UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
DAVIS

ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XV

PAGE

ORDER PODICIPEDIDIFORMES 192

CCXXX. LOPH^ETHYIA, Kaup 192

1. cristata (Linn.) 194

2. griseigena (Bodd.). 198

CCXXXI. BYTES, Kaup 201

i. auritus (Linn.) ... 201

CCXXXH. PROCTOPUS, Kaup. ... !. 204

I. nigricollis (C. L. Brehm). ... ... ... .. 204

CCXXXIII. PODOCIPES, Kaup ... 207

I. fluviatilis (Tunst.) 207

CCXXXIV. PODILYMBUS, Less 213

i. podicipes (Linn.) 213.

ORDER RALLIFORMES 215

FAMILY RALLID^E 216

SUB-FAMILY RALLIN/E 216

CCXXXV. RALLUS, Linn. 216

i. aquaticus, Linn. ... ... ... ... ... ... 216

CCXXXVI. CREX, Bechst 220

i. crex (Linn.) 220

CCXXXVII. ZAPORNIA, Leach 223

i. parva(Scop-) 223

CCXXXVIII. PORZANA, Vieill ... 226

1. porzana. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 226

2. Carolina (Linn.). ... ... ... ... ... ... 230

3. intermedia (Herm ). ... ... ... ... ... 232

CCXXXIX. GALLINULA, Briss 234

I. chloropus (Linn.). ... 234

CCXL. PORPHYRIO, Briss. 237

SUB-FAMILY FULICIN^E 238

CCXLI. FULICA, Linn 238

i. atra, Linn. .. 238

ORDER COLUMBIFORMES 240

FAMILY COLUMBID^: 241

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

PAGE

SUB-FAMILY COLUMBINE 241

CCXLII. COLUMBA, Linn. ... 241

1. palumbus, Linn ... ... 241

2. oenns, Linn. ... ... ... ... ... ... 244

3 livia, Bonn. 247

SUB-FAMILY ECTOPISTIN/E ... 250

CCXLIII. ECTOPISTES, Swains 250

I. migratorius (Linn.). ... ... ... 250

FAMILY PERISTERID^E 253

SUB-FAMILY TURTURIISLE 253

CCXLIV. TURTUR, Selby 254

1. turtur (Linn.) 254

2. orientalis (Lath.) 256

ORDER PTEROCLETES 257

FAMILY PTEROCLID^E 259

CCXLV. SYRRHAPTES, Illiger 259

I. paradoxus (Pall.) 260

ORDER GALLIFORMES 261

FAMILY TETRAONID^: 263

CCXLVI. LAGOPUS, Briss 263

1. scoticus (Lath.) 263

2. mutus (Montin) 271

CCXLVII. LYRURUS, Swains ••• 273

i. tetrix (Linn.) 273

CCXLVIII. TETRAO, Linn. ... 276

i. urogallus, Linn 276

FAMILY PHASIANID^E 280

SUB-FAMILY PERDICIN^E 280

CCXLIX. CACCABIS, Kaup 280

j. rufa(Linn.). 280

CCL. PERDIX, Briss.

i. perdix (Linn.)

CCLI. COTURNIX, Bonn

I. coturnix (Linn.) ••• 267

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XV11

VAGR

SUB-FAMILY PHASIANIN^E 290

CCLII. PHASIANUS, Linn. 290

i. colchicus, Linn. ... ... ... ... ... .. 291

APPENDIX 297

ADDENDA TO VOL. 1 297

Ligurinus chloris. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 297

Cannabina exilipes. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 297

Cannabina hornemanni. ... ... ... ... ... ... 298

Pyrrhula pyrrhula. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 298

Sylvia sub-alpina. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 299

Phylloscopus viridanus. ... ... ... .. ... ... 300

Phylloscopus proregulus ... ... ... ... 302

ADDENDA TO VOL. II ... ... ... ... 303

Somateria spectabilis. ... ... ... ... 303

^gialitis hiaticola. ... ... - .... ... 304

ADDENDA TO VOL. Ill 304

Larus atricilla. ... ... ... ... ... 304

Colymbus adamsi. ... ... ... 304

ADDENDUM TO PRESENT VOLUME ... 304

Turtur arenicola. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... 304

LIST OF PLATES.

XC IV.— Black Tern Frontispiece.

XCV. — White- winged Black Tern TO FACE PAGE 9

XC VI.— Gull-billed Tern 11

XCVII.— Roseate Tern 25

XCVIII.— Sabine's Gull 41

XC IX.— Black-headed Gull 59

C— Great Black-backed Gull 65

CI.— Lesser Black-backed Gull 67

CIL— Glaucous Gull 77

CII I.— Richardson's Skua 97

CIV.— Razor-bill 107

CV.— Great Auk 113

CVI. — Common Guillemot ... 117

CVII.— Bridled Guillemot 119

CVIII.— Black Guillemot 123

CIX.— Little Auk 127

CX.— Puffin 131

CXIa.— Storm Petrel 137

CXM.— Fork-tailed Petrel 141

CXI<:.— Madeira Petrel 14,5

CXL/.— White-bellied Petrel 149

CXI.— Fulmar 153

CXIL— White-throated Grey Petrel 173

CXIIL— White-billed Uiver 183

CXIV.— Red-throated Diver 187

CXV. — Slavonian Grebe 201

CXVL— Water-Rail 217

CXVIL— Land-Rail 221

CXVIII.— Spotted Crake 227

CXIX.— Moor-Hen 235

CXX.— Common Coot 239

CXXI. — Wood-Pigeon .. 241

CXXIL— Stock-Dove 245

CXXIII. — Common Partridge 2bj

CXXI V.— American Laughing Gull 304

ALLEN'S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

EDITED BY R. BOWDLER SHARPE, LL.D., F.L.S., ETC.

A HAND-BOOK

TO THE

BIRDS

OF

GREAT BRITAIN.

BY

R. BOWDLER SHARPE, LL.D.,

ASSISTANT KEEPER, SUB-DEPARTMENT OF VERTEBRATA,
ZOOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT, BRITISH MUSEUM.

VOL. IV.

LONDON :

W. H. ALLEN & CO., LIMITED,

13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W.
1897-

LIBRARY

OTT C A T TFOT^NIA

to

PRINTED BY
VVYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED.

PREFACE.

ON the conclusion of my " Handbook " I should like to say
a few words, principally in reply to some friendly criticisms.
The plentiful crop of works on British Birds, which springs up
year by year and apparently flourishes, renders it almost an
impossibility to write a book on the subject on altogether ne\\
lines, as the story of our native birds is being told by a
hundred authors in a hundred different ways. Within the
restricted limits allotted to me in the " Naturalist's Library," it
was manifestly impossible to produce a monographic work,
and therefore I chose the form of a ' Handbook,' a method
which possesses its advantages and disadvantages. Such a work
cannot be exhaustive, and I have therefore only tried to make
it useful, and I offer a few remarks by way of an " Apologia."

Nomenclature. — The names adopted for the species have been
much criticised. Much of this criticism has been prompted by
pedantry, and a sort of hero-worship for the work of the
ancients, more by a child-like ignorance of the principles of
scientific nomenclature, and still more by a wilful and narrow-
minded intolerance of anything that seems to be "new." As a
matter of fact, nothing in my system of nomenclature is "new,"
and any one who says so does but display his ignorance of
recent ornithological literature. It is, however, encouraging
to find that in the best-known popular journals, and even in
the best scientific publications of this country, little fault has
been found with the method of my " Handbook/' but a general
onslaught has been made updn the nomenclature I have
adopted. To the reviews in the scientific journals I have
scarcely any reply to make. The writers of the articles will be
found adopting my nomenclature in the near future, and if

VI PREFACE

not, why not ? They will have to explain clearly their reasons
for differing from me, and I have little fear as to their ultimate
conversion.

To the ornithological students, and to the critics on the
staffs of the popular daily and monthly journals who differ from
me, I should like once more to explain my reasons for employing
the names I do. I have not adopted the names given in the
tenth edition of Linnaeus "Systema Naturae" (1758), but have
preferred those of the twelfth edition (1766). Therein I follow
the rules of the British Association. American and German
ornithologists start their nomenclature from 1758, because in this
year Linnaeus first promulgated a strictly binomial nomenclature.
Good ! But, after death, a man would surely wish to be judged by
his most recent work, not by his earlier publications. Therefore,
it seems to me most reasonable to adopt the nomenclature of
the twelfth edition of the "Systema Naturae," as being the last
edition published by Linnaeus himself, and containing his
latest notions. In the eight years which elapsed since the
publication of the tenth edition, Linnaeus must have felt that
his knowledge had gained somewhat, otherwise he would not
have altered any of his work in his twelfth edition. Few critics
have fallen foul of me on this score, and indeed the changes
of nomenclature would be trifling, even if this adoption of the
1758 edition became universal, needless as it seems to me.

The chief point of offence laid to my door is rather the
employment of an identical generic and specific name, and I
find that all my explanations on the subject have failed to
convince the " man in the street." I should like to explain
myself once more, and I trust that the following example (Ex
uno disce omnes) may suffice to illustrate the principles of
nomenclature that I champion.

I take it that no one, whether adopting the tenth or the
twelfth edition of Linnaeus' " Systema," will object to the prin-

PREFACE. Vll

clple that a Linnean specific name ought not to be altered, if
the species to which it applies is beyond question.

Let us take a couple of familiar examples. The Blackbird
I call Merula merula (Linn.). It is the Turdus merula of
Linnaeus. Many ornithologists do not admit that the Black-
bird is genetically distinct from the Thrush ( Turdus musicus\
but for those who think otherwise, what is the generic name of
the Blackbird to be ? It is Merula of Leach, and therefore, if
it is considered necessary to keep Merula distinct from Turdus,
the Blackbird must be called Merula merula (Linn.). Or to take
the genus Cinclus. The Black-bellied Dipper is the Sturnus
cinclus of Linnaeus. No one in these days would suggest that
the Dippers are Starlings, and everyone adopts Bechstein's
genus Cinclus for these birds. The result is that the Black-
bellied Dipper must bear the name of Cinclus cinclus (Linn.) I
see no sort of escape from this conclusion.

Then, again, there is often a difficulty in fixing the type of
a Linnean genus, because modern research has much enlarged
the scope of our knowledge of birds since 1766. Thus the
genus Turdus of Linnaeus is the Family Turdidce of our
present Systems, and the genus Strix of Linnaeus equals the
Family Strigidcz or the Order Striges of the present day. The
type of a Linnean genus can, therefore, be fixed only by
" elimination." I will take the genus Strix as an example.

Twelve species of Strix were known to Linnaeus and
described by him in 1766, divided into two sections — those
with ear-tufts, and those without.

a. Auriculata (•= Genus Asio, Briss. 1760).
Type of Bubo, Cuvier, 1817. i. bubo.

2. scandiaca = No. 6.

3. asio. Is also a Scops, like
4- otus. |_No. 5.

Type of Scops, Savigny, 1809. 5. scops.

v^lll PREFACE.

b. Inauriculatce, (= Strix, Linn.).

Type of JVyctea, Stephens, 1826. 6. nyctea.
Type of 'Syrnhtm, Savigny, 1809. 7. aluco.

8. flammea.

9. stridula = No. 7.

Type of&vma, Dumeril, 1806. { £ ^^
Type of Glaucidium^Qi^ 1826. 12. passerina

Hence we see that, by the gradual elimination of the Linnean
species, as one after another becomes fixed as the type
of some genus or other, Strix otus, Linn., remains the type of
the genus Astot Briss., and Strix flammea is the sole survivor of
the genus Strix as instituted by Linnaeus, and becomes its type.

Besides this, Savigny, when he split up the Owls in 1809,
and made several new genera, restricted the Barn Owl for his
genus Strix (ex Linn.), as he had every right to do.

Descriptions. — In the accounts of the different plumages of
our British Birds, I have, in nearly every case, described actual
specimens in the British Museum, and my descriptions through-
out the work have been mostly original. Some of my critics
have complained that these descriptions are unnecessarily long,
especially in the case of foreign birds which have occurred but a
few times in Great Britain. To that I would reply, that no one
knows what is going to happen, and these detailed descriptions
may one day be found useful in determining foreign visitors
to our shores ; and secondly, by the many hundreds of earnest
students, who may be unknown to fame, but who are neverthe-
less doing excellent work in many parts of the country, these
descriptions are studied, as I have been informed by many of
my correspondents. I have tried to condense into this "Hand-
book" only such descriptions of plumage as will be useful
to students, to whom the large works, in which such details
appear, are often inaccessible. In many instances I have

PREFACE. ix

copied the descriptions published by me in my volumes of the
" Catalogue of Birds in the British Museum," when I found
that I could not add any new information on the subject ; and
I have been guided by the excellent volumes recently published
by Mr. Salvin, Count Salvadori, Mr. Howard Saunders, and
Mr. Ogilvie Grant, while I am indebted to the writings of these
gentlemen for important useful information, much of which has
not been published in any previous popular work on British
Birds.

Geographical Distribution and Habits. — In the treatment of
this branch of the subject, it is impossible to be original, and
the student will find little in my " Handbook " which is not
to be found in the fourth edition of " Yarrell," in Seebohm's
" History of British Birds," and other well-known works,
though I have endeavoured to give the latest knowledge on
the subject of the geographical distribution of our birds.
My life-work as an officer of the British Museum has natu-
rally been that of a " cabinet "-naturalist, from necessity, not
from choice ; but for a museum official, I think I have seen
more of the birds in the field than usually falls to the lot of a
stay-at-home ornithologist. Indeed, the reproach that is often
hurled at museum officials, viz., that they are " two-pair-back-
garret naturalists," is entirely undeserved, for, according to my
experience, they spend as much time in field-work as any other
professional men. Anyone looking through the published cata-
logue of a museum will generally find that the collections have
been enriched by the exertions of the naturalists in charge of
them in no small degree. Take the British Museum, for instance,
which is the institution at which the gibes of the opportunist
field-naturalists are generally hurled. After Lord Walsingham,
it will be found that the greater number of the groups of British
birds, with their nests, have been obtained by Mr. Ogilvie Grant
and myself, excepting some cases of rare species contributed

X PREFACE.

by Colonel Irby, Captain Savile Reid, and Mr. Theodore
Walker. The same may be said of the collection of bird-skins ;
and no one would say that Salvin, Godman, Hume, Seebohm,
Sclater, Shelley, or Howard Saunders, were not field-natural-
ists, because they were also "cabinet "-naturalists, and had
written important works on ornithology. The same can be
said of the ornithologists in foreign museums — of Biittikofer,
the explorer of Liberia and Dutch Borneo ; of Reichenow, the
traveller in Aguapim and the Cameroons ; of Meyer, the
explorer of Celebes and New Guinea ; of Hartert, the explorer
of the Niger, of Assam, Perak, and Sumatra ; of Forbes, of
Timor Laut and New Guinea fame ; and dozens of others could
be mentioned. Of the American ornithologists, I believe that
there is not one in charge of a museum that has not won his
spurs in the field. The taunt of being " cabinet "-naturalist
only falls harmless in these days, when levelled at such men
and many others I could name.

My opportunities for field-work may have not been many. I
have tried to make the most of them, and I feel that this is
true, for nearly every vacation that I have had in my life has
been spent in the study of birds in their haunts. Nevertheless,
there are dozens of British birds whose nests I have never
taken, and whose haunts I have never been able to visit. My
own small experiences have been recorded in the present work,
but where I have not been fortunate enough to have personal
acquaintance with a species, I have given the best account
that I could lay my hands on at the time. The space at my
disposal has never been enough to go very deeply into the
subject of the habits of the birds, and I have generally given
a brief extract, taken from some well-known work, like that of
Seebohm, or from some less-known volumes like those of
Nelson, Elliot, Brehm, Saxby, &c. At the same time, I have
to acknowledge the receipt of many interesting original notes

PREFACE. XI

from friends like Mr. Robert Read, Mr. E. W. De Winton,
Mr. W. R. Ogilvie Grant, Mr. A. Trevor-Battye, Mr. Abel
Chapman, and other kind helpers, but I have taken most of
my quotations on the habits of birds from Seebohm's well-
known history. I knew Seebohm intimately for many years,
and accompanied him to Heligoland, and other places on
the continent of Europe, and I can testify to the keenness
with which he laboured to try and collect facts for his
" History of British Birds." Of his ideas of " Classification,"
and how his facts were obtained for the demonstration of his
Systems, this is not the place to speak, though I should like
to take this opportunity of repudiating the idea that in my
Classification of birds, published in 1891, I was a " disciple"
of Seebohm's, as Professor Newton (Diet. B. Intr. p. 103, note)
has lately suggested ; for a considerable portion of my essay
is devoted to the exposure of what I consider to be errors on
Seebohm's part. I have not detected any plagiarism in the
latter's " History of British Birds," but, on the contrary, from
my knowledge of his method of work in the field, and the
ample diaries which he kept on those occasions, I believe that
his notes on the habits of birds are more original than those
in any other English publications except, perhaps, those of
Macgillivray and Booth.

I cannot conclude this preface without acknowledging, with
the utmost sincerity, the kind help and advice which I have
received from my old friend Howard Saunders, without
whose assistance I should never have had the courage to
undertake such a laborious and tedious occupation as the pre-
paration of even a small book like this " Handbook " has proved
to be. I can only hope that its utility may be found in some
way to compensate for the labour involved in its preparation.

R. BOWDLER SHARPE.

Chiswick, March 10, 1897.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

PAGE

ORDER LARIFORMES i

FAMILY L,\RID,E 2

SUB-FAMILY STERNIN.E 2

CCII. HYDROCHELIDON, Boie. ... v 3

1. nigra (Linn.). ,.. ... ... ... 3

2. hybrida (Pall.) 6

3. leucoptera (Meisner & Schinz) ... ... ... ... 9

CCIII GELOCHELIDON, Brehm 11

I. anglica (Mont.). ... ... ... ... n

CCIV. HYDROPROGNE, Kaup 13

I. caspia (Pall.) 14

CCV. STERNA, Linn. 17

1. fluviatilis, Naum 17

2. macrura, Naum. ... ... ... ... ... ... 21

3. dougalli, Mont. ... ... ... ... 23

4. cantiaca, Gm. ... ... ... ... 27

5. ancestheta, Scop. ... ... ... ... ... ... 29

6. fuliginosa, Gm. ... ... ... ... ... 32

7. minuta, Linn. ... .. ... ... ... 34

CCV I. ANGUS, Steph 37

i. stolidus (Linn.) 37

SUB-FAMILY LARIN^E 40

CCVII. XEMA, Leach 41

i. sabinii (J. Sabine). ... ... ... ... ... ... 41

CCVIII. RHODOSTETHIA, Bp 45

i. rosea (Macgill.) ~ ... ... ... ... 45

CCIX. LAK.US, Linn... 48

1. minutus, Pall. ... ... ... ... ... ... 49

2. ichthyaetus, Pall 51

3. melanocephalus, Natt. ... ... ... ... ... 54

4. Philadelphia (Ord.) ". ... 56

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Xll]

PAGE

5. ridibundus, Linn. ... ... ... ... ... 59

6. marinus, Linn. ... ... .. ... ... ... 63

7. fuscus, Linn. ... ..'. "... ... ... ... 66

8. argentatus, Gm. ... ... ... .. 70

9. canus, Linn. „, ... ... ... ... ... 73

10. hyperboreus, Gunn. ... ... ... ... ... 76

11. leucopterus, Faber. ... ... ... ... ... 79

CCX. PAGOPHILA, Kaup 81

I. eburnea (Phipps) 81

CCXI. RISSA, Steph 84

I. tridactyla (Linn.). ... ... ... ... ... 84

FAMILY STERCORARIID^; 89

CCXII. MEGALESTRIS, Bp 89

I. catarrhactes (Linn.). 90

CCXIII. STERCORARIUS, Briss 93

1. pomatorhinus (Temm.). ... ... ... ... ... 93

2. crepidatus (Banks). ... ... ... ... ... 97

3. parasiticus (Linn.). ... „. ... ... ... 101

SUB ORDER ALC^S 105

CCXIV. ALCA, Linn 106

I. torda, Linn. ... ... ... ... ... ... 106

CCXV. PLAUTUS, Brunn no

I. impennis (Linn.). ... ... ... ... ... ... Ill

CCXVI. URIA, Briss 114

1. troile (Linn.). ... ... ... ... ... ... 114

2. ringvia, Lath. ... ... .. ... ... ... 119

3. bruennichi, Sabine. ... ... ... ... ... 120

CCXVII. CEPPHUS, Pall. 123

I. grylle (Linn.). ... 123

CCXVIII. ALLE, Link , 127

I. alle (Linn.) 127

CCXIX. FRATERCULA, Briss 130

i. arctica (Linn.) 130

ORDER PROCELLARIIFOPMES : 135

FAMILY PROCELLARIID^E. 135

XIV SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

PAGE

SUB-FAMILY PROCELLARIIN^ 136

CCXX. PROCELLARIA, (Linn.) 137

i. pelagica (Linn.) ... ... 137

CCXXI. OCEANODROMA, Reichenb 140

1. lencorrhoa (Vieill.). ... ... ... 140

2. cryptoleucura (Ridgw.). ... ... ... 143

SUB-FAMILY OCEANITIN^E 144

CCXXII. OCEANITES, Keys. u. Bias 145

i. oceanicus (Kuhl.). ... ... ... ... ... 145

CCXXIII. PELAGODROMA, Reichenb ... 149

i. marina (Lath.) 149

FAMILY PUFFINID^E. , 152

SUB-FAMILY FULMARIN^E 152

CCXXIV. FULMARUS, Steph. ... 152

i. GLACiALis(Linn.). 153

CCXXV. DAPTION, Steph. 157

i. capensis (Linn.). ... ... 158

SUB-FAMILY PUFFININ^) 160

CCXXVI. PUFFINUS, Briss 160

1. gravis (O'Reilly) 160

2. puffinus (Linn.). ... ... ... 163

3. yelkouanus (Acerbi). ... ... ... 167

4. obscurus (Cm.). ... ... ... ... ... ... 168

5. griseus(Gm.) 169

CCXXVII. CESTRELATA, Bp 171

1. hsesitata (Kuhl) 172

2. brevipes (Peale) 173

CCXXVI II. BULWERIA, Bp 175

I. bulweri (Jard. & Selby)- 175

ORDER COLYMBIFORMES 177

CCXXIX. COLYMBUS, Linn 178

1. glacialis, Linn 178

2. adamsi, Gray 182, 304

3. arcticus, Linn. ... ... ... ... 185

4. septentrionalis, Linn. .., ... ... 187

ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

BRITISH BIRDS.

THE GULLS. ORDER LARIFORMES.

THESE birds, though at first sight very different in appearance
from the Plovers, are really allied to them. They possess cha-
racters, external and internal, which indicate close affinity ; but
they are easily recognised by the structure of their feet, the
Gulls being entirely web-footed, the Plovers not. The eggs,
however, of some of the smaller Terns are almost indistinguish-
able from some of the Plovers' eggs, and not only in the
colour of the latter, but in the form of the nest, there is so
much similarity that it is impossible to deny the close
relationship of Terns and Plovers. The latest, and at the
same time the greatest, authority on the Lariformes, Mr.
Howard Saunders, has given the following characters for the
Order in the British Museum " Catalogue of Birds " : — The
palate is " schizognathous " or split ; the nasals schizorhinal.
In the wing the fifth secondary is wanting, and the number of
cervical vertebrae is fifteen. The young are hatched covered
with down, and are able to run about in a few hours. Instead
of the four eggs which form the complement of those of the
Charadriiformes, the number laid by the Gulls and Terns
seldom exceeds three. The Gulls are absolutely cosmopolitan
in range, and they are divided into two families, the Larida,
containing the Gulls and Terns, and the Stercoraritdce , or Skuas.
The Skuas possess a bare wax-like base to the bill, such as
is seen in Birds of Prey and Parrots, but the Laridce have no
cere. The breast-bone in the Gulls and Terns has two notches

2 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

on its posterior margin, whereas in the Skuas there is only
one ; the toes are more or less fully webbed, but the claws are
small and feeble, whereas in the Skuas the latter are terribly
curved and sharp.

The family Laridce is divided by Mr. Howard Saunders into
three sub-families, viz., the Terns (Sternina), the Skimmers or
Scissor-bills (Rhytichopince), and the Gulls (Larincz). The
Scissor-bills are entirely tropical, and are found in South
America, Africa, and India. They are river Terns, with
a most peculiar bill, which is not only compressed like a knife-
blade, but the lower mandible is produced far beyond the
upper one. These Scissor bills only frequent rivers, where
they nest on the sand-banks.

In the compilation of the following notes on the Laridce
I have borrowed largely from the recent writings of Mr.
Saunders. He has so completely made the subject his own,
having studied the group minutely for the past thirty years,
that there seems to be little left for anyone to discover, as
far as the description of the plumages go. I have therefore
adopted his conclusions, and have quoted many of his notes
on the plumage and habits.

THE GULLS AND TERNS. FAMILY LARID^.

I have already alluded to the characters which distinguish
the Laridce from the Skuas, viz., the absence of a cere, the
double-notched sternum, the fully webbed toes, and the feeble
claws. The range of the family extends over the whole of the
world.

THE TERNS. SUB-FAMILY STERNIN^.

Although it is very difficult to say where the Terns end and
the Gulls begin— for a large Tern is very like a small Gull —
Mr. Saunders has given a clear definition of the characters
which distinguish the three sub-families of the Laridce. To
the Scissor-bills (Rhynchopince) I have already referred, and
their peculiar bill separates them at once. The Terns differ
from the Gulls in the form of the bill, which is slender and
nearly straight, the two mandibles being almost equal in length.
The tail is slightly or distinctly forked.

BLACK TERN.

The Terns are nearly cosmopolitan in their distribution, as
they are found in most of the seas of the Old and New Worlds.
Many are marsh and river Terns, as will be seen in our
enumeration of the British species.

THE BLACK TERNS. GENUS HYDROCHELIDON.

Hydrochelidon, Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 563.

Type, If. nigra (Linn.).

The Black Terns are only four in number, and three of these
have occurred within our limits, namely, the White-winged
Black Tern, the Whiskered Tern, and the Black Tern. The
latter, ff. nigra, is an Old World species of wide range, and is
replaced in America by H. surinamensis, which is a darker
bird with blacker feet, nesting in temperate North America,
and extending to Central and South America in winter.

I. THE BLACK TERN. HYDROCHELIDON NIGRA.

Sterna nigra, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 227 (1766); Seebohm, Hist.

Brit. B. in. p. 254 (1885).
Hydrochelidon nigra, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 658 (1852); Dresser,

B. Eur. viii. p. 327, pi. 592 (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B.

p. 185 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 516

(1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 617 (1889); Lilford, Col.

Fig. Brit. B. part xxxviii (1894) ; Saunders, Cat. B. Brit.

Mus. xxv. p. 17 (1896).

(Plate XCIV.}

Nestling. — Fawn colour above, with black markings arranged
in pairs on the back and sides of the rump, with a single patch
on the mantle ; the head with a line of black above each eye,
and a triple line on the nape ; sides of face white ; the under
surface of body clove-brown, becoming darker brown on the
throat and sides of body.

Young in First Plumage. — Differs from the winter plumage
of the adult in having all the feathers of the back and wings
tipped with brown, this, colour obscuring the whole of the

B 2

4 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

mantle ; the head and nape blackish, the forehead whiter ;
round the hind neck a broad collar of white ; sides of face and
under surface of body pure white, excepting for a patch of
ashy-brown on each side of the upper breast.

Adult Male. — General colour above slate-grey, a little paler on
the wing-coverts, the small coverts round the carpal bend of
the wing being white ; the bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and
quills dark slaty-brown, externally frosted with light ashy-grey,
and paler grey on the inner web, the shafts of the primaries
white ; the upper tail-coverts and tail-feathers slightly paler
slate-colour and inclining to pearly grey; crown of head black,
overspreading the hind neck towards the mantle; the under
surface of the body leaden-black, deepening on the throat and
chest ; thighs, sides of lower flanks, under tail-coverts, as well
as the under wing-coverts, white ; the lower greater coverts pale
pearly-grey like the quill lining ; axillaries leaden-grey ; bill
black ; feet reddish-brown. Total length, 9-5 inches ; oilmen,
1-25 ; wing, 8-4; tail, 3-15 ; tarsus, 0*6; middle toe and claw,
0-85.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but slightly paler in
colour. Total length, 9-6 inches; wing, 8'i.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Distinguished by the white under
surface from the summer plumage, the forehead being white,
and the hinder crown and centre of the nape black, the feathers
having hoary-white margins ; sides of face, sides of neck, and
a collar round the hind- neck white, like the under surface of
the body.

Characters. — The adult Black Tern is easily recognised from
the other British species of Hydrochelidon, in summer plumage,
by its pale grey under wing-coverts, these being black in
H. leucoptera and white in JET. hybrida. The grey upper
tail-coverts and tail distinguish it from H. leucoptera, which is
black underneath, not dark leaden-grey as H. nigra is. From
H. hybrida it may be distinguished by its black bill and black
sides of the face.

In winter plumage the three species are more difficult to
discriminate, but H. nigra and H. hybrida have the tail grey
and the rump also grey like the back, fJ. nigra is a smaller,

BLACK TERN. 5

bird than H. hybrida with a more slender bill, and the webs of
the feet are not so much incised.

Range in Great Britain. — The Black Tern is no longer known
as a breeding species in England, but in former times it used to
nest in the marshes of the east coast. But for the draining of
the fen-lands the species might yet be found nesting, and I
have myself seen birds in full breeding plumage, passing north
along the shores of the Kentish coast in May. According 10
Mr. Howard Saunders, the last recorded eggs were taken in
Norfolk in 1858, though early in the century the nests of the
" Blue Darr," as the bird was called, might have been found in
hundreds on the aider swamps. In the autumn the birds
return southwards, and during the gales which then frequently
prevail, they are driven inland along the rivers, so that I have
more than once been fishing on the Thames at Cookham, in
September, with several of these pretty birds flying round me,
during the prevalence of a strong easterly gale. The species
occurs much more rarely on the west coast of England than
upon the east, and is found only as a straggler in the northern
parts of the British Island, and as a rare autumn visitor to
Ireland.

Range outside tne British Islands.— The Black Tern breeds in
suitable localities throughout Europe, south of 6o°N. lat, and as
far eastwards as Western Turkestan. It winters in Africa, reaching
to Loango on the west coast and the shores of Abyssinia on the
east.

Habits. — When seen in spring, proceeding northward, the
Black Tern follows the usual habits of the family, fly ing at a little
distance from the shore, just out of gun shot, and dipping at
intervals into the sea to capture some small prey and then
beating its way onward. Under such circumstances I have
seen it both in spring and autumn on the coasts of England,
but in its usual haunts on the Continent it is an inland species,
and I saw it in the Hanzag marshes in Hungary in May,
where it was nesting. When disturbed the birds fly up, uttering
a harsh note like the syllable " crick " ; but they have another
note more drawn out, which Mr. Seebohm very well expresses by
Ke-e-e. The food of the Black Tern consists of small fishes,
but it also feed on leeches, worms, and even on insects, for it

6 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

has been known to capture dragon-flies on the wing, and,
according to Mr. Howard Saunders, it has been seen by Mr.
F. S. Mitchell to u swoop down on the field-crickets (Acheta
campestris) during their momentary appearance at the entrances
of their burrows."

Nest. — The Black Tern does not begin to nest before the
end of May, and it then breeds in colonies in the marshes or
by shallow pools. The nest is a substantial structure of
decaying plants and weeds, on heaps of wrack which rise and
fall with the water, or on the firmer hummocks of the bog.

Eggs. — Three in number only. Ground colour varying from
deep clay- colour or pale chocolate to greenish-grey and stone-
colour or buff, the markings generally consisting of black
blotches, which are mostly confluent. Sometimes the markings
are smaller and take the form of scattered dots or scribblings.
The underlying spots are grey and are not very distinct. In the
Seebohm collection in the British Museum there are some
specimens in which the spots and blotches are perceptibly
rufous, though generally they range from a dark chocolate-
brown to absolute black. Axis, i '3-1 '45 inch; diam., 0.9
-1-05.

II. THE WHISKERED TERN. HYDROCHELIDON HYBRIDA.

Sterna hybrida, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso- Asiat. ii. p. 338 (1811);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 260 (1885).

Hydrochelidon kucopareia (Natt.) ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 663
(1852).

Hydrochelidon hybrida^ Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 315, pis. 588,
589 (1887); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 184 (1883) ; Saun-
ders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 527 (1884); id. Man. Brit.
B. p. 621 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part, xxviii.
(1894) ; Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p 10 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above light slaty-grey; lower
back, rump, upper tail-coverts and tail of the same colour as
the rest of the back, the outermost tail-feather being white
along the outer web ; wing-coverts like the back ; quills dusky,
frosted with pearly-grey on the outer webs ; the shafts of the
primaries white, the outer ones with the greater part of the

WHISKERED TERN. 7

inner webs also white; crown of head and nape black ; under
surface of body slaty-grey, deepening into blackish towards
the abdomen and paling into white towards the chin ; sides of
face from the base of the bill to the sides of the neck white,
forming a band which contrasts strongly with the black head
and grey cheeks ; under tail-coverts, under wing-coverts, and
axillaries, pure white or with a slight tinge of grey on the latter;
" bill blood-red ; feet vermilion, drying to orange colour "
(Saunders). Total length, 10*5 inches; oilmen, 1-3; wing,
9-3; tail, 3-45; tarsus, 0-9.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but somewhat paler in
colour. Total length, 97 inches; wing, 8*9.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage in
being white underneath, and in having a white collar round the
hind neck; crown of head white, mottled and spotted with
black on the hinder crown and nape, and the upper surface
paler grey.

Young. — Differs from the winter plumage of the adult in
having the hinder part of the head blacker, and the upper
surface of the body mottled with large or small black spots
which are varied with sandy-buff spots or bars.

Nestling. — Sandy-buff, inclining to golden-buff on the fore-
head and mantle ; the upper surface prettily striped or spotted
with regular lines of black ; the throat sooty black ; rest of
under parts white, the sides of the body being sandy-buff.

Characters. — The adult bird is easily distinguished from
H. leucoptera by the grey upper and under tail-coverts, and
from H. nigra by the red bill and white chin and sides of face,
as well as by the white under wing-coverts. In winter plumage
the species may be distinguished from the adult of H. leucoptera
by its grey tail, and from the young of the latter species, which
has a grey tail, by the absence of white on the rump, which is
to be found in the young of the White-winged Black Tern. In
winter plumage ff. hybrida has a grey rump, like the back, and
it thus resembles the winter dress of H. nigra, but it is a
larger bird than the latter, has a stouter bill, and has the webs
of the feet much incised.

S ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Range in Great Britain, — The Whiskered Tern is an acci-
dental visitor to the British Islands, and the occurrences of
the species are only some half-dozen at number, specimens
having been obtained in Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire,
Norfolk, and Yorkshire ; while Ireland has one record from
the River LifTey. One of these birds was obtained in May,
another on Hickling Brond in June, and the remainder in
autumn.

Range Outside the British Islands. — This is a species of
Southern Europe, rarely reaching Northern Germany and the
British Islands ; but it extends eastwards at about the same
latitude to China, and visits Africa, India (breeding in both
these countries), and the Malayan Archipelago, as far as
Australia, in winter. It apparently wanders to the eastern coasts
of America occasionally, as the British Museum possesses a
specimen procured by Sir R. Schomburgk in Barbados.

Habits. — Like the preceding species, this is a Marsh Tern,
and in habits it resembles H. nigra, the food being the same
in both species. It nests in colonies.

Nest. — This is generally a mass of weeds, and is often found
floating on the surface of the water. In Southern Spain,
where large colonies of the Whiskered Tern are met with,
Major Willoughby Verner visited a breeding - colony of these
birds at La Janda, on the yth of May, 1875, and found
several hundred nests floating on the top of the water ; they
were simple platforms of reeds and rushes, and were kept from
drifting to some extent by the young rushes growing up in the
water. Only two nests contained a single egg. Five days
later over thirty nests contained eggs. In the interval between
the visits a strong wind had arisen, and had blown away many
of the Terns' nests along the water, till they were packed in a
dense mass on the lee side of the Laguna.*

Eggs. — Three in number. Prevailing ground-colour green-
ish-grey, sometimes clay-colour, the markings of the eggs
being similar in character to those of the allied Terns, but
rather more scattered and distinct, while in some examples the

* Irby, Orn. Straits Gibraltar, 2nd ed., p. 293.

WHITE-WINGED BLACK TERN.

spotting and scribbling is very minute, and the underlying
grey spots are more distinct than in eggs of H. leucoptera.
Axis, i'4-i'7 inch; diam., n-i'2.

III. THE WHITE-WINGED BLACK TERN. HYDROCHELIDON
LEUCOPTERA.

Sterna leucoptera, Meisner & Schinz, Vog. Schweiz, p. 264

(1815); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 257 (1885).
Hydrochelidon leucoptera, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 66 1 (1852);

Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 321, pis. 590, 591 (1875);

B. O.U. List Brit. B. p. 185 (1883); Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 552 (1884); id. Man. Brit B.

p. 619 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix.

(1894); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 6 (1896).

(Plate XCV.}

Adult Male. — General colour above dark slate-colour ; head
and neck black, this colour overspreading the mantle ; lower
back, rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail pure white ; lesser
coverts round the bend of the wing white, the rest of the
wing-coverts pearly- grey, the innermost greater coverts rather
darker and more slaty-grey ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and
quills dusky, externally frosted with pearly-grey, the inner
primaries being almost entirely of this colour, the innermost
secondaries darker slate-grey ; entire under surface of body,
from the chin to the vent, black, including the under wing-
coverts and axillaries ; vent, under tail-coverts, and edge of
wing pure white ; " bill livid red ; feet orange red "(H. Saunders}.
Total length, 9*0 inches; oilmen, 0*95; wing, 8-o; tail, 2*7;
tarsus, 07.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male in colour. Total length,
8*7 inches ; wing, 8-3.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in being pearly-grey above and white below, a collar round the
hind neck and forehead also white ; fore part of crown mottled
with black, which is much more apparent on the nape, and
forms a spot on the ear-coverts.

IO ALLEN'S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Young. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adult, but
browner, by reason of the brown tips to all the feathers of the
upper surface ; a black patch on the hinder crown and nape as
well as a black spot on the ear-coverts, the latter much
more distinct.

Characters. — In summer plumage the present species is easily
distinguished from its British allies by its white upper tail-
coverts and tail, its black under surface and under wing-coverts,
and by the white wing-coverts along the carpal bend of the
wing. In winter plumage the adult bird is still known by its
white tail, but young birds have grey tails like the winter plum-
age of the other species of Hydrochelidon. In a properly
prepared skin, however, there is always some white on the
rump, intervening between the grey of the back and the grey of
the tail, in ff. leucoptera.

Range in Great Britain.— The White-winged Black Tern has
occurred many times on our southern and eastern coasts in
summer, and Mr. Howard Saunders states that he knows of
only two occurrences of the bird in autumn, one having been
killed near Ilfracombe in North Devonshire in November,
while another was shot in Dublin Bay in October, 1841. Two
others have been shot in Ireland in spring.

Eange outside the British Islands. — The present species nests in
the marshes of Central and Southern Europe and throughout
temperate Asia to China, wintering all over Africa, certain parts
of India and Ceylon, and throughout the Malayan Archipelago
to Australia and New Zealand. It occasionally wanders to
America, where it has been recorded from Wisconsin and from
Barbados.

Habits. — These appear to be very similar to those of the
Black Tern, in company with which it nests in Central Europe,
but in Southern Russia Mr. Howard Saunders says that large
and distinct colonies are formed. The flight is said by the
same observer to be more rapid and its note to be harsher than
that of H. nigra, but its food is similar to that of the last-
named species.

Nest. — Similar to that of the Black Tern.

GULL-BILLED TERN. It

E^gs. — Three in number. Ground-colour deep clay 01
stone-buff with an olive shade, spotted with chocolate-brown,
deepening to blackish and forming irregular blotches on
different parts of the egg, as much in the middle as towards
the end of the latter. The underlying marks of grey are not
very evident. Axis, 1-35-1-45; diam., 0-95-1-05.

THE GULL-BILLED TERNS. GENUS GELOCHELIDON.

Gelochelidon, Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 774 (1831.)

Type, G. anglica (Mont.)

In this genus the outer tail-feathers are very pointed, and
exceed the others in length. The bill is very stout and obtuse ;
the tarsus is longer than in most of the Terns, and exceeds
the middle toe and claw in length ; the tail is short, being
less than half the length of the wing.

The single species, G. anglica, is found in the temperate and
warm portions of the Atlantic Ocean on both sides, also in the
Indian Ocean and Australian seas, but it is not known from
the Pacific side of America.

I. THE GULL-BILLED TERN. GELOCHELIDON ANGLICA.

Sterna anglica, Mont. Orn, Diet. Suppl. (1813); Dresser, B.

Eur. viii. p. 295, pi. 585 (1877); B. O. U. List Brit B.

p. 182 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. in. p. 531

(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 263 (1885);

Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 623 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig.

Brit. B. part xxix. (1894).
GelocheliJon anglica, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 666 (1852);

Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 25 (1896).

(Plate XCVI.}

Adult Male. — General colour above pearly-grey, including the
wings and tail, the outer feathers of the latter inclining to
greyish-white on the outer webs; quills darker ashy-grey,
frosted with pearly-grey externally, the primaries with white
shafts and a great deal of white along the inner web;
secondaries narrowly edged with white at the tips ; head and

12 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

nape glossy-black, continued into a nuchal crest and extending
across the upper part of the lores to the base of the nostrils ;
lower part of the lores, sides of face, and entire under surface
of body white, including the under wing-coverts and axillaries ;
" bill black, occasionally reddish at the base of the lower
mandible ; tarsi and toes black with a reddish tinge ; iris hazel-
brown " (II. Saunders'}. Total length, 14*5 inches ; exposed
part of culmen, 1*6; wing, 12*5 ; tail, 5*0; tarsus 1*5.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but somewhat smaller and
the bill not quite so robust. Total length, 14-0 inches ; wing,

T2'0.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in being slightly paler, the wings more frosted with hoary-grey,
and the white on the outer tail-feathers more distinct than in
summer ; crown of head white, the hinder crown narrowly
streaked with black and mottled with black on the nape ; in
front of the eye a black spot.

Young. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adult, but the
streaks on the head greyish-brown and not so distinct, the
whole of the grey colour of the upper surface obscured by ashy-
brown or brownish-buff, the feathers being mottled with a
sub-terminal bar of darker brown.

Nestling. — Stone-buff, with black streaks and spots along the
back and on the head and sides of the crown ; under surface
of body dull white.

Characters. — These are given under the heading of the
genus

Range in Great Britain. — The Gull-billed Tern is only an
accidental visitor to England, having occurred several times in
spring and summer, principally in Norfolk, but also at different
places on the south coast, the most northerly occurrences
having taken place near Blackpool in Lancashire, and near
Leeds in Yorkshire. One specimen has been recorded
from Belfast Lough in Ireland, but having been submitted
to Mr. Saunders, he found it to be an Arctic Tern !

Range outside the British Islands. — In the Old World the Gull

GIANT TERNS. 13

billed Tern nests with greater or less frequency throughout the
Mediterranean region and occurs accidentally in more northern
localities, though it breeds regularly on the western coast of
Denmark and the island of Sylt. Its range extends through
temperate Asia to Southern China, whence it is found through
the Malayan Archipelago to Australia, breeding in the latter
continent. In North America it occurs on the eastern side
from New Jersey southwards, reaching to the Argentine
Republic, but not occuring on the Pacific side except on the
coast of Guatemala.

Habits. — The food of this species consists of small fish, frogs,
and Crustacea, and it also feeds on grasshoppers, locusts, and
beetles, besides other flying insects. During the breeding
season Mr. Saunders says that the note is like the syllables
che-ah, but at other times the bird utters a laughing af-af-af
like a Gull.

Nest. — Seebohm visited a colony of Gull-billed Terns on
an island in a lagoon off the coast of Asia Minor. The nests
were either a natural depression in the sand, or consisted of a
slight hollow made by the birds themselves, with a few bits of
seaweed or dead grass as an apology for a nest.

Eggs. — Generally two, sometimes three in number, and inter-
mediate in character between the eggs of Gulls and Terns.
The general colour is a pale stone-buff, occasionally with an
olive-greenish tinge, the spots never very large and distributed
over the egg in tolerably equal profusion and seldom forming
blotches of any size. The underlying markings are as large
and almost as much in evidence as the dark overlying ones,
sometimes being even more distinct than the latter. Axis,
1-8-2-5 inches; diam., i'35-i'55.

THE GIANT TERNS. GENUS HYDROPROGNE.

Hydroprogne, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 91 (1829).

Type, H. caspia (Pall.).

This genus is represented by a single species, of nearly
cosmopolitan range. It is distinguished by its large size and
blood-red bill. The outer tail-feathers are pointed, and exceed

14 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

the others in length. The tarsus is short, being less than the
middle toe and claw in length, and the tail is very short, being
less than one-third of the length of the wing.

I. THE CASPIAN TERN. HYDROPROGNE CASPIA.

Sterna caspia, Pall. Nov. Comm. Petrop. xiv. i. p. 582, tab. xxii.

fig. 2 (1770) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 289, pi. 584 (1877) ;

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 182 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's

Brit. B. iii. p. 536 (1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii.

p. 268(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 625 (1889);

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxviii. (1894).
Sylochelidon caspia, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 626 (1852).
Hydroprogne caspia, Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 32

(1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above pearly-grey, the rump and
upper tail-coverts like the back and hardly any paler in tint ;
wing-coverts like the back, the bastard-wing and primary-
coverts rather paler grey and more frosted in appearance ;
primaries grey with white shafts, the greater part of the webs
frosted, the inner web blackish along the inner margin, this
blackish shade increasing in extent towards the outermost
primaries, and occupying the entire inner web of the first one ;
secondaries like the back, with the inner webs slightly more
dusky-grey ; tail pearly-grey, with white shafts to the feathers,
the outermost pointed and only slightly exceeding the others
in length ; crown of head and nape glossy black, the crest not
elongated ; this black extending below the eyes in a straight
line from the base of the upper mandible across the lores ;
remainder of the lores, sides of face, ear-coverts, and a spot
under the eyes white, like the entire under surface of the body;
axillaries and under wing-crests white, the inner face of the
primaries distinctly blackish; "bill vermilion-red, sometimes
horn-coloured at tip ; tarsi and toes black " {Saunders). Total
length, 19 inches; culmen, 2*65 ; wing, 16*5 ; tail, 5*5 ; tarsus,
r8.

Adult Female. — Not to be distinguished from the male in
colour, but with a weaker and less brilliantly coloured bill.
Total length, 19 inches; culmer 2*5; wing, i6'6; tail, 6*2 ;
tarsus, 1*65.

CASPIAN TERN. 15

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but distinguished by the colour of the crown, which, instead of
being wholly black, is white, with broad central streaks of black,
the sides of the face being similarly marked.

Immature Birds. — Resemble the winter plumage of the adults
as regards the crown of the head, but the black round the eye
and above the ear-coverts is uniform. The back is pearly-grey
in contrast to the lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts,
which are whiter. On the wings, tail, and upper surface of the
body, in places, are blacker bars or arrow-head markings,
indicating immaturity.

Nestling (one day old). — Above, pale buff, inconspicuously
mottled with dull brown ; under parts dull white. Older nestlings
show a greyer tint above (Sounders).

Characters. — The Caspian Tern is distinguished by its large
size and stout red bill. Other characters are given under the
heading of the genus.

Range in Great Britain. — Nine specimens of the Caspian Tern
have been recorded from Norfolk, and others have been seen
off the eastern and southern coasts of England from Yorkshire
and Lincolnshire and Dorset. Mr. E. Bidwell informed Mr.
Howard Saunders that he had seen an individual of this species
off the Fame Islands on the 6th of June, 1880. It has not yet
been recorded from Scotland or Ireland, and the number of
specimens noted in the United Kingdom is under twenty.

Range Outside the British islands. — The present species is found
throughout the Mediterranean countries, and its breeding range
in Europe extends to about 60° N. lat , as it nests on the
islands of Sylt and other localities in the Baltic. Mr. Howard
Saunders believes that it may also breed, or recently bred, on
the Dutch coast. It breeds in many parts of Asia, but does not
reach to Japan, and it also inhabits Australia and New
Zealand. To many countries bordering the Indian Ocean the
Caspian Tern is only a winter visitor, as it is to Africa, but it
nests along the shores of the Persian Gulf and in Ceylon.
In North America it occurs on both coasts, from a little beyond
the Arctic Circle to Florida on the Atlantic side and to Cali-
fornia on the west.

It) ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Habits. — This species, says Mr. Saunders, " is nearly as
partial to brackish lakes as to the sea-shore, and when
searching for food it has a characteristic habit of keeping its
bill pointed downwards, almost at a right angle to its body."
As might be expected from such a powerful bird, its nature is
bold, and it makes a vigorous out-cry when its nest is attacked,
some of the birds swooping down within a few yards of the
intruder's head, while the rest of the colony fly round in the
air above, and add their cries to the general expostulation.
Mr. H. Parker thus describes his experience of the nesting of
the Caspian Tern in Ceylon : —

"The birds at first circled round for a short time, and
afterwards joined a large party of other Terns at a small neigh-
bouring bank, from which some of them made frequent sallies,
flying over my head a few times and then returning. Their
cry was a hoarse croak or a scream.

" Later in the day I found a pair evidently breeding at
another bank beyond that at which my expedition ended, but
I could not spare time to visit it. They came out boldly to
attack my men, and made very determined swoops, often
coming within three feet of my head. They then rose verti-
cally above me for fifty or sixty feet, and after flying back
towards the nests returned to renew the assaults. The more
timid of the birds, which I presume was the female, occasion-
ally settled on the nest for a short time, while the male was
engaged in bullying me. As I told him at the time, it was
nothing else, for I had not attempted to molest him, and the
nest was certainly quite half a mile away."

The food of the Caspian Tern seems to consist almost
entirely of fish, but it is said to rob other birds' nests of their
eggs, and to devour young birds as well.

Nest. — A slight depression in the sand, occasionally lined
with pieces of shell or a few bents.

Eggs. — Two or three in number, laid in May or June. There
is considerable similarity in the eggs of the Caspian Tern to
those of the Gull-billed Tern, though they are, of course, much
larger. The general colour is greyish or stone-buff, sometimes
approaching buffy-white, and the markings consist of scattered
spots, seldom confluent, of chocolate-brown or even blackish,

COMMON TERN. 17

while occasionally they are pale olive-brown. The underlying-
spots are purplish-grey, and are always distinct. Axis, 2-3-2-6
inches; diam. 17-1-85.

THE TRUE TERNS. GENUS STERNA.

Sterna, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 227 (1766).

Type, probably S. fluviatilis (Naum).

Like the preceding genera, the Terns have the outermost
tail-feathers much longer than the rest, and pointed. They
differ from Gelochelidon in having a short tarsus, which measures
less than the middle toe and claw, and in the case of the genus
Sterna never exceeds the latter. The tail, according to Mr.
Howard Saunders, is at least half, and generally more than
half, the length of the wing. The True Terns are also remarkable
for their compressed and slender bill.

They are world-wide in their distribution, and are almost
exclusively maritime in their haunts.

Intermediate between the Caspian Terns and the genus
Sterna is the Indian genus Seena, which has a single river-
haunting species, Seena seena (Sykes), remarkable for its stout
bill, which has the genys very short, and its long tail, which is
more than three-fourths the length of the wing.

I. THE COMMON TERN. STERNA FLUVIATILIS.

Sterna fluviatilis, ; Naum. Isis, 1819, pp. 1847, 1848; Dresser,
B. Eur. viii. p. 263, pi. 580 (1872) ; B. O. U. List. Brit. B.
p. 180 (1883); Saunders, ed. YarrelPs Brit. B. iii. p. 549
(1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 631 (1889); Lilford, Col.
Fig. Brit. B. part xx. (1891) ; Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus.
xxv. p. 54 (1896).

Sterna hirundo, Lath.; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 638 (1852);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 280 (1885).

Adult Males. — General colour about pearl-grey, including the
wing-coverts and scapulars, the latter white at the ends ; rump
and upper tail-coverts white ; primary-coverts pearl-grey, with
the inner webs more dusky ; primaries dark grey externally,
with white shafts, accompanied by a blacker border along its

i8 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

inner aspect, conspicuous on the inner web, to the tip
of which it extends, becomes there frosted with grey, and
ascends along the margin of the inner web for some little
distance ; the first primary blackish along the whole of the
outer web; secondaries grey, with dusky shaft-lines, white along
the inner webs and at the tips of the innermost quills ; central
tail-feathers white, the rest white with a grey shade on the
outer web, increasing towards the outer ones, the external long
feathers having a dusky blackish outer web ; crown of head
and nape black, this being drawn through the upper half of the
lores and along the sides of the crown above the ear-coverts ;
sides of face from the lower portion of the lores, and reaching
to the eye and over the ear-coverts, cheeks, and throat pure
white ; remainder of the under surface of the body, from the
fore-neck downwards, delicate lavender grey ; under tail-coverts,
under wing-coverts and axillaries pure white ; " bill coral-red,
the extreme tip horn-colour ; feet coral-red ; iris dark brown.
Total length, 15 inches; culmen, 1*55; wing, io'8 ; tail, 27;
outer tail-feathers, 77 ; tarsus, 0-85.

Adult Female. — Similar in colour to the male. Total length,
12*5 inches; culmen, 1*35; wing, 107; tail, 57; tarsus, 07.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — differs from the summer plumage
in wanting the black cap, the head being black behind, but
with the forehead and crown streaked and mottled with white ;
the under surface of the body is paler and shows less grey ; the
bill and feet much duller in colour.

Immature Birds in First Winter. — Resemble the winter plumage
of the adults, but are distinguished by the forehead being white,
and by a dark grey band along the marginal upper wing-coverts.
The under surface of the body is entirely white.

Nestling. — Brownish-buff, or stone-buff streaked and spotted
with black, without any very distinct pattern, the head lighter
than the back, and more minutely spotted ; edge of wing and
under parts white, browner on the belly and vent; lores, sides
of face, and throat brown. As the nestling grows in size the
black pattern on the upper parts becomes more distinct, and
the throat fades to a light-brown colour.

After the downy stage, the feathers of the upper surface are

COMMON TERN. 19

all mottled with sandy buff tips, before which is a distinct bar
of blackish.

Range in Great Britain. — I cannot do better than quote the
remarks of Mr. Saunders as to the distribution of the present
species in the British Isles. He writes : — " Broadly speaking,
I believe that the Common Tern is the predominant species
along the shores of the Channel, and on the west side of
Great Britain as far north as the Isle of Skye ; while on the
east it is found from Kent to the Moray Firth, and was the
only species that I observed near Nairn during August, 1885.
Continuing northwards, we find it yielding numerically to the
Arctic Tern, and showing a liking for fresh-water lochs or
estuaries rather than for exposed islands, though Mr. Harvie-
Brown states that in 1885 it was nesting abundantly at the west
end of the Pentland Skerries, while the eastern was occupied
by a colony of Arctic Terns. I have no conclusive evidence
of the occurrence of the Common Tern in the Shetlands,
Orkneys, or Outer Hebrides." Mr. R. J. Ussher says that
in Ireland it breeds on islands off the coasts of most of the
maritime counties, and also on lakes in Londonderry, Antrim,
Tyrone, Armagh, Fermanagh, Cavan, Longford, Roscommon,
Mayo, and Leitrim.

Range Outside the British Islands. — The Common Tern is found
breeding on the coasts, rivers, and inland lakes of nearly every
country in Europe, from Norway southwards, and the same
may be said of the whole of Central Asia to the highlands of
Cashmere and Thibet. In winter its range extends to India
and Ceylon, and the coasts of Western and Southern Africa.
It also inhabits temperate North America, breeding as far south
as Texas, visiting the West Indies in winter, whence it also
extends to Brazil. It is almost unrecorded from the Pacific
coast of North America, but an immature bird was shot by Mr.
Osbert Salvin at San Jose de Guatemala in December, 1862.

Habits. — The motions of this pretty bird in the air are full of
grace, and as it flies along the sea-shore at a little distance from
the land, it looks like a slender and graceful Gull, not in the
least adopting the swift motions of a Swallow, although " Sea-
swallow " is the name generally applied to it. The Common

C 2

20 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Tern breeds in colonies, usually on a shingly beach, and the
whereabouts of the eggs or young can generally be discovered
by the anxiety betrayed by the old birds, who hover over the
spot and keep up a loud chorus of disapproval at the intrusion.
The young are so like the surrounding shingle in general
appearance that they are very difficult to distinguish, especi-
ally as they do not run along the ground like the nestlings of
the Sand-Plovers, but are fed by the parent-birds for some
days at least. The old birds bring fish to their little ones,
and have been known to drop them near to the latter, despite
the presence of a stranger in their midst.

The food of the Common Tern consists of small coal-fish,
sand-eels, shrimps, and small Crustacea ; and it is a very pretty
sight to see a flock of Terns fishing above a shoal of small
fry and dipping after their prey. In the autumn, before their
departure for the south, flocks assemble on the sand or shingly
beaches, and rest quietly during the time that the tide is out.
I have seen many large assemblages of these birds on the
beach near Lydd in Kent, and at the incoming of the tide
into Romney Hoy, especially if this took place towards even-
ing, large flocks of terns would often follow the rush of the
water as it entered the principal channel, and a constant
chorus of their creaking note, like the syllables kree-e-e, was
kept up, until at times there was a perfect babel of sound.
The birds were apparently feeding on the small fish which
came in with the tide.

Nest. — A hollow in the sand or shingle; or on the bare earth,
when the birds breed at a little distance from the water.
Sometimes a few stems of grass are added as a lining. Mr.
Robert Read sends me the accompanying note : — " The nesting
habits of this bird differ much according to site. When the
nest is made on the sea-shore it usually consists simply of a
slight hollow scraped in the sand or shingle without any lining
materials whatever. When, however, the nest is built inland,
on swampy ground, it consists of a more or less substantial
structure of dried grasses and stalks, doubtless to keep the
eggs out of the damp."

Eggs.— -Mr. Read adds : — " Three is the usual number of
eggs laid, but on more than one occasion I have taken four

ARCTIC TERN. 21

eggs from a nest, all apparently laid by the same bird." The
general colour of the eggs varies from stone-colour to ochreous-
buff or olive-buff with spots or drops of black often merging
into confluent blotches, the underlying spots being faint
purplish-grey and not very distinct. Sometimes the variation
in the depth of the colour of the eggs is very marked) and
the ground-colour is so deep a rufous-brown that the black
markings are scarcely perceptible. The markings are generally
distributed over the surface of the egg, but are sometimes con-
gregated in confluent blotches round the larger end. Axis, i -35-
175 inches; diam., I'l-i^.

II. THE ARCTIC TERN. STERNA MACRURA.

Sterna macrura^ Naum. Isis, 1819, p. 1847 ; B. O. U. List.
Brit. B. p. 1 80 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B.

n'i- P- 553 (l884); id- Man- Brit- B- P- 633 (l889);

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxviii. (1894) ; Saunders,

Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 62 (1896.)
Sterna arctica, Temm. ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 643 (1852);

Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 284 (1885.)
Sterna hirundo, Mtiller (nee Lath.) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii.

P- 255, pi. 579 (1872.)

Adult Male. — Similar to S. fluviatilis, but distinguished by
its entirely red bill with no dark tips, and by the much narrower
and less distinct dark edging along the inner aspect of the
white shaft of the primaries. According to Mr. Howard
Saunders the tarsus is shorter than in the Common Tern, and
does not exceed the' length of the middle toe without the
claw ; " bill blood-red ; feet coral-red ; iris dark-brown."
Total length, 14*5 inches; culmen, 1-5; wings, io-8 ; tail, 7*0;
tarsus, o-65.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but with the outer
feathers rather shorter. Total length, 14 inches; wing, 10-5.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in wanting the black cap; the forehead and crown being
mottled with white, and the hinder crown and nape from the
eyes backwards black ; under parts whiter, with scarcely any
grey shade on the breast ; bill and feet duller.

22 ALLEN S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Immature Birds in Winter. — These resemble in colour the
winter plumage of the adult, but, according to Mr. Howard
Saunders, have the forehead and crown nearly white, a dark
grey band on the upper wing- coverts, more grey on the outer
webs of the tail-feathers, the under parts white, and the bill
and feet nearly black.

Nestling. — Mr. Saunders remarks that there is scarcely any
difference between the nestlings of the Arctic and Common
Terns, but the former has a tendency to more pronounced
black on the throat ; the upper parts have a buffish ground-
colour which seems to be very variable in tint.

Young. — Can always be distinguished from the old ones by
the sandy-buff bars on the upper surface. The bill is yellow
at the base, with the tip horn-colour ; the feet (says Mr.
Saunders) are yellow up to October, afterwards browner. The
forehead is white, the occiput blackish, the sides of the neck
and flanks tinged with buff, and there is a considerable amount
of grey on the outer webs of the tail- feathers.

Range in Great Britain. — The breeding range of the Arctic
Tern is more northerly than that of the Common Tern, as it
nests from the Humber to the Fame Islands northwards
along the east coast of Scotland to the Orkneys and the
Shetlands, being the only species of Tern which breeds in
the latter group of islands. On the west coast of Scotland it
breeds as far south as the Isle of Skye, and in former times
it was known to do so as far south as Cornwall. In its
southern nesting area, however, it seems to be out-numbered
by the Common Tern. In Ireland, Mr. R. J. Ussher says it
" breeds on islands off the coast, usually in company with the
Common Tern, in Donegal, Antrim, Down, Dublin, Wexford,
Cork, Kerry, Galway, and Mayo. A few breed on an inland
lake, Lough Carra, in Mayo." Along the shores of Great
Britain it occurs everywhere on migration, but seldom appears
inland.

Range outside the British Islands. — The distribution of the
Arctic Tern is thus summed up by Mr. Saunders in the
twenty-fifth volume of the " Catalogue of Birds " : — " Circum-
polar and northern regions of the Old and New Worlds,

ROSEATE TERN. 23

breeding from 82° N. lat. (or higher ? ) down to about 50° N.
in Europe and 42° in America. In winter southwards to the
coasts and waters of Peru, Chili, Brazil, Africa, and even to
66° S. lat. in the Southern Ocean."

Habits. — In its mode of "life the present species differs but
little from the Common Tern. It is very bold when its nests
are in danger, and not only drives off Gulls and Skuas, but will
also swoop at any man who approaches the vicinity of its nest.
The young birds assemble in flocks after the nesting season,
and Mr. E. W. Nelson says that in Alaska, towards the middle
of August, they are very common on the marshes, and follow
an intruder about from place to place, uttering an odd, squeaky
imitation of the notes of the adult birds. They heedlessly
hover close over head, and the expression of innocent wonder
in their soft black eyes makes them amusing little creatures to
watch.

Nest. — A hollow in the sand without linings ; but when
marshy ground is selected Mr. Nelson says that the nest is
lined with a few grass stems. Sometimes the eggs are laid on
the bare rock just beyond the reach of the waves.

. — Two or three in number, the former being the usual
complement, according to my correspondent, Mr. Robert
Read. They are rather smaller than those of the Common
Tern, and present more variations in colour. While many have
the characteristic spots and blotches of a similar aspect to that
of the eggs of Sterna fluviatilis, there is, in a general sense, a
distinctly more spotted appearance. Axis, 1*4-1 7 inch:
diam., i'i-i'2.

III. THE ROSEATE TERN. STERNA DOUGALLI.

Sterna dongalli^ Mont. Orn. Diet. Suppl. (1813); Dresser, B.
Eur. viii. p. 273, pi. 581 (1876) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B.
p. 181 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. YarrelPs Brit. B. Hi. p. 544
(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 277 (1885);
Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 629 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig.
Brit. B. part xxviii. (1894); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus.
xxv. p. 70 (1896).

24

Sterna macdougalli, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 648 (1852).
(Plate XCVIL}

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearly-grey,
slightly paler on the rump and upper tail-coverts and inner
secondaries, which are margined with white at the ends ; wing-
coverts like the back, as also the bastard-wing and primary-
coverts ; quills pearly-grey, the primaries edged on the inner
web and the secondaries on the outer web, with white ; quills
pearly-grey, darker on the inner webs, which have rather broad
borders of white ; the three outer primaries with white shafts,
emphasized on the first by a blackish outer web, and along the
inner edge of the white shaft by a line of blackish, becoming
dark grey towards the end of the feathers ; the second and
third primaries with a dark grey and broader line along the
inner length of the shaft, but the outer web frosted with pearly-
grey ; all the other primaries white-shafted, with darker grey
on the inner web, broader but not inclining to blackish ;
secondaries pearly-grey, with white tips and a good deal of
white on the inner web ; tail-feathers pearly-grey, almost white,
the long outer feathers nearly entirely white ; crown of head
and nape black, with a very distinct pointed crest ; hind-neck,
sides of face, and under surface of the body white, with a
beautiful rosy blush, which disappears in time; the line of
black and white on the sides of the head very sharply defined,
and extending across the lower half of the lores, below the
eye, above the ear-coverts ; " bill orange at the base, the
anterior part from the angle black ; tarsi and toes orange-red ;
by the end of May, in the northern hemisphere, the amount
of black on the bill has largely increased " (Saunders). Total
length, 137 inches; culmen, 1*45; wing, S'8; tail, 5*9; tarsus,
0-85.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 13-1
inches; wing, 8-5.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but differing in the forehead being spotted with white, the
under parts nearly white, with little pink tint ; bill nearly
black (Saunders).

Young. — Differs from the adult in being mottled with a black
sub-terminal bar to the feathers of the upper surface, quills,

ROSEATE TERN. 25

and tail-feathers ; a distinct white collar round the hind-neck ;
the crown of the head and nape blackish streaked with white,
the forehead whiter and streaked with bLick ; lores and sides
of hinder crown blackish ; marginal lesser wing-coverts black,
forming a bar ; " bill black ; feet grey ; iris black " (Dr.
Coppinger}.

Young in First Winter Plumage.— Grey above like the adult in
winter plumage, but distinguished by the dark band along the
marginal upper wing coverts ; the head and nape black, the
forehead white.

Characters. — The Roseate Tern may be recognised from the
two preceding species by its long and slender bill, which is
orange at the base and black at the end, but more especially
by the inner webs of the primaries being white to the tips.

Range in Great Britain. — The present species formerly bred in
small colonies in various places off the coasts of the British
Isles. The best-known breeding- ground of the Roseate Tern
was the Fame Islands, but on the west coast Foulney and
Walney Islands were both resorts for the species, as well as
some of the Scilly Islands. The late Mr. Henry Seebohm,
however, believed that the species was practically extinct in
the British Islands, but under the protective measures now
adopted at the Fames and elsewhere, the species has resumed
its nesting in some of its old haunts.

I have, moreover, received the following interesting note from
Mr. J. T. Proud, of Bishop Auckland : — " I am glad to say that
I know of a nice little colony of Roseate Terns breeding with
the Common and Arctic Terns, in Wales. I have this year
(1896) spent considerable time in making sure of the correct
identification of the eggs. I found by marking the nests and
watching the birds on to them, that the eggs (never more than
two in number} were quite different from those of the Arctic
and Common Terns, and having once made sure of the
difference, there was no mistaking them."*

Mr. R. J. Ussher says that, in Ireland, the species formerly
bred on islands off the coasts of Down, Dublin, and Wexford.

* Mr Proud very kindly sent up the eggs and the bird, which I handed
over to Mr. Saunders, and he exhibited them at the meeting of the B. O.
Club on the 2oth of January, 1897.

26 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range Outside the British Islands. — The Roseate Tern is a
maritime species, and is found on most of the coasts of the
temperate and tropical portions of the Old and New Worlds.
In many of its southern habitats it is only known as a winter
visitor, but it also breeds in several of its tropical resorts,
such, for instance, being Ceylon, the Andaman Islands, New
Caledonia, and the West Indies. It does not range north
of 57° N. lat., being, as Mr. Saunders remarks, "merely
a straggler to the coasts of the North Sea. It has several
colonies on the west side of France, and a few examples have
been obtained in the Mediterranean ; while we trace it to the
Azores and across the Atlantic — by way of the Bermudas — to
America. There it is found breeding along the east coast
from New England to Honduras, and throughout the West
Indies, though it has not yet been obtained on the Pacific
sea-board." In winter it visits South Africa, the Indian and
Australian oceans, and breeds in Northern Australia. Speci-
mens from southern localities are often found in full breeding
plumage, and we may expect that more nesting-places of the
species will yet be discovered.

Habits. — The Roseate Tern is so called on account of the
beautiful rosy blush which is seen over the white under parts,
a feature which, unfortunately, disappears gradually in preserved
specimens, though traces may still be seen in skins which have
been in cabinets for years. There is little to say about its
habits, which are like those of other Terns, except that it is
more exclusively a maritime species than the Arctic or Common
Terns. Its note is said to be a somewhat harsh " crake."

Nest. — As with other Terns, there is generally no real nest, a
slight hollow in the sand being made for the reception of the
eggs, though occasionally a few bits of dried grass form the
scanty lining.

Eggs. — Mr. Proud tells me that the eggs are invariably two in
number. Seebohm says two or three are found, and Mr.
Howard Saunders records instances of four being met with,
probably the produce of two females. In general colour the
eggs of the Roseate Tern resemble those of the Common Tern,
but they are somewhat more elongated, and the markings
are smaller and more scattered, the grey underlying markings

SANDWICH TERN. 27

being often very distinct. In one specimen in the British
Museum the ground-colour is purplish-buff with brown spots.
Axis, i'55-i'85 inch; diam. 1*05-1 "2.

IV. THE SANDWICH TERN. STERNA CANTIACA.

Sterna cantiaca, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 606 (1788); Macgill.
Brit. B. v. p. 630 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 301,
pi. 586 (1877); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 183 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 540 (1884); See-
bohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 272 (1885); Saunders, Man.
Brit. B. p. 627 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix.
(1894) ; Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 75 (1896.)

Adult Male. — General colour above dark pearly-grey, the
scapulars tipped with white; wing-coverts like the back, with
the bend of the wing white ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and
quills darker pearly-grey, especially the primaries, which are
frosted externally with dark grey ; the four outer primaries with
white shaft, accompanied by a blackish band along its inner
aspect to the end of the feathers, the rest of the inner webs
white ; inner primaries and secondaries white, with more or
less grey on the outer webs ; upper tail-coverts and tail white ;
crown of head and nape blue-black, the crest-feathers pointed ;
the lower half of the lores, sides of face, sides of neck and a
collar round the hind neck, as well as the under surface of the
body with the under wing-coverts and axillaries, pure white.
Total length, i6'5 inches; culmen, 2-3; wing, ir8; tail, 6-5;
tarsus, i -i.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 16-5
inches ; wing, 12*0.

Adult in Winter. — Differs from the summer plumage in
wanting the black head, the forehead being white, with a black
spot in front of the eye ; the crown white, with a few narrow
black streaks, and the nape more thickly streaked with black.

Young. — Mottled all over with sub-marginal or sub-terminal
bars of black ; along the lesser wing-coverts a band of ashy-
grey ; tail-feathers dusky at tips and barred or spotted with
black ; bill horn-coloured, yellowish at the base of the under
mandible,

28 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Nestling. — Clothed in greyish down with a sandy-buff tinge,
the head somewhat white, and all the upper parts mottled with
dusky blackish, very indistinctly; below white; bill yellowish ;
feet greyish-brown, the webs paler.

Characters. — The Sandwich Tern is the largest of our indi-
genous Terns, the wings exceeding twelve inches in length.
The feet are black, and the bill is black with a yellow tip.
The feathers of the nape are pointed and form an elongated
crest.

Range in the British Islands. — This species is a summer visitor
to Great Britain, and still breeds regularly on the Fame Islands
as well as in a few other localities in England and Scotland,
on both the east and west coasts. In several places, such as
the Scilly Islands, where the species was formerly known to
breed, it is no longer seen during the nesting season. Mr.
Ussher says that in Ireland it is "only known to breed at
the present day on one small lake near Ballina, in Mayo, where
it is strictly preserved. It has disappeared from its former
breeding place on the Rockabill, Co. Dublin."

Range outside the British Islands. — The following extract from
Mr. Saunders' recent volume on the Laridce gives the range
of the Sandwich Tern with a preciseness which leaves me
nothing to improve upon : — " Atlantic and North Sea coasts
from the Orkneys southwards to the Mediteranean Black Sea,
and Caspian (breeding) ; in winter, along the west coast of
Africa to the Cape of Good Hope and up to Natal, down the
Red Sea, and across Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf,
Mekran coast, and Karachi. East side of America from
southern New England to British Honduras, not breeding to
the northward of Florida ; only found on the Pacific side on
the coast of Guatemala and vicinity, where the continent is
very narrow."

Habits. — Seehohm thus describes a visit to the Fame Islands
in 1870, when the Sandwich Terns were nesting in some num-
bers : — "On a gently sloping sand-bank leading up to the
centre of the island, which was merely a mass of shelving rock
perhaps thirty feet across, there was a large colony of the
Sandwich Tern. In the thick of them there must have been

SMALLER SOOTY TERN. 2 9

on an average a nest per square yard. The birds, which were not
then sitting (it was the 3rd of June), soon discovered that their
colony was being invaded, and flew in hundreds over us for a
short time." Besides taking the eggs of other species, such as Eider
Ducks, Gulls, &c., he states that he saw more than two hundred
eggs of the Sandwich Tern. " In the year when I found them
in still greater abundance, they had chosen the same locality
for their colony ; but they were so much molested that they
soon deserted the place and moved their quarters to the grass-
covered island adjoining, where their eggs where in such pro-
fusion that we inadvertently trod on many of them. In this
locality many of the birds had arranged the scattered bits of
dead weed which were lying about into the semblance of a
nest. In addition to the Krr-ee, which seems, in a more or less
modified form, to be common to all the Terns, the Sandwich
Tern has a note which may be represented by the syllables
skerr-rek. The nesting season in the Fames begins about the
middle of May."

Nest. — This is described by Seebohrn as merely a slight
hollow in the bare sand, in diameter and depth of the dimen-
sions of a cheese-plate, and he says that the nests and eggs
were very difficult to distinguish from the sand and fine gravel
by which they were surrounded. The nests are, however,
sometimes more substantial structures of bents.

Eggs. — Two or three in number, rarely the latter. They are
very handsome and vary to any extent. The ground-colour is
generally clay-coloured or ochreous-buff, deeper or lighter in
shade, the spots and markings being black or dark brown,
often with the purplish-grey underlying spots very distinct and
quite as plain as the overlying spots and blotches. In many
examples the spots and scribblings of black are distributed over
the whole egg, while others are remarkable for their bold
confluent blotches. Axis, 2 '0-2 '25 inches ; diam., i'55-i'5.

V. THE SMALLER SOOTY TERN. STERNA AN^ESTHETA.

Sterna an&stheta, Scop. Del. Flor. et. Faun. Insubr. i. p. 92,
no. 72 (1786); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 565,
note (1884); id. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 101 (1895.)

30 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Adult Male. — General colour above sooty-brown, shaded with
ashy-grey ; the mantle conspicuously greyer than the back ;
wing-coverts like the back ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and
quills black, the primaries with brown shafts and a long "wedge "
of white on the inner web, gradually diminishing in size on the
inner primaries; upper tail-coverts and tail-feathers brown, shaded
with ashy-grey ; the outermost tail-feather white, the next white
for two-thirds of its length and brown for the terminal third ;
the next feather white for nearly half its length and brown for
the terminal half; the white on the central feathers becoming
gradually reduced in size and confined to the inner web; crown
of head and nape black, with a white frontal band extending
backwards in a broad streak over the eye ; a black streak across
the lores from the base of the bill to the eye ; cheeks, ear-
coverts, and entire under surface of body white, including the
under wing-coverts and axillaries ; " bill, tarsi, and feet black,
the inner webs of the latter considerably excised " (Saunders}.
Total length, 15 inches; oilmen, 1*55; wing, io'o ; tail, 6'6;
tarsus, 0-9.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 1 5 inches ;
wings, 10*4.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but with the lores and crown mottled with white for a short
time. (Saimders.)

Young. — Sooty-brown above, the head mottled obscurely with
dull rufous, with which colour the feathers of the upper surface
are edged ; these rufous margins gradually fading to white and
ultimately becoming abraded ; under surface of body light
dove-grey, whiter on the face and throat ; under wing-
coverts white with a grey shade.

