ote. *.*,* . a, A.4 “ os ao oh ARRAN cs aaa ae ’ SON Sa . SSS me ~ te Seer AA a SO She iG, > ere tt eee Se Sees eS eet tat ¢ is , of ribet teats? Ae Ditty 1? y : ry > > n ot OTs TX NOCEA “et i Aas ? > etasatateta > 5? tate » ae et 2 a? ¥ ~~ ee ? iy rarer a ee ee Ne ee Ce ee ee et Ne ee te ae eae eee Se A a Ae “x . = —~ AA ee A A tet et ot att ea ee ae | TSR, hae Tee STE ene arte nee eee eee ee Be ee eee OAS ek EE eens Foe CLAKENCE LEWIS af YINY Rede au a) Sided P ry bani L ha A ) ae Se vat i” a Baa, } ee A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER: INCLUDING GINKGOACE: ” if ve PRE. 8. bs FRONTISPIECE. De Poe et ihn ae ey ‘ eat Photo. lent by Sir Fohn Stirling Maxwell, Bart. Scots PINE (PINUS SYLVESTRIS) AT ORTON, SCOTLAND. A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER/# INCLUDING GINKGOACEZ BY W. DALLIMORE Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew AND Peach JACKSON, A.i:s. WITH DRAWINGS BY MISS G. LISTER) “5.E3S. NEW YORK LONGMANS, GREEN & CO. LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD & CO. m3 [All rights reserved] Made and Printed in Great Britain by Butler & Tanner Ltd., Frome and London FOREWORD In the present handbook conifers are dealt with from the point of view of the gardener, forester, and student rather than the botanist, and we have therefore tried to describe the plants in as simple language as possible. In order to add to the usefulness of the work we have endeavoured to include all known species, although many of them are not suitable for outdoor cultivation in the British Isles. The keys for the identification of the genera and species in cultivation, if used with care and in conjunction with the illus- trations, should enable the student to identify most of the conifers he meets with in gardens. Species not known to grow in this country are as a rule omitted from the keys. Recent expeditions to China have resulted in a large addition to the conifers cultivated in Britain. Many of these are still in a young state, and the identity of some of them is obscure. It is evident, however, from a careful study of the available material, that the number of species is fewer than was at first supposed. The names adopted are chiefly those of the Kew Hand-list of Coniferw, except where recent research has dictated to the contrary. A fairly complete list of synonyms and common names has been included. Our descriptions have in most cases been drawn up from living plants or herbarium specimens. We wish to record our thanks for facilities granted by the present Director, Dr. A. W. Hill, and to Sir David Prain, the late Director of Kew ; to Dr. O. Stapf, for help with the genus Podocarpus and for advice upon difficult points. We are also under obligation to colleagues and friends at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the British Museum (Natural History), for help in various ways. Professor A. Henry has allowed us to make free use of information from The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, and given us other assistance. Vi vi FOREWORD The following owners of estates, among others, have kindly furnished us with specimens of living conifers for study and comparison :—His Grace the Duke of Bedford; the Marquis of Headfort; Lieut.-Colonel Sir George Holford; the late Sir Edmund Loder, Bart. ; Sir John Ross of Bladensburg ; Mr. G. W. E. Loder ; Professor W. W. Smith (the Regius Keeper, Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh) ; Mr. C. Coltman-Rogers ; Mr. W. Banks; Mr. H. Clinton-Baker. To Sir John Stirling Maxwell and Mr. F. R. 8S. Balfour we are indebted for the loan of photo- graphs for reproduction ; and we have also to thank the Council of the Royal Horticultural Society for permission to reproduce illustrations from their Journal. Messieurs L. Pardé and R. Hickel, the well-known French authorities on conifers, in addition to identifying critical species, have also sent us many interesting specimens from the famous arboretum at Des Barres and other French gardens and nurseries. Miss G. Lister, whose careful and accurate drawings are a feature of the book, has made many useful suggestions, and her assistance with the proof sheets has been invaluable. W. D. A, Soe Kew, September, 1923. INTRODUCTION ACMOPYLE AMENTOTAXUS AUSTROTAXUS CEPHALOTAXUS DAcRYDIUM MicrocACcHRYS PHEROSPH RA ABIES ACTINOSTROBUS AGATHIS ARAUCARIA. ATHROTAXIS CALLITRIS . CALLITROPSIS CEDRUS CRYPTOMERIA CUNNINGHAMIA CUPRESSUS DISELMA FITzRoyA FOKIENIA GLYPTOSTROBUS JUNIPERUS GINKGO INDEX CONTENTS PART I. PAGE 19 to 20 20 25 31 32 PART II. PAGE 79 137 138 150 161 165 173 174 180 186 190 226 227 229 230 231 TAXACEA PHYLLOCLADUS Popocarrus PRUMNOPITYS SAXEGOTHEA TRASUSEs TORREYA PINACEH KETELEERIA LARIx LIBOCEDRUS PICEA Pinus PSEUDOLARIX PsSEUDOTSUGA SCIADOPITYS SEQUOIA TAIWANIA . TAXODIUM 'TETRACLINIS THUYA TSUGA WIDDRINGTONIA PART III. GINKGOACEA vil PAGE PAGE 543 549 new fa Mf 2; O'4\ Bat Aes lia SS PLATE XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII XXIX XXX XXXI Elo Orr LhATES To face page Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) at Orton, Scotland Frontispiece Picea Breweriana in the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon Pinus contorta, var, Murrayana on the ridge between Kaweah and King’s River Canons, California . - Pinus Lambertiana in California . Abies amabilis on Mount Rainier Greek Fir (Abies cephalonica) at Westonbirt, Ra tonieee: Abies magnifica Abies nobilis and A. amabilis at eee of Nesqually Glacier, Washington Wellingtonia (Sequoia nee at yonann Chile Pine (Araucaria imbricata) . : - Atlas Cedar (Cedrus atlantica) at Westonbirt, Gloucester Lawson Cypress a ia Lawsoniana) at Westonbirt, Glou- cester : : Cupressus macrocarpa at Monterey, California Fitzroya patagonica Larch (Larix europea) at rE ena Incense Cedar (Librocedrus decurrens) at Frogmore Picea Breweriana in the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon Oriental Spruce (Picea orientalis) . : Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) at Morton Mains, Scotland Cone of Pinus Lambertiana and of P. Ayacahuite. Pinus contorta, var, Murrayana at Westonbirt, Gloucester Cone of Pinus Coulteri : a 2 Pinus Lambertiana near Mount Shasta, California Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) at Kew Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii) Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii) and Western Godlee (Thay plicata) at Victoria Park, Vancouver Wellingtonia (Sequoia gigantea) River Valley, Siorra Novela Deciduous Cypress CBee fae Hale at Cassiobury Park, Watford . . P : 5 Thuya plicata in State of uietineee Western Hemlock (Z'suga Albertiana) Eastern Hemlock (T'suga canadensis) : : Maidenhair Tree (female), Gingko biloba, at Bath . ix 26 44 66 80 92 108 116 130 158 176 190 210 226 284 304 322 342 354 372 384 390 404 454 460 482 492 500 516 522 530 546 PRINCIPAL WORKS CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS HANDBOOK Arnold Arboretum, Journal of (1919). Baker, R. T., and Smith, H. G., Pines of Australia (1910). Bean, W. J., Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, 2 vols. (1914). Beissner, Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde, ed. 2 (1909). Bentham, G., Flora Australiensis, vol. vi (1875). Board of Trade, Catalogue of the Empire Timber Exhibition (1920). Botanical Magazine (1787——>). Boulger, G. 8., Wood (1908). Brandis, Sir Dietrich, Indian Trees (1906). Britton, N. L., North American Trees (1908). Brown, N. C., Forest Products: Their Manufacture and Use (1919). Camus, Les Cypres (1914). Carriére, E. A., Traité général des Coniféres, ed. 2 (1867). Cheeseman, T. F., Manual of the New Zealand Flora (1906). Clinton-Baker, H. W., and A. B. Jackson, Illustrations of Conifers, 3 vols. (1909-1913). Coulter, M., and Chamberlain, C. J., Morphology of Gymnosperms (1910). Dallimore, W., Holly, Yew and Box (1908). Edinburgh, Notes from the Royal Botanic Gardens (1900 —~). Elwes, H. J., and Henry, A., Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, 7 vols. (1906-1913). Engler, A., Das Pflanzrenreich (1900 ——). Forbes, J., Pinetum Woburnense (1839). Forestry, Quarterly Journal of (1907 —>). Gamble, J. S., A Manual of Indian Timbers (ed. 1922). Garden, The (1872 —~). Gardeners’ Chronicle (1843 —~). Gibbs, L. S., Phytogeography and Flora of the Arfax Mountains, Dutch N.W. New Guinea (1917). Gordon, G., The Pinetum (1880). Hiley, W. E., The Fungal Diseases of the Common Larch (1919). Hooker, W. J., and J. D., etc., Icones Plantarum (1836 ——). Hooker, W. J., London Journal of Botany (1842-48). Hooker, J. D., Flora of British India, vol. v (1888). Hornebrook Murray, Dwarj and Slow-growing Conifers (1923). Hough, R. B., The American Woods, 13 vols. (1888 —~). Howard, A. L., Timbers of the World (1920). Illust. Hortic. (1854 -——). Index Kewensis (1884 —>). Jepson, W. L., Silva of California (1910). x PRINCIPAL WORKS CONSULTED xi Journal of Botany (1863 —). Kent, A. H., Veitch’s Manual of the Coniferce, ed. 2 (1900). Kew Bulletin (1887 —>). Kirk, T., Forest Flora of New Zealand (1899). Kremers, E., The Volatile Oils, vol. ii (1916) (transl. of Gildemeister, E., and Hoffmann, Fr.). Lambert, A. B., Description of the Genus Pinus (1837). Linnean Society, Journal of (1857 -+). Loudon, J. C., Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, 8 vols. (1842). Lowe, J., Yew Trees of Great Britain and Ireland (1897). Masters, M. T., Review of some Points in the Comparative Morphology, Anatomy and Life History of the Conifers (Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. xxvii (1889) ). Masters, M. T., Notes on the Genera of Taxacew and Coniferce (Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. xxx (1893) ). Michie, C. Y., The Larch (1885). Mohr, C., and Roth, F., The Timber Pines of the Southern United States (1897). Philippine Journal of Science (1906 —>). Pilger, R., Taxacew, in Engler, A., Das Pflanzenreich, iv, 5 (1903). Ravenscroft, E. J., Pinetum Britannicum, 3 vols. (1863-84). Record, J., Hconomic Woods of the United States (1919). Royal Horticultural Society (1892), Conifer Conference, Journal of the. Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, Transactions of (1865 —>). Royal Society of London, Philosophical Transactions of (1665 —). Sargent, C. 8., Plantee Wilsoniane, 3 vols. (1911-17). Sargent, C. S., Forest Flora of Japan (1894). Sargent, C. 8., Manual of North American Trees, ed. 2 (1922). Sargent, C. S., Silva of North America, vols. x—xii and xiv (1896-98 and 1902). Schlich, Sir W., Manual of Forestry (1904). Shaw, G. R., The Genus Pinus (1914). Shaw, G. R., The Pines of Mexico (1909). Shirasawa, Homi, Forestry of Japan (1910). Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Japonica (1870). Silva Tarouca, E. G., Unsere Freiland Nadelholzer (1913). Société Dendrologique de France, Bulletin de la (1906 —>). Stone, Timbers of Commerce (1904). Sudworth, G. B., The Pine Trees of the Rocky Mountain Region (1917). Sudworth, G. B., The Spruce and Balsam Fir Trees of the Rocky Mountain Region (U.S.A. Dept. Agric. Bull. No. 327). Sudworth, G. B., Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope (U.S.A. Dept. Agric.) (1908) Troup, R. 8., Silviculture of Indian Trees, vol. iii (1921). Victorian Naturalist (1884 —). Warburg, O., Monsunia (1900). Whitford, H. N., and Craig, R. D., Forests of British Columbia (1918). Wilson, E. H., The Conifers and Taxads of Japan (1916). Woolsey, T. 8., Jr. French Forests and Forestry (1917). Woolsey, T. 8., Jr., Studies in French Forestry (1920). Se lf are A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER INTRODUCTION THE CONIFER. The trees and shrubs included under the Conifer form a group which was much better represented at earlier periods of the world’s history than at present, although it is still the most important class of Gymnosperms. They comprise two families, forty-four genera, and about 380 species. With them is usually included the family Ginkgoacee, although recent research places it between the Conifers and Cycadacec, with affinities to ferns. The geographical distribution of existing species of conifers is of great interest, some being widely spread, while the majority are confined for the most part to distinct areas, a few being decidedly local. All are temperate or sub-tropical plants, those found in tropical latitudes being confined to sub-tropical or temperate elevations. Morphology. A detailed account of the anatomy and life-history of the Coniferze is beyond the scope of the present work. There is a large literature on this branch of the subject scattered through various botanical publications. A good account of the group is given by Coulter and Chamberlain,! and we do not propose to give more than a general outline here or such information as is necessary for purposes of identification. The Seedling Plant. Seedling conifers present special points of interest. In the first place, the number, form, and size of the cotyledons or seed- leaves vary greatly in different genera and species, and often furnish sufficiently distinctive characters for identification. The cotyledons usually appear above ground, but in the genus Araucaria two forms of germination occur ; one in which the two seed-leaves do not appear above the surface of the soil, as in 1 Morphology of Gymnosperms (1917). See also Masters, ‘‘ Anatomy and Life History of the Conifer,” Journ. Linn. Soc. XXVII, 226 (1890). 1 B 2 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA Fic. 1—SEEDLINGS. a, PINUS CANARIENS|]S, two seedlings with nine cotyledons, which in one specimen are still enclosed at the tips in the seed-coat ; b, ABIES SUBALPIN A, two seedlings with five and six coty- ledons respectively ; c, three seedlings of TAXODIUM DISTICHUM, with three, four, and five cotyledons ; d, two seedlings of TAYUS BACCATA, with two and three cotyledons respectively and succeeding leaves, INTRODUCTION 3 A. imbricata (the common monkey puzzle), but are enclosed within the seed, the other in which the four seed-leaves are raised upon a well-marked stalk. In the genera V'orreya and Keteleeria the cotyledons also remain enclosed within the seed. The number of the cotyledons is very variable. In the Cupressinew and Taxacee they rarely exceed two; when more than two, as in Pinus and Abies, the number is often variable, ranging from 8 or 4, as in Pinus contorta, to 15 or 18, as in P. Sabiniana. The size of the cotyledons also varies greatly in different species of the same genus. In Pinus Pinea, P. canariensis, and P. Armandi they are 1}-2 in. long and proportionately stout, while in P. contorta they rarely exceed 4 in. in length and are very slender. The cotyledons are usually linear in form and in some cases the midrib is prominent. In many species of Pinus they are three-sided and in P. Strobus they are distinctly toothed on the margins. The apex may be pointed, as in Pinus, or blunt and notched as in Abies. In some species of Abies, Pinus, and Larix the cotyledons are longer than the primordial leaves which follow. In certain species of Thuya and Cupressus, they are about the same length as the succeeding leaves. The cotyledons usually fall away during the first year, but in J'axus they persist until the third and in Abies until the fourth year. Trunk and Branches. The relatively large development of the trunk as compared with that of the branches is a characteristic of many conifers. The verticillate arrangement of the branches, their spreading direction and gradual diminution in size from below upward, give rise to a tree of markedly pyramidal form, which depends mainly on the alternate development and non-development of the buds. In later life the tree generally loses its lower branches and the branching at the apex becomes less regular. In cases where the development of stem and branches is more equal, as in the yew, a bushy habit is the result. This form becomes modified into a fastigiate or columnar habit as the branches assume an upward tendency, as in Libocedrus decurrens, while pendulous forms are produced by the downward tendency of the branches. Buds. The buds of conifers are much like those of other plants in their position and arrangement. A usual feature in the develop- ment of the leading shoot is a terminal bud surrounded by smaller buds, while in lateral shoots the terminal bud is often accompanied by two smaller buds, which sometimes remain dormant. The shape of the buds and budscales and their resinous or non-resinous character often afford good specific characters. The young 4 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER shoots which develop from the buds vary greatly in colour and degree of hairiness ; they also furnish in some instances a reliable means of identification. In Larix, Pseudolarix and Cedrus two kinds of shoots are produced, the one long and slender, with scattered leaves, the other short and thick, with the leaves in tufts at the extremities. The former are extension or leader shoots, the latter resemble the spurs of fruit trees. Foliage. The leaves of conifers, which, except in a few genera, are ever- green, vary considerably in appearance. The adult leaves are ovate, needle-like, flat, and linear, or assume the form of closely pressed scales. In many cases the leaves which succeed the cotyledons differ in form, attachment, or arrangement, and to some extent in structure from those which characterize the adult state of the tree. The arrangement of the leaves often varies on different parts of the tree. Thus on the erect leading shoots of various species of Abies, Picea, Pseudotsuga, Tsuga, Taxus, and Cephalotaxus, the leaves spread on all sides. On coning shoots the leaves are vertically placed, while on the lateral branches they are arranged nearly in one horizontal plane. The surface of the leaf is perforated with stomata which are breathing pores or apertures in the epidermis surrounded by guard cells leading into an intercellular space below. In Pinus, Picea, and Abies the stomata are disposed in longitudinal bands on one or both surfaces, their position being indicated by white dots of glaucous bloom. Beneath the epidermis are usually found one or more layers of long, thick-walled strengthening cells known as the hypoderm, often forming an unbroken sheet or perforated by the stomata, and sometimes thickened by additional layers. In the genus Pinus the hypoderm varies considerably in the different species and occasionally affords distinctive characters! which are men- tioned in the description of the species. Traversing the mesophyll or spongy tissue of the leaf are the resin ducts, which although variable in position usually occur in definite numbers and in well-defined situations according to genera and species (see Z'suga, Abies, and Pinus). These resin canals are not very constant in their occurrence and are sometimes absent. When present the canals terminate at the base of the leaf and do not join on to those of the stem. In the centre of the mesophyll is the bundle sheath or endoderm, consisting of a single row of oval cells. These encircle the pericycle (thin- walled) cells, in the centre of which is the fibro-vascular bundle which constitutes the midrib of the leaf. In some cases (as in Araucaria) there are several such bundles running through the leaf. 1Shaw, Genus Pinus, 6 (1914). INTRODUCTION oO Flowers. The male and female flowers of conifers are produced separ- ately either on the same tree or on different trees. The male flowers consist of a number of stamens arranged in catkin-like clusters, each stamen usually including an anther and filament. In colour they are usually some shade of yellow, violet, or deep crimson. The anthers are produced either on the sides or on the under-surface of the staminal leaf or sporophyll, which consists of a filament expanding above into a scale-like connective. The pollen grains are globular and sometimes winged. The female flowers are borne in cones, each flower usually consisting of a bract and a scale, one above the other, the lower one (the bract) being sterile, the upper one (the scale) fertile and bearing a seed or seeds on its upper surface. The relative proportions of the bract and seed scale vary in different cases so that while in some genera, such as Abies, the bract and scale are always distinguishable, in others the two are so intimately blended as to be indistinguishable to the naked eye when the cones are ripe (see Pinus). The seeds are not, as in other flowering plants, enclosed in an ovary, but lie exposed on the upper surface of the scale; hence the name ‘“‘ Gymnosperms”’ or ‘“‘ naked- seeded plants.” The flowers are usually wind-pollinated. There are two theories about the morphology of the flower. Some regard the male as one flower of many stamens; others, however, consider each stamen as a separate flower, hence the difference in the terms flower, catkin, and cone, applied to the male inflorescence. Similarly the female cone may be regarded as a single flower composed of many bracts and scales, or each bract with its seed scale may be treated as a distinct flower. The number of ovules to each fertile scale varies considerably in different genera. Sometimes it is solitary, asin Taxus ; in Pinus there are two seeds to each scale, while in some species of Cupressus they are numerous. Further details of external morphology will be found under the descriptions of the various genera. Wood. The wood is distinguished from that of other flowering plants in the absence of vessels, and is composed of tracheids or elongated spindle-shaped cells with closed ends which are dovetailed between one another. They have woody walls marked with bordered pits, which are a characteristic feature of coniferous woods. The medullary rays traversing the wood are usually only one cell thick and rarely visible without a lens. In some genera (notably Pinus) resin ducts are conspicuous as small dots on the transverse surface of the wood, whilst in certain other genera (Abies) 6 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER such ducts are absent. The distinction between spring and autumn wood is usually well marked in trees from temperate regions, but less distinct in species from warmer countries. Heart-wood and sap-wood are not always well defined. Economic Uses. Many conifers yield timber of very great economic importance, In most cases the wood is strong in comparison to its light weight, straight-grained, easily worked, durable, or easily made so by treatment with preservatives. It takes paint, polish, or glue well, and is suitable for a wide range of work, particularly general carpentry and joinery, pit props, telegraph poles, railway sleepers, paving blocks, and paper pulp. By destructive distillation various tar products, pyroligneous acid, etc., are obtained. Several species yield resin in commercial quantities, which is used in the preparation of paints and varnishes or distilled for the production of turpentine and rosin. From bark-blisters and wood a semi- resinous substance is procured which is used in medicine and for other purposes. Oil obtained by the distillation of leaves, fruits, and wood is used in medicine and perfumery. Fibre from bark and foliage is sometimes used in upholstery ; the seeds of certain species are valuable for food, whilst the bark of others is employed by tanners. Further particulars of the economic uses are given under the respective species. Propagation. Whenever possible, conifers should be increased by seeds, for seedlings usually form the best trees. Cuttings of various species, particularly of Cupressus, may be rooted, and this method of propagation is necessary in the case of varieties that do not breed true from seeds. Grafting is also resorted to in such cases, but grafting should not be tried until other means of propagation have been tried and failed. When grafting is practised stocks closely related to the scions should be chosen. Layered branches sometimes take root, but plants raised by this means are often misshapen. A few species (notably Cryptomeria japonica and Sequoia sempervirens) produce coppice shoots from cut-over trees. Seeds may be sown during autumn or early spring (the latter time for preference), the ground chosen being on the light side, well drained, and well worked. For large quantities of seed, beds 4 feet wide, separated by paths 12-15 in. wide, are most con- venient. The soil should be on the dry side when the seed is sown. ‘The seed should be sown rather thinly, lightly covered with soil and pressed down by means of a light wooden roller. Steps must be taken to protect the seeds from vermin and, when necessary, to shelter seedlings from frost and hot sun. Small quan- INTRODUCTION 7 tities of seed may be sown in pots or boxes in frames or green- houses. Cuttings are usually inserted in sandy soil in a cold frame or in a warm greenhouse, July and August being the most suitable time. Grafting is carried on indoors in spring, the stocks having been established in pots during the previous autumn. Young Plants (Nursery Treatment). Seedlings raised in pots or boxes should be lined out about one inch apart in nursery rows before the roots are able to become twisted or interlaced. Those raised in outdoor beds may be allowed to remain one or two years in the beds, according to density. They should eventually be lined out in borders, the plants being placed about 3 in. apart in rows 9-12 in. apart. In this position they may remain for one or two years. Plants 9-12 in. high are usually large enough for planting under sylvi- cultural conditions, but larger plants may be planted in parks and gardens where they can receive individual attention. Young trees left in nursery borders should be transplanted every alter- nate year until they are placed in permanent positions. Many conifers are, however, difficult to establish after they have at- tained a height of several feet, and it is usually wise to find them permanent positions whilst they are quite small. Permanent Planting. Trees that are planted in gardens or parks are usually placed in well-worked ground. In such cases the principal danger to guard against is deep planting. When large holes have been made for the plants they should be filled up and allowed to settle for several weeks before the trees are planted. At planting time the upper roots should not be covered by more than an inch or two of soil. Trees placed under woodland conditions are often badly treated. The worst kind of planting, probably, is notching. By this method a small opening is made in the ground and the roots of the young plant are pushed in. The hole is often too small to admit the roots, which are therefore doubled up. Such plants are often difficult to establish, and there are frequently consider- able losses. By breaking up a small area of ground with a mattock or pickaxe and planting with a spade better results are secured. Where the land is moderately even it pays in forest planting to plough the ground, or at any rate strips of ground, for the plants, and where a hard pan occurs a few inches below the surface it is wise to use a subsoiler on the plough. Sub- soiling will often do away with the necessity for draining. After ploughing, planting can be carried out at a much faster rate than in hard ground, and the young plants make more rapid progress, In all cases deep planting must be avoided. 8 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAi Pruning. Conifers as a rule require less attention to pruning than broad-leaved trees. Some are inclined to form double leaders, particularly after an injury to the leading shoot. Duplicate leading shoots should be removed as early as possible. The lower branches of woodland trees that do not die and fall should be removed as close to the trunk as possible, whilst the lower branches of ornamental trees that are becoming weak and unsightly should be removed. In the case of trees in open positions the trunk should not be too quickly cleared of lower branches or the bark may be injured by sun or frost. Prun- ing may be carried out at any period between June and the end of January. Hedges of yew, Thuya, or Cupressus should be clipped over toward the end of July or early in August. In some instances it may be wise to use secateurs rather than shears for the work. Topiary work of yew may be cut over at the same time. Diseases. Conifers are attacked by numerous fungus and insect pests. Once such pests become well established they are difficult to eradicate, and a sharp look-out should be kept for the early stages of an outbreak of disease, for at this stage it may easily be checked. Particulars of various diseases are given elsewhere. SYNOPSIS OF FAMILIES AND TRIBES Family Taxacee. Evergreen trees or shrubs. Male and female flowers usually on different trees. Cone formation imperfect. Seed coat either dry or eventually fleshy, more or less surrounded by a fleshy cup- like aril or by a succulent scale, or borne upon a fleshy stalk. I. Taxraz (The Yew Tribe). Seed erect or rarely partly inverted ; partially or completely surrounded by an aril or with a fleshy resinous seed-coat. Cephalotaxus. Leaves linear, not prickly, in a two-ranked arrangement, mid-rib prominent on upper side. Male flowers crowded. Seed long-stalked, fleshy, olive-like, maturing in one season, INTRODUCTION 9 Torreya. Leaves linear with prickly points, midrib not showing on upper side. Male flowers solitary. Seed sessile or subsessile, surrounded by a thin fleshy aril; olive-like, maturing in two seasons. Dacrydium. Leaves scale-like or linear. Male flowers spicate. Seed partly inverted or ultimately erect with a short cup-like aril and an inner, usually dry seed-coat investing the kernel. Taxus. Leaves linear, in a two-ranked arrangement. Male flowers in stalked, globose heads. Seed solitary, erect, borne in a fleshy, cup-like scarlet aril, ripening in one season. Austrotaxus. Tree, habit of Podocarpus. Male flowers in spikes. Phyllocladus. True leaves linear or scale-like, succeeded by cladodes or leaf- like branches which perform the function of leaves and bear the female flowers on their margins. Amentotaxus. Leaves linear opposite. Male flowers in slender pendulous, branched catkins. Ovule solitary, borne in the axil of a branchlet. Pherosphera. Leaves scale-like, densely arranged in four or fiverows. Male flowers erect, egg-shaped or globular. Cones composed of 4-8 thin scales with no ovuliferous scale. II. Popocarre# (The Podocarpus Tribe). Seed inverted, outer coat dry, surrounded by a fleshy cup- like aril or supported by a fleshy bract and stalk. Microcachrys. Foliage scale-like, overlapping. Seed small, inverted from the top of the bract, surrounded at the base by a fleshy, scarlet aril. Podocarpus. Leaves variable, stamens in tufted spikes, stalk bearing the seeds, often swelling when ripe into a succulent, highly coloured mass around or below the inverted seed. 10 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAt Prumnopitys. Foliage as in Podocarpus, but with male flowers branched, and the fruits in a loose spike, the axis of which does not become fleshy. Saxegothea. Foliage yew-like. Male flowers in stalked cylindrical spikes. Cones with thickened scales and inverted seeds in grooves. Acmopyle. Foliage yew-like, stalkless. Young female flowers appar- ently composed of several sterile and one fertile bract fused into a warty, fleshy receptacle and bearing a single seed. Family Pinacee. Mostly evergreen resin-yielding trees or shrubs. Male or female flowers usually on the same tree. Cone formation perfect, seeds concealed between scales ; seed-coat woody or leathery, no aril. I. CupresstnrE& (The Cypress Tribe). Trees or shrubs usually with the adult leaves appressed ; opposite, whorled in 3-4 rows, small, scale-like, rarely linear. Buds not scaly. Cone-scales mostly confluent with the bracts, arranged crosswise, generally woody when ripe. Seeds erect. Sub-tribe I. Juniperinee. Male and female flowers on the same or on different trees. Cone-scales fleshy, at length confluent and berry-like. Seeds not winged. Juniperus. Foliage scale-like or needle-like, occasionally two kinds on the same plant. Cones fleshy, berry-like, of 3-6 valvate scales. Sub-tribe II. Callitrinez. Cone scales verticillate, dry, valvate. Seeds usually winged. Callitris. Twigs brittle, angular. Leaves scale-like, three-ranked, closely clasping the stem except at the triangular tips. Cone scales 6-8 erect, unequal, united at the base. INTRODUCTION 11 Tetraclinis. Twigs flattened. Leaves scale-like, four-ranked. Cones com- posed of 4 scales. Seeds 2-9 on each scale. Widdringtonia. Resembling Callitris, but with the leaves spirally arranged, and numerous seeds to each scale of the cone. Actinostrobus. Leaves scale-like, three-ranked. Cone scales 6, equal in size, surrounding a central axis, each with one or two winged seeds. Callitropsis. Closely allied to Callitris, but distinct in the Araucaria-like leaves arranged in eight vertical rows and in the cones, which consist of 8 scales in 2 whorls of 4 each. Sub-tribe III. Thuineze. Male and female flowers usually on the same tree. Cone scales woody, truncate and peltate or oblong and joined only at the base. Seeds usually winged. Fitzroya. Tree or shrub with three-ranked leaves. Cone solitary, terminal of 2-3 rows of whorled scales, of which only the upper are fertile. Seeds 2-3 winged. Diselma. Shrub, with opposite scale-like leaves. Cone scales 4, inner pair fertile. Seeds 3 winged. Cupressus. Adult leaves, scale-like, appressed. Cones globular or oblong, woody, with peltate scales. Seeds numerous or (section Chame- cyparis) 2-5 to each scale. Thuya. Branch systems flattened, leaves scale-like. Cones with oblong scales which are thickened upwards, the two uppermost pairs fertile, seeds usually winged (not in 7’. orientalis). Lrbocedrus. Branch system flattened. Leaves scale-like, arranged in decussate pairs. Cones oblong, with 2-6 valvate scales, of which the middle pair alone is fertile. Seed with two unequal wings. 12 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA Fokienia. Intermediate in character between Cupressus and Libocedrus. Branch systems flattened. Leaves in four ranks, arising at the same level. Cones like those of Cupressus (Chamecyparis section), but with numerous unequally winged seeds to each scale. II. Taxopinez (The Taxodium Tribe). Trees with narrow linear leaves, spirally arranged, sometimes apparently two-ranked. Buds not scaly. Male and female flowers on the same tree. Cone scales spirally arranged, more or less woody. Bracts partially consolidated with the scales. Seeds 2-6 to each scale, erect or inverted, winged or wingless. Cryptomeria. Leaves linear, awl-shaped, spreading, spirally arranged in five ranks. Cones globular; the scales centrally attached to the axis, each with spine-like processesat the apex; bract combined with the scale for the greater part of its length and showing as a recurved point on its outer surface. Taxodium. Leaves deciduous, two-ranked. Male flowers in branched catkins. Cones globular or slightly obovate with scales thick, peltate. Seeds angular, warted, wingless. Glyptostrobus. Leaves three-ranked on barren branchlets, scale-like on fertile branchlets. Cones pear-shaped, stalked. Seeds winged. Sequoia. Leaves flat in a two-ranked arrangement or awl-shaped and spirally arranged. Cones globular, pendulous, with persistent woody scales. Athrotaxis. Leaves small, spirally arranged, crowded. Cones globular, like those of Cryptomeria. Scales with a triangular spine-like process near the apex. Seeds winged. Sciadopitys. Leaves of two kinds, small, scale-like and long leaf-like cladodes or double leaves, arranged in whorls. III. Asretinez (The Fir Tribe). Trees with adult leaves linear, spirally arranged but appar- ently in two or more rows, or in tufts. Buds scaly. Male and female flowers on the same tree. Cones mostly woody with INTRODUCTION 13 spirally arranged scales; the bracts! though relatively small, re- main separate from the scales, except at the very base. Seeds 2 to each scale, inverted, winged. Pinus. Leaves needle-like, usually in bundles of 2, 3, or 5, on short shoots within a common sheath. Long shoots with scale leaves only. Cones woody with persistent scales. Picea. Leaves flat or angular, leaving projecting peg-like scars when they fall. Cones pendulous with persistent scales. Abies. Branches whorled. Leaves needle-like, flat or flattish, leaving a dise-like scar when they fall. Cones erect, ripening in one year. Scales deciduous from a central axis. Pseudotsuga. Habit and foliage of Abies, but leaf scars less prominent. Buds beech-like. Cones pendent, ripening the first year. Scales persistent, bracts markedly three-lobed, trident-like. Keteleeria. Leaves flat, with a raised midrib on either surface. Buds roundish. Male flowers in tufts or umbels. Cones erect, lateral, the scales long persistent but ultimately separating from one another. T'suga. Leaves flat or angular, usually in a two-ranked arrangement. Leaf-stalk slender, pressed against the shoot. Cones ovoid or oblong, composed of a few persistent scales. Cedrus. Leaves needle-like, rigid, scattered on long shoots or tufted on short spurs. Male flowers in erect catkins. Cone scales over- lapping, ultimately deciduous. Larix. Leaves arranged as in Cedrus, but deciduous, soft. Male flowers in short spikes, cone scales Woody, persistent. Pseudolariz. Resembling Larix in its deciduous tufted foliage, but with club-shaped short shoots and spike-like male flowers arranged in umbels. Cone scales deciduous. 1 In Pinus the bract disappears in the ripe cone. 14 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER IV. ARAUCARINE (The Araucaria Tribe). Trees with spirally arranged narrow or broad leaves. Buds not scaly. Male and female flowers on the same or on different trees. Anther cells pendulous. Cones globular; scales very numerous, spirally arranged, apparently single by the consolidation of bract and scale, the latter being relatively small. Seeds 1-6 to each scale. Cunninghamia. Leaves flat. Male flowers in terminal umbellate clusters. Cones globular. Scales persistent. Bracts long, leafy, spreading at the points. Seeds 3 to each scale, winged, pendulous. Taiwania. Adult leaves, scale-like. Cones sub-globose with numerous scales. Secondary scales absent. Seeds 2 to each scale. Agathis. Leaves usually broad and flat. Cones globular, the scales separating when ripe. Seed 1 to each scale, free, obliquely winged, pendulous. Araucaria. Leaves lance-shaped or awl-shaped, spirally arranged. Cones globular, scales very numerous, deciduous. Seed more or less winged, united with the scale. KEY TO THE GENERA IN CULTIVATION The following key, based on well-marked characteristics of shoots, winter buds and foliage, will enable the beginner to identify the genus of any conifer he is likely to meet with in cultivation and should be used in conjunction with the keys to the species which will be found under the respective genera. The keys are only intended for use with specimens having mature foliage taken from well-developed lateral branches. The diag- nostic characters are easily seen with the naked eye or with a pocket lens magnifying 8 diameters. The position and number of the resin canals in Abies and Pinus are best observed by examin- ing a thin transverse section of the leaf under a compound micro- scope, but in the case of Abies they can often be made out by squeezing the leaf after it is cut across, when the resin will be seen exuding from the two canals. INTRODUCTION 15 Section Leaves needle-like in clusters or whorls (Figs. 63, 85). I Leaves linear or needle-like, not in clusters or whorls, often in two ranks. Buds and leaf scars usually cae aa uous (Figs. 13, 80). II Leaves flat, linear, yew-like, areal in an ranks, 1 in. or less long. Buds and leaf scars ore aida hada (Fig. 8) : ;) EE Leaves flat, linear, often two. ranked, more than 1 in. long (Fig. 3) ‘ , é nee | Leaves small, scale-like (Figs. 46, 112) ‘ : V Leaves awl-shaped, strongly keeled or curved (Fig. SA) VE Leaves broad, ovate (Fig. 35) ‘ ‘ ‘ : ~ VER I Leaves needle-like in clusters or whorls. Buds and leaf scars usually conspicuous. Leaves 2, 3, or 5 in a cluster.