. . hs : SAS SSN S Sa Se . . BS oR) ae ooh : . . : \ . WS nis Shoah Fae os : SAN ws ee . : 3 . ; . SN he Sat Shoo AN . SERENE SVT LF; ee BILD, we a S Shs! SS ete Lh, Os s ss 2S N sy Zo pu Y } ei Lb ve ¥, is yz oe ” “ IEE Sie La! ie ~~ AS -, (A Ae eae CW SS SS S Ne COLL ELNEL 7 LIPALIS OP TAPL, Sf, LOADPILLI LIAS AP EL * ’ i Are" 44 Vie iit SEA Lig HE CLS A CSL, Es f “fe Log, te ~ AGSOLIG TS da SOS iA AALS, SF: (thy LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Ch QK Enright Yo. | Shelf, O°7. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. | ee ; GUIDE TO THE — STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY BY // VOLNEY M* SPALDING PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN CL OF CONG. ee RYRIGH? “Sp Soct 5 1893 | Y oF wasHne7 BOSTON, U.S.A. aqgTt* 3 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 1898, 3 . i % a ¢ 4 AY ae CoPyRIGHT, 1893, By VOLNEY M. SPALDING. a La 2 - gh * pi oo ) "i \ ty » : Ly Le ie 4 2 4 “i mi He te ae Ay Tea Typography by J. tor Cushing & Ca.) ee i Parkhill & Co. a] a ay, ARN | io ey Sn yx, Le , PREFACH. ————ow—— THESE exercises have been prepared for classes in high schools and other institutions of similar grade, and are intended to indicate, in a general way, the nature of the work that in the judgment of the writer should be under- taken with young people who are just beginning the sys- tematic study of common forms of plant life. They were suggested by frequent inquiries of teachers regarding the preparation in botany now required for admission to the University of Michigan. No originality is claimed for the subject-matter or its treatment, although much time has been spent in the effort to develop a natural and practicable method of approaching the study of living things. While the study of relationship holds the first place, the attention of the pupil is directed at every step to the physiological signifi- cance of observed facts; and although this will hardly be approved by those who attempt to separate sharply the domain of morphology from that of physiology, it has seemed to the writer better to follow Nature than be cramped by such artificial barriers. Some of the exer- cises will perhaps appear too simple and others too diffi- cult, but a judicious selection on the part of the teacher will do much to correct this. As to the ground that ought to be covered in sucha course, and the proper sequence of subjects, there is natu- ili lV PREFACE. rally great difference of opinion among practical teachers. Theoretically it would seem best to begin with the lowest forms of plants, and work up to the higher; but after careful consideration, and in view of the actual state of things in most of our preparatory schools, a different plan has been adopted. It is hoped that in spite of mistakes and imperfections, sure to be brought to light if the book is used, it may never- theless prove serviceable to a rapidly increasing number of teachers who are desirous of improving existing methods of instruction. To Dr. Erwin F. Smith of Washington, D.C., and Miss Effie A. Southworth of Barnard College, who have kindly read the proofs throughout; to Mr. W. H. Rush of the University of Michigan, who has criti- cally reviewed and tested the practical directions; and to others who have aided in various ways, the sincere thanks of the writer are due. CONTENTS. To THE STUDENT To THE TEACHER WorkKS OF REFERENCE f LABORATORY AND PERMANENT OvuTFITS “ ORGANS OF FLOWERING PLANTS. J. SEEDS. Il. GrowtTH OF PLANTS FROM THE SEED. Ill. Roor IV. Stem V. LEAF VI. FLoweR VII. Fruits yl NATURAL GROUPS OF PLANTS.! VIII. ALGAE IX. MUSCINEZ X. FILICINEZ XI. EQUISETINE XII. LYCOPODINEZ PAGE 1x xii XV xX1x 1 Groups above families have been placed in boldface type without attempting their coordination. y v1 XIII. AY I. XVII. AV ILL. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIIT. AXIV'. SOY XX VI. XXVII. XXVIII. X XIX. XXX. XX XT. XXXII. XXXITI. XXXIV. XXXV. CONTENTS. GYMNOSPERMS. CONIFER MONOCOTYLEDONS. GRAMINEZX . CYPERACEZ. ARACEZX LILIACEZ AMARYLLIDACEZ ]RIDACEZX ORCHIDACEX DICOTYLEDONS. SALICACEE . RANUNCULACEZ CRUCIFERZ. ROSACEZ LEGUMINOSZ GERANIACEX EUPHORBIACEZ ACERACEZ . MALVACEZ . VIOLACEZ ONAGRACEX UMBELLIFERZ ASCLEPIADACEE . BoORRAGINACEZX LABIATZ J PAGE 132 157 141 144 148 150 152 155 161 . 164 171 174 177 181 186 190 193 196 200 203 . 208 212 215 vil | tse a bali: PAGE ERE ise jv , . : 2 , i \y, ae ‘ 1 ee eae : i : : ce cgianes OLIACEZ . etsy ener as : ‘ i GOR a 4 ' , 4 ’ Mie cal vie ad » » > y ay" iy Reta. fi Weenans aes ne UAT. a : : j : : 7 TO THE STUDENT. You are beginning the study of living things, and it is very important that you should begin in the right way. These practical exercises are intended to help you, but not to do the work for you. Many of the exercises will seem _yery simple, but if you actually do what is called for, it will be plain why so much stress is laid on knowledge gained by direct personal observation and experiment.! There are a few things that you ought to consider at the outset. 1. First of all, it is essential that you should learn to see things just as they are, and to report exactly what you have seen. Agassiz used to say to his students: “Study to know what is; be courageous enough to say ‘I do not know.’” ‘Tyndall said to the teachers at South Kensington: “ In every one of your experiments endeavor to feel the responsibility of a moral agent. ... If you wish to become acquainted with the truth of Nature, you must from the first resolve to deal with her sincerely.” Darwin in his autobiography? writes: “ I had during many 1 *¢ You wish, for example, to get a knowledge of magnetism ; well, pro- vide yourself with a good book on the subject, if you can, but do not be content with what the book tells you; do not be satisfied with its descriptive woodcuts; see the actual thing yourself. Mali of our book- © writers describe experiments which they never made.’?’ —TynpbaL1, Frag- ments of Science. 2 Life and Letters, p. 71. 1x x TO THE STUDENT. years followed a golden rule, namely, that whenever a published fact, a new observation or thought, came across me, which was opposed to my general results, to make a memorandum of it without fail and at once, for I had found by experience that such facts and thoughts were far more apt to escape from the memory than favorable ones.” 2. When you have seen a thing clearly, be sure to express your conception, whether by drawing, or written descrip- tion, or both, as accurately as possible. Learn to use scientific language with precision. Write out your obser- vations in full, in the best English at your command. Avoid abbreviations and every other device for saving time. Make your drawings so that an engraver could copy them. Do not hesitate to do your work all over again, if it can be improved, as it probably can be, and do not leave a thing until you have not only a complete obser- vation, but a complete expression of it. 3. Do not be hasty in drawing conclusions. Make a constant practice of comparing the object you are studying with others of the same kind. Note differences and resem- blances. Learn by the actual process what it is to acquire a general conception. ‘ Honesty in science means, first, facts well proved, and then conclusions slowly and pain- fully deduced from facts well proved.”? In all your work stop and think. The mere accumulation of facts, if nothing is done with them, is of little consequence. Constantly ask the question, what does this fact mean ? You may or may not be able to answer the question, but that is no reason for not raising it. 4. Cultivate self-reliance, but not self-sufficiency. Study 1J. P. Lesley, Presidential Address, Am. Assn. for the Advancement of Science, 1885. TO THE STUDENT. Xl things themselves rather than book descriptions of them, but habitually use the books you are referred to, compar- ing point by point your own observations with what the authors have to say. The writers cited may or may not be right; they are more likely to be than you are; but both of you may be wrong. ‘The best way is to observe for yourself, then consult the books; then observe again, and continue your observations and comparisons until the exact truth is ascertained. ‘This is the way investigations are conducted, and you are learning how to investigate. 5. This leads to a word on the use of books. Make it a regular practice to look up the references that are given with the exercises. By doing this you will not only become acquainted with some of the most valuable botan- ical literature, but, what is more important, you will come, in some measure, to understand the habits and methods of the great workers in science, and will, perhaps insensibly to yourself, catch something of their spirit, and learn to work as they did, honestly, accurately, and “ with infinite patience.” One of the greatest investigators who has ever lived wrote a few years ago: “ Whenever I have found out that I have blundered, or that my work has been imperfect, and when I have been contemptuously criticised, and even when I have been over-praised, so that I have felt morti- fied, it has been my greatest comfort to say hundreds of times to myself that ‘I have worked as hard and as well as I could, and no man can do more than this.’ ”’ 1 1 Charles Darwin, Life and Letters, p. 72. TO THE TEACHER. MATERIAL AND METHODS. IN order to use these exercises successfully it will be necessary to adopt the laboratory, as distinguished from the text-book, method of instruction. The practice, still too common, of using ordinary recitation seats and benches for work of this kind is extremely unsatisfactory, and ought to be abandoned. ‘The best arrangement is to have places assigned at long tables — one table in front of each window, so that every student can have a full amount of light. North, east, and west windows are preferable, those on the north side being the best. In every case the pupil is to be provided with the material called for, and this should be typical of its kind and sufficient in quantity. In a large proportion of the exercises the plants needed are common everywhere and easily obtained. When it is impossible to procure them the exercise is to be omitted. It has no significance whatever unless the thing talked about is actually present to the eye. It will generally be found better to secure an appropriation of a few dollars and employ some one regularly to furnish a supply of material than to depend on what the teacher and members of the class can gather. In any case the things to be studied must be systematically provided. They cost far less, but are just as essential as the reagents and apparatus in a chemical or physical laboratory. Xl TO THE TEACHER. xiii Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the importance of securing at the outset a fairly complete equipment. The necessity of following the laboratory method in science teaching is now so universally recognized that it is to be hoped that boards of education will generally adopt the better way and cheerfully pay forit. Having once secured the necessary tables, instruments, and books, the expense from year to year is extremely small in comparison with the result aimed at, viz. a discipline that can be attained in no other way. The use of the microscope, methods of sectioning, mounting microscopic objects, drawing, and other prac- tical operations of the laboratory are best learned of the living teacher. Useful suggestions, however, will be found in the excellent handbooks of Strasburger, Arthur, Barnes, and Coulter, and other laboratory manuals. DISPOSITION OF TIME. When practicable, it is much more advantageous to arrange the time given to laboratory work so that each student can work two consecutive hours for a certain num- ber of days each week. When this cannot be done with- out seriously interfering with the school programme, the following plan is suggested: Give four hours each week to practical exercises, requiring each member of the class to work independently in his own place, precisely as he would at a table in a chemical laboratory, the teacher pass- ing from table to table, giving personal help as it is needed, and from time to time giving notes and directions to the class as a whole. The remaining hour, say on Friday or Monday, or sometimes both, may be used for recitations, reports on laboratory work, and the dictation of notes and X1V TO THE TEACHER. references. Exercises to be conducted out of school hours may be assigned at the discretion of the teacher, but generally it will be found that the best work is done in the laboratory under his personal direction. In the majority of preparatory schools half a year is given to botany. It is very desirable that the time should be extended, but until this is done it is recommended that the exercises be followed substantially as here out- lined, with the omission of a part, or possibly the whole, of the microscopic work. If the latter is undertaken, and a reasonable amount of time is given to the study of different families of plants in the spring, a full year will be needed. WORKS OF REFERENCE. IN connection with the exercises, frequent references are given. In a few cases books of a more or less popular character are mentioned, and some of the most important works in French and German are referred to, inasmuch as they are well-nigh indispensable to the teacher. In general, the works named are easily obtained, and ought to have a place in any respectable school library. Several copies of the books in constant use should be placed on tables in the laboratory, where they can be consulted with- out loss of time, the students being given to understand that they are expected to look up references as habitually and critically as they would if reading a classical author. One or more of the best periodicals may properly be included in the essentials of the laboratory outfit. The following list, by no means complete, includes some of the most generally useful botanical works. LABORATORY MANUALS. Arthur, Barnes, and Coulter, Plant Dissection. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1886. Bower and Vines, Practical Botany, Parts I. and Il. Macmillan & Co., ~ London, 1885 and 1887. Clark, Practical Methods in Microscopy. D.C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1893. Strasburger and Hillhouse, Practical Botany. Macmillan & Co., New York. 1889. These manuals are of the utmost value as laboratory guides. ‘The first is the simplest, and, on the whole, most suitable for XV XVl WORKS OF REFERENCE. beginners. The third contains the latest and most approved methods of microscopical manipulation. The last is most com- plete, and gives the modern methods of work with such clearness and detail as to render it indispensable in every botanical labo- | ratory. The original work of which it is a translation [Stras- burger, Das kleine botanische Praktikum. Fischer, Jena] will be preferred by those who read German. STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL. Gray, Structural Botany (sixth edition). Ivison, Blakeman & Co., New - York, 1879. | Goodale, Physiological Botany. Ivison, Blakeman & Co., New York, 1885. Bessey, Botany. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1888. DeBary, Comparative Anatomy of the Phanerogams and Ferns. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1884. Vines, Physiology of Plants. Cambridge, University Press, 1886. Sachs, The Physiology of Plants, Trans. by H. Marshall Ward. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Macmillan & Co., 1887. Haberlandt, Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie. Engelmann, Leipzig, 1884. | | Frank, Lehrbuch der Pflanzenphysiologie. Parey, Berlin, 1890. Zimmermann, Die Morphologie und Physiologie der Pflanzenzelle. Trewendt, Breslau, 1887. Detmer, Das pflanzenphysiologische Praktikum. Fischer, Jena, 1888. Detmer, Manuel technique de Physiologie végetale. C. Reinwald, Paris, 1890. Translation of the last-named work revised and extended by the author. Bessey’s Botany is the least expensive book that covers the ground at all satisfactorily. With Gray’s Structural and Good- ale’s Physiological Botany one is better equipped for work, inas- much as the whole general subject of organography and physiology is ably and clearly presented in them. Sachs’ Lectures on the Physiology of Plants is indispensable. MORPHOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMATIC. Goebel, Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology of Plants. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1887. Luerssen, Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik. WHaessel, Leipzig, 1879. WORKS OF REFERENCE. XVIL Eichler, Bliithendiagramme. Engelmann, Leipzig, 1875. Engler und Prantl, Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Engelmann, Leipzig. All of these are of great value, especially the rather expensive work of Engler and Prantl, now in course of publication. FLORAS. Gray, Manual of Botany (sixth edition). Ivison, Blakeman & Co., New York. Chapman, Flora of the Southern United States Geen edition). Ivi- son, Blakeman & Co., 1888. Coulter, Manual of the Botany of the Rocky Mountain Region. Ivison, Blakeman & Co., 1885. - Coulter, Manual of the Phanerogams and Pteridophytes of Western Beas. 7 U2. Dept. Acric., 1892. Gray, Synoptical Flora of North America. (In progress.) Gray’s Manual is commonly bound with the “ Lessons” in one volume, but may be had separate in convenient form for the pocket. Dr. Gray’s final revision of the.“ Lessons ” has been pub- lished under the title, Elements of Botany. Ivison, Blakeman & Co., 1887. CRYPTOGAMIC BOTANY. Eaton, Ferns of North America. Cassino, Boston, 1879. Lesquereux and James, Mosses of North America. Cassino, Boston, 1884. Farlow, Marine Alge of New England. U. S. Fish Commission, Washington, 1881. Tuckerman, North American Lichens. Cassino, Boston, 1882. DeBary, Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, Mycetozoa, and Bacteria. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1887. v. Tavel, Vergleichende Morphologie der Pilze. Fischer, We bse2- Bennett and Murray, Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany. Longmans, Green & Co., London and New York, 1889. Plowright, British Uredinee and Ustilaginee. Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., London, 1889. Underwood, Our Native Ferns and their Allies. Bloomington, IIL. 1882. XVlll WORKS OF REFERENCE. The list of works on Cryptogamic Botany might be greatly extended. Numerous references to the literature of the alge will be found in Farlow’s work mentioned above, and to that of the fungi in DeBary’s treatise. For other references consult Ben- nett and Murray’s Handbook. GENERAL. Miiller, The Fertilization of Flowers. Macmillan & Co., London, 1883. DeCandolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants. Appleton & Co., New York, 1885. Kerner, Flowers and their Unbidden Guests. Paul & Co., London, 1878. Darwin, Jnsectivorous Plants, and other works. Appleton & Co., New York. Lubbock, Seedlings. Appleton & Co., New York, 1892. Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves. Macmillan & Co., London, 1886. Goodale, Wild Flowers of America. Cassino, Boston, 1882. Sachs, History of Botany. Macmillan & Co., 1890. Lindley and Moore, The Treasury of Botany. Longmans, London, 1874. Kerner von Marilaun, Pflanzenleben, 2 vols. Bibliographisches Insti- tut, Leipzig and Vienna, 1891. Miiller’s work on the Fertilization of Flowers gives references to the immense and increasing body of literature on this subject. Kerner’s work is out of print, but may occasionally be picked up, and is a most charming little book. All of Darwin’s books should have a place in such a list. CURRENT LITERATURE. The Botanical Gazette. Lake Forest, Ill., $2.50 per year. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. New York, $2.00 per year. Annals of Botany. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Botanisches Centralblatt. Gotthelft, Cassel. The Botanical Gazette and Torrey Bulletin are well-known Ameri- can journals. The Annals of Botany is a new periodical of a high order, with original monographs, criticisms of current lit- erature, etc. The Botanisches Centralblatt is indispensable in botanical research. LABORATORY AND PERMANENT OUTFHIT. 1. The laboratory should be a large room, properly ventilated, with as many windows as practicable, and used exclusively as a laboratory. An upper room is preferable to a lower one, since the air is clearer and there is less liability to disturbance from passers-by. 2. The laboratory tables should be plain and solid, oiled, but not painted or varnished, and large enough to give each student all the space he requires without crowd- ing. Drawers should be placed in the tables, or in a - separate case, in which the students’ outfit may be kept. 3. Receptacles for waste materials, conveniently placed and frequently emptied, and plenty of clean water are indispensable. 4, A pair of balances, such as are employed by drug- gists for accurate weighing, will be required. 0. Microscopes. For the compound microscope, the so-called continental stand is preferable, on account of its simplicity, firmness, and convenient size. ‘Two good objec- tives, ? and + inch, or their equivalent, and two eye-pieces are necessary. Such an instrument may be purchased of a reliable dealer for about $30. It will hardly be practi- cable to equip the laboratory with lower-priced ones that will prove satisfactory. Dissecting microscopes of simple construction are needed, xix XX LABORATORY AND PERMANENT OUTFIT. but a good hand-lens, properly mounted, will answer the same purpose. See Arthur, Barnes, and Coulter, Plant Dissection, p. 2. 6. Glassware and miscellaneous articles. A stock of common plates and bowls, beakers, glass tubing, bell-jars, test-tubes, metric rules, etc., will be required, but are best purchased as needed, at the discretion of the teacher. REAGENTS. Of the reagents most employed in botanical work the following are required : 1 — 7. Alcohol. For preserving plant-tissues, except in cases involving the most delicate operations, three grades of alcohol are all that will be needed. The lowest grade (between 45 and 50 per cent) is composed of equa: parts of alcohol of commerce and distilled water. ‘The inter-— mediate grade (between 70 and 75 per cent) is prepared by adding 25 parts of distilled water to 75 parts of commercial alcohol. The highest grade is the alcohol of commerce (approximately 95 per cent). Parts of plants to be preserved are allowed to remain 24 hours in the lowest grade of alcohol, then for the same length of time in alcohol of intermediate strength, and finally are placed in 95 per cent alcohol, in which they may be kept indefinitely. It is necessary to guard against attempting to preserve too much material in a given quantity of alcohol, as decomposition is likely to take place. 1Reference may be made to various works in which reagents and methods are discussed at much greater length. Among these are Stras- burger and Hillhouse, Practical Botany; Behrens, Guide to the Use of the Microscope in Botany ; Zimmermann, Die botanische Mikrotechnik. LABORATORY AND PERMANENT OUTFIT. _Xxl 8. Absolute alcohol. [or finer histological work abso- lute alcohol and a larger number of grades of commercial alcohol more carefully prepared are necessary. 9. Iodine solution. Distilled water 10 c.c., potassic iodide 1 gm., iodine 0.25 gm. Dilute to 250 c.c. 10. Glycerine. Pure glycerine is employed in some cases, but equal parts of glycerine and distilled water will generally be found most serviceable. 11. Schulze’s solution. This may be prepared accord- ing to the rule given in Strasburger’s Praktikum, but it will be found more convenient to employ Griibler’s chlor- iodide of zine, which may be obtained of Eimer and Amend, New York. 12. Potash solution. One part of solid caustic potash dissolved in 20 parts of distilled water. This reagent attacks glass, and care should be taken to prevent its getting on the objectives. 13. Glacial acetic acid. 14. Sulphurie acid. 15. Hydrochloric acid. 16. Picrie acid. i7. Phloroglucin. One per cent alcoholic or watery solution. Employed with hydrochloric acid as a test for. lignin. | 18. Picric aniline blue. Add picric acid to distilled water until a saturated solution is obtained. To this add slowly a saturated watery solution of aniline blue until it is of a deep blue-green color. XX LABORATORY AND PERMANENT OUTFIT. 19. Acetic methyl green. To a 2 per cent solution of glacial acetic acid add methyl green until the solution is deeply colored. STUDENTS OUTFIT. Each pupil should be provided with the following articles : 1 — 20. A Coddington lens or achromatic triplet. Either of these will serve a good purpose. The cheap lenses, mounted in horn, and sold for a dollar or less, are of little use. A good Coddington lens may be purchased of Bausch and Lomb, Rochester, N.Y., for $2.50, and an excellent achromatic triplet of James W. Queen & Co., Philadelphia, for $4.75. 21. A good pocket knife, kept sharp. 22. Razor of good quality and medium size, hollow eround. The Torrey razor, manufactured at Worcester, Mass., is recommended. 23. A pair of fine forceps. 24. Slides and thin glass covers for mounting micro- scopic objects. The glass covers should be of medium thickness, and not less than ? of an inch in diameter. 25. Needles mounted in handles. 26. Camel’s-hair brushes of medium size. 27. Note-book and drawing paper. The latter should be unruled, rather heavy, of good quality, and cut to a convenient size for drawings. 1 In some cases it may be practicable, in order to save expense, for two to use the same outfit; but the practice is not to be commended, except in case of necessity. LABORATORY AND PERMANENT OUTFIT. Xxiil 28. Drawing pencils and eraser. The pencils should be of at least two grades, medium and hard. If the student pays a laboratory fee, most of the articles named above should be furnished by the school board; if no fee is charged, he may reasonably be required to purchase for himself those that are liable to loss or deterioration through use. STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. ——2020300— I. SEEDS.! - MATERIAL REQUIRED. Common white beans. Other varieties, such as “ butter beans,” ete. Peas, oats, wheat, Indian corn, — several varieties of the latter. _ Castor oil seeds. Seeds of white pine, Norway spruce, and other conifers. Commercial “nuts,” such as chestnut, peanut, filbert, almond, Brazil nut, and English walnut. Seeds of coffee, date, flax, sunflower, tomato. As many kinds as possible of seeds with winged or hooked appendages or other special arrangements for dissemination. Seeds of squash, pumpkin, watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, gourd, and similar collections from other important families. COMMON BEAN. Phaseolus vulgaris, Savi. I. Compare a number of white beans, and see if they are all alike. Select a good specimen. Observe and describe 1. The shape, surface, and color. 2. Surface markings: a. The scar, hilum,? marking the place where the seed was attached. — 1 General references: Gray, Structural Botany, pp. 305-514; Stras- burger, Practical Botany, Chaps. I and IL; Sachs, Physiology of Plants : Haberlandt, Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie, pp. 277-295. 2Tf any of the terms are unfamiliar and are not sufliciently explained in the text, consult Webster’s International Dictionary. 1 2. STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. 6. Near the hilum a minute orifice, micropyle, easily seen under a lens. c. The chalaza, the part where the seed coats blend with each other and nutriment enters the grow- ing seed. In this case the chalaza is located externally by a small protuberance near the hilum, on the opposite side from the micropyle. II. With a sharp penknife or needle remove the integ- ument, testa, from a bean that has been soaked in water for a day. Near the hilum a small pointed body, the radicle, will be found. Locate it accurately. Does it have any relation to the micropyle ? III. Separate the two halves, cotyledons. Examine under a good lens. Notice 1. The form and position of the radicle. 