Young in First Winter Plumage. — Rather more ashy than the
adults, and with conspicuous white or ashy-white margins to
the feathers of the back ; the mantle hoary-whitish ; forehead
and crown white, the hinder crown broadly streaked with
black ; the nape and hind neck entirely black ; wing-coverts
brown, the marginal ones black, forming a band. Mr.
Saunders says that full plumage is not attained till the bird is
at least two years old.

SMALLER SOOTY TERN. 31

Characters. — This species is easily recognised from all the
other British Terns, except S. fuliginosa, by its white forehead
and black streak across the lores. The upper surface is sooty-
black, including the rump, and the mantle is lighter, umber-
brown or ashy-grey, contrasting with the black head. So
different in style of plumage are the Sooty Terns that they have
been placed by many authors in a separate genus — Haliplana —
and the uniform sooty colour of the young bird, only relieved
by white or rufous tips to the feathers, is quite peculiar among
the true Terns. Notwithstanding these differences, however,
Mr. Saunders has come to the conclusion that the Sooty Terns
cannot be separated structurally and generically from Sterna.

Ra,nge in Great Britain. — The present species has occurred in
England only on one occasion, when a specimen was captured
in September, 1875, on one of the lightships at the mouth of
the Thames. The evidence of the occurrence of this example,
which is now in the collection of Mr. Edward Bidwell, appears
to be fairly conclusive, as is admitted by Mr. Saunders, who has
himself investigated the circumstances.

Range Outside the British Islands. — The following is the distribu-
tion allotted to the species by Mr. Saunders in the "Catalogue
of Bifds": — "Inter-tropical and juxta-tropical seas — Gulf of
Mexico and West Indies ; West Africa, Lower Red Sea, East
Africa, Madagascar, and Mascarene Islands and Indian Ocean
generally ; Moluccas, China Sea up to Japan, Pelew Islands,
New Guinea, Northern Australia, the Fiji, Tonga, Ellice, and
Phoenix groups. In the Low Islands and the Sandwich Islands
the representative species appears to be S. lunata."

Habits. — These are doubtless similar to those of the Sooty
Tern in many respects, but Gilbert remarks that on Hout-
mann's Abrolhos in Western Australia, he found it breeding,
and that the species differed from its allies, "inasmuch as,
instead of being gregarious, each pair remains solitary, and its
single egg is deposited in the fissure of a rock close to the
water's edge without any nest or flooring."

Nest. — None, the single egg being deposited in the holes of
the loose friable coral sandstone, according to Macgillivray, who
met with the species on the islands of Torres Straits.

32 ALLEN'S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Eggs.— Ground-colour varying from whitish stone-colour to
clay-brown, the markings being reddish-brown or black, and
varying in character from small spots, streaks, and lines or
scratches, to larger spots or small blotches, never confluent,
and equally distributed over the surface of the egg ; the under-
lying spots of purplish-grey distinctly indicated, but seldom
equalling the overlying markings in prominence. Axis, 1*75-
i 95 inch; diam. i^-i^.

VI. THE SOOTY TERN. STERNA FULIGINOSA.

Sterna fuliginosa, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 605 (1788); Dresser,
B. Eur. viii. p. 307, pi 587 (1877) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B.
p. 183 (1883); Saunders, ed. YarrelPs Brit. B. iii. p. 562
(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 292 (1885);
Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 637 (1889) ; id. Cat. B. Brit.
Mus. xxv. p. 106 (1896).

Adult Male. — Similar to S. ancestheta, but more uniformly
sooty-black above, the light mantle not being emphasized, and
thus the black crown is scarcely darker than the remainder of
the upper surface ; the quills blackish, with a dark ashy
" wedge " on the inner web of the primaries, not white as in
S. ancBstheta ; " bill and feet black, with a slightly reddish tinge "
(Saunders). Total length, 14/5 inches; culmen, r65; wing,
ii'o; tail, 5 "8; tarsus, 0*85.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 15-5 inches;
wing, 1 1 '6.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Only distinguishable from the
summer plumage by having white flecks on the lores and
crown {Saunders).

Nestling.— Mottled above with dusky-blackish and sandy-
buff, intermixed with a good deal of white on the back and
rump ; under surface of body whitish, the cheeks and sides of
the face like the back. As the young bird increases in size,
the down is replaced by blackish feathers which have sandy-
rufous or white tips, those on the scapular-plumes being con-
spicuously white. The under surface of the body is white.
but the sides of the face are like the crown and are similarly
mottled.

SOOTY TERN. 33

Young Birds. — The fully-grown young in its first plumage is
sooty- brown above and below, the under surface being, perhaps,
a trifle paler, and the lower abdomen white ; the feathers of
the back, wing-coverts, secondaries, and tail-feathers tipped with
a bar of sandy-rufous, which soon bleaches to white.

Characters. — As in the preceding species, the dark colour of
the upper parts is the chief characteristic. It is a larger bird
than 6". anccstJieta, with a longer wing; and it is further dis-
tinguished from that species by having the web between the
middle and inner toe nearly full, and far less excised than in
•S". anastheta.

Range in Great Britain. — Only three occurrences of the present
species in England appear to be beyond dispute, as Mr.
Saunders says that most of the examples identified as Sooty
Terns have turned out to be Black Terns. One specimen was
procured at Tutbury, near Burton-on-Trent, in October, 1852 ;
another near Wallingford, in Berkshire, on the 2ist of June,
1869; and another near Bath on the 4th of October, 1885.

Range outside the British Islands. — "Tropical and juxta-tropical
seas, wherever suitable islands and reefs exist ; occasionally
wandering to Maine in North America and to Europe. Almost
unknown on the South American side of the Pacific ; other-
wise very generally distributed " {H. Saunders).

Habits. — The enormous quantities of this Tern which frequent
certain isolated breeding-places of sea-birds, such, for instance,
as the volcanic island of Ascension, have often been written
about, and a description of " Wide-awake Fair," as the assem-
blage of Terns is called on that island, has more than once been
published. Two hundred dozen of eggs have, been collected
on Ascension in a single morning. Macgillivray, too, speaks
of the enormous numbers which he found breeding on Raine's
Islet in Torres Straits. He writes : — " During the month of
June, 1844, about 1,500 dozen of eggs were procured by the
party on the island. About the 2oth of June nearly one-half
of the young birds (hatched twenty-five or thirty days previ-
ously) were able to fly, and many were quite strong on the
wing. Great numbers of young birds unable to fly were killed
for the pot ; in one mess of twenty-two men the average
'5 D

*34 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

number consumed daily in June was fifty ; and supposing the
convicts (twenty in number) to have consumed as many, 3,000
young birds must have been killed in one month ; yet I could
'^observe no sensible diminution in the number of young, a
'circumstance which will give the reader some idea of the vast
•number of birds of this species congregated on a mere vegetated
: sand-bank like Raine's Islet."

A similar gathering of these Terns during the nesting-season
has been described and figured by the Hon. Walter Rothschild
in his " Avifauna of Laysan."

Nest. — None, the egg being deposited in the sand or among
the fissures of the volcanic debris of an island such as
Ascension.

Egg. — One only. Compared with the eggs of S. anczstheta,
the markings, though very similar in character, are, as a rule,
bolder, and the ground-colour approaches in some specimens
to a purplish-buff. Axis, 1-95-2-15 inches; diam., i'35-i'55-

VII. THE LITTLE TERN. STERNA MINUTA.

Sterna minuta, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 228 (1766) ; Macgill.
Brit. B. v. p. 652 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 279,
pi. 582 (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 181 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 558 (1884); Seebobm,
Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 289 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B.
p. 635 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix. (1894);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 116 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above pearly-grey, the wing-
coverts like the back ; lower rump and upper tail-coverts
white ; bastard-wing pearly-grey, but the primary-coverts
blackish like the primaries, the first three of which are blackish
along the outer web and also along the inner side of the shaft
for the whole length of the quill, broadening on the second
and third primary, all three of them having the rest of the
inner web white ; remainder of the primaries pearly-grey, a
little darker than the back, and with white margins to the inner-
most ; secondaries mostly white, the outer web and the shaft
dusky-grey ; the innermost secondaries pearly-grey like the

LITTLE TERN. 35

back ; tail-feathers white ; forehead and feathers above the eye
white ; crown of head and nape black, as also a line through
the eye and the lores ; cheeks, sides of face, and under sur-
face of body pure silky white ; " bill gamboge-yellow, tipped
with black ; tarsi and feet orange-yellow " (H. Saunders).
Total length, 9*5 inches; culmen, 1*3; wing, 6'8 ; tail, 3*4;
tarsus, 0*6.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but with the outer tail-
feathers scarcely so developed. Total length, 9*0 inches ;
wing, 6*8.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but with more white on the forehead, and with the outer
primaries rather darker towards their ends.

Young- Birds. — These are easily distinguished by the black
mottling on the feathers of the upper surface, which takes the
form of circular bars or arrow-headed sub-terminal bars, all the
feathers being tinged or edged with sandy-buff; the rump
light pearly-grey, with a shade of the latter colour over the
upper tail-coverts and tail-feathers; wing-coverts mottled like
the back, with a dark-grey band along the marginal lesser wing-
coverts ; forehead sullied white, the crown sandy-buff streaked
with black, the hinder crown and nape entirely blackish ; a loral
streak of dusky black ; bill blackish, with a slight reddish tinge.

The sandy colour of the upper surface in the young bird
quickly disappears, but the black bars are maintained till the
autumn moult.

Nestling. — Light sandy-buff, spotted and streaked with black;
under surface whitish, the throat sandy-buff, with the region of
the gape dusky.

Range in Great Britain. — The Little Tern is found nesting in
scattered colonies on most of the coasts of the British Islands,
though many localities in the north of England and in Scotland,
where the species formerly bred, know it no more. It arrives
from the south early in May, and leaves in September or in
the first weeks of October. Mr. Ussher says that in Ireland it
breeds on sea-beaches in Donegal, Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford,
Galway, and Mayo, but in much smaller numbers than the
Common or Arctic Terns,

D 2

36 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range outside the British Islands. — The species extends to about
60° N. lat. in Europe, is scarce on the northern shores of the Baltic,
and, as Mr. Howard Saunders says, is " rare on the southern
shore of that sea, following the course of the large rivers for
so great a distance — nesting on their islands and sand-banks —
that it may be said to extend across the Continent to the
Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas, while it also fre-
quenis the Atlantic coast." Eastward it ranges to Transcaspia,
Turkestan, and Northern India., breeding in all these localities.
In winter it ranges along the coast of West Africa to the Cape
of Good Hope, and is found at the same season along the
Burmese coasts as far south as the island of Java. The place
of the Little Tern is taken by Sterna saundersi in the Indian
Ocean, the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and along the coast of
East Africa to Natal and the Mascarene Islands.

Habits. — The Little Tern is one of a group of small species,
distributed over the greater part of the Old World, as well as
temperate and tropical North America. From their small size
and different appearance to the ordinary Terns they have often
been separated from the latter as a distinct genus Sternula,
but Mr. Saunders finds no characters for their generic separa-
tion from the members of the genus Sterna.

Nevertheless, any one who has seen the birds on the shore,
recognises at once a certain difference in the appearance and
ways of the Little Tern from those of its larger and more
conspicuous colleagues. This may be due, however, rather
to the smaller size of S. minuta, and its quicker motions, than
to any real difference in the habits of this small Tern,
as, after all, the ways of the species of the genus Sterna
are very much alike. Naturally the small size of the present
bird renders it less conspicuous than the Common Tern, and
whereas the colonies of the latter bird can generally be detected
from some distance, the Little Terns are only discovered by
a sudden invasion of their nesting-places. The pairs keep
together, and may generally be seen sitting side by side, though
they do not permit of a near approach, but fly off before the
intruder comes within gun-shot. Only when they have young,
however, are they more venturesome, and fly much nearer
to the enemy. Such, at least, is my experience, though other

NODDY TERN. 37

observers have found the bird quite bold, so much so that it
has been known to settle down on its nest within sight of the
intruder.

Nest. — Mr. Robert Read tells me that in the south-east of
England he has never found any attempt at a nest, the eggs
being laid on the bare sand. Thus, too, I have found them
myself; but on the east coast of Scotland, Mr. Read says that
he has found some very pretty nests, consisting of a cup-
shaped hollow scooped out of the sand, and surrounded by a
rin of broken cockle-shells and other shells of various colours.

3. — Generally two, but sometimes three in number, vary-
ing to a remarkable extent in tint of ground-colour, from
greyish stone-colour to buff or clay-brown of different shades.
The markings are generally distributed over the whole surface
of the egg, and are, as a rule, scattered spots of deep reddish-
brown or black, occasionally confluent and forming a blotch,
but it is very seldom that large blotches are seen. The under-
lying grey spots are always more or less in evidence. Axis,
i "25-1 '4 inch; diam. 0*9-1 *o.

THE NODDY TERNS. GENUS ANOUS.

Anous, Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xiii. part i. p. 139 (1826).

Type A. stolidus (L.).

The Noddies are remarkable for their sombre plumage.
The tail is graduated, and the outer pair of tail-feathers are
shorter than the next pair, the fourth pair from the outside
being the longest. The toes are short, and the middle toe
and claw do not equal the culmen in length. The bill is
strong and decurved at the tip, and the distance from the
angle of the genys to the tip is less than the distance from
this angle to the gape. (Cf. Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv.
P- 5-)

I. THE NODDY TERN. ANOUS STOLIDUS.

Sterna stolida, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 227 (1766); Seebohm,

Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 294 (1885).
Megalopterus stolidus, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 672 (1852).

3 8 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

A nous stolidus, B. O. U. List, Brit. B. p. 186 (1883) ; Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 567 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.
p. 639 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix. (1894) ;
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 136 (1896).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above dark
chocolate-brown, rather darker on the rump and upper tail-
coverts ; wing-coverts like the back ; primary-coverts and quills
blackish, the inner secondaries chocolate-brown like the back ;
tail-feathers blackish ; forehead white, extending in a narrow
line above the eye ; rest of the crown pearly-grey, slightly
darker on the nape and hind neck ; lores and feathers round
the eye leaden-black ; eyelid white ; remainder of sides of face
and under surface of body chocolate-brown, with a shade of
grey perceptible on the sides of the face and throat, as well as
on the under wing-coverts ; " bill blackish ; tarsi and feet
reddish-brown, fully webbed, the webs ochraceous" (H.
Saunders}. Total length, 14*5 inches; culmen, 1*2; wing,
in; tail, 5-6; tarsus, 1-05.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but slightly smaller, with
a weaker bill, and, as a rule, somewhat browner on the
shoulders and with less lead-colour on the throat. Total
length, 14*5 inches ; wing, io-5.

Young. — Browner than the adults and rather paler ; forehead
and crown greyish-brown, with a narrow white superciliary line,
conspicuous by contrast against the blackish lores. A fledge-
ling from Ascension Island is umber-brown above and below,
with the whitish streak above the lores very marked and
continuous round the base of the bill, and with a slight greyish
tint on the forehead. A downy nestling about five days old,
from British Honduras, has the forehead and crown dull white,
the lores blackish ; the upper surface mouse-brown ; the nape
and the throat darkest, with the lower parts paler ; another,
only just hatched is nearly uniform sooty-brown (Saunders).

Eange in Great Britain. — The only examples of the Noddy
recorded from the British Islands, or, for that matter, from any
part of Europe, are two specimens obtained in Ireland, off the
coast of Wexford, between the Tuskar Lighthouse and the Bay

NODDY TERN 39

of Dublin, about the year 1830. One of them is still preserved
in the Dublin Museum.

Range outside the British Islands. — The following summary of
the distribution of the Noddy is given by Mr. Saunders in the
British Museum " Catalogue of Birds " : — " Tropical and
juxta-tropical America, chiefly on the Atlantic side, but also
on the Pacific, in Mexico and the central region ; Atlantic
down to Tristan da Cunha (breeding) ; inter-tropical African
and Asian seas, up to Yeddo ; Australasia down to about 35°
S. ; islands of the Pacific up to Laysan, &c., and as far as Sala
y Gomez, 105° W. ; also Chatham Island, Galapagos (Jtde
Ridgway), but not on the coasts of Peru or Chile. Breeding,
as a rule, where found."

Habits. — The Noddies nest in enormous numbers in some of
the islands of the Southern Ocean, generally in the vicinity of
the Sooty Tern (S. fuliginosa) with which the Noddy is always
on good terms. The birds are generally so tame as to be with
difficulty removed from their nests, but Mr. Palmer says that
he has known them boldly drive away Albatroses. Gilbert gives
a good account of the nesting of the Noddy on Houtman's
Abrolhos off Western Australia, and he declares that the
increase in the number of the Terns would be overwhelming
but for the check which nature has provided against it in the
shape of a lizard, which is extremely abundant about their
breeding-places, rinding an easy prey in the Noddy and
Sooty Terns. " I am satisfied," he writes, "from constant
observation, that, on an average, not more than one out of
every twenty birds hatched ever reaches maturity or lives long
enough to take wing ; besides this, great numbers of the old
birds are constantly killed. These lizards do not eat the whole
bird, but merely extract the brains and vertebral marrow ; the
remainder, however, is soon cleared off by the Dermestes
lardariuS) a beetle which is here in amazing numbers, and gave
me a great deal of uneasiness and constant trouble to preserve
my collection from its repeated attacks." The food of the
Noddy is said by Gilbert "to consist of small fish, small
mollusca, medusae, cuttle-fish, &c."

Nest — Made of sea-weed, according to Gilbert ; about six
inches in diameter, and varying in height from four to eight

40 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

inches, but without anything like regularity of form ; the top is
nearly flat, there being but a very slight hollow to prevent the
egg rolling off. The nests are so completely plastered with
the excrement of the birds, that at first sight it appears to be
almost the only material ; they are either placed on the ground,
in a clear open space, or on the tops of the thick scrub, over
those of S. fuliginosa. These two species, the Noddy and
the Sooty Tern, incubate together in the utmost harmony,
the bushes to an immense extent wearing a mottled appearance
from the great mass of birds of both species perched on the
top, the male Sooty Tern sitting quite close to the nest of the
Noddy, whilst its mate is beneath, performing her arduous
duties of incubation. (Cf. Gould's Handb. B. Austr. ii. p. 413).
Sometimes no nest is made and the egg is placed in a crevice
of rock or coral-reef.

Eggs. — One only, according to the observations of all recent
observers. Audubon gives the number as three. They
are similar to those of the Sooty Tern, and of the same
character, but they are always much paler and never exceed a
light stone-colour, the spotting being much more sparsely
distributed and smaller ; the type with scratches or zig-zag
markings appears to be absent. On the other hand, there are
one or two eggs in the British Museum which have distinct
blotches, confluent at the larger end, and in one example, the
large end of the egg is taken up by an immense patch of red-
dish-brown. Axis, 2'o5-2*i5 inches ; diam. 1*4-1*55.

Mr. Saunders points out that the yolk of the Noddy's
egg is yellow, while that of the Sooty Tern is deep orange-
red. The Hon. Walter Rothschild also calls attention to the
fact that the inside of the Noddy's egg is darker and more
green when held up to the light.

THE GULLS. SUB-FAMILY LARIN.E.

In the Gulls, the bill is what is called " epignathous,"
the upper mandible being longer and bent down over the
tip of the lower one ; tail usually square, seldom forked,
exceptionally cuneate. (Cf. Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv,
p. 4 (1895).)

SAEINE'S GULL. 41

THE FORK-TAILED GULLS. GENUS XEMA.

Xema, Leach in J. Ross's Voy. Baffin's Bay, App. ii. p. 57

(1819).

Type X. sabinii (J. Sabine).

In this genus the tail is considerably forked, and the wings
long, the hind-toe being free and very small.

Only two species of Fork -tailed Gull are known, the
Arctic X. sabinii, and X. furcata of the Galapagos Islands,
which seems to wander down the Pacific coast of South
America, as it has been found at Paracas Bay, in Peru.

i. SABINE'S GULL. XEMA SABINII.

Larus sabinii) J. Sabine, Trans. Linn. Soc. xii. p. 520, pi. 29

(1818); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 298 (1885);

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xx. (1891).
Gavia sabinii, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 607 (1852.)
Xema sabinii, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 337, pi. 593(1874);

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 193 (1883); Saunders ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 573 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 641 (1889) ; id. Cat. B. Mus. xxv. p. 162 (1896).

(Plate XCVIIL}

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above light
ashy-grey, including the wing-coverts and inner secondaries,
the latter as well as the greater wing- coverts being tipped with
white, the latter very broadly, so that nearly the terminal half
of the external greater wing-coverts is white ; exterior lesser
coverts, bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and primaries black,
the latter tipped with white, and having the inner half of the
inner web longitudinally white, but this not reaching to the end
of the quill on the first five primaries ; the black much
diminished on the next two primaries, the inner primaries and
the secondaries being white ; the innermost secondaries light
ashy-grey, white at their ends; lower rump, upper tail- coverts,
and tail white, the latter conspicuously forked ; head, sides of
face, and throat dark slaty-grey ; the hind-neck, sides of neck,
and under surface of body, from the lower throat downwards,"

42 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY,

pure white ; the slaty-grey head being separated from the white
neck and chest by a band of black ; bill black to the angle,
chrome-yellow anteriorly ; inside of mouth vermilion ; iris dark
brown, a narrow vermilion ring round the eye, beneath which
is a white speck ; tarsi and toes brown to blackish. Total
length, 13*3, culmen, 1*15; wing, 11*4; tail, 4*0; tarsus, 1*6.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 12*5 inches ;
wing, ii'o.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — According to Mr. Saunders, the
winter plumage is similar to the breeding dress, excepting as
regards the head, which is white, with grey streaks, which
coalesce on the nape and hind-neck, producing a greyish-black
appearance. The quills become worn and faded in colour,
and their tips abruptly broken off, as if cut artificially ; the bill
is duller in colour and the tips brown. By the beginning of
April the new primaries, with broad white tips, are fully de-
veloped, and the head is plentifully besprinkled with slaty-grey.

Young. — Ashy-brown above, mottled all over with ashy-buff
edges to the feathers, emphasized by a sub-terminal bar of
black ; the head rather lighter ashy, with obscure fulvescent
margins ; lores and base of forehead, as well as a streak behind
the eye, white, as also the fore part of the cheeks; the feathers
below the eye and the ear-coverts slaty-grey ; under surface of
body white, with a large patch of ashy-brown on each side of
the upper breast, the feathers being margined with ashy-buff;
tail with a conspicuous black band at the end.

Range in Great Britain. — Young specimens of Sabine's Gull
have been frequently obtained off our coast, chiefly in autumn
and winter, between the months of August and December.
Two adults in summer plumage have been recorded, one from
Bridlington, in Yorkshire, and another from the Island of Mull.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is
circumpolar in distribution, and breeds throughout Arctic
America from Baffin Bay to Alaska, whence to the eastward
it has been found nesting on the Taimyr peninsula, by Dr. Von
Middendorff. In winter it visits the shores of Northern
Europe as a straggler, but in the New World it goes as far
south as the Bermudas and Southern Texas on the Atlantic
•side, and on the Pacific side the species has been found by

SABINES GULL. 43

Commander Macfarlane in swarms as far south as Callao Bay,
in Peru. It has not yet been recorded from Novaya Zemlya
or Franz-Josef Land, and, according to Mr. Howard Saunders,
it is very rare or local in Spitsbergen, while it is believed to be
merely a visitor to Jan Mayen.

Habits. — Mr. E. W. Nelson has given an interesting account
of this Gull as observed by him in Alaska. He writes : — " My
acquaintance with this bird began on my first excursion near
Saint Michael's, on June 26, 1877. We were caught by a head-
tide at the mouth of the ' canal,' some fifteen miles from the
fort and tied up to the bank to await the change. We stopped
soon after midnight, and taking my gun I strolled off across
the marshes in the soft twilight. For some time only the
hoarse cries of distant Loons, or the rolling note of a Crane
broke the silence. The whole scene was desolate in the
extreme ; not a living thing could be seen, and the bleaching
fragments of drift-wood scattered among the numberless ponds
were all that the wide extent of level marsh presented. About
1.30 a.m. the sky became brighter, and the rich tones of the
Swans, mellowed by the distance to a harmonious cadence,
came from the larger lakes, while various other inhabitants of
the marsh from time to time added their voices to the chorus.
In a few minutes a long straggling train of small Gulls was
seen passing over the ponds in silent procession. Approaching
them, they were found to be busily engaged in feeding on the
small fishes and various small larvae found in these pools. Their
motions and appearance were much like those of Bonaparte's
Gull, when seen at distance, but they rarely plunged into the
water like the latter, as the Xemas have the habit of hovering
gracefully close over the water to pick up a morsel, or of
alighting for an instant in the water and rising again on the
wing so lightly that scarcely a ripple is made on the surface.
Ten or a dozen beautiful specimens were shot without difficulty
as the birds flew about. Their food throughout the season
consists of sticklebacks at times, but mainly of such small larvae
and crustaceans as occur in brackish ponds. As August draws
to a close, young and old forsake the marshes to a great extent,
and for the rest of the season are found scattered along the.
coast, feeding at the water-line on the beaches.

44 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

" On a number of occasions I have mistaken the young of the
year of these Gulls for Plover or other Waders as they sought
their food along rocky beaches. In such cases they ran out
with each retiring wave and back before the incoming one,
with all the agility of a Wader.

" Sabine's Gull has a single harsh, grating, but not loud note,
very similar to the grating cry of the Arctic Tern, but somewhat
harsher and shorter. When wounded and pursued or captured,
it utters the same note in a higher and louder key, with such a
grating file-like intensity that one feels like stopping one's ears.
It has the same peculiar clicking interruptions which are so
characteristic of the cry of a small bat held in the hand. A low,
chattering modification of this is heard at times as the birds
gather about the border of a favourite pool, or float gracefully
in company over the surface of some grassy-bordered pond.
The same note in a higher key serves as a note of alarm and
curiosity as they fly off overhead when disturbed. When one
of these Gulls is brought down, the others of its kind hover
over it, but show less devotion than is usually exhibited by the
Terns."

Nest. — The nests are described by Mr. Nelson as having been
found by him on an island near St. Michael's. " The island,"
he says, " was very low, and the driest spots were but little
above the water. Built on the driest places were twenty-seven
nests, containing from one to two eggs each, and as many others
just ready for occupancy. Four or five nests were frequently
placed within two or three feet of each other. In about one
half of the cases the eggs were laid upon the few grass blades
the spot afforded, with no alteration save a slight depression
made by the bird's body. In the majority of the other nests
a few grass blades and stems had been arranged circularly
about the eggs, and in the remainder only enough material had
been added to afford the merest apology for a nest.

Eggs. — Two in number, of a very dark olive-brown with
reddish- brown spots, nowhere very distinct, the underlying grey
markings being still more obscure. In some examples the spots
are congregated near the large end of the egg, but, as a rule3
they are generally distributed over the whole surface. Axis,
r6-i'8inch; diam. i^-i^.

WEDGE-TAILED GULL. 45

THE WEDGE-TAILED GULLS. GENUS RHODOSTETIIIA.

Rhodostethia^ Bp. Comp. List B. Etir. and N. Amer. p. 62
(1838).

Type R. rosea (Macgill.).

The present genus, which contains only a single species, has
the tail wedge-shaped, the two middle feathers more than half
an inch longer than the next pair, and nearly two inches longer
than the outermost tail-feather.

1. THE WEDGE-TAILED GULL. RHODOSTETHIA ROSEA.

Larus roseus^ Macgill. Mem. Wern. Soc. v. no. xiii. p. 249

(1824).
Rhodostethia rossi^ Richardson; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 618

(1852).
Rhodostethia rosea. Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 343, pi. 594

(1877); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 192 (1883); Saunders,

ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 572 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 643 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. parts xvii. xxiii.

(1893); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 167 (1896).
Larus rossii, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 305 (1885).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above light
pearly -grey ; quills pearly-grey, with a blackish outer web to
the first primary ; secondaries white at the ends ; rump, upper
tail-coverts, and wedge-shaped tail white; head and neck all
round white, with a black collar round the latter; under
parts white, the under wing-coverts and quill-linings grey ;
axillaries white ; bill black ; a vermilion ring round the eye ;
tarsi, toes, and their webs bright red,

The whole of the white parts in this species are suffused
with a beautiful blush of rose-colour, whence the bird is often
popularly known as " Ross's Rosy Gull."

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Wants the black collar round the
neck, and, according to Mr. Saunders, the rosy colour is not so
prominent at this season of the year.

46 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Young. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adult and wanting
the black collar. The head, neck, and under surface of the
body white, with a greyish shade on the crown and a little black
behind the eye ; tail wedge-shaped and having a black band at
the end of all the feathers except the outer ones ; feathers of
the rump and upper tail-coverts tipped with black ; wing-coverts
and innermost secondaries black, with indistinct white tips,
forming a band down the wing ; bastard-wing and primary-
coverts black ; primaries black along the outer web and on the
inner side of the shaft, the rest of the inner web white, which
cuts across the end of the inner primaries and forms a sub-
terminal bar ; the innermost primaries white, with a black tip ;
the secondaries white ; tarsi and toes brown.

Range in Great Britain. — One specimen of the Wedge-tail Gull
has been recorded from England, having been said to have been
shot near Tadcaster, in December, 1846, or February, 1847.
This example, formerly in Sir W. Milner's collection, is now in
the Leeds Museum. Some doubt has been thrown on the
authenticity of the occurrence, as the specimen appears, in the
opinion of several naturalists, to have been mounted from a
skin and not from a freshly killed bird. As Mr. Saunders points
out, however, the species has occurred in Heligoland, and there
is nothing improbable in its having turned up in Yorkshire, to
which I may add that it would have been difficult for a dealer
to have purchased a skin fifty years ago.

Range outside the British Islands. — The following range for this
species is given by Mr. Howard Saunders : — " Arctic Regions,
N.W. Greenland (Disco); Melville Peninsula; Boothia; Point
Barrow, N. Alaska, coming from the direction of Herald
Island; St. Michael's, Alaska (once); icy sea from Bering
Strait to the mouth of the Lena ; Barents Sea between Franz-
Josef Land and Spitsbergen, including the latter; Faeroe
Islands (once); Yorkshire (once); Heligoland (once)." Dr.
Nansen discovered the breeding-place of this species on some
islands which he has called Hvitenland, in lat. 80° 38' N.,
long. 63° E. He writes in the " Daily Chronicle," of
November, 3, 1896:—

"This, the most markedly polar of all bird forms, is easily

'WEDGE-TAILED cuLL 47

recognisable from other species of Gull by its beautiful rose-
coloured breast, its wedge-shaped tail, and its airy flight.

"It is, without comparison, the most beautiful of all the
animal forms of the frozen regions. Hitherto it has only been
seen by chance on the utmost confines of the unknown Polar
Sea, and no one knew whence it came or whither it went ; but
here we had unexpectedly come upon its native haunt, and
although it was too late in the year (August, 1895), to find its
nests, there could be no doubt about its breeding in this region."

Habits. — Little is known of the habits of this rare Gull ; Mr.
John Murdoch, of the U.S. Signal Corps, procured a number
of specimens at Point Barrow. He writes: — " In 1881, from
September 28 to October 22, there were days when they were
exceedingly abundant in small flocks — generally moving
towards the north-east — either flying over the sea or making
short incursions inshore. Not a single one was seen during
the spring migrations or in the summer, but two or three
stragglers were noticed early in September — a few out among
the loose pack-ice — and on September 21, 1882, they were
again abundant, apparently almost all young birds. They
appeared in large loose flocks, coming in from the sea and
from the south-west, all apparently travelling to the north-east.
They continued in plenty for several days — while the east
wind blew — all following the same track, moving up the
shore, and making short excursions inland at each of the
beach lagoons. After September 28th they disappeared till
October 6th, when, for several days, there was a large flight.
On October gih in particular there was a continuous stream
of them all day long, moving up the shore a short distance
from the beach and occasionally swinging in over the land.
None were seen to return. The nature of our duties at the
station prevented any investigation as to where they came
from or whither they went. They appeared to come in from
the sea, in the west or north-west, and travelled along
the coast to the north-east. They were not observed on
Wrangel Island by either the ' Jeannette,' the ' Corwin,' or the
'Rodgers/ and yet the direction from which they come to
Point Barrow in the fall points to a breeding-ground some-
where in that part of the world. May it not be that some land

4$ ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

yet to be discovered, and north of Wrangel Island, will one
day yield a glorious harvest of the eggs of this splendid species?
It is difficult to form any idea of what becomes of the thousands
which pass Point Barrow to the north-east in the autumn. It
is certain that they do not return along the shore as they went.
Nevertheless, at that season of the year, they must of necessity
soon seek lower latitudes. Perhaps the most plausible sup-
position is that, soon after leaving Point Barrow, perhaps when
they encounter the first ice-pack, they turn and retrace their
steps so far out to sea as to be unnoticed from the land, and
pass the winter on the edge of the ice-field, proceeding north
to their breeding-ground as the pack travels north in the spring."

Nest. — As yet undescribed.

Eggs. — The British Museum contains an egg ascribed to this
species, from Christianshaab, on the south shore of Disco Bay,
in Greenland. The old bird is said to have been shot on the
nest, and its skin sent home with the egg, according to Mr.
Seebohm, to whose collection it formerly belonged. It is figured
in his " Coloured Illustrations of the Eggs of British Birds "
(plate 36, fig 6). The egg of the Wedged-tailed Gull seems
to be very similar in colour and in character to that of Sabine's
Gull, but is a little larger. Axis, 1-9 inch; diam. 1-3.

THE TRUE GULLS. GENUS LARUS.

Larus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 224 (1766).

(Type not indicated.)

In all the remaining Gulls the tail is nearly, or quite
square, and in this section of the sub-family Larintz, Mr.
Saunders places five genera, characterised principally by the
size of the hind-toe and its web. Thus the genera Larus and
Gabianus (the latter containing only one species, G. patifiais
from the southern ocean) have the hind-toe free, and mode-
rately or well-developed.

The genus Leucoph&us contains only a single species,
L. scoresbyii, from the extreme south of South America, and
has the feet coarse and the webs considerably indented, while
the hind-toe is joined to the inner toe by a rugose membrane.

In the genus Pagophila, which contains only the Ivory Gull,

LITTLE GULL. 49

the hind-toe is joined to the inner one by a strong serrated
membrane, and in the Kittiwakes of the genus Itissa the hind-
toe is obsolete or rudimentary.

I. THE LITTLE GULL. LARUS MINUTUS.

Lams minutus, Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs, iii. p. 702, App.
no. 35 (i776); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 373, pis. 599, $99 \
(1871); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 191 (1883); Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 589 (1884); Seebohm, Hist.
Brit. B. iii. p. 301 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 647
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix. (1894);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 173 (1896).

Gavia minuta^ Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 613 (1852).

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearly-grey, the
wing-coverts like the back, as also the bastard-wing and
primary-coverts ;. quills a little darker pearly-grey, with broad
white tips, except on the innermost secondaries, which are
like the back ; the primaries blackish along the inner web, this
black more extended on the first primaries, the outermost
being blackish along the outer web also ; rump, upper tail-
coverts, and tail pure white ; head all round black ; the nape
and hind-neck, as well as the sides of the neck, pure white,
extending over the mantle ; under surface of body, from the
lower throat downwards, pure white, with a tinge of pink ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries slaty-grey, the median coverts
blackish, like the quill-lining ; " bill deep lake-red (reddish-
brown in preserved skins) ; tarsi and toes vermilion (drying
orange-red); iris brown" (H. Saunders]. Total length, 10-5
inches; culmen, 0*85; wing, 8*91 ; tail, 3*55; tarsus, i'2.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 10-2 inches ;
wing, 8-3.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Wants the black head of the
summer plumage, the forehead being white, and the vertex,
hinder crown, and nape slaty-grey, blackish behind the eye.
The grey soon changes to black.

Young, — Blackish-brown above, the feathers with white mar-
gins, broader on the scapulars and inner secondaries; lesser

15 E

50 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

wing-coverts pearly-grey, but the median and greater coverts
blackish, edged with white at the ends ; bastard-wing and
primary-coverts black; the primaries black along the outer
web and down the inner side of the shaft, the rest of the inner
web white for its whole extent, except at the tip, which is
black, with a white spot at the end of the quill ; the inner
primaries slaty-grey externally and along the inner edge of the
shaft, the tip white with a sub-terminal black bar, the black
lessening and the white extending till the secondaries are
almost entirely white, excepting for a longitudinal patch of
blackish towards the end of the outer web ; tail-feathers white,
with a black band across the end of all but the outermost ;
crown of head blackish, the forehead and eyebrows white ; the
sides of the face white, with some streaks of black behind the
eye ; entire under surface of body pure white, including the
under wing-coverts, axillaries, and quill-lining.

Young in First Winter. — Resembles the winter plumage of the
adult, but is easily distinguished by the black band at the end
of the tail, and the broad black band across the wing, formed
by the median and greater coverts. The white lining to the
quills also distinguishes a young bird at once.

Range in Great Britain. — The Little Gull sometimes visits us
in large numbers, mostly in autumn and winter, but, as might
be expected, the greater number of occurrences take place on
our eastern and southern coasts, those on the western coasts
and in Ireland being much fewer in number.

Range Outside the British Islands. — In summer, Mr. Saunders
says that the present species inhabits the lakes and marshy
districts of sub-Arctic and temperate Europe, extending
southwards in winter to the Mediterranean. Through
temperate Asia it is found up to the mouth of the Amur
River and the Sea of Okhotsk, but has not been noticed in
Mongolia or China. It has once been obtained in Northern
India, and has been known to wander to the Faeroe Islands,
and even to New York State in North America.

Habits. — The small size of the Little Gull distinguishes it at
a glance from any of the other British species, and it is much
more easily approached than most of the latter. It breeds in

GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL. 51

colonies, and even in winter is more or less gregarious. It
feeds on small fishes, but also catches insects on the wing,
according to Seebohm, after the manner of a Swallow or a
Goatsucker. In winter the same observer states that it feeds
principally on marine animals of various kinds, which it picks
up on the shore or finds floating on the water.

Nests. — Those found by the late Mr. Meves on Lake Ladoga
were built of leaves, sedges, and grass, the lining being finer
than the rest of the nest, which was placed on almost floating
islets of tangled plants. Both male and female incubate.

Eggs. — Three in number, but sometimes four. Ground-
colour olive-brown to clay-brown, spotted with chocolate brown,
inclining to blackish, the spots in several examples examined
showing a tendency to form confluent blotches near the larger
end, the underlying purplish-grey spots not being very promi-
nent. The similarity of some of the eggs to those of the
Common Tern is evident, and it is doubtful whether some of
the eggs of L. minutus in the Seebohm collection are not really
those of Sterna fluvicttilis.

The Little Gull was found by Russow nesting in Esthonia in
company with the Common Tern, an unfortunate circumstance
for egg-collectors, as Seebohm says, " for the eggs of the two
species are absolutely indistinguishable." Meves distinguished
them by the colour of the yolk, which was rich orange-red in
the Gull, and ochre-yellow in the Tern. Apropos of this, how-
ever, Seebohm states that he was informed by J. E. Palmer
that he obtained eggs of the Herring Gull in Ireland, and that
those eggs which had a dark ground-colour had deep-coloured
yolks, whilst those with a pale ground-colour had pale yolks.
Axis, 1-5-1-8 inches ; diam. 1-15-1-25.

II. THE GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL. LARUS ICHTHYAETUS.

Larus ichthyaetus, Pall. Reise Russ. Reichs, ii. p. 713 (1773);
Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 369, pi. 598 (1873); B. O. U.
List Brit. B. p. 190 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit.
B. Hi. p. 609(1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 653 (1889);
Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxiv. (1893) ; Saunders, Cat.
B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 176 (1896).

E 2

52 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearly-grey, the
wing-coverts like the back ; the greater series slightly edged
with white at the ends ; primary-coverts grey with white shafts
and broad white tips ; primaries white with a sub-terminal band
of black of irregular shape, the first primary black along the
outer web; inner primaries and outer secondaries grey with
white ends and outer webs ; remainder of secondaries pure
white, except the innermost, which are grey, broadly tipped
with white ; lower rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail pure white ;
head all round black, with a spot of white above and below the
eye ; hind neck, sides of neck, and entire under surface of body
pure white, including the under wing-coverts and axillaries ;
" bill orange, with a black band at the angle ; tarsi and toes
greenish-yellow, the webs orange" (H. Saunders). Total
length, 29 inches: oilmen, 27; wing, 19*5; tail, 7*65;
tarsus, 3-35.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but smaller ; " iris deep
brown; edge of eyelids bright red, with a conspicuous white
patch on each lid ; bill wax-yellow, the gape and terminal third
dull crimson, with a transverse sub-terminal black band ; feet
dull Indian yellow, the claws black" (A. O. Hume). Total
length, 23 inches; wing, 18*2.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Lacks the black head of the
summer dress, the head being white, mottled more or less
with blackish streaks and bases to the feathers. Mr. Saunders
says that the black head is often assumed by the middle of
February, and the moult of the primaries is then completed.

Young. — Brown above, mottled with grey or darker brown,
and with greyish-white edges to the feathers ; greater wing-
coverts ashy-grey with dark brown centres, and white tips and
edges to the inner webs ; bastard- wing, primary-coverts and
quills black, ashy-whitish along the inner web ; secondaries
blackish, with white shafts and with white along the edge of the
inner webs, and greyish or white along the outer web; lower
rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail white, with a broad black
band at the end occupying more than the terminal third of the
feather ; the rump and upper tail-coverts spotted with brown ;

GREAT BLACK- HEADED GULL. 53

crown of head ashy-whitish, washed and mottled with brown ;
behind the eye a dusky patch ; sides of face ashy- brown ; under
surface of body pure white, with a band of mottled brown spots
across the fore-neck and on the sides of the upper breast ; under
wing-coverts white, mottled with blackish along the edge of the
wings ; primaries ashy-blackish below.

Characters. — The large size of this Black-headed Gull renders
it easily distinguishable from all the other hooded species, none
of which have a wing exceeding fifteen inches.

Range in Great Britain. — This large species has once been
obtained in England, an example in full summer plumage
having been shot off Exmouth at the end of May or beginning
of June, 1859.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Great Black-headed
Gull breeds in the districts of the Lower Volga and on the
lakes of Central Asia, as far east as Koko-N or, and it probably
inhabits the whole of Thibet in summer. It visits the eastern
Mediterranean region in winter, and is found along the Red
Sea and in Egypt down to Nubia, while at the same season it
visits the shores of the Persian Gulf, and the Indian Ocean as
far as Ceylon and Burma.

Habits. — Scarcely anything has been recorded of the habits
of the present species. Prjevalsky states that it is a very
quarrelsome bird, and that its cry is harsh and like the croak
of a raven. Its food consists of fish, Crustacea, reptiles,
locusts, &c.

Nest. — Apparently none, the eggs being laid upon the bare
sand.

Eggs. — Three in number, and very large. The general
colour is clay-brown or olive stone-colour, spotted with black
or brown, with very distinct spots or blotches of inky-grey. In
some eggs the spots are small, so that the egg looks like a
gigantic edition of that of the Gull-billed Tern, but in others,
particularly those with the olive-tinted ground-colour, there are
some very large blotches of black, principally at the larger end.
Axis, 2 '95-3 '3 inches; diam. 2-05-2 2.

54 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

III. THE MEDITERRANEAN BLACK-HEADED GULL. LARUS
MELANOCEPHALUS.

Larus welanocephalus, Natterer, Isis, 1818, p. 816 ; Dresser,
B Eur. viii. p. 365, pi. 597, fig. 2 (1878); B. O. U. List
Brit. B. p. 191 (1883) ; Saimders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii.
p, 604, note (1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 651 (1889);
Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxi. (1895) ; Saunders,
Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 180 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above light pearly-grey, the wing-
coverts like the back; bastard- wing pearly- grey, whitish towards
the end of the feathers ; primary-coverts pearly-grey, as also
the primaries, which are white at the ends and along the inner
aspect of the inner web ; the first primary black from the base
of the outer web for about two-thirds of its length ; secondaries
white, the innermost pearly-grey like the back ; lower rump,
upper tail-coverts, and tail pure white ; head all round jet-
black, with a little patch of white above and below the eye ;
hind-neck, sides of neck, and under surface of body from
the lower throat downwards, pure white, including the under
wing-coverts and axillaries ; bill rich coral-red, with more or
less of a blackish band in front of the angle ; tarsi and toes
red ; a red ring round the eye ; iris dark brown. Total length,
15-5 inches; culmen, i'45; wing, 11*4; tail, 4*6 ; tarsus, 1-95.

Adult Female — Similar to the male, but a trifle smaller, and
with a less robust bill. Total length, 15 inches; wing, n'2.

Adult in Winter. — Lacks the black head of the summer
plumage, the crown being white, with streaks of ashy towards
the nape ; a spot in front of the eye blackish ; ear-coverts
ashy-grey ; bill and feet duller in colour.

Young. — Brown above, like other young Gulls. Distinguished
from the old birds by the colour of the quills ; the primary-
coverts and quills blackish on both webs, the first primary with
a small longitudinal mark of white near the end of the inner
web ; the second and third with a good deal more white on
the inner web, extending from the base to within an inch and
a half of the tip ; the white increasing on the inner primaries

MEDITERRANEAN BLACK-HEADED GULL. 55

and reaching the outer web, the innermost primaries very pale
pearly-grey, with a black spot near the end of the outer web,
which is developed into a large black patch on the secondaries ;
tail white, with a broad black band at the end; head white, with
dusky streaks, more distinct on the ear-coverts; bill duller in col-
our, with more black at the angle ; tarsi and toes reddish-brown.

Characters. — The adult of the present species may be easily
recognised by its black head, pearl-grey mantle, wing less than
12 inches, and by its coral-red bill, with a dark sub-terminal
zone. (Cf. Saunders, Cat B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 170.)

According to the characters given by Mr. Saunders for the
distinguishing of the young bird, Z. melanocephalus has much
more black on the three outer primaries than either Z. Phila-
delphia or L. ridibunduS) but the amount of white on these quills
varies at different stages of the life of these birds, and imma-
ture specimens require the greatest care to identify them
correctly. In L. melanocephalus the young bird has black on
both sides of the shaft of the second and third primary; in
L. Philadelphia the shaft of the third primary has no black
along its inner margin, and very little on the inner web of the
first and second. In L. ridibundus the young has no black
on the inner line of the shaft in the second and third primaries
and scarcely any on the first one, but the three outer primaries
have a broad border of black along the margin of the inner
web.

Range in Great Britain. — Two examples of this Gull have been
obtained in England. One, a young bird, was shot in Barking
Creek on the Thames in January, 1866, and was brought to
Mr. Whitely of Woolwich, who mounted it himself, and after-
wards parted with the specimen to the British Museum. A
second individual was obtained on Breydon Broad, near
Yarmouth, in December, 1886, by Mr. G. Smith. The latter
bird, an adult in winter plumage, was seen in the flesh by
several competent ornithologists, and both of the specimens
have been examined by Mr. Saunders, and identified by him
as being Larns melanocephalus.

Range outside the British Islands. — This species, as its name
implies, is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean, whence it
extends to the Black Sea, and has been said to breed in

56 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Hungary. It has been known to occur off the mouth of the
Somme in Northern France, and there is, therefore, nothing
remarkable in the fact that it should occasionally turn up in
England.

Habits. — Scarcely any notes have been recorded respecting
the habits of this Gull, which has been found in colonies in
various parts of the Mediterranean, and apparently nests in
many places within this area, though up to the present the
eggs found by Mr. Dresser and other ornithologists in Spain
have turned out to be those of the Gull-billed Tern, with the
flocks of which L. melanocephalus often mingles.

Nest. — As yet undescribed.

Eggs. — Three in number, varying very much in colour, the
ground tint of some being light clay-brown or buff, while
others are very dark chocolate or olive-brown. The spots and
blotches are darker brown, and the underlying markings are
light purplish-grey. Axis, i*9-2T5 inches; diam. 1*4-1 '5.

iv. BONAPARTE'S GULL. LARUS PHILADELPHIA.

Sterna Philadelphia, Ord. in Guthrie's Geogr. 2nd Amer. ed. ii.

P- 3T9 (I8l5)-^
Gavia bonapartii (Sw. & Rich.) Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 610

(1852).

Larus Philadelphia, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 192 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 584 (1884) ; Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 307 (1885) ; Saunders, Man. Brit. B.
p. 645 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix. (1894) ;
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 185 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above pearly-grey, including the
wing-coverts ; all the coverts round the bend of the wing, bastard-
wing, and primary-coverts pure white ; first four primaries white,
with black ends, the first one black along the outer web, the second
slightly shaded with grey on the inner web, the third and fourth
more distinctly grey on the latter, the rest of the primaries grey,
with black near the tips, which show a small terminal grey spot,
the black decreasing in extent towards the inner primaries ;
secondaries grey, with narrow white edges to some of the inner
ones ; lower rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail white ; head all

BONAPARTE'S GULL. 57

round leaden-black, with a spot of white feathers above and
below the eye; hind neck, sides of neck, and under surface of
body from the lower throat downwards, pure white, including
the under wing-coverts and axillaries, the lower greater coverts
tinged with silvery-grey like the quill-lining ; bill deep black ;
tarsi and toes orange-red; iris dark brown. Total length, 12*5
inches; culraen, .1-2; wing, 10-4; tail, 37; tarsus, 1-4.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 12-2
inches ; wing, 10*0.

Adult in Winter Piumaje.— Lacks the black head of the sum-
mer plumage, the crown being white, with some streaks of dusky-
grey towards the nape ; behind the eye a spot of greyish-black ;
tarsi and toes duller in colour.

Young. — Brown above, mottled with grey bases to the
feathers ; the crown of the head ashy-brown ; the forehead and
eyebrow white like the hind-neck ; sides of face white, with
a tinge of buff, which is found on the sides of the neck,
finishing on the chest ; a spot of black on the ear-coverts ;
wing-coverts mostly blackish, with grey bases and fulvescent or
whitish tips ; the secondaries with sub-terminal black markings
of large size ; primary-coverts white, with broad longitudinal
centres of black ; the primaries differing in markings from those
of the adults, the first one being black along both sides of the
shaft, the second having a little black along the middle of the
inside of the shaft ; on the third the black on the inside of the
shaft is almost absent, but with a good deal of white on the base
of the outer web ; tail white, with a broad sub-terminal band
of black.

Characters. — The chief characters for distinguishing Bona-
parte's Gull in the fully adult plumage are its black bill and
leaden-black hood. The differences in the young bird from
those of the other British species have been detailed under the
heading of the foregoing species.

Range in Great Britain. — Some half-dozen examples of this
North American species have been obtained within our limits.
The first recorded was one killed near Belfast, in Ireland, in

58 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

February, 1848 ; another was shot on Loch Lomond by SirG.
H. Leith Buchanan, in April, 1850 ; while in England four
examples have been chronicled, from Falmouth and Penryn in
January, 1865, one from Penzance in October, 1890, and one
from St. Leonard's in November, 1870.

Range outside the British Islands. — Besides the above-mentioned
occurrences of Bonaparte's Gull in Great Britain, the species
has been recorded once from Heligoland, but this is the only
instance of its capture on the Continent of Europe. It is a
strictly North American species, breeding in the Fur countries,
and migrating in winter on the east as far as Bermuda and
Texas and to California on the west, passing south likewise by
the inland lakes and rivers.

Habits. — Sir John Richardson states that this pretty little
Gull arrives at its breeding places on Great Bear Lake very
early in the season, and before the snow has disappeared. He
says : " The voice and mode of flying are like those of a Tern,
and like those birds, it rushes fiercely at the head of anyone
who intrudes on its haunts, screaming loudly. It has, moreover,
the strange practice, considering the form of its feet, of
perching on posts and trees, and it may often be seen standing
gracefully on the summit of a small spruce fir." Audubon
describes how Bonaparte's Gull follows the shoals of fishes,
and Mr. E. W. Nelson found the species numerous in flocks on
the i Qth and 20th of September, along the tide channels near
St. Michael's, in Alaska. They were hovering in parties with
many Short-billed Gulls, close to the surface of the water, and
feeding upon the schools of sticklebacks.

Nest. — Built, according to Sir John Richardson, in a colony,
resembling a rookery, seven or eight in a tree, the nests being
formed of sticks laid flatly.

Eggs. — Three in number, rarely four. ' Ground-colour olive-
brown, or inclining to dark clay-brown, the spots somewhat
reddish-brown, generally distributed over the egg, the under-
lying spots being dusky-grey. Sometimes the large end of
the egg is crowded with scribbling. Axis, i'75-2'i inches;
diam., 1*3-1 '4.

II

BLACK-HEADED GULL. 59

V. THE BLACK-HEADED GULL. LARUS RIDIBUNDUS.

Lams ridibundus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 225 (1766); Dresser,
B. Eur. viii. p. 357, pis. 596 and 597, fig. i. (1878);
B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 191 (1883); Saunders, ed.
Yarrell's Brit B. iii. p. 594 (1884); Seebohm. Hist. Brit.
B. iii. p. 310 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 649
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxi. (1892);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 207 (1896).

Gavia ridibunda, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 593 (1852).

Gavia capistrata, Macgill. t.c. p. 605.

(Plate XCIX.}

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearly-grey,
including the wing-coverts ; the marginal coverts pure white,
as also the bastard-wing and primary-coverts, the latter slightly
shaded with pearly-grey on the inner feathers ; the three outer
primaries white, with white shafts, black tips, and black edging
to the inner webs ; the first primary black along the outer web,
the second and third also, with a narrow line externally ;
remainder of the primaries grey, with black tips and black
margins to the inner webs, the black disappearing gradually on the
inner primaries, which have a terminal spot of grey ; the fifth pri-
mary white on the outer web, the secondaries entirely grey ; lower
rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail white ; crown of head as far
as the nape, sides of the face, and throat chocolate-brown,
darkening towards the edges of the hood, which is very well
defined ; a ring of white above and behind the eye ; hind-neck
from the nape and sides of neck white, slightly overspreading
the mantle ; entire under surface of body from the lower throat
downward white, with a slight rosy tinge, including the
axillaries and marginal lower wing-coverts; the lower, median,
greater, and primary-coverts grey ; " bill, tarsi, and toes lake-
red ; iris hazel" (ff. Saunders). Total length, 16-5 inches;
culmen, 1*45; wing, 11*9; tail, 475; tarsus, 1*7.

Adult Female. — Slightly smaller than the male, as a rule. Total
length, 14-5 inches; wing, ii'S.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage in
lacking the brown head, the crown being white with a little

60 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

dusky-grey shade on the hinder part ; a small dusky spot in
front of the eye and another greyish spot behind the ear-coverts.
The white under parts have generally a distinct rosy-blush,
which is also seen on the white of the primaries.

Young. — Brown above, with sandy-brown edges to most of
the feathers, which are grey at the base ; the rump and upper
tail-coverts white, with sandy-coloured edgings; tail also white,
with a band of black at the end of all but the outermost
feathers ; lesser wing-coverts white or tinged with grey ; median
wing-coverts brown, like the inner secondaries, edged with
sandy buff; greater coverts pearly-grey; primaries as in the
adult, with tiny whity-brown tips, but with much more black on
both webs, the black approaching the shaft ; secondaries grey,
broadly tipped with white, and with a longitudinal black mark
towards the end of the outer web, decreasing in extent on the
inner secondaries ; head uniform brown, the hind-neck white,
flecked with brown like the sides of the face ; forehead and
eyebrows whitish ; feathers in front of the eye, and a large patch
on the ear-coverts, dusky-blackish ; throat and under surface of
body white ; fore-neck, chest, and sides of body washed with
sandy-brown; "bill dull yellow, passing into black at the angle;
tarsi and toes reddish-yellow" (Saunders.)

Regarding the changes of this bird, Mr. Saunders says :
" More or less of a brown hood is assumed when the bird is
barely a year old, and the band on the tail is lost by the
following autumn, when the new primaries appear, with — as
has been said — a larger proportion of black than in the adult.
In fact, the duration of the immature phase is very short. The
bird does not breed until the following (or second) spring.
Occasionally the black from the margins of the inner webs of
the three outer quills runs in and reaches the shafts, much
encroaching upon the usual white centres, though not to the
same extent on both wings of the same bird."

Characters. — The dark brown hood of this species easily
distinguishes it when adult, and young birds can be told by the
broad black edging which compasses the inner web of the first
three primary quills.

Range in Great Britain. — This well-known species nests in
colonies in various places throughout the three kingdoms, and

BLACK-HEADED CULL. 6 1

is found nesting in large numbers in Scotland, as far noith as
the Shetland Islands. In Ireland, Mr. Ussher says, it has
breeding colonies, large and small, on bogs and on small
islands in lakes, sometimes of tens of thousands, as on Killeen-
more Bog near Tullamere, sometimes of but a few pairs. It
is reported to breed in Donegal, Antrim, Down, Armagh,
Monaghan, Fermanagh, Cavan, Westmeath, King's County,
Queen's County, Tipperary, Kerry, Limerick, Clare, Galway,
Roscommon, Mayo, and Leitrim. A few breed on Beginish,
a small flat island in the Blasquet group, an unusual instance of
a marine breeding-place.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is
found, according to Mr. Saunders, throughout Europe from
the Faeroes, Southern Norway and Sweden, Russia, from
Archangel down to the Mediterranean, and across tempe-
rate Asia to Kamtchatka, where it also breeds. In winter
it visits Senegambia, Nubia, and the Red Sea, the Persian
Gulf and the Indian Ocean, China, Japan, and the Philip-
pines.

Habits. — The name " .Z>/<zr/£-headed Gull" is a decided
misnomer for this species, for the hood is brown rather than
black, and it is the more inappropriate as there are some Gulls
of this group which have absolutely black caps. It is a
gregarious species, nesting in colonies, and even in the autumn
and winter congregating in flocks, which frequent tidal harbours
and are often a conspicuous feature at pier-heads when the tide
comes in. I have often seen them circling within a few feet of
the heads of the visitors at Gorleston Harbour, on the east
coast, and one of the most interesting features of the day was
to go and throw food to these pretty creatures at the end of
the pier. They are almost equally tame on the Thames when
they ascend the river in winter.

Many accounts have been published of visits paid by
naturalists to "gulleries" of this species, one of the most
renowned being at Scoulton in Norfolk, of which the late Mr.
G. Dawson Rowley has given the following account : —

" The first intimation of the proximity of the Gulls was a
flight of them feeding in a cornfield near Scoulton Church,

62 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

which, like some others, has a reed-thatched roof — an indication
of a fenny neighbourhood.

" The sight of the birds of Scoulton, as they rise in a dense
mass, filling the air like snow, is certainly very beautiful ; and
the sound of the multitude of voices is music to the ornitho-
logical ear.

" The Gulls chiefly congregate at each end of ' the heath,' as
the great island is called, on which Scotch firs and birches grow.
If an unfortunate Heron appears, they mob him, and keep even
the swans at a respectful distance, with blows on the head.
After the Gulls leave, however, the Herons frequently take
possession of the mere.

" Mr. Weyland has constructed a path, called the ' twenty-
foot road,' all round, which makes a dry and agreeable
promenade, whence the visitor may view the islets of the
broad water, which are named Tea Island, Boat-house Island,
&c., &c.

" Many years ago the greater portion of Scoulton parish was
common land, and the mere is part of the allotment to the
Weyland family. Long may it flourish and protect these
Gulls, who probably are the oldest inhabitants, as they are
mentioned by Sir Thomas Browne as breeding there in his
time ; and they may be coeval with the lake itself. The birds
arrive some time in February.

" The keeper states that he took 6,000 eggs last season, and
these eggs fetch one shilling per dozen. But in the time of
the Rev. Richard Lubbock — as mentioned in the * Fauna of
Norfolk,' in my edition (1845) — it is said (p. 123) that an
average season produces more than 30,000 eggs ; five years
before that they took 44,000.

** Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., writes, in 'Rambles of a Naturalist '
(p. 292): — 'In 1860, about i6,oco eggs had been gathered.
In 1872, when I went again, only 4,000 were taken. This sad
falling off was due to dry seasons. Brown, the keeper, told me
that once the farmers spread the fields in the neighbourhood
with manure sown with salt, which poisoned the worms, &c.,
upon which the Gulls feed, and that a great number died in
consequence. Tie said also that they suffered from Stoats and
Rats; he had known, on one occasion, 150 of the nestlings
and eggs, just chipping, to be destroyed by a Stoat.7 "

GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL. 63

This Gull is often found inland at some distance from
water, visiting swamps or even following the plough.

Nest. — Generally placed on the ground, though instances
have been known of its being built on a tree, even at seven or
eight feet from the ground, or on a boat-house. Seebohm
states that he has found nests floating on the water, sometimes
slight, at other times quite substantial structures, as big as
Coots' nests. " On the Lower Danube," he writes, " the nests
were also floating on weeds of various kinds, and were of good
size. Although the colony was not a large one, the birds were
demonstrative enough, crying loudly, sometimes a single Kak^
at others Kak, Kak, frequently Kark, and occasionally Kak,
Kark."

Eggs. — Two to three in number, varying greatly in colour,
occasionally in the same clutch. Mr. Robert Read writes to
me : — " In the vast colonies in which these birds breed, one
may find eggs of every size, shape, and colour, from pale
spotless greenish-blue to deep brown, heavily marked with
black blotches and spots. I have frequently found four, five,
and six eggs in a nest, and on one occasion eight, but in most
of these cases the produce is undoubtedly that of more than
two or more females." The most typical form of egg has the
ground-colour dark olive or dark clay-brown, the spots being of
all shapes and sizes, often forming confluent blotches of black
or brown at the large end of the egg. Many of the overlying
spots have a reddish tint, and the underlying markings being
dusky-grey. Some varieties are bluish in ground-colour,
others nearly white with minute spots, while in a few examples
the ground-colour is a deep coffee-brown, on which the markings
are scarcely perceptible. Axis, 2-0-2-3 inches; diam., 1-4-

VI. THE GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL. LARUS MARINUS.

Lams marimiS) Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 225 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B. v. p. 526 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 427,
pi. 604 (1872); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 189 (1883);
Saunders, ed. YarrelVs Brit. B. iii. p. 631 (1884) ; Seebohm,
Hist Brit. B. iii. p. 323 (1885) ; Saunders, Man. Brit. B.

64 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

p. 66 1 (1889) : Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxv. (1893) ;
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 241 (1896).

(Plate C.)

Adult Male. — General colour above black, with a distinct
wash of slate-colour, the scapulars tipped with white ; marginal
coverts white ; wing-coverts like the back ; bastard-wing,
primary-coverts, and quills slaty- black, the secondaries broadly
tipped with white, forming a distinct bar across the wing;
first primary with a white tip of nearly three inches in extent ;
second primary also largely tipped with white, with a sub-
terminal spot of black on the inner web ; third primary almost
entirely black, with a white tip ; fourth and fifth primaries with
a broad sub-terminal bar of black, preceded by a narrow bar
of white on the inner web ; rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail
pure white ; head and neck all round, as well as the upper
mantle and the entire under surface of the body, including
the under wing-coverts and axillaries, pure white ; lower
primary-coverts ashy ; quill-lining dark slate-colour, with an
ashy shade along the edge of the inner web, and a kind of
light ashy shade or pale appearance along the inner line of the
shaft ; " bill yellow, the angle of the genys orange-red ; eyelid
vermilion ; tarsi and toes livid flesh-colour " (ff. Saunders}.
Total length, 28 inches; culmen, 2-6; wing, 19*5; tail, 7-5;
tarsus, 3*0.

Adult Female. — Rather smaller than the male, and with a less
robust bill.

Adult in Winter. — Similar to the summer plumage, but with a
few greyish streaks on the head, and the colour of the bill not
so bright.

Young. — Brown above, thickly mottled with bars of white or
sandy buff or light brown, with occasionally a bar of black on the
feathers, most of which are broadly edged with sandy or white,
with sub-terminal bars or markings of black ; rump, upper tail-
coverts, and tail mottled with black, the latter marbled with
black, in addition to the sub-terminal black bar ; primary-
coverts and primaries black, tipped with white, the inner webs
of the feathers slaty-brown ; secondaries brown, blacker on the
outer web, edged and tipped with white; innermost secondaries

GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL. 65

mottled and barred like the back ; head and hind-neck white,
streaked with brown, more thickly on the hinder crown and
nape, and very thinly on the lores, sides of face, and lower
throat ; chin and upper throat white, unspotted ; remainder of
under surface of body white, slightly spotted with dusky brown,
but more distinctly on the sides of the breast and flanks, where
the dusky bars and arrow-head markings are very distinct;
under wing-coverts and axillaries white, with dusky bars.

Concerning the changes in plumage of this species when
immature, Mr. Howard Saunders writes : — " Restricting the
term ' young ' to a bird of two years, at a later stage black
feathers appear on the mantle, and the white edges to the
secondaries are distinct, but the primaries are still without
' mirrors.' Afterwards the primaries have white tips, and the
fourth, fifth, and sixth exhibit what may almost be called sub-
terminal bars, while the outermost quill shows a sub-apical
' mirror ' of dull white, and the second quill has an ill-defined
brownish-white spot, the tail being still slightly mottled. I do
not think that the adult plumage is attained before the bird
is in its fifth year, and even then the amount of white on the
two or three outer primaries continues to increase with age."

Nestlings. — Ashy-grey above, mottled with blackish-brown
spots, blacker and more scattered on the head and hind-neck ;
under parts white, the breast tinged with orange- buff.

Characters. — The large size (wing over 19 inches), slaty-
black back, and white head distinguish this species when adult,
as well as the large white tip to the first primary. The size is
the best guide for the determination of the young birds, added
to the powerful bill, which far exceeds that of the Lesser Black-
backed or Herring Gulls.

Range in Great Britain. — The present species breeds more
abundantly in Scotland than in England, where only a few
isolated nesting-places are known on the south-western and
western coasts. Mr. Ussher says that in Ireland one or more
pairs breed on the summits of some stacks and islands off
Donegal, Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Galway,
and Mayo, but there is a considerable colony on the Cow Rock,
off Dursey Head, Cork, and another colony of at least fifty
pairs on the Bills Rocks, off Achill, Mayo.

1$ F

66 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range outside tlie British Islands. — Northern Europe, from the
Lower Petchora westward to Iceland, and down to about
50° N. (breeding) ; in winter to the Canaries, and along the
Mediterranean (rarely) to the Egyptian coast ; also on inland
waters. Greenland, and also the east coast and the Great
Lakes of North America to Labrador (breeding) ; in winter to
Florida, and accidentally in Bermuda (H. Sounders).

Habits. — This is one of the largest and most powerful of all
the British Gulls, and is a great robber, for besides its ordinary
food of fish, it devours eggs and young birds, and will attack
any sickly or wounded bird or even a sheep. It may, indeed,
be said to be practically omnivorous, and will even eat carrion.
It is less gregarious than the other Gulls, and is seldom seen
even in small companies, while in winter it is generally solitary.
It is a very wary bird, and I have only managed to capture
individuals by baiting a long line at night-time and leaving
it on the mud-flats. In this way I caught several at Pagham
Harbour years ago, both old and young birds. "The notes," says
Seebohm, "are loud and harsh ; almost as harsh and almost as
unmusical as those of the Raven. Its alarm note might be repre-
sented by the syllable Kyaouk, and its call-notes as ag-ag-ag. In
winter these birds often congregate where fishing is going on."

Nest.— Placed on rocks, or on an islet at some distance from
the sea. The nest is a carelessly-made structure, a depression
in the ground being lined with grass or sea-weed, with an
occasional twig or two.

Eggs. — Two or three in number, of large size. Ground-
colour clay-brown, inclining to stone-colour, with scattered
spots of dark reddish-brown or black, with underlying grey
spots and blotches. The dark overlying spots have not much
tendency to coalesce, and are, in some instances, very scattered
and of a pale ochre-brown colour. A pair in the Seebohm
collection in the British Museum are bluish-white, with hardly
a spot on them ; they were obtained in South-west Sweden.
Axis, 2'75-3-i5 inches ; diam., 2'i-2'2.

VII. THE LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL. LARUS FUSCUS.

Larus fuscus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 225 (1766); Macgill. Brit.
B. v- P- 538 (i&S2) > Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 421, pi. 603

LESSER BLACK- BACKED GULL. 67

(1873); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 189 (1883); Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 624 (1884); Seebohm, Hist.
Brit. B. iii. p. 319 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 659
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxiii. (1893);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 250 (1896).

(Plate C7.)

Adult Male. — Similar to L. marinus, but very much smaller,
and easily distinguished by the outer primaries, which have
not the ends white for nearly three inches, but are blackish
with a white sub -terminal bar before a black tip. General
colour above slate-grey, with the same white ends to the
secondaries and scapulars ; the head, neck, mantle, and under
surface of body white, as also the rump, upper tail-coverts.
and tail ; " bill yellow, the angle of the genys red ; tarsi and
feet lemon-yellow ; iris pale straw-yellow " (Saunders). Total
length, 19-5 inches; culmen, 2-15; wing, 16*4; tail, 5-65 :
tarsus, 2 -6.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but smaller, and with a
less robust bill. Total length, 19*0 inches ; wing, 16*4.

Adult in Winter. — Differs from the summer plumage in having
the head and neck streaked with dusky-brown.

Young. — Brown above, with broad white margins, the head
brown, streaked with white; sides of face ashy brown, darker on
the ear-coverts, narrowly streaked with dusky ; throat white ;
remainder of the under surface of body streaked and mottled
with ashy-brown, which is the prevailing colour of the under
parts, the sides of the body barred with darker brown ; the
tail-feathers black for the terminal half, white barred with
black on the basal half, the black end decreasing towards the
outer feathers. The bill is slaty-grey, the feet flesh-coloured,
and the iris brown. It takes four years for the fully adult
plumage to be gained.

Nestling-. — Greyish-buff, streaked and mottled with black on
the upper parts and throat.

Characters. — In examining the series of adult Lesser Black-
backed Gulls in the British Museum, one is struck by the
great variation in the colour of the back, from slaty-grey to

F 2

68 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

black. On this question Mr. Saunders writes: — "The principal
characteristics of L. fuscus are the comparatively long tarsus
and the small delicate foot. The colours of the mantle and
wings are so variable in shade that the palest examples might
be mistaken for Larus affinis, but for the large size and coarser
foot of the latter. The blackest examples of L. fuscus are
found indifferently in the Faeroes, Norway, Egypt, and on the
Red Sea ; the lightest are, perhaps, from Scotland, and between
the extremes there is every gradation." The smaller size dis-
tinguishes the present species from the Greater Black-backed
or Herring-Gulls, and, when adult, the colour of the legs further
serves to separate it from the former species.

Range in Great Britain. — The present species is a resident
throughout our islands, but is somewhat local in its breeding-
haunts, though, where this Gull nests, it is generally in
such numbers that it requires to be kept in check. Mr.
Saunders observes : — "In Scotland closely- packed settlements
may be found — far too plentifully for game preservers — up to
the northernmost Shetlands ; especially along the western
coast, within the shelter of the outer Hebrides, though on the
far side of that group, the Herring-Gull predominates." As
regards Ireland, Mr. Ussher's note is as follows : — " Breeds,
often in large, numerous colonies, on the sea-cliffs and marine
islands of Donegal, Londonderry, Antrim, Dublin, Wexford,
Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, and Sligo. It
is the species of Gull most abundantly distributed on our
coasts in the breeding-season."

Range outside the British Islands. — " Northern Europe, from the
Dwina westward to the Faeroes (but not in Iceland), and
southward to the Mediterranean (breeding) ; in winter to the
Canaries, Senegal, Fantee, Bonny, Egypt, Nubia, the Red Sea
(said to be resident on the last), to Fao on the Persian Gulf.
Very rare in the North Caspian, and practically not found east
of the line of the Dwina, where the range of Larus affinis
begins" (Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 253). Occasion-
ally it ranges farther eastward than the above-mentioned limits,
as, since the above was written, Mr. Saunders has identified a
specimen procured by Mr. H. L. Popham on the Yenesei as
L fuscus (Ibis, 1807, p. 106).

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL. 69

Habits. — Both in the breeding season and during the autumn
and winter the present species is gregarious, and, even in the
height of summer, small flocks of the Lesser Black-backed Gull
may be observed on the flat and open shores of our south-
eastern coasts — evidently non-breeding birds. It is decidedly
the Gull most in evidence on our coasts, excepting the Black-
headed Gull, and is easily procured by any gunner who lies up
for it as it flies inland to the ploughed fields or fallow. Like
other Gulls, its principal food consist of fish, but it will often
be found following the plough, and is frequently to be observed
among the shipping on tidal rivers. " It is a wonderful sight,"
says Seebohm, "on approaching one of the Fame Islands, to
see the green mass sprinkled all over with large white-looking
birds, every one standing head to wind, like innumerable
weathercocks ; and it is still more wonderful, when a shot is
fired, to see the flutter of white wings as every bird rises in
haste, and to hear the angry cries which each bird makes as
soon as the exertion of getting fairly launched into the air is
over, and it finds breath enough to scream defiance to the
invader of its home. In half a minute thousands of birds are
flying backwards and forwards in every direction, like a living
snow-storm. The various cries of the birds almost exactly
resemble those of the Herring-Gull. The angry Kyeok (which
sounds at a distance when the birds are quarrelling, like ak,
ak} ak\ and the good-natured ha, ha, hat or an, an, an, are
constantly heard."

Nest. — A slovenly structure of dry grass and dead marine
plants and sea-weed.

Eggs. — Three in number, occasionally four. A curious
instance of a nest with four eggs is to be seen in the Natural
History Museum. This nest was placed in the middle of a
sheep-track, and the sheep, in passing to and fro, had to jump
over the back of the sitting bird.

Mr. Robert Read writes to me: — "Three is the usual number
of eggs in one set, but I have taken four from a nest. In this
instance they were very heavily marked and evidently laid by
the same bird. The case in the Natural History Museum is
another instance of four eggs being found in a nest, although,
to judge from the eggs alone, one could not be certain that

70 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

they were all laid by the same bird." Although some of the
eggs of L. fnscus look like small reproductions of eggs of
L. marinus, the general tone of the colour in the Lesser Black-
backed Gull is decidedly darker, and varies from clay-brown
or olive-brown to dark chocolate. The black overlying spots
run somewhat into blotches, which are often congregated at
the larger end of the egg. Axis, 2 '6-2 '85 inches; diam.,
1-8-1-95.

VIII. THE HERRING-GULL. LARUS ARGENTATUS.

Larus argentatus, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 600 (1788, ex Briinn.);
Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 544 (1852); Dresser, B. Etir. viii.
P- 339, pl- 602, fig. 2 (1873) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 188
(1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 613 (1884);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 316 (1885); Saunders, Man.
Brit. B. p. 655 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxiii.
(1893); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 260 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearly-grey ; wing-
coverts like the back, the secondaries broadly tipped with white,
like the scapulars, forming a conspicuous bar across the wing ;
bastard-wing pearly-grey, the outer feathers white ; primary-
coverts and primaries darker grey ; first primary blackish, with
a grey wedge towards the base of the inner web, the tips white,
preceded by a narrow black bar (often absent), which is again
preceded by a broad band of white; the second primary
with a spot of white at a little distance from the end of
the inner web, both these quills grey at the basal portion of
the inner web, this grey gradually increasing in extent until the
black becomes but a band near the end of the inner primaries,
and finally disappears on the innermost ones; upper tail-coverts
and tail pure white, as well as the head and neck all round
and the entire under surface of the body. Total length, 22*5
inches; oilmen, 2*2; wings, 16*5; tail, 6'6 ; tarsus, 2*5.

The white markings on the first two primaries vary consider-
ably. Sometimes the black sub- terminal black band is entirely
absent, and the whole tip is white for more than two inches, in
other individuals the white spot near the end of the inner web
of the second primary is totally absent.

HERRING-GULL. 7 I

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but smaller. Total length,
20*5 inches; wing, 157. Mr. Saunders says that, irrespective
of sex, there is "great individual variation."

Adult in Winter. — Similar to the summer plumage, but with
brownish-grey streaks on the head and neck.

Young. — On the changes of plumage undergone by the young
bird, it is better to quote from Mr. Saunders, as the succession
of plumages appears to be somewhat intricate. According to
him (Cat. B. xxv. p. 264), in the first autumn, the upper parts
are streaked and mottled with brown and greyish-buff ; quills
dark umber, with paler inner webs and whitish tips to most ;
rectrices similar, but more or less mottled with whitish at the
bases of the two or three outer pairs ; upper tail-coverts brown,
with buffish- white tips ; under parts nearly uniform brown at
first, but afterwards brownish grey, mottled ; bill blackish, paler
at the base of the lower mandible.