— Pinus (Figs. 83, 84, 92). Leaves arranged in two ways, scattered on long shoots and in rosettes on short shoots, Leaves soft, deciduous. Bud scales, long, slender.— Pseudolaria (Fig. 102). Bud scales short, closely pressed.—Larix (Fig. 65). Leaves stiff, evergreen.—Cedrus (Fig. 34). Leaves (double needles), 2—4 in. long, arranged in whorls like umbrella ribs.—Sciadopitys (Fig. 106). i Leaves needle-like or linear, not clustered. Plants usually seen as trees. Branches on main trunk not whorled, leaves with a distinct stalk pressed against the shoot.—T'suga (Fig. 114). Branches on main trunk usually whorled, leaves indis- tinctly stalked or sessile. Leaf scars peg-like. Cones pendulous with persistent scales.— Picea (Fig. 69). Leaf scars disc-like. Cones erect with deciduous scales. —Abies (Fig. 13). Leaf scars slightly prominent, bright-coloured. Foliage fragrant when rubbed. Cones with persistent scales. Bracts trident-like.—Pseudotsuga (Fig. 103). Plants usually seen as shrubs. Leaves spreading, small, needle-like, }—{ in. long, opposite or in whorls of three, whitened on upper surface.— Juniperus (Fig. 55), 16 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER Leaves spirally arranged, spreading or recurved. Foliage bronze in winter.— Cryptomeria japonica, var. elegans (Fig. 35g.). Leaves opposite, spreading, needle-like, } in. long or more, whitened on lower surface.—Cupressus (juvenile forms) (Fig. 45). III Leaves flat, linear, yew-like, often two-ranked, 1 in. or less long. Buds and leaf scars usually inconspicuous. Leaves distinctly two-ranked. Leaves evergreen, dark green. Bud scales rounded, leaves yellowish green beneath.— Tarus (Fig. 8). Bud scales acute, leaves glaucous beneath. Tree with spongy bark. Leaves smaller near base of shoot, grading into bud scales.—Sequoia sempervirens (Fig. 108). Shrub or small tree. Leaves not grading into bud scales.— Prumnopitys (Fig. 6). Leaves deciduous, light green.—T'axodium (Fig. 109). Leaves less distinctly two-ranked, shoots in whorls. Leaves twisted, up to 3? in. long, acute.—Saxegothea (Fig. 7): Leaves not twisted, 4 in. long, obtuse or apiculate.— Podocarpus alpinus. LY. Leaves flat, linear, usually more or less in two ranks more than 1 in. long. Leaves dark green, linear, two-ranked. Leaves with the midrib prominent on both sides. Buds with rounded scales.—Keteleeria (Fig. 62). Leaves with midrib not prominent on both sides. Bud scales acute. Leaves narrowing gradually to the base.—Podocarpus chilinus (Fig. 5). Leaves rather abruptly narrowed into a short foot stalk. Leaves spine-pointed with two stomatic grooves on lower surface.—Torreya (Fig. 9). Leaves not spine-pointed, without grooves on lower surface.—Cephalotaxus (Fig. 2). Leaves light green, twisted into more or less opposite ranks, narrowly lanceolate.—Cunninghamia (Fig. 36). INTRODUCTION 17 V Leaves small, scale-like, closely pressed to the shoot (spreading in Fitzroya and Athrotaxis selaginoides). Foliage arranged in a flat spray. Cones oblong, woody, with the scales overlapping. Foliage, aromatic when rubbed (usually). Cone scales 8-12, the two upper fertile.—Thuya (Fig. 113). Foliage not aromatic. Cone scales 6, the middle ones only fertile.—Libocedrus (Fig. 66). Cones sub-globose, woody, with scales valvate, peltate or wedge-shaped. Cones 4-4 in. in diameter with 2-5 seeds under each scale.— Cupressus (sect. Chamecyparis (Fig. 44)). Cones up to 3 in. diameter with numerous seeds under each scale.— Cupressus (sect. Hu-Cupressus (Fig. 42)). Foliage not arranged in a flattened spray. Shrubs or small trees. Leaves spreading in whorls of 3, obtuse. Cones globose of 2-3 rows of scales.—Fitzroya (Fig. 49). Leaves spirally arranged, spreading or appressed, acute or obtuse.—Athrotaxis (Fig. 31). Trees. Bark spongy, leaves spirally arranged, slightly spread- ing, greyish green.—Sequoia gigantea (Fig. 107). Bark not spongy, leaves not spreading, usually ap- pressed. Cones roundish, woody. Leaves all scale-like.— Cupressus (sect. Hu-Cupressus) (Fig. 42). Cones roundish, fleshy, berry-like. Leaves some- times scale- and needle-like on the same plant. —Juniperus (Fig. 51). VI Leaves awl-shaped, spirally arranged, irregularly 4-sided, keeled, pointing upwards.—Cryptomeria (Fig. 35). Leaves awl-shaped, spirally arranged, flattened. Spreading hori- zontally.—Araucaria excelsa (Fig. 30). VII Leaves broad, flat, ovate, spirally arranged, densely crowded, 1-2 in. long, 3-1 in. wide—Araucaria imbricata. ih PART I TAXACE/E ACMOPYLE, Pilger. A monotypic genus allied to Podocarpus and Dacrydium but differing chiefly in its seed-characters. Acmopyle Pancheri, Pilger. Dacrydium Pancheri, Brongniard and Gris; Podocarpus pectinata, Pancher. An evergreen tree, 40-50 ft. high, or occasionally taller, with erect branches. Leaves yew-like, stalkless, arranged in two ranks, 4—3 in. long, 7:—} in. wide, curved towards the pointed apex, green, with irregular stomatic lines above and two broad, glaucous, stomatic bands separated by the green midrib beneath. Male catkins 1-3 together at the tips of branchlets, 1-14 in. long. Female flowers apparently composed of several bracts, all except one sterile, and fused into a warty, fleshy receptacle bearing a single seed. Native of New Caledonia, where it is abundant in coniferous ~ | forests near the summit of Mount Mou.? It was introduced to » \Kew in 1891 from the Botanic Garden, Sydney, but is not hardy. ~ » AMENTOTAXUS, Pilger.* y ' A genus composed of one species found in Hong Kong, ~ Formosa, and W. China, allied to Podocarpus and Cephalotarus, from which it chiefly differs in its slender, branched, pendu- lous male catkins and solitary ovule borne in the axil of a branchlet. ae ~ > Amentotaxus argotenia, Pilger. Q) Podocarpus argotzenia, Hance; P. insignis, Hemsley ; Cephalotaxus argotenia, Pilger.* An evergreen bush, 6-10 ft. high, with the spreading habit of . a Cephalotazus. Leaves opposite, 1-5 in. long, up to } in. wide, 3 thick, leathery, margins slightly recurved, apex a short, sharp 1 Das Pflanz. IV, 5, Taxacezx (1903). 2 Compton, Journ. Linn. Soc. XLV, 426 (1922); Bot. Mag. t. 7854 (1902). a 3 Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 54, 41 (1916). 5 * Plant. Wils. ii, 6, 1914. > a 19 20 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAi point, the base narrowed to a short stalk; upper surface dark green, midrib well marked, under-surface with a conspicuous green midrib bordered on each side by a glaucous stomatic band, each of which is again margined with green, thus making five distinct alternating lines of green and silver. Male flowers or catkins slender, pendent, branched, 1-14 in. long. Ovule not seen but stated to be solitary in the axils of branchlets. AUSTROTAXUS, Compton.? A genus closely resembling Taxus and Podocarpus but differ- ing from these and other taxads in its spicate male flowers. Austrotaxus spicata, Compton. An evergreen tree, 45-80 ft. high, with a dense bushy crown of dark green foliage. Leaves like those of a Podocarpus, spirally arranged, linear 24-5 in. long, } in. wide, dark green, shortly pointed, entire with the margins rolled backwards, midrib promi- nent below, grooved above. Male flowers in dense axillary spikes about } in. long. Female flowers solitary, terminating short bract-covered stalks. Seed, 1-11 in. long, acorn-like, enclosed, except at the tip, in a fleshy aril as in yew. Native of New Caledonia, where it occurs in moist forests on steep slopes between about 1,000—3,000 ft. elevation. CEPHALOTAXUS, Siebold and Zuccarini. Evergreen trees or shrubs closely allied to Torreya, includ- ing seven species which are found in China, Japan, the Khasia Mountains, and Assam. Branches opposite or in whorls. Young branchlets green, prominently grooved and marked with minute white stomatic dots. Buds ovate, obtuse with numerous over- lapping scales. Leaves spirally arranged and spreading on vertical shoots; on lateral shoots arranged in two opposite ranks ; persisting three to four years, scarcely stalked, linear, pointed at the apex; upper surface dark shining green with a conspicuous midrib, lower surface with two broad silvery bands composed of numerous stomatic lines, Male and female flowers on different trees or rarely on the same tree. Male flowers in globose heads formed in autumn in the axils of the upper leaves, each flower composed of several stamens enclosed in a bract. Female flowers few, stalked, composed of opposite pairs of cup- shaped bracts with two ovules at the base of each. Usually only one of these develops into an olive-like “fruit” (seed), ripening the first season, consisting of a fleshy outer covering 1 Journ. Linn. Soe. XLV, 427, pl. 26 (1922). TAXACEAG 21 and an inner, woody, acorn-shaped shell enclosing the kernel (endosperm) and embryo. Cotyledons two. Cephalotaxus is distinguished from Torreya, which it closely resembles in foliage, by the non-spiny leaves not longitudinally furrowed beneath and the more numerous bud scales. Wood yellowish, straight-grained, soft or moderately hard, but usually too small to be of any particular economic value, although used locally for various purposes. A fatty oil is obtained from the seeds of C. drwpacea and probably from those of other species. The species of Cephalotaxus are hardy in Britain and thrive under similar conditions to yew, although less suited to chalky soils. They form handsome, spreading bushes, either in the open or in partial shade, and make excellent screens for blocking out undesirable objects from the garden. As they withstand pruning well, they could probably be successfully used for hedges. Propagation may be effected by seeds, which ripen freely, or by short cuttings inserted in sandy soil in a close frame during July or early August. KEY TO CEPHALOTAXUS. Leaves abruptly pointed, {7-1} in. long . . . C. drupacea. Leaves gradually narrowing toa ee point, 13-3 ‘i ici. ne he Sg ty as 2 CC Orpres: Cephalotaxus drupacea, Siebold and Zuccarini. (Fig. 2.) Cow’s-TAIL PINE. A small tree 20-40 ft. high in China and Japan, with wide- spreading branches forming a broad, rounded crown. Bark grey, dividing into narrow strips. In cultivation it is shrubby in habit, scarcely exceeding 10 ft. in height. Leaves arranged like those of C. Fortunei, but much smaller, straighter, and more abruptly pointed, 1-1} in. long, not arranged in one plane, but spreading outwards and upwards in a V-shaped manner. Male flowers $ in. in diameter on very short, scaly stalks. Seeds brown when ripe, 3-1 in. long, slightly pear-shaped, broadest at the rounded apex, oily. Var. pedunculata, Miquel. C. pedunculata, Siebold and Zuccarini; Taxus Harringtoniana,? Knight and Perry. Almost intermediate between C. Fortunei and C. drupacea in foliage, the leaves being less regularly arranged and more curved than in C. drupacea, 13-23 in. long, longer than in the latter species, but shorter than in C. Fortunei. Male flowers in clusters 1 Pinet. Woburn, t. 66 (1839). 22 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA: of 2-5 on stalks 1-1 in. long. Seed olive-green, 3~1 in. long, with an ellipsoid circular depression at the apex from which arises a short point. This variety, unknown in a wild state, has long been in cultiva- _—— IS SZ SS SS SSS S eA Fie. 2—CHPHALOTAXUS DRUPACEA. a, shoot with young male flowers ; b, leaf-buds and under-surface of leaves; c¢, section of leaf. tion in Japan, having apparently been introduced there from Corea or China by Buddhist monks. Prof. Henry suggests that it is a hybrid between C. Fortunei and C. drupacea, this supposition being based upon the statement that the seeds of C. Fortunei sent by Fortune from China in 1848 to the Bagshot Nursery produced two kinds of plants, one kind with long leaves identical TAXACEA 23 with the true wild plant of C. Fortwnei, and the other, with shorter leaves, identical with C. pedunculata and including plants which bore fruit. Forma fastigiata, Pilger. C. pedunculata, var. fastigiata, Carriére ; C. Buergeri, Miquel ; Podo- carpus korianus, Hort ; Taxus japonica, Loddiges. A form with erect branches resembling an Irish yew in habit, the leaves spreading all round the stem. It frequently produces normal foliage. Introduced from Japan in 1861 and now common in cultivation. Var. sinensis, Rehder and Wilson.! This differs from the type in its narrow lanceolate leaves which taper to along, sharp point. Found in W. Hupeh and Szechuen, China. C. drupacea is found wild in the mountain forests of Japan, where it is widely distributed at altitudes ranging from 1,000- 3,000 ft. It is also common in Central China. Clinton-Baker, Idlust. Conif. iii, 64 (1913) ; Bot. Mag. t. 8285 (1909). Cephalotaxus Fortunei, Hooker. (Fig. 3.) A tree 40 ft. high in Cent. China, but in cultivation an irregu- larly branched shrub seldom exceeding 20 ft. in height. Leaves spreading outwards from the shoot in two lateral ranks, 2-3 in. long, linear, gradually narrowing to a pointed apex, tapering at the base into a short, twisted petiole ; more or less curved, dark shining green above, pale below with a broad band of stomata on either side of the midrib. Male flowers } in. in diameter, on scaly stalks tin. long. “ Fruit” olive-green, about 1} in. long and 5 in. in diameter, acorn shaped. A native of China, occurring in mountain woods in Szechuen, Hupeh, Yunnan, Kiangsu, and Chekiang. Introduced to England in 1848 by Robert Fortune. Var. concolor, Franchet. A bush 3-4 ft. high. Bands of stomata indistinct. Common in thickets at an altitude of about 4,000 ft. in E. Szechuen. Elwes and Henry, Treesof Gt. Brit. and Irel. VI, 1470 (1912); Bot. Mag. t. 4499. (1850) ; Clinton-Baker, Illust. Conif. iii, 65 and 66 (as C. pedunculata) (1913). Cephalotaxus Griffithii, Hooker. A small tree found at 6,000 ft. elevation in the Mishmi Hills, Upper Assam. Leaves about 2 in. long and 1-3 in. wide, glossy green above, white beneath. Seeds about 14 in. long, borne 3-4 together, oblong with a short point at the apex and a narrowed 1 Pl, Wils. ii, 4 (1914). Fic. 3.—_CEPHALOTAXUS FORTUNEI. a, shoot; 6, under-surface of leaves, showing stomatic bands; c, male flower; d, fruit ; e, section of leaf. TAXACEA 25 base. It closely resembles C. Mannii, but is distinguishable by the white under-surface of the leaves. It is not known to possess any economic properties. Fl. Brit. India, V, 648 (1888). Cephalotaxus Mannii, Hooker.! A small tree found in the Khasia Mountains, India, closely resembling C. Fortunei in habit, but with smaller, narrower leaves which are green, not white, below. Seeds, 3-4 on a common stalk, each about 1} in. long, obovoid with a short apical point, narrowed at the base. Cephalotaxus Oliveri, Masters. A shrub with flat, rigid, spreading branches, the leaves hori- zontal, arranged in two opposite ranks closely set on the branch- lets and curving slightly upwards, #-1 in. long, }—} in. wide, rounded or truncate at the base, the apex abruptly pointed, dark green above, paler beneath, with two glaucous bands of stomata. Seed egg-shaped, 1{ in. long, on a stalk } in. long. The crowded, regularly two-ranked, shortly pointed leaves make this an easily recognized species. It is common in rocky places in W. Hupeh and Szechuen, China, up to nearly 2,000 ft. altitude, and was discovered on Mount Omei by Faber in 1900. It has since been introduced by Wilson, but we have seen no cultivated specimens. Gard. Chron. April, 1903, p. 227; Pl. Wils. ii, 6 (1914). DACRYDIUM, Solander. A genus of evergreen trees allied to Podocarpus, including about sixteen species, chiefly natives of New Zealand, but also occurring in the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Australia, Tasmania, New Caledonia, and Chile. Leaves of adult trees, small, scale-like, closely overlapping ; of juvenile trees or the lower branches of older ones, linear or awl-shaped. Male and female flowers on different trees, rarely on the same tree. Male flowers in spikes in the axils of the upper leaves, oblong or cylindric with sessile, two-celled anthers; pollen cells winged. Female flowers at or near the tips of the branchlets consisting of a few small scales, one or several bearing a solitary reversed ovule seated in a cup- shaped aril. Seeds ovoid, nut-like, ultimately more or less horizontal, Wood yellow or reddish in colour, sometimes handsomely figured, usually very resinous and durable. It is used for building purposes, furniture, and other work. Few species have been introduced to the British Isles, and 1 Fl, Brit. India, V, 647 (1888). 26 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER plants are rarely met with, although at least half of them ought to succeed out of doors in the mildest parts of the country. Pilger in Pflanzenreich, 18, iv, 43 (1903). Dacrydium araucarioides, Brongniart and Gris. A tree of candelabrum form, seldom exceeding 20 ft. in height. Branches erect, fastigiate. Branchlets short, thick, cylindrical. Leaves of young plants linear, erect or slightly spreading, those of mature plants scale-like, linear-oblong, about 4 in. long, and densely overlapping in many rows, rigid, strongly curved, keeled beneath, blunt at the apex. Male flowers terminal, oblong-cylindric. Female flowers on shoots which become purple and fleshy at the apex when the seeds are ripening. Seeds 1-3, ovoid, up to about + in. long. A remarkably distinct species found only in New Caledonia, where it is generally distributed in dry situations on serpentine rocks. Economic properties of no importance. Compton, Journ. Linn. Soc. XLV, 427 (1922). Dacrydium Balanse, Brongniart and Gris. A tree up to 25 ft. high with ascending fastigiate branches. Leaves arranged in many rows, thick, rigid, scale-like, densely overlapping, narrowly lance-shaped, strongly curved. Male flowers solitary, cylindrical. Seed ovoid, compressed. Native of New Caledonia. Of no economic importance. Compton, loc. cit. 427. Dacrydium Beccarii, Parlatore.? A little-known species, described as a shrub of elegant habit 12-15 ft. high. Leaves crowded on the branchlets, awl-shaped, rigid, prickly, keeled. Seed broadly ovoid, about } in. long. Native of Borneo, where it appears to be of no economic value. Dacrydium Bidwillii, Hooker fil. MovuntTAIN PINE Bog-pine ; Tarwood. An erect or prostrate, densely branched shrub 2-10 ft. high, the lower branches sometimes rooting and forming plants up to 20 ft. across. Leaves very variable, those of young plants and of the lower branches of old plants, spreading, crowded, linear, stalkless, +1 in. long; the leaves of upper branches, particularly of old specimens, small, scale-like, triangular, blunt, leathery, 2s-1y in. long. Male flowers solitary, —-} in. long. Seeds one or 1De Cand, Prod. XVI, 2, 494 (1868). MOUNTAINS. IN THE SISKIYOU BREWERIANA I. PICEA VEVE INTIS , , i i ‘ * fi 1 \ 7 : cf, 7 i iS se ° 4 i r = cad . - . = 7 ' i q _ P - ; vay ‘ ' \ ry, ™2 4 7 : t u a : a Pi ri TAXACEA 27 two, striate, compressed, blunt, about ;', in. long, with a fleshy white aril. A native of New Zealand, where it occurs chiefly in subalpine localities in the South Island and Stewart Island. D. Bidwillii is useful in checking erosion on mountain slopes and the branches are used for firewood; otherwise it is too small to be of economic value. The plant does not appear to be in cultivation in Britain, although it would probably thrive in the milder parts. Kirk, For. Fl. of New Zeal. 57, fig. 37 (1889). Dacrydium biforme, Pilger. MANOAO. Dacrydium Colensoi, Kirk [not Hooker]. Asmall tree 15-40 ft. high, with ashort trunk 3-6 ft. in girth, or becoming shrubby in alpine localities. branches stout, clothed with persistent leaves. ranchlets four-sided. Leaves on young plants yew-like, spreading, linear, }—? in. long, narrowed into a short, twisted stalk ; those of older branchlets scale-like, densely overlapping, closely pressed, 3')—;'y in. long, blunt, very thick, prominently keeled on the back. Male flowers solitary, about 4 in. long, at the tips of branchlets. Seeds solitary or rarely in pairs, oblong, blunt, striate, compressed, about ;', in. long. A native of New Zealand, where it appears to be widely dis- tributed in mountain forests and occasionally descends to sea- level. This is the D. Colensoi of Kirk and other botanists, but not the plant originally described under that name by Sir William Hooker (Icon. Plant. t. 548). Wood yellowish-brown in colour, straight and even-grained, strong and durable even in contact with the ground. It is used locally for building purposes, railway sleepers, fence posts, and other work. So far as we are aware it is not in cultivation in Britain, although it might be expected to thrive in the milder parts of the country. Kirk, loc. cit. 189, f. 96, as D. Colensoi. Hooker, Icon. Plant. t. 544 (1843). Dacrydium Colensoi, Hooker. WESTLAND PINE Dacrydium westlandicum, Kirk; Silver Pine; White Silver Pine. A tree resembling D. intermedium in habit, but taller and more conical (up to 40-50 ft. high, with atrunk usually 44-7} ft. in girth), with a straighter, cleaner trunk and more slender branchlets. Leaves of young plants lax, spreading, linear, 14 in. long, gradu- ally becoming shorter and more closely set with age and passing 28 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAj into the mature type, which has small, scale-like, densely over- lapping leaves, pressed close to the branchlets, ;';—;'s in. long, leathery, blunt, and often incurved at the apex, keeled on the back. Male flowers terminal, }-} in. long. Seeds 1-2, oblong, obtuse, about ;; in. long, enclosed for a third or more of their length in a cup-shaped aril. Native of New Zealand, being chiefly found on the west coast of the South Island, especially in the Westland district. Rare and local in the North Island. By many writers this species has been confused with Dacrydium biforme, Pilger (Podocarpus biforme, Hooker), which differs in the juvenile foliage and stouter branchlets. Kirk describes the wood as straight and even in the grain, dense, firm, and compact, yet of low specific gravity ; of great strength, toughness, and elasticity, shrinking little when seasoning, and taking a high polish. Mottled wood is highly prized for cabinets and furniture. Kirk, loc. cit. 165, f. 85, as D. westlandicum ; Hooker, Icon. Plant. t. 548 (1843), not t. 544. Dacrydium cupressinum, Solander. Riv. Red Pine. A tree pyramidal when young, with graceful pendulous branches, but acquiring a round-topped crown when mature, 60-100 ft. high with a trunk 6-15 ft. in girth. Bark dark brown or grey, shed in large scales. Juvenile foliage loosely arranged, the leaves awl-shaped, 1-1 in. long, spreading, decurrent, gradually passing into the mature state, the leaves of which are much smaller, rs—-} in. long, linear, sharp-pointed, or the upper ones often blunt and incurved, keeled on the back. Male flowers small, green, at the tips of branchlets. Seeds ovoid, slightly compressed, about 4 in. long, receptacle and bracts occasionally enlarged, fleshy. The rimu is abundant in the forests of New Zealand, where it is an important timber tree. Wood dark-reddish in colour, with darker or lighter markings, often finely figured ; very durable, strong, and a very useful timber for building purposes, bridge construction, railway sleepers, posts, the indoor finish of houses, furniture, and other work. As the wood takes a good polish, finely figured examples are prized for cabinet work. The bark contains a good deal of tannin and is said to impart a reddish colour to leather. Examples of the timber are exhibited in the New Zealand Court at the Imperial Institute and in Museum iii, at Kew. Kirk, loc. cit. 29, f. 19. TAXACEA 29 Dacrydium elatum, Wallich. A tall tree of pyramidal habit with spreading branches and weeping branchlets. Leaves of young plants and barren branch- lets awl-shaped, densely arranged, spreading, deeply grooved, 1_2 in. long ; those on fertile branchlets small, scale-like, densely overlapping, blunt or minutely pointed at the apex. Male flowers cylindric. Seeds scattered on the sides of the fertile branchlets, ovoid, } in. long. Native of the Malay States, Borneo, the Philippine Islands, and the Fiji Islands. The timber has no special economic importance. Dacrydium falciforme, Pilger. A tree or shrub with spreading branches. Leaves spreading in two opposite ranks, leathery, obliquely or broadly lance-shaped, 391 in. long, }—-} in. broad, more or less curved near the base, narrowing into a short stalk, the apex a sharp point. Female flowers produced on scaly branches, ovule solitary. Native of Borneo and the Philippine Islands. Dacrydium Fonkii, Bentham. Lepidothamnus Fonkii, Phillipi. A densely branched shrub with short, erect branchlets. Leaves scale-like, closely pressed, keeled on the back, apex blunt and incurved. Seeds at the apex of branchlets, ovoid, up to 4 in. long. Native of Chile. Dacrydium Franklini, Hooker fil. Huon PINE. A pyramidal tree 100 ft. high in Tasmania. Branchlets slender. Leaves small, scale-like, about ;'; in. long, closely pressed, strongly keeled, blunt and concave in mature plants resembling those of a cypress but differing markedly in the presence of scat- tered white stomata on the back. Cones very small, terminating the branchlets, each with 4-8 scales. Seeds globular, about 4’; in. in diameter. The Huon pine (so named from the river in D’Entrecasteaux Channel, in the bed of which logs of the timber were found) occurs on the southern and western coasts of Tasmania, where it was first seen by Alan Cunningham in 1818. It is one of the best- known trees in the island and yields a finely marked wood which takes a high polish and is eminently suited for furniture and cabinet work, but unfortunately it is not sufficiently plentiful for regular export. Some good examples of the wood are to be seen in Museum iii at Kew, and at the Imperial Institute. 30 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER Dacrydium intermedium, T. Kirk. YELLOW SILVER PINE. Mountain Pine. A small tree 20-40 ft. high, with a trunk 3-6 ft. in girth and spreading branches. Leaves on young plants narrow-linear, 4-y in. long, acute and curved, becoming closer set and shorter on older plants, passing gradually into those of mature trees which are densely crowded, overlapping, blunt, keeled, leathery, 1s—-ro in. long. Male flowers abundantly produced, about + in. long, with numerous anthers. Seed oblong, blunt, or with a minute point, $-} in. long. The tree is widely distributed in New Zealand, being not uncommon in mountain forests in the North and South Islands and on the western side of Stewart Island. The reddish-yellow wood is highly resinous and very inflam- mable, but very strong and durable. It is employed for railway sleepers, boat-building, and for telegraph poles. Kirk, loc. cit. 167, t. 86. Dacrydium Kirkii, F. Mueller. MANOAO. A tree 50-80 ft. high, with a trunk 3-6 ft. in girth. Bark greyish-brown. Lower branches spreading, upper ones erect. Leaves of young trees and on the lower branches of old ones yew- like, linear, 1-1} in. long ; those of mature branches small, scale- like, closely pressed, ;',-} in. long, obtuse, thick and leathery, with membranous margins. Male flowers solitary, }-} in. long. Female flowers forming a short oblong head, }-} in. long. Seeds 1-5, oblong, blunt, compressed, about } in. long. Found in the forests of the northern part of the North Island of New Zealand, and most frequent between Hokianga and Manukau Harbour. Hooker, Icon. Plant. t. 1219 (1877); Kirk, loc. cit. 191, t. 97. Dacrydium laxifolium, Hooker fil. MountTAINn RImMv. A prostrate or sub-erect shrub with slender trailing branches not exceeding 2 ft. in length. Leaves of young plants lax, spread- ing, narrow-linear, acute, curved, }—} in. long, passing gradually into the adult leaves, which are linear-oblong, blunt or sub-acute, 25-35 In. long, spreading or overlapping scale-like. Male and female flowers on the same or on different trees. Seed about 4 in. long with a small curved point, borne on a dry or occasion- ally succulent and swollen receptacle. TAX ACE 31 This is probably the smallest known conifer, fruiting speci- mens barely 3 in. high and wide being sometimes found. Native of New Zealand, where it is common in mountain districts usually between 2,500-4,000 ft. elevation. Its chief value is in checking erosion. Kirk, loc. cit. 169, t. 87; Cheeseman, Handb. New Zeal. Fl. 657 (1906). Dacrydium lycopodioides, Brongniart and Gris. A tree 30-40 ft. high, of fastigiate habit. Branchlets erect, dense. Leaves crowded, narrowly lance-shaped, about } in. long, rigid, sharply pointed, keeled beneath. Seed ovoid. Native of New Caledonia. Compton describes it as a tree of slender, graceful habit occurring in coniferous forests at 3,500 ft. altitude. Dacrydium novo-guineense, Gibbs. A small tree 30-35 ft. high, with a short trunk and rounded head of erect, rigid branches. Juvenile leaves plumose, needle-like, sharply pointed and curved at the apex ; adult leaves scale-like, triangular, closely pressed to the shoots. Seed small, red, fleshy, from the points of branches. Found at altitudes of 7,000—9,000 ft. in the Arfak Mountains of Dutch N.W. New Guinea. Dacrydium taxoides, Brongniart and Gris. A shrub of conical habit or a tree up to 50 ft. high. Young shoots purple in colour. Leaves alternate, but appearing more or less in two opposite rows, oblong-lanceolate, slightly curved, acute or sub-acute at the apex. Male flowers in axillary or terminal spikes. Seed ovoid, laterally compressed. Native of New Caledonia. MICROCACHRYS, Hooker fil. A monotypic genus distinguished by its prostrate, whip-like, four-angled branchlets and by its translucent, fleshy, cone-like fruits. Microcachrys tetragona, Hooker fil. A low, straggling, evergreen bush with long, slender, whip- like, four-angled branchlets. Leaves arranged in four regular ranks, scale-like, about '; in. long, uniform in size, with finely ciliate margins, remaining for many years on the main shoot. Male and female flowers terminal on separate shoots of the same plant ; the former oblong or egg-shaped, about } in. long with 20 or more stamens. Cones egg-shaped or rounded, 1~—} in. long, 1 Contrib. Phytogeo. and Fl. Arfak Mount. 78-80 (1917). * Compton, loc. cit. 427. 32 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA® fleshy and bright red when ripe ; fertile scales round, each with an inverted seed surrounded by a scarlet aril. Microcachrys occurs on the summit of the Western Range and Mount Lapeyrouse in Tasmania. It was in cultivation at Kew prior to 1862 and was probably introduced about 1845. Trained to a stake, it has grown 10 ft. high in the Temperate House at Kew. Hooker, Lond. Journ. Bot. iv, 150 (1845); Bot. Mag. t. 5576 (1866). PHEROSPHARA, Archer. Evergreen, moisture-loving shrubs, natives of Tasmania and New South Wales, belonging to J'axacee and allied to Diselma, Microcachrys, and Dacrydium. Branches short and stiff or long and slender. Leaves scale-like, spirally arranged, often in four or five rows, dense and overlapping. Male and female flowers on different plants. Male flowers erect, egg-shaped or globular, rs—} in. long, composed of 10-15 stamens. Cones about j'5 in. long, made up of about 4-8 thin scales, thickened at the base, blunt-pointed at the apex. Ovuliferous scale none. Seeds several in each cone, each seed at the base of a glume-like scale equalling or slightly exceeding the length of the seed. Individual seeds light brown or greyish, about the size of a clover seed. The Pherospheras are found at alpine elevations usually on the margins of lakes, streams, and waterfalls, where they are rare. They are not known in cultivation and have no economic value. Pherosphera Fitzgeraldi, F. V. Mueller. A low many-branched shrub with long slender branchlets, densely clothed with short, olive-green leaves about }, in. long, keeled, the point incurved, the inner surface white with stomatic lines and the whole leaf clear of the branch above the point of union. Distinguished from P. Hookeriana by its looser habit and longer, pointed, and less closely arranged leaves. Found at the base of most of the chief falls on the Blue Mountains, New South Wales. Hooker, Ic. Pl. xiv, 64, t. 1383 (1882). Pherosphzra Hookeriana, Archer. A closely branched erect shrub up to 5-7 ft. high, with stiff, short branches, densely clothed with closely overlapping, scale- like leaves which are scarcely 345 in. long and broad, thick, strongly keeled, curved and blunt at the apex. It is restricted to high alpine regions in Tasmania and is easily distinguished from P. Fitzgeraldi by its denser habit and smaller, thicker and more closely arranged leaves. Hooker, Kew Journ. ii, 52 (1850). TAXACEAL 35 PHYLLOCLADUS, L. C. Richard. Brownetera, Richard; Robertia, Richard; Thalamia, Sprengel. Evergreen trees or shrubs of distinct appearance, natives of Tasmania, New Zealand, the Philippine Islands and Borneo. Bark dark brown or black, smooth externally, reddish, compact, and fibrous within, the outer bark shed in thin flakes. Branches usually whorled. T'rue leaves linear or scale-like, +? in. long, commonly found on seedling plants. They are succeeded by cladodes or leaf-like branches which perform the functions of leaves and bear the female flowers on their margins. Those in a lateral position are spirally arranged and bear a resemblance to simple leaves, but the terminal ones are deeply lobed or pinnate and produced in whorls. In a young state they are often brightly coloured. Male and female flowers on the same tree or on separate trees. Male flowers in stalked or sessile cylindrical catkins, produced in clusters from the points of the shoots. Female jlowers very small, consisting of a single, erect, naked ovule seated on a short, fleshy scale, solitary or several together in a globular, cone-like body. Seeds greenish-brown, nutlike, ovoid or oval, at least twice as long as the swollen scale, each protruding from a cup-like sheath and resembling a miniature acorn in its cup. The species of Phyllocladus are recognized by their flattened, leaf-like branchlets and by the small hard seeds borne in short, fleshy receptacles on the edges of the cladodes. Timber white, yellowish or pale brown, heavy, straight-grained, easily worked, resembling that of the yew though paler in colour. The bark is rich in tannin and is sometimes used by tanners. Propagation can be effected by seeds or by cuttings. The latter may be rooted during spring or summer if inserted in sandy soil in a close frame. The various species can be grown out of doors in some parts of Cornwall and in Ireland, but are otherwise tender. Several species are to be seen in the Temperate House at Kew. Phyllocladus alpinus, Hooker fil. ALPINE CELERY-TOPPED PINE, Celery Pine; Mountain Toatoa; New Zealand Hickory ; Tanekaha. A bush or small tree 5-25 ft. high with numerous short, stout branches. Cladodes green, irregular in form and size, often narrow and diamond-shaped, }-14 in. long and 4? in. wide, thick in texture, margins almost entire, crenate, serrate, or irregularly and deeply lobed. On stunted specimens the branch system is very compact and the cladodes small and numerous, resembling a stunted Gaultheria or Vaccinium. The more highly cultivated the plants are, the more deeply lobed are the cladodes. Male flowers short, dense, reddish, almost stalkless. Female flowers D 34 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER usually 3—4 together. in cones } in. long and wide, crimson when mature. Seeds small with a minute point. Found in alpine regions in both the North and South Islands of New Zealand and discovered by Mr. Bidwill on Tongariro, Timber too small for important uses. T. Kirk, For. Fl. of New Zeal. 199 (1889) ; Cheeseman, Man. New Zeal. Fl. 659 (1906). Phyllocladus glaucus, Carriere. THE TOATOoA. Phyllocladus trichomanoides, var. glauca. A handsome tree 20-40 ft. high, with a trunk 3—44 ft. in girth. Branches short, stout, usually in whorls. True leaves thin, flat, recurved, 4—? in. long, about 4 in. wide. Cladodes of two kinds, those on the main stem solitary, fan-shaped, shortly stalked, with coarsely toothed margins. Elsewhere they are in whorls resemb- ling pinnate leaves 5-12 in. long, with 9-17 leaflets, the terminal leaflet or segment the largest ; they are usually smaller than those of the main stem ; glaucous, thick in texture, #~—2 in. long, up to 11 in. wide, variable in shape, often diamond- or fan-like, with the margins coarsely toothed or deeply lobed. Male and female flowers on different trees. Male flowers in narrow, cylindrical, stalked catkins #-1 in. long, in clusters of 10 or more near the points of the shoots. Female flowers displacing cladodes on the lower part of a shoot. Cones about 1-3} in. long and }-4 in. wide, on stalks about 4 in. long. Seeds small, 10-20 to a cone. P. glaucus has a limited distribution and is chiefly found in the Auckland district of New Zealand from sea-level to an altitude of nearly 3,000 ft. Wood white, straight-grained, easy to work, strong, tough, and elastic, with rather similar characters to yew. It is, however, too scarce to be of much commercial value. Kirk, loc. cit. 195; Cheeseman, loc. cit. 658. Phyllocladus hypophyllus, Hooker fil. A small and very variable tree 6-35 ft. high, with stout, whorled branches. Cladodes glaucous, very variable in size and shape. Lateral cladodes spirally arranged, #~34 in. long and up to 1} in. wide, on stalks +4 in. long; ovate, obovate, or fan-shaped, margins irregularly and coarsely crenate or serrate, except towards the base, or deeply lobed, the margins thickened and the apex often divided into two large lobes. Yerminal cladodes pinnately arranged on a central axis, produced in whorls, and the individ- uals usually smaller than the lateral cladodes. Male catkins in clusters ; narrow, cylindrical, on slender stalks nearly 1 in. long. Female flowers as in P. glaucus. Seeds about ,*; in. long, oval, flattened at front and back, the base set in a shallow cup. TAXACEAL 35 P. hypophyllus is a native of the Philippine Islands, New Guinea, and Borneo, where it is a mountain plant occurring at elevations of 8,500—12,000 ft. P. protractus, Pilger, according to Miss Gibbs 1 who saw the plant wild in the Arfak Mountains, is not distinct from P. hypophyllus. Hooker, Jc. Pl. t. 889 (1852). Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, Richard. CELERY-TOPPED PINE. Phyllocladus asplenifolia, Hooker fil.; P. Billardieri, Mirbel; P. serra- tifolia, Nois ; Podocarpus asplenifolia, Labillardiére ; Adventure Bay Pine. A tree with a maximum height of 60 ft. and a trunk girth of 6-9 ft., or reduced to a bush on high mountains. Bark an inch or more thick, hard, scaly. Branches thick in proportion to their length. Cladodes glaucous, diamond- or fan-shaped, very variable in outline, 1-2 in. long, 3-3 in. wide, margins irregularly and bluntly toothed or lobed; the terminal ones bearing the female flowers. Cones similar to those of P. alpina. P. rhomboidalis occurs around Williamsford, Tasmania, asso- ciated with Athrotaxis selaginoides. Wood pale brown, rather hard, close and short-grained, some- times prettily figured and rather like yew in general appearance. It has been used for masts, flooring and building purposes, and appears to be suitable for furniture and cabinet work. Specimens from high altitudes are stunted and dwarfed with very short, dense shoots and small cladodes. Phyllocladus trichomanoides, D. Don. (Fig. 4.) TANEKAHA. Phyllocladus Cunninghamii, Hort.; P. glauca, Hort. [not Carriére] ; P. hypophylla, Hort. [not Hooker fil.]. A tree 40-60 or more ft. high, with a trunk 3-9 ft. in girth. Bark 1} in. or more thick, black without, reddish internally. Branches whorled ; branchlets loose and slender in cultivated plants. Cladodes }—1 in. long and wide, the lateral usually larger than the terminal, fan-shaped, broadly ovate or rounded, the margins deeply lobed, serrate or almost entire. Male and female flowers on the same plant. Male catkins in clusters of 5-10 on short, slender stalks. Female flowers usually solitary on the margins or near the apex of terminal cladodes. Seed nut-like, short-pointed, enclosed at the base in a thin envelope surrounded by a swollen cup formed by the fusion of two fleshy scales. Native of New Zealand, where it is said to be restricted to Auckland and Hawke’s Bay District in the North Island and to 1 Contrib. Phytogeo. and Fl. Arfak Mount. 82 (1917). 36 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA Nelson and Marlborough in the South Island, ranging from sea- level to 2,500 ft. Wood of good quality, straight-grained, strong, heavy, easy to work, and useful for building purposes, masts, piles, mine Fie. 4—PHYLLOCLADUS [RICHOMANOIDES. a, spray with whorls of branchlets; b, bud and two mature cladodes; ec, young spray with minute leaf-scales on the teeth of the cladodes, and large scales on the shoot. timbers, furniture, sleepers, and other purposes. Specimens at Kew bear a striking resemblance to yew and such wood might be effectively employed for parquet flooring, panelling, and cabinet work. The bark contains from 23-28 per cent. of tannin, and from it the Maoris obtain a bright red dye. Hides tanned TAX ACEA 37 with the bark are said to produce leather which is peculiarly adapted for certain shades of kid gloves. Plants of this species are growing out of doors in Cornwall, there being a fine one at Ludgvan Rectory. The young cladodes are of a pleasing reddish-brown colour. Kirk, loc. cit. 9. PODOCARPUS, L’Heritier. YELLOW Woops. Nageia, Gaertner. Evergreen trees and shrubs yielding valuable timber, largely confined to the mountain forests of warm temperate and sub- tropical regions of the Southern hemisphere, with some occurring in Japan, China, India, the Malay States, and the Philippine Islands. Branches whorled or irregular. Leaves very variable, dense or distant on the branches, spirally arranged, rarely opposite or sub-opposite in two close ranks, as in Abies, or crowded and overlapping ; varying in size from mere scale-like bodies to a length of 12 in. and a breadth of 2 in., thin and fragile, or thick and leathery with recurved margins ; young leaves often rose or reddish in colour. Male and female flowers usually on different trees. Male flowers axillary or, rarely, terminal, forming dense, narrow, cylindrical catkins. Female flowers stalked or sessile, axillary or terminal with usually 2-4 (occasionally more) scales, one or two of which bear in their axils a fertile scale folded over and united to an inverted ovule ; usually one only matures, the sterile scales often fusing with the upper part of the stalk and developing a swollen, fleshy, brightly coloured, edible receptacle on which the seed is borne. The outer seed-coat is skinny or fleshy, the inner shell woody. The genus includes about 65 species and is divided into the following five sections :— 1. Dacrycarpus, Endlicher.—LZeaves variable in size and shape, thin, flat, soft, }-} in. long, usually two-ranked on young plants; three-sided, needle-like and overlapping on mature trees, but shoots with both kinds of leaves often mixed. Seed solitary, terminal on a fleshy receptacle. 2. Microcarpus, Pilger.—Leaves scale-like, overlapping, the base clasping the branchlet. Seed solitary, terminal, on short drooping branchlets: receptacle not fleshy. 3. Nageia, Endlicher—JLeaves opposite or sub-opposite, many-nerved, wide in comparison to length. Seed axillary, round ; receptacle fleshy or dry. Male flowers branched. 4. Stachycarpus, Endlicher—JLeaves sub-opposite, opposite, alternate or whorled, narrow in comparison to length, one- 38 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA nerved, usually leathery in texture. Seed without a fleshy recep- tacle, sometimes several together on a single peduncle. Male flowers short, stiff, usually branched, or many together on a stiff peduncle. 5. Eupodocarpus, Endlicher—JLeaves as in Stachycarpus. Seed borne on a fleshy receptacle. Male flowers usually long, slender. Wood usually yellowish, occasionally brown or reddish, dis- tinction between heartwood and sapwood not well marked ; evenly grained, easy to work, durable, rarely odorous, finishes with a good surface and takes paint, polish, and creosote well. For most purposes for which pine is used, yellow wood is eminently suitable, except in the cheaper manufactures ; in these cases it is more expensive to work, as in many instances it does not take nails well except when bored. Numerous species are important timber trees in their native countries, and in many cases the extension of the area already under Podocarpus is desirable. This is specially the case in New Zealand, Australia, S. Africa, E. Africa, and Uganda. Only a few species can be regarded as hardy in Britain, even in the most favoured parts. These are grown as ornamental shrubs or small trees and can be increased by cuttings inserted in sandy soil in a close frame during summer. Several species are worth attention as hedge plants in warm temperate countries. As in most genera of TV'axacee and Pinacee the nomen- clature of Podocarpus is full of pitfalls. An instance of this is found in the S. African species, where recent research has proved that the names in common use have been incorrectly applied. For information on these species see under P. elongatus, P. falcatus, P. Henkelii, and P. latifolius. Pilger (Engler), Pflanzenreich, iv, 5, Taxaceze (1908). Podocarpus affinis, Seemann (Eupodocarpus). A tree with short spreading branches and dense foliage. Leaves spirally and closely arranged, oblong or lance-shaped, erect, leathery, tapering to a blunt apex and narrowing slightly to the stalk-like base, 1-14 in. long, }-4 in. wide. Native of Fiji. Podocarpus alpinus, R. Brown (Eupodocarpus). Podocarpus Lawrencii, Hooker fil. ; Nageia alpina, F. Mueller. A low, straggling, densely branched bush 1-12 ft. high. Leaves crowded, 4-4 in. or less often } in. long, narrow, straight or sickle-like, pointed, the midrib very prominent beneath. Male flowers 4-} in. long, usually solitary and unstalked from the TAXACEAt 39 leaf axils. Seed ovoid, very small, about } in. long, on a fleshy receptacle slightly longer than the seed. Found chiefly at alpine or sub-alpine elevations in Victoria and Tasmania. Specimens growing in rocky situations at 5,000—6,000 ft. altitude become stunted and heath-like in habit. The species was originally described in 1825. In its natural state it is of value for the protection of mountain sides from erosion. The plant is quite hardy at Kew, where there are several bushes about 3 ft. high and 3-4 ft. across. They bear female flowers most years. Podocarpus amarus, Blume (Stachycarpus). BLack PINE. Podocarpus duleamara, Seem ; P. eurhyncha, Miquel ; P. pedunculata, Bailey ; P. Sprengelii, Blume. A tree with oblong leaves 23-5 in. long and 3-8 in. wide, rich glossy green above, pale green beneath, the margins thickened and rolled backwards, the apex tapering to a sharp point. On young vigorous shoots the leaves are sometimes 10 in. long. Male flowers solitary or a few together from the leaf axils, up to 14 in. long. Seed round or oval, reddish with a glaucous coat, slightly ridged or pointed at the apex, ?—1 in. long when mature, on stalks }—1 in. long. Native of Queensland, Java, and the Philippine Islands. The timber is suitable for general jomery and carpentry. Podocarpus angustifolius, Grisebach (Kupodocarpus). Podocarpus aristulata, Parlatore.! A small tree with spirally and loosely arranged leaves 1-2} in. long and ;'; in. wide, narrowly lance-shaped, leathery, with a twisted base and sharp, spine-tipped apex. Male flowers solitary, }-} in. long. Seed ovate or oblong, } in. long, } in. wide, seated on a fleshy receptacle. Var. Wrightii, Pilger. Leaves broader than in the type, about + in. wide. Native of Cuba and Bolivia. Podocarpus appressus, Maximowicz 2 (Eupodocarpus). A little-known species, native of Japan, with narrow, erect, rigid, sharply pointed leaves about ? in. long and ,'; in. wide. Only small dried specimens have been seen. 1 DC. Prod. xvi, ii, 513 (1868). 2 Bull. Acad. Petersby. xv, p. 379 (1871). 40 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAi Podocarpus Beccarii, Parlatore (Nageia). A tree with dense branchlets and foliage. Leaves short- stalked, up to 1} in. long and ? in. wide, narrowed to a point at the apex. Seed seated on a fleshy receptacle 3-} in. diameter. Native of Sarawak and Borneo. Podocarpus Blumei, Endlicher (Nageia). Nageia Blumei, Gordon. A tree remarkable for the size of its leaves, which are opposite or sub-opposite, 4~7 in. long and 1—1} in. wide, narrowed suddenly at the apex to a blunt point. Male flowers in short branched spikes. Seed shortly stalked. Native of Java and the Philippine Islands. Podocarpus czsius, Maximowicz! (Nageia). A doubtful species closely allied to P. Nageia. Branches alternate. Leaves sub-opposite, leathery, broadly-oval or rounded, variable in size. Found in Nagasaki, Japan. Podocarpus chilinus, Richard (Eupodocarpus). (Fig. 5.) A tree 50-70 ft. high with slender, drooping branchlets. Leaves shortly stalked, narrowly lance-shaped, 2-5 or more in. long, 4} in. wide, shortly pointed or blunt at the apex, rich glossy green above. On old or dwarfed trees the leaves may be much shorter. Male flowers 1-1} in. long, very slender, drooping, in small clusters. Seed on a long, slender stalk seated on a fleshy receptacle. This species is a native of Chile and is hardy in the S. of England, where it often grows into a handsome shrub or small tree and is a favourite plant in gardens. There are several plants in the open air at Kew, but this species is less dependable there thanin Cornwall. The timber of P.chilinus is of value for build- ing purposes in its native country. Podocarpus coriaceus, Richard (Eupodocarpus). P. antillarum, R. Brown; P. salicifolia, Klotysch. A tree 50 ft. high with spirally arranged leaves 3-7 in. long and 3-? in. wide, on stalks } in. long ; thick, leathery, the apex reduced to a long point, the midrib very prominent on the under-surface. Male flowers axillary, very slender, up to 24 in. long. Seed ovoid, on a slender stalk, the receptacle thick, red, fleshy. 1 Bull, Acad. Petersbg. xv, 379 (1871), 42 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA Var. sulcatus, Pilger. Leaves with a well marked furrow on the upper side. Native of Guadeloupe. P. coriaceus is found in the mountain forests of New Grenada, Colombia, Venezuela, and the West Indies. The timber is suitable for general joinery and carpentry. Podocarpus costalis, C. Presl. (Eupodocarpus). A tree with dense branches. Leaves $-13 in. long and up to 5 in. wide, thick, leathery, narrowing at the apex to a short point, or sometimes with a rounded apex; stalk about } in. long. Seed elliptical, about } in. long, on a fleshy receptacle. Closely allied to P. Pilgert and a native of the Philippine Islands. Podocarpus curvifolius, Carricre 1 (Kupodocarpus). Podocarpus antarctica, Van Houtte; P. Humboldtii, Hort. A large but little-known tree, native of the Andes of Chile and Patagonia. Leaves ovate or oblong, shortly stalked, 2—5 in. long, leathery, flat, shining and smooth above, margins thickened, apex blunt. Podocarpus cuspidatus, Endlicher? (Nageia). Nageia cuspidata, Gordon. A small tree with opposite, sub-opposite, or sometimes defin- itely alternate leaves, 13-3 in. long and 1}~1 in. wide, elliptic, deep green above, paler beneath, shortly stalked, usually narrowed abruptly to an apical point. A native of Japan and apparently closely related to P. Nageia, but we have seen no living specimens. Podocarpus dacrydioides, A. Richard (Dacrycarpus). KAHIKATEA. Podocarpus thujoides, R. Brown ; Dacrydium excelsum, A. Cunning- ham; D. ferrugineum, Van Houtte [not D. Don]; Nageia excelsa, O. Kuntze; Rimu; White Pine. A tree 50-150 ft. high with a girth of 6-12 feet. Trunk usually straight with little taper and clear of branches for a considerable height. Bark thin, greyish-brown. Sranchlets fine, drooping. Foliage of two kinds: on young trees flat, soft, }-4 in. long, bronze or bronzy-green, pointed, arranged in a single row on each side of the shoot; on older trees scale-like, ;';—+ in. long, spirally arranged, closely or loosely overlapping, In some cases resembling the foliage of a Cupressus, usually pointed and in- curved, green or bronzy-green ; an intermixing of shoots with both 1 Conif. ed. i, 450 (1955). 2, Syn. Conif. 207 (1847). TAXACEA 43 kinds of leaves often occurs. In addition the main branches are clothed with triangular bract-like leaves. Male and female flowers produced on different trees. Male flowers terminal, scarcely { in. long. Female flowers terminal. Seeds small, round, §-} in. in diameter, seated in a red receptacle with a glaucous bloom. P. dacrydioides is endemic in New Zealand, where it is widely distributed and an important timber tree. It is found from low elevation to an altitude of 2,300 ft., sometimes occupying swampy ground, where the tree develops large buttresses. Wood white or yellowish, straight-grained, easily worked and suitable for general carpentry, the inside finish of houses, packing cases, dry cooperage, etc. Small parcels of the timber have been received in this country, but it appears improbable that it can compete satisfactorily with better-known woods, and its use will probably be restricted to New Zealand and Australia. Small plants are to be seen in the Temperate House at Kew, and it is likely to meet with success out of doors in the warmest parts of England and Ireland. Kirk, Forest Flora of New Zealand, 41 (1889). Podocarpus Dawei, Stapf.! (Stachycarpus). An important timber tree 100 ft. high in Cent. Africa, with a long clear trunk and small crown of crowded branches. Leaves spirally arranged, }-1} in. long, }-} in. wide, thick, leathery, midrib scarcely noticeable above, more prominent beneath. Seed sub-globose, dark brown or purple with a glaucous bloom, about 3 in. long and wide. Native of Uganda, found near the Kangera River at an alti- tude of 4,000 ft. The timber is of considerable local value for general carpentry. Podocarpus Drouynianus, F. Mueller (Eupodocarpus). An Australian species closely allied to P. spinulosus. Leaves unstalked, spirally arranged as in the Irish yew, up to 3 in. long, 5 in. wide, sharply pointed, margins strongly recurved, midrib prominent, upper surface green, underside glaucous. Male flowers stalked, }—} in. long, } in. wide, solitary or in small clusters. Seed ? in. long, borne on a fleshy, purple, waxy-coated receptacle 4-1 in. long, on a slender stalk. Podocarpus elatus, R. Brown (Eupodocarpus). Brown PINE. Podocarpus ensifolia, R. Brown; Nageia elata, Mueller. Plum Pine ; Yellow Pine. A tree 100 ft. high, with a trunk 9 ft. in girth in New South Wales and 8. Queensland. Leaves variable in length and arrange- 1Fl. of Trop. Africa, vi, sect. 2, pt. 2, 342 (1917). 44 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAt ment, often 2-6 in. long, or 9 in. long on young, vigorous trees, and 4-4 in. broad, oblong or lance-shaped, midrib prominent on the upper surface, apex blunt, narrowed at the base to a short stalk. Male flowers slender, up to 2 in. long, produced 2-3 together. Seed ovoid or globular, about 4} in. long, seated on a fleshy receptacle. P. elatus is reputed to be one of the largest trees found in the coast-district gullies of New South Wales and 8. Queensland. Timber yellow, turning brownish on exposure, straight-grained, easily worked, and employed for all kinds of joiery and carpen- try ; its non-resinous character makes it useful for packing-cases for dairy and other produce. Podocarpus elongatus, L’Heéritier (Eupodocarpus). Podocarpus Thunbergii, var. angustifolia, Sim; Taxus capensis, Lambert; T. elongata, Aiton. A large tree resembling in habit P. latifolius, but with relatively narrower foliage. Leaves 1—2 in. long, ;':—} in. wide on mature trees, larger on young plants, lance-shaped, tapering to both ends, the apex ending ina short point. Male flowers simple or branched, about 2in.long. Seeds globose, about + in. in diameter, seated on a fleshy, ved or crimson receptacle, stalk short. This species differs from P. falcatus by the seed being raised on a fleshy receptacle, and from P. latifolius by the receptacle being red, not green, and by its westerly distribution. Found in Robertson, W. 8. Africa. Podocarpus falcatus, R. Brown (Stachycarpus). OTENIQUA YELLOW Woop. Podocarpus elongata, Carriére, not L’Hérit. ; P. Meyeriana, Endlicher ; Taxus faleata, Thunberg. Common Yellow Wood ; Bastard Yellow Wood. A tree 80-110 ft. high and usually 10-12 ft., but occasionally 20-25 ft. in girth. Bark thin, brown in colour, shed in thin scales. Leaves very variable, sometimes spirally arranged, at others in two opposite or sub-opposite ranks, 3-2 in. long and ;',—4 in. wide on mature trees or up to 3 in. long and + in. wide on young plants, narrowing abruptly to a sharp or blunt apex and at the base to a slightly twisted short stalk. Male flowers usually in threes, each }-4 in. long, about ,;'; in. wide. Seeds globose, soli- tary or in pairs, +4 in. in diameter, with a glaucous green covering, stalk +4 in. long. This species is widely distributed in Cape Colony, Natal, and the Transvaal. P. falcatus is one of the most useful trees in 8. Africa. The timber is yellowish-brown, light, soft, moderately strong, elastic and non-resinous. It is easily worked, finishes with a good surface, and is useful for beams, rafters, flooring, panelling, furni- PLATE Il. PINUS CONTORTA VAR MURRAYANA ON THE RIDGE BETWEEN KAWEAH AND KING’S RIVER CANONS, CALIFORNIA. “s 7 oe ‘ o - ‘ 4 - = - 1 : * ¢ ad ' Pa > ~ * ‘, in —— _ : AS, ~., a c TAXACEAL 45 ture, railway sleepers when creosoted, general joinery, boxes and other purposes for which the best grades of pine are used in other countries. Planks 20 ft. long are obtainable. In a critical study of the 8. African Podocarps for the Flora Capensis, Dr. Stapf examined a large number of specimens at Kew, with the result that several old and well-known names have had to be changed. Thus the true P. falcatus described above is known in 8. Africa under the name of P. elongatus with the common name of ‘“ Oteniqua Yellow Wood.’ The true P. elongatus is, however, a distinct tree confined to Western 8. Africa. The con- fusion has been made worse by the name of P. falcatus having been used by S. African foresters in connection with still another species, P. Henkelii, Stapf. Podocarpus ferrugineus, D. Don (Stachycarpus). Mrro. A tree 50-90 ft. high and 3-9 ft. in girth. Bark dark grey or blackish, sometimes deeply furrowed, scaling in large flakes. Leaves yew-like, irregularly arranged on each side of the shoot, $11 in. long on young plants, reduced to half the size on old trees, about ;; in. wide, pointed or blunt at the apex. Male flowers solitary, }—? in. long. Female flowers on different trees, solitary, shortly stalked. Seed oval, $-? in. long and_ broad, the outer covering bright red with a waxy, glaucous bloom, apex with a short point. P. ferrugineus is widely distributed in the New Zealand forests, particularly in the South Island. Wood strong, hard, compact, straight-grained and easily worked. It is sometimes beautifully figured, especially when radially cut. Although not recommended for use in contact with the ground unless previously treated with a preservative, it is excellent for all other parts of house-building and for general carpentry. It is also used for marine piles and is said to resist teredo well. Figured samples are useful for cabinet work. Kirk, loc. cit. 164 (1889); Cheeseman, Man. New Zeal. Fl., 650 (1906). Podocarpus ferruginoides, R. H. Compton! (Stachycarpus). A tree 30-50 ft. high, with an erect trunk and irregular branch system. eaves spirally arranged, usually erect, leathery, less than ? in. long, about } in. wide, blunt or shortly pointed at the apex. Seed rounded or ovoid, 4-3 in. long, unpointed. Found in coniferous forest above 3,000 ft. elevation in Nekando, New Caledonia. It differs from P. ferruginea in the shorter and relatively broader leaves and the nearly round, non-pointed seeds. 1 Journ. Linn. Soc. XLV, No. 304, 424 (1922). 46 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAj Podocarpus Forrestii,! Craib and W. W. Smith (Eupodo- carpus). Podocarpus microphyllus, Diels. A shrub up to about 10 ft. high, with fairly stout branches. Leaves 2-34 in. long, $-} in. broad, oblong or oblong-lanceolate, blunt or rounded at the apex, gradually narrowed at the base into a short winged stalk, dark green above, pale beneath Male flowers not seen. Female flowers about 4 in. long on a short fleshy receptacle. Closely allied to P. macrophyllus, var. Maki, but distinguished by its dwarfer habit and shorter and broader leaves. Found on the eastern and western flanks of the Tali Range, W. China. Collected by Forrest. Podocarpus glaucus, Foxworthy (Stachycarpus). A bush or low tree up to 30 ft. high with a dense branch system. Leaves box-like, }—? in. long, about } in. wide, erect, spreading, often sub-opposite, leathery, shining dark green above, paler or glaucous beneath, usually slightly narrowed and rounded at the apex. Male flowers solitary, short, cylindrical. Seed not known. Native of the high mountain regions of the Philippine Islands. Phil. Journ. Sci. ii, 258 (1907). Podocarpus glomeratus, D. Don (Eupodocarpus). Podocarpus rigida, Klotzsch; P. Sprucei, Parlatore. A tree 30-40 ft. high. Leaves spirally arranged, $~1 in. long, 1_1 in. wide, erect, leathery, narrow lance-shaped, ending in a short, sharp point. Seed shortly stalked, }-} in. diameter, raised on a fleshy receptacle. Native of Peru and Ecuador. Podocarpus gnidioides, Carriére (Eupodocarpus). Podocarpus alpina, var. arborescens, Brongniart and Gris. A tree 30-50 ft. high, with crowded, spirally arranged leaves 4-3 in. long and 4';—;'s in. wide, leathery, rounded at the apex. Var. ceespitosus, Carriére. A shrub 3-5 ft. high, regarded by Carriére as a dwarf form of P. gnidioides, but male and female flowers and seeds of P. gnidiordes are required before this relationship can be verified. Compton? only noted the dwarf plant. Both are natives of New Caledonia. 1 Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinb. xii, 219 (1920). 2 Loc. cit. 426. TAXACEA 47 Podocarpus gracilior, Pilger (Stachycarpus). MUSENGERA. Podo. A tree up to 60or more ft. high, with a long, clear trunk crowned with crowded branches. Leaves of young plants scattered, up to 4 in. long and } in. wide, on mature trees crowded and shorter, usually 3-24 in. long, }—} in. wide; thick in texture, narrow, tapering toa sharp point. Male flowers solitary or 2-3 together, usually 4-3 in. long. Seeds solitary, unstalked, at the points of short, leafy branchlets, }—3 in. long and nearly as wide, purplish in colour with a glaucous bloom. Native of Abyssinia, Uganda, and Kenya, ascending to 8,000 ft. altitude in the latter colony and common between 6,000—8,000 ft. in Uganda. Wood soft, yellowish, works well, is strong, moderately durable, and is said to take nails better than some other species. It is used for general building purposes, particularly for inside work, such as flooring, doors, panelling, and furniture. The timber is shipped from Mombassa to §. Africa and has a considerable local use. The species is one of the most valuable on account of its timber. For work in contact with the ground it should be treated with a preservative. Stapf, Fl. Trop. Af. vi, sect. 2, pt. 2, 342 (1917). Podocarpus Harmsianus, Pilger (Stachycarpus). A tree with yew-like, unstalked leaves, somewhat resembling those of P. montanus but spirally arranged, 3-11 in. long, 45-3 in. wide, terminated by a spine-like point. Seed without a fleshy receptacle. Native of W. Tropical South America. Podocarpus Henckelii, Stapf. (Eupodocarpus). FatcatTE YELLOW Woop. 5 Podocarpus faleata, Hort. not R. Brown; P. Thunbergii, var. falcata, 1m, A South African tree allied to P. Thunbergii with pendent branches. Leaves on old exposed trees irregularly arranged, sickle-like, 1-2 in. long and } in. wide, or, on vigorous specimens sometimes opposite or sub-opposite, up to 5 or 6 in. long and + in. wide, narrowing gradually to the pointed apex and to the base. Male flowers simple or branched, slender, about } in. long. Seed globose, about § in. diameter, glaucous-green, seated on a glaucous-green swollen receptacle. This species is found in Griqualand East and Natal, and is known to foresters and lumber men as the “ faleate yellow wood.” The timber can be used for similar purposes to that of P. latifolius. 48 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAi Podocarpus imbricatus, Blume (Dacrycarpus). Podocarpus cupressina, R. Brown; P. Horsfieldii, Wallich; Taxo- dium Horsfieldii, Knight ; Glyptostrobus Horsfieldii, Knight. A tree 50-80 ft. high or occasionally taller, with a trunk 10-15 ft. in girth (but sometimes reduced to a bush), variable in habit but often with pendulous, spreading branches and long, slender, whip-like branchlets. Leaves of two kinds. Those of young or vigorous trees }~-} in. long, flat, soft, and arranged in two more or less opposite ranks ; on branches of old trees closely overlapping, cupressus-like, the points incurved like miniature leaves of Cryptomeria japonica. Both types of leaves may appear on the same tree, but in such cases those of the juvenile state are smaller than those on young, vigorous plants. Seed solitary, terminal, borne on a slightly thickened, fleshy receptacle. Native of British N. Borneo, Burma, Java, and the Philippine Islands, where it is an important timber tree. Pilger records a variety Cumingii (P. Cumingii, Parlatore), but Foxworthy,t who made a careful study of the Philippine species, does not consider it distinct from the type. Podocarpus Ladei, Bailey 2 (Stachycarpus). A tall, erect tree with a trunk up to 18 ft. in girth covered with thin, reddish-brown, smoothish bark which is shed in papery scales. Leaves usually sessile, about 4 in. long and 4';—} in. wide, both surfaces green, apex blunt. Seed oval, solitary, pointed, about ? in. long and 4 in. wide, purple with a glaucous bloom. This species, which is closely allied to P. ferruginea, was found in the neighbourhood of Port Douglas by Mr. F. W. H. Lade in 1905. It is described as a good timber tree of ornamental appearance. Podocarpus Lambertii, Klotzsch (Eupodocarpus). A Brazilian tree with densely and spirally arranged, yew- like leaves, which are 3-1} in. long and ,'; in. wide, erect, sharp- pointed, stalkless, or very shortly stalked. Seeds small with a stalked and fleshy receptacle. Podocarpus latifolius, R. Brown * (Eupodocarpus). REAL YELLOW Woop. Podocarpus Sweetii, C. Pres] ; P. Thunbergii, Hooker ; P. Thunbergii, var. latifolia, Sim ; Nageia latifolia, O. Kuntze ; Taxus latifolia, Thunberg. Upright Yellow Wood. A tree up to 100 ft. high and 12 ft. in girth, averaging 60—70 1Phil. Journ. Sci., Bot. vi, 157 (1911). 2 Queensl. Agric. Journ. xv, 899 (1905). 3 Although P. Thunbergii is a better-known name in 8. Africa, P. latifolius is the older name for this species, and therefore supersedes P. Thunbergii. A note on the nomenclature of this species appeared in the Kew Bulletin for 1916, p. 236. TAXACEA 49 ft. high and 6 ft. in girth. Bark thin, fibrous, shed in longitudinal strips. Branchlets of mature trees stiff, erect, crowded. Leaves spirally arranged, or, on young branchlets, in two alternate ranks, oblong or lance-shaped, sometimes closely beset, at others widely separated, those of old trees usually 1—2 in. long and {-4 in. wide, much longer on young, vigorous, or shaded plants. Male flowers usually solitary, unstalked, ?-1 in. long, } in. wide. Seeds globose, +-} in. diameter with a glaucous-green covering, receptacle green, 4~} in. wide, with a stalk about } in. long. P. latifolius is widely distributed in 8. Africa, where it is an important timber tree. Wood yellow, strong, evenly grained, easy to work, polishes well, and in demand for general building purposes, flooring boards, panelling, coach and wagon work, dry cooperage, boxes, and railway sleepers. For the latter work it is first creosoted. It is claimed to be superior to pine for many purposes. Podocarpus macrophyllus, D. Don (Eupodocarpus). KUSAMAKI. This species varies from a shrub of 2-5 ft. to a tree 25-50 ft. high. Branches usually strong and horizontal, branchlets dense. Leaves densely and spirally arranged, up to 5 in., or on very vigorous plants 7 in. long and } in. wide, bright green above, glaucous beneath, thick, leathery, the apex usually pointed, some- times blunt and rounded. Male flowers sessile, 14-1} in. long. Seed oval, about } in. long, seated on a purple, fleshy receptacle 7 in. or more in length. Var. angustifolius. Leaves narrower in proportion than those of the type. Var. Maki, Endlicher. P. chinensis, Wallich; P. Maki, Siebold. A variety with erect branches and dense foliage. Leaves erect, apex rounded. Var. luteo-variegatus. P. chinensis aurea elegantissima. Leaves longer and broader than in the type ; variegated with yellow. Var. albo-variegatus. P. chinensis argentea. Leaves variegated with silver. P. macrophyllus is a native of China and Japan. It is found in Yunnan at elevations of 8,000-10,000 ft. and would form a E 50 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA‘ good evergreen for the 8. of England. It is sometimes used for hedges in Japan, and stands clipping well. Podocarpus macrostachyus, Parlatore (Eupodocarpus). A tree attaining a large size in Central America. Leaves 1—2 in. long, 4-4 in. wide, narrowing to a short, blunt point in aged trees, longer and sharply pointed on young, vigorous branchlets. Seeds small, ovoid, mounted on a fleshy receptacle. Native of Colombia, Venezuela, New Grenada, and Costa Rica. Mr. M. T. Dawe reported it to be one of the most useful timbers of Colombia, where it is found at an altitude of 10,000 ft. Podocarpus madagascariensis, Baker (Eupodocarpus). HETATRA. A large tree. Leaves spirally arranged, 5-7 in. long, and up to ;’z in. wide, narrowing to a pointed apex and narrow stalk- like base, thick, leathery, the midrib prominent on the under side, marked bya channel on the upper surface. Seed about } in. long and wide. This tree is said to be common in forests in the interior of Madagascar, the wood being extensively used for housebuilding and other purposes. Podocarpus Mannii, Hooker fil. (Stachycarpus). A tree 30-50 ft. high with loosely disposed branchlets, or, in old trees, short upward-curving branches. Leaves stalkless, vary- ing in length from 3 in. on old trees to 4-6 in. on vigorous young plants ; 4-3 in. in width, straight or slightly curved, gradually tapering to a fine point. Male flowers unstalked, axillary, solitary or in pairs, }-1 in. long. Seeds without stalks, on short, few- leaved branchlets, up to 1 in. long and 3’; in. wide. Native of the island of St. Thomas, W. Africa, from 4,750 ft. elevation to the summit of the Peak, at 7,025 ft. Fl. Trop. Afr. vi, Sect. 2, pt. 2, 34 (1917). Podocarpus milanjianus, Rendle ! (Eupodocarpus). A shrub or tree up to 100 ft. high with a cylindrical, gradually tapering trunk. Leaves spirally arranged, crowded, 2-4 in., or on young trees sometimes 7 in., long, and 4-4 in. wide, straight or slightly sickle-shaped, pointed at the apex, narrowed to a short stalk at the base. Male flowers solitary or in pairs, cylindric, 1-1} in. long, pinkish in colour. Seeds, globose, 4-4 in. long, covered with a glaucous bloom and seated on a bright red glaucous 1 Trans, Linn, Soc. Ser. 2, iv, 61 (1894) ; Fl. Trop. Af. vi, sect. 2, pt. 2, 340 (1917). TAXACEA 51 receptacle. The variety arborescens, Pilger, is not regarded as distinct. P. milanjianus is found in Uganda, Kenya, and Tanganyika Territories and in Nyasaland. In Kenya it ascends to 11,000 ft., where it occurs as a low, dense bush. It is a valuable timber tree and worthy of careful preservation in countries where easily worked soft woods are uncommon. The wood is obtainable in lengths up to 20 ft., squaring 12-16 in. It thrives in swampy places as well as upon better drained land. Podocarpus minor, Parlatore (Nageia). Nageia minor, Carriére. A bush or small tree up to 30-40 ft. high,! with spirally arranged, stalkless leaves 4-3 in. long, §-} in. wide, blunt and rounded at the apex, or sometimes with the leaves arranged in two opposite ranks. Male flowers short, sturdy, }—-} in. long, at the points of short, axillary shoots. Seeds large, 1-14 in. long, 3 in. wide, on short, slender, bract-covered shoots ; red when ripe. Native of New Caledonia, where it is frequent in conifer forests all over the island. The wood is described as having a sweet, resinous scent. Podocarpus montanus, Loddiges (Stachycarpus). PINO. Podocarpus Humboldtii, Knight; P. taxifolia, Humboldt; Taxus montana, Willdenow ; Dacrydium distichum, Don ; Torreya Humboldtii, Knight ; Nageia montana, O. Kuntze; Prumnopitys taxifolia, Hort. A tree up to 60 ft. high with wide-spreading branches and yew-like foliage evenly arranged in two sub-opposite rows. Leaves 4-3 in. long, ;'s—;'y in. wide, sharply pointed at the apex, the base slightly twisted and shortly stalked, bright green above, pale green or glaucous beneath. Male flowers axillary and terminal from shoots 14-3 in. long, numerous flowers, each about } in. long, appearing from the same shoot. Seed about } in. long, sessile or very shortly stalked. Var. diversifolius, Kunth. Leaves shorter and more closely arranged than in the type. Native of the Cordilleras of Peru and Colombia, where it grows at an altitude of 9,000—-10,000 ft. Mr. M. T. Dawe records it (see specimens collected by him in the Kew Herbarium) as one of the most useful timber trees of the Cordillera Columbia. The timber is much used for cabinet work. Living specimens are to be seen in the Temperate House at Kew. 1 Compton, loc. cit. 425. 52 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER Podocarpus Nagi, Pilger (Nageia). Podocarpus Nageia, R. Brown. A tree 60-80 ft. high. Bark smooth, purple. Leaves opposite or sub-opposite, ovate or broadly lance-shaped, 14-2 in. long, 3-1 in. wide, narrowing to a blunt apex ; thick, leathery, dark green above, paler beneath. Male flowers solitary, simple or branched, up to ? in. long, or stalks } in. in length. Seeds round, about 4 in. in diameter, covered by a glaucous bloom. Var. ansgustifolius, Maximowicz. Leaves shorter and narrower than the type. About $ in. long. Var. rotundifolius, Maximowicz. P. ovata, Henkel. Distinguished by its relatively broader leaves. Var. variegatus. Leaves shorter and rounder than the type, variegated with yellow. P. Nageia is a native of Japan, China, and Formosa. In the latter country it is regarded as a valuable timber tree. In Japan it is popular as a pot plant for dwarfing, and is also used for landscape effect. Prof. Sargent says of the tree:! “A grove of these trees on the hill behind the Shinto temples at Nara is one of the most interesting spots in Japan and in solemn dignity and beauty is only surpassed by the grove of Cryptomeria which surrounds the mausoleums of Jeyasu and Jemitsu at Nikko.” Podocarpus neriifolius, D. Don (EKupodocarpus). THITMIN. Podocarpus bracteata, Blume ; P. discolor, Blume ; P. Junghuhniana, Miquel; P. leptostachya, Blume; P. macrophylla, var. acuminatissima, Pritzel ; P. polystachya, R. Brown; Nageia bracteata, Kurz. Prince of Woods. A variable tree, 40-60 ft. high, with branches more or less whorled. Bark thin, fibrous, greyish-brown. Leaves 4-7 in. long, 3—;5 in. wide on old specimens to 5-10 in. long and 3-3 in. wide on young trees ; thick, leathery, the midrib prominent on both surfaces, apex pointed, dark glossy green above, paler beneath. Male flowers stalkless, produced several together, 1-2 in. long, about 4 in. wide. Seeds usually solitary, globose, about 4 in. long, produced on a swollen stalkless receptacle. 