2. The delicate structure, plumule, connected with it. Draw the parts, taking care to represent accurately the leaves of the plumule and their venation. IV. Examine beans that have lain a few days on moist blotting paper under a bell-jar. What changes have taken place ? What part of the seed has developed into the primary root? What changes has the plumule undergone ? V. With the common bean compare a number of other varieties, “butter bean,” “scarlet runner,’ etc., noting carefully all points of likeness and difference. VI. Study next the common pea, comparing its struc- ture with that of the bean. VII. Write a detailed account of your observations of the bean and pea. Introduce drawings or outline sketches SEEDS. a) whenever the description will be rendered more intelligible by them. CASTOR OIL SEED. Ricinus communis, L. I. Study first the external features. 1. Shape and surface. Compare different specimens as regards shades and distribution of color. 2. Surface markings: . a. The conspicuous, thickened protuberance at one end, the caruncle, a structure occurring in com- paratively few species. 6. The string-like raphe, extending from the hilum (faintly seen at the edge of the caruncle) to the chalaza, near the other end. II. Remove the testa and observe the delicate inner seed coat, endopleura, enclosing the kernel. III. Split the kernel longitudinally, so as to expose the embryo. Examine under a dissecting microscope, or with a good lens. Draw the inner surface of one of the halves so as to show 1. The outline and venation of the cotyledon. 2. The short, straight radicle. 3. The surrounding endosperm (tissue containing food material). IV. Record in detail what you have observed. Note important differences between the castor oil seed and com- , mon bean. INDIAN CORN. Zea Mays, L.1 I. Study closely the external features of the grain. How do the two sides differ ? 1 The grain of corn is really a seed-like fruit, in which the coats of fruit and seed are blended. Specimens for dissecting should be placed in water the day betore they are to be used. 4 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. II. With a sharp knife make a median longitudinal section perpendicular to the flat sides of the grain. Re- peat the process, if necessary, until a good specimen is secured. Observe on the cut surface 1. The strong external membrane composed of the united coats of the fruit and seed. 2. The endosperm, a tissue containing starch and other food materials, very hard in the dry grain, but easily cut in one that has lain some time in water. 8. The embryo, with its conspicuous organ of absorp- tion, scutellum, the latter in close contact with the endosperm. Draw the section. III. Remove the entire embryo from a grain that has been soaked. Dissect out the parts enclosed in the scutellum. Compare them with the same parts as seen in section. Note 1. The radicle pointing toward the small end of the grain, its end covered by the root-sheath. 2. The caulicle, attached to the scutellum, and termi- nating above in 3. The plumule. IV. Take a series of transverse sections and locate each one by comparing it with a longitudinal section. Repeat this until you are perfectly familiar with all the parts and their relative position. V. Study a grain of corn that has sprouted. What changes has the embryo undergone? VI. Collect as many varieties of corn as you can and compare them. SEEDS. LS VII. Study wheat in the same way that you have Indian corn, and compare the structure of the two grains. Compare oats with both.t In what respects are all three alike? Point out the differences between them. VIII. Write a full account of your observations of these erains. Point out two important particulars in which they differ from peas and beans. | SEEDS OF WHITE PINE. Pinus Strobus, L. I. Observe all the external features. Draw in outline a perfect specimen. Compare the seeds of Austrian pine or Norway spruce. II. Remove the testa, exposing the kernel enclosed in the delicate inner seed coat. III. Make both longitudinal and transverse sections of the kernel. Notice 1. The form and position of the embryo. 2. Around this the white, oily endosperm. Draw. IV. Remove the embryo and examine under a good lens. How do the two ends differ? How many coty- ledons are there? V. Write a complete description. In what important particulars does the seed of the pine differ from those previously studied? PHYSIOLOGY OF SHEDS. Storage of Food. I. Cut through one of the cotyledons of a common bean and scrape the exposed surface lightly with the 1 Cf. Arthur, Barnes, and Coulter, Plant Dissection, pp. 179, 180. 6 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. point of a knife. Mount in water a very small portion of the powder thus obtained, and examine under a com- pound microscope, first with the low, and afterward with the high power. 1. Numerous minute bodies are seen in the field of the microscope. ‘These are grains of bean starch! Are they all of the same size? Of the same shape? Draw two or three of them. 2. Focus carefully and study their structure. Are they homogeneous ? Compare different specimens in regard to this point. 8. Runa small drop of iodine solution under the cover glass and observe the effect. Notice from the outside how far the reagent has advanced, then examine that part of the slide under the micro- scope, and see how differently the starch granules look after the iodine has acted upon them. Ii. Mount in the same way a bit of wheat flour taken from the inside of a grain of wheat. 1. How do the starch grains compare with those of the bean in form, size, and structure? Are the grains of wheat starch of uniform size ? 2. Touch the cover glass lghtly with a needle until some of the largest grains roll over. What is their shape? Draw a few grains in different positions so as to represent what you find to be charac- teristic. | 8. Test with iodine solution. IjJ. Examine corn starch obtained in the same way from a grain of Indian corn. 1 Useful suggestions for the microscopical examination of starch are given by Strasburger, Practical Botany, pp. 4-15. SEEDS. y 1. Compare the grains of corn starch with those of the bean and wheat. Draw. 2. Test with iodine solution. IV. Cut a grain of oats in two, obtain some of the starch as directed in the preceding cases, and examine microscopically. The compound grains of starch present a widely different appearance from the simple ones of Indian corn, wheat, and beans. Study their structure earefully, and draw one or more. ‘Test with iodine. From this and preceding observations what do you con- clude in regard to the usual form and structure of starch? What as to its reaction with iodine ? V. Cut asunflower akene in two, and remove a small portion of the endosperm. Mount in water and apply shght pressure to the cover glass. Under.the compound microscope numerous highly refractive drops of oil will be seen coming out of the broken tissue. Focus carefully on an oil drop, and observe its sharply defined border. What changes does it undergo as the focus is altered ? Various other oily seeds, such as those of the squash, tomato, pine, English walnut, etc., may be studied in the same way. Enough of these should be examined to ensure familiarity on the part of the student with the appearance of fatty oil under the microscope. VI. Soak a date seed in water a day or more until it can be cut easily. Pare off a portion of it with a knife or scalpel, so as to expose a smooth, even surface, and then with a razor make extremely delicate sections of the endo- sperm. Mount some of these in glycerine, and others in Schulze’s solution. Microscopic examination shows that the date seed consists chiefly of the greatly thickened walls of the cells that compose its substance. Watch the 8 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. action of Schulze’s solution. ‘The blue color that pres- ently appears indicates cellulose. | VII. Examine similar sections of a coffee seed prepared and mounted in the same way. Notice how the cell walls differ from those of the date seed. VIII. Remove the testa of a castor oil seed, and cut a few thin sections from the endosperm. Mount in pure olycerine, and examine with the high power. 1. The sections show (best on the edges where they are very thin) the cells of the endosperm filled with numerous rounded bodies. ‘These are aleurone grains. They are of frequent occurrence in oily — seeds, and constitute an important food substance. 2. Draw a cell with its contents. Examine the aleurone grains closely, and see if you can detect any struct- ure. The small rounded body most frequently seen at one end of the aleurone grain is called a globoid. | 8. Run a drop of water under the cover glass and watch the effect. Some of the aleurone grains presently show, besides the rounded globoid, an angular crystalloid. | Draw again a cell with its contents so as to show the changes that have taken place. 4, After the water has had sufficient time to act on the cell contents, it is evident that they are becoming disorganized, and drops of oil are seen to have passed out of the section. 3 Nore. — It is important that all of these features should be sat- isfactorily made out before proceeding farther. It may be neces- sary to prepare a considerable number of slides, and possibly will require several hours. The essential fact is that in the castor oil seed two sorts of food are stored: one non-nitrogenous, in the SEEDS. 9 form of fatty oil; the other nitrogenous, in the form of aleurone. We shall find the same association of nitrogenous and non-nitrog- enous food substances in other seeds. IX. Prepare sections of the endosperm of a flax seed, and, as before, examine some in glycerine and .others in water. How do the aleurone grains compare in size, form, and structure with those of the castor oil seed?! X. Make a transverse section of a grain of wheat that has lain in water a few hours, cutting it in such a way that the section will show the coats of the grain and a portion of the endosperm. Mount in water. Notice 1. The large cells making up most of the endosperm. What do they contain? 2. Outside of these a layer of cells, rectangular in sec- tion, containing aleurone. 8. The behavior of the substances contained in the different cells when iodine is applied. Draw a portion of the section. 4. The arrangements for protection of the embryo, together with its food supply, by means of the united fruit and seed-coats. [The former consists of several layers of cells with strongly thickened walls, the latter of two very thin layers imme- diately outside the cells that contain aleurone. Tangential sections treated with sulphuric acid, compared with the transverse sections, will make the structure plain. | XI. Record in full what you have ascertained regarding reserve materials and their storage in seeds. What are the different kinds of non-nitrogenous food substances thus 1Cf. Frank, Lehrbuch der Pflanzenphysiologie, p. 158. 10 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. far met with? How are they recognized? Mention cases where you have found them associated with aleurone.! Protection. I. Examine an orange with reference to the protection of the embryos. Make a transverse section of the fruit, and note carefully all the protective arrangements. II. Study an apple in the same way. III. Compare a number of commercial “nuts”; e.g. almond, chestnut, peanut, hickory nut, Brazil nut. Which are the most effectually protected? How do they compare with other fruits in this respect ? IV. Make a transverse section of a grain of Indian corn and examine the pericarp microscopically. Notice the multiplication of thick-walled cells and their arrangement. Draw. V. After observing as many other seeds as are obtain- able, summarize your observations of the ways in which the embryo is protected against mechanical injuries, wet- ting, destruction by animals, attacks of fungi, etc. Are any that you have examined poorly protected ?? Dispersal. I. Examine the seeds of common milkweed, Asclepias Cornuti, Decaisne. Compare those of the trumpet creeper, Tecoma radicans, Juss. Make an outline sketch of both. II. Study as many as can be obtained of the following: Seeds of willow or poplar; fruits of elm, birch, maple, ash, clematis, hop tree, Ptelea, iron-wood, Ostrya or Carpr- 1 Cf. Sachs, Physiology of Plants, pp. 325-540. 2 Cf. De Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 395. SEEDS. Mei 2 | nus, thistle, dandelion, wild lettuce, cotton grass, Hrio- phorum. | In the air of a still room see whether any of these fall perpendicularly from a height of a few feet. What is the case when the air is disturbed by fanning? III. Examine the fruits belonging to some or all of the following genera: Agrimonia, Geum, Desmodium, Circea, - Galium, Lappa, Xanthium, Echinospermum, Cynoglossum, Bidens, Cenchrus. Describe the various appendages and compare them as to their efficiency. By means of a thread suspend weights to one of the hooked appendages of the burdock and ascertain how ereat a weight the hook will bear. IV. Write out a list of fruits attractive to animals, taking care to include only such as you have yourself observed. VY. Discuss any other arrangements for dispersal of seeds with which you are familiar. Read one or more of the references given below.! RELATIONSHIPS INDICATED BY SHEDS. I. Examine seeds of mustard, radish, cabbage, and other cruciferous plants, comparing them with reference to their form and size, form and position of the embryo, nature of reserve material, and other points of difference and resemblance. The study will be facilitated by com- paring seeds that have been planted two or three days. 1 Darwin, Origin of Species, Chap. XII; Lyell, Principles of Geology, Vol. Il, Chap. XL; Hill, Am. Nat., 1883, pp. 811, 1028; Hildebrand, Verbreitungsmitiel der Pflanzen ; Wallace, Darwinism. 12 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. Draw and describe the various parts of some of the different seeds. II. Compare in the same way peas, beans, lima bean, lupine, and peanut. Are they essentially alike in struct- ure? Mention points of difference. III. Compare seeds of squash, pumpkin, watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, and gourd. IV. Compare seeds of tomato, egg plant, pepper, stra- monium, and hyoscyamus. V. Compare the seed-like fruits of sunflower, dandelion, thistle, lettuce, and salsify. In all the groups thus studied ascertain whether the seeds are more alike than different. Sections should be made and drawings introduced wherever they are needed to render the descriptions more intelligible. Some of the groups may be omitted if necessary, but the observations should be thorough and complete as far as they are — carried. SPECIAL STUDIE5ES.! I. Polyembryony in the genus Citrus. This requires an extended comparison of seeds of different varieties of orange, lemon, and other citrus fruits. IJ. Arillate seeds. A study of the seeds of Celastrus scandens and other arillate species. IiI. Relation of the embryo to the reserve material. Arrangements that favor a prompt supply of food 1 A few subjects for special study are given in connection with this and other exercises simply as examples of many that will naturally suggest themselves. In most cases the studies suggested require inde- pendent investigation, while others, such for example as number IV, give opportunity for reading and reporting on papers of special interest, par- ticularly those in recent periodical literature. SEEDS. — ts to the embryo in early stages of germination. Cf. Haberlandt, Physiologische Pflanzenanatome, p- 288 et seq. IV. Peculiar cases of plant dissemination. Cf. Ber- thoud, Botanical Gazette, XVII (1892), p. 821. VY. Identification of species by means of seeds. An interesting application will be found in the deter- mination of weed seeds of frequent occurrence in grass and clover seed. Cf. Beal, Grasses of North America, I, p. 215. REVIEW AND SUMMARY. The seeds we have studied have been selected from three great classes of plants. To the first class belong the bean, castor oil, and other plants, the seeds of which have two cotyledons; to the second, wheat, Indian corn, and, in general, all plants with one cotyledon; and to the third, pines and their allies, many of which have more than two cotyledons. The distinctions between these classes are in many respects fundamental, so that an examination of the seed of a given plant is generally suffi- cient to enable us to determine its class in the vegetable kingdom.1 Furthermore, we have found that there are more re- stricted groups of plants, called families, the seeds of which are in many cases, though not in all, so nearly identical in structure as to indicate at once their family relationship. ‘The squash, melon, and cucumber belong to one of these families; the tomato, ege plant, and stra- monium to another, and so on. We conclude, therefore, 1Seedless or ‘‘ cryptogamic’’ plants will be studied later. What is said in the present chapter and those immediately following applies to the higher or seed-bearing plants, including Gymnosperms. 14 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. that the structure of seeds is an important factor in the determination of relationship. This being the case, it becomes necessary to formulate certain general conceptions of form and structure, and to Morphology adopt descriptive language by which they may of seeds. be expressed with clearness. The essential parts of a seed are the protective coats and the embryo with its store of food. The seed-coats commonly show a division into an external, hard, often colored, layer, the testa, and an in- ternal, more delicate one, the endopleura; the former term, however, is frequently employed to designate the coats collectively. In many species the endopleura is wanting. Externally the testa may be smooth and pol- ished, as is the case with the seed of the castor oil plant, or it may be covered with hairs, as cotton seeds are, or, again, 1t may be extended into a wing, like that belong- ing to the seeds of the catalpa, and various other modifi- cations may occur, having, as a rule, a direct relation to protection or dissemination. An additional coat, usually colored and fleshy, known as the aril, is rarely present. The parts of the embryo are the radicle, cotyledons, and plumule. As we have seen, it may have one, two, or sev- eral cotyledons, and accordingly is said to be monocotyledonous, dicotyledonous, or polycoty- ledonous. The embryo varies greatly in different species as regards form, position, and size, being straight or curved; occupying the whole space within the seed-coats, or only a small portion of it; the cotyledons alike or dit- Seed-coats. Embryo. 1 See, for example, Rowlee, Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, XX (1893), p. 1, and Rolfs, Botanical Gazette, XVII (1892), p. 35. 2 For a more extended treatment of the morphology of seeds cf. Gray, Structural Botany. SEEDS. gE fering in size or shape, and so on;! but these peculiarities are generally constant and characteristic in the species, or group of species, in which they occur. Whatever the form and position of the embryo, the radicle points towards the micropyle. Food materials of various kinds are stored up for the use of the plantlet during germination. If the tissue con- taining such reserve materials surrounds the embryo, it is called the endosperm, or, using an old phraseology, the seed is said to be albuminous. If, on the contrary, the reserve materials are stored within the embryo itself, even if they are of precisely the same nature, the seed is said to be without endosperm, or exal- buminous.2 The terms are not well chosen, but have be- come so fixed as to render it necessary to recognize them. Certain structural peculiarities are intimately connected with the developmental history of seeds. ‘They are at- tached to the mother plant by a minute stalk ice, Bee through which nutritive materials are conveyed chalaza, mi- during their period of growth, but from which °?y!® they break away at maturity, leaving a scar called the hilum, such as is plainly seen on the common-bean. From the hilum, in the great majority of cases, extends a fine, fibrous bundle, the raphe, like that of the castor oil seed, either the entire length of the seed, or for a shorter dis- tance, ending in a point, the so-called chalaza, where the seed coats cohere with each other and with the parts within. The raphe is simply a continuation of the stalk through which food materials were carried to the develop- ing seed, the chalaza being the point where the materials Endosperm. 1 Cf. Lubbock, Seedlings. 2¥For the rare cases in which a distinction must be made between endosperm and perisperm, see Gray, Structural Botany, p. 510. 16 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. were distributed to the interior of the seed. The hilum is in almost all cases a conspicuous feature, readily seen by the unaided eye, or with the help of a lens. ‘The chalaza and raphe, on the contrary, are frequently obscured by the growth of the seed-coats. The micropyle is the open- ing between the seed-coats, readily seen in early stages of development, but often not easily recognized from the out- side of the mature seed. Its position is most readily determined by opening the seed and finding the radicle, which, as already said, points toward the micropyle. The form of the seed is also determined largely by the direction of growth of the ovule. In the majority of cases, of which the castor oil seed is a good Form as de- . . termined by CXample, the developing ovule turns upon its direction of longitudinal axis in such a way as to take an growth, : aes : inverted position, so that in the mature seed the hilum and micropyle are close together, the chalaza at the opposite end, and the raphe running the whole length of the seed. Such seeds are said to be anatropous. Others, as, for example, the seeds of stramonium, are simply much curved, bringing both chalaza and micropyle near the hilum, one on either side of it. This is the so-called campylotropous form. In comparatively few species, of which buckwheat is an example, the axis of the’ ovule remains straight throughout its development, and the seed is said to be orthotropous. Modifications, particularly of the first and second forms, are of frequent occurrence. Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, pp. 278, 279. Physiologically, seeds present many points of interest. The arrangements for dispersal, for protection, and for Physiological the support of the embryo in germination are adaptations: among the most important. A. species bon ger has a better chance of survival if SEEDS. *® 17 the seeds are conveyed to some distance from the plant on which they are produced. By this means they are less likely to come into as close competition with each other as if they grew up together around the parent plant; they are also brought into other conditions of soil and surroundings, and the chances for cross-fertil- ization are greater, which, as we shall see, is often a marked advantage. Accordingly it-is found that a variety of structures exist that are directly adapted to the dis- semination of seeds. Thus many seeds are distributed by the action of the wind. These are most frequently light in weight and provided with appendages in the form of wings or hairs, such as those of the catalpa, poplar, milkweed, and many others. Seeds distributed by animals are often concealed within brightly colored or otherwise attractive fruits; in other cases they are provided with hooks or other appendages by which they become attached to the wool or hair of various animals, and the seeds of many water-loving plants, are carried in the mud that adheres to the feet of aquatic birds. The seeds of still others are washed by oceanic currents to the shores of distant islands or continents, and, finally, the agency of man, both intentional and unintentional, becomes a potent factor in the distribution of plants. By these and other agencies the forms that constitute the vegetation of the earth have come to occupy the places in which we now find them, and it becomes for every species that we meet a fascinating and often intricate problem to endeavor to ascertain how it came to be where it is. It is plain that from the time they leave the mother plant to the time of germination, seeds are exposed to numerous dangers, and that they require pro- tection. This is afforded in part by the shape of the seed, Dispersal. Protection. 18 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. most frequently a combination of strong arches, by which the danger of crushing is lessened; in part by the hard testa, which sometimes has a compact, polished exterior that resists the entrance of water and germs ; and in some cases by bitter or otherwise distasteful substances stored up in the seed. In addition to these means of protection the embryo is often securely packed in the midst of abundant endosperm, and not infrequently still other pro- vision is made for its safety. Microscopic examination of a seed shows the presence of one or more kinds of reserve materials. As a rule, Podorve starch, or some other non-nitrogeneous sub- materials. stance, is associated with aleurone or its equiva- lent, thus supplying all the essential food elements. Oil, as a condensed form of food, is largely employed in small seeds and those that are transported by the wind, since by the use of this material greater lightness, volume for volume, is secured than if starch were employed. Cellu- lose takes the place of starch or oil in the date and some other seeds, which, as Haberlandt has pointed out, are in this way rendered less lable to decay and the attacks of animals during their long period of germination.! It is also seen upon the careful study of almost any seed that the reserve materials are so placed as to be ready for immediate use when wanted, either lying in the cells of the embryo itself or packed closely around it, and there brought into immediate relation with its absorbing tissue. Still other physiological adaptations will be apparent as a greater number of seeds are examined and their struct- Other adapta. Ural peculiarities brought to light. As an exam- tions. ple may be mentioned the fact that anatropous seeds by curving upon themselves during the early stages 1 Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie, p. 285 et seq. SEEDS. _ 19 of their development bring the micropyle into such a position as to favor tNe entrance of the pollen tube. Again, the hairy appendages of numerous achenia, such as those of the dandelion and related plants, are so placed as to bring the radicle on the lower side as the object alights on the surface of the ground.t Such adaptations are of so constant occurrence that the student can hardly fail to receive the impression, in general a correct one, that the simplest structural facts are likely to have some important physiological significance. On the other hand, there are numerous cases of “ accidental” pecuharities, for which no reason is manifest, and which at present are not explained. 1 Cf. Rowlee, l.c. 20 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. Il GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM THE SEED MATERIAL REQUIRED. Seedlings of the common bean, pea, sunflower, white mustard, flax, and hemp, from one to four weeks old. | Seedlings of Indian corn and wheat of various ages. Pine seedlings from a few weeks to a few months old. Seeds of squash and other cucurbits in early stages of germination. I. Take seedlings of different ages of the plants named in the first list above. Wash the roots and let them stand in a dish of water to prevent drying. Compare them and satisfy yourself as to the following points: 1. Do they all have a taproot? 2. Do they all have a hypocotyl, z.e. a stem ue ae the cotyledons? 3. How do the cotyledons of the different plants differ a. As to form and size? 6. In function? Have any of them wholly lost their function as foliage leaves? Are there any apparently transitional forms, as if this function were partially lost ? 4. How does the pea differ from the sunflower in the time of unfolding the proper foliage leaves? Can 1 'The seeds should be sown at intervals of a few days, some in sand, others in moist (not wet) sawdust, and still others on folds of damp blotting paper under a bell-jar. There should be three or four lots of as many different ages. Pine seedlings, which are rather difficult to raise, may be obtained from nurseries. GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM THE SEED. at you suggest any reason for this difference? How do the other seedlings compare in this respect ? II. Compare the seedlings of Indian corn and wheat that have attained the height of several inches. 1. Describe the cotyledon. Has it undergone any change during the process of germination ?? 2. Is there a taproot? 