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Srts A HANDBOOK

EUROPEAN BIRDS,

FOR THE USE OF

FIELD NATURALISTS AND COLLECTORS.

BY

JAMES BACKHOUSE, Jun., F.ZS.,

eee
MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS UNION ; HON. CURATOR
OF ORNITHOLOGY IN THE MUSEUM OF THE YORKSHIRE
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, YORK.

LONDON :
GURNEY AND JACKSON, 1, PATERNOSTER ROW

(Successors to Mr. Van Voorst).

YORK: WILLIAM SESSIONS, LOW OUSEGATE.

1890

HAYMAN, CHRISTY AND LILLY, LTD.,
PRINTERS,
HAITON WORKS, 113, FARRINGDON ROAD,
AND 20, 22, ST. BRIDE ST., E.C.

LibRAT

Wa

&

DprA. \Nermore

a ogous W es ee

AVING frequently experienced the need of a

handy modern reference volume, descriptive of
the plumage of European birds, I have been induced to
publish the present work. Special care has been given
to condense the subject-matter used so that it may
accomplish the end of a pocket reference book.

Many of the finest bird collections in the kingdom
have been carefully examined, and the best modern
authorities have been consulted.

In the following pages, frequent allusions are made to
the great Faunal Areas of the globe, as set forth by
Dr FE: -L. Sclaterin 1857. “These may be briefly detmed
as follows :—

I. The PALEARCTIC REGION, embracing Europe and
the European islands ; North-western Africa (including
Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, &c.), the Azores, Canaries and
Madeira ; the whole of Asia, north of the Himalayas ;
Afghanistan, Persia, Palestine and Asia Minor. (The
western division of this region includes the Urals, Asia
Minor, and Palestine, west of the Jordan).

2. The ETHIOPIAN REGION, embracing Africa gene-
rally (excepting the Mauritanian Region).

3. The INDIAN REGION, embracing Asia, south of

vi PREFACE.

the Himalayas (including Sime Java, Borneo, the
Philippine Islands, Formosa and Madagascar).

4. The AUSTRALIAN REGION, embracing the Moluc-
cas, New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand and most of
the Pacific islands.

5. The NEARCTIC REGION, embracing North America
(excluding Mexico) and Greenland.

6. The NEOTROPICAL REGION, embracing Mexico,
Central America, the West Indies and the whole of South
America.

The present work is intended to treat of Auropean
Birds only, but it is by no means easy in some cases to
decide which species deserve to be thus described. Two
Appendices will therefore be added: one comprising a
list of strictly Asiatic or African birds which have only
casually occurred within European limits; the other a
list of the Nearctic (North American) species, of which
records are extant in Europe.

I have purposely omitted any description of young
birds “in down.” In all cases, the only really safe guide
to the determination of their species is to be supplied by
identifying the parent bird ; and careful observation will
usually ensure the desired result.

Though, in almost every description hereafter given, -
some of the more peculiarly characteristic features of the
various species have been indicated by the use of italic
type, it is to be understood that though these are notified
as having special significance in studying a particular
species, care should always be taken to read through

PREFACE. vii

the whole of the description, before arriving at a con-
clusion.

To a detailed description of the various plumages
have been added brief notes upon the Dzstrzbution and
Fflabitat of each species.

The dimensions given are necessarily only approxi-
mate, the influence of geographical situation, age, sex,
&c., causing considerable variation.

For the convenience of those unacquainted with Orni-
thological technical terms, a Frontispiece, illustrating
the outlines of a bird, and showing the names of the
various parts, has been prepared.

The grateful thanks of the Author are due to those
who have, either by the loan of books and specimens, or
by their kind advice, aided him in his work, which has
been no light one; but, as “in the multitude of coun-
sellors there is wisdom,” so, by the kindness and co-
operation of fellow-workers,the labour has been materially
lightened.

Should this little volume (with all its faults) prove of
value to ornithologists, more especially to those travelling
abroad, and in any small degree assist them in their
studies, the aim of the writer will have been accom-
plished.

JAMES BACKHOUSE, Jun.

WEsT BANK, YORK, Mar., 189o.

ERR ACT A

Page 67. Oriolus galbula. For “ tippped ” read “ tipped.”
», 127. Picus leuconotus. Habitat. For D. major read P. major.
128. Picus lilfordi. For D, leuconotus and D. major read P. leuconotus
and P. major.
» 128. Picus medius. Adult Male. For D. major read P. mayor.
129. Picus minor. For D. major read P. major.
» 129. Picus pipra. For D. minor read P. minor.
164. For Zlanus coeruleus, read Elanus ceruleus.
304. For Merculus alle, read Mergulus alle. .
316. Appendix B. For smaragnotus read smaragdonotus.

A HANDBOOK

OF

eee BAN or RDS:

Order PASSERES.

Section OSCINES DENTIROSTRES.

Family TURDIDA.
Subfamily TURDINA.

Genus TURDUS.

MISSEL THRUSH.
Turdus viscivorus zn.

Adult: Above, a nearly uniform greyish-brown ; wings and
coverts a darker brown, with pale margins, the latter tipped with
whitish ; tail feathers lighter than wings, outer ones tipped
(inner webs) with dull white ; beneath white shaded with buff
on chest and flanks and covered thickly with black spots,
which become more triangular as they approach the head;
axillaries white; bill dark brown; legs and feet pale brown ;
irides dark brown. Length 11 inches; culmen 08; wing
6'0 to 6°25 ; tarsus 1°25.

B

2 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Young on leaving nest esa and neck fluffy, with a
dappled appearance ; centres of back-feathers golden-buff, with
blackish edges and tips; most of wing-feathers more or less
broadly margined with golden-buff; beneath buff, becoming
whitish toward the chin, spotted thickly with brownish-black.

Young in Autumn: Very similar to adult, but paler
above, and margins of wing-feathers whitish ; beneath more
generally suffused with buff.

Distribution: Resident in temperate Europe, migrating
from countries where winters are severe to South Europe and
North Africa.

Habitat: Woodlands and cultivated regions.

SONG THRUSH. V 2.
Turdus musicus Zz.

Adult: Above dark olive-brown ; primaries and wing-
coverts margined with golden-brown, some of latter tipped
with buff; eyebrow buff; beneath buff, shading into white
on abdomen; chest, sides of throat and body covered with
dark brown spots or blotches ; axz//aries buff; bill dark brown,
paler beneath ; irides, legs and feet brown. Length, 8 inches ;
culmen; 076 ; Wing, 4°45 .tarsus, 1°15.

Nestling : Similar, but showing on upper back feathers
median streaks of buff, with blackish-brown tips; underparts
paler and spots smaller.

Distribution: Resident in temperate Europe, migrating
from countries where winters are severe, to South Europe and
North Africa.

Habitat : Woods, hedgerows, gardens, and orchards.

REDWING.
Turdus iliacus Zznzx.

Adult: Above olive brown, darker on the head; superctitary
stripe broad, whttish ; wings darker than back, but with paler
external margins; greater wing-coverts tipped with whitish ;
beneath whitish ; sides of throat and chest streaked with deep

TURDIDA—THRUSHES. 3

brown ; sides of body and axiflaries deep orange-rufous ; bill
- blackish, yellow at base beneath; legs and feet dull brown;
irides brown. Length 8 inches; culmen 0°6; wing 4°7;
tarsus I°I5.

Nestling: Very similar to adult, but streaked on the
back with yellowish-white ; upper wing-coverts slightly suffused
with rufous.

Distribution: Winter visitant to Southern and Western
Europe, breeding in Arctic regions of Europe and Asia.

Habitat: Cultivated regions, woods, commons, &c.

FIELDFARE.
Turdus pilaris Zinn.

Adult (Summer): Head, neck, and rump grey, clearer
on latter; centres of crown feathers blackish ; centre of back,
scapulars and wing-coverts chestnut ; wings and tail blackish-
brown, the feathers of the former having narrow pale margins ;
tail-feathers much darker than wings; superciliary stripe
whitish ; beneath, white below chest, blotched in centres of
flank-feathers with rich, dark brown; entire chin, throat and
chest golden-buff, spotted thickly, especially on sides of throat,
with deep brown; axillaries white; bill yellowish at base.
tipped with black; legs and feet blackish-brown ; irides dark
brown. Length 10°25 inches; culmen 07; wing 5°8; tarsus

Hi:

Adult (Winter): Dark centres of feathers on crown and
forehead obscured by pale margins ; spots also on under surface
less conspicuous than in spring or summer from same cause ;
bill browner.

Nestling: Crown brown; eye-stripe buff; centre of back
and scapulars streaked sparsely with buff; underparts, much as
in adult ; but the spots are rounder below the chest, on which
they mingle into a kind of band.

Young fully grown: Head greyish, washed with olive-
brown, marked with black on forehead only; back and rump
much duller than in adults; on the former (and on some of
wing-coverts) are narrow median lines of buff; rump tinged
strongly with buff; eye-stripe and cheeks buff; beneath, rich
ochre, shading into white on abdomen, and spotted with black,
except on centre of throat and abdomen.

B 2

4 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution: Winters in Picien and Western Europe,
and inhabits northern pine-regions of Europe and Asia during
the breeding season.

Habitat: Forests during the breeding season: cultivated
country or commons in winter.

RED-TAILED FIELDFARE.
Turdus naumanni Zemm.

Adult Male: Fore part above, greyish-brown, marked on
crown with darker brown ; rump and tail-feathers light fox-red,
the central feathers of the latter almost entirely dark brown,
and all the other rectrices externally margined with the same ;
under surface of tatl rufous; wings dark brown; primary
feathers narrowly margined externally with pale, reddish-buff,
with a broad patch of the same on inner web (basal half) ;
secondaries and wing-coverts, broadly margined with pale
rufous-buff ; superciliary stripe, sides of neck, chin, throat and
breast, chestnut; indistinctly marked on either side of throat
with small, black spots ; abdomen whitish ; flanks spotted or
blotched with chestnut ; ax7laries fox-red ;. bill blackish,
yellowish at base; legs, feet, and irides, light brown. Length
9 inches ; culmen 0°8 ; wing 5°5 ; tarsus 1°25.

Adult Female: Above, very similar to male, but more
olivaceous in tint; beneath, whitish, tinged with rufous on
throat and chest, which are spotted with blackish; flanks,
strongly blotched with rufous. |

Young: More olivaceous above, with no rufous, except at
bases of outer rectrices ; eye-stripe only imperfectly developed ;
beneath, white, spotted with blackish-brown on sides of throat ;
flanks slightly marked with ‘pale rusty-red ; sometimes much
spotted on breast, like Z? musicus.

. Distribution: A strictly Eastern species, occurring occa-.
sionally in Europe on migration.

Habitat: Dense conifer woods.

DUSKY THRUSH.
Turdus fuscatus Pal/.
Adult Male: Above, dark brown, blackish on crown and

TURDID.A—THRUSHES. 5

nape, all the feathers broadly margined with greyish-brown or
paler brown; feathers of rump bordered with rufous; wings
dark brown; primaries narrowly margined with buff; secon-
daries and greater wing-coverts broadly margined with bright
chestnut-red ; axillaries fox-red ; broad superciliary stripe
whitish ; sides of face dusky ; chin and throat buffy-white,
bordered on either side by small, black spots; rest of under-
parts whiter; centres of breast and flank-feathers blackish ;
under tail-coverts brown, with rufous tinge; under-surface of
tail brown; bill blackish-brown, paler at base; legs and feet
brown ; irides dark brown. Length 8°75 to 9 inches ; culmen
0°75; wing 5; tarsus 1°25.

Adult Female: Similar, but duller and paler.

Young: Above, paler and browner than adult ; tail dark
brown above and beneath, showing no rufous; under parts
white, slightly tinged with buff on breast ; the latter with throat
and flanks broadly spotted with blackish.

Distribution : Very rare autumn straggler from Central Asia.

Habitat: Very similar to that of Z: prlarvs.

BLACK-THROATED THRUSH.
Turdus atrigularis Zemm.

Adult Male; Above, greyish-brown, crown feathers with
darker centres; wings and tail browner, with pale margins to
most of the feathers ; wing-coverts and outer webs of some of
secondaries greyish-brown ; occular region, chin, throat, sides
of neck and chest black, some of the feathers having pale
margins; rest of underparts white, washed on flanks with
greyish-brown, and marked on under tail-coverts with reddish-
brown ; axillaries rufous ; bill black, yellowish at base: irides
dark brown; legs and feet light brown. Length 9°5 inches ;
culmen 0°75 ; wing 5°4; tail 4°4; tarsus 1°35.

Adult Female: Above, very similar to male; beneath,
white, copiously streaked on throat and chest with lines of
black spots ; rest of underparts as in male.

Young in first plumage: Feathers of back show
ochreous centres and blackish tips; wing-coverts and some of
secondaries ochreous tipped ; throat, breast, and flanks spotted
with blackish ; superciliary stripe buff.

6 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution: Rare straggl@ from Central Asia.
Habitat: Thinly-wooded plains.

DARK THRUSH.
Turdus obscurus Gmel.

Adult Male: Adove, clivaceous-brown, washed with grey
on crown and nape; neck and throat dull slate-grey ; wings
brown, the outer webs washed with olive ; primaries greyish
edged ; tail brown, outer rectrices tipped with whitish on
inner webs; ear-coverts, throat, and cheeks, slaty-brown ;
superciliary stripe white; breast orange-buff ; flanks washed
with chestnut ; rest of under parts and a patch under the eye
white; the under tail-coverts marked with brown; axzl/aries
slaty ; bill dark brown, yellow beneath; legs and feet pale
brown. Length 7°5 inches; culmen 0°88; wing 4°75; tail
305 iG ska tSUS 2,

Adult Female: No grey tint on the crown and nape;
superciliary stripe pale buff; chin, throat, and sides of neck
whitish ; on either side of throat a stripe of brown.

Young: Feathers above, olivaceous, spotted with ochreous,
and dark-tipped; beneath, white, throat and breast thickly
spotted with dark brown; flanks dull orange ; yellowish-white
eye-stripe less distinct than in adult.

Distribution: A very rare straggler from Eastern Asia.

Habitat : Fir forests.

WHITE’S THRUSH.
Turdus varius Pad/..

Adults : Adove, olive brown ; wings brown, bordered with’
buff; wing-coverts tipped with buff ; ¢az7(o0f 14 feathers) brown,
tipped with white, the outer ones darker than the rest; lores
greyish-white ; beneath, white, tinged on breast with ochreous ;
axillaries white and black; whole of upper parts broadly
marked with black, crescent-shaped spots; under parts simi-
larly marked, faintly so however on chin, abdomen, and under
ail-coverts ; bill brown, paler beneath ; legs and feet yellowish-

TURDIDA—THRUSHES. 7

brown. Length 12 inches; culmen 1 to 1°23; wing 6 to 6:5;
tail 4°5 ; tarsus 1°35.

Immature Birds: Unknown.

Distribution: A rare visitor on migration from Southern-
Central Asia.

Habitat : Wooded regions.

SIBERIAN THRUSH.

Turdus sibiricus Fad.

Adult Male: Adove, dark slaty-grey ; head darker; wings
dark brown, externally margined with dark grey, most of quills
having a white blotch at base of inner web; tail-feathers
chiefly dark-brown, some of outer ones terminating with a
white spot; beneath, similar to back, shading into white on
centre of abdomen ; superciliary stripe broad and white ; axtl-
laries white and grey, under tail-coverts tipped with white ;
bill blackish-brown; legs: and feet light brown; irides dark
brown. Length g inches; culmen 09; wing 4°4 to 4°75;
tail 3°4; tarsus 1°2.

Adult Female: Above, rich olive-brown, shading into
slaty-grey on rump: wings dark brown, externally bordered
with reddish-brown ; tail-feathers dark brown, with terminal
blotch of white on inner web on outermost pair ; beneath, white,
shading into buff on breast; flanks shaded with brown; all
feathers of lower parts except on central abdomen, tipped with
olive-brown ; eye-stripe buff.

Young Male (Autumn): Very like adult, but has
head and wings washed with brown, some of wing-coverts
tipped with ochreous-buff ; throat and breast washed with buff
and barred.

Distribution: A very rare straggler from Northern Asia.

BLACKBIRD. ™
Turdus merula Zznz.

Adult Male: <Adsove and beneath, uniform glossy black,
except on quills which are slightly browner; bill orange yel-

8 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

low ; legs, feet, and irides, daght brown. Length 10 to 1%
inches ; culmen 0°85 ; wing 4°75 to 5°5 ; tail 4; tarsus 1°3.

Adult Female: Above, uniform olive-brown ; beneath,
brown, becoming paler towards chin, and shaded with grey on
abdomen ; throat and chest spotted with dark brown; centres
of feathers of abdomen and flanks dark brown; bill brown,
or occasionally yellow in very old birds; legs, feet, and soles,
dark brown.

Young in first plumage: Above, blackish-brown, most
of the feathers having a median streak of pale rufous, feathers
of under parts, light rufous-brown, with darker terminal bands.
Males are darker above than females.

Young Male (Autumn): Similar to adult, but has
a blackish bill.

Young Female (Autumn): Resembles adult except for
a slight vinous tinge on the breast.

Distribution: Resident throughout most of Europe, the
Azores, Northern Africa, and Palestine. A summer visitant
only to regions immediately south of the Arctic Circle.

Habitat: Cultivated country, gardens, groves, orchards,
&c.

RING OUZEL. A,
Turdus torquatus zy.

Adult Male (Summer): Adove and beneath, blackish-
brown, with broad white gorget ; wings and coverts with paler
margins, also feathers of abdomen and under tail-coverts ;
axillaries greyish-brown; bill yellow; legs and feet brown.
Length zo inches; culmeh 9°75; wing § to Sy enall qa:
tarsus 1°25.

Adult Female: Chocolate-brown instead of black; chin
and throat-feathers margined with whitish; gorget suffused
with brown ; bill brown.

Adults (Winter): Differ only from summer plumage in
having pale margins to most of the feathers and the white
gorget (especially in the female) less pure.

Young in first plumage: Barred more or less above and
beneath with black and brown; wing-coverts tipped with
ochreous.

Young (Autumn): Under parts have broad whitish
margins to the feathers. In males the gorget is shaded with

TURDIDAZ—ROCK THRUSHES. 9

brown as in adult females, and in females it is hardly percep-
tible.

Distribution: Summer visitant to British Islands and
mountainous regions of temperate Europe, wintering in North-
ern and Central Africa and Asia Minor.

Habitat : Elevated, rocky localities.

Genus MONTICOLA.
ROCK-T ARUSE.

Monticola saxatilis (Zzzz.)

Adult Male: Joreparts above, bluish-grey ; lower back
white ; scapulars brownish-black ; wings dark-brown, coverts
and secondaries tipped with pale buff; ¢az/-feathers chestnut-
brown, the central ones darker; beneath, pale chestnut,
except throat, which is grey; bill black; legs and feet deep
reddish-brown. Length 8 inches; culmen 0'7; wing 4°75;
taula75 ; tarsus 1-1.

Adult Female: Above, dull brown, marked with whitish,
and brown on back; tail paler than in male; throat and
sides of neck, white, mottled with brown; feathers of rest of
under-parts white, with reddish tinge, and marked with fine
transverse lines.

Young in first plumage: Very like young in autumn,
but are rather more conspicuously spotted.

Young (Autumn): Feathers above, more or less dark
ashy-brown with broad margins of fulvous-white ; wings dark
brown, conspicuously margined with fulvous-white ; beneath,
orange-rufous, with a narrow, irregular bar of brown at tip of
each feather ; bill and feet horn-brown.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Southern and South-
eastern Europe, appearing in Northern Africa on migration,
and wintering in South-eastern Africa.

Habitat: High, rocky ground, usually at greater elevation
than AZ. cyanus.

BLUE ROCK-THRUSH.

Monticola cyanus (Lzvz.)
: Adult Male (Summer): Entire plumage blush-slate

10 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

colour, bluer on the head ; win®, wing-coverts and tail-feathers,
dark brown, margined with blue on the outer webs; bill
black ; irides brown; legs, feet and claws, black. Length,
8°25 inches ; culmen 0°85; wing 4°75 ; tail 3°5 ; tarsus 1'I.

Adult Male (Winter): Feathers of upper and under
parts margined with pale brown, especially on the head.

Adult Female: Much browner above, and less suffused
with blue; beneath, pale whitish-brown, shaded with blue on
breast and abdomen ; the feathers sub-terminally banded with
dark brown.

Young in first plumage: Very similar to adult fone

Young Male (Winter): Above, bluish, shaded with
brown on the fore parts, most of back and rump-feathers,
obscurely edged with very pale brown; quill-feathers tipped
with whitish; throat-feathers almost entirely buff; breast-
feathers buff, with cindery-brown edgings.

Distribution: Breeds in Southern Europe, extending east-
wards to South-eastern Asia. Winters in Northern Africa,
occurring as far south as Abyssinia.

Habitat: Elevated rocky, barren regions.

Subfamily SAXICOLINA.

_ Genus SAXICOLA.
WHEATEAR.» ©

Saxicola cenanthe (Lzzz.)

Adult Male (Summer): Aédove, pearl-grey,; forehead,
superciliary stripe, and rump white; wings blackish-brown,
secondaries just tipped, and some narrowly margined with
whitish ; tail-feathers white at base, central pair having the
terminal half black, outer ones broadly tipped with black ;
sides of face black ; beneath, white, shaded on throat, breast and
flanks with buff; under wing-coverts black and white ; bill, legs,
and feet, black; irides dark brown. Length 5°75 to 6:25
inches ; culmen 05 ; wing 3°6 to 3'8; tail 2°45; tarsus 1.

Adult Female (Summer): Very like the male, but has

TURDIDAA—CHATS. It

the upper parts dull brown; sides of face, wings and tail,
browner ; superciliary stripe buff.

Adults (Winter): Like adult female in summer, but have
the wings, wing-coverts and tail margined towards the tips
with buffish-brown, innermost secondaries very broadly so.

Young in first plumage: Above, greyish-brown with a
delicate pinky tinge when living, barred and mottled with dark
brown ; upper tail-coverts white, tipped (obscurely) with brown;
wings and tail as in adults in winter; beneath, buffy-white,
paler on chin and abdomen ; fore parts mottled with brown ;
bill dark brown, paler beneath.

Young Male in first breeding dress: Like adult
but more cindery-grey above, shading into dull chestnut above
rump; wings and tail dark brown, secondaries with narrow
whitish margins: some of wing-coverts bordered with dull
chestnut.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Central and Northern
Europe, extending to Iceland and Greenland, and eastwards,
throughout Northern Siberia. In winter, ranges from Western
and Northern Africa to Persia and Northern India.

Habitat: Rocky hillsides, mountain-tops, stony places on
high moors, &c. .

BLACK-EARED CHAT.
Saxicola aurita Zemm.

Adult Male (Summer): Above, white, clouded with
rufous on neck and back ; narrow frontal band, and sides of
face black; wings blackish, with somewhat paler tips; tail-
feathers, with external half of outer ones, black, central pair
three-fourths black; ¢#voat and under parts white, shaded
with very pale rufous ; bill, legs and feet, black ; irides brown.
Peneth 575 inches; culmen. 0°62; wing 3°5 ; tail’ 2°5';
tarsus 0°9.

Adult Female (Summer): Fore parts above, brownish-
grey ; wings and cheeks brownish-black ; under parts, white,
tinged with rufous on breast.

Adult Male (Autumn): Browner above than in summer,
and many of wing-feathers margined or tipped with rufous.

Young in first plumage: Feathers on head, back, and
breast have obscure pale centres, and dark terminal bands ;

[2 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

wing-coverts, innermost secoraries and tail-feathers broadly
tipped with buff.

Young in Autumn: Very like adult, but head and back
are more buffy-brown, also marked with grey; tail-feathers
narrowly tipped with whitish ; under parts, dirty white, clouded
with brown on breast.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Southern and South-
eastern portions of Europe, Asia Minor, Palestine, and
occasionally of Northern Africa, inhabiting in winter Western
or Central Africa.

Habitat: Dry plains, or margins of deserts.

BLACK-THROATED CHAT.

Saxicola stapazina Vrer//.

Adult Male: Upfger parts and sides of neck white, washed
with pale rufous on fore parts, and a tinge of grey on crown ;
upper ¢hroat, sides of face, and wings d/ack ; secondaries
tipped with white ; two thirds of central rectrices and terminal
half of outer ones black; beneath white, tinged on breast
with rufous ; bill, legs and feet black ; irides brown. Length
575 inches ; culmen o°6 ; "wing 3°5 ; tail 2-5: "tarsus oie

Adult Female: Head, nape and back dull rufous ; super-
ciliary streak and eye-patch well marked ; wing feathers mostly
tipped with white and broadly margined with rufous.

Young in first plumage: Obscure pale centres and
dark terminal bars to feathers of throat, breast, crown, and
back.

Young in Autumn: Fore parts above, and breast, suffused
with buff; inner wing-feathers and coverts margined with buff ;
primaries and tail-feathers tipped with buff, or whitish.

Distribution: South of France, Spain, and North-west
Africa, resident in the latter.

' Habitat: Dry, stony, or desert regions, and sometimes
among rocks near the sea ; occasionally among trees.

EASTERN BLACK-THROATED CHAT.
Saxicola melanoleuca (Gii/d.)

; Adult Male: Adove white, marked on crown with grey,

TURDIDA—CHATS. 13

and on back shaded with pale buff ; entire chin, throat, sides
of throat, and lower throat deep black, whereas in preceding
species the black is confined to uppper part of throat, and is
less developed on sides of neck; wings, terminal half of
outer rectrices, and two-thirds of innermost pair black ; breast
just tinged with pale buff; bill, legs and feet black. Length
5°5 inches ; culmen 0°6 ; wing 3°5; tail 2°5; tarsus 0°85.

Adult Female: Above darker than S. stapazina ;
secondaries dark brown to tips, black on throat descends
lower down as in male.

Young in first plumage: Similar to S. stapazina.

Young after first moult: Very like that of preceding
species, but shows more black on throat.

Distribution: Summer visitant from Central Africa to
South-eastern Europe, Asia Minor, and Northern Palestine.

Habitat : Similar localities to preceding : at low elevations.

DESERT CHAT. x
Saxicola deserti /uwf/.

Adult Male: Adove silvery-buff, shading into white on
rump; eye stripe narrow, whit:sh ; wings dark brown, second-
aries and some of wing-coverts margined with white ; rectrices
white at bases, and terminal two-thirds black; chin, throat,
and sides of neck black (in wdzfer, margined with white) ;
rest of under parts creamy-buff, slightly washed on chest with
pale rufous ; bill, legs, and feet black (the latter very smalZ) ;
irides brown. Length 5°5 to 6 inches; culmen 06; wing
3°5; tail 2°25; tarsus I. :

Adult Female: Crown, nape, back, cheeks, and chest
buff or isabelline-buff; throat whitish ; wings and tail brown.

Young in first plumage: Feathers of fore parts both
above and beneath have pale centres; quills and tail-feathers
tipped with buff.

Distribution ; Summer visitant in Algeria, Egypt, Arabia,
and Palestine; ranging through Abyssinia to North - west
India in winter. Has occurred in Great Britain and also
in Heligoland.

Habitat: Solitary, desert or dry, rocky regions.

14 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
ISABELIMNE CHAT.
Saxicola isabellina iif.

Adult Male: <Adove sandy-brown ; lower rump and
upper tail-coverts white ; wings dull brown, with paler mar-
gins; tail-feathers white at bases, central pair two-thirds, and
outer ones half brownish-b/ack, with very narrow pale margins
and tips; superciliary-stripe whitish ; ¢2voat and under parts
white, washed, especially on breast and flanks, with isabelline ;
under surface of wing white ; bill, legs, and feet black ; irides
brown. Length 6 to 6°25 inches; culmen 0°5; wing 3°75 ;
tail 2°35 5 tarsus 1°3.

Adult Female: Resembles male, but is somewhat duller.

Young in first plumage: Pale obscure transverse ter-
minal bars, and pale centres to most of upper and under
feathers ; under wing-coverts white.

Distribution: Southern Russia, Asia Minor, Palestine
and Egypt, wintering in Palestine, Egypt, Nubia, and Abys-
sinia.

Habitat : Similar to that of S. aurita.

EASTERN PIED CHAT.
Saxicola leucomela Fa//.

Adults (Summer): Cvowz and nape dirty grey ; rump,
upper tail-coverts, and under parts below chest white, inclining
to buff at vent ; plumage otherwise, including under surface of
wing, diack. \uength 6 inches; culmen’ .0*55 wing 345
tarsus o’9. In females the fore parts above and beneath are
washed with brown.

Adults (Winter): Most of feathers both above and
beneath have brown margins. :

Young in first plumage: Quills and tail-feathers have
broad pale edges and dark terminal bars, with pale centres to
back and breast feathers.

Young in Autumn: Brownish margins of wing and tail-
feathers broader, otherwise very like adults in winter.

Distribution: Southern Russia, Gaucasus, Cyprus, and
Central Asia, wintering in Arabia and Abyssinia.

Habitat: Dry, stony localities.

TURDIDZ—CHATS. 5
BLACK CHAT.
Saxicola leucura (Gme/.)

Adult Male: Upper and under tail-coverts, basal two-
thirds of outer tail-feathers and vent, pure white ; plumage other-
wise deep brownish-black, browner on wings ; bill, irides, brown;
legs and feet black. Length 6.5 inches; culmen 0°8 ; wing
2-955 tatli2-75; tarsus: 1°05.

Adult Female: Similar in general appearance, but much
browner, and the white parts tinged with buff.

Young in first plumage: Quills narrowly margined
with pale brown ; tail-feathers, tipped with white.

Distribution: Resident in South-western Europe, a few
also in Spain.

Habitat: Wild, dry, rocky ravines: strictly a mountain
bird.

Genus PRATINCOLA.
WHINCHAT. Vc

Pratincola rubetra (Lznz.)

Adult Male: Feathers above, dark brown, with buff mar-
gins, those on rump tinged with rufous; wings dark brown,
narrowly margined with buff; greater coverts black; inner
wing-coverts and a small patch on spurious wing white; tail
dark brown ; bases of all outer feathers white ; eve-stripe, chin,
and line on either side of throat, w/zte; sides of face dark
brown ; centre of throat and dveast fawn colour, shading into
pale buff on abdomen ; bill, legs, and feet black ; irides brown ;
Length 5 inches; culmen 0.4; wing 3; tail 1°95; tarsus 0°85.