In the second autumn the head is nearly white, streaked with
greyish-brown ; the upper parts are barred with brown on a
greyish ground, though no pure grey feathers have yet made
their appearance on the mantle; quills paler ; tail more mottled
with white at the bases of all the feathers.

In the third autumn the feathers of the mantle are chiefly grey,
with some brownish streaks down the shafts ; a faint sub-apical
spot begins to show on the outermost primary ; the tail-coverts
are partly white, and the dark portion of the rectrices is much
broken up ; under parts nearly white.

In the fourth autumn the sub-apical patch on the first
primary is larger, and the quills from the fifth upwards are
banded with black and tipped with white ; tail-feathers white,
slightly vermiculated with brown ; bill greenish-yellow basally,
reddish- black at the angle.

At the moult of the fifih autumn all brown markings are lost,
the primaries have white tips, black bars and grey wedges,
though the proportion of dark colouring in the quills is greater
than it is in older birds.

Characters. — Though the male Herring-Gull is sometimes
nearly as big as a female Great Black-backed Gull, it is easily
told by its much less massive bill and by the pearl-grey back.
This distinguishes the old birds, and although there is some

^2 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

resemblance to each other in the young of the Greater and
Lesser Black-backed Gulls and that of the Herring-Gull, the
dimensions will generally serve to distinguish the species at all
ages.

Range in Great Britain. — The Herring-Gull breeds in all parts
of Great Britain where suitable places for its nesting are
available. It is almost entirely a coast species and seldom
nests on inbnd waters or lochs. It is the most noticeable
of all our indigenous species of Gull, and Mr. R. J. Ussher
also says that it is the most widely distributed of any Gull on
the coasts of Ireland during the breeding season.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species breeds
in Northern Europe down to the coasts of Northern France,
and to the westward of the White Sea. It is also found in
North America, breeding as far south as lat. 40° N. on the
Atlantic side, and on the west it is known from the Yukon
River to California. In winter it extends to the West Indies
and the Mexican coasts, while European individuals visit the
Mediterranean in winter, as well the Black and Caspian Seas.

Habits. — The Herring-Gull is principally a shore-feeder, and
its name is derived from its supposed habit of following the
shoals of small herring-fry, while it is often seen in some
numbers round the fishing-boats, where the birds pounce down
on any scraps or offal which may be thrown overboard. Like
other Gulls this species sometimes comes inland and feeds on
worms, grubs, and grain. It is a great robber of eggs, " and
when," writes Mr. Saunders, " at some noted and accessible
breeding-place of sea-birds, such as Lundy Island, a gun is
fired by a tourist-party for the childish pleasure of seeing an
immense number of birds on the wing, then is the opportunity
of the Herring-Gulls, and every unprotected egg of Guillemot or
Gannet is swept from the ledges in an instant ! "

Seebohm states that the call-note of this Gull resembles
the syllables M-M-M, or more exactly, han-hdn-hdn ; the
alarm-note resembles the syllables Ky-eok, pronounced in a
guttural manner; and when the bird is unusually excited, its
note is rapidly repeated and sounds like Kdk-ak-ak I

Nest. — Mr. Robert Read says that he has generally found the
Herring- Gull nesting among larger colonies of the Lesser Black-

COMMON GULL. 73

backed Gull on the Fame Islands, Ailsa Craig, &c., and such
appears to have been the experience of Mr. Saunders and other
naturalists. The nest is often slight, but is occasionally a
bulky structure of grass and seaweeds, with a lining of finer
grass arid a few straws or stalks of the sea-campion. It is
placed on a slope of a cliff or on the grass near the edge of
the latter, sometimes in a hollow of the ground in the low-
lands or in the crevice of a rock. In America it is known to
build in trees or bushes.

Eggs. — Two or three in number, generally the latter, and very
similar to those of the Lesser Black-backed and Common
Gulls. There is, however, a greater variation in the eggs of
the Herring-Gull than in those of the two last-named species,
and a very beautiful reddish variety is found near Vardo in the
north of Norway, which Seebohm believed to be the egg of the
Glaucous Gull. On this point, however, Mr. Henry Pearson
and Mr. Edward Bidwell have made some remarks in the
"Ibis" for 1894 (p. 236). They procured some of these red
eggs themselves in Northern Norway, in a district where there
were no Glaucous Gulls. They write : — " The natives ascribe
them to the Herring-Gull and say that, however large the
colony may be, the red eggs are never found in more than one
nest in the colony."

The ground-colour varies in the same way as in the eggs of
the Lesser Black-backed Gull, but the Herring-Gull rarely seems
to lay eggs of the dark chocolate type. As, however, this is
sometimes the case, it may be said that the eggs of the two
species are so similar that there is no character by which they
can be distinguished, and that too much care cannot be taken in
their identification. Axis, 2'6-3-o5 inches; diam., i'85~2i.

IX. THE COMMON GULL. LARUS CANUS.

Larus canus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 224 (1766); Macgill. Brit.
B. v. p. 575 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 381, pi. 600
(1873); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 189 (1883)'; Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 613 (1884); Seebohm, Hist.
Brit. B. iii. p. 316 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 655
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xx. (1891);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 277 (1896).

74 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Adult Male.— General colour above delicate pearl-grey ; the
wing-coverts like 'the back ; the secondaries and scapulars
plainly tipped with white, forming a bar across the wing ;
bastard-wing and primary-coverts pearly-grey, the outer ones
white ; primaries blackish, with a small white tip and a broad
sub-terminal bar of white on the two outermost ; the first
primary with a grey base to the inner web, much more extended
at the base of both webs in the second primary, and gradually
extending on the other quills till they are almost entirely grey,
with a black sub-terminal bar before the black tip ; the inner
primaries arid all the secondaries grey with a white tip ; rump,
upper tail-coverts, and tail pure white ; head and neck all
round, as well as the under surface of the body, pure white,
including the under wing-coverts and axillaries ; quill-lining
dusky-grey, lighter grey towards the base, and with the same
pattern of white sub-terminal bars as the upper surface ; " bill
greenish-yellow at the base, rich yellow terminally ; tarsi and
toes greenish-yellow ; iris golden-brown ; orbital ring ver-
milion" (Sounders). Total length, 1 8 inches; oilmen, 1*5;
wing, 13*6; tail, 5 '4; tarsus, 2*1.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but smaller. Total
length, i yo inches; wing, 12 '8.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but with the head and neck streaked with ashy-brown, and
with the tarsi and toes olivaceous.

Young. — Brown above, with white or buff bars and margins
to the feathers ; under surface of body white, mottled with
brown or ashy-brown. The young bird thus resembles the
immature Herring-Gull, and is of the same pale colour. It
is, however, easily recognisable from the young of the latter
species, as well as from that of the Lesser Black-backed Gull,
by its smaller size. The young birds go through similar
changes of plumage to those of the allied species of Gull, and
Mr. Saunders says that the bird only gains its fully adult livery,
and breeds, when nearly three years old.

Characters. —In its light pearly-grey mantle and back, the
Common Gull resembles the Herring-Gull, but can always be
told by its smaller size, the wing never exceeding 16 inches in

GLAUCOUS GULL. 75

length. By this means also the young birds of the two species
can be distinguished.

Range in Great Britain. — This species breeds in Scotland, but
Mr. Saimders states that he is not aware of any nesting-place
in England, or, indeed, south of the Border. In Scotland,
however, it breeds not only on the coasts, where such are
favourable, but on inland lochs as far north as the Hebrides,
the Orkneys, and Shetland Isles. In Ireland, Mr. Ussher
says, it breeds in small colonies, and in separate pairs, on
islands in lakes (usually near the coast) of Donegal, Mayo,
and Galway, but sometimes at a distance from the sea, as in
Lough Mask and Lake Dahybawn in Mayo, an island on the
latter containing a colony of some fifty nests. There are some
marine breeding-places, as on islands in Blacksod Bay, and a
few pairs breed on one of the Blasquet Islands, off Kerry.

Range outside the British Islands. — According to Mr. Saunders,
the Common Gull is. found in Europe and Northern Asia down
to about 53° N. Lat, where it breeds. In winter it is found
in the Mediterranean Basin, the Nile Valley, and the Persian
Gulf. It also extends from Kamschatka to Japan and China.
It is a rare bird in Iceland, and only one instance of its capture
in North America has been authenticated, a young bird having
once been obtained in Labrador.

Habits. — These resemble those of the other British Gulls
described above. It is more or less gregarious, but in the
autumn many single birds are to be observed on our coasts
and estuaries. Its food consists of fish, but it will also come
inland and follow the plough for the sake of worms and grubs,
while, like other Gulls, it will also eat young birds. In some
parts of its range it adopts the deserted nest of a Hooded
Crow, or other bird, in a high tree, on the summit or the
branches of which it will be seen to perch.

Nest. — A rough structure of grass or seaweed in the open,
but sometimes it will be placed on the ledge of a cliff, or on
the top of a rock, or even, as remarked above, on a tree. Mr.
Robert Read writes to me : — " I have always found the nests
of the Common Gull on the shores of fresh-water lakes, or on
the islands in one of these waters. The birds are particularly
fond of nesting on isolated rocks, sometimes on a boulder,

7 6 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY

only a foot of which is projecting above water. In Sweden,
on a group of large rocky islets in a fresh-water lake, I never
found more than one nest on each islet."

Eggs. — Three in number. Ground-tint of a clay- or olive-
brown to chocolate, with reddish-brown or black spots and streaks
distributed fairly over the whole egg, and seldom forming
blotches. Sometimes the dark spots show up faintly, and the
grey underlying ones are almost as distinctly indicated. Axis,
2*i5-2'45 inches; diam., 1*6-17.

X. THE GLAUCOUS GULL. LARUS HYPERBOREUS.

Larus hyperboreus, Gunnerus, in Leem's Beskr. Finn. Lapp.

p. 283 (1767).
Lams glaucus, Fabr. ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 557 (1852);

Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 433, pi. 605 (1877); B. O. U.

List Brit. B. p. 187 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B.

iii. p. 636 (1884) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 330

(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 663 (1889); Lilford,

Col. Fig. Brit. B. parts xxiii. xxvii. (1893-94)- Saunders,

Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 289 (1896).

(Plate CIL]

Adult Male. — General colour above very pale pearly-grey, the
wing-coverts like the back ; the marginal-coverts round the
bend of the wing white ; bastard-wing and primary-coverts
grey; primaries pearly-grey,, with white shafts, gradually
becoming white at the ends; the secondaries and scapulars
broadly tipped with white; the rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail
white ; head and neck all round, as well as the whole of the
under surface of the body, pure white; " bill yellow, orange-red
at the angle ; tarsi and toes light fleshy pink in life ; iris,
yellow; orbital ring, orange" (H. Saunders.) Total length,
25 inches; culmen, 275 ; wing, i8'o; tail, 67; tarsus, 2*8.

Adult Female. — Smaller, often considerably so, according to
Mr. Saunders, who says there is also considerable difference in
the size of individuals, irrespective of sex.

Adult in winter.— Similar to the summer plumage, but having
the head and neck streaked with pale ashy-brown.

Young. — Very pale ashy-brown both above and below, the
bases of the feathers whiter, the back and wings mottled with

GLAUCOUS GULL. 7 7

broken bars of pale brown ; the secondaries white at the ends
and mottled with brown like the back; the primaries isabelline,
ashy-white on the inner webs, and with slight remains of brown
markings at the ends; upper and under tail-coverts white,
distinctly mottled with brown ; the tail-feathers ashy-brown,
mottled on the edges with white ; crown of head ashy-brown,
slightly darker than the mantle, and streaked like the side of
the face ; under surface of the body ashy-brown, the throat
whiter, streaked with ashy ; under tail-coverts white, barred
with light ashy-brown ; the under wing-coverts and axillaries
ashy-brown like the breast ; bill ochre-yellow to the angle, then
blackish to the tip ; tarsi and toes brownish.

Mr. Saunders says that, after the moult of the next year, both
the upper and under surfaces are much lighter, and pale grey
feathers begin to show on the mantle, the outer primaries being
all but white. In immature birds the mottlings of the upper
surface gradually disappear, and for a short time the bird
appears to be creamy white (in which phase of plumage it has
received the name of L. hutchinsi}. At the subsequent moult
the pearl-grey mantle is assumed, but the new tail-feathers
show some faint brownish mottlings until the next year.

Nestling. — Of a stone-grey colour, slightly tinged with yellow-
ish-buff below ; the back mottled with ashy-brown, and the
head spotted with black.

Characters. — The Glaucous Gull is distinguished by its large
size, white head and tail, and especially by its white quills,
with a faint shade of grey at the base. Only two Gulls of the
white-winged group answer to this latter character, the Glaucous
Gull and the Iceland Gull.

Range in Great Britain. — This is an Arctic species, which visits
as in winter only, and is then chiefly noticed in the northern
parts of the British Islands. It is a more or less regular
visitor, sometimes occurring in numbers, but less often on the
west and south coasts ; young birds predominating.

Range outside the British Islands. — A circumpolar species dur-
ing the breeding season, wandering southwards in winter to
the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas ; also recorded
from Japan. In America it visits the Great Lakes, and reaches
to Bermuda and Florida, and on the west coast of California

78 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Habits. — The " Burgomaster," as this great Gull is often
called, is a rapacious and omnivorous species, robbing other
Gulls of their prey, and feeding on fish, offal, Crustacea, and
young birds. Seebohm thus describes his experiences of the
species in the north of Norway :— " The Glaucous Gull breeds
on the cliffs at Vardo, and a large flock, composed principally
of immature and entirely of non-breeding birds, frequents the
stretches of sand left at low water near Vadso, thirty miles to
the south of the breeding colony. When I was at this town,
the Glaucous Gulls were always to be seen at all hours flying
about the harbour ; but by far the greater portion of them
retired to a distant sand-bank, which extended from the
southern promontory of the island in the Varanger Fjord,
apparently to roost, as the sun approached the north. They
were very noisy before finally settling down to rest, continually
uttering their loud and harsh note, which may be represented
by the syllables * cut-hik? Although at Vardo the Glaucous
Gull breeds on the precipitous cliffs, Harvie-Brown and I
afterwards found its nest on one of the low flat islands which
separate the lagoon of the Petchora from the Arctic Ocean.
This island was a flat desert of sand, unrelieved by a blade of
grass, and it rises very slightly above the level of the sea, which
varies very little (only five or six inches) with the tide."

Nest. — The nests found by Seebohm on the Petchora are
described by him as " heaps of sand hollowed slightly at the
apex, and lined with some irregularly disposed tufts of sea-
weed." Mr. Trevor-Battye thus describes the breeding of the
species on the island of Kolguev: — "The nests of the Glaucous
Gulls which we visited were situated on the highest ridge of
the outer sand-banks to the south of Scharok Harbour. They
were visible from a very long distance, and proved to be lumps
formed of sand and mixed with sea-weeds and great quantities
of hydrozoa (Sertularia and others), on which flourished
Arenaria peploides. The sand had in many cases originally
collected round drifted timber, and the birds had taken advan-
tage of this to raise upon it a pile some two feet and more in
height. As the Samoyeds rob these nests constantly, one
wonders that any young get off. Hyland was so violently
mobbed by these birds, which stooped right down at his head,
that he shot two ' in self-defence.' "

ICELAND GULL. /9

. — Three in number. There is nothing very distinctive
about the colour or markings of the eggs, which look like
larger editions of those of the Lesser Black-backed Gull.
Some examples are very sparsely marked, and have the spots
few and far 'between, or else have a large blotch of black near
the large end of the egg. Axis, 2-95-3-05 inches; diam.,
2-0-2-15. To the red variety of the Herring-Gull's egg, figured
by Seebohm as the egg of the Glaucous Gull, I have already
alluded (supra, p. 73).

XI. THE ICELAND GULL. LARUS LEUCOPTERUS.

Larus hucopterus, Faber, Prodr. Isl. Orn. p. 91 (1822); Macgill.
Brit. B. v. p. 566 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 439,
pi. 606 (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 188 (1883);
Saunders, ed. YarrelPs Brit. B. iii, p. 642 (1884); See-
bohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 333 (1885); Saunders, Man.
Brit. B. p. 665 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxvi.
(1893); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 295 (1896).

Adult Male.— Similar to L. hyperboreus, but smaller, with pro-
portionately longer wings ; back delicate pearly-grey, with white
ends to the secondaries and scapulars ; primaries pearly-grey,
white at the ends and along the inner webs ; rump, upper tail-
coverts, and tail white ; head and neck all round, as well as the
entire under parts, pure white. Total length, 23-5 inches ;
culmen, 1*9 ; wing, 16*5 ; tail, 6'6 ; tarsus, 2-4.

Adult Female.- -Similar to the male, but smaller.

Young-. — Like that of L. hyperboreus, and having the under
surface light ashy-brown, with very pale brown mottlings on
the upper surface. The size is, however, smaller.

Characters. —Like L. hyperboreus, the present species has white
quills, but is distinguished from the latter bird by its smaller
size. Mr. Saunders observes (Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 297) :
— " On the wing L. leucoptcnts has a much more buoyant flight
than Z. glaums^ and the length of wing, in proportion to its
comparatively small bulk, is very noticeable ; but prepared and
over-stuffed skins sometimes offer difficulties. Still, in spite of
its longer wing in proportion to its bulk, the largest male
L, leucopterus does not attain to the length of wing found in
the smallest Z. glaucus"

So ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range in Great Britain. — This small representative of the
Glaucous Gull is only a visitor to Great Britain, though it some-
times appears in some numbers off the coasts of Scotland ; it
is of rarer occurrence off the English and Irish coasts.

Range outside the British Islands. — The breeding-range of the
Iceland Gull is in the Arctic regions, in Greenland, Jan Mayen
Island, and, according to Saunders, perhaps on the American
side of Baffin Bay. In winter it visits Iceland and, the Faeroes,
as well as the shores of Scandinavia and the Baltic, and the
north-west of Europe down to the Gulf of Gascony in severe
seasons. In North America it descends to the latitude of
Boston.

Habits. — The only account of the habits of the Iceland Gull
is that of Faber, of which an epitome is given in Saunders's
edition of Yarrell's " British Birds " (iii. p. 646). About the
middle of September both old and young birds appear off the
coast of Ireland for the winter, disappearing about the end of
April or the beginning of May. " These birds," says Faber,
"were so tame that they came on land up to my winter dwell-
ing on the northern coast to mop up the entrails of fish thrown
away by the inhabitants, and disputed fiercely for them with
the Ravens. I had one of these Gulls so tame that it came
every morning to my door at a certain time to obtain food and
then flew away again. It gave me notice of its arrival by
uttering its cry. This Gull indicated to the seal-shooters in
the fjord where they should look for the seals by continually
following their track in the sea, by hovering in flocks, and with
incessant cries, over them ; and whilst the seals hunted the
sprat and the capeling towards the surface of the water, these
Gulls precipitated themselves down upon the fish and snapped
them up. In like manner they follow the track of the cod-fish
in the sea, and feed upon the booty hunted up by this fish of
prey. . . . This Gull was my weather-guide in winter. If
it swam near the shore, and there, as if anxious, moved along
with its feathers puffed out, then I knew that on the following
day storms and snow were to be expected. In fine weather it
soared high in the air. Hundreds often sit on a piece of ice,
and in that way are drifted many miles. In its manners the
Iceland Gull differs from the Glaucous Gull, which has the

IVORY GULL. 8l

habits of the Greater Black-backed Gull, and moves with more
energy. The nature of the Iceland Gull resembles more that
of the Herring-Gull ; its deportment and flight are more grace-
ful ; it hovers over its prey, is somewhat greedy, always active,
and is not afraid to fight with equal, or superior, antagonists
for its food."

Nest. — Has apparently not been described beyond the fact
that it is a depression in the bare ground or on the ledges of
precipices (Cf. Saunders, I.e.).

Eggs. — Two or three in number, laid early in June. The
British Museum contains several specimens from the Seebohm
and Gould collections. They are very similar to the eggs of
L. hyperboreuS) but are rather smaller, and have the ground-
colour dark clay-brown, spotted all over with chocolate-brown,
and with very evident underlying spots of purplish-grey. Some
have the ground-colour greyish-olive, and on this type of egg
the spots and blotches are very distinct and plentifully dis-
tributed over the surface of the egg. Axis, 27-2*9 inches ;
diam., '85-1-2.

THE IVORY GULLS. GENUS PAGOPIIILA.
Pagophila, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. pp. 69, 196 (1829).

Type P. eburnea (Phipps).

The beautiful Ivory Gull is the sole representative of the
genus Pagophild) which is thoroughly Arctic in its habitat. Its
uniform snowy plumage finds a curious parallel in the Antarctic
Snowy Petrel (Pagodroma nivea) of the Southern Ocean. The
genus Pagophila is characterised by the square tail, the hind-
toe joined to the inner one by a strong, serrated membrane,
all the nails being large and curved, the webs and toes being
rugose, while the tibia is feathered nearly to the tibio-tarsal
joint. (Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 161.)

The genus is represented by a single species, Pagophila
eburnea^ which is circumpolar in its distribution.

I. THE IVORY GULL. PAGOPHILA EBURNEA.

Larus eburneus, Phipps, Voy. N. Pole, App. p. 187 (1774);

Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 337 (1885).
Cetosparactes eburneus , Macgill. Urit. B. v. p. 508 (1852).

82 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Pagophila elnirnea, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 349, pi. 595 (1877);
B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 186 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yar-
relPs Brit. B. iii. p. 656 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 669
(1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxvi. (1893) ; Saun-
ders, Cat B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 301 (1896).

Adult Male.— Entirely snow-white above and below; the quills
also white, with white shafts and a faint shade of grey on the
inner web; "bill, gamboge-yellow terminally, merging into
greenish-grey on the basal two-thirds of both mandibles ; tarsi
and toes black ; iris dark hair-brown ; orbital ring brick- red "
(fl. Saunders), Total length, 18 inches ; culmen, 1*7; wing,
14*2; tail, 6'2; tarsus, 1*75.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but slightly smaller, and
Mr. Saunders states that there is a tendency to show a
shorter tarsus. Total length, 17 inches; wing, i2'8.

Young. — White, but with a great deal of grey on the lores,
sides of face, and throat. The upper surface and the wings
spotted with greyish-black ; the bastard-wing, primary-coverts,
and primaries with a black spot at the end ; tail-feathers with a
black sub-terminal band.

Nestling. — White. "Even in this stage," says Professor
Collett, u they may be distinguished from the young of other
species by the strong and hooked claws, particularly on the
hind toe, the somewhat marginated web on the toes, and by
the forward nostrils." The fledgeling is said by Mr. Saunders
to be of a dull or smoke-grey colour.

Range in Great Britain. — Some thirty occurrences of the
Ivory Gull have been recorded from British waters, of which
half have been adult individuals. They have been procured in
England, Ireland, and Scotland, though the greater number,
as might have been expected in a winter visitor from the
north, have occurred in the latter kingdom.

Range outside the British Islands. — " Circumpolar regions, with-
out any break of continuity ; but along those portions of the
coast of Arctic America, where open water is non-existent, the
bird is naturally scarce ; rare also in the Northern Pacific. In
winter, southwards as far as the coast of France and Lake
Leman (once), and New Brunswick, in America " (Saunders).

IVORY GULL. 83

Habits. — The flight of the Ivory Gull is described by Colonel
Feilden as being more like that of a Tern than of a Gull, and
he says that it has a shrill note, not unlike that of the Arctic
Tern. Its food consists of marine animals, as well as the
droppings of walruses and seals, and the refuse of the carcases
of the latter animals and whales cast aside by the hunters.
Numbers were observed by Malmgren sitting for hours round
the ice-holes through which the seals came up, looking as if
they were sitting round a council-table ; " a practice which has
doubtless given rise to the curious name used by Martens in
1675 for this Gull, viz., 'Rathsherr' (Councillor), a name
analogous in its derivation to that of ' Biirgermeister ' (Mayor),
used for the Glaucous Gull " (Satmders).

Nest. — Composed of green moss, according to Professor
Collett, this moss forming one-tenth of its mass. "The nest
consists of small splinters of drift-wood, a few feathers, single
stalks and leaves of algae, with one or two particles of lichen.
No trace of straw is to be found ; a couple of pebbles 'may
possibly have appertained to the under layer of the nest. The
mosses occur in pieces of the size of a walnut or less, and have
evidently been plucked in a fresh state from a dry sub-soil,
either on rocks or gravelly places. The feathers, of which a
few were found, are snowy-white, and have probably fallen
from the brooding bird." The nests are placed, as a rule, on
the cliffs, at a height of from fifty to a hundred feet, and are
often quite inaccessible. Those described by Professor Collett
were obtained on the island of Stor-oen, off Spitsbergen, about
sixteen English miles to the east of Cape Smith in 80° 9' N.
Lat., by Captain Johannesen.

Eggs. — One, or two, in number. The ground-colour of five
specimens sent to Professor Collett, were almost exactly alike,
viz., a light greyish-brown tint, with a faint admixture of
yellowish-green, such as often appears on the eggs of Larus
canus, which, however, have often a deeper brown or greener
hue. In structure and gloss all the eggs brought to Professor
Collett resemble those of L. canus\ but the granulations
under the microscope are a little coarser, more uneven, and in
larger numbers ; on the other hand, the granulations are
perceptibly finer than in L, fuscus. The eggs are easily dis-

G 2

§4 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

tinguished from those of the Kittiwake by their greater gloss,
the small excrescences are not so crowded together, and are
a little more flattened than they usually are in the last-
mentioned species. Axis, 2-15-2-4 inches; diam., 1-65-1-75.

THE KITTIWAKE GULLS. GENUS RISSA.

Rissa, Stephens, in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xiii. part i, p. 189 (1826).

Type, R. tridactyla (Linn.).

The chief character which distinguishes the Kittiwakes from
the rest of the Gulls is the rudimentary condition or absence of
the hind toe. The tarsus is much shorter than the middle toe
with its claw, and the tail shews a slight tendency to be forked.

Mr. Howard Saunders admits two species of Kittiwakes, our
own familiar species (R. tridactyla) with dark brown feet and
white under wing- coverts, and R. brevirostris^ from the Arctic
Pacific Ocean, with vermilion-coloured feet and grey under
wing-coverts. A third form, R. pollicaris, with a slightly more
developed hind-toe than in normal R. tridactyla, and chiefly —
but not exclusively — from the North Pacific, is recognised by
some American naturalists, but is disallowed by Mr. Saunders.

I. THE KITTIWAKE GULL. RISSA TRIDACTYLA.

Larus tridactylus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 224(1766); Seebohm,

Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 340 (1885).
Rissa tridactyla (Linn.), Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 515 (1852);

Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 447, pis. 607, 608 (1878) ;

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 187 (1883); Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 650 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 667 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxiv.

(1893); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 305 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above light slaty-grey, with
narrow white ends to the scapulars ; wing-coverts grey like the
back ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and quills light slaty-grey,
the inner primaries fringed at the ends, and the secondaries
narrowly tipped with white ; the outer primaries grey, white
along the inner webs ; first primary black along the outer web,
and also for two inches at the tips ; the second and third
primaries also black at the ends, this black tip decreasing on

KITTIWAKE GULL. 85

the inner primaries, and forming a sub-terminal band on the
fourth and fifth, which have white tips, the band on the latter
very narrow ; on the sixth the sub-terminal bar is very narrow
and often reduced to a spot, and is occasionally entirely absent ;
rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail pure white ; head and neck all
round also pure white, extending on to the upper mantle ; entire
under surface of body pure white ; bill yellow, with a greenish
tinge \ tarsi blackish ; toes dark brown. Total length, 16 inches ;
oilmen, 1*7; wing, 12*4; tail, 4*75 ; tarsus, 1*45.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 16*0 inches ;
wing, 13-0.

Adult in Winter. — Differs from the summer plumage in having
the hinder crown and neck washed with the same grey as the
back ; in front of the eye a shade of dusky grey, and behind
the ear-coverts a patch of blackish, which extends in a feeble
degree round the nape, where it nearly forms a collar ; bill more
olive.

Young1. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adult, but with
black mottlings across the hind neck, forming a more or less
complete black band ; the marginal wing-coverts and most of
the lesser wing-coverts black, forming a band down the wing,
which is continued by the black on the outer webs of the inner
secondaries ; the primaries with more black on them than in
the adults, the inner webs with a long white "wedge," but the
black extending along the outer web and for some breadth
along the inner edge of the shaft ; the fifth and sixth primaries
with a sub-terminal bar of black, represented sometimes on the
seventh by a black spot ; tail with a broad black band at the
end, decreasing towards the outermost feathers.

Nestling. — Dark grey, more fulvescent on the nape; white
below ; toes brown, the webs yellowish.

Mr. Saunders observes that the birds of Bering Sea and the
North Pacific are slightly larger than those of the Atlantic
Ocean, and have a " little more development of the usually
diminutive hind-toe. Sometimes there is a very minute, but
sharply-pointed, nail on each hind-toe, though often on one only.
This development is not confined to examples from the North
Pacific, for it has been found in birds from the British Islands,
Greenland, and the eastern side of North America,0

86 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range in Great Britain. — The Kittiwake is a thoroughly in-
digenous species with us, being found on all our coasts. In
summer it resorts to certain headlands and rocky islands to
breed, and in some places it does so in enormous numbers.
Well-known colonies of the Kittiwake are those of Lundy Island,
the Fames, Flamborough, the Bass Rock, and they are especially
numerous in the Orkneys and Shetland Isles. In Ireland, Mr.
Ussher says, the Kittiwake breeds, often in large colonies, on
the precipices of the coasts and islands of Donegal, Antrim,
Dublin, Wexford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Gal way, Mayo, and Sligo.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is found
in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions, from the farthest point
yet visited by man to the north of Spitsbergen and up to 81°
40' in Smith Sound, down to the north-west of France, the
Gulf of St. Lawrence on the Atlantic side of North America,
and the Kuril Islands in the Pacific.

In winter it visits the Mediterranean, and the inland waters
of Europe down to the Caspian, the Canaries, Bermuda, and
both sides of America to about 35° N. Lat. The record
of circumpolar continuity is complete between the North Cape
and Bering Strait, by way of Siberia and the islands to the
north, while in Arctic America it is only defective as regards
the small interval between Prince Albert Island and Point
Barrow (//. Saunders).

Habits. — Many descriptions of the colonies of Kittiwakes have
been published in works on British Ornithology. One of the
best accounts of some of the great assemblages of this Gull is
that of the late Dr. Alfred Brehm, in his essay on the
" Bird-Bergs of Lapland." * He writes : —

" Different again is the life and activity on the bergs chosen
as brooding-places by the Kittiwakes. Such a hill is the
promontory Swartholm, high up in the north between the
Laxen and the Porsanger fjords, not far from the North Cape.
I knew already how these Gulls appear on their breeding-places.
Faber, with his excellent knowledge of the birds of the North,
has depicted it, as usual, in a few vivid words :

* "From North Pole to Equator: Studies of Wild Life and Scenes
in many lands." English Translation, by M, R. Thomson and J. A.
Thomson. (Blackie & Son : 1896.

KITTIWAKE GULL. 87

" ' They hide the sun when they fly, they cover the skerries
when they sit, they drown the thunder of the surf when they
cry, they colour the rocks white where they breed.' I believed
the excellent Faber after I had seen the Eider-holms and Auk-
bergs, and yet I doubted, as every naturalist must, and there-
fore I ardently desired to visit Swartholm for myself. An
amiable Norseman with whom I became friendly, the pilot of
the mail steamer by which I travelled, readily agreed to row me
over to the breeding place, and we approached the promontory
late one evening. At a distance of six or eight nautical miles
we were overtaken by flocks of from thirty to a hundred, some-
times even two hundred, Kitti wakes flying to their nesting-place.
The nearer we approached to Swartholm the more rapid was
the succession of these swarms, and the larger did they become.
At last the promontory became visible, a rocky wall about
eight hundred yards long, pierced by innumerable holes, rising
almost perpendicularly from the sea to a height of from four
hundred and fifty to six hundred feet. It looked grey in the
distance, but with a telescope one could discern innumerable
points and lines. It looked as though a gigantic slate had
been scratched all over with all sorts of marks by a playful
giant child, as though the whole rock bore a wondrous decora-
tion of chains, rings, and stars. From the dark depths of large
and small cavities there gleamed a brilliant white ; the shelving
ledges stood out in more conspicuous brightness. The brood-
ing Gulls on their nests formed the white pattern, and we
realised the truth of Faber's words, 'they cover the rocks when
they sit.'

" Our boat, as it grated on the rocky shore, startled a number
of the Gulls, and I saw a picture such as I had seen on many
eider-holms and gull-islands. A shot from my friend's gun
thundered against the precipice. As a raging winter storm
rushes through the air and breaks up the snow-laden clouds till
they fall in flakes, so now it snowed living birds. One saw
neither hill nor sky, nothing but an indescribable confusion. A
thick cloud darkened the whole horizon, justifying the descrip-
tion, ' they hide the sun when they fly.' The north wind blew
violently and the icy sea surged wildly against the foot of the
cliffs, but more wildly still resounded the shrill cries of the
birds, so that the truth of the last part also of Faber's descrip-

88 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

tion was fully proved, 'they drown the thunder of the surf
when they cry.' At length the cloud sank down upon the sea,
the hitherto dim outlines of Swartholm became distinct again
and a new spectacle enchained our gaze. On the precipices
there seemed to sit quite as many birds as before, and thousands
were still flying up and down. A second shot scared new
flocks, a second time it snowed birds down upon the sea, and
still the hillsides were covered with hundreds of thousands.
But on the sea, as far as the eye could reach, lay Gulls like
light foam-balls rocking up and down with the waves. How
shall I describe the magnificent spectacle? Shall I say that the
sea had woven millions and millions of bright pearls into her
dark wave-robe? Or shall I compare the Gulls to stars, and the
ocean to the dome of heaven ? I know not ; but I know that I
have seen nothing more gorgeous even on the sea. And as if
the charm were not already great enough, the midnight sun,
erewhile clouded over, suddenly shed its rosy light over
promontory, and sea, and birds, lighting up every wave-crest as
if a golden, wide meshed net had been thrown over the water,
and making the rose-tinted dazzling Gulls appear more brilliant
than before. We stood speechless at the sight ! "

Nest. — Seebohm says that the nest of the Kittiwake is better
made than is usual with the Gulls. In some districts the
foundation is made of turf, with the soil adhering, which the
salt spray and the wet feet of the birds soon turn into a kind
of mortar. This foundation is finished off into a nest made of
seaweed, pieces of marine vegetation, and finally lined with
dry grass and sometimes a few feathers. The nests are
generally placed upon ledges on cliffs, but in Alaska they were
found on small islands by Mr. Dall, the birds making a simple
depression in the sand.

Eggs. — Two or three in number, very rarely four, according
to Seebohm, who observes that the eggs of the Kittiwake are
not easily compared with those of any other British Gull. Mr.
Robert Read writes to me : — " The eggs of the Kittiwake vary
as much as those of the Black-headed Gull, and they are found
from almost pure white to deep purplish-brown, with still darker
markings. They are, however, never so glossy as the eggs of
the Gulls, resembling more the eggs of the Puffin in texture."

GREAT SKUA. 89

The series in the British Museum varies from the typical
Gull's egg of clay-brown with distinct overlying spots of dark
brown and underlying spots of grey, to bluish-grey or creamy-
buff, with the markings faint or very much emphasized. In
the faintly-spotted eggs, the grey underlying spots are the most
prominent, and in some instances the larger end of the egg is
blotched with black. Axis, 2-2-2-35 inches; diam., 1-5-1-7.

THE SKUAS. FAMILY STERCORARIIDyE.

In structure the Skuas differ markedly from the Laridce,
and their habits more resemble those of Frignte-Birds than
Gulls, though some of the larger species of the last-named
family are robbers by nature. These redeem their character,
however, by other milder traits, whereas the Skuas are among
the most predatory of sea-fowl. They differ from the Gulls
and Terns in osteological characters, having only one notch
in the posterior margin of the sternum, and the bill is
furnished with a very elongated "cere," and is formidably
hooked, while the claws are more like those of a bird of prey
than those of a sea-bird, being strongly curved and very sharp.
Two genera are contained within this Family, both of which
are represented in the British Avi-fauna, and are described
below.

THE GREAT SKUAS. GENUS MEGALESTRIS.

Megalestris, Bp. Cat. Parzud. p. n (1856).
Types, M. catarrhacles (Linn.).

The members of the genus Megalestris are four in number,
one of them, M. catarrhactes, inhabiting the northern ocean,
while another, M. maccormickii, is only known from Victoria
Land in the Antarctic Ocean. M. chilensis inhabits the
southern coasts of South America, and M. antarctica is found
in the southern ocean from the Falkland Islands eastwards to
New Zealand. The principal points of difference between the
species of Megalestris and Stercorarius consist in the larger
bulk of the former and the shorter tail, the central feathers of
which do not project more than half an inch beyond the rest,
whereas in Stercorarius this prolongation of the middle tail-

90

feathers is a feature of the genus. The tarsus is a little shorter
than the middle toe and claw.

I. THE GREAT SKUA. MEGALESTRIS CATARRHACTES.

Larus catarrhactes^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 226 (1766).

Lestris catarrhactes, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 479 (1852) ; Lilford,
Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxvi. (1893).

Stercorarins catarrhactes, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 457, pi. 609
(1875); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 194 (1883); Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 664(1884): Seebohm, Hist.
Brit. B. iii. p. 346 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 671
(1889); id. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 315 (1896).

Adult Male.— General colour above dark umber-brown, mottled
with rufous, the feathers being sub-terminally of this colour, and
varied with whitish where the ends of the feathers have worn
pale ; feathers of the neck rather more pointed, and showing
pale straw-coloured shafts ; wing-coverts dark umber-brown,
slightly mottled with white marks near the ends of the
feathers; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and quills blackish,
the outer primaries with yellowish-white shafts, the first quill
white towards the base of the inner web, the next five white
at the base of both webs, decreasing in extent on the inner
primaries, but forming a conspicuous wing-speculum; tail
blackish ; crown of head nearly uniform, dark umber-brown
very slightly mottled with reddish-brown centres to the
feathers ; lores and region of the eye dusky umber-brown, the
ear-coverts more rufescent brown ; under surface of body pale
chestnut rufous, varied with ashy grey bases to the feathers,
some of the flank -feathers streaked with white shaft-lines and
whitish at the ends; the under tail-coverts deeper rufous, with
white shaft-streaks; under wing-coverts and axillaries dark
umber-brown, the latter slightly rufous near the ends ; " bill
black, the cere with a greyish tinge ; tarsi and toes black ; iris
dark brown " (H. Saunders). Total length, 2 1 -5 inches ; cul-
men, 2*2; wing, 16*0; tail, 6*4; tarsus, 2*8.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male in plumage, though Mr.
Saunders is inclined to believe that she is a little larger than
her mate.

GREAT SKUA. 91

Adult in Winter. — Mr. Saunders considers that there is scarcely
any difference between the winter and summer plumages, and
in the series in the British Museum there is scarcely any
perceptible difference in colour, except when the plumage is
worn, and then the pointed straw-coloured feathers of the
neck become more prominent.

Young Birds. — According to Mr. Saunders, these are very
similar to the adults, but have less tendency to acumination
and striation of the feathers of the neck, and show somewhat
rufous margins to the feathers of the mantle.

Nestling. — Covered with buffi sh-grey down ; more ruddy on
the upper surface.

Range in Great Britain. — The Great Skua is an expiring species
with us. From its predatory habits, it has been marked out for
destruction ; but the desire of collectors to possess its eggs has
probably done more to contribute to its extermination than
any other cause. It is rarely seen on the coasts of England
and Scotland during winter, and its breeding-places are now
confined to the Shetlands, where two small colonies exist on
Unst and Foula, where the birds are protected.

Range outside the British Islands. — The breeding-range of the
Great Skua is now restricted to a few localities. It nests in
the Faeroes, in Iceland, and has been said to breed in North
America, on some islands to the north of Hudson Strait. It
occurs occasionally in South Greenland and off the coast of
Norway ; and wanders in winter as far as the Mediterranean,
and, in North America, to the coast of New England.

Habits. — The following note is taken from Mr. Saunders's
account of the habits of this species in his edition of YarrelFs
" British Birds " (vol. iii. p. 665) : — " There is no difficulty in
finding the nests, as the parent birds attack any intruder upon
their domain with fierce and repeated swoops. When handling
the nestling, I found their assaults were unremitting ; first one
bird and then the other wheeling short, and coming down at
full speed, almost skimming the ground. At about fifteen
yards' distance, the strong clawed feet are lowered and held
stiffly out, producing for the moment a very ungainly appear-
ance, and it seems as if the bird would strike the observer full
in the centre of the body, but on quickly raising the hand or

92 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

stick, the bird rises also, the whirr and vibration of its pinions
being distinctly heard and felt. Its ordinary flight is soaring
and stately. On leaving the territory of one pair, the attack
is taken up by another, and so on, for the Great Skuas do
not nest in close proximity. In fearlessness this fine bird is
unrivalled ; it has been seen to beat off the Sea-Eagle, and no
Raven stands a chance against it. For this reason the pro-
prietors of the land protect it ; Colonel Feilden says that in the
Faeroes they also do so on account of the estimation in which
the young are held for food ; but the fishermen shoot the old
birds for the sake of the bill (for the neb-toll), feathers, and
flesh, the latter making excellent fishing-bait. The stomachs
of a pair which were shot were full of the flesh of the Kittiwake,
and the castings consisted of the bones and feathers of that
small Gull. Heysham has noticed an adult female on the
coast of Cumberland, which allowed herself to be seized while
she was in the act of killing a Herring Gull. It also feeds on
fish offal, and I found by the side of a nestling some dis-
gorged but otherwise uninjured herrings of large size."

The late Dr. Saxby has given the following note on the
species in his "Birds of Shetland ": — "The Great Skuas are
usually seen singly or in pairs, except during the early summer,
when they are assembled at the breeding-grounds ; upon these
occasions I have seen considerable numbers about the same
spot, but even then they were chiefly in pairs, except when
they became mixed up by accident. At such times, when the
young are about, the birds become very daring, sometimes even
knocking a man's hat from his head. A dog has no chance
with them, for they buffet him so severely in their rapid swoops
that he soon has to retire discomfited. I once had four of
them sailing in circles close round my head as I stood upon
the crown of the highest hill in Unst, Saxaford, and could
almost touch them with my gun, the sound of which, by the
way, did not seem to cause them much alarm ; perhaps they
divined how little they had to fear so far as I was concerned.
The female is rather lighter in colour than the male, and is
by far the bolder of the two. During the breeding-season the
Skua will come to such close quarters with an intruder that I
have known a man strike at one with a tether, and entangle
it and bring it to the ground,"

POMATORHINE SKUA. 93

In its mode of capturing prey the Great Skua is almost
Accipi trine in its habits, and lives chiefly upon the toil of the
smaller Gulls, which it follows with fierce pertinacity, and
compels them to disgorge the fish they have captured ; nor, if
one of their number is wounded or in distress, will it hesitate
to pursue and seize it. For this reason it is almost as much
dreade d as a Peregrine or other bird of prey.

Nest. — A hollow in the moss on the upland moors, with
sometimes a bit of grass as a lining.

Eggs. — Two, sometimes only one, laid in May and June.
The ground-colour is dark chocolate-brown or olive-brown, so
dark that the spots do not stand out in bold contrast, the spots
being generally of a reddish-brown colour, sometimes very
faint, and at others inclining to blackish, especially when they
become confluent at the large end of the egg. Axis, 2 '55-2 '9
inches; diam., i '85-1*95.

THE SMALL SKUAS. GENUS STERCORARIUS.

Stercorariu$} Briss. Orn. vi. p. 149 (1760).

Type, probably S. crepidatus (Banks).

The genus Stercorarius comprises a few species of much
smaller size than the members of the genus Megaltstris, though
they are equally parasitic in their habits, and are armed with
equally fierce talons, and the accipitrine cere of the Great
Skuas. The central tail-feathers are elongated beyond the
others to the extent of three inches at least, and often to a
length of eight or nine inches. The tarsus is distinctly shorter
than the middle toe and its claw. (Cf. Saunders, Cat. B. Brit;
Mus. xxv. p. 314.)

Three species of the smaller Skuas are known, all of them
Arctic in their habitat, ranging south in winter, one of them,
S, pomatorhinus, wandering at that season of the year into
the southern oceans.

I. THE POMATORHINE SKUA. STERCORARIUS POMATORHINUS.

Lestris pomarinat Temm. Man. d'Orn. p. 514 (1815); Macgill.
Brit. B. v. p. 487 (1852); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part
xxi. (1892).

94 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Stercorarius pomatorhinus, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 463, pi. 610
(1877) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 194 (1883) ; Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 668 (1884) ; id. Man. Brit. B.
p. 673 (1889) ; id. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 323 (1896).

Stercorarius pom arinus^ Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 349 (1885).

Adult Male. — General colour above dark slaty-brown, the
lateral upper tail-coverts with some white bars, mostly con-
cealed ; wing-coverts like the back ; bastard-wing, primary-
coverts, and quills blackish-brown, browner on the inner web,
and with a good deal of white at the base of the latter,
decreasing in extent on the inner primaries ; tail blackish-
brown; crown of head black, forming a cap, the black
extending over the lores, feathers below the eye and fore part
of cheeks ; the feathers of the occiput acuminate like those of
the hind neck, which is straw-yellow like the sides of the face
and sides of the neck; the hind-neck slaty-brown like the
back, but mottled with white bars ; throat straw-yellow like the
sides of the neck, the chin whiter ; remainder of under surface
of body white, the lower throat and fore-neck mottled thickly
with black bars and edgings to the feathers, the sides of the
body and flanks also mottled in the same way; the lower
abdomen and under tail-coverts nearly uniform slaty-brown,
only slightly mottled with white ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries uniform slaty-brown, the lower primary-coverts lighter
slate-grey; bill horn-brown; tarsi and toes reddish-brown.
Total length, 21 inches; culmen, 17; wing, 14*6; tail, 4*9 ;
centre tail-feathers, 7^5; tarsus, 2-1.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 20*5
inches ; wing, 14-0.

Adult in Winter. — Similar to the summer plumage, but for
some years after the attainment of adult — though not mature
—plumage, there is a tendency, after the autumnal moult, to
show striated feathers on the flanks, as well as on the upper and
under tail-coverts. (Saunders, Cat. B. xxv. p. 326.)

The pectoral band is wider in immature birds, the yellow
on the neck is not so evident, and the flanks are generally
streaked. There are more bars on the under surface of the
body, and the upper and under tail-coverts, as well as the
under wing coverts, are barred or mottled with black and

JPOMATORHINE SKUA. 95

white; the central tail feathers rarely project for more than two
inches. Like other members of the genus Stercorariust the
Pomatorhine Skua has a melanistic phase, which is generally
considered to occur in old birds only, because of the yellow
which is seen on the neck. Mr. Saunders, however, doubts
whether any of these dark specimens are really old birds, and
he quotes an instance of a specimen kept alive for some years
by the late Mr. Booth, which gradually became whiter and
whiter on the lower parts of the body.

Young-. — Sooty-brown above, the head and neck uniform,
but the mantle and back mottled with rufous edgings to the
feathers ; wing-coverts obscurely edged with rufous, the greater
coverts and scapulars somewhat more plainly margined ;
upper tail- coverts banded with sooty-brown and white or sandy-
buff; tail-feathers sooty-brown, slightly edged with rufous at
the tips ; sides of face and throat uniform sooty-brown ; under
surface of body dull ashy-brown, with concealed whitish bars ;
the abdomen paler and crossed with dusky bars ; the under tail-
coverts banded with dusky-brown and bufTy-white; sides of
body darker than the breast ; under wing-coverts and axillaries
banded with blackish-brown and white ; lower primary-coverts
white, with dusky bands at the ends ; quills blackish below,
with a great deal of white towards the base of the inner web ;
" bill brown, with a greenish tinge ; tarsus often blue or grey
in patches ; bases of the toes yellowish " (H, Saunders).

Characters. — The larger size and darker feet, with the brown
hind-toe distinguish young birds of the Pomatorhine Skua from
the young of the other two species of Slercorarius. The adult
bird is known by its greater dimensions, the wing being over
fourteen inches, and by the greater breadth of the central tail-
feathers, which are rounded at the ends, and project four
inches beyond the others, being twisted vertically. (Cf.
Saunders, Cat B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 322).

Range in Great Britain. — A migrant to the seas of the British
Islands, sometimes occurring in large numbers, as in 1879 and
1880. Many individuals remain on our southern coasts during
some winters, and specimens have been obtained inland after
severe gales. On the northward migration in spring, the
species is seldom observed.

96 ALLEN'S - NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range outside the British Islands. — During the breeding season
the Pomatorhine Skua is found in the arctic tundra of both
hemispheres, and in winter the species wanders into the
southern oceans, having been obtained in Northern Australia,
Western and South-western Africa, and on the coast of Peru.

Habits. — Mr. E. W. Nelson, who met with the present species
in Alaska, writes : " They are clumsy and cowardly birds as
compared with their smaller relatives. When one of this
species happen to cross the path of the smaller species, the
latter almost invariably gives chase, and beats its clumsy
antagonist off the field by repeatedly darting down from above.
This attack embarrasses the large bird so much that it flinches
and dives, ana often alights and watches an opportunity to
escape from its nimble assailant. One that was driven to alight
in the river thrust its head under water at every swoop of its
enemy, and exhibited the most ludicrous terror. When on the
wing they usually ward off an attack from one side by a half-
closed wing, and if from above, both wings are raised, forming
an arched shield above the back. This large bird has a low,
harsh, chattering cry when feeding with its companions. The
peculiar twist of the long tail-feathers of this species renders it
conspicuous and identifiable at almost any distance."

Mr. H. J. Pearson noticed the Pomatorhine Skua off Novaya
Zemlya, but did not succeed in finding a nest. He thinks
that many of them do not breed in bad seasons, and adds :
" If this idea should prove to be a fact, it may be a provision
of nature to prevent the Skuas from becoming too numerous.
They are well able to defend their eggs and young from the
birds of prey found in the same countries and equally capable
of taking care of themselves, so that the only foes they need
fear are old age and deficiency of food."

Nest. — A mere depression in the moss.

Eggs. — Two in number. Similar to those of the Great Skua,
but much smaller, and not so dark in colour, as a rule. The
ground-colour is a very deep olive or clay-brown, the spots
being reddish brown, or more often blackish brown, and
having a tendency to become confluent round the larger end.
Sometimes the overlying markings are very faint and the grey

I

RICHARDSON'S SKUA. 97

underlying spots are small and indistinct. Axis, 2'25-2'5
inches; diam., 1-85-1-75.

ii. RICHARDSON'S SKUA. STERCORARIUS CREPIDATUS.

Larus crepidatus. Banks, in Cook's Voy. Hawksworth's ed. ii.

P; 15 (I773)-
Lestris richardsoni, Swains. ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 492 (1852) ;

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxi. (1896).
Stercorarius crepidatus, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 471, pis.

611, 612, fig. 2 (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 195

(1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 674 (1884) ;

id. Man. Brit. B. p. 675 (1889).
Stercorarius richardsoni, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 353

(1885).

(Plate CHI.}

Adult Male (Pale Form).— General colour above dark slaty-
brown, the wing-coverts like the back ; bastard-wing, primary-
coverts and primaries blackish, with yellowish-white shafts,
light ashy-brown on the inner web, with a little white
at the base of both webs ; tail slaty-brown, blacker towards
the end of the feathers, the two centre feathers much
elongated , crown of head darker slaty-brown, forming a cap,
with a line of white at the base of the forehead ; lores and
feathers under the eye slaty-brown, blacker in front of the
eye ; remainder of sides of face and sides of neck white, as
well as a collar round the hind neck, with a tinge of
straw-yellow; the hind neck and upper mantle light ashy-
brown, with white shaft-lines ; under surface of body white,
with a shade of ashy-brown on the fore-neck, darker and more
distinct on the sides of the breast and sides of body, and
again darker on the under tail-coverts, with white shafts and
bases to the latter feathers ; under wing-coverts and axillaries
lark slaty-brown ; " bill horn-colour ; tarsi bluish in life,
drying olivaceous ; toes black " (H. Saunders). Total length,
20 inches; culmen, i'55 ; wing, 12 '3; tail, 5*5; long centre
feathers, 7*85; tarsus, 175.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 19-3
inches; wing, 12 '8.

'5 H

9& ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Mr. Saunders describes this phase of
plumage as being similar to that of S. pomatorhinus, the winter
dress resembling that of summer, but having a tendency to
show striations upon the under parts, and especially on the
flanks, while the yellow on the neck is less pronounced.

Dark Form. — On the melanistic birds of the present species
Mr. Saunders gives the following note: — "The dark-breasted
form is rare to the northwards of lat. 70°, beyond which the
white-breasted one is the representative form ; but southward,
both races are found. The colour has no relation to sex,
and dark and light birds are constantly to be found paired.
The offspring of this union, when adult, is intermediate in
character, having a dusky-whitish throat, more or less of an
ash-brown band across the breast, and a considerable amount
of brown on the flanks. Individuals irregularly spotted with
white are not very rare."

Young. — Mr. Saunders describes the offspring of two white-
breasted birds as pale cinnamon-brown on the head and under
parts, with dark streaks and bars ; the feathers of the upper
parts umber-brown, with rufous edges. The offspring of two
dark birds is much darker, with greyer tips to the feathers ;
while the offspring of one white-breasted bird and one sooty-
bird is intermediate, as might be expected. The tarsi and
bases of the toes are yellowish, and the front portion of the
toes is black.

Immature birds are streaked and mottled with various
shades of brown on the upper surfaces ; mantle chiefly umber;
upper tail-coverts barred with dark brown, white, and rufous ;
under surface more or less barred with brown on a paler
ground (Saunders).

Nestling. — Sooty-brown above, paler on the under surface,
the nestlings of dark parents being more dusky than those of
the white-breasted ones.

Characters. — The adult of Richardson's Skua is distinguished
from that of the Pomatorhine Skua by its smaller size, the
wing being less than fourteen inches, and by its long and
tapering central tail-feathers, which often project three inches
beyond the others.

RICHARDSON'S SKUA. 99

From »$". parasiticus, the present species is distinguished by
its comparatively longer bill and by the white shafts to the
primaries, whereas S. 'parasiticus has only the two outer prima-
ries white-shafted. The young birds can be told from young
S. pomatorhinus by their smaller size, but it is difficult to
distinguish the young of S. crepidatus and S. parasiticus.

Range in Great Britain. — Richardson's Skua breeds in the
Shetland and Orkney Islands, as well as in Sutherland and
Caithness, whilst it is also found nesting in the Hebrides.
During migration it occurs on both the Scottish coasts, but
more frequently occurs on the east coast of England than on
the west coast. It also visits Ireland at intervals.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species breeds
throughout the Arctic and sub- Arctic regions of both hemi-
spheres, its Scottish habitat constituting its southern limit. In
winter Richardson's Skua extends its range to the southern
oceans, having been recorded from the Cape of Good Hope,
the shores of the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, and as far
as Australia and New Zealand, while it has also been noted
from as far south as Rio de Janeiro in South America.

Habits. — The habits of all the Skuas, or Jaegers, as they are
called by American naturalists, are very much the same. The
following account of Richardson's Skua on the island of
Kolguev has been published by Mr. A. Trevor-Battye : —

" Although greatly dependent when at sea upon the labours
of other Gulls, the breeding pairs are as persistent robbers of
eggs as Rooks in a dry season, and may be constantly seen
quartering the tundra for eggs or young. I should be inclined
to estimate that of breeding birds on Kolguev there is about
one pair to, every seven square miles of country. We never
found a colony, nor even two pairs together. All those I saw
belonged to the light-coloured race. On June 29 we took
eggs about incubated. A nest containing one egg (July 7),
was a simple depression in dry grass : the egg had a remarkable
escape. We were driving along — four sleighs, which meant
eighteen reindeer — when I called out to my companion
Hyland, who was in front, to stop ; for, some thirty yards or
so away, a pair of Skuas were behaving as though they had a
nest. However, we could make nothing of it, and had just

II 2

ioo ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

taken our seats again to start off, when, as I stooped down to
disengage the hind leg of one of my deer, lo and behold, there
was a nest under my sleigh. The whole train of sleighs had
passed over this nest, and yet the single egg was not broken.
On August 7 we picked up a young Skua and brought it back
alive. This bird was almost full-grown, and had well-developed
primaries. Its parents showed no anxiety about it. It was
beside a lake, and as we approached, ran and hid in some
grasses. It bit viciously, but made no noise."

" I never in any single instance knew an Arctic Skua to stoop
at a visitor near its nest. On the contrary, an intrusion was met
by every wile of allurement. It was the old game of ' hot or
cold ; ' until at last, when you stood close to the nest, both the
birds were reduced to a state of helplessness. At such a time
they behaved exactly alike. Sitting on their tails, either in the
water or on the grass, and beating forwards with their wings,
they mewed all the time like cats."

I have taken the following notes from Mr. E. W. Nelson's
"Report on Collections from Alaska": — "During summer
these Jaegers show a much greater preference for marshes and
the low barren grounds so common in the north than they do
for the vicinity of the sea-coast. At the Yukon mouth and
near Saint Michael's they arrive with the first open water, from
the loth to the i5th of May. The snow still lies in heavy
drifts on most of the open country, but the Jaegers take pos-
session and feed upon the Shrew-mice and Lemmings which
are common on this ground. By the last of May they are
very common, and twenty or thirty may be seen in a day's
hunt.

" The young are on the wing by the end of July and early
August. The last birds move southward, or keep out to sea,
after the 20th of September. On cloudy days, or in the dusky
twilight, these birds have a habit of uttering loud wailing cries,
interspersed with harsh shrieks, which are among the most
peculiar notes heard in the northern breeding-grounds. At all
times the Jaegers are given to wandering, and one is likely to
find them almost anywhere along the coast. They are not
infrequently seen harrying Terns or Gulls to make them disgorge
fish just caught. If successful, they dart down, and rising
under the falling morsel catch it in their capacious mouth.

BUFFON S SKUA. IOI

This robbery is often performed by two birds in unison, but
whether the birds alternate in disposing of the spoil or not
could not be learned. When a Jaeger is wounded, others of
its kind show much concern, and I have secured several birds
in succession which were drawn within range by the cries and
struggles of their companions. The habits in general of this
and the following species are extremely similar along the coast
region of Bering Sea, and both breed abundantly on all that
broad belt of low barren plains and marshy country bordering
the coast along the entire northern end of the continent. When
surprised near its nest it creeps along the ground with flapping
wings to decoy away the intruder."

Nest. — As a rule, a depression in the moss, but Mr. Trevor-
Battye found one in Kolguev which was among dead water-
grass in a bog, and was more than a mere depression, for
grasses had been walled into the lining.

Eggs. — Two in number. Ground-colour dark chocolate-
brown varying to light clay - colour, the darker eggs more
strongly marked with deep brown or blackish, the spots being
distributed over the greater part of the egg, and the grey under-
lying markings very indistinct. The pale eggs have the spots
collected round the larger end, the rest of the egg being rather
free from markings. Axis, 2 '3-2 "5 5 inches; diam. 1*5-1 '65.

in. BUFFON'S SKUA. STERCORARIUS PARASITICUS.

Larus parasiticus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 226 (1766).
Lcstris parasitica, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 503 (1852).
Stercorarius parasiticus^ Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 481, pi. 612,

fig. i (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 195 (1883);

Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 681 (1884); id.

Man. Brit. B. p. 677 (1889).
Stercorarius buffoniy Boie ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 358

(1885).
Leslns parasiticus, Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxii.

(1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above slaty-grey, the wing-coverts
and scapulars like the back ; bastard- wing, primary-coverts and

102 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

quills blackish, the latter browner on the inner web ; the first
two primaries with white shafts ; the innermost secondaries
grey like the back ; tail-feathers slaty-grey, blackish towards
the ends ; crown of head black, forming a cap ; the lores and
sides of face up to the fore-part of the eye blackish, as also the
fore-part of the cheeks at the base of the lower mandible ; rest
of the sides of the face and a collar round the hind neck white,
washed with ochreous-buff ; throat and fore-neck and chest
white, with more or less of an ochreous tinge ; remainder of
under surface of body from the chest downwards pale slaty-
grey, including the under tail-coverts, under wing-coverts, and
axillaries ; " bill horn-colour ; tarsi bluish in life, drying oliva-
ceous; toes black" (H. Saunders). Total length, 21 inches;
culmen, 1*1 ; wing, 11*8; tail, 4*6 ; centre tail-feathers, 11*5 ;
tarsus, 1-65.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male in colour, but with slightly
shorter central tail-feathers.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage, but
as in the other species, there is, according to Mr. Saunders, a
tendency, after the autumnal moult, to show striated feathers
on the flanks, and on the upper and under tail-coverts.

immature Birds. — Differ from the adults in having very little
yellow on the sides of the neck, and in having the under parts
and upper tail-coverts barred with varying degrees of ash-brown.
The young are ash-brown above, the head darkest, the feathers
of the mantle and tail-coverts merely tipped with buff", but
without any rufous tint, the under parts being dull greyish-
white, barred with ash-brown (Saunders).

Nestling. — Greyish-brown above and below, much paler and
greyer than in S. crepidatus.

Characters. — Mr. Saunders points out that in this species
there is always a "very characteristic grey tint in all its phases."
The adult bird is certainly lighter grey than S. crepidatus^ from
which S. parasiticus also differs in its smaller size, comparatively
shorter bill, and long centre tail-feathers, which sometimes
project to a length of nine inches. Only the two outer
primaries have white shafts.

Range in Great Britain. — An irregular migrant to our waters,
principally occurring on the east coasts, more rarely in the
Channel and on the west coasts. It has never occurred in
Scotland, according to Mr. Saunders, in any numbers, during
the cold season, and in Ireland it has been noticed in autumn,
and, sparingly, in spring.

Range outside the British Islands. — " High circumpolar regions,
seldom breeding south of the Arctic Circle, unless on lofty
fells ; in autumn and winter migrating southwards as far as the
Straits of Gibraltar, as well as to about 40° N. lat. on the
Atlantic side of America, and a little farther on the Pacific
side " (Saunders).

Habits. — For a good account of the habits of Buffon's Skua
we are indebted to Mr. E. W. Nelson's "Report," a work which I
have had much pleasure in introducing to English readers in the
course of the present work. He writes : — " This graceful and
handsome bird is the most common of the Jaegers on the
Alaskan coast and vicinity, and especially about Saint Michael's.
They arrive in this vicinity about the i2th or i5th of May, but are
not numerous until ten days or more later. They are first found
quartering the marshes in small parties of from two to six or
eight. They have a shrill pheu-pheii-pheu-pheu, uttered while
they are flying, and while the birds are quarrelling or pursuing
one another the ordinary note is often followed by a harsh qua.
At another time they have a rattling kr-r-r-r^ kr-r-r-r, kr-r-r-r^
kri-kri-kri-kri) the latter syllables shrill and querulous, and
sometimes followed by the long-drawn pheii-pheu-pheu in the
same tone. They appear to be much more playful than the
other Jaegers, and parties of six or eight may be seen pursuing
one another back and forth over the marsh. The long, slender
tail-feathers and extreme grace on the wing of those birds render
them very much like the Swallow-tailed Kite. The mating
occurs with a great amount of noisy demonstration on the part
of several rivals, but once paired, the birds keep by themselves,
and early in June deposit their eggs in a depression on the
mossy top of some knoll upon rising ground.

"In one instance, on June 16, while I was securing the eggs
of a Macro rhamphuS) a pair of these Jaegers kept circling
about, uttering harsh screams and darting down within a few

io4 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

feet. As I approached the spot where the Snipe's eggs lay, 1
noticed those birds on a knoll just beyond, but had paid no
attention ; but as the birds kept leaving me to hover over the
knoll and then return to the attack, I examined the spot, and
there, in a cup-shaped depression in the moss, lay two dark
greenish eggs marked with an abundance of spots. During
the breeding season these birds and the preceding species have
a cunning habit of tolling one away from their nests by dragging
themselves along the ground and feigning the greatest suffering.
They roll among the tussocks, beat their wings, stagger from
side to side, and seem to be unable to fly, but they manage to
increase the distance from their starting point at a very respect-
able rate, and ere long suddenly launch forth on the wing.

"After a successful hunt, the Jaegers of this and the last
species alight upon some prominent knoll and sun themselves,
their white breasts showing for a long distance. They are very
curious at times, and I have called them within gunshot on
several occasions by tossing some conspicuous object into the
air as the birds were passing. On one occasion I saw a Jaeger
swoop down at a Duck paddling quietly on the surface of a
pond, and the latter went flapping away in mortal terror, while
the Jaeger passed on, probably highly pleased at giving the
Duck such a fright.

" Their taste is omnivorous, and they harry the marshes for
Mice and Lemmings, and feast upon the dead fish and other
animal matter cast up by the sea, or search the hillsides for
berries. The arrival of a vessel in their neighbourhood calls
them about to secure the offal thrown overboard. The Eskimo
say that they eat just what men like, hence the name given
them, derived from the word (yuk,' or 'man.'

" The swiftness and dexterity with which they pursue Gulls
and force them to disgorge is a beautiful sight to witness ; and
while either of the small Terns or Gulls can drive the Jaeger
from the vicinity of their nest, the latter robs them of their
prey at pleasure. While I was camping at the Yukon mouth a pair
of these birds made their haunt in the vicinity of my tent and fed
upon the offal thrown upon the ice a few yards from the door.
They soon became very familiar, and were always on hand,
hovering close overhead when we came in from a hunt. They
would stand about within a few yards and watch us with wistful

AUKS. 105

eyes, ready to pounce upon any morsel tossed them ; and if a
fragment was held up in the hand, they would hover a few feet
over it, although not daring to come closer. They also soon
became used to our shooting, and scarcely noticed it even
when near by. Unfortunately our companionship lasted only
about ten days, when I broke camp, and so lost the opportunity
of gaining their complete confidence. After the first few days
they seemed to appropriate the camp, and made a fierce attack
upon any others of their kind that chanced to come near."

Nest. — A cup-shaped depression in the moss.

Eggs. — Two in number. Smaller than those of S. crepidatus,
rather paler in tint, and more olive, some being light clay-brown.
Two in the Seebohm collection in the British Museum are light
bluish-green, very sparsely marked, and all the lighter-coloured
eggs appear to be less plentifully spotted. Axis, 2'o-2*2 inches;
diam. 1*5—1 '6.

THE AUKS. SUB ORDER ALCJE.

The Auks, though outwardly so different from the Gulls, and
possessing features in their economy so dissimilar to the latter
birds, have nevertheless many characters in common with
them, such as the schizognathous palate, the schizorhinal
nostrils, the absence of basipterygoid processes, the furcation
of the spinal feather-track on the upper back, and the webbed
feet. Externally they differ from the Gulls in their squat
appearance, their extraordinary diving powers, their close-set
plumage, and in the manner of nidification and the shape of
the eggs. They also have a double moult in the year.

The Auks are all birds of the northern hemisphere, breeding
in the arctic and sub-arctic regions. They wander south in
winter, but are never found to the south of the equator. Some
of them, such as the Puffins, have ornamental plumage in the
shape of brightly-coloured crests and tufts of feathers on the
sides of the head, as well as an ornamental colour on the bills,
which is shed after the breeding season, just as other birds
moult their feathers.

io6 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

THE TRUE RAZOR-BILLS. GENUS ALCA.

Alca, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 210 (1766).

Type, A. tor da, Linn.

The Razor-bills belong to the group of Auks which have a
sulcated or grooved bill and exposed nostrils, the latter not
being encroached upon by the feathering of the base of the
bill, as is the case with many genera of the family. In the
case of the Razor-bills the nostrils are exposed, and situated at
the end of a triangular base on the mandible, but they are not
separated by a ridge from the feathers which encroach on the
base of the bill, though there is a swollen ridge at the base of
the lower mandible, anterior to the nostril. The Great Auk is
merely a gigantic form of Razor-bill, with a heavier body and
feebler wings than its more active congener, Aha torda, so
that while the latter survives to the present day in thousands,
the Giant Razor-bill, as the "Great Auk" ought more properly
to be called, has succumbed to circumstances and become
extinct.

In addition to the characters given above, the Razor-bills
differ from the Great Auk (infra-, p. HI) in the possession of
fully developed wings, which reach nearly to the end of the
tail. They have also well-marked grooves on the bill.

The typical species, A. torda, is the only representative of
the genus at the present day.

I. THE RAZOR-BILL. ALCA TORDA.

Alca torda, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 210 (1766); Dresser, B.

Eur. viii. p. 557, pi. 619 (1877); B. O. U. List. Brit. B.

p. 205 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 55

(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 375 (1885);

Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 679 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig.

Brit. B. part xii. (1890).
Vtamania torda, Linn. ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 346 (1852).

(Plate CIV.}

Nestling. — Covered with dense sandy-brown down, mottled
with black bases to the feathers ; the crown of the head and
sides of face and neck more hoary-grey ; cheeks and throat

PLATE CIV

RAZOR-BILL.

RAZOR-BILL. 1 07

blackish ; lower throat and rest of under surface of body dull
whitish ; sides of body like the back.

The first plumage, after the downy stage, is black above,
including the sides of the face and sides of neck, the black
extending across the lower throat ; under surface of body
white, the lower flanks with dusky tips ; along the upper edge
of the lores is a very narrow line of white ; the bill is black,
very narrow, and shows a white " nail " on the end.

Adult Male. — General colour above black, including the
wings and tail, the secondaries tipped with white, form-
ing a band ; entire sides of face and sides of neck velvety-
brown, occupying the upper part of the throat, but ex-
tending in a well-defined line down the sides of the latter
across to the sides of the upper breast, leaving the white
of the lower throat and fore-neck to end in a blunt triangle ;
entire under surface from the lower throat downwards, pure
white, the fore-part of the tibia brown ; under wing-coverts
and axillaries white ; a distinct line of white running from the
base of the culmen along the upper lores to the middle of the
eye ; " bill black, with a curved transverse white line in the
centre on each side ; legs, feet, and claws brownish black ; iris
hazel" (Seebohm). Total length, 15 inches ; culmen, 1*4;
wing, 7-3; tail, 3*0; tarsus, 1-2; middle toe and claw, rS.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 16 inches ;
wing, 7-2.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage as
regards the upper surface, but having no blackish brown on the
throat; the feathers of the lores dark brown, extending back-
wards in a band below the eye across the ear-coverts ; area
behind the eye white, extending over the sides of the neck, and
including the whole of the cheeks and the entire throat and
under surface of the body ; the white line along the upper edge
of the lores very indistinct, but still traceable ; the bill with
ridges and the transverse white line.

Young in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the adult in winter
plumage, but always to be distinguished by its smaller and
narrower bill without vertical ridges; the white loral line is
either obsolete or scarcely traceable,

loS ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Seebohm says that, after the first spring moult, the adult
nuptial plumage is almost completely assumed, but the bill,
although presenting the white transverse stripe, has only two,
instead of the three, transverse grooves which characterise the
old bird.

in Great Britain. — An inhabitant of the rocky coasts,
nesting in such localities from Cornwall to the Shetlands. It
also breeds on the Channel Islands. With regard to Ireland,
Mr. Ussher remarks that it " breeds usually in great numbers
on cliffs off the coasts and islands of Donegal, Antrim, Dublin,
Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, and
Sligo." In winter it is found in the British seas, and is occa-
sionally driven far inland during stormy weather.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Razor-bill is an inhabi-
tant of the Atlantic Ocean, occurring on the shores of North
America on the Atlantic, but not on the Pacific, shores. It
breeds in Norway up to 69° N. Lat., as well as in the Faeroes
and Iceland, probably in Jan Mayen Island, but not, so far as is
known, in Spitsbergen. Its most southern breeding range,
according to Saunders, is the coast of Brittany ; though in
winter it is seen in the Mediterranean, and even as far as the
Canaries. It is found in Eastern North America, breeding in
Greenland up to about 70° N. Lat., and on the coasts of
Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, wintering some-
what to the south of these countries, when it occurs off the
New England coast.

Habits. — Very similar to those of the Puffin and Guillemot,
the species being equally gregarious both in summer and
winter. It is met with on the Fame Islands, where, however, it
is not very plentiful. My friend, the late Henry Seebohm, has
written some interesting accounts of the birds observed by
him in the last-named islands, and I quote the following from
his " History of British Birds " :—

" Like the Guillemot and the Puffin, the Razor-bill is a resi-
dent in the British seas, but appears to be less numerous in
winter than in summer, because it is spread over a much wider
area, and lives for the most part out at sea. In its habits it
very closely resembles the Guillemot, but is easily distinguished
from that bird, even at a considerable distance, by its deeper

RAZOR-BILL. tOp

bill and conspicuous stripe from its base to the eye. It is
gregarious at all times of the year, and in some places literally
swarms. In summer it comes to the rocky headlands and
wild precipitous islets to rear its young ; but from its partiality
for clefts in the rocks rather than ledges, it is almost absent
from many places where the Guillemot breeds in great abun-
dance, as, for instance, the * Pinnacles ' in the Fame Islands.
The Razor-bill is most at home in the water, where it vies
even with the fish in activity and rapidity of movement. It
floats on the heaving waves, light and buoyant as a cork, sitting
well out of the water, its head and neck raised high above its
back, very similar to a Duck or a Diver. It swims with ease,
paddling at times very quickly, and often indulges in a frolic
in the sea, splashing about with its wings, chasing its com-
panions, and being chased by them in turn. It often sleeps on
the water, tossed about seemingly at the mercy of the waves,
but quite safe even in the roughest water. It is by no means
a shy bird, and frequently allows a boat or a vessel to approach
it within a few yards ere it takes wing or dives. Like the
Guillemot and the Puffin, it is an expert diver, vanishing from
view with great rapidity, leaving tiny air-bubbles to mark the
place of its descent. It dives for a considerable distance
below the surface, either in pursuit of a small fish or in search
of crustaceans and molluscs hiding in the crevices of the rocks
and amongst the seaweed at the bottom. The Razor-bill, in
spite of its narrow and comparatively small wings, flies well,
but does not rise very easily from the water, generally splash-
ing along for a few yards ere it gets well into the air. It never
appears to fly about like the Puffin, and when it leaves its
perch on the rocks generally darts headlong down into the sea,
and, when leaving the water, soon makes for the rocks again.
The flight is performed by rapid and incessant beatings of the
wings. The Razor-bill is a clumsy object on the land, and
very rarely attempts to walk far, progressing in a hobbling
kind of way. This bird often goes long distances to feed, and
then its flight can be seen to perfection, as the little troop of
birds, usually in single file, pass rapidly along just above the
surface of the waves.

" The food of the Razor-bill is composed principally of small
fish, especially of the fry of the herring and the coal-fish ; these

no Af.i.F.N's NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

are often pursued under the water with as much dexterity as
the Swallow chases an insect in the air. The Razor-bill flies
under the water aided by its webbed feet; it is capable of
remaining under the surface for a long time, and when sub-
merged not only catches fish, but searches for crustaceans,
molluscs, &c. The note of this bird, which is rarely heard,
may be described as a low croaking sound."

Nest. — None. The Razor-bill places its eggs on the rocks,
but always, if possible, in some niche or crevice, sometimes
far out of reach, and seldom in the open, though Saunders
once saw an old Cormorant's nest appropriated by a Razor-bill.
Both male and female incubate.

Egg. — One only, differing in shape from that of the Guille-
mot, and the extraordinary variation in colour is not so marked
as in the eggs of the latter bird. A reliable test for their identifi-
cation consists in the fact that, when the egg of the Razor-bill
is held up against the light, and looked at through the blowing-
hole, the inside always appears green, whereas the inside of a
Guillemot's egg generally appears to be yellowish-green, though
greenish eggs of the latter bird have often a pervading tint of
green reflected through by the external colour of the egg. Mr.
Robert Read writes : — " The Razor-bill lays its eggs on the bare
rock, without any sign of a nest, like the Guillemot. The eggs
are, however, usually placed in more sheltered positions than
those of the latter bird, such as in a corner or hollow among the
rocks, or under a projecting boulder. Some of the eggs with
the red ground-colour are very handsome, but I have found
them mingled with those with white and every intermediate
shade of ground-colour on the same rocks. Some varieties of
the Razor-bill's eggs are not easy to distinguish from those of
the Osprey."