1 for. Fl. Japan, 77 (1894). TAXACEAG 53 Var. brevifolius, Stapf.' A form with short, dense, spirally arranged leaves, the foliage much denser than in the type; the male flowers also shorter and relatively wider than in P. neriifolius. Widely distributed in the Himalaya, Borneo, Java, and the Andaman Islands. It has also been recorded from China. Wood yellowish, of good quality, easy to work and useful for masts, spars, tea-boxes, and general carpentry. Timber squaring with a 15 in. side can be procured up to 35 ft. in length. Podocarpus nivalis, Hooker fil. (Eupodocarpus). THe ALPINE TOTARA. A low, dense, widely spreading plant, or an erect densely branched shrub 3-6 ft. high. Leaves closely and irregularly arranged, }—? in. long, 3')—;'; in. wide, shortly and stoutly stalked, leathery, pointed or blunt at the apex. Male flowers }—? in. long, solitary or several together. Seed a small nut-like body seated on a fleshy receptacle. A native of New Zealand, where it is found in alpine and sub- alpine regions at elevations of 2,000—5,500 ft., its spreading and closely arranged branches assisting in the protection of mountain slopes from erosion. Podocarpus nove-caledoniz, Vicillard (Eupodocarpus). A shrub with narrow willow-like leaves 14-4} in. long and 3—} in. wide, the apex narrowing to a long or short point, glaucous when young, dark green later. ale flowers short, slender, axillary, }-? in. long. Seeds oval, about 4 in. long, borne on a fleshy receptacle. Native of New Caledonia, where it is common along river banks in serpentine districts at low elevations. Podocarpus nubigenus, Lindley (Eupodocarpus). A large tree in Chile and Patagonia. Leaves spirally arranged or in two sub-opposite rows, straight or sickle-shaped, rigid, leathery, 1-1? in. long, }—} in. wide, short-pointed, green above, glaucous beneath. Male flowers simple or branched, short- stalked, about }-4 in. long. Seeds short-stalked, ovoid or oblong, borne on a swollen fleshy receptacle. P. nubigenus is found in the mountainous regions of Chile, Patagonia, Valdivia, and the Island of Chiloe. 1Trans. Linn. Soc. ser. 2, iv, 249 (1894). 2 Gamble, Man. Ind. Timbers, 703 (1922 ed.). 54 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA( Podocarpus oleifolius, D. Don! (EKupodocarpus). A close dense-branched tree with yellowish-brown bark. Leaves spirally arranged, up to 2 in. long and { in. wide, lance- shaped, pointed, with a shallow central channel above and a prominent midrib beneath. Male flowers solitary, unstalked, about 1 in. long. Seed oval, 4 in. long. Native of the mountains of Chile and Peru. Podocarpus palembanicus, Miquel. A tree, native of Sumatra, remarkable for its large, handsome foliage. Leaves up to 12 in. long and { in. wide, channelled above, the midrib very prominent beneath, the apex narrowed to a point, and the base reduced to a stalk }—3 in. long. Podocarpus papuanus, Ridley (Dacrycarpus). A tree 90-100 ft. high in New Guinea with pendent branches bearing two kinds of leaves. Leaves of young trees regularly arranged in two opposite ranks, } in. long, scarcely ;'5 in. wide. short-pointed and curving slightly at the apex. Leaves on older trees mostly very short, triangular, keeled, terminating in a short spine, the base clasping the stem, only the point free. Branchlets bearing both kinds of leaves may be found on the same tree. Male flowers short, dense, about } in. long, termina- ting short leafy shoots. Female flowers are borne on the same tree as the male flowers. Seeds 1-1 in. long and wide. Native of Dutch N.W. New Guinea at 7,000—9,000 ft. altitude. L. 8S. Gibbs, Contrib. Phitogeo. and Fl. Arfak Mts. 80-82 (1917). Podocarpus parvifolius, Parlatore (Eupodocarpus). A bush or small tree with short, narrow, leathery leaves, which are scarcely } in. long and } in. wide, ending in a short, sharp point. Seed small, pointed. Native of Australia. Podocarpus Pilgeri, Foxworthy (Eupodocarpus). A tree with densely arranged leaves 3-1} in. long and + in. wide with a rounded or blunt-pointed apex. Native of the Philippine Islands. Phil. Journ. Sci. Bot. vi, 155-164 (1911). Podocarpus polystachyus, R. Brown (Eupodocarpus). A tree with lance-shaped, spirally arranged leaves, which are 2-4 in. long and }~-} in. wide, sharp-pointed and leathery. Male flowers unstalked, solitary, or in threes. Seed solitary. Native of the Malay States. 1 Lambert, Gen. Pin. ed. i (1824). TAXACEAS Or or Podocarpus Purdieanus, Hooker (Eupodocarpus). Podocarpus jamaicensis, Hort. ; P. mucronata, Hort. A tree up to 120 ft. high, with spirally arranged leaves 14—4 in. long and {3 in. wide, or on vigorous young plants up to 44 in. long and ? in. wide, the apex rounded or ending in a short point. Seeds ovoid, about 4 in. long, with a short blunt point. Native of Jamaica. Podocarpus Rumphii, Blume (Eupodocarpus). A tree 40 ft. high with leaves 5-9 in. long and up to 2 in. wide, narrowed at the apex to a long point. Seeds globose, pro- duced on a conspicuous, fleshy receptacle. P. Rumphii is abundant at elevations of 7,000-9,000 ft. in the forests on the Arfak Mountains, Dutch New Guinea. Podocarpus Sellowii, Klotzsch (Kupodocarpus). PINHEIRA BRAVA. A small tree usually 20-30 ft. high, bearing shortly stalked, lance-shaped, short-pointed, leathery leaves, 14-3} in. long and 5-4 In. wide on mature trees ; upwards of 6 in. long and $—3 in. wide on vigorous young plants. Vale flowers solitary from the leaf axils. Seeds shortly stalked, smooth, seated on a fleshy receptacle. Var. angustifolius, Pilger. Leaves up to 1} in. long and } in. wide. Native of Brazil. Endl. Syn. Conif. 209 (1847). Podocarpus spicatus, R. Brown (Stachycarpus). MatTatl. Dacrydium taxifolium, Banks; D. Mayi, Van Houtte ; Prumnopitys spicata, Kent. Black Pine; Mai; Red Pine. A tree 60-80 ft. high, with a trunk up to 9 ft. in girth, varying considerably in habit. Young trees 10-20 ft. high, with slender, pendulous branches divided into numerous branchlets with small, narrow, bronze-tinted leaves confined to the extremities, becoming, when mature, a round-headed tree with erect branches which divide into short, close-set branchlets. Bark bluish. Leaves {-4 in. long, about =) in. wide, green above, glaucous on each side of the midrib beneath. Male flowers 1} in. long, unstalked, 20 or more together on short, stiff shoots about 1 in. long. Seeds round, the size of a small pea, black with a glaucous bloom, produced several together on short shoots. 56 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER A native of New Zealand, where it ascends to 1,800 ft. Speci- mens were collected by Alan Cunningham in 1826. Wood smooth when worked, rather similar in texture to good Scots pine and useful for the same purposes. It has been employed for dry cooperage, general house construction, railway sleepers, bridge timbers, flooring, and other uses. Kirk, loc. cit. 5, 299 (1889). Hook. Icon. Plant, t. 543 (1843). Podocarpus spinulosus, R. Brown (Eupodocarpus). NaTIVE PLuM. Podocarpus pungens, Don; P. Bidwillii, Hoibr; P. excelsa, Loddiges ; Taxus spinulosa, Smith; Nageia spinulosa, F. von Mueller. A densely branched, yew-like shrub. Leaves unstalked, usually spirally arranged, }-1} in. long but sometimes up to 3 in. long, 74-15 in. wide. Male flowers clustered in the leaf axils, 1-1 in. long. Seeds 4-} in. long, about 4 in. wide, glaucous when young, receptacle edible, deep purple with a glaucous bloom. Native of Australia and first collected by Alan Cunningham in New South Wales in 1810. Podocarpus Teysmanni, Miquel (EKupodocarpus). A tree with scattered or spirally arranged leaves which are broadly lance-shaped, 4—5 in. long and }—? in. wide, with a pointed apex. Native of Sumatra. Podocarpus thevetiifolius, Zippel (Eupodocarpus). A tree 30-50 ft. high, with narrowly lance-shaped leaves, which are thin, leathery, and sometimes slightly curved towards the rounded or bluntly pointed apex. Seed dark green, elliptic, about 4 in. long. Native of New Guinea. Podocarpus Totara, A. Cunningham (Eupodocarpus). THe Torara. A tree sometimes exceeding 100 ft. in height, with a massive, symmetrical trunk 60-80 ft. in length and 6-18 ft. in diameter, clear of branches. Bark dark brown, fibrous, furrowed. Leaves varying in density, sometimes scattered on the shoot, at others two-ranked, $—3 in. long, }~-} in. wide on adult trees, 1 in. long, 4-} in. wide on juveniles ; stiff, leathery, sharp-pointed, narrowing at the base to a very short stalk. Male flowers axillary, stalked or unstalked, solitary or two or three together, }-3 in. long. Seed a solitary, rounded nut seated on a fleshy, short-stalked, crimson receptacle, the apex of the seed sometimes narrowed but not pointed. TAXACEA 57 Var. Hallii, Pilger. P. Hallu, T. Kink.* A tree attaining a height of 60 ft., differing from P. T'otara in its looser habit, larger leaves (up to 1} in. long and 4 in. wide) in a mature state, distinctly stalked male flowers and pointed seeds which are sometimes in pairs. Both trees are widely distributed in New Zealand. Next to the Kauri pine the Totara is regarded as the most useful timber tree of the country. Wood red in colour, varying considerably in depth of tint, clean, straight-grained, compact, and durable both in and out of the ground. It is used for general building purposes, joinery and cabinet work, piles for bridges and docks where it withstands teredo moderately well, paving blocks, railway sleepers, telegraph and telephone posts, fencing and many other purposes. I inely marked, mottled wood is sometimes found. This is eagerly sought after for furniture and cabinet work. The Totara gives the best results in cool alluvial soils, but succeeds in light sandy loams and stiff clays. It bears clipping as well as yew and can be used for hedges. P. Totara is grown out of doors in a few gardens in Britain, notably at Enys near Falmouth and in the garden of the late Mr. Osgood Mackenzie at Inverewe in Ross-shire. A fine example may be seen in the Temperate House at Kew. Podocarpus Urbanii, Pilger (EHupodocarpus). Yacoa. A yew-like tree up to 50 ft. high with rigid, erect, leathery, narrowly lance-shaped leaves {—1 in. long and % in. wide, or on young plants up to 2 in. long and } in. wide. Male flowers about ? in. long. Seed small, about } in. long, globose, on a fleshy receptacle. Native of the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, Montserrat. Podocarpus usambarensis, Pilger (Stachycarpus). Podocarpus falcata, Engler, not R. Brown. A large tree 180-250 ft. high, with rather slender scattered branchlets. Leaves normally up to 3 in. long and 3-1 in. wide, sometimes larger on young trees, or smaller and arranged very densely on old specimens; leathery, straight or sickle-shaped, tapering at the apex to a long, fine point, and narrowing at the base to a very short stalk, midrib not prominent above but well marked beneath. Male flowers not seen. Seeds solitary, globose, about 1 in. long, on slender stalks }—? in. long. Found in Usambara and other parts of Tanganyika Territory, 1 Loc. cit. 13, 301 (1889). 58 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA in mountain meadows and in virgin forest at elevations of 2,500 to over 6,000 ft. Timber yellowish in colour, clean, easily worked, and useful for general carpentry and joiners’ work. Fl. Trop. Africa, vi, sect. 2, pt. 2, 341 (1917). Podocarpus ustus, Brongniart and Gris (Microcarpus). A bush with dense branches divided into very fine cypress- like branchlets. Leaves scale-like, densely overlapping. Seeds round, very small, about } in. diameter, glaucous, on short leafy stalks. Native of New Caledonia, but apparently very rare. Compton? only found it on one occasion, and then in very small quantity. Podocarpus Vieillardii, Parlatore (Dacrycarpus). Dacrydium elatum compactum, Carriére; D. tenuifolia, Parlatore. A tree 40-50 ft. high, with a narrow head of branches. Leaves variable, of two distinct types, the juvenile type flat, soft, 4-4 in. long, pointed, arranged in a single row on each side of the shoot ; the adult type ;';—} in. long, spirally arranged, overlapping, the points curving inwards, the foliage looser and more glaucous than in P. dacrydioides, which it resembles in foliage. Seed oval or rounded with a pointed apex. Compton, Joc. cit. p. 425. Podocarpus vitiensis, Seeman. A tree 50-80 ft. high, remarkable for the uniform arrangement of the opposite leaves, which give the shoot a flattened character. Leaves symmetrical, narrowly lance-shaped, up to 14 in. long, 4-1 in. wide at the base, gradually narrowing to a terminal point, the base clasping the branchlet. Seed up to an inch long, the outer coat magenta-coloured, covered by a waxy bloom. Seed without the covering, }—3 in. long, terminated by a sharp and sometimes curved point. Native of Fiji, occurring in mixed forests. Podocarpus Wallichianus, C. Presl. (Nageia). Podocarpus latifolia, Wallich [not R. Brown]; P. pinnata, Hort. ; Nageia latifolia, Gordon; N. Wallichiana, O. Kuntze. An Indian tree remarkable for its large foliage. Leaves opposite or sub-opposite, 34-74 in. long, 11-23 in. wide, ovate, narrowing at the apex to a long, fine point, and at the base to a short, flat stalk. Male flowers branched, on stalks 4 in. long. Seed round, } to nearly 1 in. across, borne on a slightly swollen receptacle, surmounting a stalk }—? in. long. Widely distributed in Khasia, Assam, and Burma. 1 Journ. Linn. Soc. XIV, 425 (1922). TAXACEA 59 PRUMNOPITYS, Philippi. A monotypic genus allied to Podocarpus, which has been placed in the Stachycarpus section of that genus. This con- tains species having seeds in a loose spike the axis of which t § Ud : a MF Peay 4 fy =] di a ; PH Hy a” Ce i bh = = Fie. 6—PRUMNOPITYS ELEGANS. a, spray, one branchlet bearing young male flowers ; b, leaf-bud ; c, under-surface of leaves, showing stomatic bands; d, section of leaf; e, fruiting branchlet. does not become fleshy. The plant isno doubt correctly cited as Podocarpus andinus by Pilger, but on the ground of convenience we prefer to retain the name of Prumnopitys, which has been in common use for many years. 60 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAS Prumnopitys elegans, Philippi. (Fig. 6.) PLUM-FRUITED YEW. An evergreen tree of yew-like habit 40-50 ft. high in S. America. Park dark brown. Incultivation it is usually a shrub, often divided near the ground into several erect branches, the branchlets sweeping the ground and hiding the trunk. Buds small, but with valvate acute and not imbricate scales. Leaves spirally arranged, but appearing more or less in a two-ranked arrangement and pointing forwards, yew-like but paler in colour, linear 4-1 in. long, straight or sickle-shaped, narrowed abruptly at the apex to a short point and at the base to a short flat stalk, bright green above, paler with two broad glaucous bands of stomata below, the lower surface exposed by a partial twist of the leaf stalk. Male and female flowers on the same or on different trees, the former in terminal and axillary clusters, cylindrical, blunt. Female flowers on a scaly stalk springing from the upper leaf axils. Seed with a yellowish-white fleshy outer covering, resembling a damson in size and shape, and enclosing a hard shell rather like a cherry stone. The plum-fruited yew occurs wild in the Andes of §S. Chile, where it is an alpine tree with a vertical range of 4,000—6,000 ft. Messrs Veitch introduced the plant in 1860 through their collector Robert Pearce. Prumnopitys elegans is a very useful evergreen for the British Isles. Its foliage is less sombre than that of the yew, for which it might well be employed as a substitute, especially in the 8. of England. Although rarely used for hedges, it is excellent for the purpose. Cuttings of side shoots root readily if inserted in sandy soil in a close frame during summer. Clinton-Baker, Illust. Conif. 111, 83 (1913). SAXEGOTHEA Saxesothea conspicua, Lindley. PrincE ALBERT’S YEW. An evergreen tree of yew-like habit, attaining a height of 30-40 ft. in S. America, but becoming shrubby at high elevations. Bark greyish-brown, scaling off like that of a plane tree. Branches widely spreading, drooping at the ends. Branchlets opposite or in whorls of three or four. Young shoots slender, glabrous. Buds minute, globose, with ovate greenish scales. Leaves persis- tent for several years, spirally arranged, spreading radially on leading shoots, two-ranked on lateral shoots, more or less twisted or curved, linear, $—3 in. long, shortly stalked, tapering to a sharp, horny point; upper surface dark green with a narrow midrib ; lower surface with a narrow green midrib, on each side of which TAXACEA 61 is a broad, glaucous, stomatic band. Male and female flowers on the same tree, the anthers arranged in a spiral and opening longitudinally. Female flowers solitary at the ends of branches on UP 4 Fia. 7—SAXEHGOTHEA CONSPICUA. a, shoot; b, spray with two branchlets bearing young male flowers; c, under leaf-surface and four young stalked male flowers; d, section of leat; e, fruiting cone; f, cone-scale with pendulous seed; g, seed with small aril. short, scaly stalks, consisting of overlapping, triangular, glaucous, carpellary scales, the upper ones each bearing two inverted ovules. Ripe cones 3-4 in. in diameter with fleshy grooved scales, con- 62 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAL taining 6-12 seeds which are ovoid, compressed, about } in. long, shining brown. Cotyledons two. This remarkable conifer forms a connecting link between Pinacee and Taxacew. It is allied both to Podocarpus and Araucaria, resembling the former in the foliage and the latter in the female flowers and wingless pollen grains while the ripe fruit suggests that of a juniper. S. conspicua is a native of Chile and W. Patagonia, where it occurs in dense forests in the lower mountain regions. It was discovered in 8. Chile by William Lobb in 1846 and introduced into cultivation by him the following year. It was named in honour of the Prince Consort, who was a great patron of horti- culture. Saxegothea is hardy in a sheltered position at Kew, but grows very slowly. At Strete Raleigh near Exeter there are two fine specimens, probably two of the first introduced plants. A few years ago they were about 35 ft. high and well branched to the ground. There are also good specimens in Irish gardens. Little is known of the value of the wood in 8. America, but there is a sample of paper prepared from it in the Museums at Kew. Stiles, New Phyt. vii, 209, with figs. (1908); Stiles, Ann. Bot. xxvi, 446, 463 (1912); Elwes and Henry, Trees of Gt. Brit. and Ireland, vi, 1458 (1912); Clinton- Baker, loc. cit. iii, 73 (1913). TAXUS, Linneus. YEwS. Evergreen trees and shrubs of which seven species, indigenous and widely distributed in N. America, E. Asia, and Asia Minor, have been described. Although differing in foliage characters no more than in some forms of common yew, they occupy well- defined geographical areas and from this point of view are prob- ably best kept distinct.1_ The essential characters of the genus, economic uses and cultivation are given under the description of Taxus baccata. Taxus baccata, Linneus. (Fig. 8.) Common YEw. A densely branched tree 30-60 ft. high, developing when old a short, massive trunk 20 ft. or more in girth. Bark reddish-brown, thin and scaly. Branchlets spreading, alternate, surrounded at the base by brownish scales. Buds with obtuse, overlapping scales. eaves spirally arranged, spreading all round in erect shoots but appearing more or less two-ranked on horizontal 1 Pilger, Pflanzenreich, iv, 5, p. 110 (1903), ranks all the yews as sub- species. | aS ne a A wh EATS Aes “a *~ ‘ = ut Y " Sy Sy Dd “fo. on Wes oat EA S YY eas cach Ly So SE “tt, * 28 a aN AY wy x AY aN ON OY Lew nan . at & ee) y) cE Fic. 8—TAXUS BACCATA AND T. CUSPIDATA. Taxus baccata—a, spray with male flowers; b, male flower; ¢, spray with fruit; d, leaf-buds e, under leaf-surface ; f, section of leaf. 1. cuspidata.—g, spray ; h, under-surface of leaf-tip. 63 64 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER shoots, linear, $-1} in. long, convex and shining on the upper side with recurved margins and a prominent midrib, paler and yellowish-green beneath with ill-defined lines of stomata, gradu- ally tapering at the apex to a horny point. Male and female flowers usually on different trees (rarely on the same specimen). Male flowers in stalked, globose heads arising from the axils of the leaves on the under-sides of the branchlets of the previous year, each consisting of 6-14 stamens with short filaments, anther scales peltate. Female flowers solitary, green, from the leaf axils. Seed erect with a bony shell, borne in a scarlet fleshy cup or aril, ripening the first year. Cotyledons two. There are numerous varieties, of which the following are the more important :— Var. adpressa, Carriére. T. adpressa, Gordon; T. brevifolia, Hort. ; T. tardiva, Lawson. A female shrub of spreading habit, with densely crowded branches. Leaves much shorter and relatively broader than in the common form, dark dull green above, 1-3 in. long, elliptic linear with a rounded apex ending in a short point. Seed three- angled, depressed at the apex, aril broad and shallow. A very distinct variety, which is stated to have arisen as a seedling among other yew seedlings in the nursery of James Dickson & Sons at Chester in 1838, although another account says that it appeared in a bed of thorn seedlings ten years earlier. Var. adpressa aurea. Resembles the former in every respect except that the leaves are conspicuously variegated with gold. Var. adpressa stricta. T. baccata adpressa erecta; T. baccata adpressa fastigiata. This form differs from the type in its stiff, erect habit and less dense foliage. Var. adpressa variegata. The points of the young shoots are sometimes variegated with silver. It is not very effective. Var. albo-variegata. A form with clusters of white leaves appearing amongst the green foliage. The variegation is not constant and the plant is not ornamental. Var. argentea. Many of the leaves are margined with white. The plant is less useful than the varieties with golden foliage. TAXACEA 65 Var. aurea. GOLDEN YEw. A plant of compact habit with the young leaves golden, changing to green before the second year. Seedlings vary con- siderably in habit and many have green leaves. There are both male and female forms of this plant. Var. aurea variegata. This chiefly differs from Var. awrea in its looser habit. Var. Barroni. A striking variety with rich orange young shoots and leaves changing to a coppery shade with age. Var. brevifolia. A small bush with short and dense branchlets, and small densely arranged leaves, rarely more than $ in. long, which turn bronze in winter. It must not be confused with 7’. brevifolia from W. North America. Var. cheshuntensis. Intermediate in habit between the common and Irish yews, wider in habit than the latter, but with a similar leaf arrange- ment. Probably a seedling from the Irish yew. Var. Dovastoni. WESTFELTON YEW. A very distinct and handsome variety easily recognized by its erect stem, horizontal, widely spreading branches, and long weeping branchlets. It is avery old variety and appears to have been first noticed about 1777, when Mr. John Dovaston of West- felton, near Shrewsbury, bought for 6d. from acobbler in the vil- lage a young yew. This subsequently developed a distinct form which has since become popular in gardens. Male and female flowers have appeared on the same tree. Var. Dovastoni aureo-variegata. This differs from the last-named by its leaves being variegated with gold. Var. elegantissima. A vigorous plant with widely spreading branches, the main branches horizontal. Young leaves and shoots pale gold. Raised in the Handsworth Nurseries. F 66 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA: Var. epacridioides. A dwarf erect bush with small leaves rarely more than } in. long, which turn bronze in winter. Var. erecta. T. baccata stricta; T. baccata Crowderi. Of close, erect habit and formal outline. Leaves deep green up to ? in. long. Although of stiff habit it is less compact than the Irish yew. Var. ericoides. T. baccata empetrifolia ; T. baccata microphylla ; T. baccata Mitchellii. A low spreading plant suitable for the rockery. Leaves small, bronze or purple in winter. Var. expansa. A very distinct variety of erect and pleasing habit, readily distinguished by its large leaves (1—-1} in. long), which show the pale green of the under-surface in striking contrast to the rich dark green of the upper surface. Var. fastigiata, Loudon. TrisH YEw. T. fastigiata, Lindley; T. hibernica, Hooker. Florence Court Yew. Columnar and compact in habit, the branches and branchlets directed upwards. Leaves spreading all round the shoot, the apex more or less obtuse. Only female trees are known, which is accounted for by the fact that the two original Irish yews found near Florence Court by a farmer named Willis about 1780 were females and from one of these all the existing trees have been obtained by cuttings or by grafts. One of these trees, planted by Willis in his own garden, died in 1865, the other was presented to his landlord and planted at Florence Court. The first cuttings were given by the Earl of Enniskillen to the London nurserymen, Messrs. Lee and Kennedy, in 1867, and by them the plant was distributed later. Var. fastigiata argentea. Patches of silvery foliage sometimes occur. The form is of little horticultural value. Var. fastigiata aurea, Standish. GOLDEN IrIsH YEw. _ This differs from the type by its golden leaves. It is, however, a variable plant and the colour of the foliage varies in shade Esq Phe to. by F. R. S. Balfour, PINUS LAMBERTIANA IN SISKIYOU MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA. SV EMIE, Silk - é - 1s A) TAX ACEAG 67 according to the nursery from which plants are procured. The golden colour is most in evidence on the under-surface. Var. fastigiata grandis. A selected form of the golden Irish yew with the golden colour more pronounced than in the commoner plant, particularly on the upper surface. Var. fastigiata Standishii. The golden colour is very highly developed in this plant. Var. Fisheri. This is a green-leaved variety of spreading habit. The main branches are developed more or less horizontally, and there is no marked leader. Var. Foxii. A small-leaved variety of spreading habit, forming a low, compact bush suitable for the rock-garden. Var. fructu-luteo. YELLOW-BERRIED YEW. Differs from the type by the aril being yellow. First found in the grounds of the Bishop of Kildare at Glasnevin about 1817. Var. glauca. Leaves glaucous beneath when young, afterwards like the type. Var. gracilis pendula. A vigorous variety with rich glaucous green foliage. The main branches are more or less horizontal, the branchlets being pendent and hanging to a length of several feet. It forms a natural leader and grows into a handsome specimen. Var. horizontalis. Branches horizontal, in several tiers, spreading very widely. The plant has no leader. Var. horizontalis elegantissima. Leaves variegated with gold. The main branches are more distinctly horizontal than in Var. elegantissima. Var. imperialis. An erect plant of compact habit, but less stiff than var. fastigiata. 68 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAt Var. nana. A low shrub, rarely attaining a height of 3 ft., but spreading very widely. Leaves small,deep green. Suitable for the higher points of a rockery. Var. neidpathensis. NEIDPATH YEW. A bold, vigorous, green-leaved variety with erect but not stiff branches. Var. pendula. Rather similar to var. gracilis pendula, but less robust and looser in habit, Var. procumbens. A prostrate variety with longer leaves and stouter branches than var. nana. Var. pyramidalis. Branches erect, crowded, and rather sparingly clothed with branchlets. It is not a very effective variety. Var. pyramidalis variegata. Resembling the last-named in habit, but with golden-varie- gated leaves. Var. recurvata, Carriere. Branches wide-spreading and horizontal, leaves recurved. Var. semperaurea. A golden-leaved variety, the golden colour being retained throughout the first year. The yew is one of the commonest and best-known hardy evergreens and is one of the three conifers indigenous in the British Isles. It is common on the chalk downs of the south of England, where, in addition to isolated trees and scrub, yew woods, sometimes of considerable extent, are found. It also occurs wild in other parts of the country, and an interesting wilding was found by one of us in 1921 on Great Orme’s Head. This plant originated in a crevice of the rock 9-12 in. deep. On reaching the surface it commenced to spread laterally until in 1921 it measured 3 ft. 7 in. across in the widest part, was quite flat and barely 4 in. high. A small piece of stem less than half an inch in diameter, cut from the outer edge, had thirty-three annual rings. There was no other yew near and the dwarf character appeared to be due to poverty of soil and the shearing effect of wind. 7’. baccata is widely spread in Europe, and is also found in TAXACEA 69 N. Persia and Algeria. In the Himalayan forests it occurs at 6,000-11,000 ft. altitude from Afghanistan to Bhutan. Wood tough, strong, heavy, elastic, close-grained, with well- marked heart- and sap-wood, the former reddish or brown, the latter pale yellow or white, the heartwood toning with age and exposure to an effective brown shade. It works well, finishes with a smooth, glossy surface, is very durable, and is suitable for furniture, parquet-flooring, panelling, and makes excellent gate and fence posts. In ancient times it was the most popular of all woods for bows and is still used in archery. Transverse sections cut from the base of old trees often show several distinct hearts. This is brought about by erect shoots, springing from near the ground, developing into stems several inches in diameter and then becoming overgrown by the main trunk. Such sections are sometimes utilized for table-tops. Yew wood turns well and can be made into candlesticks and other fancy articles. Well-seasoned wood forms excellent mallets. The leaves, shoots, and seeds possess poisonous properties ” and plants should be kept from cattle. The active principle appears to be taxine, although other alkaloids are said to be present in both fresh and partly withered shoots ; indeed, the latter are considered to be more virulent in their action than the fresh foliage. There is still, however, a good deal to be learned about yew-poisoning, for in some cases cattle have been known to have had access to yew trees all their lives and have constantly nibbled the shoots without the least injury; others, however, have eaten branches with fatal results. It has been suggested that the per- centage of poison may vary in male and female trees or in different trees. Prof. Troup* says that in Hazara, where 7’. baccata is plentiful, and particularly in the Siran and Kagan valley, the yew is extensively lopped for cattle fodder, perhaps more so than any other conifer, and trees are frequently killed by repeated lopping. The scarlet aril which surrounds the seed is harmless. The yew succeeds in partial shade and also in full sun. Seed- lings germinating beneath the shade of trees grow well, but their habit is usually less dense that that of trees in open places. It thrives in most parts of the country and is very long lived. The theory has often been advanced that a number of the older trees in Britain exceed the age of 1,000 years. We have no direct evidence to prove whether this is actually the case, but it is highly probable, for trees that are known to have been in an advanced state of decay many years ago do not appear to become appreciably worse and bear healthy branches and foliage although 1A narrow-leaved Himalayan form has been described as a species, 7’. Wal- lichiana, Zuccarini, but is doubtfully distinct. 2 Long, Plants Poisonous to Stock. 3 Silviculture of Indian Trees, iii, 1171 (1921). 70 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAj the trunk is reduced to a shell. These old trees, with attendant legends and associations, have been fully dealt with elsewhere.* Yews are widely planted in gardens and are grown in many ways. The common yew is one of the best of all hedge-plants, for it stands clipping well and is always neat. It is used for topiary work and old specimens are still clipped into fantastic shapes in some gardens, as they were a century ago. Such specimens are to be seen at Elvaston Castle, Derby. The most satisfactory plants for hedges are those that produce several erect branches from the base. Yews thrive in chalky soil, on limestone formations, also on peat and light and heavy loams. They may be transplanted at almost any period in open weather from early September to early May. Large numbers of plants are raised from seeds sown in beds out of doors, whilst the varieties are increased by cuttings placed in sandy soil in frames during July and August, or by grafting in spring upon stocks of the type previously established in pots. Hedges and formal plants may be clipped in summer, the best time being after the completion of growth in July or August. All clippings must be carefully collected and burnt in order to avoid injury to animals. Galls formed by clusters of leaves are often found on the points of the shoots; these are caused by the mite Hriophyes taxv. Taxus brevifolia, Nuttall.? A tree 15-50 ft. high or occasionally taller with slightly pendent branches. Leaves shorter and more abruptly pointed than in T'. baccata, }—-2 in. long, terminating in a bristly point, reduced at the base to a distinct stalk, dark yellowish-green above, paler beneath. Male flowers much smaller than in 7’. baccata. Seed ovoid, up to about 4 in. long with a scarlet aril. Native of W. North America, where it is widely distributed on the banks of mountain streams and in deep ravines in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. Although intro- duced into cultivation in 1854 it is very rare in collections. Sargent, Silva of North America, x, 65, t. 514 (1896). Taxus canadensis, Marshall. Taxus baccata, var. canadensis, Elwes and Henry. A shrub of straggling and often prostrate habit. Buds small, globose, with overlapping blunt, keeled scales. Leaves narrow, curved, 4-3 in. long, j'g—7s in. wide, midrib slightly prominent above, the apex abruptly pointed. Seed as in 7’. baccata. 1Lowe, Yew Trees of Great Britain and Ireland (1897); Dallimore, Holly, (190 and Box (1908); Elwes and Henry, T'rees of Great Brit. and TIrel., i, 98 6). * Nuttall, Sylv. iii, 86, t. 108 (1849). TAXACEA 71 Var. aurea. Leaves faintly variegated with yellow. Found in E.N. America from Newfoundland to Virginia. Although introduced in 1800, it has never become established in cultivation. Sargent, Silva of North America, x, 63 (1896). Taxus chinensis, Pilger. CHINESE YEw. T. baccata, var. sinensis, Henry ; T. cuspidata, var. chinensis, Rehder and Wils. A tree 18-50 ft. high with greyish brown or yellowish brown branchlets. Buds pale brown with obtuse scales, the lower ones lightly keeled. Leaves very dark green, distant or rarely over- lapping, falcate, $-1 in. long, 7:-} in. broad. Apex more or less abruptly pointed. Seed broadly ovoid, }-} in. long, 3 in. broad, scarcely compressed, slightly two-angled, bluntly pointed. This yew and 7’. cuspidata are distinguished from 7’. baccata by the shorter seed, and fruit much more freely than the common ew. The Chinese Yew is scattered through Western Hupeh and Szechuen, up to 2,000 ft. being most common on the carbon- iferous limestone. Pl. Wils. ii, 8 (1914). Taxus cuspidata, Siebold and Zuccarini.! (Fig. 8.) JAPANESE YEW. Taxus baccata, var. cuspidata, Elwes and Henry. A tree 50 or more feet high in Japan, with a trunk up to6 ft. in girth, with spreading or ascending branches. Bark red or greyish-brown, lightly fissured. In cultivation it is of shrubby habit. buds oblong, chestnut-brown, composed of overlapping concave scales more or less keeled on the back. Leaves standing more or less vertically on the branchlets, straight or slightly sickle-shaped, linear, }—1 in. long, ;';—} in. wide, dark green above, paler beneath with two yellowish-green bands of stomata, taper- ing toa slender stalk at the base and ending abruptly in a horny point at the apex. Seed similar to that of 7’. baccata, but a little longer and produced in greater profusion. Var. aurescens.? T. tardiva. A low and apparently slow-growing plant, with the leaves of the current year’s growth coloured deep yellow. Introduced to the Arnold Arboretum from Japan. 1 Fl. Jap. 61, t. 128 (1842). *Journ, Arn. Arb. i, No. 3, 191, Jan. 1920, 72 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAL Var. contorta. Shoots and branchlets twisted. Var. nana. Of dwarf habit, suitable for the rock-garden. T. cuspidata is distinguished from the common yew by its larger, oblong buds and vertically placed leaves with abrupt points and distinct, yellowish, stomatic bands. Although widely distributed in Japan it is not common in a wild state. Introduced by Fortune about 1855 and quite hardy in cultivation, thriving under similar conditions to the common yew. Taxus floridana, Chapman. Taxus baccata, var. floridana, Elwes and Henry. A shrub or small bushy tree up to 25 ft. high with numerous stout, spreading branches. Buds with loosely overlapping, ovate- obtuse scales. Leaves very narrow, curved, dark green, ?-1 in. long, 2—1'¢ in. wide, the midrib obscure, the apex shortly pointed. Seed similar to 7’. baccata. Native of W. Florida. Sargent, Silva of North America, x, 67 t. 515 (1896). Taxus sglobosa, Schlechtendal. Taxus mexicana, Senilis. Described as a small tree about 20 ft. in height, and discovered in 1837 by Ehrenberg in 8. Mexico, but of which little is known. The foliage of specimens we have seen so labelled differs but little from that of the common yew, except that the leaves are some- what larger and more sharply pointed. TORREYA, Arnott. Tumion, Rafinesque. Evergreen trees allied to Cephalotaxus, found in California, W. Florida, China, and Japan. Bark furrowed, branches op- posite or whorled. Buds ovate, acute, with a few shining scales in opposite pairs. Leaves often aromatic or pungent, spirally arranged, but on lateral shoots thrown by the twisting of their bases into two opposite ranks, linear, rigid, tipped with a bristle- like point, upper surface green, convex, lower surface with a raised midrib and two glaucous stomatic bands sunk in longi- tudinal furrows. Male and female flowers often on different trees, but in cultivated specimens usually on different branches of the same tree. Male flowers solitary in the axils of the leaves of the current year’s branchlet, composed of numerous stamens in TAXACEA 73 whorls of four, each with four pollen sacs. Female flowers in pairs towards the base of the current year’s shoot. Ovule com- pletely covered with a fleshy aril-like coat, resembling a plum or olive when ripe. Seed with a woody outer coat, the inner layer irregularly folded into the kernel which appears like a nut- meg in section. The species of Torreya resemble Cephalotaxus in foliage but may easily be recognized by the sunken bands of stomata on the lower surface of the leaves, which are distinctly bristle-pointed. Wood yellowish, straight-grained, easy to work, durable, usually strong ; used for furniture, cabinet work, and fence posts, but not a general commercial timber. The seeds of one species are edible and an oil used in cookery is obtained from them. In the warmer parts of Britain the Torreyas form useful ever- greens for gardens or parks. They succeed in loamy or peaty soil and compare in usefulness with the hardy species of Podo- carpus. Cuttings of short side-shoots may be rooted by inserting them in sandy soil in a close frame in summer, but the best method of propagation is by imported seeds. Specimens of 7’. californica, 7’. grandis, and 7’. nucifera may be seen at Kew. Key To ToRREYA. I. Foliage aromatic when bruised ; shoots reddish or brown in the second year. Leaves linear, 14-3 in. long, } in. wide, glaucous beneath with broad midrib and slightly depressed narrow stomatic bands.