Adult Female: Above duller than male; superciliary-
stripe dirty yellowish-white ; wings showing only trace of
whitish tips to some of coverts (purer white in winter) ; be-
neath dull yellowish-white, flanks washed with rufous.

Immature Birds: Very like adult females, but the eye-
stripe less distinct and hardly any white on the wings.

Distribution : In-summer throughout temperate Europe,
wintering in Northern Africa.

Habitat: Bushy hill-sides, commons, or meadows.

16 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
STONFCHAT. V1
Pratincola rubicola (Zznz.)

Adult Male (Summer): Feathers of fore parts above
black, with brown margins ; wpper tazl-coverts and some of greater
wing-coverts white , wing and tail-feathers black, with brown
margins; entire sides of face and ¢hvoat black ; large patch on
sides of neck white; chest and flanks rufous-brown, shading
into yellowish-white on abdomen; axillaries usually white,
mottled with black; bill, legs, and feet black ; irides brown.
Length 5°25 inches; culmen 0°4; wing 2°75; tail 2); tarsus

0'9.

Adult Female (Summer): Above blackish-brown, with
reddish margins to most of the feathers ; very little white on
wings ; throat feathers blackish at bases, margined with white
or pale rufous at tip.

Adult Male (Winter): Feathers above bordered with
reddish-brown ; paler beneath than in summer. -

Young in first plumage: Feathers above dark brown,
with median streaks of lighter brown ; quills and tail-feathers
broadly margined with buff; no white on sides of neck.

Distribution: Inhabits temperate Europe west of the
Volga; winters in Africa.

Habitat: Barren moors or commons: partial to thorn-
thickets and furze-bushes.

EASTERN STONECHAT.
Pratincola maura (Fa//.)

Adult Male: Resembles adult male of P. rudbicola, but
has the upper tatl-coverts unspotted, white, the white collar
more extended, and the ax:lartes black. Length 4°75 inches ;
culmen 0°35; wing 2°7 ;-tailj 1°38; tarsus 1-75.

Adult Female: Chin and throat white, otherwise like
female of P. rudzicola.

Distribution: Central Asia and Siberia, ranging into
North-eastern Russia. Common in the Petchora Valley.

Habitat: Low bushes and thickets, cultivated regions.

TURDIDA—REDSTARTS. Ly

Genus RUTICILLA.

REDSTART. S/4
Ruticilla phoenicurus (Zzzz.)

Adult Male: Forehead white, with narrow black band
immediately above the bill; crown, Jack, and scapulars gvey,
tinged here and there with brown; rump, upper tail-coverts,
and outer tail-feathers rufous, central rectrices brown, with
rufous margins ; wing-quills brown, with narrow, pale margins ;
sides of face, sides of neck and throat, black ; axzllaries chest-
nut, rest of under-parts rufous, shading into white on vent ;
bill black; legs and feet nearly black; irides dark brown.
Length 5°5 inches; culmen 0°45; wing 3 to 3°25; tail 2°45 ;
tarsus 0°09.

Adult Female: Above, fore parts, brownish-grey, rump
and tail-feathers dull orange red, except central pair, which
are reddish-brown ; beneath greyish-white, tinged with rufous
on throat and breast.

Adult Male (Winter): Feathers above closely mar-
gined with brown, almost obscuring the grey.

Nestling: Feathers above dull ochre, edged with brown ;
wings and tail like female, but somewhat duller; beneath
sandy-buff, edged with brown; under tail-coverts tinged with
red.

Young Male in Autumn: Above similar to adult
female, but beneath showing black bases to throat-feathers,
- and rufous bases to those of chest and flanks.

Distribution: Breeds in Central and Northern Europe,
south of the Arctic Circle, migrating through Southern Europe
to Northern Africa in autumn.

Habitat: Rocky hillsides, among undergrowth, or cultivated
country near woods, gardens or orchards.

EHRENBERG’S REDSTART.
Ruticilla mesoleuca (Zi/;.)

Adult Male: <Adove darker grey than in R. phenicurus ;
Cc

18 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

secondaries with outer websSM@lmost entirely white ; white on
forehead more extended ; under parts orange-red, shading into
whitish on centre of abdomen ; otherwise resembles 2. phent-
turus, Length 5 to 5°5 inches; wing 3; culmen 0°35 ; tail
2°15; tarsus.o°8.

Adult Female: Above greyer than in female of preceding ;
forehead and sides of head dirty white; beneath greyer and
more sooty; breast and flanks tinged with dull greyish-orange.
Young: Unknown.

Distribution: Probably resident in Greece, Asia Minor,
and the Caucasus.

Habitat: Rocky, wooded ravines. Plane woods.

BLACK REDSTART OR BLACKSTART.
Ruticilla titys (Scop.)

Adult Male: Foreparts above slaty-grey ; wings dusky-
brown, secondaries bordered broadly on outer webs with
white; tail-coverts and tail rufous, the latter tipped with
brown, central rectrices brown, externally bordered {with
rufous ; narrow frontal band, sides of face, throat, sides of
neck, breast and axzl/aries black; abdomen greyish-white ;
vent rufous; bill, legs and feet blackish; irides brown.
Length 5°75 to 6 inches; culmen 0°45: wing 3°4; tail 2°5;
tarsus 0°'9Q.

Adult Female: Sooty-brown, except tail-feathers, which
are like those of male, and secondaries which are ex-
ternally bordered with light brown, underparts also tinged
with rufous.

Nestling: Above sooty-grey washed with brown ; rump
and upper tail-coverts orange-red, barred with brown; tail-
feathers reddish-brown ; beneath sooty-grey, marked with
brown, shading into buff on abdomen ; gullet yellow.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Central Europe, occur-
ring on the south coast of England in winter. Resident in
some countries south of the Alps, but the majority migrate to
Northern Africa in winter.

Habitat: Amongst buildings, wild rocky ravines, marine
rocks, &c.

TURDID4A—REDSTARTS. | 19
GOULD’S REDSTART.

Ruticilla ochrura Gwme/.

Adult: Forehead, nape, back and wing-coverts black or
greyish-black ; crown dull grey; upper and under tail-
coverts, tail and abdomen cinnamon-rufous ; central pair of
tail-feathers having outer webs brown ; wings brown, the second-
aries having narrow white margins ; throat, breast, under wing-
coverts and axillaries black; bill and legs nearly black; irides
brown. Length 5°8 inches ; culmen 0°35 ; wing 3°25; tail 2-4;
tarsus 0°85.

Distribution: Rare straggler to the extreme east of
Europe and Central Asia, breeding in the Caucasus and Asia
Minor.

Habitat: Probably like that of 2. phenicurus.

GULDENSTADT’S REDSTART.
Ruticilla erythrogastra (Gii/d.)

Adult Male: Narrow frontal band black; crown, nape,
and dases of wing quills white ; back, and rest of wings, black ;
rump, upper tail-coverts and outer tail-feathers deep rufous ;
central rectrices tinged with brown; entire sides of head,
chin, and throat black; rest of underparts deep rufous; bill,
legs, and feet, black ; irides dark brown. Length 7 inches ;
culmen 0°5 ; wing 4; tail 3°15 ; tarsus 0°8.

Adult Female: General plumage brownish-ash, darker
above ; tail-coverts rufous; quills greyish-brown, showing no
white. Almost equal in size to the male.

Young in first plumage: Have obscure pale centres
to feathers both above and beneath. Immature males re-
semble adult female, but have innermost secondaries and
wing-coverts tipped with buff; vent and under tail-coverts
pure white.

Distribution : Ranges from the Caucasus through Central
Asia.

- Habitat: Elevated country in rocky localities—wooded

stream sides (Dresser).
€ 2

20 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

a
Subfamily SVYLVIINA.

Genus CYANECULA.

WHITE-SPOTTED BLUETHROAT.

Cyanecula wolfi C. LZ. Brehm.

Adult Male (Summer): Above hair-brown witha greyish
tinge; rump olive tinted; wing-quills with paler margins ;
two central tail-feathers brown, the rest ferruginous, with
the apical half brown; above the eye a light streak ; chin,
throat and chest ultramarine with large central white spot ;
below the blue a distinct black band, succeeded by a ferru-
ginous one; abdomen whitish; bill black; legs and feet
brown; irides dark brown. Length 5°5 inches; culmen
0°35; wing 2°9; tail 2°2; tarsus.o'95.

Adult Female (Summer): Upper parts as in male;
under parts chiefly dull white, the throat bordered with black-
ish-brown, and a broad band of the same across the chest,
which in old birds is supplemented by markings of blue and
chestnut.

Adults (Winter): Assume grey margins to the throat-
feathers which are cast again in spring.

Young in first plumage: Have most of the feathers
buffish, striped with black, the tail much as inthe adult. Young
males, after first moult, resemble adult females.

Distribution : Central and Southern Europe, migrating in
winter to Palestine and Northern Africa.

Habitat : Undergrowth in swampy localities.

RED-SPOTTED OR ARCTIC BLUETHROAT.
Cyanecula suecica (Lznzn.)

Adult Male: Differs only from its southern ally by having
a chestnut spot on the centre of the throat in place of the white
one so conspicuous in C. wolf.

Adult Female and Young: Indistinguishable from
those of C. wolf.

TURDIDZ—ROBINS. 21

Distribution: Breeds in Arctic and Sub-Arctic Europe
and Asia, passing through Central and Southern Europe and
Central Asia on migration. Winters in North-eastern Africa
and Southern Asia.

Habitat: Resembles that of C. wolf.

Genus ERITHACUS.
REDBREAST. “
Erithacus rubecula (Zzvz.)

Adults: Adove olive-brown throughout ; forehead, throat,
and upper éreast, light orange-chestnut, margined by grey or
brown, interspersed with grey feathers except on lower breast,
which is white; greater wing-coverts with pale chestnut tips ;
bill and irides black; legs and claws brown. Length 5°75
inches; culmen 0°35 ; wing 2°9; tail 2°3; tarsus 0°95.

Young in first plumage: Feathers of most of upper and
under parts yellowish-brown tipped with dusky.

Young in Autumn: Resemble adults, but have a paler
coloured breast. |

Distribution : Resident in temperate Europe and Northern
Africa.

Habitat: Low bushes and undergrowth generally, especially
near dwellings.

Genus DAULIAS.

NIGHTINGALE.
Daulias luscinia (Lzzz.)

Adult: Uniform 7ich rufous-brown above. Tail rich
rusty-red ; beneath buffish-white, shading into greyish-white on
breast and flanks; bill brown above and pale brown below ;
legs, feet, and claws, brown: irides brown. Length 6°35
inches ; culmen 0°45 ; wing 3°25 ; tail 2°6; tarsus I.

22 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Young in first plumag®@: Have pale centres to most
of the feathers above, and dark margins to those of under parts.

Birds of the year scarcely differ from adults.

Distribution: Summer migrant, breeding in Central and
Southern Europe ; winters in Africa.

Habitat: Thickets and dense undergrowth.

NORTHERN NIGHTINGALE.

Daulias philomela (Lechst.)

Adult: Less rufous in colour than D. “uscinia ; breast
indistinctly spotted ; wings more pointed, with @ small bastard
primary ; bill above brown, and beneath pale horn; legs, feet,
and claws brown; irides brown. . Length about 7 inches ;
culmen 0°5 ; wing 3°5; tail 2°8; tarsus 3°15.

Young: Similar to the young of D. /uscinta.

Distribution: Summer migrant from Central Africa to
Eastern and North-eastern Europe, and Asia Minor, where it
breeds.

Habitat: Similar to that of D. /uscinia, but usually near to
water.

Genus SYLVIA.
W HITETHROAT. VY

Sylvia rufa (Bodd.)

Adult Male: (Summer): Adove reddish-brown, darker
on wings and tail, greyer on head ; wing-coverts and innermost
secondaries broadly edged with pale chestnut ; outermost tail-
feathers edged with white; beneath white, with a pink tinge
on the breast; bill dark brown; /egs and feet pale brown ;
irides hazel. Length 5°5 inches; culmen 0°35; wing 2°75;
tail 2°5 ; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female (Summer): Duller; head browner,
and lacking the rosy tinge on the breast.

TURDIDA‘\—WARBLERS. 23

Adult Male (Winter): Above more rufous; edgings
of quills broader and richer ; breast washed with pale buff.

Young in first plumage: Above like adult male in
winter, but darker, and the quills more broadly edged ; beneath
washed with brown on breast and flanks; outer tail-feathers
tinged with rufous ; irides yellowish-brown.

Distribution : Summer visitant to, and breeding in most
of Europe, wintering in Southern Africa.

Habitat: Bushes and undergrowth generally.

LESSER WHITETHROAT.

Sylvia curruca (Zznz.)

Adult Male (Summer): Adove pale slate-colour, suf-
fused with brown, which becomes darker on the sides of the
head ; quills brown, innermost secondaries with broad, lighter
margins: outer webs of outermost rectrices white: breast and
flanks very pale brown: rest of underparts white; bill nearly
black above, lighter at base beneath; /Zegs, feet and claws
bluish-grey ; irides hazel. Length 5 to 5°25 inches; culmen
0°3; wing 2°6; tail 2°3 ; tarsus 0°8.

Adult Female: Slightly smaller; head browner; sides
of head pale ; beneath tinged with grey.

Adult (Winter): Above ashy-brown, greyish on head
and ear-coverts; beneath, showing rather more brown about
the chest and flanks,

Young in first plumage: Above brownish-grey, greyer
on the head ; wings and tail greyish-brown, with lighter margins
to feathers; beneath dull white, clearer on throat; flanks,
breast, and under tail-coverts slightly washed with pale brown ;
legs greyish-brown.

Distribution: Breeds throughout most of Europe,
wintering in Africa.

Habitat: Groves, gardens, and shrubberies.

SUB-ALPINE WARBLER.
Sylvia subalpina Bonelli.

Adult Male (Summer): Aédove ashy-grey ; wings and

24 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

tail brown, with pale edges ggébvoat and chest reddish-chestnut,
bordered on either side by a white line from base of bill; rest
of underparts chiefly white ; bill and legs brown; eyelids red ;
iiides brown. Length 5 inches; culmen 04; wing 24;
tail 2°15 ; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female: Upper parts, ashy-brown; beneath,
creamy-white ; flanks, shaded with brick-red.

Birds of the Year: Buffish-brown on breast and flanks ;
the male resembling the female, except in being slightly greyer
on the upper parts.

Distribution: Summer visitor from Northern Africa to the
basin of the Mediterranean.

Habitat: Among dense undergrowth.

©PECTACLED .WARELE RK.
Sylvia conspicillata JA/arm.

Adult Male (Summer): Back greyish-chestnut; ead
to below the eyes, rump, and tail, s/aze-grey ; wings and coverts
dark brown; the latter, with innermost secondaries, broadly
edged with chestnut; tail brown, outermost feathers more or
less white ; blackish line from base of bill passing round the eye ;
eyelids and chin white ; throat slaty ; breast and flanks vinous ;
centre of abdomen white; bill dark brown; legs and feet
yellowish flesh-colour ; irides pale brown. Length 4°8 inches ;
culmen 0°35 ; wing 2°25 ; tail 2:2 ; tarsus 0°7.

Adult Female: Above, uniform reddish-brown; throat
white ; no distinct dark circle round the eyes ; breast and flanks
pale buffish.

Young in first plumage: Both sexes similar to female,
but with browner head.

Distribution: Summer visitant to the basin of the
Mediterranean from Northern Africa.

Habitat: Waste places ; among dense bushes.

SARDINIAN WARBLER.

Sylvia melanocephala (Gme/.)

Adult Male: ead, region of the eye, and ear-coverts

TURDIDAE—WARBLERS. 25

black ; back and scapulars s/ate-grey ; wings dusky, with pale
edges to the feathers; tail slaty-black, with white tips to outer-
most feathers, Zonger than wings ; beneath white, shading into
grey on sides of body ; bill black, yellowish at base beneath ;
legs and feet brown ; irides brown. Length about 5 inches ;
culmen 0°35 ; wing 2°15 to 2°25; tail 2°35 ; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female: Above brown; head dark greyish-brown ;
throat and centre of abdomen white ; breast and sides of body
greyish-brown.

Birds of the Year and nestlings: Very similar to
adult females.

Distribution: Partial resident on the northern shores of
the Mediterranean ; winter visitant to Northern Africa.

Habitat: Dry, bush-covered mountain ravines.

ORPHEAN WARBLER. *X

Sylvia orphea Zemm.

Adult Male: Crown and sides of face sooty-black ; rest of
upper parts slaty-brown ; quills and tail brown, with broad,
ashy margins; outermost tail-feathers white on outer webs ;
beneath white, shaded with greyish-brown on breast and sides
of body ; bill dark brown, paler at base beneath ; legs, feet and
claws s/aty ; irides sulphur-yellow. Length 6 inches; culmen
0°55 ; wing 3 to 3°2; tail 2°6; tarsus 0°9.

Adult Female: Generally duller, the black on the head
less developed.

Young in first plumage: Above much paler than in
female. Head pale leaden-grey ; beneath paler and whiter.

Distribution: Breeds throughout Central and Southern
Europe and Northern Africa. Winters in Central Africa.

Habitat: Groves and thickets, partial to conifere.

RUPPELL’S WARBLER.

Sylvia rueppelli Zemm.

Adult Male: Most of head and throat black ; malar streak
white ; back, from nape to upper tail-coverts, blue-grey ; wings

26 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

dark brown with whitish maf®ins, narrow on primaries and
broad on secondaries and coverts; tail blackish, outermost
feathers white, beneath white, with rosy tinge; flanks washed
with grey; chin and throat black; bill blackish; legs pale
brown ; irides dark brown. Length 5°25 inches; culmen 0°45 ;
wing 2°8; tail 2°5 ; tarsus 0°8.

Adult Female: Above greyish-brown, greyer on head,
where the feathers have dark bases; throat and flanks washed
with brownish-grey ; rest of underparts white.

Adult Male(Winter) : Black feathers of throat and crown
with pale margins, otherwise similar to summer plumage.

Birds of the Year: Similar to female, but head browner ;
back duller; tail greyish-brown ; secondaries edged with pale
rufous ; throat and flanks washed with pale brown.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Greece, Asia Minor, and
Palestine, wintering in Northern Africa.

Habitat : Dense bushes and reeds.

BLACKCAP., ¥
Sylvia atricapilla (Zznz.)

Adult Male (Summer): Above ashy-brown, becoming
bluish-ash on rump, upper tail-coverts and nape ; crown black ;
wings brown with pale margins; ¢az/ ashy-brown throughout ;
throat and underparts ashy-grey, paler on chin and abdomen ;
bill horn colour ; legs leaden-grey ; irides hazel-brown. Length
5°5 inches ; culmen 0°4; wing 2°8 ; tarsus 0°8.

Adult Female (Summer): Head rufous. Upper surface
of body browner than in male.

Adult Male (Winter): Nape more suffused with brown ;
sides of body washed with buffish-brown.

Young in first plumage: Sexes alike. Above as in
adult female ; beneath whitish, shaded with greyish-brown on
breast and buffish-brown on sides of body. .

Young after first moult: Scarcely differ from adult
female, except that the head of young male is darker brown.

Distribution : Resident in Southern Europe and Northern
Africa, extending northwards through the temperate regions of
Europe in summer.

Habitat: Groves and dense deciduous undergrowth.

TURDID—WARBLERS. 27
GARDEN WARBLER. “”

Sylvia salicaria (Lzv7z.)

‘Adult (Summer): Above hair-brown, slightly darker on
wings and tail; wing-coverts and innermost secondaries lighter
on margins; beneath greyish-white ; breast and flanks shaded
with pale buffish-brown ; axidlaries buff ; bill brown; legs and
feet bluish-grey. Length 5°8 to 6 inches; culmen 0°4; wings
3'O to 3°25 ; tarsus 0°85.

Adult (Autumn): Above more olive, beneath more buff.

Birds of the Year: Indistinguishable from adults in
autumn.

Distribution: Summer migrant from Africa, breeding in
most parts of temperate Europe. Scarce in Ireland, not found
nesting in Sicily or Greece.

Habitat: Woodland districts where undergrowth is dense.

BARRED WARBLER. x
Sylvia nisoria Bechst.

Adult Male (Summer): Above dark brownish-grey,
clearer on rump and head, browner on quills, wing-coverts and
innermost secondaries, the two latter broadly tipped with
white ; most feathers above, except those of centre of back,
more or less broadly tipped with white and with a subterminal
dark bar; deneath greyish-white ; chin, throat, breast, sides of
body and under tail-coverts Jarred with brown , bill brown,
yellowish at base of lower mandible ; legs, feet, and claws pale
greyish-brown ; irides pale yellow. Length 6°25 inches ; culmen
0°5 ; wing 3:5; tail 2°8; tarsus 1.

Adult Female (Summer): Greyer above, less barred
on under parts.

Adult (Winter): Above browner; barring both above
and beneath more distinct.

Young in first plumage: Above almost uniform pale
greyish-brown, slightly rufous on the tail ; beneath white, shaded
on the flanks with dull brown and the chest obscurely mottled
with dull brownish-grey, having a marbled appearance.

Distribution: Summer visitant from North-eastern and

28 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Central Africa to most of Cex@ffal and Southern Europe. A
rare straggler only to the British Isles.
Habitat: Partial to thorn-thickets or willow-bushes.

Genus MELIZOPHILUS.

DARTFORD WARBLER. Xs

Melizophilus undatus (od/.)

Adult Male (Summer): Above sooty-brown, shading
into deep slate-colour on head; wings dark brown, paler
margined ; Jdeneath chestnut-brown ; centre of abdomen and.
some streaks on throat white; bill dark brown, paler at base
beneath ; legs, feet, and claws pale brown ; irides orange-yellow.
Length 5 inches ; culmen 0°35 ; wing 2; tail 2°7 ; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female (Summer): Differs from male in having
the general colour of under parts, except centre of abdomen,
pale cinnamon-brown.

Birds of the Year: Like female, but paler and browner
above and paler beneath.

Distribution: Resident in Western and Southern Europe,
including parts of south of England.

Habitat: Dense thickets and furze bushes on commons.

MAR SO RA’ S\ WARBL EE.
Melizophilus sardus (J/arm.)

Adult Male (Summer): Above deep blackish-grey,
deepest on forehead and round the eyes; wings and tail
blackish-brown, ¢he Jatter the longer, outermost rectrices mar-
gined with white; feathers of ¢hroat and sides of body slaty,
some with whitish margins; rest of under parts dull white ;_ bill
dark horn, yellowish at base of lower mandible; legs yellowish-
brown ; irides brown. Length 5 inches ; culmen 0°4 ; wing 2°2 ;
tail 2°4 ; tarsus o0°8.

Adult Female (Summer): Both upper and under parts
browner, otherwise like the male.

TURDIDE—WARBLERS. 29

Adult (Winter) : Plumage of both sexes browner. Female
slightly paler in general colour than male.

Birds of the Year: Much paler, especially on under-parts.

Distribution: Resident in Southern Europe, east of Spain,
also on Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.

Habitat: Dense bushes or thickets.

Subfamily PH VILLOSCOPINA.

Genus REGULUS.

GOLDEN-~CRESTED WREN.JY
Regulus cristatus “och.

Adult Male: Above olive-green; crown orange-yellow;
bordered with black; forehead olive-brown ; wings and tail
brown, margined with yellowish; wings crossed by two white
bars ; beneath greyish-brown ; bill dark brown; legs, feet, and
claws brown; irides brown. Length 3°5 inches; culmen 0°3 ;
wing 2°15; tail 1°6; tarsus 0°7.

Adult Female: General plumage duller; crest lemon-
yellow.

Nestling: Above blackish-brown or olive-brown, no trace
of yellow on head ; yellowish margins to wing-feathers, and one
wing stripe conspicuous ; beneath much shaded with brownish-
buff, especially on sides of body.

Distribution: A common resident in temperate Europe,
including the British Islands.

Habitat: Fir woods, gardens, &c.

Pine. CRE Sr ED. WwW REN. ox
Regulus ignicapillus (C. Z. Brehm.)

Adult Male: Above olive-green, brighter on sides of neck ;
Jrontal band and sides of face whitish, with a black line through

30 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

the eye: centre of crown oragge-yellow, bordered by broad
black line on either side ; ear-coverts slaty ; wings and tail dark
brown with pale margins, crossed by two white bars; beneath
dull buffish-white. Bill, legs, feet and claws dark brown ; irides
hazel-brown. Length 3°5 inches; culmen 0°35; wing 2°'I5 ;
tail 1°7 ; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female: Crest paler and general colouring less
brilliant.

Young in first plumage: Crown similar to rest of upper
parts ; forehead, cheeks, and sides of neck cinereous.

Distribution; Resident in most of temperate Europe, but
not extending so far north as #. cristatus. Of casual occurrence
only in Great Britain.

Habitat: Similar to preceding species.

Genus PHYLLOSCOPUS.
YELLOW-BROWED WARBLER. x

Phylloscopus superciliosus (Gmev).

Adult Male (Summer): Above greyish-olive, washed with

green on rump and upper tail-coverts; zwugs brown, crossed
by two conspicuous whitish bars ; most of feathers externally
margined with yellowish-green ; from base of bill to nape a broad
greyish-white streak, with a dark one immediately below it and
through the eye ; beneath white, washed with yellowish-green,
especially on flanks; axillaries yellow, bill, legs, feet, and
claws brown; irides dark brown. Length 3°75 inches; cul-
menos: wie 27; tail 1-7) tarsus o765.

Adult Female (Summer): Similar, but somewhat dul-
ler throughout. f

Adult (Autumn): Above greener; eye-stripe very dis-
tinct, but sulphur-coloured ; tips to wing-coverts and second-
aries also sulphur-yellow.

Distribution: An accidental visitor to England and
elsewhere in Europe. Breeds in Northern Asia, wintering in
Southern China and Burma.

Habitat: Dense bushes, pine woods, &c.

TURDIDE—WARBLERS. 31
SIBERIAN CHIFFCHAFF.
Phylloscopus tristis Blyth.

Adult Male: Similar to P. collybita, but earthy-brown
above and beneath nearly white with exception of a shade of
pale buff on breast and sides of body; wing shorter and
rounder, second primary intermediate in length between sixth
and eighth ; eye-stripe buffish, narrow, not reaching to nape ;
bill dark brown ; Zegs, feet, and claws xearly black; irides
brown. Length about 4 inches; culmen 0°3; wing 2°3; tail
1q* tarsus 077.

Female: Similar to male but smaller.

Adult (Autumn): Buff eye-stripe more developed.

Distribution : Summer visitant to valleys of Petchora and
Kama, wintering in India.

Habitat: Spruce firs, willows, &c., or long grass, in damp
situations.

CHIFFCHAFF.Y
Phylloscopus collybita (Mez/).

Adult (Summer): Above olive-green, yellower towards
tail, which with the wings are brown, edged with yellow-
ish-green ; second primary intermediate between sixth and
seventh ; a slight, pale eye-stripe; beneath yellowish-white,
yellower on breast and flanks; bill, /egs, feet, and claws
blackish-brown ; irides brown. Length g'75 inches; culmen
o°3; wing 2°4; tail 2; tarsus 0°6.

Autumn: Whole "plumage suffused with buff, eye- stripe
buff.

Nestling: Above browner ; little or no eye-stripe ; beneath
buffish-white.

Distribution: A summer visitant to Northern temperate
Europe, wintering on the shores of the Mediterranean.

Habitat : Woods, groves, and gardens.

WILLOW WARBLER OR WILLOW WRENV
Phylloscopus trochilus (Lzzz).
Adult (Summer): Above olive-green, yellower on rump ;

32 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

wings and tail brown, edgedg}n outer webs with yellowish-
green ; second primary intermediate between fifth and stxth ;
distinct greenish-yellow stripe from base of bill to crown ;
beneath greyish-white, suffused with yellow; bill, legs, feet and
claws drown ; irides hazel. Length about 5 inches; culmen
Gras; wing 277; tail 2°; tarsus 076;

Nestling: Above as in adult but darker; eye-stripe just
discernible ; beneath white, washed with pale yellow ; edges
of wing and thigh feathers yellow.

Distribution: Summer visitant from Africa and Persia to
Europe, ranging northwards to the Arctic regions.

Habitat: Similar to that of preceding species.

WOOD WARBLER OR WOOD WREN.V
Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Lechs?).

Adult (Summer): <Advve yellowish-green, yellower on
rump and upper tail-coverts ; eye-stvipe aistinct, greenish-yel-
low ; wing-coverts olive-green with paler margins ; quills brown,
tipped with greyish-white, edged with yellowish-green ; sides of
head, upper throat and chin yellow, which also slightly tinges
the flanks ; uxzder-parts otherwise white ; bill dark brown above,
much paler below; legs and feet brown; irides hazel-brown.
Length 4°8 to 5°25 inches; culmen 0°3; wing 2°8 to 3; tail
23 tarsus: o"7. .

Nestling: Above as in adult, but quills paler, chin and
throat yellow, rest of lower parts pure white.

Distribution: A summer migrant to Great Britain and
Northern temperate Europe. Winters in Northern Africa.

Habitat: Deciduous woods and copses.

BONELLI’S WARBLER.
Phylloscopus bonellii (Mezd/).

Adult (Spring): Above buffish-brown, suffused with yel-
low on rump and upper tatl-coverts ; eye-stripe indistinct,
greyish-white ; wings and tail brown, edged with paler brown
and greenish-yellow ; beneath white, faintly shaded with buffish-

TURDIDA—WARBLERS. 33

yellow on chin, throat, and flanks ; axzllaries sulphur-yellow ;
bill above dark brown, lighter beneath ; legs and feet brown ;
irides brown. Length 4:5 inches; culmen 0°35; wing 2°5;
tailip*82; tarsus'0°75.

Adult (Autumn): Less yellow on rump and upper tail-
coverts, light wing margins narrower.

Young: Resemble adults, but are greener.

Distribution: Summer visitant from Africa to Southern
Europe.

Habitat : Wooded hill-sides, &c.

GREY-LEGGED WILLOW WARBLER.
Phylloscopus plumbeitarsus Swyi.