THE GREAT AUKS. GENUS PLAUTUS.
PlautuS) Briinn. Zool. Fund., p. 78 (1872).

Type P. impennis (Linn.).

Only a single species of the genus Plautus is known. Once
plentiful within a limited latitude, it has become extinct within
the present century, and, in spite of hopes that some indi-

AUK. ill

vlduals might yet survive, year after year passes by without
the discovery of a living specimen. That the species was extin-
guished by the agency of man there can be little doubt. Pro-
fessor Alfred Newton writes in his " Dictionary of Birds " : —
" In Iceland there is the testimony of a score of witnesses,
taken down from their lips by one of the most careful naturalists
who ever lived, the late John Wolley, that the latest survivors
of the species were caught and killed by expeditions expressly
organised with the view of supplying the demands of caterers
to the various museums of Europe. In like manner the fact is
incontestable that its breeding-stations in the western part of
the Atlantic were for three centuries regularly visited and
devastated with the combined objects of furnishing food or bait
to the fishermen from very early days ; and its final extinction,
foretold in 1792 by Cartwright ('Labrador,' iii. p. 55), was
due, according to Sir Richard Bonnycastle (' Newfoundland,
in 1842,' i. p. 232) to 'the ruthless trade in its eggs and skin.'
No doubt that one of the chief stations of the species in Ice-
landic waters disappeared through volcanic action —

' A land, of old upheaven from the abyss
By fire, to sink into the abyss again/

and that the destruction of the old Geirfuglasker drove some,
at least, of the birds which frequented it to a rock nearer the
mainland, when they were exposed to danger from which, in
their former abode, they had been comparatively free ; yet, on
this rock (Eldey = fire-island) they were ' specially hunted
down ' whenever opportunity offered, until the stock there was
wholly extirpated in 1844, and whether any remained else-
where must be deemed most doubtful."

The Great Auk was a gigantic flightless Razor-bill, with such
small wings — only about the size of the ordinary Razor-bills —
that it was unable to fly. Bullock, who saw a specimen alive,
says that it was " wholly incapable of flight, but so expert a
diver that every effort to shoot it was ineffectual."

I. THE GREAT AUK. PLAUTUS IMPENNIS.

Alca tmpenm's, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 210 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B, v, p. 359 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 563,

ii2 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARV.

pi. 620 (1880); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 206 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 61 (1884); See-
bohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 371 (1885); Saunders, Man.
Brit. B. p. 68 1 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xviii.
(1891).

(Plate CF.)

Adult in Summer Plumage. — General colour above glossy black ;
wings like the back ; quills brownish black, the secondaries
tipped with white, forming a white bar ; tail also black ; head
and neck glossy black, like the back ; the throat rather more
brownish black ; under surface white, sharply denned from the
black of the back, ascending on to the throat and forming a
triangular patch ; sides of body dove-grey ; a large white patch
on each side of the head in front of the eye. Total length,
25*0 inches ; culmen, 3*6 ; wing, 6*0; tail, 3*8 ; tarsus, 1*8.

Winter Plumage. — As ill the Razor-bill, the throat is white in

winter.

Range in Great Britain. — The Great Auk used to breed in
S. Kilda, but even by the middle of the last century the birds
had become very irregular in their visits.* A male and
female were killed at Papa Westray, one of the Orkneys, in
1812. The male bird of this pair is now in the British Museum.
In August of 1821 or 1822, Fleming records a specimen sent
to him from S. Kilda, and, according to the researches of
Mr. Henry Evans, a bird of this species was captured in the
same group of islands about the year 1840. That the Great
Auk formerly had a more extended range in ancient times
has been proved by the remains which have been found in
Caithness and Argyll, and even as far south as some old sea-
caves in Durham (cf. Saunders, Man. p. 682). Mr. Barrett-
Hamilton has collected the evidence of the existence of
Plautus impennis in Ireland, where Mr. W. J. Knowles has
found remains of the species on the coast of Antrim, along
with those of the horse, dog, or wolf, "in conjunction with
human remains believed to be those of the earliest Neolithic

* For an epitome of the range and habits of the Great Auk, I am
indebted to a pamphlet written by Mr. Thomas Parkin, and to Mr.
Howard Saunders' " Manual."

PLATE CV.

\

GREAT AUK

GREAT AUK. i 13

inhabitants of Ireland." Two other specimens were taken
near the entrance of Waterford Harbour in May, 1834.
Three other instances of the capture of the Great Auk have
been recorded by Thompson, but confirmatory evidence is
lacking.

Range outside the British Islands. — Iceland seems to have
been the last known resort of the present species, which
appears at no time to have been an Arctic bird. Its bones
have also been discovered in the kitchen-middens of Den-
mark, and the remains of the species discovered on Funk
Island, off Newfoundland, have been considerable.

Habits. — The scanty notes on the habits of the Great Auk
are derived from the accounts of early voyagers. Although
incapable of flight, its diving powers are admitted to have
been extraordinary. Like other flightless birds, it seems to
have been stupidly tame in its disposition, and this fact alone
accounts for its rapid extermination. The bird captured off
Waterford actually approached the boat for food, and was
apparently in a starving condition. " For some days after its
capture it ate greedily of potatoes mashed in milk. After
keeping it for ten days, it was sold to Mr. Davis, who sent it
to Mr. Gough, of Horetown, co. Wexford. Singularly, for
about three weeks after its transference to its new home, it
was not known to eat anything. Mr. Gough, fearing it would
succumb, caused potatoes and milk to be forced down its
throat, and from that time it ate voraciously until within a day
or two of its death. It died a little over four months after its
capture. When in Mr. Cough's possession, its principal food
was trout and other fresh-water fish, which it seemed to prefer
to fish from the sea. It swallowed the fish entire. (Parkin,
"The Great Auk or Gare-fowl," p. 6, 1894.)

Nest. — None, the single egg being laid on a rock.

Eggs. — One. The eggs of the Great Auk may be described
as those of a gigantic Razor-bill, going through the same kind
of varieties as in the latter species, but, of course, greatly
exceeding the Razor-bill's egg in size. The number of Great
Auk's eggs in various museums and private collections is
seventy-one, as I am informed by Mr. Edward Bidwell, who
has personally examined nearly all the specimens.

ii4 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

THE GUILLEMOTS. GENUS URTA.
Una, Briss. Orn. vi. p. 70 (1760).

Type U. troile (Linn.).

In the true Guillemots there are no sulcations on the bill
and no wattles on the face. The bill is compressed and
slender, sometimes rather long, its length from the gape
equal to or exceeding that of the middle toe and claw ; the
nasal aperture is hemmed in with close-set plumes, extending
to the upper shelf of the nostril.

I. THE COMMON GUILLEMOT. URIA TROILE.

Colymbus troile, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 220 (1766).

Uria troile, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 318 (1852); Saunders, ed.
Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 69 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 683
(1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit B. part xxi. (1892).

Aka troile, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 567, pi. 621 (1877);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 388 (1885).

Lomvia troile, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 206 (1883).

(Plate CVL)

Adult Male in Summer Plumage. — General colour above smoky-
brown, the head, neck, and throat paler and more earthy-brown,
the rest of the upper parts being gradually darker ; wings like
the back, the secondaries tipped with white, forming a bar ; under
surface of body white from the lower throat downwards, the
line of demarcation passing obliquely downwards to the sides
of the back ; the sides of the body and flanks streaked with
sooty-grey, the feathers being edged with this colour ; thighs
brown ; the under wing-coverts white, the lower primary-coverts
ashy ; quills dusky-brown below, whitish towards the base of
the inner web ; bill black ; legs and feet olive ; irides hazel.
Total length, 17*0 inches ; wing, 7 '9.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in having the throat white like the rest of the under surface ;
the cheeks also white, as well as the sides of the neck from
just behind the eye ; the lores, feathers round the eyes, and a
broad streak along the top of the ear-coverts, black.

COMMON GUILLEMOT. 115

Young in Winter Plumage. — Seems to resemble the adult at
the same time of year, but the white on the fore-neck is mottled
with blackish fringes to the feathers, those of the hinder part of
the white band on the side of the head being also freckled with
black.

Nestling. — General colour above dusky chocolate-brown, the
head and neck like the back, but covered with hair-like white
down ; cheeks white, streaked with black ; under surface of
body pure white, the throat slightly freckled with dusky margins
to the feathers ; sides of body dusky-brown, the flanks with a
white patch, and another white patch on each side of the rump.

Range in Great Britain. — The Guillemot frequents the same
localities as the Razor-bill, but is more plentiful than the latter
bird. It is found breeding on all suitable cliffs throughout the
British Islands, Flamborough Head being one of the best-known
localities for the species. Mr. Ussher says that, in Ireland, it
" breeds in great colonies on the sea-cliffs, usually in the
vicinity of those of the Razor-bill, but on more open ledges
and platforms." The same counties may be enumerated as in
the case of the Razor-bill, with the exception of Waterford.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is found
in great numbers in Iceland, and the Faeroes, and up to the
Varanger Fjord in Norway, and even to Bear Island. It breeds
on Bornholm in the Baltic, and a small colony inhabits the
northern end of Heligoland during the summer. Colonies are
also found on the northern and western coasts of France, and
the most southerly breeding-place is off the coast of Portugal,
where Mr. Tait has found and obtained eggs from the Berlengas
Islands off the mouth of the Tagus. In North America it
breeds from New England down to about 64° N. Lat, and in the
Atlantic it is found as far south as 30° N. Lat. in winter, but
appears seldom to enter the Mediterranean. The Guillemot of
the Pacific coasts is supposed to be a distinct species, and is
known as U. calif arnica^ but I cannot find sufficient evidence to
separate this bird specifically from U. troile. At first sight the
bill seems to be somewhat different, appearing rather stouter,
with the angle of the genys more acute, and the flanks have the
brown streaks more plainly indicated. Among the European
specimens, however, jn the British Museum, I find certain

I 2

n6 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

individuals which match the Western American ones in every
respect, and I do not consider that the two races can be
separated.

Habits. — Although the Guillemot returns to its breeding
stations in vast numbers in the summer, I believe that there are
many individuals that do not breed at all, for I have seen
plenty of them in June at least one hundred miles from land,
swimming about in the middle of the sea, and resting on the
water in the laziest manner. In calm weather they even sleep
in the middle of the summer's day, so that on more than one
occasion the bow of the steamer was upon them ere they
hurriedly woke up and dived to a safer distance.

I quote Seebohm's account of the habits of the Guillemot
on the Fames. He had in his possession some beautiful
paintings of the bird-life on these islands, and the journals
of his visits to this locality were always very interesting
reading. He describes the nesting of the Guillemot as
follows : —

" For the greater part of the year the Guillemot's haunt is
the open sea ; but in the breeding season it retires landwards to
its favourite cliffs and rocky islets. A nursery of these birds
presents one of the most interesting phases of bird-life.
Whether it be the brave old headland cliffs of Flamborough
Head and Bempton, the curious * Pinnacles ' at the Fames,
the rugged coasts of Wales, the innumerable nurseries on the
Scottish rocks and islets, or a ' fuglevcer ' among the Norwegian
Fjords — all possess abundant attractions for the naturalist, and
well repay repeated visits.

" So soon as the breeding-season has passed, even before the
young birds have fully gained the use of their wings, the
Guillemots forsake the cliffs and spend the rest of the year upon
the open sea. A rocky shore is now no more attraction to them
than a low and sandy one, and they may be frequently seen in
the sea off such low-lying coasts as those of Lincoln and Norfolk.
The Guillemot is to some extent a migratory bird, but is,
perhaps, better described as a wandering one, straying hundreds,
even thousands, of miles from its breeding-place and its true
home. Certain it is, we know on good authority, that the birds
are never seen on the cliffs at Flamborough or at the Fames for
several months after the young are reared. On Heligoland the

COMMON GUILLEMOT. 117

birds reappear during the months of November and December,
at least half of them being young ones ; and in some of the
migration-reports the Guillemot is returned as appearing at its
breeding-places suddenly, and just as suddenly leaving them
again when the duties of the season are over.

" The Guillemot is an expert diver, very often diving
so suddenly as to defy the quickest shots, disappearing at
the flash of the gun, to rise again at some distance quite
unharmed. We have but little opportunity, if any, of observing
the bird's aquatic gambols in its own native ocean ; but the
Guillemots in the salt-water tanks at the Brighton Aquarium are
a source of never-ending interest and amusement to visitors.
Using their wings much after the manner that a fish does its
fins, they progress through the water, darting hither and thither
with great rapidity. In swimming, the Guillemot uses its legs
as a motor, but in diving the wings alone are used j the whole
body of the bird is covered with a mass of air-bubbles, and it
leaves a train of these bubbles behind it, glistening like silver
and pearls, which adds much to the beauty of the performance.
Sometimes the descent of the bird is perpendicular, sometimes
in an oblique direction ; and its progress under the water is
made apparently as easily as through the air, even more so,
turning and gliding about with ever graceful movements, and
sometimes hovering over a morsel of food like a Tern. The
Guillemots at the Aquarium rarely stay under the surface more
than half-a-minute ; but in the open sea I have known them to
remain down for a much longer time.

" The food of the Guillemot is largely composed of the fry
of fishes, notably that of the herring ; but this fare is also
varied by small crustaceans, marine insects, molluscs, and
various small fish. This food is often obtained near the coasts,
in sheltered bays and estuaries, where the birds congregate in
large numbers ; but at night they generally go out to the open
sea, except during the breeding season. The Guillemot is often
caught in the herring nets, and is sometimes taken on the
hooks baited with small fishes. It takes its prey, if it be a
fish, crosswise, and swallows it after changing its position. The
young birds are fed by their parents on portions of fish, and
even when they are sufficiently matured to seek the water they
are still tended by the old birds.

nS ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

" As a rule the Guillemot is a remarkably silent bird ; and
no matter how large its colony may be, but little or no noise is
heard, save the whirr of their short wings as they leave the
ledges, and an occasional hoarse guttural note as they struggle
for a point of vantage on the rocks. When seriously alarmed,
they often utter this note whilst wheeling round an intruder's
head ; but the Guillemot rarely utters a sound, and allows its
eggs to be taken, or its privacy disturbed, without offering any
noisy resistance or remonstrance.

"The breeding- season is the time when the Guillemot's habits
are most interesting and the easiest to observe. During that
period, which commences in May and lasts until August, the
birds are confined to the rocky headlands and the isolated
rocks. Among the breeding-places of the Guillemot the cliffs
at Flamborough and Bempton probably stand unrivalled, so
far as the British Islands are concerned ; but I know of no
place where sea birds can be studied to greater advantage than
at the Fames. I have visited these islands many times, and
every time I have been more charmed than before."

Nest — None, the egg being laid upon the bare rock.

Egg. — One only, pear-shaped. The eggs of the Guillemot
are subject to the most extraordinary variation, exceeding,
perhaps, that of any other species of bird. The series in the
British Museum occupies 13 cabinet drawers. They principally
consist of the specimens presented by the late Henry Seebohm.
The types of coloration are so varied that a special description
of each becomes difficult. The following varieties are perhaps
the most prominent : —

Ground-colour white, sometimes unspotted, the markings
few and far between, but sometimes forming confluent blotches.

Ground-colour greenish-blue, with all kinds of irregular spots,
blotches, and scribblings, some of the eggs being so thickly
mottled as to call to mind a thickly-marked Crow's egg.

Ground-colour greenish-blue, with brown or blackish
scribblings only, these being distributed all over the surface, or
being congregated at the larger end of the egg.

Ground-colour creamy-buff, thickly or sparsely spotted with
chestnut

BRIDLED GUILLEMOT. 1 19

Ground-colour greenish, thickly spotted or clouded with
brown or chestnut.

Ground-colour rufous-buff, with large blotches or spots of
reddish- brown or blackish.

Ground-colour almost uniform greenish-blue, without spots.

Ground-colour bluish or greenish-white, with blackish spots,
dots, or scribblings, often confluent round the larger end of the
egg, where there is generally a large black patch, often inter-
spersed with reddish, the grey underlying markings scarcely
visible in this type.

Ground-colour creamy-buff, with black or reddish-brown
markings, taking the form of a huge blotch at the large end of
the egg ; or with scribblings and spots universally distributed
over the surface, the grey underlying spots being very much in
evidence. Axis, 3*0-3-5 inches; diam. i -55-2-1.

II. THE BRIDLED GUILLEMOT. URIA RINGVIA.

Uria ringvta, Lath. Gen. Syn. Suppl. i. p. 295 (1787).
(Plate CVIL]

Adult in Summer Plumage. — Similar to U. troile, but distin-
guished by the white eye-ring and the white line which runs
from behind the eye down the crease which skirts the hinder
edge of the ear-coverts. Total length, 15 inches ; culmen, 1-9 ;
wing, 7-6; tail, 2-0; tarsus, 1*25.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the winter plumage
of U. troile, but distinguished by the white line behind the eye,
which is retained in the winter plumage.

Characters. — Many ornithologists consider the Ringed Guille-
mot to be a mere variety of the common species, but I cannot
quite understand the reason for this conclusion. If the Ringed
Guillemot inhabited a perfectly distinct area, I believe that no
one would hesitate to consider it a well-marked form, but as it
is, on the contrary, found among the colonies of the ordinary
Guillemot of our shores, there is some hesitation in recognising
it as a distinct species. To me the characters appear suffi-
ciently well marked, the white ring round the eye and the white
streak along the crease above the ear-coverts distinguishing
the Bridled Guillemot from the ordinary U. troile. Seebohm

120 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

writes : "So far as is known, wherever one form occurs, both
in the Atlantic and Pacific, the other is found with it, the
proportion of Ringed Guillemots varying from one in five to
one in twelve of the Common Guillemot." He also states that
the two forms have been seen paired together, " and the white
line behind the eye is said to vary in length, leading to the
supposition that intermediate forms are found." In all the
specimens as yet examined by me, I have found no trace of
such intermediate forms, and the inter-breeding, if such there
be, between the Bridled and the Common Guillemot, is no
more than one might expect to occur between two species alike
in size and habits. Such instances are known to occur in other
groups of birds, as is evidenced by the Crows, Dippers, and
Wagtails. I confess, however, that I should like to have in-
disputable evidence that the two Guillemots inter-breed. It
seems to me that such satisfactory evidence must be very
difficult to obtain.

There is no recorded difference in the habits or nidification
of the Bridled Guillemot to those of the Common Guillemot.

III. BRUNNICH S GUILLEMOT. URIA BRUENNICHI.

Uria brunnichii, Sabine, Trans. Linn. Soc. xii. p. 538 (1818);
Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 314 (1852); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's
Brit. B. iv. p. 76 (1884) ; id. Man. Brit. B. p. 685 (1889) ;
Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxii. (1896).

Alca bruennichii, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 575, pi. 622 (1877).

Lomvia bmennichi, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 207 (1883).

Alca troile brunnichi, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 388 (1885).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage.— General colour above glossy
black ; the head like the back ; the lores, feathers above the
eye, sides of face, throat and sides of neck rich chocolate-
brown, contrasting with the black of the upper parts ; wings
black, the secondaries tipped with white, forming a wing-bar ;
the outer primaries with white bases to the shafts ; tail black ;
under surface pure white, from the lower throat downwards, a
sharp line of demarcation crossing to the sides of the chest,
and forming a blunt triangle on the lower throat ; under wing-
coverts white, those near the edge of the wing light brown ;

BRUNNICH'S GUILLEMOT. 121

lower primary-coverts and inner surface of quills ashy-brown.
Total length, 15 inches ; culmen, r6 ; wing, 8-9; tail, 1*85;
tarsus, i '4

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Black above, white below; the
lores and sides of the face being blackish, and not chocolate-
brown as in the summer plumage, where they are in contrast
to the black head ; the hinder cheeks and sides of the neck
showing a white patch which is more or less mottled with
black, as is also the lower throat ; the upper throat white, with
a black spot on the chin ; the swollen base of the cutting edge
of the mandible less distinctly marked.

Young. — Resembles the adult in winter plumage, but is whiter
on the throat and sides of the neck, these parts not having the
black mottling of the adult. A young female obtained by Dr.
Stejneger on Bering Island, on the 3rd of January, had the " bill
dark, almost blackish, bluish-grey, with a light spot on the
genys in front of the angle ; feet light bluish pearl -grey, with a
faint yellowish tinge in front (not greenish, however), the joints
darker bluish-grey, underneath blackish-grey."

Characters. — The thick bill, with its enamelled appearance
near the gape, distinguishes Briinnich's Guillemot from Uria
troile at a glance, and I am unable to comprehend Seebohm's
conclusion that it is so little recognisable as to be merely a
race of U. troile. In my opinion U. bruennichi is almost generi-
cally distinct from U. troile, while its blacker coloration, with the
contrast between the black head and the deep chocolate-brown
on the sides of the face and neck, is most marked. It is
thoroughly distinct from U. troile as a species. I have been
unable to separate Uria arra from U. bruennichi^ as is done by
the American ornithologists, who insist on its larger size and less
swollen tomium. Specimens from Spitsbergen and the Kuril
Islands have the tomium equally distinct and the wing of the
same length (8'4~8'5). A Greenland specimen has the wing
8-8 inches.

Range in Great Britain. — Seebohm speaks of Briinnich's
Guillemot as " a very rare straggler to the British Islands in
autumn and winter, having been most frequently observed in
the Orkneys and extreme north of Scotland," but, he adds,
" there can be little doubt that it is often overlooked and con-

122 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

fused with its smaller-billed ally." Mr. Howard Saunders, on
the other hand, at the time of writing his " Manual," in 1889,
considered that the species had been included in the British
List on very slight evidence, and was inclined to admit only
two occurrences as worthy of any credit at all. In 1895. how-
ever, identified specimens were obtained from the coast of
Yorkshire and from Cambridgeshire.

Range outside the British Islands. — Briinnich's Guillemot is a
truly Arctic species, being plentiful in Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen,
Novaya Zemlya, and Franz-Josef Land. In Greenland there are
abundant colonies, and Colonel Feilden observed the species
as far north as Lat. 72°. It is found also on the Pacific side of
North America. In winter it visits the coasts of Scandinavia,
and has been found on the eastern shores of Great Britain and
in the North of France, while in North America it extends as
far south as New Jersey.

Habits. — These, as might be expected, are similar to those
of the Common Guillemot. In some of its Arctic resorts,
incredible numbers of the species are said to congregate in the
North Pacific; they are usually called Uria arra, a form which
I consider to be inseparable from U. bruennichi. Dr. Stejneger
writes : " They pass the winter away from the shores of the
islands, probably on the open sea not far from them, as is
indicated by living individuals occasionally appearing during
the winter, and by the dead bodies regularly cast ashore after
each severe storm of the season. About the ist of April, or a
little earlier, enormous flocks approach the shore and take
possession of the rookeries.

" When breeding, the long rows of ' Ares ' * on the narrow
shelves of rocks, where they have deposited their many-
coloured, large, pear-shaped eggs, face the rocky wall with
their white breasts, turning their black backs to the spectator.
When flying off the nest, they consequently are compelled to
first turn round, and, if taken by surprise, this manoeuvre will
often cause them to throw the egg from the shelf into the
water. It happened several times that, when I stealthily
approached in a boat under the breeding-colonies, several eggs
were thrown into the boat when the birds rushed off their
* So called from their note, ar-r-r.

CLACK GUILLEMOT. 123

nests, if the bare rock upon which the egg is placed can be
called a nest, and my Aleutian oarsmen were always in a roar
of laughter when one of these projectiles exploded on the head
of an unfortunate comrade." Mr. Trevor Battye informs me
that in Spitsbergen he saw this Guillemot swimming about
with the young one on its back.

Nest. — None, the single egg being laid upon the bare rock.

Eggs. — Similar to those of the Common Guillemot, and
subject to the same variation. Mr. H. J. Pearson visited a
colony on Novaya Zemlya, and obtained a series of eggs in
July, 1895. He says: — "The series shows great variety in
colour and size. In colour they closely resemble a selected
collection of the Common Guillemot's eggs, and pass from
pure white to the browns of the Razor-bill, with every variety
of yellows and blue-greens, some being very handsomely
blotched with black."

THE BLACK GUILLEMOTS. GENUS CEPPIIUS.

Cepphus, Pallas, Spil. Zool. v. p. 33 (1769).

Type C. grylle (Linn.).

The genus Cepphus differs from the genus Uria in its
shorter bill, the culmen scarcely exceeding the length of the
inner toe and claw, in the differences of the summer and
winter plumages, and in the significant fact that it lays a
couple of eggs instead of one.

I. THE BLACK GUILLEMOT. CEPPHUS GRYLLE.

Colymbus grylle, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 220 (1766).

Uria grylle, Macgill. Brit. B. p. 331 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur.

viii. p. 581, pi. 623 (1877); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p.

207 (1883); Saunders, ed. YarrelPs Brit. B. iv. p. 81

(1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 687 (1889); Lilford, Col.

Fig. Brit. B. part xxiii. (1893).
Alca grylle, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 383 (1885).

(Plate CVIII.}

Adult Male in Summer Plumage. — Entirely black above and
below, including the quills and tail ; lesser wing-coverts black

124 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY

like the back ; median and greater coverts pure white, with a
line of black along the base of the latter, this black band
mostly concealed by the median series ; all the under wing-
coverts and axillaries white, excepting those round the bend
of the wing, which are blackish ; bill black ; feet dark crimson;
claws black. Total length, 11-5 inches; culmen, 1-4; wing,
6*1 ; tail, 1*8; tarsus, 1*25.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, i2-o
inches; culmen, 1-3; wing, 6-3; tail, i'75; tarsus, 1-2.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in being white below, the flank-feathers showing black bars,
which impart a mottled appearance to the sides of the body.
The white plumage is assumed by a direct moult, so that in
autumn the birds are often found curiously speckled, when the
new white plumes are appearing in the midst of the remains of
the black summer dress. The crown, neck, and upper tail-
coverts are margined with hoary white ; bill black ; feet carmine.

Young Birds. — Easily recognisable by the black ends to the
wing-coverts, and after the moult this character at once distin-
guishes the young from the fully adult birds, the pure white
patch on the wing being a sure sign of an old bird. The
young have the under surface of the body mottled with dusky
blackish edgings to the feathers, these being more distinct on
the flanks. The scapulars are also edged and tipped with white,
giving a mottled appearance, which, however, varies very much
in extent. The feet are vermilion red in the young birds.
It- has been surmised that the old birds, having once attained
their black plumage, never lose it in winter, but this is a
mistake. At the same time, it is evident, as I have also been
assured by Mr. J. G. Millais, that the white breast lasts but for
a few weeks, and a specimen killed by Mr. Nikolai Hanson
near Christiansund on the iQth of December has lost most of the
whitish edgings to the feathers of the upper surface, and is
evidently beginning to assume the full black plumage on the
back.

Young in First Plumage. — Dingy black above, and not showing
any hoary margins till after the first moult.

Nestling. — Covered with silky down of a sooty brown colour.

BLACK GUILLEMOT. 125

Range in Great Britain. — The Black Guillemot breeds on the
west coast of Scotland, as well as on the Hebrides and the
Orkneys and Shetland Islands. A few pairs also nest on the
Isle of Man. In Ireland, according to Mr. Ussher, it also
breeds, " usually in small numbers in crevices of the cliffs of
Donegal, Antrim, Dublin, Wicklow, Waterford, Cork, Kerry,
Clare, Galway, and Mayo. A great many seem to breed on
the outer side of Owey Island and Arranmore, Co. Donegal."

Range Outside the British Islands. — The present species is found
breeding in the Northern Atlantic, in the Baltic and White
Seas, on the coasts of Denmark and Scandinavia, as well as in
the Faeroes, and in Southern Greenland. In winter it has been
found as far south as Massachusetts, and it also visits the
shores of the German Ocean and Northern France at that
season of the year.

Further to the north, the place of the Black Guillemot is
taken by an allied species, C. mandti^ which is distinguished
by the complete, or almost complete, absence of the black base
to the greater wing-coverts, and in winter the latter bird is
easily recognisable by its white rump and by the greater
amount of white on the scapulars.

Habits. — These are well described by Seebohm : —
" In its habits the Black Guillemot very closely resembles
the Common Guillemot and the Razor-bill. It is a bird of the
sea, and only visits the rocks to rear its young. At all times of
the year it is sociable, though perhaps never seen in such vast
assemblies as the Common Guillemot. It is more usual to see
half-a-dozen birds swimming and feeding together, sometimes
close in shore, in the sheltered sea-lochs, paddling amongst the
floating seaweeds, and ever and anon diving to catch a tiny fish
or search for crustaceans. The Black Guillemot loves a rock-
bound coast ; the surf is never too rough or the sea too stormy
for this bird. It is by no means shy, unless repeatedly fired
at, and allows a boat to approach quite close ere it dives, with
the rapidity of thought, and again appears far out of danger.
It srvims most buoyantly, sitting high and lightly on the water,
with head and neck extended. No bird rivals it in diving, and
its progress under water, aided by its wings as well as its feet,
is quite as rapid as its passage through the air. It dives with

126 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

such rapidity that it is very difficult to shoot at a long range,
as it disappears at the flash of the gun, and is safe from danger
ere the shot strikes the water where it was sitting a moment
before. The flight of the Black Guillemot is rapid, straight,
often considerably prolonged, performed by incessant beatings
of the small narrow wings, and is seldom elevated more than a
few feet above the surface of the water. As it approaches the
rocks the bird gradually rises in a straight line from the sea
and alights abruptly on the cliffs. Flocks of a dozen or more
of the birds may frequently be seen flying rapidly in strings
over the surface of the water, bound to or from a favourite
fishing-ground. It walks but little on the land, though capable
of doing so rather quickly, and it sits on the rocks like a
Guillemot, resting on the tarsus as well as on the foot. The
Black Guillemot does not appear to wander about so much as
the Common Guillemot, and obtains most of its food near
home. It is abroad late in the evening, for it may often be
seen fishing in the dusk,, arid it is one of the earliest birds astir
at dawn. Many birds pass the whole night on the sea, sleep-
ing safely on the water, but usually they retire to the neigh-
bouring rocks at dusk. In winter it almost exclusively lives on
the sea, only occasionally visiting the land.

" The food of the Black Guillemot is principally composed of
the fry of fish, especially of the coal-fish and herring, which
literally swarm in many Scotch waters. In search of these fry
it explores the water quite close to the rocks, often seeming
only very narrowly to escape being dashed on them by the
force of the waves. It also feeds largely on crustaceans and
very small shellfish. The note of the Black Guillemot is
described by Capt. Feilden as a plaintive whine ; and Saxby
describes that of the young birds as shrill but rather plaintive."

Nest. — None, the eggs being generally placed in the crevice
of a rock, sometimes at the base of a cliff, at other times at a
height of several hundred feet, while occasionally the bird is
found breeding far inland.

Eggs. — Two in number. Ground-colour white or greenish-
white, with black spots generally distributed over the egg, and
with very distinct underlying spots of purplish-grey, which
sometimes form large blotches. The black markings are often

LITTLE AUK. 127

confluent, and form a very big patch. Varieties also occur in
which the ground-colour is of a faint lilac, with blotches of
brown and grey of about equal size occurring all over the egg.
Axis, 2-1-2-55 inches; diam., 1-55-17.

THE ROTCHES, OR LITTLE AUKS. GENUS ALLE.
Alle, Link. Beschr. Nat. Samml. Univ. Rostock, i. p. 17 (1806).

Type A. alle (Linn.).

The Little Auks are of diminutive size, with a small swollen
bill without any sulcations or ridges ; the culmen is rounded,
the length from the gape to the tip of the bill being less than
the middle toe and claw, and there is no notch near the end
of the upper mandible. The nostrils are ovate and exposed,
the frontal plumes not impinging upon the nasal apertures.
The line of the tomia, or cutting edge of the bill, is
decurved.

I. THE LITTLE AUK. ALLE ALLE.

Alca al/e, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 211 (1766); Seebohm, Hist.

Brit. B. iii. p. 380(1885).
Mergulus atte, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 340 (1852); Dresser, B.

Eur. viii. p. 591, pi. 624 (1877); B- O. U. List Brit. B.

p. 208 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 85

(1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 689 (1889); Lilford, Col.

Fig. Brit. B. part xxiii. (1893).

(Plate CIX.)

Adult. — General colour above black, varied on the scapulars
with a few white streaks, these feathers being edged with
white ; wings and tail black, the secondaries tipped with white ;
sides of head and throat and fore-neck sooty black ; remain-
der of under surface from the chest downwards pure
white ; the flanks streaked with black, the feathers being
internally black, externally white ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries blackish ; the greater coverts and the lower primary-
coverts tipped with white ; quills ashy below ; bill leaden
black ; feet and toes livid brown, the webs darker ; iris hazel
Total length, 7-5 inches; culmen, 0*65; wing, 4-65 ; tail, 1-3;
tarsus, 0-7.

123 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in wanting the black on the throat; the lores, base of chin, and
feathers round the eye black; the sides of the neck white,
with an indistinct collar round the hind-neck ; the sides of the
neck and the lower throat and fore-neck slightly mottled with
blackish sub-terminal markings.

Considerable variation takes place in the amount of white
on the under wing-coverts, which seems to be present in most
winter-plumaged specimens, but is absent in some of them,
and it is also absent in two summer-plumaged specimens
examined by me. In the bird described, however, it is very
strongly marked, and the white tips extend over all the
marginal coverts on the outside of the wing underneath.

Range in Great Britain. — A winter visitor to our shores, some-
times occurring in great numbers, and often driven far inland by
stress of weather. Specimens in summer plumage have also
been observed, but up to the present date no authentic instance
of the breeding of the species within British waters has been
recorded. Mr. Howard Saunders states that he saw an old
bird with its young one near the island of Pabbay in the
Outer Hebrides on the 5th of August, 1886 ; and an adult was
actually obtained off Monach Island, in the same group, on
the 24th of June, 1893. ^n tne winter of 1894-95 a great
visitation of the species took place, and a large number of
specimens were captured in various parts of the British Islands.
A paper on the occurrences in Scotland was published by Mr.
W. Eagle Clarke in the " Annals of Scottish Natural History,"
for April, 1895.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Little Auk breeds in
Greenland in great numbers up to nearly 79° N. lat, as well
as on Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, Franz-Josef Land, and
Northern Iceland. In winter it is found in the North Sea
and Atlantic, and has been known to extend as far south as
the Azores and the Canaries, while on the American side it
has been procured off the New England coast in winter.

Habits.— Mr. Howard Saunders remarks: — "On the ap-
proach of a vessel, this bird has a peculiar habit of splashing
along the surface of the water — as if unable to fly — and then
diving through the crest of an advancing wave. It swims

LITTLE AUK. 129

rather deep, and very much 'by the stern,' as Mr. Abel
Chapman has remarked; so that, apart from its diminutive
size, it is easily recognisable. The Little Auk bears a remark-
able resemblance to the Diving Petrels (Pelecanoides) of the
Antarctic seas. " Both the birds," says the Rev. A. E. Eaton,
" have a hurried flight ; both of them, while flying, dive into
the sea without any interruption in the action of their wings,
and also emerge from beneath the surface flying, and they
both of them swim with the tail rather deep in the water.
But this resemblance does not extend to other particulars of
their habits. The Rotche, when breeding, usually flies and
fishes in small flocks of six or a dozen birds, and breeds in
communities of considerable size, which are excessively noisy.
Diving Petrels, on the other hand, are more domestic in
their mode of living, fishing and flying, for the most part, in
pairs or alone, and breeding sporadically."

Seebohm gives the following account of the habits of the
species : —

" The Little Auk is almost exclusively an oceanic bird, and
seldom approaches land except during the breeding season. It
sleeps on the water with its head tucked under its wing, and in
rough weather is often tossed from wave to wave without apparent
injury. It is a very expert diver, and can fly with great rapidity,
though it is obliged to move its short wings almost as quickly
as a Humming-bird or a Hawk-moth. Its flight is without
undulations, but it turns with great ease. It is one of the most
gregarious of birds, and Arctic travellers have sometimes
estimated the flocks to consist of millions. It does not appear
to be very active on the land. It is said to sit on the tarsus as
well as on the foot, but only rests on its feet when running.
At all seasons of the year flocks of these little birds may be
observed in the open Polar seas, diving in search of food or
perching on the masses of ice. Unlike the Guillemot and
Razor-bill it is a very noisy bird, and its notes are constantly
uttered both when on the wing and when at rest, either on the
rocks or on the ice floes, or even when sitting on its egg. Its
specific name of alle is said to bear a slight resemblance to its
note.

" Soon after the young are hatched their parents convey
them to the sea, where they may often be seen long before they
'5 K

i jo ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

are able to fly. The breeding places are now deserted, and the
little birds wander about the open ocean in search of their
favourite food. In rough weather they are said to come nearer
to the shore, and to frequent the land-locked bays and quiet
fjords. They seem but poorly adapted to withstand any
violent storm, and are soon driven exhausted ashore, often for
some considerable distance inland. The Little Auk only rears
one nestling in the year, but it probably lays again if its first
egg is taken.

" The food of the Little Auk is principally composed of
minute crustaceans, and probably small fish and marine insects.
When engaged in rearing its young, it appears to store a great
quantity of these small crustaceans in its mouth, visibly purring
out its cheeks as Swallows and other insect-feeding birds do, so
that it may convey a large amount of food to its distant nestling
at once."

Nest. — None, the eggs being either placed in a cliff high above
the water, or in a crevice or under stones, often at some dis-
tances beneath the latter.

Eggs. — One. Uniform greenish-white. Axis, i •9-2*1 inches;
diam., i -3-1 '35.

THE PUFFINS. GENUS FRATERCULA.

Fratercula, Briss. Orn. vi. p. Si (1760).

Type, F. arctica (Linn.).

The Puffins are easily distinguished from the rest of the
Auks by their peculiar bill, which has deep grooves or sulca-
tions, while in summer there are some wattles on the face.
The nostrils are exposed, and are not approached by any of
the close-set plumes of the face. In some of the Pacific-
species of Puffins (Lunda), there is a remarkable tuft of hairy
straw-coloured feathers springing from behind the eye.

I. THE PUFFIN. FRATERCULA ARCTICA.

Aha arctica^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 211 (1766).
Mormon arcticus, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 365 (1852).
Fratercula arctica, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 599, pi 625 (1877);
B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 208 (1883); Saunders, ed.

PLATE CX.

PUFFIN.

PUFFIN. 131

Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 691 (1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit.
B. Hi. p. 364 (1885) ; Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 691
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part x. (1889).

(Plate CX.}

Adult Male in Summer Plumage. — General colour above black,
including the wings and tail ; the quills ashy-brown on their
inner webs ; head black like the back, with a narrow, faintly
defined line of grey round the nape ; the lores, eye-brows,
and sides of crown, sides of face, cheeks, chin, and upper
throat pale grey, a little darker at the base of the lower
mandible and on the chin, forming a kind of dusky moustachial
band; under surface of body, from the lower throat downward,
pure white, separated from the grey of the face and chin by a
broad black band across the middle of the throat, joining the
sides of the neck on either side ; under surface of the quills
and under wing-coverts light ashy ; axillaries and adjoining
feathers on the sides of the body blackish ; thighs ashy-brown ;
" the bill has the terminal half of both mandibles carmine,
followed by a narrow band of pale yellow, and the basal half
slate-grey, followed by another pale yellow band at the base of
the upper mandible, and a red one at the base of the lower ;
legs and feet orange ; iris hazel ; orbits carmine ; bare horny
skin above and below the eye slate-grey ; loose skin at the
gape yellow" (Seebohm). Total length, 13*0 inches; oilmen,
1-8; wing, 6-3; tail, 175 ; tarsus, 0-95.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male ; but with a somewhat
smaller bill. Total length, 12 inches ; culmen, 1-5 ; wing, 6'o;
tail, 1*65 ; tarsus, 0-9.

Winter Plumage. — The black shade on the face is present in
all the specimens killed in winter, so far as the British Museum
collection is concerned, even when the bill is developed to its
full size. Whether this is a sign of immaturity or whether it is
also a mark of winter plumage in the adults, I am unable to
say for certain. By the shedding of the ornamental portions
of the bill, the latter is very much smaller in winter than in
summer.

Nestling. — Covered with sooty-black down, with a large patch
of creamy-white on the belly.

K 2

i3- ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Young-. — Like the adults in colour, but easily distinguished by
its small bill, and the greater amount of dusky black on the
face, which extends over the lores and round the eye. The
culmen is nearly straight, and the maxilla without corrugations ; .
the genys, on the other hand, is abruptly curved upwards
towards the tip.

Range in Great Britain. — Large colonies of Puffins are found
breeding in various localities in the United Kingdom, par-
ticularly on the west coast, from the Scilly Islands northwards.
Some nest also on the south-west coast, of England, from the
Isle of Wight to Cornwall. On the east coast of England,
Flamborough and the Fame Islands are well-known breeding
haunts of the Puffin. In Ireland, says Mr. Ussher, " the species
has some vast colonies on the precipitous coasts and islands,
and it breeds in the following counties : — Donegal, Antrim,
Dublin, Wexford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Gal way, and Mayo.
Some of its largest settlements are on the Saltees, in Wexford,
the isles of Kerry, the north coast of Mayo, and Hoon Head,
in Donegal."

Range outside the British Islands.— From the north of Scan-
dinavia, the Faeroes, and Iceland, the Puffin breeds, down to
the above-mentioned localities in Great Britain, the north
coast of France, and the west of Portugal, where Mr.
Saunders says that he noticed the species in large numbers
off the Berlengas Islands, in June, 1868. In winter the
Puffin visits the Mediterranean Sea, and in North America it
breeds as far south as Newfoundland, and reaches the New
England coast in winter.

A large form, with a somewhat larger bill and a slightly
greyer head, Fratercula gladalis, is found in Spitsbergen,
Novaya Zemlya, and the coast of Greenland. Although the
grey head is more constantly seen in Spitsbergen examples, it
is also sometimes to be observed in specimens of the Common
Puffin, and I think that this appearance may be due to
bleaching.

Habits. — The Puffins feed their young almost entirely on
small fish, and frequently go long distances to obtain a supply
of food. Mr. Drane, of Cardiff, tells me that he once saw a

HJFFIN. 133

young Puffin with its crop distended, and he killed the bird to
find out what the food was. The crop contained forty-one
small fish, which have been identified as the young of the
Lancelet (Ammodytes lanceolatus], Mr. Drane says that he has
seen Puffins in thousands feeding almost entirely on this fish,
which seemed to constitute their chief food. Marine insects
and crustaceans are also eaten.

From its curious bill and large head the Puffin is often
called the "Sea Parrot." It is a bird of rapid flight, and
a most expert swimmer and diver, but is very awkward on
land.

For a good account of its habits, I have resorted to the
writings of the late Dr. A. E. Brehm on the bird-rocks of
Lapland : —

" The farther we went, the more magnificent became the
spectacle. The whole hill was alive. Hundreds of thousands
of eyes looked down upon us intruders. From every hole
and corner, from every peak and ledge, out of every cleft,
burrow, or opening, they hurried forth, right, left, above,
beneath ; the air, like the ground, teemed with birds. From
the sides and from the summit of trie berg thousands threw
themselves like a continuous cataract into the sea in a throng
so dense that they seemed to the eye to form an almost
solid mass. Thousands came, thousands went, thousands
fluttered in a wondrous mazy dance ; hundreds of thousands
flew, hundreds of thousands swam and dived, and yet other
hundreds of thousands awaited the footsteps which should
rouse them also. There was such a swarming, whirring,
rustling, dancing, flying, and creeping all about us that we
almost lost our senses ; the eye refused duty, and his wonted
skill failed even the marksman who attempted to gain a prize
at random among the thousands. Bewildered, hardly con-
scious, we pushed on our way until at length we reached the
summit. Our expectation here at last to regain quietness,
composure, and power of observation, was not at once
realised. Even here there was the same swarming and
whirring as further down the slope, and the cloud of birds
around us was so thick that we only saw the sea dimly and
indefinitely as in twilight. But a pair of Jerfalcons, who had
their eyrie in a neighbouring precipice, and had seen the

134 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

unusual bustle, suddenly changed the wonderful scene. The
Razor-bills, Guillemots, and Puffins were not afraid of us ; but
on the appearance of their well-known and irresistible enemies
the whole cloud threw themselves with one accord, as at the
command of a magician, into the sea, and the outlook was
clear and free. Innumerable black points, the heads of the
birds swimming in the sea, stood out distinctly from the water,
and broke up the blue-green colouring of the waves. Their
number was so great that from the top of the berg, which was
over three hundred feet high, we could not see where the
swarm ended, could not discover where the sea was clear
from birds.

" The millions of which I had been told were really there.
This picture of apparent quiet only lasted for a few moments.
The birds soon began to fly upwards again, and as before
hundreds of thousands rose simultaneously from the water to
ascend the hill, as before a cloud formed round it, and our
senses were again bewildered. Unable to see, and deafened by
the indescribable noise about me, I threw myself on the ground,
and the birds streamed by on all sides. New ones crept con-
stantly out of their holes, while those we had previously
startled now crept back again; they settled all about me,
looking with comical amazement at the strange form among
them, and approaching with mincing gait so close to me that I
attempted to seize them. The beauty and charm of life
shewed themselves in every movement of these remarkable
birds. With astonishment I saw that even the best pictures
of them are stiff and cold, for I remarked in their quaint forms
a mobility and liveliness with which I had not credited them.
They did not remain still a single instant, their heads and
necks at least were moved incessantly to all sides, and their
contours often showed most graceful lines. It seemed as
though the inoffensiveness with which I had given myself up to
observing them had been rewarded by unlimited confidence on
their part. The thousands just about me were like domestic
birds ; the millions paid me no more attention than if I had
been one of themselves."

Nest. — None, the egg being placed in a fissure of the cliff or
in a burrow.

STORM-PETRELS. 135

Eggs. — White, with a few spots of pale brown. The spots
are generally obscure, and frequently the underlying grey spots
are most in evidence. Occasionally, when the spots are more
distinct, they form zones round the large end of the egg. In
some the underlying grey spots are very distinct and are
scattered all over the surface. The eggs soon become stained
to a buff, or reddish-buff, or chestnut colour. Axis, 2-25-2-55
inches; diam., 1*65-1 75.

THE PETRELS. ORDER PROCELLARIIFORMES.

The Petrels are distinguished from the Gulls and other sea-
birds by their tubular nostrils, whence they are often called
Tubinares. The palate is schizognathous, the nostrils holo-
rhinal. The anterior toes are fully webbed, and the hind-toe
or hallux is very small, being often entirely wanting. The
spinal feather-tract is well-defined on the neck, and the oil-
gland is tufted.

The young are hatched covered with down, and are fed by
the old birds for some time in the nest. The eggs are entirely
white, or have a zone of reddish dots round the larger end.
They are generally placed in holes burrowed in the ground,
often on the lofty summits of oceanic islands, while some
species make a nest in the open. The Petrels range in size
from the dimensions of a large Swallow to those of an
Albatross, which has the widest stretch of wing of any existing
bird. (Cf. Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 341.)

Mr. Osbert Salvin has recently published a classification and
description of the Petrels in the 25th volume of the " Catalogue
of Birds in the British Museum," and he arranges them in four
families, viz. : — I. Procellariida, or Storm-Petrels ; If.
Puffinidcz, or Shearwaters and Fulmars ; III. Pelecanoidida,
or Diving-Petrels ; and IV. Diomedeidce, or Albatrosses.

THE STORM-PETRELS. FAMILY
PROCELLARIID^E.

In this family, which contains the smallest of the Petrels,
the nobtrils are united externally above the culmen ; the

136 ALLEN s NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

margin of the sternum is even ; pterygoid processes are absent ;
the manubrium of the forcula is long ; the coracoids are long,
comparatively narrow across the base, and slightly divergent ;
The second primary is the longest. (Cf. Salvin, torn. tit. p. 342.)

THE TRUE STORM-PETRELS. SUB-FAMILY
PROCELLARIIN^;.

The plumage of the Petrels is somewhat close- set and a
peculiar musky odour is perceptible in all of the species, both
large and small. The same smell attaches to the eggs, and
seems never to evaporate entirely.

An interesting note on these birds has recently been pub-
lished by Mr. R. Drane, of Cardiff : — " I am disposed to the
belief that the birds of this family do not enter the water as
they are assumed, and very naturally assumed, to do ; for I
have now had three species in confinement, Leach's Storm
Petrel, the Greater Shearwater, and the Manx Shearwater,
and, in each case, I find that when these birds really enter the
water, they make strenuous efforts to get out of it, and that,
succeeding, they are so drenched as to be incapable of flight.
This statement has been met by the suggestion that the
unnatural conditions of confinement effect a change in the
quality of the plumage, which might account for this satura-
tion. Remembering this, I immersed a Shearwater in the sea
within an hour or so of its capture, and the result was the
same. Be the explanation what it may, this fact remains, as
the result of repeated observation, that I cannot drench a Duck
or a Gull by immersion, and that I cannot immerse a Petrel
without drenching it. I have failed to tame any of these birds
or to induce them to take food spontaneously."

The members of this sub-family have the following charac-
ters, which are set forth by Mr. Salvin in the work above
referred to: — "Leg-bones shorter than the wing-bones; tarsus
never twice as long as the femur ; basal phalanx of the middle
toe shorter than the next two joints ; the keel of the sternum
entirely ossified ; tarsus covered in front with hexagonal scutes ;
claws sharp and compressed ; outer toe shorter than the middle
toe ; secondaries at least thirteen in number."

Three genera are reprerented in the sub-family, of which

STORM-PETREL. 157

t\vo are British, viz., Procellaria and Oceanodroma. The third,
Halocyptena, is only found off the west coast of North America,
from California to Panama, and contains but a single species,
H. microsotna.

THE STORM-PETRELS. GENUS PROCELLARIA.
Procellaria, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 212 (1766).

Type P. pelagica (Linn.).

In this genus the tarsus is longer than the middle toe and
claw, and the tail is rounded or nearly even, never forked.
Only two species of Procellaria are known, P. tethys being
confined to the seas of the western coast of South America.

I. THE STORM-PETREL. FROCELLARIA PELAGICA.

Procellaria pelagica, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 212 (1766) ; B. O. U.

List Brit. B. p. 196 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit.

B. iv. p. 42 (1884) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 438

(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 727 (1889); Salvin,

Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 343 (1896).
Thalassidroma pelagica, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 460 (1852);

Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 491 (1874).

(Plate CXIa.)

Adult Male. — Sooty-black above and below, with more or
less of a greyish shade ; rump and sides of lower back white ;
upper tail-coverts white, tipped with black ; wing-coverts sooty
black, the greater series narrowly but plainly edged with white ;
quills and tail black; under surface of body sooty brown,
shaded with grey over the head and face, as well as on the
throat and chest ; under tail-coverts sooty black, the lateral
ones white with black tips ; under wing-coverts sooty black, the
median series broadly edged with white ; bill, legs, and feet
black ; iris hazel. Total length, 6 inches ; culmen, 0*5 ; wing,
475 ; tail, 2 -i ; tarsus, 0-8.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 6 inches ;
wing, 4-8

Nestling. — Enveloped in sooty down, the feathers as they are
developed being exactly like those of the adults.

138 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range in Great Britain. — Found on all the seas round the
British coasts, and sometimes occurring in some numbers,
especially in the late autumn. In May the Storm- Petrel
arrives to breed, and it betakes itself to the islands off the coasts
of Scotland and Ireland, and also does the same in a few
localities in the west of England, such as the coasts of Wales
and the Scilly Islands. On the eastern coast no breeding
places are known. Mr. Ussher says that in Ireland the Storm-
Petrel " breeds on islands off the coasts of Donegal, Antrim,
Kerry, Galway, and Mayo. Very large colonies exist on some
of the islands off Kerry."

Range outside the British Islands. — The Storm-Petrel is an
inhabitant of the North Atlantic Ocean on both sides, visiting
the Mediterranean, and extending its range South to West
Africa.

Habits. — Mr. W. H. Turle gives an interesting account of a
visit to the Blasquet Islands, and tells us how, when he arrived
in the dark, the inhabitants of the cabin lighted their only
candle on receiving him, this candle being a "rush drawn
through the oily body of a Stormy Petrel." Mr. Turle found
the species breeding among the rocks, and in what had evi-
dently been rabbit-holes. It is said to form an article of food
on the Blasquets, and Seebohm ate some of the young
birds during his visit to these islands in 1856. He found them
delicious eating when cooked on toast like Snipe, and he pro-
nounces them to have been " very rich, but not at all fishy."

Seebohm gives a good description of the Storm-Petrel, as
he observed it on the Blasquets : — " Our foreground for half
a mile or so all round was a mass of rocks, here and there
rising into a grassy knoll generally crowned with rocks. No
tree of any description was visible ; we did not find so much
as a shrub on the whole island, unless half-a-dozen scattered
bramble bushes may be allowed to club together and unitedly
attain to the dignity of shrub. The only houses on the island
were a couple of cabins, half above and half under ground,
without window or chimney, and with no rnortar in the walls.

" Whichever way we turned we could see nothing but rocks
and piles of rocks, with grassy slopes between, where rabbits
abounded and a few sheep grazed. The coast was grand

STORM-PETREL. 139

beyond description, most of the island being at an elevation of
three or four hundred feet above the level of the waves.
Rocky promontories stretched far into the sea; huge
masses of rock protruded from the ocean and rose one or two
hundred feet high. Here the waves dashed against perpen-
dicular cliffs, and there they foamed and fretted against craggy
piles of rocks ; and in many places the sea had hollowed out
caves underneath the cliffs or worn chasms in the coast, which
extended up into the mainland like Norwegian fjords. Such
was the home of the Stormy Petrel ; but at first we did not
suspect the existence of these birds on the island. The natives
(with whom we were obliged to converse through our
" Buttons," a young Celt who accompanied us to do the dirty
work) continually assured us that we should soon be able to
add the dainty dish of fried " Blasquet Chickens " to our
modest menu ; but it was not until the nth of September that
they were able to produce these wonderful birds, which proved
to be young Stormy Petrels, as large almost as their parents,
with half feathers, half down. Cooked on toast like Snipe, we
found them delicious eating, very rich, but not at all fishy. As
soon as we discovered that we were encamped in the midst of
a colony of these interesting birds we commenced a diligent
search, and soon found plenty of young, besides catching a few
old birds which were still sitting on unhatched eggs. The
nests, which seldom consisted of more than a dozen blades of
dead grass, were placed in holes in the rocks or the rough walls
put up to protect the little potato patches from the sheep. We
could often detect their presence in the evening by the faint
cry of the young bird clamouring for food, and in places where
the loose stones had been piled into heaps we found that the
removal of half of them often disclosed several nests to view.

"On the i yth of September I took the boat and crossed
over to the adjoining island of Inishnubro, and found many
young Petrels and a few still unhatched eggs. On this island
the nests were principally on the steep grassy slopes in old
rabbit burrows. We never by any chance saw a Stormy Petrel
on the wing during the day ; but when the nights became
enlivened by moonlight we could see them flying about like
bats, bringing food to their young. So far as we were able to
judge, this was entirely oil. As soon as the young bird was

M° ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

taken in the hand it disgorged a few drops of amber-coloured
oil, and in none did we find any solid matter in the stomach."

Nest. — None, or consisting only of a few blades of dead grass.
The eggs are laid in May and some are even found as late as
September, so that the Storm-Petrel probably raises two
broods in the year.

Eggs. — One only.* Dull or dirty white, without gloss, thinly
sprinkled with minute reddish-brown specks, and not un-
frequently with an obscure zone of specks near the larger end.
Axis, i '05-1 '2 inch; diam., o'85~o'95.

THE FORK-TAILED PETRELS. GENUS OCEANODROMA.

Oceanodroina^ Reichenb. Av. Syst. Nat. p. iv. (1852).

Type, O. furcata (Gm.)

In this genus the tail is always distinctly forked, and, further-
more, the tarsus is shorter and never exceeds the length of the
middle toe and claw.

Twelve species of Oceanodroma are known, and the genus is
found all over the tropics.

I. THE FORK-TAILED STORM-PETREL. OCEANODROMA
LEUCORRHOA.

Procellaria kucorrhoa, Vieill. N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxv. p. 422

(1817) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 196 (1883).
Thalassidroma leachi, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 451 (1852).
Thalassidroma leucorrhoa. Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 497 pi. 613

(1874).
Cymochorea leucorrhoa, Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv.

p. 392 (1884).

Procellaria leachi, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 443 (1885).
Oceanodroma leucorrhoa, Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 725 (1889) ;

Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p 348 (1896).

(Plate CXIb.}

Adult Male. — General colour above sooty-black, with more
or less of an ashy or slaty-grey shade, especially on the head ;

* Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey speaks of the Petrel hatching her three
white eggs ! (Cf. Turle, Ibis., 1891, p. n.)

FORK-TAILED STORM-PETREL. I4l

the scapulars with whity-brown tips ; lateral feathers of rump
and upper tail-coverts white ; lesser wing-coverts sooty-black
like the back ; median and greater coverts smoky-brown,
the inner greater coverts edged with whity-brown ; bastard-
wing, primary-coverts, and quills black, the inner secondaries
edged with whity-brown at the ends ; tail-feathers black, the
centre ones rather browner ; crown of head like the back,
the forehead and lores rather clearer ashy, like the cheeks
and throat ; feathers round eye, sides of face, and ear-coverts
sooty-black, like the sides of the neck; throat rather
lighter ashy than the remainder of the under surface of
body, which is blackish-chocolate, somewhat lighter brown on
the under tail-coverts, the sides of the vent being white;
under wing-coverts and axillaries dark chocolate-brown ; quills
below black ; bill, legs, feet, and claws, black ; iris dark hazel.
Total length, 8 inches; culmen, 0-65; wing, 6*0 ; tail, 3-0;
tarsus, 0*9.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male. Total length, 7-5 inches ;
wing. 6*15,

Nestling. — Covered with sooty-brown down.

Range in Great Britain. — " Leach's Petrel," as this bird is often
called, is found on all the coasts of Great Britain in winter, and
is often driven inland by storms. It breeds on S. Kilda, and
the outer Hebrides. In Ireland a few were found breeding,
according to Mr. Ussher, " on the Blasquets, off the Kerry coast,
in 1887, 1888, and 1889, but not since."

Range outside the British Islands. — The Fork-tailed Petrel is
found in the seas of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, inhabiting
the temperate waters of the northern hemisphere, as Mr.
Salvin puts it.

Habits. — Mr. C. Dixon contributed to Seebohm's "History of
British Birds" the following notes from S. Kilda :— "The chief
object of my visit to Boon was to obtain the eggs of the Fork-tailed
Petrel, and I was successful beyond my highest expectations.
We crossed the bay in a small boat belonging to the smack,
dangerously overcrowded, as many St. Kildans as could
scramble into her going with us to search for eggs and catch
birds. Landing on this rock-bound islet was difficult work,

142 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

owing to the strong swell. As we approached the shore one
of the St. Kilda men leapt out of the boat with a rope and
assisted the rest to land. After taking off our boots we
climbed up the cliffs, and over the grassy slopes to the summit,
where Donald told me we should find the birds we wanted.
The place where the Petrels breed is on that portion of the
island nearest to St. Kilda and at the summit. We had not
been there long before Donald, who had been searching the
numerous holes, drew forth a struggling Petrel from its nest,
and I was delighted to find that it was the Fork-tailed species.
Handing me the bird, he quickly drew forth the single white
egg, and I then waited until he found another nest within a
yard or so of the first. Inserting my arm to the full extremity
I felt the little bird fluttering over its egg and drew it out.
This nest also contained a single egg ; and as I was catching
the bird it uttered a few squeaking notes ; excepting this, no
other sound was heard during our stay. When held in the
hand, it emits a small quantity of oil, precisely similar to that
vomited by the Fulmar. Most of this oil comes from the
mouth, but occasionally a little is squirted from the nostrils.
Whilst I was packing the eggs Donald found another nest,
which I took ; and in less than halfan-hour I had taken eleven
nests of this rare little bird. In two of the holes we found a
bird, but no egg ; they had probaby gone into the hole to pass
the day ; and in one hole there was an egg, but no bird. We
never found more than one bird on the nest, and only a single
egg is laid. Some nests are larger than others, but in one hole
the egg was laid on the bare ground. The holes vary con-
siderably in depth (from two to four or five feet), and are
burrowed in a precisely similar manner to those of the Puffin.
The holes are made in the soft peaty soil, and it is very easy to
unearth the nest. Sometimes the hole has two entrances, and
then it is necessary to stop one end up to prevent the bird
from escaping. These holes, which are inhabited by Petrels,
usually have a little dry grass at the entrance. Many nests are
placed together, an underground colony in fact, and we found
half a dozen nests within a radius of eight or nine yards. One
of the birds which we caught, I let go again to watch its flight.
It flew about for a few moments in a very erratic manner, as
if dazed by the light, and then darted up and down, and flew

MADEIRA STORM- PETREL. 143

round and round with rapid beats of its long wings, very much
like a Swallow or a Swift. We finally lost sight of it as it flew
behind a large stack of rock and went out to sea. This bird,
during its sojourn in St. Kildaat any rate, is almost exclusively
nocturnal in its habits, and keeps close to its hole during the
day. The egg is incubated by both parents, for I took male
and female birds from the nests ; but, as previously stated, I
never met with two birds in the same hole. Most of the nine
eggs I obtained were quite fresh, but three of them were slightly
incubated. When I dissected the Petrels we caught, I found
the stomachs to contain an oily substance mixed with little bits
of sorrel."

Nest. — Of dry grass, with round stalks and dry blades, with a
scrap or two of moss, and a few bits of lichen and roots
(Dixon).

Egg-s. — One. Dull white, with a zone of minute dots of
very pale lilac round one end, in rare instances the spots
being spread over the entire surface. Axis, 1-2-1-35 inches;
diam., 0-95-1-0.

THE MADEIRA STORM-PETREL. OCEANODROMA CRYPTOLEUCURA.

Cymochorea cryptokucura, Ridgway, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus iv

p. 337 (1882).
Oceanodroma cryptohucura, Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway,

Water-Birds, N. Amer. ii. p. 406 (1884) ; Salvin, Cat. B.

Brit. Mus. ,xxv. p. 350 (1896); Boyd Alexander, Bull.

B. O. Club, v. p. xxxvii. (1896).

(Plate CXJc.}

Adult Male. — General colour above sooty black, the greater
wing-coverts browner externally, with light brown edges ; quills
black, the inner secondaries greyer on the outer webs, which
are narrowly edged with hoary white ; upper tail-coverts
white, the long ones broadly tipped with black ; head and neck
sooty-black, with a slight shade of greyish ; under surface of
body sooty-brown, including the central long under tail-
coverts, the lateral ones being white, with broad black tips ;
tail-feathers black, white at the base, the white extending
further on the outer ones ; under wing-coverts black, the

144 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

median series browner ; bill and feet black. Total length, 7-2
inches; culmen, o'6 \ wing, 5-95 ; tail, 27; tarsus, 0-9.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 7 inches ;
wing, 6-25.

Nestling. — Covered with sooty-black down. The inner
secondaries are narrowly but distinctly edged with white.

Characters. — The present species has a forked tail like the
preceding one, but it is a blacker bird, and is recognised by
the long upper tail-coverts having a broader sooty-black tip
than in the Fork-tailed Petrel. It differs, moreover, in having
the base of the outside tail-feathers white.

Range in Great Britain. — A specimen of this Petrel was
exhibited by Mr. Boyd Alexander at the meeting of the
British Ornithologists' Club, on the 29th of April, 1896. This
individual had been picked up dead on the beach at Little-
stone, in Kent, on the 5th of December, 1895.

Range outside the British Islands. — This Petrel appears to be
by no means uncommon in Madeira and the neighbouring
Desertas and Salvage Islands. It is also known from S.
Helena, and occurs in the Pacific Ocean on the Hawaian
Islands and in the Galapagos. It was first described by Mr.
Robert Ridgway, from the Hawaian Archipelago.

Habits. — Of this species, only described for the first time in
1882, but little is known. It appears to be more plentiful in
the Atlantic than in the Pacific Islands, where it was first
discovered. Its habits are similar to those of the other small
Petrels.

Nest. — In crevices of the rocks.

Eggs. — One only. White, with an ill-defined zone of dry
blood-coloured spots at the larger end.

THE FLAT-CLAWED STORM-PETRELS.
SUB-FAMILY OCEANITIN^E.

In the preceding sub-family the claws are sharp and
compressed ; in the Oeeanitina they are very flat. According
to Mr. Osbert Salvin, the wing-bones are shorter than the

WILSON'S PETREL. 145

leg-bones, and the tarsus is at least twice as long as the femur ;
the basal phalanx of the middle toe is as long as the next two
joints, or longer than them ; the keel of the sternum has a
large "fenestra"; the tarsi are usually covered in front with
a single shield, or with transverse short scutes ; the outer and
middle toes are sub-equal in length, and the secondaries are
ten in number. (Cf. Salvin, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 343.)

THE LONG-LEGGED STORM-PETRELS.

GENUS OCEANITES.

Oceanites, Keys, und Blasius, Wirb. Eur. ii. pp. xciii. 131, 238
(1840).

Type, O. oceanicus (Kuhl).

Two species of the genus Oceanites are known, viz., O.
oceanicus, which inhabits the Atlantic, Indian, and Australian
Oceans, and O. gracilis (Elliot), which is found along the
western coast of South America.

In Oceanites the claws are not so much flattened as in
Pelagodroma and the other genera of the sub-family, and the
basal phalanx -of the middle toe is normal or only slightly
flattened, less so than the remaining joints and claws, the
latter being sharp and spatulate. The scutellse of the front
of the tarsus are obsolete, a character distinguishing Oceanites
from Garrodia, an allied genus with a single species, G. nereis,
peculiar to the southern Oceans.

I. WILSON'S PETREL. OCEANITES OCEANICUS.

Procellaria oceanica, Kuhl, Beitr. p. 136 (1820).

Oceanites oceanicus, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 505, pi. 614 (1878) ;

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 197 (1883); Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 48 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 729 (1889); Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 358

(1896).
Oceanites wilsoni, Bp. ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 449

(1885).

Adult Male. — Sooty black, the head and throat somewhat
ashy, with the ear-coverts slightly blacker ; wing-coverts sooty

146 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

black, the greater series pale brown towards the tips ; primary-
coverts and quills black, browner on the inner webs, the
secondaries also externally brownish ; feathers of the lower
rump black, tipped with white ; upper tail-coverts pure white ;
tail black, the base of the feathers white, more extended on
the outer ones ; under surface of body sooty brown, darker on
the sides, the under tail-coverts brown with white bases ; sides
of vent conspicuously white, some of the feathers marked with
sooty-brown ; under wing-coverts sooty-brown, the inner ones
slightly paler ; bill black ; feet black, with the webs yellow ;
iris black. Total length, 7-0 inches; culmen, 0-55; wing,
6'i ; tail, 275 ; tarsus, 1*4.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 7-2 inches ;
wing, 6 '8.

Characters. — Wilson's Storm-Petrel may be at once distin-
guished from the other black-plumaged white-rumped species
by the yellow webs to the toes.

Range in Great Britain. — Wilson's Petrel is apparently only an
occasional visitor to our shores, occurring sometimes in con-
siderable numbers off the south-western coasts of England.
Thus Gould observed it off the Land's End in 1838, and stray
individuals have since been recorded from Wiltshire, the Isle
of Wight, Sussex, Yorkshire, Cumberland, and Lancashire.
Up to the present time it has not been noticed from Scotland,
and only one doubtful occurrence off the Irish coasts has been
recorded.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is
known principally from the southern Oceans, occurring in
Australian waters, and throughout the Antarctic seas, even to
the ice barrier of the South Polar continent. Thence it is
found northward in the Indian Ocean to the Mekran coast,
also off the shores of West Africa, visiting the Mediterranean,
and ranging to the British Islands in the Eastern Atlantic,
and to Labrador on the western side of the last-named Ocean.

Habits. — The Rev. A. E. Eaton thus describes his expe-
riences in Kerguelen Island, in the South Atlantic : — " Having
ascertained their call, we were able, by listening attentively, to
detect the exact positions of several of these hidden birds.

WILSON'S PETREL. 147

They were easily caught when the stones were rolled aside ;
but they were in couples, merely preparing for laying, and
therefore we did not find any eggs. On our way back to
Observatory Bay, after the * Transit,' we called at the American
Station, and were informed by Dr. Kidder that he had observed
this Petrel on the shore near Molloy Point. The sea-shore
in the neighbourhood of Observatory Bay is of a different
character (for the most part) from that which is adjacent to the
American Station, and, being less favourable than it, was
seldom resorted to for nesting by the Petrels. The country
in general about our bay afforded them unlimited accom-
modation. For, provided that they can find a slope of
shattered rocks with suitable chinks and crevice;?, or dry
spaces under stones or large boulders sheltered from draughts,
whether they be near the Sound or on the sides and summits
of high hills, they readily appropriate them.

" The egg is laid upon the bare ground within the recess
selected by the birds, either in a chance depression formed by
contiguous stones, or in a shallow circular hollow excavated in
the earth by the parent. Having found numbers of their
nesting-places, I will describe my method of searching for
them. Whenever there was a calm night I used to walk with a
darkened bull's-eye lantern towards some rocky hill-side, such
as the Petrels would be likely to frequent. It was best to shut
off the light and keep it concealed, using it only in dangerous
places, where falls would be attended with injury and progress
in the dark was hardly possible, lest the birds, seeing it, should
be silenced. On arriving at the ground selected, it was pro-
bable that the Storm - Petrels would be heard in various
directions, some on the wing, others on their nests, sounding
their call at intervals of from two to five minutes. Those on
nests could be distinguished from others flying by their cries
proceeding from fixed positions. Having settled which of
the birds should be searched after, a cautious advance had to
be made in her direction, two or three steps at a time, when
she was in full cry. As soon as she ceased an abrupt halt
was imperative, and a pause of some minutes might ensue
before she recommenced her cry and permitted another slight
advance to be effected. In the course of this gradual
approach the position of the bird might be ascertained

L 2

148 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

approximately ; but it had to be determined precisely, and to
learn exactly where she was, the bird had to be stalked in the
dark noiselessly. No gleam could be permitted to escape from
the lantern. Loose stones and falls over rocks — to avoid them
it was sometimes necessary to dispense with slippers, and feel
one's way in stockings only, for should the Petrel be alarmed
once with the noise or the light, she would probably remain
silent a considerable time. Now and then it would happen
that upon the boulder beneath which she was sitting being
almost attained, the bird would cease calling. When this
occurred, and many minutes elapsed without her cry being
resumed, it was advisable to make a detour, and approach the
rock from the opposite side, as her silence might be attributed
to her seeing a person advancing towards her, and she would
probably recommence her call so soon as he was out of sight.
If she did not, a small pebble thrown amongst the rocks would
usually elicit some sounds from her, as she would most likely
conclude that the noise was being made by her mate returning
to the nest. When the stone beneath which the bird was
domiciled was gained at last, redoubled care had to be exer-
cised. By stooping down and listening very attentively, her
position could be accurately ascertained. Then the lantern
was suddenly turned upon her before she had time to creep
out of sight, and her egg could be secured with the hand, or
with a spoon tied on to a stick.

" Sometime* I worked without a lantern, and marked the
positions of the nest with piles of stones, so that they might be
revisited by day. Several eggs were obtained in February
from nests which had been thus marked early in the previous
month. The first egg taken by us was found by a retriever on
the 22nd of January, on an island in Swain's Bay. Captain
Fairfax sent me a nestling a day or two before we sailed for
the Cape. Two of the eggs were laid in unusual situations.
One of them was found by a man under a Pringlea plant ;
but this may have been an egg of Garrodia nereis. The other
was deposited just above the tide-mark in a cavity of a rock
rather open to the air and light. I had found the bird there
one night, had taken her up into my hand, and had gently
replaced her in the hollow, nearly a month before the egg was
laid."

WHITE-BELLIED STORM-PETREL. 149

Nest. — None, the eggs being laid in crevices of rocks or
under boulders, as described above by Mr. Eaton.

Eggs. — One. Dull-white, with a few lilac or reddish-brown
dots, generally collected in a zone round the large end. Axis,
i '3 inch; diam., o-95.

THE GREY STORM-PETRELS. GENUS PELAGODROMA.

Pelagodroma, Reichenb. Av. Syst. Nat p. iv. (1852).

Type, P. marina (Lath.).

The genus Pelagodroma differs from Oceanites in having the
claws flattened and wide. The colour is of a light grey,
instead of black, and the breast is white. Only one species,
P. marina, is known.

I. THE WHITE-BELLIED STORM-PETREL. PELAGODROMA
MARINA.

Procellaria marina , Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 826 (1790).
Pelagodroma marina^ Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 362
(1896).

(Plate CXId.)

Adult. — General colour above brown, with a wash of ashy-
grey on the mantle ; lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts,
clear grey with white bases ; wing-coverts brown, the greater-
series ashy towards the ends; bastard-wing and primary-
coverts blackish-brown; quills blackish, ashy-brown on the
inner web ; tail-feathers black, ashy at the base ; crown of head
and nape dark slaty-grey, darkening towards the nape ; fore-
head, lores, and eyebrow white, as also the sides of the face ;
the feathers round the eye and below the latter slaty-black,
extending over the ear-coverts, cheeks and under surface of
body pure white ; sides of neck ashy-grey, extending on to the
sides of the upper breast ; under tail-coverts ashy-grey ; under
wing-coverts and axillaries white, the edge of the w^ng mottled
with brown ; quills below dusky white towards the base of the
inner webs ; bill and feet black ; webs of toes yellow ; iris
dark reddish-brown. Total length, 7*5 inches; culmen, ©'65 :
wing> 5'95 ; tail> 2'85; tarsus, 1-5.

150 ALLEN'S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but rather larger. Total
length, 8 inches; wing, 5-8-6-6.

Young Birds. — Covered with a sooty-black down. The
first feathers resemble those of the adults, but the grey feathers
of the mantle are fringed with white, and the greater-coverts
and secondaries are edged with white at the tips, the grey of
the upper and under tail-coverts being barred with white.
These markings are retained by the young bird, after it has
become full grown and has lost the down.

Characters. — Apart from the generic characters recorded
above, the present species can be easily recognised by its grey
upper surface, blackish head, white under surface, and by the
yellow webs to the toes.

Range in the British Islands. — This species has been known to
occur on two occasions within our limits. One was picked up
dead on Walney Island, Lancashire, in November, 1890; and
a second specimen has recently been recorded from the island
of Colonsay in the West of Scotland, by Mr. W. Eagle Clarke.
This specimen was obtained on the ist of January, 1897, after
a succession of south-westerly gales.

Habits. — Mr. Ogilvie Grant, who met with this Petrel on the
Salvage Islands, writes : — " This was certainly one of the most
interesting species met with during our stay on Great Salvage.
We first observed and recognised with pleasure these beautiful
Petrels as we neared the Salvages, when numbers were seen
flitting along close to the surface of the sea, with their long
legs dangling beneath them and just touching the water. Now
they would be lost sight of in the hollows between the huge
Atlantic rollers, now reappear, closely following the undulating
waters with their graceful easy flight. On the afternoon of our
arrival at Great Salvage we found an egg of this bird in what
we mistook for a rabbit-burrow, but it was unfortunately broken
by one of the men. This, however, opened our eyes, and we
subsequently found that large colonies of the White-breasted
Petrel were breeding on the flat top of the island, in burrows
dug out in the sandy ground, and partly concealed by the

WHITE BELLIED STORM-PETREL. 151

close-growing ice-plant. It was very unpleasant walking over
these breeding-grounds, which occupied considerable areas, for
the ground was honeycombed with burrows in every direction,
and gave way at each step, one's boots rapidly becoming full
of sand. By thrusting our arms into one hole after another,
we soon procured a fine series of specimens, accompanied in
most cases by an egg, for we had evidently hit off the breeding
season, and most of the birds, having laid their single egg,
were beginning to sit. Both sexes take part in incubation, for
out of twelve birds captured on the egg three were males.
While thus engaged we found quite a number of dead birds
and sucked eggs, evidently the work of the mice, as their
droppings were to be seen all about the burrows, and the
marks of their teeth upon the empty shells were unmis-
takable. The birds, some of which were quite freshly
killed and almost untouched, were invariably done to death by
being bitten at the nape of the neck, and in some cases part
of the brain had been eaten. It seemed curious that these
comparatively small mice should be able to kill a bird several
times larger than themselves, and provided with a fairly strong
hooked bill ; but no doubt the Petrels get caught in the end
of their burrow, and, being terrified, do not even try to defend
themselves. We obtained no young of this species, and the
most advanced eggs were but half incubated on the 27th of April.
We never heard the call of this bird ; those flying over the sea
during the daytime were always perfectly silent so far as \\e
heard, though they constantly passed close to our tug, and
there was no lack of them. When caught on their eggs they
uttered a short, grunting note, much like that given vent to by
the domestic Pigeon under similar circumstances. Our Lan-
zarote pilot informed us that numbers of these birds breed on
the Little Piton, where there are neither rats nor mice to inter
fere with them."