—7. californica. Leaves lanceolate linear, 3-14 in. long. $-} in. wide, green beneath with deeply depressed stomatic bands.—Z’. nuci- fera. II. Foliage not aromatic when bruised, shoots green in second year. Leaves lanceolate-linear, $-1 in. long, } in. wide, thinner in texture than those of 7’. nucifera, but with similar stomatic bands.—7'. grandis. Torreya californica, Torrey. (Fig. 9.) CALIFORNIA NUTMEG. Torreya Myristica, Hooker. A tree up to 90 ft. high with a girth of 9 ft. in California but usually much smaller and often only a shrub. Bark rather smooth and thin. Wood and foliage aromatic. Young shoots without down, green becoming brown in the second year. Buds prismatic, acute, up to 4 in. long, with closely overlapping brown scales. Leaves rigid, linear, 14-3 in. long, } in. wide, tapering to a spiny Dil Nea 4 y aS Fic. 9—TORREYA CALIFORNICA AND T. GRANDIS. Torreya californica.—a with leaf- : acti f. T. grandis.—c, spray; d, undery- € x20 ic » shoo eaf-buds; ), $.—C, surface of leaf and leaf-buds; e¢, section of leaf; f, male flower, 74 TAXACKE AN 75 point, dark shining green on the upper surface with two longitu- dinal glaucous grooves beneath. Male flowers globose, about 3 in. in diameter, in the axils of the leaves of the terminal shoots. Seeds elliptical or obovoid in outline, green, streaked with purple when ripe, 14-1? in. long, flesh thin and resinous, shell of the seed furrowed. Distinguished from other species by its long, flat, rigid leaves. This handsome conifer is only found wild in California, where it grows sparingly on the borders of mountain streams from Mendo- cino County to the Santa Cruz mountains in the coast region and along the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada from Eldorado to Tulare County at 3,000—5,000 ft. elevation. It was discovered in 1851 by Wm. Lobb, who sent specimens and seeds to Messrs. Veitch the same year. Wood light yellow or nearly white, used locally for fence posts. Torreya grandis, Fortune. (Fig. 9.) Torreya nucifera, var. grandis, Pilger. A tree occasionally 60-80 ft. high in China but more often a shrub. Young shoots green, glabrous, becoming yellowish-green in the second year. JLeaves similar to those of 7’. nucifera in size and shape, but yellowish-green in colour and without the aromatic odour of that species, and thinner in texture, with similar deeply impressed stomatic bands. Seeds broadly ellipsoid or sub-globose, ?—1 in. long with a reddish-brown shell. 7’. grandis may generally be recognized from 7’. nucifera by the yellowish-green colour of the two-year-old branchlets and the other characters mentioned above. It was discovered by Fortune in the mountains of Chekiang on the east coast of China in 1855, and has since been found in the central provinces of Hupeh and Szechuen, but usually in bush form. Although introduced in 1855, it is arare plant in cultivation. Torreya nucifera, Siebold and Zuccarini. (Fig. 10.) KAYA. Tumion nuciferum, Greene. A tree 20-80 ft. high and 12-15 ft. in girth in Japan. Bark smooth, light red.1 Branches numerous, stout, horizontal. Branchlets opposite, green when young, changing to reddish brown in the second year. Buds prismatic, about +} in. long, with shining membranous scales. Leaves with a pungent odour when rubbed, linear, rigid, curved, 3-1} in. long, ending abruptly in a spiny point, dark shining green above, with two stomatic lines, about equalling the midrib in breadth, beneath. Male flowers 1 Sargent, Yor. Fl. of Jap. 76 (1894). Fic. 10.—TORREYA NUCIFERA. a, shoot; 0, leaf-buds and under leaf-surface ; c, under-side of a node; d, section of leaf; e, fruit (after Shiraswa). 76 TAXACEA vie | about } in.long. Seed narrowly obovoid, ?—1 in. long, green tinged with purple. This species may be recognized by its branchlets being reddish brown or reddish purple in the second year and by its strongly curved deep green leaves. A native of Japan, where it occurs as a rare tree in the southern islands and in the forests of S. and Central Hondo. It was described by Kaempfer in 1712 and was introduced, according to Aiton, in 1764. In this country it is only seen as a shrub. Wood lustrous yellow to pale brown, durable under water, used for chests, boxes, cabinets, furniture, water-pails, and for Japanese chessmen. The seeds are rich in oil and are largely eaten in Japan. Torreya taxifolia, Arnott. STINKING CEDAR. A tree up to 40 ft. high with a girth of 3-6 ft. in Florida. Branches spreading, slightly pendulous, forming an open pyra- midal head. Sark irregularly fissured and scaly. branchlets bright green with occasional minute hairs, becoming dark yellow- ish-red when older. Buds as in 7’. californica. Leaves ?—-1} in. long, } in. wide, tapering to a spine-tipped apex, shining green above, lower surface pale green with the two stomatic bands scarcely depressed and narrower than the midrib ; rounded at the base, with a stalk about s'5 in. long. Fruit obovoid, 1—1} in. long, the flesh with a foetid smell. This species resembles 7’. californica, but has much shorter leaves. Native of N.W. Florida, where it grows on limestone soil and in river swamps in the region bordering the Appalachicola river. It was introduced into England in 1840, but no trees are known to exist in this country and it is probably too tender for our climate. Young plants, however, have been recently received in England from the Arnold Arboretum. Sargent, Silva of N. America, x. 57, t. 512 (1896). ail ‘4 PART II PINACE/E ABIES, Linnzus. SILVER Frrs. Evergreen trees confined to the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, but widely distributed in Europe, N. Africa, Asia, from the Himalaya northwards, and North America. In the more northerly latitudes they occur at sea-level but at a consider- able elevation in Central and S. Europe, the Himalaya, N. Africa, Mexico, and W. North America. Young trees are of pyramidal or cylindrical outline with the branches more or less regularly whorled, forming flat sprays, each whorl usually marking one year’s growth. The trunks of mature trees taper very gradually in the forest and are clear of branches for a considerable height, but in the open rapidly decrease in girth and retain the branches low on the trunk. bark of young trees smooth or beset with resin blisters ; in old trees deeply furrowed at the base. Young shoots smooth or grooved, with or without down, marked at the base by persistent bud scales of the previous year. Winter buds ovate or oblong, blunt or pointed, resinous or non-resinous ; the terminal bud of the main axis surrounded by four or five secondary buds, three buds terminating the branches. Leaves variously arranged on the branchlets, according to species, those on lateral shoots either pectinate, spreading all round the shoot or crowded and directed forwards in overlapping ranks ; on leading shoots widely spreading and on coning branches directed upwards. The leaves are dark green, pale green or glaucous, linear, rounded or short-pointed, but usually notched at the apex; flattened, rarely four-angled, marked below with two waxy bands of stomata, sometimes with a few stomata on the upper surface, especially on the uppermost shoots. Each leaf is traversed by two resin ducts which are either marginal or median. Bruised leaves emit an odour of turpentine. The foliage persists several years and on falling leaves circular, disc-like scars on the shoots. Male and female flowers borne on the same tree in spring. Male flowers in short catkins from the leaf axils on the under-side of the branchlets which, on falling, leave gall-like scars. Female flowers in cones composed of numerous bracts each bearing 79 80 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAA a large scale with two ovules at the base. Mature cones erect on the upper branchlets, with closely overlapping, fan-shaped scales and hidden or protruding bracts ; scales and bracts falling as soon as the seeds are ripe and leaving the persistent axis on the tree. Seeds winged, ripening during the firstautumn. Cotyle- dons usually 5-7, with stomata on the upper surface. The genus Abies is easily distinguished from all other conifers by the disc-like leaf scars and by the erect cones which break up as soon as the seeds are ripe. The wood is odourless and varies in colour from white to yellowish or reddish brown according to species, no very distinct line separating sapwood and heartwood. Resin ducts normally absent, but sometimes occurring after an injury ; medullary rays very fine. Wood soft, easily worked, finishing with a good surface, taking paint and polish well, and suitable for the indoor finish of houses, the commoner kinds of joinery, pit props, scaffold poles, matchwood, wood wool, paper pulp, and box boards. Owing to its inodorous character it is in demand for butter, lard, and grocery boxes. After treatment with a preservative it is some- times used for telephone poles and for piles. From resin blisters on the bark oleo-resin is obtained. It is known commercially as Canada balsam and Strasburg turpen- tine, and is used for varnishes, mounting microscopic specimens, and for medicinal purposes. An essential oil obtained from the leaves is sometimes used in pharmacy. ; The silver firs require moist soil and give the best results in a damp climate. They are injured by an impure atmosphere and are unsuitable for the vicinity of manufacturing towns, but thrive in the moist glens and valleys of W. England and Scotland. They withstand a good deal of shade, and some species are useful for underplanting thin woods. Although less suitable for exposed positions than some of the pines, they may be grown at the limit of tree growth in Britain if shelter is provided. The rarer silver firs are sometimes increased by grafting upon commoner species, but this method of propagation is not recom- mended, as grafted plants rarely grow into good specimens. Whenever possible plants should be raised from seeds. These may be sown in early spring ; those of rare species in pots or boxes indoors and those of the commoner kinds in nursery beds in light, well-worked soil. Seedlings will usually stand for two summers in nursery beds when they should be transplanted into nursery lines. For forest planting trees should not exceed 15 in. in height, but for decorative work specimens up to 5 ft. high may be moved successfully, provided they have been transplanted biennially whilst in the nursery. They bear moving better than pines and may be transplanted during open weather between early October and late March, or in late districts until the end of May. S. Balfour, Esq. R Photo. by F. R ABIES AMABILIS ON MOUNT RAINIER. TV. LABATE a ky PINACE/# 81 Several insect pests attack the silver firs, species of Chermes (Dreyfusia) being the most injurious. Chermes picea, var. bowveri, attacks the buds of A. nobilis, A. amabilis, A. grandis, A. magni- fica, A. Fraseri, and other species, whilst Chermes niisslinii injures the young shoots of A. pectinata, A. Nordmanniana, etc. The first- named, by puncturing the buds, occasions derangement of tissue. The buds are unable to develop, although the branches live for several years. Apparently a concentration of food material occurs about the points of the shoots causing large gouty swellings. All growth buds are eventually suppressed and the trees die. C. niisslinii injures the young woody tissue of A. pectinata and A. Nordmanniana, and badly affected young plants rarely recover. Research work on these insects is being conducted by Mr. R. N. Chrystal for the Scientific and Industrial Research Committee, and much new information on these important forest pests is being brought to light. The vital time when the attention of cultivators, should be directed to these pests is when the plants are in the nursery. Plants are then easy to handle, and by keeping them thoroughly clean at this period much future trouble and loss may be avoided. Slightly affected trees, either in the nursery or garden, should be sprayed several times at intervals of eight to ten days with a paraffin wash. Badly infested stock should be burnt. Kry To ABIES. Leaves radially arranged on the branchlets ; apex of the leaves not notched. Leaves rigid, less than ? in. long, thick, obtuse at apex; resin canals median.—A. Pinsapo. Leaves flattened, about 1 in. long, ending in a sharp horny point; resin canals marginal.—A. cephalonica. Leaves flattened, up to about 1 in. long, ending in a sharp horny point, ultimately strongly reflexed on the main shoots.—A. recurvata. Leaves on lateral branchlets pectinate, with a distinct parting between the two lateral sets :— Resin canals marginal :— Buds § in. or more long. Leaves 2 in. or more long, rigid ending in a spiny point ; shoots glabrous ; buds spindle-shaped, $—3 in. long, with light brown non-resinous scales.—A. bracteata. Buds less than } in long. Leaves all in one plane, those in the upper rank about half as long as those below; up to 2 in. long, upper surface without stomata; shoots minutely hairy ; buds small, resinous.—A. grandis. G 82 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA( Leaves and buds like those of A. grandis, but glaucous not dark green, with lines of stomata on upper surface.—A. Lowiana. Leaves in a V-shaped arrangement, rigid, shining green, up to 14 in. long, ending in two sharp horny points; shoots slightly hairy in the furrows.—A. firma. Leaves up to about 1 in. long, the upper ranks the shortest ; shoots hairy ; buds ovoid, non-resinous.—A. pectinata. Leaves in two or more ranks, similar in arrangement to A. pectinata or A. grandis, apex notched or ending in two distinct points; shoots red brown or purplish, glabrous or hairy in the grooves; buds ovoid resinous, reddish. —A. Faxonana. Leaves in a V-shaped arrangement, up to 23 in. long, notched at apex, silvery white beneath; shoots deeply grooved, with reddish hairs in the grooves; buds large, globose, resinous.—A. Webbiana. Leaves arranged as in A. Webbiana, but shorter, about 1 in. long, often conspicuously curved, white beneath, margins sometimes strongly recurved ; shoots reddish, glabrous or slightly hairy; buds globose or ovoid, resinous.—4A. Delavayt. Leaves sharply pointed, not notched at apex ; shoots bright red.— A. squamata. Resin canals median :— Leaves slender, barely 1 in. long, stomata in 6-8 lines ; shoots smooth, grey with scattered erect hairs; buds globose or conic, resinous.— A. balsamea. Leaves as in A. balsamea but shorter and white beneath ; stomata in 8-12 lines; shoots smooth, yellowish, with dense curved hairs ; buds globose, resinous.—A. Fraserv. Leaves in a V-shaped arrangement barely an inch long, white beneath ; shoots deeply grooved ; buds conical, resinous. —A. brachyphylla. Leaves on lateral branches, overlapping and not pectinate above, arranged below in two lateral sets :— Resin canals marginal :— Leaves up to 11 in. long with rounded notched apex ; shoots with scattered short hairs or the leading shoot glabrous ; buds ovoid, brown, non-resinous.—A. Nordmanniana. Leaves arranged like A. Nordmanniana but of a darker green with a truncate, notched apex ; shoots emitting an odour of orange peel when cut, hairy; buds small, globose resinous.—A. amabilis. Leaves about 1 in. long, gradually tapering to the entire or PINACE/A# 83 notched apex, arranged like those of A. Nordmanniana but much less crowded; shoots minutely hairy, grooved ; buds shortly cylindrical, resinous.—A. religiosa. Leaves less than 1 in. long ; shoots brown with dense chocolate- coloured hairs ; buds small, globose, resinous.—A. Mariesit. Resin canals median :— Leaves up to 1 in. long, very white beneath ; stomata 9-10 lines ; shoots smooth, densely hairy ; buds resinous.—4A. Veitchir. Leaves up to 13 in. long, slender, white beneath ; stomata in 7-8 lines ; shoots hairy in the grooves ; buds resinous.— A. sachalinensis. Leaves up to 14 in. long, slender ; stomata 4—5 lines ; shoots ashy-grey, with scattered, minute hairs; buds globose, resinous.—A. sibirica. Leaves glaucous or greyish green, partly appressed to the branch- let and curving upwards: those on lower side of the shoot in two lateral sets :— Leaves flattened, grooved on the upper surface, concealing the shoot, which is covered with reddish-brown hairs.—A. nobilis. Leaves quadrangular in section, not grooved on the upper surface, not completely concealing the shoot.—A. magnifica. Leaves on lateral branches either like Fig. 14 or Fig. 23 and depending upon the vigour of the shoots :— Leaves arranged like A. Nordmanniana but less white beneath and often acute at apex ; buds ovoid, acute, non-resinous ; the tips of the scales slightly spreading.— A. cilicica. Leaves either showing a V-shaped arrangement or standing vertically on the shoot and directed backwards, up to # in. long, with stomata on both surfaces ; buds ovoid, non- resinous.—A. numidica. Leaves irregularly arranged, those on the lower side of the shoot not truly pectinate :— Leaves all directed more or less forwards, bright green, up to 2} in. long, apex ending in two horny points ; shoots grey, glabrous.—A. Pindrow. Leaves imperfectly pectinate, some in the middle line directed forward, glaucous green, apex entire; shoots smooth, olive-green, glabrous; buds large, conical, resinous.— A. concolor. Leaves imperfectly pectinate or crowded on upper side of shoot 1} in. long. entire at apex, with lines of stomata on both surfaces ; resin canals median ; shoots hairy ; buds small, resinous.—A. lasiocarpa. 84 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA Leaves mostly standing erect on the upper side of the shoot, about 1 in. long, conspicuously white below, notched at the apex. Shoots smooth, silvery-grey, with scattered hairs. Buds sub-globose resinous.—A. koreana. Abies amabilis, Forbes. (Fig. 11.) RED SILVER Fir. Abies grandis, A. Murray [not Lindley]; A. grandis, var. densiflora, Engelmann ; Picea amabilis, Loudon; Pinus amabilis, Douglas; Pinus grandis, Lambert [not Douglas]. Amabilis Fir; Lovely Fir; Lovely Red Fir; Red Fir. A tree attaining in America a maximum height of 250 ft. and a girth of 18 ft... Bark thin, pale or silvery-white, becoming thick and fissured at the base of old trunks. Young shoots greyish- brown, smooth, with dense, short, pale-brownish hairs, with a tangerine orange odour when cut or bruised. Winter buds small, globose, very resinous. eaves arranged much as in A. Nordmanniana but on the lower side of the shoot spreading more at right-angles to the stem, those on the upper side curved and pointing forwards, more or less covering the shoot; up to 11 in. long, ;'; in. broad, flattened, dark shining green and grooved above with a truncate, notched apex, the under-surface with two broad white bands of stomata; resin canals marginal. Cones ovoid, cylindric, slightly narrowed at the apex, dark purple when young, brown when mature, 3}—6 in. long, 2-2} in. wide; scales an inch or more wide, nearly as long as broad; bracts rhombic or obovate-oblong, hidden by the scales. Seed § in. long, wing # in. long. This species closely resembles A. Nordmanniana in its leaf arrangement, but is distinguished by its small resinous buds and the peculiar odour of the cut or bruised shoot. A. amabilis is a native of W. North America, occurring on high mountain slopes from British Columbia southwards along the Cascade Mountains to N. Oregon, and on the coast ranges of Oregon and Washington. It was introduced into cultivation in 1830, but isnot common in collections and rarely grows to a large size. Wood light, moderately hard and strong, even-grained, pale brown, heartwood a little darker than sapwood. Occasionally used for general carpentry, the indoor finish of houses, etc., and in commerce appears to be mixed with the wood of other species, although it would probably meet with a better market as a distinct timber. If A. amabilis occurred in a country less bountifully supplied with good timber trees the timber would be more highly appreciated. This species is best adapted for gardens in the moist high- land valleys of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, and is not suitable for dry situations. The reason for its rarity may be the fact PINACEA# 85 \\ }\ | I | SSN HYG ININN ‘NI . \ N i BUELL = ‘| 4, eee : eS SS 7 2 i J . : WA \ OX j -_ @, ZA ss | % S TT] Z H e, SOS Sy ] / . j , @ a 5 PSS ZH TAI hs C by — ns Sat Z S—™“ . p PJ SS A WSS WAN, \ { y, Zi SS ——S ) ) [P Ny S 9 ZA JZ AO Ss a —> =a Ss SSS SS —— << rz a SSS U al iN q wuawse” = > = =6 a . SVAN —===—= Ss 86 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA that grafting was at one period resorted to as a means of pro- pagation and plants raised by that means were rarely successful. Young trees should be raised from imported seeds. Trees of the Pacific Slope (U.S. Dept. of Agric.), 125 (1908). Abies balsamea, Miller. Bausam Fir. Abies aromatica, Rafinesque; A. balsamifera, Michaux; A. minor, Dunham; Picea balsamea, Loudon ; Pinus balsamea, Linnzus. Balm of Gilead ; Balsam, Blister Pine, Fir Pine, Fir Tree, Silver Pine, Single Pine. A tree 25-60 or occasionally 75 ft. high and 23-5 ft. in girth. Bark of old trees about 4 in. thick, dull reddish-brown, divided into thin scales ; of young trees, thin, smooth, ash-coloured and covered with resin blisters. Young shoots smooth and covered with fine, soft, greyish hairs. Winter buds small, rounded or conic, resinous. Leaves very variable on different parts of the tree, 5-1 in. long, »-;'5 in. wide, horizontally arranged in two lateral sets with a V-shaped parting between them ; shortest on the upper side of the shoot, flattened, rounded, slightly notched at the apex ; upper surface dark shining green, with interrupted lines of stomata towards the tip, lower surface with two grey bands of stomata; resin canals median. Cones ovoid or cylin- drical, purple except when ripe, 2—4 in. long, 1-1} in. wide; scales about 3 in. wide and the same in length, bracts variable in length, protruding or concealed by the scales. Seeds about 4 in. long, with a wing of the same length. Var. Hudsonia, Engelmann. Abies Hudsonia, Bose. A dwarf spreading shrub, 1-2 ft. in height, with densely crowded branches and small broad leaves about } in. long ; resin canals marginal. Found in the White Mountains, New Hamp- shire. Var. macrocarpa. A form described as having longer leaves and larger cones than the type. It was found near the Wolf River, Wisconsin, and young plants were raised at Waukegan Nursery. Var. variegata, Beissner. Leaves variegated with white. The arrangement of the foliage of A. balsamea is very similar to that of A. pectinata, but it may be at once distinguished from that species by its resinous buds and median resin canals. A. Fraseri, with which A. balsamea is often confused, has shorter leaves which are whiter beneath, and the shoots are densely hairy. PINACEA 87 The balsam fir has a wider distribution than any other N. American species. It extends far northwards in the Dominion of Canada, where it is common in the eastern provinces from New- foundland to Lake Superior and spreads southwards through the N. United States to the Alleghany Mountains, and 8.W. Virginia. It is common in low-lying, swampy ground, but ascends to an altitude of 5,000 ft. A. balsamea has been in cultivation for at least 200 years, but it is a short-lived tree and has no value for ornamental purposes. Wood light, soft, weak, knotty, and generally too poor in quality for any work of importance. It is however used to some extent in inferior buildings and for box-making, whilst increasing attention is being paid to it as a pulp wood. For paper-making it is usually mixed with spruce. Canada balsam is obtained from the bark blisters. This is an oleo-resin largely used for mounting microscopic specimens, and it is also used in varnishes. A con- siderable number of people are employed in the collection of the oil or resin. Several other species produce a similar balsam. The balsam fir is not amenable to cultivation in the British Isles and very few specimens of even moderate growth are known, the best, perhaps, being in Scotland. Even as an ornamental tree it has little to commend it. Sudworth, The Spruce and Balsam Fir Trees of the Rocky Mountain Region. Bull. No. 327, U.S. Dept. of Agric. 20-24 (1916), with figs. Abies Beissneriana, Rehder and Wilson.! A tall tree attaining a height of about 200 ft. in China, with a trunk 20 ft. in girth, developing in open country wide-spreading branches and forming a rather round or flat-headed tree, or in the forests becoming very tall and spire-like with shorter branches. Young shoots yellowish, shining, becoming pale grey with age, glabrous. Winter buds ovate, resinous. Leaves ascending spread- ing, or vertical in arrangement, with a V-shaped arrangement between them, yellowish-green, 3-} in. long, smooth or slightly grooved above, paler and keeled beneath, often sharply pointed ; resin canals marginal. Cones cylindrical or ovoid, stalked, 2-3 in. long, 1-1} in. wide, violet purple when growing, greyish-brown when mature ; scales obovate, cuneate with rounded margins. According to Wilson this is the tallest of the Chinese firs. It is a native of Western Szechuen. It resembles the Japanese A. firma in its foliage, but the latter species has the winter buds scarcely resinous, dark grey or reddish shoots, and much larger cones. We have seen A. Beissneriana in cultivation at Wakehurst, Sussex, where there is a small plant. 1Pl. Wils. iv, 46-47 (1914). 88 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERS Abies brachyphylla, Maximowicz. (Fig. 12.) Nikko Fir. Abies umbilicata, Hort. ; Picea brachyphylla, Gordon; P. pinnosa, Hort. ; Pinus brachyphylla, Parlatore. A tree usually 80-90 but occasionally 100 ft. or more high and up to 16 ft. in girth in its native country. Bark rough and scaly like that of a spruce. Young shoots light brown or buff- coloured, deeply grooved with prominent ridges, without down. Winter buds conic or ovoid-conic, blunt, resinous. Leaves on the lower side of the shoot horizontal and spreading at right- angles to the shoot, those on the upper side directed outwards and upwards, with a V-shaped depression between them and gradually becoming shorter; flattened, up to about 1 in. long and 4-;'5 in. wide, rigid, dark shining green and grooved above, with a blunt or pointed, horny, slightly notched tip, lower surface with two conspicuous white bands of stomata separated by a green ridge; resin canals median. Cones cylindrical, 4 in. long by 14 in. in diameter, purple at first but becoming brown when mature ; scales very thin, fan-shaped, 1} in. long by ? in. wide, bracts concealed by the scales, finely toothed and tipped by a minute point. Seed-wing ? in. long. Var. Tomomi, Rehder. A. Tomomi, Bollink and Atkins. A slender, more sparingly branched tree than the type with shorter leaves 0°8-1'5 cm., rarely 2 cm. long. Cultivated at the Arnold Arboretum and in the New York Botanic Garden. Var. umbellata, Wilson. Young shoots, buds, and foliage similar to those of typical A. brachyphylla. The cones, according to Mayr, are greenish- yellow, the flattened apex with a raised centre. Bracts at the base of the cone protruding. A. brachyphylla is the common fir of the mountains of Central Japan at 2,500-5,000 ft. elevation. A. homolepis, Siebold and Zuccarini,! which is said to differ from A. brachyphylla in the shoots and leaf arrangement, is apparently only a juvenile form of that species. One sometimes meets with plants having longer and more acuminate leaves, entire at the tips and with buds only slightly resinous. The timber is not known in European markets and has little value in Japan, as the trees grow in such inaccessible places that the cost of extraction is prohibitive. As an ornamental tree in Britain it has much to commend 1 Fl, Jap. ii, 17, t. 108 (1870); Bot. Mag. t. 7114 (1890). PINACEA# 89 it, for it thrives under conditions that are fatal to more tender firs. Although the best results are obtained by planting it in rich, moist soil, it succeeds fairly well under dryer conditions, even where the atmospheric conditions are not very good. It is Fic. 12.—ABIES BRACHYPHYLLA. a, spray, upper surface ; 6, end of branchlet seen in profile; c, resinous winter buds ; d, under . . . . . . , = leaf-surface, showing stomatal bands ; e, leaf in section, showing median resin canals ; f, cone-scale consisting of a bract and seed-bearing scale; g, seed. the most satisfactory of the silver firs at Kew, where the conditions are generally unsuitable for firs and spruces. It is worth trying under forest conditions in places where A. pectinata does not succeed. 90 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA: Abies bracteata, Hooker and Arnott. (Fig. 13.) Santa Luora Fir. Abies venusta, C. Koch; Picea bracteata, Loudon ; Pinus bracteata, D. Don; Pinus venusta, Douglas. Bristle-cone Fir; Fringed Spruce ; Silver Fir. A handsome tree, attaining in California a height of 100-150 ft. with a trunk 9 ft. in girth. Bark light reddish-brown, smooth, becoming slightly fissured in old trees. Branches short, closely set, the lowest ones often sweeping the ground and forming a tree of pyramidal outline, abruptly tapering above into a narrow spire. Young shoots greenish, without hairs. Buds unlike those of any other fir; spindle-shaped, # in. long, made up of thin, light-brown, non-resinous scales. Leaves spreading horizontally into two opposite sets, those on the upper side of the shoot being slightly shorter and pointing forwards, often 2 in. long, flattened, rigid, with long, spine-like, horny points, abruptly tapering at the base, upper surface dark green, slightly concave in the lower half, flat near the apex; lower surface with two white lines of stomata. Cones 3-4 in. long, 14-2 in. broad, remarkable for the long protruding spines of the scale bracts, which are from 1—2 in. long and are generally tipped with globules of resin. Seeds dark reddish-brown, % in. long, with similar-coloured wings about 4 in. long. This singular fir is one of the most beautiful of the genus, and at the same time one of the rarest. It occurs wild only in the Santa Lucia Mountains, Monterey County, California, where it grows in the moist bottoms of cafons and on dry rocky summits at about 3,000 ft. elevation. A. bracteata appears to have been first found by Coulter in 1831. The locality was afterwards visited by Douglas, Hartweg, Lobb, and other botanical explorers, who procured seeds for Kuropean gardens. It was introduced to cultivation by Lobb when collecting for Messrs. Veitch in 1853. Wood not known in Britain. Hough ! describes it as rather light and hard, coarse-grained with very fine medullary rays, colour pale yellowish-brown with little distinction between heart- wood and sapwood. Even in America it is not used much owing to the difficulty of extraction, there being other useful timbers in more accessible places. The Santa Lucia Fir should be included in all collections in the milder parts of the country. In a state of nature it is found both on dry ridges and alsoin moist valleys. In the British Isles the best results may be looked for in places where both soil and atmospheric conditions are on the moist side. Soil, however, must not be waterlogged. Jepson, Silva of California, 124 (1910); Bot. Mag. t. 4740 (1853). 1 American Woods, x., 50. Fie. 13—ABIES BRACTEATA. a, part of spray from above; b, winter bud; ec, leaf showing stomatal bands on under-surface 2 d, leaf in section, showing marginal resin canals ; e, cone-scale with long pointed bract, bearing a lump of resin ; f, inner side of cone-scale, showing two seeds. 91 92 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA Abies cephalonica, Loudon. (Fig. 27.) GRECIAN Fir. Abies panachaica, Heldreich ; A. Luscombiana, Loudon ; A. pelopon- nesiaca, Haage; A. Reginze-Amaliz, Heldreich; Picea cephalonica, Loudon; Pinus Abies, var. cephalonica, Parlatore. P. cephalonica, Endlicher. A tree about 100 ft. high and 9-15 ft. in girth. Bark greyish- brown, smooth on young trees, becoming fissured into oblong plates on old trunks. Young shoots smooth, light brown, without down. Buds conical or ovoid, resinous, the scales prominent at the tips. Leaves spreading more or less all round the shoot, but more numerous on the upper side where they are more or less erect, those of the upper ranks shorter than those beneath; flattened, curved, about 1 in. long, +;-s in. wide, abruptly tapering at the base, ending in a sharp, horny point; upper surface shining green, grooved, with afew broken lines of stomata near the apex ; lower surface with two white bands of stomata separated by a green ridge; resin canals marginal. Cones about 6 in. long by 14 in. in diameter, cylindrical, brownish, with golden-brown reflexed bracts ending in a triangular point, protruding between the narrowly fan-shaped scales. Seed with a wing about | in. long. Var. Apollinis, Beissner. Abies Apollinis, Link. Differing from the type in the irregular arrangement of the leaves which stand crowded on the upper side of the shoot, those on the lower side curving upwards. Leaves thicker and broader than in the typical form, with acute, not acuminate, points. It appears to be connected with the type by intermediate forms. A. cephalonica is a native of the higher mountains of Greece between 2,700 and 5,700 ft. elevation. On Mount Enos in Cepha- lonia there was formerly a forest of this fir 12-15 miles in length and thirty-six miles round, but its area has been much reduced by fires. ; The Grecian fir was introduced into cultivation by General Sir Charles Napier, who sent seeds to England in 1824. Wood very similar to that of A. pectinata, but it has no com- mercial value outside its native country. In the British Isles this species is only planted for decorative purposes. It gives the best results in moist but not water-logged soil in the cooler and moister parts of the country. Elwes and Henry, Trees of Great Brit. and Irel., iv, 739 (1909). Photo. by R. A. Maloy. PGA Vs GREEK FIR (ABIES CEPHALONICA) AT WESTONBIRT, GLOUCESTER. ae ml PINACEAG 93 Abies chensiensis, Van Tieghem. A Chinese fir attaining 120 feet in height allied to A. firma and A. Beissneriana, characterised by its relatively long, shining green leaves, glabrous, yellow-grey branchlets, ovoid, slightly resinous winter buds and ovoid-cylindric pale brown cones. It appears to be a well marked species which superficially resembles Keteleeria Davidiana in its winter buds and foliage. Discovered in the Tsinling mountains, Shensi, by David, in 1872, and since seen in the forests of Fang Hsien by Wilson, who states that it is a comparatively rare tree in that region. Notin cultivation. Pl. Wils. ii., 44 (1914). Abies cilicica, Carriére. (Fig. 14.) Crcm1AN Fir. Abies Rinzi, Hort. ; A. selinusia, Carriére ; Pinus cilicica, Parlatore. A tree up to 100 ft. high and 7 ft. in girth. Bark ashy-grey, smooth, becoming deeply fissured and scaly on old trees. Young shoots smooth, greyish-brown, with short, scattered hairs or occasionally without hairs. Winter buds ovoid, without resin, the scales keeled and free at the tips. Leaves arranged either in two lateral sets, or more or less covering the upper side of the shoot also, the central leaves shorter and more or less erect ; slender, 1-1} in. long, linear, flattened, apex rounded or short-pointed, slightly notched, upper surface light green and grooved, lower surface with two narrow greyish bands of stomata ; resin canals marginal. Cones sub-sessile or shortly stalked, cylindrical, taper- ing to a short-pointed apex, 6—9 in. long by 2-2} in. wide, smaller in cultivated specimens; scales large, fan-shaped, 1? in. wide by % in. long; bracts hidden, }—} the length of the scale, mucronate. Seed-wing about 1 in. long. A. cilicica resembles A. Nordmanniana in the arrangement of the foliage, but the leaves are less crowded on the shoot, narrower, more or less pointed at the apex, and the buds are rough with the prominent tips of the scales. The Cilician fir is a native of Asia Minor and N. Syria, where it occurs on Mount Lebanon and the Antitaurus associated with the Cedar of Lebanon in extensive forests. It was introduced into cultivation about 1850, but is still very rare in gardens. Little is known of the wood of this species, but it appears to be very similar to that of A. Nordmanniana. The Cilician fir may be expected to thrive under similar conditions to A. Nordmanniana, but it is not so susceptible to insect attacks. Elwes and Henry, loc. cit. iv, 744 (1909). —ABIES CILICICA. buds, non-resinous ; ¢c, under-surface Fie. 14. ce; 5b, winter PINACE/A# 95 Abies concolor, Lindley and Gordon. (Fig. 15.) CoLorRADO WHITE Fir. Picea concolor, A. Murray; P. lasiocarpa, Balfour [not Hooker] ; Pinus concolor, Parlatore. Balsam Fir; Colorado Fir; Colorado White Balsam; White Balsam; Silver Fir; White Fir. A fir 100-150 ft. high, with a girth of 9-12 ft. Bark of young trees furnished with resin blisters as in A. balsamea. Young shoots without down, olive-coloured, the second year’s shoots greyish or silvery. Winter buds usually larger than in A. Lowiana, covered with resin which conceals the scales. Leaves curving outwards and upwards or almost vertically arranged on the shoots, 2-3 in. long and 4';—y'5 in. broad, flattened, glaucous on both surfaces, apex short-pointed or rounded, upper surface slightly convex, not grooved, with faint lines of stomata, lower surface with two faint bands of stomata separated by a green band. Resin canals marginal. Cones 3-5 in. long by 1} in. in diameter, cylindrical, greenish or purple when growing, brown when mature ; scales about 1 in. wide by } in. long. Bracts con- cealed, minutely mucronate. Seed-wing about ? in. long. Var. violacea. The foliage is more glaucous than in the type. This fir is closely allied to A. Lowiana and the two are re- garded as forms of one species by some American botanists. In A. concolor, however, the leaves are more obliquely arranged than in A. Lowiana, have entire points, are convex and not grooved on the upper surface and are more uniformly glaucous in colour. In A. Lowiana erect leaves do not occur on the centre of the branch. The cones are similar in size and shape, but in cultivated specimens of A. concolor the immature cones are purple and not chestnut-brown. The distribution of the two trees in America is quite different. A. concolor grows wild in the Rocky Mountains of 8. Colorado and extends southwards over the mountains of New Mexico and Arizona into N. Mexico. It also occurs in Utah and the extreme S. of California. It was introduced into cultivation about 1873. Wood light, moderately strong, without odour, easy to work, whitish in colour, finishing with a good surface, and useful for joinery. It is suitable for boxes for butter, lard, and other provisions that become tainted by contact with odorous woods. The timber is chiefly reserved for home use, but is obtainable from Californian ports. Timber from old trees is often affected by heart-rot. Liquid resin obtained from bark blisters possesses similar properties and uses to Canada balsam. It is tolerant of shade and can be used for underplanting thin woods. Its use in Britain is purely decorative. As a garden tree PINACEAG 97 it grows well (particularly in the moister parts of the country). It could be used in the West of England and in Scotland for forest work, but would probably be of no more use for the pur- pose than the better known A. pectinata, except that it is less subject to insect pests. Both the type and the variety violacea may generally be found in the same batch of seedlings. Sudworth, The Spruce and Balsam Fir Trees of the Rocky Mountain Region, 33 (1916). Abies Delavayi, Franchet. Keteleeria Fabri, Masters; Abies Fargesii, Masters [not Franchet]. A tree 60-100 ft. high, with massive branches when old. Young shoots reddish-brown, shining, grooved, glabrous or hairy in the grooves. Winter buds large, ovoid, reddish-brown, up to + in. long, resinous, scales persistent at the base of the shoots. Leaves on lateral branchlets arranged in two opposite sets with a V-shaped parting between them, crowded, in three or more ranks, those of the upper side of the shoot much shorter than the lower leaves which are directed outwards and downwards ; up to about 1 in. long, dark shining green and furrowed above, lower surface with two broad white bands of stomata separated by a prominent green midrib equalling in breadth the two marginal green bands ; margins more or less revolute. Cones barrel-shaped, 3-4 in. long, dark violet-black, the apex of the bract slightly exserted when the cone is ripe. According to Wilson this is the common silver fir of W. and especially of S. W. Szechuen, and it has a greater altitudinal and latitudinal range than any other Chinese species. The timber, though soft and not very durable, is valued on account of the large size of the logs which it yields. Young plants are growing vigorously in several gardens in the British Isles. Abies Fargesii, Franchet. | A tree 100 ft. or more high in W. China with a trunk of nearly uniform thickness for half its height and short massive branches. Young shoots glabrous, red-brown or purplish. Leaves horizon- tally spreading in two or more ranks, the upper rank about half the length of the lower, more or less notched at the apex. Cones with exserted and spreading bracts. We have only seen native specimens of this fir, which does not appear to be in cultivation. 