Adult (Summer): Above greyish-brown tinged with
yellowish-green ; wings and tail edged with yellowish-green ;
wings crossed by two whitish bars; second quill intermedtate
between seventh and eighth, bastard primary very long ; yellow-
ish-white superciliary streak from base of bill tonape ; beneath
dull white; cheeks, breast, and flanks washed with grey;
thighs yellowish ; bill brown, paler beneath; legs and feet
plumbeous ; irides brown. Length 4°5 inches ; culmen 0°35 ;
wing 2°45 ; tail 2°05 ; tarsus o°8.

Young: Similar, but somewhat greener in tint.

Distribution: Breeds in the extreme east of Russia,
ranging across Central Asia.

Habitat : Wooded mountain districts.

EVERSMANN’S WARBLER.

Phylloscopus borealis (asus).

Adult (Summer): Above greyish-brown, washed with
pale green, yellower on the rump; zzgs and tail margined
with yellowish-green, former crossed by two whitish bars ;
bastard primary very short; broad yellow superciliary stripe
from base of bill to nape ; béneath greyish-white, breast and

D

34 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

flanks washed with yellowish aag@ grey ; bill dark brown above,
lighter beneath; legs, feet and irides brown. Length 4'5
inches ; culmen 0°5 ; wing 2°7 ; tail 1°7 ; tarsus 0°75.

Autumn: Beneath pale yellow, breast and flanks washed
with grey.

Distribution: Ranges from north of Norway, across Asia
to Alaska, occurring in winter as far south as the Indian
Archipelago. (Dresser.)

Habitat: Large birch forests, in the vicinity of lakes and
rivers.

Genus HYPOLals.
MELODITOU'S .WA RE 2 EE.
Hypolais polyglotta (Mzez/2).

Adult (Summer): Above greyish-olive, darker on head ;
wings and tail brown with lighter margins ; superciliary streak
yellowish ; beneath pale yellow; flanks and sides of neck
washed with pale brownish-olive ; bill above brown, beneath
yellowish at base; degs and feet greyish-brown. irides brown.
Length 4°5 inches; width of mandible at base 0-22; culmen
0°53 wing 2:5; tail 2; tarsus 0°8.

Adult (Winter): Greyer above and paler beneath.

Young after first moult: Similar to adult in winter.

Distribution: Inhabits South-western Europe and North-
western Africa.

Habitat: Marshy, bush-covered localities ; broom thickets,
gardens.

IC TERINE WAREL Eps h
Hypolais icterina (Vie7d/).

Adult (Summer): Above olive-green; wings and tail
brown, margined with whitish; denxeath greenish-yellow, also
eye-stripe and axillaries ; bill brown above, horn-colour be-

TURDIDAI—WARBLERS. 35

neath ; Zegs, feet and claws d/uish-grey ; rides brown. Length
5 inches ; culmen 0°6 ; wimg 3°2; tail 2°25 ; tarsus 0°8.

Adult (Winter): Above less green and beneath paler.

Birds of the Year: Indistinguishable from adults in
winter.

Distribution: Breeds in Northern and Central Europe,
passing through Southern Europe on migration, and wintering
in South Africa. Of casual occurrence only in England.

Habitat: Willow and other thickets in damp situations ;
gardens, orchards, &c.

OLIVE-TREE WARBLER.
Hypolais olivetorum (Sérick).

Adult (Summer): Above Jdrownish-grey, tinged with
olive, especially towards tail; wings and tail browner and
darker, with whitish margins; superciliary streak whitish ;
beneath pale buffish-white, clearer on chin; throat, central
abdomen and flanks washed with greyish-brown ; bill above
dark brown, beneath pale horn; legs, feet and claws dark
bluish-grey ; irides dark brown. Length 6 inches ; culmen 0°7 ;
wing 3°37; tail 2°8; tarsus o'9.

Adult (Winter): Greyer beneath, otherwise similar.

Young after first moult: Scarcely differ from adults in
winter dress.

Distribution: Eastern Spain; abundant in Greece, and
found also through Asia Minor and in Northern Palestine.
Winters in Northern Africa.

Habitat: Olive and oak plantations.

OLIVACEOUS WARBLER.
Hypolais pallida (4/7).

Adult (Spring). Above pale olive-brown, rather lighter
on rump; superciliary streak yellowish, indistinct ; wings and
tail dark brown with lighter margins ; frst primary longer than
coverts ; beneath buffy-white, purest on throat and centre of ab-

Dia

36 A HANDBOOK.OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

domen; flanks washed with pale@#fown ; bill horn-colour, under
mandible yellowish ; legs and feet pale horn-brown ; irides dark
brown. | Length 5 inches; culmen o*5 3 zing 275°; tail. 27155
tarsus 0°8.
Adult (Summer and Winter): Similar, but feathers
become paler by abrasion.
Young: Closely resemble adults.

Distribution : Frequents South-eastern Europe in summer,
wintering in Northern Africa.

Habitat: Olive-groves and gardens.

WESTERN OLIVACEOUS WARBLER.
Hypolais opaca (Licht).

Adult (Summer): Similar to % pallida, but longer, with
first primary usually rather longer and a broader bill. Length
5°25 inches ;. culmen 0°6; under-mandible, at base 0°3 ; wing
2°8 ; tail 2°55 ; tarsus o'9.

Adult (Winter): Becomes greyer by abrasion of the
feathers.

Distribution: Breeds in Spain and winters in North-

western Africa. Has been known to occur also in South
France.

Habitat: Wooded plains, gardens, &c.

BOOTED WARBLER,

Hypolais caligata (Zzché).

Adult (Summer): Above warm pale rufescent-brown ;
second primary intermediate in length between sixth and seventh ;
superciliary streak pale yellowish; rump lighter than back ;
wings and tail dark brown with pale margins ; beneath white,
washed on flanks and sides of body with buff; chin and throat
white ; bill horn-brown, paler below ; legs and feet dull brown ;
irides brown. Length 4°75 inches ; culmen 0°45 ; wing 2°45;
tail 2; tarsus 0°85.

Young after first moult: Resembles adult, but general

TURDIDAIA—WARBLERS. 37

colour above more rufous; margins to wing-feathers broader ;
beneath with a rufous tinge, except on throat and chin; first
primary somewhat longer than in adults.

Distribution: Breeds in the extreme east of Russia, and
ranges through Turkestan and Northern India.

Habitat: Low bushes, &c., often at considerable elevation.

Genus AEDON.

EUY,rTOUsS ‘W-A'R BL EK,
Aedon galactodes (Zemm).

Adult: Adove chestnut, brighter on rump and tail-feathers,
the latter (except central ones) with dark brown patch towards
end of each feather, the tip white, outer feathers whitest ;
superciliary stripe whitish; wings brown, broadly edged with
pale rufous ; beneath buffish-white ; bill and legs pale brown,
the former lighter at base beneath ; irides dark brown. Length
6°75 inches ; culmen 0°6 ; wimg 3-5 ; tail 3; tarsus I'r.

Young: Similar, but quills and wing-coverts margined
broadly with pale fulvous.

Distribution: Breeds in South-western Europe, wintering
in Africa.

Habitat: Among gardens, hedges, mimosa-groves, or reeds.

Gee Y-BACKED WARBLE #.
Aedon familiaris (J/énétr).

Adult: Similar to A. galactodes, but greyer above: rump
and upper tail-coverts rufous ; quills margined with dull whitish-
buff; central tail-feathers dark brown almost to base; outer
tail-feathers showing less white ; under-parts pale greyish-white ;
bill brown above, horn-colour beneath. Length 6°5 to 6°75
inches ; culmen 0°6 ; wing 3°5 ; tail 2°7 ; tarsus 0°95.

Distribution: Breeds in South-eastern Europe, ranging
eastwards through Asia Minor and Persia to Rajpootana.

Habitat: Vineyards, olive groves, &c.

38 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus ACROCEPHALUS. F

PADDY.-FIELD WARBLER,
Acrocephalus agricola (Yerd).

Adult (Summer): Adove pale rufous, brighter on rump ;
wings and tail brown, with lighter margins ; second primary
shorter than fifth; sides of head brown ; superciliary streak
nearly white ; beneath white, tinged with buff on flanks and
vent; bill brown, paler beneath; legs pale brown; irides
yellowish-brown. Length 5°25 inches ; culmen 0°4 ; weng 2°25 ;
tail 2°25; tarsus 0°9.

Adult (Spring): Brighter in general tone. Under parts
washed with yellowish-buff.

Young: Similar, but have first primary rather longer than
adults.

Distribution : Of rare occurrence in the extreme east of
Europe. Breeds in Northern India. Found also in Turkestan.

Habitat: Rice swamps, thickets.

BLY TH’S REED WAaA-REBL EER

Acrocephalus dumetorum JS/yth.

Adult (Summer): <Adove olive-brown ; wings and tail
darker brown with pale edges; secondaries very long: super-
ciliary streak nearly obsolete ; beneath buffish-white, flanks and
breast shaded with brownish ; bill brown, darker above than
below; legs and feet pale horn; irides brown. Length 5:5-
inches; culmen 0°65 wing 2:33 to 2°5 ; tail 2 to 2°35 tarsus 66.

Adult (Winter): Above with more fulvous tinge and
brighter ; beneath clearer buff.

Distribution: A summer visitant to Central Palearctic
region, breeding from St. Petersburg to the valley of the
Yenesay. Winters in India and Ceylon.

Habitat : Wooded or low bushy ravines, often near water.

TURDIDA—WARBLERS. 39
REED WARBLER. |

Acrocephalus streperus (ize//).

Adult (Summer): Adove pale brown, with a russet tint,
especially on rump ; wings and tail hair-brown, with paler edges ;
second primary longer than fifth ; eye-stripe pale yellow ; beneath
white ; flanks, sides of neck and chest washed with brownish-
buff; legs dark brown ; bill pale brown, paler at base of lower
mandible ; irides brown. Length 5°5 inches; culmen 0°6;
wing 2°35 to 2°7; tail 2; tarsus o’9.

Adult (Winter) : Under parts suffused with buff.

Young: Similar, but rather buffer beneath.

Distribution: Breeds in Central and Southern Europe,
wintering in Africa.

Habitat: Marshy localities ; thickets of reeds or sedges.

MARSH WARBLER.
Acrocephalus palustris (echst).

Adult: Like the preceding, but more olivaceous-brown above
and whiter beneath; and with a more pointed wing than A.
streperus; second primary longer than fourth; \egs brownish
flesh-colour ; irides dark brown. Length 5°5 inches ; culmen
0°62 ; wing 2°5 to 2°8; tail 2 to 2°4; tarsus 0°95.

Young: Similar, but greener on the upper parts.

Distribution: Breeds in Central and Southern Europe,
wintering in Africa.

Habitat: Where bushes and reeds are intermixed.

GREAT REED WARBLER. ™

Acrocephalus arundinaceus (Linz).

Adult : Above light brown, with a rufous tinge, most distinct
on rump and margins of quills and tail-feathers ; second primary
about equal to third and longest in wing ; eye-stripe very obscure ;
beneath nearly white on chin, throat and centre of abdomen ;

40 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

breast, flanks and under tl ae pale rufous-brown ; bill
brown, yellow at base beneath} /egs light brown, feet darker ;
irides brown. Length 8 inches; culmen 0°8 ; wing 3°6 to 3°8 ;
tail 3°25 ; tarsus 1°2.

Young: Redder above and more fawn-coloured beneath.

Distribution: Breeds in Central and Southern Europe,
wintering in South Africa.

Habitat: Marshy localities ; reed-beds.

AQUATIC WARBLER. “
Acrocephalus aquaticus (Gme/).

Adult: Above pale tawny-brown; eye-stripe broad and
distinct, whitish, extending far back; d¢stinct light stripe from
base of bill through centre of crown to nape, bordered on either
side by one of dark brown; lores and feathers behind eye
russet-brown ; feathers of upper parts ashy-brown with dark
brown centres (with the exception of quill-feathers, which are
uniform brown); beneath whitish, with a buff tinge; chest
and flanks slightly striated with brown ; bill dark brown, yel-
lowish at base beneath, somewhat slender. Legs light yellowish-
brown ; irides dark brown. Length 4°5 inches ; culmen 0°4;
wing 2°4; tail 1°95; tarsus o°8.

Young: Above, washed with warm pale rufous, which also
margins the quills and tail-feathers; beneath yellowish-buff,
shading into white on chin and centre of abdomen ; scarcely
any trace of striations on under parts.

Distribution: Breeds in Central and Southern Europe
from the Atlantic to the Urals, probably wintering in Southern
Africa.

Habitat : Vegetation in marshy localities.

SEDGE ee
Acrocephalus phragmitis (Lechs?).

Adult (Summer): Above olive-brown, yellowish-rufous
on rump; four longitudinal, dark-brown stripes on head ; well-
defined eye-stripe whitish, broader towards nape; centres of
upper back-feathers shaded with dark-brown ; wings and tail

TURDIDAA—WARBLERS. AI

brown with pale margins ; second primary longer than fourth ;
beneath creamy-white, shaded, especially on flanks, with yellow-
ish-brown ; bill brown, flesh-coloured at base of lower mandible ;
legs brown; irides brown. Length 5 inches; culmen 04;
wing 2°65 ; tail 2; tarsus 0°85.

Adult after Autumn moult: Quills tipped with whitish.

Young: More rufous above, throat spotted with dark brown.

Distribution: Breeds throughout most of Europe, being
found as far east as the valley of the Yenesay and a little north
of the Arctic Circle. Winters in South Africa.

Habitat : Thickets, reeds, sedges, &c.

Genus LUSCINIOLA.

MOUSTACHED SEDGE WARBLER.
Lusciniola melanopogon (7Zzmm).

Adult: Above olive-brown, inclining to chestnut on rump,
back feathers having dark centres ; head nearly black, more or
less marked with rufous ; wings and tail dark brown with pale
edges ; first primary broad and long ; superciliary streak broad
and distinct, greyish-white ; stripe through the eye, lores and
ear-coverts dark brown; beneath nearly white, shaded with
buffish-brown on chest and sides of body ; bill above very dark
brown, paler below; legs and feet dark brown; irides brown.
Length 5°25 inches; culmen 0°49; wing 2°2 to 2°3; tail 2°15;
tarsus 0°85.

Young: More russet above and less white beneath.

Distribution: Resident on both shores of the Mediter-
ranean.

Habitat : Among reeds and thick sedges.

Genus LOCUSTELLA.
GRASSHOPPER WARBLER.

Locustella nzvia (Lodd.)

Adult (Summer): Adove greenish-brown, feathers with

42 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

obscure darker centres ; tail Jyrown, faintly barred ; beneath
pale brown, spotted with dafker brown on neck and breast ;
under tail-coverts with darker centres; bill, legs and feet
brown; irides brown. Length 5°45 inches; culmen 0°35;
wing 2°45, tail (much rounded) 2°2: tarsus 0°7.

Young: More conspicuously marked above and ¢hroat and
chest speckled with brown ; otherwise similar to adults.

Distribution : Summer visitant to temperate Europe, in-
cluding the British Isles, wintering in Northern Africa and
occasionally in Southern Europe.

Habitat : Swamps, commons, woods, &c., in dense under-
growth.

LANCEOLATED WARBLER.
Locustella lanceolata (Zemm.)

Adult Male (Summer): Adove yellowish-brown with a
greyish tinge, centres of feathers striped with ddack ; wings and
tail dark brown with pale margins; wxder parts paler and
yellower, s¢vifed more narrowly and sparsely ; bill blackish
above, yellowish beneath; legs and feet pale yellowish ; irides
brown. Length 4°5 to 5 inches; culmen 0°45; wing 2 fo
2257 tall 1765; tarsus 077,

Birds of the Year: Whole of the under parts suffused
with greyish-yellow.

Distribution : Breeds in Russia near St. Petersburg, also
in Central Asia, and winters in South-eastern Asia.

Habitat: Undergrowth in marshy localities.

RIVER WARBLER.

Locustella fluviatilis (Wo//).

Adult : Above almost untform olive-brown ; beneath, throat,
chest and flanks washed with dull brown and marked with
darker brown; chin and abdomen white; under tail-coverts
pale rufescent-buff with broad white tips; bill dark horn,
yellowish at base beneath ; feet pale flesh-colour ; irides brown.
Length 5°5 inches; culmen o'5; wing 2:9; tail 2°33 tarsus
o°8

TURDIDA—WARBLERS. 43.

Birds of the Year: Lack the throat stripes.

Distribution: Breeds in Russia as far north as Lake
Ladoga, probably not extending its range westwards beyond
the valley of the Danube. Winters in Northern Africa.

Habitat: Willow beds, woodland districts, pastures.

SAVI’S WARBLER. *
Locustella luscinioides (Sav).

Adult: Above uniform russet-brown ; eye-stripe indistinct :
beneath pale buffish-brown, shading to nearly white on throat
and centre of abdomen ; under tail-coverts pale reddish-brown,
with obscure pale tips; bill above dark brown, beneath horn
colour ; legs, feet and claws pale brown; irides brown. Length
5°5 inches ; culmen 0°55; wzeug 2°7,; tail 2°5 ; tarsus o'9.

Young: Are said to be less rufous on the upper parts, and
paler underneath.

Distribution : Summer visitant to temperate Europe, very
rarely to the British Isles; found also on both shores of the
Mediterranean.

Habitat: Low, marshy localities, in dense reeds, and sedges.

Genus CETTIA.

CEeETYS WARBL E-R:;
Cettia cettii (Alarm).

Adult : Above almost uniform rich russet-brown ; eye-stripe
greyish-brown, moderately distinct ; spurious primary very large;
rectrices ten in number ; chin, throat and centre of abdomen
white; flanks and under tail-coverts brownish-grey, the latter
tipped with white ; bill brown, lighter beneath ; legs and feet
pale brown; irides nut-brown. Length 5°5 inches; culmen
0°45; wing 2°4; tail 2°55; tarsus 0°85.

Young in Autumn: Richer russet-brown above; greyer
beneath.

Distribution: Resident on both shores of the Mediter-
ranean.

Habitat: Dense undergrowth in damp localities.

44 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus CISTICOLA.

-
FANTAILED WARBLER.

Cisticola cursitans (Fvani/.)

Adult: Feathers of foreparts above very broadly centred
with dark brown, and with pale yellowish-brown margins ;
crown so marked as to form three distinct longitudinal bands ;
wings and tail dark brown with pale edges ; outer tazl-feathers
tipped with white, zzth a subterminal dark spot, showing most
plainly from below; beneath white, shading into yellowish-
brown on chest and flanks; bill brown above, yellowish
beneath; legs and feet flesh-coloured; irides pale brown.
Length 4°25 inches; culmen 0°35 ; wing 19; tail 1°5 ; tarsus
O'7.

Young: More rufous both above and beneath, otherwise
similar to adults.

Distribution: Resident on most of the Mediterranean
coasts.

Habitat : Damp grassy places or undergrowth near water.

Family ACCENTORIDZ.

Genus ACCENTOR.
ALPINE ACCENTOR. x
Accentor collaris (Sco).

Adult: Feathers of head and neck grey, with darker centres ;
rest of upper parts brown, ‘streaked with darker brown ; wings
and tail dark brown with reddish-brown margins and white
tips; greater and median wing-coverts conspicuously spotted
with white ; feathers of breast and abdomen dull grey, marked
with brown and tipped with whitish ; throat white, spotted with
black, flanks chestnut, margined with buffish-white ; bill blackish-
brown, yellowish at base; legs and feet brown, claws black ;
irides brown. Length 7°5 inches; culmen 0°5 ; wing 4-15 to
292 tail 3s tarsus! 179:

ACCENTORIDA\—ACCENTORS. 45

Nestling: Spotted above and below like a young robin;
tail broadly tipped with dull rufous ; beneath buffy-white.

Young after first moult: Feathers on back with rufous
edges, duller beneath, washed with buff; white on throat
absent ; otherwise similar to adult.

Distribution: Resident in the higher mountain regions of
Southern Europe, occurring in Great Britain and Northern
Europe only as a rare straggler.

Habitat: Elevated rocky places, in similar localities to the
Stonechat.

MOUNTAIN ACCENTOR.
Accentor montanellus (Pai).

Adult : Crown brown and black, szdes of head black ; broad
buff superciliary stripe from base of bill to nape ; back chestnut,
margined with greyish-brown, wings and tail dark brown with
lighter margins ; coverts and secondaries marked with chest-
nut; beneath buff, becoming paler on abdomen; flanks
slightly streaked with brown ; bill blackish ; legs light brown ;
irides brown. Length 6 inches; culmen 0°5; wing 2.85 ;
tail 2°6; tarsus 0°75.

Female: Duller above and somewhat whiter beneath.

Young in first plumage: Similar to adult, but paler
throughout and throat and breast marked with brown.

Distribution: A scarce visitant to the extreme east of
Europe from Eastern Asia. Breeds in Northern Siberia.

Habitat: Elevated forests.

HEDGE ACCENTOR. wa

Accentor modularis (Lzzz).

Adult : Crown and nape brownish-grey streaked with brown ;
back and scapulars blackish, broadly margined with reddish-
brown ; quills dark brown, tipped and edged with lighter
brown ; tail dull brown with paler margins; sides of head and
chest ashy-grey, paler on chin; centre of abdomen greyish-
white ; flanks brown, marked with darker brown ; bill blackish ;

46 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

legs, feet and claws brown ggrides hazel. Length 5°5 inches ;
culmen S'A swims 2°73 tall 273 Gtarsus o775,

Young: Brow ner and more spotted than adults ; no slate-
grey on head or throat.

Distribution: Resident over most of Europe, occurring
in Scandinavia as far north as the forest regions continue.
Found throughout the British Isles, excepting in some of the
Hebrides and in Shetland.

Habitat: Gardens, hedge-rows, plantations, &c.

Family CINCLIDA.
Genus CINCLUS.

DIPPER OR WATER OUSEL. Vv
Cinclus aquaticus Zechst.

Adult: Adove blackish-brown, shading into umber-brown on
neck and head; back, wings and rump marked with greyish; a
narrow ring round eyes white; chin, ¢ivoat and breast white ;
rest of under parts chestnut, shading into black at vent and into
greyish on flanks; bill black; legs, feet and irides brown.
Length 6°5 to 7 iches; culmen. 0°65; wing 3°5 to 3°75, al)

23; Larsusitt..

Young: Paler and greyer on the back than adults; under
parts creamy-white, excepting flanks and region of the vent
which are slaty-brown ; feathers of breast and abdomen here
and there tipped or margined with brown.

Distribution: Inhabits Great Britain and many of a
mountain regions of Central Europe.

Habitat : Rocky, mountain streams.

Note.—In Scandinavia, Northern Germany and Northern Russia a race
occurs with an almost uniformly black abdomen (C. melanogaster of
many authors), whilst in the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, &c., a form
with a paler back and more white on the under parts than typical CG
aguaticus is found. This latter has received the name of C. albicollis.
In other respects all three forms are precisely alike and their young
indistinguishable,

PANURIDA—REEDLING. 47

Family PANURIDAZ.

Genus PANURUS.
BEARDED TIT.

Panurus biarmicus (Zznz).

Adult Male (Summer): Crown grey; back and rump
orange-tawny ; first six primaries externally edged with white,
rest of quills externally edged with rufous ; innermost second-
aries internally edged with whitish ; scapulars nearly white ; Zaz/-
Jeathers (graduated) ant upper coverts fawn-coloured ,; outer rec-
trices whitish at tips; lores and long feathers on either side of
throat black ; throat and chest white, sides of latter tinged with
rose ; breast and abdomen tawny, shading into orange-tawny
on flanks ; wnder tatl-coverts, legs and feet b/ack ; bill yellow ;
irides yellow. Length 6 to 6°5 inches; culmen o0°3; wing
225); tail 3°25 ;: tarsus’ 0°7.

Adult Female (Summer): Crown dull fawn; xo dlack
neck-feathers ; under tail-coverts pale tawny, otherwise closely
resembles male but somewhat duller.

Adult Male (Winter): Slightly duller in coloration above
than in summer, white on wings and tail more tinged with
buff. |

Nestling: General colour pale fawn, patched on back
and wings with black: males with black lores; legs pale
brown.

Young after first moult: Pale fawn; the dack centrally
striped with black; outer tail-feathers black, tipped under-
neath with white.

Distribution : Resident in Europe and Central Asia in
suitable localities ; in England confined to Norfolk and Cam-
bridgeshire.

Habitat: Reed beds.

48 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Family “PARIDZ.

Genus ACREDULA.
WHITE-HEADED LONG-TAILED TIT. *
Acredula caudata (Linz).

Adult: Entire head and under parts white ; nape, centre of
back and tail-feathers black ; sides of neck, back, and scapu-
lars vinous ; rump tinged with rose; quills blackish-brown,
white at base on inner web ; secondaries externally margined
with white, innermost almost entirely white; outer tail-feathers
tipped and margined with white; faint vinous tinge on flanks
and under tail-coverts ; bill, legs and feet black ; irides brown.
Length 6 inches ; culmen 0°25 ; wing 2°5 ; ¢az/ 3°5 ; tarsuso 6.

Young: Crown conspicuously white; above the eye, sides
of head, nape, back and central tail-feathers sooty black (not pure
black) ; white on secondaries more conspicuous and pure ;
flanks and under tail-coverts tinged with vinaceous ; bill black-
ish ; gape yellow ; legs and feet yellowish.

Distribution: Resident in Northern and Central Europe ;
has occurred in Great Britain.

Habitat : Wooded districts.

Note.—In the British Isles a race known as A. vosea occurs which differs
from the typical A. cawdaza in having much less white upon the crown
and being of a generally duller tint. On the continent this race is
found in France (including the Eastern Pyrenees), in the Netherlands
and part of Germany where it interbreeds. with the type. In the
South of France, Spain, Northern Italy and Sicily another race is
found, known as A.7rézt which is characterised by having the scapulars
grey. Both of the above races closely resemble the typical 4. caudata
in all other respects than those alluded to.

TURKISH GONG! PATIL wa ie
Acredula tephronota (Giinther.)

Adult: Head as in A. vvsea ; back bluish-grey ; central tail-
feathers black externally bordered with grey, especially towards

PARIDAI—TITMICE. 49

bases ; outermost rectrices almost entirely white ; chin whitish ;
lower throat almost black, forming a distinct spot; breast and
centre of abdomen whitish, streaked on former with greyish-
brown; flank; and vent pale rose; bill, legs and feet black ;
irides light brownish-red. Length 4°8 inches ; culmen 0°25 ;
wing 1°35; tail 2°8; tarsus 0°17.

Distribution: Resident in Turkey, Asia Minor and Persia.

Habitat: Similar to A. caudata.

Genus PARUS.

GREAT TIT.

Parus major Linz.

Adult: Crown and throat glossy black with deep blue lustre ;
cheeks and portion of nape white ; back yellowish-green ; quills
blackish, margined externally with grey ; tail washed with dark
grey ; deneath, sides of body dull greenzsh-vellow ; chest and
centre of abdomen black ; bill black; legs and feet plumbeous ;
inides dark brown. Length 5°8 inches; culmen 0°4; wing 3;
tail 2°5 ; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female: Similar, but slightly paler in coloration.

Young: Similar to adult female, but much duller and
black stripe on abdomen less noticeable.

Distribution: Resident in the British Islands, Central and
Southern Europe, Eastern Asia, and in parts of Northern
Africa.

. Habitat: Forests, plantations, gardens, &c.

COAL. Tit. x
Parus ater Zznn.

Adult: Head, sides of nape, throat and chest glossy black ;
cheeks and sides of neck white, back slaty-blue ; rump washed
with brown ; wings and tail greyish-black, margined with light
grey ; abdomen whitish ; flanks washed with buff; bill blackish ;
legs and feet lead colour; irides brown. Length 4°25 inches ;
culmen 0°3; wing 2°45; tail 1°8 to 2; tarsus 0°65.

E

50 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Young: Head duller, not glossy ; white parts tinged with
yellow.

Distribution: Resident in most parts of Europe, and in
North-western Asia. Has occurred in Great Britain.

Habitat : Forests, plantations and gardens.

Note.—In Great Britain a race of Coal Tits occurs which have olive-brown
backs, though in specimens from some localities this colour is less
apparent than in others. This race has been named by Mr. Dresser,
P. britannicus, whilst birds from Cyprus show more distinctly brown
still, less white upon the nape, and more black upon the throat.
This race has received the name of P. cyfriotes. In both these cases
the influence of climate is apparent, and for the same reason as
with Acredula rosea and A, irbi, they are not included as specifically
distinct.

MARSH TIT.X
Parus palustris Lenz.

Adult : Crowx and centre of nape dull black ; sides of head
and nape whitish; dack greyish-brown ; wings and tail dark
brown, former with pale margins; bases of chin and chest
feathers black ; breast and abdomen whitish ; flanks washed
with buff; bill black; legs and feet lead colour ; irides
brown. Length 4°5 inches; culmen o°3 ; wing 25 ; tail 2:2;
tarsus 0°55.

Young: General coloration less bright.

Distribution : Commonly resident throughout Central
Europe, but is scarcer in Southern Europe.

Habitat : Woods, hedgerows and swampy places.

Note.—The Marsh Tit varies considerably according to climate in the tint
of its back and the extent of black on the nape. In Russia, Scandi:
navia, the Alps and Carpathians, a large race occurs in which the
black extends low down upon the back, which is very grey (Parus
borealis—De Selys). In North-east Russia a still larger and paler
form occurs with a longer tail (P. daicalensis—Swinh),. British-killed
examples are somewhat browner on back and flanks than the type,

SOMBRE TIT.
Parus lugubris 7Zemm.

Adult Male: Entire crown, upper part of nape, ¢hvoat and

PARIDAt—TITMICE. 51

sides of throat deep sooty-black ; back ashy-brown; wings and
tail greyish-brown with white edges ; breast and abdomen white,
the former slightly shaded with brown on sides ; bill, legs and
feet lead-colour ; irides dark brown. Length 5°25 to 5°5
inches ; culmen 0°3; wimg 2°85; tail 2°4 ; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female: Similar, but has the black parts browner.

Adult (Winter): Similar, but duller. The white parts
being tinged with brown, and the back feathers edged with
brown.

Young: Differs from adult in having crown distinctly brown ;
throat pale sooty-brown ; under surface pale brownish-white.