Nest. — None. The egg being laid in a sandy burrow.

Eggs. — One. White, with tiny reddish or purplish dots,
sprinkled all over the surface, or forming a zone round the
larger end. Axis, 1*45 inch; diam., 1*05.

152 ALLEN s NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

THE FULMARS AND SHEARWATERS. FAMILY
PUFFlNUXdE.

According to Mr. Osbert Salvin, this family of Petrels
is distinguished by the following characters : — " Nostrils
united, or nearly so, above the oilmen ; margin of the
sternum uneven ; distinct pterygoid processes ; manubrium of
furcula very short ; coracoids short, wide at the base and.
divergent ; first primary the longest, or not shorter than the
second."

These birds are of larger size and stouter build than the
Storm- Petrels, and are divided into two sub-families, the
Fulmarin&i or Fulmars, and the Puffinince, or Shearwaters.

THE FULMARS. SUB-FAMILY FULMARIN^E.

The Fulmars are distinguished from the Shearwaters by the
lamellae which are more or less distinctly developed on the
sides of the palate. Five genera are included by Mr. Salvin
in this sub-family, the Giant Fulmar (Osstfraga) being as large
as some of the smaller Albatroses. The Cape Pigeons
(Daption) also belong to this group, as well as the Fulmars
\Fulmarus\ and the pretty little Blue Petrels of the Southern
Ocean, Priori and Halobxna.

THE TRUE FULMARS. GENUS FULMARUS.

Fulmarus, Stephens in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xiii. p. 233 (1826).

Type, F. glacialis (Linn.).

In the Fulmars the feet and bill are very strong. The latter
is stout, with the rami of the mandible strong and having a
bare inter-ramal space. The nasal tube is short, but well
developed, large and high at the base, equal to the width of
the latericorn (cf. Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 422). The
tail-feathers are fourteen in number.

The three species of Fulmarus are found distributed over
the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans.

FULMAR. 153

f. THE FULMAR. FULMARUS GLACIALIS.

Procellaria gladalis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 213 (1766).
Fulmarus gladalis, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 429 (1852); Dresser,

B. Eur. viii. p. 535, pi. 617 (1878) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B.

p. 199 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. i

(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 430 (1885);

Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 711 (1889); Salvin, Cat. B.

Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 425 (1896).

(Plate CXI.}

Adult Male. — General colour above light grey, with obsolete
paler fringes to the feathers, the rump and upper tail-coverts
delicate pearly-grey ; wing-coverts like the back ; bastard-
wing, primary-coverts, and quills dusky greyish-black, the
shafts white, as also the inner web for two-thirds of its
breadth ; secondaries grey, like the back, the inner web white,
except at the end ; tail-feathers pearly grey, white on the inner
web, and at the tips ; head and neck all round, and entire
under surface of body pure white, with a little shade of grey
on the sides of the upper breast and on the lower flanks ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries white, the edge of the wing
dusky-grey. " The curved point of the bill is yellow, the
sides buff-yellow, those of the upper mandibles being more or
less streaked with dark brown, the sheath investing the nostrils
almost black ; feet and legs bluish horn colour " (A. H.
Cocks). Total length, 18-5 inches; culmen, 1*65; wing, iro;
tail, 4*i ; tarsus, 2*2.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 17*5
inches ; wing, 13*0.

The Fulmar has also a dark phase, which is of a uniform
dusky grey colour, a little paler on the under surface of the
body. This is chiefly found in its more northern habitat, but
in many places both light and dark forms occur together.

Characters. — In appearance the Fulmar is very like a grey
Gull, but it may be distinguished by its tubular nostrils.
There is no other British Petrel with which it can be con-
founded.

'54 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range in Great Britain. — The Fulmar breeds in some of the
islands of the Hebrides, one notable breeding-place being
S. Kilda. It also nests on Foula, in the Shetlands. Other-
wise the species is a winter visitor to Britain.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is
found in the North Atlantic from Baffin Bay and Greenland
to Iceland, Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, and Franz-Josef
Land. In winter it comes south and occurs in America off
the New England coast, and, according to Mr. Saunders, down
to about Lat. 43° in European waters.

Habits. — Mr. A. H. Cocks has given the following account
of the Fulmar on the west coast of Spitsbergen : —

"At Magdalena Bay we found a 'White-Whaler' lying,
with skins of this cetacean floating in the sea all round her,
preparatory to being stowed away in her hold. Swarms of
Fulmars were swimming close round the vessel's sides,
elbowing and jostling each other, gorging on the scraps of
blubber they obtained from the skins, and as tame as domestic
poultry. We found we could catch them with a hook and line,
baiting with a small scrap of ' spek,' literally almost as fast as
we could haul them on board.

" On shooting some Ivory Gulls at this place, which
dropped into the water, it was only by keeping up an unre-
mitting cannonade of stones that I could keep the Fulmars
off them until I could secure my specimens. They were
common as far north as we went, and were among the few
species of birds observed among the ice we met with about
the latitude of Bear Island on our way south (4th of August).
There were still a few every now and then after we were in
sight of the Norwegian coast on the 6th, and the last I saw
of this species was near the head of Lyngen Fjord (east of
Tromso), on the 25th of August. To the collector, the Fulmar
Petrel is by far the most troublesome bird I have yet made
the acquaintance of, from its habit, when shot, of ejecting an
oily fluid from its mouth, which stains the plumage. I selected
my specimens, and then took the utmost care in handling
them, but one is never safe until the skin has been actually
removed."

FULMAR. 155

Seebohm has given a good account of the species, as
follows : —

" No bird is more thoroughly oceanic in its habits than the
Fulmar. It lives exclusively at sea, often at great distances
from land, and only visits some isolated ocean rock to rear
its young. It follows in the track of the whalers, even to the
limit of open water, to feast upon the scraps of blubber and
the oil floating on the sea. It is an almost constant attendant
upon the deep-sea fishing-boats, to prey upon the offal that
is cast overboard, and is often so eager in its search for food
as to allow itself to be caught by the hand. Large pieces of
food are eaten whilst the bird sits lightly on the water, and
tears them to pieces with its strong hook-shaped bill; but
small morsels are either eaten at once or carried off to some
distance, where they can be quietly devoured. The food of
the Fulmar is largely composed of molluscs, cuttle-fish, and
any garbage that it may find floating on the water, especially
such that is of an oily nature. It also eats large quantities
of sorrel ; and the blubber of the whale is eagerly sought
after.

" The Fulmar has great power of wing. It flies in a very
similar manner to a Gull, and is generally mistaken for one
of those birds, which it also closely resembles in the colour
of its plumage. Parties of ten to twenty birds may often be
seen following in the wake of the Atlantic steamers to pick
up any food that may be thrown overboard from time to time.
They never seem to tire, but fly backwards and forwards,
crossing and recrossing the ship's stern, and often settling
down one by one on the surface of the water to feed on any-
thing eatable that they may descry floating on the waves. If
a piece of meat be thrown to them they often seize it before
it sinks, but instead of diving after it as a Duck or a
Guillemot would do, they alight on the surface feet first, and
in the most comical way let themselves sink down in the
water with uplifted wings. They are rather stupid birds, and
do not see half the food thrown out to them, but their power
of continued flight is very marvellous. They follow a steamer
going fifteen miles an hour against a head-wind of still greater
speed with such ease that only an occasional flap of their
wings is observable, and when the stern is reached they wheel

156 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

gracefully round with the line of their long outstretched wings
frequently brought for a moment at right angles to the surface
of the water. In very wet weather they disappear ; but half
a gale of wind does not appear to interfere with their move-
ments in the least, except that their wings are more actively
employed, though even then they continually skim along with
outspread motionless wings over the surface of the waves,
bounding over their crests, and descending into the hollows.
It is not to be supposed that the same individuals follow the
ship across the Atlantic. On some days the number is very
few, on others greater, and generally at sunset every bird
disappears."

The following interesting account of the habits of the Fulmar
on S. Kilda have been written by Mr. C. Dixon : — " Most of
the cliffs are broken, and all are more or less studded with
grassy slopes, on most of which sheep graze in comparative
safety. In many places, although the cliff is very precipitous,
it is covered with grass, sorrel, and other plants, and a loose
rich soil. It is in such spots that the Fulmar breeds in the
greatest numbers. I shall never forget the imposing effect of
this noble bird- nursery. Just before I reached one of the
shoulders of Connacher, a few Fulmars were to be seen sailing
in graceful flight above the cliff, then dropping down again
into space. When I reached the summit the scene was grand ;
tens of thousands of Fulmars were flying silently about in all
directions, but never by any chance soaring over the land ;
they passed backwards and forwards along the face of the cliff
and for some considerable distance out to sea, whilst the waves
a thousand feet below were dotted thickly with floating birds.
The silence of such an animated scene impressed me ; not a
single Fulmar uttered a cry, but lower down the cliffs Kitti-
wakes were noisy enough. No bird flies more gracefully than
the Fulmar ; it seems to float in the air without any exertion,
often passing to and fro for minutes together with no percep-
tible movement of its wings; and I repeatedly saw a bird,
head to wind, quite motionless for several seconds, the stiff
breeze ruffling a few of its scapulars and neck -feathers. It is
a remarkably tame bird, fluttering along within a few feet of
you, its black eye glistening sharply against its snow-white
dress. Sometimes I saw it hover like a Kestrel, or turn round

FULMAR. 157

completely in the air, as if on a pivot. But the Fulmars in the
air are soon left to themselves, and all attention directed to
those sitting quietly on their nests. In some parts of the
cliffs, where the soil is loose and turf-grown, the ground is
almost white with sitting Fulmars. Every available spot is a
Fulmar nest ; and as you explore the cliffs, large numbers of
birds fly out from all directions where they had not previously
been noticed. The Fulmar begins to lay about the middle of
May, and I was told that the young are able to fly in July. It
very rarely burrows deep enough in the ground to conceal
itself whilst incubating, and, in the majority of cases, only
makes a hole large enough to half conceal itself, whilst in a
great many instances it is content to lay its eggs under some
projecting tuft, or even on the bare and exposed ledge of a
cliff, in a similar place to that so often selected by the
Guillemot. I imagine that the bird makes a small excavation
wherever it can ; but there are not suitable places for all, and
great numbers have to breed in unfavourable positions."

Nest. — Mr. Robert Read sends me the following note : —
" The Fulmar breeds in vast numbers in S. Kilda, where they
usually lay their single white egg in hollows scraped out of the
grassy turf covering the rocky terraces along the cliffs. Many,
however, lay on the bare rocky ledges, where the egg is usually
placed in a slight hollow or under a projecting piece of rock.
In June, 1888, I got along one of the narrow ledges to where
a Fulmar was sitting, and at length managed to reach it with
my stick. The bird would not stir for some time, but at last
it ejected a stream of oil at the stick, and then flew off,
leaving a single egg which I found, on blowing it, to be about
a week or ten days incubated."

Eggs. — One. Chalky-white and rough in texture. Axis,
2 7 5-3 '05 inches; diam., i'75-2T.

THE PIED FULMARS. GENUS DAPTION.

Daption, Stephens in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xiii. p. 239 (1826).

Type, D. capensis (Linn.).

As in the true Fulmars the tail-feathers are fourteen in
number in the genus Daption, but the bill is more slender, and

158 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

the rami of the mandible are weak, the nasal tube being
smaller, narrower, and lower at the base, less than the width of
the latericorn. The tarsi are more slender than in Fulmarus.

One species only is known, which is universally distributed
over the southern oceans.

I. THE CAPE FULMAR. DAPTION CAPENSIS.

Procdlaria tapensis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 213 (1766).

Daption capensis, More, Ibis., 1882, p. 346; B. O. U. List.
Brit. B. p. 199 (1883); Seebohm, Brit. B. iii. p. 451
(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 714, note (1889);
Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 428 (1886).

Daption capense^ Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B, iv. p. u (1884).

Adult Male.— General colour above slaty-black, varied with
white ; the feathers grey at the base, but white sub-terminally,
the feathers of the back with a triangular mark of slaty-black
at the tip ; scapulars like the back and marked in the same
manner ; lesser wing-coverts blackish-brown, the remainder
brown, white at the base, and narrowly edged with white on
the outer web, the inner greater-coverts pure white, some of
them being brown at the end ; primary-coverts and quills
brown, white towards the base of the inner web ; tail white,
with a broad brown tip ; sides of face like the crown ; a small
white spot below the eye ; upper throat brown, with concealed
white bases to the feathers ; lower throat and sides of neck
with brown ends to the feathers ; remainder of under surface
of body pure white, the under tail-coverts white, with brown
tips ; under wing-coverts and axillaries white, the lower greater-
coverts tipped with brown ; the coverts along the edge of the
wing blackish-brown; bill blackish-brown ; feet dark brown;
Total length, 15*5 inches; culmen, i'35 ; wing, 10*5 ; tail, 4*0;
tarsus, 17.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male. Total length, 14-5
inches; wing, 10*2.

Young Birds. — Are apparently less spotted with white on the
back ; and have a more uniform brown throat.

CAPE FULMAR. 159

Characters. — Besides the generic characters given above, this
species is unmistakable from its black and white spotted
appearance.

Range in Great Britain. — Only one specimen has been
noted from our seas, an individual having been recorded by
Mr. A. G. More as killed near Dublin in October, 1881.

Range outside the British Islands. — This Petrel has been said to
have occurred on three occasions off the coast of France.
Otherwise it is known only as a strictly southern species,
ranging as high as Cey'on and to iabout lat. 5° S. on the
coast of Peru.

Habits. —The " Cape Pigeon," as this bird is usually called,
is a well-known inhabitant of the southern seas, where its
habit of following ships is remarked by every ocean traveller.
Mr. Gould, during his celebrated voyage to Australia, made
the following notes : — " This Martin among the Petrels is
extremely tame, passing immediately under the stern and
settling down close to the sides of the ship if fat of any kind
or other oily substance be thrown overboard. Swims lightly,
but rarely exercises its natatorial powers except to procure food,
in pursuit of which it occasionally dives for a moment or two.
Nothing can be more graceful than its motions while on the
wing, with the neck shortened, and the legs entirely hidden
among the feathers of the under tail-coverts. Like the other
Petrels, it ejects, when irritated, an oily fluid from its mouth.
Its feeble note of ' cac, cac, cac, cac ' is frequently uttered,
the third, says Captain Hutton, being pronounced the quickest.
Its weight varies from fourteen to eighteen ounces ; there is no
difference in the weight of the sexes, neither is there any
visible variation in their colouring, nor do they appear to be
subject to any seasonal change."

Nest. — Sir Joseph Hooker states that this species was found
by him breeding in Kerguelen Land. He says : — " It nests in
sheltered ledges of cliffs about 50 or 100 feet above the level
of the sea."

Eggs. — Unknown,

160 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

THE SHEARWATERS. SUB-FAMILY, PUFFININ^E.

These Petrels are distinguished by the absence of lamellse
on the side of the palate, a character which is developed in
the Fulmars. Eight genera of Shearwaters are recognised, the
genus Puffinus being found nearly everywhere throughout the
seas of the world, whereas the allied genera, such as Priofinus,
Thalassczca, Priocella, and Majaqueus, are inhabitants of the
southern oceans. CEslrelafa and Bulweria are more widely
distributed, and range into the temperate seas of the Northern
Hemisphere.

THE TRUE SHEARWATERS. GENUS PUFFINUS.

Puffinus^ Briss. Orn. vi. p. 131 (1760).

Type, P.puffinus (Linn.).

In these Petrels the tarsus is distinctly compressed, with its
anterior edge sharp. The nasal tube is low, and both nostrils
are visible from above, directed forwards and slightly upturned.
There are twelve tail-feathers. (Cf. Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus.
xxv. p. 368.) Twenty species are known, distributed over the
seas of both hemispheres.

I. THE GREAT SHEARWATER. TUFFINUS GRAVIS.

Procellaria gravis, O'Reilly, Voy. Greenland, p. 140, pi. 12,

fig. i (1818).
Puffinus major, Temm.; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 527, pi. 616

(1877) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 198 (1883) ; Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 12 (1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit.

B. Hi. p. 417 (1885); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part viii.

(1888); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 715 (1889).
Puffinus gravis, Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 373 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above brown, with somewhat
paler edges to the feathers of the back and scapulars, some of
the latter having whitish margins ; long upper tail-coverts
mottled with white and having broad white tips ; wing-coverts
rather darker brown than the back, the greater series externally
shaded with ashy-grey; quills dusky-blackish, with white at

GREAT SHEARWATER. 1 6 1

the base of the inner web, increasing in extent on the second-
aries, which are fringed with white at the ends ; tail black,
moderately wedge-shaped ; crown of head uniform dark brown,
scarcely forming a cap, though the hind-neck is lighter and
shaded with grey, especially on the sides of the neck ; lores
dark brown ; sides of face lighter and more ashy-brown ; cheeks
and under surface of body white, the centre of the abdomen
sooty-brown ; lower flanks and under tail-coverts also sooty-
brown, the latter tipped with white ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white, the latter with sub-terminal spots of brown ;
bill dark horn-colour ; feet yellow. Total length, 19^5 inches;
culmen, 1*9; wing, i2'6; tail, 4*7 ; tarsus, 2*25.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 19 inches ;
wing, 12-5.

Characters. — The tail is short and rounded, scarcely to be
called wedge-shaped. The species is distinguished from the
other Shearwaters by its large size, the wing being 12*5 inches
and upwards. Its brown back, with the lighter edges to the
feathers, white breast, with the sooty-brown patch on the
abdomen, are also distinguishing characters.

Range in Great Britain. — A more or less frequent visitor in
England, sometimes occurring in some numbers off the south-
western coasts, but rarer on the east coast and off Scotland ; off
Ireland it has been frequently met with.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Great Shearwater occurs
on both sides of the Atlantic from the Faeroes and Greenland
southward to the Cape of Good Hope and' the Falkland
Islands. It is replaced by an allied species, P. kuhli, in the
Mediterranean and on the Azores and Canaries. This species
also occurs on the shores of North America and extends south
as far as Kerguelen Land. The Great Shearwater has also
been found in the Baltic round Heligoland.

Habits. — Mr. Howard Saunders writes : — "The food of this
species consists chiefly of squid, and Mr. Gurney found the
horny jaws of a cuttle-fish in the stomach of a bird shot near
Flamborough ; but any animal substance is greedily swallowed,
and the species is systematically taken with a hook to furnish
bait for fish. When alighting it strikes the water with great
15 M

162 ALLEN'S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

violence — in a manner quite different from that of a Gull — anc!
then dives, pursuing its prey under water with great rapidity,
and often tearing bait from the fishermen's hooks. When
crossing the Atlantic, I have often seen them skimming the
surface of the water without any apparent effort, alternately
poised on either wing, but at times they flap their pinions
freely."

Seebohm, who also observed the species during his voyages
to America, has left us the following account of its habits : —
" In crossing the Atlantic in autumn the Great Shearwater is
much more local than either the Fulmar or Wilson's Petrel. I
have occasionally seen them approach very near the ship, but
they never seemed to take any notice of it, nor did they follow
the ship's wake or stoop to pick up anything that might be thrown
out to attract them. Sometimes half-a-dozen may be seen
together, but more often they are in pairs. Compared with the
Fulmars they look very black, but as they turn so that the sun
shines upon them, they look brown against the blue waves.
Their under parts look almost white ; but as they skim up from
the waves, the brown edges of the under wing-coverts can
easily be seen. The white on the upper tail-coverts is con-
spicuous during flight, and the neck is shortened so as to
produce the appearance of a white streak behind the ear-
coverts. It is impossible to ascertain during flight whether the
under tail-coverts be white or not, as they are always covered
by the outstretched feet. The Great Shearwater has even
greater power on the wing than the Fulmar ; he flies with the
wings more bejit, and seems to follow the surface of the waves
still closer ; he really does ' shear the water,' only now and
then rising with a swallow-like flight above the horizon. He
skims along the surface of the Atlantic billows with almost
motionless wings, turning suddenly to avoid a breaker, or to
follow some object floating on the water which has caught his
eye, and which he sometimes snatches up without apparently
lessening his speed. Wind or rain do not appear to incom-
mode him in the least ; he never seems tired. He is very
rarely seen to alight on the surface of the water ; he sometimes
remains in sight for an hour together, but more often he
passes on, and frequently not a Shearwater is visible during
the whole day."

MANX SHEARWATER. 163

Nest.— Nothing has been recorded of the breeding habits of
the Great Shearwater.

. — Doubtless only one. The specimen figured in See-
bohm's " Eggs of British Birds " (pi. 20, fig. 6), is probably
not a genuine egg of the species.

II. THE MANX SHEARWATER. PUFFINUS PUFFINUS

Procellaria puffinuS) Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 213 (1766).
Puffinus anglorum, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 441 (1852) ; Dresser,

B. Eur. viii. p. 517, pi. 615 (1876); B. O. U. List. Brit.

B. p. 197 (1883); Saunders, ed. YarrelPs Brit. B. iv.

p. 21 (1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 420 (1885);

Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 719 (1889); Salvin, Cat. B.

Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 377 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above black, shaded with grey,
and with obsolete grey fringes to the feathers of the upper sur-
face; wing-coverts like the back, the greater series slightly
browner ; quills black, shaded externally with grey, and lighter
ashy on the inner webs ; tail black ; head and neck like the
back; the lores and ear-coverts dusky blackish, with a little
white below the eye; cheeks and sides of face and under
surface of body, pure white, with blackish spots on the cheeks
and blackish lines on the sides of the neck ; the sides of the
chest and sides of the upper breast dusky grey, and on the
sides of the flanks a few blackish markings ; the lateral under
tail-coverts blackish along the outer webs ; under wing-coverts
white, as also the axillaries : " bill blackish horn-colour, the
sheath of the under mandible greyish ; legs and feet flesh
colour, the back of the tarsus, outer toe, and lower outer half
of middle toe, black; iris dark brown" (W. R. Ogilvie- Grant).
Total length, 14-8 inches; culmen, 1*45; wing, 9-5; tail,
3-15 ; tarsus, 1-65.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 14-0
inches ; wing, 8 '8.

Characters. — The Manx Shearwater belongs to the smaller
members of the genus Puffinus , with a short tail and a wing

M 2

164 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

not exceeding 9 inches in length. The primaries are wholly
dark underneath. The upper surface is black, the axillaries
white with a sub-terminal black mark, and the flanks and
under tail-coverts are mostly white.

Range in Great Britain. — The Manx Shearwater is found in
winter on most of our coasts, but breeds only in the Orkneys
and Shetland Islands, the Hebrides, and in certain places on
the west coast of England and Wales, as far south as the
Scilly Isles. In Ireland, Mr. Ussher says that the species
breeds on the headlands and islands of Donegal, Antrim,
Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford, Kerry, and Mayo, and probably in
other counties.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Manx Shearwater
breeds in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Iceland and the
Faeroes, extending to the coast of Norway and south to
Madeira and the Canaries. On the American side it is also
met with, and in winter extends south to the coasts of
Brazil.

Habits. — Saxby has given the following account of the bird
in his " Birds of Shetland " : — " This interesting bird, the
* Lyric-bird ' of Orkney, usually arrives in Shetland at the end
of April, or in the first days of May, and seems to lose no
time in going to earth, being almost as truly a burrowing
animal as any mole or rabbit. The earliest intimation of its
arrival has repeatedly been brought to me by the folks who
have taken it from the holes. Oddly enough, the fishermen,
who have such abundant opportunities for observation, most
positively assert that the bird is never seen abroad in the day-
time. That they are wrong, I for one can testify. I have seen
it at all times of the day, though, so far as I can remember, not
during the breeding season. Indeed, as Mr. Robert Gray well
remarks, there are few sights more picturesque in their way than
that of a group of Shearwaters disporting themselves in a breeze
of wind. The name of the bird seems to be derived from its
strange habit of suddenly sweeping down towards the surface
of the water, and ploughing it up with its breast. The splash
of the Shearwater is quite unlike that of the Tern, and,
although, of course, on a smaller scale, exactly resembles that

MANX SHEARWATER. 165

caused by the graze of a round shot as it ricochets upon the
water.

" The burrows are dug in the dry crumbling soil of the steep
cliffs, varying from 18 inches to 2 feet in depth, or even more,
and are so narrow that the introduction of the hand is a
matter of some difficulty when the hole happens to be new,
and therefore but little worn by the passage of the bird. A
fresh hole is not necessarily dug every season, the old ones
being often made to serve again. To look at, the bill would
not seem to be very well adapted for digging; but still it
answers the purpose, possessing more strength than the
observer would, at first sight, imagine. The hooked point is
very hard and sharp, as a certain scar on one of my hands can
testify ; and the edges of the mandible, too, are very keen, and
have more than once drawn blood from my fingers. The sand
is scraped out in sufficient quantity to form a considerable
heap at the entrance, and very slight disturbance of the heap
will cause desertion. Indeed, the Lyrie is not at all a bird
that will bear to be much interfered with. It is almost certain
to forsake the nest if it be taken out, even though it will
return for the moment, creeping back into the hole after a
little uncertain fluttering, seemingly quite bewildered when
tossed up in the air.

" In handling the Shearwater, one need be very cautious, as
it has the 'habit of ejecting from the mouth a quantity of clear
thin oil, fishy and disagreeable enough, it is true, but by no
means the abominably offensive stuff described by authors.
On several occasions I have found in the stomach of this bird
the jaws of a small species of cuttle-fish, vouched for as such
by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys himself, together with a small quantity
of comminuted seaweed, and some green vegetable fibre. The
cuttle-fish jaws have been found by me also in the stomach of
the Fulmar Petrel."

A note by Mr. Drake, of Cardiff, is interesting, as showing
the way in which the bird behaves when suddenly taken from
its burrow : — " The Shearwater brought out was a beautiful
bird, delightfully sleek and clean, with the charm and mystery
of unfamiliar nature about it. None of the Shearwaters
vomited the abominable oil which Petrels will sometimes emit.
It was thrown up into the air, but bungled its restoration to

1 66 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

liberty, seeming quite dazed, and was only too easily retaken.
Again it was thrown up, and again it blundered, like an owl
exposed to the noonday sun, only much worse. We found
others, one of which I brought home alive ; they all behaved
in the same helpless way. We found their eggs, pure white
and very like the Puffin's, but without its obscure maculation.
These birds are so nocturnal in their habits that persons
familiar with the island by daylight only might live surrounded
by them and not suspect their presence. At night they come
out and are active enough, It is then that their singular weird
cry is uttered (why is the sea-bird's cry always melancholy ?).
I heard it as I lay awake in the tent. There was no noise of
wings, no evidence of living, when a ghostly voice said in
plaintive key, as of one who wept, ' Cuckolds in a row,' with
distinctest articulation ; and again, as distance softened down
its grief, ' Cuckolds in a row,' until, still further off, was echoed
back, as if it passed some door that closed behind, * Cuckolds
in a row.' "

Nest. — Saxby writes : — " In most cases, something of a nest
is made with pieces of dead plants or hay, but sometimes the
bare soil is thought sufficient. It now and then happens that
the nest is made far back in the deep crevice of a rock. Some
have asserted that the Shearwater lays only once in the season,
but my own observations lead me to the conclusion that a
second laying does take place; the bird, however, not pro-
ducing a new egg — it lays but one — immediately on being
robbed of the first, but waiting until the regular time, some
weeks later, when it will either use the old burrow, to which
it has returned occasionally in the interval, or will dig a new
one. After the egg has been taken the bird will often remain
in the nest for several days before finally resolving to quit.
The young bird will keep on the nest until long after it is fully
fledged, and in such circumstances becomes enormously fat,
and is thought a dainty by the fishermen, who eat it with much
relish."

Eggs.— One, white. Axis, 2-3-265 inches; diam., 1-55-

LEVANTINE SHEARWATER. 167

III. THE LEVANTINE SHEARWATER. PUFFINUS YELKOUANUS.

Procellaria yelkouan, Acerbi, Bibl. Ital. cxl. p. 294 (1827).
Puffinus yelkoiianus, Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 379
(1896).

Adult Male. — Similar to P. puffinus, but rather paler and
browner above ; the flanks dusky brown, and the under tail-
coverts usually dusky brown also. Total length, 15-0 inches;
culmen, 1-5 ; wing, 9-1 ; tail, 27 ; tarsus, i'8.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 14-5
inches ; wing, 9*0.

Characters.— When the under tail-coverts are sooty-brown,
this species is easily distinguished from the Manx Shear-
water, with its white under tail-coverts. This character, how-
ever, seems not always to be constant, so that the characters
for the identification of P. yclkouanus appear to be the brown
lower flanks, and, above all, the greater length of the tarsus
(i -8 inch), and the middle toe (i'9s). In the Manx Shear-
water the tarsus measures 1-75 inch, and the middle toe only
1-8 inch.

Range in Great Britain. — Two specimens of the Shearwater
from Devonshire are in the British Museum, one fromTorbay
and another from Plymouth. The species probably occurs
more often than is suspected, and has been confounded with
the ordinary P. puffinus.

Range outside the British Islands. — This species is an inhabitant
of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, but appears to wander
north occasionally, when it visits the English coasts.

Habits. — Doubtless similar to those of P. puffimis.

Nest. — Doubtless in similar situations to that of the Manx
Shearwater.

Eggs. — One. Doubtless similar to that of P. puffinus.

1 68 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

IV. THE DUSKY SHEARWATER. PUFFINUS OBSCURUS.

Frocellaria obscura, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 559 (1788).

Puffinus obscurus, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 198 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 27 (1884) ; Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 425 (1885); Saunders,' Man. Brit.
B. p. 721 (1889) ; Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 382
(1896); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxii. (1896).

Adult Male.— General colour above slaty-black, with con-
cealed greyish-brown bases to the feathers ; wing-coverts like
the back, with obsolete whitish fringes to the ends of the
greater coverts; quills black, ashy along their inner webs;
tail black; head and neck slaty black, like the back; lores
also black ; cheeks and sides of face, as well as the entire
under surface of the body, pure white ; upper eyelid white ; the
ear-coverts black, varied with white edges to the feathers, so
that these parts appear as if streaked with white ; the white
of the neck ascending behind the ear-coverts ; the sides of
the upper breast mottled with black; lower flanks black;
thighs and under tail-coverts white; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white, the lesser under wing-coverts black at the
base, and the edge of the wing mottled with black ; bill dark
hazel, paler on the mandible ; feet yellow, with the outside of
the tarsus and outer toe black. Total length, 11-2 inches;
culmen, 1*15 ; wing, 6*5; tail, 2-5 ; tarsus, 1-4.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, ii'o
inches; wing, 6-4.

Characters. — The so-called " Dusky " Shearwater is not at all
dusky in plumage, not more so than the Manx Shearwater,
and like that species, it has a white breast. It may be dis-
tinguished by its small size (wing less than 8 inches), and by
its pure white axillaries.

Range in Great Britain. — Two specimens of this species have
occurred for certain within our limits. One was procured
in May, 1853, ofTValentia Harbour in co. Kerry. In April,
1858, another example was found dead near Bungay, in
Suffolk. The species can, therefore, only be considered a
rare and occasional visitor to Britain. Both the above-

SOOTY SHEARWATER. 169

mentioned specimens appear to have been driven north by
stress of weather, the first bird having been captured on board
a small sloop, while the Suffolk specimen appeared to have
been injured by hitting itself against a tree. A third example
in the British Museum is said to have been shot in Devon-
shire. It was formerly in Mr. Gould's collection, whence it
passed into that of Messrs. Salvin & Godman (Cf. Salvin, Cat.
B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 384).

Range outside the British Islands. — According to Mr. Salvin,
the range of this species extends over the tropical and sub-
tropical seas of the whole world.

Habits. — Colonel Feilden found this species breeding on
" Bird " Rock, off Barbados.

Nest. — None. Laid in a hole in a rock (cf. Feilden, Ibis.
1889, pp. 60, 503).

Eggs. — White. Axis, 2*0 inches; diam., 1*4.

V. THE SOOTY SHEARWATER. PUFFIN US GRISEUS.

ProceUaria grisea, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 564 (1788).

Puffimis griseus, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 523, pi. 616 (1877);
B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 198 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. YarrelPs
Brit. B. iv. p. 17 (1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 427
(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 717 (1829); Salvin,
Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 386 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above sooty-brown, with a slight
greyish shade on the edges of the feathers of the back, less
distinct on the lower back and rump, which appear darker ;
wing-coverts rather blacker than the back, with a greyish shade
on the greater and primary-coverts ; quills blackish, with a
grey shade externally, the inner webs paler and more ashy ;
tail black ; head sooty black, a little darker than the back ;
lores and sides of face like the crown ; cheeks and under
surface of body slaty grey, browner on the sides of body,
abdomen and under tail-coverts; under wing-coverts white,
with dusky shafts ; axillaries sooty-brown, like the flanks ;
quills ashy below; bill horn-colour; tarsi and toes dark hazel.
Total length, 18 inches; oilmen, i'6; wing, 11*5; tail, 3-6;
tarsus, 24o,

170 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Adult Female — Similar to the male. Total length, 17-5 inches;
wing, i2'o.

Characters. — The present species is distinguished by its
sooty-brown colour, both above and below, the under wing-
coverts being white with dusky shafts to the feathers.

Range in Great Britain. — An accidental visitor. " Identified
examples have been," says Mr. Saunders, " obtained — in our
summer and autumn — at North Berwick, in Scotland, and
along the east coast of England, especially off Yorkshire;
while several have been taken in the Channel as far west as
Cornwall, though the bird is evidently less abundant there
than its larger congener, P. gram's. In Ireland specimens
have been secured on the coast of Kerry and in Belfast Lough,
while others have been observed."

Range outside the British Islands. — According to Mr. Osbert
Salvin, the present species is generally distributed throughout
the seas of both hemispheres, from the Faeroe Islands in the
North Atlantic, and the Kuril Islands in the North Pacific,
to the Straits of Magellan and the Auckland Islands. Its
breeding places are in the south, and its northward migrations
are performed during the southern winter, when it straggles
into the North Atlantic Ocean.

Habits. — Of the life of this Shearwater, but little has
been recorded. Sir Walter Buller, in his " Birds of New
Zealand," writes : —

" It is a common species in the New Zealand seas, and is
said to be extremely abundant at Stewart's Island, and on the
adjacent coast. It is also comparatively plentiful on the
island of Kapiti, where it is found breeding as late as March.
On the island of Karewa and on the Rurima Rocks, large
numbers annually breed, sharing their burrows with the
Tuatera Lizard, and submitting, season after season, to have
their nests plundered by the Maoris, who systematically visit
the breeding-grounds when the young birds are sufficiently
plump and fat for the calabash.

" Mr. Marchant informs me that he found this species
breeding in burrows near the summit of the island of Kapiti
about the end of February, The excavations were in peaty

DOVE-LIKE FULMARS. 17 I

ground, over which a fire had . passed, destroying all the
surface vegetation. The young at this time were half-grown,
thickly covered with light grey down, and extremely fat. On
being held up by the feet, oily matter ran freely from their
throats. The old birds, on being taken hold of, fought
fiercely with their bills. These birds are at all times more
nocturnal than diurnal, and when hovering overhead at night,
utter a frequent call-note, like tee-tee-tee^ from which the Maori
name is derived.

"There are several well-known breeding-places on the
south-east coast of Otago, and on Stewart's Island, from
which large supplies of potted birds are annually drawn and
forwarded to the northern tribes, a poha titi (or cask of
preserved Petrel) being a gift worth the acceptance of the
highest chief."

Nest. — According to Mr. Travers' observations in the
Chatham Islands, this Petrel makes a burrow in peaty ground —
running horizontally for about three or four feet and then
turning to the right or left, while a slight nest of twigs and
leaves at the extremity serves as a receptacle for the single egg.
The male assists in the work of incubation, and the young
birds, which are very fat, are esteemed a delicacy by the
Maories, who hold them over their mouths in order to swallow
the oily matter which is disgorged. The old birds roost on the
shore, and are very noisy during the night. (Cf. Saunders,
Manual, p. 18.)

Eggs. — One, white. Dr. H. O. Forbes gives the measurements
of a series. Axis, 2"j-$'2 inches; diam. r82-2-i5.

THE DOVE-LIKE FULMARS. GENUS CESTRELATA.
QLstrelata, Bonap. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 188 (1855).

Type, (E. hcesitata (Kuhl).

The genus (Estrelata comprises about thirty species, mostly
restricted to the southern temperate and tropical oceans,
ranging north in the Pacific to Japan, and occasionally
wandering to the latitude of the British Islands.

The number of tail-feathers is always twelve. The tarsi are
not compressed as in the genus Puffinus^ but are rounded on

172 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

the anterior edge. The tail is moderate and rounded. The
bill is rather short, stout, and black ; the nasal opening is
slightly directed upwards ; the claw of the hallux small. (Cf.
Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 368).

I. THE CAPPED PETREL. CESTRELATA HdLSITATA.

Procellaria h&sitata, Kuril, Beitr. p. 142 (1820).

(Estrelata hcesitata, Dresser. B. Eur. viii. p. 545, pi. 618

(1880); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 200 (1883); Saunders,

ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 8 (1884) ; id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 713 (1889); Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 402

(1896).

Adult. — General colour above sooty-brown, with obsolete
margins of lighter brown on the feathers of the back ; the
lower back and rump slightly blacker, as also the wing-coverts
and scapulars; upper tail-coverts white; tail slightly wedge-
shaped, black, with a good deal of white towards the base ;
crown of head blackish, forming a cap; hind-neck white, with
a few sooty-brown bars on the nape; lores white; feathers
below the eye sooty-brown ; sides of face, ear-coverts, and
under surface of body, white, with a little sooty-brown on the
upper sides of the breast ; a few of the lower flanks tipped
with sooty-brown ; under wing-coverts and axillaries white, the
lesser and marginal coverts blackish, forming a broad border to
the inner aspect of the wing; lower primary-coverts white,
tipped with black spots ; quill-lining ashy ; bill black ; tarsi
and toes yellow, the distal portion of the latter, and the webs
for the same distance, black. Total length, 16*0 inches ;
culmen, 17; wing, 11*3; tail, 3*8; centre feathers, 5-0;
tarsus, i '56.

Characters. — The distinguishing characters of this species
are given by Mr. Salvin as follows : — " The exposed portion of
the outer primary beneath is dark, not white ; the bill is wide
at the gape ; the under surface is white, as well as the back of
the neck ; the crown is blackish, and the upper tail-coverts are
white. (Cf. Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 398.)

Range in Great Britain. — The only instance of the occurrence
gf this rare Petrel in Great Britain is that of a specimen taken

WHITE-THROATEl) GREY PETREL. 173

in Norfolk in the spring of 1850. The specimen is in the
collection of Mr. Clough Newcome.

Range outside the British Islands. — The habitat of the species
is believed to be the islands of Haiti and Martinique, and
probably G.uadeloupe, in the West Indies, whence it occasion-
ally wanders to European waters. The specimens existing in
museums are very few. There is one in the Boulogne Museum,
supposed to have been shot near that town many years
ago. Another is in the Hungarian National Museum, believed
to have been killed near Zolinki, in North Hungary. Four
specimens are in Paris, three of which were sent by L'Herminier
from Guadeloupe, and the Leiden Museum possesses an
example, the history of which is unknown. A specimen was
obtained in Eastern Florida in 1846, and another was shot on
Long Island in July, 1850. This apparently completes the
record of known specimens in collections, besides the single
one from Haiti in the British Museum.

Habits. — Nothing has been recorded of the habits of this
Shearwater.

Nest. — The breeding-places will probably be found to be in
the high mountains of some of the tropical islands in the West
Indies, where it nests, in all probability, in the same manner as
the Blue Mountain Petrel of Jamaica, under boulders and
rocks in the mountains.

Eggs. — Unknown .

II. THE WHITE-THROATED GREY PETREL. CESTRELATA BREVIPES.

Procellaria brevipes^ Peale, U. S. Expl. Exp. viii. pp. 294, 337,

pi. 80 (1848).

(Estrelata torquata^ Macgill. ; Salvin, Ibis. 1888, p. 359.
(Estrelata brevipes, Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 408.

(Plate CXIL]

Adult. — General colour above slaty-grey, the scapulars, wing-
coverts and quills browner, the greater coverts externally slaty-
grey ; tail wedge-shaped, the feathers black, externally washed
with slaty-grey ; crown of head sooty-black, with the lores and

174 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

forehead ashy-white, sprinkled with blackish ; feathers below
the eye dusky blackish ; sides of face and entire throat white,
with a few dusky frecklings on the ear-coverts and borders of
the white throat ; under surface of body ashy-grey, lighter on
the lower abdomen and under tail-coverts, the long coverts being
whitish, freckled with grey ; the chest darker and more slaty-
grey, the sides of the breast browner ; axillaries ashy-grey ;
under wing-coverts white, the lesser and median coverts slaty-
black ; quill-lining ashy-grey ; bill black ; tarsi and proximal
half of the toes (except the outer one) yellowish, the rest black ;
Total length, 10*5 inches; culmen, 0^95; wing, S'i ; tail, 3-8;
tarsus, i -i.

The above description is taken from the British specimen,
which belongs to the dark form of the species. Some speci-
mens, however, are white below and have a dark grey band
across the breast.

Characters. — The present species belongs to the same section
of the genus (Estrelata as the preceding species. It has the
dark outer primary and the wide bill of (E. hcesitata, and the
under surface is more or less white ; the crown is slaty-black,
and the upper tail-coverts are grey ; the under wing-coverts
and axillaries are white, and the wing does not exceed 8' 7
inches.

Range in Great Britain. — A single specimen of this small
Petrel has been procured in England. Mr. Willis Bund,
by whom the bird in question was presented to the British
Museum, states that it was obtained on the coast in Wales
between Borth and Aberystwith at the end of November or the
beginning of December, 1889.

Range outside the British Islands. — Until its occurrence on the
British Coast this species was only known as an inhabitant
of the Western Pacific Ocean. Specimens from the New
Hebrides and the Fiji Islands are in the British Museum, and
the original specimens of the species were obtained by Peale
on the southern ice-barrier in lat. 68° S.

Habits. — According to the late John Macgillivray, the
"Katebu," as it is called in the New Hebrides, breeds on
Aneiteum in burrows on the wooded mountain-tops in the

BULWER'S PETREL. 175

interior of the island, the highest of which attain to an eleva-
tion of 2,700 feet-

Nest. — None.

Eggs. — Unknown.

THE BLACK SHEARWATERS. GENUS BULWERIA.

Bulweria, Bp. Cat. Met. Ucc. Eur. p. 81 (1842).

Type, B. bulweri (Jard. & Selby).

The genus Bulweria differs from the other genera of the
sub-family Puffinina in its long and wedge-shaped tail ; the
nasal tubes are fleshy at the end, the openings separate, and
directed forwards and upwards. (Cf. Salvin, Cat. B. Brit.
Mus. xxv. p. 368).

i. BULWER'S PETREL. BULWERIA BULWERI.

Procellaria bulweri, Jard. & Selby, 111. Orn. ii. pi. 65 (1830) ;

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part vii. (1888).
Thalassidroma bulweri, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 449 (1852).
Bulweria columbina (Webb & Berth.), Dresser, B. Eur. viii.

p. 55 E, pi. 614 (1878); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 200

(1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 34 (1884);

id. Man. Brit. B. p. 723 (1889).
Bulweria bulweri, Bp. ; Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 420

Adult Male. — General colour above sooty-black, with a
greyish shade over the head and back, the scapulars, wing-
coverts and inner secondaries with obsolete brownish margins ;
greater coverts distinctly ashy-grey externally ; quills and tail-
feathers black ; under surface of body sooty-black, with an
ashy shade ; the chin, upper throat, and fore-part of cheeks clear
slaty-grey ; under wing-coverts sooty-black, like the breast, the
greater coverts and quill-lining more ashy ; bill black ; the
tarsi and base of toes greyish-pink, black for the terminal half
of both toes and webs; iris deep brown. Total length,
io'9 inches; culmen, 0-85 ; wing, 8'o; tail, 4-35 ; tarsus, 1-05.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 10*7
inches; wing, 7-8.

t;6 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range in Great Britain. — A single specimen of Bulwer's Petrei
is in the Museum at York. It was picked up dead on the
banks of the Ure, near Tanfield, in Yorkshire, on the 8th of
May, 1837.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species in-
habits the temperate seas of the North Atlantic and North
Pacific oceans. It is plentiful off Madeira, the Canaries, and
the Salvages, but occurs again in the Sandwich Islands, in the
Pacific, and ranges as far north as the islands of the Japanese
seas.

Habits-. — Mr. Ogilvie-Grant thus describes the species in the
Salvage Islands : — " The brownish-black Bulwer's Petrel was
met with on Great Salvage. It is a common bird in the
Madeira and Canary seas. We were too early for its eggs, but
obtained four taken at the Lime Island, Porto Santo, and the
Desertas, in the month of June. Our men used to catch
numbers of this Petrel every night, and it was nothing for
Manuel or Francisco to produce half a dozen each out of their
shirts; but, with the exception of a few which we kept as
specimens, the majority were allowed to escape. The call of
this bird is very fine, and was frequently heard at night, a
pleasant contrast to the harsh voices of the Great Shearwaters ;
it consists of four higher notes, and a lower, more prolonged
note ; the whole repeated several (usually three) times, and
uttered in a loud cheerful strain."

Mr. F. D. Godman, who visited the Desertas in 1871,
writes : — " It is curious to watch these birds crawling along
the ground. They cannot fly unless they get to the edge of a
rock ; they waddle along on their feet, and, when they come
to a steep place, they use the sharp-pointed hook of their beaks
to draw themselves up with. They seem to dislike the light,
and hide themselves under a rock, or crawl into a hole as soon
as possible. I never saw one of this species flying about in
the daytime, though some of the smaller ones are common
enough."

Nest. — None. Mr. Godman found the birds sitting on their
eggs, which were in holes or under rocks, and usually about as
far in as he could reach with his arm. He says that these
Petrels build no nest, but lay their eggs on the bare rock.

THE DIVERS. '177

. — One. Pure white, and nearly pyriform in shape.
Axis, 1-59-1 '8 1 inch; diain., 1-12-1-28 inch (Ogilvie Grant}.

THE DIVERS. ORDER COLYMBIFORMES.

The skeleton of the Divers shows a very well-marked and
curious character in the extension of the cnemial process of the
tibia. The posterior process of the ilium is also approximated
to such an extent that the sacrum is almost entirely concealed.
There are no anchylosed vertebrae in front of the anchylosed
sacral vertebrae, and the median xiphoid process of the sternum
projects behind the lateral processes. The number of cervical
vertebrae is fourteen or fifteen.

The palate is schizognathous, and there is no defined spinal
feather-tract on the neck. Both the ambiens and femoro-
caudal muscles are present.

Besides these anatomical characters, the Divers are easily
recognised by their long pointed bills and webbed feet, the
hind-toe being on the same level as the other toes. The
tarsus is compressed, and the feet have a curious backward
position, so that it is impossible for the birds ever to stand
upright on them. Considerable discussion has recently taken
place on this subject both in England and America, but the
entire concensus of opinion among field ornithologists of the
present day appears to be that the Divers never attempt to
walk, and that the most they can do on land is to shuffle to and
from their nests with a seal like motion of their bodies. I have
been permitted by Mr. Abel Chapman to use the notes on the
subject which he forwarded to our mutual friend Mr. Howard
Saunders.

He writes: — "Loons and Grebes never sit upright on land.
First, because they never go on to land, properly so called ;
and secondly, because they cannot sit upright if they tried ever
so. Their legs will not bend that way. Cullingford* tells me
that he always has to break the bones of the birds' feet when
people insist on having their specimens mounted in an upright
position." After some criticism of the figures in YarrelPs
"British Birds," and those in other works on natural history,

* The well-known taxidermist of Durham.
I5 N

178 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Mr. Chapman proceeds : — " I do not believe that Divers or
Grebes ever go ashore at any time of the year. Some of them
1 scuffle ' on their breasts for a few yards to their nests, which
are never many feet from the water, not further than. to avoid
a bit of flood, and are generally at, or in, it ; but this is just a
'Seal'- like progression, all legs and wings going, when the bird
is alarmed at the nest ; and the track to and fro is plainly
visible. Beyond thus merely landing on some flat lake-shore
or low islet, I never in my life saw either Grebe or Diver
ashore, and never upright, or otherwise than absolutely hori-
zontal. True, in the wafer, when swimming, they do sit upright
to flap or ' yowl/ but never on land, because they cannot.

" They never go ashore to preen or dry themselves, in the
warm sun, on sand-banks ; they do all that afloat, and their
whole lives are spent afloat, though I have once or twice seen
Red-throated Divers alongside the edge of a sandbank — but
still quite afloat, and, of course, horizontal. They never let
the tide ebb away and leave them dry, as Swans, Geese, and
Game-Ducks always do, and even Diving-Ducks, as Scaup and
Golden-eye, occasionally, but very rarely, do."

THE TRUE DIVERS. GENUS COLYMBUS.
Colymbus, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 220 (1766).

Type, probably C. glarialis (Linn.).

The characters of the genus are those of the Order Colymbi-
formes, and of the single Family Colymbidce.

The Divers are all birds of the Northern Palaeartic and
Nearctic Regions, coming a little to the southward in winter.
Their general habits have been sketched in Mr. Abel Chap-
man's note given above.

I. THE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER. COLYMBUS GLACIAL1S.

Colymbus glacialls, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 221 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B. v. p. 283 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 609,
pi. 626 (1880); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 201 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 96 (1884) ; Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. iii p. 402 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B.
p. 693 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxv. (1893).

GREAT NORTHERN DIVER. 179

Adult Male. — General colour above glossy black, spotted
with white, the feathers being square at the tip, and orna-
mented with twin sub-terminal spots of white, larger and
more conspicuous on the scapulars ; wing-coverts like the
back, but more feebly spotted with white, the spots being
rounder and sometimes two in number near the end of the
outer web ; lower back and rump more distinctly greenish-
black, minutely spotted with white; bastard-wing, primary-
coverts and quills black, browner on the inner webs; upper
tail -coverts and tail-feathers black; head black, with a
purplish shade on the crown, changing to dull green on
the sides of the head and neck ; the sides of the hind-neck
more distinctly purplish-blue ; sides of face and throat black,
with a purple gloss on the chin, and the throat itself decidedly
more green till it reaches an abrupt line, where it changes to a
beautiful purple like the sides of the neck ; across the middle
of the throat a band of white feathers striped with black ; a
similar, but larger, band on each side of the neck ; remainder
of under surface, from the fore-neck downwards, white, the
sides of the fore-neck and chest streaked with black, the sides
of body and flanks black, with small white spots ; across the
line of the vent a narrow band of black ; under tail-coverts
black tipped with white spots ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white, the latter narrowly streaked with black ; the
lower primary-coverts produced for half the length of the
wings, white, broadly streaked with ashy-brown down the
middle ; quill-lining ashy-grey ; bill black ; legs and feet
greenish-black; iris crimson. Total length, 28-0 inches;
culmen, 3-2; wing, 14-0; tail, 2*5; tarsus, 3.35.

Winter Plumage. — Brown above, with a slight greenish gloss,
the feathers sub-terminally dark in the centre and margined
with ashy-grey, less distinctly on the lower back and rump,
which are consequently more uniform ; wing-coverts like the
back, as also the inner secondaries ; quills and tail blackish-
brown ; head and neck brown with a slight greenish gloss ; the
lores and sides of face brown ; cheeks and under surface of
body white, shaded with brown on the lower throat; sides of
the neck brown with white edges to the feathers, producing a
streaked appearance, the centre of the feathers darker brown ;

N 2

180 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

sides of the body brown, the feathers margined with ashy-grey
like the back.

Young. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adult, but
freckled with brown fringes to the feathers of the sides of the
face, throat, and fore-neck. Immature birds can be easily
distinguished by the more rounded shape to the feathers of
the back.

Nestling1. — Entire upper surface sooty-brown, a little lighter
on the throat and chest ; the under surface of the body white,
with the sides brown like the back.

Range in Great Britain. — The Great Northern Diver is prin-
cipally known as a winter visitor to the British Islands, when it
occurs on most of the coasts, and occasionally on inland
waters. It apparently breeds in the Shetlands, as the late Dr.
Saxby noticed the species on a loch in Yell in June, and
obtained eggs from there, which could only have been those
of C. glacialis. Mr. Howard Saunders saw an adult bird on
the iQth of July, 1879, %m§ Past ms Doat m Sulemvoe, and
he adds : — " A few hours before leaving Lerwick I was assured
on good authority that a very young specimen had just been
brought in alive by the Earl of Zetland^ a small steamer which
then served the northern islands."

Eange outside the British Islands. — The present species breeds
in Iceland and in Southern Greenland, and across the whole
of North America in the fur countries, as far south as the State
of Maine. In Northern Russia and Siberia its place is taken
apparently by C. adamsi. Like other Divers it comes south
in winter, and at that time of year it is sometimes found on
inland waters.

Habits.— The late Dr. Saxby, in his " Birds of Shetland,"
gives the following account of the species : — " Owing to the
extreme watchfulness of this bird, and to its wonderful powers
of diving, specimens are by no means easily obtained by a
person who has not had considerable experience of its habits.
The most favourable chance is when it is feeding under rocks
which are sufficiently irregular to afford concealment to the
shooter, who, it may be remarked, should in calm weather
proceed very cautiously, or the bird will perceive him from an

GREAT NORTHERN DIVER. l8l

almost incredible depth, and, instead of rising near the antici-
pated spot, appear quietly swimming away far out of shot
seaward. In smooth water, a boat and its moving shadow can
be seen from beneath the surface of the water for a consider-
able distance, and hence the bird is most frequently dodged
and shot during a breeze. The instant it perceives itself
threatened with danger, it either sinks the body low in the
water or entirely disappears, seldom emerging before it has
traversed a distance of a hundred yards, or perhaps even five
times that space, according to its idea of the extent of the
danger. When once it has become thoroughly alarmed,
further pursuit is generally hopeless, unless it happens to cross
the track of the boat, as it will do occasionally, instead of
proceeding in a line directly from it. When the bird chooses
any other course than its favourite one, directly to the wind-
ward, a boat under sail in a stiff breeze will sometimes overtake
it, but such a chance is rarely met with. Before its habits
were so well known to me as they are now, I used to pursue
it in a four-oared boat, but always unsuccessfully ; lately, how-
e.ver, I have been able to get within range with a single pair
of oars, but with a boat more manageable than those of the
ordinary kind. As the boat approaches at first, the Diver
sinks the body very low— so low, indeed, that the water covers
the hollow of the neck ; and the chances are that, when fired
at, it will escape by diving, unless the favourable moment be
selected when the bird submerges the head, or turns it aside,
or rises to flap its wings. I have once seen it take wing imme-
diately on being shot at, and on many occasions after emerging
from a dive taken to avoid a shot. At any time it rises with
great difficulty, and in calm weather especially is very awkward,
splashing along the surface with wings and feet for a hundred
yards or more, the attempt, as often as not, resulting in a
return to its more natural element. The mode in which this
bird dives cannot be easily explained in words. I have
watched it most carefully, but always with an unsatisfactory
result ; it merely gives a slight start, if my meaning may be
so expressed, and disappears in an instant. When wounded
in such a manner as to be disabled from diving, it is a very
awkward bird to handle. It will allow a boat to run close up
without displaying any sign of activity ; but the moment a

1 82 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

hand appears in reach, there is a sudden splash with wings
and feet, and such a thrust is delivered with the sharp bill
that, if it take effect, it will probably interfere with the captor's
shooting for some days afterwards.

" Its usual note bears considerable resemblance to the
barking of a small dog ; but upon a calm summer's evening
I have heard it utter a long-drawn plaintive cry so strangely
unlike any other known to me that I cannot even attempt to
describe it. Upon the long-disputed subject of the capability
of the Divers to sit erect, most observers confidently assert
that they have seen it in that attitude. My own repeated
disappointments have convinced me at least that a Cormorant
having the under parts white has invariably been the cause of
such impression."

Nest. — A rude affair of dead grass and water-plants, placed
at a short distance from the water, and approached by a path
worn by the passage of the birds to and fro.

Eggs. — Two in number. Ground colour olive-brown or choco-
late-brown, with black spots varying in size, and occasionally
collecting round the larger end, the underlying spots indistinct
and dark grey. Axis, 3'4~3'85 inches; diam., 2'i-2'3.

II. THE WHITE-BILLED DIVER. COLYMBUS ADAMSI.

Colymbus adamst, Gray, P. Z. S. 1859, p. 167 ; B. O- U. List
Brit. B. p. 201 (1883) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 405
(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 695 (1889).

(Plate CXIJI.)

Adult Male. — Similar to C. glacialis, but distinguished by the
yellow or whitish bill and by the more distinct purple shade
on the throat. The white streaks composing the transverse
band on the throat are much broader and are not more than
eight in number, whereas in C. glacialis there are more than
twelve ; the band on the lower neck is wider than that of
C. glacialis, and consists of less than ten streaks of white,
while in C. glacialis there are twenty of these white streaks.
The lower back and rump are uniform, not spotted with white
as in C. glacialis ; bill whitish, a little dusky at the base.

i 1

WHITE-BILLED DIVER. 183

Total length, 29 inches; culmen, 37 ; wing, 15*2 ; tail, 2-95 ;
tarsus, 3-3.

Winter Plumage. — Similar to that of C. glacialis, but dis-
tinguished by the ivory white bill. Upper surface brown, the
feathers darker brown before the edges, which are light ashy-
grey and very broad ; lower back and rump uniform brown ;
wing-coverts like the back, but not quite so distinctly mar-
gined; quills and tail-feathers dark brown, the latter edged
with ashy-grey like the upper tail-coverts ; inner secondaries
edged with ashy-grey like the scapulars ; crown of head and
neck dark ashy-brown ; lores and sides of face white, like the
under surface of the body, the sides of which are brown with
ashy-whitish margins to the feathers.

Characters. — Professor Collett has given an excellent account
of the sequence of plumage in the White-billed Diver, in the
"Ibis " for 1894 (pp. 269-283, pi. viii.). This paper is especially
to be commended to the notice of those ornithologists who
imagine that there are few facts remaining to be discovered in
the economy of European birds. It is a matter of regret to me
that space prevents my reproducing his remarks in extenso.

Professor Collett point out that the young birds of the year
have rounded or almost pointed feathers, instead of the square-
tipped plumes of the old birds. In the following year the grey
plumage is retained, and the worn winter feathering is still
found in the ensuing June. After the next autumn moult the
back is still grey, but the feathers are more square-cut, showing
an approach to the adult form. The bill is white, like that of
the old birds. When the birds are two years old the adult
plumage is assumed, but it seems probable that, as is the case
with C. glaciate, the birds do not breed in their first nuptial
dress. Professor Collett has found that, in addition to fresh-
moulted feathers, some of the adult plumes are donned by a
recoloration of the actual feather. For further details of the
characters of C. adamsi the reader is referred to the paper
itself.

Range in Great Britain. — That C. adamsi occurs more fre-
quently off the British coasts than is usually supposed, is very
probable, and now that attention has been called to the species,
it will doubtless be found that many examples exist in collec-

184 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

tions which have hitherto been supposed to be Great Northern
Divers. The specimens actually recognised as British are, as
yet, few, one from Pakenham, in Norfolk, being in Mr.
Gurneys collection; another from Suffolk recorded by the late
Dr. Babington ; while a third is in the Newcastle Museum, from
the coast of Northumberland.

Range outside the British Islands. — The White-billed Diver is
believed to inhabit the whole of Arctic Russia and Siberia to the
islands of Bering Sea and Alaska, down to Japan in winter ;
and Mr. Saunders believes that it is this species, and not
C. glacialis, which is found in Jan Mayen Island, Spitsbergen,
and Novaya Zemlya. The species was found by Norden-
skjold, during the " Vega " expedition, breeding on Tschuktschi-
land, and Professor Collett believes that it visits the coasts
of the North Sea -in winter, coming from Siberia; he has
examined several specimens from Norway. It also appears,
like C. glacialis and other Divers, to visit inland waters, as
Ritter Tschusi zu Schmidhoffen records it from Hungary. In
North America it is found in the Arctic Regions to the west
of Hudson's Bay, going south in winter, and occurring on the
Great Lakes.

Habits. — These are supposed to be similar to those of
C. glacialis, but little has been recorded on the subject.
Professor Collett says that some of the Norwegian specimens
were caught in nets in which they had been entangled when
diving. The largest male in the University Museum at
Christiania, from the Porsanger Fjord, was taken on a hook
which was laid at a depth of about fifteen fathoms. In the
specimens dissected by him, the stomach was filled with remains
of fishes, and had a quantity of gravel in it. One contained
an example of a full grown female, filled with roe, of Cotlus
scorpius. Dr. Stejneger, who found the species a rare winter
visitant in the Commander Islands, obtained a specimen
in a rather curious manner. He says : — " It was found sitting
on the smooth ice of Lake Saranna (25th of November, 1882),
unable to run upon or lift itself from the glib surface. It evi-
dently had mistaken the transparent and shining ice for open
water." Von Tschusi relates a similar mis'ake on the part
of a flock of Coots, Fulica atra, L. (cf. J. f. O., 1874,

BLACK-THROATED DlVE^l. 185

p. 343). Mr. Nelson, in his " Natural History Collections of
Alaska," writes : — " During a sledge journey along this coast
fragments of the skin were seen, usually comprising the skin of
the neck divided, and with the beak in front, and thus fastened
as a fillet about the head, the long white beak projecting from
the wearer's brow. Fillets made of this bird's skin in the same
manner are commonly used by the natives of the coa^t just
named, and about Kotzebue Sound. They are worn during
certain religious dances held in winter, and are esteemed highly
by the natives, from some occult power they are supposed to
possess."

Nest. — The only record of the finding of the nest of the
White- billed Diver, is that of Palander, during the voyage of
the " Vega." He shot the female from the nest, on the 3rd of
July, 1879, at Pitlekai, on the Tschuktschi Peninsula.

Egg. — Like that of Colymbus glacialis. Axis, 37 inches;
diam. 2*2.

III. THE BLACK-THROATED DIVER. COLYMBUS ARCTICUS.

Colymbus arctiais. Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 221 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B. v. p. 294 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 615, pi.
627 (1876); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 201 (1883);
Saunders, ed. YarrelPs Brit. B. iv. p. 105 (1884);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 407 (1885); Saunders,
Man. Brit. B. p. 697 (1889).

Adult Male. — General colour above glossy black, spangled
with white sub-terminal bars on the scapulars, very broad and
distinct ; on each side of the mantle a second longitudinal
patch of white, formed by broad sub-terminal bars to the
feathers ; remainder of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts
black ; wing-coverts black, with twin spots of white on the
median and greater series ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts,
quills and tail black ; head and neck dove-grey, slightly more
slaty-grey on the forehead and region of the eye ; sides of face
and ear-coverts sooty-grey ; throat purple, brighter on the
lower throat, the margin of which is abruptly defined on the
fore-neck. Across the middle of the throat a band of white
streaks, varied with eight streaks of black ; sides of lower

1 86

throat equally streaked with black and white, the black streaks
very broad and extending to the sides of the neck ; remainder
of under surface of body from the fore-neck downwards pure
white ; the sides of the fore-neck and chest narrowly streaked
with black and white; sides of the body glossy-black, the
longer under tail-coverts black with white tips; under wing-
coverts and axillaries white, the outer lower primary-coverts
externally ashy ; bills black ; feet blackish ; iris crimson.
Total length, 2 2*0 inches; culmen, 2^2; wing, ii'8; tail, 2'i ;
tarsus, 2*9.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 21-0
inches ; wing, 11*5.

Winter Plumage. — Similar to that of the Great Northern
Diver, but distinguished by the much smaller bill.

Range in Great Britain. — The Black-throated Diver breeds in
the north of Scotland and in the Orkneys, but is not known
from the Shetlands. It nests not uncommonly in Sutherland-
shire and Caithness, and breeds also in the lochs of Inverness-
shire, Perthshire, Ross, and Argyll, as well as in many of the
Outer Hebrides (cf. Saunders' Manual, p. 698). In winter
it visits all the coasts of the British Islands, but is rarer
than the other species of Diver, and mostly young birds are
procured.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species has a
circumpolar distribution during the breeding season, nesting
in the northern areas of both hemispheres, and migrating
south in winter to the inland waters of Europe and the
Mediterranean and in the east to Japan. At the last-named
season it also extends its range to the Northern United
States. It is not as yet known to occur in Greenland or
Iceland.

Habits. — During the breeding season the Black-throated
Diver frequents lochs and inland waters. In Norway it is by
no means uncommon on the lakes of the higher fjelds, but
the bird is not much in evidence during the day-time, though
in the very early morning they were seen at Alfheim (1896)
close to the house, swimming about in the lake, and making
a considerable cackling. In the evening, as the days began

RED-THROATED DIVER. 187

to close in at the end of July, the pair of birds which fre-
quented our lake, used to take long flights overhead, flying at
a tremendous rate with their long necks outstretched, and
looking, in the dim twilight, like large Ducks.

Mr. Ogilvie Grant writes to me : — " As far as I have
observed in Scotland, the habits of the Black-throated Diver
are quite similar to those of the Red-throated Diver, on
which I send you a note, but C. arcticus never breeds on
the small lochs. All the nests I have seen have been placed
on the sloping banks of islands in the larger lochs, where trout
are to be caught in plenty."

Nest. — When in the water itself, the nest is simply made of
dead grass and water-plants, but when on land there is no
nest at all, or simply a few pieces of fresh sedge.

Eggs. — Two in number. Ground-colour clay-brown or
olive-brown, sometimes light or very dark chocolate brown.
The black spots are scattered over the whole surface, and are
equally distributed, the underlying spots being black or greyish-
black, and scarcely to be distinguished from the overlying
ones. The dimensions of the eggs — axis, 3*2-3*5 inches;
diam., i '9-2*2 — overlap those of the Great Northern Diver, so
that large eggs of C. arcticus cannot be distinguished from
small ones of C. glatialts. Too much care, therefore, cannot
be taken in their identification.

IV. THE RED-THROATED DIVER. COLYMBUS SEPTENTRIONALIS.

Colymbus septentrionalis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 220 (1766);
Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 301 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur.
viii. p. 621, pi. 628 (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B.
p. 202 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv.
p. 112 (1884) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 412 (1885) ;
Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 699 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig.
Brit. B. part xviii. (1891).

(Plate CXIV.)

Adult Male. — General colour above ashy-brown, with an oily
green gloss, the feathers rather blacker in the centre, and
sparsely spotted or edged with white, these spots less distinct

1 88 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

on the lower back, rump, and uppar tail-coverts, which are
almost uniform ; the back of the neck plentifully streaked
with white and black, the green gloss on the latter being very
distinct ; wing-coverts brown, rather more distinctly edged
and spotted with white; quills and tail blackish; crown of
head and neck grey, obscurely mottled with dusky stripes on
the former ; the nape and hind-neck very distinctly streaked
with black and white ; sides of face, throat, and sides of neck
clear slaty-grey, with a long triangular patch of vinous chestnut
reaching from the lower throat to the fore-neck ; remainder
of under surface of body white ; the upper fore-neck and sides
of chest streaked with black; sides of the body blackish,
slightly spotted with white ; the lower flanks and thighs sooty
brown ; under tail-coverts sooty-brown with white tips ; under
wing-coverts and axillaries white, the latter with dark, shaft
markings ; bill black ; legs and feet greenish black ; iris
hazel. Total length, 23*5 inches; oilmen, 2*1; wing, 10*9;
tail, i '8 ; tarsus, 2*65.

Adult Female. — Similar in plumage to the male. Total length,
2 1 '5 inches; wing, 10*8.

Winter Plumage. — Slaty-grey above, profusely speckled with
white in the form of twin spots on the feathers, which
are much smaller on the mantle, lower back, rump, and
upper tail-coverts ; the head and neck greyer and thickly
streaked with narrow lines of dull white ; lores, sides of face,
and under surface of body white, mottled with black centres
to the feathers on the sides of the fore-neck and chest ; the
sides of the body and flanks slaty-black, mottled and edged
with white ; under wing-coverts and axillaries white, with
dusky brown centres along the latter; the lower primary
coverts externally ashy.

Young Birds in Winter Plumage. — May generally be distinguished
by a few dusky freckled edges to the feathers of the lower
throat and sides of neck.

Nestling. — Covered with sooty-brown down, paler on the
under-surface, which becomes white as the bird grows older.

Characters. — The very different summer plumage distinguishes
the Red-throated from the Blue-throated Diver in the breeding

RED-THROATED DIVER. 189

season. The speckled upper surface of the body and the
dusky streaks on the axillaries distinguish C. septentrionalis in
winter.

Range in Great Britain. — This species breeds in Scotland from
Argyleshire northwards, as well as in the Hebrides and the
Orkney and Shetland Isles. " In Ireland," says Mr. Ussher,
" one or two pairs have been discovered to breed on mountain
lakes in Donegal, but as their eggs are regularly taken for
collectors, the birds, if not so already, will soon be driven
away. A pair may have bred in Sligo (Zool. 1890, p. 352)."
In winter the Red-throated Diver is found on all the coasts of
Great Britain, and not only ascends estuaries, but is sometimes
observed far inland.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species has a
circumpolar distribution during the breeding season, and has
been found as far north as 82° N. lat. In winter it visits the
Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas, and in Eastern Asia
is known to occur in Japan, China, and Formosa. In America
it migrates in winter across nearly the whole of the United
States.

Habits. — I am indebted to my friend, Mr. W. R. Ogilvie
Grant, for the following interesting note on the species : —
" In the north of Scotland I have, on many occasions, had
opportunities of watching the breeding habits of the Red-
throated Diver, and in May of 1896 I spent several whole days in
observing the behaviour of a pair who had a nest with two
partially incubated eggs on the edge of a small loch. This
species almost in variably selects the small desolate lochs,
often mere pools, situated in the more lonely and deserted
parts, for purposes of nidification. In the north of Suther-
land, where the country is a mass of lochs of every size and
shape, there is much ground eminently suited to the habits
of this Diver, but for some reason only a few scattered pairs
avail themselves of this fine tract of country. The two eggs
are always placed close to the water's edge, either on the
margin of the loch, or on some tiny islet where the bank rises
at a very gentle slope above the surface of the water. These
birds are so curiously constructed — the legs being placed so
far back on the long boat-shaped body — that, though admirably

1 90 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

adapted for an aquatic life, they are apparently incapable of
standing upright on land. When leaving the water to gain
the nest, the bird lies on its belly, and slowly pushes itself up
the gently-sloping peat or turf bank by using its legs alternately.
Generally there are two distinct short ' runs ' leading from the
nest to the water, doubtless made by the bodies of the birds
being dragged over the soft, wet ground as they change places
during the period of incubation. The nest is merely a slight
hollow in the wet bank pressed down by the body of the bird,
sometimes imperfectly lined with a few bits of dead grass. On
one occasion, being anxious, if possible, to secure the parent
birds without shooting them, two carefully concealed gins were
placed under the water just at the end of the * runs,' so that it
seemed an absolute certainty that the sitting bird must be
caught by the legs either in going to or leaving the nest. This
plan, however, utterly failed. Being hidden a couple of
hundred yards off, we watched the female bird (for it was her
turn on the nest) through the glass. Three times she settled
herself comfortably on the eggs, and as many times we
frightened her off. But on each occasion she passed over the
traps without touching them, though the depth of water could
not have been more than two inches. On leaving the nest
the parent bird glides gracefully and quietly into the water,
and, if danger has been sighted, almost instantly dives, with
scarcely a ripple, re-appearing at a considerable distance from
the nest. If the cause of uneasiness is near at hand, the body
is sunk in the water till little more than the head and neck
are visible, and it may easily be imagined that in rough water
the birds are most difficult to see, even with the help of
the glass.

"When unconscious of danger, the Divers float and dive and
preen themselves much like Ducks, often raising themselves to
semi-erect positions in the water, and flapping their wings.
Some of the attitudes assumed by them when dressing their
feathers are very curious. When preening the feathers of the
sides and flanks, the birds turn half over, shewing the whole of
the white sides of the breast and belly, and when sorting the
feathers of the breast, they turn right over on their backs and
float.

" This species differs from the Black- throated Diver in one

RED-THROATED DIVER. 19 1

particular, for it seldom, if ever, procures its food in the small
lochs where it breeds.

"As a rule these pools are devoid of trout, and consequently,
though one of the birds may frequently be seen swimming
about while the other is engaged in hatching the eggs, all the
fish are procured in the large lochs, which are sometimes a
considerable distance away. Like the rest of its kind, the
Red-throated Diver cannot rise very quickly from the water,
but flaps along the surface for some distance before it gains
sufficient impetus to be able to fly. When once on the wing
and well under weigh, it travels at a great pace, the flight being
very much like that of a duck. If disturbed from their nest the
birds circle for some time high over the loch, the male uttering
his hoarse cry, kork, kork, kork, kork, as he passes overhead, the
sound reminding one somewhat of that of an old cock Grouse.

"It is marvellous how easily Divers may be overlooked on
the water, especially when the surface is rough. I have often
glassed a lock carefully from a distance of about a quarter of a
mile, and been able to make out nothing, but on a nearer
approach have found it to be tenanted by a pair of Divers.
The keen vision of these birds evidently enables them to sight
any suspicious object at a considerable distance, and we proved
this to our satisfaction in the summer of '96. A hen sitting
on her nest at a distance of several hundred yards, instantly
detected an incautious movement of the top of my head,
which was the only part of my body visible.

"It may be worth while to add that a thoroughly trust-
worthy keeper in Sutherland assures me that a pair of Red-
throated Divers, which we had watched together in the early
summer of 1896, eventually bred among the heather at a con-
venient distance from the nearest pool. The shells of the two
eggs were not found by him until the young birds had hatched
off and were seen swimming, with the parents, in the loch hard
by. There is every reason to believe this keeper's story, for he
has known these Divers and their ways all his life, and had
been trying hard to find the nest of this particular pair. If
these birds really bred on land, and I have no reason to doubt
the fact, the question is, How did they manage to alight on
the ground, and, more wonderful still, when once there, how
did they manage to get on the wing ? "

192 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Nest. — Generally none, the eggs being laid upon the bare
ground. Occasionally a slight foundation of dead sedge, or a
little moss, is observable.

Eggs. — Two in number. Ground-colour dark olive, or dark
chocolate-brown, the latter sometimes so deep in tint that
the spots are scarcely discernible. Sometimes the eggs are
covered all over with small black dots, in other instances the
spots are larger and almost form blotches. On one egg in the
British Museum there is a large blotch of brown. The under-
lying spots are blackish, or greyish-black, and are about as
distinct as the overlying ones. Axis 2-6-3-05 inches, diam.
1-7-1-9.

THE GREBES. ORDER PODICIPEDIDIFORMES.

The Grebes have the same remarkable projection of the cne-
mial process of the tibia as the Divers, and the same form of the
posterior process of the ilium described under the heading of the
last-mentioned birds. The palate is schizognathous, and the
cervical vertebrae are seventeen to twenty-one in number : the
anchylosed sacral vertebrae are preceded by a free vertebra, in
front of which are four anchylosed dorsal vertebrae ; the median
xiphoid process of the sternum is abruptly truncated, so that
the lateral processes extend behind it. The spinal feather
tract is not defined on the neck, and the ambiens and femoro-
caudal muscles are wanting,

The bill is long and pointed, and resembles that of the Divers,
from which the Grebes are at once distinguished by their lobed
toes, and by their obsolete tail, which is not visible.

THE TIPPETED GREBES. GENUS LOPH^THYIA.
Lophaithyia, Kaup. Nat. Syst. p. 72 (1829).

Type, L. cristata (Linn.).

Although I cannot follow the conclusions of my American
colleagues in their determination of the generic names of
Colymbus for the Grebes, and Urinator for the Divers, I must
admit that their conclusion that the Little Grebe (Podicipes
minor, auct.), must be considered to be the type of the genus
Podicipes^ seems to me to be indubitable.

GREBES.