8. Mention all the points-in which the two plants are alike ; those in which they differ. III. Compare the seedlings of the Indian corn and wheat with those of the pea, bean, etc., previously studied. - Point out all the essential differences, noting especially 1. Number of cotyledons. 2. Venation of foliage leaves. 3. Position and form of leaves. 4. Presence or absence of a persistent taproot. IV. Examine seedlings of the white pine or other species of pine. In what important feature do they differ from any of the young plants thus far studied ? V. Summarize your observations and show how the class to which a plant belongs may be determined by inspection of the seedling.” VI. Comparing the seedlings of different dicotyledonous plants (beans, sunflower, etc.), ascertain whether any of them have the two cotyledons unlike in size or shape. Is there anything to indicate that the form of the embryo is determined by that of the seed ?8 1 The protective sheath is regarded as a part of the cotyledon, while the other part, the scutellum, remains in the grain. Cf. Lubbock, Seed- lings, I, p. 587. 2 Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, Chap. II. 8 Lubbock, Seedlings, I, pp. 30-34, 75-77. oF, STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. VII. Notice the way the different seedlings break through the ground. Do those of all the dicotyledonous plants behave alike? How do they compare with those of Indian corn and other monocotyledons ?! VIII. Examine seedlings of squash, melon, or cucum- ber, comparing specimens that are just rupturing the testa with older ones. Observe the position and structure of the Beer and the way it aids in throwing off the seed- coats.? IX. Ascertain whether direction of growth is affected by external conditions. 1. Compare mustard or other seedlings grown in the dark with others growing in front of a window. 2. Turn on their sides some of the pots with seedlings a few inches high, and after a day or two notice the result. 3. Observe the effect of slow change of position in neu- tralizing geotropism and heliotropism.? | X. Take up a seedling of wheat about two weeks old, and examine the grain. 1. Notice how it differs from a grain that has not sprouted. 2. Remove a small portion of the endosperm and ex- amine under a high power of the microscope. Compare the starch grains with those of wheat that has not sprouted. What changes have taken place? Draw some of the grains that show “ cor- rosion.” . 1Darwin, Power of Movement in Plants, p. 77 et seq. = Darwin, /12c.,°p.. 102: 8 For this purpose an instrument known as a klinostat is employed. Cf. Goodale, Physiological Botany, p. 408; Sachs, Physiology of Plants, p. 684. Less expensive apparatus is easily devised. GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM THE SEED. y #3" 3. Examine in the same way starch from the endosperm of a corn seedling that has attained several inches in height. ; XI. Write a detailed account of the phenomena of germination as far as you have observed them. SPECIAL STUDIES. I. How seedlings break through the ground. A further comparison, including the study of as many species as practicable. II. Results of planting certain seeds wrong side up.! III. Result$ of removal of cotyledons at an early stage of growth. IV. Whether detached embryos are capable of germi- nation. V. Conditions most favorable to germination. VI. Length of time that seeds retain their vitality. VII. How far seedlings of the same family are alike in structure and habits. VIII. Changes capable of demonstration under the micro- scope that take place in reserve materials during germination. REVIEW AND SUMMARY. In our study of seedlings we have found that the same parts are present that were observed in the seed, but marked changes have taken place in size, position, texture, and other particulars. The distinctive features of the 1 Cf. Darwin, J.c., pp. 108, 104. 24 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. great classes, however, are as strongly marked as they were in the seed, and each class exhibits in its seedlings characteristic, though not always distinctive, habits. The radicle of dicotyledonous seedlings elongates and extends downwards as the primary root, and at the same Dicotyledo- time in most species grows upward, forming the nous seed- “hypocotyl,” at the upper extrenrity of which Aer the cotyledons are borne. In some species, as in the pea, the hypocotyl is wanting, or is extremely short, the cotyledons remaining in the ground instead of being lifted into the air. In such cases a rapid development of the ‘“‘epicotyl,” or first internode of the plumule, takes place, thus securing to the young leaves gs they unfold full exposure to air and hight. The hypocotyl (or, if this is wanting, the epicotyl) breaks through the ground in the form of an arch, an arrangement for the protection of the delicate growing point.! 3 : Monocotyledonous seedlings exhibit considerable variety among themselves, although several pretty distinct types Monocotyledo- ™2Y be recognized. In the grasses the scutel- nous seed- lum, which represents a part of the cotyledon, Hey remains enclosed in the grain, and the straight plumule is erect, instead of arched, as it breaks through the ground. In many other species, as for example the date palm, a pecuhar modification of this mode of germi- nation is seen. As before, a part of the cotyledon remains in the seed as an organ of absorption, but the other end elongates and grows downward, forming a sheath from which the first leaf afterward emerges.2, A more or less conspicuous primary root may be present, as in Indian 1 Cf. Darwin, Power of Movement in Plants, pp. 87, 88. 2 See figures of palm seedling, Goebel, Classification and Special Mor- phology of Plants, p. 452. GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM THE SEED. 25 corn, or it may be hardly distinguishable from the secon- dary roots, as is the case with wheat. Seedlings of pines and their allies (gymnosperms), aside from the fact that many species have more than two coty- ledons, can hardly be said to possess characters geedlings of specially distinctive of their class. In many 8y™nosperms, cases the testa is carried up on the tips of the cotyledons, and afterwards thrown off by their bulging outwards. In some species the cotyledons remain under ground. Cotyledons, as a rule, perform functions widely different from those of ordinary green leaves, and accordingly pre- sent striking modifications of form and structure. countdats While in some cases they unfold and deport and their mod- themselves as foliage leaves, in others, as for Me example the pea and acorn, they have lost nearly all resemblance to leaves, and serve merely as storehouses of reserve materials; while in still other cases, as in the grain of corn or wheat, the cotyledon becomes largely an organ of absorption. Interesting transitional forms are seen in the common bean and other plants in which the cotyle- dons rise above the surface and turn green, but soon dry up after their reserve materials are exhausted. The embryos of some dicotyledonous plants produce but one cotyledon, the other being rudimentary. A curious in- stance is that of the orange, in the seed of which several embryos are formed with cotyledons varying greatly in size. In various species of cacti both cotyledons are rudi- mentary, being represented by minute bodies only a milli- meter or two in diameter. In the latter case the radicle is thickened and serves as a storehouse, the cotyledons be- come superfluous, and are finally reduced to insignificant appendages, an illustration “of the principle of compensa- tion or balancement of growth, or, as Goethe expresses it, 26 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. ‘in order to spend on one side, Nature is forced to econo- mize on the other side.’”! A considerable number of seeds, notably those of certain plants belonging to the mustard family, have one cotyledon larger than the other, an arrangement naturally following the way the embryo is packed in the seed. These and various other peculiar- ities may be seen in the embryo before germination, but are more pronounced in the young seedling. During germination the reserve materials stored in or around the embryo are drawn upon for the sustenance Giispes of the seedling. Microscopic examination of inreserve the endosperm of a grain of wheat or Indian materials: corn, after the seedling is well started, shows — that the starch granules have undergone remarkable changes due to the action of a ferment that gradually dissolves them. Other reserve materials, such as oil, aleurone, etc., undergo similar changes, by which they are fitted for absorption, but these are too complicated to be discussed in an elementary work. ‘Those interested in the chemistry of germination should consult Sachs, Physiology of Plants, and later articles in various botan- ical periodicals. Certain external conditions are essential to ee Of these the most important are (1) a suitable amount of Conditions of Water, (2) proper temperature, and (8) access germination. of oxygen. Simple experiments are easily con- ducted to establish these facts, which are also, in part, matters of familiar observation. Thus when a crop of grain has been sown it is well understood that it will not come up if the earth is too dry, and that it is more likely to decay in the ground than to germinate if it is too wet, 1Cf. Darwin, Power of Movement in Plants, pp. 94, 98; Lubbock, Seedlings, II, p. 6. GROWTH OF PLANTS FROM THE SEED. Fi and careful experiments go to show that seeds sprout more promptly and surely with a less amount of water than is commonly supplied in artificial cultures. Too high or too low a temperature is equally unfavorable, although there is a pretty wide range within which most seeds will germinate. An even temperature is found to be more favorable to prompt germination than a variable one. Finally, if oxygen is excluded, even if all other con- ditions are fulfilled, germination fails to take place. It is for the purpose of securing an abundant supply of oxygen that we leave the sawdust lying up loosely, rather than closely packed, about the seeds, when we are raising seed- lings in the laboratory. For the same reason, a light, loose soil is more favorable for gardening than a compact and heavy one. These conditions are well known, and are taken into account in practical operations, although a comparison of different seeds during germination estab- lishes the equally important fact that both individual and specific peculiarities exist. Some seeds require more moisture than others, and the degree of temperature most suitable for germination varies with different species, and soon. An interesting series of experiments on the condi- tions of germination and the individual peculiarities just referred to has been carried out at the Cornell University Experiment Station. For an account of these, see Science, XIV (1889), p. 88. Some of the phenomena connected with germination are of much interest and are easily observed. ‘The first step consists in the forcible absorption of water, artengant phe- manifested by the great increase in size of ger- nomena. minating seeds, and the pressure they exert if an attempt is made to confine them in a closed vessel. ‘Testing with a thermometer shows that the process of germination is 28 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. accompanied by a rise of temperature, and chemical ex- amination indicates absorption of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide; in other words, respiration is going on.. The length of time during which seeds retain their vitality has been the subject of much discussion. Stories, Duration of | itrequently repeated, of the growth of grain vitality. many centuries old, taken from Egyptian tombs, and of raspberry seeds from a Roman skeleton in England, etc., are generally discredited, for the reason that sufficient proof is lacking. On the other hand, a series of experi- ments, conducted for a long period by a committee of the British Association for the advancement of science, shows that some seeds have certainly retained their ca- pacity for germination from twenty to forty years, and even longer.! 1 Report of British Association, 1857, Dublin meeting. THE ROOT. © 29 Hi THE ROOT. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Roots of Indian corn and other seedlings used in the preceding exercise. ; The lower parts of a fully grown corn-staik, showing the supporting roots. Aérial roots of English ivy, or trumpet-creeper. Turnips and other fleshy roots from the market. Slips of Verbena, Tradescantia, and other common conservatory plants. _ I. Examine more in detail the roots of seedlings already studied. 1. Taking specimens of Indian corn of different ages, note a. Where the secondary roots arise. 6. Whether any of them have given rise to roots of a higher order. c. How they compare in these particulars with those of wheat. 2. Compare the roots of the sunflower, bean, and pea with reference to the same points. II. Study the root-hairs of various seedlings, beginning with some that are growing on blotting paper. 1. On what parts of the roots are they produced ? 2. Remove, with a pair of fine forceps, a portion of a root where it is thickly covered with root-hairs. 30 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. (The roots of wheat or oat seedlings are excellent for this purpose.) Mount in water, taking care not to injure the delicate tissue by undue press- ure. Examine under a high power of the com- pound microscope. a. Observe the structure of the root-hairs. 6. Ascertain how they are connected with the body of the root. Draw. e. Run iodine solution under the cover glass, and watch the effect. ,What do you infer as to the permeability of the cell membrane and the capacity of the cell contents for absorption ? 8. Pull up a specimen that has grown in clean sand. Shake off as many of the adherent particles as possible. Examine under a good lens. It will be seen that many grains of sand still remain attached. Ascertain whether this is due in any way to the . presence of root-hairs. III. Cut off the tips of some of the fine roots of wheat or oats grown under a bell-jar. Mount in water, and examine with the compound microscope. Select a good specimen, and draw the end carefully so as to show the root-cap. IV. Determine in what part of the root increase in length takes place. Use for this purpose roots of Indian corn, peas, or sunflower, growing on moist blotting paper under a bell-jar. With a camel’s-hair brush and india ink make a series of marks at intervals of a millimeter, begin- ning at the apex of the root. Replace the bell-jar, and as- certain by subsequent observations, about a day apart, where elongation has taken place. V. Determine the direction naturally taken by roots. THE ROOT. a1 1. Pull up beans or peas that have been growing in saw- dust, and observe the entire root system. How do the secondary roots compare with the primary in their direction of growth? If roots of a higher order have been formed, ascertain whether they take the same direction as either of the preceding. Would it be advantageous for the plant if all grew downward ? . 2. Take a germinating pea or squash seed, with a radi- cle a centimeter or more in length, and fasten it to a cork by a pin so that the radicle will point horizontally. Keep it in a moist atmosphere under a bell-jar, and exclude the light by covering with a dark cloth. Observe the subsequent growth of the radicle. Vary the experiment by turning other specimens so that the radicle will point nearly vertically. 3. Tie a piece of netting over the mouth of a beaker or , wide-mouthed bottle filled with water, and place on it a number of seeds of white mustard that have just begun to germinate. Allow the apparatus to stand in front of a window without being dis- turbed, filling with water occasionally, so that the growth of the seedlings will be uninterrupted. * Observe the direction taken by the roots. VI. Examine different roots with reference to their mechanical functions. 1. The supporting roots of Indian corn. Notice where they originate, their direction of growth, and their double action as braces and guys. 2. Aérial roots of the English ivy, or trumpet-creeper. Compare these with ordinary roots. Syn! STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. 3. Examine under a lens the structure of a blackberry root, or that of some other common woody plant. Cut a transverse section, and notice the position of the wood elements. Compare this with their arrangement in the stem. A little reflection will show that the arrangement of the mechanical ele- ments corresponds with the very different condi- tions that obtain in root and stem. The former must be so constructed as to resist a force that tends to pull it out of the ground; in the latter, on the other hand, resistance to a lateral and ver- tical force must be provided for. Other roots should be examined in the same way. Those of Indian corn seedlings will be found useful. VII. Compare fully grown turnips and carrots, radish, or salsify with the roots of seedlings of the same plants. - What changes of form and structure have they undergone? VIII. Study the formation of adventitious roots, as seen in Verbena and other plants, grown by florists from slips. Adventitious roots of Tradescantia can be obtained by placing a fresh branch in a closed bottle so that the cut end will stand in a little water at the bottom. SPECIAL STUDIES. I. Protection of the growing point of the root. A number of water plants furnish excellent material for microscopic study of the root-cap. Among them are Lemna minor, common everywhere in stagnant waters, and Pontederia crassipes, fre- quently grown in artificial ponds. Certain aérial 1 Cf. Haberlandt, Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie, p. 125 et seq. THE ROOT. 33 roots, as those of Pandanus, commonly culti- vated in conservatories, also have remarkably developed root-caps. II. Conditions affecting the formation of root-hairs. An interesting investigation is suggested by Haberlandt, Ey solouieche Sh detects be p: 147 et seq. III. Propagation of ne by slips and cuttings. Ascer- tain what plants are regularly propagated in this way by florists and what conditions are necessary. IV. Reserve materials stored in roots. Examination of the blackberry, elecampane, and other roots, to determine the nature of the food substances con- tained in them. V. Influence of moisture on the direction taken by roots. ‘Search for water” by roots of trees. VI. Minute anatomy of roots. (This may be deferred with advantage until the stem is studied micro- scopically.) VII. Estimate of the total length of the root system of some common plants. Johnson, How Crops Grow, p. 242. VIII. Roots of parasites. Sections of roots of Comandra or mistletoe, with a study of their relation to the_ plants on which they have fastened. REVIEW AND SUMMARY. Roots function as organs of absorption, as storehouses of reserve materials, and as a mechanical means of holding the plant firmly in its place. 34 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. As organs of absorption, it is essential that they should have a large extent of surface in contact with the soil. eed On pulling up seedlings of different sorts it is orgausof apparent that the total length of their roots absorption ig many times that of the aérial parts, and this is frequently still more striking when the earth is carefully washed away so as to expose the whole root system of older plants. The surface is further increased by the formation of root-hairs. These are delicate, elongated cells, arising from the roots back of their growing point, and so numerous under favorable conditions as to give them a densely hairy appearance, easily noticeable to the unaided eye. By their adhesive surface the root-hairs attach themselves closely to the particles of soil, and by means of acid excretions aid in preparing for absorption the crude food materials of the earth. ‘These substances, in solution, are then taken up and carried to the parts within. It is, moreover, through the agency of the root-— hairs that the enormous volume of water evaporated by the leaves of plants in full foliage is taken up from. the soil and started on its upward course.! The roots of many plants, particularly those that live more than a year, fulfil an important function as reservoirs eae of reserve materials upon which the plant draws storehouses: when it begins anew its period of active growth. Suitable tests show that starch and sugar are the food substances most commonly stored in roots; inulin also occurs, though more rarely. These and other vegetable products are described in detail by Sachs in his Physiology of Plants. ‘The shape taken by roots that serve as store- houses is sometimes quite characteristic. As examples 1 Johnson, How Crops Grow, p. 248; Haberlandt, Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie, pp. 148, 149. THE ROOT. nay may be mentioned, the napiform roots of most turnips, the conical roots of carrot, salsify, etc., the moniliform roots of some pelargoniums, and so on. Besides acting as organs of absorption and as storehouses of reserve materials, roots fulfil an important function in holding the plant firmly in its place. A study mechanical of the arrangement of their tissues shows a functions. manifest adaptation to this function, the mechanical ele- ments being placed compactly at the center, a position in which they are able to resist to the best advantage a pulling force that tends to break the root or draw it out of the ground. Such aérial roots as those of the poison ivy serve to hold the stem securely to some external sup- port, and the prop roots of Indian corn that arise a little above the surface of the ground constitute an admirable system of braces and guys, by which the stalk, with its heavy load of ears, is enabled to maintain an erect posi- tion. Considering the size and weight attained by a single cornstalk with its fruit, and its exposure to heavy winds and rain, it is difficult to conceive of a more effective and, at the same time, more simple mechanical arrangement. In their mode of orowth roots exhibit a remarkable adaptation to their environment. Growth in length takes place just behind the tip, which is thus free to — ypoae of turn in any direction, curving aside as it meets _ growth. obstacles, and directing its way towards moisture or food, as occasion requires, without involving any disturbance of the older parts that have already become fixed in the soil. The growing point is covered by the root-cap, and thus protected from injury. The primary root grows perpendicularly downwards, but the secondary roots, reacting differently to the pull of 36 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. gravitation, grow down obliquely, while roots of a higher order extend indifferently in various directions. The hee end result is such a distribution of the root system secondary aS: to bring it into contact with the soil far more ie. perfectly than if the roots grew down together in acommon bundle. It has been noticed, however, that if the end of the primary root is destroyed one or more of the secondary roots near it grow vertically downward to take its place.? While the branches arising from the first or primary root are properly called secondary, the same term is also Aaventitiong irequently applied to roots of a higher order, Toots: and is sometimes rather loosely extended to those given off by the stem and other parts of the plant. The latter, however, are commonly spoken of as adventi- tious. cylindrical band of sclerenchyma is placed just beneath the epidermis, a disposition of the mechanical elements adapted to secure the greatest strength with the least amount of material; and the same principle is carried out in the bundles themselves, the sheaths of which are much thickened radially, thus aiding materially in preventing bending of the stem, and also protecting the vessels and other conducting elements. The stem of dicotyledons presents a rather more com- plicated structure. As seen in the apple shoot, which may be taken as a representative, the pith, wood, and bark are arranged concentrically. In the bark, as a rule, three layers may be distinguished, viz., outer bark or cork, middle bark or green layer, con- sisting chiefly of large cells containing chlorophyll and other materials, and inner bark or bast, characterized by the presence of sieve-tubes, usually with bast fibers and some parenchyma \ Between the inner bark and wood is the cambium zone, which during the growing season is a layer of delicate cells, by the multiplication of which new wood and bark are produced. ‘The wood consists of the large vessels, the openings of which are conspicuous on transverse section, wood fibers which constitute the greater part of its substance and give the wood its rigidity, and the medullary rays, to which in many species are added the wood-parenchyma cells. The pith consists of large cells which commonly present no distinctive Dicotyledons. THE STEM. 59d peculiarities. Since each year, in temperate regions, the stems of dicotyledons add a new zone of wood, it is possible to determine the age of a tree by counting the number of annual rings. Not infrequently the record is obscured by irregular growth, due to drought and other causes, but in general these rings are clearly defined. In their mode of growth the stems of gymnosperms agree with those of dicotyledons, but their wood elements are peculiar, the wood being composed mainly of elongated cells called tracheids, the radial sides of which have numerous bordered pits, by means of which they communicate with each other and with the medullary rays. The structure of stems corresponds with a number of very important functions performed by the elements that compose them. ‘Thus the epidermis, afterwards replaced by cork, is protective, as is also the bark, which on the trunks of most trees becomes greatly thickened with advancing age. The medullary rays and other parenchyma cells of wood and bark serve for storage of various food products, and are also employed to a consid- erable extent in conducting them from one part of the plant to another. Bast and wood fibers serve a special purpose as mechanical elements by which the stem is maintained in its position, and enabled to resist forces that tend to strain or fracture it. Finally the vessels and tracheids are chiefly concerned in conducting water containing mineral substances and air from the roots to the upper parts of the plant, while the sieve-tubes of the inner bark store up nitrogeneous food materials, and convey them to the points where they are needed. It will, of course, be understood that an dene account of the physiology of stems cannot possibly be Gymnosperms. Functions, 56 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. condensed into such a summary statement as the fore- going; but it will at least serve to point out the important parts played by the various elements of the stem as they contribute, each its share, to the work of the whole. The mechanical system is treated at length by Haberiandt, Physiologische Pflanzenanatome, pp. 96-148, and an ex- tended review of the theories regarding the ascent of water in the trunks of tall trees is given by H. Marshall Ward, Timber and Some of its Diseases, Chap. IV. THE LEAR, . 5ST V. THE LEAF. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Leaves of as many kinds as are procurable. See suggestions under “Systematic Description.” Branches of basswood, elm, maple, and horse-chestnut. Leafy plants of primrose, fuchsia, dandelion, and geranium. : Leaves of hyacinth and English ivy. _ Leaves of various hairy plants and of conifers, rushes and sedges, etc. Leaves of different ferns and flowering plants called for under “ Me- chanical and Conducting System.” Specimens of Elodea Canadensis growing in water, and of Mnium or other common moss. Tropzolum and other convenient plants growing in pots A collection of modified leaves. SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION. Write a careful and complete description of the leaves of ten or a dozen different plants, following, as far as it proves serviceable, the schedule given below. ; Some one has said that “there is no part of botany so overwhelmed with cumbrous terminology as that which relates to leaves.” Nevertheless the really necessary terms are easily learned, and the peculiarities expressed by them are far from accidental. The form of the leaf, its position on the stem, the venation and other structural features are generally such as to secure the greatest effi- ciency, and in studying these it is desirable to be able to express one’s self with exactness. The greenhouse or 58 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. window garden, the drug store, collections of preceding years, and seedlings raised in the laboratory will, even in - winter, furnish abundant material. The following may be suggested as a partial lst: English ivy, geranium, prim- rose, verbena, rose, oxalis, maurandia, nasturtium, oak, maple, elm, hly, Indian corn, hyacinth, amaryllis, arbor vite, hemlock, juniper, and different species of pines. Schedule for Leaf Description.’ ibe 2. ce 10. Position. Radical? or cauline. Arrangement. Opposite, alternate, whorled, fascicu- late. Relation to Stem. Petiolate, sessile, perfoliate, sheathing, connate, decurrent, etc. Stipules. Described as leaves. If absent, the leaf is said to be exstipulate. Form. Acicular, awl-shaped, linear, oblong, ellipti- eal, oval, rotund, ovate, lanceolate, reniform, | obovate, oblanceolate, ete. Apex and Base. For special terms see dictionary and text-books. Margin. Entire, serrate, dentate, crenate, sinuate, irregular, lobed, cleft, parted, divided, etc. Venation. Pinnate, palmate, parallel. Surface. Glabrous, glaucous, pubescent, wooly, vil- lose, hirsute, prickly, etc. (These terms apply also to the surface of other organs.) Compound Leaves. Pinnate, bi-pinnate, tri-pinnate, palmate, bi-palmate, tri-palmate, pinnately or pal- mately decompound, etc. 1Gray’s Lessans, Section 7, and illustrations of botanical terms in Webster’s International Dictionary should be consulted. 2 A misleading term, but fixed in the language. THE LEAF. 59 LEAF ARRANGEMENT. I. Take branches of basswood, elm, maple, and horse- chestnut, and study the leaf arrangement. In winter the position of the leaves of preceding years may be deter- mined by the leaf-scars. Are the leaves placed advantageously as regards expos- ure to light? Cf. Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, _ pp. 108-114. II. Compare other plants, e.g. primrose and fuchsia, dandelion and geranium, with regard to this principle. Ill. Try the effect of putting the leaves of one species on the branches of another, without changing the leaf arrangement. MINUTE ANATOMY. I. With a pair of fine forceps strip off a portion of the epidermis of a hyacinth leaf. Mount in water and examine under the high power of a compound microscope. Observe 1. The elongated epidermal cells destitute of chlorophyll. 2. Lhe stomata, each with two reniform guard-cells con- taining chlorophyll bodies. Draw. If. Place a small portion of a leaf of the English ivy between two pieces of pith, and, with a keen razor, cut a number of transverse sections. Examine under the com- pound microscope. Select a section that shows all the structural details and draw accurately. Beginning with the upper surface the section shows 1. The upper epidermis, consisting of a single layer of thick-walled cells, destitute of chlorophyll. 60 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. 2. A layer or two of closely packed cells, with their long diameter perpendicular to the surface of the leaf, containing many chlorophyll bodies. These constitute the palisade tissue. 3. Other chlorophyll-bearing cells essentially the same as the preceding, but less regular in shape and more loosely arranged, so that toward the lower surface of the leaf large openings, intercellular passages, occur. Some of these cells contain large stellate crystals of oxalate of lime. 4. About midway between the upper and lower ae the veins, fibro-vascular bundles, cut either trans- versely or at an angle, according to their direction at the place where the section is made. The thick-walled mechanical elements constitute the bundle-sheath. The bundle itself is divided into two adjacent parts, the xylem lying towards the upper surface of the leaf, and the phloém towards | its lower surface. The tracheids of the xylem, elongated tube-like structures, are easily recog- nized. oO. The lower epidermis, similar to the upper, but with stomata at frequent intervals. These are placed so that each one forms an entrance to one of the intercellular passages. (Sections of the stomata are best studied in a hyacinth leaf.) Norr.— The different sections should be studied until the gen- ~ eral structure of the leaf is thoroughly understood. Every fact is of physiological significance, and it is of the utmost importance that the student should have a complete and clear knowledge of the minute anatomy based on direct observation. THE LEAF: 61 PHYSIOLOGY OF LEAVES. Protection. Leaves require protection against 1. Changes of temperature. 2. Drying. &. Attacks of animals, fungi, etc. 4. Injury by wind and other meteorological agencies. Cf. Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, Chap. VI; Kerner, Flowers and their Unbidden Guests. Some of the following observations are to be carried out in the laboratory, while others are best conducted out of doors. I. Remove the epidermis from a portion of a hyacinth leaf, or the leaf of some other fleshy plant. Notice its texture, strength, and elasticity. After a time observe any changes that have taken place in the part from which the epidermis has been removed. II. Examine the hairy covering of leaves of common mullein. Compare other hairy plants. Examine micro- scopically the hairs of mullein, verbena, rose geranium, and other common species. Make a series of drawings illus- trating the epidermal appendages of various leaves. Ill. Study the leaves of the Austrian pine, common juniper, and other conifers. Enumerate the protective arrangements exhibited by them. IV. Compare very young leaves of the oak, apple, or other common tree, with older ones. V. Many plants are protected by disagreeable or pol- sonous substances stored in their folhage. Name any of these that you know. 62 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. VI. Some leaves exhibit remarkable “sleep move- ments.” What are these for? Cf. Darwin, Power of Move- ment in Plants, Chap. VII. VII. Other leaves exhibit equally remarkable “hot sun positions.” Of what use are these to the plant? Cf. Wilson, Contributions from the Bot. Lab. Univ. of Pa., Vol. 1, No. 1. Mechanical and Conducting System. The skeleton or framework of the leaf serves to support the delicate green tissue, holding it so as to expose the largest possible surface to the sun, and, at the same time, giving the whole structure sufficient rigidity, strength, and elasticity to resist mechanical violence. It also serves to conduct a constant supply of water and mineral substances to every part of the leaf, and to convey away elaborated food materials. It is only by keeping these principles in mind that an intelligent study of venation can be made. Cf. Sachs, Physiology of Plants, pp. 48-53. I. Obtain the leaves of several ferns, e.g. Adiantum pe- datum, Aspidium cristatum, Osmunda Claytoniana. Draw an enlarged outline of a leaflet of one or more species, showing the exact position of the veins. II. Compare the venation of a number of monocotyle- dons, eg. Tradescantia, Alisma, Sagittaria, Pontederia, Calla, Arisema, Smilax. Draw accurately one or more leaves. III. Examine the venation of the leaves of Catalpa, Liriodendron, Fuchsia, and Nymphea. How does it compare from a mechanical standpoint with that of the leaves previously studied ? IV. Study critically the structure of the leaf of a black oak or red oak. Measure the widest space you can find THE LEAF. 63 that is free from veinlets. Do these end freely or anas- tomose? Is there any apparent advantage in this ? Assimilation. The chief and characteristic function of green leaves is assimilation, that is, the production of organized food sub- stances. I. Examine the leaves of Hlodea Canadensis under the compound microscope. Study the form and position of the chlorophyll bodies contained in the cells. Are they equally numerous in all parts of the leaf? Draw two or more cells showing the chlorophyll bodies in place. Com- pare with these the chlorophyll bodies of Mnium or other common moss. Ij. Take fresh leaves of the Elodea that has been erowing in a jar of water exposed to sunlight. Place them in strong alcohol and allow them to remain until they have lost their color and the alcohol has turned green. Mount for microscopic study and test with iodine solution. Starch should be found in the chlorophyll bodies. It may be demonstrated still more easily in the chlorophyll bands of Spirogyra and other filamentous alge. IlI. By an experiment best performed by the teacher or by a pupil specially appointed, the necessity of hght for the production of starch, and the local nature of the pro- cess of assimilation is demonstrated. Take a healthy Tropezolum (‘“nasturtium”) growing in a flower pot, and place it in the dark for two or three days. Test one of the leaves for starch, which by this time should have disappeared. Now place the plant where it will be exposed to the bright sunlight, having previously covered a part of 64 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. one or more of the leaves so as to exclude the light by pinning flat pieces of cork closely on opposite sides. After the plant has been in the light for a day or more, proper tests show that starch has been formed in the parts of the leaves exposed to light but is absent where they were covered (except in the fibro-vascular bundles). Further details are given by Detmer, Das pflanzenphysiologische Praktikum, pp. 83-84 and 87-88. IV. Place an inverted funnel over a lot of Elodea, crowing in a glass jar, and push it down until the small end of the funnel is beneath the surface of the water. Fill a test-tube with water, stop it with the thumb, invert, and (under water) bring the small end of the funnel into it. Set the apparatus where it will be in bright sunlight. Observe the bubbles of gas given off by the plant. After enough has been collected in the tube, test for oxygen. This may be done by lighting a match and blowing it out, and then inserting it, while still glowing, into the test-_ tube. V. The preceding observations show that starch is formed in the chlorophyll bodies in the presence of sun- light, and that during the process oxygen is given off. By means of a simple experiment it may also be shown that starch is not thus produced unless carbon dioxide is supphed to the plant. The teacher will find the apparatus figured and described by Detmer, Praktikum, p. 38, easily made and entirely satisfactory. Transpiration. I. Take a quantity of green leaves and place them in a wide-mouthed bottle. After a time observe the moisture that has collected on its inner surface. Where has it come from ? , THE LEAF.. © 65 II. Cut off a strong, well-developed leaf of a primrose, immerse the blade of the leaf in water, and placing the cut end of the petiole in the mouth, inhale forcibly. Do you obtain any proof that the inside of the leaf is in com- munication with the atmosphere ? III. Take any leafy plant of convenient size that is erowing in a flower pot, cover the pot with a piece of dentists’ rubber, bringing it up around the stem of the plant and tying it so that no water can be given off except through the plant itself. Weigh the whole, and at the end of twenty-four hours weigh again. To what is the loss of weight due ? IV. Vary the last experiment by employing different kinds of plants, as, for example, some with leathery and others with soft leaves; also by placing some in the sun- light and others in the shade, in the open air and in a closed room. What are some of the conditions affecting transpiration ? Respiration. Respiration is a function of every living cell. Hence leaves are to be thought of as organs of respiration in so far as they expose a very large number of active cells to the atmosphere, although they do not really “ correspond to the lungs of animals.” We may therefore employ leaves to demonstrate the process of respiration, or we may use flowers or germinating seeds. Take three wide-mouthed bottles and fill each two-thirds full, the first of fresh leaves, the second of germinating peas, and the third of flowers. Cork and allow to stand a few hours. Test the air in the bottles at the beginning and close of the experiment by introducing a homeopathic vial containing limewater, also by inserting a lighted match. What is the result? 66 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. Nore. — The student should carefully consider what is taking place in the cells of green leaves, inasmuch as a great deal of confusion has arisen through lack of clear conception and expression. Since they respire like other parts of the plant, leaves absorb oxygen and give off carbon dioxide both day and night. On the other hand, as organs of assimilation, they decompose carbon dioxide in the sunlight, giving off oxygen and employ- ing the carbon in the production of starch. A complete discussion of the subject would require much space, but the fundamental facts are as stated above, and should be firmly fixed in mind. MODIFIED LEAVES. When some other function than that of assimilation becomes predominant, leaves exhibit marked, and in some cases extremely peculiar, modifications. I. Examine shoots of the common barberry. Determine the morphology of the spines and give reasons. Compare the spines of the common locust. Are they the same morphologically as those of the barberry? Examine dif- ferent species of cacti and determine the morphology of the parts. II. Study the tendrils of such of the following plants as can be obtained and ascertain which of them are to be classed as leaves or parts of leaves: Smilax rotundifolia, Cobea scandens, Adlumia cirrhosa, Echinocystis lobata, erape-vine, pea, cucumber, etc. Note particularly any cases in which only partial modification has taken place. Cf. Darwin, Climbing Plants, Chaps. II], IV. III. Leaves of insectivorous plants. See Special Studies. SPECIAL STUDIES. I. Correlation of the forms of leaves with their position on the stem. See Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves. | 1, a — a 7” a THE LEAF. OT II. Extent of leaf surface. Measure accurately the superficial area of an average leaf of a geranium or other common plant, and estimate its entire leaf surface. III. Generic and specific characters drawn from leaves. IV. Variability. Compare the leaves of any individual plant, a rose bush, for example, and observe their different forms. V. Leaves of insectivorous plants. Drosera rotundifolia is widely distributed and is easily cultivated in the laboratory. It is a most valuable plant for pro- longed observation and experiment. Cf. Darwin, Insectivorous Plants. REVIEW AND SUMMARY. The leaf is the most characteristic, and, in some respects, the most important part of the plant. ‘The venation and various peculiarities of form and structure are 4 4a .acter- usually sufficient to indicate at once the class, istic part of and not infrequently the genus or species to “??*™* which a plant belongs. Even those who have had no special botanical training readily distinguish the oak, willow, maple, and various other plants by the leaf alone. Hence in determining relationships special attention is given to characters drawn from leaves, and it becomes necessary to define these with care and precision. Physio- logically, too, the leat is engaged in work peculiar to plants, work of a nature that cannot be performed by animals, and upon which they are dependent for their continued existence on the globe. A clear conception, / 68 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. therefore, of the general facts of leaf structure and physi- ology is essential to an understanding of some of the most fundamental facts of biological science. Beginning with form and position, we have seen that, as a rule, leaves are so constructed and placed as to secure Formangd the exposure of a large surface to the air and position, heht. The blade of the leaf is raised on a petiole whenever this is necessary to more readily accom- plish the end to be attained. Furthermore, the position of leaves on the stem is such as to aid in securing the great- est exposure. If we inspect a large tree in full foliage, such as a maple or basswood, it will be seen that the leaves are placed so as to result in a minimum of interference with each other. It will also be noticed, as Sir John Lubbock points out, that there is a manifest correlation between the form of the leaves and their arrangement on the branch, so that in many cases it would be a decided disadvantage to replace the leaves of one species by those > of another unless the leaf arrangement were changed. Further, an examination of buds that have not yet opened shows that the leaf arrangement is such as to economize space. ‘These two principles, compact disposition in the bud, and a position on the stem that will secure full expos- ure of leaf surface, are the determining factors in the arrangement of leaves.! An examination of the anatomical structure of an ordi- 1 Incidentally it results that the leaf arrangement of many plants is so definitely fixed that it may be expressed by a mathematical formula. Phyllotaxis, however, as usually presented, is a curious rather. than a fruitful study. ‘‘We must now acknowledge that there is no general law which can be formulated for the arrangement of the organs on a parent axis ; that, on the contrary, according to circumstances in each case, special causes determine whether the relations of position turn out to be this or that.’? —Sacus, Physiology of Plants, pp. 500, 501. THE LEAF... 69 nary foliage leaf shows that both surfaces are protected by an external layer of cells constituting the epl- 4 atimical dermis. ‘The outer wall of the epidermal cells _ structure, is commonly thickened, and by taking on a PPenms layer of cutin or wax becomes nearly or quite impervious to water. The leaves of some plants, particularly of species growing in tropical regions, have more than one layer of cells composing the epidermis, thus securing more efficient protection. The cells of the epidermis are, for the most part, destitute of chlorophyll, but contain a large quantity of water which is absorbed as required by the delicate cells in the interior of the leaf. Additional protection is often afforded by hairs which thickly cover the leaves of many Species, particularly those growing on the steppes and other parts of the globe where vegetation is subject to sudden and extreme changes of temperature. I inally, protection is not infrequently secured by diminishing the amount of leaf surface, as seen in many shrubs, and in » desert grasses and sedges with cylindrical leaves. Communication with the interior of the leaf is secured by means of numerous openings called stomata. These are provided with guard-cells, commonly of the same general form as those of the hyacinth leaf, which act as a valve, opening in sunlight while the leaf is at work and closing, or partially closing, at night. The mechanism, apparently simple, is, in reality, rather difh- cult of complete explanation.t The essential fact is that by means of the stomata a free interchange of watery yapor and gases between the interior of the leaf and the surrounding atmosphere is effected, and that by means of the guard-cells this interchange is obstructed when the external conditions are unfavorable. Stomata, 1 Cf. Sachs, Physiology of Plants, pp. 248-261. 70 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. The internal structure of the great majority of leaves is essentially the same as we have seen in the English ivy. Fibro-vascu- Lhe midrib and veins, composed of fibers and lar bundles. = ¢racheids, present a strong frame-work by means of which all the parts are supported, and which also serves as the conducting system of the leaf. The green parts consist of chlorophyll-bearing, parenchyma cells, the chief function of which is the manufacture of organized food substances. An extended comparison of the leaves of Assimilating Many species of plants shows several interesting = arrangements for bringing the assimilating cells into an advantageous position as regards the ight. In the first place, the leaf itself “turns towards the light,” ze. places itself so that the upper surface is perpendicular to the incident rays. In the second place, the palisade cells are themselves nearly perpendicular to the leaf surface, a position in which their contents are brought into relation with the light, without, however, cutting it off entirely from the cells below. Finally, the chlorophyll bodies vary their position in the cells according to the intensity of the light, ranging themselves so as to expose as large a surface as possible when the illumination is feeble, and a less surface when it is too intense.t In addition to these arrangements with reference to light, the assimilating cells are grouped in such a manner as to facilitate the convey- ance of water to them by the fibro-vascular bundles, and the removal of elaborated food substances through the same channels.? © It is thus seen that the leaf is an extremely delicate organ, adapted to the performance of certain important functions. Their first and most characteristic function 1 Sachs, l.c., p. 617 et seq. 2 Haberlandt, Physiologische Pflanzenanatomte, p. 184 et seq. THE LEAF. Page| is the formation of organic food products out of the crude substances taken in from the atmosphere and fonctions. soil. In the presence of sunlight starcli is Assimilation. produced in the chlorophyll bodies. ‘The materials from which it is formed are carbon dioxide, obtained from the atmosphere, and water brought up from the roots. The starch accumulates in the daytime in the cells where it is formed, and afterwards is conveyed away in a soluble form to the various reservoirs of reserve materials. Simple experiments have shown the conditions under which the formation of starch takes place and the attendant phe- nomena. ‘The rapid evolution of oxygen seen when a ' water plant is allowed to stand in bright sunlight is at once checked when the vessel containing it is brought into the shade. The oxygen is given off in the formation of starch and this process ceases when light is wanting. Again, if the water in which the plant is growing is boiled so as to expel the carbon dioxide, it is observed that the evolution of oxygen ceases as in the preceding experiment, but for a different reason. The carbon dioxide being wanting, the leaves are deprived of the carbon necessary to the production of starch. | Waiter in relatively large quantities is required to carry to the leaf, and to the other parts of the plant, the sub- stances used in the formation of starch and {ranspira- other products. The surplus water is evapo- #™ rated by the leaves. By simply weighing at stated inter- vals a plant arranged so that evaporation can take place from no other part, it is found that large amounts of watery vapor are given off through the leaves. Transpira- tion, then, or the evaporation of water, is another important - function of leaves, since the water thus given off is the vehicle of transportation of the various substances used by the plant. 72 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. Still another function which the leaf shares with other living parts of the plant, and which is characteristic of all living cells whether plant or animal, is that of respiration. As we have seen, one of the prod- ucts of respiration, carbon dioxide, is easily demonstrated by testing with limewater the air within a bottle contain- ing a quantity of green leaves. The abundant precipitate of carbonate of lime shows that the leaves are giving off carbon dioxide in considerable quantity, and as this is true whether the experiment is performed in the daytime or at night, we infer that respiration is going on continually. It should be said, however, that, contrary to a widely spread popular belief, the quantity of carbon dioxide exhaled by plants is so small in comparison with what is given off in animal respiration that it may be disregarded in connection with the question of keeping house plants. They are a decided advantage in the home from a sanitary, as well as esthetic, point of view. The chief functions of the leaf, then, are Respiration. 1. Assimilation, or the production of organized material. 2. ‘Transpiration, or the evaporation of water that has served as a vehicle for the transportation of crude sub- stances. 3. Respiration, a process common to all living things. The first of these takes place in sunlight, or its equiva- . lent; the second is most active in the daytime, but is not limited to it; and the last continues both day and night, as long as the leaf is alive. We have learned in our study of the barberry and a number of other familiar plants, that leaves are subject to various modifications corresponding to .other than their ordinary functions. These modifications are not inire- (‘a ? = THE LEAF. 73 quently so profound that it becomes a matter of no little difficulty to pronounce upon the morphological — ypaiseg character of a particular structure. Spines _ leaves. and tendrils, for example, may represent either leaves or branches. The morphological character of bud-scales, on the other hand, is usually recognized at once from their position, structure, and especially from the various transi- tional forms by which they are connected with ordinary leaves. Though often puzzling, the morphology of modi- _ fied leaves is always an exceedingly interesting and profit- able study. 1Cfi, Gray, Structural Botany, pp. 110-118. T4 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. VI. THE FLOWER. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Flowers of white Trillium, 7’. grandiflorum, Salisb. Other species may be used. Cultivated Fuchsia. Specimens must be selected that have not become double. Several pots of cultivated primroses in flower, some specimens with long- and others with short-styled flowers. Various wild flowers, or cultivated kinds that have not undergone modification, may be substituted for the preceding. TRILLIUM. T. grandiflorum, Salisb. Study first the morphological characters. Is the flower complete, that is, are the calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistilall present ? 2. What is the numerical plan as indicated by the num- ber of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels ? 3. Is the flower regular ? ; +. Is coalescence to be observed in the members of any whorl? Oo. Describe in detail each part of the flower, noting shape, color, and other features. II. Make a transverse section of the ovary. Draw it sufficiently enlarged to show all the parts clearly. Note particularly the form, position, and place of attachment 1 Read Gray, Lessons, pp. 79-117. THE FLOWER. Td of the ovules, and make out as much of their structure as possible. Ill. Construct a diagram of the flower.! Nore. — A correct diagram necessitates a careful study of the relation of every part of the flower to every other part. It should be drawn with geometrical precision, representing the parts of each whorl so as to show their number, arrangement, relation to other whorls, and to some extent their union or separation. Properly constructed, such diagrams serve an important purpose by facilitating the comparison of the permanent morphological features of flowers of the same and different families. IV. Ascertain whether the flower manifests any physio- logical adaptations. 1. Is there anything protective in its form, position, or structure ? 2. Enumerate its attractive features. d. Is there anything to indicate whether cross- or self- fertilization takes place ? Notrr. — A satisfactory answer to this question may require more experience than the pupil has yet attained. It involves close observation of any peculiarities that seem to favor the visits of insects or other agents of fertilization, such as grooves, guiding lines, the presence of nectar, and so on.? FUCHSIA. Fuchsia coccinea, ete. Note carefully all external features, such as 1. Position of the flower and its direction, erect or drooping. Compare with the flower buds. Color of different whorls. Union of parts a. Of the same whorl. 6. Of different whorls. = 1 Cf. Gray, Lessons, p. 82, footnote; also Kichler, Bliithendiagramme. 2 Cf. Miller, Fertilization of Flowers. 76 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. 4. The extremely long style. 5. Relative position of anthers and stigma. 6. Numerical plan. II. Make a clean transverse section of the ovary. Examine under the dissecting microscope. How many carpels are there ? III. Draw the section, taking care to represent accu- rately 1. The position of septa and placente. 