Distribution: Resident in Hungary, Greece, Southern
Russia, Asia Minor, and Palestine.

Habitat : Woods and olive groves.

LAPP. TIT.
Parus cinctus odd.

Adult: Crown dull brown, this colour extending far on to
back ; superciliary region dark brown; dack hazel-brown ;
primaries blackish, externally margined with whitish ; tail black,
washed with grey, outer feathers edged with white ; sides of
head and neck white ; ‘throat brownish-black ; breast and
abdomen rust-colour, shading to whitish in centre; bill black,
legs and feet pale violet; irides reddish-brown. Length 5:2
inches ; culmen 0°35; wing 2°8; ¢az/ 2°S ; tarsus 0°7.

Young: Much paler than adult and with a greyer tinge :
the dull brown of the head not extending so far on to the back.

Distribution : Breeds commonly in Lapland.

Habitat: Birch and pine woods.

BLUE TIT.“
Parus ceeruleus Zzm7.

Adult: Crown light blue, surrounded by white ; collar
and line through eye black; nape and cheeks white; back
yellowish-green, paler on rump; w/ugs blackish with ddue

external margins, crossed by single bar of white and innermost
; ye

52 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

secondaries tipped with white ; chin and throat bluish-black ;
breast dull lemon-yellow, with@#mesial dark stripe ; bill dusky ;
legs and feet dark grey ; irides dark brown. Length 4°5 inches ;
culmen 0°26 ; wing 2°5 ; tail 2*1; tarsus 0°65.

Adult in Winter: Similar but the throat-feathers edged
with white.

Young in first plumage: Crown and collar very dull
brownish and not conspicuous ; back dull greenish; under parts,
including throat, dirty yellow.

Distribution : Common resident in Central and Southern.
Europe, including Great Britain.

Habitat: Woods, gardens and hedgerows.

AZURE TIT.
Parus cyanus Fal/.

Adult: Head chiefly white ; line through eye to back of
head and neck band deep blue; back bluish-grey ; zwzngs dlue,
crossed by band of white; secondaries broadly tipped with
white ; tail-feathers blue, outer ones broadly tipped and mar-
gined with white ; beneath white with a mesial stripe of bluish-
black ; bill blackish ; legs and feet lead colour ; irides dark
brown. Length 5°3 inches ; culmen 0°35; wing 2°7; tail 2°7 ;
tarsus 0°65.

Young: Have no blue on back of neck; crown and eye-
stripe dark grey; white parts tinged with yellow; blue on
wings and tail not so deep as in adults.

Distribution: Resident in Northern Russia and Siberia,
straying occasionally into Germany.

Habitat: Willow swamps, tamarisk jungles, &c.

CRESTED. TiT->

Parus cristatus Zzzn.

Adult: Head black, each feather tipped with sreyish-white >
those towards back of head much elongated, forming a conspicu-
ous crest; sides of head and neck greyish-white, latter crossed
by two bands of black, a narrow line of same colour traversing

PARIDA—TITMICE. 53

the eye ; Jack, wings, and tail hairy-brown, quills darker ; rump
tinged with buff; ¢#voat black ; rest of under parts whitish,
flanks tinged with buff; bill black; legs and feet lead
colour; irides brown. Length 4°6 inches; culmen o°3 ; wing
2°4; tail 2; tarsus 0°7.

Young: Similar to adults, but have shorter crests.

Distribution: Inhabits Northern and Central Europe.
Breeds in some Scotch forests, but is very scarce elsewhere in
Great Britain.

Habitat: Fir forests, or deciduous woods.

Genus ALGITHALUS.

PENDULINE TIT.
ZEgithalus pendulinus (Lzzz.)

Adult Male: Cvown, nape, and throat white, slightly
tinged with grey ; forehead, sides of head and ear-coverts black ;
Sorepart of back chestnut, becoming ochreous towards rump ;
wings and tail blackish, edged with white; breast whitish,
tinged with yellow and somewhat marked with chestnut ; bill
horn-colour, sharply pointed ; legs and feet black ; irides
brown. Length 4°25 inches; culmen 0°35; wing 2°15; tail
1°95 tarsus 0’5.

Adult Female: White parts greyer; general plumage a
little duller ; less black on the head.

Young: Head ashy-grey, with no black ; back cream-
coloured with no chestnut ; wings and tail margined with buff-
ish-white or buff.

Distribution: Resident in Southern Europe, ranging east-
ward into Turkestan.

Habitat : Woods, among poplar, alder and willow, &c.

CHESTNUT-CROWNED TIT.
fEgithalus castaneus Severiz.

Adult Male: Cvown, nape and back chestnut, shading
into ochreous towards rump; wings and tail as in 4. pendu-

54 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

linus, but with much broadesf@hite borders to feathers ; fore-
head, sides of head and ear-coverts black ; chin and throat
white ; breast and abdomen white tinged with buff, former
heavily marked with chestnut; bill horn-coloured, legs and
feet black ; irides brown ? Length 4°2 inches ; culmen 0°35 ;
wing a'2s ; tail 2» ‘tarsusio"5 3.

Adult Female: Crown and nape pale isabelline ; fore-
part of crown marked with chestnut ; back paler than in male,
feathers tipped with cream-colour ; under parts white, tinged
with cream-colour ; throat white.

Young Males: Show less deep chestnut on crown and
have a creamy-white nape.

Distribution: Resident in South-eastern Russia.

Habitat : Similar to “4. pfendulinus.

Family SITTIDA.

Genus SITTA.

NORTHERN NUTHATCH.
Sitta europea Lz.

Adult: Upper parts slaty-blue ; a black line running fron»
base of bill through eyes and down sides of neck; central
tail-feathers grey, outer ones black at bases, banded with white
and tipped with grey ; deneath white or tinged with buff on hin-
der parts ; flanks and under tail-coverts marked with chestnut ;
bill dark horn-colour, whitish at base beneath ; legs and feet
pale brown; irides hazel. Length 5°75 inches; culmen 07 ;
wing 3.5, tail 2; tarsus 0°75.

Young in first plumage: Feathers above showing white
shafts, especially on fore parts ; black on sides of head browner
and not so distinct ; bill shorter and paler ; legs and feet very
pale ; chestnut markings not so bright as in adult.

Distribution: Resident in Scandinavia and Westerm
Russia.

Habitat: Deciduous woods.

SITTID Z—NUTHATCHES. 55
SOUTHERN NUTHATCH. ve

Sitta czesia Wolf.

Adult: Upper parts as in S. europea, though perhaps
slightly duller, dexeath brownish buff, shading into whitish on
chin ; flanks washed with chestnut ; bill horn-colour ; legs and
feet pale brown; irides hazel. Length 5°5 inches; culmen
0°65; wing 3:35; tail 1°8; tarsus 0°7.

Young: Beneath duller and browner, chestnut showing
chiefly on under tail-coverts ; otherwise very similar to adult.

Distribution: Inhabits Central Europe, including Great
Britain, and is found in Asia Minor and Palestine.

Habitat : Similar to S. europea.

SYRIAN ROCK NUTHATCH.

Sitta neumayeri JZch.

Adult: Upper parts slaty-grey; a black line from base of
bill through the eye down sides of neck ; wings and tail dull
greyish-brown, latter tinged with russet; throat and _ breast
white ; flanks, abdomen and under tatl-coverts almost uniform
pale russet; bill horn-colour ; legs and feet lead colour ;
Male: Length 5°6 inches; culmen 0°8; wing 3; tail 2; tar-
sus 0°8. Female: slightly larger.

Young: Similar, but generally paler, sides of head slightly
tinged with buff; wings and tail rather greyer.

Distribution: Inhabits Greece, Asia Minor and Syria ;
has been recorded also from Spain.

Habitat: Rocky ravines, cliffs.

CORSICAN NUTEHATC H.
Sitta whiteheadi Share.

Adult Male: Above slaty-blue, shading into black on the
crown ; quills brown, the outer webs washed with slaty-blue ;
central rectrices like the back, the rest black at base, the outer-
most three pairs blue at tips ; narrow frontal band and super-
ciliary stripe greyish-white ; lores and ear-coverts black ; deneath

56 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

ashy tsabelline, washed on flanjg with grey ; under tail-coverts
margined with white; bill slaty-grey. Length 4°6 inches; cul-
men 0°65 ; wing 2°75; tail 1°4; tarsus 0°65.

Adult Female: Very nearly resembles the male but has a
slaty-blue head, the feathers showing black bases ; eye-stripe
less conspicuous.

Distribution : Known only from the mountains of Corsica.

Habitat : Elevated pine forests.

Family CERTHIIDZ.

Genus CERTHIA. i
CREEPER. Y

Certhia familiaris Zznm.

Adult: Crown dark brown, centres of feathers whitish ;
superciliary streak whitish; neck and dack yellowish-dvown,
streaked with whitish ; wings brown, banded with white or
yellowish-white ; faz/ graduated with stiff points, dull reddish-
brown ; beneath silvery-white, tinged on sides and vent with
rufous ; 421 strongly decurved, slender, dark brown, yellowish
beneath; legs and feet light brown; irides hazel. Length
5 to 5°2 inches ; culmen 0°65 ; wing 2°5 ; tail 2°55 ; tarsus o'5.

Nestling: Plumage fluffy; browner above and whitish
mottlings more conspicuous.

Distribution: Resident throughout most of Europe in
wooded localities.

Habitat: Woods and groves, especially of deciduous trees.

Note.—Examples from South Europe are darker brown above, and the
markings, if anything, whiter and more conspicuous.

Genus TICHODROMA.

WALL CREEPER. x

Tichodroma muraria (Zzzm.)

Adult Male (Summer) : Head, neck, dack and scapulars

TROGLODYTIDZ—WRENS. 57

pale s/aty-grey, much darker on rump; lesser coverts and parts
of greater coverts and éasal half of quills crimson; quills
otherwise dark brown with conspicuous white spots on longest
primaries, and whitish tips; tail black, tipped with grey, outer
feathers tipped with white ; chin, throat and chest black, rest
of under parts dark grey ; bill (long and decurved) black ; legs
and feet black; (irides black—Bailly). Length 6°5 inches ;
culmen 1°4; wing 3°9; tail 2°2 ; tarsus 0°85.

Adult Female (Summer): Similar, but black on throat
not so much developed.

Adult (Winter): Black on chin and throat replaced by
greyish-white ; crown dirty grey ; back much paler.

Young in first plumage: Similar to adults in winter, but
have the beak shorter and straighter, the red in the wings less
conspicuous.

Distribution: Resident in the mountainous districts of
Southern Europe. Fairly abundant in some parts of the
Pyrenees and Sierra Nevada. Has been known to occur in
England.

Habitat: High mountain cliffs, descending in winter onto
the walls and cliffs of the valleys.

Family TROGLODYTIDZ.

Genus TROGLODYTES.

COMMON WREN. “
Troglodytes parvulus ‘och.

Adult: Upper parts reddish-brown, barred with dark
brown : superciliary stripe whitish ; wings and tail rufous-brown,
more barred; greater wing-coverts spotted with whitish ;
beneath greyish-brown, whiter on throat and more rufous on
flanks which are transversely barred ; bill brown; legs, feet and
claws light brown ; irides brown. Length 39 inches ; culmen 0°4 ;
wing IQ; tail 1°3 ; tarsus o°6.

Nestling : Above like adult ; bill pale and short ; under
parts much more mottled, and flanks browner.

Distribution : Common and resident in temperate Europe,

58 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

including the British Isles ; foypd also in Northern Africa and
Western Asia.

Habitat: Woods, copses, gardens and _ undergrowth
generally.

NORTHERN WREN.
Troglodytes borealis isch.

Adult: Similar to Z: parvulus, but larger and darker
above ; more barred beneath ; wings longer and feet much
larger and stronger. Length 4°1 inches ; culmen 0°5 ; wing 2 ;
tail, 145.; tarswsu1"S.

Distribution: Resident in Iceland and the Farées.

Habitat: Generally near habitations, among rocks and
outbuildings.

Family MOTACILLIDA.
Genus MOTACILLA.

WHITE WAGTAIL&
Motacilla alba Zznn.

Adult Male (Summer): Fore part and sides of head
and sides of neck white; Azzder crown and nape deep black ;
back clear ash-grey, darker on rump; wings dusky, margined
with whitish ; central tail-feathers black; outer feathers white,
inwardly edged with black ; chin, throat and chest black ; rest
of under parts white, shaded with grey on flanks ; bill, legs and
feet black ; irides dark brown. Length 7°3 inches ; culmen o'5 ;
wing 3°3; tail 3°6; tarsus 0°85.

Adult Female (Summer): White on sides of head not
so clear; black on nape and throat not so extended, the latter
mottled with white.

Adult (after Autumn moult): Black on head slightly
intermixed with greyish; throat white, mottled with black on
sides ; sides of body much shaded with grey.

Young in first plumage: Upper and under parts dull

MOTACILLIDA—WAGTAILS. 59

grey, more or less tinged with olive, shading into white on
abdomen ; wings and tail much as in adults, but duller.
Distribution: A summer visitant to Northern Europe,
commonly nesting, except in the British Isles, where it is
scarce. Resident in some parts of Southern Europe. Winters
also in North Africa.
Habitat: The vicinity of water, or moist meadows.

PIED WAGTAIL. V
Motacilla lugubris 7Zémm.

Adult Male (Summer): Head and throat as in W/7. alba -
back black: wings black, with white external margins ; inner-
most secondaries bordered broadly with white; tail-feathers
black, except outermost ones, which are white on outer webs ;
breast and abdomen white, flanked with dark grey; bill, legs
and feet black ; irides dark brown. Length 7°5 inches ; culmen
0°45 ; wing 3°6; tail 3°75 ; tarsus 0°85.

Adult Female (Summer): Back feathers mixed with
grey ones, and slightly smaller.

Adult (Winter): Crown, nape and broad band on chest
black ; cheeks washed with sulphur-yellow ; back leaden-grey,
centres of feathers usually showing blackish ; upper tail-coverts
black ; lower breast and abdomen as in summer, but grey on
flanks paler.

Young in first plumage: Back dirty grey ; throat and
chest marked with black ; whole of light parts more or less
tinged with buff.

Distribution: Common and resident in Great Britain. In
Western Europe elsewhere a summer visitant, wintering in
Western part of North Africa.

Habitat : Similar to that of preceding species.

YELLOW-HEADED WAGTAIL.
Motacilla citreola FPa//.

Adult Male (Summer): ead and neck bright yel/ow,
collar black ; dack grey ; wings dusky, some of quills and coverts

60 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

broadly margined with white externally ; tail black, outermost
feathers chiefly white; bene yellow like head and neck,
flanked with slaty ; bill, legs and feet blackish ; irides brown.
Length 6'5 inches ; culmen 0'5 ; wing 3°4; tail 3°25 ; tarsus 0°95.

Adult Female (Summer): Head and neck greyish ;
back brownish-grey ; wings duller ; sides of face marked with
dark grey ; sides of neck marked with black ; superciliary stripe
yellow ; under parts as in male.

Adult Male (Winter): Forehead yellow; superciliary
stripe broad ; abdomen pale yellow, otherwise as in female, but
back somewhat darker.

Young in first plumage: Back feathers with dark
centres; a band of black on chest; breast washed with
yellowish-buff.

Young in Autumn: Above dull greyish, washed with
yellowish-brown ; superciliary stripe yellowish-white ; broad
mark on sides of head greyish ; beneath whitish, tinged with
pale yellow ; chest marked with greyish-brown.

Distribution: Summer visitant to Eastern and South-
eastern Russia. Winters in Northern India, where it is not
uncommon. Found as far east as China.

Habitat: In grassy swamps, willow thickets, &c.

GREY WAGTAIL. vA

Motacilla melanope Pall.

Adult Male (Summer): <Aéove grey, shading into
greenish-yellow on rump; superciliary stripe white ; wings and
central tail-feathers dark brown ; long secondaries conspicuously
bordered with whitish; outer tail-feathers white; chin and
throat black, rest of under parts bright yellow, brightest on under
tatl-coverts ; bill, legs and feet brown; irides dark brown.
Length 7°75 to 8 inches; culmen 0°5; wing 3:2; tail 4;
tarsus 0°8.

Adult Female: Similar to male, but much paler throughout.

Adult (Winter): Breast and superciliary stripe pale
whitish-yellow ; chin and throat whitish ; abdomen only tinged
with yellow.

Young: Similar to adults in winter but greener above ;

MOTACILLIDA{—WAGTAILS. Or

some of coverts with greyish tips; fore neck marked with
greyish ; breast washed with reddish-grey.

Distribution: Resident in Central and Southern Europe,
including Great Britain, ranges across Central Asia, wintering
in India, Persia, and Northern Africa.

Habitat: Near streams or in damp grassy places.

BLUE-HEADED WAGTAIL.%

Motacilla fava Zinn.

Adult Male (Summer): Cvown, nape and ear-coverts
grey ; eye-stripe distinct, white ; back greenish-yellow ; quills
dark brown; wing-coverts broadly edged with yellow ; tail
dark brown except outermost feathers which are chiefly white ;
chin white, vest of under parts bright yellow ,; bill, legs, and feet
dark brown; irides brown. Length 6 inches; culmen 074;
wing 3°25 ; tail 3; tarsus 0°35.

Adult Female (Summer): Above paler, fore parts with
slight olivaceous tinge ; eye-stripe less distinct ; under parts.
much paler yellow.

Adults (Winter): Upper parts washed with olive-brown.

Young: Upper parts greyish-brown ; eye-stripe distinct, but
buffish ; lores and ear-coverts darker than in adult ; beneath
dull white, tinged with yellow on abdomen; chest and flanks.
washed with brown.

Distribution : ~Breeds in Central Europe and Central
Asia ; occasionally found in England. Winters in Southern
Europe, Africa, and Hindostan.

Habitat: Swamps and damp meadows.

GREY-HEADED WAGTAIL.*

Motacilla viridis Gme/.

Adult Male (Summer): Very similar to JZ. flava, but
has the upper parts, if anything, a trifle darker, xo superciliary
stripe, and the lores and ear-coverts darker than the crown.
Bill, legs, feet and irides dark brown. Length 6°25 to 675
inches ; culmen 0°45 ; wing 3; tail 3; tarsus 0°85.

62 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Adult Female (Summer): Paler both above and
beneath ; otherwise similar togte male.

Young are characterized by the absence of any white eye-
stripe, which is very noticeable in the young of JZ. flava.

Distribution: Breeds in Northern Europe and Asia.
Has been reported from England.

Habitat : Similar to that of JZ. flava.

BLACK-HEADED WAGTAIL.
Motacilla melanocephala Licht.

Adult Male (Summer): Cvowz, nape, lores and sides of
head jet-black; chin and rest of under parts uniform bright
yellow ; otherwise as in JZ. flava. Length 6°7 inches ; culmen
0°53 wing 3°25; tail 3; tarsus 0'95.

Adult Female: Head not so black as in male; back
greener ; chin yellowish-white ; paler yellow beneath.

Young: Very similar to young of JZ, flava; but the crown
always shows as dark or darker than the sides of the head ;
sides of chest slightly marked with blackish.

Distribution : South-eastern Europe and Central Asia,
wintering in Africa.

Habitat: Marshy land, or low ground near the sea.

YELLOW WAGTAIL. v
Motacilla raii Lf.

Adult Male (Summer): Adove green, yellower on crown ;
superciliary stripe yellow ; quills dark brown ; wing-coverts and
innermost secondaries broadly edged with yellowish-white ;
central rectrices dark brown, outermost ones chiefly white ;
beneath rich yellow ; bill, legs and feet black ; irides dark brown.
Length 6°5 inches ; culmen 0°5 ; wing 3°25 ; tail 3; tarsus o'9.

Adult Female (Summer): Similar but less brilliant
throughout ; back browner.

Adult (Winter): Much paler throughout than in summer
dress.

Young after first moult: Similar to adult, but a shade

MOTACILLIDA—PIPITS. 63

darker and more uniform above, with a crescentic band of dark
brown spots across the chest.

Distribution: Breeds in Central and Western Europe ;
scarce in Ireland. Winters in Africa.

Habitat : Open country, ploughed fields, or damp pastures.

Genus ANTHUS.
TREE PIPIT. /
Anthus trivialis (Zznz.)

Adult (Summer): Feathers above, including wings and
most of tail-feathers, dark brown with paler edges ; outermost
tail-feathers about half white ; beneath pale buff, shading into
white on abdomen and into whitish-buff on throat; sides of
throat, chest and flanks spotted with dark brown; bill and
irides dark brown, legs and feet lighter brown. Length 5°75
to 6 inches ; culmen 0°45 ; wing 3°4; tail 2°6; tarsus 0°8; Aiud
claw much curved, O°4.

Adult (Winter): Similar, but greener above and yellower
on the throat.

Young: Easily distinguishable from young of A. pratensis
by the short, curved hind claw; in general appearance very
similar to adults in winter.

Distribution : A summer visitant to Central and Northern
Europe and Asia, wintering in Africa, Persia, and India.

Habitat: Woods, fields, and cultivated regions generally.

MEADOW PIPIT. /
Anthus pratensis (Zzzz.)

Adult (Summer): Feathers adove dark brown, edged
with pale brown and ¢“nged with olivaceous ; wings, tail, and
under parts very similar to dA. ¢vivialis, but the spots on
breast are, if anything, more shaded ; bill blackish, yellowish at
base beneath; legs and feet light brown; irides dark brown.
Length 5°75 to 6 inches ; culmen 0°45 ; wing 3 to 3°5; tail 2°3;
tarsus 0°8 ; ind claw very straight, 0:55.

64 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Adult (Winter): Strongly tinged with olivaceous above
and washed with yellowish-b eneath.

Young: Like adults in winter dress.

Distribution: Resident and breeding throughout most of
Europe, those inhabiting the extreme north migrating south in
autumn.

Habitat: Fields, commons, high moors, among stones in
streams, &c.

Note—A Pipit inhabiting the Canary Isles has received the name of
A, bertheloti, and is distinguished from typical A. pratensis by being
greyer above, with an unspotted rump and with a shorter wing.

RED-THROATED PIPIT. x

Anthus cervinus (fal).

Adult Male (Summer): Feathers above olive-brown
boldly marked with dark brown, wings and tail dark brown,
margined with paler brown, outermost rectrices chiefly white ;
throat, round the eye, sides of neck and chest /erruginous ;
abdomen buff; chest and flanks sparsely striped with dark
brown; bill brown, yellowish at base beneath ; legs and feet
paler brown ; irides brown. Length 6 to 6°25 inches ; culmen
0°45; wing 3°4; tail 2°6; tarsus o°8.

Adult Female (Summer): Greyer above than male;
ferruginous tint not extending below the throat.

Adult (Winter) : With difficulty distinguished from J. pra-
tensis ; the wing however is longer, the mantle feathers tipped
with white, and in some rare instances the throat is tinged with
red ; general tint greyish-brown.

Young: Almost exactly similar to young of A. praten-
sis, but are somewhat more buff throughout; lower back
feathers rather greyer; a rufescent tinge round the eye soon
attained.

Distribution: Summer visitant to arctic Europe and Asia.
A straggler only to Great Britain and has not been recorded
from Iceland or the Faroes. Winters in North-eastern Africa
and South of Asia.

Habitat: Long grass in boggy regions.

MOTACILLIDA:—PIPITS. 65
PETCHORA PIPIT.

Anthus gustavi Sw.

Adult: Above glossy yellowish-brown, paler on head and
nape, boldly marked especially on interscapular feathers with
dark brown ; elongated secondaries, wing-coverts and some of
back feathers conspicuously margined with buffish-white ;
Lill stronger than in either A. pratensts or A. trivials ; length of
hind claw intermediate between the two. Length 6 inches;
culmen 0°45 ; wing 3°15; tail 2°15 ; tarsus 0°85.

Distribution: A summer visitant to North-eastern
Europe.

Habitat: Marshy ground covered with scrub.

TAWNY PIPIT. x
Anthus campestris (Zznz).

Adult Male: Feathers of «pper parts greyish-brown, with
darker centres, and edged with sancy-brown ; wings and central
tail-feathers dark brown, edged with sandy -brown; deneath
buff (or brownish buft), shading to whitish on abdomen ; chest
indistinctly spotted ; bill above dark brown, paler beneath ; legs
and feet pale brown ; irides dark brown. Length 6°5 to 6°75
inches; culmen 0°6 ; wing 3.75 to 3.9 ; tail 3°2 ; tarsus 0.95.

“From the autumn moult to the early part of the following
spring the tints are much more tawny, and in young birds are
very pronounced on the margins of the wing and tail-feathers,
while the brown markings of the upper parts and of the breast
are much more intense ” (Saunders).

Distribution: Breeds in Central and Southern Europe,
wintering in Africa and India. Scarce visitor to Great
Britain.

Habitat : Open sandy plains.

WATER PIPIT.

Anthus spipoletta (Zznz).

Adult Male (Summer): Feathers above olive-brown
F

66 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

with greenish hue, lighter on rump; all feathers above the
rump with darker centres ; wis and tail dark brown with pale
margins ; outermost rectrices largely white ; superciliary stripe
buffish-white, distinct ; beneath buff with vinous tinge, shading
into whitish on centre of abdomen and throat; bill, legs and
feet blackish ; Azzd claw long and tittle curved ; irides dark
brown. Length 6 inches; culmen 0°5 ; wing 3°25 to 3'5 ; tail
25780, 2°68 tarstts;0'S to), r.

Adult (Winter) : Loses greenish tinge above and becomes.
more hair brown ; whitish beneath’; throat, chest and abdomen:
streaked with brown, with no vinons tinge.

Young: Similar to adult in winter.

Distribution: Breeds in the High mountain regions of

Central Europe and in some parts of Spain, occurs in other
parts of Europe on migration, winters in Northern Africa, Pal-
estine, &c.

Habitat : Mountainous districts ; in stony places.

ROCK PIPPI. vs

Anthus obscurus (af).

Adult Male (Summer): Feathers above olivaceous,,
obscurely streaked with dark brown, less marked on rump ;
wings and fazl dark brown throughout, the former edged with.

paler brown and latter with olivaceous ; beneath buffish-yellow ;

eye-stripe of same colour moderately distinct ; throat, dveas¢ and
flanks marked and shaded with dark or olive brown ,; bill, legs
and feet brown ; hind claw much curved ; irides brown. Length
6 to 6°5 inches; culmeno’s55; wing 3°5; tail 2°65 ; tarsus o’9.

Adult (Winter): Generally paler; whiter beneath and
less streaked ; centre of throat unmarked.

Young in first plumage : Darker bothabove and beneath ;.
more heavily spotted below except on throat ; spots on back
more obvious than in adult.

Distribution: Summer visitant to Northern Europe, win-
tering in the Central and Southern portions.

Habitat: Rocky localities, generally on or near the sea
coast.

Note.—A vinous-breasted form is sometimes found in Scandinavia.

ORIOLID —ORIOLE. 67
RICHARD’S PIPIT.
Anthus richardi Mzez//.

Adult: Feathers of upper parts dark brown, edged with
yellowish-brown, duller towards tail; superciliary stripe buff,
distinct ; wings and tail dark brown, former with coverts and
quills margined with whitish or pale buff; outermost rectrices
chiefly white; chin, throat and centre of abdomen white ;
chest, sides of throat and flanks buff, tinged with rufous ; breast
banded by blackish, lanceolate spots which extend by two lines
on either side of the throat to the bill, which is dark brown, yel-
lowish beneath ; legs and feet yellowish brown ; irides brown.
Length 7:25 to 8 inches; culmen 0°6; wing 3°75; tail 3°25 ;
tarsus 1'2; hind toe with claw over I inch.

Young: Similar, but breast more spotted, and some of
feathers above margined with white.

Distribution: An inhabitant of Central Asia, occurring
casually in various parts of Europe during migration. Win-
ters in Southern Asia and North-eastern Africa.

Habitat: Damp meadows in elevated regions.

Family ORIOLIDA.

Genus ORIOLUS.
GOLDEN ORIOLE. “
Oriolus galbula Zznz.

Adult Male: Entire ead (except lores which are black)
upper and under parts bright yellow ; wings black, with an alar
speculum of yellow, and bastard wing partly yellow; several of
quills margined and tipped with yellowish-white ; central tail-
feathers chiefly black, outer tail-feathers broadly tippped with
yellow ; bill orange-brown ; legs and feet plumbeous; irides
red. Length 9 to 9‘5 inches; culmen 095 ; wing 6; tail 3°5 ;
tarsus 0°8.

Adult Female: Above green, becoming yellower towards
the tail, which is brown tinged with yellow at base, and tipped

Ke

68 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

with yellow ; wings dark broyn, margined and tipped with
whitish. Lores brown; und@ parts dull white, feathers cen-
trally streaked with brown ; flanks washed with yellow.

Young in first plumage: Yellowish-grey above, with
brownish centres to most of the feathers; wings and tail as in
adult female ; beneath yellowish-white, lined with brown ; flanks
and under tail-coverts yellow.

Young Male in Spring: Similar to adult female, but
yellower above; tail-feathers shaded throughout and tipped
with yellow ; upper tail-coverts very yellow ; throat and breast
ground-colour, almost obscured by the overlying markings of
brown ; rest of under parts whitish, and streaked with brown ;
flanks, vent and under tail-coverts pale yellow. (N.B. Adult
plumage is assumed very gradually.)

Distribution: Breeds throughout Central and Southern
Europe, Persia and Turkestan; has been known to breed in
England occasionally. Winters in Southern Africa.

Habitat: Woods and gardens.

Family LANIIDA.

Genus LANIUS.

GREAT GREY SHRIKE. \”
Lanius excubitor zn.

Adult Male: /orehead and superciliary streak white ;
scapulars and tail-coverts tipped with white ; crown and upper
parts generally pearl-grey ; wings black, secondaries tipped with
white and with white bases; primaries also barred with white
near their bases, thus forming wo zing spots; central tail-
feathers black, or just tipped with white, next pair whiter, and
the outermost ones entirely white; lores and space below eye
and ear-coverts black ; under parts white; bill, legs and feet
black ; irides brown. Length 9 to g.5 inches; culmen 0°7;
wing 4°5 ; tail 4°75; tarsus 1.

Adult Female: Similar, but less pure in general colora-
tion ; under parts duller and slightly vermiculated with dull
grey.

