray Manta birostris (Donndorff) True Fishes 271 Color: Upper surface of body red-brown, green-brown, or black. Lower surface white. Distribution: Found regularly from Brazil to South Caro- lina and as a straggler as far north as southern New England. Size: Maximum size reported was a specimen 20 feet wide and weighing 3,502 pounds. General Information: The Giant Devil Ray is probably most numerous in the Gulf of Mexico and off southeastern Florida. It is most often seen in the shoal water near shore, but specimens are also frequently found swimming at the surface of the water far offshore over deep water. This ray frequently occurs in pairs or schools. At times it may leap clear of the water. This ray probably feeds on small shrimp-like animals and small fish. While an inoffensive animal if left alone, the Giant Devil Ray can capsize or smash a small boat if angered. The fact that the two projecting head fins automatically close together on any- thing that may touch the head region between these fins may explain the stories of divers being smothered by Giant Devil Rays which grasp the air hose and cut off the air supply. Economic Importance: Of no commercial importance. Harpooning of this ray by sportsmen, a frequent occur- rence, usually results in a frenzied flight of the animal tow- ing the boat behind it, often for several hours. TRUE FISHES Characters: The true fishes are a diverse group of aquatic vertebrates which, like the sharks, sawfish, skates, and rays, have well-developed jaws and respire by means of gills. They differ from the sharks and their relatives in the following characters: 1. The skeleton is formed of bone in most species. Ex- ceptions are the primitive fishes like the sturgeons whose 272 True Fishes skeleton is composed mostly of cartilage. However, some true bone is always present. 2. There is only one gill opening on each side of the head. 3. The fins are supported by bony rays. General Information: Although water covers about 71 per cent of the earth's surface to an average depth of over 2 miles, not all of it is teeming with fish. Most of the fish are concentrated in the relatively shoal waters adjacent to the continental land masses, on the Continental Shelf and along the edges of the Shelf as it dips into the depths of the ocean, the Continental Slope. In these areas two major categories of fish exist: the demersal or bottom-dwelling forms such as the flounder, cod, and haddock, and the pelagic or midwater and surface forms such as the herrings and bluefish. Beyond the edge of the Continental Slope on the ocean floor live the abyssal or deep-sea forms, frequently gro- tesque in appearance and possessing special light organs. Over these great depths are found the pelagic oceanic spe- cies, such as the ocean sunfish and tunas, some of which commonly enter the waters over the Continental Shelf and Slope. Just as fish are not equally abundant from the coastal areas to the ocean depths, they are also unequally dis- tributed from the equator to the poles. In terms of num- bers the most fish are found in the subpolar and temperate zones. Here the great commercial fisheries of the world are concentrated. But it is in the subtropical and tropical zones that the greatest number of different species occur. Within the expanse of water extending from the shore to the ocean depths and from the North to the South Pole there exists as wide a variety of environments as on land. The land beneath the sea has its hills and mountains, val- leys, broad fertile plains, and desert-like regions. Rivers are replaced by ocean currents. In the fertile coastal plain of the sea, land vegetation finds its counterpart in the sea- weeds and even more in the stationary plant-like animal True Fishes 273 forms such as the sea fans and pens, the sea anemones, sponges, and corals. In the bottom ooze are miUions of small organisms: bacteria, protozoa, worms, molluscs, and crustaceans comparable to the bacteria, protozoa, worms, and insects found in earth on land. Over the whole ocean bottom as over the whole land mass hovers an atmosphere containing the vital element of life, oxygen. In the sea the oxygen is dissolved in the water, while in the air it is mixed with various other gases. It has been found that a given amount of air has over 30 times as much oxygen as the same quantity of sea water. Further, water is about 800 times as dense as air at the same temperature. As a group, fish have adapted to the relatively low con- centration of oxygen in water both by requiring less of this element in respiring as compared with the land verte- brates and by the development of very efficient respiratory organs, the gills. To overcome the impediment to move- ment imposed by the dense water medium, faster-swimming fishes have developed streamlined bodies. The physiology and shape of the body, the form of the mouth, teeth, and fins, and other external as well as internal structures have been modified in the various species of fishes for adaptation to a particular type of environment. As a result, these fishes are not distributed throughout the ocean waters but are restricted to a particular area or habitat. In most fishes the eggs are fertilized after extrusion and develop and hatch in the water. However, in some species the eggs are fertilized while inside the fish, as for example in the guppi and other "live-bearers," and are carried by the female throughout development. Depending on the species and the size of the fish the number of eggs released may vary from less than a hundred to millions. In the species that protect their eggs in some manner, such as the "live-bearers," nest builders, and mouth breeders, far fewer eggs are produced by each female than in species that broadcast their eggs throughout the water. 274 True Fishes The eggs of most fishes are less than an eighth of an inch in diameter; they are usually shaped like a sphere but sometimes may be elliptical in form. There are two types of eggs, pelagic and demersal. Pelagic eggs are buoyant and are found floating at various depths. They contain oil globules which serve as food for the developing embryo. The pelagic egg develops rapidly and the young hatch in a relatively few days. Demersal eggs sink to the bottom. They are frequently heavily yolked and may take several weeks or even months to hatch. However, some demersal eggs resemble the pelagic egg in appearance and hatch quickly. Demersal eggs often have a sticky surface or sticky threads or other structures when extruded. As a result they become attached to each other, plant and animal growths, particles of sand, and other solid objects along the bottom. For the most part newly hatched fish are entirely different in appearance from the adult and can be identified only by the specialist. Fishes eat a wide variety of foods including the micro- scopic plants and animals, seaweeds, invertebrates, and aquatic vertebrates. Some fish live almost exclusively on the small plants and animals floating in the water (plank- ton). Others are flesh eaters, feeding mostly on larger in- vertebrates or fish, including members of their own species. The majority of species are covered with scales, but in some forms scales are absent or are replaced, either com- pletely or in part, by bony plates, protuberances, prickles, or spines. A few types have developed special organs such as poisonous spines and electric dischargers for defense or for assistance in capturing food. Economic Importance: Fish is an important source of ani- mal protein. In some countries it is the major source of this essential component of the diet. Technological im- provements in preservation and processing of fish devel- oped since World War I have encouraged a greatly ex- panded international trade in salt, smoked, canned, and, more recently, frozen fish. As the world population in- creases the fisheries are being more heavily exploited. Classification 275 Classification: The scientific classification of the true fishes found in the area from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras is as follows : Class: Osteicthyes (True Fishes or Bony Fishes) Family: Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) Acipenser oxyrhynchus — common sturgeon Acipenser brevirostrum — short-nosed sturgeon Family: Elopidae (Ten-Pounders) Elops saurus — ten-pounder Family: Megalopidae (Tarpons) Tarpon atlanticus — tarpon Family: Albulidae (Bonefishes) Albula vulpes — bonefish Family: Dussumieriidae (Round Herrings) Etrumeus sadina — round herring Family: Clupeidae (Herrings) Sardinella anchovia — Spanish sardine Clupea harengus — sea herring Pomolobus mediocris — hickory shad Pomolobus aestivalis — blueback Pomolobus pseudoharengus — alewife Alosa sapidissima — shad Opisthonema oglinum — thread herring Brevoortia tyrannus — menhaden Family: Dorosomidae (Gizzard Shads) Dorosoma cepedianum — gizzard shad Family: Engraulidae (Anchovies) Anchoa mitchilli — common anchovy Anchoa hepsetus — striped anchovy Anchoa argyrophanus — silvery anchovy Family: Salmonidae (Salmons) Salmo salar — Atlantic salmon Salmo gairdnerii — rainbow trout 276 True Fishes Family: Osmeridae (Smelts) Osmerus mordax — smelt Family: Ariidae (Sea Catfishes) Galeichthys felis — sea catfish Bagre marinus — gaff-topsail catfish Family: Anguillidae (Eels) Anguilla rostrata — common eel Conger oceanica — American conger eel Family: Synodontidae (Lizard Fishes) Synodus foetens — lizard fish Family: Poeciliidae (Killifishes) Fundulus heteroclitus — common killifish Fundulus majalis — striped killifish Cyprinodon variegatus — sheepshead minnow Lucania parva — rain-water fish Fundulus luciae — Lucy's killifish Fundulus ocellaris — ocellated killifish Fundulus diaphanus — fresh-water killifish Gambusia holbrooki — top minnow Family: Belonidae (Billfishes) Tylosurus marinus — billfish Tylosurus acus — agujon Ablennes hians — flat billfish Family: Hemiramphidae (Half beaks) Hyporhamphus unifasciatus — half beak Hemiramphus brasiliensis — balao Euleptorhamphus velox — flying halfbeak Hyporhamphus hildebrandi — pajarito Family: Scomberesocidae (Needlefishes) Scomberesox saurus — needlefish Family: Exocoetidae (Flying Fishes) Cypselurus heterurus — Atlantic flying fish Parexocoetus mesogaster — short-winged flying fish Cypselurus furcatus — spot-fin flying fish Classification 277 Family: Merlucciidae (Silver Hakes) Merluccius bilinearis — whiting Merluccius alhidus — offshore whiting Family: Gadidae (Cods) Gadus callarias — cod Melanogrammus aeglifinus — haddock Pollachius virens — pollock Microgadus tomcod — tomcod Urophycis regius — spotted hake Urophycis tenuis — white hake Urophycis chuss — red hake Brosme brosme — cusk Enchelyopus cimbrius — four-bearded rockling Family: Hippoglossidae (Halibuts) Hippoglossus hippoglossus — Atlantic halibut Family: Pleuronectidae (Flounders) Hippoglossoides platessoides — dab Pseudopleuronectes americanus — blackback flounder Liopsetta putnami — smooth flounder Limanda ferruginea — yellowtail flounder Glyptocephalus cynoglossus — gray sole Family: Paralichthyidae (Flukes) Paralichthys den tat us — northern fluke Paralichthys oblongus — four-spotted fluke Family: Bothidae (Turbots) Lophopsetta maculata — sundial Etropus microstomus — small-mouth flounder Platophrys ocellatus — eyed flounder Family: Achiridae (Soles) Trinectes maculatus — hogchoker Family: Cynoglossidae (Tonguefishes) Symphurus plagiusa — tonguefish Family: Atherinidae (Silversides) Menidia menidia — northern silverside 278 True Fishes Menidia beryllina — tide-water silverside Membras vagrans — rough silverside Family: Mugilidae (Mullets) Mugil curema — white mullet Mugil cephalus — striped mullet Family: Sphyraenidae (Barracudas) Sphyraena borealis — northern barracuda Sphyraena barracuda — great barracuda Family: Gasterosteidae (Sticklebacks) Apeltes quadracus — four-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus — three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus wheatlandi — two-spined stickleback Pungitius pungitius — nine-spined stickleback Family: Syngnathidae (Pipefishes) Syngnathus fuse us — northern pipefish Syngnathus floridae — Florida pipefish Family: Hippocampidae (Sea Horses) Hippocampus hudsonius — northern sea horse Family: Fistulariidae (Cornet fishes) Fistularia tabacaria — trumpet fish Family: Mullidae (Goatfishes) Mullus auratus — northern goatfish Family: Scombridae (Mackerels) Scomber scombrus — common mackerel Pneumatophorus colias — chub mackerel Auxis thazard — frigate mackerel Sarda sarda — common bonito Katsuwonus pelamis — ocean bonito Euthynnus alleteratus — little tuna Thunnus thynnus — bluefin tuna Thunmis atlanticus — blackfin tuna Thunnus albacares — yellowfin tuna Thunnus alalunga — albacore Classification 279 Scomberomorus maculatus — Spanish mackerel Scornberomorus regalis — cero' Scomberomorus cavalla — king mackerel Family: Trichiuridae (Cutlass fishes) Trichiurus lepturus — cutlass fish Family: Istiophoridae (Marlins, Sailfishes) Makaira ampla — blue marlin Makaira albida — white marlin Istiophorus americanus — Atlantic sailfish Family: Xiphiidae (Swordfishes) Xiphias gladius — swordfish Family: Coryphaenidae (Dolphins) Coryphaena hippurus — dolphin Family: Stromateidae (Butterfishes) Poronotus triacanthus — butterfish Peprilus alepidotus — harvest fish Family: Centrolophidae (Rudder Fishes) Palinurichthys perciformis — black rudder fish Family: Carangidae (Scads, Jacks, Pompanos) Trachurops crumenopthalmus — goggle-eyed scad Decapterus punctatus — round scad Decapterus macarellus — mackerel scad Trachurus trachurus — rough scad Caranx hippos — common jack Caranx crysos — hardtail Caranx latus — horse-eye jack ^ A lectis crinitus — threadfish Vomer setapinnis — moonfish Chloroscombrus chrysurus — bumper Selene vomer — look-down Seriola zonata — banded rudder fish Seriola dumerili — amber jack Naucrates ductor — pilot fish Oligoplites saurus — leatherjacket 280 True Fishes Trachinotus carolinus — common pompano Trachinotus falcatus — round pompano Family: Pomatomidae (Bluefishes) Pomatomus saltatrix — bluefish Family: Rachycentridae (Cobias) Rachycentron canadus — cobia Family: Moronidae (White Basses) Roccus saxatilis — striped bass Morone americana — white perch Family: Serranidae (Sea Basses, Groupers) Centropristes striatus — common sea bass Poly prion americanus — wreckfish Family: Priacanthidae (Big-eyes) Pseudopriacanthus alius — deep big-eye Priacanthus arenatus — common big-eye Family: Lobotidae (Tripletails) Lobotes surinamensis — tripletail Family: Lutianidae (Snappers) Lutianus griseus — gray snapper Family: Haemuhdae (Grunts) Orthopristis chrysopterus — pigfish Haemulon plumieri — white grunt Family: Sparidae (Porgies) Stenotomus chrysops — northern porgy Stenotomus aculeatus — southern porgy Diplodus holbrookii — Holbrook's porgy A rchosargus probatocephalus — sheepshead Lagodon rhomboides — pinfish Family: Kyphosidae (Chubs) Kyphosus sectatrix — Bermuda chub Family: Otolithidae (Weakfishes) Cynoscion regalis — gray sea trout Classification 281 Cynoscion nebulosus — spotted sea trout Cynoscion nothus — white sea trout Family: Sciaenidae (Croakers, Drums) Menticirrhus saxatilis — northern kingfish Menticirrhus americanus — southern kingfish Menticirrhus littoralis — gulf kingfish Leiostomus xanthurus — spot Micropogon undulatus — croaker Pogonias cromis — black drum Sciaenops ocellatus — channel bass Larimus fasciatus — banded croaker Bairdiella chrysura — sand perch Family: Chaetodontidae (Butterfly fishes) Chaetodon ocellatus — common butterfly fish Chaetodon capistratus — four-eyed butterfly fish Family: Ephippidae (Spadefishes) Chaetodipterus faber — spadefish Family: Branchiostegidae (Tilefishes) Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps — tilefish Family: Cottidae (Sculpins) Myoxocephalus aeneus — little sculpin Myoxocephalus scorpius — shorthorn sculpin Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus — longhorn sculpin Family: Hemitripteridae (Sea Ravens) Hemitripterus americanus — sea raven Family: Cyclopteridae (Lumpfishes) Cyclopterus lumpus — lumpfish Family: Liparidae (Sea Snails) Neoliparis atlanticus — sea snail Liparis liparis — striped sea snail Family: Cephalacanthidae (Flying Gurnards) Cephalacanthus volitans — flying gurnard 282 True Fishes Family: Triglidae (Sea Robins) Prionotus carolinus — common sea robin Prionotus evolans — striped sea robin Family: Labridae (Wrasses) Tautoga onitis — tautog Tautogolabrus adspersus — cunner Family: Gobiidae (Gobies) Gobiosoma bosci — naked goby Gobiosoma ginsburgi — Ginsburg's goby Microgobius thalassinus — sea-green goby Family: Echeneidae (Remoras) Echeneis naucrates — shark remora Remora brachyptera — swordfish remora Remora remora — offshore remora Rhombochirus osteochir — spearfish remora Family: Ammodytidae (Sand Launces) Ammodytes americanus — American sand launce Ammodytes oceanicus — ocean sand launce Family: Uranoscopidae (Stargazers) Astroscopus guttatus — northern stargazer Family: Blenniidae (Blennies) Chasmodes bosquianus — striped blenny Hypsoblennius hentz — Carolina blenny Family: Pholidae (Rock Eels) Pholis gunnellus — rock eel Family: Stichaeidae (Shannys) Ulvaria subbifurcata — ulva fish Family: Cryptacanthodidae (Wrymouths) Cryptacanthodes maculatus — wrymouth Family: Anarhichadidae (Wolf fishes) Anarhichas lupus — common wolf fish Family: Zoarcidae (Ocean Pouts) Classification 283 Macrozoarces americanus — American ocean pout Lycodes reticulatus — reticulated eelpout Family: Ophidiidae (Cusk Eels) Rissola marginata — margined cusk eel Family: Batrachoididae (Toadfishes) Opsanus tau — toadfish Family: Gobiesocidae (Clingfishes) Cotylis nigripinnis — clingfish Family: Balistidae (Triggerfishes) Balistes carolinensis — common triggerfish Family: Monacanthidae (Filefishes) Monacanthus hispidus — common filefish Alutera schoepfii — orange filefish Monacanthus ciliatus — fringed filefish Alutera scripta — unicorn filefish Family: Ostraciidae (Trunkfishes) Lactophrys trigonus — common trunkfish Lactophrys triqueter — smooth trunkfish Lactophrys tricornis — cowfish Family: Tetraodontidae (Swellfishes) Lagocephalus laevigatus — smooth swellfish Sphaeroides maculatus — northern swellfish Sphaeroides spengleri — southern swellfish Family: Diodontidae (Porcupine fishes) Chilomycterus schoepfi — spiny boxfish Diodon hystrix — porcupine fish Family: Molidae (Ocean Sunfishes) Mola mola — ocean sunfish Masturus lanceolatus — sharp-tailed sunfish Family: Lophiidae (Anglers) Lophius americanus — American goosefish Family Antennariidae (Sargassum fishes) 284 Common Sturgeon Histrio pictus — sargassum fish Common Sturgeon Acipenser oxyrhynchus Mitchill Color: Blue-gray or olive-green above, gradually becoming lighter on the sides. White in the region from the upper side row of bony shields to the belly. Distribution: Coastal waters from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Size: Reported to reach a length of 18 feet. A fish IV2 feet long weighed 190 pounds. General Information: The Common Sturgeon spends most of its life in salt water but ascends rivers into fresh water to spawn. Spawning takes place in spring and early sum- mer. A large number of eggs are released by each fish. One fish has been recorded as carrying 2Vi million eggs. The eggs hatch in about one week. The young remain in the rivers for several years until they reach 2V^— 3 feet, although some may go to mouths of the rivers in the first year when 5-6 inches long. Fish 7-8 feet long have been estimated to be 12 years old. The Common Sturgeon is a bottom feeder. It uses the pointed snout to stir up the mud and uncover food. Barbels on the snout act