193

The genus Podiceps (potius Podicipes], was founded by
Latham, in 1790, and there is nothing in his characters to
indicate any individual species as the type of his genus. The
lobed feet, which he recognises as a character, are peculiar to
all Grebes, and therefore the type of the genus can only be
assured by elimination. The history of Latham's genus can,
therefore, be traced as follows : —

LATHAM, 1790.

Lophaithyia, Kaup, 1829 ...Podiceps cristatus.

„ cayanus (ex Bodd. PI.

Ent. 404, fig. i).
Proctopus, Kaup, 1829 ... „ auritus (nee Linn.) =

P. nigricollis, Brehm.

obscurus } „ ..

= P. auritus.
cornutus > T .

Linn,
caspicus J

rubricollis — P. griseigena,

Bodd.
thomensis (ex Briss. Orn.

vi. p. 58).
minor,
dominicus.

hebridicus (—P. minor,
supra).

JDytes, Kaup, 1829 ...
Podethyta, Kaup, 1829

Podiceps, Kaup, 1829
Podilymbus, Less, 1831

carolinensis. 1
ludovicianus. J

Kaup, in 1829, split up the genus Podidpes, and fixed
P. minor as the type, dividing the other Grebes under separate
generic headings. I do not at present see any appeal from his
decision, much as I regret the necessity of having to adopt his
name Lophcethyia for the larger European species.

As with the Divers, the habits of one Grebe are very like those
of another, and it is consequently difficult to say anything
that is new about their mode of life. They are all but cosmo-
politan in their range.

The genus Lophathyia is distinguished from the smaller
Grebes by the length of the bill, which is pointed, and measures
from the gape more than the length of the inner toe and claw.
'5 o

T94 AI.LKN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

I. THE GREAT CRESTED GREIiE. LOPH^ETHYIA CRISTATA.

Colymbus cri status, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 222(1766).
Podiceps eristotiis, Macgili. Brit. B. v.. p. 250 (1852); Dresser,

B. Kur. viii. p. 629, pi. 629 (1879) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B.

p. 202 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. YarrelFs Brit. B. iv. p. 1 1 7

(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 445 (1885);

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xviii. (1891).
Podicipes cristatus, Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 701 (1889).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above black,
the feathers with obscure brown edges ; scapulars and wing-
coverts like the back, the lesser series forming a white band along
the carpal edge of the wing ; quills also bhck, the secondaries
white, the inner ones white, externally more or less brown, and
the innermost secondaries like the back ; tail blackish ; crown
of head black, expanding into a crest or tuft of long plumes on
each side of the nape; the lores white with a reddish tinge,
continued in a narrow line over the eye; the sides of the
crown, sides of face, fore-part of cheeks and ear-coverts,
white ; sides of hinder crown, hind part of ear-coverts and
cheeks, orange-chestnut, tipped with black, forming a very
wide frill, which nearly meets on the throat; entire under-
surface of body silky white, with a tinge of vinous chestnut on
the fore-neck and sides of body, the latter mottled with
blackish centres to the feathers ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white ; " bill red ; the bare space between the eye and
the base of the bill blackish ; legs and feet olive-green ; iris
crimson" (H. Seebohm). Total length, 20 inches ; culmen, 2*2 :
wing, 7*2; tail, i'6; tarsus, 2^4.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male, but slightly smaller.
Total length, 18 inches ; wing, 6*9.

Winter Plumage. — The colour of the back and of the under-
surface is much the same as in the summer plumage, but is a
little greyer, and there is no ruddy tinge on the sides of the
body, which are dusky brown. The wings are also the same
at both seasons of the year. The red tippet, however, is lost,
and the crown of the head is blackish, but the lateral crest is
indicated by elongated feathers extending to each side of the
nape ; lores and a streak over the eye, white. In a male

GREAT CRESTED GREBE. 195

procured by Colonel Feilden in the Yarmouth market on the
2nd of November, there are signs of rufous and black on the
sides of the ;neck. but whether these are remains of the last
breeding-plumage, or the commencement of the next one, is
difficult to determine. I believe them to be the last remains
of the breeding-dress.

Young in First Winter. — Resemble the winter plumage of the
adults, but have broad white and black streaks on the sides of
the head, one black line along the ear coverts and another
below the eye being especially distinct. Seebohm says that
these stripes on the head are moulted during the first autumn,
when the bird resembles the winter plumage of the adult, but
a specimen in the Hume collection, procured near Delhi on
the 1 4th of January, not only shows these stripes very
distinctly, but is also commencing to don the red tippet. The
ornamental plumes worn by the young birds during their first
spring are neither so large nor so bright as in old individuals.

Young. — Brown ; the head, neck, and under-surface of the
body white, with longitudinal black stripes on the upper parts
and on the breast, two transverse stripes across the bill, and a
grey patch on the sides of the head.

Characters. — The peculiar red tippet and white face, as well
as the red bill, distinguish this species in summer plumage, as
well as the larger size. L. griseigena, which might be con-
founded with it in winter plumage, is recognised by the want
of the white eye-stripe.

Range in Great Britain. — The Great Crested Grebe breeds in
some of the open meres of England, such as the Norfolk
Broads, and certain lakes in Leicestershire, Yorkshire, Shrop-
shire, Cheshire, Lancashire, and Breconshire. Its most
northerly breeding range in Great Britain appears to be in the
neighbourhood of the Clyde, where Mr. Robert Read has
discovered its nest. In winter it is shot on most of our
coasts. Mr. R. J. Ussher states that in Ireland it "breeds on
lakes, large and small, in Antrim, Down, Armagh, Monaghan,
Fermanagh, Longford, Westmeath, King's and Queen's
Counties, Clare, Galway, Roscommon, Sligo, and Leitrim.
Several pairs inhabit some of the larger lakes."

O 2

196 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is
found over the greater part of the Old World, breeding in
most countries of Europe and the Mediterranean basin, as far
north as the Baltic provinces, Denmark, and Southern Sweden,
across Siberia to Japan and China, and south to Australia and
New Zealand. It occurs in winter throughout the Indian
Peninsula in localities suited to its habits, but the African
Great Crested Grebe seems to be different, and is known as
Lophathyia infiiscata (Salvad). It has not been recorded from
any part of North America.

Habits. — Open waters are the principal localities affected by
this Grebe during the breeding season, when its nest may
be found far from the shore, a floating mass among the
reeds. When the nest is approached, the birds generally swim
away at a great rate, almost as fast as a boat can pursue them,
and, on the latter appearing to gain on them, they take refuge
in diving, seldom taking wing, though when called upon they
are birds of strong flight, and fly with necks outstretched like
a duck or a diver. Seebohm writes : — " Its food is entirely
procured in the water, and consists of water-beetles and other
aquatic insects, small fish, small frogs and molluscs. The
seeds and tender shoots of aquatic plants are also often found
in its stomach ; but instead of small stones or gravel, numbers
of its own feathers, plucked from the ventral region, are mixed
with its food. It is not known that this curious habit, which
is more or less common to all the Grebes, is intended to assist
digestion, but it has been remarked by many ornithologists in
widely different localities — Nauman (father and son), Meves
(father and son), Yarrell, Thompson, Macgillivray, &c. Its
ordinary alarm-note is a loud, clear kek, kek ; but at the pairing-
time another note, the call-note, may be heard — a loud,
grating, guttural sound, like the French word croix.

"The Great Crested Grebe is decidedly a gregarious bird.
When I was stopping at Stolp, in Pomerania, in 1882, Dr.
Holland was kind enough to pilot me to the Lantow See,
a lake about four square miles in extent, and surrounded on
three sides by pine forests. At one end of the lake was a
large bed of reeds, and as we rowed towards it we saw quite a
little fleet of Great Crested Grebes sail out. It was a most

GREAT CRESTED GREBE. 197

beautiful sight ; there may have been thirty or forty of them.
Every now and then one or two dived out of sight; occasionally
a pair or two took wing ; and by-and-by the rest flew away
together, and, wheeling round, settled in the middle of the
lake. Although it was the 3oth of May the reeds had not
attained a fourth of their ultimate height, and the Grebes had
only just begun to breed. Many nests were empty, many
contained only a single egg, and none of them contained more
than two. Although the nests were exposed to the bird's-eye
view of a passing Crow, on account of the smallness of the
reeds, none of the eggs were covered.

" A week afterwards I found a very large colony of Great
Crested Grebes on the Garda See, a lake close to the sea,
about sixty miles west of the Gulf of Danzig. They were
breeding in an immense reed-bed, and as our boat neared
their nesting-grounds we saw the Grebes sailing majestically,
not to say indignantly, out of the side of the reed-bed. As
soon as we reached the place I put on my waders and was
soon in a dense forest of reeds, where it was very easy to lose
one's way. The water was above my knees, and the reeds
were far above my head. After stopping to take the nest of a
Great Sedge- Warbler with four eggs, I soon found the colony
of Grebes. There were dozens of nests, but never very close
to each other, and I soon filled my handkerchief with eggs.
It was the 5th of June, and only about half the nests contained
the full complement of eggs. The birds had evidently seen us
long before we approached, and had had ample time to retreat
with dignity. In the nests which contained three or four eggs,
they were warm and covered with damp moss ; but in those
containing only one or two they were uncovered and cold.
This applied equally to the nests on the outskirts of the reeds,
where the eggs could be seen by a passing Crow, and to those
hidden in the depths of the reed-bed. The natural inference is
that the eggs are not covered until the female begins to sit,
and that the object of covering them is not protective, at least
in the technical sense in which that word is used. The Grebes
cover their eggs, not to conceal them from enemies, but to
protect them from cold. In the recesses of a dense reed-
bed white eggs are as inconspicuous as in a hole in a tree or
in a bank."

198 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Nest. — A floating mass of weeds. The one discovered by
Mr. Robert Read in Renfrewshire, in 1889, was built, he tells
me, " amongst the rank herbage of a floating island, although
the nest was not actually in the water like that of a Little
Grebe. It contained three eggs, and, though they were about
a week incubated, they were not covered up."

Eggs. — Three or four in number. Greenish- white, with a
chalky covering, but as incubation proceeds they become
stained, through contact with the decomposing weeds of which
the nest is made, an ochreous or brown colour. Axis, 2 '1-2 '45
inches; diam., 1-4-1-55.

II. THE RED-NECKED GREBE. LOPH^ETHYIA GRISEIGENA.

Colymbus griseigena, Bodd. Tabl. PI. Enl. p. 55 (1783).
Podiceps rubricollis, Lath.; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 259 (1852);

Seebohm, Hist. Brit B. iii. p. 459 (1885).
Podiceps griseigena, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 639, pi. 630

(1878); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 203 (1883); Saunders,

ed. Yarrell's Brit B. iv. p. 124 (1884) ; Lilford, Col. Fig.

Brit. B. part xxvi. (1893).
Podidpes griseigena^ Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 703 (1889).

Adult. — General colour above black, with a few remains of
brown edgings to some of the feathers ; wings blackish, with
the lesser series white along the carpal bend of the wing;
primaries black, the secondaries pure white, the innermost being
blackish like the back ; tail black ; crown of head and hind-
neck glossy-black, with a greenish gloss, the feathers on the
hinder crown developed into a hood ; sides of face, ear-coverts,
and throat light slaty-grey, with a streak of white running from
the angle of the mouth below the eye, above the ear-coverts
and skirting the hinder edge of the latter, where the white
broadens, but does not cross the throat ; lower throat, sides of
neck, and entire fore-neck, rich chestnut ; remainder of under
surface of body silky white, the sides of the body chestnut,
with dusky blackish tips to the feathers ; vent brownish ; under
wing-coverts and axillaries, pure white ; " bill black, but the
lower mandible and the sides of the upper mandible yellow at
the base ; bare space between the eyes and the base of the bill

RED-NECKED GREBE. 199

reddish-black ; legs and feet dull green, darkest on the joints ;
iris, brownish-red" (Seebohm). Total length, 15-5 inches;
culmen, 1-4; wing, 6-3; tail, 1*3; tarsus, 1-9.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but slightly smaller.
Total length, 15 inches; wing, 6'o.

Winter Plumage. — Differs in the want of all the ornamental
plumes, the upper surface being blackish, with browner edges
to the feathers; crown of head and neck blackish-brown, as
also the lores and the sides of the crown ; sides of face and
under surface of body white, with the neck ruddy-brown, as
well as the sides of the upper breast ; the sides of the body
and flanks spotted with dusky-brown.

Young in Down. — Upper parts dark brown, striped with white
on the head and neck, and with pale-brown on the back ; the
under parts white, striped and spotted on the throat with dark
brown (Seebohm).

Characters. — Adult birds are recognised from the three suc-
ceeding species by their larger size. The species cannot be
confounded with L. cristata in summer plumage, as it has the
face and throat grey without any rufous tippet.

In winter dress the two species are very much alike, but the
want of the white lores and eyebrow distinguishes L. griseigena
in winter and immature plumage from the corresponding stages
of L. cristata.

Range in Great Britain. — The Red-necked Grebe is principally
a winter visitor to our eastern coasts, and is rarely found on the
western side of England and Scotland, and has only occurred
some half-dozen times in Ireland. It is likewise seen on
the southern shores of England, but more sparingly than on
the eastern ones, though it is said to be not unfrequently met
with in Cornwall.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species breeds
throughout Russia from Archangel to the Caspian and Black
Seas, as far east as Turkestan, and westwards in the Baltic and
Northern Germany to the South of Norway. To other parts of
Europe it is a migrant, but Colonel Irby has seen young speci-
mens from Marocco, and believes that they were reared in that
country. In North America L. griseigena is replaced by a

2oo ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

slightly larger form, Z. holboelli, which ranges from Greenland
westwards, and occurs in Eastern Siberia, varying south in
winter to Japan and even reaching Turkestan, according to
Severtzoff. This form is very doubtfully distinct from Z.
griseigena. It has a wing of 7 '2-8*2 inches, whereas the wing
of Z. griseigena varies from 6*0-7*3 inches ; thus it will be seen
that the dimensions of the wing in these two forms overlap.

Habits. — Seebohm, who had opportunities of studying this
species in its native habits, writes : — " In North Germany it is
a very common bird, arriving late in March or early in April,
and leaving again in October. It is almost exclusively an in-
habitant of lakes and ponds, where sedge or reeds abound.
On small ponds solitary pairs are found, but on the larger
lakes great numbers breed together, though the nests are
scattered up and down amongst the reeds, and not clustered
together in a colony. The nests are sometimes placed in the
recesses of the thick reed-beds, but quite as often they can be
seen at a considerable distance in localities where the reeds are
only half-grown and thinly sprinkled over the water. The nest
is always floating, so that it can rise or fall with the water, and
is considerably less than that of the Coot. It is somewhat
carelessly made of reeds and decayed water-plants, and near
each nest is a sort of sham nest, or foundation of a nest,
merely a few reeds laid together, which is used as a roosting-
place for the parent which, for the time being, is not occupied
with the incubation of the eggs. Fresh eggs may be obtained
during the first half of May. When the third egg is laid the
bird begins to sit ; but it is ever on the look-out for danger,
and long before the nest can be discovered, the approach of an
intruder has been observed, the eggs have been carefully
covered with black weeds to keep them warm, and the b ire-
may be seen apparently feeding at a distance, looking as inno-
cent and unconscious as possible."

Nest. — Made, like those of other Grebes, of reeds and de-
cayed water-plants.

Eggs. — Three or four in number. Greenish- white, covered
with a chalky substance when fresh, but becoming discoloured
to a buff or brown shade. Axis 1*85-2*15 inches, diameter
t'3-1'4-

\

SLAVONIAN GREBE. 2OI

THE HORNED GREBES. GENUS BYTES.
Dytes, Kaup. Natiirl. Syst. p. 49 (1829).

Type D. auritus (Linn.).

The Horned Grebes have the bill shorter than in the Great
Crested Grebes, the length of the bill from the gape being
less than that of the inner toe and claw. The form of
the bill, too, is stouter and rather more curved at the tip. The
tippet, too, is more dense and entirely black, and extends over
the entire throat, the feathers of which are full, the black tippet
being surmounted by a band of crested plumes along the
sides of the crown from the eye, forming a crest.

I. THE SLAVONIAN GREBE. BYTES AURITUS.

Colymbus auritus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 222(1766).

Podiceps cornutus, Gm. ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 264 (1852);

Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 462 (1885).
Podiceps auritus, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 645, pi. 631 (1879);

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 203 (1883); Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 128 (1884); Lilford, Col. Fig.

Brit. B. part xxvii. (1893).
Podidpes auritus, Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 705 (1889).

(Plate CAT.)

Adult Male. — General colour above black, slightly varied with
greyish edges to the feathers ; wing-coverts ashy-brown, as also
the quills, the primaries with dusky blackish tips, the second-
aries pure white, the innermost secondaries black like the
back ; tail black ; crown of head black, the hind-neck brown-
ish black ; the sides of the face and upper throat black, the
feathers on the posterior part of the face being very long, and
forming a frill round the back of the head, which is further
ornamented by a broad superciliary band of chestnut feathers,
rather paler and more tawny above the eye, this superciliary
band produced backwards on the sides of the nape so as to
form a dense tuft of horn-like plumes ; the lower throat, fore-
neck, as well as the sides of the body, deep vinous chestnut,
the feathers of the latter slightly varied with dusky blackish
tips, the feathers near the vent also dusky brown ; remainder
of under surface of body silky white ; under wing-coverts and

202 ALLEN'S NATURALISES LIBRARY.

axillaries pure white; "bill black, crimson at the tip and at
the base of the under mandible ; bare space between the eyes
and the base of the bill crimson ; legs and feet olive-green,
palest on the webs ; iris crimson " (Seebohm). Total length,
i2'o inches; culmen, 0^9; wing, 5*5 ; tail, 1*6; tarsus, 1*8.

Mr. E. W. Nelson says that specimens obtained by him near
Nulato, in Alaska, had the eyes of the following brilliant
colours : — " The ball of the eye white ; a bright scarlet areola
around the outer edge of the iris, which latter is denned by a
white line. The iris proper is bright crimson, with its inner
edge brilliant white shaded with pink. The pupil consists of
a central black spot, with a broad ring of dark purple."

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, u'5
inches ; wing, 5 '6.

Winter Plumage. — General colour above blackish, slightly
shaded with grey on the edges of the feathers ; the head devoid
of ornamental plumes ; crown and neck black, the feathers of
the former a little full towards the nape ; lores and sides of
crown to the line of the eye black ; throat white, like the side
of the face, and extending on to the sides of the neck ; re-
mainder of under surface of body silky-white, with a little
dusky brown on the lower throat below the line of the tippet,
which is indicated by the white feathers of the throat and face ;
sides of neck blackish-brown ; sides of body mottled with
greyish-black tips to the feathers; "bill dark horny, pinkish
towards the base, paler at the tip ; tarsi and feet pearly-grey,
outer sides of tarsi, outer toe, and joints blackish ; iris blood-
red " ( W. R. Ogilvie Grant)*

Young Birds in Winter. — Resemble the adults, but are much
browner, especially on the flanks and lower abdomen ; sides
of face dusky-white, not pure white as in the adults ; feathers
under the eyes and lores black ; feet, in dried skin, with a good
deal of yellow about the toes.

Characters.— The old birds are distinguished from the other
British Grebes by the black head and tippet, the tawny chestnut
bands forming the crest on each side of the crown, and the
deep chestnut throat and fore-neck. In winter the resem-

* On the change; of plumage in this species, cf. J. G. Millais, Ibis,
1896, pp. 454-457-

SLAVONIAN GREBE 203

blance between D. auritus and P. nigricollis is closer, but the
upturned bill of the latter and the white on the inner primaries
will almost distinguish it.

Range in Great Britain. — This Grebe is a winter visitor to Great
Britain, occurring on both east and west coasts of Scotland,
but in England and Ireland being much more seldom met with
on the west and south. On the east coast of England it is a
regular winter visitor.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Slavonian or Horned
Grebe nests throughout Northern Europe and Siberia, as well
as in Iceland. It also occurs throughout North America,
where it breeds from the United States northward. It nests
sparingly in Denmark, and ranges south over Europe in winter,
when it visits the Mediterranean, while at the latter season it
has been known to reach the Bermudas.

Habits. — The late Mr. Proctor, who visited Iceland in 1837,
has given the following account of the species : — " This bird
frequents the fresh waters, and nests amidst the reeds and other
rank herbage. The young birds, when first hatched, are
covered with grey-coloured down. No sooner does the old
bird perceive danger from any intruders than she instantly
dives and emerges at thirty or forty yards distance. One day
during my sojourn in Iceland, having seen one of these birds
dive from the nest, I placed myself with my gun at my
shoulder, waiting for its reappearance. As soon as it emerged,
I fired and killed it, and was surprised to see two young ones,
which it seems had been concealed beneath the wings of the
parent bird, drop upon the water. I afterwards shot several
other birds of this species, all of which dived with their young
under their wings. The young birds were placed with their
heads towards the tail, and their bills resting on the back of
the parent bird."

Seebohm relates that the well-known naturalist, Dr. Kriiper,
once found a nest, the eggs of which were highly incubated, and
listened to the cries of the female on the nest, while the male
attempted to frighten him away by suddenly rising out of the
water in front of him, splashing with his feet in the water, and
ioining his cries to those of its mate. So persistent was it

204 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

that Kriiper returned to the shore for his butterfly-net, and
when the performance was repeated, caught the bird in it.

Nest. — Described by Proctor as large, floating on the surface
of the water, with which it rises and falls ; it is composed of a
mass of reeds and other aquatic plants. Dr. Kriiper states that
he has occasionally found the nest on a tussock of grass in the
water, and once on a stone.

Eggs. — From two to four in number, and sometimes, accord-
ing to Seebohm, five. They are not to be distinguished from
those of the Black-necked Grebe, and are of a greenish-white
colour with the usual chalky covering. Axis, 1-65-1-95 inch;
diam., i'2-i'35.

THE EARED GREBES. GENUS PROCTOPUS.

ProctopuS) Kaup. Natiirl. Syst. p. 49 (1829).

Type, P. nigricollis (C. L. Brehm).

The shape of the bill, which is upturned at the end, instead
of being straight as in Dytes, distinguished the genus JProctopus
from the last-named genus. The bill is, moreover, depressed
at the base, being wider than it is deep ; whereas in Dytes the
contrary is the case, and the bill is deeper than it is wide at the
base. The ornamental tufts on the head also are hairy in
appearance rather than plumose, and spring from the region of
the ear-coverts.

I. THE BLACK-NECKED GREBE. PROCTOPUS NIGRICOLLIS.

Podiceps nigricollis, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 693 (1831) ;
Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 651, pi. 632 (1878); B. O. U.
List Brit. B. p. 204 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit
B. iv. p. 133 (1884) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 465
(1885) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxv. (1893).
Podiceps auritus, Gm. (nee Linn.); Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 270

(1852).
Podicipes nigricollis^ Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 707 (1889).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above black,
with a slaty gloss ; wing-coverts like the back ; quills sooty-
black, with darker ends to the primaries, the inner primaries

BLACK-NECKED GREBE. 205

with white on the inner webs, secondaries entirely white,
except the innermost, which are like the back ; tail black ;
head and neck black, the crown having a frill composed of
elongated feathers ; the ear-coverts chestnut and composed of
elongated plumes, which are surmounted by a superciliary tuft
of similar elongated feathers of a golden straw-colour, this tuft
starting from the eye; cheeks and entire throat black;
remainder of under surface, from the fore-neck downwards,
silvery white ; the sides of the body slightly mottled with
blackish markings, and having also chestnut-tipped feathers,
especially developed on the sides of the rump ; under wing-
coverts and axillaries white ; " bill black ; bare space between
the eye and the base of the bill reddish-black ; legs and feet
olive-green, paler on the webs ; iris crimson " (Seebohm).
Total length, 12*0 inches ; oilmen, 0-95 ; wing, 5-0 ; tail, 1*35 ;
tarsus, 17.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 1 1 inches ;
wing, 5-1.

Winter Plumage. — Blackish above, with slightly greyer edges
to the feathers ; head and neck blackish, as well as the lores and
feathers bdow and behind the eye ; sides of face, ear-coverts,
and under surface of body silky white, the sides of the body
mottled with ashy-blackish ends to the feathers ; sides of upper
neck white ; sides of lower neck dusky-brown, meeting across
the fore-neck and forming a collar ; wings dark brown, the
secondaries white, with the exception of the innermost, which
are white only on the inner web, the last ones being like the
back ; the inner primaries white along the inner web.

Characters. — In breeding plumage the Black-necked Grebe is
distinguished by the black fore-neck and chest, which resemble
the throat, though sometimes the chest shows a little rufous,
but never anything like the entirely chestnut chest of D. auritus.
The tuft of crest-feathers behind the eye is darker chestnut
and more hairy in texture. In winter plumage the up-turned
shape of the bill and the white on the inner primaries dis-
tinguish P. ntgricollis, and the same characters rnay be
employed for the determination of immature birds.

Range in Great Britain. — The present species is a bird of
Southern Europe, and occurs more frequently in spring and

206 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

summer, being of rare occurrence in autumn and winter. It
is, therefore, more frequently met with on the south coast of
England, and on the east, while it is believed to have bred in
Norfolk, as the late E. T. Booth had an adult bird and two
nestlings brought to him by a marshman some years ago. On
the west coast Of England, as well as in Scotland and Ireland,
the records of the capture of the species are less numerous.

Range outside the British Islands. — This species is an inhabitant
of Central and Southern Europe, nesting abundantly in most
of the countries of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and
being found in great numbers in Northern Africa. It appears
to nest in Abyssinia, and again in Southern Africa, both in
the Cape Colony and the Transvaal. It has been said to
breed in Denmark, and to have wandered as far north as
Iceland. In Asia it is met with over the temperate regions to
Korea and Japan, and in winter it is found in China, and has
also been procured by Mr. A. O. Hume on the Mekran coast
in February.

Habits. — The Black-necked Grebe is usually considered to
be a much shyer bird than the Slavonian Grebe, and seeks
safety in diving rather than by flight. Naumann describes its
note as a high soft, but far-sounding, beeb, which, in the pairing
season, is rapidly repeated, and becomes a trill bidder, vidder,
vidder, vidder. The food and habits of this Grebe otherwise
resemble those of the other members of the family.

Nest. — Made of reeds and rotten water-plants ; but, according
to Canon Tristram, they are in Algeria sometimes raised on
artificial islets, frequently almost touching each other, and
sometimes piled on stout foundations rising from more than a
yard under water. In Denmark, Mr. Benzon says that the
nests were made chiefly of moss, with which the female covers
up her eggs on leaving them. Mr. Thomas Ayres, who has
found this Grebe breeding in the Transvaal in December, says
that "the nest is found in shallow lagoons, in two or three feet
of water, among the rushes. The nests, which float on the
water, are formed of a mass of rushes about a foot in diameter,
and two or three inches out of the water. On leaving the
nest, the old bird always carefully covers the eggs with rushes,
and any person unacquainted with this habit would pass the

LITTLE GREBE. 207

nest as an unsightly heap of rotten wood. The eggs are often
much discoloured from being immersed in water; but this
does not appear in any way to injure them, or to prevent them
from hatching in the usual way."

Eggs. — Three to five in number. Greenish- white in colour,
with more or less of a chalky covering. Axis, i '65-1 -95 inches ;
diam., 1-15-1*3.

THE LITTLE GREBES. GENUS PODICIPES.

Podiceps, Kaup, Nattirl. Syst. p. 49 (1829); ex Lath. Ind. Orn.
ii. p. 780 (1790).

Type, P.fluviatilis (Tunst.).

In this genus the tarsus is shorter than the middle toe and
claw. All the species are of small size, and the distribution of
this genus is all but cosmopolitan.

I. THE LITTLE GREBE. PODICIPES FLUVIATILIS.

Colymbus fluviatilis, Tunstall, Orn. Brit. p. 3 (1771).
Sylbeocyclus europceus, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 276 (1852).
Podiceps fluviatilis, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 659, pi. 633 (1880);

Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 137 (1884).
Tachybaptes fluviatilis, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 204 (1883).
Podiceps minor, Briss. ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 468

(1885); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xx. (1891).
Podiapes fluviatilis, Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 709 (1889).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above sooty
black, with a slight greenish gloss. The lower back and rump
somewhat browner ; wing-coverts and quills sooty brown ; the
secondaries with a good deal of white on them, sometimes
confined to the base or to the inner web, but sometimes also
occupying the whole of the latter, and even extending over the
greater part of the outer web as well ; tail rudimentary, con-
sisting of a tuft of soft black feathers ; crown of head and hind
neck sooty-black like the back, but more distinctly washed
with green ; lores, region of the eye, and sides of face sooty-
black, including the fore-part of the ear-coverts and cheeks ; the

2o8 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

hinder part of the latter, as well as the sides of the hinder
crown and entire sides of the neck, deep chestnut, extending
across the lower throat ; the chin and upper throat black, with
an indication of a narrow blackish line of feathers down the
chestnut portion of the throat ; fore-neck, breast, and sides of
body black ; the centre of the breast and abdomen blackish,
but overlaid with a silvery white gloss ; the lower flanks and a
patch on each side of the rump, cinnamon rufous, many of the
feathers tipped and black ; axillaries and under wing-coverts,
white ; quills below ashy, whitish at the base ; bill black, with
the tip yellowish, and the gape conspicuously greenish-yellow ;
bare spaces between the eye and the base of the bill blackish ;
legs and feet olive-green, paler on the webs ; iris hazel. Total
length, 8*5 inches ; culmen, ro ; wing, 4*0 ; tail, 1*2 ; tarsus, 1*3.

Adult Female in Breeding Plumage. — Resembles the male. Total
length, 8-0 inches; wing, 3-9.

Winter Plumage. — General colour above brown, the wings a
little darker and more blackish, with the inner webs of the
secondaries entirely white ; crown of head and neck dark brown ;
lores and ear-coverts light brown, with a whity-brown streak
above the latter ; sides of neck and the lower throat reddish-
brown ; cheeks and throat white ; remainder of under surface
of body silky white ; the sides of the body rufous-brown, with
dusky centres to the feathers.

Nestling. — General colour brown, with longitudual black and
rufous streaks down the back, the head less distinctly striped ;
under surface of body dingy white, with black and rufous
streaks on the throat and sides of neck.

Young in first Winter. — Similar to the winter plumage of the
adult, but generally with dusky streaks on the sides of the face.

Range in Great Britain. — The Little Grebe is found every-
where in localities suited to its habits, though it is rarer towards
Scotland and the North generally. In Ireland, Mr. Ussher
says, it is reported from every county, and it breeds commonly
throughout the country, in suitable localities, on lakes, ponds,
and rivers.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is an
inhabitant of temperate Europe and Asia, and Japan. It does

LITTLE GREBE. 209

not range very far north in Europe, reaching to 62° in Scan-
dinavia, and it winters in the countries of the Mediterranean,
as there are specimens in the British Museum from Marocco,
Egypt, Palestine, and Asia Minor ; it doubtless also breeds in
these southern habitats. In China it is represented by an
allied form, Podicifes philippemis, wh;ch breeds in China, and
winters in the south in the Philippines, being replaced in the
Moluccas by Pcdicipes tricolor. In India a white-quilled
species takes its place, Podicipes albipennis, while the African
Little Grebe, Podicipfs capensis, is again distinct, and is
represented in Madagascar by Podiripes pelze.lni. In Australia
Podicipes gularis takes the place of P. fluviatilis, and in
America the latter species is represented by Podicipei
dominicus

Habits. — One of the most interesting accounts of the habits
of the Little Grebe is that contributed by Mr. Bryan Hook to
Seebohm's " History of British Birds": —

"On the 25th of March I found a Dabchick's nest on one of
our small ponds about a foot from the water's edge, partly
concealed by a tuft of heather on the bank above it. The pond
was at the bottom of a field where a man was ploughing, and
at the end of each furrow, as he passed the nest, the bird first
carefully covered her eggs, then slipped into the water without
the slightest splash, and remained concealed under the water
amongst the reeds close to the nest. A fortnight afterwards I
found the old bird very reluctant to move, and when, at last,
she did dive away, she left her eggs uncovered. Two days
later I found the old bird sitting in the nest with two young,
and all dived away on my approach, the young ones coming
up about five yards from the shore, where they floated motion-
less. I did not see the young birds again until a fortnight
later when I found them on the nest, wonderfully grown and
able to dive about 15 yards. Nearly a month later, on the
3oth of May, the two young birds were full grown, and whilst
one of the parents took charge of them, the other sat upon five
eggs in another nest in a similar situation on the other iide of
the pond. She was very restless, constantly getting off and
on the nest. At length she found me out, and after carefully
covering her eggs, slipped into the water behind the nest and

2IO ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

remained there until I came up. Four days later some of
the eggs were hatched. The birds slipped off the nest on my
approach, but remained among the rushes close by. I waited
a few minutes and then plainly heard the cheeping of a young
bird, so I drove away the parent, and immediately afterwards
the young ones were floating a little away from the shore. The
other parent bird had another young one further along the bank,
so I ran towards it, but the young one scrambled under the wing
of its parent, who dived away with it. The little one, however,
came to the surface about ten yards from the shore. The
young bird seemed able to dive unassisted about two yards.
Old and young use their legs like a frog, horizontally, striking
both at once, and bringing their feet together at the end of the
stroke. I have seen the old ones diving in clear water some,
distance, but they did not use their wings. I spent the fol-
lowing day watching the Dabchicks through a telescope. One
old bird was sitting on the nest wjiilst the other dived for food,
which she brought at intervals of about two minutes. When
she approached the nest the young birds put their heads out
from under the parent's wing, and took the food the other parent
brought. The moment her provision was disposed of, she was
off for more, always diving from place to place. The morsel,
when found, required a good deal of shaking before it was fit
to be given to the young birds, and when prepared, the parent
dived with it in her beak, appearing again at the edge of the
nest. Whilst I was watching her the bird on the nest caught
sight of me, carefully covered the eggs that were still un-
hatched, and slipped into the water. On going up to the nest
I found two of the young birds amongst the rushes on the
margin of the pond. I retired, and after watching a few
minutes, saw the old bird suddenly appear at the side of the
nest, after diving several times underneath it and swimming
once or twice round it. After fully two minutes of this
manoeuvring it landed on the nest and proceeded most care-
fully to remove the covering from the eggs and arrange it
round the sides of the nest ; then sitting upright for a moment
and shaking out her feathers, she settled her breast upon the
eggs. The other parent then came swimming up, and by its
puffy appearance I think it had the youngsters under its wings.
Seeing that all was going on well it probably deposited them

LITTLE GREBE. 211

in the nest, and then paddled gently off. An hour afterwards
I found it very busy collecting weed to add to the nest ; it
made several journeys for the purpose, diving for the weed
it used. After a time it brought some food, but finding the
young ones would not take it, though it tried all round the nest,
it ate it itself. On the next day both birds were hard at work
adding to their nest; a strong breeze was blowing, and the waves
would in a very short time have washed it away if it had not
constantly been added to. On one occasion that the eggs
were uncovered, I ran to the nest as fast as I could, but
one of the birds came back and covered the eggs in a moment.
Two eggs were still unhatched and one young bird was dead
in the nest. This brood was evidently a failure ; for eight
days afterwards, on the i3th of June, I found that a third
nest had been built near an island about fifteen yards from the
bank, and one of the birds was sitting upon it. Only on one
other occasion have I ever seen the eggs left uncovered, which
makes me think that the bird only covers her eggs when she
is driven from the nest. I once disturbed a Dabchick and her
young from the nest. They all dived away and disappeared in
different directions, and when the young birds came up the
parent swam alongside of them, and they scrambled under
her wings, which she held up for the purpose. She then
dived away, carrying with her the young birds, which might
have been two or three days old."

I can quite endorse Mr. Seebohm's opinion of the worth of
such observations as the above, especially in the case of such
a bird as the Little Grebe, whose habits are most difficult to
observe closely. I spent much time in studying the habits
of the present species in my younger days. The birds were
common in Hampshire at Avington, where my old friend,
Sir Edward Shelley, used to invite me to visit him every spring.
Not only were these Grebes abundant on the Itchen and its
adjacent water-meadows, but several pairs bred on the lakes
close to the house. They were always visible towards evening,
and as the sun set over the waters, their curious trilling chatter
was sure to be heard as they swam about near the mill-pool, or
disported themselves over the big lake. In May, when the
Ducks were nesting, and the surface of the water became
covered with the growing reeds, the latter were the favourite

p 2

212 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

refuge of the Grebes on the approach of danger, and their dark
breeding-plumage effectually harmonised with their surround-
ings, as they dived out of danger and re-appeared amidst the
shelter of the water-plants. The bright colour on the base of
the bill often proved the easiest mode of detecting them.

As a rule the nest was placed on the fringe of the reed-beds
skirting the lake, and the eggs, when first laid, were left exposed,
or were but scantily covered. One nest which I found, with
the full complement of eggs, was so thickly covered with wet
water-weeds and rushes, that the eggs had to be felt for
beneath it, and for some time I thought that the birds had
deserted them, as they were always cold, and showed no signs
of incubation, though day by day they became more and more
discoloured. The constant presence of a pair of birds, how-
ever, in the vicinity of this nest, led me to believe that it was
not deserted, and I more than once uncovered the eggs, only to
find the wet covering replaced on each occasion. Intent on
finding out whether the birds re-covered the eggs on leaving the
nest, I approached it cautiously many times, but the Grebes
appeared to have always detected my approach, and were
placidly swimming in the middle of the lake, as if such a thing
as a nest was the last thing in their minds. Once, however, I
managed to come down upon it unperceived, when one of the
parent birds flew away in a great fright, and no possible time
was allowed for it to cover the eggs. They were, nevertheless,
completely hidden, not by a few rushes, such as the bird could
scrape together in a hurry, but by a dense covering of wetted
and rotten weeds. I came to the conclusion that, in this
instance at least, the hatching of the eggs would be left to the
heat of the sun and the fermentation of the material of which
the nest was composed. That this takes place in other
countries has been affirmed by Mr. A. O. Hume and other
excellent observers.

The time which the Little Grebe can spend beneath the
surface is remarkable. I once drove one of these birds into a
ditch about five feet wide, ending in a cul-de-sac, and felt sure
that I should secure it. While standing on the bank, waiting
for the bird to appear, I was astonished to see it swimming
below me. Having evidently discovered that there was no
outlet at the end of the ditch, it turned beneath the water and

PIED-BILLED GREBE. 213

swam back to the river without reappearing till it was in the
middle of the stream. The bird must have covered at least a
hundred yards beneath the surface, and looked like a large frog
more than a bird. When fishing on the Thames, I have more
than once seen these birds swimming at a considerable depth
in the clear water below me, and have directed their onward
course with a punt-pole.

Nest. — A gruesome mass of wet reeds and water-plants, with
sometimes, in shallow water, a foundation of water- weeds
reaching to the bottom.

Eggs. — Four to six in number. Mr. Robert Read remarks :
— " The eggs of birds taken on the Thames, when newly laid,
are of a pure bluish-white, and become, later on, stained to a
deep dirty yellow, but they are never of such a deep brown as
the peat-stained eggs from some of the Scotch moorland
lochs." Axis, i -35-1 -5 5 inch ; diam. 0-95-1-1.

THE THICK-BILLED GREBES. GENUS PODILYMBUS.
Podilymbus, Less. Traitd, i. p. 595 (1831).

Type, P. podidpes (Linn. ).

This American genus differs from the other Grebes which
we have been considering, in having a remarkably stout bill,
its depth being more than hah" of the length of the culmen.

I. THE PIED-BILLED GREBE. PODILYMBUS PODICIPES.

Colymbus podidpes^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 223 (1766).
Podilymbus podiceps, Less. ; Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1881, p. 734,

Harting, Zool. 1881, p. 334; Saunders, Manual, p. 710,

note (1889).

Adult Male.— General colour above blackish brown ; the wing-
coverts rather lighter brown than the back ; quills light brown
with dusky tips to the primaries, the secondaries white for the
greater part of the inner web ; innermost secondaries like the
back ; tail dark brown ; crown of head and hind-neck blackish-
brown, as also the lores ; sides of face and ear-coverts ashy-
grey, with dusky centres to the feathers ; cheeks white with
dusky shaft-lines, extending down to the middle of the throat

2i4 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

and skirting the black chin and centre of the throat ; sides of
neck and fore-neck ashy-brown ; remainder of under surface
white, thickly mottled with blackish centres to the feathers ;
sides of lower back and rump dark brown, with a slight reddish
tinge, the feathers on the lower part of the abdomen darker
grey ; under wing-coverts and axillaries white : — " Bill milk-
white, crossed past the middle by a black band, the terminal
portion more bluish; eyelids white ; naked lores bluish; iris
rich dark brown, with an outer ring of ochraceous white, and
an inner thread-like ring of pure white ; tarsi and toes greenish
slate-black on the outer, and plumbeous on the inner side "
(ft. Ridgway). Total length, 13*0 inches; culmen, i'o;
wing, 5-35 ; tail, 1-5; tarsus, 1-5.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but decidedly smaller.
Total length, io'o inches; wing, 47.

Winter Plumage. — Brown above, with no black on the throat,
which is white ; otherwise as in the summer plumage, but the
sides of the face are brown, and the lower throat, fore-neck,
and sides of neck are rufous-brown ; " bill, horn-colour, becom-
ing blackish basally, and on the culmen ; lower mandible
more lilaceous, with a dusky lateral stripe ; iris of three dis-
tinct colours, disposed in concentric rings, the first (around
the pupil) clear milk-white, the next dark olive-brown, the
outer pale ochraceous-brown, the dark ring reticulated into
the lighter; tarsi and toes greenish -slate, the joints darker"
(R. Ridgway).

Range in Great Britain. — A specimen of this Grebe was
exhibited by me at a meeting of the Zoological Society on
the 2ist of June, 1881. It was brought to the British
Museum by Mr. R. W. Munro, who stated that it had been
killed at Radipole, near We)- mouth, in January, 1881. I
took much pains to assure myself of the genuineness of the
occurrence, and as the bird was sold to Mr. Munro as a Little
Grebe, there does not seem to have been any attempt at
deception. Mr. J. E. Harting, however, throws doubt on it,
as he says that the specimen " showed remains of longitudinal
dark stripes on the neck, which are observable in the young
of all the Grebes." Mr. Harting should have added that
these dusky streaks are often retained by the young Grebes of

RAILS. 215

the year till January and February, so that there is nothing
extraordinary in the Weymouth specimen still exhibiting
such marks in January, while the fact that it is a young bird
renders it more probable that it had lost its way.

Range outside the British Islands.— The present species inhabits
North America from Canada southwards, and extends to
Brazil and Argentina, as well as to the West Indian
Islands.

Habits.— Similar to those of other species of Grebe.

Nest. — A nest, found by Mr. N. B. Moore, in Florida, was
" composed of broken stems of dog-fennel, matted together
with a large portion of decayed and withered aquatic plants,
presenting when found a wet, black, and soggy bed, to all
appearances as uncomfortable a nest as ever fell to the lot of
delicate and beautiful downy creatures such as the little ones
were." (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Water Birds N. Amer. ii.
P- 442.)

i. — Five in number. Bluish-white, with a chalky shell-
covering, but becoming stained to a creamy-white or brown
shade. Axis, 17 inch; diam., 1*55.

THE RAILS. ORDER RALLIFORMES.

In this order the palate is schizognathous, and the nasals
holorhinal. The dorsal vertebrae are heteroccelous, and the
posterior process of the ilium is sufficiently perforated to show a
broad sacrum. The sternum has a single notch on each side
of the posterior margin. The oil-gland is tufted and the after
shaft is present on the contour feathers (cf. Sharpe, Cat. B.
xxiii. p. i).

The Rails are mostly birds of an extraordinary slimness of
body, and, as a rule, they are great skulkers, never venturing
into the open unless driven out from their hiding places. This
is especially true of the Water-Rails and Crakes, many of the
tropical members of these groups being almost, or quite,
incapable of flight.

2f6 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

THE RAILS AND WATER-HENS. FAMILY

The characters of this family are the same as those of the
order, and the Rallidce are divisible into two sub-families, the
Rallince and the Coots or Fulicina.

The latter birds are recognised by their lobed toes, which
somewhat resemble those of Grebes, and it is for that reason,
and for other characters also, that I place the RaUiformes in
close proximity to the Podicipedidiformes.

THE RAILS. SUB-FAMILY RALLIN^E.

In arranging the Rails in the twenty-third volume of the
" Catalogue of Birds," I found it impossible to separate them
into more than the two sub-families above-mentioned, for the
close connection between Rails, Crakes, and Water-hens does
not allow of any line being drawn between them, and the latter
approach the Coots in appearance and habits, but have not the
lobed toes, which seem to constitute a character of importance.

THE TRUE RAILS. GENUS RALLUS.
RalhiS) Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 261 (1766).

Type, R. aquations. Linn.

In this genus the bill is very long and narrow, with a deep
and well-marked nasal groove, the culmen generally exceeding
the length of the middle toe and claw, or at least equal to it in
fully grown birds. The tarsus is shorter than the middle toe
and claw. The nasal aperture is situated nearer to the feathers
at the base of the bill than to the anterior end of the nasal
groove.

I. THE WATER-RAIL. RALLUS AQUATICUS.

Rallus aquaticuS) Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 262 (1766); Macgill.
Brit B. iv. p. 521 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 257,
pi. 495 (1878); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 146 (1883);
Saunders, ed. YarrelPs Brit. B. iii. p. 159 (1883);
Seebohm. Hist Brit. B. ii. p. 552 (1884); Saunders,

WATER-RAIL. 217

Man. Brit. B. p. 501 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B.
part xx. (1891); Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxiii. p. 20
(1894).

(Plate CXVJ.}

Adult Male in Summer Plumage.— General colour above olive-
brown, broadly streaked with black, the feathers being all
longitudinally centred with black, the rump more uniform
olive-brown ; the upper tail-coverts centred with black like the
back; wing- coverts and inner secondaries like the back; the
outer coverts, bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and wing blackish-
brown, quite uniform, or slightly washed with olive externally ;
the first primary pale brown along the outer web ; tail-feathers
blackish, externally olive-brown ; crown of head and hind-neck
like the back, more minutely streaked with black ; a broad
eyebrow, sides of face, and under surface of body dark slaty
grey, with a slight dusky shade on the lores and region of the
eye ; throat and fore-neck rather lighter grey than the breast ;
sides of upper breast olive-brown, centred with black like the
back ; flanks and sides of vent black, transversely barred with
white; lower abdomen and vent isabelline buff; under tail-
coverts black, barred with white and tipped with isabelline
buff, the lateral under tail-coverts white ; under wing-coverts
and axillaries black, barred and edged with white ; quills ashy-
blackish below. Total length, n. inches; culmen, 17; wing,
4-9; tail, 2-3; tarsus, 1-5.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but rather smaller ; bill
above nostril very dark brown, below nostril and lower man-
dible orange-red ; feet light fleshy brown ; iris orange-red.
Total length, 9-5 inches; wing, 4-2.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but decidedly browner ; the under parts freckled with light
brown edges to the feathers, each margin preceded by a dusky
sub-terminal line ; the lower flanks and thighs strongly washed
with fulvous brown ; the outer upper wing- coverts with zig-zag
white bars ; throat whitish.

Young. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adults, but
with a whiter throat, and the whole of the centre of the breast
and abdomen whitish, slightly washed with brown, and with

2i8 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

obscure dusky bars; outer wing-coverts with narrow white
bars.

Nestling. — Covered with black down.

Range in Great Britain. — The Water- Rail nests in nearly every
county of England, Wales, and Scotland, where suitable locali-
ties exist. It is rarer in the latter kingdom, and breeds
sparsely, but Mr. Robert Read has recorded its eggs from
Fossil Marsh, near Glasgow. In Ireland, Mr. Ussher says that
it is reported to nest in every county. A considerable migra-
tion southward appears to take place in winter ; but the species
has been known to stay during the latter season in the Shet-
lands.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is resi-
dent and breeds in most of the countries of Europe, excepting
the extreme northern parts, being resident in Norway near
Bergen, and ranging nearly up to the Arctic circle, while it
has also occurred on Jan-Mayen, and is believed to be resident
in Iceland. Its eastward range extends to Turkestan and
Afghanistan, and it visits North-western India in the winter,
occurring as far east as the Nepal Terai. In Eastern Siberia,
Japan, and China, J?. indicus takes its place, and this species
migrates south, visiting Southern China, and the Burmese
Provinces, and extending west to the district of Calcutta and
to Oudh.

Habits. — The Water-Rail, like most of its relations, is a very
shy bird, and one whose habits are most difficult to study in
consequence. It takes flight most unwillingly, and trusts to
its legs for safety. Even in the thickest of brakes it can twist
and turn with great rapidity, while its peculiarly compressed and
slender body enables it to thread its way through the grass and
rushes at a high rate of speed. One which I shot at Avington,
in November, gave me a lot of trouble to secure. Our party
was returning from duck-shooting in the water meadows, when
I saw the retriever running along the side of a hedge-row, with
a deep ditch of water on the side nearest to me. I crept up,
thinking that he was after a wounded Duck, but for some time I
could see nothing of his quarry. At last I could make out

WATER-RAIL. 2 If)

something like a rat darting out from under the roots of a
bush, and apparently making for the river. When the dog
approached its hiding-place again, the Rail, as I now perceived
it to be, instead of taking to flight and putting the Itch en
between it and its pursuer, deliberately doubled, and running
past the dog, which had an insecure foothold on the sloping
bank, scudded some fifty yards back along the latter, and hid
up. The retriever retraced his steps, and again drove the Rail
towards the river, but the bird repeated its doubling manoeuvre,
and the dog had to resume the chase again from the starting point.
At last the Rail took flight, and flew across the river with reluct-
ance, with its legs hanging down, when I shot it. During the
whole of the chase this bird uttered no sound ; but the Water-
Rail has a note, which Naumann describes as a clear, shrill,
but melodious kreek, uttered principally during the evening
when preparing to migrate. During the pairing season, at
evening time, it utters a liquid wheet> not unlike that of the
Nuthach. The food of the bird consists of worms, insects,
snails, and gnats, and it also eats the tender shoots of aquatic
plants, or the seeds of reeds and sedge, according to
Seebohm. Mr. Howard Saunders says that "during the
breeding season Water-Rails are very noisy, uttering a loud
groaning cro-o-o-an^ called ' sharming ' in Norfolk.''

Nest. — A nest found by Seebohm and Mr. Howard Saunders
in the Norfolk Broads is described as being " admirably con-
cealed. It was about a foot from the ground, but had a solid
foundation under it, formed by the roots of the clump of rushes,
in the midst of which it was built. It was carefully made ol
flat sedge and the flat leaves of the reed, lined with dry broken
pieces of round slender reeds."

i. — Five to seven in number, but sometimes as many as
nine or eleven. Ground-colour creamy or pinkish-stone, with a
few spots of rufous distributed over the egg, or clustering
towards the larger end. The egg is double-spotted, the under-
lying spots being lilac-grey, and nearly as distinct as the over-
lying ones. As a rule the rufous spots are small, but
occasionally they are large and form blotches towards the
big end of the egg. Axis, 1-4-1-5 inch; diam., 1-0-1-05.

220 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

THE LAND-RAILS. GENUS GREX.
Crex, Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb. p. 336 (1802).

Type, Crex crex (Linn.).

All the Crakes have much shorter and stouter bills than the
true Rails, the culmen.in the genus Crex being less than the
length of the inner toe. The tarsus is about equal in length
to the middle toe and claw, and there is no frontal shield as in
the Water-Hens.

Only one species of true Crake is known, viz., the Corn-
Crake or Land-Rail described below.

I. THE LAND-RAIL. CREX CREX.

Rallus crex, Linn. Syst Nat. i. p. 261 (1766).

Crex pratensis, Bechst. ; Macgill. Brit. B. iv. p. 527 (1852);

Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 291, pi. 499 (1878); B. O. U.

List. Brit. B. p. 149 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit.

B. iii. p. 157 (1883); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 535

(1884); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 493 (1889).
Crex crex, Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit, xxiii. p. 82 (1894).

(Plate CXVII.)

Adult Male in Summer Plumage. — General colour above brown,
mottled with black centres to the feathers, which have more
or less of an ashy shade on their margins ; scapulars
like the back, with broad black centres ; wing-coverts uni-
form bright chestnut ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts and
quills chestnut brown, the first primary externally isabel-
line buff, the inner secondaries like the back, with black
centres, and indistinguishable from the scapulars ; tail-
feathers light reddish-brown, centred with black ; crown of head
fulvous brown, mottled with black centres to the feathers, the
two colours arranged in streaks ; hind-neck and sides of neck
fulvous brown, with smaller blackish-brown spots ; lores and
feathers below the eye, as well as a band along the upper ear-
coverts to the sides of the neck sandy-buff; above the eye a
band of ashy-grey, widening towards the sides of the nape;
ear-coverts, cheeks, lower throat, fore-neck, and chest ashy-
grey ; the chin and upper throat isabelline ; breast and

PLATE CXVII

LAND RAIL .

LAND-RAIL. 221

abdomen isabelline, as well as the upper tail-coverts ; sides of
upper breast brown, with a few white bars ; flanks sandy-
rufous or rufous-brown, the feathers tipped and barred with
isabelline or whitish ; sides of vent barred with darker brown ,
thighs sandy-rufous ; shorter under tail-coverts barred with
rufous and brown ; under wing-coverts and axillaries bright
chestnut ; quills below brown, rufescent along the inner edge ;
bill, feet, and claws pale brown ; iris hazel. Total length,
10 inches; culmen, 0*85 ; wing, 5*6; tail, 1*9; tarsus, 1*45.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male, and having the same grey
on the eyebrow, face, and breast. Total length, 9 inches j
wing, 5-2.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — As in summer, but instead of the
grey on the eyebrow, sides of face, and breast, these parts are
all ochreous brown, and the sides of the body are decidedly
more rufescent, with distinct and broad bars of black on the
flanks and under tail-coverts; the wing-coverts also have
distinct whitish bars, particularly on the greater series, where
these bars have blackish or dusky margins.

Young after First Moult. — Similar to the winter plumage of
the adults, and lacking the grey on the face and breast, and
having the sides of the body nearly uniform tawny, with a few
dusky bars and whitish tips to the feathers.

Nestling. — Covered with black down.

Range in Great Britain. — This Rail is found throughout the
British Islands from 'the south to the north, including the
Hebrides, the Orkneys, and Shetlands. In Ireland, Mr.
Ussher says it breeds commonly in every part except the
mountains, nesting even in some of the islands, such as
Innishbofin. In the home counties of England, however, there
is a decided decrease in the number of Land-Rails every
summer, which it is difficult to account for. At Cookham, for
instance, in the Thames valley, the bird seldom visits us,
though the hay-fields are the same and its haunts absolutely
unchanged from the days when it was always present, thirty
years ago. I am speaking of my brother-in-law's estate, in
which no change has taken place. In the neighbourhood of
London, no doubt, the vast increase of building must account

222 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

for the driving away of this shy bird from some of its old
haunts.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Land-Rail is dis-
tributed over the greater part of Europe and Asia as far east
as the Valley of the Yenesei, and that of the Lena, breeding
also in Western Turkestan. On migration it passes through
the countries of Southern Europe, but Mr. Saunders believes
that it does not breed south of the line of the Pyrenees. Its
winter quarters are in Africa, and at this season of the year it
also wanders to Arabia and the shores of the Persian Gulf.
The Land-Rail has also been met with in Greenland and the
Eastern United States, and in the Bermudas.

Habits.— The Land-Rail or Corn-Crake is a familiar inhabi-
tant of our pasture-lands in summer, where its grating and
monotonous creak-creak is heard, especially towards evening,
and long after darkness has set in. Its cry is distinctly ventri-
loquial, and Mr. Howard Saunders considers that this is due
" to the marvellous rapidity with which it sneaks, unperceived,
from one spot to another." I have not myself observed this ;
but, on the contrary, I believe that, like the notes of the
Creeper or the Grasshopper Warbler, the utterance of the
Corn-Crake's note has that ventriloquial power that makes its
cry sound far or near. I remember, on one occasion, making
my way into one of our own fields of high grass at Cookham in
search of one of these birds at night, and when within ten
yards of the Crake, its note sounded from all points of the
compass around me ; but I stopped still, refusing to be deluded
by its ventriloquism, until I crept to the spot whence
I was sure that the sounds proceeded, and at last I managed
to approach so close above it that I almost succeeded in catch-
ing it before it scented danger and scuttled away. My old
friend Briggs, the Cookham naturalist, who first taught me to
skin birds, and with whom Mr. Howard Saunders and myself
have had many a ramble, used to pride himself on being able
to track Land-Rails in the grass, and I remember on one occa-
sion walking with him in the meadows opposite the Cliefden
Woods, when we heard the creak of one of these Rails close
to us in a hay-field. He not only walked straight to where the
bird was, but as it flew up, he threw his walking-stick at it and

LITTLE CRAKE. 223

knocked it down close to the river's edge, when the bird took
to the water and swam right across to the other side of the
Thames.

The food of the Corn-Crake is varied, and consists of worms,
slugs, snails, small lizards, and also of seeds and plants.

Nest. — A simple structure of dry grass and plants, placed on
the ground.

Eggs. — From seven to ten in number. Ground-colour
varying from stone grey to greenish-white or huffish clay-colour,
with numerous dots and spots of rufous distributed over the
egg, the underlying grey spots very distinct and equally
distributed. Sometimes the rufous markings collect round the
large end of the egg and form a blotch ; but in many eggs,
particularly of the stone-coloured type, the spots are more
scattered and universally distributed over the surface. Axis,
1-4-1-55 inch; diam., ro-i'i.

THE LITTLE CRAKES. GENUS ZAPORNIA.

Zapornia, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. & Birds, Brit. Mus. p. 34
(1816).

Type, Z. parva (Scop.).

The. small Crakes of the genera Zapornia and Porzana
differ from the true Crakes (Crex) in their long middle toe,
which, with the claw, exceeds the tarsus in length. The sexes
in the genus Zapornia differ in colour, and the secondaries are
conspicuously shorter than the primaries, falling short of them
by as much as the length of the inner toe and claw, so that the
wing is decidedly pointed in shape for a Crake.

I. THE LITTLE CRAKE. ZAPORNIA PARVA.

Rallus parvuSj Scop. Ann. i. p. 108 (1769).

Crex pusilla (nee Pall.), Macgill. Brit. B. iv. p. 541 (1852).

Porzana parva, Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 283, pi. 498 (1878) ;

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 148 (1883); Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 148 (1883); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 497 (1889).

224 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Crex parva, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 457 (1884).
Zapornia parva, Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxiii. p. 89 (1894).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above
ochreous brown, varied with black centres to the feathers and
a few white spots ; the scapulars and innermost secondaries
ochreous brown with black centres, the latter pale ochreous
along their inner webs, forming a longitudinal band on each
side of the back ; the rest of the wing-coverts nearly uniform
brown ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and quills sepia-brown ;
lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts darker and with
more black than the rest of the back, the feathers being black
edged with brown ; tail-feathers also black edged with brown ;
hinder crown uniform reddish-brown, like the hind-neck ; fore-
head, a broad eyebrow, sides of face, and entire under
surface of body light slaty-grey; sides of breast ochreous
brown, like the sides of the neck ; flanks almost entirely
uniform, excepting for a few wrrte bars, and dusky on the
lower thighs and vent ; under tail-coverts white, washed with
ochreous and crossed with blackish bars ; under wing-coverts
and axillaries uniform brown, like the quill-lining ; bill green
tinged with red at the base ; legs and feet green ; iris deep
carmine. Total length, 7 inches; culmen, 07; wing, 4; tail,
2 ; tarsus, 1*15 ; middle toe and claw, 1*6.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male on the upper surface,
but a little more olive, the brown colour of the head extending
in a narrow line to the base of the bill ; lores hoary-grey ;
sides of face and a broad eyebrow grey ; a faint tinge of brown
on the ear-coverts ; cheeks and throat white ; remainder of
under surface, from the fore-neck downwards, pale vinaceous
isabelline ; thighs clear ashy, as also the lower flanks, which
have dusky bars and white edges to the feathers ; vent and
under tail-coverts barred with black and white, the latter
tinged with ochreous buff. Total length, 7 inches ; wing,

Young. — Similar in general to the adult female, but having
the scapulars mottled with white bars ; under-surface of
body entirely white, as also the sides efface and eyebrow ; the
breast more or less varied with the remains of dusky edgings
to the feathers ; the thighs distinctly banded with brown and

LITTLE CRAKE. 225

white ; the greater coverts, primary-coverts, and quills with
more or less distinct white spots at the tips.

Nestling. — " Covered with black down with a greenish gloss ;
legs bluish-grey " ( W. Eagle Clarke].

Range in Great Britain. — A spring and autumn visitor to our
islands. No authentic instance of its having bred in England
has been noted. Though it has been recorded from many
counties, and especially from Norfolk, in Scotland and in
Ireland the species has occurred but once.

Kange outside the British Islands. — The Little Crake breeds
throughout Central Europe and Russia, and is believed to
have nested in Southern Sweden. In Italy it also breeds, but
in other parts of the Mediterranean it is only known as a
migrant, though resident again in Algeria. Its eastern range
extends to Central Asia and Afghanistan, and it winters in
N or th-We stern India and in Equatorial Africa.

Habits. — Mr. A. O. Hume thus describes the habits of the
Little Crake in Sind : — " I never flushed these birds out of
sedge or reed, but found them everywhere running about over
the lotus and water-lily leaves, or swimming about from leaf to
leaf, and exhibiting far less timidity than Baillon's Crake.
Like the latter, they look when in the water exactly like tiny
Water-hens, jerking their tails and nodding their heads exactly
like the latter. One thing I noticed in this species which I
never observed in either of the others — I saw one bird volun-
tarily diving several times, apparently in search of food. The
others will dive when a shot is suddenly fired near them, or
when they are wounded, but this bird was deliberately diving
for its own amusement. When pressed, they rise more
steadily and fly more strongly than Baillon's Crake, taking
refuge in the thickets of tamarisk that fringe the broads, and
are studded about most of them as islands. The food of
this species seems to consist far more exclusively of insects
than that of Baillon's Crake. In more than a dozen specimens
which I examined, the stomachs contained water-bugs and
beetles, small insects of all kinds, and larvae of various, and to
me quite unknown, species, with here and there a few small
black seeds and a trace of vegetable matter. Of course, as is
'5 Q

226 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

the case with Baillon's Crake, there were a good many minute
pebbles or fragments of quartz, coarse sand in fact, mixed with
the food, in the triturition of which it no doubt forms an
important part."

Nest. — Mr. Eagle Clarke found the nest of this species in
Slavonia, in an extensive and particularly secluded shallow
marsh near the village of Obrez. The surface of the marsh
was clothed with sallow-brakes, reed-beds, and areas covered
with tussocks of sedge. The nest, containing seven eggs, was
placed on the side, not in the centre, of one of these tussocks
of medium size. It was merely a depression, amply lined with
short broad pieces of withered reed blades, and was about six
inches above the surface of the water, which was here about
eighteen inches deep.

Eggs. — Seven or eight in number. Ground-colour pale
olive, flecked with brown; oval in shape. Axis, i'i inch;
diam., 0*85.

THE SPOTTED CRAKES. GENUS PORZANA.
Porzana, Vieillot, Analyse, p. 61 (1816).

Type, P.porzana (Linn.).

The genus Porzana resembles Zapornia in having the tarsus
shorter than the middle toe and claw, but the shape of the
wings is different. The secondary quills fall short of the
primaries by as much as the length of the hind toe and claw,
and they are consequently more rounded than in Zapornia.
The sexes are alike in plumage.

I. THE SPOTTED CRAKE. PORZANA PORZANA.

Rallus porzana, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 262 (1766).

Crex pcrzana, Macgill. Brit. B. iv. p. 535 (1852); Seebohm,

Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 540 (1884).
Porzana maruetta, Bp. ; Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 267, pi. 496

(1878); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 147 (1883); Saunders,

ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 143 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 495 (1889).
Porzana porzana, Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxm. p. 93

(1894).

(Plate CXVIIL]

SFOTTKD CRAKE. 227

Adult Male in Winter Plumage. — General colour above olive-
brown, mottled with white and black markings, the white
being distributed in the form of lateral spots on the dorsal
feathers, and on the scapulars and wing-coverts in the form
of arrow-head spots or bars, which are margined with black ;
all the feathers of the upper surface with more or less con-
cealed black centres; wing-coverts rather lighter brown than
the back, the white spots somewhat less plentifully distributed,
excepting on the greater series and innermost secondaries,
where the white bars with their accompanying black lines
are very distinct and somewhat zig-zag in character on the
latter; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and quills sepia-brown,
externally whitish-brown, with a white edging to the first
primary and outer feathers of the bastard-wing ; the inner-
most secondaries paler and more sandy-brown along their
inner webs ; lower back black, with a few small white mark-
ings ; rump and upper tail-coverts olive-brown, centred with
black, the lateral feathers rather conspicuously barred and
edged with white ; tail-feathers dark brown, externally lighter
brown ; crown of head olive-brown, the feathers spotted with
black like the back ; forehead and eyebrow slaty-grey, the
latter profusely dotted with white ; a narrow line at the base of
the forehead and a loral spot black, extending below the eye
and on the fore part of the cheeks ; above the lores a faintly
indicated spot of white; cheeks and throat slaty-grey, dotted
with white ; ear-coverts uniform brown, extending on to the
sides of the neck; neck, fore-neck, breast, and sides of body
everywhere spotted with white, which takes the form of cross-
bars on the sides of the body, each white bar skirted by a
narrow blackish bar above and below; the chest and upper
breast shaded with ashy ; lower breast and abdomen white,
shading off into sandy-buff on the vent and under tail-coverts ;
lesser under wing-coverts and edge of wing conspicuously
white; remainder of under wing-coverts and axillaries dusky
brown barred with white, resembling the flanks ; quills dusky
below ; bill yellow, orange-red at base, dusky on the culmen
and at the tip ; legs and feet green ; iris brown. Total length,
9 inches; culmen, 0-85; wing, 4*85; tail, 17; tarsus, 1-3;
middle toe and claw, 1.7.

Adult Female. — Differs from the male in having the sides of

Q 2

228 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

the face more mottled, the breast and throat apparently never
so uniform grey as in the male.

Adult in Summer Plumage. — Very similar to the winter plum-
age, but not so distinctly varied with white above ; the white
dots also absent for the most part on the eyebrow, sides of
neck, throat, and breast, which are almost uniformly grey, the
latter slightly washed with brown.

Young. — Easily distinguished from the adults by its white
throat and more profusely spotted appearance. The streaks on
the back are also very distinct, as a rule. The adult plumage
appears to me to be gained without a moult, the grey colour
being gradually assumed as the spring advances ; but I have
not had a sufficient series to determine accurately the various
phases through which the species passes. The young bird has
the brown of the head continued to the base of the forehead.

Range in Great Britain. — The Spotted Crake, like so many
marsh-haunting birds, is rarer than it used to be before the
draining of the fen-lands. It is a summer visitor, nesting in
several of the southern counties of England, as well as in the
eastern counties as far north as Durham and Northumberland.
On the east side of Scotland, says Mr. Saunders, it has nested
as far north as Elgin, while en migration it has occurred in the
Orkneys, and twice in the Shetlands (in October) ; on the west
it has bred in Dumbartonshire, but has not yet been recorded
north of the Clyde. Mr. Ussher states that three eggs of this
species taken in Roscommon are in the Science and Art Museum
in Dublin ; and he says that, " though no other instance of the
nest having been taken in Ireland has been recorded, the
Spotted Crake probably breeds occasionally, for Mr.
Barton met with the species in Louth, in August. A pair were
shot in Queen's County by Mr. T. Trench, in August, 1880,
and another pair in Fermanagh, by Mr. George Husbands, in
the summer or early autumn of 1890. Thompson noted a
young bird obtained in August by Mr. Chute, in Kerry, which
exhibited remains of down."

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species nests
throughout the greater part of Europe, up to about 65° N. Lat.

SPOTTED CRAKE. 229

in Scandinavia. Eastwards it ranges as far as Yarkand and Gilgit
in summer, and in winter it is found throughout the southern
border of the Mediterranean, as far as Abyssinia, as well as in
the Persian Gulf, and Northern India, from Sind to Oudh and
Calcutta. It has twice occurred in Greenland.

Habits. — Like all Rails, the Spotted Crake is a bird of the
most skulking habits, and on migration it will sometimes be
found in little reed-covered pools, from which it may sometimes
be flushed by a dog, when its presence is least suspected. In
such manner I have procured a few specimens in the Thames
valley, near Cookham. Seebohm obtained a large number of
eggs of this bird at Valkensvaard, in Holland. He writes as
follows : — " The habits of the Spotted Crake are precisely the
same as those of the Water-Rail, to which bird it otherwise
bears so close a resemblance that it is difficult to believe that
the two birds ought to be placed in different genera. They are
both equally shy and skulking ; they frequent the same fenny and
marshy districts; one is as unsociable as the other, and as un-
willing to take wing; their flight is the same — a heavy, laboured,
straight flight through the air, with rapid beats of the broad
rounded wings. The note during the breeding season is the
same liquid whit, though that of the smaller bird is not so loud ;
and the position of the nest and the materials of which it is
composed are so similar that a description of one reads like a
copy of that of the other."

Nest. — Large for the size of the bird, built in clumps of rushes
or amongst reeds. Those found by Seebohm in Holland
stood nearly a foot above the level of the water, and were com-
posed of flat leaves of the reed, sedge, and other water-plants,
and generally, when built in the reeds, had a foundation of flat
broken rushes.

Eggs. — From eight to twelve in number. Ground-colour
olive or clay-brown to reddish clay-colour, or chocolate. The
spots are light or dark reddish-brown, and are distributed
over the egg; the underlying grey spots mixed up with the
darker ones, and sometimes quite as distinct as the latter. In
rare instances the reddish spots are confluent, and form
blotches. Axis. i'3S-i'5 inch; diam., o'95-ro5.

23°

II. THE CAROLINA CRAKE. PORZANA CAROLINA.

Rallus Carolina, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 363 (1766).

Porzana Carolina, B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 147 (1883) ;

Saunders, Manual Brit. B. p. 496, note (1889) ; Sharpe,

Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxiii. p. 97 (1894).
Crex Carolina^ Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 541 (1884).

Adult Male. — General colour above olivaceous brown, varied
with black centres and white margins to the feathers ; the
lower back and rump darker, the black centres to the feathers
being more pronounced; wing-coverts for the most part uniform
olivaceous brown, with white spots and freckles on the greater
series ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and quills, dusky-brown,
externally olivaceous brown, the bastard-wing feathers and outer
primary edged with white ; the innermost secondaries centred
with black and edged with white like the back ; tail-feathers
olivaceous brown, with blackish centres ; crown of head and
neck more rufous brown than the back, and more uniform;
forehead and centre of crown black, as well as the lores, fore
part of cheeks, and centre of throat and fore- neck ; a narrow
eyebrow, sides of face, sides of neck, and chest ashy- grey ;
breast white, the lower flanks barred with black ; the sides of
the body brown, barred with white, each white bar with a
narrow border-line of black ; thighs brown ; under tail-coverts
white, the vent tinged with fulvous ; under wing-coverts brown,
edged with white like the edge of the wing ; axillaries brown,
distinctly barred with white ; bill yellow at base, dusky towards
the end ; feet yellowish-green ; claws light brown ; iris bright
chestnut Total length, 8-0 inches ; oilmen, 0-9 ; wing, 4-3;
tail, i '9; tarsus, 1.45; middle toe and claw, 175.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male in colour. Total length,
8*0 inches; wing, 4*25.

Young. — Upper surface resembling that of the adult, but the
under surface for the most part white ; the lower throat and
fore-neck, sandy-buff; the under tail-coverts light tawny buff;
sides of the breast brown, and the flanks black, both barred
across with white ; lores and sides of face ashy-brown ; a
supra-loral streak, eyebrow, and cheeks sa*'dy buff.

CAROLINA CRAKE. 23 1

The adult plumage is gained in the first winter, but the grey
feathers of the neck still retain brownish margins.

Characters. — The Carolina Crake differs from our Spotted
Crake in having the fore part of the cheeks, lores, and centre
of the throat, black ; the inner web of the innermost
secondaries is like the rest of the quills, and is merely fringed
with white. In P. porzana it is light fulvous brown.

Range in Great Britain. — A single specimen of this North
American species has been shot near Newbury in Berkshire ;
it was exhibited by Professor Newton to a meeting of the
Zoological Society on the i4th of February, 1865.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Carolina Crake is
found in summer throughout temperate North America, and it
winters in Central America, the West Indies, and the Northern
provinces of South America.

Habits. — Dr. Brewer publishes the following interesting
note * on the habits of the present species in the " Water-Birds
of North America " : —

" Early in August, when the reeds have attained their full
growth, the 'Sora Rail' resorts to them in great numbers to feed
on the seeds, of which it is very fond. This reed (the Zizania
davulosa of Michaux) grows up from the soft muddy shores of
the tide-water, where the surface is alternately bare and covered
with four or five feet of water, and attains a height of ten feet,
covering tracts of many acres in extent, the stalks growing so
closely together that a boat, excepting at high water, can
hardly make its way through them. The seed of this plant is
long and slender, white in colour, sweet to the taste and very
nutritious. When the reeds are in fruit, the Rails, in great
numbers, take possession of them. At this season, a person
walking along the banks of the river may hear their cries in
every direction. If a stone is thrown among the reeds, there
is a general outcry, and a reiterated kuk-kuk-kuk, like the
scream of a Guinea Fowl. Any sudden noise produces the
same effect. None of the birds, however, can be seen except
at high water ; and when the tide is low, they keep secreted,

* Taken from Doughty 's " Cabinet of Natural History."

232 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

and a man may walk where there are hundreds of them
without seeing a single one."

Nest. — Usually a mere collection of decayed moss and
coarse grass, loosely aggregated, and not admitting of removal
as a nest. {Brewer.)

Eggs. — From seven to twelve or even fourteen in number.
Clay- colour, with scattered reddish spots and grey underlying
ones. Axis, 1*2-1 '3 inches; diam., 0-95.

in. BAILLON'S CRAKE. PORZANA INTERMEDIA.
Rallus intermedius, Hermann, Obs. Zool. i. p. 198 (1804).
Crex bailloni, Boie ; Macgill. Brit. B. iv. p. 539 (1852);

Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 543 (1884) ; Lilford, Col.

Fig. Brit. B. part xx. (1891).
Porzana bailloni, Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 275, pi. 497 (1878) ;

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 143 (1883); Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 154 (1883); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 499 (1889).
Porzana intermedia, Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxiii. p. 103

(1894).

Adult Male. — General colour above dark ochreous-brown,
with black centres to nearly all the feathers, which are marked
with white spots and freckled with black ; lower back black,
freckled with white, but only slightly washed with ochreous-
brown ; upper tail-coverts ochreous-brown with black centres ;
lesser and median wing-coverts uniform ochreous-brown, like
the back, the greater series with blackish centres and white
frecklings ; the innermost secondaries like the back, with
broad black centres, the inner webs pale ochreous-brown,
thereby forming a broad longitudinal band on each side of
the back ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and quills sepia-
brown, the edges of the bastard-wing feathers and the first
primary white ; tail-feathers blackish, edged with dark
ochreous-brown ; centre of crown and hind-neck dark
ochreous or reddish-brown, only feebly streaked with black
centres to the feathers; forehead and a broad eyebrow, as
well as the entire sides of face, throat, and breast, clear slaty-
grey; abdomen, flanks, and thighs blackish, mottled with
white bars ; under tail-coverts deep black, barred with white ;

BAILLON'S CRAKE, 233

under wing-coverts and axillaries dusky-brown, with a few
white spots and bars ; quills dusky below ; bill green, darker
at tip ; legs, feet, and claws olive ; iris crimson. Total length,
7 inches; culmen, o 75 ; wing, 3*5 ; tail, 175 ; tarsus, 1-05 ;
middle toe and claw, 1*5.

Winter Plumage. — Appears to have a whiter throat than in
summer, and in all probability the entire throat gradually
becomes slaty-grey as the breeding season approaches ; bill
grass -green, the culmen dusky ; tarsi and toes greenish; iris
reddish orange.

Young. — Is like the adult on the upper surface, and is
similarly marked with black and white, but the general tone of
the plumage is rather more rufous ; the head is like the back ;
sides of the face rufous-brown, as also the eyebrow; lores
whitish; throat, breast, and abdomen dull white; the fore-
neck and chest rufescent, barred across with dusky ; lower
flanks, vent, and under tail-coverts black, barred with white ;
iris light ashy-brown.