Young: Duller than female: dark parts, dark brown,

LANIIDA—SHRIKES. 69

not black, and beneath dull greyish, vermiculated both above
and below ; wing spots only imperfectly developed.
Distribution : Summer visitant to Northern and Central
Europe, wintering in Southern Europe.
Habitat: Woods, commons or moory places where single
trees are scattered about.

Note.—The typical Z. excubitor interbreeds in Scandinavia with a form
having only one white wing-spot, known as Z. major, while in
Southern Russia it interbreeds with a very white-winged eastern form
known as Z. /eucopterus, thereby producing LZ. homeyeri, which in gen-
eral appearance is intermediate between the two and has a somewhat
more hooked bill. It is probable that Z mayor occurs in Great Britain
during migration almost as frequently as the typical Z. excudztor.

SOUTHERN GREY SHRIKE.
Lanius meridionalis Zemm.

Adult: Superciliary streak reaching to base of bill, narrow,
white ; crown, back and rump leaden-grey ; scapulars distinctly
white ; lores, cheeks and ear-coverts black ; wings dark brown,
innermost secondaries and tail black, wings showing one white
spot when closed, and secondaries tipped with white; outer
tail-feathers showing more and more white, until the outermost
is black only at base ; beneath whitish, sides of body washed
with cinereous-brown ; throat and éveast tinged with pink ; bill
and feet black ; irides dark brown. Length 9 to 9°5 inches ;
culmen 0°65 ; wing 4 to 4°2; tail 4°5 ; tarsus 1°15.

Young: Much paler above. The leaden-grey of adults
only appears on the head ; scapulars not so pure white ; pink
on breast not nearly so noticeable.

Distribution: Resident and breeding in Spain, Portugal
and in South-eastern France, of casual occurrence in Italy,
Sicily, &c.

Habitat : Regions covered by dense undergrowth.

LESSER GREY SHRIKE. ~
Lanius minor Gwme/.

Adult Male: Fore part of head and a patch on either side

70 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

of head from base of bill to ear-coverts d/ack ; rest of upper
surface grey, paler on rump; vgs brownish-black showing a
conspicuous white spot, and two or three of primaries tipped with
white ; frst primary very small; tail much as in the other grey
shrikes ; beneath white, the dveas¢ and flanks suffused with rose
colour ; bill, legs and feet black ; irides brown. Length about
8°5 inches ; culmen 0°65 ; wing 4°75; tail 3°8; tarsus I.

Adult Female ; Similar, but showing less black on fore-
head and plumage generally mixed with brown ; colours above
less pure.

Young: Vermiculated with brown and white above ; wings
and tail browner and black frontal band wanting; lores and
ear-coverts brown.

Distribution: A summer visitant to and breeding in Cen-
traland Southern Europe, wintering in Southern Africa. Occa-
sionally straggles as far north as Great Britain.

Habitat: Dense bushes in plantations and gardens.

RE JD-BAC KE D. SHR LK.
Lanius collurio Zinn.

Adult Male: ead, nape, and upper back, and upper
tail-coverts evey ; centre of dack and scapulars chestnut ; lores
and ear-coverts black ; wings brownish-black, margined with
chestnut, the secondaries and tertiaries broadly so, with paler
tips ; proximal half of tail-feathers white, except central ones,
which are black ; outer feathers tipped with white; chin and
throat nearly white ; rest of under parts washed with delicate
red; bill, legs and feet black; irides brown. Length 7°5
inches; culmeno's5 ;' zug 3°05'5 tail 9°25 tarsus jo":

Very Old Females: Sometimes assume a dress hardly
distinguishable from that of the adult male. Such cases are.
however rare.

Adult Female: Above reddish-brown, greyish on neck ;
secondaries whitish margined ; superciliary streak pale; tail
washed on central feathers with red ; beneath white; sides of
throat, chest and flanks vermiculated with brown.

Young in first plumage: Each feather above. sub-ter-
minally barred with dark brown ; head decidedly greyer than

LANIIDA—SHRIKES. 71

back; no stripe above the eye ; chest and flanks heavily mot-
tled with brown.

Young after first moult: Similar to adult female but
paler ; head closely marked with dark brown, and much paler
than the back, the feathers of which have pale tips and brown
subterminal bars ; secondaries broadly edged with buff; outer

tail feathers only ‘margined and tipped with whitish ; beneath
much as in adult female.

Distribution: A summer visitant to Central and Southern
Europe, Persia, and Turkestan, wintering in Africa. Breeds
commonly in England, though is rare in the northern coun-
ties. Scarce in the Iberian peninsula. Eastwards it some-|
times occurs as far as Northern India.

Habitat: Thick hedges and fields near woods.

WOODCHAT SHRIKE.
Lanius pomeranus Sarr.

Adult Male: Forehead, sides of head, and centre of back
black ; a small patch or streak above the nostril white ; crow
and nape chestnut ; scapulars and rump white ; wings black-
ish, some feathers tipped with white ; bases of primaries white ;
tail black ; outermost rectrices chiefly white ; beneath white ;
bill, legs and feet black; irides hazel-brown. Length usually
6°5 to 7 inches; culmen 0’5; wing 3°38 to 4; tail 3°2 ; tarsus
10°85.

Adult Female: Similar but duller ; black feathers above
mixed with brown; wing-coverts margined with red; flanks
washed with reddish ; rest of under parts not pure white.

Young: Reddish-brown above, transversely barred with
brown and whitish ; wings and tail dark brown, the former
broadly margined with rufous or rufescent-buff ; beneath dull
white crossed by greyish-brown bars on chest and flanks.

Distribution: A summer visitant to Central and Southern
Europe, more abundant inthe latter. Breeds as far east as
Persia, and as far north as the shores of the Baltic. Of casual
occurrence in Great Britain. Winters in Southern Africa.

Habitat: Similar to that of Z. collurio.

72 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
MASKED OR NUBIAN SHRIKE.
e-

Lanius nubicus Zzcht.

Adult Male (Summer): Forehead and superciliary stripe
creamy-white ; upper parts generally glossy black; scapulars,
bases of primaries, and outermost rectrices white ; quills dark
brown; coverts and innermost secondaries margined with
white ; under parts white, shaded on sides of neck, breast and
flanks with pale ferruginous ; bill and feet dark brown ; irides
brown. Length 6’9 to 7°25 inches; culmen 0°55 ; wimg 3:5 to
2775 5 tall. 2°4tO .2°O.; tarsus o’a4-

Adult Female: Similar, but much browner above; no-
where glossy black.

Young in first plumage: Feathers of upper parts
broadly edged with brown, with pale centres; scapular
feathers whiter; innermost secondaries broadly margined
with pale brown; beneath whitish, closely vermiculated on
throat, chest and flanks with dusky-brown.

Distribution : Summer migrant to and breeding in South-
eastern Europe and wintering in North-eastern Africa.

Habitat: Groves, vineyards, or fir-woods.

Family AMPELIDZ.

Genus AMPELIS.

WAXWING 'OR BOHEMIAN CHATTERER.W“
Ampelis garrulus Zznz.

Adult: General colour above greyish-brown ; rump grey ;
quills nearly black ; primaries tipped on outer webs with yel-
low, and on inner ones with white ; secondaries broadly tipped
with white, wth the mid-rib extended tnto a scarlet wax-like
point; greater wing-coverts tipped with white; tail blackish,
broadly margined with yellow ; forehead washed with chestnut ;
lores, superciliary stripe and throat black ; wader tatl-coverts
rich reddish brown ; rest of under parts greyish brown, paler
on abdomen ; bill black, pale horn at base beneath ; legs and.

MUSCICAPIDAt—FLYCATCHERS. 1%

feet black ; irides reddish-brown. Length 7°5 inches ; culmen
0°45; wing 4°55 to 4°75; tail 2°6; tarsus 0°75.

Young in first plumage: Browner and duller than the
adult; no trace of black on throat; under tail-coverts dull
brown.

Young Male in Winter: Similar to adult, but with less
black on throat ; the white is absent on the inner tips of the
primaries, the yellow margin to the tail is much narrower, and
the wax-like appendages to the secondaries are imperfectly de-
veloped ; under parts generally a shade darker.

Distribution: Breeds in the pine forests at or near the
Arctic Circle, occurring southwards in winter. Of irregular
appearance in Great Britain.

Habitat: Fir or other woods ; gardens occasionally. Gre-
garious.

Note.—In some old males some of the tail-feathers show the same wax-like
points as the secondaries, but not so well developed.

Family MUSCICAPID.

Genus MUSCICAPA.

SeGRITEO, 2bVCATCHE Rv
Muscicapa grisola Zznn.

Adult (Summer): General colour adove pale hatr-brown
feathers of crown having darker centres ; wings and tail darker
brown, with pale edges ; beneath white, streaked with brown
on throat, chest and flanks; 42/7, very broad at base, dark
brown; legs and feet black; irides brown. Length 5°25
inches ; culmen 0°5 ; wing 3°3; tail 2°4; tarsus 0°5.

Adult in Autumn: Similar, but has the margins to the
secondaries broader ; centre of throat white, and flanks more
shaded with brown.

Nestling: Above dark brown, with pale buff centres to the
feathers ; innermost secondaries broadly edged with buff; be-
neath whitish, profusely mottled with dark brown.

Distribution : “ Breeds throughout Europe as far north as.

Chest

—

(Su

74 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

lat. 70°. and in Asia as far east as Lake Baikal, wintering in
Africa as far south as the Capt’
Habitat: Cultivated districts, gardens or outskirts of weods.

a

PIED FLYCATCHER.V
Muscicapa atricapilla Zznn.

Adult Male (Summer): General colour above black,
greyish on rump; wings brown: innermost secondaries
broadly edged with white, and some of wing-coverts entirely
white ; tail brownish-black ; outermost tail-feathers partly
white ; a slight patch of white on forehead ; szdes of neck and
under parts generally pure zAz¢e; bill, legs and feet black ;
irides brown. Length 4°75 to 5 inches; culmen 0°35 ; wing
‘a bmall2se¢ tarsusS.o"7:

Adult Female: Duller, and brown instead of black above ;
no white on forehead ; innermost secondaries narrowly mar-
gined with white on outer webs.

Adult Male (Winter) : Similar to summer dress, but
browner black above.

Nestling : General colour above dark brown, spotted with
ochreous ; buffish edgings to secondaries very marked ;_ be-
neath closely marked with dark brown.

Distribution: Breeds in Europe south of the Arctic Circle.
Winters in Central Africa. Occurs as far east as Lersia.

Habitat: Cultivated districts, woods, gardens, &c.

WHITE-COLLARED FLYCATCHER. =
Muscicapa collaris Bechst.

Adult Male: Head, back and tail black ; darge frontal
patch, entire neck and under parts zw/z¢e ; wings and tail as in
M. atricapilla ; bill, legs and feet black ; irides brown. Length
Aa5unehes'; .culmen 07355 ving 3°25 5) tail 2:tarsus 07m

Adult Female: Resembles adult female of JZ. atricapilla,
but the tarsus and tail are somewhat shorter.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Central and Southern
Europe. Winters in Africa.

Habitat : Similar to that of JZ. atricaptlla.

HIRUNDINIDA:—SWALLOWS.

|
eT

RED-BREASTED FLYCATCHER.
Muscicapa parva Lechst.

Adult Male (Summer): Head brownish-grey; Jdack
brown ; wings dark brown, with paler margins; tail-coverts
with a blackish tinge ; central tail-feathers blackish brown ;
most of outer rectrices showing white at bases ; throat and chest
redatsh-orange, bordered with grey ; rest of under parts whitish,
washed on flanks with buff; bill, legs and feet brown; irides
brown. Length 4°6 inches; culmen 0°3; wing 2°75; tail 2;
tarsus 0°65.

Adult Female: Similar above to male, but shows no grey ;
paler beneath ; chest and flanks reddish-buff.

Adult Male (Winter): Shows no grey above or beneath ;
throat and chest buff, with dusky transverse marks; rest of
under parts washed with buff.

Young in first plumage: Appear to be spotted both
above and beneath.

Distribution : Found in Central and South-eastern Europe
and eastward as far as India. Winters in Northern Africa.
Scarce straggler to Northern Europe.

Habitat: Dense forests, occasionally found in gardens or
orchards.

Section OSCINES LATIROSTRES.

Family HIRUNDINIDA.

Genus HIRUNDO.

SWALLOW. VY
Hirundo rustica /Zzzn.

Adult Male: Forehead and throat chestnut ; upper parts
generally deep blue ; wings and tail black, showing green or
blue at different angles ; all rectrices except centre ones having
a mesial spot of white ; a band of dark blue across chest ; rest
of under parts white ; bill, legs and feet black ; irides brown.

76 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Length 7°5 to 8 inches; culmen 0°3; wing 4°8; tail 4°25 ;
tarsus 0°45.

Adult Female: Not so bright generally: outermost
rectrices shorter, beneath shaded with buff, and chest-band not
so broad.

Young in first plumage: Frontal region, throat and
under tail-coverts pale cinnamon-brown ; chest-band. blackish ;
wing and tail-feathers with narrow pale inner margins ; rump
and upper tail-coverts with obscure pale tips: gape creamy-
white.

Distribution: A common summer visitant to Europe,
wintering in the Ethiopian and Indian regions.

Habitat: Cultivated districts, near houses ; about rivers.
and lakes.

RED-RUMPED SWALLOW.
Hirundo rufula Zemm.

Adult Male: Crown and éack deep blue, the latter marked
with white; superciliary stripe, dack of neck and rump chestnut +
wings and tail black, glossed with blue; under-parts white,
washed, especially on flanks, with reddish-buff; throat and
breast with narrow, dark longitudinal stripes ; under tail-coverts.
broadly tipped with black ; bill, legs and feet blackish ; irides
dark brown. Length 7 inches; culmen 0°32; wing 4°8 ; tail
4°1; tarsus 0°5.

Young: Duller, not so striped beneath and more rufous ;
some of wing-feathers tipped with reddish-buff; outermost
rectrices showing a whitish patch on inner web.

Distribution: Occurs in Southern and South-eastern
Europe, ranging across Asia Minor and Palestine as far east as.
Turkestan.

Habitat: Very similar to H rustica. Vine-clad valleys.

Genus CHELIDON.

HOUSE MARTIN. vy
Chelidon urbica (Zzvm.)

Adult: Above bluish-black ; xwmp white; wings and tail

HIRUNDINIDA—MARTINS. ae

black ; entire uxder parts and feathers of feet white ; bill black ;
irides dark brown. Length 5°5 inches; culmen 0°25; wing
4°45 ; tail 2°6; tarsus o'5.

Young: Blacker above; most of wing-quills more or less
edged at the tips with white ; tail shorter ; throat washed with
dusky.

Distribution: Breeds throughout most of Europe and
Northern Africa ; winters south of Abyssinia.

Habitat: Buildings, cliffs, &c.

Genus COTILE.

SAND MARTIN. \“
Cotile riparia (Zzzz).

Adult: Adove glossy mouse-brown ; quills and tail-feathers
darker brown ; beneath white, dazded across chest with brown ;
sides of head and flanks also brown ; bill black ; legs and feet
dark brown; irides hazel-brown. Length 5 inches ; culmen
0°2; wing 4°25; tail 2°25; tarsus o'5.

Young: Many of feathers of upper parts edged with pale
buff ; throat also washed with pale buff.

Distribution : Summer visitant throughout the Palearctic
and Nearctic regions; winters in India, Africa, and South
America.

Habitat: Sandy banks near water ; railway cuttings, &c.

CRAG MARTIN.
Cotile rupestris (Scop).

Adult: Above considerably lighter brown than in C.
riparia ; quills margined on outer webs with very pale brown ;
outer rectrices showing a large white blotch about the middle of
the inner web; outermost and central ones unspotted ; chin
and throat whitish, former mottled with brown; breast and
abdomen pale brown with a tinge of rufous ; bill nearly black ;
legs and feet brown ; irides dark brown. Length 5°5 to 5°75
inches ; culmen 0°35 ; wimg 5°2, tail 2°25 ; tarsus 0°45.

78 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Young: Darker above; feathers on back and _ scapulars:
edged with rufous ; secondariegggnd upper tail-coverts narrowly
edged with white.

Distribution: Found through Southern Europe and
Central Asia to China.

Habitat: Rocky, mountain ravines or caves.

Section OSCINES CONIROSTRES.

Family FRINGILLIDA.

Subfamily FRINGILLINEA.

Genus CARDUELIS.

GOLDFINCH. “
Carduelis elegans Spi.

Adult Male: Feathers round base of bill and lores black ;
forehead and wfpper throat crimson; centre of crown black,
joining a black half collar on the neck ; ear-coverts and region
both above and below them white; back pale olive-brown; upper
tail-coverts white ; quills black, tipped with white, their dases
externally margined with golden yellow ; tail feathers black,
tipped with white and outer ones subterminally marked with a
white blotch ; beneath white, shaded on sides of breast, and
flanks with wood-brown ; bill pale brown, darker at tip; legs,
feet and irides brown. Length 4°5 to 5 inches; culmen 0°45 ;
wing 3°2; tail 2; tarsus 0°6.

Adult Female: Similar, but duller and showing less red
on forehead and upper throat.

Young in first plumage: Head shows no black or red ; -
beneath much browner, breast more or less distinctly spotted.

Young in Autumn: Above greyish-brown, shaded with
darker brown ; wing tips buffish and not pure white ; outermost
pair of rectrices only spotted.

Distribution : Resident throughout most of Europe, except
in the extreme north. - Resident also in Northern Africa and
ranges eastward into Persia.

FRINGILLIDAZ—FINCHES., 79

Habitat: Deciduous woods, gardens, orchards, or waste
places where thistles are numerous.

Genus CHRYSOMITRIS.

SISKIN. W
Chrysomitris spinus (Zzzm).

Adult Male (Summer): Crown black ; back dull green,
streaked with dark brown; rump yellow; wings blackish,
barred with yellow and with pale yellowish margins; tail
blackish, all except central feathers yellow at base ; beneath
yellow, shading into white on abdomen; flanks streaked with »
blackish ; bill brown, paler at base; legs and feet brown ;
irides dark brown. Length 4°5 inches; culmen o0*4; wing
2°8; tail 1°9; tarsus 0'5.

Adult Female: Head and back greyish-brown, marked
with darker brown; beneath whitish, tinged on breast with
yellow and streaked with dark brown; slightly smaller than
male.

Young in first plumage: Above buffish, streaked with
dark brown; under parts white, tinged with buff.

Distribution: Frequents the temperate portion of the
Palearctic region ; winter visitant to most parts of England.

Habitat : Fir woods, plantations and fields: gregarious.

CITRIL FINCH.

Chrysomitris citrinella (Lzzz).

Adult Male (Summer): Forehead yellowish; ead and
back gveen, latter marked with brown ; rump, region round eye
and central under parts greenish yellow, uuaspotted ; wings and
tail blackish-brown, with yellowish margins, the former banded
with yellowish-green ; nape, sides of neck and /lanks grey ;
bill bluish-horn ; legs. and feet brown; irides dark brown.
Length 4°75 inches; culmen 03; wing 3; tail 2°2; tarsus 0°6.

Adult Female: Similar but shows less yellow on forehead
and the back is brownish-grey, with a tinge of green ; beneath
yellower, breast grey mixed with green.

Adult (Winter): General plumage decidedly yellower, with

So A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

the exception of the back, which is reddish-brown only tinged
with yellow and streaked with g@isky.

Young in first plumage: Above buffish-brown, streaked
with darker brown; rump buff; wings margined and barred
with buff; beneath buffish-white and indistinctly streaked.

Distribution: Resident in the mountain districts of
Southern-central and Southern Europe, except in the extreme
eastern portions.

Habitat: Fir woods and isolated trees on mountain sides.

Genus SERINUS.

SERIN FINCH.
Serinus hortulanus och.

Adult Male (Summer) : Forehead and cheeks yellow, \atter
tinged with green; crown and back olive-green, conspicuously
streaked with dark brown; wings and tail dusky, with pale
yellowish margins ; vump and under parts clear yellow, shading
into white towards vent; flaxks streaked with dark brown ;
bill brownish, paler beneath ; legs and feet brown ; irides dark
brown. Length 4'5 inches; culmen 0°3 ; wing 2°75 ; tail 1°75 ;
tarsus 0°5.

Adult Female: Duller, yellow on forehead absent ; breast
dull white, streaked throughout with brown.

Adult (Winter): The yellow above and beneath some-
what obscured by pale margins to the feathers ; wings margined
with buffish.

Young in first plumage: Resemble the female, but
show no trace of yellow.

Distribution: Resident in most parts of Central and
Southern Europe: common in Asia Minor; found also in
Palestine.

Habitat: Vineyards, gardens, and cultivated regions near
dwellings.

RED-FRONTED FINCH.
Serinus pusillus (Fa//.)

Adult Male: Frontal region and rump orange-red, rest of

FRINGILLIDA‘W—FINCHES. 81

head and ¢hroat black; nape washed with brown; back,
scapulars and upper tail-coverts black, with broad yellowish
margins ; primaries dusky, margined with yellow and secondaries
with white ; lesser wing-coverts tipped with orange ; tail-feathers
dusky margined with yellow on outer, and with white on two
central rectrices; breast deep yellow marked with black, be-
coming paler yellow below and almost white at vent; flanks
streaked with black; bill, legs and feet black ; irides dark
brown. Length 4:5 inches; culmen 0°3; wing 2°8; tail 2°1 ;
tarsus 0°85.

Adult Female: Shows less red on forehead, and is
generally duller ; otherwise similar.

Young: Head brown, with darker central streaks, with a
tinge of orange in front ; throat feathers margined with yellowish.

Distribution: Resident in the extreme south-east of
Europe, and eastward occurs in Persia and ‘Turkestan.

Habitat : Wooded mountain sides at considerable elevation.

Genus LIGURINUS.

GREENFINCH. ue

Ligurinus chloris (Zzzz.)

Adult Male (Summer): Forehead and rump greenish-
yellow ; sides of head and ear-coverts dull grey ; lores blackish ;
crown, neck and back olive-green, with obscure greyish margins
to the feathers; wings dark brown, tipped with dull grey,
primaries edged with yellow at their bases; tail dark brown,
central feathers edged with grey, the vest having their bases
entirely yellow; beneath greenish-yellow on throat shading
into clear yellow on abdomen ; chest and sides of neck edged
with grey ; flanks grey ; bill pale flesh-colour, darker at tip;
legs and feet pale brown; irides hazel. Length 5°5 inches ;
culmen 0°5 ; wing 34 to 3°5 ; tail 2°3 ; tarsus 0°65.

Adult Female: Above brown ; rump green; wings as in
male, but not so brightly coloured ; beneath greyish-brown,
shading into dirty white at the vent; abdomen tinged with
yellow.

Young in first plumage: Nearly resembles the adult.
female.

G

CH
iS)

A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Young Male (Autumn): Greener than female, but
considerably duller than adultggnale ; yellow on primaries not
extending so far.

Distribution: Resident throughout most of the Western
Palearctic Region, except in the extreme north, ranging east-
ward to Northern Persia. Winter visitant to Northern Africa
and Palestine.

Habitat: Gardens and cultivated regions generally.

Genus COCCOTHRAUSTES.
HAWFINCH. we

Coccothraustes vulgaris Pad/.

Adult Male (Summer): Forehead yellowish ; crown and
rump chestnut ; neck above and at sides ashy-grey ; back dark,
chestnut-brown; wings black glossed with purple ; primaries
having a blotch of white on inner margins, zznermost primaries
enlarged and hooked at tips, glossed with purple ; wing-coverts
chiefly white ; tail-feathers blackish, terminal part of inner webs
white ; narrow ring round base of bill, and chin black ; rest of
under parts greyish-brown ; bill leaden-blue, legs and feet very
pale brown; irides greyish-white. Length about 7 inches ;
culmen 0°7 ; wing 3°8; tail 2°25 ; tarsus 0°38.

Adult Female (Summer): Similar, but duller through-
out, and showing less black upon the throat.

Adult (Winter) : Above dull olive-brown, collar brownish-
grey; black on throat not pure; secondaries and most of
primaries externaliy edged with grey ; beneath brown, shading
to grey on centre of abdomen; bill pale brown or brownish-
flesh-colour.

Male in first plumage: Back shaded yellowish-brown,
head yellower or greener, and rump much paler; wings very
similar to adult, but coverts not pure white; chin and throat
whitish, shading into pale buff on rest of under parts ; breast
and sides of body barred with brown, darker on latter ; bill
pale flesh-colour.

Female in first plumage: Similar, but has some of
secondaries edged with grey, and is generally duller in colour.

Distribution: ‘Occurs, with more or less frequency,
throughout the Palearctic Region, except in some of the more
northern parts.”

FRINGILLIDA—SPARROWS. 83

Habitat: Deciduous woods, orchards, and cultivated
country.

Genus PASSER.

HOUSE SPARROW. va

Passer domesticus (Lznz.)

Adult Male: Crowz and rump ashy-grey, former bordered
with chestnut ; back dark brown, the feathers having reddish-
brown margins ; wings and tail dark brown, with paler margins ;
lesser wing-coverts tipped with white; lores black; cheeks
greyish ; centre of throat ana chest black; rest of under parts
greyish-white ; bill black, legs and feet brown; irides dark
brown. Length 6 inches; culmen 0°45; wing 3; tail 274;
tarsus 0.65.

Adult Female: Above dull brown, streaked on the back
with darker brown; lesser wing-coverts tipped with buffish ;
superciliary stripe more distinct than in male; under parts
dirty brown, paler on centre of abdomen.

Young in first plumage: Similar to adult female, but
paler.

Distribution : Common resident throughout the Palearctic
Region.

Habitat : Cultivated regions near human habitations.

Note.—In some male birds the throat is washed with deep chocolate.

ITALIAN SPARROW.
Passer italiz (Viedd/.)

Adult Male (Summer): Cvowz and nape rich chestnut ;
superciliary stripe white and distinct; cheeks pure white, not
greyish, otherwise similar to P. domesticus in summer. Length
5'5 to 6 inches; culmen 0°45 ; wing 3; tail 2°25 ; tarsus 0°7.

Adult Female: Similar to female of P. domesticus.

Young in first plumage: Resemble the female.

G2

84 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution : Inhabits Italy and Corsica, and has been
observed as far north as the Brggner Pass.
Habitat: Similar to that of 7. domesticus.

SPANISH SPARROW.

Passer hispaniolensis Zemm.

Adult Male (Summer): Very similar to P. t¢a@@, but
larger, the back much darker and marked with white; the
black on the chest extending to the sides of the chest, and flanks
boldly marked with black. Length 6 to 6°25 inches ; culmen 0'5 ;
wing 3°1; tail 2°25 ; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female: Indistinguishable from female of P. do-
mesticus except by its somewhat larger size.

Distribution: Resident in Southern Europe. Found also
in Northern Africa and eastward into Northern India.

Habitat: Similar to that of P. domesticus.

TREE SPARROW. So

Passer montanus (Zzwz.)

Adult Male (Summer) : Crown and nape dull chocolate,
rest of upper parts similar to P. domesticus, but paler in ground-
colour and less striped ; zzzgs crossed by two white bars; sides
of head white with a patch of black below the ears ; chin and
centre of throat black; rest of under parts greyish, except
centre of abdomen, which is white; bill black; legs and feet
light brown ; irides brown. Length about 5 inches ; culmen 0°35 ;
wing 2°75; tarsus 0°65.

Adult Female: Similar, but black on chin not so extended,
and less pure.

Young in first plumage: Similar, but chin and cheek

spots are brown.

Distribution : Occurs throughout most of the Palearctic
Region, and in the Indian Region as far south as Java. Has
not been recorded from Portugal.

Habitat: Similar to that of P. domesticus ; nests in holes
in trees, &c.

—<

FRINGILLIDA—SNOW-FINCH. 85
Genus PETRONIA.

ROCK SPARROW.

Petronia stulta (Gyme/.)

Adult Male: Sides of crown and nape dark brown, centre
paler, shading into whitish on nape ; eyebrows and between the
eye and nape whitish ; dack dull drown, conspicuously marked
with darker brown and whitish, ramp unmarked, wings dark
brown with pale margins and innermost secondaries with
whitish tips; tail dark brown, outer feathers showing spot of
white near extremities ; beneath buffy-white, striped with pale
brown ; large blotch on centre of chest bright yellow ; bill horn-
colour, paler beneath ; legs and feet brown; irides brown.
Length about 6 inches ; culmen 0°55 ; wing 3°6 to 3°8; tail 2°15 ;
tarsus 0°7.

Adult Female: Similar, but considerably paler above,
and not showing so much yellow on chest.

Young: Similar to female, but paler beneath.

Distribution : Resident in Central and Southern Europe,
Northern Africa, and Central Asia.

Habitat: High, uncultivated regions, or low fields and
roads in winter.

Genius MONTIFRINGILLA.

ALPINE SNOW-FINCH.
Montifringilla nivalis (Zzv7.)

Adult Male (Summer): Feathers of ead grey, with
darker centres on crown; éack feathers drown, with dark
centres ; rump dark brown; primaries blackish, with narrow
whitish tips, secondaries and wing-coverts chiefly white ; outer
rectrices white, tipped with black, except outermost pair which
lack the black tips, central feathers brown, with white margins ;
chin and ¢hroat black ; rest of under parts white ; bill, legs and
feet black; irides brown. “Length 7‘2 inches; culmen 0's ;
wing 4°75 ; tail 3; tarsus 0°75.

86 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Adult Female (Summer): Similar, but not so purely
coloured either on head or undé#arts, and with less black on
throat.

Adult Male (Winter): Similar to the adult female
described, but black on throat almost obscured by white
margins ; bill chiefly yellow.

Young in first plumage: Very similar to adult female,
but browner on crown ; tarsi brown.

Distribution : Resident in the higher mountain districts of
Southern Europe, the Caucasus, and Lebanon.

Habitat: Stony mountain tops and passes, descending to
the plains in winter.

Genus FRINGILLA.

CHAFFINCH. v
Fringilla coelebs Lenz.