as organs of touch to locate the food on the murky bottom. Principal foods are worms, small shellfish and fish, and small crustaceans. These are sucked up by the vacuum-like, toothless mouth located on the underside of the head. Economic Importance: Both flesh and roe of the Common Sturgeon are highly esteemed foods. The flesh is commonly sold as a smoked product and the roe in a processed form Short-nosed Sturgeon, Ten-Pounder 285 as caviar. This species, formerly common, is now rela- tively rare and taken only incidentally in the commercial fisheries for other species of fishes. Short-nosed Sturgeon Acipenser brevirostrum LeSueur Color: Olive-black or red-brown above; sides reddish mixed with violet, sometimes with oblique black bands. Belly white. Distribution: Coastal waters from Massachusetts to South CaroHna. Size: Largest recorded about 3 feet long. A 31 -inch fish weighed IVa, pounds. General Information: Spawns in rivers in spring. Little is known about its life history. Uncommon throughout its range. Economic Importance: None. Ten-Pounder Elops saurus Linnaeus Color: Back bluish; sides silvery; belly slightly yellow. Distribution: Recorded from Brazil to Massachusetts. Most abundant in southern Florida and the West Indies. Size: Reported to reach a length of 3 feet. General Information: Rare in the Chesapeake and Middle Atlantic regions. Economic Importance: None. 286 Tarpon, Bone fish Tarpon Tarpon atlanticus (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Color: Blue-silver above; sides and belly bright silver. Distribution: Most common in the Wes<^ Indies, the Gulf of Mexico, and Florida. Recorded from Brazil to Nova Scotia. Size: Reported maximum length about 8 feet. General Information: A rare straggler in the area from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras. Economic Importance: Of little value as a food fish. An important species in the recreational fisheries of Florida. Bonefish Albula vulpes (Linnaeus) Color: Brilliant silver. Scales on upper surface of body with a greenish tint. Distribution: Found in all tropical seas. Rarely reaches as far north as Cape Cod. Size: May reach a length of over IVi feet and a weight of 13 pounds. General Information: Rare in the Chesapeake and Middle Atlantic regions. Economic Importance: An important game fish in Florida waters. Round Herring, Spanish Sardine 287 Round Herring Etrumeus sadina (Mitchill) Color: Olive green above; sides and belly silvery. Distribution: In the Gulf of Mexico and along the Amer- ican Atlantic coast as far north as the Bay of Fundy. Rare north of Cape Cod. Most common in the south. Size: Maximum length about 15 inches. General Information: Little is known about this fish. In some years large schools are reported offshore along the New Jersey and New York coasts. Probably an important food for the tunas. Commercial Importance: None. Spanish Sardine Sardinella anchovia Cuvier and Valenciennes Color: Silvery. Distribution: Cape Cod to Brazil. Size: Maximum length about 7 inches. General Information: Little is known about this fish. It is not common close to shore but often is abundant offshore in midwater over great depths. Economic Importance: None. 288 Sea Herring Sea Herring Clupea harengus Linnaeus Color: Back green-blue or steel blue; sides and belly silvery. Distribution: Both sides of the North Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic it is most commonly found from northern Labrador to Block Island. Small numbers are sometimes taken farther south as far as Cape Hatteras. Size: Maximum length about IVi feet. General Information: The Sea Herring is found in open coastal waters often in large schools comprising thousands of individuals. Usually the members of a school are fish of about the same length. Depending on locality, spawning may occur from spring to autumn in depths of 12-180 feet. A single female may lay 20-40 thousand eggs. The eggs sink to the bottom, and because they have a sticky surface they become attached in clumps and layers to particles of sand, stones, seaweeds, and other objects. Fish 10 inches long are about 4 years old, 15 inches long, about 9 years old. Specimens 20 years of age have been reported. Most fish do not spawn until they are 4 years of age or older. The food of the Sea Herring is mostly plankton. This species is an important source of food for many of the larger fishes. Economic Importance: The Sea Herring is one of impor- tant species of food fishes. In the United States most of the catch is landed in Maine and consists primarily of small fish, 3-5 inches long, which are canned as "sardines." The larger-sized fish are sold fresh or are pickled or smoked. Hickory Shad, Blueback 289 Hickory Shad Pomolobus mediocris (Nfitchill) Color: Gray-green above; sides and belly silver. A dark spot behind gill followed by a series of obscure black dots. A series of faint, dusky, horizontal stripes on sides. Distribution: Found from the Bay of Fundy to Florida. Size: Reaches a length of 2 feet. A 15-inch fish weighs 1 pound; an 18-inch fish, 2 pounds. General Information: Little is known about this fish. It feeds mostly on small fish but squid, crabs, and fish eggs have also been found in its stomach. Economic Importance: The Hickory Shad is taken mixed with other species of herrings mostly by the pound net fishery and has a limited market. While not an important sport fish it is known to strike at an artificial lure and will put up a good fight on light tackle. Blueback, Glut Herring Pomolobus aestivalis (Mitchill) Color: Back blue-green; sides silvery. A dark spot in back of the gills. Faint horizontal stripes on upper part of body. Distribution: Nova Scotia to Florida. Size: Reaches a length of about 15 inches and a weight of 13 ounces. General Information: Like the alewife, the Blueback enters rivers in spring to spawn. However, unlike the alewife the 290 Alewife Blueback does not usually go above the brackish water to lay its eggs. The young when about 2 inches long find their way to the sea, where they remain until mature. Economic Importance: This species is not as abundant as the alewife. It is frequently sold mixed with other kinds of herrings. Alewife Pomolobus pseudoharengus (Wilson) Color: Back gray-green; sides and belly silver. A dark spot behind the gill. Faint horizontal stripes on sides. Distribution: Northern Nova Scotia to North Carolina. Races of this fish have become landlocked in certain fresh- water lakes, including Lake Ontario and New York's Finger Lakes. Size: Reaches a length of about 15 inches and a weight of 14 ounces. General Information: The Alewife spends most of its life in the sea, but 3-4 years after birth it matures and in the spring enters the coastal rivers and streams and swims up into fresh water to spawn. Often the stream selected for spawning is the one in which the fish was born. Over 100,000 eggs may be laid by a single fish. Soon after hatching, when slightly over Vi inch in length, the young start moving to the sea, where they remain until adult size, entering the rivers and streams only to spawn. The Alewife feeds mostly on plankton, including small shrimp- and crab-like forms and small fish. Economic Importance: The Alewife is of major impor- tance in the pound net fishery of Chesapeake Bay. Some of the fish are eaten when fresh, but the bulk is salted or canned and sold as "river herring." The scales are a Shad 291 source of "pearl essence" used in the jewelry and display industries. The Alewife will readily strike at an artificial lure particularly after spawning, when it is ravenous and actively seeks food. They are frequently taken by trout fishermen in spring in the coastal streams and often mis- taken for small shad. Shad Alosa sapidissima (Wilson) Color: Green or dark blue above; silvery white on sides and belly. A dark spot behind the gill usually followed by a series of indistinct spots. Distribution: Gulf of St. Lawrence to the St. Johns River in Florida. They have been introduced successfully by man to the Pacific coast of the United States. Size: Maximum length is about IV2 feet with a weight of 13Vi pounds. General Information: The Shad enters coastal rivers in spring and early summer to spawn. Spawning occurs in both fresh and brackish water, but the latter is more favor- able for development of the young fish. The eggs are de- posited in shallow water over sandy or pebbly bottoms and are mostly laid in the period between sundown and mid- night. An average 30 thousand eggs are laid by a single female, but large fish have been estimated to lay as many as 156 thousand eggs. Unlike the eggs of the other river herrings (alewife and blueback), the eggs of the Shad are partly buoyant and are not sticky when laid; they are therefore carried about to some degree by currents. Young Shad remain in the river until the fall, when they are IV2- 292 Thread Herring 4!/2 inches long. They then move down to the sea, where they spend the remainder of their lives, entering the rivers only to spawn. They spawn for the first time when about 4 years old and commonly return to the river of their birth for this purpose. Like the other herrings, the Shad feeds primarily on plankton. Economic Importance: An important food species. Con- struction of impassable dams on many of the rivers and streams and pollution of other rivers and streams have eliminated or reduced the runs of this fish in numerous places. When running upstream to spawn the Shad will strike readily on an artificial lure and makes an excellent adversary on light tackle. A spectacular sport fishery for Shad has been developed in Connecticut at the Enfield Dam. Thread Herring Opisthonema oglinum (LeSueur) Color: Blue above; silvery sides and belly. Faint dark spot behind upper margin of gill cover. Dark horizontal streaks on upper part of body. Tips of dorsal and caudal fins black. Distribution: Found from Brazil to North Carolina and as a stray as far north as Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a maximum length of about one foot. General Information: Little is known about this species. It is most abundant in the West Indies. Economic Importance: None. Menhaden 293 Menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus (Latrobe) Color: Color of upper surface of body variable, ranging from green to blue, blue-gray, or brownish blue. Sides and belly silvery. Large dark spot behind upper margin of gill cover followed by several dark spots arranged in irregular rows. Distribution: Nova Scotia to eastern Florida. Size: Maximum length reported is 20 inches. General Information: Common near shore. Often seen near the surface of the water in large schools comprising thousands of fish. Spawning occurs in the sea, from June to August in the northern part of its range and in late autumn and winter in the southern part of its range. The eggs are buoyant and develop rapidly, usually hatching in less than 48 hours. The Menhaden feeds chiefly on micro- scopic plants and small crustaceans, which it sifts out of the water by means of highly specialized, comb-like gill rakers. Economic Importance: The Menhaden is an extremely oily fish of little value as food. It is, however, the most im- portant industrial fish now caught in the United States. In recent years over 1 billion pounds of Menhaden have been caught each year for conversion into fish meal and oil. This species is also a favorite food of other fishes, and it is frequently used in the recreational fisheries as a chum to attract game fishes or as a bait. 294 Gizzard Shad, Common Anchovy Gizzard Shad Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur) Color: Metallic blue above; sides and belly silvery. Distribution: Found in coastal fresh and brackish waters from Cape Cod to Texas. Also occurs landlocked in ponds and lakes, including the Great Lakes. Size: Maximum length about 15 inches. General Information: Not common north of Virginia. Lives mostly in fresh and brackish water and is seldom found in salt water. The Gizzard Shad feeds on small animals and plants which it picks up from the bottom. Spawning takes place in early summer. Economic Importance: A bony species of little commercial value. It is an important food for many other fishes. Common Anchovy Anchoa mitchilli (Cuvier and Valenciennes) :® Color: Body silvery, translucent, A poorly defined silver band, narrower than the eye, running the length of the body. Distribution: Occurs from Maine to Yucatan. Rare north of Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of about 4 inches. General Information: Commonly found in large schools in shallow waters along the shores. Sometimes it ascends into fresh-water streams. Spawns from May to August. The Striped, Silvery Anchovies 295 principal food of the Common Anchovy is small shrimp- like animals. Economic Importance: This species is not a food fish. However, it is an important part of the diet of other fishes. It is commonly used as a bait in the sport fisheries of some localities. Striped Anchovy Anchoa hepsetus (Linnaeus) Color: Pale gray, iridescent. A bright silvery band, slightly narrower than the eye, runs the length of the body. Distribution: Most common from Uruguay to Chesapeake Bay. A stray north as far as Nova Scotia. Size: May reach over 6 inches in length. General Information: Abundant in the West Indies and off the coast of Florida in shoal waters. It feeds on small shrimp-like animals. Economic Importance: This species is not eaten. It may be an important part of the diet of fishes in some localities. Silvery Anchovy Anchoa argyrophanus (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Color: Silvery, translucent. A broad silvery band, P/i times as wide as the eye, runs the length of the body. Distribution: Found mostly in the Gulf Stream. Specimens appear occasionally inshore from Cape Cod south. Size: Maximum length about 6 inches. 296 Atlantic Salmon General Information: Spawns in July and August. Not common inshore. Economic Importance: None. Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar Linnaeus Color: Back brown; sides silver; head and upper part of body have numerous spots and crosses. Distribution: Found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic it occurs from northeastern Lab- rador to New York. Now uncommon south of Cape Cod. Size: May reach a weight of over 50 pounds. A 3-foot specimen weighs 16-20 pounds. General Information: The Atlantic Salmon spends most of its life at sea, but in spring it enters rivers and swims upstream to fresh water to spawn. The fish are fat and silvery when they enter the river. As they work upstream they become thin and turn a dull red or brown color. Large black spots appear on the body, and, in the male, red and orange spots form and both jaws become very elongated. In Maine, spawning occurs in October and November. The female smooths out a shallow depression in the sand or gravel and after the eggs are laid and fer- tilized covers them with the bottom material. Many of the adult fish die after spawning. Those that survive may drop back to sea after spawning or stay in the river throughout the winter and go back to sea the following spring. The young fish, known as "parr," live in the fresh waters of the river for 2-3 years. Eventually they go down- stream to salt water, usually from late spring to autumn. Rainbow Trout, Smelt 297 They are about 5-6 inches long at this time, and their sides are marked with 10-11 black bars with bright red spots between the bars. When they reach salt water the "parr" lose all their color and become silvery. They are now termed "smolts." The Atlantic Salmon is a heavy feeder living chiefly on fish and various types of shrimp-like animals. It itself is the prey of sharks, tuna, swordfish, and harbor seals. Growth of the Atlantic Salmon is rapid while at sea. A 45-pound fish has been reported to be 8 years old. Economic Importance: An excellent food fish. As with the shad, impassable dams and pollution have reduced the runs or eliminated them in numerous localities. A favorite spe- cies of the angler in Maine and Canada. Rainbow Trout Salmo gairdnerii Gibbons Color: Silvery when in salt water. Distribution: Found occasionally in salt water where it has wandered from its normal habitat in fresh-water streams. Size: Grows to a length of about 3Vi feet. General Information: Originally the Rainbow Trout was found only in the coastal streams of California. It has been planted in fresh waters throughout the United States and in the East sometimes descends coastal fresh-water streams to the brackish water at their mouths. Smelt Osmerus mordax (Mitchill) 298 Smelt (cont.) Color: Transparent olive green above; sides lighter; belly silvery. A silver band on sides along length of body. Distribution: Found from eastern Labrador to Virginia. More common from New Jersey north. It is found land- locked in fresh-water lakes in Canada, Maine, and New Hampshire and has been successfully introduced into the Great Lakes, where it is now abundant. Size: Reaches a length of about 14 inches. General Information: The Smelt is found mainly close to shore, commonly about river mouths. It usually runs in schools of about the same length fish. Most of the life of this species is spent in salt water, but it runs up into fresh water to spawn. Soon after the ice goes out in the coastal streams the Smelt start to run up into the fresh water. The males appear first and are soon followed by the females. Spawning occurs from February through June, depending on water temperature. The eggs sink to the bottom and stick in masses to anything they may touch or to each other. A relatively small Smelt, 2 ounces in weight, may lay 50,000 eggs. After hatching, the young remain in the stream until some time in summer. By fall they are found in salt water. At this time they are about IV2 inches long. They remain in salt water for at least two winters before returning to the fresh-water streams to spawn. The Smelt's main food is small shrimp-like animals, but it also eats worms, small fish, and small shellfish. Economic Importance: A fine food fish now uncommon south of Cape Cod, and less abundant to the north than in the early 1900's. As with the shad, pollution, dams, and construction near streams have destroyed spawning areas or made them inaccessible, thus eliminating or reducing populations of Smelt in many localities. This species tends to concentrate in harbors in the fall of the year, at which time it can be readily caught by the angler. Sea, Gaff-Topsail Catfishes 299 Sea Catfish Galeichthys felis (Linnaeus) Color: Steel blue above; sides and belly silvery. Distribution: Found from Cape Cod to Texas but not common north of Virginia. Size: Reaches a length of about 2 feet. General Information: Like the gaff-topsail catfish below, the male of this species carries the fertilized eggs in its mouth until they hatch. The Sea Catfish is very common in the bays and harbors of our southern states. Like most other catfish it very actively seeks food at night. Economic Importance: A few are marketed. It is com- monly caught by anglers in our southern states. Gaff-Topsail Catfish Bagre marinus (Mitchill) Color: Top of head and back steel blue; sides silvery; belly white. Distribution: Coastal waters from Cape Cod to Panama. Not common north of Delaware. Size: Maximum length about 2 feet. General Information: In North Carolina waters breeding occurs in late May and June. The eggs are large and 300 American Eel range from three-fifths of an inch to one inch in diameter. After they are laid and fertilized the male picks them up and carries them around in his mouth until they hatch. For some time after hatching the