1 In some native specimens collected by Forrest in Yunnan and by Faber on Mount Omei, the margins of the leaves are so strongly revolute as to completely cover the stomatic bands beneath; in others they are only slightly so. The latter form, which is the one in cultivation, has been separated by Craib (Notes, Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinb. xi, 278, 1919) as a distinct species under the name of A. Fabri; he considers the true A. Delavayi is not in cultivation, but leaves of both types are occasionally found on the same plant, and this character depends apparently on situation. H 98 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAt Wilson states that this is the common silver fir of N.W. Hupeh, China, where remnants of old forests of it are still met with. It also occurs in E. Szechuen. Journ. de Bot. xiii, 256 (1899); Pl. Wils. ii, 48 (1914). Abies Faxoniana, Rehder and Wilson. (Fig. 16.) This species is described as a tree 60-100 ft. high. Bark of old trees greyish, fissured below. Young shoots reddish-brown with shaggy hairs. Winter buds ovoid, purplish, very resinous. Leaves arranged in one plane, 3-1} in. long, margins slightly recurved, apex acute or rounded, notched ; bright shining green and grooved above; lower surface with two white stomatic bands. Mature cones violet purple, ovoid or ovoid-oblong, 2-35 in. long by 1-1} in. broad; scales with bracts more or less exserted, erect or recurved. Closely allied to A. Delavayi which is said to differ in its usually glabrous shoots and much longer, more barrel-shaped cones and longer leaves revolute at the margins. It is found in the forests of W. Szechuen, China, at 8,000— 11,000 ft. elevation. Seedling plants raised from seeds collected by Wilson and cultivated as A. Faxoniana have young shoots red brown or purplish, glabrous or hairy in the grooves; leaves arranged in two or more ranks, those of the upper rank only about half as long as the lower ones. Pl. Wils. ii, 42 (1914). Abies firma, Siebold. (Fig. 17.) JAPANESE Fir. Abies bifida, Siebold and Zucearini; Pinus firma, Antoine. Momi. A tree attaining in Japan a height of 150 ft. and a girth of 16 ft., with massive horizontal branches forming an oval or flat- tened crown. ark on old trees rough and dark grey, breaking up into small plates. Young shoots light brown, grooved, hairy in the grooves on young trees, but often becoming hairless in older specimens. Winter buds small, ovoid, blunt, with slightly resinous scales. Leaves arranged in two opposite sets spreading outwards, and upwards with a V-shaped depression between them, those on the upper side gradually shortening; up to about 1% in. long, 4-15 in. wide, flattened, stiff, leathery, apex ending in two horny points ; bright glossy green, grooved above, lower surface with two greyish bands of stomata; resin canals two to four, marginal. Cones cylindric or cylindric-conic, yellowish-green before ripening, 4-5 in. long by 14-1? in. wide, with the tips of the bracts visible between the scales, which are about an inch wide, kidney-shaped, suddenly contracted to a short claw ; bracts narrow, longer than the scale, terminating in an acute point. fF —— SN a Fie. 16—ABIES FAXONIANA. ide; c, resinous winter-buds; d, u 100 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAi A. firma is readily distinguished by its grooved shoots, bright green leathery leaves, each leaf being tipped by two horny points. This is the only fir found in 8. Japan where it is widely distri- buted, attaining a large size in the plains and ascending to an hi HH) th Fic. 17.—ABIES FIRMA. a, spray from above ; 0), resinous winter buds ; c, under-surface of leaves and shoot ; d, leaf in section, showing both marginal and median resin canals. altitude of 7,000 ft. Itis one of the principal trees in the primitive forests in 8. Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku.! The wood resembles that of A. pectinata and is one of the 1 Forestry of Japan ; Bureau of Forestry, Tokyo, 29 (1910) ; Clinton-Baker, Illust. Conif. ii, 12 (1909); Wils., Conif. of Japan, 54 (1916). PINACEAi 101 commonest fir woods of Japan. It is light, soft, straight-grained, easily worked, but requires careful seasoning, otherwise it warps and shrinks. Although not regarded as a high-class timber it is in demand for cheap buildings, packing cases, and various other common kinds of joinery and carpentry. It is one of the principal Japanese woods used in the manufacture of paper pulp. A. firma is the largest and most beautiful of the Japanese firs, its rich, glossy leaves making it specially attractive. It withstands a good deal of shade and is useful for planting amongst deciduous trees. In the British Isles it can only be used as a decorative tree, and the best results are obtained by planting it in deep, moist soil of good quality. It is not very subject to insect injury in Britain. Abies Forrestii, Craib.! A tree 30-60 ft. high in China. Young shoots rusty red, min- utely corrugated, not grooved, glabrous or with a few scattered hairs. Buds ovoid, thickly coated with whitish resin, the scales persistent at the base of the branchlets. Leaves arranged more or less in two lateral sets with a narrow V-shaped parting between them, those on the upper side of the shoot standing almost vertically, those on the lower side curving outwards and upwards, 1-1} in. long by yy in. broad, dark shining green and grooved above, conspicuously white below with two broad bands of stomata, the green marginal bands about equalling the midrib in width, margins slightly recurved, apex notched. Male flowers in clusters near the tips of the shoots, } in. or more long. Cones not seen. A very distinct and beautiful fir, easily recognized by its bright rusty-red corrugated young shoots, which contrast strongly with the dark shining green foliage. The glaucous under-surface of the leaves is conspicuous at a considerable distance. Native of the eastern flank of the Lichiang Range, Yunnan, W. China, where it forms forests at 10,000-11,000 ft. elevation. It was introduced by Forrest, and a young tree at Stanage Park, Radnorshire, is now (1923) 15 ft. 8 in. high. Abies Fraseri, Lindley. FRASER’S BALsaM Fir. Abies humilis, La Pilaye ; Picea Fraseri, Loudon ; Pinus Fraseri, Parla tore. Balsam Fir ; Double Fir Balsam ; Double Spruce ; Healing Balsam ; Mountain Balsam ; She Balsam Fir ; Silver Fir. A tree 40-70 ft. high, with a trunk up to 7 ft. in girth and rather stiff, fragrant branches, forming an open pyramidal head. Bark smooth, thin, bearing numerous resin-blisters on young trees, becoming scaly on old trunks. Young shoots grey, bearing dense 1 Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinb. xi, 279 (1919). 102 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA reddish down. Winter buds small, broadly ovoid or globe-shaped, resinous. eaves arranged like those of A. balsamea, but shorter, rarely more than ? in. long, rounded and notched at the apex ; the upper surface dark green, shining ; the lower surface with two broad white bands of stomata; resin canals median. Cones ovoid, cylindrical, about 2 in. long by 1} in. wide, purple; scales like those of A. balsamea but with the bracts protruding and reflexed. Seed with a wing about half an inch long. This fir may always be known from its near ally A. balsamea by the dense reddish down on the young shoots and the shorter and comparatively broader leaves which are whiter beneath. It is constantly confused with A. balsamea in nurseries. A. Fraseri, named after its discoverer, John Fraser (1750— 1811), a keen collector of N. American plants, has a very local distribution in N. America, being found wild only on the Alleghany Mountains in 8.W. Virginia, N. Carolina, and E. Tennessee, where it forms forests at 4,000—6,000 ft. elevation. It was first cultivated in this country in 1811. Wood light, soft, rather weak, whitish, works with a fine surface, heartwood not well marked. Very little used for lumber on account of the inaccessibility of the trees, but the timber is suitable for indoor finish of houses and for boxes. As is the case with A. balsamea, the fragrant branches are popular with travellers for beds. A. Fraseri does not succeed very well in the British Isles, and well-developed specimens are rarely seen. The moist valleys of Wales and Scotland appear to afford more suitable conditions than the drier parts of England. Two trees at Colesborne planted in 1897 were 15 ft. high in 1917, One was coning freely in an experimental plantation (very subject to late frosts) 500 ft. above sea-level, on Midford sand. Abies grandis, Lindley. (Fig. 18.) GIANT Fir. Abies amabilis, A. Murray [not Forbes]; A. Gordoniana, Carriére ; A. lasiocarpa, Lindley and Gordon [not Hooker]; Picea grandis, Loudon ; Pinus grandis, Douglas. Grand Fir; Great Silver Fir; Oregon Fir; Silver Fir ; Western White Fir; White Fir. A tall tree, occasionally reaching a height of 300 ft. and a girth of 16 ft. Bark smooth in young trees with many resin blis- ters, becoming dark brown, fissured and scaly in old trees. Young shoots smooth, olive-green, minutely hairy. Winter buds small, conical, blunt, resinous. Foliage aromatic when bruised. Leaves horizontally arranged, spreading to right and left, those on the upper side of the shoot much shorter than those on the lower side, flattened, 14-2 in. long, ;'5—;'s in. wide, notched at the apex, > upper surface dark shining green, grooved, under surface with PINACE/# 103 two white bands of stomata, resin canals marginal. Cones cylindrical, narrowed towards the apex, 2-4 in. long by 1-1} in. wide, with concealed bracts ; scales closely overlapping, crescent- Fig. 18.—ABIES GRANDIS. a, spray from above ; b, resinous winter buds ; c, under-surface of leaves and shoot ; d, leaf in section, showing marginal resin canals, shaped to fan-shaped, bracts small, quadrangular, with a short point, Seed-wing about 2 in. long. Var. aurifolia. Leaves yellowish. 104 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA® Var. crassa. Compact in habit. Distinguished from all other firs except A. Lowiana by the pectinate arrangement of the leaves. In the latter species the leaves are similarly arranged, but have a grey or silvery colour, stomatic lines on each surface, and the leaves in the upper rank are only slightly shorter than those in the lower rank. This handsome fir has a wide range in W.N. America, extend- ing from Vancouver Island through Washington and Oregon to California. It grows at altitudes from sea-level up to 3,500 ft. Discovered by Douglas on the Columbia River in 1825 and intro- duced to Britain by him about 1832. Wood light, soft, rather weak, not durable, pale yellow or brownish, finishing well, and used in joinery in the indoor finish of houses and for boxes and crates. It is a second-rate fir wood, but there are many uses for which it is suitable. The large number of excellent timber trees found within its range make it less sought after than would otherwise be the case. An oleo-resin obtained from the bark-blisters is used in the same way as Canada balsam. A. grandis thrives and grows rapidly in the British Isles, where it is used as an ornamental specimen and for planting under sylvicultural conditions. The best results follow planting in moist ground in places where the atmospheric conditions are on the moist side. It gives excellent results in many parts of Scot- land up to 1,200 feet elevation, where annual growths 12-15 in. in length are often formed. In an open position it retains its branches to the ground-line for many years. In America the most luxuriant growth occurs on moist land at low elevations. It is one of the least tolerant of shade amongst the firs. Sudworth, The Spruce and Balsam Fir Trees of the Rocky Mountains, 29 (1916). Abies holophylla, Maximowicz. MANCHURIAN Fir. A tree 100-150 ft. high, with a trunk 12 ft. in girth and moder- ately stout spreading or ascending branches, and dark green foliage. It is closely allied to A. firma, but differs in the leaves not being notched at the apex and in the bracts of the cone, which are only about one-third the length of the scales. It is found in mountain woods in the Manchurian provinces of Ussusi, Kirin, and Mukden, and also in N. Corea, where it is cultivated at low leveis. A. holophylla is cultivated in Russia and at the Arnold Arbor- etum, where seeds were received from Corea in 1904. Wilson, states that it is of little value as a timber tree, but for garden purposes ranks with A. brachyphylla. We have seen young trees cultivated under the name in England, but cannot be sure of their identity. 1 Phytogeographical Sketch of Corea, Journ. Arn. Arb. i, 39 (1919). PINACEA 105 Abies insignis, Carriére.t A hybrid fir originally raised in the nursery of M. Renault at Bulgnéville in the Vosges. A branch of A. Pinsapo grafted on the common silver fir produced cones and from the seedlings raised half were like the graft, the remainder being intermediate in character between A. Pinsapo and A. pectinata. The variations were supposed to be the result of a graft hybrid. It is probable however that the male parent was A. Nordmanniana, a tree of which was growing near. Var. speciosa, Rehder. A. Nordmanniana, var. speciosa Hort. A hybrid of the same parentage in which a reciprocal cross was made by placing pollen from A. Pinsapo on the female flowers of A. Nordmanniana. Four varieties of this hybrid described as A. Kentiana, A. Andreana, A. Beissneriana and A. Mastersiana by Mottet, in which A. Pinsapo was made the mother tree, were obtained by M. Moser at Versailles in 1878. Rev. Hort. 1902, p. 163. Abies Kawakamii, Ito.” A. Mariesii, var. Kawakamii, Hayata. A Formosan fir of which we have not seen specimens, found on and near Mt. Morrison at 11,000—-12,000 ft. altitude. It is said to differ from A. Mariesii chiefly in its longer cylindrical cones with black seeds and seed-wings. Wilson? describes it as a handsome tree 50-120 ft. high, of pyramidal habit, with nearly white bark, and resinous violet-purple cones, but at its highest limits on Mt. Morrison and on wind-swept slopes above Noko reduced to a bush 5-8 ft. high. Abies koreana, Wilson.! (Fig. 19.) CoREAN Fir. Abies nephrolepis, Nakai [not Maximowicz]. A tree 30-50 ft. high in Corea, with a trunk 3-6 ft. in girth. Bark of young trees smooth, purplish to pale ashen in colour, rough, deeply fissured in old trees. Branches numerous, spread- ing. SBranchlets slightly furrowed, sparingly hairy. Buds sub- globose, slightly resinous with somewhat acute membranous, chestnut-brown scales. Leaves about 1 in. long and 5 in. broad, notched at the apex or sometimes entire and sharply pointed, dark green and grooved above, white with two broad bands of stomata below, resin canals two, marginal. Cones cylindrical, 1 Rev. Hort. 1890, pp. 230, 231. * Encyclopedia Jap. ii, p. 167. 3 Phyt. Sketch, Formosa, Journ. Arn. Arb. i, 38 (1920). 4 Journ. Arn. Arb. i, 188 (1920). 106 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER 2-23 in. long by about 1 in. broad, flattened at the apex ; scales kidney-shaped, 4-3 in. broad, bracts slightly exceeding the scales in length, reflexed at the apex with a rigid point. Seeds violet- purple, 4-4 in. long. including the wing. According to the jf > (BN \ ps : \ Fic. 19—ABIES KOREANA. a, spray from above; b, resinous winter-buds ; ce, under-surface of leaf and shoot ; d, leaf in section showing marginal resin canals. describer, A. koreana is characterized by its pyramidal habit, deeply fissured bark, and exserted cone bracts, with leaves com- bining most of the characters of the three related species A. sachalinensis, A. Veitchii, and A. nephrolepis. PINACEAE 107 This interesting fir is an alpine species confined to the volcanic island of Quelpaert, where it was discovered by Faurie in 1907 on Hallai-san (Mt. Auckland), and seen there ten years later by Wilson, who also found it on the Chiri-san range of mountains in the south of the Corean peninsula. It is abundant above 3,000 ft. altitude, either forming pure forest or associated with deciduous trees and Picea jezoensis. Young trees in cultivation at Les Barres and Verrieres in France, and at Kew, are thriving and very distinct in their smooth, silvery-grey young shoots with scattered hairs, resinous buds and widely spreading leaves which are conspicuously glaucous on the lower surface. It seems likely to prove hardy in cultiva- tion and a desirable addition to our ornamental conifers. It has already produced cones at Les Barres. Abies lasiocarpa, Nuttall. ALPINE Fir. Abies bifolia, A. Murray; A. sub-alpina, Engelmann; A. sub-alpina var. fallax, Engelmann; Picea lasiocarpa, W. J. Hooker. Balsam ; Downy-cone Fir; Mountain Balsam; Oregon Balsam Fir ; Pumpkin Fir; Rocky Mountain Fir; White Fir. A tree 60-90, or occasionally 130 ft. high and 9-12 ft. in girth. Bark of young trees silvery-grey; of old trees, ashy- grey or white; 1-1} in. thick, hard and but slightly fissured. Young shoots ashy-grey, covered with minute hairs or rarely smooth. Branches drooping. Winter buds small, globose, pale brown, resinous. Leaves dense, irregularly pectinate or curving upwards, those in the middle line closely covering the shoot ; flat, linear, up to 14 in. long on the lower branches, usually less than 1 in. long on the upper branches of old trees, apex entire or slightly notched, rounded on the lower branches, pointed on the higher ones, particularly on the leading shoot ; stomata in con- spicuous lines on both surfaces, giving a glaucous or blue-green tint ; resin canals median. The foliage on the upper part of the tree is less dense than on the lower parts. Cones cylindrical, slightly narrowed at the apex ; 2-4 in. long by 1} in. broad, dark purple, downy ; scales 2 in. long, ?-1 in. wide, the bracts with long, slender points hidden by the scales. Seeds }in. long with a shining purplish wing. Var. arizonica, Lemmon. Cork Fir. Abies arizonica, Merriam; Arizona Cork Fir. Bark yellowish-white, thick, soft, corky. Leaves very similar to those of the type. Cones smaller and scale-bracts shorter than those of A. lasiocarpa. A specimen of the bark of this remarkable fir may be seen in Museum 3, at Kew. 108 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAt Var. compacta, Beissner, a dwarf form of compact habit. The irregular arrangement of the foliage, the pointed leaves of the terminal shoot, and the conspicuous stomatic lines on the upper surface of the leaves are distinguishing features of this species. A. lasiocarpa is an alpine fir and the most widely distributed species in W.N. America. It ranges from Alaska to the San Francisco Mountains in N. Arizona, whilst the variety arizonica is found in Arizona, New Mexico, and §. Colorado. It was dis- covered by Douglas in 1832, but the date of introduction is un- certain. Although it has been known for 90 years, it has made little headway in cultivation and most of the trees we have met with are stunted and unhealthy in appearance. Wood slow-growing, very light, soft, cream-coloured to light brown, straight-grained, easy to work, finishes well, and decays rapidly in contact with the earth. It is used locally for the indoor finish of houses, boxes, etc., but has little commercial value owing to much of the wood being knotty and there being better timbers available. The species attains its largest dimensions at altitudes of 5,000-— 8,000 ft., but good trees are found up to an elevation of 10,000 ft. The best stands are stated to occur on north slopes in fairly deep, loose, and moist soil. In dry and poor soils it is usually small, and it does not succeed in clay. Seed is produced freely even by young trees, and heavy seed years occur triennially. Seedlings and young trees withstand shade well. It is probable that the most suitable conditions in Britain will be found in the Scottish Highlands and amongst the mountains of Wales and N. and Central England. A long winter’s rest appears to be necessary for its well-being. Sudworth, The Spruce and Balsam-Fir Trees of the Rocky Mountain Region, 27-30 (1916). Abies Lowiana, A. Murray. Low’s WuHiteE Fir. Abies concolor, Sargent (in part) ; A. concolor, var. lasiocarpa, Beissner ; A. concolor, var. Lowiana, Lemmon ; A. grandis, var. Lowiana, Masters ; A. lasiocarpa, Masters [not Nuttall nor Murray]; A. Lowii, Annesley ; A. Parsonsiana, Hort. ; Picea Lowiana, Gordon ; Pinus Lowiana, McNab. Low’s Fir ; Low’s Silver Fir. On the Californian Sierras this tree reaches 250 ft. in height with a girth of 18 ft., forming a narrow crown composed of flat sprays of foliage. Bark thin and blistered on young trees ; very thick on old trunks and deeply fissured into scaly ridges ; in cultivated specimens dividing into small, irregular plates. Young shoots olive or yellowish-green, minutely downy. Winter buds small, conical, blunt, resinous. Leaves horizontally arranged PLATE VI. ABIES MAGNIFICA. ea A} PINACEAG 109 or curving upwards, those on the upper side of the shoot slightly shorter than those on the lower ; greyish, glaucous or pale green in colour, up to 24 in. long and about ;', in. broad, strongly twisted at the base, flat, rounded, and slightly notched at the tip, furrowed on the upper surface with lines of stomata in the furrows ; lower surface with two white bands of stomata ; resin canals marginal. Cones resembling those of A. concolor, but in cultivated specimens they are chestnut brown and not purple, as is sometimes the case in A. concolor. A. Lowiana is regarded by many American botanists as a variety of A. concolor, but the two trees are easily distinguished, in cultivation, as mentioned under the latter species. As a wild tree A. Lowiana is said to have shorter and paler green leaves than A. concolor,! but this is not noticeable in cultivation. This species occurs as a native tree on the Siskiyou Mountains in 8. Oregon, on Mount Shasta and the Sierra Nevada ranges in California. It was introduced by Wm. Lobb in 1851 and is often grown under the name of A. lasiocarpa. Wood and uses similar to A. concolor, which see. Under cultivation in Britain A. Lowiana forms a handsome tree of fairly rapid growth. The best results are obtained in the West of England, Wales, Ireland and in Scotland, the drier eastern counties being rather less favourable for its development. When planted in good soil, however, where soil and climatic conditions afford regular moisture, it may be expected to thrive. Fine specimens exist in many gardens. Generally, the conditions suitable for A. concolor meet the requirements of A. Lowiana. Seedling trees may show some degree of variation in habit and leafage. A tree at Linton Park, near Maidstone, when measured by one of us in 1922, was over 100 ft. high. Elwes and Henry, loc. cit. iv, 779 (1909). Abies magnifica, A. Murray. (Fig. 20.) CALIFORNIAN RED Fir. Abies campylocarpa, A. Murray; Picea magnifica, Gordon; Pinus amabilis, Parlatore [in part]. Great Red Fir; Magnificent Fir; Red Fir; Red Bark Fir. A tree attaining in America a height of 200 ft. and a girth of 12-25 ft., with a narrow, cone-shaped crown, composed of numerous horizontal tiers of branches which are very short and slender in proportion to the height and girth of trunk. Sark of young trees smooth ; of old trees 2 in. or more thick and divided into ridges by deep fissures. Young shoots smooth, clothed with short, reddish-brown down. Winter buds more or less hidden 1Sudworth, The Spruce and Balsam Fir Trees of the Rocky Mountain Region, 34 (1916). 5 Q \ GAR Y j\ =~ f] XX NS Q \\ PINACEAG 111 by the leaves at the tips of the shoots, small, ovoid or globose, resinous at the tip, the outer scales elongated and free. Leaves on the lower side of the shoot arranged horizontally, spreading right and left, those on the upper side curving upwards, their bases pressed against the shoot; greyish or glaucous-green, up to 13 in. long and ;'; in. broad, obscurely four-sided, apex rounded and entire; upper surface with a central ridge and several rows of stomata ; lower surface with two bands of stomata, resin canals marginal. Cones large, cylindrical, slightly tapering at the apex, 6—9 in. long, 3—5 in. wide, violet-purple when growing, brown when mature ; scales downy, fan-shaped, 14-1} in. broad, 1 in. long, claw nearly } in. long; bracts about 2 as long as the scale, with a small point at the apex. Seed about 3} in. long, with a wing little exceeding that length. Var. shastensis, Lemmon. Suasta Rep Fir. Abies shastensis, Lemmon; A. nobilis, var. robusta, Masters. A tree rarely exceeding 125 ft. high and 9 ft. in girth. Bark of young trees chalky-white ; of old trees purplish-brown, 2-3 in. thick, deeply fissured into zigzag sections. Winter buds sharp- pointed, light chocolate-brown, non-resinous, about } in. long. Leaves more or less curved, #-1} in. long, four-sided, those on the higher parts of the tree shorter and more distinctly angled than those lower down. Cones shorter than in A. magnifica, 45-5} in. long by 23-3 in. in diameter. Scale-bracts longer in proportion than those of A. magnifica, protruding beyond the scales and reflexed. Pacific slope region. Rare in cultivation. Sudworth, The Spruce and Balsam Fir Trees of the Rocky Mountain Regions, 38-42 (1916). Var. xanthocarpa, Lemmon. GOLDEN Fir. A smaller tree than the type with cones 4-5 in. long, which are golden during the growing period. Probably not in cultivation. Found in the high sub-alpine regions of Mount Shasta and Mount Whitney. A. magnifica is distinguished from all firs except A. nobilis by its narrow, conical habit, glaucous foliage, and peculiar curve of the leaves on the upper side of the shoot. From 4A. nobilis it may be known by the absence of a groove on the upper side of the leaves, which are thicker and less flattened than in the latter species. They are also less crowded on the shoot which is visible from above. It is a native of the mountains of Oregon and California and is common (particularly as represented by vars. shastensis and 112 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAS xanthocarpa) on Mount Shasta. In its northerly range it is most common at elevations of 6,000-8,000 ft., reaching in southerly localities an altitude of 10,000 ft. It extends along the entire length of the western slope of the Sierra Nevada at altitudes of 6,000-9,000 ft. The California red fir, which is one of the most ornamental species, was introduced in 1851 by John Jeffrey, who confused it with A. amabilis. It was afterwards distributed by Messrs. Veitch under the name of Abies robusta. Wood light, soft, close-grained, rather weak, fairly durable for outdoor work, with light reddish-brown heartwood and rather lighter sapwood. One of the best of the fir woods. Used in America for bridge timbers, in general construction, and largely for various classes of joinery work. It is very useful for boxes and is much used for fuel. As the timber is obtainable in quantity in large sizes it will probably meet with an extended future demand in foreign markets. A. magnifica is essentially a mountain tree, thriving in cool, moist valleys and on rolling mountain sides, as well as in deep ravines, preferring north and east exposures. It is also found in wind-swept places, but in such situations does not attain its best dimensions—exposure, poor soil, and dry conditions inducing stunted growth. Moist, well-drained, light or gravelly loams are said to produce the best trees in its native country. As a forest tree it withstands less shade than most of the firs, but forms pure stands, or the dominant tree in mixed stands where conditions are favourable. It is not a very good tree for general cultivation in Britain, and fine specimens free from disease are rare in the S. of England. It is better suited for the cool, moist valleys of Wales and Scotland than for the S. of England. In places where mild winters are experienced and periods of drought occur in summer, this fir is often seriously injured by Chermes picea, var. bouvert, an aphid which punctures the shoots and induces ugly, gouty swellings, the trees being eventually killed. Once a tree has been badly injured it cannot recover. Grafting is resorted to for the propagation of this species, but grafted trees are never satisfactory and it is better raised from seed. Abies Mariesii, Masters. Maries’ Fir. A tree up to 80 ft. high and 6 ft. in girth in Japan. Bark pale grey or nearly white on old trees, becoming rough near the base of the trunk. Branches stout, rigid, spreading, forming an oval or flattened crown. Young shoots clothed with reddish brown or chocolate-coloured down. Winter buds small, globose, resinous. Leaves arranged as in A. Nordmanniana, on the lower side of the shoot, spreading horizontally right and left, those on the upper PINACEA: 113 side shorter, overlapping and directed forwards, more or less covering the shoot, flattened, gradually widening above, about 8 in. long, ys:-1!5 in. wide; apex rounded and notched, upper surface shining yellowish green, grooved ; lower surface with two white bands of stomata; resin canals marginal. Cones about 4 in. long and 2 in. in diameter, deep blue before ripening, dark brown when mature, more or less elliptical with a blunt apex ; scales fan-shaped, about 1 in. wide by 7 in. long ; bract hidden by the scale. Seed with a wing about 7 in. long. This species differs from A. Veittchit in its more downy shoots, leaves with a rounded apex and larger cones. A. Mariesii is an alpine species found in the mountains of Central Japan. It is the only native species in Hondo, where it was discovered by Maries on Mount Hakkoda in 1878. It was introduced into cultivation about 1879. A tree at Tregrehan, Cornwall, is 30 ft. high. This species has little commercial importance, for it is too scarce in Japan for any except local use. It is a very attractive plant under cultivation, but is rather fastidious in its requirements. The best results are obtained by planting it in rich, moist soil where atmospheric conditions are pure and on the moist side. It grows well on the rich, light soils of Hampshire and Surrey. Pl. Wils. 59 (1916); Clinton-Baker, Illust. Conif. ii, 18 (1909). Abies nebrodensis, Mattei. An extremely rare fir, of which apparently only one tree exists on Monte Cervo near the Valley of Pines in the region of Polizzo, Sicily. It is distinguished from A. pectinata by its glabrous shoots and non-pectinate needles, and from A. cephalonica (of which it has the resinous buds) by its short needles rounded at the apex with a minute point and less white below. The cones are described as being about a quarter the size of those of A. pectinata and cylindrical in form like those of A. cephalonica. This fir, which seems to have been frequent in Sicily at the beginning of the eighteenth century, was already very scarce before 1750. A small branch obtained from the old tree on Monte Cervo in 1914 is preserved in the Kew Herbarium. Another tree formerly grew near a Capucin convent on the Hill of Pines near Polizzo, but no longer exists. Grafts obtained from the above tree through the instrumentality of M. Dode of Paris are being tried in French nurseries. Bull. de Jard. Bot. de Palerme, vii. 64 (1908); Hickel, Bull. Soc. Dendr. France, 20 (1909). Abies nephrolepis, Maximowicz. Abies sibirica, var. nephrolepis, Trautvetter. A Manchurian fir described by the Japanese botanist Maxi- mowicz in 1866, It is closely allied to A. Veitchii, but is chiefly I 114 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAj distinguished by the leaves of the cone-bearing branches being sometimes acute and not notched, and by the smaller, broader cones with scales exceeding the bracts. This tree, which occurs in Amurland, and is plentiful in the mountains of Corea, is imperfectly known, and has not been intro- duced into cultivation. The late Dr. Masters considered it to be a form of A. Veitchiv. Abies nobilis, Lindley. (Fig. 21.) Nose Fir. Picea nobilis, Loudon ; Pinus nobilis, Douglas. Bracted Fir; Feather- cone Fir; Noble Red Fir; Red Fir; Oregon Larch. A tree attaining in America a maximum height of 250 ft. with a girth of 24 ft. Bark smooth at first, becoming reddish brown in old trees and deeply divided by broad flat ridges. Resinous blisters often occur on the trunks of cultivated specimens. Young shoots rusty brown and downy like those of A. magnifica. Winter buds more or less hidden by the leaves at the tips of the shoots, small, ovoid, globose, resinous at the tips, the outer scales elongated and free. Leaves more closely set on the branches than in A. magnifica, the middle ones completely concealing the upper side of the shoot, pressed against the shoot for a short distance at their base, then curving upwards; shorter than in A. magnifica, up to 1}in. long, more or less glaucous, flattened, rounded, and entire at the tip ; upper surface grooved with stomata arranged in definite bands or irregular lines ; lower surface with two narrow bands of stomata separated by a green ridge; resin canals marginal. Cones very large, cylindrical but narrowing slightly upwards, 6-10 in. long by 3-4 in. in diameter on cultivated trees, but only about half this size on wild specimens, purplish brown with green bracts when growing, the bracts becoming brown as the cone ripens ; scales variable in shape, 14-14 in. broad, 1 in. long, bracts protruding, curving backwards, and covering the greater part of the scale below. Seed about 3} in. long with a wing considerably longer. Var. glauca. This differs from the type by its more glaucous foliage. A. nobilis can only be confused with A. magnifica, from which it differs in habit and arrangement of leaves. The grooved upper surface of the leaves is a useful distinguishing character. The cones of A. magnifica are only likely to be mistaken for A. nobilis in the variety shastensis, which has exserted bracts. A. nobilis forms large forests along the slopes of the Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon, with a vertical range of 2,500-5,000 ft. It also occurs on the coast ranges of Washington and the Siskiyou Mountains of California, This tree was dis- showing marginal ct; g, seed. se with long bra ction, \ HS ae y giy* . aaa Son Vat ay =~: mane =r aay Se ee . Secs ee ’ ROLY = ee selene PS ee) ‘Sure car $ . “oe ‘ C PORN rr ' \ H Las ye = Se SSA Nu 1—ABIES NOBILIS ie) | Kr Ke Me A Alt 2s S 17 SSH) e 116 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAi covered by Douglas on the south side of the Columbia river in 1825 and was introduced by him in 1830. The wood is light, moderately strong, hard, close-grained, light yellow or brownish, the sapwood rather lighter in colour than the heartwood. It is easy to work, finishes with a smooth, satiny surface and is one of the best of the American silver firs. Amongst other uses it is employed for the interior finish of houses, general carpentry and joinery, matchwood, and is a very excel- lent boxwood on account of its being free from odour. Planks and boards of large size free from blemishes are obtainable, and as the tree is plentiful, timber is available for export as well as for home use. Writing of this species, Hough ! refers to a tree he measured as being 254 ft. high, the lowest branch 176 ft. from the ground ; diameter of trunk 4 ft. from the ground, 63 in. The trunk was as clear and shapely as a mast, and from it eight logs 16 ft. long and one log 32 ft. long were cut. The upper end of the topmost log (160 ft. from the ground) was 35 in. in diameter and the nine logs were eventually cut into 18,142 board ft. of magni- ficent clear lumber. A. nobilis has been extensively planted for ornamental pur- poses throughout the British Isles, and it has attained large dimensions in many gardens. It is not, however, a very satis- factory tree in the warmer parts of the country, for it is often badly injured by Chermes picea, var. bouveri, a conspicuous aphid that protects itself bya white wool-like excretion. This insect punctures young buds, causing the shoots to become seriously deformed by large gouty swellings which obliterate the terminal buds and eventually cause the death of the plant. In the early stages it is possible to check the disease by frequently spraying with a paraffin wash ; but trees that have become seriously infected should be dug up and burnt. When not injured by this insect the tree is of a very attractive character, particularly when bearing its large, erect, purple cones. It gives the best results when planted in moist soil in mountain valleys, but it may also be expected to succeed elsewhere if it can be kept free from disease. On the Ardverikie estate of Sir John Ramsden in Inverness- shire 2A. nobilis is the most vigorous of the several kinds of conifers grown. It is free from disease and is likely to become one of the most useful forest trees of the neighbourhood. It has been planted extensively under forest conditions, and in 1910 we noted a large number of trees 20-40 ft. high growing at altitudes varying from 800-1,200 ft. The average annual rate of growth of trees growing at an elevation of 1,200 ft. for a period of thirty years was stated to have been 15 in. When purchasing trees care should be taken that they are free from insect pests. 