2. Attachment and form of ovules. IV. Make an exact longitudinal section and draw it in outline. Note particularly 1. The conspicuous nectary. 2. Presence or absence of nectar. 8. The insertion of the filaments and their direction, so placed as to bar out unwelcome visitors. V. Measure the length of the calyx tube. Is the nectar accessible to bees and similar insects ? VI. Construct a diagram. VII. Review the whole and describe in detail. PRIMROSE. Primula veris, ete. . Study the morphological characters, such as . The numerical plan. . Regularity. . Symmetry. . Coalescence of parts. . Structure of ovary. or WhYS = II. Construct a diagram. THE FLOWER. TT III. Note all protective and attractive arrangements. IV. Compare flowers of a number of different plants with regard to the position of the essential organs. Notice 1. The length and insertion of the stamens. 2. Length of style. 3. Form and structure of the stigma. 4. Any other particulars in which the long- and short- styled forms differ. V. Make longitudinal sections of the two forms and sketch in outline. Read Darwin, Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species, Chap. I. Nore. —It will, of course, be understood that an acquaintance with many more species will be necessary in order to obtain a general concep- tion of the morphology of the flower, and an adequate knowledge of its physiological adaptations. Accordingly, similar studies of other flowers may be made before proceeding farther, or this may be postponed until the families of flowering plants are taken up. In any case the student should now read carefully Gray, Lessons, pp. 79-109, or the equivalent part of the Structural Botany, by the same author. He should also make a constant practice of referring to Miller, Fertilization of Flowers. POLLEN, OVULES, EMBRYO. I. Examine with the compound microscope the pollen of a number of different plants, such as pine, lily, pump- kin, mallow, and others. Compare the grains as to size, shape, and surface. Notice whether those disseminated by the wind are characterized by different features from those that are carried by insects or birds. Draw and describe. II. Sow various kinds of pollen in watch glasses con- taining sugar solution (38 to 20 per cent). At intervals of a day or less transfer a few grains to the glass slide with a camel’s-hair brush and examine microscopically. Some 78 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. of them will soon show formation of pollen-tubes. Draw them in different stages of development.! III. Cut transverse sections of the ovary of Trillium at the time the flower is fading and at subsequent periods. Under the compound microscope study the ovules in different stages of growth. Notice 1. The anatropous form of the ovule. | 2. Its two coats distinctly marked at the apex. 3. The nucellus, or mass of tissue making up the body of the ovule. | 4, The micropyle, a canal leading from the apex of the ovule to the nucellus. | Draw and describe. IV. Prepare similar sections of the ovary of Fuchsia, Begonia, and various other plants, studying carefully, as before, the structure of the ovule. Some of these will show, lying within the nucellus, the outlines of the embryo- sac, a large cell in which the embryo is subsequently formed. Clearing with potash solution facilitates the observation. Indian-pipe, Monotropa uniflora, L., when it can be obtained, is an extremely favorable species for the study of the embryo-sac and the structures contained in it.” V. Take a flower-bud of shepherd’s-purse, Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Moench, and under a lens remove the floral envelopes. Open the ovary and dissect out the ovules. Treat on the slide with dilute potash solution and apply light pressure to the cover glass. If a series of younger 1 For further hints as to culture methods, cf. Strasburger and Hill- house, Practical Botany, p. 320 c; Halsted, Bot. Gaz. XII (1887), p. 287. . 2 Cf. Strasburger and Hillhouse, J.c., pp. 327-337. THE FLOWER. T9 and older specimens are prepared in this way, the embryo in various stages of development can be satisfactorily studied. Make a series of sketches showing as many of these stages as practicable. Compare your own figures with those of Hanstein.1 Write a brief account of the development of the embryo of this plant as far as you have observed it. SPECIAL STUDIES.’ I. Morphology of stamens. If. Morphology of the pistil. Ill. Protection against unbidden guests. IV. Dimorphism. V. Mechanical devices favoring cross-fertilization. VI. Changes in the ovule after fertilization. REVIEW AND SUMMARY .? In the preceding study we have found that a flower is commonly made up of four distinct whorls, or circles, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. ‘The parts parts of the of the calyx are called sepals, those of the cor- #wer olla, petals. The stamens are spoken of collectively as the andreecium, and the pistil (or pistils) as the gynecium. While in most flowers.all the parts are present, there are 1 Goebel, Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology, p. 397. 2Gray, Structural Botany, pp. 215-240, 251-268 ; Kerner, Flowers and their Unbidden Guests; Darwin, Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species ; Strasburger and Hillhouse, Practical Botany, pp. 311-337. | 3Tt will probably be better to postpone the review until the flowers of a considerable number of families have been carefully studied. After this has been done the pupil may profitably devote some little time to the résumé and references here given. 80 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. many species in which one or more of the whorls are absent, and each is subject to more or less modification of form and structure. Morphologically the flower is to be regarded as a modi- fied branch, the members of its different whorls corre- Its morphol. Sponding to so many leaves. ‘The most obvious ogy: reasons for this view are that the flower has the position of a branch; that the arrangement of its parts follows more or less strictly that of the leaves on the stem; that the anatomy of leaves and*floral structures is essen- tially the same; that transitions from ordinary leaves to floral envelopes are of frequent occurrence; and finally that reversions of parts of the flower to.a more primitive or | leaf-like form often take place. It is convenient, and at the same time in accordance with the views now held regarding the actual evolution of Typical plant life, to take some such flower as that of flower. the Trillium as a pattern or “typical” flower with which to compare others. The Trillium, as we have seen, has three distinct green sepals, three petals, two whorls of stamens of three each, and a pistil composed of three parts, each part called a carpel. We may character- ize our pattern flower, then, as having all the parts present, these parts distinct from each other, of the same form and size in each whorl, and presenting throughout the same numerical plan, most frequently three or five. In other words, 1t exhibits eect distinctness of par regu- larity, and symmetry.1 The flowers of most plants differ in one or more respects from such a typical flower as has been described. Never- 1 The flower of Trillium departs slightly from the ideal typical flower in the coalescence of the three carpels to form the compound ovary. Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, pp. 176-178. THE FLOWER. 81 theless a comparison of the flower of a given species as we actually find it, is, as a rule, readily made with the assumed type, and this comparison is a necessary part of the morphological study of any flower. In carrying out such a study it is found that flowers may vary from the type in any one (or in more than one) of its characteristic features. In the first place, members of the same whorl, instead of being separate, may be more or less completely united. The calyx of the primrose, the bell-shaped corolla of the cain- panula, the united filaments of various members of the pea family, and the compound ovary of the lily, are familiar examples. Coalescence of parts is held by bota- nists to indicate a higher development than has been attained by flowers in which the parts remain free. A still further step in the same direction is seen in the union of contiguous parts of different circles. Thus the flower of the Fuchsia has the calyx-tube so united with the ovary as to make it appear as if inserted on its summit, and both petals and stamens are inserted on the calyx, the filaments showing very plainly their union with the calyx-tube. The various degrees of adnation furnish important characters that are constantly employed in descriptive botany.1 Again, while the typical flower is regular, having all the parts of a given whorl alike in size and shape, the flowers of the more highly developed species, as a rule, show marked irreeularity. The spurred corolla of the violet, and the curiously irregular flowers of the sweet pea, salvia, and snapdragon are striking cases. It is believed that these are descendants of much simpler forms Modifications. Coalescence. Adnation. Irregularity. 1Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, pp. 182-184. 82 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. that in the course of an indefinite period of time have gradually taken on shapes manifestly correlated with the visits of insects or other agents by which pollen is carried from one flower to another. Many flowers have undergone the suppression of one or more parts. In some cases a whole whorl is wanting, as in the anemone, which is destitute of a corolla; or several whorls may be lacking, as in the wil- lows, the flowers of which are reduced to a single whorl. Frequently, however, a part of a whorl only is wanting, and in such cases it often happens that a rudiment, or trace, of the missing parts remains to indicate a former condition. In the common toad-flax, for example, there are four perfect stamens and a trace of the fifth; some of the mints now have but two stamens, although five was the original number; and many plants, as the lupine and its allies, otherwise on the plan of five, have the ovary reduced to a single carpel. The symmetry of the flower is interfered with, not only by the suppression, but also by the multiplication of parts, Multiplicae so that it not infrequently happens that the ee original plan, in some one whorl at least, is no longer recognizable. The very numerous stamens of the cacti will serve as an illustration. The changes described are of great interest as indicating actual steps in the developmental history of flowers. They help us to see, if not fully yet in part, how such extraor- dinary structures as those of a milkweed flower or an orchid have come to be what they are.! Suppression. 1 Lack of space renders it necessary to refer the student to a much more extended discussion of the subject than can here be undertaken. Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, pp. 179-209, which has been followed in the main in the brief résumé just given. THE FLOWER. 83 As already intimated, the parts of the flower exhibit the same general structure as that of the leaf, giioture ana but with modifications corresponding to- the april special functions that each part fulfills. parts, The calyx and corolla are protective, serving to guard the parts within from frost and rain and the intrusion of unwelcome visitors. ‘They are also attractive, py.) envel- particularly the corolla, which is usually col- opes: ored so as to attract bees and other color-loving insects. _ They form, too, a part of the mechanism, often very pecu- har and interesting, by which pollination is effected. The stamens are usually far more modified than the floral envelopes. ‘The thickened anther, corresponding to the blade of the leaf, produces pollen, the active agent of fertilization. The pollen consists of rounded cells, the walls of which are variously thickened, frequently beset with spines, and, in some instances, winged, thus facilitating their conveyance by insects or by the wind. The cell contents are protoplasm, with one or more nuclei, and a considerable quantity of food material, such as starch, oil, and sugar. The pistil is simple or compound according as it is made ‘up of one or more than one carpellary leaf.1 The ovules, which afterwards become the seeds, originate as cellular outgrowths from the margins of the carpel. An ovule, when fully formed, consists of a cen- tral mass of cells, called the nucellus, around which one, or commonly two, protective coats are formed, and within which a cell, called the embryo-sac, arises. It is in the embryo-sac that the young embryo is developed. An opening between the coats, called the micropyle, leads down to the nucellus. The parts as described at once Stamens. Pistil. 1 Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, p. 260 et seq. 84 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. recall the seed, which is simply a fertilized and matured ovule. | When pollen-grains have been brought by any agency to the moist and receptive stigma of a flower of the same species, they begin after a short interval to ger- minate. In germination pollen-tubes are pro- duced, which rapidly elongate, growing through the loose tissue of the stigma and downwards through the style until they enter the ovary. Here they find their way to the ovules, which they enter, one pollen-tube going to each ovule and pushing its way through the micropyle, until its end comes in contact with the nucellus and finally with the embryo-sac. A portion of the contents of the pollen- tube, including nuclear material, now passes into the embryo-sac and unites with a cell in it, called the odsphere. The odsphere now takes on a cell-membrane, increases in size, undergoes division, and, as a result of still further division and growth, produces the embryo. Other cells are formed in the embryo-sac which rapidly multiply and become the endosperm, a tissue often absorbed afterwards by the growing embryo prior to germination. Meantime the embryo-sac becomes many times its former size, while the nucellus is crowded to the walls of the ovule and is commonly absorbed, but sometimes remains as the peri- sperm. ‘The coats of the ovule are extended to keep up with this increase in size, the testa takes on its character- istic hard and usually colored condition, a further store of food is deposited around or in the growing embryo, and with the completion of these various processes the ovule has become a mature seed. The changes just described, together with some others that chiefly affect the ovary, take place whether pollen from the same flower or from another flower of the same Fertilization. THE FLOWER. Sod species is applied to the stigma; but it has been proved that, as a general rule, there are great advan- tages in having the pollen brought from another flower! Accordingly, while self-fertilization is possible in most plants, various arrangements exist by which cross- fertilization is favored. _A number of external agents serve as efficient means of pollination. ‘The wind carries the light pollen of pine and other trees to great distances, sometimes even pyemnal hundreds of miles, insects of many different agents. kinds are actively engaged in carrying pollen from one flower to another, and humming birds visit a considerable number of species. In comparatively few cases pollen is conveyed to the stigma by the agency of water. Flowers themselves show many remarkable adaptations that favor cross-fertilization. The most important of these, as discussed at length by Darwin and other 4g asotations writers, are the following: of flowers, Pollination, 1. Diclinism, or the separation of stamens and pistils.— These are borne in different flowers, either on the same plant, as in the hazel, oak, etc., or on different individuals, as in the willows and poplars. In some families, as the maples, both conditions prevail. Plants with staminate and pistillate flowers on the same individual are said to be moneecious, those in which the separated flowers are on different individuals are dicecious, and those in which either condition exists together with the production of some perfect flowers are called polygamous. Of those in which the separation is most complete, namely, perfectly dicecious species, Darwin says, “ About the origin of such 1 Cf. Darwin, Cross- and Self-fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom ; Miller, Fertilization of Flowers. 86 STUDY. OF COMMON PLANTS. plants nothing is known.”! This arrangement practically necessitates cross-fertilization. 2. Dichogamy, or the maturing of stamens before or after the period of receptivity of the stigma. When the stamens shed their pollen before the stigma is receptive, the dichogamy is proterandrous; if, on the other hand, the stigma is receptive before the pollen is shed, it is proter- ogynous. The former condition is far more common than the latter.? 8. Prepotency of pollen from other flowers. It has been found by experiment that pollen from another indi- vidual is often decidedly prepotent over that produced by the same flower. ‘This is best shown by placing its own pollen on the stigma of a flower, and after some hours applying pollen of a different colored variety of the same species. The plants raised from seeds of flowers thus fertilized show by the color of their flowers whether crossing has taken place. Darwin found in a number of cases that pollen of another individual was prepotent after twenty-three or twenty-four hours.? 4. Heteromorphism. A considerable number of species produce flowers of different forms. In various species of Primula and Houstonia, certain individuals have long sta- mens and short styles, while others have long styles and short stamens. Such flowers are said to be dimorphic, white those of loosestrife, Lythrum Salicaria, L., which have stamens and styles of three different lengths, are trimor- phic. Both conditions involve the same principle and favor cross-fertilization in a remarkable way.* 1 Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species, p. 278. 2 Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, p. 219, et seq. 3 Cross- and Self-fértilization, pp. 395, 396. 4Cf. Darwin, Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Sine Spectes. THE FLOWER. 87 5. Special mechanisms. Such peculiarly shaped flowers as those of the lupine, sage, lady’s-slipper, milkweed, and many other plants exhibit special contrivances, often in the form of an exquisitely arranged mechanism, by which the flower is adapted to some particular visitor or class of visitors, through whose agency it is fertilized. These are described at length in various works, and we shall have occasion to study some of them in detail as we take up different families of plants.! 1 The student is given distinctly to understand that the foregoing account is necessarily incomplete, and must be supplemented by careful and intelligent reading of the references given, if even a fairly complete comprehension of the subject is to be attained. It is by no means the part of these exercises, with their brief summaries, to cover the subject of botany, but to show the beginner how to go to work. 88 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. VIE FRYE. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Mature fruits of sugar maple. Pods of common locust. Capsules of opium poppy and of Linarza vulgaris, Mill. Fruits of climbing bitter-sweet, Celastrus scandens, L. - Cranberries. A miscellaneous collection of fruits from the market and elsewhere. Among the most easily procurable are the following: Peanut, acorn, common plantain, coriander, colocynth, milkweed, black pepper, juniper berries, raisins, sumac “berries,” rose hip, fig, date, banana, star anise, cardamom, cocoanut, apple, plum, mul- berry, catalpa, spireea, evening primrose, and mullein. COMMON LOCUST. Robinia Pseudacacia, L. I. Taking dry, unopened specimens, note all the ex- ternal features, as form, surface, color, and texture. Are there any remains of floral structures ? II. Open the pod and draw in outline the inner surface of one of the halves, showing the position, attachment, and form of the seeds. Locate the funiculus and micropyle, and indicate their position by letters and dotted lines. IIiI. Describe the structure and mode of dehiscence of the fruit and classify it. How many carpels are there ? POPPY. Papaver somniferum, L. With uninjured commercial specimens note The general external characters. The peculiar stigma. Count the number of divisions. Mode of dehiscence. oo PO RL FRUITS. 89 II. Make a transverse section and examine the internal structure. Ascertain 1. Where the seeds are attached. 2. Number and position of the placente. 3. Number of carpels. SUGAR MAPLE. Acer saccharinum, Wang. Js. Taking dried specimens, patheted the preceding fall, notice 1. The form of the wings. 2. Their size as compared with the rest of the fruit. d. The lightness and strength of the whole structure. What do you infer as to the mode of dissemi- nation? — II. Make an outline sketch of one of the two Be mericarps, into which the fruit separates. III. Soak some of the fruits in water, and after an hour notice what changes have taken place. With a sharp knife or scalpel remove the pericarp. How does its outer part differ from the inner in texture? Has the seed become wet? Describe the means of protection of the embryo. IV. Taking a mericarp that has soaked a longer time, or better, one that has lain on the moist ground from the time of its fall, remove the pericarp so as to expose the seed in its natural position. Next remove carefully the seed-coats and examine the embryo. Observe the way it is folded together and the form of the radicle and coty- ledons. V. Classify the fruit. 1Cf. Goebel, Outlines of Classification and Spee! Morphology, p. 428; Gray, Structural Botany, Chap. VII. 90 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. BUTTER-AND-EGGS. Linaria vulgaris, Mill. I. Place some of the dry capsules in water and watch them for a few minutes. Observe and record any changes that take place. II. Ascertain the following facts: 1. Number of carpels. 2. Position of placentee. 3. Mode of dehiscence. CLIMBING BITTER-SWEBET. Celastrus scandens, L. I. Examine the dry fruits, noting the number, shape, | and position of the reflexed valves. II. Compare specimens that have been soaked in water an hour or more and note differences. III. Ascertain the number of seeds and describe them. They are surrounded by a brightly colored aril. IV. Classify the fruit and describe the mode of dehiscence. CRANBERRY. Vaccinium macrocarpon, Ait. I. Note critically the external features, including the presence or absence of floral envelopes. Can you deter- mine by inspection of the fruit whether the ovary should be described as superior or inferior ? II. Prepare transverse and longitudinal sections. De- termine 1. The number of carpels. 2. Position and direction of seeds. Draw and describe. 1Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, pp. 308, 309. ) »* . i i 4 . i ‘ ae a ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee er ee ee ee ee en ee om. tT . pee” Peis. ae FRUITS. 91 CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS. After a thorough study of a few such fruits as the fore- going, examine and classify a large number of easily pro- curable sorts, selected so as to secure as great a variety as possible. See list given above. Careful attention should be given at the same time to their morphology. Endeavor to ascertain in each case how many carpels there are, and what modifications the parts forming the fruit have under- gone. It is desirable to adopt some one classification and adhere to it. That of Gray is, on the whole, the most satisfactory. | SPECIAL STUDIES.! I. Projection of seeds. IJ. Arrangements for burying seeds. III. Colors of fruits. IV. Relationships indicated by fruits. | VY. Variation as seen in cultivated fruits. VI. Minute anatomy of the cherry. VII. Development of the apple or some other common fruit. This last may be made an extremely interesting and profitable study. Beginning with the flower of the apple, - cherry, or any of the common fruits, watch day by day the changes that take place, keeping a full record of them. until the fruit is formed. 1 Botanical Gazette, Vol. VII (1882), pp. 125, 187; Vol. XII (1887), p. 225 ; Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, Chap. III; Wallace, Dar- winism, pp. 305-808 ; Darwin, Animals and Plants under Domestication, Vol. I, Chap. XI; Strasburger and Hillhouse, Practical Botany, p. 347 et seq. 92 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. REVIEW AND SUMMARY. After the process of fertilization has taken place, re- markable changes occur aside from those of the ovule Development ready described. The corolla withers, and ofthe fruit, the ovary increases in size, finally becoming the fruit, which in ordinary cases is to be thought of simply as the ripened ovary. In some species, however, the calyx- tube forms a part of the fruit, and still other exceptional forms of developmental history occur. The wall of the ovary, which becomes the pericarp, generally changes in texture, becoming firm and leathery as in the bean, or fleshy as in the cucumber, or partly fleshy and partly bony as in the cherry, and so on. The pericarp often shows three fairly distinct layers corresponding to the upper and lower epidermis and intervening parenchyma of the car- pellary leaf, the outer layer being known as the exocarp, the middle, mesocarp, and the inner, endocarp. ‘Thus, in the peach, the skin is the exocarp, the fleshy part the mesocarp, and the stone the endocarp. In the pod of a bean or pea, the correspondence between the parts of the pericarp and those of the carpellary leaf is still more manifest. In many other fruits the changes that have occurred render this relation less easily observed, and are frequently still more fundamental in character. In some cases in which the ovary is composed of several carpels, only one develops, the rest becoming abortive; in others the ovary becomes divided by one or more septa, which give the fruit the appearance of having arisen from a com- pound pistil with more than the actual number of carpels. These and other important features of the developmental history of fruits are best understood by a careful com- parison of their structure in different stages of growth from the pistil to the mature condition. FRUITS. _ 93 Many of the peculiarities just referred to find their expla- nation in physiological adaptations, chiefly those connected with protection and the dissemination of seeds. Physiological Attention has already been directed to these in @aptations. our study of seeds, but they may now be briefly noticed with more direct reference to the fruit. Fleshy fruits, par- ticularly if brightly colored, are attractive to animals, and are carried away by them in great numbers, often to very remote places. One has only to reeall the habits of birds in distributing seeds of cherries, strawberries, and many other fruits, to realize the importance of these common and familiar but nicely adjusted relations. Other fruits, such as nuts of various kinds, though less attractive externally, are carried away by squirrels and other animals for the sake of the abundant food stored up in them. Still other fruits, such as the samara of the hop-tree and maple, have the pericarp greatly modified in adaptation to dissemina- tion by the wind, and a considerable number of dehiscent fruits exhibit mechanical arrangements by which their seeds are forcibly thrown to a considerable distance. F're- quently, too, the structure of the fruit is manifestly adapted to secure the protection of the seed. The thick and bitter outer covering of the walnut and its extremely hard shell, the rind of the orange with its pungent, aromatic oil, the extraordinarily multiplied and thickened coverings of the cocoanut, and other arrangements of simi- lar character, are so many means of protection against attacks of animals, the penetration of water and fungous germs, and injury from other destructive agents. In systematic botany it becomes necessary, for the sake of intelligible description, to employ some one of the various classifications of fruits. At the same time, it must be understood that such classifications are more or less 94 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. artificial, and that their value is rather that of convenience than as an expression of relationship. Nevertheless it is Classification. the case many times that in a given group of British Wild Flowers in Relation to Insects, pp. 48, 44, 72-74. 