The young birds probably do not attain their full grey
plumage for at least a year, as a specimen (in the British
Museum), procured near Potchtfstroom on the 24th of April,
is still in immature plumage, like the young bird above
described, and differs only in the whiter under surface, the
fore-neck and chest alone retaining some remains of rufous
shading and dusky bars. The eyebrows are whitish and more
distinct. If this bird was going to moult into the grey
plumage before its return to Europe, the change must be very
rapidly performed.

Nestling. — " Shiny black, with a yellowish bill and legs of a
greenish slate-colour " ( W. C. Tait).

Characters. — In the foregoing species the axillaries are
barred with white. In Baillon's Crake they are uniform.
The back is freckled and spotted with white, as are the wing-
coverts in a less degree. The ear-coverts are bluish-grey or
ashy.

Range in Great Britain. — A visitor in spring and autumn,
principally to our southern counties, though it has been
captured in Derbyshire and Yorkshire. It has also occurred

234 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

in the Isle of Man, twice in Scotland, and twice in Ireland.
It probably breeds occasionally in England, as two nests,
apparently of this species, were found in Cambridgeshire in
1858, and two more in Norfolk in 1866.

Range outside the British Islands. — Baillon's Crake appears
to be somewhat irregularly distributed throughout Central and
Southern Europe, as it is not known from the Baltic Provinces
or Poland, but it extends (in winter, probably) to the Persian
Gulf, being replaced in Eastern Siberia, India, and China by
the allied species, P. pusilla. It occurs in suitable localities
throughout Africa, and the place from which I have seen the
greatest number of specimens is Madagascar.

Habits.— The habits of Baillon's Crake resemble those of its
congeners, but, from its small size, it is even more difficult of
observation.

Nest. — Small, made of rushes and reeds.

Eggs. — Six to eight in number. Olive brown, mottled with
reddish-brown, and dull grey underlying spots, the latter not
much in evidence. The mottling is obscure, and some eggs
appear almost uniform olive or reddish-brown. Axis, i*i-i'2
inch • diam., o'75~o'9.

THE MOOR-HENS. GENUS GALLINULA.
Gallinula, Briss. Orn. vi. p. 3 (1760).

Type, G. chloropus (Linn.).

The Water-Hens are distinguished by their red frontal
shield, the plumage being sombre and generally blackish.
The toes are long, the middle one and its claw exceeding the
tarsus in length ; they have a narrow lateral membrane, but
do not have a sc alloped lobe like the Coots. The secondaries
are decidedly shorter than the primaries. The nostrils are
oval, and situated in a distinct nasal depression.

I. THE MOOR-HEN. GALLINULA CHLOROPUS.

Fulica chloropus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 258 (1766).

MOOR-HEN. 235

Gallinula chloropus, Macgill. Brit. B. iv. p. 547 (1852) ;
Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 313, pi. 503 (1879); B. O. U.
List Brit. B. p. 151 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit.
B. iii. p. 164 (1883); Seebohm, Hist. Brit B. ii. p. 557
(1884); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 503 (1889); Lilford,
Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xix. (1891); Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit.
Mus. xxiii. p. 171 (1894).

(Plate CX IX.}

Adult Male. — General colour above dark olive-brown, with
reflections of ruddy brown ; scapulars like the back ; wing-
coverts slightly more ashy and washed with olive-brown,
especially towards the ends ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts,
and quills blackish-brown, externally washed with ashy-brown,
the outer bastard wing-feathers and first primary externally
edged with white; the innermost secondaries more ruddy
brown and washed with olive like the back; tail-feathers
blackish, with a slight wash of olive-brown ; crown of head and
sides of face blackish, fading off into dark slaty-grey on the
sides of the neck and hind-neck ; throat also blackish, fading
off into dark slaty-grey, the same as the rest of the under
surface ; the lower flanks washed with brown, the sides of the
body broadly streaked with white, which occupies the greater
part of the outer feathers ; abdomen more or less varied with
white edges to the feathers ; under tail-coverts white, with the
feathers of the vent and the long median tail-coverts black ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries ashy-grey, tipped with white,
the bend of the wing edged with white ; frontal shield and two-
thirds of the bill deep lake-red, the tip of the latter greenish-
yellow for about one-third ; legs olive-green, the broad scaling
on the fore part of the tarsus, and the scales on the upper part
of the toes, lemon-yellow ; joint of heel dusky olive-green, with
a shade of lemon-yellow immediately below the garter, which is
dark lake-red; iris reddish. Total length, 12*5 inches;
oilmen, with frontal shield, 1*55; wing, 7*3; tail, 2*9; tarsus,
1*85 ; middle toe and claw, 2*95,

Adult Female. — Similar to the male in colour, but having the
white streaks on the flanks not quite so broad. Total length,
1 1 -5 inches; wing, 6-4.

236 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Young. — Browner than the adult, the head a little more
dusky-brown than the back ; sides of face dark brown ; throat
white, with dusky bases to the feathers ; rest of under surface
brown, the feathers edged with white ; abdomen entirely white ;
the flank-stripes buffy-white and very narrow ; bill black, dull
red along edge of tomium and on lower mandible ; legs fleshy-
brown, darker on the tarsal joint and toes ; claws light horn-
brown.

The young bird gains the adult plumage in the following
spring, by the shedding of the brown or whitish margins of
the feathers of the under surface, so that the grey plumage of
the adult gradually supervenes.

Range in Great Britain. — The Moor-Hen is found all over the
British Islands, and is resident, a slight southern migration taking
place when severe winters reign in the north. It is equally
widely distributed in Ireland as in England and Scotland.

Eange outside the British Islands. — The present species is
found over the greater part of the Old World, but does not
range very far north, breeding sparingly in Scandinavia up to
63° N. Lat, and in Russia as far as the S. Petersburg district.
In China and the Indo-Malayan region the Moor-Hens are
somewhat smaller in size, but the bird from Africa and Mada-
gascar (so called G. pyrrhorhod] is the same as our own
European bird. In America an allied species of Moor-Hen
(G. galeatd) replaces G. chloropus, and in Australia the latter
species is represented by G. tenebrosa and in the Moluccas by
G. frontata.

Habits. — This bird is not an inhabitant of the moors, as its
name might seem to imply, but of our rivers, lakes and marshes,
and the word " moor," as Mr. Saunders points out, is the
equivalent of the old word " mire," or " marsh." A very small
sheet of water, even a small pond, if it is sufficiently surrounded
by rushes or studded with weeds, is enough to attract a Moor-
Hen, and within a hundred yards of the room in which I am
now writing at Chiswick (March, 1897), a pair of birds are
preparing to make their nest in a neighbour's pond, where they
have bred for several years in succession. Given a little en-
couragement, and the Moor-Hen becomes very tame, and will
walk about the lawn and even come close to the house for food.

PURTLK GALLINULE. 2 37

Although its principal food consists of worms, insects, and
seeds of plants, it is accused of eati-ng young birds and eggs of
other species, and I remember at least one place uhere the
Moor-Hens were looked upon with great disfavour as devourers
of Pheasants' and Ducks' eggs, and when Ducks or Snipe were
absent from the water meadows, a hunt with the dogs was
instituted after the Gallinules. These, after a little disturbance,
would take to the trees, and on one occasion I myself shot
eleven Moor-Hens out of one clump of willow bushes. I am
also certain that they occasionally roost in trees, as I have
found them late at night in evergreens, many hundred yards
from any water, when I have been moth-catching. They
are shy during the breeding season, but by remaining per-
fectly still, the observer may see the pair of old birds emerge
from the reeds, and swim about with their nestlings, the latter
being clad in black down, the female being always most
solicitous of the welfare of the latter, and uttering a clucking
note as she moves about, her white under tail-coverts being
flirted as she swims, and the red garter above the tarsal joint
always showing plainly.

Nest. — Generally a rounded and firmly built structure of dry
reed-flags and sedge, placed among the reeds on the edge of a
pond, or on the sides of a lake or river, but occasionally built on a
branch above the water level, and it has even been known to be
located in a tree twenty feet above the ground.

Eggs. — From seven to nine in number. Ground-colour,
stone-buff to reddish clay-colour, spotted with reddish-brown ;
these spots seldom very large, often tending to black, and in
some specimens reduced to a sprinkling of dots. The under-
lying spots are dark purplish grey, and are often scarcely dis-
tinguishable from the overlying ones. The eggs vary very
much in shape. Axis, i '1-1-95 inches ; diam., 1-1-1-4

THE PURPLE GALLINULES. GENUS PORPHYRIO.
Porphyrio, Briss. Orn. vi. p. 522 (1760).

Type, P. porphyrio (Linn.).

These large and brightly-coloured Rails differ in their horny
bills, which are very deep, and have no nasal depression, but

238 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

have rounded no-trils They are birds of tropical countries, being
found from the Mediterranean eastwards to India, and as far
as Australia and New Zea]and. Two species, the Green-backed
Gallinule, P. porphyrio of Africa, and the Purple Gallinule, P.
cceruleus of the Mediterranean countries, have been recorded as
having been captured in England ; but as they are both species
which are often kept in captivity in this country, there is no
reason to believe that the specimens were otherwise than es-
caped bird?, as neither of them are likely to migrate, or be
driven, from their swampy fastnesses.

The eggs of P. porphyrio are larger than those of a Moor-
Hen, but otherwise resembles them.

THE COOTS. SUB-FAMILY FULICIN-dS.

These birds are like great Moor-Hens, but are distinguished
from them, and from the other Rails, by the scalloped lobes on
the toes. There is generally a white or reddish shield on the
forehead, and the bill, in some of the exotic species, partakes
of the bright colours of the shields.

The Coots are found over nearly every part of the Old and
New Worlds, and are strongly represented in South America,
where they attain their largest size.

I. THE COMMON COOT. FULICA ATRA.

Fiilica atra, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 257 (1766); Macgill. Brit. B.
iv. p. 560 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 327, pi. 504,
fig. 2 (1879); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 151 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 171 (1883); Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 564(1884); Saunders, Man. Brit. B.
p. 505 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxi. (1895);
Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxiii. p. 211 (1894).

(Plate CXX.)

Adult Male. — General colour above cindery-grey with a slight
olive shade on the back ; wing-coverts also cindery-grey, the
outer feathers of the bastard-wing edged with white ; quills
ashy-brown wrth dusky lips, the first primary inclining to whity-
brown on the outer web : the outer secondaries whitish at the

COMMON COOT. 239

ends ; the innermost secondaries washed with cindery-grey like
the back ; tail black ; head, hind-neck, and throat black ;
remainder of under surface of body light slaty-grey, with slight
remains of ashy margins to the feathers of the chest and centre
of the breast ; under wing-coverts slaty-grey, with a line of white
feathers round the bend of the wing ; under tail-coverts black ;
bill very pale lavender, with a pinkish tinge; frontal shield
ivory-white ; tarsi and feet pearly-grey, with a greenish tinge on
the sides of the tarsus ; garter orange-yellow ; iris dark brown.
Total length, 14-5 inches ; culmen, from base of shield, 1*35 ;
wing, 8'6; tail, 2'2 ; tarsus, 1*3 ; middle toe and claw, 3.85.

Adult Female. — Similar in plumage to the male, but slightly
smaller. Total length, 14 inches ; wing, 8'i.

Young. — Much browner than the adult, the feathers of the
head dusky black edged with white ; lores, eyebrows, and sides
of face white ; under surface of body ashy- whitish, browner on
the flanks.

Nestling. — Black, with white filamentous tips to some of the
down ; head bare.

Range in Great Britain. — The Coot occurs everywhere from
north to south in Great Britain, where localities suited to its
habits are to be met with, such as large ponds, lakes, and quiet
rivers. In some places, especially in the South of England,
such as Slapton Ley in Devonshire, and Poole Harbour, the
Coots appear in winter in large numbers, particularly when they
are frozen out of their more northern haunts. In Ireland the
species is reported to breed in every county, though it is more
local than the Moor-Hen.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Coot is found over the
greater part of Europe and Asia, but does not range beyond the
Mediterranean, nor further than the Indo-Malayan Islands in
Asia. The noithern range of the species extends occasionally
to S. W. Iceland, and it has even been recorded from<ireenland,
while in Norway it nests up to 70° N. Lot.

Habits. — The Coot prefers larger sheets of water than the
Moor-Hen, and does not take up its abode on such small ponds
as the last-named bird oftentimes affects. During the breeding

24* ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

season it frequents lakes, and several nests may be found in the
space of a few hundred yards, and at that season of the year
the Coot is a retiring bird and keeps more to the reeds than to
the open water. Of an evening, however, they may be seen
slowly swimming about, when the white shield on their forehead
renders them easily recognisable from the Moor-Hens. In the
autumn they congregate together, and will associate with the
Ducks on a decoy, so much so. that I have often seen a
great many killed during a day's Duck-shooting. They trust
to escape more by swimming under the overhanging branches of
the trees and bushes than by flight, though a Coot, when once
launched on the wing, is a powerful flier. In the winter vast
numbers used to congregate in Pagham Harbour, and the same
may be said of Poole Harbour.

Nest. — A round and compact structure of dry flags, built in
the shallow water, near the edge of a lake, and resting on a
foundation of reeds. The example in the Natural History
Museum, which I took years ago on Sir Edward Shelley's
lake at Avington, was decorated with mangolds, which were
intertwined among the flags forming the rim of the nest.

Eggs. — From seven to ten in number, though Mr. Robert
Reed tells me that eight is the largest number he has ever found
in a Coot's nest. Ground-colour stone-buff or pale clay-colour,
sometimes inclining to olive, the whole of the surface minutely
dotted with dark brown or blackish spots, the underlying spots
being purplish-grey, and equally plentifully distributed. Axis,
1-9-2-2 inches; diam., 1-35-1-45.

THE PIGEONS. ORDER COLUMBIFORMES.

In the Pigeons the bill is schizognathous, and the nasals
are schizorhinal, with basipterygoid processes present and
placed medially. The primary-quills are eleven in number and
the fifth secondary is absent. The hind-toe is connected with
the flexor longus halluds tendon, and not with the flexor
perforans digitorum ; the two deep plantar tendons not being
free, but united by a " vinculum." The hind-toe is on the
same level as the others. The bill is swollen at the tip, the
latter being hard and convex, while the basil portion is covered

PLATE CXXI

WOOD -PIGEON.'

WOOD-PIGEON. 241

by a soft skin, in which the nostrils open, overhung by an
incumbent valve. (Cf. Salvadori, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxi.

P. i.)

Pigeons are found over the greater part of the globe, and
they are divided by Count Salvadori into five families:
TreronidcB (Fruit - Pigeons), Columbidcz (True Pigeons),
Peristeridcz (Ground-Pigeons), Gouridcz (Crowned Pigeons),
and Didunculida (Tooth-billed Pigeons.)

THE TRUE PIGEONS. FAMILY COLUMBID^E.

These Pigeons have a rather short tarsus, generally shorter
than the middle toe. In this respect they show that they are
Tree -Pigeons, as opposed to the Peristeridce or Ground-
Pigeons, and they have a near relationship to the Treronidce. or
Fruit- Pigeons. The latter, however, have very broad soles to
the feet, and have from fourteen to sixteen tail-feathers,
whereas the Columbida have the soles normal and not very
broad, the hind-toe only with the skin prominently expanded
on the sides, while the tail-feathers are twelve in number. (Cf.
Salvadori, op. cit. p. 3).

Count Salvadori divides the family Columbida into three sub-
families— the Columbine, with the tail of moderate length, not
longer than the wings, and the Macropygiina and Ectopistince^
in which the tail is longer than the wings.

THE WOOD-PIGEONS. GENUS COLUMBA.
Columba, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 279 (1766).

Type, C. livia (Bonn.).

In this genus the tail is shorter than the wing, and the
tarsus is feathered for a small extent on the upper half, but not
for more than half its length.

About sixty different kinds of Wood-Pigeon are known, and
they are found in every part of the Old World, and throughout
the New World also, except in the more northern parts.

I. THE WOOD-PIGEON. COLUMBA PALUMBUS.

Columba palumbus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 282 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B. i. p. 259 (1837); Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 3, pi. 456

242 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

(1878); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 138 (1883); Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. i (1883) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit.
B. ii. p. 396 (1884) ; Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 467
(1889); Salvad. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxi. p. 299(1893);
Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxii. (1896).
(Plate CXX1.)

Adult Male. — General colour above slaty-drab, the wing-
coverts like the back, the greater series a little clearer slate-
colour ; the outer wing-coverts of all the series white, forming
a band round the edge of the wing ; bastard-wing and primary
coverts slaty-black ; quills brown, externally slaty, lighter at the
base of the outer secondaries, the primaries all edged externally
with white ; lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts clear
bluish-grey ; upper surface of tail bluish-grey, the terminal third
blackish ; under surface of tail slaty-black at the base and at
the end, with a broad band of light grey in the middle ; head
and neck bluish-grey, glossed with metallic green and lilac on
the hind-neck ; on the sides of the neck a large patch of
creamy-white feathers, the lower part of the hinder-neck and
the lower sides of the neck glossed with metallic lilac ; sides of
face and throat bluish-grey, paler towards the chin ; under
surface of body from the lower throat to the breast vinous or
lilac, with the abdomen, sides of body, and under tail-coverts
pale bluish-grey, like the under wing-coverts, axillaries, and
quill-linings, the latter being a shade lighter grey ; bill orange-
red at the base, yellow towards the tip, the membrane covering
the nostrils almost white ; tarsi and feet bright red ; iris straw-
yellow. Total length, 16 inches; culmen, 0*85; wing, 9^8;
tail, 5 '4 ; tarsus, 1*25.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but a little smaller. Total
length, 15*5 inches; wing, 9*5.

Young Birds. — Resemble the adults, but are duller and paler
in colour, and have no white patch on the side of the neck ; the
bill is dull red at the base, greyish towards the tip.

Nestling. — Leaden-grey, covered with hairy down of a straw-
yellow colour.

Range in Great Britain. — The Wood-Pigeon is generally distri-
buted throughout England and Wales, receiving large additions

WOOD-PIGEON. 243

to its numbers during the autumn migration. It is gradually
extending its range northward, and is now common in the
Lothians and other districts of Scotland, where it was unknown
but a short time ago. The same may be said of the West of
England, but in every county of Ireland it breeds numerously,
according to Mr. Ussher, though in the treeless districts it is
seldom seen.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is
found throughout the Western Palaearctic Region, and
extends eastward to Northern Persia, being replaced in
South-eastern Persia, Central Asia, and the North-Western
Himalayas as far as Nepal by Columba casiotis, which has the
neck-patches fulvous, or clayey cream-colour (Salvador!). In
most parts of Europe the Wood-Pigeon is a resident, and it
breeds as far north as 65° or 66° N. Lat. ; but those birds, which
nest in more northern latitudes, migrate south as winter
approaches, mostly coming over to Great Britain like the
Starlings.

Habits. — In a wild state the Wood-Pigeon is one of the
shyest of birds, as it is also one of the most wary ; but during
the breeding season, when once the female has begun to sit,
they are more easy of observation. I remember how, when a
school-boy, I found a nest in an isolated tree, a small elm.
The nest was placed in the fork of a branch against the stem,
and was rather difficult of access. My mind was bent at
that time upon possessing a live Wood-Pigeon to take home
for the holidays along with my other pets (I had eighty birds
of different sorts in a stable loft at the time, Barn-owls,
Kestrels, Jackdaws, Mistle-Thrushes, etc., etc., etc. ! !). The
young Pigeons, however, appeared determined not to be
hatched out before my departure for home, so I resolved to
catch the old bird if possible. The tree, as I said before, was
not an easy one to climb, but I essayed it one morning soon
after daybreak, when the hen bird was sitting hard, and I
managed to reach the nest and place my hand on the sitting
bird ; but not quite far enough, as she flew off suddenly, and
left the whole of her tail in my hand !

The Wood-Pigeon creates great havoc among the peas, and
I remember once meeting a well-known Cookham gunner

* 3

244 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY

returning very early one morning with eight Wood-Pigeons in
his hands, and I asked him how he got them. ''At one shot," he
replied, " Mr. Mills told me that the Pigeons were working his
peas, and asked me to scare them if I could. So I went down to
Widbrook, and hid myself behind the hedge on the common.
After a long wait, I saw a bird walking among the peas and
fired at it. On going to pick it up, I found seven others had
been knocked over at the same time." Besides peas and grain
the Wood-Pigeons devour great quantities of beech-mast, and
I have more than once shot them from beech woods, when
their crops have been so full of mast, that they have actually
split open with their fall.

At the present day one does not need to go to the woods
to study the habits of this pretty bird, for it is now a plentiful
inhabitant of the London parks. Years ago I have seen them
stalking about quite tamely in the Champs Elysees and the
gardens of the Luxembourg, in Paris, and now they are equally
tame in Kensington Gardens and St. James's Park, in London,
and one pair, at least, seems to have taken up their abode in
the grounds of the Natural History Museum, during the
present spring (1897).

Nest. — This is a poorly constructed platform of crossed twigs,
and is placed in all kinds of situations ; in low bushes, in high
trees, in thick ivy, and sometimes on the deserted nests of
other birds, or squirrels. When placed in a thorn-bush or
some such situation, the framework of the nest is so slight
that the white eggs can be seen through the twigs from below.

Eggs. — Two, exceptionally three, in number. Pure white,
and glossy. Axis, i'55-i'75 inches ; diam., I'^-i^.

II. THE STOCK-DOVE. COLUMBA CENAS.

Columba cenas (pL), Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 279 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B. i. p. 287 (1837); Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 23,
pi. 458(1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 138 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 8 (1883); Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 401 (1884); Saunders, Man. Brit. B.
p. 469 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xx. (1891);
Salvad. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxi. p. 261 (1893).

(Plate CXXIl.)

PLATE CXXII

STOCK DOVE

STOCK-DOVE. 245

Adult Male. — General colour above drab grey ; the wing-
coverts like the back, but a little clearer grey, especially on the
greater series, two of the innermost of which have black bases,
forming a double spot on the wing; bastard-wing, primary-
coverts, and quills blackish, bluish grey on the inner webs of
some of the primary-coverts, and on the base of the outer webs
of the inner primaries and outer secondaries, the inner second-
aries almost entirely grey, and the innermost resembling the
back, with a black spot in the middle of the outer web of two
of them, forming another double spot on the wing ; lower
back, rump, and upper tail-coverts clear bluish-grey ; tail
Bluish-grey, black for the terminal third, the under surface of
the tail blackish, with a grey sub-terminal band ; head and
throat bluish-grey, with a dusky patch on the ear-coverts ; sides
of neck and hind-neck glossed with metallic-green and lilac ;
lower throat, fore-neck, and chest delicate vinous, fading off
into the delicate pearly grey of the rest of the under parts ; the
under tail-coverts slightly darker bluish-grey, with pale pearly-
grey margins to the feathers ; the under wing-coverts and
axillaries also somewhat darker grey than the breast ; bill red
at base, yellow towards the tip, and grey on the soft part
of the base of the upper mandible ; feet pinkish red ; iris
red. Total length, 14 inches ; culmen, 0-8 ; wing, 8*2 ; tail, 4/0 ;
tarsus, 1*2.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but a little smaller and
duller in colour. Total length, 13-5 inches; wing, 8*5.

Young. — Duller in colour than the adults ; the green colour
wanting on the neck, and the black spots on the wings
obsolete.

Characters. — The smaller size, the lack of the large white
patches on the sides of the neck, and the absence of white
round the bend of the wing and on the outer wing-coverts, as
well as the presence of the four black spots on the wing,
caused by the bases to two of the inner greater coverts and
two of the inner secondaries being black, distinguish the Stock-
Dove from the Wood-Pigeon.

Range in Great Britain. — The Stock- Dove, like the Wood-
Pigeon, is found in most parts of England, and is extending
its range northward in Scotland. Mr. Ussher also reports that

246 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

it is spreading in Ireland. "It breeds," he says, "in Antrim,
Down, Armagh, Louth, and Wicklow, and doubtless also in
King's and Queen's Counties, where it is reported to be seen
more or less frequently ; also recently in Carlow, though for-
merly unknown there. Still scarce and local.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Stock- Dove inhabits
the whole of the Western Palaearctic Region, and extends
eastward to Turkestan and Northern Afghanistan and Lob-
Noor. In Scandinavia and Russia it breeds up to about
60° or 61° N. Lat.

Habits. — The Stock-Dove has somewhat different habits from
those of the Wood-Pigeon. It is seldom found in flocks, like
the latter bird, and more often is met with singly. I have
often flushed the Stock-Dove from the dense thickets of small
branches which grow at the foot of ancient lime-trees, arid
become choked with dead leaves ; but I never could discover
that it was nesting in these situations, though the cover was
dense enough to afford it the shelter which the bird loves, and
there was probably some hole in the tree itself which I failed
to discover. In old elm-trees covered with ivy I have often
found it nesting, and seeking the same kind of hole as the
Jackdaws, which also nested, in the proportion of six to one of
the Stock- Doves, in the same cluster of hoary elms. Like the
Wood-Pigeon, the Stock-Dove resorts to some favourite and
retired clump to roost; but whereas the former bird often
selects a dense grove of yews or fir-trees on some island in. a
lake, I have never found the Stock-Doves resorting to such
haunts. Above the old yew-avenue in Avington Park are
many elm and ash trees, and to these the Stock-Doves used
to resort as evening closed in, and I have procured several
specimens for the British Museum by waiting for them in the
twilight, when they used to flock into the high trees, doubtless
intending to descend later on to roost in the shade of the great
yews. The food of the Stock-Dove is very similar to that of
the Wood-Pigeon, but I have never known the latter bird to
show any preference for mustard-seed, whereas the Stock- Dove
and the Turtle-Dove do great damage to the mustard-fields
when the seed is ripe. In winter the Stock-Dove often mixes
with the flocks of Wood- Pigeons.

ROCK-DOVfi. 347

ftest. — Composed only of a few sticks or roots, and very
frequently there is none at all, the eggs being laid on the wood
at the bottom of a hole, or on the bare sand in a rabbit-burrow.
Mr. Robert Read writes to me : — "I have found fresh eggs of
this bird in Somersetshire as early as March and as late as
September, in both instances in the hollow head of a pollard
willow. I have also taken the nest from a rabbit-hole in a
wooded hill-side." The species also breeds in holes of trees
and cliffs, on beams in old church towers, old nests of other
birds, and squirrel's dreys.

Eggs. — Two. Pure glossy white. Axis, 1-5-1*65 inches;
diam., ri-i'25.

III. THE ROCK-DOVE. COLUMBA LIVIA.

Columba livia, Bonn. Enc. Me'th. i. p. 227 (1790); Macgill.
Brit. B. i. p. 268 (1837); Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. n,
pi. 457 (1879); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 139 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 13 (1883) ; Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 405 (1884); Saunders, Man. Brit. B.
p. 471 (1889); Salvad. Cat. B. Brit, Mus. xxi. p. 252
(1893) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxx. (1895).

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate grey ; the wing-
coverts like the back, the greater series with a black band
across the middle, forming a wing-bar ; bastard-wing, primary-
coverts, and quills grey, dusky on the outer webs and at the
ends ; the secondaries grey at the base, with broad blackish
ends ; the inner secondaries black, with a sub-terminal bar of
grey, the innermost grey towards the ends, which have a
narrow dusky edging ; lower back pure white ; rump and
upper tail-coverts slaty-blue, a little darker than the back;
tail-feathers slaty-blue, with a broad sub-marginal band of
black ; crown of head slaty-blue, as also the sides of the face
and throat ; the sides of the neck and the entire hind-neck
metallic lilac or green, according to the light, this metallic
colour extending all over the fore-neck and chest ; remainder
of the under surface of the body clear slaty-grey, a little
darker on the under tail-coverts; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white, with the edge of the wing grey, the quill-

248 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

lining ashy-whitish ; bill vinous slate-colour, inclining to white
on the cere ; feet red ; iris orange-red. Total length, 13
inches; oilmen, 075 ; wing, 8 95 ; tail, 3-9; tarsus, 1-15.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but somewhat smaller.
Total length, 12*5 inches; wing, 8*3.

Young. — Differs from the adult in its more dingy coloration,
and in the pale fringes to the wing-coverts. The metallic
colour on the neck and chest is almost entirely absent, these
parts being dusky slate colour ; the lower back is white as in
the adults.

Characters. — The white on the lower back at once dis-
tinguishes the Rock-Dove from the Wood-Pigeon and the
Stock Dove. Like the latter it has no white patches on the
sides of the neck, which are metallic ; but instead of the four
black spots on the wing-coverts, the wing is crossed by a
black band across the greater coverts. There is a second
black band, in both species, formed by the ends of the
secondaries ; but in the Rock-Dove the innermost secondaries
are crossed with a black band, whereas in the Stock-Dove
these quills resemble the back, and only two of them show a
black spot on the outer web.

Range in Great Britain. — The Rock-Dove breeds in a wild
state on the cliffs of Scotland and the Orkneys and Shetlands,
and its range can be traced from Devonshire and Cornwall,
where it is very local, along the west of England and Wales,
but on the east coast of England it is only found on Flam-
borough Head, and in Northumberland. Mr. Ussher says that
it breeds in the sea-cliffs nearly all round Ireland.

Range outside the British Islands. — Count Salvadori says that
the range of the Rock-Dove extends throughout the Western
Palaearctic Region, eastwards to Sind, Cashmere, and some
parts of India. In many countries it crosses with the
domestic Pigeon, and varies considerably in plumage in con-
sequence, so that several supposed species have been named
upon these differences. It seems to be nowhere very common in
Europe, excepting, as Mr. Saunders points out, in mountainous
regions, such as the Pyrenees and the various ranges of Spain
and Ita'y-

ROCK-DOVE. 249

Habits. — The late Dr. Saxby has given the following account
of the habits of the Rock-Dove in the Shetlands : —

"It is not very difficult to approach under ordinary
circumstances, and, when feeding in flocks among stubble, is
so intent upon its work as to allow the shooter to walk
boldly up within range; but in neighbourhoods where it is
often disturbed it is fully as shy as the Wood-Pigeon. It is
easy to shoot the Doves as they fly in and out of their caves ;
but the practice is dangerous, from the risk one runs of
shaking down loose fragments of stone, as well as cruel, on
account of the impossibility of entering the caves in any but
the calm weather of the more genial seasons of the year, when,
of course, the birds are breeding.

" The Rock-Dove feeds in company with various other
species, such as Redwings, Twites, Buntings, and tame
Pigeons ; and it is owing to the latter circumstance that
parti-coloured birds are so frequently met with in the flocks.
In winter, during hard frost, it descends to the shingly beaches,
where it picks up small seeds among the weathered plants
above high-water mark.

"It is difficult to convince farmers that at least it does some
little good. But in this case, as in all other similar cases, the
wisest course is merely to give a simple, unprejudiced record of
facts, leaving truth to work its own way, as it inevitably will in
the end. To state that any living thing is probably useful to
mankind, is but to divide one's hearers into two classes, the one
clamouring for its extermination, the other prepared to protect
it to an injurious extent ; and a precisely similar result would
have been sure to follow an opinion that it was useless or hurtful.
When its enemies see it upon the sheaves, they at once begin
to argue as if this were its constant habit all the year round,
and they enter into the most intricate calculations as to the
probable number of bushels thus consumed during the twelve
months. Similarly, its would-be friends are triumphant when,
on opening the crop of a Rock-Dove shot in a stubble field,
some considerable time after the corn has been cleared, it is
found to be filled with the seeds and roots of noxious weeds,
with merely a few grains of oats or barley intermixed, quite
overlooking the fact, that had the grain been abundant the
weeds would have been despised, as indeed I have ascertained

250 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

by experiment with these birds in confinement. During, say,
ten months in the year, when corn is not to be procured, the
Rock-Dove subsists chiefly upon the roots of the couch-grass
(Triticum repens\ and the seeds of various troublesome weeds,
such as Sinapis arvensis, Raphanus, Raphanistrum^ Plantago
maritima, and Capsella bursa-pastoris. There can be no doubt
that it greatly prefers grain to all other food, and will consume it
in enormous quantities ; therefore, if the farmer cannot con-
vince himself that the evil is counterbalanced by the good,
and finds his interests suffering, then by all means let him save
his pocket by thinning the ranks, but also let him pause ere he
attempt the dangerous experiment of total extermination."

Nest. — According to Messrs. Kearton, who have given a
photograph of one of the caves in North Uist, where Rock-
Doves and Shags were breeding in company, the nest is a
small collection of twigs, sticks, seaweed, and bents, roughly
constructed, and flat. It is placed on ledges and clefts of
maritime and inland cliffs, generally the former.

Eggs. — Two in number, glossy white. Axis, 1-5 to 1*65
inches; diam., 1*15-1 '2.

THE POINTED-TAILED PIGEONS. SUB-FAMILY
ECTOPISTIN^:.

In these American birds the tail is very peculiar, being not
only longer than the wing, but narrow, and having the feathers
pointed, the outer feathers being much broader than the centre
ones. There is but one genus and a single species in this
sub-family.

THE PASSENGER PIGEONS. GENUS ECTOPISTES.
Ectopistes Swainson, Zool. Journ. p. 362 (1827).

Type, £, migratorius (Linn.).
The following is the only representative of the genus : —

I. THE AMERICAN PASSENGER PIGEON.

ECTOPISTES MIGRATORIUS.

Columba inigratoria> Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 285 (1766).

PASSENGER PIGEON. 25!

Ectopistes migratorius, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 140 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 28 (1883); id. Man.
Brit. B. p. 474, note (1889); Salvad. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxi.
p. 369 (1893).

Adult Male. — General colour slaty-grey on the mantle, wing-
coverts, lower back, rump, and upper tail- coverts ; scapulars
brown, with black marks caused by longitudinal patches near
the base of the outer web, a few of the adjacent median and
greater coverts similarly marked ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts,
and quills black, the primaries externally margined with whity-
brown, the inner ones more broadly with white near the base
of the outer web ; centre tail-feathers slaty-black, the remainder
grey, with more or less white along the inner web of all but
the outside feathers, which are white on the outer web and grey
on the inner one ; all but the centre feathers with a patch of
cinnamon near the base of the inner web ; head and hind- neck,
sides of face, and throat slaty-blue, paler on the latter, the sides
of the neck metallic reddish lilac, extending round the hind-
neck and on to the upper mantle, these parts being shot with
coppery bronze ; under surface of body, from the middle of
the throat downwards, rich vinous cinnamon, paler on the
breast, the lower abdomen and under tail-coverts white ; sides
of body and axillaries slaty-grey, the under wing-coverts darker
slate colour, and those near the edge of the wing slaty-blackish ;
quill lining dark ashy. Total length, 16*2 inches; culmen,
07; wing, 8-45; tail, 7-85; tarsus, 12.

Adult Female. — In the British Museum are specimens, sexed
as females, which do not differ from the males in colour.
Salvadori and Ridgway, however, describe the hen birds as
having a brownish head and whitish throat. According to the
latter the chest and breast are greyish brown or drab, gradually
changing to pale brownish-grey on the sides ; the belly and
under tail-coverts white. Total length, 14-5 inches; wing, 7-8.

Young. — Browner than the adults and marked with white
fringes to the feathers of the upper surface, the quills edged
with light rufous. The throat and abdomen white; lower
throat, fore-neck, and chest brown, with whitish fringes to the
feathers.

252 ALLEN s NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range in Great Britain. — The Passenger Pigeon has been shot
five times in our islands, but Mr. Saunders doubts if, on these
occasions, the birds have been really wild individuals.

Range outside the British Islands. — The range given for the
species in the "Check- List of North American Birds" (p. 179)
is as follows : — " Eastern North America, from Hudson's Bay
southward and west to the Great Plains, straggling westward
to Nevada and Washington Territory."

Habits. — Dr. Brewer, in the " History of North American
Birds," gives the following notes on the species : —

"Mr. Audubon states that in 1813, on his way from
Henderson to Louisville, in crossing the barrens near Hardens -
burg, he observed these birds flying to the south-west in
greater numbers than he had ever known before. He attempted
to count the different flocks as they successively passed, but
after counting one hundred and sixty-three in twenty-one
minutes he gave it up as impracticable. As he journeyed on,
their numbers seemed to increase. The air seemed filled with
Pigeons, and the light of noon-day to be obscured as by an
eclipse. Not a single bird alighted, as the woods were
destitute of mast, and all flew so high that he failed to reach
any with a rifle. He speaks of their aerial evolutions as
beautiful in the extreme, especially when a Hawk pressed upon
the rear of a flock. All at once, like a torrent, and with a
noise like that of thunder, they rushed together into a compact
mass, and darted forward in undulating lines, descending and
weeping near the earth with marvellous velocity, then
mounting almost perpendicularly in a vast column, wheeling
and twisting so that their continued lines seemed to resemble
the coils of a gigantic serpent. At times they flew so low that
multitudes were destroyed, and, for many days, the entire
population seemed to eat nothing else but Pigeons.

" When a flight of Pigeons discovers an abundant supply of
food, sufficient to induce them to alight, they are said to pass
around in circles over the place, making various evolutions,
after a while passing lower over the woods, and at length
alighting ; then, as if suddenly alarmed, taking to flight, only
to return immediately. These manoeuvres are repeated with
various indications of indecision in their movements, or as if

TURTLE-DOVE. 253

apprehensive of unseen dangers. During these manoeuvres
the flapping of their many thousand wings causes a reverbera-
tion suggestive of thunder. When at last settled upon the
ground, they industriously search among the fallen leaves for
the acorns and the beech-mast, the rear flocks continually
rising, passing over the main body, and re-alighting. These
changes are so frequent that at times the whole collection
appears to be in motion. A large extent of ground is thus
cleared in a surprisingly short space of time, and cleared with
a completeness that is described as incredible. They are
usually satiated by the middle of the day, and ascend to the
trees to rest and digest their food. On these occasions the
Pigeons are destroyed in immense numbers, and their
abundance in large extents of the country has been very
sensibly reduced."

Nest. — Composed of a few dry twigs laid crosswise and built
upon the branches of trees. (Brewer, t.c. p. 373.)

Eggs. — Two in number, pure white. Axis, 1*4-1 '6 inches;
diam., i'o-i'i6.

THE GROUND-PIGEONS. FAMILY PERISTERID^E.

In this family of Pigeons the bill is not hooked, and the
nostrils are parallel to the edges or tomia of the upper
mandible. The tarsus is equal to, or longer than, the middle
toe, and the number of tail-feathers varies from twelve to twenty.

THE TURTLE-DOVES. SUB-FAMILY TURTURIN^E.

In this Sub-family there are no long hackles on the neck,
neither is there any black spot beneath the ear-coverts, as in
the Zenaidincz. Count Salvadori gives the following supple-
mentary characters : — No metallic spots on the wings ; tail of
twelve feathers, rather broad ; tarsus naked on the upper
part ; neck with a dark collar, more or less distinct, or with
scale-like patches on the sides.

The Turtle-Doves, which includes five sub-genera — Turtur^
Homopelia, Streptopelia, Spilopelia, and Stigmatopelia — are
entirely confined to the Old World, over the whole of which
they are distributed.

254 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

THE TRUE TURTLE-DOVES. GENUS TURTUR.
Turtur, Selby in Jardine's Nat. Libr. Pigeons, p. 169 (1835).

Type, T. turtur (Linn.).

The characters of the genus Turlur are the same as those
of the Sub-family recorded above.

I. THE TURTLE-DOVE. TURTUR TURTUR.

Columba furfur, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 284(1766); Macgill.

Brit. B. i. p. 291 (1837).
Turtur vulgaris, Eyton ; Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 39, pi. 462

(1876).
Turtur communis, Selby ; B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 139 (1883) ;

Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 21 (1883); id. Man.

Brit. B. p. 473 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B.

part xxviii. (1894).

Turtur auritus, Ray; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 411 (1884).
Turtur turtur^ Salvad. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxi. p. 396 (1893).

Adult Male. — General colour above brown, with a ruddy
shade, the scapulars and wing-coverts rufous, with black spear-
shaped centres to the feathers, less strongly indicated on the
wing-coverts ; the outer lesser coverts, and the median and
greater series bluish-grey, the innermost ones rufous, with
black centres, like the scapulars ; bastard-wing and primary-
coverts blackish, externally bluish-grey; quills dusky brown,
with a slight ashy shade externally, the feathers narrowly
fringed with whity-brown ; lower back, rump, and upper tail-
coverts brown, with a ruddy tinge and more or less grey,
especially on the sides of the back ; centre tail-feathers dusky
brown, with whity-brown tips, the remainder of the feathers
black with broad white ends, the outer ones also white on
their outer webs ; head and nape bluish-grey ; on the sides of
the neck a large patch of mottled feathers, black with bluish-
white margins, having a scalloped appearance; sides of face
and throat pale vinous, deepening on the fore-neck and breast,
and fading off towards the abdomen, which is white, the under
tail-coverts being pure white; axillaries and sides of body
slaty-blue, the under wing-coverts darker slate-colour; quills

TURTLE-DOVE. 255

dull ashy below ; bill brown ; feet red ; iris reddish-brown ;
bare skin round the eye red. Total length, 1 1 inches ;
culmen, 07; wing, 6*8; tail, 3*9; tarsus, 0-9.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but with the plumage
rather duller. Total length, 10-5 inches ; wing, 6*8.

Young. — Browner than the adults, with broader and duller
rufous edges to the scapulars and wing-coverts ; quills edged
and tipped with rufous. There are no dark patches on the
sides of the neck, and the throat and breast are dull pale ashy,
with a wash of fulvous brown on the lower throat ; the flanks
grey, and the rest of the lower parts white.

Range in Great Britain. — A summer visitor, arriving in May
or at the end of April. It breeds throughout England up to
Yorkshire, but is rare to the northward, though it is believed
to have bred in Durham, Northumberland, and Cumberland,
and even in the south of Scotland. It has occurred in
migration as far north as the Shetlands and the Faeroe Isles.
As regards its occurrence in Ireland, Mr. R. J. Ussher
writes : — " It is recorded as having once nested near Down-
patrick, and once at Derraquin, Kerry (Thompson). A female,
with eggs in its ovary, was once shot near Avoca in Wicklow
(Walters), and recently Mr. E. Williams has obtained, near
Dublin, some birds so young that they seemed to have been
reared in the county. As it is often observed in spring, it
probably breeds more frequently than is supposed."

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is a
summer resident throughout the Western Palsearctic Region,
and winters in Northern Africa as far south, at least, as Shoa.
In Central Asia it extends to Yarkand, Afghanistan, and
Baluchistan ; but Mr. Hartert considers the Eastern birds to
belong to a distinct pale race which he has called Turtur.

Habits. — Seebohm gives the following note : — The Turtle-
Dove is very careful to conceal its nest, and breeds only in
districts that afford it plenty of cover. It is very partial to
dense game-coverts and plantations, and loves the more open
districts, if the hedges are tall and thick. It also frequents
parks and pleasure-grounds, and is commonly met with in
close shrubberies. Soon after their arrival the woods and

256 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LTBRARY.

groves are full of their soft note, which is a rich low coor-r-r
coor-r-r, prolonged for some time, and often modulated in
different ways. In cultivated districts it is a very timid bird,
and at the least alarm seeks safety amongst the trees, where,
when perched, it is ever looking anxiously from side to side,
as if fearful of an enemy's approach ; but it is a very easy bird
to shoot when feeding in open country where it is not
molested. The food of the Turtle-Dove is chiefly composed
of grain and small seeds ; but, doubtless, like its near allies,
the Pigeons, it varies this diet with land-shells and fruit. Like
the rest of the Pigeons, the Turtle- Dove drinks frequently and
regularly. It is said by some writers that it only takes fresh
water; but Stevenson, in his "Birds of Norfolk," notices its
partiality for salt, and thinks that this is the reason why it
occurs so abundantly near the coast. Other Pigeons are
known to prefer brackish water to fresh.

" Like its cousins, the Pigeons, the Turtle-Dove often flies
far to feed, and small parties of these birds, as well as of Stock-
Doves, may be constantly seen in spring on the Wallachian
Steppes ten miles or more from a tree or even a bush. I have
shot them on these prairies as late as the 28th of May. The
flight of this bird is very powerful, and often accompanied
with loud clashing together of the wings. On the ground it
runs among the earth-clods with great ease, continually de-
pressing its head and contracting its neck."

Nest. — A flat structure of twigs, varying in strength and di-
mensions. It is often built in evergreen trees or bushes in
parks and gardens, or in a dense hedge, and generally at no
great distance from the ground.

Eggs. — Two in number, creamy- white. Axis, 1*1-1*3 inch;
diam., 0*85-1*0.

II. THE ORIENTAL TURTLE-DOVE. TURTUR ORIENTALIS.

Columba orientals, Lash. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 606 (1790).
Turtur orientalis, Salvad. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxi. p. 403

(1893).

Adult Male. — Similar to T. turtur, but rather larger, with the
edges to the feathers on the side of the neck bluish-grey, the

SAND GROiJsii. 25?

abdomen vinous like the breast, and the under wing-coverts and
the band at the end of the tail-feathers bluish-grey, instead of
white ; bill blackish ; feet dull purplish lake. Total length,
13*0 inches ; oilmen, 0*7 ; wing, 7*4; tail, 4*5 ; tarsus, 1*05.

Adult Female; — Similar to the male, but smaller. Total
length, 12 inches; wing, 67.

Range in Great Britain, — A single specimen of this eastern
species of Turtle-Dove was shot near Scarborough on the 23rd
of October, 1889, and was exhibited by the late Mr. Seebohm,
on behalf of Mr. James Backhouse of York, at a meeting of the
Zoological Society, on the 6th of May, 1890.

Range outside the British Islands. — According to Count Salvadori,
this species of Turtle-Dove is found from the base of the
Himalayas to Central India, and through the Burmese countries
to Formosa, Manchuria, Corea, and Japan.

Habits. — Captain Hutton states that the present species arrives
at Masuri in the N.W. Himalayas, early in April, when all the
woods resound with its deep-toned cooing. It does not seem
to differ in any respect in habits from other Turtle-Doves. It
breeds in May and June, and Mr. Hume has found nests as
late as August.

Nest. — According to Mr. Hume, the bird makes a loose but
rather more substantial twig nest than many of its congeners ;
it is placed on some horizontal branch of a large tree, usually
not far from the extremity.

Eggs. — Two in number, white. Axis, i -1-1-34 inch; diam.,
0*85-1-0

THE SAND-GROUSE. ORDER PTEROCLETES.*

The Sand-Grouse hold an intermediate position between the
Pigeons and the Game-Birds, not only in external appearance,
but on account of their anatomical and osteological peculiari-

* In the ninth volume of this Library Mr. W. R. Ogilvie Grant has
described all the Game-Birds, including the Sand-Grouse, He is the
acknowledged authority on these Orders of birds and I have therefore
merely given an epitome of the British species, founded on Mr. Grant's
work above-mentioned. Much of the information in the fpllowing pages
is a copy of Mr. Grant's work, for the simple reason that I have not
seen how to improve upon it.

15 S

258

ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

ties. Thus Mr. Ogilvie Grant writes :— " Their general
structure presents many striking Columbine characters, as in
the vocal organs, pterygoid bones, and the presence of basi-
pterygoid processes (bp) in the skull (fig.i), the shoulder-girdle,

Fig. i.— Skull of Pterodes exustus. Fig. 2.— Skull of P. exustus.

sternum, and especially the great deltoid process of the humerus,
or upper-wing bone; but the digestive organs are like those
of the True Game-Birds."

Fig. 3. — Sternum of Pterodes alchatus.

SAND-GROUSE. 259

Among other distinctive characters may be mentioned the
schizorhinal nasals and the sternum, with two notches on
each side of the posterior margin, the inner one being some-
times reduced to a foramen (fig. 3).

The bill resembles that of the True Game-Birds, but is not
so strongly developed.

Three toes only occur, the hind-toe, when present, being in
a rudimentary condition. The feet are very short and feathered,
and the toes are either naked or thickly covered with plumes.

The wings are long and pointed.

The feathers of the body have well-developed after-shafts,
like those of the True Game-Birds, but the fifth secondary
flight-feather is absent.

The young are born covered with down, and are able to run
soon after they are hatched.

The eggs are almost invariably three in number, smooth and
glossy in texture, equally rounded at both ends, and double
spotted, a set of pale purplish marks beneath the surface of the
shell underlying the brown surface spots (Grant, I.e.).

THE SAND-GROUSE. FAMILY PTEROCLIDJS.

The characters for the family are the same as those of the
Order Pterodetes, there being but one family in the order.
Only one species has occurred within our limits.

THE THREE-TOED SAND-GROUSE.

GENUS SYRRHAPTES.
SyrrhapteS) Illiger, Prodr. p. 243 (1811).
Type, S. paradoxus (Pall.).

Pallas's Sand-Grouse, which is the only species which has
occurred in Great Britain, is distinguished from all the other
members of the Order Pterodetes by the want of the hind-toe.
The tarsus and the toes are covered with feathers.

Two species of Syrrhaptes are known, one, S. paradoxus,
described below, and the other, S. tibetanus, being an inhabi-
tant of Central Asia.

S 2

ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

I. PALLAS'S SAND-GROUSE. SYRRHAPTES PARADOXUS.

Tetrao paradoxa. Pall. Reis. Russ. Reichs. ii. App. p. 712

(1773).

Syrrkaptes paradoxus, Dresser. B. Eur. vii. p. 75, pi. 468
(1876); B.O.U. List. Brit. B. p. 140 (1883); Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 31 (1883); Seebohm, Hist.
Brit. B. ii. p. 419 (1884); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 475
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xvii. (1891) ; Ogilvie
Grant, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxii. p. 2 (1893); id. in Allen's
Nat. Libr. ix. p. 3, pi. i. (1895).

Adult Male. — General colour above pale sandy buff; across
the breast a band of white, each feather having a black sub-
terminal cross-bar ; throat rusty-red, not margined by a black
line ; no black spots on the side of the neck ; on the abdomen
a large black patch. Total length, 14-6 inches ; wing, 9*1 ;
tail, 7'o ; tarsus, o'8 (Grant, I.e.).

Adult Female. — Differs from the male in having the sides of
the neck spotted with black ; the band across the breast is
wanting, and a black line bands the pale buff throat. Total
length, 12-8 inches ; wing, 8'o ; tail, 5-5 ; tarsus, 0-8 (Grant, I.e.).

Nestling. — Covered with beautifully patterned down, each
plume of the body being distinct and almost scale-like in ap-
pearance, quite different from the fluffy down of young Game-
Birds. The general colour is pale buff, with patches of sienna
and brown arranged in pairs on the sides of the head and the
upper parts of the body. These patches are mostly margined
and connected by irregular dotted black lines (Newton, Ibis,
1890, p. 210, pi. vii.)

Range in Great Britain. — Pallas's Sand-Grouse only appears at
certain intervals, when a great irruption into Western Europe
Jakes place. Thus in 1863, and again in 1888, large numbers
visited Britain and even bred here. Notwithstanding the pro-
tection afforded them by intelligent land-owners, the birds
vanished by degrees, and probably migrated eastwards, back to
their home in the Kirghis Steppes.

Range outside the British Islands, — The home of Pallas's
Sand-Grouse is in the Kirghis Steppes, whence it extends to

GAME-DIRDS. 261

Turkestan and the region of Lake Baikal, Mongolia, and
Northern China.

Habits. — The late General Prjevalsky writes : — " After their
morning feed, the flocks betake themselves to some well or
salt-lake to drink, apparently preferring the fresh to the salt
water. At the drinking-place, as well as at the feeding-places,
these birds never settle on the ground without first describing
a circle, in order to assure themselves that there is no danger.
On alighting they hastily drink and rise again ; and, in cases
where the flocks are large, the birds in front get up before
those at the back have time to alight. They know their
drinking-places very well, and very often go to them from
distances of tens of miles, especially in the mornings between
nine and ten o'clock, but after twelve at noon they seldom
visit these spots." In autumn they are very gregarious, and
large flocks are to be met with in the neighbourhood of their
breeding-ground, unless compelled to migrate to greater dis-
tances by a heavy fall of snow.

Swinhoe says that in North China great numbers of these birds
are sometimes caught after a snow-storm, when they arrive in
large flocks in search of food. Having cleared the snow from
a patch of ground, the natives scatter a small green bean to
attract the birds and sometimes manage to catch a whole flock
in their clap-nets.

Nest. — None ; merely a slight hole scratched in the ground.

Eggs. — Three, sometimes four, in number. Like those of all
other members of the group, the eggs are perfectly oval in
shape and remarkably Rail-like in appearance, closely resem-
bling those of the Corn-Crake (Crex crex). The ground-
colour is olive or brownish-buff, spotted all over, though not
very thickly, with brown and pale olive or grey, the former
markings beirig on the surface of the shell, the latter beneath.
(Cf. Grant, t.c. p. 5.)

THE GAME-BIRDS. ORDER GALLIFORMES.

The following characters of the Order are summarised by
Mr. Ogilvie Grant (t. c., p. 25): — "The nasals are holorhinal
(fig. 5) and true basipterygoid processes are absent, but are

262

ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

represented by sessile facets (sf) situated far forward on the
sphenoidal rostrum (fig. 6). The episternal process of the

Fig. 5.— Skull of Red Grouse. Fig. 6.— Skull of Red Grouse.

B

Fig. 7.— Sternum of Red Grouse,

RED GROUSE. 263

sternum is perforated to receive a process from the base of the
coracoids (fig. 7, A), and there are two deep notches on each
side of the posterior margin of the sternum (fig. 7, JB). The
bill is short and stout, the upper mandible being arched and
overhanging the lower. The hind-toe is always present, but
varies in size and position. The feathers covering the body
are provided with well-developed after-shafts. The nestlings are
hatched covered with down, and able to run a few hours after
their birth. The eggs, especially those of the smaller species,
are often numerous, and when spotted have only a single set of
surface marks, none of the pale underlying spots characteristic
of the Sand-Grouse, Hemipodes, and Wading Birds, being
found." (Grant, I.e.)

THE GROUSE. FAMILY TETRAONID^E.

The hind-toe is raised above the level of the other toes ; the
nostrils are covered with feathers. The legs are more or less
covered with feathers, and there is no spur. The toes are also
mostly covered with feathers, but are sometimes naked and
pectinate, with a series of horny comb-like processes on each
side. (Cf. Grant, t.c. p. 26).

THE TRUE GROUSE. GENUS LAGOPUS.

Lagopus, Briss. Orn. i. pp. 181, 216 (1760).

Type, L. lagopus (Linn.).

Mr. Grant characterises this genus by the dense feathering
on the feet and toes. The tail is moderately long, consisting
of sixteen feathers, the outer ones being nearly as long as the
middle pair.

I. THE RED GROUSE. LAGOPUS SCOTICUS.

Tetrao scoticus, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 641 (1790); Seebohm,

Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 428 (1884).
Lagopus scoticus, Macgill. Brit. B. i. p. 169 (1837); Dresser,

B. Eur. vii. p. 165, pi. 479 (1873); B.O. U. List. Brit.

B. p. 144 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii.

p. 73(1883); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 481 (1889); Lilford,

264 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Col. Fig. Brit. B. partxviii. (1891) ; Ogilvie Grant, Cat. B.
Brit. Mus. xxii. p. 35 (1893) ; id. in Allen's Nat. Libr. ix.
p. 27 (1895).

The Red Grouse is such a well-known bird that a detailed
description is unnecessary, but the reader is referred to the
excellent descriptions published by Mr. Ogilvie Grant. The
following account of the variations in the plumage of this species
is the result of very careful study on his part, and I cannot
do better than quote it, as I find nothing to add on my own
account. The figures referred to in his descriptions will be
found in the volume quoted (Allen's Nat. Libr. ix. pis. ii. iii.).

Adult Male and Female. — This species may be distinguished by
having the flight-feathers always blackish-brown.

Male : Total length, 15-5 inches; wing, 8'i ; tail, 4'8 ; tar-
sus, 1-4.

Female: Total length, 15 inches; wing, 7*8; tail, 4*3; tar-
sus, 1-35.

Range. — Great Britain and Ireland, The only species of
Game-Bird peculiar to the British Islands.

Changes of Plumage. * — " As no group of birds, as far as I am
aware, goes through so many and such varied annual changes of
plumage as do the members of the genus Lagopus, which includes
the Red Grouse, Willow Grouse, and four species of Ptarmigan,
it will be necessary to enter somewhat fully into details so as
to thoroughly understand the subject.

" The Red Grouse being one of the most variable birds in
existence, we must begin by saying a few words regarding
individual variation. The ordinary varieties of the male may
be divided into three distinct types of plumage : a red form, a
black form, and a white-spotted form. The first of these, in
which the general colour is rufous-chestnut (pi. ii. fig. 8) with-
out any white spots on the breast, is mostly to be found on the
low grounds of Ireland, the west coast of Scotland, and the
Outer Hebrides. Typical examples of the second, or black,
form (pi. ii. fig. 10) are rarely met with, and are usually
found mixed with either the red or white-spotted forms, but
most often with both, and specimens in mixed plumage are
* Cf. Ogilvie Grant, /.r.

RED GROUSE. 265

those most commonly met with. The third, or white-spotted
form, has the feathers of the breast and belly, and sometimes
those of the head and upper-parts, tipped with white. The
most typical examples of this variety are found, as a rule, on
the high grounds of the north of Scotland.

"In the female, no less than five distinct types are recognisable,
the red, the black, the white-spotted, the buff-spotted, and the
buff-barred, forms. The first two are the rarest, the latter being
extremely uncommon (pi. iii. figs. 5 and 13). The white-
spotted form occurs as in the male; the buff-spotted form,
which is much the commonest and most usually met with, has
the feathers of the upper parts topped at the tip with whitish-
buff (pi. iii. figs. 2 and 3) ; the fifth, or buff-barred form
(pi. iii. fig. 4), is met with in the south of Ireland, and re-
sembles in winter (autumn plumage) the ordinary female in
breeding plumage, having the upper parts coarsely barred with
buff and black. Very little is known of this last variety, owing
to the difficulty in obtaining birds, except during the shooting
season.

" The great peculiarity of the Red Grouse, and one without
parallel among birds even of the genus, lies in the fact that the
changes of plumage in the male and female occur at different
seasons.

" The male has no distinct summer plumage, but has distinct
autumn and winter plumages, and retains the latter through-
out the breeding season.

" The female has a distinct summer plumage, which is com-
plete by the end of April or beginning of May ; also a distinct
autumn plumage, which is retained till the following spring.

" To put it more concisely, both male and female have two
distinct moults during the year, but in the male they occur in
autumn and winter, and in the female in summer and autumn ;
the former having no distinct summer, and the latter no distinct
winter plumage.

" In the Willow Grouse and Ptarmigan there are three distinct
changes of plumage in summer, autumn, and winter in both
male and female alike, the winter plumage being white in all.

"The Red Grouse is considered by most ornithologists merely
an insular form of the Willow Grouse, and consequently one
might naturally suppose that, as the British species does not

266 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

turn white in winter, such protective plumage being unnecessary
in the localities it inhabits, the winter moult has been gradually
dropped. Now this is the case with the female only, and we
find the male, for no apparent reason, changing his newly
acquired buff and black autumn plumage for a winter one of
chestnut and black. Further investigations may lead to some
explanation of this strange anomaly, but at present we know of
none.

"Adult Male, Autumn Plumage. — After the breeding season a
very complete autumn moult takes place, the quills, tail, and
feathers on the feet being entirely renewed. In most examples
the feathers of the upper parts are black, margined, and irregu-
larly barred with tawny-buff, and in most cases the bars cross
the feathers more or less transversely (pi. ii. fig. 4), but in some
they are more or less concentric and parallel with the marginal
band, giving the upper parts a scaled appearance (pi. ii.
figs. 6 and 7). The feathers of the chest are rather widely
barred with buff or rufous-buff and black (pi. ii. fig. n), and
some of the flank-feathers are more narrowly barred with the
same colours. The rest of the under parts vary according to
the type to which the individual belongs, being chestnut, black,
or white-spotted, or a mixture of all three. In a bird shot on
the 6th of June, the autumn moult having commenced on the
upper mantle, three different sets of feathers can be seen on the
back at once, belonging to the new autumn, the old winter, and
the old autumn plumages, both the latter very clearly showing
the result of wear and tear (pi. ii. figs. 1-3).

" The males at this season, no matter to what type they belong,
bear a much closer resemblance to one another than they do
in their winter plumage, only the under parts of the body
differing conspicuously.

"The first feathers of the winter plumage begin to appeal-
about the beginning of September.

"Adult Male, Winter-Summer Plumage. — General colour above
black, with finely of mottled bars of dark chestnut
(pi. ii. fig. 5); head, neck, and chest (pi. ii. fig. 12)
mostly dark chestnut, finely marked with black ; and the flanks
mottled and barred with the same colours, the chestnut usually
predominating. Generally a greater or less number of autumn

RED GROUSE. 267

feathers are retained, and are conspicuous among the new
winter plumage. The rest of the under parts remain the same
as after the autumn moult.

" The general colour of each bird varies, of course, according
to the type to which it belongs, some being darker, some lighter.
When once the winter moult is complete, no change whatever
takes place in the plumage of the male till the following autumn
moult, except that the feathers become bleached and worn at
the extremities.

"Adult Female, Autumn- Winter Plumage.* — Upper parts black,
with narrow irregular bars and mottlings of rufous, and a buff
spot at the tip of most of the feathers (pi. iii. figs. 2 and 3) ;
chest and flank-feathers narrowly and often irregularly barred
with rufous and ,black, and usually more or less tipped with
buff (pi. iii. figs. 10 and n). The rest of the under parts
are dark chestnut, mottled and barred with black, or black
barred with chestnut. The typical white-spotted form differs,
of course, in having the feathers of the under parts widely
tipped with white.

"Adult Female, Summer Plumage. —

"A. Feathers of the Upper parts.

" So far as I have been able to ascertain from examining a
large number of specimens, the summer feathers of the upper
parts are always attained by moult, and never by change of
pattern. The summer moult of these parts is very complete,
and the transformation from the autumn-winter plumage very
remarkable. Every female assumes the summer plumage, and
at this season all the different types closely resemble one
another, but one can generally tell by the colour of the under

* The form described is the commonest or buff-spotted form of the female
in autumn plumage. In typical examples of the red form the buff spots at
the ends of the feathers of the upper parts are absent, and this is also the
case in the much rarer black form. In the buff-barred form, from the
south and west of Ireland, the terminal buff spot takes the form of a mar-
ginal bar, and the feathers are practically indistinguishable from the breed-
ing or summer plumage. It may transpire that, in the south of Ireland, the
most southerly point of this bird's range, the female retains her breeding
plumage throughout the year, but this seems unlikely, and birds killed
between the months of April and August are wanted to settle this point.

268 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

parts to which form an individual belongs. In the average
female in full breeding dress the upper-parts may be described
as black, each feather being rather widely margined, barred,
and marked with orange-buff (pi. iii. fig. i). The protection
afforded by this plumage is so perfect that, when the bird is
sitting on its nest among heather and dead grass, it may easily
remain unobserved, though only a few yards distant.

"This plumage, however, varies much in different individuals,
birds from the west of Scotland, Yorkshire, and Ireland having
the orange-brown bars much brighter and wider than in the
more finely mottled and darker specimens generally charac-
teristic of the east of Scotland.

" B. Feathers of the Sides and Flanks.

1 ' By the first week in May the summer plumage of the female
Grouse is fairly complete, and many of the finely mottled
rufous and black autumn flank-feathers are replaced by widely,
and often irregularly, barred buff and black feathers, similar to
those of the chest. It must be particularly noted that in none
of the many females examined, in breeding plumage, were
the whole of the autumn flank-feathers cast or changed in the
summer moult, a large proportion being retained, unchanged
in colour, till the next (autumn) moult. The summer flank-
feathers are produced in two ways, either by a gradual re-
arrangement and change in the pigment of the autumn feathers
(pi. iii. figs. 6-8) or by moult (pi. iii. fig. 9). In some birds
the whole of the alteration in the plumage of the flanks is pro-
duced by change of pattern in the old autumn feathers, in
others the change is entirely produced by moult, while some-
times both methods are employed by the same individual.
In the former case, the first indication of the coming change
may be observed in the beginning of November, or even
earlier, when many of the flank-feathers show traces of an
irregular buff stripe or spot near the terminal half of the
shaft (fig. 7). As the birds only change about half their flank-
feathers, these buff marks are only to be observed on such as
are destined to undergo alteration of pattern, which, roughly
speaking, means every second or third feather. The buff spot
gradually enlarges and spreads along the shaft, then becomes
constricted at intervals, and breaks up into patches, which

RED GROUSE. 269

gradually extend laterally towards the margins of the webs,
forming wide irregular buff bands (fig. 8). Meanwhile the
interspaces become black, and the rufous of autumn dies out.

"When the summer feathers are supplied by moult, they
usually begin to make their appearance about the beginning of
March, and even when fully grown, they may generally be recog-
nised from those produced by change of pattern by their more
regular black and buff barring (pi. iii. fig. 9). The change of
pattern without a moult appears to take a long time to become
complete, for we find, as already shown, that though autumn
feathers, altered in this way, begin to show traces of the coming
metamorphosis as early as the beginning of November, the
colours are often imperfectly arranged by the end of April.
When the summer feathers are supplied entirely by moult, no
change whatever is visible in the autumn plumage of the flank-
feathers till about the end of February, when the first new
feathers begin to appear, though we have noted a single
instance of one summer feather making its appearance as early
as the middle of December.

" There can be no doubt that the male completes his autumn
moult very much more quickly than the female does, many
males being in full autumn plumage by the beginning of Sep-
tember. Possibly this may be accounted for by the resources
of the female being more severely taxed than those of the male
during the breeding season. It may very naturally be asked
why some females should change their summer flank-feathers
by moult, while others are enabled to arrive at the same result
by going through the much less exhaustive process of re-
decorating their old autumn feathers, and making them serve
the purpose of new breeding plumage. This is a difficult
question to answer, but it seems natural to suppose that the
more vigorous birds gain their summer flank-feathers by moult,
while nature has enabled the weaker individuals to obtain the
necessary protective nesting plumage by a more gradual and
less exhaustive process.

" C. Feathers of the Chest.

" The summer change of the feathers of the fore-neck and
chest in the female Red Grouse is similar to that which takes
place on the sides and flanks, but is very much more complete,

270 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

all the feathers being widely barred with black and yellowish-
buff by the beginning of May (pi. iii. fig. 12).

" As will be easily understood, these being conspicuous parts
of the bird when she is sitting on her eggs, it is most important
for her that the protective black and buff plumage should be
complete. The greater part of this change is generally pro-
duced by moult ; but, as is the case with the flank-feathers,
some individuals (probably less robust females) attain the
change without moulting. The same rearrangement of the
pigment described in speaking of the flanks takes place in the
chest-feathers, and the finely mottled and barred, rufous and
black, autumn plumage becomes widely barred with black and
buff."

Young Birds in July resemble the adult female in breeding
plumage in their general colour, but the flank-feathers of the
adult plumage begin to appear about this time. By the month
of November the young are generally not to be distinguished
from the adults.

Nestling. — In this and all the other species of Lagopus, the
nestling is covered with fluffy yellow down, with rich brown
pattern on the upper-parts.

Range. — Confined to the British Islands.

Habits. — " This species inhabits the open moors covered with
heath and ling from sea-level, but is not found above the limits
where these plants grow, its place being taken on the mountain
tops of many parts of Scotland by the Ptarmigan. Unlike the
Black Game, the Red Grouse is strictly monogamous, each
male pairing with one female only, and assisting her to rear the
young. The nesting season is, roughly speaking, in April and
May, but varies according to locality and season, eggs being
sometimes found much earlier and as late as June, though the
latter are probably second sittings, the first having been
destroyed. The female in her black and buff summer garb is
practically invisible when sitting on her nest, her colours har-
monising perfectly with her surroundings."

As the young Grouse become strong on the wing and the
season advances, the various coveys, especially if the weather is
wet and stormy, soon unite their forces and go about in large

PTARMIGAN. 271

flocks known as "packs," the males and females generally form-
ing separate parties ; and it is not uncommon to find that all
the birds killed in one drive are cocks, while on another beat
the reverse obtains. (Grant, I.e.).

Nest. — A slight hollow in the ground, sheltered by the longer
heather and grass, and lined with moss and grass or such
materials as chance to be on the spot. (Grant, I.e.).

Eggs. — Varying in number from seven to ten and sometimes
more. The ground-colour is pale cream or buff, spotted and
blotched all over with dark reddish-brown, which often nearly
conceals the ground-colour. Average measurements, 175 by
1-32 inches. (Grant, I.e.).

II. THE PTARMIGAN. LAGOPUS MUTUS.

Lagopus tinereus, Macgill. Brit. B. i. p. 187 (1837).

Lagopus mutus (Montin) ; Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 157, pis. 477,
478 (1874); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 144 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 83 (1883); Lilford,
Col. Fig. Brit. B. part iii. (1888) ; Saunders, Man. Brit.
B. p. 483 (1889); Grant, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxii. p. 44
(1893) • id. in Allen's Nat. Libr. ix. p. 38 (1895).

Tetrao mutus, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 424 (1884).

Adult Male and Female at all seasons.* — Outer tail-feathers black,
with only the bases and tips more or less white ; flight-feathers
always white ; bill much more slender than in the Red Grouse
or Willow Grouse; wing shorter, males measuring about 7-5
inches from the bend of the wing to the end of the longest
flight-feather.

Adult Male and Female, Winter Plumage. — General plumage
and middle pair of tail-feathers white, with a black patch in
front of the eye in the male, which is absent or rudimentary in
the female.

Adult Male, Summer Plumage. — Head, upper-parts, middle
pair of tail-feathers, sides, and flanks dark brown, mottled and

* The descriptions are again taken from Mr. Ogilvie Grant's volume (/.<".).

272 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

barred with grey and rusty ; breast brownish-black, sometimes
more or less barred and mottled with buff ; rest of under parts
white.

Adult Female, Summer Plumage, — General colour above black,
mixed with rufous-buff, most of the feathers being edged with
whitish-buff; middle pair of tail-feathers and under parts
rufous-buff, barred with black.

Adult Male and Female, Autumn Plumage, — Upper parts, middle
pair of tail-feathers, breast, and sides grey, finely mottled with
black, and sometimes with buff; rest of under-parts white.
The female may generally be distinguished by having some
feathers of the faded summer plumage remaining among the
grey autumn plumage.

Male : Total length, 14-5 inches ; wing, 7-6; tail, 4-6 : tar-
sus, 1*3.

Female: Total length, 14 inches; wing, 7-4; tail, 4-1; tar-
sus 1-3.

For the changes of plumage through which the Ptarmigan
passes, the reader is referred to the most excellent account
published by Mr. J. G. Millais in his " Game Birds and Shoot-
ing Sketches," quoted by Mr. Grant (t.c. p. 39).

Range in Great Britain. — Only -found in the higher mountains
of Scotland.

Rang outside the British Islands. — The Ptarmigan inhabits the
mountains of Europe south of the Alps and the Pyrenees, east
to the Ural Mountains, and probably some of the higher ranges
of Central Asia.

Habits. — Mr. Ogilvie Grant gives the following account of the
habits of the species : — " The home of the Ptarmigan is among
the high stony table-lands and rocks above the limits of tree-
growth and heaths. Like the Willow Grouse, the plumage of
the male varies greatly in different localities, and the amount
of white feathers retained during the summer and autumn
plumages is greatly affected by the latitude which the birds
inhabit, examples from the north of Norway retaining much
white in the upper parts throughout the summef months.
This does not apply to the females, all of which get their full
summer breeding-dress, which is no doubt essential for their

BLACK GROUSE. 273

protection during the nesting season, In the same way, the
mixed plumage of the males no doubt renders them less con-
spicuous among the patches of snow which, in the more
northern latitudes, are not melted during the short summer.
The general habits of the Ptarmigan resemble those of the
Grouse, their monogamous habits, mode of nesting and feeding,
being much the same ; but the call is very different from the
bee of the latter, and is more of a hoarse croak. The
female is an excellent mother, taking the greatest care of her
young, and boldly menacing any unexpected intruder who may
come on her unawares. She flutters along the ground or runs
towards her supposed enemy with drooping wings and halting
gait to attract attention, while the young disappear as by magic,
and vanish among the crevices of the stones. Ptarmigan
depend greatly for safety on the perfect harmony of their
plumage with their natural surroundings, and it is astonishing
to see how they will sometimes rise all round one, almost from
under one's feet, on comparatively bare ground, without any
previous evidence of their presence."

Nestling, Nest, and Eg-gs. — Similar to those of the Red Grouse,
but the eggs of the latter are rather smaller, less thickly covered
with blotches, and more buff in general appearance.

THE BLACK GROUSE. GENUS LYRURUS.
Lyrurus^ Swains. Faun. Bor. Amer. Birds, p. 497 (1831).

Type, Z. tetrix (Linn.).

The genus Lyrurus differs from Lagopus in having the feet
feathered, but the toes are naked and pectinate on the sides.
There are eighteen tail-feathers, and the outer pair are curved
outwards in the male.

Only two species of Lyrurus are known, our own Black
Grouse, and Z. mlokosiewiczi of the Caucasus Mountains.

I. THE BLACK GROUSE. LYRURUS TETRIX.

Tetrao tetrix^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 274 (1766); Macgill. Brit.
B. i. p. 145 (1837); Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 205, pi. 487
(1873) ; B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 145 (1883); Saunders,
15 T

274 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 60 (1883); Seebohm, Hist.
Brit. B. ii. p. 435 (1884) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part
vii. (1888) ; Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 479 (1889).
Lyrurus tetrix^ Grant, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxii. p. 53 (1893).
id. in Allen's Nat. Libr. ix. p. 45 (1895).

Adult Male. — Plumage mostly black ; the under tail-coverts
pure white. Total length, 23-5 inches; wing, 10-3; tail, 8'8 ;
tarsus, 1*9.

Adult Female. — Plumage mostly rufous and buff, barred with
black, the black bars on the breast being much coarser than
in the female of L. mlokosiewiczi, and the tail shorter. Total
length, 17 inches; wing, 8-9; tail, 4-5; tarsus, r6.

Nestling. — Covered with yellowish down, patterned with
chestnut-brown on the upper parts.

Changes of Plumage.* — During the heavy autumn moult,
which takes place in July and August, when the males are
entirely devoid of tails and generally incapable of flying more
than a few yards at most, a temporary protective plumage, like
that of the female, clothes the head and neck, and the throat
becomes more or less white. The object of this change is
obvious, for the black head and neck of the male are con-
spicuous objects among the heather and rushes, but the
rufous-buff feathers, with their black bars and marks, harmonise
perfectly with these surroundings and enable the defenceless
birds to escape the observation of their enemies. The barred
feathers of the head and neck are not cast and replaced by
black till the rest of the plumage has been renewed, and the
bird is once more able to fly.

The young male, unlike that of the Caucasian Black Grouse,
attains the black adult plumage at the first autumn moult, and
by November resembles the old male, but some of the finely
mottled shoulder-feathers and inner flight-feathers of the first
plumage are generally retained till the second season, and the
outer tail-feathers are shorter and less beautifully curved.

Females that have become barren from age or accident
commonly assume the male plumage to a greater or less ex-

* The descriptions of the plumage are copied from Mr. Ogilvie Grant's
volume (I.e.).

BLACK GROUSE. 275

tent, some examples having much black in the plumage and a
very well developed forked black tail, each feather being
prettily edged with white. One peculiarity of these birds is
the colour of the throat, which in the most fully plumaged
examples is pure white.

The only time when the throat of the male is white, or
partially so, is during the short period when the temporary
hen-like plumage covers the head and neck. At that season
the throat becomes white or thickly spotted with white. No
doubt this is the source whence the pure white throat of the
barren female is derived.

Range in Great Britain. — Principally found in Scotland and
the North of England at the present day, but formerly distri-
buted over England in localities suited to its habits. It is still
to be found in many parts of England and Wales, and is an
inhabitant of the wilder districts of the south-western counties.

Range outside the British Islands. — Europe and Northern
and Central Asia, eastwards to the River Kolima, North-
eastern Siberia, southwards to the Eastern Pyrenees, North
Italy, Northern Caucasus, Tian Shan, and Peking, and north-
wards to about 69° N. lat. (Ogilvie Grant).