1 American Woods, ix, No. 225, pp. 52-54. 2 Kew Bull. 1910, 243-246 ; Elwes and Henry, loc. cit. iv, 786 (1909) ; Clinton- Baker, Illust. Conif. ii, 19 (1909). NOLONTHSVA\ “MSIOVIL) ATIVNOSAN AO LOOM LV SIT/GFIVY “FP ANY SITIZON SHary T7A AHIFTd OS] “ANYDVY “S YX “xf Q 0g0Nd HAs y N Agate Ia. 22.—ABIES NORDMANNIANA. inter buds, not resinous ; c, under-surface of leaf a 118 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER As Abies Nordmanniana, Spach. (Fig. 22.) CAUCASIAN Fir. Picea Nordmanniana, Loudon; Pinus Abies, Parlatore; P. Nord- manniana, Steven. Crimean Fir; Nordmann’s Fir. A tree attaining a maximum height of 200 ft. and a girth of 15 ft. in its natural state. Bark of young trees smooth, thin, and greyish, on old trees rough and breaking up into scales like that of A. pectinata. Young shoots shining brown or grey-brown, with short, scattered hairs, denser on the lateral shoots. Winter buds non-resinous, ovoid, light brown, with ovate, acute, slightly keeled, closely pressed scales. Leaves on the lower side of the shoot in two lateral sets, horizontally arranged, spreading obliquely forward, those above shorter, directed forward, and densely covering the shoot ; 1-1} in. long, ;:—;'5 in. wide, apex notched, upper surface bright shining-green, grooved; lower surface with two conspicuous white bands of stomata; resin canals marginal. Cones cylindrical, dark brown, about 6 in. long by 2 in. broad, covered with resin ; scales broad, 1} in. wide by 2 in. deep, bracts slightly protruding with the point reflexed. Seed wing about 1 in. long. Var. equi-Trojani, Guinier and Maire. Shoots reddish brown, without down, leaves short-pointed and only slightly notched. Cones with long protruding bracts which almost conceal the scales. A. Nordmanniana is easy to distinguish from all the other firs except A. amabilis, which has duller green foliage emitting, when bruised, an odour like that of orange peel, and small resinous buds. Itis a native of the mountains of the 8. and 8.E. shores of the Black Sea, and of the western spurs of the Caucasus, occur- ring at altitudes between 3,000—6,000 ft., sometimes forming pure forests. It appears to have been introduced into cultivation in 1848. The timber resembles that of A. pectinata and can be used for similar purposes. It does not appear to be of more than local value. A. Nordmanniana succeeds in the British Isles,1 where it is commonly cultivated, but is very subject to attack by Chermes niisslinti, and when once this pest becomes well established the tree quickly deteriorates, the leaves becoming flabby, yellowish, and falling prematurely. Affected plants should be sprayed several times with paraffin emulsion at intervals of a few days. This fir may be expected to give the best results when planted in cool, moist soil where the atmospheric conditions are on the moist side. The valleys of Wales and Scotland are more suitable 1 A tree at Dawyck is over 100 ft. high, growing fast, and is free from Chermes. PINACEA 119 than the warmer parts of England for this species. Propagation is by seeds. It has no value for forest planting in this country. Elwes and Henry, loc. cit. iv, 746 (1909); Bot. Mag. t. 6992 (1888). Fic. 23.—ABIES NUMIDICA. a, upper side of spray, showing non-resinous winter-buds ; b, side view of spray ; c, under-surface of leaves and shoot ; d, upper surface of leaf, showing stomata near the tip ; e, leaf in section, showing marginal resin canals, Abies numidica, De Lannoy. ALGERIAN Fir. (Fig. 23.) Abies Pinsapo, var. baborensis, Cosson ; Picea numidica, R. Smith ; Pinus Pinsapo, Parlatore [not Boissier]. A tree 70 ft. high and 8 ft. in girth. Bark grey and smooth on young trees, becoming scaly and fissured with age. Young shoots brown, without down. Winter buds large, ovoid, non- 120 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER resinous. Leaves on the lower side of the shoot horizontally arranged, spreading right and left, those above shorter, crowded, directed upwards, the middle leaves on strong shoots directed backwards and covering the upper side of the shoot; short and broad, 4-2 in. long, by 15 in. broad, flattened, apex rounded, entire or notched, the upper surface dark, shining green with a few lines of stomata near the apex; the under-surface with two white bands of stomata; resin canals marginal. Cones cylin- drical, brownish, about 5 in. long by 1} in. broad; scales fan- shaped, 14 in. wide by ? in. high, or smaller in cultivated speci- mens; bracts concealed, one-quarter to one-half the length of the scales. Seed-wing about 1 in. long. This fir may generally be recognized by its short, stout leaves, usually more or less vertically arranged on the upper side of the shoot, with broken lines of stomata on their upper surface. Forms of A. brachyphylla with non-pectinate leaves occasionally resemble it, but these may always be known by the absence of stomata on the upper side of the leaves, the median resin canals and resinous buds. A. numidica occurs wild only in Algeria, where it occupies a small area towards the summit of Mount Babor in the Kabylie range, from 5,000—6,000 ft. altitude. It was discovered in 1861 by Captain de Guilleil and introduced into cultivation the follow- ing year. The wood of this species is similar to that of A. pectinata, but it is of little commercial value outside its native country. The value of the tree in this country is purely for decorative purposes. It requires similar conditions to A. Nordmanniana, but is not so liable to insect injury as that species, although not immune. Abies marocana, Trabut, described in Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. liii, 154, t. 3 (1906), from a tree found by M. Joly in the mountains of Tetuan, Morocco, is said to be intermediate in foliage characters between A. numidica and A. Pinsapo, but we have seen no speci- mens. Elwes and Henry, loc. cit. iv, 737 (1909). Abies pectinata, De Candolle. (Fig 24.) EUROPEAN SILVER Fir. Abies alba, Miller; A. argentea, De Chambray ; A. candicans, Fischer ; A. excelsa, Salisbury; A. metensis, Hor.; A. Picea, Lindley; A. taxifolia, Desfontaine; A. vulgaris, Poiret; Picea pectinata, Loudon ; Pinus Abies, Duroi; P. pectinata, Lamarck ; P. Picea, Linnzeus. Common Silver Fir; Silver Fir; Swiss Pine ; White Deal in part. A tree up to 150 ft. or more high and 20 ft. or more in girth. Trunk straight and tapering, often bare of branches for the greater part of its length, or, when isolated, heavy branches may be produced from all parts. Bark on young trees smooth, PINACEAA 121 greyish, ultimately breaking up into scales. Young shoots grey with scattered, short, erect hairs. Winter buds small, ovoid, non-resinous, composed of a few scales which are rounded at the apex. Leaves arranged in two opposite sets, the lower ones ~ SKU SS) S35 fs a) y “yy Fic. 24.—ABIES PECTINATA. a, upper side of spray ; b, non-resinous winter buds ; ¢c, under-surface of leaves and shoot; d, section of leaf, showing marginal resin canals ; e, cone-scale with bract recurved at the tip ; f, seed. spreading horizontally, the upper ones often more or less erect on the branchlet and about half the length of the lower with a more or less distinct parting between them ; }—1 in. long, ;4—'y in. broad, blunt and shallowly notched at the apex, dark shining green and grooved above with two white bands of stomata below; resin 122 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER canals marginal. Leaves on coning branches shorter, stiffer, and erect. Cones cylindrical, on short, stout stalks, slightly narrowed at each end, greenish when young, brown when mature; scales fan-shaped, bracts narrowly spoon-shaped, ending in a reflexed point. Seed-wing about 1 in. long. The following varieties have been recorded :— Var. brevifolia. A dwarf form with short, broad leaves. Var. columnaris, Carriére. Very slender in habit, with numerous short branches all of equal length. Leaves shorter and broader than in the type. Var. pendula. Branches weeping. Recorded from the Vosges and East Friesland. There is a tree at Tregrehan, Cornwall. Var. pyramidalis. Branches fastigiate, resembling those of a Lombardy poplar. France. Var. tortuosa. Dwarf in habit with twisted branches and bent, irregularly arranged leaves. Var. virgata. Branches long, pendulous, giving off branchlets near their apices, densely clothed with leaves. Alsace and Bohemia. The non-resinous buds and the comb-like arrangement of the leaves, showing a V-shaped depression between the two sets of leaves, usually suffices to distinguish the common silver fir. Occa- sionally it is difficult to separate from A. Nordmanniana, but if a sufficient number of branches are examined the characteristic leaf arrangement will generally be found. A. pectinata is found wild in the mountains of Cent. and S. Europe, where it has an extensive but irregular distribution. In France, Germany, and Switzerland it often forms large forests, either pure or in which it is the dominant species. It extends South to Corsica and finds its maximum altitude at about 6,000 ft. in the Pyrenees. It appears to have been introduced to Britain about 1603. The wood is light in weight, soft, not strong, white or yellowish white in colour, with the autumn wood well defined, making the annual rings very distinct. The timber of forest-grown trees is usually straight-grained, splits well, works easily, and finishes with a good surface. It lasts well indoors, but is not durable when PINACEA# 123 exposed to the weather or in contact with the soil. Amongst other purposes it is used for planks, boards, joists, etc., for the indoor finish of houses ; for inferior kinds of joinery, sounding- boards for musical instruments, carving, wood wool, boxes, paper pulp, and, when treated with sulphate of copper or other preser- vatives, for telegraph and telephone poles. For special purposes slow-grown wood, by reason of its greater strength, is preferable to that of faster growth. The wood of the silver fir is employed to a far greater extent in Central Europe than in the British Isles. The timber produced by trees in open positions is very coarse and knotty. Strasburg turpentine, employed in varnishes, artists’ colours, etc., is obtained from the bark-blisters and other parts of this tree. An essential oil of turpentine, obtained by distillation of the leaves and wood, has been used in medical and veterinary practice for sprains and bruises. The silver fir is an important forest tree in France, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria, whilst it is also used for forest planting in Britain. It attains its maximum size in the Jura Mountains, but there are excellent stands in many areas throughout its range. In some of the Swiss forests it attains a height of 120-140 ft., with a clean bole of 80-90 ft. of very equable girth. Good forests are carried to an elevation of 4,000 or more ft. in Switzerland. The rotation varies in different places from 90-140 years. For the British Isles a rotation of 90-100 years is likely to be satisfactory. The best timber trees are produced in dense stands that may be pure or mixed. A. pectinata may be expected to endure a similar degree of cold to the common beech. It is spring-tender, for the young growths are liable to injury by late frosts. It should therefore be planted on north and east aspects rather than in warmer posi- tions. A decided rest in winter is necessary, and for that reason it is not a good species for places where mild winters and cold springs are experienced. Moist climatic conditions are desirable and the best trees are grown in deep, moist, fertile soil. Loams and heavy loams which approach clay are more suitable than sandy loams and gravelly soils. Very dry soils and wet or sour peat are quite unsuitable. At Kew, where the soil is poor and dry, the atmospheric conditions on the dry side, and the air full of impurities, it is impossible to grow this tree, and young plants rarely survive for more than two or three years. Natural regeneration is good in many parts of Cent. Europe, for the trees produce seed regularly every second or third year, from the time they are 65-70 years old. Although much of the seed is unfertile through imperfect fertilization or insect attacks, there is sufficient to ensure reproduction, and as the young trees endure dense shade few seedlings are lost. On account of its shade-bearing qualities it is frequently used for underplanting 124 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAs thin woods of oak, Scots pine, spruce, and larch. Whether grown in pure or mixed woods it must be kept dense with an uninter- rupted leaf canopy, otherwise large branches will develop low on the trunk and ruin the timber. When seed is to be sown care must be taken that new seed is secured, for it does not retain its vitality from one year to the next. About 10,000 seeds are said to weigh one pound, and of this number about 40 per cent. are fertile.! Numerous very fine specimens of A. pectinata are to be found in Britain, particularly on the Marquess of Bath’s estate at Longleat. Some of these trees at 100 years of age were stated to be 130 ft. high and to contain from 300 to 400 cubic feet of timber. There are also several very large specimens at Alnwick Castle, at Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, and at Inveraray. The silver fir is subject to attack by several fungus and insect pests. Schlich says the following fungi are harmful on the Con- tinent : Phytophthora omnivora, Pestalozzia Hartigii, Armillaria mellea,and Trametes radiciperda. Of this number the two latter are sometimes harmfulin the British Isles. A “‘ cluster-cups ” fungus (Acidium coruscans) attacks the young shoots in some European countries. The shoots are turned a bright yellow colour by the fungus and in that state are eaten as a vegetable. A species of Aicidium causes abnormal growths in the form of “ witches’ brooms ”’ to appear on the branches ; they are sometimes followed by canker. In Switzerland and other Continental countries a mistletoe (Loranthus europeus, Linneeus), is parasitic on the silver fir, sometimes causing considerable injury to the trees. The seeds are often attacked by the larve of a small fly, (Megastigmus strobilobius, Ratz), which ruin their vegetative pro- perties. The worst insect pest in Britain, however, is Chermes (Dreyfusia) niisslinti, Born (see generic description). It kills thousands of plants annually. The timber is a favourite breeding- place of the wood wasps (Sirea gigas, Linnzeus, and S. juvenicus, Linneus), the larve of which tunnel into and seriously injure the timber. Elwes and Henry, loc. cit. iv, 720 (1909); Woolsey, Studies in French Forestry, 83 (1920). Abies Pindrow, Spach. (Fig. 25.) West Himatayan Fir. Abies Webbiana, var. Pindrow, Brandis; Picea Pindrow, Loudon ; Pinus Pindrow, Royle. West Himalayan Low-level Silver Fir. A tree attaining in the Himalaya a height of over 200 ft. and a girth of 26 ft. with a dense dark crown of foliage which often conceals the bole. Bark smooth and silvery, grey when young, deeply fissured when old. Young shoots smooth, grey, 1 Manual of Forestry, ii, p. 355. — —_ 4 N * SS a BREVIFOLIA. uds; d, shoot and 25.—_ABIES PINDROW, var. -side ; inous Wi 126 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER without down. Leaves on the lower side of the shoot arranged horizontally, spreading outwards and downwards, those of the upper side covering the shoot, the middle ones being much shorter and directed forwards and upwards; soft in texture, flattened, up to 24 in. long, tapering to the apex, which ends in two horny points ; upper surface dark shining green, grooved ; lower surface pale green, with two greyish bands of stomata; resin canals marginal. Cones cylindrical, blunt, 4—7 in. long by 2-24 in. wide, violet-purple, changing to dark brown when mature ; scales fan- shaped, 14 in. wide by ? in. long; the bracts about one-third as long as the scales. Seed-wing about 1 in. long. Var. brevifolia, nobis. (Fig. 25.) Leaves up to about 14 in. long. Var. intermedia, Henry. This name has been given to a tree at Eastnor Castle which is apparently intermediate in character between A. Pindrow and A. Webbiana. It has shoots, buds, and bark like the former species, but the leaves are pectinate like those of A. Webbiana with median resin canals. The large resinous buds and irregular arrangement of the bright green, shining foliage will suffice to identify this tree, which is also distinct in habit from A. Webbiana. A. Pindrow may also be known by its smooth bark and bright green leaves, which are not conspicuously white beneath. A. Pindrow is widely distributed at elevations between 7,000— 12,000 ft. throughout the western Himalaya from Afghanistan to Nepal. It is usually found at lower elevations than A. Webbiana, and is associated with Picea Morinda and other conifers, forming dense forests on all the great spurs of Kumaon. About 1837 cones were received by the Royal Horticultural Society from Dr. Royle, and from the seeds of these cones the first plants were raised in the British Isles. Wood white, straight-grained, easy to work, not durable in contact with the soil, without odour. It is used for building purposes, general carpentry, box-making, shingles, matchwood, and is said to be suitable for paper pulp. Difficulties of extraction and the long distance from seaports preclude it from the export trade. A. Pindrow is found at its best under natural conditions in cool, moist valleys and on gentle northerly slopes where the soil is deep and rich. In such places, and even where the conditions are less favourable, it forms dense stands and reproduces well. Young trees withstand shade well, but do not grow rapidly. In the Himalaya it is subjected to considerable cold, and in some PINACEAG 127 parts is surrounded by deep snow for several months of the year. Its moisture-loving nature may be appreciated from the fact that within its range the annual precipitation is from 45-100 in. The sylvicultural requirements of the species are well described by Troup.! It is not common in collections in the British Isles, and is usually seen at its best in the milder parts of England and Wales, where climatic and soil conditions are moist and soil of good quality.2. Deep, rather light loam and the disintegrated granite of Cornwall suit it admirably. Abies Pinsapo, Boissier. (Fig. 26.) SPANISH Fir. Abies hispanica, De Chambray ; Picea Pinsapo, Loudon; Pinus Pin- sapo, Antoine. A tree up to 100 ft. high and 15 ft. in girth. Bark smooth at first, becoming rugged and fissured on old trees. Young shoots reddish brown, without down, furrowed. Winter buds ovoid, obtuse, resinous, with the scales projecting at the apex. Leaves spreading all round the shoot, straight or slightly curved, flattened and rigid, $-? in. long, apex short-pointed or blunt, entire ; upper surface convex, not furrowed, with numerous lines of stomata ; lower surface with two distinct bands of stomata ; resin canals median. Cones cylindrical, tapering to the apex, 4—5 in. long, up to 1? in. diameter in wild specimens, smaller on cultivated trees; scales triangular, cuneate; bracts concealed by the scales, ovate, pointed. Seed-wing up to 1} in. long. Var. glauca. Foliage of a rich glaucous hue. Var. pendula. Habit narrowly pyramidal, branches pendulous. An easily recognized species distinguished from all the other firs except A. cephalonica by its short, blunt, rigid, widely spreading leaves. The latter species resembles it in leaf arrange- ment, but the leaves are longer, sharply pointed, and have marginal resin canals. A. Pinsapo is indigenous only in the mountainous region round Ronda in 8. Spain, where it is found in three main forests in localities at considerable distances apart. It was first found by Edmond Boissier and introduced into England in 1839 by Captain Widdrington. The wood does not appear to possess any commercial value outside its native country. It is not plentiful enough for export and its inaccessibility makes it of little more than local use. 1 Troup, Silviculture of Indian Trees, iii, 1133-1142 (1921). 2 Mr. F. R. 8. Balfour states that it is perfectly hardy at Dawyck and at most places in Scotland. 128 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER The Spanish fir grows well in the British Isles even on chalk, and there are many fine specimens, particularly inS.England. It succeeds in moist soil and retains its lower branches until late in life, when grown asan isolated specimen. The glaucous-leaved variety 5) NN) VRAD Z MN AY Iii Za | oO = SS -, ” Fic. 26—ABIES PINSAPO. a, spray ; 6, resinous winter buds; ¢, leaves and shoot; d, anterior face of leaf; e, section of leaf, showing median resin canals. forms a handsome lawn specimen. As itis found at high eleva- tions in Spain it is much hardier than its southerly latitude suggests, and it succeeds in Denmark and in 8S. Norway and Sweden.! Badly developed plants in this country have frequently been due to grafting. Elwes and Henry, loc. cit. iv, 732 (1909). 1 Pinetum Danicum (Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc. xiv. 476 (1892)). PINACEA 129 Abies recurvata, Masters. A tree 60-120 ft. high in China, with a trunk 6-15 ft. in girth, pyramidal in habit, becoming flat-headed with age or in exposed places. Bark roughish, dark grey to reddish brown. Young shoots yellowish grey, without down, shining. Winter buds ovoid, resinous. Leaves strongly recurved, shining green on both sides or glaucous beneath, }—1 in. long, sharp-pointed on young trees. Cones produced in clusters, oblong-ovoid, 2-3} in. long, tapering abruptly below, smooth, with the bracts completely hidden, violet-purple before ripening, when they become grey- brown. Native of W. Szechuen, where it is abundant on the mountains near the Min River, forming extensive forests. Young plants in cultivation are easily recognized by their strongly recurved, sharply pointed leaves. Journ. Linn. Soc. xxxvii, 423 (1906); Pl. Wils. ii, 44 (1914). Abies religiosa, Lindley. SACRED Fir. Abies glauca, Roezl ; A. glaucescens, Roezl ; ‘A. hirtella, Lindley ; A. Lindleyana, Roez]; A. Tlapaleatuda, Roezl; Picea religiosa, Loudon ; Pinus religiosa, Humboldt. This is a Central American species attaining a height of 150 ft. and a girth of 15 ft. Bark greyish-white, rough, speedily becoming scaly like that of aspruce. Young shoots furrowed, brown on the upper side, olive green on the lower side during the first year, brown all round later, covered with a minute down. Winter buds cylindrical, rounded at the apex, resinous. Leaves arranged as in A. Nordmanniana but rather thinly set and much fewer on the upper side than in that species, pointing forwards and upwards, longer on the lower side of the shoot and horizontally arranged ; 1-14 in. long, gradually narrowing to a blunt apex ; upper surface dark shining green, lower surface with two greyish bands of stomata; resin canals marginal. Cones 4 in. long and 2 in. wide, conical, tapering from the base upwards ; blue when young, changing to brown when mature; scales broadly fan- shaped, nearly 14 in. wide by 3 in. long ; bracts chestnut-brown, exceeding the length of the scales, terminated by long reflexed scales. A. religiosa occurs wild throughout the mountains of Central and 8. Mexi » and N. Guatemala at altitudes ranging from 4,000-10,000 tt. It was discovered by Humboldt in 1799 and was introduced by Hartweg in 1838. The wood is scarcely known in Europe. Small sections cut from ornamental trees suggest that it may be classed with medium to good grades of silver fir. It is pale yellow in colour, K 130 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER rather coarse-grained, and is easy to work. In Mexico and Guatemala it appears to be used for general carpentry. In Mexico the branches are used extensively for decorating places of worship at the times of religious festivals, hence the specific and common names. It is a tender species and will only grow in the milder parts of the country. Very few well-developed trees are known, one of the best being in Lord Falmouth’s garden at Tregothnan near Truro. ‘There is also a good tree at Fota, Ireland, which in March, 1922, was 90 ft. high and 7 ft. 3 in. in girth. This fir should only be planted in good damp soil in places where a mild temperature and moist climatic conditions prevail. Elwes and Henry, loc. cit. iv, 808 (1909). Abies sachalinensis, Masters. Abies Akatodo, Miyabe ; A. Veitchii var. sachalinensis, Schmidt. Todo- matsu. A tree attaining a height of 100-130 ft. and a girth of 6-9 ft. Bark smooth, whitish, with numerous resin blisters. Branches short and slender. Young shoots grey or slate-coloured with prominent hairy furrows. Leaves arranged like those of A. Veitchii, but longer and narrower, 1? in. long by => in. broad, apex rounded and slightly notched ; upper surface grass-green ; lower surface with two inconspicuous bands of stomata each of 7-8 lines; resin canals median. Cones cylindrical, 3} in. long and 14 in. wide, with large reflexed bracts which nearly con- ceal the scales; scales thin, fan-shaped, }—3 in. wide and about + in. long. Seed-wing 3 in. long. Var. nemorensis, Mayr. Abies nemorensis, Miyabe and Miyake. Cones smaller, about 2} in. long, resembling those of A. Veitchii, with the bracts concealed. Recorded from Hokkaido and the Kurile Islands. Seen in Saghalien by Wilson. This species closely resembles A. Veitchii in the arrangement of the foliage, but the individual leaves are much more slender and the shoots are slate-coloured. The cones are also larger, with reflexed bracts. It is chiefly distinguished from A. sibirica by its furrowed shoots. A. sachalinensis is found wild in the Kurile Islands and the Island of Saghalien, and is abundant in Hokkaido, the northern island of Japan, where it forms pure forests. Introduced by Maries in 1878, the Saghalien fir has not done well in cultivation, being too susceptible to spring frosts. It is probable that it requires a more decided rest in winter than is possible in Britain. WELLINGTONIA (SEQUO/A GIGANTEA) AT WOBURN. TL LELELG VIE ZHI . 7) ys oa ' ¥ [ is ig bee ; _ “ 7 : 4 . PINACEA( 131 The wood is used in its native country for lumber to some extent, but its principal use is for paper pulp. As indicated above, it has little value in the British Isles as an ornamental tree ; there is, however, a fine tree at Fota which in March, 1922, was 50 ft. high and 2 ft. 10 in. in girth. Abies sibirica, Ledebour. SIBERIAN Fir. Abies heterophylla, C. Koch; A. Pichta, Forbes; A. Semenonii, Fedtschenko ; Picea Pichta, Loudon; Pinus Pichta, Endlicher; Pinus sibirica, Turezaninow. A tree rarely more than 100 ft. high, with a slender trunk. Bark smooth, grey, with numerous resin blisters. Young shoots silvery grey, with a scattered minute down. Winter buds small, globose, resinous, Leaves arranged like those of A. Veitchia but more irregular, those on the upper side of the shoot pointing for- wards, those on the lower side of the shoot horizontal, and longer than those on the upper side ; slender like those of A. sachalinensis, about 14 in. long, s'; in. wide, apex rounded ; upper surface grass- green, shining, grooved, occasionally with two or three short lines of stomata near the apex ; lower surface with two narrow greyish bands of stomata each of 4—5 lines; resin canals median. Cones cylindrical, 2-3 in. long by 1} in. in diameter, bluish when growing, brown when mature, with the bracts concealed ; scales fan-shaped, 3—? in. wide, } in. long; bracts 7°; in. broad with a short point. Seed-wing about 3 in. long. A. sibirica forms vast forests in N. and E. Russia, Siberia, the Altai Mountains, and Turkestan, whilst it has recently been discovered by Wilson in W. China. It is the most widely dis- tributed of all the silver firs. According to Loudon it was introduced into cultivation in 1820, but it has never thriven and hardly any trees are recorded in Britain. It is more suitable for the colder than for the warmer parts of the country. The best quality timber is suitable for the same purposes as the wood of A. pectinata, but it is probable that a great deal will be turned into pulp at a later period. Elwes and Henry, loc. cit. iv, 758 (1909). Abies squamata, Masters. A tree 50-120 ft. high in China, with shaggy, purplish-brown bark which exfoliates in thin papery layers like that of a birch. Young shoots blackish, hairy. Leaves dense, relatively short and broad, 3—1 in. long, curved, pointed or blunt at the apex ; resin canals median. Cones oblong-ovoid, violet in colour, bracts exserted with recurved points which speedily break off. Young plants in cultivation have stout, conspicuously bright 132 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA® red, glabrous shoots, resinous buds, and crowded, stiff, widely spreading, sharply pointed leaves, with marginal resin canals. It is an alpine tree attaining a higher altitude than any other fir and forming forests in W. Szechuen at 12,000-14,000 ft. Gard. Chron. May 12, 1906, p. 299; Pl. Wils. ii, 48 (1914). Abies sutchuenensis, Rehder and Wilson. Abies Fargesii, var. sutchuenensis, Franchet.? A species based on a plant collected by Purdom on the banks of Tow River, Western Kansu, and said to be characterized by its shining red or purplish-brown glabrous branchlets, medium- sized, symmetrical, scarcely resinous, violet-black cones, with shortly cuspidate obovate-cuneate bracts and by its ascending, stout, relatively short and broad leaves with a distinct yellowish petiole and median resin canals. It is said to be distinguished from A. Faxoniana by its glabrous shoots and scarcely resinous cones with non-exserted bracts. We have not seen specimens. Young plants cultivated under this name at Messrs. Hilliers’ nursery, Winchester, and elsewhere, have the shoots dark purplish brown on the lower side. Leaves ascending, with a V-shaped parting, dark green and grooved above, with two conspicuous white bands on the lower surface, tapering to a bifid apex; resin canals marginal. Franchet’s variety sutchuenensis, based on a specimen from Chengkou Ting, is said to be distinguished from A. Fargesi by its leaves, which are obtuse, notched or acute on the same branch, and marked with white below. Abies Veitchii, Lindley. (Fig 27.) Vertcu’s SiLver Fir. Abies Eichleri, Lauche; Picea Veitchii, Murray; Pinus selenolepis, Parlatore. Shirabe. A fir 60-70 or more ft. high in the Japanese forests, where it is generally of narrow, tapering, pyramidal habit, with a slender trunk and short, slender branches. Bark smooth, pale grey or white with prominent resin blisters. Young shoots brown, more or less clothed with short down. Winter buds small, sub-globose, purplish, resinous. Leaves arranged very like those of A. Nord- manniana, but softer to the touch ; those on the lower side of the shoot horizontal and spreading at right-angles to the shoot, those on the upper side shorter and pointing forwards but not pressed to the stem so much as in A. Nordmanniana ; 3-1 in. long and about 7; in. wide, flattened, gradually tapering to the base, apex truncate, notched ; upper surface dark green, shining, grooved ; lower surface with two conspicuously white broad bands of stomata; resin canals median. Cones cylindrical, 3 in. long, 1 Pl. Wils. ii, 48 (1914). 2 Journ. de Bot. xiii, 256 (1899). \ K 27—ABIES CEPHALONICA AND A. VEITCHII. Abies cephalonica.—a, shoot ; showing marginal resin of shoot and leaves ; d, section of leaf, r-side 6, winter bud ; ¢, under-s sin canals. 4. Veitehii—e, shoot ; f, winter buds; g, under-side of shoot and of leaf, showing median resin canals. Fie. leaves ; A, section 133 134 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER bluish-purple when growing, brown when ripe; scales small, 5 in. wide and ? in. long; bracts as long as the scales, slightly protruding and reflexed. Seed with a wing 3 in. long. Var. nikkoensis, Mayr. This is said to differ from the type in its smaller cones (2 in. long) with the points of the bracts projecting only slightly between the scales. Var. olivacea, Shirasawa. Cones green when young, becoming grey-brown when mature. According to Wilson it grows with the typical form in Japan. Small plants are in cultivation at Kew. A. Veitchii may be easily recognized by its small, resinous, purplish buds, truncate leaves very white beneath, and median resin canals. The characters by which it is known from A. Mariesii are mentioned under that species. It is a native of the mountains of Central Japan, at elevations of 3,000-6,000 ft., and is the smallest of the Japanese firs. It was discovered on Mount Susi-San by John Gould Veitch in 1861, but was not, however, introduced into England until 1879, when Maries sent seeds to Messrs. Veitch. The timber is not known in European markets and does not appear to be regarded as important in Japan, where the wood is largely used for pulp for the manufacture of paper. A. Veitchii thrives in the British Isles, where, in rich, moist soil in a pure atmosphere, it forms a slender, graceful, pyramidal tree with attractive foliage. Abies Vilmorini, Masters. Abies cephalonica x Pinsapo. An artificial hybrid raised in 1867 at Verrieres near Paris by M. de Vilmorin from a tree of A. Pinsapo, which he pollinated from a tree of A. cephalonica. Only one fertile seed was obtained, from which a seedling was raised and planted out the following year. In 1905 this had become a tree 50 ft. high by 5 ft. in girth and had three main stems, one of which was subsequently broken in a storm. The tree resembles A. Pinsapo in its foliage except that the leaves are longer and less rigid and bear stomata on their lower surface only. Their radial arrangement is imperfect. The cones, which are produced in abundance, have longer bracts than A. Pinsapo. The seeds, which resemble those of A. cepha- lonica, are fertile, and a number of seedlings have been raised. Young plants of A. Vilmorini from the original tree are occasion- ally met with in English collections. Masters, Journ. Royal Hort. Soc. xxvi, 109 (1901); Hortus Vilmorinianus, 69, plate xii (1906). 1 Forestry of Japan, 77 (1910), Bureau of Forestry, Tokyo, Japan. eteeees - 136 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAG Abies Webbiana, Lindley. (Fig. 28.) WeEBB’S HIMALAYAN Fir. Abies chiloensis, Hort.; A. chilrowensis, Hort.; A. densa, Griffiths ; Picea Webbiana, Loudon; Pinus Webbiana, Wallich. East Himalayan Fir; West Himalayan High-level Silver Fir. A tree attaining in the E. Himalaya a height of 150-200 ft. and a girth of 20-30 ft., but much smaller in the W. Himalaya, with thick, spreading branches forming a more or less flat- tened head. Bark greyish-brown, rough, fissured and scaling on old trees. Young shoots stout, reddish-brown, deeply grooved, hairy in the furrows. Winter buds large, rounded, covered with resin which conceals the scales. Leaves arranged in two lateral sets spreading right and left, each set of several ranks, the lower ranks with leaves spreading horizontally, the upper ranks with leaves becoming gradually shorter, directed outwards and upwards, forming a V-shaped depression with the branchlet visible between them, very variable in size, on the western trees often $—1 in. long, on the eastern trees up to 2} in. long and 15 in. wide, flat- tened, rounded and notched at the apex; upper surface dark green, grooved; lower surface with two broad, conspicuous white bands of stomata ; resin canals marginal. Cones resembling those of A. Pindrow in shape and colour, often 6-8 in. long on cultivated specimens but smaller on native trees ; scales fan- shaped, suddenly contracted to a short claw ; bracts broad above, narrow below, pointed, nearly as long as the scale. Seed with a wing one and a half times its length. Var. brevifolia, Henry. Abies spectabilis, var. brevifolia, Rehder. Bark smooth, young shoots grey with less prominent furrows and shorter down. Leaves only about 1} in. long, greyish beneath, the stomatic bands inconspicuous. A very distinct variety, which probably represents the Western Himalayan form. Several trees which appear to be hardier than the type are in cultivation in England. A. Webbiana occurs in the inner Himalaya from Afghanistan to Bhutan at elevations of 8,000—13,000 ft. It is found at higher altitudes than A. Pindrow, which in the N.W. Himalaya ceases to grow at 1,000-2,000 ft. below the line where A. Webbiana appears. Above 10,500 ft. elevation it often forms large pure forests, at lower elevations it is mixed with spruce and other trees. Seeds of this fir were received in England from India early in the nineteenth century, but no young trees appear to have been PINACEAA 137 raised until 1822. Unfortunately, this handsome fir is not quite hardy and only succeeds in the milder parts of the country. The differences between this species and A. Pindrow are indi- cated under the latter species, which by some botanists is united with A. Webbiana, but the two trees are quite distinct. The uses of the timber are identical with those of P. Pindrow, which see. In some parts the wood is used extensively for tea boxes, and in Museum No. 3, at Kew, there is a sample of cone scales which are stated to be used as a dye. In the British Isles the tree is even more tender than P. Pindrow, although it is usually found at a higher elevation, and it is only successful in the warmer parts of the country. It is probable that seeds have only been received from trees growing at the lower elevations in the Himalaya, and that if they were obtained from trees growing at a high altitude we should have much hardier plants. Troup, Silviculture of Indian Trees, iii, 1142 (1921). ACTINOSTROBUS, Miquel. Two species of evergreen shrubs, allied to Callitris, but differing in the shape of the cone-scales and by the cones being surrounded at the base by closely pressed bracts. Leaves alter- nately three-ranked, needle-like, and 4+-} in. long on juvenile plants, scale-like, and about # in. long on older plants. Male and female flowers on the same bush; the former oblong, with the stamens in whorls of 3-6 vertical columns. Cones globose or ovoid ; scales 6, woody, equal in size, surrounding a central axis, each with 1-2 triangular, three-winged seeds at the base ; the base of the cone surrounded by their closely pressed bracts. Natives of W. Australia. Neither species is of any economic value. Cultivation in Britain, except in the mildest parts, is restricted to greenhouses. Cuttings of young shoots may be rooted in sandy soil in a close frame, as in Cupressus. Actinostrobus acuminatus, Parlatore. A smaller shrub than A. pyramidalis, with finer branchlets and smaller leaves. The specific difference is based on the stamens, which have a dorsal ridge and acuminate point, and on the cone, which has the top contracted into a neck, each valve terminating in a short spreading point. Under cultivation the two plants show little difference. Between Moore and Murchison Rivers. 