fry also are carried in the mouth of the male fish. During this period the fish does not eat. The Gaff-Topsail Catfish feeds mostly on crabs and to a lesser extent on shrimp and fish. Economic Importance: A few are marketed. This species is frequently caught by anglers along the Florida coast. American Eel Anguilla rostrata (LeSueur) Color: Brown to olive-brown above; sides tinged with yel- low; belly dirty white. Distribution: Coastal streams and inshore waters from western Greenland to Central America and rarely south to Brazil. Size: It is said to grow to a length of over 4 feet. General Information: Mature American Eels migrate to a region southwest of Bermuda, between Bermuda and the Bahamas, and there mate and die. The eggs hatch and develop into a floating, broad, ribbon-like, transparent animal, very unlike the adult, called a leptocephalus. Over a period of slightly less than one year the leptocephalus is carried by prevailing currents to the American Atlantic coast. Here it changes to a body form like the adult. At this time it is 2-3^/2 inches long, transparent and uncol- ored except for a single row of black spots running the length of the body. These "glass eels" enter the mouths of coastal rivers and streams by the millions and attempt to work their way upstream. There is some indication that American Eels are slow-growing, possibly maturing at American Conger Eel 301 anywhere from 5 to 20 years of age. When mature this fish leaves the coastal streams and rivers and the inshore waters and starts its long migration to off Bermuda. The mature fish stops feeding and the color changes. The back turns to black and the sides become silvery. The eyes of the male double in size. The American Eel will eat almost any animal food, liv- ing or dead. It is primarily a scavenger and feeds mostly at night. During the day it mostly lies buried in the bottom, often with its head protruding. Economic Importance: An excellent food fish, marketed fresh, pickled, or smoked. There is a small commercial fishery for this species which could be expanded if con- sumer demand increased. A good sport fish on light tackle frequently taken by anglers fishing from shore, wharves, and piers. American Conger Eel Conger oceanica (Mitchill) Color: Blue-gray to brown-gray above; sometimes black or with a reddish tinge; dirty white below. Distribution: Found from Cape Cod south possibly to South America. Size: May reach a length of 8 f^et. General Information: This species occurs from close in- shore in a few feet of water to depths of over 850 feet, but it is most common in depths of from 250 to 450 feet. Like the American eel, the American Conger Eel migrates offshore to spawn, probably somewhere in the West Indies. The adults die after spawning and the young pass through a leptocephalus stage as do the young of the American eel. However, the young American Conger Eel does not 302 Lizard Fish, Common Killifish enter fresh-water streams but remains in the sea. Fish is its chief food, but shrimp and small shellfish are also eaten. Economic Importance: A few are taken by commercial fishermen fishing for other species of fish. It is often taken by anglers fishing on the bottom offshore. Lizard Fish Sy nodus foetens (Linnaeus) Color: Olive-brown above; sides and belly silvery. Distribution: Occurs from Cape Cod to Brazil. Most com- mon from South Carolina south. Size: Reported to reach a length of 2 feet. General Information: The Lizard Fish is a common species on sandy shores in the southern part of its range. It is usually uncommon in the north but in some years smaller fish, 5-7 inches long, may appear in numbers. It is re- ported to eat small fish, crabs, shrimp, worms, and other small aquatic animals. Economic Importance: None. Occasionally fish are taken by anglers fishing for other species. Common Killifish Fundulus heteroclitus (Linnaeus) Color: Large females brown-green above; lighter on lower sides and belly. Breeding males more silvery on lower sides; yellow on belly, anal fins, ventral fins, and edges of Common Killfish (cont.) 303 dorsal and caudal fins. Sides with 15 narrow, silvery, vertical bars and numerous blue-white and yellowish spots. A black spot on the rear part of the dorsal fin in both sexes. Young of both sexes have a varying number of dark bars on sides. Distribution: Labrador to Mexico. Three races are recog- nized. The northern race extends commonly from Labrador to Virginia. Size: Reaches a length of about 5 inches. Females grow to a larger size than the males. General Information: The Common Killifish is one of the most common small fishes in shallow coastal waters. It is most often found in schools in weedy, muddy places in marshes, bays, and mouths of rivers. This species prefers brackish water but also occurs in fresh and salt water. It is a very hardy fish with a remarkable ability to survive marked changes in temperature and salinity, to live in highly polluted waters, and to live out of water for a con- siderable time. Spawning occurs from April to August in shallows containing heavy vegetation. The young grow rapidly and reach maturity by the following year. During the winter this fish will bury itself in the mud. It is a voracious feeder and eats almost any small plant or animal form. Economic Importance: The Common Killifish is an impor- tant source of food for other fishes. An extensive bait fishery for it has been developed in the New York-New Jersey region for use in the sport fisheries for summer flounder (fluke) and young bluefish (snappers). Because of its hardiness and ready availability it has become an important laboratory animal for scientific in- vestigations. 304 Striped Killifish Striped Killifish Fundulus majalis (Walbaum) Female Color: Adult male: back olive; sides, belly, and pectoral, pelvic, and anal fins yellow; 15-20 black vertical bars on sides; black spot on last rays of dorsal fin. Adult female: back olive; silvery below; usually 2 or 3 black longitudinal stripes on sides. Young of both sexes have 7-12 vertical black bars. Distribution: Massachusetts to Florida. Size: Reaches a length of 8 inches. General Information: Found in protected waters of bays and mouths of rivers, usually in small schools of several hundred fish. Spawning occurs from April to September. The Striped Killifish feeds on a variety of small aquatic animals including shellfish, small shrimp-like organisms, and fish. Economic Importance: Probably an important source of food for other fishes in some regions. Sheepshead Minnow 305 Sheepshead Minnow, Broad Killifish Cyprinodon variegatus Lacepede Color: Adult females: back and sides brassy olive; belly white or yellowish; irregular black vertical bars on sides; a black spot on the rear part of the dorsal fin. Adult males: back and sides darker than in females; bars on body faint; dorsal spot lacking. Young of both sexes have markings of adult female. Distribution: Cape Cod to Mexico. Size: Maximum length about 3 inches. General Information: Found in small schools in the shal- low brackish waters of salt marshes, bays, and harbors where there is abundant vegetation. Spawning occurs from April to September. Only a few eggs are laid at a time by a single female, and this same fish will continue to lay a few eggs at various intervals throughout the spawning season. Newly laid eggs have numerous sticky threads on their surface with which they become attached to sur- rounding objects and to each other. The Sheepshead Min- now feeds on a wide variety of small aquatic plant and animal forms. Economic Importance: Probably an important food for larger fishes in some regions. It is a hardy species suitable for brackish-water aquaria. Under favorable conditions it will spawn in aquaria and the young can be reared. 306 Rain-Water Fish, Lucys Killifish Rain-Water Fish Lucania parva (Baird and Girard) Color: Dark olive above; sides paler. In male, front edge of dorsal fin is black or has a black spot at the base; pelvic and anal fins orange-red in the male during the breeding season. Distribution: Cape Cod to Key West. Size: Maximum length about IVi inches. General Information: Commonly found in small schools throughout its range in brackish-water bays, ponds, and creeks containing abundant vegetation. It spawns from April to July. The maximum number of eggs produced by a single female has been reported to be 104. The Rain- Water Fish feeds on small shrimp-like animals and prob- ably on any other small aquatic animal. Economic Importance: A source of food for larger fishes in some areas. Like the sheepshead minnow, the Rain- Water Fish is readily kept in brackish-water aquaria. Lucy's Killifish Fundulus luciae (Baird) Color: Adult female: gray-green, paler below. Adult male: olive green above; belly orange-white; sides with 11-14 dark olive-green bars; a black spot on the rear portion of the dorsal fin. Young of both sexes resemble the female. Ocellated, Fresh-Water Killi fishes 307 Distribution: New York to North Carolina. Size: Maximum length recorded is about IV2 inches. General Information: Not abundant anywhere. It lives in shallow, brackish water together with the common killifish. Spawning occurs from April to October. Economic Importance: None. Ocellated Killifish Fundulus ocellaris (Jordan and Gilbert) Color: Adult female: olive-brown above, pale green below. Lower sides yellowish. Sides have 13 black cross bars. Body sprinkled with small black spots. Black spot on rear part of base of dorsal fin. Adult male: dark green above, paler below. Pearly spots on sides sometimes form indis- tinct vertical bars. Black spot on rear part of base of dorsal fin. Young colored like female. Distribution: Chesapeake Bay to Louisiana. Size: Reaches a length of slightly more than 2V2 inches. General Information: Most common south of Virginia. Occurs in brackish, shallow, inshore waters, often together with the common killifish. It spawns in spring. Principal foods appear to be small crustaceans, shellfish, and insects. Economic Importance: None. Fresh-Water Killifish Fundulus diaphanus (LeSueur) 308 Top Minnow Color: Adult female: olive above; lower sides silvery; belly white; sides with 16-20 narrow greenish bars. Adult male: sides with 20-22 silvery bars. Young of both sexes resem- ble the adult female. Distribution: Quebec to Cape Hatteras. Found in fresh- water coastal streams and lakes, sometimes temporarily wandering into brackish water. Size: Maximum length about 4Vi inches. General Information: Spawns from April to September. It feeds on miscellaneous small aquatic animals and plants. Economic Importance: Used as a bait by anglers fishing in fresh water. Top Minnow, Gambusia Gambusia holbrooki (Girard) Male Female Color: Usually olive above; gray on sides; pale on belly. Dusky markings on scales of upper part of body form ir- regular dark dots. Distribution: New Jersey to Florida. Most common from Chesapeake Bay south. Size: Maximum length about IVi inches. The males are smaller than the females and seldom reach a length of 1 V2 inches. General Information: The Top Minnow is found abun- dantly in localized protected areas in both fresh and brack- ish water. The anal fin of the male has been modified as Billfish, Agujon 309 a copulatory organ. Fertilization of the eggs is internal and the young are born alive. Broods of young are produced from May to September and a brood may consist of from just a few fish to over 200 fish. Several broods may be produced by a single female in one year. Newborn young are about one-third of an inch long. The Top Minnow feeds mostly on the surface and eats a wide variety of foods including insects and small shrimp-like animals. Economic Importance: This fish and closely related forms are widely used both in the United States and in other countries, where they have been introduced, to assist in the control of mosquitoes. The Top Minnow feeds voraciously on the aquatic larval stages of mosquitoes and therefore helps to reduce the mosquito population. Billfish, Garfish Tylosurus marinus (Walbaum) Color: Greenish above; silver on sides; white below. A dark green stripe on the central line of the back. A blue- silver stripe along the sides. Distribution: Cape Cod to Texas. Infrequently to Maine. Size: Grows to a length of about 4 feet. General Information: Common in bays and mouths of rivers in some years, frequently going up coastal rivers to fresh water. It is often seen swimming near the surface of the water singly or in small schools. It feeds on small fishes. Economic Importance: None. An edible species not often used. It frequently takes the bait of the angler fishing near the surface of the water. Agujon Tylosurus acus (Lacepede) 310 Flat Bill fish, Half beak Color: Back blue; sides silver; belly white. Distribution: A West Indian species sometimes straying north as far as Massachusetts. Size: Reaches a length of AVi feet. General Information: Rare north of the West Indies. Economic Importance: None. Flat Biimsh Ablennes hians (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Color: Back green; sides and belly silvery. Distribution: Found . in tropical seas. In the American Atlantic it occurs from Brazil to Chesapeake Bay and, rarely, to the north as far as Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of 4 feet. General Information: Spawns in spring. Feeds on small fish. Economic Importance: None. Halfbeak Hyporhamphus unifasciatus (Ranzani) Color: Green above with three dark streaks running along the middle of the back; silvery on sides and belly. A darker silver horizontal band on each side. Tip of lower jaw crimson. Distribution: It occurs on both coasts of the Americas and in the Gulf of Mexico. On the American Atlantic coast it ranges from Brazil to Cape Cod and as a straggler to Maine. This fish is most abundant south of Chesapeake Bay. Size: Reaches a length of about one foot. Balao, Flying Halfback, Pajarito 311 General Information: The Halfbeak spawns in summer. The very young have no long lower jaw, but fish slightly over half an inch show the beginning of elongation of this jaw. The principal foods of this species are small shrimp- like animals, shellfish, and plant life. They are commonly seen darting about near the surface of the water. Economic Importance: None. Balao Hemirhamphus brasiliensis (Linnaeus) The Balao is a West Indian species sometimes found as far north as Cape Cod but rare north of Florida. Flying Halfbeak Euleptorhamphus velox (Poey) The Flying Halfbeak is a West Indian species sometimes drifting as far north as Cape Cod. It is rare in the area from Cape Cod to Chesapeake Bay. Pajarito Hyporhamphus hildebrandi Jordan and Evermann The Pajarito is a West Indian species which occasionally drifts as far north as Cape Cod. It is rare in the area from Cape Cod to Chesapeake Bay. 312 Needlefish, Atlantic Flying Fish Needlefish Scomberesox saurus (Walbaum) Color: Olive green above; sides and belly silvery; a dark silver horizontal band on each side; a dark green spot above the base of each pectoral fin. Distribution: Found in temperate waters of the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans. On the American Atlantic coast it has been reported from North Carolina to southern Newfoundland, but it is most common north of Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of about IVi feet. General Information: The Needlefish is found chiefly off- shore swimming in large schools near the surface. It is fed on by larger fish, such as pollock and tuna, and sometimes is driven up on the shores by these fishes. Spawning occurs in the open sea. The long jaws are not present in the young but develop when the fish is slightly over 1^2 inches long. The lower jaw grows faster than the upper one so that a fish 4-6 inches long has a much longer lower than upper jaw and looks very much like a half beak. The principal foods of the Needlefish are the small floating young stages of various species of crabs and their relations and small crustaceans and fishes. Economic Importance: This species is salable when mar- keted, but it is caught too irregularly to be of much com- mercial importance. Atlantic Flying Fish Cypselurus heterurus (Rafinesque) Short-winged, Spot-Fin Flying Fishes 313 Color: Back a dark bluish gray; sides and belly silvery. Distribution: Found in warm waters on both sides of the Atlantic. In the American Atlantic it strays as far north as Newfoundland. Size: Reaches a length of about IV^ feet. General Information: Common in the Gulf Stream. The Atlantic Flying Fish is the most common species of flying fish in the area from Cape Cod to Chesapeake Bay. Economic Importance: Not utilized for food in the United States. The various species of flying fishes are used in our southern recreational fisheries for bait for larger game fishes. Short-winged Flying Fish Parexocoetus mesogaster (Bloch) The Short-winged Flying Fish occurs in tropical seas. It is common in the Gulf Stream as far north as Cape Hatteras but is rare farther north. It seldom reaches over 7 inches in length. Spot-Fin Flying Fish Cypselurus furcatus (Mitchill) 314 Whiting Occurs in the warmer waters of the Atlantic Ocean, some- times straying north to Cape Cod. Rare in northern waters. Reaches a length of 6 inches. Whiting, Silver Hake Merluccius bilinearis (Mitchill) Color: Silvery over entire body with a dark brownish cast on upper surface. Distribution: Newfoundland to North Carolina and in deep water as far south as the Bahamas. Common from Dela- ware north. .S/ze.- Reaches a length of about 2V2 feet and a weight of 5 pounds. General Information: This species occurs in large numbers at various depths, from a few feet of water to about 400 feet. In this deeper water it is found together with the offshore whiting. The Whiting spawns in late spring and summer. The eggs are buoyant and may hatch in 48 hours in water of favorable temperature. The young reach 1-3 inches in length at the end of the first year. This fish is a voracious feeder, preying on smaller fishes, squid, and shrimp. Fre- quently it will drive schools of fish on shore and itself be- come stranded in the excitement of the chase. Economic Importance: A good food fish which has be- come increasingly important to the commercial fisheries. It is commonly caught by anglers. Offshore Whiting, Cod 315 Offshore Whiting Merluccius albidus (Mitchill) The Offshore Whiting was but recently discovered along our eastern coast in depths from 400 feet down to more than 3,600 feet. Cod Gadus callarias Linnaeus Color: Variable; back and upper sides various shades of gray, green, brown, or red; belly white tinged with the general body color. Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the western Atlantic it ranges from western Greenland south to Virginia but is most abundant from Labrador to southern Massachusetts. Size: The largest fish recorded was over 6 feet long and weighed IIIVa pounds. Most fish caught are less than 75 pounds. General Information: The Cod is found from the shallow, inshore waters down to depths of 1,500 feet or more. It lives mostly near the bottom but will rise to the surface while pursuing smaller fishes. Spawning occurs in winter and early spring. It has been estimated that a fish 4V3 feet long and weighing 51 pounds produces almost 9 million eggs at one spawning. The eggs are buoyant and hatch in about 2 weeks at a water temperature of 43 degrees. A 316 Haddock Cod 3 feet long is 7-8 years old. The Cod feeds on a wide variety of aquatic animals including shellfish, crabs, lobsters and other crustaceans, squid, and fish. Inedible objects such as sticks, rope, stones, and jewelry are frequently found in Cod stomachs. Economic Importance: An important commercial species north of Cape Cod throughout the year. From Cape Cod south to New Jersey, of some commercial importance in winter: the Cod is readily taken on hook and line and supports a thriving recreational fishery in late autumn and winter south of Cape Cod, particularly in the New York area. Haddock Melanogrammus aeglifinus (Linnaeus) Color: Back and upper sides dark gray; lower sides silvery; belly white. Lateral line black. A dark patch just above the pectoral fin. Distribution: Both sides of the North Atlantic. In the American Atlantic it occurs from West Greenland to Virginia but is most abundant from the Grand Banks off Newfoundland to Cape Cod. Size: The largest fish reported was 3% feet long and weighed 37 pounds. General Information: The Haddock is a cold-water fish usually found in depths of 150-600 feet. It is a typical ground fish living close to the bottom. Spawning occurs in late winter and early spring. It has been estimated that a fish 2'/3 feet long and weighing about 9^/2 pounds pro- Pollock 317 duced over 1,750,000 eggs. The eggs are buoyant and hatch in about 2 weeks at a water temperature of 41 degrees. The Haddock feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, in- cluding crabs, worms, starfish, and shellfish as well as small fishes. Economic Importance: This species is one of the most im- portant commercial fishes north of Cape Cod. In some winters it is caught in limited amounts by the commercial fisheries from Cape Cod south to New Jersey. Pollock Pollachius virens (Linnaeus) Color: Brown-green above; sides yellow-gray or light gray; belly silver-gray. A conspicuous white or light gray lateral line. Distribution: Found in cool waters on both sides of the Atlantic. In the American Atlantic it occurs commonly from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to New Jersey but has been reported as far north as Labrador and as far south as North Carolina. Size: Reaches a length of 3V2 feet and a weight of about 35 pounds. General Information: The Pollock is one of the most ac- tive members of the cod family. It occurs in large schools, which may be found at any level between the surface of the water and the bottom, down to depths of 600 feet or more. The Pollock spawns in late autumn and early winter. The average number of eggs produced by a single female is about 225 thousand, but larger fish may produce over four million eggs. The eggs are buoyant and hatch in 6 days at a water temperature of 49 degrees. A Pollock 2 318 Tomcod feet long may be 4V^-5!/2 years old. This species feeds mostly on fish and floating, shrimp-like animals as well as other crustaceans. It is a voracious feeder and consumes large quantities of both small bait fishes and the young of food fishes. Economic Importance: A common species in the commer- cial fisheries, particularly in the area north of Cape Cod. Pollock will strike at an artificial lure and are caught by both commercial and recreational fishermen trolling spoons or feathers. Tomcod Microgadus tomcod. (Walbaum) Color: Olive green on back and upper sides, tinged with yellow; dark blotches on sides; belly gray or yellowish white. Distribution: Northern Newfoundland to Virginia. Size: Reaches a length of Wa feet and a weight of 114 pounds. General Information: This species lives in shoal waters close to shore and is mostly found in harbors and bays and around the mouths of rivers. Spawning occurs in winter, and the eggs are laid at the mouths of rivers or streams in salt or brackish water. The eggs are sticky when ex- truded and sink to the bottom, where they adhere to various objects and to each other. They hatch in 24 days at a water temperature of 43 degrees. The Tomcod feeds mostly on small crustaceans but will also eat worms, small shellfish, and small fishes. Economic Importance: A good food fish not abundant enough to be of commercial importance. It is frequently caught by anglers in areas where it is locally numerous. Spotted, White Hakes 319 Spotted Hake Urophycis regius (Walbaum) Color: Brown above; white below; a row of white spots connected by black lines along the lateral line; first dorsal fin edged with white and with a distinct black spot. Distribution: Occurs from Nova Scotia to Florida, 'but it is rare north of Cape Cod and south of Cape Hatteras. Size: Reaches a length of \Va feet and a weight of 1 to Wi pounds. General Information: Little is known about this fish. Spawning probably takes place in winter. The principal foods of the Spotted Hake are fish and small crustaceans. Economic Importance: None. White Hake Urophycis tenuis (Mitchill) Color: Purple-brown or gray-brown above; belly yellow- white or gray-white. Distribution: Newfoundland to Cape Hatteras. Size: Reaches a length of about 4 feet and a weight of 40 pounds. General Information: Occurs on the bottom from shoal waters inshore to depths down to over 3,200 feet. The White Hake is commonly found on soft, muddy bottoms and feeds largely on small crustaceans, squid, and small fishes. Spawning probably takes place from late winter to late summer. The eggs are probably buoyant. 320 Red Hake Economic Importance: Large quantities of this species are taken by the commercial fisheries, particularly north of Cape Cod. The larger fish are mostly marketed as fresh or frozen fillets, while the small ones may be sold mixed with the smaller-sized red hake for use as mink, cat, and poultry feed. Both species of hake are commonly caught by anglers. Red Hake, Ling Urophycis chuss (Walbaum) Color: Back and sides brown, red-brown, or olive-brown; lower sides silvery with a yellow tinge; belly gray, white, or yellow. Distribution: Newfoundland to Virginia. Size: Reaches a length of about IV2 feet and a weight of 8 pounds. General Information: Both the Red Hake and the white hake occupy the same type of environment and are often taken together. Spawning occurs in spring and summer. The eggs are buoyant. The young are 2-3 inches long by the end of the first year and the adults are about \V3-\V2 feet long when 3 years old. The Red Hake feeds on small crustaceans and fishes. Economic Importance: The larger specimens of Red Hake are marketed together with the larger specimens of white hake for human consumption. Quantities of Red Hake are caught for use as mink, cat, and poultry feed. Both species of hake are commonly taken by anglers bait-fishing on the bottom. Cusk, Four-bearded Rockling 321 Cusk Brosme brosme (Miiller) Color: Variable: Back and upper sides dark gray, red- brown, or pale yellow; lower sides gray; belly gray-white. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins have black margins edged with white. Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the American Atlantic it is found from Newfoundland to Cape Cod and as a stray as far south as New Jersey. Size: Reaches a length of about 31/2 feet. A fish 31/3 feet long weighed 27 pounds. General Information: The Cusk is a bottom species seldom found in depths of water shoaler than 60 feet, but it oc- curs down to depths of more than 1,800 feet. Spawning occurs in spring and summer. The eggs are buoyant. The Cusk feeds on crustaceans and shellfish. Economic Importance: A good food fish common in the commercial fisheries north of Cape Cod. Four-bearded Rockling Enchelyopus cimbrius (Linnaeus) Color: Back dark olive-yellow or brown; sides paler; belly white dotted with brown. Lining of mouth blue or dark purple. Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the American Atlantic it is found from Newfoundland to New York in coastal waters, and as far south as North Carolina in the deep waters of the Continental Slope. 322 Atlantic Halibut Size: Reaches a length of about one foot. General Information: The Four-bearded Rockling is a bottom species found in water depths ranging from a few feet down to over 4,300 feet. The eggs are buoyant and very similar in appearance to those of the red hake. The principal foods of the Four-bearded Rockling are probably small crustaceans and small fishes. Economic Importance: None. Atlantic Halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus (Linnaeus) Color: Gray-brown, olive-brown, or dark brown on eyed or upper side. Blind or lower side white in smaller fish and blotched with gray in larger ones. Distribution: Occurs regularly in the subarctic Atlantic. On the American coast it is found from Labrador to Cape Cod, and as a rare straggler south of Cape Cod to Virginia. Size: Reported to reach a length of over 9 feet and a weight of about 700 pounds. General Information: The Atlantic Halibut lives on the bottom and has been taken in depths ranging from less than 180 feet down to depths over 3,000 feet. The larger fish are found in the deeper water. Spawning occurs in spring. This is a prolific species, a female of about 200 pounds has been estimated to have produced over two million eggs. The eggs are buoyant and hatch in 16 days at a water temperature of 43 degrees. The Atlantic Halibut is a voracious feeder, preying mostly on other fishes but also eating crabs, lobsters, clams, and other crustaceans and shellfish. Dab 323 Economic Importance: An excellent food fish but no longer abundant enough to be of great importance in the commercial fisheries. Dab Hippoglossoides platessoides (Fabricius) Color: Eyed side: gray-brown or red-brown. Blind side: white. Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the American Atlantic it is found from Labrador to Cape Cod and as a straggler south of Cape Cod to New York. Size: Maximum length reported was about 2% feet, with a weight of 14 pounds. General Information: The Dab is a cold-water species found on the bottom from the shallow waters near shore down to depths of over 2,300 feet. It spawns in spring and 30,000 to 60,000 eggs are produced by each female. The eggs are buoyant and hatch in about 2 weeks at a water temperature of 39 degrees. The Dab feeds on a wide variety of bottom forms of animals, including worms, crustaceans, and sea urchins. Economic Importance: A good food fish common in the catch of the otter trawl fishery north of Cape Cod. 324 Blackback Flounder Blackback or Winter Flounder Pseudopleuronectes americanus (Walbaum) Color: Eyed side: dark gray, gray-brown, or olive green. Blind side: white. Distribution: Labrador to Georgia. Size: Reaches a length of about 2 feet. A fish 20 inches long was reported to weigh 5 pounds. General Information: The Blackback is a bottom-dwelling form found in depths ranging from the shallow waters in bays, harbors, and estuaries down to 300 feet. Spawning occurs in winter and early spring. An average of half a million eggs is laid by a fish each year. The eggs sink to the bottom, where they stick to various objects and to each other. They hatch in about 2 weeks at a water temperature of 37-38 degrees. The main foods of the Blackback are small invertebrates, including shellfish, seaworms, shrimps, and small crabs. It does not eat when ready to spawn. Economic Importance: An excellent food fish important in the catch of the small otter trawlers. The Blackback sup- ports an extensive recreational fishery, particularly in the Middle Atlantic area. Smooth, Yellow tail Flounders 325 Smooth Flounder Liopsetta putnami (Gill) Color: Eyed side: gray, gray-brown, black-brown. Blind side: white. Distribution: Labrador to Cape Cod and as a stray south to Rhode Island. Size: Reaches a length of about one foot and a weight of \V2 pounds. General Information: The Smooth Flounder is most com- monly found living on the bottom in sheltered bays, har- bors, and river mouths, usually in depths of from 10 to 30 feet. It spawns in winter and like the blackback flounder probably feeds mostly on small invertebrates. Economic Importance: A good food fish, but neither large nor plentiful enough to be important in the commercial fisheries. Yellowtail Flounder Limanda ferruginea (Storer) Color: Eyed side: brown or olive-gray tinged with red, with scattered large irregular brown-red spots. Blind side: white, yellowish about caudal peduncle. 326 Gray Sole Distribution: Labrador to Virginia. Size: Reaches a length of about 2 feet. General Information: The Yellowtail Flounder occurs com- monly on the bottom in depths of 30-300 feet. Spawning takes place in spring and summer. The eggs are buoyant and hatch in 5 days at a water temperature of 50-52 de- grees. The principal foods of this species are small crusta- ceans, small shellfish, and worms. Economic Importance: A good food fish and one of the most valuable of the flatfishes in the commercial catch from southern New England north. Gray Sole, Witch Flounder Glyptocephalus cynoglossus (Linnaeus) Color: Eyed side: brown-gray. Blind side: white. Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the American Atlantic it is found from Newfoundland to Virginia but" is most abundant north of Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of about 2 feet and a weight of about 4 pounds. General Information: The Gray Sole is a bottom species seldom found in waters shoaler than 60 feet and most common in depths between 360 and 900 feet. It has been taken in depths down to more than 5,000 feet. Spawning occurs in late spring and summer. The eggs are buoyant and hatch in about one week at a water temperature of 46-49 degrees. The Gray Sole feeds on a wide variety of small invertebrates. Economic Importance: A good food fish common in the catch of otter trawlers particularly north of Cape Cod. Sundial Flounder 327 Sundial, Windowpane Flounder Lophopsetta maculata (Mitchill) Color: Eyed side: pale olive green, red-brown, or gray- brown, mottled in appearance and dotted with irregular brown spots. Blind side: white. Distribution: Gulf of St. Lawrence to South Carolina but most common south of Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of V/i feet and a weight of 2 pounds. General Information: The Sundial is a shoal-water, bottom- inhabiting species, it is found commonly from just below the tide mark down to a depth of about 150 feet. Spawning occurs in late spring and sumrner. The eggs are buoyant and hatch in about one week at a water temperature of 51-56 degrees. Fish one foot in length are about 7 years old. The Sundial feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates including shrimps, crabs, and small fishes. Economic Importance: A good food fish mostly discarded because of its small size and relatively thin body. The bigger fish are sometimes marketed. The Sundial is often caught by anglers fishing for other species. 328 Northern Fluke Northern Fluke, Summer Flounder Paralichthys dent at us (Linnaeus) Color: Eyed side: color variable, commonly brown or gray. Most specimens marked with dark spots surrounded by white margins. Blind side: white. Distribution: Occurs from Maine to South Carolina. Most common south of Cape Cod. Size: Maximum length reported almost 4 feet, with a weight of 26 pounds. A 30-pound fish has also been re- ported. General Information: This species is found on the Con- tinental Shelf in depths of 150-500 feet during the winter and early spring. In late spring and summer large numbers of Northern Fluke move inshore close to the beaches and also enter bays and harbors. The Northern Fluke spawns from late autumn to early spring. The eggs are probably buoyant. The principal foods of this species are small fishes, crustaceans, and shellfish. The Northern Fluke is an active, predaceous species; it will follow small fish to the surface and jump clear of the water in the excitement of the chase. Economic Importance: An excellent food fish of con- siderable importance in the commercial fisheries, particu- larly in the otter trawl fishery of the Middle Atlantic and Chesapeake regions. The Northern Fluke bites readily on natural baits or artificial lures and is subject to an inten- sive recreational fishery from Cape Cod south to Virginia, particularly in the New York-New Jersey area. Four-spotted Fluke, Small-Mouth Flounder 329 Four-spotted Fluke Paralichthys oblongus (Mitchill) Color: Eyed side: mottled gray or brown with four large black eyespots edged with pinkish white. Blind side: white. Distribution: Massachusetts to South Carolina. Size: Reaches a length of about VA feet. General Information: The Four-spotted Fluke is not as abundant as the northern fluke and seldom enters the shoal waters of bays and harbors. It is commonly found in depths of 40-900 feet. Spawning occurs from May through July. The eggs are buoyant. It feeds chiefly on small fishes, squid, crustaceans, shellfish, and worms. Economic Importance: Of little importance in the com- mercial fisheries. A few Four-spotted Fluke are marketed mixed with the catch of the northern fluke. Occasionally this species is caught by the angler and mistaken for the northern fluke. Small-Mouth Flounder Etropus microstomus (Gill) Color: Eyed side: light brown mottled with darker brown, Blind side: white. Distribution: Occurs from New York to Virginia and pos- sibly further south. 330 Eyed Flounder, Toni^uefish Size: Reaches a length of about 6 inches. General Information: The Small-Mouth Flounder is lo- cally common in summer in shallow waters adjacent to beaches and in bays and harbors. Little is known about this species. Economic Importance: None. Eyed Flounder Platophrys ocellatus (Agassiz) Color: Eyed side: light gray with a reddish tinge, covered with small dark gray spots and light rings enclosing areas of the ground color. Distribution: Found from Brazil to Cape Cod but uncom- mon north of Cape Hatteras. Size: Reaches a length of about 8 inches. General Information: Little is known about this species. Economic Importance: None. Tonguefish Symphurus plagiusa (Linnaeus) Color: Eyed side: brownish with 6-7 dark crossbars. Blind side: white. Distribution: Gulf Coast of Florida to North Carolina and as a straggler to Chesapeake Bay. Hogchoker 331 Size: Reaches a length of about 8 inches. General Information: Little is known about this species. Economic Importance: None. Hogchoker Trinectes maculatus ( Bloch and Schneider J Color: Eyed side: gray-green to dark brown: a varying number of dark bars, usually 7-8, extend from the dorsal to the anal fin: a dark longitudinal stripe along the lateral line. Blind side: dirty white, usually with dark spots varia- ble in size and number. Distribution: Occurs from Massachusetts Bay to Panama. It is common from Cape Cod to \'irginia but is most abundant from Virginia south. Size: Reaches a length of about 8 inches. General Information: The Hogchoker is a bottom species commonly found in the shallow, brackish waters of bays and estuaries. It spawns in late spring and summer. A SVi- inch fish has been estimated as producing 54.000 eggs at one spawning. Fish 2-3 inches long are one year old. The chief foods of the Hogchoker are worms and small crustaceans. Economic Importance: None. An interesting species readily adaptable to the brackish-water home aquarium. 