Habits. — Mr. Ogilvie Grant writes : — " Pine and birch-forests
are the true home of this bird, and though, when feeding, it may
often be met with on the open moors or in the stubble-fields at
a considerable distance from any covert, it is truly a denizen of
the woods, and passes the greater part of its existence on the
branches, where, unlike the Red Grouse, it is perfectly at
home. Black Grouse, like other Game-Birds, are extremely
partial to grain, and in some parts of Scotland, where they are
still numerous, frequent the stubble fields in enormous flocks,
generally in the early morning and towards evening. They
are polygamous— that is to say, one male pairs with many
females, and generally towards the end of March or beginning
of April the pairing season commences, when the cocks are
in the habit of repairing at dawn and sunset to some par-
ticular spot to display their charms to the females and give
battle to their rivals.

" The extraordinary pantomime gone through by each male
as he struts round the arena, generally an open patch of ground

T 2

276 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

worn nearly bare by constant traffic, is most entertaining to
observe. With drooping wings, outspread tail, and many other
curious antics, accompanied by an occasional spring into the
air, he attempts to secure the goodwill of the ladies, and when
two birds meet, a slight skirmish, in which a few feathers are
lost, takes place. As a rule, no serious fights, such as one sees
between Red Grouse, occur, merely a ' round with the gloves,'
to entertain the ladies of the harem ; but occasionally, when
two rivals chance to meet, a furious ' set-to ' may be witnessed,
the fight lasting till one or both birds are thoroughly exhausted,
bleeding, and torn. These strange entertainments last till the
females — or ' Grey-hens,' as they are called — have laid all their
eggs and commenced to sit, when the males are seen no more,
the hatching of the eggs and rearing of the young being ex-
clusively the task of the females."

Nest. — A slight hollow in the ground, scratched out and with
little lining ; usually well concealed.

Eggs. — Generally six to ten in number. Buff, spotted with
rich brown. Average measurements, 2 inches by 1*4.

THE CAPERCAILZIES. GENUS TETRAO.
TetrctO) Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 273 (1766).

Type, T. urogallus. Linn.

The Capercailzies are the largest of the Grouse, and have
eighteen tail-feathers like the Black Grouse. The tail is
rounded or wedge-shaped, differing from that of the genus
Lyrurus in this respect.

I. THE CAPERCAILZIE. TETRAO UROGALLUS-

Tetrao urogallus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 273 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B. i. p. 138 (1837); Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 223,
pi. 490 (1873); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 145 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 45 (1883); Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 440 (1884) ; Saunders, Man. Brit. B.
p. 477 (1889) ; Ogilvie Grant, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxii. p. 60
(1893); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxviii. (1894);
Ogilvie Grant in Allen's Nat. Libr. ix. p. 49 (1895).

CAPERCAILZIE. 277

Adult Male.* — Above dark grey, shading into reddish-brown
on the wings and finely mottled with black ; a metallic green
band across the chest, and the throat -glossed with the same
colour. Middle of the back not barred with black ; the
shoulder-feathers not tipped with white ; and the breast and
belly black, a few feathers in the middle being tipped with
white. Total length, 35 inches ; wing, 14*6; tail, 12*3; tarsus,
2-8.

Adult Female. — Middle of the back rufous and buff, strongly
barred with black ; breast and belly buff or whitish - buff,
barred with black ; general colour of the plumage darker
than in T. uralensis, the white tips to the scapulars being
narrower. Total length, 25 inches; wing, 11*7; tail, 7*3;
tarsus, 2 -i.

Younger Males resemble the adult, but are smaller, and the
white band across the tail is wanting.

Nestling-. — Very similar to that of L. tetrix.

Range in Great Britain. — Formerly indigenous to Great Britain,
the Capercailzie became extinct, and has been re-introduced.
It is now found in Perthshire, Forfarshire, and the neigh-
bouring districts.

Range outside the British Islands. — This species is an inhabitant
of the pine-forests in the mountain-ranges of Europe, extending
to North-eastern Turkestan, the Altai Mountains, as far east
as Lake Baikal.

Habits. — The following account has been published by the
late Mr. Lloyd in his well-known work, " The Game Birds and
Wild Fowl of Sweden and Norway":—

" The whereabouts of the Lek-stdlle^ of which mention was
made in the last chapter, having been ascertained, the gunnei
—for a sportsman he can hardly be called — proceeds to the
spot, either overnight (in which case he bivouacs in its vicinity),
or at a very early hour in the morning. ' He should be there,'
we are told, * by the first dawn of day, when the Woodcock
begins to rdde^ and the shrill notes of the Woodlark (Alauda
arborea. Linn.) — hence called the Tj ader-klockan, or the
Capercali-watch— are heard in the forest."

* Desciiptions taken from Mr. Ogilvie Grant's volume (I.e.}.

278 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

" Here the man listens in profound silence until he hears the
spel of the cock, then, for the most part, perched on or near to
the top of a pine. Sheltering himself as much as possible
behind trees and other cover, he stealthily approaches the
bird ; but, owing to imperfect daylight and thickness of the
wood, he is often unable to see it until close upon it. So long,
however, as the first and second notes, kndppningen and klunken,
last, he must remain stationary, and, if in an exposed situation,
immovable as a statue. But when the bird's third note, sis-
ningen, commences, which, as said, continues only a very short
time — and in the while the bird is all but blind and deaf — he
takes three to four steps, or rather strides, in advance, when he
again halts. Should all remain perfectly quiet, however, the bird
almost immediately recommences its spel, and, when it once
more comes to sisningen, the man, as before, moves forward
several steps ; and by thus alternately halting and advancing
he at length arrives within gunshot of the Capercali, whose
fate is then soon sealed.

" The Capercali during its spel is very watchful ; and the
fowler must therefore be exceedingly guarded in his move-
ments while thus stealing on it ; and at such times as the
bird is heard, although not seen, he should, of all things, avoid
looking about him. Want of caution on the part of the fowler
in this matter has saved the lives of many Capercali. Its eye,
indeed, is said to be so piercing as more readily to discover
the face and hands of the man, if they be uncovered, than his
person ; and some, therefore, deem it advisable not only to
wear gloves but to hold down the head.

"The fowler should also be careful never to advance until
the sisningen has actually commenced, for an old Capercali
cock that has previously started will, perhaps, when one imagines
it is on the very point of beginning the last-named note,
suddenly stop in its spel ; and if one then advances, will
most assuredly take wing. When again the man halts after
sisningen, it should be in an easy position ; so that,
however long he may have to wait before the bird recom-
mences its spel, it will not be needful for him to change it for
another.

During the early part of the Spring, when the cock carries
on his spel quite alone, he runs the greatest risk of his life ;

CAPERCAILZIE. 279

but when, at an after period, he is joined by the hens, they
act the part of his guardian angels. On the least appearance
of peril, they, to put him on his guard, utter a peculiar kind of
cackle, and should not this suffice to attract his attention, one
or other of them will straightways fly past the tree on which he
is perched, and at times so near to him as apparently to strike
him with the tip of her wing, which unmistakable hint he cannot
but comprehend, and, as a consequence, moves off at once
1 in the wake ' of his kind monitress.

" Happily but few hens, comparatively speaking, are shot at
the Lek-stdlle^ partly because they are more wary than the cock,
but chiefly, I take it, owing to the fowler having other and
better game in view. Indeed, were a proportionate slaughter
to take place amongst them, the breed, in some parts of Scan-
dinavia, must soon become extinct. As it is, the cocks are so
ruthlessly shot down during the pairing season that a large
portion of hens are unable to find mates ; and hence the
number of barren birds {Gall-Honor) one meets with in the
forest. Were people to refrain from killing the cocks until the
spring is well advanced, and pairing for the most part over, no
great harm would be done, and they still might have ample
amusement ; for the cocks, especially the young ones, continue,
as said, to spel until the middle of May, or it may be even
longer.

" The number of Capercali — of cock6:, I speak — that a man
may thus kill at the Lek-stdlle within a given time depends
greatly on circumstances. If, for instance, the weather be
boisterous, or there be a crust on the snow, which in more
northern parts of Scandinavia often remains on the ground
until late in the spring, it may happen that even the most
experienced chasseur will hardly kill a single bird in a week ;
but under favourable circumstances, on the contrary, a good
deal may be done. I, myself, have known more than one man
to shoot from five to six of these birds in the course of the
morning and evening of the same day, but one or two is a
more usual number. A peasant in the interior, however, who
knows what he is about, and devotes much of his time to the
purpose as many do, will probably kill from fifteen to twenty
cocks during the spring. I was, indeed, assured by an
acquaintance of mine, who resided in the heart of Wermeland

280 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Finn Forests, that one particular spring he shot no less than
twenty-nine. This, in a country where nearly everyone carries
a gun, will give some idea of the havoc that is thus annually
made amongst the?e noble birds.

" In the northern parts of Scandinavia the Capercali is
generally shot at the Lek-stdlle with a small pea-rifle ; but
in the south the shot-gun is almost universally used for the
purpose."

Nest. — Similar to that of the Black Grouse.

Eggs. — Like those of the Black Grouse, but larger. Axis,
2-2 inches; diam., r6.

FAMILY PHASIANID^E.
THE PARTRIDGES. SUB-FAMILY PERDICINyE.

The Partridges are distinguished from the Pheasants by their
shorter tail, which is much shorter than the wing. The first
quill is equal to or longer than the tenth.

THE CHUKOR PARTRIDGES. GENUS CACCABIS.

Caccabis, Kaup. Naturl. Syst. p. 183 (1829).

Type, C. saxatilis (W. & M.).

I. THE RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE. CACCABIS RUFA.

Tetrao rufa, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 276 (1766).

Perdix rubra, Macgill. Brit. B. i. p. 215 (1837).

Caccabis rufa, Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 103, pi. 471, fig. i.

(1875); B. O.U. List Brit. B. p. 141 (1883); Lilford,

Col. Fig. Brit. B. part viii. (1888); Grant, Cat. B. Brit.

Mus. xxii. p. 118 (1893); id. in Allen's Nat. Libr. ix.

p. 96 (1895).
Perdix rufa, Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 115 (1883) ;

Seebohm, Hist Brit. B. ii. p. 457 (1884); Saunders,

Man. Brit. B. p. 489 (1889).

kED-LEGGEb PARTRIDGE. 281

Adult Male. — Above greyish olive-brown; feathers of the
sides of the chest broadly margined with black ; throat sur-
rounded by a black band; belly bright rufous buff; flank-
feathers pale grey, followed by a narrow white, and then a
narrow black band, ending in a broader band of dark chestnut ;
outer tail-feathers dark chestnut. Total length, 13 -6 inches;
wing, 6-2; tail, 3-7; tarsus, 17.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 13 inches ;
wing, 6'o ; tail, 3-6; tarsus, r6.

Range in Great Britain. — Mr. Saunders writes : — "The Red-
legged Partridge was successfully acclimatised in England
about 1770 ; and as the result of this and subsequent introduc-
ductions it is now thoroughly established in Suffolk, Norfolk,
Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, Essex, some of the Midlands,
and on dry ground along the northern side of the Thames
Valley."

Range outside the British Islands. — An inhabitant of South-
western Europe, ranging north to Belgium and Switzerland,
and in the south to Madeira, the Azores, and Gran Canary,
and in the east to South and Central Italy, also to Elba,
Corsica, and the Balearic Islands (Grant). A dark form,
called C. hispanica, occurs in Spain ; it has been figured
in Mr. Ogilvie Grant's volume (pi. x.).

Habits. — Mr. Ogilvie Grant writes : — " This remarkably hand-
some species was first introduced into the south-eastern
counties of Great Britain about a century ago. Like the rest
of its allies, it is an inveterate runner, and generally prefers to
escape from approaching danger on foot, which it does with
great rapidity, seldom taking to flight unless hard pressed or
suddenly disturbed. When once on the wing, however, the flight
is rapid and straight, and for this reason these birds afford capital
sport when driven ; but if shot over dogs or walked up in cover
their cursorial habits are alike detestable to man and dog, for
the Red-legs not only seldom rise themselves till they are at the
other end of the field and probably far out of shot, but disturb
and put up any coveys of Grey Partridges they may chance
to pass on their course. They are very partial to hedgerows or
the edges of plantations and long grass or rushes, and when

282 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

flushed, occasionally perch on a neighbouring tree, which the
Grey Partridge, so far as we are aware, never does. In the
pairing season the Red-legs are very pugnacious, righting
fiercely not only with the males of their own kind, but also
with those of the Grey Partridge, which, being much smaller
birds, are in most cases driven from the field. Eggs of the
latter species, as well as those of the Common Pheasant, are
sometimes found in the nests of C. rufa, and are doubtless laid
there by the females instead of in their own nest, an irregular
habit by no means rare among Game-Birds."

Nest. — " A hollow scratched in the ground under the shelter
of a hedge, tall grass, or growing crops." (Grant, I.e.)

Eggs. — " Ten to eighteen in number, and sometimes more.
Pale stone-colour or buff, more or less thickly dotted and
spotted, and sometimes blotched with dark reddish-brown.
Average measurements, 1*55 by 1*2 inch." (Grant, I.e.)

THE TRUE PARTRIDGES. GENUS PERDIX.
Perdix, Brisson, Orn. i. p. 219 (1760).

Type, P. perdix (Linn.).

The genus Perdix, of which our well-known Partridge is the
type, has the feathers scarcely extending below the tibio-tarsal
joint, and the tail-feathers are sixteen or eighteen in number.
The first primary is intermediate in length between the seventh
and eighth, and the fourth is slightly the longest. The feet
are without spurs in either sex, and the plumage of both is
alike or slightly different. (Cf. Grant, in Allen's Nat. Libr. ix.

P- I43-)

Four species of Perdix are known, viz., P. perdix of Europe,
P. daurica of North-Eastern Asia, P. hodgsonice of Thibet, and
P. sifanica of Kansu.

I. THE COMMON PARTRIDGE.* PERDIX PERDIX.

Tetrao perdix, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 276 (1766).

* Mr. Ogilvie Grant's account of the difference of the plumage in the
sexes is most interesting and is quoted here in extenso.

PLATE CXXIE.

COMMON PARTRIDGE.

COMMON PARTRIDGE. 283

Perdix rinerea, Lath.; Macgill. Brit. B. i. p. 218 (1837);
Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 131, pi. 475 (l878); B- °- U-
List. Brit. B. p. 142 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's
Brit. B. iii. p. 105 (1883) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. ii.
p. 452 (1884); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part ix. (1888) ;
Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 487 (1889).

Perdix perdix, Grant, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxii. p. 185 (1893);
id. in Allen's Nat. Libr. ix. p. 143 (1895).

(Plate CXXIII.)

Adult Male. — General colour above brownish-buff (washed
with grey in birds from Northern Europe), with narrow, close-
set, wavy cross-bars and lines of black ; lesser and median
wing-coverts and scapulars blotched on the inner web with
chestnut, and with only buff shaft-stripes (fig. i). Top of the
head brown, rest of the head, throat, and neck chestnut; breast
grey, finely mottled with black, below which is a large horse-
shoe-shaped chestnut patch ; rest of under-parts whitish ; first
flight-feather with extremity rounded; feet horn-grey. Total
length, 1 2 '6 inches; wing, 6*2; tail, 3*5; tarsus, 1*7.

Adult Female. — Easily distinguished from the male by having
the ground-colour of the lesser and median wing-coverts and
scapulars mostly black, with wide-set buff cross-bars, in addition
to the longitudinal buff shaft-stripe down the middle of each
feather (figs. 2 and 3) ; and the chestnut patch on the breast
small, or sometimes absent.

Immature examples of both sexes exhibit the characteristics of
the adult, but may be recognised by having the first primary
flight-feather pointed at the extremity instead of being rounded,
and the feet yellowish horn-colour.

The immature female has generally a well-developed chestnut
horse-shoe mark on the breast.

Range. — Europe and Western and Central Asia, extending
in the west to Scandinavia and the British Isles, in the east to
the Barabinska Steppes and Altai Mountains, and in the south
to Northern Spain and Portugal, Naples, the Caucasus, Asia
Minor, and North Persia.

Mr. Ogilvie Grant writes : — "As considerable interest attaches
to the sexual differences in plumage in the Common Partridge,
it may be worth while to republish here the substance of my

284

ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

articles on this subject which appeared in the 'Field' (Nov.
21, 1891 ; April 9, 1892).

" In every text-book on ornithology which gives a description
of the plumage in the male and female of the Common Par

Fig. 2.

Fig- 3

Fig. I

m

nil

Fig. i. — Median wing-covert of male Partridge. Figs. 2 £ 3. — Median
wing-coverts of female Partridge.

tridge we find that the chief difference mentioned as distin-
guishing the two sexes is, that the male has a large chestnut
horse- shoe-shaped mark on the lower breast, while in the female
this marking is reduced to a few chestnut spots, or is some-
times entirely absent. This character, as we first pointed out

COMMON PARTRIDGE. 285

in the 'Field/ is not to be depended on, for the great
majority of young females — by which we mean birds of the
year — have a well-developed chestnut horse-shoe, and in some,
for instance birds from Leicestershire, it is quite as large
and perfectly developed as in the majority of adult male birds.
Young females from Norfolk and Suffolk are, however, gene-
rally exceptions to this rule, and, like the majority of old
females, have merely a few chestnut spots on the middle of
the lower breast, and in this part of England it is rare to
meet with anything like a perfect horse-shoe in young birds of
this sex, while examples may be found without a trace of
chestnut, and are commonly known as birds with a white
horseshoe. As remarked above, the birds of the year, whether
male or female, are easily distinguished from old birds by
having the first flight-feather pointed instead of rounded at
the extremity. The colour of the feet and toes is also, of
course, a good character for distinguishing young birds from
old ones in the earlier part of the season, but at the com-
mencement of hard weather the yellowish-brown feet, denoting
youth, having generally changed to bluish-grey, are perfectly
similar to those of the adult, while the pointed first flight-
feather is retained till the following autumn moult. The only
reliable character for distinguishing the sexes at all ages,
except in very young birds in their first plumage, is in the
markings of the lesser and median wing-coverts and scapulars,
the buff cross-bars in the female being an unmistakable mark,
and quite sufficient to distinguish her from a male at a
glance. It is now some years since we first drew attention
to these rather important differences, which had hitherto been
entirely overlooked, and we may now safely say that, though
many people, especially sportsmen, were at first disinclined to
believe in this character being a sexual difference, and tested
it severely, it has, so far, never been found to fail. To con-
vince gamekeepers of these facts is in most cases a hopeless
task — that the horse-shoe mark on the breast is a certain
sign of the male is * bred in the bone,' having been handed
down as gospel for generations. One Scotch keeper in par-
ticular, at a place where we have enjoyed many a pleasant
day's Partridge shooting, rises before our mind, and the
remembrance of this excellent and extremely obstinate soul

286 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

always makes us smile. Often at lunch-time have we started
him on the Partridge question, merely for the fun of hearing
him argue and stick to his opinion and that of his fore-
fathers ; and his politely incredulous smile on being shown, by
the help of a knife, that some particular bird with a large
horse-shoe mark really was a female by dissection, had to be
seen to be appreciated. But there are some people who will
never allow that they are mistaken, and as long as this good
man remains we may safely look forward to many a half-hour's
amusement, though the dissection of numerous Partridges
does not meet with our host's entire approval. It must be
added that barren females are sometimes met with in more or
less perfect male plumage. One barren female (by dissection) in
the National Collection, has an enormous chestnut horse-shoe
mark on the breast, while the wing-coverts have one web of each
feather like that of the male, and the other barred as in the
ordinary female. This, and one other example, are the only
two that have come under our notice, though we have examined
thousands of birds, and we may safely conclude that they are
by no means common."

Varieties. — A curious rufous variety of the Common Partridge
(see vol. ix. pi. xii.) was first described under the name of Perdix
montana by Brisson,* who believed it to represent a distinct
species. This is not, however, the case, as every intermediate
phase of plumage between the Common Partridge and the
most extreme chestnut form can be found. The finest
examples of this variety have the whole head and neck dull
rust-red and the remainder of the plumage dark chestnut,
except the thighs and lower part of the belly, which are
whitish, as well as some bars and markings on the wing-coverts
and scapulars. Brisson's specimens were obtained in the
mountains of Lorraine, but fine examples have also been pro-
cured in Northumberland, Cheshire, and Wiltshire in England,
as well as from other localities, and there can be no doubt
that this form is merely a sport of nature or accidental variety
in which the chestnut colour pervades the whole plumage.
Equally perfect examples of both sexes have been obtained.
Grey, cream-coloured, and white examples of the Common

* Orn. i. p. 224, pi. xxi. fig. 2 (1760).

COMMON QUATL. 287

Partridge are sometimes met with, but are by no means
common, and generally prove to be birds of the year, probably
because birds of peculiar plumage are generally shot down or
killed by birds of prey, &c., while still young, being more con-
spicuous than their neighbours (Grant, I.e.).

Nest— A slight hollow in the ground, roughly lined with a
few dry grasses, &c., and sheltered by rough grass, growing
crops, or bushes.

Eggs. — Ten to fifteen, and sometimes as many as twenty,
in shape pointed ovals ; uniform pale olive-brown in colour.
Average measurements, 1*4 by i'i inch.

THE QUAILS. GENUS COTURNIX.

Coturnix, Bonn. Enc. Me'th. Intr. pp. Ixxxviii. 216(1790).
Type, C. coturnix (Linn.).

Tail composed of ten or twelve feathers, short, soft, and
hidden by the upper tail-coverts ; less than half the length of
the wing. First primary flight-feather about equal to the third,
the second being generally slightly the longest; in some instances
the first three feathers are sub-equal, or the first may even be a
trifle the longest. Axillary feathers long and white. Feet with-
out spurs. Sexes different in plumage (Grant).

THE COMMON QUAIL.* COTURNIX COTURNIX.

Tetrao coturnix, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 278 (1766).

Coturnix dactylisonans, Macgill. Brit. B. i. p. 233 (1837).

Coturnix communis, Bonn. ; Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 143, pi. 476
(1878); B.O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 143 (1883); Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 123 (1883); Seebohm, Hist.
Brit. B. ii. p. 462 (1884); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 491
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxvii. (1893).

Coturnix coturnix, Grant, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxii. p. 231 (1893) ;

id. in Allen's Nat. Libr. ix. p. 180 (1895).
Adult Male. — General colour above sandy-brown, with pale

buff shaft-stripes and black bars and markings ; chin and throat

white, with a black anchor-shaped mark down the middle ;

* The account of the plumages and habits of the Quail are taken entirely
from Mr. Ogilvie Grant's volume on the Game-Birds.

238 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

chest rufous-buff, with pale shafts ; rest of under-parts paler.
Total length, 67 inches ; wing, 4-2 ; tail, 1*5 ; tarsus, ro.

Adult Female. — Differs from the male in having no black band
down the middle of the throat, and the chest more or less
thickly spotted with brownish-black. From the female of C.
japonica it may be readily distinguished by having the feathers
on the chin and sides of the throat short and rounded.

The male described above is a typical example of C. coturnix.
As considerable variation is to be found in the coloration of
the chin and throat, and their black markings, it may be
as well to give here the substance of the remarks I have
published on this subject. The Migratory Quail* has been
constantly confused with two more or less resident local forms,
C. capemis, found in South Africa, &c., and C. japonica, from
Japan and China. The former is probably nothing more than
a more richly coloured, rather smaller, resident local race of
C. coturnix, but the latter is a perfectly distinct and easily
characterised species. The migratory bird, wandering over an
immensely wide range, visits the countries inhabitated by both
these forms, and constantly inter-breeds with them, the result
being that all sorts of intermediate forms occur. The male of
C. japonica has the chin and throat dull brick-red, devoid of
any black markings, and the intermediate plumages between
this species and the migratory birds are most noticeable among
the male hybrids. For instance, some have the dull brick-red
throat of C. japonica, and the black, anchor-shaped mark of C.
coturnix ; others have only the upper two-thirds of the throat
dull red, and the lower third white ; while, again, a third lot
have, in addition, a black band down the middle of the red
part ; and all kinds of intermediate stages between these three
examples may be found. These hybrids are, so far as I know,
generally only met with in Mongolia, China, and Japan, though
there is one skin among the large series in the National Collec-
tion said to have been obtained in Bootan, N. India.

The Migratory Quail also inter-breeds freely with the chest-
nut-throated form (C. capensis) found in S. Africa and the
islands surrounding the coast, and the results are to be seen in

* Mr. Grant calls C. cottirnix the Migratory Quail to distinguish it
from the non-migratory species, C. capensis.

QUAIL. 289

the many male birds from S. Africa and Southern Europe, &c.,
in which the white parts on the sides of the head and throat
are more or less suffused with the bright rufous-chestnut
characteristic of the resident bird.

A curious variety or semi-melanistic form of C. coturnix
occurs in Spain, in the marshy neighbourhood of Valencia.
A male in the British Museum has the general colour of the
plumage black, and the female has the under parts suffused
with sooty-brown.

Range.— Africa, Europe, and Asia, except in the south-east
portion. A summer visitor to Great Britain, some remaining
in mild winters.

Habits. — The migratory habits of this species are well known
to most people, but though the great majority— countless hosts
of Quail, which may be numbered by millions rather than
thousands — shift their quarters in September and October, on
the approach of winter, and move southwards, in many places
a certain number remain and spend the winter where they have
bred. For instance, in the South of England and Ireland, and
in the countries bordering the Mediterranean, a few remain to
winter, but the bulk of the European summer visitors betake
themselves by various lines of migration to South Africa,
whence they return in March and April of the following spring.
Enormous numbers also winter in India, crossing the Hima-
layas from Central Asia, while many arrive in Sind and
Guzerat from the west, moving southwards from Baluchistan,
Persia, and other northern latitudes.

The number of migrants varies greatly in different years,
their movements being largely, if not entirely, regulated by the
food supply and seasonal conditions of the countries which
they visit.

One may form some idea of the vast number to be met
with in sorre parts of India, from the following remarks by
Tickell. He says : — " In such localities as have been above
noticed, Quails at times abound to such a degree that shooting
them is mere slaughter. Where birds get up at every step, dogs
or beaters are worse than useless, and where the game is so
plentiful, search after a wounded bird is seldom thought worth
the trouble. It is usual to be provided with two or three
15 w

290 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

guns,* to be loaded, as fast as emptied, by a servant. With one
gun only it would be necessary to wash out the barrels two or
three times in the course of the afternoon, or at all events to
wait every now and then for them to cool. A tolerably good shot
will bag fifty to sixty brace in about three hours, and knock
down many others that are not found. I remember one day
getting into a deyra, or island formed by alluvial deposit, in the
Ganges, between Patna (Bankipore) and Sonepore, which was
sown almost entirely over with gram (chunna), and which
literally swarmed with Quail. I do not exaggerate when I say
they were like locusts in number. Every step that brushed the
covert sent off a number of them, so that I had to stand every
now and then like a statue and employ my arms only, and that
in a stealthy manner, for the purpose of loading and firing. A
furtive scratch of the head, or a wipe of the heated brow,
dismissed a whole " bevy " into the next field ; and, in fact, the
embarras de richesse was nearly as bad as if there had been no
birds at all."

Nest. — A slight hollow in the ground, with little or no lining,
and sheltered by standing crops or grass, &c.

Eggs. — Eight to twelve in number, but sometimes more are laid ;
creamy-white or buff, more or less boldly blotched and spotted
with rich brown. Average measurements, 1*15 by 0*88 inch.

THE PHEASANTS. SUB-FAMILY PHASIANIN^.

This Sub-family is scarcely separable from the Perdicince-,
as in the genus Phasianus, the first primary is about equal to
the eighth. The tail, however, in typical Pheasants is much
longer than the wing, and the plumage is much more ornamental
than in any Partridge.

THE TRUE PHEASANTS. GENUS PHASIANUS.
Phasianus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 270 (1766).

Type, P. colchicus, Linn.

Tail composed of eighteen feathers, long and wedge-shaped,
the middle pair being very much longer than the outer pair.

* He refers to the days before breech-loaders came in.

COMMON PHEASANT. 2QI

First primary flight-feather about equal to the eighth, and
considerably longer than the tenth.

The male has the sides of the head covered with naked
scarlet skin ; there is no crest, but the ear-tufts are considerably
lengthened, and the feet are armed with a pair of spurs
(Grant).

The genus Phasianus is almost entirely Palaearctic in habitat,
and contains eighteen species, the stronghold of the genus
being Central Asia.

I. THE COMMON PHEASANT.* PHASIANUS COLCHICUS.

Phasianus colchicus^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 271 (1766); Macgill
Brit. B. i. p. 114 (1837); Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 85, pi.
469 (1879); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 141 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 91 (1883);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 445 (1884); Saunders, Man.
Brit. B. p. 485 (1889) ; Grant, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxii. p.
320 (1893); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxiii. (1896).

Adult Male. — Crown of the head bronze-green ; rest of the
head and neck dark green, shading into purple on the sides
and front of the neck. Feathers of the mantle, chest, breast,
and flanks fiery orange, the former narrowly margined with
purplish-green, the latter widely edged with rich purple ; those
of the upper back and scapulars mottled in the middle with
black and buff, margined by consecutive bands of buff, black,
and orange-red, and tipped with purplish-lake. Lower back,
rump, and upper tail-coverts red maroon, glossed with purplish-
lake or oily green, according to the way the skin is held.
Most of the wing-coverts saridy-brown ; middle of breast and
sides of belly dark purplish-green ; middle of belly and rest of
under parts dark brown mixed with rufous. Tail-feathers
olive down the middle, with narrow, wide-set, black bars, and
widely edged on each side with rufous, glossed with purplish-
lake. Total length, 37*5 inches; wing, 10*1 ; tail, 21*2;
tarsus, 2 '8.

Adult Female. — General colour sandy-brown, barred with
black; back and sides of the neck tinged with pinkish and

* The account of this species is again copied from Mr. Ogilvie Grant's
volume (Allen's Nat. Libr. xii. p. 9).

U 2

292 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

with metallic purple or green margins ; feathers of the mantle
and sides of the breast and flanks chestnut, with black centres
and pinkish-grey margins ; an elongated patch of white black-
tipped feathers below the eyes ; quills more coarsely barred and
mottled with buff than in the male ; tail-feathers reddish-brown
down the middle, shading into sandy-olive on the sides and
with wide irregular triple bars of black, buff, and black. Total
length, 24-5 inches; wing, 8*6; tail, 11-5 ; tarsus, 2-4.

Range. — The Common Pheasant has been introduced in
most parts of Europe, with the exception of Spain and
Portugal, and the higher latitudes of Scandinavia and Russia.
For this reason it is difficult, if not impossible, to state
accurately the limits of its true home. It appears, however, to
be found in a wild state in Southern Turkey, Greece, and Asia
Minor as far east as Transcaucasia, and it extends northwards
to the Volga. On the Island of Corsica it is also met with in
a wild state, and may have been imported at some remote
period ; but if it is really indigenous there, its range must formerly
have extended much farther west than the counties mentioned
above.

There is no record, as far as we know, of its importation to
the British Islands, but it is mentioned in the bills-of-fare of
the last Saxon king.

Habits. — The favourite home of the Pheasant is thick covert,
woods with plenty of undergrowth, in the immediate neighbour-
hood of cultivated land, where in the morning and evening the
birds can come out to feed. Oak, hazel, and fir plantations
scattered over large parks are much resorted to, for the birds
seldom stray far from the shelter of the trees, and retire on
the slightest approach of danger, being decidedly shy and
retiring in their habits.

Most of our readers are well acquainted with the Common
Pheasant in a semi-domesticated state, when it is undoubtedly
polygamous, one -male pairing with many females, but there
seems to be good reason for believing that this habit has been
acquired ; for, in a really wild state, all the evidence, though it
is certainly somewhat scanty, tends to show that this, as well
as the other species of Phasianus, is monogamous, the cock
bird remaining with the female during the period of incubation,

COMMON PHEASANT. 293

and taking part in the duties of protecting and rearing the
young. In this as in other countries where Pheasants are
reared for sport, the greater number of birds killed are cocks,
and hence, in the following spring, there is generally a pre-
ponderance of females, which may account for the polygamous
habits of introduced birds. The males are remarkably quarrel-
some in the pairing season, fighting fiercely with one another
for the different females, the more powerful birds appropriating
the lion's share for their harem. When the females have laid
their full complement of eggs, the male troubles his head no
more about them, leaving them to undertake all the cares of
rearing their family unaided. They cannot be called good
mothers, for, unlike the majority of game-birds, on the approach
of danger, they seek safety in flight, leaving the young to
escape and hide themselves as best they can. This habit is
often extremely disastrous to the brood, especially when the
chicks are very small, for, on her return, the mother is
apparently perfectly satisfied with finding one or two of her
scattered young, and the remainder are consequently left to
perish. For this reason gamekeepers are naturally anxious that
the coverts, where "wild birds" are breeding, should not be
disturbed during the nesting-season, and it is hardly surprising
that they should treat trespassers with scant courtesy. The
majority of birds shot annually in the large preserves in this
country and in Europe are, of course, reared from eggs placed
under domestic hens, who make excellent mothers to their
foster-children. On leaving her nest in the morning and
evening in search of food, the hen Pheasant is always careful
to cover her eggs with dead leaves, and she generally quits and
returns to her nest on the wing, thus avoiding as far as possible-
the danger of being tracked by her enemies.

The crow of the male resembles the syllables or-ork, which
are often repeated several times in succession, and may be
exactly imitated by opening the mouth and drawing the breath
in sharply to the back of the throat. This call is generally to
be heard in the morning and evening, especially about sunset,
when the birds are going to roost, but during the pairing
season it may be heard at all times of the day, and is alscr
given vent to when they are flushed or suddenly startled by
the report of a gun or a clap of thunder.

294 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

There can be no doubt that if the Pheasant were not arti-
ficially reared and annually turned down in this country, it
would soon cease to exist, for, in hard winters especially,
the birds left for stock are largely dependent on artificial
feeding. The chief food consists of grain, seeds, berries, and
young shoots, varied with insects and grubs, wireworms being
a favourite morsel.

Pure-bred examples of P. cokhicus are now rarely to be met
with in England, the great majority of birds being hybrids with
the Chinese Ring-necked Pheasant (P. torquatus), which was
subsequently introduced.

Like the rest of its kind, the Pheasant, though it roosts and
often perches on trees, is essentially a ground bird, and a tre-
mendous runner ; the old cocks, having learnt wisdom from
past experience, frequently refuse to rise at the net and face
the guns so anxiously waiting to salute them, and may be seen
running back among the beaters as fast as their legs can carry
them. The whir made in rising is loud and startling, but
when once well on the wing, the Pheasant's flight is extremely
swift, being performed by rapid and incessant beats of the
rounded wing, and when coming high, down wind, the pace
at which a good " rocketer " can travel is almost incredible.

During the nesting-season the hen Pheasant has numerous
enemies to contend with, the most formidable being the
prowling Fox, who seizes her as she sits on her nest, and the
Rooks and Crows, both Hooded and Carrion, who steal and
suck her eggs. A curious instance of the enormous amount of
damage done by Crows came under my notice in May, 1893.

With a friend, I was passing through a Scotch fir plantation
forming part of a large estate in the north of Scotland, where
thousands of Pheasants are annually reared and turned down.
The plantation ran along about a hundred feet above the rocky
sea-coast, and as we advanced along the slippery path, we found
several sucked pheasant's eggs, evidently the work of Crows,
nor had we gone far before we came suddenly upon a whole
family of Hooded rascals, five young and two old birds. In
the course of about a quarter of a mile, we counted over a
hundred empty shells which had evidently been carried to the
path and there devoured. How many more might have been
discovered had we searched it is impossible to say, but we saw

COMMON PHEASANT. 295

ample evidence of the wKolesale destruction which a family of
Crows is capable of committing among Pheasants' eggs.
Within two miles of this spot, to his shame be it said, stood a
keeper's house, where a thousand young birds were being
reared. This worthy informed us that the great heat and
drought then prevalent was decimating his broods of young
Pheasants, who were dying in scores from a disease which
attacks the eyes, and from which few recover. He volunteered
the information that he had not been over to the belt of fir
wood " for this two months," as there was nothing there to take
him so far ! A little more attention to the destruction ol
Hooded Crows in April might have saved a hundred or
two of strong wild-bred birds for the sport in the fall of the
year.

Female Pheasants that have become barren either from agt
or through disease of the ovary, generally assume the plumage
of the cock to a greater or less extent, and we have known a
number of instances in which the male plumage had been so
perfectly donned, that it was only by the smaller size, blunt
spurs, and much shorter tail, that the true sex of the individual
could be ascertained. Last year I examined a hen pheasant
in perfectly normal plumage, but with a well-developed sharp
spur on each leg ; this bird, on dissection, was found to have
been shot in the left ovary, a No. 2 or 3 shot being there
imbedded, which had destroyed the organ, and given rise to an
ugly tumorous growth. The wound was evidently an old
standing one, but in this instance the plumage had remained
normal.

The Common Pheasant not only crosses with other species of
its own kind, but hybrids are occasionally produced between
it and the Black Game, Domestic Fowl, and Guinea Fowl,
while instances are on record of hybrids between Pheasant
and Capercailzie.

Albinos and piebald birds are by no means an uncommon
occurrence among our semi-domesticated birds, but no doubt
much rarer among really wild individuals.

Nest. — A mere hollow in the ground, roughly lined with dead
leaves, and carefully hidden from view by dead fern, brambles,
or coarse grass or other herbage.

296 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Eggs. — Vary in number from eight to twelve, but a score or
more are sometimes found in one nest, probably the produce of
more than one female ; they are broad oval, slightly pointed at
the smaller end, generally brown, or olive-brown in colour,
more rarely bluish-green, uniform in tint, and with rather a
smooth polished shell. Average measurements, r8 by 1*4
inch.

NOTE. — The Andalucian Hemipode was included in the British List
many yeats ago. Two specimens are said to have been obtained in
Oxfordshire, and a third in Yorkshire. " No one," says Mr. Saunders,
"who knows how sedentary and local this species is, will believe it to be
a genuine visitor."

The synonymy is as follows : —

THE ANDALUCIAN HEMIPODE. TURNIX SYLVATICA.

Tetrao sylvatictis, Desfont. Mem. Acad. Sci. Paris, p. 500 (1789).
Turnix sylvaticus, Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 249, pi. 494 (1876) ; B. O. U.

List Brit. B. p. 146 (1883); Saunders, ed. YarrelFs Brit. B. iii.

p. 131 (1883); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 492, note (1889); Grant, Cat.

B. Br't. Mus. xxii. p. 537 (1893) ; id. in Allen's Nat. Libr. xii.

p. 270 (1896).

APPENDIX.

ADDENDA TO VOL. I.

THE following alterations and additions have become necessary
since the publication of the earlier volumes of the present
work.

Page 30.

GENUS CHLORIS.

The name Chloris having been preoccupied in Botany, the
name of Ligurinus of Kaup must be employed for the Green-
finch.

Page 31, line 6 from top. Read: —

THE GREENFINCH. LIGURINUS CHLORIS.

Page 48. Before " The Sparrows," insert : —

VI. COUES' REDPOLL. CANNABINA EXILIPES.

jEgiothus exilipes, Coues, Proc. Philad. Acad. 1861, p. 385.
Acanthis exilipes, Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xii. p. 254 (ii
Linota hornemanni (nee. Holboell), Lilford. Col. Fig. Brit. B.
part xxx. (1895).

Adult. — Very similar to the Mealy Redpole, but distinguished
by its purer colour, and by having the rump pure white, with a
rosy tinge, not streaked as in the Mealy Redpole. Bill,
orange-yellow ; the culmen and tip of the genys blackish ; feet
blackish-brown ; iris dark brown. Total length, 5 inches ;
culmen, 0*4; wing, 3-0; tail, 2*3; tarsus, 0*55.

The changes of plumage are similar to those undergone by
the Mealy Redpoll.

Range in Great Britain. — Mr. Cordeaux has recorded a specimen
of this white-rumped Redpoll from the Humber district, and
two specimens are in Dr. Bendelack Hewetson's collection from
Easington in Yorkshire, where they were obtained in October,

298 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

1883, and October, 1893. One of these has been figured by
Lord Lilford in his beautiful work on British Birds. I have
also seen a specimen caught near Tring, in the Hon. Walter
Rothschild's collection. There can be little doubt that the
species occurs more frequently in Great Britain than is supposed,
but is confounded with the Mealy Redpoll.

Range outside the British Islands. — This species has an extensive
range, occurring from Northern Scandinavia across Siberia,
and throughout Arctic America.

VII. GREENLAND REDPOLL. CANNABINA HORNEMANNI.

Linota hornemanni^ Holboell, Naturl. Tidskr. iv. p. 395

(1843)-

Acanthis hormmanni^ Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xii. p. 257
(1888).

Adult Male. — Similar to Coues' Redpoll, but much larger.
Total length, 5-3 inches; oilmen, 0-4; wing, 3-4; tail, 2-5;
tarsus, 0*65.

Adult Female. — A little smaller than the male. Wing, 3-2
inches.

Range in Great Britain. — A specimen of this large white-rumped
Redpoll is recorded by the late John Hancock as having been
obtained near Whitburn, in Durham, in April, 1855.

Range outside the British Islands. — The home of this species is
in Eastern North America, Greenland, and Iceland.

Page 6 1. Insert : —

II. THE GREATER BULLFINCH. PYRRHULA PYRRHULA.

Loxia pyrrhula^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 300 (1766).

Pyrrhula major, Brehm ; Dresser, B. Eur. iv. p. 97, pi. 198

(1876).

Pyrrhula pyrrhula, Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xii. p. 446
(1888).

Adults. — Similar to P. europcea, but much larger, and the
colours purer, especially the red colour of the breast. Total
length, 6 inches ; oilmen, 0-5 ; wing, 2-7 ; tail, 2-6; tarsus, 07.

Range in Great Britain. — Two specimens of the large Bull-
finch were exhibited by Colonel Irby at a meeting of the

SUB-ALPINE WARBLER. 299

Zoological Society on the igih of November, 1895. They
were shot on the Yorkshire coast about the ist of November,
1893, and had been mounted by local bird-stuffers as Common
Bullfinches. A third specimen has been recorded by Mr.
J. H. Gurney as having been obtained on the Caistor denes in
Norfolk.

Range outside the British Islands. — Replaces P. enropcea in
Scandinavia, and from Poland eastwards throughout Siberia.

Habits. — Exactly like those of its smaller western representa-
tive. The eggs are slightly larger than those of P. europoea.

Page 189. Insert : —

THE SUB-ALPINE WARBLER. SYLVIA SUB-ALPINA.

Sylvia sub-alpina, Temm. Man. d'Orn. i. p. 214 (1820, ex
Bonelli, MSS.); Dresser, B. Eur. ii. p. 389, pi. 59 (1875).

Adult Male. — Slaty-grey above ; wings brown, with pale edges
to the coverts, the secondaries more broadly margine d ; tail
brown, the three or four outside feathers with more or less
white ; chin, throat, and breast chestnut, shading off into paler
chestnut on the flanks ; the centre of the abdomen and under
tail-coverts whitish ; under wing-coverts pale grey, with darker
centres ; axillaries pale vinous grey ; a narrow white line along
the sides of the head separating the chestnut of the lower
surface from the grey of the upper ; bill dark horn-colour, the
lower mandible light yellowish at the base ; feet dusky brown ;
iris brown ; eyelid reddish. Total length, 4-6 inches ; culmen,
0-45 ; wing, 2-3 ; tail, 2*1 ; tarsus, 07.

Adult Female. — Browner than the male above, and not so
ashy-grey. The chestnut of the under parts replaced by buffy-
white, with a vinous tinge on the sides of the breast. The
birds of the year are buffy-brown on the breast and flanks, the
male being a little greyer than the female.

Characters. — This little Warbler is allied to the Whitethroats,
but is smaller than any of them, the wing being less than 2*5
inches in length, while the colour of the legs and feet is brown.
It is distinguished from all the small Warblers of the White-
throat group by its chestnut chin and breast.

300 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Range in Great Britain. — A specimen of a supposed " Dartford
Warbler," was procured in St. Kilda on the i3th of June, 1894,
by Mr. J. S. Elliott, who sent it to me for identification, and I
was not a little surprised to find that it was an example of the
present species.

Range outside the British Islands. — Inhabits the countries of the
Mediterranean, probably as far east as Persia. Winters in
Senegambia, and in North-eastern Africa.

Habit. — Mr. John Whitehead, who observed this species in
Corsica, says that it is plentiful in that island, arriving about
the middle of April. The first nest was taken on the 6th of
May. He writes : — " This little warbler spends nearly all its
time in the thick scrub, sometimes mounting high into the air,
and uttering a short but pretty song, then diving back into the
dense bush, its whereabouts being only discovered by a short
chattering note."

Nest and Eggs. — The same observer describes these as
follows : "The nest is often frail, about ij inch deep and 2j
inches in diameter. It is composed of dry stalks, often
with a good many dead thistle-leaves, and lined with fine dry
grass, sometimes with long horse-hairs. The eggs, four in
number, are of a pale yellowish or greenish- white, speckled all
over, but especially at the larger end, with light brown and
slate blue."

Page 204. Add : —

THE GREENISH WILLOW-WARBLER.

PHYLLOSCOPUS VIRIDANUS.

Phylloscopus viridanuSj'Blyt'h, J. A. S. Beng. xii. p. 967 (1843);
Seebohm, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. v. p. 44 (1881) : Dresser,
B. Eur. Suppl. p. 87 (1895); Caton Haigh, Zool. 1896,
p. 446.

Adult Male. — Similar to P. trochilus^ but rather greener above
and not so yellow below, and distinguished by the wing-bar,
formed by the yellowish-white tips to the greater coverts. Dull
olive-green above, lighter on the rump ; a yellowish-white eye-
stripe, well-defined, and reaching to the nape; ear-coverts

GREENISH WILLOW- WARBLER. 301

greenish yellow ; under surface of body pale greenish-yellow ;
the under wing-coverts and axillaries pale yellow ; " bill brown
above, brownish-yellow below ; legs and feet pale olivaceous
grey; iris dark brown" (E. A. Butler]. Total length, 475
inches; oilmen, 0-5 ; wing, 2-2 ; tail, 17 ; tarsus 07.

Range in Great Britain. — A specimen of this Indian species
was shot by Mr. G. H. Caton Haigh at North Cotes, on the
Lincolnshire coast, on the 5th of September, 1896. Mr.
Caton Haigh observes : — " The weather prevailing at the time
of its appearance was such as usually results in a great immi-
gration of small birds — the wind backing to the East on the
night of the 3rd, and blowing a fresh breeze from that quarter
on the 4th and 5th, with heavy rain commencing to fall on the
afternoon of the 4th, and lasting without intermission for
twenty-four hours."

Range outside the British Islands. — Mr. Gatke records three
specimens from Heligoland. The home of this species is in
Central Asia, as it nests in the Altai Mountains, and in Tur-
kestan, as well as in the Himalayas. Its eastern breeding-
range extends to the Ural Mountains and North-Eastern
Russia. In winter it is spread over the Indian peninsula to
Ceylon.

Habits. — An excellent account of this species is given by Mr.
Dresser in his " Birds of Europe," from which we learn that it
frequents mixed groves and woods ; and, according to Severtzoff,
it is to be met with among bushes and the tall steppe-grass.
Dr. Scully noticed it amongst the tamarisk and willow bushes,
and remarks that it seemed very restless, continually flitting
from spray to spray. Both Blyth and Dr. Scully state that its
voice is weak, and the former describes the note as tiss-yip, tiss-
yip, frequently uttered. Sabanaeff, however, says that the voice
of this bird consists of so loud and so strong a trill that it can
scarcely be recognised as the song of a Leaf- Warbler, and its
call-note, which is a short and shrill psi-psi^ closely resembles
that of the Yellow Wagtail." (Cf. Dresser, B. Eur. Suppl.
p. 90).

Nest. — One found by Mr. W. E. Brooks in Kashmir, was
domed, and placed on a steep bank-side of a ravine full of

302 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

small birch trees, at an elevation of about 11,000 feet. It did
not contain eggs.
Eggs. — Unknown.

Page 214. Add : —

PALLAS'S WILLOW-WARBLER. PHYLLOSCOPUS PROREGULUS.

Motacilla proregulus. Pall. Zoogr. Russo.-Asiat. i. p. 499 (1811).

Phylloscopus proregulus, Seebohm, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. v.

p. 71 (1881) ; Dresser, B. Eur. Suppl. p. 74. pi. 650, fig. 2

(1895); Southwell, Zool. 1896, p. 8; Gurney, Zool. p.

*35 (l897)«

Adult Male. — Similar to P. superciliosus, but easily dis-
tinguished by the yellow rump, in strong contrast to the
greenish back. Like P. supertiliosus, it has a couple of yellow
wing-bars, as well as a light yellowish streak on the crown ;
" upper mandible dark-brown, the lower one orange nearly to
the tip ; legs brown ; feet yellowish." Total length, 4*5 inches ;
culmen, 0-45 ; wing, 2-3; tail, 1-65; tarsus, o'8.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male. Total length, 3-6
inches ; wing, i -9.

Seebohm says that the winter plumage is scarcely distinguish-
able from the summer plumage, but the autumn livery is more
brilliant than that of spring. In summer, the yellow of the
mesial line on the crown, eye-stripes, wing-bars, and rump,
becomes paler by abrasion, the pale tips to the quills dis-
appear, and the broad edges to the innermost secondaries
become narrow. Otherwise, he says, the changes from spring
plumage are very slight.

Range in Great Britain. — A specimen of this Willow- Warbler
was shot at Cley, in Norfolk, on the 3ist of October, 1896, by
Mr. E. Ramm.

Range outside the British Islands. — In Heligoland this species
is believed by Gatke to have occurred at least twice. Its home
is in Eastern Siberia and the Himalaya Mountains, and it visits
the neighbourhood of Orenburg in autumn, and winters in
Tenasserim and in Southern China.

Habits. — The present species is described as having a very
powerful note. Mr. Styan describes it as a " loud Canary-like

PALLAS'S WILLOW-WARBLER. 303

hweet? Dr. Dybowski says that its note is melodious and
powerful, and its song varied and sweet, and so loud that it
rings through the forest, and is astonishing as coming from so
small a bird.

Pallas's Willow- Warbler is chiefly an inhabitant of the pine
woods, and makes it nest on the branches of the smaller pines
and moss-covered cedars, near the stem. In Kashmir, Captain
Cock found the nest placed on the outer end of the branch of
a fir tree, from six to forty feet elevation, and sometimes on a
small sapling pine where the junction of the bough with the
stem takes place.

Nest. — "The nest," says Captain Cock, "is partially domed,
the outer portion consisting of moss and lichen, so arranged as
to harmonise with the bough on which it is placed, and lined
with feathers and thin birch-bark strips, never with hair."

Eggs. — Described by the above-named observer as being five
in number, pure white, richly marked with dark brownish- red,
particularly at the larger end, forming there a fine zone on most
of the eggs, and intermingled with these spots, and especially
on the zone, are some spots and blotches of deep purple-grey.
Axis, 0-53-0*55 inch; diam., 0-43-0-44.

ADDENDA TO VOL. II.

Page 42.

Range of the KING-EIDER : —

Mr. A. Trevor-Battye has pointed out to me that, by a
kipsus calami, I have included Spitsbergen as one of its winter
habitats. He says : — "As a fact this Duck has been many times
recorded in the summer in Spitsbergen, while in the winter it
obviously cannot be there, nor could it be recorded if it were/'

Page 1 6 1, line 6 from bottom: —

With regard to the statement of the " Son of the Marshes,"
that " when the young are alarmed, they scatter out," the most
interesting point in the nesting habits of ^£. hiaticola is that
the parent bird itself, if suddenly disturbed, scatters the young
ones with its feet, no doubt for purposes of better conceal-
ment ; for the young, when so scattered, instantly squat down

304 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

close among the stones, and are then practically invisible. A
reference to this has been given by Mr. Trevor-Battye in his
ornithological appendix to " Ice-bound on Kolguev," where he
gives a careful description of the same tactics as pursued by
the Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus hypoboreus).

ADDENDA TO VOL. 111.

Page 63 :—

THE AMERICAN LAUGHING GULL. LARUS ATRICILLA.

Larus atricilla. Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 225 (1766); Saunders,
Man. Brit. B. p. 646, note (1889) ; id. Cat. B. Brit. Mus.
xxv. p. 194 (1896).

(Plate CXXIV.}

Adult. — Similar to L. ridibundus, but distinguished by its
black head, dark slate-grey mantle, and its black outer
primaries. Total length, 16-5 inches; wing, 13-0.

Range. — North America, migrating south to Guiana, Brazil,
and Northern Peru.

This species was figured in Jardine's " Naturalist's Library,"
and I have thought it advisable to republish the figure. One
specimen is said to have been procured at Winchilsea, but this is
disallowed by Mr. Saunders. who says that there is no authentic
record for the species in England or any part of Europe.

Page 152. COLYMBUS ADAMSI.

During a recent visit to Manchester, I found a young bird of
this species in the very interesting collection of Mr. Bulkeley
Allen at Altrincham. The specimen was shot at Achaglachgach,
Loch Fyne, by a keeper named Ebenezer Burgess, late in the
autumn of 1893.

ADDENDUM TO PRESENT VOLUME.

Page 25^, line 8 from bottom. Read \—"Turtur arenicola:

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

Acanthis exilipes, 297

hornemanni, 298
adamsi, Colymbus, 180, 182, 304
AL iothus exilipes, 297
albipennis, Podicipes, 209
AIca, 106

alle, 127

arctica, 130

bruennichi, 120

grylle, 123

impennis, ill

torda, 106

troile, 114, 120
alchatus, Pterocles, 258
Alle, 127

alle, 127
alle, Alca, 127

Alle, 127

Mergulus, 127
American Laughing Gull, 304

Passenger Pigeon, 250
anaestheta, Sterna, 29
Andalucian Hemipode, 296
anglica, Gelochelidon, II

bterna, II

anglorum, Puffinus, 163
Anous, 37

stolidus, 37

antarctica, Megalestris, 89
aquaticus, Rallus, 216
Arctic Tern, 21
arctica, Alca, 130

Fratercula, 130

Mormon, 130

Sterna, 21

arcticus, Colymbus, 185, 187
arenicola, Turtur, 255
argentatus, Larus, 70
arra, Uria, 12 1
atra, Fulica, 238
atricilla, Larus, 304

Auk, Great, in

Little, 127
auritus, Colymbus, 201

Dytes, 20 1

Podiceps, 193, 201, 204

Podicipes, 201

Turtur, 254

bailloni, Crex, 232

Porzana, 232
Baillon's Crake, 232
Black Guillemot, 123

headed Gull, 59

necked Grebe, 204

Shearwaters, 175

Tern, 3

Tern, White-winged, 9

throated Diver, 185
Bonaparte's Gull, 56
bonapartii, Gavia, 56
brevipes, CEstrelata, 173

Procellaria, 173
brevirostris, Rissa, 84
Bridled Guillemot, 119
bruennichi, Alca, 120

Lomvia, 120

Uria, 1 20

Briinnich's Guillemot, 120
buffoni, Stercorarius, icr
Buffon's Skua, 101
Bullfinch, Greater, 298
bulweri, Bulweria, 175

Procellaria, 175

Thalassidroma, 175
Bulweria, 160, 175

bulweri, 175

columbina, 175
Bulwer's Petrel, 175

Caccabis hispanica, 281
rufa, 280

306

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

coeruleus, Porphyrio, 238
californica, Uria, 115
Cannabina exilipes, 297

hornemanni, 298
cantiaca, Sterna, 27
canus, Larus, 73, 83
Cape Fulmar, 158
capense, Daption, 158
capensis, Coturnix, 288
Daption, 158
Fodicipes, 209
Proccllaria, 158
Capercailzie, 276
capistrata, Gavia, 59
Capped Petrel, 172
Carolina Crake, 230
Carolina, Crex, 230
Porzana, 230
Rallus, 230

carolinensis, Podiceps, 193
casiotis, Columba, 243
caspia, Hydroprogne, 14
Sterna, 14
Sylochelidon, 14
Caspian Tern, 14
caspicus, Podiceps, 193
catarrhactes, Larus, 90
Lestris, 90
Megalestris, 89, 90
Stercorariu*. 90
cayanus, Podiceps, 193
Cepphus grylle, 123

mandti, 125

Cetosparactes eburneus, 81
chilensis, Megalestris, 89
Chloris, 297
chloris, Litfiuinus, 297
chloropus, Fulica, 234

Gallinula, 234, 235, 236
cinerea, Perdix, 282
cinereus, Lagopus, 271
colchicus, Phasianus, 291, 294
Columba, 241
casiotis, 243
livia, 247
migratorius, 250
oenas, 244
orientalis, 256
palumbus, 241

Columba turtur, 254
columbina, Bulweria, 175
Colymbus, 178

adamsi, 180, 182, 304

arcticus, 185, 187

aurituc, 201

ciistatus, 194

fluvial ilis, 207

glacialis, 178, 183, 184

giiseigena, 198

grylle, 123

podicipes, 213

septenttionalis, 187, 189

troile, 114
Common Coot, 238

Guillemot, 114

Gull, 73

Partridge, 282

Pheasant, 291

Quail, 286

Tern, 17
communis, Coturnix, 287

Turtur, 254
Coot, Common, 238
cornutus, Podiceps, 193, 201
Coturnix, 287

capensis, 288

communis, 287

coturnix, 287

dactylisonans, 287

japonica, 288
coturnix, Coturnix, 287

Tetrao, 287
Coues' Redpoll, 297
Crake, Baillon's, 232

Carolina, 230

Little, 223

Spotted, 226
crepidatus, Lestris, 97

Stercorarius, 97, 99
Crex, 220

bailloni, 222

Carolina, 230

crex, 220

parva, 224

porzana, 226

pratensis, 220

pusilla, 223
crex, Crex, 220

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

3°7

crex, Rallus, 220

cristata, Lophrethyia, 194, 199

cristatus Colymbus, 194

Podiceps, 193, 194

Podicipes, 194
cryptoleucura, Cymcchorea, 143

Oceanodroma, 143
Cymochorea, ciyptoleucura, 143

leucorrhoa, 140

dactylisonans, Coturnix, 287
Daption, 152, 157

capense, 158

capensis, 158
daurica, Perdix, 282
Diver, Black-throated, 185

Great Northern, 178

Red-throated, 187

White-billed, 182
dominicus, Podiceps, 193

Podicipes, 209
dougalli, Sterna, 23
Dove, Oriental Turtle, 256

Rock, 247

Stock, 244

Turtle, 254

Dove-like Fulmars, 171
Dusky Shearwater, 168
Dytes, 193, 201

auritus, 201

Eared Grebes, 204
eburnea, Pagophila, Si
eburneus, CttoparacUs, Si

Larus, 81
Ectopistes, 250

migratorius, 250
Eider, King 304
europjea, Pyirhula, 299
europoeus, Sylbeocyclus, 207
exilipes, Acanthis, 297

/Egiothus, 297

Cannabina, 297
exustus, Pterocles, 258

Flat-clawed S orm-Petre's, 144
fluviatilis, Coljmbus, 207

Podiceps, 207

Podicipes, 207

fluviatilis, Sterna, 17

Tachybaptes, 207
Fork-tailed Gulls, 41

Petrel, 140
Fratercula, 130

arctica, 130

glacialis, 132
frontata, Gallinula, 236
Fulica atra, 238

chloropus, 234
fuliginosa, Sterna, 31, 32
Fulmar, 153

Cape, 158
Fulmars, Dove-like, 171

Pied, 157
Fulmarus, 152

glacialis, 153
fuscus, Lirus, 66

Gabianus, 48

pacificus, 48
galeata, Gallinula, 236
Gallinula, 234

chloropus, 234, 235, 236

frontata, 236

galeata, 236

pyrrhorhoa, 236

tenebrosa, 236
Gallinules, Purple, 237
Game-Birds, 261
Garrodia nereis, 148
Gavia bonapattii, 56

capistrata, 59

minuta, 49

ridibunda, 59

sabinii, 41
Gelochelidon, 1 1

anglica, 11
Giant Tern?, 13
glacialis, Colymbu?, 178, 183, 184

Fratercula, 130

Fulmarus, 153

Procellar'a, 153
Glaucous Gul', 76
gravis, Procellaria, 160

Puffinus, 1 60
Great Auk, in

Black-backed Gull, 63

Black-headed Gull, 51

3o8

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

Great Crested Grebe, 194

Northern Diver, 178

Shearwater, 160

Skua, 90

Greater Bullfinch, 298
Grebe, Black-necked, 204

Great Crested, 194

Pied-billed, 213

Red-necked, 198

Slavonian, 201
Grebes, Eared, 204

Horned, 201

Little, 207

Thick billed, 213

Tippeted, 192
Greenfinch, 297
Greenish Willow-Warbler, 300
Greenland Redpoll, 298
Grey Petrel, White-throated, 173
Grey Storm -Petrels, 149
grisea, Procellaria, 169
griseigena, Colymbus, 198

Lophsethyia, 195, 198, 199

Podiceps, 193, 198

Podicipes, 198
griseus, Puffinus, 169
Ground Pigeons, 253
Grouse, Red, 262, 263

Sand, 257, 259
grylle, Alca, 123

Cepphus, 123

Colymbus, 123

Uria, 123
Guillemot, Black, 123

Bridled, 119

Briinnich's, 120

Common, 114
gularis, Podicipes, 209
Gull, American Laughing, 304

Black-headed, 59

Bonaparte's, 56

Common, 73

Glaucous, 76

Great Black-backed, 63

Great Black-headed, 51

Herring, 70

Iceland, 79

Ivory, 8 1

Kittiwake, 84

Gull, Lesser Black-backed, 66

Little, 49

Mediterranean Black-headed, 54

Sabine's, 41
Gull-billed Tern, 1 1
Gulls, Forked-tailed, 41

Wedge-tailed, 45

hoesitata, GEstrelata, 172, 174
Haliplana, 31
hebridicus, Podiceps, 193
Hemipode, Andalucian, 296
Herring-Gull, 70
hirundo, Sterna, 17, 21
hispanica, Caccabis, 281
hodgsonise, Perdix, 282
holboelli, Lophsethyia, 2co
Homopelia, 253
Horned Grebes, 201
hornemanni, Acanthis, 298

Cannabina, 298

Linota, 297, 298
hybrida, Hydrochelidon, 4, 6

Sterna, 6
Hydrochelidon, 3

hybrida, 4, 6

kucopareia, 6

leucoptera, 4, 7, 9

nigra, 3, 4, 7, 8, IO

surinamensis, 3
Hydroprogne, 13

caspia, 14
hyperboreus, Larus, 76

Phalaropus, 304

Iceland Gull, 79
ichthyaetus, Larus, 51
impennis, Alca, in

Plautus, in
indicus, Rallus, 21
intermedia, Porzana, 232
intermedius, Rallus, 232
Ivory Gull, 81

japonica, Coturnix, 288

King- Eider, 304
Kittiwake Gull, 84
kuhli, Puffinus, 161

ALPHABETICAL INDEX,

3°9

Lagopus, 263

cinereus, 271

mutus, 271

scoticus, 263
lagopus, Tetrao, 271
Land-Rail, 220
Larus, 48

argentatus, 70

atricilla, 304

canus, 73, 83

catarrhactes, 90

eburneus, 81

fuscus, 66

hyberboreus, 76

ichthyaetus, 51

leucopterus, 79

marinus, 63

melanocephalus, 54

minutus, 49

parasiticus, 101

Philadelphia, 55, 56

ridibundus, 55, 59

roseus, 45

rossii, 45

sabinii, 41

tridactylus, 84

Laughing Gull, American, 304
leachi, Piocellaria, 140

Thalassidroma, 140
Lesser Blacked-backed Gull, 66
Lestris catarihactes, 90

crepidatus, 97

parasiticus, 101

pomarina, 93

richardsoni, 97

leucopareia, Hydrochelidon, 6
Leucophoeus, 48

scoresbyii, 48
leucoptera, Ilydrochelidon, 4, 7, 9

Sterna, 9

leacopterus, Larus, 79
Itucorrhoa, Cymochorea, 140

Oceanodroma, 140

Procellaria, 140

Thalassidroma, 140
Levantine Shearwater, 167
Ligurinus, 297

chloris, 297
Linota hornemanni, 297, 298

Little Auk, 127

Crake, 223

Grebe, 207

Gull, 49

livia, Columba, 247
Lomvia bmennichi, 120

troile, 114

Long-legged Storm-Petrels, 145
Lophaethyia, 192, 193

cristata, 194, 199

griseigena, 195, 198, 199

holboelli, 200
Loxia pyrrhula, 298
ludovicianus, Podiceps, 193
lunulata, Sterna, 31
Lyrurus, 273

mlokosiewiczi, 274

tetrix, 273, 274

maccormickii, Megalestris, 89
macdougalli, Sterna, 24
macrura, Sterna, 21
Madeira Storm-Petrel, 140
Majaqueus, 1 60
major, Puffinus, 160
mandti, Cepphus, 125
Manx Shearwater, 163
marina, Pelagodroma, 149

Procellaria, 149
marinus, Larus, 63
maruetta, Porzana, 226
Mediterranean Black-headed Gull,

54
Megalestris, 89

antarctica, 89

catarrhactes, 89, 90

chilensis, 89

maccormickii, 89
Megalopterus stolidus, 37
melanocephalus, Larus, 54
Mergulus alle, 127
mi^ratorius, Columba, 250

Ectopistes, 250
minor, Podiceps, 193, 207
minuta, Gavia, 49

Sterna, 34
minutus, Larus, 49
mlokosiewiczi, Lyrurus, 274

3io

ALPHABE1ICAL INDEX.

montana, Perdix, 286
Moor-hen, 234
Mormon arctica, 130
Motacilla proregulus, 302
mutus, Lagopus, 271

Tetrao, 271
nere:s, Garrodia, 148
nigra, Hydrochelidon, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10

Sterna, 3
nigricollis, Podiceps, 193, 204

Podicipes, 204

Proctopus, 204
Noddy Tern, 37

obscura, Procellaria, 168
obscurus, Podiceps, 193

Puffinus, 168
oceanica, Procellaria, 145
oceanicus, Oceanites, 145
Oceanites, 145

oceanicus, 145

wilsoni, 145
Oceanodroma, 140

cryptoleucura, 143

leucorrhoa, 140
cena?, Columba, 244
CEstrelata, 160, 171

brevipes, 173

haesitata, 172, 174

torquata, 173

Oriental Turtle-Doves, 256
orientalis, Columba, 256

Turtur, 256
Ossifraga, 152

pacificus, Gabianus, 48
Pagophila, 48, 8 1

eburnea, 81
Pallas's Sand-Grouse, 260

Willow-Warbler, 302
palumbus, Columba, 241
paradoxa, Tetrao, 260
paradoxus, Syrrhaptes, 259, 260
parasitica, Lestris, 101
parasiticus, Larus, 101

Lestri?, 101

Stercorarius, 99, IOI

Partridge, Common, 282

Red-legged, -280
paiva, Crex, 224

Porzana, 223

Zapornia, 223, 224
parvus, Rallus, 223
Passenger Pigeons, 250
pelagica, Procellaria, 137

Thalassidroma, 137
Pelagodroma, 149

marina, 149
Perdix, 282

cinerea, 283

daurica, 282

hodgsoniae, 282

montana, 286

perdix, 282

rubra, 280

rufa, 280

sifanica, 282
perdix, Perdix, 282

Tetrao, 282
Petrel, Bulwer's, 175

Capped, 172

Fork-tailed, 140

Storm, 137

White-throated Grey, 173

Wilson's, 145

Phalaropus hypeiboreus, 304
Phasianus, 290

colchicus, 291, 294

torquatus, 294
Pheasant, Common, 291
Philadelphia, Larus, 55, 56

Sterna, 56

?hilippensis, Podicipes, 209
'hylloscopus proregulus, 302

superciliosus, 302

trochihis, 301

viridanus, 300
Pied-billed Grebe, 213
Pied Fulmars, 157
Pigeon, American Passenger, 250

Wood, 241
Pigeons, 240

Ground, 253

Passenger, 250

Pointed-tailed, 250
Plautus, no

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

Plautus impennis, 1 1 1
Podrethyia, 193
Podiceps, 193

auritus, 193, 201, 204

carolinensis, 193

caspicus, 193

cayanus, 193

cornutus, 193, 201

cristatus, 193, 194

dominicus, 193

fluviatilis, 207

griseigena, 193, 198

hebridicus, 193

ludovicianus, 193

minor, 193, 207

nigricollis, 193, 204

obscurus, 193

rubricollis, 193, 198

thomensis, 193
podiceps, Podilymbus, 213
Podicipes, 207

albipennis, 209

auritus, 201

capensis, 209

cristatup, 194

dominicus, 209

fluviatilis, 207

griseigena, 198

gularis, 209

nigricollis, 204

philippensis, 209

tricolor, 209
podicipes, Colymbus, 213

Podilymbus, 213
Podilymbus, 193

podiceps, 213

podicipes, 213
Pointed-tailed Pigeons, 250
pollicaris, Rissa, 84
pomarina, Lestris, 93
pomarinus, Stercorarius, 93
Pomatorhine Skua, 93
pomatorhinus, Stercorariu?, 93, 99
Porphyrio, 237

caeruleus, 238

porpbyrio, Porphyrio, 237, 238
Porzana, 226

bailloni, 232

Carolina, 230

Porzana intermedia, 232

maruetta, 226

parva, 223

porzana, 226

pmilla, 234
porzana, Crex, 226

Porzana, 226

Railus, 226

fratensis, Crcx, 220
'riocella, 160
Prion, 152
Procellaria, 137

brevipe?, 173

bul wen, 175

capensis, 158

glaciali?, 153

gravis, 160

grisea, 169

leachi, 140

leucorrhoa, 140

marina, 149

obscura, 186

oceanica, 145

pelagica, 137

puffinus, 163

yelkouan, 167
Proctopu", 193

nigricollis, 204
proregulus, Motacilla, 30:

Phylloscopus, 302
Ptarmigan, 271
Pterocles alchatus, 258

exustus, 258
Pterocletes, 257
Puffin, 130
Puffinus, 1 60

anglotum, 163

gravis, 160

griseus, 169

kuhli, 161

major, 160

obscurus, 1 68

puffinus, 163, 167

yelkouanus, 167
puffinus, Procellaria, 163

Puffinus, 163, 167
Purple Gallinules, 237
pusilla, Crex, 223

Poizana, 234

312

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

pyrrhorhoa, Gallinula, 236
Pyrrhula europcei, 299

pyrrhula, 298
pyrrhula, Loxia, 298

Pyrrhula, 298

Quail, Common, 287

Rail, Land, 220
Rallu?, 216

aquaticus, 216

Carolina, 230

crex, 220 *

indicus, 218

intermedius, 232

parvus, 223

porzana, 226
Razor-bill, ic6
Red Grouse, 262, 263

legged Partridge, 280

necked Grebe, 198
Redpoll, Coues', 297

Greenland, 298
Red-throated Diver, 187
Rhodostethia, 45

rosea, 45

rossi, 45
richardsoni, Lestris, 97

Stercorarius, 97
Richardson's Skua, 97
ridibunda, Gavia, 59
ridibundus, Larus 55, 59
ringvia, Uria, 119
Rissa, 49, 84

brevirostris, 84

pollicaris, 84

tridactyla, 84
Rock-Dove, 247
rosea, Rhodostethia, 45
Roseate Tern, 23
roseu?, Larus, 45
rossi, Rhodostethia, 45
rossii, Larus, 45
Rotche, 127
rubra, Perdix, 280
rubricollis, Podiceps, 193, 198
rufa, Caccabi?, 280

Perdix, 280

Tetrao, 280

Sabine's Gull, 41
sabinii, Gavia, 41

Larus, 41

Xema, 41
Sand-Grouse, 257, 259

Pallas's, 260

Three-toed, 258
Sandwich Tern, 27
saundersi, Sterna, 36
scoresbyii, Leucophceus, 48
scoticu?, Lagopus, 263

Tetrao, 263, 264

septentrionalis, Colymbus, 187, 189
Shearwater, Dusky, 168

Great, 160

Levantine, 167

Manx, 163

Sooty, 169
sifanica, Perdix, 282
Skua, Buffon's, 101

Great, 90

Pomatorhine, 93

Richardson's, 97
Slavonian Grebe, 201
Smaller Sooty Tern, 29
Sooty Shearwater, 169

Tern, 32
Spilopelia, 253
Spotted Crake, 226
Stercorarius, 89, 93

buffoni, 101

catarrhactes, 90

crepidatus, 97, 99

parasiticus, 99, 101

pomarinus, 94

pomatorhinus, 93, 99

richardsoni, 97
Sterna, 17

ansestheta, 29

anglica, II

arctica, 21

cantiaca, 27

caspia, 14

dougalli, 23

fluviatilis, 17

fuliginosa, 31, 3 2

hirundo, 17, 21

hybrida, 6

leucoptera, 9

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

3*3

Sterna lunulata, 31

macdougalli, 24

macrura, 21

rninuta, 34

nigra, 3

Philadelphia, 56

saundersi, 36

stolida, 37
Sternula, 36
Stigmatopelia, 253
Stock-Dove, 244
stolida, Sterna, 37
stolidus, Anous, 37

Megalopterus, 37
Storm-Petrel, 137

Madeira, 143

White-bellied, 149
Storm- Petrels, Flat-clawed, 144

Grey, 149

Long-legged, 145
Streptopelia, 253
sub-alpina, Sylvia, 299
Sub-Alpine Warbler, 299
superciliosus, Phylloscopus, 302
surinamensis, Hydrochelidon, 3
Sylbeocyclus europceus, 207
Sylochelidon caspia, 14
sylvatica, Tetrao, 296

Turnix, 296
sylvaticus, Turnix, 296
Sylvia sub-alpina, 299
Syrrhaptes, 258

paradoxus, 259, 260

tibetanus, 259

Tachybaptes fluviatilis, 207
tenebrosa, Gallinula, 236
Tern, Arctic, 21

Black, 3

Caspian, 14

Common, 17

Gull-billed, u

Noddy, 37

Roseate, 23

Sandwich, 27

Smaller Sooty, 29

Sooly, 32

Whiskered, 6

15

Terns, Giant, 13
Tetrao, 276

coturnix, 287

lagopus, 271

mutus, 271

paradoxa, 260

perdix, 282

rufa, 280

scoticus, 263, 264

sylvaticus, 296

urogallu?, 276
tetrix, Lyruru*, 273, 274
Thalassidroma bulweri, 171;

leachi, 140

leucorrhoa, 140

pelagica, 137
Thalassreca, 160
Thick-billed Grebes, 213
Three-toed Sand-Grouse, 258
thomensis, Podiceps, 193
tibetanus, Syrrhaptes, 259
Tippeted Grebe?, 192
torda, Alca, 106
torda, Utamania, 106
torquata, CEstrelata, 173
torquatus, Phasianu*, 294
tricolor, Podicipes, 209
tridactyla, Risfa, 84
tridactylu?, Larus, 84
trochilus, Phylloscopus, 301
troile, Alca, 114, 120

Colymbus, 114

Lomvia, 114

Uria, 114
Turnix sylva'ica, 296

sylvaticus, 296
Turtle-Dove, 254
Turtle-Doves, Oriental, 256
Turtur, 254

arenicola, 304

auritus, 254

communis, 254

orientalis, 256

turtur, 254

vulgaris, 254
turtur, Columba, 254
Turtur, 254

Uria, 114

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

Uria arra, 121

bruennichi, 120

californica, 115

giylle, 123

ringvia, 119

troile, 114
Urinator, 192
urogallus, Tetrao, 276
Utamania torda, 106

viridanus, Phylloscopus, 300
vulgaris, Turtur, 254

Warbler, Greenish Willow, 300

Pallas's Willow, 302

Sub-Alpine, 299
Water- Rail, 216
Wedge -tailed Gulls, 45

Whiskered Tern, 6
White-bellied Storm-Petrel, 149

-billed Diver, 182

-throated Grey Petrel, 173

-winged Black Tern, 9
Willow- Warbler, Greenish, 300

Pallas's, 302
wilsoni, Oceanites, 145
Wilson's Petrel, 145
Wood-Pigeon, 241

Xema, 41
sabinii, 41

yelkouan, Puffinus, 167
yelkouanus, Puffinus, 167

Zapornia, 223
parva, 223, 224

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
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RENEWED BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO IMMEDIATE
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LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS

Book Slip-50m-12,'64(F772s4)458

368586

Sharpe, R.B.

A hand-book to
the birds of Great
Britain.

QL690
G7
S48
v.4

LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
DAVIS