138 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA# Actinostrobus pyramidalis, Miquel. Callitris Actinostrobus, F. v. Mueller. A bush 4-8 ft. high, with erect, closely arranged branches divided into fine sprays. Shoots without down. Leaves scale- like, closely pressed at the base, free at the apex. Cones ovoid, about 4 in. in diameter at the base and the same in height; scales 6, triangular, pointed. Found at King George’s Sound, Baxter to Swan River, and Murchison River, often inhabiting salt, sandy plains. Baker and Smith, Pines of Austr., 291-298 (1910). AGATHIS, Salisbury. Kauri PINEs. Dammara, Rumphius. Tall, evergreen, resinous trees with massive, columnar trunks, natives of New Zealand, Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, Philippine Islands, and the Malay Peninsula. ark thick, scaly, resinous, emitting a thick milky liquid when punctured which eventually solidifies and forms an incrustation on the bark or collects in masses beneath the trees. Branches horizontal, often in whorls on young trees, irregular on older trees, deciduous and leaving circular scars 3-3 in. deep. Winter buds short, rounded, blunt, with a few closely pressed scales. Leaves spirally arranged on the main axis, opposite or alternate on lateral shoots; persisting many years, sometimes 15-20 years on the main stem; rose- coloured or reddish when young, dark green later, leathery, usually broad and flat with numerous fine parallel lines on the upper sur- face, varying in size and shape not only on the same tree but often on the same branch, narrowed at the base into a short, flat stalk, leaving after their fall rough, cushion-like scars as in Picea and Larix. Male and female flowers usually on different trees. Male flowers in stiff, dense, cylindrical, solitary catkins from the leaf axils. Female flowers in round or broadly oblong cones. Cones globular or broadly oval, compact, symmetrical; scales fan- shaped, with a thickened margin overlapping a portion of the scales immediately above, falling as soon as the seeds are ripe. Seed solitary, with a well-developed wing on one side and a small process which occasionally develops into a second wing on the other. The genus is closely allied to Araucaria, but may be distin- guished by the larger leaves and by the seed being free from the scale, not combined as in Araucaria. About sixteen species have been described, but some of these are so much alike that they PINACEAG 139 appear to be geographical forms of one variable species with A. loranthifolia as the type. The wood is of good quality, easily worked, and useful for all kinds of building purposes. Its microscopic features are given by Baker and Smith. All parts of the trees contain resin which exudes from wounds and accumulates on branches, trunks, and at the bases of trees. Large quantities of fossilized gum or resin from primeval trees are found buried in the ground, sometimes at depths of 6-10 ft. This fossil resin is regarded as superior to the fresh gum. Gum- resin, known as Kauri gum, is an important article of commerce, its chief use being in the manufacture of varnishes and linoleum. The various species of Agathis are unsuitable for outdoor cultivation in Britain, but owing to the value of their timber they should be protected and their cultivation extended in their native countries. They are propagated by seeds, but sprouts sometimes appear from the bases of growing and felled trees, which may be used as cuttings. Erect shoots from trees that have had the leading shoot removed may also be utilized as cuttings. Seward and Ford, ‘‘ The Araucariee : Recent and Extinct ’’ (Phil. Trans. Royal Soc., Lond.), exeviii, 304-411 (1906). Agathis australis, Salisbury. (Fig. 29.) Kauri PINE. Dammara australis, Lambert. Cowdie Pine; Kauri; Black Kauri ; New Zealand Kauri; Red Kauri; White Kauri; Dammar. A tree 80-120 ft. high, with a columnar trunk 8-12 ft. in diameter, or, occasionally, up to 150 ft. high with a diameter of 20-24 ft. Bark thick, smooth, greyish, very resinous. Branches whorled or irregular, horizontal. Young shoots without down, glaucous. Winter buds compact, rounded, with tightly pressed scales. Leaves variable; on young trees spreading, wide apart, 1-3 in. long, }-4 in. wide, glaucous-green, narrowly lance-shaped, thick, leathery, short-stalked, opposite or sub-opposite on lateral branchlets ; on old trees shorter, oblong, green, close-set, some- times without stalks. Male and female flowers often on the same tree. Male catkins 1-1} in. long, }-} in. wide. Female flowers from the points of short shoots. Cone woody, egg-shaped or rounded, 23-3 in. in diameter; scales about } in. across. Seed with a well-developed wing. Distinguished from other species by its smaller and narrower leaves. A native of the northern part of the North Island of New Zealand, where it is regarded as one of the most important forest trees. Introduced to Europe in 1823. 1 Pines of Australia, 377 (1910). 9 ad x2 Fic. 29.—AGATHIS AUSTRALIS. a, spray with young male and female cone; 6b, young male cone; ec, stamen from three aspects ; aif d, winter bud ; ¢, cone-scale with young seed ; f, mature cone-scale, showing scar to which the seed was attached ; g, seeds with either one or two wings. 140 PINACEA# 141 Wood yellowish-white to red and brown, sometimes mottled, resinous, straight-grained, of great strength, toughness, and dura- bility, equal in quality to pitch pine. The following results of tests carried out on behalf of the Air Ministry are recorded in the Catalogue of the Empire Timber Exhibition, London, 1920, p. 113 :— Sample. a. b. c. d. Density—lb. per cu. ft. . | 32-6 30-6 30°5 30°5 Moisture, per cent. . : 15-6 15-7 15-2 13-7 Uniform Bending : Modulus of ape 1-595 1-675 1-690 1-527 Elastic Limit x 6,860 7,480 Tela 5,715 Modulus of Rupture. . | 10,050 9,400 9,950 7,900 Tension : Modulus of Rupture in Ib. per sq. in. Compression : Modulus of Rupture in Ibe per sq.in.” 5) = 4 5,520 5, Moisture, per cent. 1 1 Obliquity of Grain : Radial Plane . a ts — Tangential Plane Be — 16,400 | 22,200 | 18,350 Gee 50 6,330 6,660 3 18-1 — —- = Lin 17 — — Straight Kirk 1 mentions four grades of timber :—(1) Red Kauri, which is regarded as the best general building timber and suit- able for beams, joists, and heavy framework, but liable to cast and twist, shrinking longitudinally and transversely. (2) White Kauri, yellowish white, straight-grained, very tough, bears a greater strain than red but is less durable, neither warps nor shrinks longitudinally if fairly seasoned before working up. A splendid timber for mouldings and joiners’ work, and largely used by boat-builders on account of its toughness and elasticity. (3) Black Kauri, deep brown in colour, very hard, dense, heavy, heavily charged with resin, difficult to work, has extreme durability. (4) Soft Kauri, pale dun colour, straight-grained, rather soft, light specific gravity, never casts or twists or shrinks longitudinally when exposed to weather, sometimes marked with longitudinal streaks or veins. Excellent for joiners’ work and mouldings, but not for beams or heavy framing. In addition there are waved and mottled kinds of kauri in which the wood is beautifully figured. Such wood is used for panelling and furni- ture, and it takes a high polish. Kauri-wood is used for general building, flooring, all kinds of joinery and carpentry, bridges, wharves, mine-props, railway sleepers, shipbuilding, church 1 Kirk, Forest Flora of New Zealand, p. 145 (1889). 142 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAj furniture, cooperage, and many other purposes. The best timber is said to be obtained from trees felled during the dormant season. Resin (Dammar) is obtained from all parts of the tree and large quantities of fossil resin (up to 15,000 tons) known as Kauri gum are obtained annually from the sites of ancient Kauri forests. Much of it is used in the manufacture of paint, varnish, and linoleum. From the refuse of the resin motor spirit and tur- pentine are obtained. In Commerce Report, December 2, 1920, p. 984, an account is given of the reclamation of fossil resin from the bogs of Auckland. It is stated that after the separation of the resin 40 to 50 gallons of Kauri gum oil can be obtained from every cubic yard of peat, which on distillation produces motor spirit and turpentine. A. australis has been over-cut in New Zealand, and the New Zealand Government has taken steps to protect the remaining forests and to ensure regeneration. A tree of such general use- fulness is worth all the attention that can be paid to it, and its cultivation should be greatly extended. In England A. australis can only be grown out of doors in the mildest parts of the country. A small plant was growing, a few years ago, in the famous gardens at Tresco Abbey in the Scilly Islands, and the species has been tried near Falmouth. There is a specimen 35-40 ft. high in the Temperate House at Kew which bears male and female flowers and matures its cones frequently. Its introduction probably dates back to 1838, for, according to Smith, Records of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 72 (1880), this species was included in an importation of New Zealand plants brought about through the instrumentality of Sir William Symonds, then Surveyor to the Navy. He was desirous of obtaining New Zealand timbers for the Navy and despatched the ship Buffalo to bring home a cargo, giving instructions to the officers to introduce young plants of the principal trees. Three Wardian cases of plants were brought, and amongst the occu- pants were Agathis australis, Dacrydium cupressinum, Podocarpus Totara, and Phyllocladus trichomanoides. The original intro- duction into Europe appears to have been in 1823. Cheeseman, Jil. New Zealand Flora, t. 184 (1914); Gardener’s Chronicle, xx, 525 (1883) ; Kauri Gum Industry in New Zeal]., Bull. Imp. Inst., xx, No. 3, 331 (1922). Agathis Beccarii, Warburg. A tree of medium size with short, stout, bluntly angled branches, brownish in colour and sometimes slightly glaucous. Buds rounded and covered by two or three closely pressed scales. Leaves opposite or sub-opposite, lance-shaped, 23-34 in. long, 3-3 in. broad, leathery, dark green above, paler beneath, apex PINACEAL 143 a blunt point, the base flattened into a short stalk. Reproductive organs unknown. The species was discovered in the State of Sarawak, Borneo, between the years 1865 and 1868. It is possibly merely a geographical form of A. loranthifolia, but we have only seen imperfect specimens. Warburg, Monsunia, I, 184, t. viii, f. 7 (1900). Agathis borneensis, Warburg. A large tree with stout branches terminated by rounded buds covered by a few large, closely-pressed scales. Leaves usually opposite and arranged in one plane by a basal twist of their flattened stalks ; elliptic or oval, narrowing to each end, apex rounded, the base flattened into a stalk +-} in. long; the leaf- blade 13-34 in. long, ;9-1! in. broad, leathery, dark green above, paler beneath, with well-marked longitudinal lines on each surface, margins recurved. Male catkins solitary in the leaf axils, on short stalks ;j-} in. long. Cones not seen. This plant was discovered by Dr. Beccari in Borneo between 1865 and 1868. It appears to be closely allied to A. loranthifolia and may be only a geographical variety of that species. Warburg, Monsunia, I, 184, t. viii, f. D. (1900). Agathis celebica, Warburg.! A tree 120-160 ft. high, with a clean cylindrical trunk of half that height, indistinctly buttressed at the base. Leaves about 3 in. long by lin. broad. Male catkins 14-2 in. long, 3-3 in. wide. Cone, 3-34 in. long and about 23 in. wide. Seed oblong with a broad, flat wing. This species is a native of the Celebes, and as a good deal of fossil resin is said to be found in the Celebes it is presumably derived from past generations of this tree. Agathis flavescens, Ridley. A tree 40 or more ft. high with a trunk 3 ft. in girth at the base. Young shoots yellowish. Leaves elliptical or obtuse, narrowing to the base, thick, leathery, yellowish-green, 2-24 in. long. about }-1 in. wide. Male catkins about 1-1} in. long, } in. wide. Cones globose, 2} in. long, 1? in. wide ; scales, 14 in. long, 1 in. wide. Seeds elliptical. This species is closely allied to A. regia, from which it differs in its smaller male catkins. Ridley says that it is quite distinct from A. loranthifolia, Salisb. Native of the Malay Peninsula and collected by Ridley on the Padang of Gunong Tahan, at an altitude of 5,000 ft. On 1 Monsunia, 185 (1900). 144 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA( the open rocky plain it is said to be remarkable for its yellowish colour. In woods the foliage is green and the tree taller than 40 ft. Kew Bulletin, No. 9, 332 (1914). Agathis lanceolata, Pancher. Dammara lanceolata, Pancher. A large tree with a clean bole, often rising to a height of 50 ft. before branching. Crown irregular, dense, of a rich shade of green, with straight ascending branches. Sark reddish-brown, smooth, scaling off in thin flakes. Young shoots compressed or quadrangular, terminated by buds }~} in. in diameter, composed of numerous overlapping scales. Leaves large, opposite, ascend- ing and overlapping, or spreading at right-angles, lance-shaped or narrowly oblong, with a short-pointed apex, and narrowing gradually at the base, 12-5 in. long, 4~% in. wide, leathery, the surface marked with close longitudinal nerves, dark glossy green above, paler and duller below, margins thickened and recurved. Male catkins inserted above the leaf-axils in opposite pairs, cylin- drical, about 1 in. long and 4 in. in diameter, on short, stout, woody stalks. Mature cones not known. A. lanceolata is closely allied to A. Moorei, from which it is distinguished by its narrower, longer, and relatively thicker leaves. It is only found upon serpentine formations. Sebert (Notice sur les Bois de la Nouvelle Caledonie, 169, 1874) records it as occurring in high forests from Yenguéne to South Bay in New Caledonia, and states that one tree yielded 19 cubic metres of timber. Compton says that it is the character- istic tree of high forest on serpentine below 1,000 ft. altitude throughout the southern half of New Caledonia. Wood apparently similar in quality to that of A. robusta. It is being exploited in various places, notably at the Baie des Pirogues.1 The seeds are edible and the tree also produces an immense quantity of a yellowish, translucent, fragrant resin. Agathis loranthifolia, Salisbury. AMBOYNA PitcH TREE. Agathis Dammara, Richard; Dammara alba, Rumphius. A tree 120 ft. high and 18 or more ft. in girth, with a pyramidal crown of sub-pendent branches. Bark thick, resinous, reddish- grey. Young shoots light, dull green, angled. Terminal buds rounded, with a few closely pressed scales. Leaves persisting several years, dark green, leathery, 24-5 in. long }-2 in. wide, often smaller on coning branches; broadly lance-shaped, or 1 Compton, Journ. Linn. Soc. XLV, 430 (1922). PINACEA# 145 ovate, marked with numerous longitudinal parallel lines, margins thickened and reflexed, apex usually blunt and rounded, occasion- ally short-pointed, stalks flattened, }-4 in. long. Male flowers in solitary catkins from the leaf axils, 2-3 in long, ?—1 in. wide. Female flowers in short, stalked cones. Mature cone round, or rather longer than wide, about 4 in. in diameter; scales about 1 in. across, apex thickened and reflexed. Seeds } in. long, 2 in. wide, with a wing # in. across. This species, which is closely allied to A. robusta, is widely distributed in the Malayan and Polynesian region and may well be the type of several other trees which, although given specific rank, are merely geographical forms. Wood not represented at Kew, but it appears from descrip- tions to be very similar to that of A. robusta and to be useful for the same purposes. Dammar, damer, or resin, both fossil and recent, is obtained from the tree. Several samples of resin are to be seen in Museum 3 at Kew. They vary a good deal in colour and degree of trans- parency, and are named as follows :— Damar Merah ; light transparent brown, or dark brown, from ground lumps. Damar Batu or Puti; very pale and clean. Damar Poeteh; small lumps and fine resin collected from incisions made in the trunk. There is also a specimen of Pink or Rose Dammar from an unnamed species collected in Borneo, which probably belongs to A. loranthifolia, The resin in this case is reddish in colour. East Indian Dammar is obtained from Malacca, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and the Moluccas. Botanical Magazine, t. 5359 (1863). Agathis macrophylla, Masters. LARGE-LEAVED KaurRI PINE. A tree attaining a height of 100 ft., with wide-spreading branches Young shoots stout, often quadrangular towards the points. Suds rounded. Leaves ovate or lance-shaped, 33-7 in. long, #-2 in. wide, leathery, narrowing at the apex to a blunt point, and at the base to a short, flattened stalk, margin recurved, the surface dark green above, paler beneath, marked by numerous parallel lines. Cones erect, up to 34 in. long and 23-34 in. wide. This species is a native of the Solomon Islands and of La Perouse Island, Polynesia. It was originally discovered by Charles Moore the Australian botanist, and is allied to A. loranthi- folia from which it differs in its larger leaves. K 146 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA Agathis Moorei, Masters. Moore’s Kauri PINz. Dammara Moorei, Lindley. A tree 50-80 ft. high, of erect and graceful habit, with rather slender branches pendulous at the tips. Young shoots greenish. Winter buds short, rounded, covered by a few large, closely pressed scales. Leaves opposite or sub-opposite, lance-shaped to elliptical, up to 3} in. long and 1 in. wide (sometimes larger on vigorous shoots), ending in a blunt point, leathery, dark glossy green above, paler beneath, the surface marked with numerous parallel lines. Male catkins solitary, cylindrical, erect, $ in. long, 3%5 in. wide, borne in the leaf axils. Cones erect globose or pear-shaped, up to 5 in. long and 4} in. wide, symmetrical in outline. A. Moorei is found on the schistose and gneissic rocks in the northern half of New Caledonia at altitudes of 1,000—2,000 ft., and may be distinguished from the other species of that country by its narrower leaves. Compton says that it is apparently absent from serpentine soils. A specimen has been grown under this name for many years in the Temperate House at Kew. Agathis ovata, Warburg. Dammara ovata, C. Moore. A tree seldom more than 30 ft. high. Bark rough, grey, deeply fissured. Young shoots alternate, opposite, or in whorls of 3-4, yellowish brown. Winter buds rounded, covered by four large, See scales. Leaves spreading, opposite or sub-opposite, 3-44 in. long, ?-1} in. wide (rarely 1} in. long and 4 in. wide), broadly oes al or oblong- eifiperals thick, leathery, margins thickened and slightly recurved, apex rounded, the base contracted into a flattened stalk; dark green above, paler or glaucous beneath, marked on each surface by longitudinal, parallel lines. Cones elliptical, up to 43 in. long and nearly 4 in. wide ; scales flat, 14 in. long, 14-1? in. broad, brown in colour, the outer margin slightly thickened. A native of New Caledonia where, according to Compton,! it never enters into the composition of forests but is an inhabitant of the arid, exposed serpentine ridges and slopes in the south of the island, usually solitary, rarely forming a small local society, from sea-level to about 1,500 ft. altitude. The leaves on native trees are variable, more leathery than in the two woodland species (A. lanceolata and A. Moorei), glaucous below especially when young, oblong-elliptical, not acute. The female cones are elliptical and smaller than those of A. lanceolata. 1 Journ. Linn. Soc. XLV, No. 304, 430 (1922). PINACEA# 147 This tree appears to have been confused with other species by Bennett, who collected in New Caledonia, for he has recorded it as surpassing A. robusta and A. Moore: both in size and in the value of the wood. A. ovata was discovered in New Caledonia by Charles Moore, and it has also been recorded from the Isle of Pines. Agathis Palmerstoni, Ferdinand von Mueller.! NORTHERN Kauri PINE. A tall tree with a fine columnar trunk free from branches for the greater part of its height. Bark 3 in. or more thick, resinous. Leaves usually lance-shaped, 2—4 in. long and }—3 in. wide but sometimes ovate and rather larger, deep green, apex blunt, base narrowed into a flat stalk about } in. long. Male catkins solitary, cylindrical, about 1 in. long. Cone egg-shaped, up to 5} in. long and 4 in. wide ; scales numerous, closely overlapping, about 1 in. wide, thickened at the top. Distinguished from A. robusta by its smaller and narrower leaves. It is found in the Mount Bartle Frere, Christie Palmerston, and Mulgrave River districts of Queensland and its uses are similar to those of A. robusta, from which it is probably only geographically distinct. Agathis philippinensis, Warburg. PHILIPPINE ISLAND Kauri PINE. A tree 150-200 ft. high and 6-9 ft. in girth. Leaves up to 3 in. long, $—1 in. wide, oblong or slightly obovate, margins thick- ened and recurved, stalks about 4 in. long, apex abruptly pointed or rounded. Male catkins 1-14 in. long. Cones rounded, 3-4 in. across; scales fan-shaped, 1 in. wide. Seeds about 2 in. long, wing large, 3 in. across. Found in the Island of Paragua and in the province of Bataan, Luzon, up to an altitude of 1,700 ft. It is a source of resin and a good timber. Agathis regia, Warburg .? A species allied to A. loranthifolia. Leaves broadly lance- shaped, 3-3} in. long, 1} in. wide, leathery, rounded at the apex, narrowed at the base into a flattened stalk, }—,*%; in. long, ;'5 in. wide. Male catkins $ in. long, ;°> in. broad. Cone-scales about 1,5 in. long and 1}—13 in. broad with a thickened apex. This plant differs from A. loranthifolia by its smaller male catkins, but is doubtfully distinct. 1 Victorian Naturalist, June, 1891, 45, 46. * Monsunia, i, 183, t. viii, f. B. (1900). 148 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERA( It was discovered by Warburg on the small island Pulu dekat near Batjan, one of the Moluccas. A. regia is said to yield the commercial Dammar radja, a hard resin or copal, that has long been exported from Batjan (Batchian). Agathis robusta, Masters. QUEENSLAND KAURI. Dammara robusta, C. Moore. Australian Kauri; Dundathu Pine. A tree 150 or more ft. high, with a long, straight, columnar trunk free from branches for the greater part of its height. Bark thick, brownish, resinous. Winter buds rounded, compact, with closely pressed scales. Leaves usually ovate, 4-6 in. long, 1-2 in. wide, dark green, striated with parallel veins, margins thickened and recurved, apex long or short-pointed, rounded or blunt, stalks flattened, about in. long. Male catkins dense, cylindrical, 1-2 in. long. Cones ovoid or rounded, 4—5 in. long, and usually less than 4 in. in diameter; scales about 1 in. across, closely overlapping, thickened at the apex. Seeds oblong, flattened, about 4 in. long with a well developed wing on one side. Native of Queensland and Fraser Island. Wood brown or yellowish, short-grained, finishes well with a fine surface. Less useful for weight-bearing purposes than the New Zealand Kauri, but an excellent wood for joiners’ work, indoor finish of houses, etc., as it takes paint and polish well. Queensland Kauri is an important timber, and the cultivation of the tree should be encouraged by every possible means in its native country. The timber is not plentiful enough for export. Resin, both fresh and in a fossil state, is obtained from the tree. Specimens at Kew are of a clear, pale brown colour. Some interesting particulars respecting this tree are given by Boyd in The Queensland Agricultural Journal, ii, pp. 67-68. Steps were apparently taken in 1879 to protect both this tree and the hoop pine (Araucaria Cunninghamii), and regulations were issued prohibiting the cutting of any pine tree having a less diameter than 3 ft. Subsequent amended regulations authorized the cutting of Kauri pine when 2 ft. in diameter and hoop pine at 21 in. diameter at 5 ft. from the ground. The Queensland Kauri pine is said to make little girth growth until the tree is above surrounding trees and a sapling 12 in. in diameter has usually completed its height growth. From this period yearly girth growth is rapid, usually 5-9 in. but sometimes as much as 124 in. After a diameter of 40-50 in. has been gained growth slackens off. Mr. Boyd maintains that it is disastrous to cut Queensland Kauri pine under 3 ft. in diameter, and gives the following table showing yield at different girths :— PINACEA® 149 Diameter = Girth in Side of Superficial in in. in. sq. in. t. 20 60 = LS ; : . Will yield 1,124 24 72 = 18 : - : - 39 2 1,620 36 108 = 27 ‘ c : . a a 3,644 48 144 = 36 : : : : on 50 6,480 60 180 = 45 : : - : x Sp 10,124 66 198 = 49-50 5 ; . of oF 12,124 He adds: “It will thus be seen that a tree which at two feet diameter would yield 1,620 superficial feet of timber would, if allowed to grow five years longer, yield 3,644 feet, or, in other words, it would be worth double the money ; and if allowed to grow for ten years, would yield exactly four times the amount of timber which a diameter of two feet would yield. There are several specimens of this species in the Temperate House at Kew. Baker and Smith, Pines of Australia, 376 (1910). Agathis vitiensis, Bentham and Hooker. Frg1an Kauri PInNe. Dakua Wood; Dakua Tree. A tree 50-60 or occasionally 100 ft. high, with a clean trunk 60 ft. high and a girth of 23 ft. Bark whitish externally, reddish within, the outer bark peeling off in strands. Young shoots greenish. Terminal buds small, brown, rounded, with tightly- pressed scales. Leaves very variable in size and shape, narrowly or broadly ovate, 2-5 in. long, 4-14 in. wide; leathery, dark glossy green above, paler and duller, or sometimes glaucous beneath, both surfaces marked by numerous parallel lines, narrowed at both ends, the apex blunt and rounded, the base ending in a flat stalk up to } in. long. Male catkins cylindrical, 1-1} in. long, 4 in. wide, shortly stalked or sessile. Cone glau- cous, ovoid or rounded, the apex tapering abruptly, 4-5 in. long, about 4 in. wide; scales fan-shaped, 1-1} in. across, thickened at the top. Seed about } in. long, wing ? in. long by 3 in. wide. Native of the Fiji Islands, where it is abundant in the islands of Vanua Levu and Viti Levu. Specimens were first collected in 1858 by Mr. Milne of H.M.S. Herald. Interesting descriptions of this tree and its uses are given by Seemann in his Flora Vitiensis and by Mr. John Horn in A Year in Fiji, pp. 70 and 116. Horn describes a remarkable tree he saw in Viti Levu which was nearly 100 ft. high ; its trunk, when measured at 6 ft. above the ground, was found to be 25 ft. in girth. At about 20 ft. from the ground the trunk had been broken, and had divided into a number of upright growing shoots, each with the dimensions of a tree of more than medium size. The wood is said to be usually white, although sometimes 150 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFER red wood exists. Itis known as Dakua wood and is used for masts, booms, and spars, for flooring houses, and for most of the uses to which pine is put in the northern hemisphere. Resin, fossil and recent, is obtained, and it is used by the natives for glazing pots, etc. Recent resin is white, fossil resin being yellowish or light brown and transparent. The resin is exported for use in varnishes, etc., whilst, in addition to pottery glazing, the natives use it for burning as torches, and a dye obtained from the smoke is used for dyeing native cloth black. This smoke dye mixed with red earth is also said to make a brown pigment, which, amongst other uses, is employed for tattooing women. A specimen of the tree may be seen in the Temperate House at Kew. Botanical Magazine, t. 8512 (1913). ARAUCARIA, Jussieu. Evergreen trees confined to the southern hemisphere and occurring in 8. America, Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, and Norfolk Island. Young trees symmetrical, clothed with branches from base to summit ; old trees with the trunks clear of branches for the greater part of their height, surmounted by flat, ragged heads. Bark resinous, thick on old trees, ridged with the bases of old leaves, or, in some species, rough and peeling off in papery scales. Branches horizontal, usually in whorls. Young shoots green, without down, some of the axillary shoots deciduous. buds indistinct, enclosed by leaves. Leaves persisting for many years, spirally arranged, clasping the stem and overlapping, or thrown into two or more ranks by means of a basal twist ; lance-shaped, flat, up to 2 in. long, leathery, sharp-pointed, or awl-shaped and four-angled or triangular, varying in size and shape on different parts of the same tree. Male and female flowers usually borne on different trees, but sometimes on different branches of the same tree. Male catkins dense, cylindrical, solitary or in clusters from the points of the branches, or from axillary buds, consisting of numerous spirally arranged stamens. Cones ripening in two or three years, globular, with numerous woody, closely overlapping scales which fall when the seeds are mature. Seeds one on each scale and adherent to it, winged on each edge in most species. Cotyledons usually two or four. The genus is naturally marked out into two sections, character- ized as follows :— A. Colymbea.—Leaves flat, broad. Cones large. Cotyledons remain below ground in germination. Includes A. imbricata, A. Bidwillu, A. brasiliana. B. Eutassa.—Leaves awl-shaped, curved. Cones relatively PINACEAG 151 small. Cotyledons pushed above ground in germination. In- cludes A. Balansw, A. Beccaru, A. Cunninghamu, A. Cookii, A. excelsa, A. Muellert, A. Ruler. The genus Araucaria is closely allied to Agathis, but in the latter genus the seed has usually but one well-developed wing and is free from the scale. In Araucaria the seed is united to the scale, which is usually winged on the edges. Wood resinous, yellowish white, straight-grained, easily worked, and useful for the indoor finish of houses, furniture, carving, box-boards, the commoner kinds of joinery and car- pentry, and for paper pulp. It is probable that S. America has the largest supply of timber for export, that produced in Australia being insufficient even for home needs. The seeds are edible, and several species produce useful resin. Only one species, A. imbricata, is hardy and suitable for outdoor culture in Britain, but all the timber-producing species should be pro- tected and their development encouraged in their native countries, for they produce the best soft-woods of their respective regions. The Araucarias are best propagated by seeds, although it is possible to increase them from cuttings. (See under A. excelsa.) They possess the power, to a remarkable degree, of renewing the leading shoot in case of injury. After a leading shoot has been broken or cut off a number of young, erect shoots appear from below the wound ; such shoots will make very good cuttings. “The Araucaries, Recent and Extinct.’ A. C. Seward, F.R.S., and Sibille O. Ford. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. exevili, 304-411 (1906). Araucaria Balansz, Brongniart and Gris. A. elegans, Hort. A tree 45-60 ft. high, with horizontal branches and long, slender, pendent branchlets. Leaves small, uniform in size, densely crowded on the branchlets and lasting many years ; about 4 in. long, almost as wide at the base, curving inwards and appearing to clasp the stem, stomata on the inner surface. Male catkins 2-3 in. long, 3-1 in. wide. Cones oval, terminating short shoots, 24-3 in. long by 2-23 in. wide, the scales ending in stiff, lance-shaped bristles 4 in. long. A species allied to A. Cookii, but distinguished by its smaller leaves and more slender growth. Native of New Caledonia. A. balanse does not appear to be of any economic importance, but it is grown in greenhouses in Europe on account of its decora- tive character, and may be seen in the Temperate House at Kew. L’ Illustration Horticole, xxii, 26, t. 197. 152 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAS Araucaria Beccarii, Warburg.' Araucaria Cunninghamii, Beccari [not Aiton]; A. Cunninghamii, var. papuana, Laut. A handsome tree, 70-80 ft. high in New Guinea, allied to A. Cunninghamii but differing in its less symmetrical branching and the absence of the candelabra-like habit peculiar to A. Cunninghamit.*: The"leaves of mature trees are about 2 in. long, and about +5 in. wide at the base, the apex sharp-pointed and reflexed. The cones are said to be much larger than those of A. Cunninghamii and the cone-scales longer, with a narrower base and more pointed apex. Found on the Arfak Mountains in N.W. Dutch New Guinea. Araucaria Bidwillii, Hooker. (Fig, 30.) BunyA-BuUNYA. A tree up to 150 ft. high, with a trunk 3-4 ft. in diameter. Young trees pyramidal, symmetrical, and densely branched. Lateral branchlets long and pendent. Bark thick, resinous, outer bark scaling off in thin layers. Young shoots green. Leaves spirally arranged, overlapping, those of sterile shoots lance- shaped, up to 2 in. long and ;,—-1’; in. wide, dark green, stiff, margins entire, apex narrowing into a long, stiff point ; on fertile shoots and on the higher branches shorter, stiffer, incurved, more closely arranged, often less than 1 in. long. In both cases stomata are present in regular lines on the under surface and in irregular lines above. Male and female flowers are usually on different trees, occasionally on the same tree. Male catkins up to 6-7 in. long, and 3 in. wide, produced near the points of the branches on the upper parts of the tree. Cones erect, borne on the higher branches, elliptical or globular, up to 12 in. long, 9 in. wide, and sometimes 10 lb. in weight, containing up to 150 seeds ; scales numerous, 4 in. long, 3 in. wide, the apex drawn out into along, recurved point. Seed large, pear-shaped, 2—25 in. long, and over 1 in. wide in the widest part, maturing the third year, wings rudimentary. A. Bidwillii more closely resembles the 8. American species than the other species from Australasia. It differs from A. imbri- cata in its less rigid leaves and by the looser arrangement of the foliage on the sterile branches. It is a native of the Coast District of Queensland and was brought to notice in 1838 by Mr. Andrew Petrie, Superintendent of Government Works at Moreton Bay. He gave specimens to Mr. J. S. Bidwill, who brought them to Kew, where they were described by Sir W. J. Hooker in 1843. 1 Monsunia, i, 187 (1900); Gibbs, Phytogeogr. and Fl. of the Arfak Moun- tains, 83 (1917). PINACEA 153 Wood creamy-white, easily worked, straight-grained, and suitable for the same purposes as the wood of A. Cunning- hamii, which see. Owing to the food value of the seeds, the wood is not cut so extensively as it would otherwise be. The aborigines depend largely upon the nuts for food, and, when ripe, they travel long distances to the groves or forests for the purpose of collecting and feeding upon the nuts. To protect the trees for the natives, the Government has placed restrictions upon felling, and a tract of hilly country, eighty miles long and forty miles wide, where the trees are plentiful, has been reserved for the natives, who apportion the trees amongst themselves. Each tribe has its own trees, which are again divided amongst families, the trees being thus handed down from generation to generation. Ripe seeds are produced each year, but a full crop is only obtained every third year. The seeds are said to be very fattening. As a cultivated tree in tropical and sub-tropical countries, A. Bidwillii has given excellent results, but it has been planted chiefly for decorative purposes. It should, however, be grown under forest conditions in countries where soft-woods are in demand and the true pines do not thrive, for it is of rapid growth and does not appear to be seriously injured by insect pests. Moist but well drained loamy soil suits it. In Australia there is reason for its extended cultivation. Two fine specimens, each 50 or more ft. high, from which the heads have been removed on several occasions, have been growing in the Temperate House at Kew for 60 or more years. One of them has occasionally pro- duced cones since 1873, but the seeds are not fertile. Baker and Smith, The Pines of Australia, pp. 360-370 (1910) ; W. J. Hooker, Lond. Journ. Bot., t. xviii. Araucaria brasiliana, Richard. CANDELABRA TREE. Araucaria brasiliensis, Loudon. Parana; Pine; Parana Wood. A tree 100 or more ft. high with a tall, straight trunk termin- ated by a flat head of gaunt, horizontal branches with the branchlets in terminal tufts. Branches usually arranged in whorls of 4-8. Leaves green or glaucous, lance-shaped, on sterile branches 14—2+ in. long and up to } in. wide, sometimes appearing as if in pairs, on fertile branches shorter, more densely and spirally arranged, in each case long-pointed, stiff, leathery, with stomata well developed on the under-surface. Male catkins dense, 3-4 in. long, }-? in. wide from the leaf axils of short shoots. Cones broader than long, 5 in. high and 64 in. in diameter, narrowed from the middle upwards ; scales terminated 154 A HANDBOOK OF CONIFERAt by stiff, recurved appendages. Seeds bright brown, up to 2 in. long, ? in. wide and + in. thick. Var. Saviana, Parlatore. Differs from the type by its narrower, glaucous leaves. A. brasiliana is allied to A. imbricata, but is readily known by its softer and more loosely arranged leaves. It is a native of the mountains of Brazil and the Argentine. The wood is yellowish, soft, straight-grained, and suitable for joinery and carpentry, particularly for the indoor finish of houses, box making, paper pulp, etc. The supply will probably not exceed the demand of S. America.