332 Northern, Tide-Water Silversides Northern Silverside Menidia menidia (Linnaeus) Color: Greenish above, silvery on sides and below; sides have a dark silvery band bounded above by a narrow black line. Scales on upper part of sides and back have many dark brown dots. Distribution: Occurs from Nova Scotia to Chesapeake Bay, where it mixes with the southern silverside, a closely related form. Size: Reaches a length of 6 inches. General Information: The Northern Silverside is found in salt and brackish waters in protected bays, coves, and river mouths, usually on sand or gravel bottoms. It occurs in schools and is one of the most abundant species of our small fishes. It is particularly numerous in the channels running through salt marshes, where large schools may often be seen swimming near the surface of the shallow water. Spawning takes place from April to August and the eggs, like those of the tide-water silverside below, have sticky threads on their surfaces with which they adhere to various objects on the bottom and to each other. The food of the Northern Silverside consists of a wide variety of small aquatic animals and plants. Economic Importance: A good food fish but marketed for such purpose in only limited quantities. It is used exten- sively in our recreational fisheries as a bait. Tide-Water Silverside Menidia beryllina (Cope) Rough Silver side 333 Color: Back pale green; sides and belly silvery; silvery band along each side bordered above by a dark line; back scales with many brown dots. Often the body has a distinct yellow cast. Distribution: Occurs from Cape Cod to South Carolina. Size: Reaches a length of about 3 inches. General Information: The Tide-Water Silverside is found in fresh, brackish, and salt water but is not common in strictly salt water. It occurs in large schools in the pro- tected waters of bays and estuaries, often among heavy vegetation. Spawning takes place in spring and summer. The eggs have sticky threads on their surface. Newly laid eggs adhere by these threads to each other, the bottom sand, vegetation, and other objects in the water. The Tide- Water Silverside feeds on small crustaceans, shellfish, worms, and other small animals, as well as seaweed. Economic Importance: When fried crisp this fat little fish can be eaten whole. It is considered a delicacy in some areas, where it is marketed under the name "whitebait." Rough Silverside Membras vagrans (Goode and Bean) Color: Back greenish; lower sides and belly silvery; sides have broad silvery band bounded above with a dark line; numerous dark spots on scales of back. Distribution: New York to Mexico. Size: Grows to a length of about 5 inches. General Information: This species is most often found in salt water but is sometimes taken in brackish water. It frequently occurs together with the common silverside, with which it is easily confused. Spawning takes place from spring through summer. The Rough Silverside feeds on small crustaceans and other small aquatic animals, fish eggs, and seaweed. 334 White, Striped Mullet Economic Importance: None. Probably a source of food for larger fishes in some areas. White Mullet Mugil curema Cuvier and Valenciennes Color: Back dark green; sides silvery, belly paler. Bluish- black spot at base of pectoral fin. Distribution: Occurs in warm and temperate seas. In the western Atlantic it is found from Cape Cod to Brazil. Size: In the southern part of its range it may reach a length of 3 feet, but fish less than 14 inches are more common. In the north the fish taken are usually less than 6 inches long. General Information: The habits of this species are very similar to those of the striped mullet. However, the White Mullet spawns in the spring, while the striped mullet spawns in autumn and winter. Economic Importance: This species is caught by the com- mercial fisheries south of Virginia, but it is not as impor- tant as the striped mullet because of its smaller size. It is frequently used as a bait in the marine recreational fisheries of our southern states. Both the white and striped mullet are hardy, active fishes in the brackish-water home aquarium. Striped Mullet Mugil cephalus Linnaeus Northern Barracuda 335 Color: Blue-gray and green above; silvery below. Scales on sides with dusky centers forming longitudinal lines along sides. A bluish spot at base of pectoral fin. Distribution: Occurs in temperate and warm water on both sides of the Atlantic, in the Mediterranean, and in parts of the Pacific Ocean. In the western Atlantic it is found from Brazil to Cape Cod and as a straggler north to Nova Scotia. Size: This species may grow to IVi feet in the southern part of its range but seldom is over one foot and is usually smaller in the north. General Information: The Striped Mullet is a common shore species in the Middle Atlantic and Chesapeake re- gions, particularly in the smaller sizes. Large schools are frequently seen near the surface of the water. When fright- ened these fish will leap from the water in a follow-the- leader fashion. Spawning occurs offshore in late fall and winter. The young come in to shore when about one inch long. At this time they are a shiny silver in color and are so unlike the adult that they were classified by early ich- thyologists as a different species. The Striped Mullet feeds mosdy on algae and to a lesser extent on microscopic plants and animals. Economic Importance: An important species in the com- mercial fisheries of our southern states. Northern Barracuda Sphyraena borealis DeKay Color: Olive green above; sides and belly silvery. Young have dusky blotches along sides and back. Distribution: Cape Cod to Panama. Size: Reaches a length of about one foot but is seldom over 7 inches in the north. 336 Great Barracuda, Four-spined Stickleback General Information: This species is most plentiful in the southern part of its range but in some years is very com- mon in the north. Frequently it may be found along sandy shores in bays not far from ocean inlets. It is a voracious species feeding largely on small fishes. Economic Importance: None. Great Barracuda Sphyraena barracuda (Shaw) The Great Barracuda is a West Indian species rarely reach- ing farther north than South Carolina. Stray specimens have been reported as far north as Massachusetts. Four-spined Stickleback Apeltes quadracus (Mitchill) Color: Greenish brown above; belly silvery; dark, irreg- ular patches on back and sides. Distribution: Found from Nova Scotia to Virginia in salt and brackish water and sometimes in fresh water. Size: Reaches a length of IV2 inches. General Information: This species is a common inhabitant of salt marshes and is usually found among dense masses of seaweed. Unlike the three-spined stickleback, the Four- spined Stickleback is never found floating on the surface at sea. The Four-spined Stickleback spawns in spring and early summer. Its spawning habits are similar to those of the three-spined stickleback below, but the nest is not Three-spined Stickleback 337 nearly so elaborate. This species feeds mostly on small crustaceans. Economic Importance: None. The Four-spined Stickleback is a hardy though pugnacious species easily kept in the salt- or brackish-water home aquarium. Three-spined Stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus Linnaeus Color: Dark green above, sometimes blue; back and upper sides have faint dark bars. In breeding season red on sides. Distribution: Occurs in salt and fresh waters along the coasts in the northern hemisphere. In the western Atlantic it is found from Labrador to Virginia. Size: Reaches a length of 4 inches. General Information: This is a very variable species dif- fering in appearance according to locality. The number of bony plates on the sides varies, and sometimes no plates are present. The dorsal spines may be short or long, and a keel may or may not be present on the caudal peduncle. The Three-spined Stickleback is mostly a shore fish liv- ing in the protected waters of coastal bays and estuaries, but it has been taken on the surface offshore floating among seaweed. It enters creeks and streams in spring to spawn. The male builds a barrel-shaped nest of bits of vegetation which are cemented together with sticky threads secreted from his kidneys. The nest is weighted down with pebbles. The male lures one or more females into the nest, where each lays from 100 to 150 eggs. After laying her eggs the female is driven away. The nest is guarded by the male for 6-10 days, after which time the eggs hatch. The nest is then destroyed, but the male continues to guard the young until they are able to fend for themselves. The food 338 Two-spined, Nine-spined Sticklebacks of the Three-spined Stickleback is mostly small crustaceans and other small animals, including fish fry as well as fish eggs and microscopic plants. Economic Importance: None. A hardy but pugnacious species easily kept in the brackish- or salt-water home aquarium. Two-spined Stickleback Gasterosteus wheatlandi Putnam Color: Green above; sides of head and body golden and with dark blotches; breast silvery. Distribution: Newfoundland to New York. Size: Grows to a length of about 4 inches. General Information: Most common north of Cape Cod, usually in salt water. This species occurs regularly in shoal inshore waters, often in company with the three- spined stickleback, but it has also been caught on the surface in offshore waters. The Two-spined Stickleback is often confused with the three-spined stickleback. Economic Importance: None. Nine-spined Stickleback Pungitius pungitius (Linnaeus) Color: Olive brown above; sides have faint bars or blotches; belly silvery. During the breeding season the undersurface of the head becomes tinted with red and the belly greenish. In the male the undersurface of the body becomes rosy. Northern Pipefish 339 Distribution: This species occurs in both fresh and salt water in the northern parts of both the eastern and western hemispheres. In the western Atlantic it is found from the Arctic Ocean to New Jersey. Size: Reaches about 3 inches in length. General Information: The Nine-spined Stickleback is a shallow-water species most often found in the sheltered waters of harbors, bays, and salt marshes or in coastal fresh-water lakes and ponds. Spawning occurs in early spring. The male usually builds a nest of vegetation among the water plants and guards the eggs until they hatch. Economic Importance: None. A hardy aquarium fish like most of its relatives. Northern Pipefish Syngnathus fuscus Storer Color: Various, depending on surroundings. May be olive green, shades of brown, or shades of red. Distribution: Occurs from Nova Scotia to South Carolina. Size: Reaches a length of about one foot. General Information: The Northern Pipefish is found in quiet coastal salt and brackish waters among seaweeds and eelgrass. Sometimes it is found offshore near the surface of the water, usually under floating seaweed. Breeding occurs in spring and summer. The Northern Pipefish, like the other pipefishes and sea horses, carries its eggs and de- veloping young in a sac located on the lower, rear part of the body. Only the male carries the young. The female deposits its eggs into the brood sac of the male, where they are fertilized. In about 10 days the young hatch and leave the pouch. They are now about half an inch long 340 Florida Pipefish, Northern Sea Horse and are miniature copies of the adults. The food of the Northern Pipefish is mostly small crustaceans or other small animals. Despite its hard, seemingly indigestible body of rings of bony plates, the Northern Pipefish has been fre- quently observed in the stomachs of larger fish and has been seen being eaten by a blue crab. Economic Importance: None. An interesting species in the home salt-water aquarium. Florida Pipefish Syngnathus floridae (Jordan and Gilbert) Color: Varies with environment; frequently brown above, silvery beneath; gray speckles along the side. Distribution: Virginia to Texas. Size: Reaches a length of about 9 inches. General Information: The life history of this species is very similar to that of the northern pipefish. Economic Importance: None. A good fish in the home marine aquarium. Northern Sea Horse Hippocampus hudsonius DeKay Trumpet Fish 341 Color: Variable according to surroundings; gray, yellow, or brown mottled with darker and paler markings. Distribution: Occurs from South Carolina to Cape Cod and as a straggler to Nova Scotia. Size: Maximum length recorded is 71/2 inches. General Information: The Northern Sea Horse is found in dense vegetation in protected areas along our shores. It is often found clinging by its flexible tail to the netting of commercial fish traps and eel pots. It breeds in summer, and as in the case of the pipefishes the male carries the developing eggs in a pouch. The young are ^^-Vi inch long at birth and resemble the adults in appearance. As many as 150 young may be born at one time. Unlike the pipefishes the sea horses have a flexible, prehensile tail which they use to hold on to vegetation, branches, and other objects in the water. The food of the Northern Sea Horse consists mostly of small crustaceans and other small animals. Economic Importance: Sea horses are in considerable de- mand by the salt-water aquarists. Trumpet Fish Fistularia tabacaria Linnaeus IS W Color: Greenish brown above; lower surface silvery; back and sides have 10 dark crossbars and large pale blue spots. Tail filament deep blue. Distribution: A tropical species, ranging from Brazil to Cape Cod and as a stray to Nova Scotia. Common in the West Indies. Size: Reaches a length of 6 feet in the West Indies but northern specimens are usually under one foot. General Information: Little is known about this species. S42 Ninlhiiii (ioiilfnii. < Onininti Mtuhtitl I I inu'iiUi linjunltiiKr Nniic Nni llici II ( MMllr.li Mttlhis tntniltt\ lonliWi .iiid (iilhril riir N»)i(lu*iii (^(MiIIInIi is ii Wcs( liidiiin N|>iH"irs loiniiinii lioilli ((> i l(Ml(lii, ( )i'c'ii,SM)iiiil s|)('( linens, nsuiilly less lli.in A illcllCFi in Iniglll. lire lonnd us l.ii noilh ji<. (ape ( (ul. < oininon M.u I ci el St tnnhii Mtntihins I inn.uMis ''W^hrfv^ < (\*li*i ,S(n «)! mJc. «»I hody luivr iliiiK. liiiiiNVriNC. iin^'iiliii hinwl'. l)l\t/ i/'ulh>n: OCCUIN in («'in|Mi .il»- w.ilci'. ini Im»(Ii suIcs «)| llu* Allimlu Oirnii, In llu* wisli-in Alinnlu il is h»nn«l tiDin llir (iull ()l Si I iiWKiuc lt> Noilli ( .iit)lina .SVr,**; \\\\h Npccirs may icaih it liiiflli »)l alnu)s( .' Icil. (icnfuil lnh>rnnHlttn \\\v ( oinnutn Miu ki'irl is ollon toiiiul III laif?(* Si liools svviininin^ ncai llu* siiihur ollslioiiv While llic lai^ei llsli iiit' inoslU li>iin(l t>llsli(>i(\ llu* sinalUi yt»iinm'i llsli air ioiiiinoii in llu* piDlfc led waliis t>l hays and iivei inttnlhs, I his spci ics has hccn loiind at various dipihs. Iioin llu* Hurlacr dt»\Nn (o ()()() hit Spiiwuinn oc- ciiis III spill)}.: and caily siininu'i and ovri S()(), ()()() (>'.ks intty he laid hy oiu* lish, llu* c^gs lloal. lish / H iiuhcs C/mh Mm krrcl .N3 long arc culled "liicks" or "spikes," Ihosc 10 i I iiiclics long, "(inkers." I he ( omnion Mjickerel ^rt)ws lapidly in its first two years, rciicliinj^ 12 1^ inches al liu- iiid ol (he second year ol lile. AKei (ha( ^rowdi is slow, and lish H years old are less (han 17 niches lon^,. I he lood ol (his species is mosdy small cius(aceans and lish, l)n( i( also eats a wide varie(y ol o(her small ammals including, microscopic forms. I(s slomach is oKen loinid packed wi(h a small cins(acean, ('(tlatms, called '^'^\\'(\ leed" hy (he com- mercial lishemian. luononiic /nifiortancc: I he ( onnnon Mackerel is an im po/(anl commeicial species which Ihiclnales widely in abundance Irom year (o year and over periods ol years. II is an ac(ive lish and s(rikes readily a( a movin)i^ hail or artificial lure; in periods ol ahnndance il is inlensively fished lor hy anglers. Chnh Mackerel Pn('nni(il(}/)/ioru\ (nliV2 feet long weighed 35Vi pounds. General Information: The Tilefish is found in depths of 270-1,200 feet. It appears to be most abundant in the deep waters from off Nantucket to off Delaware Bay. Spawning occurs in summer. The eggs are buoyant. This species feeds on a wide variety of bottom-dwelling invertebrates of which crabs appear to be the most important item. Economic Importance: A good food fish of limited impor- tance in the commercial fisheries from Cape Hatteras to Cape Cod. 386 Little, Shorthorn Sculpins Little Sculpin Myoxocephalus aeneus (Mitchill) Color. Variable; usually a shade of gray or green-gray above; sides mottled light and dark; belly white or light gray. Distribution: Newfoundland to New Jersey but most com- mon south of Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of about 8 inches. General Information: The Little Sculpin is common from the tide mark down to depths of about 90 feet. It is the common sculpin in the shoal waters of the southern New England and the Middle Atlantic regions. Spawning oc- curs in winter and early spring. The sticky eggs sink to the bottom, where they adhere to various objects and to each other. The Little Sculpin feeds on all types of bot- tom animals as well as fish. Economic Importance: Of no commercial value. This spe- cies is frequently caught by anglers while fishing for other species. Shorthorn Sculpin Myoxocephalus scorpius (Linnaeus) Color: Upper surface of body variable shades of brown; broad black bars. Lower sides spotted with yellow. Belly yellow or white in females, orange spotted with white in males. Longhorn Sculpin 387 Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the American Atlantic it is found from northern Lab- rador to southern New England and as a stray south to New Jersey. It is most common north of Cape Cod. Size: This species is reported to grow to a length of 3 feet, but it usually is less than 2 feet long. General Information: The Shorthorn Sculpin is a cold- water fish living on the bottom and most common in waters shoaler than 60 feet. It spawns in winter and the eggs, which are sticky, are deposited among the seaweed, in crevices between rocks and even in old tin cans and other debris. The eggs hatch in 4 to 12 weeks, depending on the temperature of the water. The principal foods of this fish are crabs and other crustaceans, but worms and small fishes are also eaten. Economic Importance: An edible species of no commercial importance. Longhorn Sculpin Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus (Mitchill) Color: Variable, depending on surroundings. Ground tint of back and sides yellow-green to dark olive, green-brown or dark gray. Four irregular, dark crossbars; these cross- bars often indistinct or broken up into blotches. Distribution: Occurs in coastal waters from Newfoundland to New Jersey and in deep waters south to Virginia. Size: Reaches a length of \V2 feet, but most fish taken are less than one foot. General Information: The Longhorn Sculpin is common in cool waters from the shoals in harbors, bays, and estuaries down to depths of over 600 feet. Spawning occurs in late 388 Sea Raven autumn and winter. The eggs are adhesive when laid, and they stick together in clumps and attach to any object that they may touch. Fish 10 inches long are 4 years old; 11- 12 inches long, 6 years old. This species eats a wide variety of foods including shrimps, crabs, and other crustaceans, worms, shellfish, and small fishes. It grunts when removed from the water. Economic Importance: None. The Longhorn Sculpin is frequently caught by anglers fishing for winter flounders. Sea Raven Hemitripterus americanus (Gmelin) Color: Variable; red, reddish purple, yellow-brown to chocolate. Paler on lower sides than on back and upper sides. Belly yellow. Body colors may be solid or have mottled shades of the general ground color. Distribution: Newfoundland south to Chesapeake Bay. Size: Reaches a length of about 2 feet and a weight of about 7 pounds. General Information: The Sea Raven is most common in depths of 15-300 feet. Spawning occurs in late autumn and winter and 15,000-40,000 eggs are laid by a single fish. The eggs are sticky and are deposited mostly on certain species of northern sponges, to which they adhere. The Sea Raven is a voracious feeder and eats a wide variety of invertebrates and fishes. It is capable of swal- lowing a fish almost as large as itself. Economic Importance: None. Lumpfish, Sea Snail 389 Lumpfish Cyclopterus lumpus (Linnaeus) Color: Variable; gray-blue, slate blue, yellow-green, olive, shades of brown; belly a paler shade of same color or white. Some fish have dark blotches or black dots on the back and sides. Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the western Atlantic it is found from Davis Strait south- ward to New Jersey and as a stray to Chesapeake Bay. Size: Reaches a length of about 2 feet. The heaviest fish reported weighed 20 pounds. General Information: The Lumpfish'' is mostly a bottom species but is often found floating among masses of sea- weed. It is common in cool, shoal waters over rocky bot- toms. This fish will frequently attach itself to the sides of lobster cars, poles of fish traps, or stones by the ventral sucker-like disc. Spawning occurs in late winter and spring. The eggs are sticky and sink to the bottom where they adhere to each other in a large spongy mass. The male Lumpfish guards the eggs until they hatch. The Lumpfish feeds on small crustaceans, small fishes, and jellyfishes. Economic Importance: None. Sea Snail Neoliparis atlanticus Jordan and Evermann 390 Striped Sea Snail Color: Ground color green to reddish brown; lighter or darker dots of same color scattered over body. Distribution: Occurs from Newfoundland to southern New England and as a straggler as far south as New Jersey. Rare south of Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of about 5 inches. General Information: North of Cape Cod the Sea Snail has been taken in depths of a few feet down to 300 feet. It is frequently found under stones or attached to seaweed or lobster pots by the sucking disc on the undersurface of the body. Very little is known about the life history of this fish. It is believed to spawn in winter. Economic Importance: None. Striped Sea Snail Liparis liparis (Linnaeus) Color: Variable; ground color gray, brown, red, or dark green. Longitudinal stripes of lighter or darker shades of the ground color may or may not be present. Distribution: Occurs in the boreal and temperate waters of the North Atlantic. In the American North Atlantic it has been found from Greenland to Virginia but is rare south of Cape Cod. Size: Reported to reach a length of 10 inches in Arctic waters but seldom over 5 inches in temperate waters. General Information: The Striped Sea Snail lives on rocky bottoms, usually among masses of attached seaweed (kelp) to which it is frequently found clinging by the ventral suck- ing disc. Spawning occurs in winter and spring. The eggs sink and form sticky bunches which adhere to seaweed and other objects. The main food of this fish appears to be Flying Gurnard, Common Sea Robin 391 small crustaceans, but small shellfish, fish fry, and algae are also eaten. Economic Importance: None. Flying Gurnard Cephalacanthus volitans (Linnaeus) The Flying Gurnard occurs in the warm waters of both sides of the Atlantic. It reaches a length of about one foot. Rare north of North Carolina. Strays as far north as Cape Cod. Common Sea Robin Prionotus carolinus (Linnaeus) Color: Red-brown or gray above; 5 dark, saddle-like blotches along back; pale yellow or white below. A black spot between the fourth and fifth spines of the first dorsal fin. Distribution: Occurs in the coastal waters from the Bay of Fundy to South Carolina, but it is most common south of Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of about 16 inches but is usually less than one foot. General Information: The Common Sea Robin is a bot- tom species found from tide mark down to depths of 250 feet or more. It is common inshore in summer but in 392 Striped Sea Robin winter moves offshore into deep water. Spawning occurs in spring and summer. The eggs are buoyant and hatch in 60 hours at a water temperature of 72 degrees. The Com- mon Sea Robin is a voracious feeder and eats a wide variety of crustaceans as well as worms, shellfish, and small fish. Economic Importance: An edible species marketed in limited quantities. It strikes readily at artificial lures or natural baits and is frequently caught by anglers fishing for other species. Striped Sea Robin Prionotus evolans (Linnaeus) Color: Pale green or light brown above; white below. Four to five dark saddle-like blotches on back. A prominent dark brown stripe along lower part of side. Lateral line a black- ish brown streak. A black blotch extends from the fourth to sixth spines on the first dorsal fin. Distribution: Found in coastal waters from South Carolina to Cape Cod and as a stray into the Gulf of Maine. Size: Reaches a length of about IVi feet. General Information: The Striped Sea Robin is similar in its habits to the common sea robin. Economic Importance: An edible species marketed in limited quantities. Like the common sea robin it is often caught by anglers fishing for other species. Tautog, Cunner 393 Tautog, Blackfish Tautoga onitis (Linnaeus) Color: Brown, black, or greenish black above and on sides; belly paler. Irregular blackish blotches or bars on the sides of smaller fish, frequently disappearing in larger fish. Distribution: Nova Scotia to South Carolina, but most common south of Cape Cod to Delaware. Size: Grows to a length of about 3 feet and a weight of 22 pounds, but fish over 11 pounds are not common. General Information: This species is common on rocky shores and musselbeds, near wrecks, and around piers in company with the cunner. Spawning occurs in spring and early summer. The eggs are buoyant. The Tautog feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, especially mussels, barna- cles, and crabs. Economic Importance: A good food fish marketed in mod- erate quantities. The Tautog is a favorite of the shore and small-boat angler and one of the species regularly taken by the recreational "deep-sea" fisheries of New York and New Jersey. Cunner, Bergall Tautogolabrus adspersus (Walbaum) Color: Varies with the environment; brown, black-brown, olive green, blue, or reddish, or a mixture of these colors. 394 Naked Goby Distribution: Newfoundland to New Jersey and as a strag- gler south to Chesapeake Bay. Size: Reaches a length of about 15 inches and a weight of IV2 pounds. General Information: The Cunner is an abundant coastal species commonly found around rocks, wrecks, and the pilings of wharves and bridges. In New England and parts of New York it is found close to shore in bays, sounds, and inlets. South of New York it frequents wrecks and the rocky ledges offshore. Spawning occurs in spring and early summer. The eggs are buoyant. The Cunner eats a wide variety of foods including invertebrates, small fish, and eel grass, and it is an avid scavenger. Economic Importance: The Cunner was formerly of some importance as a commercial species in northern New Eng- land, but now few are landed. It is a good pan fish esteemed by New England anglers but regarded as a nuisance by sport fishermen in the New York-New Jersey area because of its ability to steal the bait offered for other species of fishes. Naked Goby Gobiosoma bosci (Lacepede) Color: Greenish to dusky above; pale below. Sides have narrow pale crossbars. Distribution: Occurs from Massachusetts to Florida. Size: Reaches a length of about 2Vi inches. General Information: The Naked Goby is locally abun- dant in protected waters close to shore. It is found com- monly in brackish water and has been caught in fresh water. Spawning takes place in spring and summer. The eggs are sticky when first laid and are heavier than water. This fish feeds mostly on small invertebrates. Ginsburg's Sea-green Gobies 395 Economic Importance: A good fish in the brackish-water home aquarium. Ginsburg's Goby Gobiosoma ginsburgi Hildebrand and Schroeder Color: Greenish to dusky above; pale below. Sides have narrow pale crossbars. Lateral line usually has longi- tudinally elongated dark spots. Distribution: Occurs from New York to Virginia. Size: Reaches a length of about 2 inches. General Information: Ginsburg's Goby is found not only in shoal water, together with the naked goby, but also in deeper water down to depths of 150 feet or more. It spawns in spring. The principal food of this species appears to be small crustaceans. Economic Importance: None. Sea-green Goby Microgobius thalassinus Jordan and Gilbert Color: Pale green or blue; bluish vertical bars on sides above abdomen in the male. Distribution: Chesapeake Bay to North Carolina. Size: Reaches a length of about 2 inches. General Information: This is a relatively rare species. It probably spawns in spring and summer. It feeds mostly on small crustaceans. Economic Importance: None. 396 Shark, Swordfish, Offshore Remoras Shark Remora Echeneis naucrates Linnaeus Color: Body color slate gray or brown-gray. Sides marked by a broad dark brown or grayish stripe with white edge. Distribution: Cosmopolitan in warm seas. In the western Atlantic it is taken occasionally as far north as Cape Cod and, rarely, north of Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of over 3 feet. General Information: This species clings to ships or to sharks by the sucker-like disc on its head. It feeds on frag- ments of fish killed by the shark to which it is attached. Economic Importance: None. Swordfish Remora Remora brachyptera (Lowe) Color: Light reddish brown above, darker below. Distribution: Cosmopolitan in warm seas. In the western Atlantic it is found as far north as Maine. Size: Reaches a length of about one foot. General Information: This species is frequently found at- tached to the shoulder of the swordfish, but it also has been taken from the gill cavity of the ocean sunfish and the mouths and gill cavities of larger sharks. Economic Importance: None. Offshore Remora Remora remora (Linnaeus) Spearfish Remora, American Sand Launce 397 Color: A uniform dark gray, black, or brown color over entire body. Distribution: Cosmopolitan in tropical seas. In the western Atlantic it is common in the West Indies, but it is some- times found north to Cape Cod and as a rare stray north of Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of about Wi feet. General Information: This species appears to be more off- shore in habit than the shark remora and is frequently found attached to sea turtles and larger sharks. Economic Importance: None. Spearfish Remora Rhombochirus osteochir (Cuvier) Color: Light brown. Distribution: West Indies north to Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of about ?»V2 inches. General Information: This is a West Indian species most commonly found attached to sailfishes and marlins. Economic Importance: None. American Sand Launce Ammodytes americanus De Kay Color: Olive, blue, or brownish green above; sides silvery; belly dull white. Range: Hudson Bay to Cape Hatteras. Size: May reach a length of 7 inches. General Information: This fish is abundant in the surf off sandy beaches or near inlets. It is commonly seen offshore in large schools swimming near the surface and being 398 Ocean Sand Launce, Northern Stargazer preyed on by larger fishes beneath and sea birds above. When frightened it darts into the bottom sand and fre- quently, while so buried, is left stranded on bars and flats which are exposed as the tide falls. The American Sand Launce feeds mostly on small crustaceans, as well as a wide variety of other small aquatic animals. Economic Importance: This is an abundant species of great importance as a food for larger fishes. Small quan- tities are sold for food and some are used for bait by both the commercial and recreational fisheries. A large com- mercial fishery has developed in Europe for a related spe- cies of sand launce, primarily for processing into fish meal and oil. Ocean Sand Launce Ammodytes oceanicus This species, discovered by the author and as yet unde- scribed, has been found from New York to Cape Cod. In the past it has been confused with the American sand launce. Little is known about this fish. Northern Stargazer Astroscopus guttatus (Abbott) Color: Dusky; many irregular white spots on upper sides; hazy dark blotches on lower sides. Dirty white below. Up- per part of caudal peduncle has 5 irregular white blotches; a dark longitudinal band on the side of the caudal peduncle. Distribution: New York to Virginia. Size: Reaches a length of about one foot. Striped Blenny 399 General Information: This fish is not abundant anywhere. It frequently buries itself in the bottom with only its eyes and lips showing. The Northern Stargazer is capable of producing a shock by means of electric organs situated just back of the eyes. Whether these electric organs are used to capture food or for defense, or both, is not known. Crustaceans and fish have been found in the stomachs of this species. Economic Importance: None. Striped Blenny Chasmodes bosquianus (Lacepede) Color: Male: olive green with about 9 horizontal, narrow, irregular blue lines converging backward. A broad deep orange-yellow stripe through first dorsal fin. Female: dark olive green with a network of narrow pale green lines and several broad dark bars most distinct posteriorly. A dusky spot at the base of the caudal fin in both sexes. Distribution: Found from Florida to New York but rare north of Maryland. Size: Reaches a length of about 4 inches. General Information: The Striped Blenny is most common close to shore in shoal water but has been taken down to depths of 90 feet. It spawns in spring and summer. The eggs are sticky when first laid and are frequently found attached to shells. This fish feeds on small crustaceans, small shellfish, and insect larvae. Economic Importance: None. 400 Carolina Blenny, Rock Eel Carolina Blenny Hypsoblennius hentz (LeSueur) Color: Olive, covered with scattered, irregularly shaped brown spots; spots on posterior part of body tend to form vertical bars. Some individuals have fewer spots and more vertical bars on sides of body and extending onto the dorsal fin. Distribution: Found from Chesapeake Bay to Florida. Size: Maximum length about 4 inches. General Information: The Carolina Blenny is found in depth from tide mark down to 150 feet. It spawns in sum- mer. The principal foods of this fish appear to be small crustaceans, shellfish, and probably seaweeds. Economic Importance: None. Rock Eel Pholis gunnellus (Linnaeus) Color: Variable; upper part of body yellow, olive brown or red. Belly pale gray to yellow-white. An oblique streak from the eye to the angle of the jaw. A row of 10-14 round black spots along the middle of the back and spreading onto the dorsal fin. Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the western Atlantic it is found from Hudson Strait to the deep waters off Delaware Bay but is most common from southern Massachusetts north. Size: Maximum length is about one foot, but specimens over 8 inches are not common. Ulva Fish, Wrymouth 401 General Information: The Rock Eel has been caught in depths from the low-tide mark down to 600 feet. It is locally common on stony bottoms, living in the crevices between the rocks. Spawning takes place in winter. The eggs are sticky when laid. This fish feeds on small crusta- ceans and worms. Economic Importance: None. Ulva Fish, Radiated Shanny Ulvaria subbifurcata (Storer) Color: Back and upper sides dull brown with obscure bars or blotches. An oblique dark bar runs downward and backward from the eye. Belly pale brown or yellow-white. A large black blotch on the front portion of the dorsal fin. Distribution: Newfoundland to Cape Cod and as a rare straggler further south. Size: Maximum length about 6V2 inches. General Information: The Ulva Fish is a bottom species living from low-tide mark down to depths of at least 180 feet. Economic Importance: None. Wrymouth Cryptacanthodes maculatus Storer Color: Various shades of brown. Upper sides marked with 2-3 irregular rows of dark brown spots running from head to tail. 402 Common Wolf Fish Distribution: Found from Labrador to New Jersey. Size: Maximum length about 3 feet. General Information: The Wrymouth is a bottom species found from the intertidal zone down to a depth of at least 600 feet. It lives in burrows in the mud. Spawning probably occurs in winter and spring. This fish feeds on crustaceans and fish. Economic Importance: None. Common Wolf Fish Anarhichas lupus Linnaeus Color: Variable; usually purple-brown but may be olive green or bluish gray. Sides have 10 or more irregular, broken dark bands or blotches. Throat and belly a dirty white with a tinge of the color of the upper parts. Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the western Atlantic it is found from Davis Strait to Cape Cod and less commonly south of Cape Cod to New Jersey. Size: Maximum length about 5 feet. Usually fish that are caught are less than 4 feet. A specimen slightly over 3 feet long weighed 16-17 pounds. General Information: The Common Wolf Fish is a bottom species found from shoal waters close to shore down to depths of over 500 feet. It is a cool-water fish, solitary in habit and not found in schools. Spawning takes place in winter. The eggs are sticky when laid and attach in loose clumps to seaweeds, stones, and other objects. The Com- mon Wolf Fish feeds on shellfish, crustaceans, sea urchins, and starfish, which it crushes in its heavy molar-like teeth. American Ocean Pout 403 Economic Importance: A good food fish common in the commercial catch of the fisheries north of Cape Cod. American Ocean Pout, Eelpout Macrozoarces americanus (Bloch and Schneider) Color: Ground color variable; upper surface and sides of body muddy yellow, reddish brown, olive green, pale gray. Belly same color as rest of body or white, yellow, or pink. Sides dotted with dark spots clustered in irregular crossbars going out onto dorsal fin. A dark brown stripe goes from the eye to the edge of the gill cover. Distribution: Newfoundland south to Delaware. Size: Reaches a length of W2 feet and a weight of 12 pounds. General Information: The American Ocean Pout is a bot- tom species. It is common in depths of 50-250 feet and has been caught down to depths of over 600 feet. Spawning takes place in autumn. A fish almost 3 feet long contained over 4,000 eggs. The eggs are laid in masses and are held together on the bottom by a gelatinous material. In south- ern New England, fish one foot long are 3 years old; 2 feet long, 6-7 years old; 3 or more feet long, 12-16 years old. This species feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, including shellfish, crustaceans, sea urchins, and brittle stars. Economic Importance: The American Ocean Pout was marketed in quantities for the first time during World War II. Discovery of a parasite in the flesh which resulted in the condemnation of large amounts of fish discouraged the fishery, and commercial landings are now negligible. 