184 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. II. Compare next the cultivated nasturtium, Tropeolum — majus, L., with the horseshoe geranium. 1. Note the very different habits of the plant, the pecu- liarities of its foliage leaves, and means of pro- tection. 2. Observe the structure and plan of the flower. Note particularly the color of both calyx and corolla, the guiding lines, nectar-tube, mode of guarding the entrance to the latter, dichogamy, structure of ovary, and number of carpels.t III. In addition to the foregoing, study if possible one or more indigenous species of Impatiens, or forms of the cultivated “balsam” that have not become double. They are of special interest as regards both the peculiar modi- fications of the flower and the mechanism of seed dissemi- nation. 1. Comparing the plan of the flower with that of the species previously studied, try to ascertain whether there has been consolidation or suppression of parts, or both. 2. Does the structure imply adaptation to cross-ferti- lization? Does dichogamy exist? 8. If opportunity permits, observe what visitors Impati- ens has and their mode of operation. 4, Examine ripe fruits and investigate the mechanism of seed dissemination. Is it the same in principle as in Pelargonium and Geranium ?? Nore. — The relationship of Pelargonium with the closely allied genus Geranium is obvious, but it differs in important 1 Cf. Lubbock, l.¢., Pp- 75, 76. 2 Cf. Duchartre, Eléments de Botanique, p. 791. THE GERANIUM FAMILY. 185 particulars from Tropzolum and Impatiens, both of which, in recognition of their wide departure from more primitive, forms, are now placed in separate families. The study of such a series of forms is in the highest degree instructive, presenting as it does very important evidence regarding the descent of these peculiarly modified genera. 186 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. XXVII. THE SPURGE FAMILY. EUPHORBIACE. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Spurge, Euphorbia Cyparissias, L., and other species of Euphorbia. Representatives of other genera of the same family as far as these are procurable. SPURGE. Euphorbia Cyparissias, L. Distribution. In what situation is this plant usually found growing? Have you observed anything as to its persistence from year to year, where it has once become established? Do its habits indicate that it is an indigenous species ? General Characters. Study the general features of the plant and write a brief description. In addition to the ordinary botanical char- acters note particularly 1. The way in which new shoots arise. 2. The abundant latex in every part.! 3. The great variety of foliar organs —scale leaves, foliage leaves, and floral leaves — and their form, position, and color. Inflorescence and Flowers. The morphology of the flower in this family has been the subject of much discussion and an extended literature. 1 Care should be exercised in handling spurges as the juice is poisonous. THE SPURGE FAMILY. 187 Without attempting at the outset a critical theoretical study, we shall simply undertake to observe the -floral organs as they are, and give to them their commonly accepted names. Book descriptions and figures are best left alone until the plant has been studied at first hand. I. Observe first the general arrangement of the inflores- cences. They are borne on long slender stalks that arise close together near the apex of the stem, and present collectively the general appearance of an umbel. Is it strictly an umbel ? IJ. The slender stalks each bear near their extremity a pair of heart-shaped, yellowish, floral leaves. Notice care- fully what there is above the floral leaves. Compare a number of specimens of different ages. Do you find still other floral leaves? If so, do they resemble the first pair in shape and color? Floral leaves of the second and third order are of common occurrence. Do you find any of a higher order? III. Having found all the floral leaves, we come to the inflorescence proper. It greatly resembles a small flower, and was described as such by some of the older botanists. The cup-shaped structure that looks like a calyx is really an involucre. Notice the four “crescent-shaped glands”’ and their position on the involucre. IV. Remove enough of the involucre to expose the small flowers within. Do this with several specimens of different ages. With a lens, examine the minute staminate flowers. Note their position and number, the form of the anther, and the point where the short filament is con- nected with the long pedicel. (Each staminate flower consists of a single stamen, mounted on a distinct pedicel. ) 188 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. V. The single pistillate flower is far more conspicuous — than the staminate ones. As the ovary develops it pro- trudes beyond the involucre, so that the entire flower is easily studied. Observe 1. The form of the ovary. 2. The number of styles and stigmas. 3. The number of cells in the ovary, as seen in cross- section, and the number and position of the ovules. VI. With a number of entire plants review all that we have learned about the species. See that all the facts are clearly in mind, and that you are able to designate each part by its proper name. Do you consider the plant well adapted to survive in the struggle for existence? If so, show how. RELATIONSHIP. With the species already studied compare other mem- bers of the genus such as Huphorbia corollata, L., £#. marginata, Pursh, #. maculata, L., and one or more repre- sentatives of other genera, as, for example, Acalypha Virginica, L., and the cultivated castor-oil plant, Ricinus communis, L. (The seeds of the latter are of large size, and are more easily studied than those of the spurge.) Having compared as many species as practicable, see how far the characters you have found to be common to all agree with the family characters as given in the manuals. Euphorbia Cyparissias is a familiar representative of a large and peculiar family of plants. It is found in patches by roadsides and old dwellings where it has escaped from cultivation. Its copious milky juice, narrow leaves, and tufted habit have given it the common name of “ milk- THE SPURGE FAMILY. 189 9 moss,” in addition to that of “spurge,” which it shares with numerous other species of the same genus. The family to which it belongs is chiefly tropical, and is one of the few that are specially distinguished by their poison- ous properties. Cases of poisoning as a result of handling species cultivated for ornament are not infrequent. It includes a number of species with powerful medicinal properties, and others that furnish valuable food products, while the fleshy Euphorbias, the Poinsettia, and others, are well-known ornamental plants. 190 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. XXVIII. THE MAPLE FAMILY. ACERACEZ. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Flowers of the different species of maples as they open in the spring. Fruits of the sugar maple gathered after they have fallen from the trees in the autumn. Fruits of the red and silver maples gathered in the summer. Leaves of all the species. Either fresh or pressed specimens of the latter will serve. | Flowers. The flowers of the red maple open early in the spring and may be taken first. Specimens should be gathered from a number of trees so as to have the different forms of flowers for comparison. I. Observe the position of the flower bud and the color and position of the bud-scales. II. Compare the flowers of different trees. Select first, for critical study, those that have well-developed stamens. 1. How many divisions of the calyx are there? Of the corolla? 2. Is this number the same in all the specimens? Does it correspond with the number of stamens? 8. How are the stamens inserted ? Is there a pistil ? Are there any organs for the secretion of nectar? | ae THE MAPLE FAMILY. 191 III. Next take specimens that have well-developed pistils. 1. Are stamens present? If so, how do they compare with those of the flowers previously studied ? 2. Are the floral envelopes alike in all the flowers? 3. Notice the form and structure of the pistil. How many carpels are there? How many ovules in each cell? IV. Compare with these the flowers of the silver maple, noting carefully all the points of likeness and difference. 1. Are petals present? 2. Do all the flowers have both stamens and pistils? 8. Is the ovary smooth or hairy ? 4. Does it agree in structure with that of the red maple ? 5. Do different specimens exhibit any variation as to the number of carpels? V. Compare flowers of the sugar maple, which open some days later, with those of the red and silver maples. 1. Are there any differences as regards a. Form and position of the flower clusters ? 6. Color of the calyx? e. Structure of the essential organs ? 2. Are all the flowers of the same tree alike? How is it with those of the red and silver maples in this respect ? The maples are described as being “ polygamo-die- cious.’ What is meant by this? Do you find that the facts correspond with the statement? Fruits. Study next fruits, taking first those of the sugar maple gathered the preceding fall. 192 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. With the fruits of the sugar maple, compare those of the red and silver maples, noting all the external and structural differences by which they may be distinguished. Leaves. Compare the leaves of all three kinds until you are able to distinguish the species at sight by means of the leaves alone. Finally review the observations made thus far, see if anything is to be added, and write a complete account of the characters common to all three species and also of those peculiar to each. SPECIAL STUDIES. I. Critical comparison of the Box-elder, Wegundo aceroides, Mcench., with the maples. Does it have the essential characters of a maple? II. Polygamous plants. Cf. Darwin, Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species, Chap. VIL. THE MALLOW FAMILY. 193 XXIX. THE MALLOW FAMILY. MALVACEA. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Common mallow, Malva rotundifolia, L., in flower and fruit. Other representatives of the family, such as Hollyhock, Althea rosea, Cav.; Shrubby althza, Hibiscus Syriacus, L.; Musk mallow, Malva moschata, 1..; Velvet-leaf, Abutilon Avicenne, Gertn. COMMON MALLOW. MJMalva rotundifolia, L Distribution. ik In what situation is this plant generally found? Have you any evidence as to whether it is an indigenous or introduced species ? General Characters. I. Study first the habits of ie plant and note its char- acteristic features. 1. The strong taproot. Position and direction of the numerous branches. Presence or absence of stipules. Form and venation of leaves. Position and character of inflorescence. The remarkably strong bast fibers. Mucilaginous contents, particularly of the fruits. TID OT go po Ii. Enumerate any advantages that this plant possesses in competition with others. Is it easily eradicated? Why? Is it attractive to grazing animals ? 194 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. Flower. I. Examine the flower in various stages of development. Note 1. The plan of the flower and how modified. 2. The three-leaved involucel, “like an outer calyx.” 3. Insertion of the corolla and the relation of the latter to the stamen-tube (best seen on longitudinal sec- tion). 4. The monadelphous stamens. Form and mode of dehiscence of anthers. Number of stigmas. Does this correspond with the number of divisions of the ovary ? ae II. Ascertain whether there are any adaptations favor- — ing cross-fertilization, or any that render selt-fertilization impossible. 1. Are there any guiding lines? 2. Is nectar produced? If so, is it protected in any way? 3 8. Compare flowers of different ages and ascertain whether dichogamy exists.! Fruit and Seed. I. Examine the fruit, making both transverse and longi- tudinal sections of specimens of different ages. Ascertain 1. The number of carpels. 2. Form and place of attachment of the ovules. &. Structure and position of the embryo. (This is easily made out with a lens by means of repeated sections, trying different specimens until the most favorable ones are found.) 1 Lubbock, British Wild Flowers in Relation to — p. 41; Miiller, Fertilization of Flowers, pp. 142, 143. THE MALLOW FAMILY. 195 II. Ascertain approximately the number of seeds pro- duced by a single strong plant. RELATIONSHOIP. Compare with the common mallow at least one, and if possible several, of the plants named above, noting the various points of difference and likeness. Write a brief summary of the characters common to them all. The Malvaceze exhibit a number of interesting peculiari- ties, some of which indicate relationship with several other families, among them the Tiliacee. They are widely dis-- tributed in both hemispheres, but with a preference for the warmer parts of the globe. The cotton plant is the most important member of the family, from an economical standpoint. A few species are of medicinal value, and a considerable number, as Althza, Hibiscus, Abutilon, and others, are well-known ornamental plants. 196 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. XXX. THE VIOLET FAMILY. VIOLACEZ. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Specimens of the cultivated pansy in flower. Indigenous species of violets. Flower. Our study in the present case will be restricted to the flower, taking first that of the pansy. I. Compare several good specimens as to size and color, ~ and observe how far they agree. II. Study the. external features of the flower in order. Note the number of parts in each whorl, and their peculiari- ties of form, structure, and position. | 1. Form of the sepals. Aside from their size and position are they readily distinguished from foliage leaves ? 2. Peculharities of the corolla. To which of the petals does the spur belong? Cut into it and see whether it contains anything likely to be of use to the flower. What do you conclude as to its function? 3. Study the disposition of colors. Compare as many specimens as practicable. Where do the “guiding lines” converge ? 4. Examine the center of the flower with a lens. Notice the thick brush of hairs on either side. The position of the essential organs, partially visible farther in. THE VIOLET FAMILY. 197 III. Remove carefully the floral envelopes on one side so as to expose the essential organs without disturbing them. Notice the relative position of stamens and pistil, and their structural peculiarities. The large, rounded stigma with an orifice in front. The “lip” forming the lower edge of this orifice. ‘The syngenesious anthers and. their membranaceous connectives united into a tube just back of the stigma. ‘The two nectaries projecting into the spur. The narrow canal lined with hairs leading from the entrance of the corolla back to the spur. Jar the stamens and see where the pollen falls out and where it lodges. IV. Go over all the structures again, in more than one specimen, and see if you can determine the use of each part of the mechanism. Imitate the action of a bee by inserting a slender piece of quill or wood, pushing along the groove down to the nectar cavity. Withdraw it and see if it brings away any pollen. Insert it into another flower and examine the stigma of the latter with a lens before and after the operation to see if any pollen has been left on it. V. Make a true longitudinal section of the flower (a razor is best for this purpose), and sketch the parts in out- line so as .to show their relative position. Name and locate each, using letters and guiding lines. VI. Make a transverse section of the ovary and examine under a lens. Note 1. The number of placente. 2. Number, direction, and form of ovules. If practi- cable, compare ripe capsules. 1Cf. Sachs, Physiology of Plants, p. 796. 198 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. VII. Construct a diagram of the flower. In what respects does the pansy differ from a “typical flower,” as described by Gray, Lessons, pp. 81, 82? VIII. Write a full description of the pansy. Nore. —It is hardly necessary at this stage of the student’s progress to remind him that a description of such a flower involves much more than an enumeration of the parts of each whorl, with an account of their surface, outline, etc. An appreciation of the marvelous beauty and exquisite adaptations here displayed, and a scientific temper that seeks to know how all this has come to be as it is, will hardly be satisfied with mechanically filling the blanks of some ‘‘plant analysis.’? Write as though your account were to stand as the only written description of the result of a long series of natural experiments, of which we now see the culmination in a perfect piece of mechanism. IX. Consult the references already given and those named under “Special Studies’ below. RELATIONSHIP. As the flowers of various indigenous species appear in spring, e.g. Viola palmata, L., V. pedata, L., V. pubescens, Ait., etc., compare them with the pansy, and note the char- acters common to them all. If the green violet, Solea con- color, Ging., is to be had, compare this with the true violets. Summarize briefly the points in which all these agree. SPECIAL STUDIES. I. Observation of various insects that visit the pansy. Miller, Fertelization of Flowers, p. 118, gives an interesting account of the habits of different bees. II. Advantages of crossed over self-fertilized pansies. See Darwin’s experiments, Cross- and Self-fertilr- zation in the Vegetable Kingdom, pp. 123-128, 286, 296, 304. THE VIOLET FAMILY. 199 IIJ. Variation as seen in the cultivated pansy. -Obser- vations of differences of size, shades, and distri- bution of color and other peculiarities, even if restricted to the pansies grown in a single town, give a vivid impression of the extraordinary capac- ity for variation and the equally remarkable per- sistence of essential features exhibited by this species. IV. Dissemination of seeds by different species of violets. See Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, p. 54 et seq. V. Cleistogamic flowers. See Darwin, Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species, Chap. VII. 2.00 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. XXXII. THE EVENING-PRIMROSE FAMILY. ONAGRACE. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Evening primrose, Ginothera biennis, L., in flower. Fire-weed, Epilobium angustifolium, L., Enchanter’s-nightshade, Cir- cea Lutetiana, L., and other representatives of the family, such as the cultivated Fuchsia. EVENING PRIMROSE. (Cnothera biennis, L. Distribution. Where were the specimens obtained? In what other places in this country have you seen it growing? Does it grow in any other parts of the world?! Flower. I. Examine the whorls in order and draw a diagram of the flower. Cut a true longitudinal section, study care- fully the relation of the parts, and draw. II. Note particularly the very long calyx-tube, insertion of petals and stamens, the versatile anthers, elongated style, and four thickened divisions of the stigma. III. Taking specimens past flowering, cut transverse and longitudinal sections of the ovary, and observe under a lens the number of rows of ovules in each cell, and their form and direction. 1 Cf. Lubbock, British Wild Flowers in Relation to Insects, p. 98. THE EVENING-PRIMROSE FAMILY. 201 IV. Using still older specimens, observe and describe the structure of the fruit and its mode of dehiscence. Physiological Adaptations. If possible, visit both in the daytime and evening the place where the plant is growing, and study its habits. Ascertain when the flower opens, whether its color and odor are attractive to any particular class of insects, and whether the length of the calyx-tube or any other struc- tural features indicate special adaptations. Endeavor to ascertain by direct observation how pollination is effected. Accounts of this, so far, are very meager, but suggest a curious keeping in tow of two or more different sorts of visitors, some of them coming by day and others by night.! RELATIONSHOIP. I. Obtain specimens of the great willow-herb, or fire- weed, Hpilobium angustifolium, L., often very abundant on newly cleared land that has been burnt over, and compare the plant throughout with what you have seen of the evening primrose. Note 1. Habits and external characters. 2. Structure of the flower, especially its plan and the relation of the various whorls to each other. 8. Adaptations to insect visitors. Observe particularly the position of the style in flowers of different ages, and the time when the stigmas open. Is this before or after the anthers have shed their pollen? Nore. — This species furnishes an excellent example of proterandrous dichogamy .2 1Cf. Lubbock, /.c.; Miiller, Fertilization of Flowers, p. 264. 2Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, p. 222. 202 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. II. Compare the enchanter’s-nightshade (Cireea Luteti- ana, L.), also in flower in midsummer, with the evening primrose. 1. Construct a diagram of the flower and observe how it differs from that of the latter species. 2. Examine the flower under a lens and observe a. The conspicuous nectary. (Abundant nectar may also be found in some flowers. ) 6. The surface of the ovary. Can you suggest more than one use of the hooked bristles with which it is covered ? 3. Observe, if practicable, the way in which pollination takes place.? III. A study of the cultivated Fuchsia may be made at any time during several months of the year, and if more convenient may be taken as the type instead of the even- ing primrose. IV. Compare your observations of the various members of the family that you have obtained for study, and note the morphological characters common to themall. 1Cf. Miiller, U.c., pp. 266, 267. THE PARSLEY FAMILY. 203 XXXII. THE PARSLEY FAMILY. UMBELLIFERZ. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Harbinger-of-spring, Erigenia bulbosa, Nutt., in flower. Later in the season, representatives of other genera, such as Osmor- rhiza, Heracleum, Pastinaca, Thaspium, Daucus, Cicuta. Fruits of fennel, Feniculum vulgare, Gertn., dill, Anethum graveolens, L.., and coriander, Coriandrum sativum, L. (to be procured at the drug store). HARBINGER-OF-SPRING. LErigenia bulbosa, Nutt. Distribution and General Characters. I. Record what you have noticed as to the habitat of this species. Does it appear to be indigenous or intro- duced ? II. With perfect specimens at hand, study the general features of the plant, noting particularly 1. The underground stem. Describe its form and struct- ure. Asa modified stem how is it to be classi- fied ?1 2. The habit of the plant as regards size, branching, and any other feature that appears to be charac- teristic. 3. Leaves. Compare a number of proper foliage leaves and describe one that you regard as typical. Notice a. The expanded, sheathing petiole. 6. The extent to which the leaf is compound. 1Cf. Gray, Lessons, p. 42 et seq. 204 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. c. The uppermost leaves. ‘Those subtending a group of inflorescences constitute an involucre, those subtending each separate inflorescence an in- volucel. Do the leaves of involucre and involu- cel differ in any important particular from the lower leaves ? 4. The character of the inflorescence, and the grouping of several inflorescences to form a compound umbel. Flower. J. Examine different flowers until you are satisfied as to what parts are present. Note the essential facts of form, number, position, etc. II. Write a description, and indicate all the points in which this differs from a “ typical flower.” Notrre.—In this family the inflorescence and flowers are particularly characteristic ; it is important, therefore, that their distinctive features should be impressed on the mind before proceeding farther. Fruit. Fully mature specimens are indispensable in studying the fruit of any member of this family; accordingly, instead of waiting for the Erigenia to ripen, it will be con- venient to take commercial specimens of fennel, coriander, and dill, which will serve as good representatives of the fruits of umbelliferous plants. Moreover, by studying several kinds, instead of one, we shall gain a clearer im- pression of their really characteristic features. I. Observe carefully the external features of the three fruits. That of the coriander is globular, fennel is more nearly cylindrical, while dill is much flattened. In spite, however, of these marked differences, there are a number of characters common to all three. Note THE PARSLEY FAMILY. 205 1. The ready splitting of the fruit into two halves, mericarps. 2. The strongly marked longitudinal ribs on the outer surface of each mericarp. 8. The stylopodium, a short conical body in which the fruit is prolonged above. 4. The carpophore, or prolongation of the pedicel; its two thread-like branches each supporting one of the mericarps. (Best seen in specimens of fennel that have lain in water an hour or two.) II. Compare the three fruits more in detail, using a good lens for the purpose. Observe : 1. The number and position of the ribs. Begin with fennel, in which itis at once seen that each meri- carp has five strong ribs, two lateral, one dorsal, and two intermediate. How does the dill fruit compare in this respect ? The coriander fruit differs remarkably from either of the preceding. Ifa mericarp is carefully studied, it will be seen to have five primary ribs, corre- sponding to those of fennel, but wavy in outline and less prominent than four secondary ribs alter- nating with them. 2. Remains of floral envelopes. If uninjured specimens are examined, it will be seen that the calyx teeth of the coriander are conspicuously present at the apex of the fruit. Is this true of the dill and fennel? III. Prepare transverse sections of the mericarps of all three species, and examine with the low power of a com- pound microscope. In each case it will be necessary to take at least two sections, one near the apex of the fruit, and one near the middle or lower down. 206 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. It will be seen that all three kinds have a relatively thick pericarp and abundant, white endosperm, within which lies the small embryo, near the apex of the fruit, and con- sequently not seen in sections taken lower down. In the pericarp are a number of vitte, or oil-tubes. The corian- der has two of these in each mericarp lying next to its in- ner, or ventral face. In fennel and dill, in addition to these two, there are four more vitte alternating with the ribs of the outer, or dorsal face. Draw in outline, representing accurately the position of ribs and vittz. Letters and guiding lines will conduce to clearness. : IV. Write a complete description of the three fruits, taking care to distinguish the characters common to all, from those that are only of specific or generic value. RELATIONSHIP. Later in the season many other species of umbellifers that will serve for comparative study are easily obtained. Thaspium, or some other common genus, may be substi- tuted for Erigenia if found more convenient. As the study is continued it will be apparent that the external characters to which attention has already been directed, although variously modified, are constantly repeated in nearly all the genera. The hollow stem, compound leaves with inflated petioles, flowers in umbels, and the very marked and distinctive features of flowers and fruit occur over and over again, sometimes in connection with specific characters by which a given plant is easily identified, some- times with these characters so far wanting that identifica- tion becomes extremely difficult. All in all, the family is one of the best marked groups in the vegetable kingdom. It includes about thirteen hundred species, distributed THE PARSLEY FAMILY. 207 chiefly over the temperate regions of the globe. They are remarkable for their widely different active properties, a considerable number being edible, a large proportion pleas- antly (or unpleasantly) aromatic, and a comparatively small number poisonous. It is a curious fact that while very largely dependent upon insects for fertilization, the flowers of umbellifers attract, as a rule, a very common lot of visit- ors such as “short-lipped flies, beetles, and other short- lipped insects in immense variety.”