Adult Male: Cvownz and nape dark s/aty-grey ; back
chestnut; rump sap-green ; scapulars grey, with brownish tips ;
quills dusky, narrowly margined with white; greater coverts
blackish, broadly tipped with white, lesser coverts pure white ;
central tail-feathers grey, rest dark brown, the two outermost
on either side white on inner margins ; forehead black : sides of
neck grey; cheeks, ¢hroat and breast reddish-brown, shading
into whitish on abdomen ; bill lead colour, darker at tip; legs
and feet brown ; irides brown. Length 5°75 inches ; culmen 0°45;
wine 2.25 : tail 2:0 > tarsus OS.

Adult Female: Crown and back olive-brown, shaded
(especially on sides of crown) with darker brown ; wings duller,
with yellowish margins, greater coverts narrowly tipped with
white ; cheeks, throat and breast dull greyish-brown.

Young in first plumage: Very similar to adult female, -
but duller.

Young Male (Winter): Similar to adult, but black on
forehead imperfectly developed, and grey of crown showing
only under the brown feathers here and there.

Distribution: Resident and common throughout most of
Europe. Occurs rarely in North-western Africa.

Habitat: Cultivated districts, gardens and woods.

FRINGILLIDA—REDPOLLS. 87

BRAMBLING. v
Fringilla montifringilla Zen.

Adult Male (Summer): /ead, neck, and back glossy
black ; ramp white, with a few black feathers showing ; wings
black, with narrow whitish margins and crossed by a whitish
bar ; inner primaries white at base externally ; median coverts
white ; Zeast coverts orange-buff; scapulars buff; rectrices black,
the outermost partially white ; chin and throat buff (occasionally
black) rest of under parts buff with a reddish tinge, shading
into whitish on abdomen and under tail-coverts ; flanks spotted
with black; bill black; legs, feet and irides dark brown.
Length 5°5 to 6 inches ; culmen 0°45 ; wing 6'to.s 75s fallen
tarsus 0°7.

Adult Female (Summer): Very similar to male in
winter, but the black parts are browner and the general
coloration is duller, with less white showing upon wings.

Adult Male (Winter): Black feathers of upper parts
partially obscured by brown margins ; bill yellow, tipped with
horn-colour ; innermost secondaries broadly margined with
orange-buff, and greater coverts broadly tipped with the same.

Young in first plumage: Resemble the adult female.

Distribution : Found throughout most of the Palearctic
Region, breeding in the far north.

Habitat : Birch forests in summer, cultivated districts and
commons in winter.

Genus LINOTA.

MEAL.Y..REDP.OLL.
Linota linaria (Z7v7).

Adult Male (Summer): Cvowz glossy red; nape, back,
and scapulars dark brown, margined in some places with
whitish ; 7 much whiter, washed with pink and streaked
with brown ; quills dusky, innermost secondaries, greater and
middle wing-coverts tipped with whitish ; tail-feathers dusky,
narrowly margined with whitish ; c/z7 black, breast rosy-pink,
streaked with black and white; rest of under parts whitish,

88 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

flanks streaked with brown; bill brownish horn-colour, legs
and feet brown ; irides brown. a@osth 5 inches ; culmen 0°3 ;
wing 3; tail 2°3 ; tarsus 0°5.

Adult Female (Summer): Very similar to male but
darker above, more mottled beneath, and without any red on
the rump or breast.

Adult (Winter): Narrow frontal band yellowish-grey ;
feathers of upper parts generally with lighter margins, concealing
the red; throat and chest washed with dull buff; bill yellow,
tipped with brown.

Young in first plumage: Head, nape, lower back, and
rump dark brown, edged with greyish-buff; feathers of mantle
edged with pale reddish-brown ; wings as in adult, but edged
with reddish-brown ; beneath buffish-white, streaked with
blackish-brown ; bill and legs brown.

Distribution : An inhabitant of the more northern parts of
both hemispheres, breeding chiefly in the birch-region, and
straying southward in winter.

Habitat: Wooded localities or in the neighbourhood of
plantations.

Note—The Mealy Redpoll, according to its geographical position, is
subject to great variation, both in size and colour, in its range through
Arctic Europe, Asia, and America. Examples found in Greenland are
very large and white, with wings measuring about 3°25 inches; the
streaks on rump, flanks, and under tail-coverts being nearly obsolete.
This race of Redpolls is known as Z. hornemanni, and between it and
the typical Z. daria numberless grades appear, and have received
from time to time specific titles, the most distinct of which is perhaps
the L. exzlipes of Coues, which has the unspotted rump of Z. 4orne-
mannt with the size of Z. “maria. Both the above-mentioned forms
occur in Arctic Europe.

LESSER REDPOLL. Vv
Linota rufescens (Vie7//).

Adult Male (Summer): Very similar to Z. Zxarza, but
shorter and much darker generally ; edgzngs of upper feathers
more rutous ; bill brownish-horn, yellowish at base beneath ;
legs dark brown ; irides brown. Length 4°75 inches ; culmen
0°35; wing 2°75; tail 2°2; tarsus 0°45.

Adult Female (Summer): Decidedly shorter than male

FRINGILLIDE——LINNETS. 89

and usually shows no red on rump or breast; patch on chin
browner than in male; flanks and chest washed with light brown,
and streaked with darker brown.

Adult (Winter): Feathers above more broadly edged
with rufous-brown ; throat patch smaller than in summer ; bill
yellow, black tipped.

Young in first plumage: Head mottled with dark brown
and greyish; greater and middle wing-coverts broad, tipped
with buff; rump mottled with brownish-white and dark brown;
chin, breast and abdomen whitish; sides of head, chest and
flanks washed with brown and mottled with darker brown ;
upper mandible shaded brown ; legs paler than in adults.

Distribution : Northern Central Europe, breeding com-
monly in parts of Great Britain ; not found north of the Baltic
and occurring in Southern Europe on migration.

Habitat: Similar to that of Z. Zézaria.

LINNET. “4

Linota cannabina (Lznz).

Adult Male (Summer): Cvrowz ashen-grey, streaked with
dark brown, forepart washed with cherry-red ; ear-coverts ashy-
srey ; feathers at base of bill and round eyes ochreous ; back
feathers chestnut, with darker centres; primaries and _ tail
blackish, with white margins broader on the latter; throat
marked with dusky; s¢des of breast and chest vosy; flanks fawn-
brown ; bill, legs and feet brown ; irides brown. Length 5°5
inches ; culmen 0°35 ; wing 3°25; tail 2°3; tarsus 0°65.

Adult Female (Summer): Very similar to male, but
browner above and lacks the red both on crown and breast, the
latter and flanks striped with dark brown.

Adult Male (Winter): Similar but duller, and usually
the red is obscured by pale margins to feathers which wear off
again in spring.

Young: Very like adult females, but rather more striped
with brown both above and beneath, and young males show a
trace of red on the breast.

Distribution: Except in extreme north, resident over
nearly the whole of Western Palearctic Region.

Habitat: Neighbourhood of plantations or commons. In
winter on stubble-fields in flocks.

90 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
TWITE.
a
Linota flavirostris (Z7vw).

Adult Male (Summer): Upper parts dark brown, marked
with tawny-brown ; rump rose-coloured; quills dusky, some
primaries with narrow, white margins, secondaries margined
with tawny ; rectrices dusky, outer ones margined with white ;
chin and ¢hroat tawny-buff unspotted ; abdomen white ; sides
of head and body marked with brown ; 0277 yellowish, darker
at tip ; legs and feet dark brown; irides brown. Length 5°5
inches ; culmen 0°23 ; wing 3; tail 2°4; tarsus 0°65.

Adult Female (Summer): Similar but showing more of
the tawny margins to the upper feathers, especially on the
head; no red on rump; under parts tinged throughout with
buff.

Adult (Winter): Very like the summer dress, but slightly
more mottled above; throat and breast rich tawny-brown ;
streaked only on sides of neck and breast; rump of male
slightly rosy.

Immature birds: Resemble adults, but show less white
on margins of primaries ; legs and feet paler.

Distribution: Breeds regularly in Scotland, Ireland and
the North of England, also in Norway. Occurs in most other
parts of Europe chiefly on migration.

Habitat: Moors, bushy hill-sides, &c.

Subfamily LOXIINA.
Genus CARPODACUS.
SCARLET GROSBEAK.
Carpodacus erythrinus (Pai).

Adult Male: Crowz, rump, chin, throat and breast crimson-
vose, darkest on crown ; lores and ear-coverts reddish-brown ;
back brown, tinged with rose ; wings and tail with pale brown

FRINGILLIDA—ROSE-FINCH. gl

margins, sometimes with rose-colour ; under tail-coverts nearly
white ; bill yellowish-brown; legs, feet and irides brown.
Length 5°5 inches; culmen 0°43; wing 3°2 to 3°3; tail 2°4;
tarsus 0°7.

Adult Female: Prevailing colour above dull olive-brown,
wings and tail dark brown ; margins of innermost secondaries
and tips of coverts whitish, or very pale brown; beneath
brownish-white, mottled about chest with brown.

Immature birds: Similar to adult female, but pale edges
to back feathers yellower; margins of secondaries paler and
broader, more generally streaked with brown beneath.

Distribution: Breeds in Northern Russia, across Northern
Siberia, also in the Caucasus and Asia Minor, wintering in
India. Occurs casually in many European countries on migra-
tion.

Habitat : Groves in marshy localities, or gardens. Plains
in winter.

CAUCASIAN ROSE-FINCH.
Carpodacus rubicillus (Gii/d).

Adult Male: Crown and sides of head scarlet, on latter
glossed with silvery-grey; back, scapulars and wing-coverts
brown, washed with deep rose ; wings and tail dark brown, the
former rosy-tinged and both with pale margins ; rump deep
rose; throat and dveast scarlet, conspicuously spotted with
stlvery-white ; bill light horn, yellowish at base beneath ; legs
and feet blackish-brown; irides dark brown. Length 7°75
inches ; culmen 0°55; weg 4.5; tail 3°75.

Adult Female: Prevailing colour above dirty brown, head
with a yellowish tinge, wing and tail feathers edged with light
ashy-brown ; beneath ashy-buff with yellowish tinge, becoming
buffish-white on under tail-coverts ; feathers of head and breast
showing dark centres. .

Immature birds: General colour pale earthy-brown, yel-
lowish inplaces, paler on abdomen; rectrices externally margined
with yellowish or white.

Distribution: Resident in the Caucasus, ranging eastward
into Northern India.

Habitat: Mountain sides, in the vicinity of streams.

92 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
Genius P¥YRRHULA.
BULLWINCH. V
Pyrrhula europza Ver//.

Adult Male: Crown, nape, region round base of bill,
wings (except primaries which are dusky) and tail 4/ack, glossed
with steel-blue ; dack dark cinereous-gvey ; rump and tail-coverts
white ; wings crossed by broad band of ashy-grey ; outer web
of innermost secondary bright brick-red at tip; vent white ;
rest of uxder parts brick-red ; bill black; legs and irides dark
brown: '\Jaength ‘6 iiches ; culmeén: 03; weue79-2% tall ioe
tarsus 0°65.

Adult Female: Grey of back replaced by ashy-brown ;
innermost secondary only tinged with red; beneath warm
brown.

Young in first plumage: Similar to adult female but
show no black on the head; chin lighter than rest of under
parts, which are tinged with ochreous ; lower mandible yellowish
at base.

Distribution: Inhabits Europe west of Central Russia and
south of Scandinavia. Occurs casually in southernmost coun-
tries of Europe.

Habitat : Woodlands, gardens and orchards.

NORTHERN BULLFINCH.

Pyrrhula major C. ZL. Brehm.

Adult Male: Similar to adult male of P europea, but
is larger and the colours, in some specimens, are more intense.
Length 6°25 inches; culmen 0.35; wing 37°61037°8; tail 3;
Latsus O°7.

Adult Female: Similar to adult female of P. europea,
but larger and distinctly greyer.

Distribution: Breeds in Scandinavia and North-eastern
Europe generally, occurring as a winter visitant in South-
eastern Europe. Found also in Central Asia.

Habitat: Similar to P. europea.

FRINGILLIDA:—CROSSBILLS. je

Genius PINICOLA.
PINE GROSBEAK. xX

Pinicola enucleator (277).

Adult Male: Lores black; rest of head vermilion ;
feathers of back and scapulars greyish-black, margined broadly
with red ; 7wmp and upper tail-coverts showing almost entirely
ved; wings greyish-black narrowly margined with whitish ;
primaries show a tinge of red on margins of outer web ; wing-
coverts broadly edged and tipped with white; tail greyish-
black, with narrow pale margins, and showing a shade of red at
base ; feathers of wader parts vermilion, grey at bases ; shading
into grey on abdomen ; bill dark brown, paler at base beneath ;
legs, feet and irides dark brown. Length 8-5 inches ; culmen
0°55; wing 4°3; tail 3°6; tarsus o°8.

Adult Female: Head, ear-coverts, rump and upper
tail-coverts rich yellow with greenish tinge ; back and scapulars
slate-grey washed with green; wing feathers greyish-black,
edged and tipped with white ; tail feathers greyish-black, most
green margined ; beneath ashy-grey, tinged on fore-parts with
greenish-yellow ; bill orange-brown ; legs and feet dark brown.

Young: Very similar to adult female but less yellow on
back and generally duller in colour. In young males the
breast is somewhat yellower, with occasionally a few red fea-
thers on the crown.

Distribution: Resident in the arctic portions of both Pale-
arctic and Nearctic Regions. Of casual occurrence in Great
Britain. |

Habitat: Conifer woods and also occasionally deciduous
groves.

Genus LOXIA.
CROSSBILE,.

Loxia curvirostra zz.

Adult Male: Prevailing colour dull crimson, clearer on
chest and paler on rump, shading into white towards the vent ;
wings and tail brown, narrowly margined with dull reddish-
brown; under tail-coverts white, centrally marked with dark

94 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

brown ; d:2/ (with mandibles crossing one another at the tips)
dull horn-brown ; legs, feet and irides dark brown. Length 6
inches ; culmen 0°75 ; height ofghtl/ at base o'45; wing 4; tail
2°0\; ‘tarsus o°b5. |

Adult Male (in captivity): Prevailing colour green-
ish-yellow, becoming purer yellow on the rump.

Adult Female: Differs from the male by being chiefly
greyish-brown, washed on head, back and breast with light
greenish-yellow, brightest and clearest on the rump.

Young in first plumage: Greyish-white both above and
beneath, conspicuously striped all over with dark brown and
washed.on back and rump with pale green.

Distribution: Breeds in the pine forest regions throughout
most of Europe, also in Northern Asia.

Habitat: Conifer forests, fir plantations.

Note.—In Scandinavia and Northern Russia (occasionally straggling as
far west as Great Britain) a larger billed race of Crossbills is found. In
their coloration and changes of plumage the two forms are almost
identical, but in one the height of the bill at base is 0-45 whilst in the
other it measures in some birds fully 0°6. This larger billed bird (the
Parrot Crossbill) has by many authors received specific rank under
the name of ZL. gztyopsittacus.

TWO-BARRED CROSSBILL.
Loxia bifasciata (C. LZ. Brehm).
Adult Male: In general tint very much resembling Z.

curvirostra, but more mottled above owing to the dark bases
of the feathers showing through ; the innermost secondaries,

greater and median wing-coverts conspicuously tipped with white ;

bill, legs, feet and irides brown. Length 6°25 inches; culmen
o'7 ; height of bill at base 043 ;-wing 3°38; tail 2°75 5 tarsus
G02.

Adult Female and Young: May be distinguished by

their white-tipped wing-coverts.

Distribution: Resident in North-eastern Europe and ~

Northern Asia, occurring casually in Central and Western
Europe.
Habitat: Resembles that of Z. curvirostra.

Note.—The American White-winged Crossbill, which has occasionally ap-
peared in England, has a more slender bill and darker scapulars.

es

—

FRINGILLIDAA—BUNTINGS. 95
Sub-Family EMBERIZINAZE.

Genus EMBERIZA.

BLACK-HEADED BUNTING.
Emberiza melanocephala Scof.

Adult Male (Summer): Cvown and cheeks Olack;
upper parts generally chestnut, tinged, especially on rump,
with orange ; wings and tail brown; primaries margined with
whitish ; greater wing-coverts margined with white; rectrices
with pale brown margins; sides of neck and under paris rich
yellow, washed with chestnut on sides of body ; bill dark grey ;
legs flesh-colour ; irides dark brown. Lezgth 68 tnches ; culmen
Ga wine 3°75; tail 3-15 ; tarsus o°8.

Adult Female (Summer): Above brown, streaked with
darker brown ; crown and rump washed with yellowish ; wings
brown, broadly edged with whitish ; rectrices ashy-brown with
greenish tinge at base and pale edged ; sides of face pale brown ;
lores and chin whitish; beneath yellow, with ash-coloured
flanks; under wing-coverts yellowish-white ; length of.wing
3°5 inches.

Adult Male (Winter): Above dull brown, washed with
yellowish on rump, and showing black shaft lines on crown;
sides of head blackish; beneath yellow, obscured on breast
by ashy margins ; bill dark brown, paler and yellower be-
neath.

Young in first plumage: Above pale yellowish-brown,
yellower on rump, many of back and crown feathers having
darker shaft-lines; wings margined with very pale buff,
coverts and innermost secondaries very broadly so; throat
greyish-white ; chest buff, washed with brown; breast and
abdomen feathers yellowish, with white edges; under tail-
coverts yellow.

Distribution : Abundant in South-eastern Europe during
the summer ; found occasionally also in countries further west.
Winters in India.

Habitat: Wooded plains, gardens or orchards.

96 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

\

COMMON BUNTING. Vv

Cs Emberiza mfiaria Zinn.

Adult (Summer): Adove hair-bvozx, with shaft-stripes of
darker brown, which are less apparent on rump; wings and
tail dark brown, with pale margins ; wing-coverts and innermost
secondaries broadly edged with pale brown ; region round eye
and cheeks buffish, marked with dark brown ; under parts greyish-
white ; sides of ¢Arvoat and chest with dark brown arrow-shaped
marks ; flanks streaked with brown ,; bill dark brown on ridge
of culmen, lower mandible pale yellow; legs and _ irides
brown. Length 7 inches ; culmen 0°49; wing 3°75; tail 2°8;
tarsus O'9Q.

Adult (Winter) : Darker and richer above and more suf-
fused with buff beneath.

Immature birds: Are similar to adults in winter, but are
still more suffused with rich buff and more heavi'y spotted be-
neath.

Distribution: Resident throughout Europe, except in the
extreme north. Ranges eastward through Central Asia.

Habitat: Open cultivated localities.

; YELLOW BUNTING OR YELLOW HAMMER.
Emberiza citrinella Zznz.

Adult Male (Summer) : ead and nape yellow, streaked
here and there with brown ; back fulvous-brown ; scapulars,
and rump chestnut, the two former longitudinally marked with
dark brown; wings dark brown, primaries narrowly margined
on outer webs with yellow, secondaries and wing-coverts with
chestnut ; tail dark brown, central rectrices margined with
chestnut and two outermost pairs having large patch of white
on inner webs ; dexeath yellow, shaded with dull olive on chest,
and flanked with chestnut; bill horn-colour, browner above ;
legs and feet light brown; irides dark brown. Length 6°5
inches ; culmen 04 ;. wing 3°4; tail 3; tarsus 0°7 ;

Adult Female (Summer): Duller than the male, the
yellow paler, and little or none upon the head, otherwise very
similar.

FRINGILLIDZ—BUNTINGS. 97

Adult Male (Winter): Has the feathers on the crown
tipped with brown and those on the rump with greyish ; under
parts more marked with dusky mottlings.

Young in first plumage: Have no yellow above. Gen-
eral colour of upper parts dull olive, marked with blackish ;
rump almost unmarked ; tips of wing-coverts very pale ; beneath
greyish-white, streaked with brown.

Distribution : Resident throughout Europe and in Asia as
far east as Turkestan. .

Habitat: Commons, hedge-rows or stackyards.

CIRL BUNTING.

Emberiza cirlus Zzzz.

Adult Male (Summer) : Cvowz and nape olive, streaked
with dark brown; back and scapulars dull bay, some of
feathers having dark shaft-lines ; wings dark brown; primaries
narrowly edged with yellowish, greater wing-coverts and terti-
aries broadly margined with chestnut ; rectrices dark brown,
middle pair tinged with rufous; outermost rectrices narrowly
edged on outer webs with white ; supercifiary stripe, and one
beneath the eye ye//ow ; line from base of bill through the eye
to ear-coverts blackish ; sides of neck and chest-band olive ;
chin and ¢hroat black, with broad patch of yellow on lower
throat ; below this an irregular band of chestnut ; abdomen
dull yellow ; flanks dull olive, streaked with brown ; bill lead
colour ; legs arid feet light brown; irides brown. Length 6
inches ; culmen 0°35 ; wing 3°15 ; tail 2°8; tarsus 0°7.

Adult Female (Summer): Crown dull olive, streaked
with black ; back reddish-brown, also streaked with black ;
sides of face dull brown; superciliary stripe pale yellow ;
throat brownish with darker specks ; rest of under parts dull
yellow, streaked with brown.

Adult Male (Winter): Generally paler and duller than
in summer ; black feathers on head and some of wing feathers
show pale margins.

Immature birds: Similar to adult female, but show no-
where any decided yellow, only a suffusion of buff.

Distribution: Resident in Central and Southern Europe,

H

98 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Asia Minor, and North-western Africa ; breeds also in south of —

England.
Habitat: Cultivated and wSOdland districts.

ORTOLAN BUNTING. ™~
Emberiza hortulana Zzn22.

Adult Male (Summer): Cyvown and nape grey with
greenish tinge ; back and scapulars pale chestnut, with broad,
dark shaft-stripes ; rump yellowish-brown, unstreaked ; prima-
ries dark brown, narrowly margined with pale brown ; tail-
feathers dark brown, two outermost pairs white on terminal
third of inner web, most of rectrices bordered with pale brown
externally ; sides of neck and chest-band yellowish-green ; chin,
throat, a ving round eye and lores pale yellow ; breast and abdo-
men pale rufous, tinged with yellowish ; bill, legs and feet flesh-
colour ; irides brown. Length 6'5 inches ; culmen 0°4; wing
ao. sall 2% tarsus 0:75.

Adult Female (Summer): Very similar, but head greyer
and more marked with brown; pale ochreous patch behind
nostril ; chin and throat paler and bordered by a line of brown
spots on either side ; chest mottled with dusky brown, and gen-
erally paler beneath.

Immature birds: Similar to above description, but show-
ing more yellow on sides of head and more distinctly marked
with brown on chest.

Distribution: A summer visitant to temperate Europe and
Central Asia, wintering in Northern Africa and Central India.
Of rare occurrence in Great Britain.

Habitat : Edges of woods, near water ; damp thickets, &c.

MEADOW-BUNTING.
Emberiza cia Z7znn.

Adult Male (Summer): Cvown, nape and neck bluish-
grey ; sides of crown, a line through the eye, and another pass-
ing from base of bill (bordering throat) to ear-coverts black ;
superciliary stripe white ; back pale brown, washed with cinna-
mon and marked on centre with dark brown ; vwmp dark cin-

OO

FRINGILLIDAA—BUNTINGS. 99

- namon, unspotted ; wings brown; primaries narrowly margined

with whitish and secondaries with pale brown; greater and
median coverts tipped with whitish ; lesser coverts grey ; tail
feathers dark brown, the central pair somewhat paler, with
whitish margins, terminal half of outermost pair nearly all
white ; chin whitish, becoming bluish-grey on throat and chest ;
rest of under parts cinnamon ; bill lead colour, paler beneath ;
legs yellowish-brown ; irides brown. Length 6 inches ; culmen
G:45s wang a:2 ; tail 3» tarsus 077.

Adult Female (Summer): Grey of the crown duller,
washed with brown, and streaked like the back with darker
brown ; stripes on side of crown obscured; wing bars not so
white ; under parts dull, rusty fulvous ; throat brownish-grey.

Adult Male (Winter): Feathers of upper parts more sub-
dued by having broad fulvous margins; crown washed with
brown, and black bands not so distinct ; general tint of under
parts somewhat paler.

Adult Female (Winter) : Similar to male at same sea-
son, but shows no grey on the crown and superciliary stripe
indistinct.

Young: Are very similar to female in winter, but are
marked with triangular brown spots on throat and chest.

Distribution: Resident in Southern Europe, being found
in the countries bordering the Mediterranean on both sides.

Habitat: Hill-sides covered with brushwood ; vineyards.

CRETZSCHMAR’S BUNTING.
Emberiza ceesia Crefzsch.

Adult Male (Summer): Head, neck and chest-band clear
grey ; lores and throat pale rufous; back feathers reddish-
brown, with dark brown centres; rump and upper taii-coverts
pale rufous : wings brown, margined with rufous ; tail feathers
brown, two central ones margined with rufous ; two outermost
feathers white towards tip of inner web ; entire dveas¢ and abdo-
men rich chestnut ; bill reddish-brown, paler beneath ; legs and
feet brown ; irides brown. Length 6°25 inches; culmen o*4;
wing 3°3 ; ¢ai/ 2°Z; tarsus 0°6.

Adult Female: Colours more subdued than those of
male ; feathers of the crown showing blackish streaks ; cheeks

H 2

100 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

and ear-coverts dark rufous; rest of head and throat pale
rufous, latter marked with small dark specks on either side ;
rest of under parts much as in*Male, but chest-band dull grey,
marked with brown.

Young Male in first plumage: Above greyish-brown,
having dark shaft-lines to most of feathers ; innermost second-
aries and wing-coverts very broadly bordered with fulvous ;
beneath very pale cinnamon-brown, becoming pale cinnamon
on under tail-coverts ; chest dull greyish ; sides of throat and
chest spotted with dusky brown.

Distribution: Summer visitant to South-eastern Europe,
occasionally straying as far west as France. Winters in Africa.

Habitat: Borders of cultivated districts ; barren places.

PINE BUNTING.

Emberiza leucocephala Gmed.

Adult Male (Summer): Crown white, some of feathers
having dark shaft-lines ; forehead, line through the eye, entire
throat and sides of throat dark chestnut-brown ; ear-coverts
white; sides of neck grey ; back rufous, marked with dark
brown ; xump and upper tail-coverts 77ch day ; primaries grey-
ish-brown, narrowly margined with whitish; rest of wing
feathers dark brown and more or less broadly bordered with
rufous ; lesser coverts ashy-grey; tail-feathers dark greyish-
brown, edged with fulvous, except two outermost rectrices which
are chiefly white ; across the chest a band of white; breast and
flanks rich bay, tinged with white; centre of abdomen white ;
bill horn-brown, paler and yellower beneath; legs and feet
pale yellowish-brown ; irides brown. Length 6°6 inches; cul-
men O14 + wing 3°65 ; tail’ 472; tarsus. o°7:

Adult Female (Summer): Crown greyish-brown, with
blackish stripes ; lores and cheeks dirty white, purer on sides.
of neck ; nape grey, somewhat marked with brown; back and
scapulars brown, with darker shaft-stripes and mixed with
rufous ; rump and upper tail-coverts rich bay, unspotted ; lesser
wing-coverts brown, not ashy-grey ; throat dull white, speckled,
especially on the sides, with brown ; chest and flanks rufous,
streaked with reddish-brown.

FRINGILLIDA:—BUNTINGS. IOI

Adult Male (Winter): Much duller than in summer,
showing no rufous on wings ; white on crown much obscured
by brown ; rump, upper tail-coverts and throat feathers with
whitish margins ; breast white, broadly marked with brown.

Young in first plumage: Much resembles adult female,
but is entirely brown above, somewhat paler on crown and
washed with rufous on rump and upper tail-coverts; sides
of throat speckled with blackish ; throat and chest buffish, the
latter marked with dark brown.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Asiatic Russia, winter-
ing in Southern Asia ; casual winter visitant to Eastern Europe.

Habitat: Wooded localities (evergreen or deciduous).

YELLOW-BREASTED BUNTING.
Emberiza aureola Fall.

Adult Male: Prevailing colour above deep chestnut ; fore-
head, chin, and sides of head black; wings brown, with
fulvous margins ; medéan coverts white ; tail brown, margined
with fulvous, except two outermost feathers, which are chiefly
white ; deneath bright yellow with dark chestnut band across
chest ; flanks striped with dusky ; under wing-coverts chiefly
white; bill brown above, paler beneath ; legs brownish flesh-
colour ; irides brown. Length 5°5 inches; culmen 0°35; wing
23 tall 24s tarsus 0°78.

Adult Female: Above greyish-brown, on nape and rump
washed with rufous, with dark shaft stripes to feathers of fore-
parts; hind neck and centre of crown less spotted ; sides of
crown, ear-coverts dusky brown ; lores and superciliary stripe
yellowish-white ; greater and median wing-coverts dark brown,
with fulvous borders, tipped with white ; entire under parts
pale yellow, tinged with ochre on upper breast ; flanks marked,
as in male.

Adult (Winter): Much duller, on account of the pale
fulvous margins which the feathers assume. Chest band of
male bird barely distinguishable.

Immature Male: Paler than adult; back pale brown
washed on crown and rump with chestnut and boldly striped
with dark brown ; wing-bars indistinct; pectoral band in-
dicated by a few dull brown marks.

102 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Young in first plumage: Similar but more ochreous
brown above, under parts ochggous, becoming clearer yellow
on centre of breast, which es streaked ; flanks also
streaked with rich brown.

Distribution: Summer visitant to Northern Asia and
Northern Russia, wintering in China, the Himalayas, and
occurring rarely in Southern Europe.

Habitat: Damp regions among undergrowth, also on dry,
bushy plains.

RUSTIC BUNTING.
Emberiza rustica /al/.

Adult Male (Summer): Cvown and sides of head d/ack,
superciliary stripe and throat white; chest-band bright bay ;
back and scapulars reddish-brown, mottled with. black and
bordered broadly with buff; rump rich bay; wings dark
brown, bordered with buff and crossed by two white bars ;
tail dark brown, outermost pair of feathers chiefly white ;
breast and abdomen white ; flanks broadly streaked with bay ;
top of bill brown, yellowish beneath; legs and feet flesh-
coloured ; irides dark brown. Length 55 inches ; culmen 0°35 ;
wing 3°2; tail 2°4; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female (Summer) : Generally duller: brown on
the head, where on the male black appears ; bay collar much
duller ; superciliary stripe smaller and throat buffish ; rump
as bright as in the male.