404 Reticulated Eelpout, Margined Cusk Eel Reticulated or Arctic Eelpout Lycodes reticulatus Reinhardt Color: Brown with a network of black lines on the head and body. Distribution: Occurs on both sides of the Arctic Atlantic. In the western Atlantic it has been reported as far south as southern Massachusetts, but it is rare south of Cape Cod. Size: Reaches a length of VA feet. General Information: This is a bottom species. Little is known about its life history. Economic Importance: None. Margined Cusk Eel Rissola marginata (De Kay) Color: Grayish green; sides golden; belly white. Dorsal and anal fins margined with black. Distribution: New York to Texas. Size: Maximum length about 9 inches. General Information: Occurs on sandy shores. It has not been found abundantly anywhere. This fish probably stays burrowed in the bottom during the day and comes out at night to feed. Economic Importance: None. Toadfish Opsanus tau (Linnaeus) Toadfish, Clingfish 405 Color: Ground color of body variable; olive green, yellow, or brown. Back and sides darker than belly. Body ir- regularly marked with dark brown bars and patches. Distribution: Found from Cuba to Cape Cod and as a stray north to Maine. Size: Maximum length about Wa feet. General Information: The Toadfish is a shoal water spe- cies common on sandy or muddy bottoms. It spawns in late spring and summer. The adhesive eggs are laid under stones, logs, shells, in tin cans, or in other objects. The male guards the eggs for about 3 weeks until they hatch. This fish commonly hides under stones, darting out sud- denly to seize passing prey. It is a voracious feeder and will eat almost anything, including crustaceans, worms, and fishes. The Toadfish is able to make grunting noises and does so when handled. Economic Importance: None. The Toadfish is often caught by anglers. It is a pugnacious species when caught and will erect the sharp spines on its dorsal fin and operculum and snap at anything near its mouth. Both the spines and powerful jaws and teeth can inflict a painful wound. Clingfish Cotylis nigripinnis Peters Color: Mostly olive with a little red; sometimes banded with darker or paler shades of the same colors. Distribution: Chesapeake Bay to at least as far south as Florida. Size: Maximum length about 4 inches. General Information: This species attaches itself to shells, rocks, and other objects by means of the large sucking disc located between the pelvic fins. It has been taken in waters of 1-110 feet deep. Spawning occurs in spring. 406 Common Trigger fish, Common File fish The Clingfish feeds on small crustaceans and worms. Common Triggerfish Balistes carolinensis Gmelin The Common Triggerfish is common in tropical and sub- tropical waters but may occasionally be found as a straggler north to Nova Scotia. It reaches about a foot in length. Common Filefish Monacanthus hispidus (Linnaeus) The Common Filefish is most abundant in the West Indies and along the South Atlantic coast of the United States. Small fish are not uncommon north to Cape Cod but are rare in the Gulf of Maine and off Nova Scotia. Although this fish may reach a length of 10 inches, fish in the north are usually less than 6 inches. Orange, Fringed Filefishes Orange Filefish Alutera schoepfii (Walbaum) 407 Color: Variable; brown, yellow-orange, white, or gray, mottled with darker hues of the same color. Yellow and orange spots on sides. Small fish are black or gray with dusky or brownish spots on the sides. Distribution: Found from Brazil to Cape Cod and as a rare straggler north to Maine. Size: Reaches a length of 2 feet. General Information: The Orange Filefish is not uncom- mon in the region from Chesapeake Bay to Cape Cod. It eats small invertebrates and seaweeds, frequently standing on its head while feeding. Economic Importance: None. Fringed Filefish Monacanthus ciliatus (Mitchill) ^ The Fringed Filefish is common in Florida waters but rare in the north. It has been reported as a straggler as far 408 Unicorn Filefish, Common Trunkfish north as Newfoundland. This fish reaches a length of about 8 inches. Unicorn Filefish Alutera scripta (Gmelin) The Unicorn Filefish is found in tropical seas. It is a rare straggler from Chesapeake Bay north. It reaches a length of 3 feet, but specimens taken north of Chesapeake Bay are usually less than 6 inches long. Common Trunkfish Lactophrys trigonus (Linnaeus) The Common Trunkfish is a West Indian species common as far north as southern Florida. This fish reaches a length of 9 inches. Small fish, less than one inch long, are not uncommon in the region from Cape Hatteras to Cape Cod. Smooth Trunkfish Lactophrys triqueter (Linnaeus) Smooth Trunkfish, Cowfish, Smooth Swellfish 409 The Smooth Trunkfish is a West Indian species reaching north to Florida. Small individuals may occur as rare stragglers north to Cape Cod. Maximum size in the south is about 10 inches. Cowfish Lactophrys tricornis (Linnaeus) The Cowfish inhabits the tropical parts of the Atlantic. It is common to North Carolina, and the young are found as rare stragglers in the region from Cape Hatteras to Cape Cod. This fish grows to about one foot in length. Smooth Swellfish, Rabbit Fish Lagocephalus laevigatas (Linnaeus) Color: Dark green above; sides bright silver; belly white. Distribution: Brazil to Cape Cod but seen only occasion- ally north of Cape Hatteras. Size: Reaches a length of about 2 feet. General Information: The Smooth Swellfish is the largest species of this group of fishes. Economic Importance: This fish is sometimes caught by anglers fishing for other species of fish. 410 Northern, Southern Swellfish Northern Swellfish or Puffer Sphaeroides maculatus (Bloch and Schneider) Color: Dusky, brown, or olive green above; sides greenish yellow or orange; belly white; 6-8 indefinite vertical dark bands on sides. Distribution: Occurs from Florida to Cape Cod and as a stray into the Gulf of Mexico. Size: Maximum size about 14 inches. General Information: The Northern Swellfish is an abun- dant inshore species common in shoal waters on sandy shores. It spawns in spring and summer. The principal foods of this fish are small crijstaceans and shellfish. The Northern Swellfish regularly inflates when frightened by gulping water or, when taken from the water, by gulping air. It frequently burrows in the sand, at which time only the eyes and a small part of the upper surface of the head are visible. Economic Importance: This species was formerly of no commercial value and considered a nuisance by anglers. In recent years it has become a valued food fish. The sandpaper-like skin is removed by the fisherman and the chunk of white body meat remaining is marketed under the name "sea squab." A small recreational fishery has also developed for this swellfish. Southern Swellfish or Puffer Sphaeroides spengleri (Bloch) Spiny Box fish 411 The Southern Swellfish is a tropical Atlantic species com- mon north to Florida. It is a rare straggler from Cape Hatteras north to Cape Cod. The maximum size is about one foot. Spiny Boxfish Chilomycterus schoepfi (Walbaum) Color: Ground, yellow-green to olive above; belly white heavily tinted with yellow or orange. Upper part of body has dark brown or black irregular longitudinal stripes somewhat parallel to one another. A dark irregular patch on each side of the base of the dorsal fin; a smaller one between the bases of the dorsal and anal fins; a dark patch at the base of the pectoral fin and another behind the pectoral fin. Distribution: Occurs from Florida to Cape Cod and as a rare stray in the Gulf of Maine. It is most abundant south of Cape Hatteras. Size: Maximum length about 10 inches. General Information: Both young and adults are not un- common inshore from Cape Hatteras to New York. The main foods of the Spiny Boxfish are small crustaceans and shellfish. Economic Importance: None. This is an interesting and colorful species in the home marine aquarium. 412 Porcupine Fish, Ocean Sunfish Porcupine Fish Diodon hystrix Linnaeus The Porcupine Fish is found in all tropical seas. In the western Atlantic it is common north to Florida and occurs as a rare straggler from Cape Hatteras north. Its maximum length is about 3 feet. Ocean Sunfish Mola mola (Linnaeus) ft Color: Dark gray above; sides paler with silvery reflections; belly dusky white. Distribution: Cosmopolitan in the open seas in temperate and tropical waters. Size: Grows to a weight of over one ton. A fish slightly over 8 feet long weighed 1,800 pounds. General Information: The Ocean Sunfish is an oceanic species often found drifting at the surface of the water. It is reported to groan when hauled from the water. Fish taken along our coast have been found to be feeding on jellyfish. Sharp-tailed Ocean Sunfish, Monkfish Economic Importance: None. Sharp-tailed Ocean Sunfish Masturus lanceolatus (Lienard) 413 Like the ocean sunfish, the Sharp-tailed Sunfish is cos- mopolitan in the open seas in temperate and tropical waters. Along the American Atlantic coast no adults of this fish have been reported north of North Carolina (possibly be- cause of confusion between the two species of sunfish). American Goosefish, Monkfish, Angler Lophius americanus Cuvier and Valenciennes Color: Chocolate brown above, mottled with paler and darker browns. Belly dirty white. Distribution: Found from Newfoundland south to at least North Carolina. 414 Sargassum Fish Size: Reaches a length of 4 feet and a weight of over 50 pounds. A fish slightly over 3 feet long weighed 32 pounds. General Information: The American Goosefish is found from the tide mark down to depths of more than 2,000 feet. It is a bottom species. Spawning takes place in spring and early summer. The eggs are laid in a ribbon of mucous to form a broad, jelly-like sheet containing a single layer of eggs. These sheets or veils of eggs may be from 25 to 35 feet long and 2 to 3 feet wide and float near the surface of the water. Veils of eggs have been estimated to contain over 1,250,000 eggs. The American Goosefish is a vora- cious feeder. The flap of skin at the end of the first dorsal spine is used as a bait to attract small fish. The Goosefish remains quietly resting on the bottom waving the flap until a small fish comes close, at which time it darts rapidly forward with open mouth and engulfs the prey. Larger fish, sea birds, and a wide variety of invertebrates are also eaten. Economic Importance: A good food fish only relatively recently marketed in limited quantities. This species is sometimes caught by the angler fishing for other fishes. Sargassum Fish His trio pic t us (Cuvier and Valenciennes) The Sargassum Fish is a tropical and subtropical species drifting north with the Gulf Stream and occasionally found in the region from Cape Hatteras to Cape Cod, usually in the drifting seaweed offshore. This species reaches a length of about 6 inches. INDEX Index to Common Names 415 INDEX TO COMMON NAMES c = classification page agujon, 276c, 309 albacore, 278c, 348 false (little tuna), 278c, 345 alewife, 275c, 290 amber jack, 279c, 362 American conger eel, 276c, 301 American eel, 276c, 300 goosefish, 283c, 413 ocean pout, 283c, 403 sand launce, 282c, 397 anchovy, common, 275c, 294 silvery, 275c, 295 striped, 275c, 295 angel shark, 231c, 252 angler (American goosefish), 283c, 413 Arctic (reticulated) eelpout, 283c, 404 Atlantic flying fish, 276c, 312 halibut, 277c, 322 sailfish, 279c, 352 salmon, 275c, 296 B balao, 276c, 311 banded croaker, 281c, 382 rudder fish, 279c, 361 barn-door skate, 255c, 260 barracuda, great, 278c, 336 northern, 278c, 335 basking shark, 230c, 235 bass, channel, 281c, 381 common sea, 280c, 368 striped, 280c, 366 bergall (cunner), 282c, 393 Bermuda chub, 280c, 375 big-eye, common, 280c, 370 deep, 280c, 369 big skate, 255c, 261 billfish, 276c, 309 flat, 276c, 310 blackback flounder, 277c, 324 blackdogfish, 231c, 250 drum, 281c, 381 black rudder fish, 279c, 355 black-tipped shark, small, 231c, 245 blackfin tuna, 278c, 347 blackfish (tautog), 282c, 393 blenny, Carolina, 282c, 400 striped, 282c, 399 blueback, 275c, 289 bluefin tuna, 278c, 346 bluefish, 280c, 364 blue marlin, 279c, 350 runner (hardtail), 279c, 358 shark, 230c, 241 bonefish, 275c, 286 bonito, common, 278c, 344 ocean, 278c, 345 bonnet shark, 231c, 247 boxfish, spiny, 283c, 41 1 brier (clear-nosed) skate, 255c, 258 broad killifish (sheepshead minnow), 276c, 305 brown shark, 231c, 246 bull shark, 231c, 244 bumper, 279c, 360 butterfish, 279c, 353 butterfly fish, common, 281c, 383 four-eyed, 281c, 384 butterfly ray, giant, 255c, 266 lesser, 255c, 267 Carolina blenny, 282c, 400 catfish, gaff-topsail, 276c, 299 sea, 276c, 299 416 Index to Common Names cat shark, deep-water, 230c, 238 false, 230c, 239 cavalla (king mackerel), 279c, 349 cero, 279c, 349 chain dogfish, 230c, 238 channel bass, 281c, 381 chub, Bermuda, 280c, 375 chub mackerel, 278c, 343 clear-nosed skate, 255c, 258 clingfish, 283c, 405 cobia, 280c, 365 cod, 277c, 315 common anchovy, 275c, 294 big-eye, 280c, 370 bonito, 278c, 344 butterfly fish, 281c, 383 filefish, 283c, 406 hammerhead shark, 231c, 249 jack, 279c, 357 killifish, 276c, 302 mackerel, 278c, 342 pompano, 280c, 363 sawfish, 255c, 256 sea bass, 280c, 368 sea robin, 282c, 391 sturgeon, 275c, 284 thresher shark, 230c, 235 triggerfish 283c, 406 trunkfish, 283c, 408 wolf fish, 282c, 402 conger eel, American, 276c, 301 cowfish, 283c, 409 cow-nosed ray, 255c, 269 crevalle (common jack), 279c, 357 croaker, 281c, 380 banded, 281c, 382 cub shark, 231c, 244 cunner, 282c, 393 cusk, 277c, 321 cusk eel, margined, 283c, 404 cutlass fish, 279c, 350 dab, 277c, 323 deep big-eye, 280c, 369 deep-water cat shark, 230c, 238 devil ray, giant, 256c, 270 lesser, 256c, 270 dogfish, black, 231c, 250 chain, 230c, 238 smooth, 230c, 239 spiny, 231c, 249 dolphin, 279c, 353 drum, black, 281c, 381 red (channel bass), 281c, 381 sea (black), 281c, 381 dusky shark, 231c, 247 eagle ray, 255c, 267 spotted, 255c, 268 eel, American (common), 276c, 300 American conger, 276c, 301 margined cusk, 283c, 404 rock, 282c, 400 eelpout (American ocean pout), 283c, 403 Arctic (reticulated), 283c, 404 reticulated, 283c, 404 electric ray, 255c, 257 eyed flounder, 277c, 330 false albacore (little tuna), 278c, 345 cat shark, 230c, 239 filefish, common, 283c, 406 fringed, 283c, 407 orange, 283c, 407 unicorn, 283c, 408 flat billfish, 310 Florida pipefish, 340 flounder, blackback, 277c, 324 eyed, 277c, 330 Index to Common Names 417 flounder {cont.)\ small-mouth, 277c, 329 smooth, 277c, 325 summer (northern fluke), 277c, 328 windowpane (sundial), 277c, 327 winter (blackback), 277c, 324 witch (gray sole), 277c, 326 yellowtail, 277c, 325 fluke, four-spotted, 277c, 329 northern, 277c, 328 flying fish, Atlantic, 276c, 312 short-winged, 276c, 313 spot-fin, 276c, 313 flying gurnard, 281c, 391 halfbeak, 276c, 311 four-bearded rockling, 277c, 321 four-eyed butterfly fish, 281c, 384 four-spined stickleback, 278c, 336 four-spotted fluke, 277c, 329 fresh-water killifish, 276c, 307 frigate mackerel, 278c, 344 fringed filefish, 283c, 407 gaff-topsail catfish, 276c, 299 gambusia (top minnow), 276c, 308 garfish (billfish), 276c, 309 giant butterfly ray, 255c, 266 devil ray, 256c, 270 Ginsburg's goby, 282c, 395 gizzard shad, 275c, 294 glut herring (blueback), 275c, 289 goatfish, northern, 278c, 342 goby, Ginsburg's, 282c, 395 naked, 282c, 394 sea-green, 282c, 395 goggle-eyed scad, 279c, 356 goosefish, American, 283c, 413 gray sea trout, 280c, 375 snapper, 280c, 371 sole, 277c, 326 great barracuda, 278c, 336 Greenland shark, 231c, 251 ground shark, 231c, 244 spot-fin, 231c, 245 grunt, white, 280c, 372 Gulf king whiting (kingfish), 281c, 379 kingfish, 281c, 379 gurnard, flying, 281c, 391 H haddock, 277c, 316 hake, red, 277c, 320 silver (whiting), 277c, 314 spotted, 277c, 319 white, 277c, 319 halfbeak, 276c, 310 flying, 276c, 311 halibut, Atlantic, 277c, 322 hammerhead shark, common, 231c, 249 southern, 231c, 248 hardhead (croaker), 281c, 380 hardtail, 279c, 358 harvest fish, 279c, 354 herring glut (blueback), 275c, 289 round, 275c, 287 sea, 275c, 288 thread, 275c, 292 hickory shad, 275c, 289 hpgchoker, 277c, 331 Holbrook's porgy, 280c, 373 horse-eye jack, 279c, 359 Jack, amber, 279c, 362 common, 279c, 357 horse-eye, 279c, 359 jurel (horse-eye jack), 279c, 359 418 Index to Common Names K killifish, broad (sheepshead minnow), 276c, 305 common, 276c, 302 fresh-water, 276c, 307 Lucy's, 276c, 306 ocellated, 276c, 307 striped, 276c, 304 king mackerel, 279c, 349 king whiting (kingfish), Gulf, 281c, 379 northern, 281c, 377 southern, 281c, 378 kingfish. Gulf, 281c, 379 northern, 281c, 377 southern, 281c, 378 mackerel shark, 230c, 232 sharp-nosed (mako), 230c, 233 mako, 230c, 233 man-eater (white shark), 230c, 234 margined cusk eel, 283c, 404 marlin, blue, 279c, 350 white, 279c, 351 menhaden, 275c, 293 minnow, sheepshead, 276c, 305 top, 276c, 308 monkfish (American goose- fish), 283c, 413 moonfish, 279c, 360 mullet, striped, 278c, 334 white, 278c, 334 Lafayette (spot), 281c, 379 lamprey, sea, 227 launce, American sand, 282c, 397 ocean sand, 282c, 398 leatherjacket, 279c, 363 lemon shark, 230c, 243 leopard skate, 255c, 260 lesser butterfly ray, 255c, 267 devil ray, 256c, 270 ling (red hake), 277c, 320 little sculpin, 281c, 386 skate, 255c, 259 tuna, 278c, 345 lizard fish, 276c, 302 longhorn sculpin, 281c, 387 lookdown, 279c, 361 Lucy's killifish, 276c, 306 lumpfish, 281c, 389 M mackerel, chub, 278c, 343 common, 278c, 342 frigate, 278c, 344 king, 279c, 349 Spanish, 279c, 348 mackerel scad, 279c, 357 N naked goby, 282c, 394 needlefish, 276c, 312 nine-spined stickleback, 278c, 338 northern barracuda, 278c, 335 fluke, 277c, 328 goatfish, 278c, 342 kingfish, 281c, 377 king whiting (kingfish), 281c, 377 pipefish, 278c, 339 porgy, 280c, 372 puflfer (swellfish), 283c, 410 sea horse, 278c, 340 silverside, 277c, 332 stargazer, 282c, 398 sting ray, 255c, 264 swellfish, 283c, 410 nurse shark, 230c, 236 O ocean bonito, 278c, 345 pout, American, 283c, 403 sand launce, 282c, 398 sunfish, 283c, 412 Index to Common Names 419 ocean bonito (cant.): sunfish, sharp-tailed, 283c, 413 ocellated killifish, 276c, 307 offshore remora, 282c, 396 whiting, 277c, 315 orange filefish, 283c, 407 pajarito, 276c, 311 Paragaleus, 230c, 241 perch, sand, 281c, 383 silver (sand), 281c, 383 white, 280c, 367 pigfish, 280c, 371 pilot fish, 279c, 362 pinfish, 280c, 374 pipefish, Florida, 278c, 340 northern, 278c, 339 pollock, 277c, 317 pompano, common, 280c, 363 round, 280c, 364 porbeagle (mackerel shark), 230c, 232 porcupine fish, 283c, 412 porgy, Holbrook's, 280c, 373 northern, 280c, 372 southern, 280c, 373 Portuguese shark, 231c, 251 pout, American ocean, 283c, 403 puffer (swellfish), northern, 283c, 410 southern, 283c, 410 ray {cant.): gi3-nt butterfly, 255c, 266 giant devil, 256c, 270 lesser butterfly, 255c, 267 lesser devil, 256c, 270 northern sting, 255c, 264 Say's sting, 255c, 265 southern sting, 255c, 263 spotted eagle, 255c, 268 red drum (channel bass), 281c, 381 red hake, 277c, 320 remora, offshore, 282c, 396 shark, 282c, 396 spearfish, 282c, 397 swordfish, 282c, 396 reticulated eelpout, 283c, 404 robin, common sea, 282c, 391 striped sea, 282c, 392 rock eel, 282c, 400 rockfish (striped bass), 280c, 366 rockling, four-bearded, 277c, 321 rosetted skate, 255c, 260 rough scad, 279c, 357 silverside,,278c, 333 round herring, 275c, 287 pompano, 280c, 364 scad, 279c, 356 rudder fish, banded, 279c, 361 black, 279c, 355 runner, blue (hardtail), 279c, 358 rabbit fish (smooth swellfish), 283c, 409 radiated shanny (ulva fish), 282c, 401 rainbow trout, 275c, 297 rain-water fish, 276c, 306 raven, sea, 281c, 388 ray, cow-nosed, 255c, 269 eagle, 255c, 267 electric, 255c, 257 sailfish, Atlantic, 279c, 352 salmon, Atlantic, 275c, 296 sand launce, American, 282c, 397 ocean, 282c, 398 sand perch, 281c, 383 shark, 230c, 231 sardine, Spanish, 275c, 287 sargassum fish, 284c, 414 sawfish, common, 255c, 256 420 Index to Common Names Say's sting ray, 255c, 265 scad, goggle-eyed, 279c, 256 mackerel, 279c, 357 rough, 279c, 357 round, 279c, 356 sculpin, little, 281c, 386 longhorn, 281c, 387 shorthorn, 281c, 386 sea bass, common, 280c, 368 sea catfish, 276c, 299 drum (black drum), 281c, 381 -green goby, 282c, 395 herring, 275c, 288 horse, northern, 278c, 340 lamprey, 227 raven, 281c, 388 robin, common, 282c, 391 striped, 282c, 392 snail, 281c, 389 striped, 281c, 390 trout, gray, 280c, 375 silver (white), 281c, 377 spotted, 281c, 376 white, 281c, 377 shad, 275c, 291 gizzard, 275c, 294 hickory, 275c, 289 shanny, radiated (ulva fish), 282c, 401 shark, angel, 231c, 252 basking, 230c, 235 blue, 230c, 241 bonnet, 231c, 247 brown, 231c, 246 bull, 231c, 