! Numbers, rather than quality, has become the rule, and while the family has held its own, and has even established a claim to be considered one of the dominant natural orders, it is one of the least attractive. The best preparation for the further study of this rather difficult family will be made by getting together a collec- tion of ripe fruits, especially those occurring in commerce, and becoming thoroughly familiar with their anatomical structure. Useful directions for collecting and other needed sug- gestions are given by Coulter and Rose, in their Reviszon of North American Umbelliferee? SPECIAL STUDIES. I. Morphology of the “tuber” of Hrigenia bulbosa. A critical botanist writes: “Is it really a stem? Who ever examined it? It appears to me to be half hypocotyl, and the other half a root.” II. The terminal, colored flower of Daucus Carota. 1 Miiller, Fertilization of Flowers, p. 287. 2 Separate monograph. Issued by the Herbarium of Wabash College, December, 1888. 208 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. AXXII. THE MILKWEED FAMILY. ASCLEPIADACEZ. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Flowers of Asclepias Cornutt, Decaisne. Alcoholic specimens will serve if fresh ones are not to be had, but there is an advantage in having a supply of both. MILKWEED. Asclepias Cornuti, Decaisne. Flowers. Our study of the milkweed will be restricted to the flowers, which present an extraordinary mechanism for securing cross-fertilization through the agency of insects. They are borne in a conspicuous umbel and attract numer- ous visitors, particularly bees, wasps, and flies. Both the odor and color are attractive, and there is an abundant supply of nectar. The plant is absolutely dependent on insects for fertilization. Observe first the form and position of the floral envel- opes. They are reflexed and covered on their lower surface with short, woolly hairs. (This is contrary to the general rule noticed by Kerner, Flowers and their Un- bidden Guests, that plants protected by milky juice have smooth leaves, and are without any other applances for the protection of their flowers from crawling animals.) The crown is the most conspicuous part of the flower. It consists of five hollow bodies, cuculli, each of which has an incurved horn projecting from its opening. THE MILKWEED FAMILY. 209 There are five anthers placed close together, each ter- minating in a membranous appendage that projects over the thickened stigma disk. 3 The anthers are separated from each other laterally by a deep, vertical sht, bordered on either side by a thin triangular process, the anther wing. At the upper ex- tremity of the slit is a minute, black body, corpusculum, which, when removed by a needle, is found to be con- nected by means of a delicate, curved band on either side, with a flattened, yellow, and waxy pollen-mass, pollinium. Longitudinal swellings on the outside of each anther indi- cate the position of the pollinia before their removal. Each of the slits already described is continuous within with the stigmatic chamber, into which the pollen must be introduced in order that fertilization may take place. It is obvious that this cannot happen unless the pollinia are removed from the anthers, and brought into the stigmatic chambers by some external agency. This is accomplished by bees and other insects that visit the flowers for honey. Alghting on the umbel the insect easily gets its foot caught in the lower part of one of the slits, and in attempting to withdraw it, one of the claws is guided into the notch in the lower end of the corpus- culum. With astrong pull, the latter is removed from its place, and the insect carries away with it the two pollinia, which by the twisting of the delicate bands, retinacula, that connect them with the corpusculum, are now brought into such a position as to be readily introduced into the slit leading to the stigmatic chamber of some other flower. If this has been done, and the insect is strong enough, it frees itself by a vigorous pull, breaking the 1 Hildebrand and Miiller have given a full account of the process, the latter writer with illustrations. Fertilization of Flowers, p. 396 et seq. 210 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. retinacula, and leaving the pollen masses in the stigmatic — chamber, while it proceeds to other flowers and continues gathering honey. Weaker insects are frequently unable to ine the retinacula. Flies may often be seen making unavailing efforts to extricate themselves, and honey-bees are not infrequently found that have been caught in the same way, and have died after prolonged struggles to get free. By means of the preceding description, accompanied by careful ‘observation at each step, the student will be in a position to study the entire mechanism to advantage. He should now go over the whole independently, until every part of the flower is perfectly familiar. The study of external structure should be followed by a comparison of cross and longitudinal sections (best made from alco- holic material), with sketches to show the parts and their relations to each other. Several hours will be required to do this properly. Miuller’s drawings may be consulted, but they are less easily understood than the flower itself. Nothing can possibly take the place of direct, personal, and long-con- tinued study of the object under investigation. Further, it is very desirable that the pupil should not only under- stand the mechanism, but that he should also see it in operation. A few days in summer spent in watching the flowers of the milkweed, as the visitors come and go, will give full opportunity for this. RELATIONSHIP. The Asclepiadacee constitute a large and very remark- able family of plants, including about thirteen hundred species, which are largely tropical, although many repre- THE MILKWEED FAMILY. 211 sentatives occur in the temperate regions of ‘both hemi- spheres. ‘They are chiefly interesting for the extraordinary structural modifications of their flowers, which “rival the orchids, if not in the variety of their forms, at least in their complexity and their perfect adaptation to insect visitors.” A study of the steps by which this gradually increasing complexity of structure has been attained is of the highest interest. The student should carefully com- pare the flowers of other genera of Asclepiadacee, and such representatives of related families as Apocynum, Vinea, and others. SPECIAL STUDIES. I. It is found that only a very small proportion of the flowers in an umbel set fruits. Why is this? and are those flowers which do not set fruits of any value to the plant ? IJ. Minute structure of pollinia and retinacula. III. Morphology of the cuculli. IV. Development of the flower. VY. Protective appliances in this family. HA? STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. XXXIV. THE BORAGE FAMILY. BORRAGINACE. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Common hound’s-tongue, Cynoglossum officinale, L., in flower. Similar specimens of any of the following genera: Echinospermum, Mertensia, Lithospermum, Symphytum, Heliotropium, Myosotis. Cultivated species of some of these, as forget-me-not and _helio- trope, will serve a good purpose. HOUND’S-TONGUE. Cynoglossum officinale, L. Distribution and Cael Characters. I. This species is described as an introduced weed. Do its habits confirm this statement ? II. Examine the plant with reference to general feat- ures. Note its coarse aspect, hairy surface, and dilis- agreeable odor. Inflorescence. The inflorescence is characteristic and should be criti- cally studied, as it is of a form that appears in many rep- resentatives of this family. I. Notice first the order of development of the flowers. The lowest have already formed their fruits; higher up are the open flowers, and at the apex are the unopened flower buds. If. The inflorescence is apparently a one-sided raceme. Is it really so? Notice the position of an open flower. Is it terminal or lateral ? THE BORAGE FAMILY. 213 III. Compare a number of inflorescences with reference to the occurrence of bracts. Read Gray, Structural Botany, pp. 153-156. IV. If they can be obtained at the same time, compare the inflorescence of other representatives of the Borragi- nacez, such as puccoon and forget-me-not, with that of hound’s-tongue. Do they agree essentially in the arrange- ment of flowers ? Flower. I. Note first the numerical plan of the flower. Is the number five maintained throughout ? II. Observe the peculiar structure of the corolla, par- ticularly the conspicuous folds or scales arching over the essential organs. Is the flower perfectly regular? Iii. Taking a recently opened flower, make a longi- tudinal section so as to show the precise relation of all the parts. Draw. Does the position of stigma and anthers, and the mode of dehiscence of the latter, afford any indication as to the way in which pollination is effected ? IV. Examine the ovary, noting the number of its divis- ions, and their form and position. Fruit. I. Study the fruit in different stages of development, taking flowers of different ages for the purpose. Observe 1. Its rapid increase in size. 2. The formation of peculiar barbed appendages, thickly covering its surface. Il. Make longitudinal sections of young fruits so as to show the form and position of the seed. Compare with sunilar sections of older fruits. 214 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. RELATIONSHIP. Compare with this species as many others of the same family as can be obtained. Note especially I. Any general external characters in which they agree. II. The inflorescence, which in this family presents very interesting peculiarities. III. The structure of the flowers, differing in details in the different genera, but showing marked agreement in ~ plan. IV. The characteristic fruit. V. Structure and position of the seeds. Write a brief summary of the features that you consider characteristic of the family. The Borraginacee include about twelve hundred species, widely distributed throughout the world. A number of ornamental ones are common in cultivation. Some have been employed in medicine, and the curious doctrine of signatures is still called to mind by such names as lung- wort and stonewort. The marked variety of external appearance, in connection with great persistence of essen- tial characters, as seen, for example, by comparison of the exquisitely beautiful and fragrant heliotrope with the coarse and rank hound’s-tongue, is interesting as suggest- ing how widely the different genera have diverged in externals from earlier forms, while still retaining their most deeply seated ancestral traits. The student will do well to make a special study of the inflorescence as it presents itself in various members of the family, and in the same connection review the whole subject of floral arrangement as presented by Gray, Les- sons, Sec. VIII, or Structural Botany, Chap. V. THE MINT FAMILY. DD XXXV. THE MINT FAMILY. LABIATZ2. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Specimens of ground-ivy, Nepeta Glechoma, Benth., in flower. Similar specimens belonging to different genera of the Mint family, as they can be obtained. See list below. GROUND-IVY. Nepeta Glechoma, Benth. Distribution. As in previous studies, notice the habitat and consider the evidence as to whether this is an introduced or indige- nous species. Gray, in the Manual, says “naturalized from Europe.’ What is meant by this? General Characters. I. Observe first the most obvious characters, among them the following: 1. The habit of the plant, its stem creeping and taking root at short intervals. Describe the root system. 2. The characteristic odor. | 8. The shape of the stem and arrangement. of the ” leaves. Norse. —The aromatic properties, square stem, and opposite leaves are characteristic not only of this species but of the whole family to which it belongs. 4. The relation of leaves and stem. Note particularly the ridges connecting the bases of each pair of petioles, and their chevaux-de-frise of bristly 216 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. hairs. Which way are the latter directed? What do you infer as to their use ? | o. Structural features of the leaves. Describe their form and venation. With a good lens examine closely the surface and margin. Are they smooth or rough? II. Study the plant throughout with reference to its various means of protection and their efficiency. Inflorescence. I. The flowers are in small axillary clusters. How many in each group? In what order do they open? Is this order constant? Classify the inflorescence, giving its appropriate name.! | IJ. Are there any arrangements, in addition to those already noticed, for the protection of the flower? Flower. I. Study critically the plan of the flower. How many calyx-teeth are there? How many lobes of the corolla? Remove the corolla with a pair of fine forceps, and lay it open by making a longitudinal sht its entire length, passing through the middle of the lower lip. Fasten it on a flat piece of cork with needles, so as to fully expose the stamens, and examine under a dissecting microscope. One of the stamens has been suppressed. Which? Notice the insertion of the style, the peculiar form of the ovary, and the nectary surrounding its base. II. Taking flowers of different ages, observe the fruit in its various stages of development. How many carpels are there? ? 1 Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, p. 151. 2 Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, p. 296; Luerssen, Botanik, p. 1014. THE MINT FAMILY. Pil Wf III. Construct a diagram of the flower. Consult Eichler, Bliithendiagramme, for diagrams and theoretical discussion of the morphology of the flower of the Labiate. IV. Examine the flower with reference to the way in which fertilization is accomplished. 1. Notice the spots and lines on the lower lip of the corolla. Examine different specimens and ascer- tain whether they are constant in position. Are they placed so as to serve as path-pointers ? 2. Using a needle or bristle, imitate the action of an insect inserting its proboscis so as to extract the nectar. Would it be likely to come in contact with anthers or stigma, or both ? 8. If practicable, examine flowers from different locali- ties, and compare them as to size, position of the anthers, and other features.! 4. Nepeta is reckoned by Muller among the genera in which, for at least some of the species, self-fertili- zation has become impossible. Does this appear to be the case with Nepeta Glechoma? V. Compare, if they can be obtained, the highly modi- fied flowers of Salvia, either those of the common sage, or of species cultivated in conservatories.? RELATIONSHIP. Examine as many of the following species as practicable, comparing them with ground-ivy, and noting all common characters. Catnip, Nepeta Cataria, L. 1 Cf. Botanical Gazette, I, p. 41, II, p. 118; Miiller, Fertilization of Flowers, p. 484. 2 Cf. Sachs, Physiology of Plants, p. 794; Miiller, U.c., p. 477 et seq. 218 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. Wood-sage, Teucrium Canadense, L. Richweed, Collinsonia Canadensis, L. Spearmint, Mentha viridis, L. Wild mint, Mentha Canadensis, L. Wild bergamot, Monarda fistulosa, L. Skulleap, Seutellaria galericulata, L. Motherwort, Leonurus Cardiaca, L. Dead-nettle, Lamium maculatum, L. Cultivated species of Salvia. Notwithstanding the fact that the Labiatz include some twenty-six hundred species scattered over the entire globe, _ they constitute a very natural group of plants; that is, cer- tain strongly marked characters are so uniformly present that it would almost seem, as some botanical writers have suggested, that all the species might be placed in one great genus. Accordingly the distinction of genera in this family becomes a difficult task. ‘The modifications of the floral structures in those species that have become most dependent on the agency of: insects for fertilization are peculiarly interesting. The student may profitably devote considerable time to the comparison of the various species of Salvia, for example, with each other and with simpler forms. Another interesting subject of investigation, and one throwing additional light on the relationship of groups that apparently have but little in common, is the develop- mental history of the fruit, which is essentially the same in this family as in the Boraginacee. THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. 219 XXXVI. THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. SOLANACEAE. MATERIAL REQUIRED. The cultivated potato in flower. The tomato may be substituted. Specimens of matrimony-vine, Lycium vulgare, Dunal, in flower, and similar specimens of ground-cherry, Physalis pubescens, L., bitter- sweet, Solanum Dulcamara, L., or other easily procurable repre- sentatives of the family. | POTATO. Solanum tuberosum, Distribution and General Characters. The common potato is indigenous to a portion of the coast region of western South America. It has been widely cultivated in the northern hemisphere for more than three hundred years, apparently with little specific change, there having been no inducement to artificial selection of any other part than the tuber, which, however, presents many, often striking, varieties.! In examining the cultivated plant, study its habit, not- ing the peculiarities of stem and leaves, and the character- istic odor. Inflorescence. Examine a number of specimens. Do they agree in the character of the inflorescence? Describe this and draw a diagram showing the position of the flowers and their order of development. 1Cf. De Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 45 et seq. 220 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. See if you can find a description of this kind of inflores- cence in any of the books of reference. Does it correspond with that of any other family that you have studied ? Flower. I. Study the parts of the flower in order and describe them. Note particularly 1. The plan of the flower and whether it is strictly regular or not. : The extent to which coalescence has taken place.1 Whether there is adnation of any parts. Form of calyx and corolla. Structure, position, and insertion of the stamens, and — their mode of dehiscence. 6. Number of carpels composing the ovary. State the evidence on which you have determined this. Sy II. Construct a diagram. Ili. Determine whether there are any arrangements favoring cross-fertilization, and whether self-fertilization is possible.? Note the persistence, for at least several hundred years, of structures that under present circumstances are of little, if any, use to the plant, but which if it were neglected by man and allowed to run wild, might again be needed. RELATIONSHIP. I. With the potato compare other species of the same genus, as far as these are procurable, also representatives of other genera as Lycopersicum, Physalis, Nicandra, Lycium, 1Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, p. 179. 2 Cf. Miiller, Fertilization of Flowers, p. 425. THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. 221 and Petunia. The last two are widely cultivated, and their flowers may be had for weeks together. Attention should be directed to 1. Such general external features as the plants possess incommon. Between certain species and genera this likeness in general characters is very striking, in other cases it is not apparent. 2. Active properties, manifested in part by odor and taste. 8. Structure of flower and fruit. 4. Structure of seeds. The seeds of different plants of this family exhibit great likeness of form and structure, as may be seen by comparing longitu- dinal sections of those of tomato, egg-plant, stramonium, etc. It is very desirable that the student should make an extended and critical comparison of the seeds of as many different species as possible. ‘This should be assigned as a special study, and time given for a thorough piece of work. II. Write a summary of the characters in which all the Species examined agree. Ill. Compare the characters of the Solanacez with those of any other families that you remember as showing resem- blances to them. If you have already studied any of the Scrophulariaceze point out the best characters by which the two families are to be distinguished. In the study of every family, comparisons of this kind should be made as fast as the necessary data are in hand. In most cases the relationships of families among them- selves are by no means as satisfactorily made out as could be desired, but that is no reason for not studying them. 222 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. The Solanaceze include over twelve hundred species, chiefly tropical and sub-tropical, some representatives, however, being widely cultivated in temperate regions. Many of them possess strongly narcotic and poisonous properties, as the names deadly nightshade, henbane, etc., indicate. A few are much employed in medicine. The potato is the most useful, the tobacco plant the most harmful member of the family. Morphologically this croup of plants is of interest in its affinities, more or less distinctly marked, with several conspicuous families, the Scrophulariaceee and Convolvulacee among them. Physi- ologically it offers comparatively little of special impor- tance, although some species exhibit interesting adaptations for insuring fertilization. | THE FIGWORT FAMILY. 208 XXXVII. THE FIGWORT FAMILY. SCROPHULARIACE ®. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Butter-and-eges, Linaria vulgaris, Mill., in flower. Common species of any of the genera named below. BUTTER-AND-EGGS. Linaria vulgaris, Mill. Distribution. In what situations have you seen the plant growing? Have you made any observations as to its natural range? Is there anything in its habits that affords evidence as to whether it is indigenous or introduced ? General Characters. I. This species is perennial. How is the fact ascer-. tained ? II. Describe the underground portion of the plant. The stem and leaves. Ii]. Is there anything about it that secures protection from grazing animals ? Inflorescence. Character and kind of inflorescence. Notice the posi- tion of the individual flowers. Do they all face outward ? Do the position of the flowers and the order of their development present any advantages ? 224 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. Flower. I. Study the plan of the flower. What is the original numerical plan as indicated by the floral envelopes? Is this plan apparent in the andrecium? In the gynecium? - How many perfectly developed stamens are there? See if you can find traces of another one. If so, how does it compare with the rest? How many carpels compose the pistil? On what evidence is this determined? II. Construct a diagram of the flower. If you find a trace of a fifth stamen, mark its place with an z. Ij]. Examine a transverse section of an ovary from which the corolla has fallen, and notice the arrangement of the ovules, and the position and form of the placente. In a still older ovary observe the form and structure of a young seed. IV. When the capsules are ripe study their structure and mode of dehiscence. V. Study carefully the adaptations for securing fertili- zation by the agency of insects. Begin with the corolla and note 1. Its bilabiate form. 2. The conspicuous palate and its color as compared with the rest of the corolla. 3. The spur. Where is the nectar? Is it easily acces- sible to all sorts of visitors? Imitate the action of a bee in gathering honey. Depress the lower lip by pushing down the palate with a needle. Are there any path-pointers? Notice the position of anthers and stigma. If possible, watch a bee visiting a plant, and observe the mutual relations of insect and flower. THE FIGWORT FAMILY. 295 This plant has been widely introduced into the United States, and, notwithstanding its botanical interest, is a pernicious weed, difficult to eradicate. Aside from repro- duction by seed, it persistently maintains itself by means of its rhizomes, each of which sends up several or many aérial shoots. The unpleasant odor and taste of the plant render it distasteful to grazing animals, so that it is efficiently protected by its own disagreeable prop- erties. ; The adaptations for securing cross-fertilization by the agency of insects are striking, and, for the most part, easily understood. The flowers are rendered conspicuous by massing in a crowded raceme, and face outward, so as to be immediately accessible to flying insects, while the orange-colored palate, with its smooth median groove on the inner side, directs visitors at once to the nectar col- lected in the spur. The anthers and stigma are so dis- posed as to come in contact with the head and back of the insect (commonly a bee), as it depresses the palate and inserts its long proboscis into the spur. While thus accessible to large insects with a long proboscis, the nectar is protected from unbidden guests by the palate, that com- pletely closes the throat of the flower, and springs back to its place when the force by which it is depressed ceases to act. It is further protected by its position, being out of the reach of insects with a short proboscis that may in some way have effected an entrance into the flower. The mechanical arrangements for the dissemination of the seeds are also of interest. The hygroscopic action of the capsules is readily shown by placing them when dry in water. In less than a minute the teeth at the apex begin to bend inwards, and in a short time the capsule is tightly closed, opening again when it has been thoroughly 226 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. dried. In this way the seeds are scattered when the weather is most favorable for their being conveyed to some distance. On the whole, the plant with its simple but effective means of protection, persistent subterranean stems, admirable adaptations for cross-fertilization, and numerous seeds with special arrangements for dissemi- nation, is exceedingly well adapted to survive in the struggle for existence. RELATIONSHOIP. I. Compare several of the following plants with the species just studied, directing attention particularly, though not exclusively, to the flowers. (Some of these © that bloom earlier than the Linaria, as the wood-betony, may be studied before the latter if more convenient.) Wood-betony, Pedicularis Canadensis, L. Painted-cup, Castilleca coccinea, Spreng. Beard-tongue, Pentstemon pubescens, Solander. Turtle-head, Chelone glabra, L. Monkey-flower, Mimulus ringens, L. Various species of Veronica. Some cultivated species also may be used such as ‘Kenilworth ivy,” Linaria Cymbalaria, Mill. Snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus, L. Foxglove, Digitalis purpurea, L. How do these compare as regards Plan of the flower ? Shape of corolla? Number of stamens ? Structure of ovary ? Number and position of seeds ? Seer pee tee all THE FIGWORT FAMILY. ait | II. State concisely, and in general terms, what charac- ters you have found to be common to all the species studied. | There is evidence that the Scrophulariacez are an old family of plants, and one that may fairly be reckoned to have gained a place among the dominant groups. There are nearly two thousand species distributed over the entire globe. While well marked as regards family characters, the different genera and species exhibit very wide diver- gence of structure, often associated with peculiarities of color that stand in evident relation to the insects on which they have come to depend. A considerable number have entirely lost the capacity for self-fertilization, and the mechanical arrangements are in some cases so complicated as to be difficult of explanation. The gradation of forms from comparatively simple ones to others that show remarkable adaptations to highly specialized insects, offers a peculiarly interesting study of developmental history.1 SPECIAL STUDIES. I. Morphology of the flower of the Scrophulariacee. IJ. Peloria in this family and its significance. Ii. Comparison of mechanisms by which fertilization is effected in different genera of Scrophulariacee. IV. Exclusion of unbidden guests as accomplished in Pentstemon and other genera. V. The genus Veronica. A comparison of different species of the genus, and of the genus itself with other representatives of the family. 1 Cf. Miiller, Fertilization of Flowers, pp. 429-465. 228 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. XXXVITI. THE HONEYSUCKLE ie isp CAPRIFOLIACE. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Common elder, Sambucus Canadensis, L., in flower. Other specimens of the same species, with the fruit partially developed. Species of Viburnum, coming earlier in the season, may be substituted. Any of the indigenous species of Lonicera, Diervilla, Symphoricarpus, | Linnea, and Triosteum that are procurable. COMMON ELDER. Sambucus Canadensis, L. Distribution. In what situations have you observed the plant Stowe ? Is it indigenous ? General Characters. I. Record what you have noticed as to its mode of erowth. Is its habit that of a shrub or of a tree? II. Mode of branching. Differences observed in differ- ent specimens. III. Do the stems exhibit any peculiarities of form, structure, or surface markings? If so, describe in detail. Nore. — The lenticels are generally a conspicuous feature. Foran ac- count of these, see Strasburger and Hillhouse, Practical Botany, pp. 153, 154. IV. Describe the leaves. Note variations. THE HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY. 229 Inflorescence. I. Observe the number and position of the main branches. Compare specimens until the normal arrange- ment is clearly understood. II. Ascertain the order of development of the flowers. Take a small division of the inflorescence, to avoid confu- sion, and represent it on paper diagrammatically.! III. Classify the inflorescence. Does such an arrange- ment of flowers present any physiological advantages ? Flower and Fruit. I. What is the numerical plan of the flower? Is this constant in all the specimens? Is it exhibited in all the whorls? II. Note the relation of the different whorls to each other. Is the ovary superior or inferior? Where are the stamens attached ? i III. Does the relative position of anthers and stigma favor cross- or self-fertilization, or both? IV. Make transverse sections of a number of immature fruits. Are they all alike? Draw a section that you con- sider typical. Compare the ripe fruits, if they are to be had, and note the changes that have taken place. Describe and classify the fruit. RELATIONSHIP. The relationship of the common elder must necessarily be made a subject of special study rather than a piece of class work, since the indigenous species of Caprifoliacez 1 Cf. Bessey, Botany, pp. 138, 189. 2 Cf. Gray, Structural Botany, pp. 151, 152. 230 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. flower, for the most part, at widely different times, and © some of the genera exhibit among themselves such marked structural differences as to obscure, except to a trained eye, the common family characters. The contrast between the simple, open flowers of the elder and the extremely elongated corolla of species of Lonicera that have become adapted to the visits of night-flying moths, is a striking example. ‘The student who wishes to familiarize himself with this family, which presents many interesting features, will find in the course of spring and summer enough indigenous species of the genera named above to enable him to make a fairly extended comparative study. The clue to the wide divergence of form, and the remarkable series of colors exhibited by flowers of the different genera, is apparently found in progressive adaptation to different insect visitors.! Another remarkable feature is the great difference of habit exhibited by different members of the family, as seen, for example, in a comparison of the slender, trailing Linnea with the coarse, upright Triosteum, or the climb- ing species of Lonicera with the shrubs or trees of the genera Sambucus and Viburnum. Even within the limits of a single genus, as in the case of Lonicera and Viburnum, wide differences of structure and habit present themselves, affording an opportunity to observe adaptations that ap- pear to have been acquired within comparatively recent times. | 1 Cf. Miller, Fertilization of Flowers, p. 299. THE GOURD FAMILY. : XXXIX. THE GOURD FAMILY. CUCURBITACEZ. MATERIAL REQUIRED. The common cucumber, Cucumis sativus, L., in flower. Similar specimens of squash, melon, wild cucumber or gourd. Seeds of pumpkin, melon, and various other cucurbits. CUCUMBER. Cucumis sativus, L. Distribution. The cucumber has been widely cultivated from an early date, and presents a remarkable case of the persistence of specific characters for an indefinite period. According to De Candolle, it has been cultivated in India no less than three thousand years, yet its wild form found at the foot of the Himalayas has stems, leaves, and flowers that are “exactly those of Cucumis sativus.” ? General Characters. I. Note first the habit of the plant as regards position and direction of growth. Is it capable of supporting itself in an erect position? How do. young specimens compare with older ones in this respect? II. Observe the leaf arrangement. Hil. Is the plant protected in any way? Examine the 1 Well-formed plants, with flowers and young fruits, are easily ob- tained by sowing the seeds in flower-pots a few weeks before the speci- mens are wanted. 2 Origin of Cultivated Planis, pp. 264-266. 232 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. surface of stems, leaves, flowers, and fruit, first with the naked eye, and then with a good lens. Imagine a soft- bodied animal attempting to crawl up to the leaves or flowers. Which parts are best protected ? Tendrils. I. Study carefully the tendrils, noting particularly their origin, form, and mode of grasping a support. How do they compare in their subsequent behavior with those of bryony, described by Sachs?! II. Rub one of the young tendrils and watch it for a few minutes. Is there any movement? Does it make any difference whether the concave or convex side is rubbed ? 2 | Ill. Watch a vigorous specimen long enough to observe the spontaneous movements of its tendrils. Inflorescence and Flowers. I. How many flowers compose the inflorescence? Are they all alike? Compare those in the axils of the lower leaves with the ones produced higher up. Is this species moncecious or dicecious ?3 II. Examine carefully the stamens, noting the form and structure of the anthers and their peculiar mode of cohesion.* . ITI. How many stigmas are there? Examine their sur- face with a lens. IV. Are there any nectaries? How far do the flowers of the cucumber agree with those of Bryonia dioica, as 1 Physiology of Plants, pp. 663, 664. 2 Cf. Darwin, Climbing Plants, p. 127 et seq. 3 Cf. Gray, Lessons, p. 85. 4 Cf. Goebel, Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology, p. 357. THE GOURD FAMILY. 233 described by Miller?! Does their structure indicate Self- or cross-fertilization ? V. Examine the ovary of one of the oldest flowers. Is there any external indication of the number of carpels? Make a transverse section and notice the number of cells, the position of the placentz, and the form and direc- tion of the ovules. Draw the section in outline. Repre- sent by dotted lines the commissural lines of union of the carpellary leaves.” RELATIONSHIP. Seeds of squash, melon, and many other plants belonging to this family, are easily procurable, and afford the means of extended and instructive comparative study. Seedlings, which may be had in the course of a few days, exhibit with remarkable uniformity in the different. genera the characteristic contrivance by which the seed-coats are ruptured and the cotyledons released. Tendrils of vari- ous species, that may be studied anywhere a little later in the season, are of the greatest interest, morphologically as well as physiologically, and in their turn contribute to the sum of characteristic features by which this family is marked. If all these are carefully studied, as well as the flowers and fruits, and due weight is given to every well- marked trait, it will be found that the “ family characters” include more than the structural details usually given. The behavior of the seedlings in breaking through the eround, the highly developed tendrils and their mode of action, and even the active properties of some of the 1 Fertilization of Flowers, pp. 268, 269. 2 Cf. Eichler, Bliithendiagramme, p. 306. 8 Darwin, Power of Movement in Plants, p. 102. 234 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. species are as truly characteristic as various other features upon which more emphasis is usually laid. | The student is recommended to make a special study of seeds and seedlings of the Cucurbitaceze, and to proceed ~ from these, as material and opportunity permit, to the characters observable in later stages of growth. THE COMPOSITE FAMILY. 230 XL. THE COMPOSITE FAMILY. COMPOSITZ. MATERIAL REQUIRED. Specimens of the common dandelion in flower, others with the fruits in different stages of development. Similar specimens of robin’s-plantain, Erigeron bellidifolius, Muhl. (or other species of Erigeron), plantain-leaved everlasting, Antennaria plantaginifolia, Hook., golden ragwort, Senecio aureus, L. . Later in the season, yarrow, Achillea Millefolium, L., mayweed, Anthe- mis Cotula, DC., oxeye daisy, Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, L., wild lettuce, Lactuca Canadensis, L. : In the fall, asters, goldenrods, and various species of Bidens, Prenan- thes, and other late flowering composites. THE DANDELION. Taraxacum officinale, Weber. Distribution. Where were the specimens gathered? Does the plant manifest any choice of locality or surroundings? I[s it an indigenous or introduced species ? General Characters. With a perfect specimen in hand, note the several parts of the plant and write a brief description, including an account of the form, structure, and apparent duration of the root, the stem (so short that the plant is said to be acaulescent), the position and form of the leaves, the character of the inflorescence and its support, and any conspicuous peculiarities, such as taste, color of the latex, etc. 236 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. Inflorescence. I. Observe first the cylindrical hollow stalk (scape) by which the head is supported. How do those of older specimens compare in length with those of younger ones? Can you suggest any advantage in this ?? II. The head is subtended by an involucre of green, leaf-like bracts. 1. Is there more than one row of bracts? How do the outer differ from the inner ones ? 3 2. Compare the position of the involucre in the early morning with that assumed later in the day, and finally in the evening; in clear and rainy weather. Do these observations suggest anything as to the function of the involucre? III. Taking a well-developed head, not so old but that a few of the flowers of the center are still unopened, make a longitudinal section. 1. Observe the disk-like, expanded end of the stalk on which the flowers are borne, the receptacle. Is it concave or convex? How does it compare in this respect with the oldest receptacles from which the seeds have fallen? Suggest advantages. 2. Note the order of development of the flowers. Cen- tripetal or centrifugal ? Flowers. These should be studied in position and also separately, removing for this purpose several flowers with a pair of fine forceps. I. Examine a fully developed flower throughout. With a good lens observe | 1Tn this and some other cases it will be necessary to supplement the laboratory exercises by out-of-door observations. THE COMPOSITE FAMILY. yaw 1. The seed-like ovary, its form and surface, and. the prolongation of its upper end into a short beak, which afterwards becomes greatly elongated. 2. The calyx, with its limb of numerous fine bristles, pappus. | 3. The yellow, ligulate corolla. The stamens inserted on the corolla, epipetalous, with their anthers united in a hollow cylinder around the style, syngenesious, the latter soon pro- jecting beyond them and divided above into two slender, recurved, and finally coiled branches. (Specimens should be gathered in the morning and also in the afternoon.) ~ II. Compare successively older, outer flowers with the younger ones, approaching finally the unopened flowers at the center. Note the different stages of development of the flower, particularly of the stamens and pistil. Observe 1. The way the pollen is pushed out by the style. 2. The short, stiff hairs on the outer surface of the latter. d. The papille on the inner, stigmatic surface of each of its branches. (These latter require higher magnification in order to be seen clearly.) III. Imitate the action of a bee or other insect by repeatedly brushing a large number of flowers. Examine the stigma before and after the operation. Is there any- thing to favor cross-fertilization ? | Fruit. Study next a head in fruit. Compare the hard, seed- like achenium with the immature ovary already examined and note differences. What arrangements are there for the dissemination of the fruits ? 238 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. Review your observations and record them precisely. I. In writing an account of the flower treat it first from the morphological standpoint, including a discussion of 1. Original plan of the flower, as indicated by notches | at the end of the corolla and number of stamens. 2. Relation of calyx and ovary. 3. Other evidences of modification. II. Enumerate the various physiological adaptations such as 1. Protective arrangements. 2. Adaptations for securing fertilization.! 3. Means of dissemination of seeds. ROBIN’S-PLANTAIN. Erigeron bellidifolius, Muhl. Distribution. Where have you noticed the plant growing most abun- dantly? Does it appear to be indigenous or introduced ? General Characters. Describe the root, stem, and leaves. Note means of pro- tection, if such exist.2. It is said to produce “ offsets.” Verify the statement. Inflorescence and Flowers. I. Compare the heads with those of the dandelion. What are the most striking differences ? II. Make a longitudinal section and examine in their natural position, and also separately, the purple ray flowers, and the small, yellow disk flowers. The ray flowers are 1Cf. Lubbock, British Wild Flowers in Relation to Insects, Pp. ate et seq. ; Miiller, Fertilization of Flowers, pp. 816-318, 359. 2 Cf. Kerner, Flowers and their Unbidden Guests, Chap. IV. THE COMPOSITE FAMILY. 239 ligulate, like those of the dandelion; the disk flowers are tubular. Do both ray and disk flowers have stamens and pistil? Are both fertile ? Ill. In older heads examine the achenia, and observe their form and surface. IV. How far do the arrangements for securing fertiliza- tion correspond with those observed in the dandelion ? V. Compare the flowers of the two plants as regards modification from an assumed original form. PLANTAIN-LEAVED EVERLASTING. Antennaria plantaginifolia, Hook. As in preceding cases, note where this plant occurs, and record any peculiarities in its mode of growth. Notice particularly its habit of spreading by runners. It will be observed that there are two sorts of flowering heads, on different individuals, one, pistillate, more elon- gated and lighter colored than the other, staminate, ones. Study critically the flowers of the two different kinds of heads. Note all the points in which they are unlike, including differences of pappus and corolla, fertility, color, size, ete. Compare the flowers of this species with those of the dandelion and robin’s-plantain, noting in each case points of similarity and difference. RELATIONSHOIP. A comparative study should be made of as many other genera of Composite as practicable. There are so many species, ranging in their time of flowering from spring to 240 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. late autumn, that there is no difficulty in obtaining abun- dant material. With patience and close attention to details of structure, there is no reason why the student should not become thoroughly familiar with the charac- ters of this important and extremely interesting family, although the determination of the limits of genera and species is often a matter of great difficulty, owing to the number of intermediate forms and the tendency to vari- ability exhibited by many species. When as many species have been studied as the time will permit, write a careful summary of the morphological characters in which they all agree. This should be accom- — panied by a résumé of their physiological peculiarities, especially the arrangements for securing fertilization and — the dispersal of seeds. The Composit constitute the largest family of flower- ing plants, including over one thousand different genera. Admirably fitted to survive in the struggle for existence, they have become distributed throughout the world, and retain tenaciously their dominant position. Some of the genera are represented by so many species, and are so abundant as to form in their season a characteristic feature of the landscape, as is the case, for example, with the asters and goldenrods in eastern North America. ‘The numerical preponderance, . . . and extreme abundance of many of the species, are due to the concurrence of several characters, most of which, singly, or in some degree com- bined, we have become acquainted with in other families, but never in such happy combinations as in the Com- posite.” See Miiller’s discussion of these points in the Fertilization of Flowers, p. 316 et seg. REVIEW AND SUMMARY. 241 REVIEW AND SUMMARY .! After such exercises as those outlined in the preceding pages, even if only a small number of families have been studied, the student can hardly fail to have pores of grasped the conception of degrees of relation- relationship. ship, a conception that hes at the very foundation of bio- logical science. If we now extend our study farther, and compare families with each other, as we have been com- paring their genera, we shall find that the principle is general, and that families, as well as genera and species, show relationships among themselves, falling naturally into larger groups to which the term “ order” is now commonly applied.2 In some cases these groups are distinctly marked, and the close relationship of the families composing them is unmistakable, while in others the affinities of a family are obscure. In an inquiry of this kind there are neces- sarily inherent difficulties, and it must be said frankly, that, in the present state of botanical science, it is impossible to construct a system that will fully and truthfully represent the relationship of families of plants to each other. Never- theless it is desirable before proceeding farther to notice 1 Tt is assumed that the order recommended on page 96 has been fol- lowed, or at least that the student has acquired a reasonably familiar acquaintance with the prominent families of flowering plants. 2** Por myself, there comes from the eighth year memory of an awakening to the conscious grasp and knowledge of genus and species. I see it yet ...in my lap the shredded petals of almond, plum, and the yellow rose of Persia, and in myself sense of a new concept and tool for classifying and accumulating knowledge through all life.’ — Taxicorr Wittiams, in the Century, January, 1893. 8 ¢* Natural order’? is still employed by many writers as equivalent to family, but the usage indicated above is becoming prevalent. 242 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. some of the cases in which such affinities are plainly marked. A few of these will serve as examples of many others. The Crucifere, as we have seen, are so plainly defined by their cruciform, tetradynamous flowers, pungent proper- Groups of «ties, and characteristic fruits and seeds, that we families. naturally think of them as sharply marked off from all other families of plants. A number of smaller families, however, are manitestly related to them. In one of these, the Capparidacese or caper family, the flowers are cruciform, the plants often pungent, the pods nearly the same as those of the Cruciferee, and the seeds similar; but there are certain differences of the embryo and stamens that require a separation of the two families, which other- wise are nearly identical in their characters. In like man-— ner the members of the Rosacez, another prominent and well-marked family, show such plain affinities with the Saxifragaceee that the differences by which the two families are distinguished from each other seem trivial in compari- son with their strong hkeness. Again, while the Labiate, with their square stems, opposite leaves, bilabiate flowers, and aromatic properties, farm a most characteristic group of plants, their relationship with the Verbenacee, which exhibit a number of characters in common with them, is manifest at a glance. In the same way the Asclepiadacee and Apocynacee show a remarkable likeness, and this is still more strikingly true of the Liliacee and a number of families that form with them another marked group, or order. These examples are sufficient to illustrate the natural erouping of families into orders. ‘Thus, the Labiate with Orders and mine other families constitute the Labiatiflore, higher groups. the Liliacee with fifteen other families the Liliifloree, and so on. At present botanists recognize some REVIEW AND SUMMARY. 243 thirty orders of dicotyledons, including about one hundred and sixty-three families, and seven orders of monocotyle- dons with about forty families, while the gymnosperms include three orders with thirteen families.! The orders themselves are associated in higher groups, which in their turn make up the great classes just named.? Another fact of prime importance, that cannot well have escaped the student’s attention, is the gradually increasing complexity of structure, particularly of the floral Progressive organs, met with as we proceed from more prim- pee eet itive to more advanced families. Comparing a organs. lily, for example, with an orchid, or a buttercup with a dandelion, it is plain that the flowers of the higher families have undergone very remarkable changes of form and structure, although the fundamental plan may still be recognized. ‘These changes of structure represent, as a rule, progressive adaptation to cross-fertilization through the agency of insects. It appears, too, from all we can learn of them by comparative study, that these progressive modifications have taken place step by step with corres- ponding modifications of structure and habit on the part of their visitors. The history of such a flower as that of the sweet-pea or violet, of the milkweed or daisy, must, if this view is correct, reach far back into the past, so far that the imagination fails to reproduce the long series of changes that have taken place in the succession of intervening generations. A glimpse of this history, helpful and satis- 1 Cf. Luerssen, Botanik, Bd. 2, pp. vii-x. 2 These groups of a higher order are less satisfactorily defined. For an attempt at their systematic presentation, see Goebel, Outlines of Classifi- cation and Special Morphology, pp. Xi, xii. The student will do well to remember that all such attempts to represent the affinities of families and higher groups involve more or less uncertainty, and that all classifications are of necessity provisional. 244 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. factory as far as it goes, is given by Muller in his general retrospect at the close of the Fertilization of Flowers, as follows: “Insects must operate by selection in the same way as do unscientific cultivators among men, who preserve the most pleasing or most useful specimens, and reject or neglect the others. In both cases, selection in course of time brings those variations to perfection which corre- spond to the taste or to the needs of the selective agent. Different groups of insects, according to their sense of taste or color, the length of their tongues, their way of movement and their dexterity, have produced various odors, colors, and forms of flowers; and insects and flowers have progressed together towards perfection.” Turning to the lower or so-called cryptogamic plants, it appears that precisely the same principles hold good. Ferns and mosses, quite as plainly as plants higher in Cryptogams. we : : A progressive the scale, exhibit degrees of relationship. Here, Series: as elsewhere, closely related species fall natu- rally into genera, closely related genera into families, and these into orders and higher groups. Furthermore, a review of these higher groups shows that the vegetable kingdom as it exists to-day presents a progressive series, rising from such simple plants as Spirogyra, and even more primitive forms of the green alge, through the liverworts and mosses to the vascular cryptogams, and from these by an almost insensible step through Selaginella and its allies up to the gymnosperms and flowering plants. It is be- lieved by those who have the most extended and critical knowledge of plant life that this series corresponds closely with the order of development of the vegetable kingdom, and, as a matter of fact, it is found that the geological record strikingly confirms this view. In earlier geological times, beginning with the Silurian Age, marine algz and REVIEW AND SUMMARY. 245 other cellular cryptogams were the dominant forms of plant life. Vascular cryptogams appeared in the Devo- nian ; after them came the gymnosperms; then the mono- cotyledons; and finally the different classes of dicotyledons attained their present supremacy.1 The life history of the flowering plants and higher cryp- togams still further confirms the same view, passing as they do through successive stages of development that repeat in miniature the history of past ages of plant life. The fern prothallium in its earlier stages of growth is so nearly a filamentous green alga as to be distinguished from one by its origin rather than by its structure; a little later it becomes a flat expansion of cells, so like a liver- wort as to deceive the inexperienced eye; and these and other phases of their developmental history may still be recognized, not only in the gymnosperms, but in the higher flowering plants. From facts like these, it seems impossible to draw any other conclusion than that there has been from the earliest appearance of plant life on the globe a slowly progressive development from simpler to higher forms, and that the record of this is still preserved to us in the natural groups that form the present vegetation. of the earth. We are to think, then, of the plants we have studied and those we have yet to study, as in reality all members of one vast and ancient family, some closely, others remotely related, some still retaining the simple forms and habits of earlier days, and others, through a long course of selection, exquisitely adapted to animal structures no less highly modified and adapted to them. In this great family, we Conclusions, 1 Lester F. Ward, Am. Nat., August, 1885. 246 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS. have learned to distinguish species, genera, families, orders, and classes; but these are simply expressions of so many different degrees of relationship that pass insensibly into each other, and call for the exercise of clear judgment, profound knowledge, and critical attention to details on the part of those who attempt to recognize and define them. | This is a conception widely different from that which supposes “ that species, and even genera, are like coin from the mint, or bank-notes from the printing press, each with its fixed marks and signature, which he that runs may read, or the practiced eye infallibly determine,” but “there is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful, have been and are being evolved.” ? 1 After some months of such training as is outlined in the preceding exercises, the student should be prepared to take up with profit a study of the flora of the region in which he lives. In this way, with an indefi- nite amount of painstaking, independent, and long-continued work, he will gradually become more familiar with the systematic grouping of plants and accumulate for himself the evidence that more and more con- firms the conclusion formulated above. 2Darwin, Origin of Species, p. 429. SCIENCE. Or 4 ANIC Chemis t Ty. An Introduction to the Study of the Compounds of Carbon. By Ira Remsen, Professor of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. 374 pages. Cloth. Price by mail, $1.30; Introduction price, $1.20. The Elements of Inorganic Chemistry : Descriptive and Qualitative. By James H. Snueparp, Professor of Chemistry in So. Dakota. Agricultural Col. 399 pages. Cloth. Price by mail, $1.25 ; Introduction price, $1.12. The Element S of Chemist 7 y . Descriptive and Qualitative. Briefer Course. By James H. Sueparp, Professor of Chemistry in So. Dakota Agricultural College, 248 pages. Price by mail, 90 cts.; Introduction price, 80 cts. 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