Young Male (Autumn): Similar to female, but decidedly
paler on the head, nape marked with bay ; chin, throat, sides
of neck and chest buffish, with bay spots across latter; rump
and thighs broadly marked with bay.

Distribution: Breeds in North-eastern Europe, occasion-
ally straggling westward ; ranges across Siberia to Japan, and
occurs in winter southward to China.

Habitat: Cultivated regions ; fir woods. Dense scrub.

LITTLE BUM EING.-o
Emberiza pusilla Fal.

Adult Male (Summer): Cvown and sides of head

FRINGILLIDA—BUNTINGS. 103

chestnut ; a deep black stripe bordering the crown on either side,
broadening as it proceeds backwards ; back, rump, and upper
wing-coverts dark brown, bordered with light brown and chest-
nut ; quills, greater and lesser coverts dark brown, the former
margined with light brown and the latter with greyish-white,
tipped with light buff, forming two bars across the wing;
tail-feathers dark brown, with paler edges, except two outer-
most feathers, which have considerable elongated patches of
white on inner webs ; deneath white, streaked on breast and
flanks with black ; chin pale chestnut ;_ bill dark brown, paler
beneath ; legs, feet and irides dark brown. Length 5 inches ;
eculmen O35; wie 2-8; tail 2-3; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female (Summer): Very similar to male, but
shows less bright chestnut on the head; crown stripes broader
and brown instead of black ; less chestnut on chin and band
across chest less clearly defined.

Adult (Winter): Has feathers of upper parts bordered
with dull brown, somewhat obscuring the dark streaks ; under
parts washed, especially on breast and flanks, with buff.

Young (Autumn): Resemble adult female, but feathers
of upper parts are more rufous, dark stripes less clearly
defined and under parts just tinged with rufous.

Distribution: Summer visitant to North-eastern Europe
and Siberia, wintering in India and China. Of casual occur-
rence in many European countries.

Habitat : Damp bush-covered localities ; occasionally larch
woods.

REED BUNTING. ve

Emberiza schceniclus Zz.

Adult Male (Summer) : Crown, sides of head, chin and
throat black ; a white line runs from billon either side of throat,
joining a white collar, which again is bordered with grey ; dack
feathers browmnish-black, bordered with bay and ochreous ;
rump and upper tail-coverts brownish-black marked with iron-
grey; quills dark brown, margined with yellowish-white ;
upper wing-coverts chiefly ochreous ; secondaries very broadly
margined with reddish-brown ; tail dark brown, two central
feathers having broad pale edges; outermost rectrices mar-
gined externally with white, and patched with same on inner

104 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

webs, chest black, the under parts otherwise white, clouded and
streaked with brown on the flanks; bill dull Geen above,
paler beneath ; legs, feet and ies brown. Length 6 inches ;
culmen 0°35 ; wing 3 23 tailvery sie tarsus O75.

Adult Female (Summer) : ‘Crown and ear-coverts dark
brown, mixed with reddish-brown ; lores, superciliary stripe and
under parts dull white ; throat bordered on either side by broad
line of dark brown blotches ; chest and flanks spotted and
streaked with brown ; otherwise marked very much as the
male.

Adult Male (Winter): Feathers above bordered wlth
light reddish brown, though in very old birds the crown
feathers are only tipped with brown; white collar much
obscured ; feathers of chin and throat also pale tipped.

Young: Paler above than the adult female, owing to the
length of the light borders of the feathers; sides of head
duller, and less marked on sides of throat.

Nestling: Above dull brown, marked with buffish here
and there and broadly streaked, especially on centre of back
and crown, with dark brown; beneath pale buffish, marked,
especially on sides of throat and breast, with dark brown.

Distribution : Resident throughout the Palearctic Region
in suitable localities.

‘Habitat: Marshy thickets ; reed beds.

LARGE-BILLED REED BUNTING.

Emberiza pyrrhuloides fall.

Adult Male: Generally larger than E. scheniclus ; back
considerably paler, the feathers having broad white margins ;
quills with whitish margins ; rump nearly white; central rec-
trices broadly margined with whitish; beneath as in £. sche-
niclus. Length 7 to 7:25 inches ; heig cht of bill at base 0°32;
Wile 375. tail 2°25\; ‘tarsus ot3.

Adult Female: Similar to female of E. schaniclus but
larger; bill larger and thicker at base; plumage generally
paler.

Adult Male (Winter): Dark parts above washed with
creamy-ochreous ; feathers of head and throat tipped with the
same ; under parts washed with yellowish.

FRINGILLIDZ—BUNTINGS. 105

Distribution : Resident in South-eastern Russia, ranging
eastward to Yarkand.
Habitat: Probably similar to that of Z. schaniclus.

Genus PLECTROPHANES.

SNOW BUNTING. ’
Plectrophanes nivalis (Zzuz.)

Adult Male (Summer): Sack and scapulars dack,
the former usually mottled, on lower part, with white ; pri-
maries, tertiaries and bastard wing black; head, neck, upper
wing-coverts and secondaries zv/z¢e ; tail, with three inner pairs
of feathers, black altogether, or bordered and tipped with
white ; rest of tail-feathers and entire under parts white; bill,
legs and feet black ; irides brown. Length 65 inches ; culmen
0°43 wing 4°2 to 4°4 ; tail 2°5 ; tarsus 0°75.

Adult Female (Summer): Similar, but black parts mar-
gined with grey ; white on upper parts more mottled with black
and dusky.

Adult Male (Winter) : Crown and sides of head shaded
reddish-brown ; black feathers of the back with broad pale
reddish-brown margins ; tertiaries broadly bordered with chest-
nut, wings otherwise as in summer; upper tail-coverts with
broad pale brown, or white edges ; tail as in summer ; beneath
dull white, tinged with reddish-brown on breast and flanks ;
bill yellow, darker at tip.

Adult Female (Winter): Feathers of crown dull chest-
nut, with black bases ; nape of neck similar, but paler; back
mottled with black and dull chestnut; tips. of lesser wing-
coverts and bases of secondaries white ; less white on tail ;
-throat dull chestnut, which becomes deeper on chest ; rest of
under parts dull white ; bill dull yellowish.

Young in first plumage: Fore parts above greyish-
brown, mottled with darker brown, the chin and throat much
paler ; upper half of back more or less of a grey tinge ; wings
and tail much as in adult ; chest and sides of body obscurely
marked with dusky blackish-brown.

Young Male in Winter: Similar to adult female at same
season, but shows more white on wings ; under parts whitish,
with chestnut band across upper breast.

106 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution: Summer visitant to the Arctic regions.
Breeds also in north of agen’ Migrates southward
through most northern countri@S in Europe, Asia and North
America in autumn.

Habitat: Fields, moors, marshy places, bare hill-sides.

LAPLAND BUNTING. U™
Plectrophanes lapponicus (Zznz).

Adult Male (Summer): Head black, except super-
ciliary stripe, which is yellowish-white ; colar chestnut; back
black, the feathers edged with yellowish-brown ; feathers on
rump broadly edged with buff; primaries blackish-brown,
with pale margins, innermost secondaries and some of coverts
more broadly edged with reddish-brown; central tail-feathers
dark brown, with pale margins, outermost pair externally
margined with white and having large patch of white on inner
web ; ¢hroat, upper part of breast and streaks on sides of body
black ; sides of neck below the chestnut collar white; bill
yellow, tipped with black ; legs and feet black ; irides brown.
Length 6:25 inches; culmen 0°45 ; wing 3°75; tail 2°7; tarsus
O75:
Adult Female (Summer): Feathers of crown dark
brown, edged with paler brown ; chestnut collar less apparent,
the feathers being mottled with dark brown; sides of head
dull buff, marked with black; chin and throat dull white,
bordered by line of black spots on either side; band of spots
also across chest ; rest of plumage as in adult male.

Adult Male (Winter): Black and chestnut parts mottled
with dark brown and white; chin almost white.

Young in Autumn: Very similar to adult females, but
males show no dark centres to feathers of the nape and
females little or no black on chest.

Young in first plumage: Similar but more rufous-

above, and more marked with brown beneath, upon a buffish
ground colour.

Distribution: Breeds throughout the Circumpolar regions
north of the Arctic Circle. Migrates through Central Europe
and Asia in autumn.

Habitat : Marshy moorlands, willow scrub.

ALAUDID—LARKS. 107

Section OSCINES SCUTELLIPLANTARES.

Family ALAUDIDA.

Genus ALAUDA.

a GOO ee OR
Alauda arvensis Zinn.

Adult (Summer): User parts generally brown, feathers
marked with darker brown and with pale margins or tips,
shaded here and there with rufous; superciliary stripe yellow-
ish ; ear-coverts reddish-brown streaked with dark brown;
wing quills dusky-brown, edged with rust colour ; coverts and
innermost secondaries with light broadish borders tinged with
rufous ; central rectrices dark brown bordered with lighter
brown, outermost rectrices chiefly white, next pair with most
of outer web white; Jdeneath yellowish-white, washed with
brown; throat, sides of neck and chest spotted with dark
brown ,; flanks tinged with rufous and with dark brown; bill
brown above, flesh-coloured beneath with a yellowish base ;
legs and feet yellowish-brown ; irides dark brown. Length 7
inches ; culmen 0°45 ; wing 4°25; tail 3; tarsus o'9 ; And toe
with claw o-5.

Adult (Winter): Many of feathers above bordered with
sandy-grey ; lower parts paler and more buff on throat and
breast.

Young in first plumage: Above spotted with dark brown
and buff, several of the feathers tipped with white; wing and
tail feathers evenly margined with buff; centre of throat and
abdomen whitish ; chest and flanks creamy, on the former
spotted with brown.

Distribution: Resident throughout most of the Pale-
arctic Region.

Habitat: Meadows, stubble-fields, commons, or sea-coast.

108 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
WOOD LARK. Vv

Alauda BE, an Linn.

Adult (Summer): Feathers of upper parts brown with
very dark brown centres, except on rump ; superciliary stripe
conspicuous, yellowish-white and extending to nape; primary
coverts tipped with white ; outermost pair of rectrices brown
at apex, next two pairs white tipped ; deneath creamy-white, the
throat and breast very darkly and distinctly streaked ; bill
brown; legs and feet light brown; irides dark brown.
Length 5°5 inches ; culmen 0°45 ; wing 3°65; tail 2°25; tarsus
o°8.

Adult (Winter): Upper parts richer and of a more
buffish-brown ; beneath tinged with rufous on breast and not
quite so conspicuously marked ; superciliary stripe whiter than
in summer. |

Immature Birds: More rufous above, the feathers being
also bordered with light buff.

Distribution: “Unequally distributed. over the Western
Palearctic Region, south of latitude 60° N.”

Habitat: Cultivated localities usually near trees ; borders
of commons.

CRESTED LARK. *%

Alauda cristata Zinn.

Adult (Summer): User parts brown, varied with darker
brown and buff, becoming reddish-brown upon the crown,
where the feathers are elongated into a crest with fotnted
ends ; wings brown with dark shafts and pale margins ; central
and outermost pairs of rectrices pale brown, the latter exter-
nally margined with yellowish-white, rest of tail-feathers darker

brown ; superciliary streak pale buff ; ear-coverts dark brown ; -

chin and throat white, rest of under parts more or less washed
with buff and spotted on chest and sides of throat with brown ;
axillaries rufous-buff ; flanks streaked with brown ; bill brown,
paler at base ; legs and feet pale brown; irides dark brown.
Length 6°9 inches; cudmen 0°75; wing 3°9 to 4°3 ; tail 2°25
tOy2-5)5) tarsus ai.

2 cen

eS eee

—— >

ALAUDIDA:—LAREKS. 109

Adult (Winter): Very similar to summer dress but duller
on account of the grey margins assumed by the feathers above.

Young in first plumage: Above paler and more rufous
than adult bird, most of the feathers having a subterminal dark
bar and nearly white tip; under parts less conspicuously
spotted, the marks more blended together.

Distribution : Resident throughout most of Continental
Europe and Asia. Of rare occurrence in the south of Eng-
land.

Habitat : Cultivated regions, often near human habitations,
roadsides, vineyards, &c.

Genus CALANDRELLA.

SHORT-TOED LARK. x
Calandrella brachydactyla (Lezs/).

Adult: Adove brown, with dark centres to the feathers ;
crown and back (especially former) distinctly washed with fawn
colour ; wing-feathers greyish-brown with pale borders ; outer
primary margined with pale buff; tail-feathers dark brown,
outermost pair with centre webs chiefly creamy-white, next
pair with terminal part of outer web the same ; central rectrices
bordered with light sandy-grey ; lores and superciliary stripe
creamy-white ; cheeks marked with dark brown, under parts
dull white, shaded with brownish-buff on chest ; sedes of neck
with a few obscure blotches of dark brown ; flanks washed with
brownish-buff; bill flesh-colour, darker on ridge of culmen ;
legs and feet light brown; irides olive-brown. Length 5°5 to
5°75 inches; culmen 0°4; wing 3°5; tail 2°25 to 2°4; tarsus
oye

Immature Birds: Have the feathers margined externally
with buff and show more brown markings on the sides of
throat.

Distribution : Resident in Southern Europe and Northern
Africa, occurring eastward as far as India. Seen occasionally
in south of England.

Habitat: Sandy plains, ploughed fields.

110 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
ANDALUCIAN SHORT-TOED LARK.

Calandrella Btica Dyesser.

Adult: Similar to the preceding du¢ much darker and
more copiously marked beneath; outermost tail-feathers much
whiter than in C. drachydacty/a. Bill horn-brown ; legs and
indes' brown. Length 5°5 inches; iculmen 04; wing @s:a"
patl2.; tarsus 0°75:

Distribution : Summer visitant to Southern Spain, prob-
ably wintering in North-eastern Africa.

Habitat : Corn-lands.

PALLAS’S SHORT-TOERD Lark

Calandrella pispoletta (Fa//).

Adult: Feathers above brownish-grey, with darker centres ;
quills dark brown with whitish margins, ¢erdzarzes about an
inch shorter than the longest primaries ; wing-coverts broadly
edged with pale brown, tail-feathers chiefly blackish brown,
except outermost pair, which are chiefly white, central pair
washed with light brown; streak above and below the eye
whitish ; under parts white ; sides of neck, breast and flanks
spotted and streaked with brown ; bill horn-colour ; legs light
brown; irides dark brown. Length 6°6 inches; culmen 0'5 ;
wing 3'8; tail 2°3; tarsus 0°85.

Female: Slightly smaller.

Distribution: Resident in Southern Russia.

Habitat: Similar to C. drachydactyla.

Genus MELANOCORYPHA.
CALANDRA LARK.
Melanocorypha calandra (Lenz).

Adult: General colour above greyish-brown, with darker
cen'res to the feathers; superciliary stripe ill-defined and

ALAUDIDAI—LARKS. III

reaching far back; primaries and secondaries brown, former
edged externally with white and latter with white tips; ozfer-
most rectrices chiefly white, next pair narrowly edged and tipped
with white, rest edged and tipped with pale brown ; beneath
white, the flanks washed with dirty grey and isabelline ; szdes
Of chest with very distinct patches of black ; breast spotted with
brown ; 4z// (very stout) dull brown, yellowish at base beneath ;
legs and feet brown ; irides blackish. Length 6°6 to 7 inches ;
culmen 0°65; wing 4°8 to 5; tail 2°7 ; tarsus I°1.

Adult Female: Similar, but shows hardly so much black
on sides of chest.

Immature Birds: Similar, but upper plumage more rufous
and mixed with buff; black neck patches imperfectly developed.

Distribution : Resident in most countries bordering the
Mediterranean. Of rare occurrence in Central Europe.

Habitat : Open country, meadows, vineyards, &c.

Note.—This species, like most of the Alaudidze, seems to be liable to much
variation in tint. We have old birds in winter plumage which are
very grey, whilst another bird shot at the same season is remarkably
rufous above.

WHITE-WINGED LARK.

Melanocorypha sibirica (Gme/).

Adult Male: Feathers of back brownish-grey, with darker
centres, tinged here and there with rufous ; crow, ear-coverts
and upper tail-coverts distinctly rufous ; lores and region round
the eye white; primaries dark brown, edged with dull white
externally, some of inner ones broadly tipped and internally
margined with white ; secondaries white, with dark brown bases ;
prevailing colour of coverts rufous; outermost tail-feathers
white, next pair white on the outer web, central rectrices dark
brown, broadly bordered with rufous ; under parts white, with
dusky spots on sides of throat ; chest spotted with rufous and
flanks streaked with brown and rufous ; bill horn-brown, paler
beneath ; legs, feet and irides brown. Length 7 to 7:5 inches ;
culmen 0°45 ; wings 4°75 ; tail 2°8; tarsus 095.

Adult Female: Somewhat duller than the male, other-
wise similar.

Tre A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Young: “Are said to resemble those of the skylark,
from which, however, they can be readily distinguished by
their larger size and stouter @@#l; the breast also is less dis-
tinctly spotted and the feathers of the upper plumage are
tipped with pure white.” (Newton.)

Distribution: Resident in parts of Russia and Central
Asia. Occurs occasionally in Austria, Italy, &c.

Habitat: High steppe regions.

BLACK LARK.

Melanocorypha yeltoniensis (Fors?).

Adult Male (Summer): Entire A/uwmage black, some ot
the feathers of upper parts with sandy or whitish margins,
which are also often observable beneath. Length 7°5 inches ;
culmen 0°6; wing 5°37, tail 3; tarsus 0'8.

Adult Female (Summer): Above sandy-brown becom-
ing tinged with rufous towards rump and mottled on crown
with dusky-brown ; wing-quills and coverts dark brown mar-
gined with sandy-brown ; outermost primaries margined with
white ; tail dark brown with sandy margins, except outermost
rectrices, which are margined with white; lores and super-
ciliary stripe white ; under parts white, tinged on flanks with
buff; breast spotted and flanks striped with brown ; bill brown,
yellowish at base ; legs and feet dark grey.

Adult Male (Winter): Similar to summer plumage but
feathers more uniformly margined with sandy both above and
beneath.

Adult Female (Winter): Very similar in general appear-
ance to the summer dress, but the feathers assume broad grey
margins as in the male bird, giving it a paler appearance than
in summer.

Immature Birds: Resemble the adult female, but are
more marked with brown above ; wing-coverts and innermost
secondaries narrowly margined with whitish.

Distribution : Winter visitant to Southern Russia, breed-
ing in Central Asia.

Habitat: High steppe regions; rocky places.

ALAUDIDAI—LARKS. rn
Genus OTOCORYS.

EUROPEAN SHORE LARK.
Otocorys alpestris (Zzzz).

Adult Male: Frontal band, superciliary stripe, ear-coverts,
chin, throat and sedes of throat (between ear-coverts and chest-
band) white, washed with pale yellow; lores, cheeks, fore
part of crown, erectile ear-tufts and chest-band black ; hind
_ crown, nape and upper tail-coverts pale brown tinged with
pink, back feathers with dark brown centres; wings dull
brown with pale margins, outermost primary externally mar-
gined with white; tail-feathers blackish-brown, outermost
externally margined with white, central pair light brown with
dark centres ; breast and abdomen white ; flanks tinged with
brown; bill bluish ; legs and feet nearly black; irides dark
brown. Length 7 inches; culmen 04; wing 4°25; tail 2°8;
tarsus 0°8.

Adult Female: Somewhat smaller; erectile feathers at
sides of crown wanting ; sides of face mottled with black ; pink
tinge on upper parts less apparent ; colour of under parts less
pure, black on chest less in total area.

Nestling: Above dark brown, the feathers bordered with
yellowish ; cheeks and throat pale yellow. The former mottled
and the latter streaked with black; bill, legs and feet dirty
flesh-colour.

Distribution : Northern Europe, Asia and America, oc-
curring on migration in most countries of Europe.

Habitat: High mountain regions, or in winter low cultiva-
ted lands, near the sea.

EASTERN SHORE LARK.

.Otocorys penicillata (Gould).

Adult Male (Summer): <Adove very much as in O.
alpestris, but paler; the white on the head purer; erectile
feathers on crown very long; the d/ack on the cheeks joining
that on the chest, which with rest of under parts is white, that
upon the latter being more extended and reaching almost to the

I

114 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

chin ; bill, legs and feet as in O. adpestris. Length 7 inches ;
culmen 0°55; wing 4°5; tail 3; tarsus o°8.

Adult Female (Sumnmggr): Duller and browner than
male ;,erectile feathers of head shorter; ear-coverts mottled
with brown, which also takes the place of black on the forehead ;
area covered by black on chest a little less than in male. That
on sides of face less pronounced.

Adult Male (Winter): Somewhat duller and paler than
in summer ; several of the head feathers being margined with
brown. It is, however, easily distinguishable from the pre-
ceding species by the black on cheeks joining that on chest.

Distribution : Resident from Asia Minor eastward to the
Altai mountains. Found on the steppes of South-eastern
Russia.

Habitat: Similar to that of O. alsestris.

Section OSCINES CULTRIROSTRES.
Family STURNIDZ.

Genus STURNUS.
STARLING. JS

Sturnus vulgaris Lez.

Adult Male (Summer): L£xtire plumage black, shot
with purple, green or stecl-blue ; feathers of upper parts chiefly
marked with terminal ¢7vangular spots of cream-colour ; wings
and tail blackish, with pale brown margins, glossed here and
there with green or purple like the back; d7// yellow, blue at
base ; legs and feet dark reddish-brown ; irides hazel-brown.
Length 7°5 toS mehes; ‘culmen «5 wine 5 tow15 5. tale ae
fatsus, 1°15,

Adult Female: Resembles the male, but is duller
throughout, including the bill, and more freely spotted.

Adult Male (Winter): Feathers on the back, scapulars
and rump more conspicuously spotted with whitish or pale
buff; bill dull horn-colour ; under parts also more conspicu-
ously spotted, but with much smaller spots than the back
feathers.

“6a:~ ee <a =

ee

STURNIDA:—STARLINGS. 115

Young in first plumage: Ashy-brown both above and
below ; wing and tail-feathers margined with pale reddish-
brown ; chin and throat whitish, the latter shaded with brown ;
bill dark horn-colour, legs and feet dusky brown.

Young after first moult: Assume the adult plumage in
patches, commencing on sides of breast.

Distribution: Resident over most of Europe south of lat.
60° N., ranging eastward to Northern India. In some parts of
Southern Europe occurs only in winter.

Habitat: Pastures, gardens, farmyards, &c.

SARDINIAN STARLING.
Sturnus unicolor De la Marm.

Adult Male (Summer): Entire plumage black, wz-
spotted, glossed with violet-purple; feathers of under parts
longer and more lanceolate than those of S. vulgaris ; bill,
legs, feet and irides as in S. vulgaris. Length 7°5 inches ;
culmen 1‘o; wing 5; tail 2°5 ; tarsus 1°2.

Adult Female: Similar to male, but browner and less
glossy.

Adult Winter: ‘“ According to Loche, at this season of
the year both sexes have a few small white spots on the back
and abdomen ” (Dresser).

Young in first plumage: Very like young of S. wz/garzs,
but are more uniform.

Young Male (Winter): Entire plumage washed with
silvery-grey and extreme tips of lanceolate feathers both above
and beneath whitish.

Distribution: Resident on the northern shores of the
Mediterranean and on its islands.

Habitat : Fields and plains, neighbourhood of dwellings.

Genus PASTOR. .
ROSE-COLOURED PASTOR.
Pastor roseus (Zz).

Adult Male (Summer): Aad, neck and chest d/ack,
I 2

116 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

glossed with purple; dack, breast and abdomen pale rose-
colour ; wings and tail-feathers black, glossed with steel-blue ;
flanks and under tail-coverts bk@@k ; bill rose-coloured, blackish
at base beneath ; legs dull brown, irides reddish-brown. Length
8°5 inches ; culmen 0°85 ; wing 5; tail 2°7; tarsus 1:2.

Adult Female (Summer): Similar to male, but is gener-
ally duller and wears a shorter crest.

Adult (Winter): Majority of the feathers pe
with pale brown, otherwise similar to summer dress.

Young in ‘first plumage: Above pale greyish-brown,
lighter on rump and upper tail-coverts; without any crest ;
wing and tail feathers dark brown with narrow pale margins ;
beneath whitish, washed on chest and flanks with pale brown
and on the former obscurely mottled with dusky brown;
bill brown above, yellow beneath ; legs and feet pale brown.

Distribution: Breeds in Southern Europe and occurs
casually on migration in most countries in Central and North-
ern Europe. Found in India in winter; rare in Africa.

Habitat: Regions infected by locust, cultivated districts,
hke the starling.

Family CORVIDA.

Genus PYRRHOCORAX.

CHOUGH. v

Pyrrhocorax graculus (Zz).

Adult: Entire A/umage glossy black, with steel-blue reflec-
tions, wing and tail feathers with a violet tinge ; dz//7 (long and
decurved) legs and feet coral-red ; claws black, irides brown.
eneth 15°5 to.16 inches; culmen 1°38 5-Wink 10°9 “tO T1254
tail 5°5 ; tarsus 2.

Immature Birds: Similar, but duller and less glossy ; bill
and legs brownish-orange at first, assuming in the intermediate
stage a reddish-orange, before becoming coral-red, as in adult.

Distribution: Resident throughout most of the mountain-
ous districts of Central and Southern Europe. Locally resident
in Great Britain.

Habitat: Rocky localities inland, or sea cliffs.

ee ee ag

CORVID.E—NUTCRACKER. 117
ALPINE CHOUGH.
Pyrrhocorax alpinus oc.

Adult : Plumage, uniform black ; bill straight, yellow ; legs
and upper parts of feet coral-red; claws and soles black.
Length 15°5 inches; culmen 1; wing 10°25; tail 6; tarsus
aye

Immature Birds: Duller and browner than adults ; bill
and legs at first chiefly blackish, then becoming respectively
yellowish and browner, before assuming the bright yellow and
coral-red of the adult.

Distribution: Found in Southern Europe and the higher
mountainous districts of Central Europe and eastward occurs
as far as the Himalayas.

Habitat : Similar to that of /. graculus, but frequenting
higher mountain regions.

Genius NUCIFRAGA.

NUTCRACKER. *
Nucifraga caryocatactes (Lzv.)

Adult: Upper and under parts dark brown, and, except on
the crown, conspicuously covered with white spots, which
become larger on the breast and abdomen. On the throat they
appear only in narrow lines ; wings and tail-feathers dark
brown, shaded with green; all the rectrices except the central
pair broadly tipped with white; some of primaries with a
white patch on inner webs ; most of wing-coverts tipped with
white ; under tail-coverts white ; bill, legs and feet blackish ;
irides dark brown. Length 12 to 12°75 inches; culmen 2;
wing 7 to 7°75; tail 5°3 ; tarsus 1°6.

Immature Birds: Except for being darker brown and
having dirtier white spots, resemble adults.

Distribution: Breeds in the mountainous regions of
Europe as far south as the , Pyrenees. Found eastward to
Japan. Of casual occurrence in Great Britain.

Habitat: Elevated forests chiefly of coniferous trees.

118 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
Genus PERISOREUS.
SIBERSAN JAY.

Perisoreus infaustus (/zv7).

Adult: Crown and nape sooty-brown ,; feathers covering
nostrils yellowish; dack, chin, throat aud breast grey ; rump,
upper tail-coverts and bases of rectrices (except central ones)
Joxy-red ; central rectrices and tips of the others dark grey ;
wings shaded grey ; some of primaries marked with rufous at
base on outer webs ; greater wing-coverts rufous on outer web ;
abdomen and flanks rufous ; bill, legs and feet black. Length
125 inches; culmen ies; wine's°0 ; tail’5 "7. tarsus 4s

Immature Birds: Are duller throughout, otherwise similar.

Distribution: Resident in Northern Scandinavia and
Siberia.

Habitat: Conifer forests.

Genus GARRULUS.

COMMON JAY. Vv
Garrulus glandarius (Zzzz).

Adult: -eathers of crown whitish, tinged with buff and
tipped with black, which in the longer ones appears as a median
stripe ; hinder crown feathers speckled and barred with vinace-
ous-brown ; rump and upper tail-coverts white ; rest of upper
parts vinaceous-brown ; primaries dusky brown, margined ex-
ternally with white ; secondaries black with white basal patch
on outer web, and often more or less tinged with blue ; inner-
most secondaries chestnut, patched in front with black, outer-
most ones chiefly black ; z7ng-coverts very glossy and trans-
versely barred with shaded blue and black ; tail-feathers blackish,
barred with bluish at bases ; chin and throat whitish, bordered
on either side by a broad patch of black, rest of under parts
pale cinnamon shading into white at vent; legs and feet pale
brown ; bill almost black ; irides very pale blue. Length 13
to 14: inches 7 culmen 1.153: wing 7725.5: tail 6°54) tarsus

CORVIDZ—MAGPIES. 119

Immature Birds: Very similar, but their irides are brown
and not pale blue as in adults.

Distribution: Resident throughout most of Europe, ex-
cept in the extreme north.

Habitat : Wooded districts, gardens, &c.

BLACK-HEADED JAY.
Garrulus atricapillus St. Ailaire.

Adult: Differs chiefly from G. glandarius in having the
crown black, the forehead and chin almost white and the dack
distinctly gveyish. Length 13 to 14°5 inches; culmen 1:2;
wine 7 4-to.S : tail-4-3.; tarsus 1°75-

Young: Somewhat duller than adults.

Distribution: Resident in Eastern Turkey, Asia Minor,
Syria and the Caucasus.

Habitat: Similar to that of G. glandarius.

Genus CYANOPICA.

AZURE-WINGED MAGPIE.
Cyanopica cooki Sf.

Adult: Zop and sides of head and nape glossy black with pur-
plish shade; back and rump brownish-grey, shaded on tail-
coverts with bluish-grey ; primaries black, margined with blue
near bases and with white towards their apices; secondaries and
fai/-feathers rich 6/we, some of former marked with black on
inner webs; chin white ; rest of under parts more or less deep
brownish-grey ; bill, legs and feet black ; irides blackish-brown.
Length 13°5 inches; culmen1; wing 5°25 ; tail 8; tarsus 1°35.

Young: Similar to adult, but duller, having also many of
their feathers margined with greyish.

Distribution : Resident in Spain and Portugal.

Habitat: Very similar to that of P. rustica.

120 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
Genus PIca.
MA@PIE. \“
Pica rustica (Scop).