244 common hammerhead, 231c, 249 common thresher, 230c, 235 cub, 231c, 244 deep-water cat, 230c, 238 dusky, 231c, 247 false cat, 230c, 239 Greenland, 231c, 251 ground, 231c, 244 lemon, 230c, 243 shark {cant.) : mackerel, 230c, 232 nurse, 230c, 236 Portuguese, 231c, 251 sand, 230c, 231 sharp-nosed, 230c, 242 sharp-nosed mackerel (mako), 230c, 233 sickle-shape, 231c, 244 small black-tipped, 231c, 245 smooth-tooth, 230c, 243 southern hammerhead, 231c, 248 spot-fin ground, 231c, 245 tiger, 230c, 240 whale, 230c, 237 white, 230c, 234 shark remora, 282c, 396 sharp-nosed mackerel shark (mako), 230c, 233 sharp-nosed shark, 230c, 242 sharp-tailed ocean sunfish, 283c, 413 sheepshead, 280c, 374 minnow, 276c, 305 shorthorn sculpin, 281c, 386 short-nosed sturgeon, 275c, 285 short-winged flying fish, 276c, 313 shovelhead, 231c, 247 sickle-shape shark, 231c, 244 silver hake (whiting), 277c, 314 perch (sand perch), 281c, 383 sea trout (white sea trout), 281c, 377 silverside, northern, 277c, 332 rough, 278c, 333 tide-water, 278c, 332 silvery anchovy, 275c, 295 skate, barn-door, 255c, 260 big, 255c, 261 brier (clear-nosed), 255c, 258 Index to Common Names 421 skate {cant.) : clear-nosed, 255c, 258 leopard, 255c, 260 little, 255c, 259 rosetted, 255c, 260 smooth-tailed, 255c, 263 thorny, 255c, 262 small black-tipped shark, 231c, 245 small-mouth flounder, 277c, 329 smelt, 276c, 297 smooth dogfish, 230c, 239 flounder, 277c, 325 swellfish, 283c, 409 trunkfish, 283c, 408 -tailed skate, 255c, 263 -tooth shark, 230c, 243 snail, sea, 281c, 389 striped sea, 281c, 390 snapper, gray, 280c, 371 sole, gray, 277c, 326 southern hammerhead shark, 231c, 248 southern kingfish, 281c, 378 king whiting (kingfish), 281c, 378 porgy, 280c, 373 puffer (swellfish), 283c, 410 sting ray, 255c, 263 swellfish, 283c, 410 spadefish, 281c, 384 Spanish mackerel, 279c, 348 sardine, 275c, 287 spearfish remora, 282c, 397 spiny boxfish, 283c, 411 dogfish, 231c, 249 spot, 281c, 379 spot-fin flying fish, 276c, 313 ground shark, 231c, 245 spotted eagle ray, 255c, 268 spotted hake, 277c, 319 sea trout, 281c, 376 weakfish (sea trout), 281c, 376 starfish (harvest fish), 279c, 354 stargazer, northern, 282c, 398 stickleback, four-spined, 278c, 336 nine-spined, 278c, 338 three-spined, 278c, 337 two-spined, 278c, 338 sting ray, northern, 255c, 264 Say's, 255c, 265 southern, 255c, 263 stingaree, 255c, 265 striped anchovy, 275c, 295 bass, 280c, 366 blenny, 282c, 399 killifish, 276c, 304 mullet, 278c, 334 sea robin, 282c, 392 sea snail, 281c, 390 sturgeon, common, 275c, 284 short-nosed, 275c, 285 summer flounder (northern fluke), 277c, 328 sundial, 277c, 327 sunfish, ocean, 283c, 412 sharp-tailed ocean, 283c, 413 swellfish, northern, 283c, 410 smooth, 283c, 409 southern, 283c, 410 swordfish, 279c, 352 remora, 282c, 396 tarpon, 275c, 286 tautog, 282c, 393 ten-pounder, 275c, 285 thorny skate, 255c, 262 threadfish, 279c, 359 thread herring, 275c, 292 thresher shark, common, 230c, 235 three-spined stickleback, 278c, 337 422 Index to Common Names tide-water silverside, 278c, 332 tiger shark, 230c, 240 tilefish, 281c, 385 toadfish, 283c, 404 tomcod, 277c, 318 tonguefish, 277c, 330 top minnow, 276c, 308 torpedo, 255c, 257 triggerfish, common, 283c, 406 tripletail, 280c, 370 trout, gray sea, 280c, 375 rainbow, 275c, 297 silver (white) sea, 281c, 377 spotted sea, 281c, 376 white sea, 281c, 377 trumpet fish, 278c, 341 trunkfish, common, 283c, 408 smooth, 283c, 408 tuna, blackfin, 278c, 347 bluefin, 278c, 346 little, 278c, 345 yellowfin, 278c, 347 two-spined stickleback, 278c, 338 W weakfish (sea trout), spotted, 281c, 376 whale shark, 230c, 237 white grunt, 280c, 372 hake, 277c, 319 marlin, 279c, 351 mullet, 278c, 334 perch, 280c, 367 sea trout, 281c, 377 shark, 230c, 234 whiting, 277c, 314 Gulf king (Gulf kingfish), 281c, 379 northern king (northern kingfish), 281c, 377 offshore, 277c, 315 southern king (southern kingfish), 281c, 378 windowpane flounder (sun- dial), 277c, 327 winter (blackback) flounder, 277c, 324 witch flounder (gray sole), 277c, 326 wolf fish, common, 282c, 402 wreckfish, 280c, 369 wrymouth, 282c, 401 U ulvafish, 282c, 401 unicorn filefish, 283c, 408 yellowtail flounder, 277c, 325 yellowfin tuna, 278c, 347 Index to Scientific Names 423 INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES Ablennes hians, 276c, 310 acanthias, Squalus, 231c, 249 Acipenser brevirostrum, 275c, 285 oxyrhynchus, 275c, 284 aculeatus, Gasterosteus, 278c, 337 Stenotomus, 280c, 373 acus, Tylosurus, 276c, 309 adspersus, Tautogolabrus, 282c, 393 aeglifinus, Melanogrammus, 277c, 316 aeneus, Myoxocephalus, 281c, 386 aestivalis, Pomolobus, 275c, 289 Aetobatus narinari, 255c, 268 alalunga, Thunnus, 278c, 348 albacares, Thunnus, 278c, 347 albida, Makaira, 279c, 351 albidus, Merluccius, 277c, 315 Albula vulpes, 275c, 286 Alectis crinitus, 279c, 359 alepidotus, Peprilus, 279c, 354 alleteratus, Euthynnus, 278c, 345 Alopias vulpinus, 230c, 235 Alosa sapidissima, 275c, 291 altavela, Gymnura, 255c, 266 altus, Pseudopriacanthus, 280c, 369 Alutera schoepfii, 283c, 407 scripta, 283c, 408 americana, Dasyatis, 255c, 263 Morone, 280c, 367 americanus, Ammodytes, 282c, 397 Hemitripterus, 281c, 388 Istiophorus, 279c, 352 Lophius, 283c, 413 Macrozoarces, 283c, 403 americanus (cont.) : Menticirrhus, 281c, 378 Polyprion, 280c, 369 Pseudopleuronectes, 277c, 324 Ammodytes americanus, 282c, 397 oceanicus, 282c, 398 ampla, Makaira, 279c, 350 Anarhichas lupus, 282c, 402 Anchoa argyrophanus, 275c, 295 hepsetus, 275c, 295 mitchilli, 275c, 294 anchovia, Sardinella, 275c, 287 Anguilla rostrata, 276c, 300 Apeltes quadracus, 278c, 336 Aprionodon isodon, 230c, 243 Apristurus profundorum, 230c, 238 Archosargus probatocephalus, 280c, 374 arenatus, Priacanthus, 280c, 370 argyrophanus, Anchoa, 275c, 295 Astroscopus guttatus, 282c, 398 atlanticus, Neoliparis, 281c, 389 Tarpon, 275c, 286 Thunnus, 278c, 347 auratus, Mullus, 278c, 342 Auxis thazard, 278c, 344 B Bagre marinus, 276c, 299 Bairdiella chrysura, 281c, 383 Balistes carolinensis, 283c, 406 barracuda, Sphyraena, 278c, 336 424 Index to Scientific Names beryllina, Menidia, 278c, 332 bilinearis, Merluccius, 277c, 314 birostris, Manta, 256c, 270 bonasus, Rhinoptera, 255c, 269 borealis, Sphyraena, 278c, 335 bosci, Gobiosoma, 282c, 394 bosquianus, Chasmodes, 282c, 399 brachyptera, Remora, 282c, 396 brasiliensis, Hemirhamphus, 276c, 311 brevirostris, Negaprion, 230c. 243 brevirostrum, Acipenser, 275c, 285 Brevoortia tyrannus, 275c, 293 Brosme brosme, 277c, 321 brosme, Brosme, 277c, 321 callarias, Gadus, 277c, 315 canadus, Rachycentron, 280c, 365 canis, Mustelus, 230c, 239 capistratus, Chaetodon, 281c, 384 Caranx crysos, 279c, 358 hippos, 279c, 357 latus, 279c, 359 Carcharhinus falciformis, 231c, 244 leucas, 231c, 244 limbatus, 231c, 245 milberti, 231c, 246 obscurus, 231c, 247 Carcharias taurus, 230c, 231 carcharias, Carcharodon, 230c, 234 Carcharodon carcharias, 230c, 234 carolinensis, Balistes, 283c, 406 carolinus, Prionotus, 282c, 391 Trachinotus, 280c, 363 cavalla, Scomberomorus, 279c, 349 Centropristes striatus, 280c, 368 Centroscyllium fabricii, 231c, 250 Centroscymnus coelolepis, 231c, 251 centroura, Dasyatis, 255c, 264 cepedianum, Dorosoma, 275c, 294 Cephalacanthus volitans, 281c, 391 cephalus, Mugil, 278c, 334 Cetorhinus maximus, 230c, 235 Chaetodipterus faber, 281c, 384 Chaetodon capistratus, 281c, 384 ocellatus, 281c, 383 chamaeleonticeps, Lophola- tilus, 281c, 385 Chasmodes bosquianus, 282c, 399 Chilomycterus schoepfi, 283c, 411 Chloroscombrus chrysurus, 279c, 360 chrysops, Stenotomus, 280c, 372 chrysopterus, Orthopristis, 280c, 371 chrysura, Bairdiella, 281c, 383 chrysurus, Chloroscombrus, 279c, 360 chuss, Urophycis, 277c, 320 ciliatus, Monacanthus, 283c, 407 cimbrius, Enchelyopus, 277c, 321 cirratum, Ginglymostoma, 230c, 236 Index to Scientific Names 425 Clupea harengus, 275c, 288 coelolepis, Centroscymnus, 231c, 251 colias, Pneumatophorus, 278c, 343 Conger oceanica, 276c, 301 Coryphaena hippurus, 279c, 353 Cotylis nigripinnis, 283c, 405 crinitus, Alectis, 279c, 359 cromis, Pogonias, 281c, 381 crumenopthalmus, Trachur- ops, 279c, 356 Cryptacanthodes maculatus, 282c, 401 crysos, Caranx, 279c, 358 curema, Mugil, 278c, 334 cuvier, Galeocerdo, 230c, 240 Cyclopterus lumpus, 281c, 389 cynoglossus, Glyptocephalus, 277c, 326 Cynoscion nebulosus, 281c, 376 nothus, 281c, 377 regalis, 280c, 375 Cyprinodon variegatus, 276c, 305 Cypselurus furcatus, 276c, 313 heterurus, 276c, 312 Dasyatis americana, 255c, 263 centroura, 255c, 264 sabina, 255c, 265 say, 255c, 265 Decapterus macarellus, 279c, 357 punctatus, 279c, 356 dentatus, Paralichthys, 277c, 328 diaphanus, Fundulus, 276c, 307 Diodon hystrix, 283c, 412 diplana, Sphyrna, 231c, 248 Diplodus holbrookii, 280c, 373 Dorosoma cepedianum, 275c, 294 ductor, Naucrates, 279c, 362 dumeril, Squatina, 231c, 252 dumerili, Seriola, 279c, 362 Echeneis naucrates, 282c, 396 eglanteria. Raja, 255c, 258 Elops saurus, 275c, 285 Enchelyopus cimbrius, 277c, 321 erinacea. Raja, 255c, 259 Etropus microstomus, 277c, 329 Etrumeus sadina, 275c, 287 Euleptorhamphus velox, 276c, 311 Euthynnus alleteratus, 278c, 345 evolans, Prionotus, 282c, 392 faber, Chaetodipterus, 281c, 384 fabricii, Centroscyllium, 231c, 250 falcatus, Trachinotus, 280c, 364 falciformis Carcharhinus, 231c, 244 fasciatus, Larimus, 281c, 382 felis, Galeichthys, 276c, 299 ferruginea, Limanda, 277c, 325 Fistularia tabacaria, 278c, 341 floridae, Syngnathus, 278c, 340 foetens, Synodus, 276c, 302 freminvillii, Myliobatis, 255c, 267 426 Index to Scientific Names Fundulus diaphanus, 276c, 307 heteroclitus, 276c, 302 luciae, 276c, 306 majalis, 276c, 304 ocellaris, 276c, 307 furcatus, Cypselurus, 276c, 313 fuscus, Syngnathus, 278c, 339 G Gadus callarias, 277c, 315 gairdnerii, Salmo, 275c, 297 Galeichthys felis, 276c, 299 Galeocerdo cuvier, 230c, 240 Gambusia holbrooki, 276c, 308 garmani. Raja, 255c, 260 Gasterosteus aculeatus, 278c, 337 wheatlandi, 278c, 338 Ginglymostoma cirratum, 230c, 236 ginsburgi, Gobiosoma, 282c, 395 gladius, Xiphias, 279c, 352 glauca, Prionace, 230c, 241 Glyptocephalus cynoglossus, 277c, 326 Gobiosoma bosci, 282c, 394 ginsburgi, 282c, 395 griseus, Lutianus, 280c, 371 gunnellus, Pholis, 282c, 400 guttatus, Astroscopus, 282c, 398 Gymnura altavela, 255c, 266 micrura, 255c, 267 H Haemulon plumieri, 280c, 372 harengus, Clupea, 275c, 288 Hemirhamphus brasiliensis, 276c, 311 Hemitripterus americanus, 281c, 388 hentz, Hypsoblennius, 282c, 400 hepsetus, Anchoa, 275c, 295 heteroclitus, Fundulus, 276c, 302 heterurus, Cypselurus, 276c, 312 hians, Ablennes, 276c, 310 hildebrandi, Hyporhamphus, 276c, 311 Hippocampus hudsonius, 278c, 340 Hippoglossoides platessoides, 277c, 323 Hippoglossus hippoglossus, 277c, 322 hippoglossus, Hippoglossus, 277c, 322 hippos, Caranx, 279c, 357 hippurus, Coryphaena, 279c, 353 hispidus, Monacanthus, 283c, 406 Histrio pictus, 284c, 414 holbrooki, Gambusia, 276c, 308 holbrookii, Diplodus, 280c, 373 hudsonius. Hippocampus, 278c, 340 Hyporhamphus hildebrandi, 276c, 311 unifasciatus, 276c, 310 hypostoma, Mobula, 256c, 270 Hypsoblennius hentz, 282c, 400 hystrix, Diodon, 283c, 412 isodon, Aprionodon, 230c, 243 Istiophorus americanus, 279c, 352 Isurus oxyrinchus, 230c, 233 Index to Scientific Names 427 K Katsuwonus pelamis, 278c, 345 Kyphosus sectatrix, 280c, 375 Lactophrys tricornis, 283c, 409 trigonus, 283c, 408 triqueter, 283c, 408 laevigatas, Lagocephalus, 283c, 409 laevis. Raja, 255c, 260 Lagocephalus laevigatus, 283c, 409 Lagodon rhomboides, 280c, 374 Lamna nasus, 230c, 232 lanceolatus, Masturus, 283c, 413 Larimus fasciatus, 281c, 382 latus, Caranx, 279c, 359 Leiostomus xanthurus, 281c, 379 lepturus, Trichiurus, 279c, 350 leucas, Carcharhinus, 231c, 244 Limanda ferruginea, 277c, 325 limbatus, Carcharhinus, 231c, 245 Liopsetta putnami, 277c, 325 Liparis liparis, 281c, 390 liparis, Liparis, 281c, 390 littoralis, Menticirrhus, 281c, 379 Lobotes surinamensis, 280c, 370 Lophius americanus, 283c, 413 Lopholatilus chamaeleontic- eps, 281c, 385 Lophopsetta maculata, 277c, 327 Lucania parva, 276c, 306 luciae, Fundulus 276c, 306 lumpus, Cyclopterus, 281c, 389 lupus, Anarhichas, 282c, 402 Lutianus griseus, 280c, 371 Lycodes reticulatus, 283c, 404 M macarellus, Decapterus, 279c, 357 Macrozoarces americanus, 283c, 403 maculata, Lophopsetta, 277c, 327 maculatus, Cryptacanthodes, 282c, 401 Scomberomorus, 279c, 348 Sphaeroides, 283c, 410 Trinectes, 277c, 331 majalis, Fundulus, 276c, 304 Makaira albida, 279c, 351 ampla, 279c, 350 Manta birostris, 256c, 270 marginata, Rissola, 283c, 404 marinus, Bagre, 276c, 299 Petromyzon, 227 Tylosurus, 276c, 309 Masturus lanceolatus, 283c, 413 maximus, Cetorhinus, 230c, 235 mediocris, Pomolobus, 275c, 289 Melanogrammus aeglifinus, 277c, 316 Membras vagrans, 278c, 333 Menidia beryllina, 278c, 332 menidia, 277c, 332 menidia, Menidia, 277c, 332 Menticirrhus americanus, 281c, 378 littoralis, 281c, 379 saxatilis, 281c, 377 Merluccius albidus, 277c, 315 bilinearis, 277c, 314 428 Index to Scientific Names mesogaster. Parexocoetus, 276c, 313 microcephalus, Somniosus, 231c, 251 microdon, Pseudotriakis, 230c, 239 Microgadus tomcod, 277c, 318 Microgobius thalassinus, 282c, 395 Micropogon undulatus, 281c, 380 microstomus, Etropus, 277c, 329 micrura, Gymnura, 255c, 267 milberti, Carcharhinus, 231c, 246 mitchilli, Anchoa, 275c, 294 Mobula hypostoma, 256c, 270 Molamola, 283c, 412 mola, Mola, 283c, 412 Monacanthus ciliatus, 283c, 407 hispidus, 283c, 406 mordax, Osmerus, 276c, 297 Morone americana, 280c, 367 Mugil cephalus, 278c, 334 curema, 278c, 334 Mullus auratus, 278c, 342 Mustelus canis, 230c, 239 Myliobatis freminvillii, 255c, 267 Myoxocephalus aeneus, 281c, 386 octodecimspinosus, 281c, 387 scorpius, 281c, 386 N Neoliparis atlanticus, 281c, 389 nigripinnis, Cotylis, 283c, 405 nobliana. Torpedo, 255c, 257 nothus, Cynoscion, 281c, 377 O oblongus, Paralichthys, 277c, 329 obscurus, Carcharhinus, 231c, 247 oceanica, Conger, 276c, 301 oceanicus, Ammodytes, 282c, 398 ocellaris, Fundulus, 276c, 307 ocellata. Raja, 255c, 261 ocellatus, Chaetodon, 281c, 383 Platophrys, 277c, 330 Sciaenops, 281c, 381 octodecimspinosus, Myoxoce- phalus, 281c, 387 oglinum, Opisthonema, 275c, 292 Oligoplites saurus, 279c, 363 onitis, Tautoga, 282c, 393 Opisthonema oglinum, 275c, 292 Opsanus tau, 283c, 404 Orthopristis chrysopterus, 280c, 371 Osmerus mordax, 276c, 297 osteochir, Rhombochirus, 282c, 397 oxyrhynchus, Acipenser, 275c, 284 oxyrinchus, Isurus, 230c, 233 narinari, Aetobatus, 255c, 268 nasus, Lamna, 230c, 232 Naucrates ductor, 279c, 362 naucrates, Echeneis, 282c, 396 nebulosus, Cynoscion, 281c, 376 Negaprion brevirostris, 230c, 243 Palinurichthys perciformis, 279c, 355 Paragaleus pectoralis, 230c, 241 Paralichthys dentatus, 277c, 328 oblongus, 277c, 329 Index to Scientific Names 429 Parexocoetus mesogaster, 276c, 313 parva, Lucania, 276c, 306 pectinatus, Pristis, 255c, 256 pectoralis, Paragaleus, 230c, 241 pelamis, Katsuwonus, 278c, 345 Peprilus alepidotus, 279c, 354 perciformis, Palinurichthys, 279c, 355 Petromyzon marinus, 227 Pholis gunnellus, 282c, 400 pictus, Histrio, 284c, 414 plagiusa, Symphurus, 277c, 330 platessoides, Hippoglossoides, 277c, 323 Platophrys ocellatus, 277c, 330 plumieri, Haemulon, 280c, 372 Pneumatophorus colias, 278c, 343 Pogonias cromis, 281c, 381 Pollachius virens, 277c, 317 Polyprion americanus, 280c, 369 Pomatomus saltatrix, 280c, 364 Pomolobus aestivalis, 275c, 289 mediocris, 275c, 289 pseudoharengus, 275c, 290 Poronotus triacanthus, 279c, 353 Priacanthus arenatus, 280c, 370 Prionace glauca, 230c, 241 Prionotus carolinus, 282c, 391 evolans, 282c, 392 Pristis pectinatus, 255c, 256 probatocephalus, Archosargus, 280c, 374 profundorum, Apristurus, 230c, 238 pseudoharengus, Pomolobus, 275c, 290 Pseudopleuronectes america- nus, 277c, 324 Pseudopriacanthus altus, 280c, 369 Pseudotriakis microdon, 230c, 239 punctatus, Decapterus, 279c, 356 Pungitius pungitius, 278c, 338 pungitius, Pungitius, 278c, 338 putnami, Liopsetta, 277c, 325 quadracus, Apeltes, 278c, 336 Rachycentron canadus, 280c, 365 radiata. Raja, 255c, 262 Raja eglanteria, 255c, 258 erinacea, 255c, 259 garmani, 255c, 260 laevis, 255c, 260 ocellata, 255c, 261 radiata, 255c, 262 senta, 255c, 263 regalis, Cynoscion, 280c, 375 Scomberomorus, 279c, 349 regius, Urophycis, 277c, 319 Remora brachyptera, 282c, 396 remora, 282c, 396 remora, Remora, 282c, 396 reticulatus, Lycodes, 283c, 404 retifer, Scyliorhinus, 230c, 238 Rhincodon typus, 230c, 237 Rhinoptera bonasus, 255c, 269 Rhombochirus osteochir, 282c, 397 rhomboides, Lagodon, 280c, 374 Rissola marginata, 283c, 404 Roccus saxatilis, 280c, 366 rostrata, Anguilla, 276c, 300 430 Index to Scientific Names sabina, Dasyatis, 255c, 265 sadina, Etrumeus, 275c, 287 salar, Salmo, 275c, 296 Salmo gairdnerii, 275c, 297 salar, 275c, 296 saltatrix, Pomatomus, 280c, 364 sapidissima, Alosa, 275c, 291 Sarda sarda, 278c, 344 sarda, Sarda, 278c, 344 Sardinella anchovia, 275c, 287 saurus, Elops, 275c, 285 Oligoplites, 279c, 363 Scomberesox, 276c, 312 saxatilis, Menticirrhus, 281c, 377 Roccus, 280c, 366 say, Dasyatis, 255c, 265 schoepfi, Chilomycterus, 283c, 411 schoepfii, Alutera, 283c, 407 Sciaenops ocellatus, 281c, 381 Scoliodon terrae-novae, 230c, 242 Scomber scombrus, 278c, 342 Scomberesox saurus, 276c, 312 Scomberomorus cavalla, 279c, 349 maculatus, 279c, 348 regalis, 279c, 349 scombrus. Scomber, 278c, 342 scorpius, Myoxocephalus, 281c, 386 scripta, Alutera, 283c, 408 Scyliorhinus retifer, 230c, 238 sectatrix, Kyphosus, 280c, 375 Selene vomer, 279c, 361 senta, Raja, 255c, 263 Seriola dumerili, 279c, 362 zonata, 279c, 361 setapinnis. Vomer, 279c, 360 Somniosus microcephalus, 231c, 251 spengleri, Sphaeroides, 283c, 410 Sphaeroides maculatus, 283c, 410 spengleri, 283c, 410 Sphyraena barracuda, 278c, 336 borealis, 278c, 335 Sphyrna diplana, 231c, 248 tibura, 231c, 247 zygaena, 231c, 249 Squalus acanthias, 231c, 249 Squatina dumeril, 231c, 252 Stenotomus aculeatus, 280c, 373 chrysops, 280c, 372 striatus, Centropristes, 280c, 368 subbifurcata, Ulvaria, 282c, 401 surinamensis, Lobotes, 280c, 370 Symphurus plagiusa, 277c, 330 Syngnathus floridae, 278c, 340 fuscus, 278c, 339 Synodus foetens, 276c, 302 tabacaria, Fistularia, 278c, 341 Tarpon atlanticus, 275c, 286 tau, Opsanus, 283c, 404 taurus, Carcharias, 230c, 231 Tautoga onitis, 282c, 393 Tautogolabrus adspersus, 282c, 393 tenuis, Urophycis, 277c, 319 terrae-novae, Scoliodon, 230c, 242 thalassinus, Microgobius, 282c, 395 thazard, Auxis, 278c, 344 Thunnus alalunga, 278c, 348 albacares, 278c, 347 atlanticus, 278c, 347 thynnus, 278c, 346 thynnus, Thunnus, 278c, 346 tibura, Sphyrna, 231c, 247 Index to Scientific Names 431 tomcod, Microgadus, 277c, 318 Torpedo nobliana, 255c, 257 Trachinotus carolinus, 280c, 363 falcatus, 280c, 364 Trachurops crumenopthalmus, 279c, 356 Trachurus trachurus, 279c, 357 trachurus, Trachurus, 279c, 357 triacanthus, Poronotus, 279c, 353 Trichiurus lepturus, 279c, 350 tricornis, Lactophrys, 283c, 409 trigonus, Lactophrys, 283c, 408 Trinectes maculatus, 277c, 331 triqueter, Lactophrys, 283c, 408 Tylosurus acus, 276c, 309 marinus, 276c, 309 typus, Rhincodon, 230c, 237 tyrannus, Brevoortia, 275c, 408 U subbifurcata. 282c, Ulvaria 401 undulatus, Micropogon, 281c, 380 unifasciatus, Hyporhamphus, 276c, 310 Urophycis chuss, 277c, 320 regius, 277c, 319 tenuis, 277c, 319 vagrans Membras, 278c, 333 variegatus, Cyprinodon, 276c, 305 velox, Euleptorhamphus, 276c, 311 virens, Pollachius, 277c, 317 volitans, Cephalacanthus, 281c, 391 vomer, Selene, 279c, 361 Vomer setapinnis, 279c, 360 vulpes, Albula, 275c, 286 vulpinus, Alopias, 230c, 235 W wheatlandi, Gasterosteus, 278c, 338 xanthurus, Leiostomus, 281c, 379 Xiphias gladius, 279c, 352 zonata, Seriola, 279c, 361 zygaena, Sphyrna, 231c, 249