Adult and Young: Fore parts including dack deep dlach,
glossed with greenish; rump greyish; tail-coverts black ;
scapulars pure white ; primaries black, glossed with green, and
having a large patch of white on inner webs; secondaries
brilliantly glossed with violet ; zaz7 long and graduated, black
beneath ; richly glossed with greenish-bronze above, except
towards tip, where it is purple shading into black at the actual
tip ; chin, throat and chest black, some of the throat-feathers
showing greyish shafts ; lower breast and abdomen white ; vent
black ; bill, legs and feet black ; irides brown. Length 16 to
16°5, inches; culmen 1°25"; wing 7; tail 11 ; tarsus F:35.

Distribution: Generally distributed throughout most of
the Western Palearctic region.

Habitat : Woodland or cultivated districts where tall trees
abound.

Genus CORVUS.

JACKDAW. vA
Corvus monedula ZLznz.

Adult: Crown, lores and chin glossy black ,; hinder crown,
neck and sides of head sz/very-grey ; rest of upper parts glossy
black, tinged with grey on back and rump ; wings and tail pur-
ple glossed ; under parts black, tinged with grey; bill, legs
and feet black ; iris nearly white. Length 12°5 to 14 inches;
culmen 1'2 ; wing 9; tail 5°5 ; tarsus 1°6.

Immature Birds: Resemble adults, but are much duller
and blacker both above and beneath, especially on neck.

Distribution: Generally distributed over Northern and
Central Europe ; less so in Southern Europe’; also occurs in
Northern Africa.

Habitat: Tall buildings, old ruins, precipitous cliffs. Gre-
garious.

CORVIDE—CROWS. 3 121

ROOK. /
Corvus frugilegus Zz.

Adult : Forehead, sides of face chin and upper throat bare
of feathers ; rest of plumage black, glossed with blue; bill and
legs black ; irides dark brown. Length 17°5 to 20 inches ;
culmen 2°1; wing 12 to 12°75 ; tail 6°5 ; tarsus 2.

Young: Similar toadults but duller and less glossy above ;
region round the base of the bilk feathered. Frequently young
birds show a spot or a few feathers of white on the chin, but
not in all cases. In this stage the rook may be distinguished
from C. corone by a much slenderer br11.

Distribution : Generally distributed in most parts of the
Western Palearctic region, extending eastward into India.

Habitat: Cultivated regions. Gregarious.

CARRION CROW. ef
Corvus corone zzz.

Adult: Entire slumage black, above beautifully glossed with
green and purple; under parts also glossed, but to a less
extent ; zostrils covered by bristly feathers ; bill stouter than
in C. frugilegus, legs and feet black; irides brown. Length
17 to 18 inches; culmen,2; wing 12 to 13 inches; tail 8;
tarsus 2°3.

Young: Similar, but lack the gloss of the adult.

Distribution: Inhabits most of the Western Palearctic
region except where replaced by C. cornix, ranging into India
and China.

Habitat : Cultivated and wooded regions, usually solitary
in habits.

HOODED CROW. W

Corvus cornix nn.

Adult : Head, throat and centre of chest J/ack, glossed with

122 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

purple ; zeck, back, scapulars, rump, and most of lower parts
ashy-grey ; wings and tail black, glossed with purple or in some
lights with greenish ; many of e, feathers show dusky shafts ;
bill, legs and feet black; irides brown. Length 17 to 19 inches ;
culmen 2°2; wing 12 to 13 inches; tail 7°8 ; tarsus 2°‘2.
Young: Head dull black, not glossy; grey parts duller,
especially on hind neck, where the feathers are dusky ; upper
tail-coverts blackish, without any perceptible grey margin.
Distribution: Central and Southern Europe; a winter
visitant to England, breeding regularly in Scotland and Ireland.
Habitat: Similar to C. corone.

Note.—Owing to the close interbreeding of the two species last described,
some authors are led to consider them as specifically identical.

RAVEN. vA

Corvus corax L7nn.

Adult: Entire A/wmage black, glossed, especially above,
with steel-blue and purple ; feathers on throat lanceolate ; \ill,
legs and feet black ; irides brown. Length 25 to 26 inches ;
eulmen (3°15; swung a7 to 77255. tail..1o°26 5) Mateus (ase se
Female slightly smaller than the male.

Young: Very similar, but feathers of the throat are not
lanceolate and the plumage generally is duller.

Distribution: Found throughout the Palearctic region.

Habitat: Usually frequents barren mountainous regions.
Generally to be seen in company with another of the same
species.

Li ey

Nvubtisetto~s wes ky OU ees Gi ~

CYPSELIDA—SWIFTS. sy

Order. MACROCHIRES.

Family CYPSELIDZ.
Genius CYPSELUS.

SWIFT. ~~
Cypselus apus (Zzzz.)

Adult: Chin and throat white ; rest of plumage very sooty-
brown ,; bill and feet black ; irides dark brown. Length 8 to 8:5
inches ; culmen 0°4 ; wing 6°8 to 8; tail 3°15; tarsus 0°6.

Young: Similar but have purer white throats and feathers
of forehead and under parts are more or less margined with
whitish.

Distribution : Summer visitant to most of Palearctic region,
wintering in Africa.

Habitat: Flying wherever insects abound about buildings
or cliffs.

PALLID SWIFT.

Cypselus pallidus Shed/ey.

Adult : Adove uniform brownish-grey, inclining to white on
forehead ; feathers before eyes blackish ; wings and tail-feathers
greyish-brown ; chin and throat white ; sides of head and neck
pale greyish-brown ; feathers of breast and abdomen darker
greyish-brown, some having whitish tips; bill black ; feet dark
purplish-brown. Length 6 inches; culmen o°3; wing 6°6; tail
3; tarsus oS.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Spain, North-eastern
Africa, Madeira and the Canaries.

Habitat: Probably similar to that of C. apus.

124 [A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
WHITE-BELLIED OR ALPINE SWIFT.

Cypselus M€lba (Zzxzn.)

Adult: Above dark greyish-brown, paler on forehead,
feathers before the eye blackish ; dexeath white, except chest, a
few of flank feathers and under tail-coverts, which are dvowz ;
bill and feet black ; irides very dark brown. Length 8 inches ;
culmen 0°4; wing 8°7 to 9°2; tail 3°75; tarsus 0°6.

Young: Like adults but greyer, most of dark feathers mar-
gined with whitish.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Central and Southern
Europe as well as in Northern Africa, wintering in Southern
Africa.

Habitat: Usually in more elevated districts than C. apus.

Family CAPRIMULGID.
Genus CAPRIMULGUS.

NIGHTJAR. “
Caprimulgus europzeus £7771.

Adult Male: Above ashy-grey, darker on centre of back
and on the rump paler ; whole of upper parts vermiculated and
richly streaked with blackish (especially on crown) ; wings dark
brown, slightly shaded with chestnut, crossed by sandy-
coloured bars; three first primaries with subterminal spot of
white ; tail like the back ; ¢zwo outermost rectrices on either side
broadly tipped with white; beneath pale orange-buff barred,
especially on throat and chest, with dusky, on either side of
throat a white spot ; bill black ; legs and feet reddish-brown ;
irides black. Length ro inches ; culmen 0°33 wing 7 to 7°75;
tags ee vtarsus:o"7. :

Adult Female: Resembles the male, but the wing and tail
spots are pale buff.

Young: Very similar to adults.

Distribution: Summer visitant to the Western Palearctic
region, migrating to Central Africa in autumn.

CYPSELIDA—NIGATFAR. 12

ol

Habitat: Well sheltered localities, partial to juniper bushes.
Nocturnal.

RED-NECKED NIGHTJAR.
Caprimulgus ruficollis Zemm.

Adult Male: Resembles C. europaeus very closely, but
has the zage and chin rufous-buff ; white spots on sides of neck
more developed, wing-coverts and under parts showing more
buff. Length 13 inches ; wing 7°9 ; tail 5°3; tarsus 0'95.

Adult Female: Closely resembles the male.

Young: Buffer than young of C. europaeus.

Distribution: Summer visitant to Spain, Portugal, and
North-western Africa, probably migrating to Central Africa in
autumn. Has occurred in England.

Habitat : Similar to that of C. europaeus.

126 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

-

Order 2 1Cl.
Family PICIDA.

Subfamily PICINA.
Genus PICUS.
GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER,

Picus martius /7n7.

Adult Male: Entire plumage black or brownish-black, ex-
cept the crown, which is crimson, bill dull bluish, blackish
towards tip; legs and feet dark grey ; irides light yellow. Length
about'1s inches; culmen 2°3; wing 9°2 ; tarsus 1°3; tail 772)

Adult Female: Very like the male, but somewhat
browner and having the crimson confined to the occiput.

Young: Similar, but duller, and the red patch on the
crown imperfectly developed.

Distribution: Ranges from Scandinavia throughout
Northern Asia to Japan.

Habitat: Dense forests.

GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER.V
Picus major Linn.

Adult Male: Forehead buff; crown and back glossy
black; a patch on hinder head crimson; sides of face white ;
from base of bill to nape runs a broad black band ; another
black band traversing sides of chest; centre of hind neck
black, with two large white blotches on either side; scapulars
white ; quills black, the primaries spotted with white on both
webs, longest feathers having five or six such spots ; rump and

PICID4Z—WOODPECKERS. 127

central tail-feathers J/ack; outer ones barred alternately with
black and white or brownish ; under parts brownish cream-
colour ; vent and under ¢ail-coverts crimson ; bill, legs, and feet
dark grey ; irides pale red. Length 9‘25 inches ; culmen 1'r5 ;
wing 5°5 to 6; tail 4; tarsus 095.

Adult Female: Similar to male but has the extire crown
and hinder neck d/ack with no trace of red ; red on lower abdo-
men and vent not so brilliant.

Young: Very similar, but have the eztive crown crimson ;
under parts duller than in adults, and often streaked with brown
on sides of body.

Distribution : Pretty generally distributed throughout the
European continent.

Habitat: Large deciduous woods.

WHITE-BACKED WOODPECKER. \/
Picus leuconotus Aechs¢é.

Adult Male: Luxtire crown crimson ; forehead, entire sides
of face and nape white; centre of nape, back and scapulars
black ; rump white or marked here and there with black ; upper
tail-coverts black; wings blackish; innermost secondaries
barred, and primaries spotted on both webs with white ; tail-
feathers black, except outer ones which are white, barred with
black ; throat bordered on either side by broad band of black
which widens out on the sides of the neck ; under parts creamy-
white, shading into vermilion on lower abdomen and vent ;
sides of body striped with black ; bill horn-blue ; feet leaden-
grey ; irides nut-brown. Length 10°3 inches ; culmen 1°3 ; wing
5°75; tail 3°9; tarsus 1.

Adult Female: Crown black; black on sides of neck
more extended, almost reaching to crown.

Young: Resemble adults, but the red of the crown is paler
(in young females yellower) ; no red on abdomen ; flanks grey,
striped with black.

Distribution : Resident in Northern and Eastern-central
Europe.

Habitat: Similar to that of D. major, but frequents plains
chiefly, not mountainous regions.

128 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
GRECIAN WOODPECKER.
Picus lilfordi Garpe and Dresser.

Adult Male: Resembles preceding, but has upper part of
back, and Jars across all the white parts black ; forehead, sides
of face and ear-coverts yellowish-white ; hinder extremity of
black band, bordering sides of throat, extended laterally, reach-
ing above almost to the crown, and beneath nearly to the
centre of the chest ; under parts much more generally suffused
with red than in D. Zeuconotus ; bill, legs and feet leaden-grey ;
irides reddish. Length 10°5 inches; culmen 1°6; wimg 5:2:
tail 358 5, tarsus’ ©.

Adult Female: Crown black, less striped beneath.

Distribution : Resident in Turkey, Greece, and probably
in Southern Russia.

Habitat: Similar to that of D. major.

MIDDLE SPOTTED WOODPECKER.
Picus medius Zznn.

Adult Male: Forehead buff; fore part of crow crimson,
bordered on either side zth white; sides of head whitish:
occiput black; entire chin and ¢hroat white, not bordered by
black ; chest tinged with yellowish and crossed by a crescentic
band of black, which nearly meets in the centre; breast and
abdomen washed with rose-colour ; sides striped with black ;
bill slender, bluish-grey ; legs and feet leaden-grey ; irides cin-
nabar-red ; in other respects like D. major. Length 8 to 8°5
inches; culmen 1; wing g&; tail 3°3; tarsus o°8.

Adult Female: Similar but somewhat paler, and shows
less black upon the chest.

Young: Less crimson on crown ; back tinged with brown ;
breast yellowish-white, shading into pale crimson on ‘lower
abdomen ; sides more copiously streaked with black.

Distribution : Resident in most temperate countries of
the European continent. Does not occur in Great Britain.

Habitat: Usually to be met with in deciduous woods,
partial to oak and beech. .

PICIDA2—WOODPECKERS. 129

LESSER SEOGTTED WOODPECKER. \“
Picus minor Zznn.

Adult Male: Like D. major in miniature ; differs however
in having the vwmp and innermost secondaries barred with
white; the crown scarlet; sides of face brownish-white ; throat
bordered (as in D. major) with black bands, but these do not
join the black of the nape ; no red on the under parts ; sides of
body streaked more or less with brown ; bill, legs and feet very
dark grey ; irides reddish-brown. Length 5°7 inches; culmen
So wine 7-7, tail 2°25; tarsus o's. a

Adult Female: Forehead white, xo red on crown ; other-
wise similar.

Young: Resemble adults, but the markings are less clearly
defined.

Distribution: Resident throughout most of the Western
Palearctic region, excepting in Egypt and Palestine, Iceland
and the Faroes.

Habitat : Similar to that of D. major.

SIBERIAN LESSER SPOTTED WOOD-
PECKER.

Picus pipra Fail.

Adult Male: White parts more extended than in D. minor,
lower back and rump showing very little black ; deneath pure
white or slightly striated on the sides of the body and under
tail-coverts ; outer rectrices very slightly marked with black ;
soft parts as in D. minor. Length 6°5 inches ; culmen 0°72 ;
wing 3°8; tail 2.7; tarsus 0°68. /

Distribution: Resident in North-eastern Europe and
Siberia.

Habitat: Large conifer forests, as well as deciduous
woods. ,

K

130 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus PICOIDES.

THREE-TOED@WOODPECKER.
Picoides tridactylus (Zznz).

Adult Male: Forehead black and white; centre of crown
yellow ; sides of crown and nape black ; mzddle of back white ;
scapulars, wing and upper tail-coverts black; wings glossy
brownish-black ; primaries spotted and tipped with white ;
outer tail-feathers barred and tipped with white, rest of tail
black ; sides of face and moustachial stripe black (the latter illl
defined); large blotch on either side of occiput white ; bil-
dark grey; legs and feet leaden-brown ; oes three in num-
ber; irides dark reddish-brown. Length 9 inches; culmen
I'l; wing 5; tail 34.

Adult Female : Crown black, marked with white, show-
ing no yellow ; wings browner ; sides of chest slightly streaked
with black.

Young: Very nearly resemble adult males, but have less
yellow on crown ; black parts browner and the back and under
parts below chest copiously marked with black.

Distribution : Frequents Northern Europe and some parts
of Central Europe. No authentic record from Great Britain.

Habitat: Large woods or forests in sub-Alpine regions.

Genus GECINUS.

GREEN WOODPECKE RW
Gecinus viridis (£777).

Adult Male: Crvowz and nape scarlet mixed with grey
back, scapulars and wing-coverts gveex ; rump yellow ; primaries
brown, spotted on their outer webs with yellowish-white ;
secondaries broadly washed on outer webs with green ; tail-
feathers brown washed with green and obscurely barred ; lores,
reston round eyes and moustachial band black, the latter washed
with crimson; sides of neck and under parts greyish-green,
shaded on abdomen with yellowish ; bill very dark grey, paler
at base beneath and blackish at tip; legs and feet dark grey ;

PICIDA2—WOODPECKERS. 131

irides whitish. Length 11°5 to 12 inches; culmen 1°5; wing
6°25 to 6°4; tail 4°2; tarsus I.

Adult Female: No scarlet upon moustachial band, and
less upon the crown.

Young in first plumage: Barred throughout above
and beneath, black absent round the eyes, that on the cheeks
spotted with scarlet in males and with brown in females.

Young after moulting: Greyish-green above, top of
head grey, marked with crimson; beneath greenish, barred
transversely with dusky-brown.

Distribution: Inhabits the Western Palearctic region, ex-
cepting Iceland, Faroes, Northern Africa, Spain and Palestine.

Habitat : Resembles that of other woodpeckers.

SHARPE’S GREEN WOODPECKER.
Gecinus sharpii Saunders.

Adult Male: Crown as in G. viridis ; lores, region round
eyes and ear-coverts grey; a broad moustachial patch on either
side of upper throat crimson, rump and upper tail-coverts
more conspicuously yellow ; fore parts beneath greenish-grey ;
hinder parts greenish-yellow ; bill yellowish at base beneath ;
in all other respects closely resembles G. wivzdis. Length 10°75
inches ; culmen 1°5 ; wing 6°25 to 6°5; tail 4°2; tarsus 1°1.

Adult Female: Moustachial stripe black, otherwise
similar to the male.

Young: Mottled with dusky-brown both above and
beneath; sides of face grey, streaked with dusky; mous-
tachial stripe smaller, but washed with crimson in young males.

Distribution : Resident in Central and Southern Spain.

Habitat: Closely resembles that of G. viridis.

GREY-HEADED GREEN WOODPECKER.
Gecinus canus (Gwe).

Adult Male: Differs from G. wvidis in having hinder part
of head and nape dusky-grey, the fore part of the head only
crimson ; feathers above and below the eyes and ear-coverts
grey ; lores and an zmperfectly developed patch on side of throat

Kk 2

132 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

black; under parts dull greenish, greyish on throat; bill
bluish-grey, yellowish at base beneath ; irides usually pale red.
Length 11 inches; culmen mf; wing 58 ; tail 4°45; tarsus
0°85.

Adult Female: Crown slate-grey streaked with blackish,
showing no red.

Young Male: Above greyer than in adult ; tail paler and
tinged with brown; red on the head less brilliant; entire
under parts grey tinged with buff, and washed on flanks with
green.

Distribution: Found in most countries of Europe, espe-
cially to the east, andn Northern Asia. Does not occur in
Great Britain.

Habitat : Deciduous woods.

Subfamily IYNGINA.

Genus LYNX.
WRYNECK. VY

Iynx torquilla Lenn.

Adult: <Adove browntsh-grey, beautifully pencilled and
vermiculated with blackish-brown ; centre of nape and back
boldly striped with black and rufous ; primaries brown, spot-
ted at regular intervals on outer webs with pale reddish-brown ;
scapulars banded with black and spotted with buff; Zaz? ashy-
brown, wavely darred and vermiculated wth black ; chin and
throat rich buff, regularly barred transversely with black, rest
of under parts whitish, shaded with yellow on flanks and all
the feathers marked with black at their tips; bill, legs and
feet brown; irides pale brown. Length 6°5 to 7 inches ; cul-
men 0°43; wing 33 ; tail (of ten feathers) 2°5 ; tarsus 0°75.

Young: Above duller and beneath more conspicuously
marked with black.

Distribution: Summer visitant to Europe, wintering in
Northern Africa, India, &c.

Habitat: Wooded Iccalities.

ALCEDINIDA—KINGFISHERS. 13

oP)

Order COCCYGES.

Family ALCEDINIDA.

Genus ALCEDO.
KINGFISHER. As
Alcedo ispida Lzzn.

Adult Male: Zopof head black, thickly barred with cobalt-
blue; a patch on either side of neck white; centre of back,
rump and upper tail-coverts cobalt-blue ; rest of back and wing-
coverts dark green, the latter spotted with cobalt ; outer webs
of wing-quills and entire tail-feathers blue; lores and ear-
coverts pale chestnut; cheeks blue; chin and throat white,
rest of under parts chestnut ; bill black, red at base beneath ;
legs and feet red; irides dark brown. Length 6°5 to 7 inches ;
culmen 1°4; wing 3; tail 1°3; tarsus 0°4.

Adult Female: Not quite so brightly coloured; bill
orange at base beneath.

Young: Differ very little from adults, but are duller,
especially on the under parts.

Distribution: Resident in the temperate parts of the
Western Palearctic region.

Habitat: Proximity of rivers and streams.

Genus CERYLE.

FIED KINGEISHER.
Ceryle rudis (Zznz).

Adult Male: Entire upper parts 4/ack and white, more of

134 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

former on crown and back and of latter on wings and neck ;
under parts pure pearly white, qgssed on chest by an irregular
broad dand of black and iA al narrower one across the
breast ; bill, legs and feet black ; irides dark brown. Length
11°5 inches ; culmen 2°4; wing 5°75; tail 3°25 ; tarsus 0°45.

Adult Female: Similar, but has on/y one black band
across chest, which is not continuous, but interrupted in the
middle.

Distribution : Resident in south-eastern portions of the
Western Palearctic region, occurring also throughout India and
in Japan.

Habitat: Very similar to that of Akedo ispida, but also
frequenting the sea-coast.

Family CORACIIDZ.

Genus CORACIAS.
EUROPEAN ROLLER. x
Coracias garrula Zinn.

Adult : Chin whitish ; crown, neck and rest of wader parts
pale greentsh-blue; back and scapulars chestnut; rump clear
blue, shading into greenish-blue on upper tail-coverts ; wing-
quills black, with fine blue reflections; a broad fatch on
shoulders deep blue ; rest of wing-coverts and bases of quills
bluish-green ; central rectrices dusky, outer ones greenish-blue,
paler towards tips, outermost pair tipped with black; bill
black ; legs and feet reddish-brown ; irides brown. Length
r2-sanches;. culmen 1°25 5 wine 4775, tail 5; tarsus o's. i

Young: Have the whole plumage more or less suffused
with brown.

Distribution : Summer visitant to the temperate parts of
Europe, migrating in autumn into Central and Southern
Africa. Has occurred sometimes in Great Britain.

Habitat: Sparsely wooded localities.

MEROPID 4&—BEE-EATERS. 135

Family MEROPIDZ.

Genus MEROPS.

EUROPEAN BEE-EATER.
Merops apiaster Zznn.

Adult Male: Crown, nape and upper back deep chestnut,
shading into pale green on upper tail-coverts ; scapulars pale
straw-colour ; primaries glossy bluish-green, tipped with black ;
secondaries chestnut, tipped with black, innermost ones bluish ;
tailfeathers bluish-green, the central pair nearly an inch longer
than the rest; chin and throat rich yellow, bordered below by
band of black ; lores and ear-coverts black; breast greenish-
blue, becoming paler towards vent; bill (long and decurved)
black ; legs and feet reddish-brown ; irides carmine. Length
1o inches ; culmen 1°45; wing 5°75; outer tail-feathers 3°5 ;
tarsus 0°45.

Adult Female: Usually a little duller, otherwise very
similar.

Young: Very much paler both above and beneath with no
blue or green on the forehead; central tail-feathers not
elongated ; band across throat brownish and indistinct.

Distribution : Summer visitant to countries bordering the
Mediterranean, migrating to Southern Africa for the winter.
Of casual occurrence only in Northern Europe.

Habitat: River banks, gardens, palm groves.

BLUE-CHEEKED BEE-EATER.
Merops persicus Fal/.

Adult: Adove bright gveex, washed here and there with
blue ; wings and tail slightly russet ; primaries and secondaries
tipped especially on inner webs with dusky ; feathers at base
of bill whitish ; hinder part of forehead, superciliary stripe and
some of feathers bordering throat, d4/we; broad band from
base of bill to ear-coverts black; chin yellow; throat patch

136 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

bright ved; rest of under parts glossy green ; bill black; legs
dark brown; irides crimson. JLength 11 inches; culmen 1°5;
wing 6°5; tail (outer featherS¥ 3°75, central pair 6°4; tarsus
eB |
oun Much darker above, many of the feathers having
light margins, central tail-feathers very little longer than rest ;
blue on head very faint ; chin buffish; throat russet ; under
parts generally paler, especially on abdomen.

Distribution : Summer visitant to North-eastern Africa,
and South-western Asia, occurring also sometimes in Southern
Igurope ; winters in Southern Africa.

Habitat: Similar to WZ. apiaster.

Family UPUPID.

Genus UPUPA.
HOOPOE. \/
Upupa epops Lznn.

Adult Male: Head rufous, crest considerable, the feathers

tipped with black and some banded with white ; nape, centre.

of back and scapulars pale rufous; rump white ; Zaz/ black,
crossed by a broad white band in the middle ; wings black,
barred with white ; throat and chest pale brown, with vinous
tinge ; lower breast and abdomen white, striped on flanks with
brown ; bill black, flesh-coloured at base beneath; legs and
feet dark brown; irides pale brown. Length 12 inches ; cul-
men 2°25 wing 5°38; tail4; tarsus ©7775.

Adult Female: Similar, but black parts browner.

Young in first plumage: Are very like adults, but
have considerably shorter bills, and the under parts are
paler.

Distribution : Summer visitant to most of temperate por-
tions of the Palearctic region, wintering in Central Africa and
India.

' Habitat: Woods, gardens, fields, &c.

ee

CUCULIDZ—CUCKOOS. 137

Family CUCULIDZ.

Genus CUCULUS.

CUCKOO. \“
Cuculus canorus Zn.

Adult: Adove slaty-grey, chestnut on back, primaries with
broad spots of white on inner webs, especially towards bases ;
tail-feathers blackish, several being spotted along their webs
with white and all whzte cépped ; beneath fore parts pale slaty-
grey ; rest of under parts white ; more or less regularly barred
with black below the chest; bill black, yellowish at base
beneath ; legs, feet and irides yellow. Length 13 to 14 inches ;
culmen 0°8; wing 9; tail 7; tarsus o°8.

Young in first plumage: Feathers above barred with
chestnut, and white tipped ; females are decidedly rufous on
rump, upper tail-coverts and tail; under parts all barred.
Very young birds show a conspicuous white patch on the
nape.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Europe and most of
Asia, migrating in autumn to Central Africa, or Southern India.

Habitat: Cultivated and wooded localities where insects
abound.

Genus COCCYSTES.

GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO. x
Coccystes glandarius (Lzvz).

Adult Male: Crown feathers long and crested, dark grey,
streaked along the shafts with black; rest of upper parts
chiefly brown, tinged with olive ; wing-coverts, some of primar-
ies and upper tail-coverts white tipped ; tail-feathers blackish-
brown, outer ones tipped with white ; sides of face dark grey ;
beneath creamy-white, buffish on throat; bill dark brown, yel-
lowish at base beneath ; legs and feet slaty-grey ; irides brown.

138 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
Length 16 to 17 inches ; culmen 1; wing 8; tail 9°5 ; tarsus

thee

Adult Female: Diffef® from male in having the
primaries decidedly marked with rufous, and with a smaller
crest.

Young: Resemble adult females, but have dark brown
crown and throat, breast and under parts suffused with rufous.

Distribution : Summer visitant from Southern Africa to
Spain, Asia Minor, Palestine, and occasionally to South-eastern
Europe. Has been recorded from Great Britain.

Habitat: Very similar to that of Cuculus canorus.

STRIGIDE—OWLS. 139

Order ACCIPITRES.
Family STRIGIDZ.

Genus STRIX.
BARN-OWL. ae)

Strix flammea Zznz.

Adult : Operculum margined with stiff, oblong feathers ;
above light reddish-yellow, vermiculated with grey and marked
with oval white and black spots; face and under parts white ;
breast “nged with buff; flanks slightly spotted with dusky ; bill
yellowish-white ; claws dark grey; irides bluish-black. Length
12 to 13°5 inches ; culmen 1 to 1°3; wing 11; tail 4°75 ; tarsus
2

Female: Slightly larger than male.
Young: Closely resemble adults. Very young birds are
covered with white down.

Distribution: Resident in most parts of Europe, except-
ing in Norway, north of Sweden and of Russia and on the
north-eastern shores of the Mediterranean.

Habitat: Cultivated localities ; among old ruined buildings,
and woods where large, decayed trees abound.

Note.—This species varies considerably in colour, according to climatic in-
fluences, varying from pale orange-buff above and pure white under
parts to a ground-colour of almost uniform rufous-buff throughout.

Family BUBONIDZ.

Genus ASIO.
LONG-EARED OWL. \“

Asio otus (Lznz).

Adult: <Adove ochreous-buff, closely vermiculated and

140 ' A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

streaked with dark brown ; wings and tail barred irregularly
with shaded brown ; feathers above and in front of the eyes,
blackish ; face otherwise dull™buff; beneath buff, marked with
white, striped and (some feathers) vermiculated with brown ;
bill black ; down on legs and feet buff; irides orange ; eav-tufts
very long. Length rginches ; culmen 1; wing 11°5 ; tail 5°75 ;
tarsus 1°05.

Young: Facial disc yellower, and markings on under parts
more noticeable.

Distribution: Resident in most parts of Western Pale-
arctic Region, also in Central Asia.

Habitat: Fir woods, or small plantations. Nocturnal.

SHORT-EARED OWL. i
Asio accipitrinus (fa//).

Adult: General colour rich éuf; on upper parts patched
and broadly streaked with dark brown ; wing and tail-feathers
broadly barred with brown ; eav-tufts short, hardly apparent,
not exceeding half an inch in length; hinder part of face
richly marked with black ; ~7zg completely round eves blackish ;
throat and breast striped with brown ; flanks also streaked, but
narrowly ; bill and claws almost black ; irides yellow. Length
£4)t0 15 anches culmen « ; wine 12." tall 5°75 3 tabsusu.

Young: Resemble adults but are darker and more of
a rufous-buff, with bolder brown markings ; irides pale yellow.

Distribution : Occurs in most of Palearctic region, and also
in the Nearctic region.

Habitat: Moors, marshes and cultivated (open) country.

Note.—This species is liable to considerable variation in tint.

Genus SYRNIUM.

TAWNY OR WOOD OWL. V
Syrnium aluco (Lznz).

Adult: Feathers of upper parts rich rufous-brown, centres
of feathers marked with dark brown, outer webs of many of wing-
_coverts chiefly white ; wings and tail-feathers browner than back,
barred with dark brown ; edges of primaries silvery-white ; ruff

STRIGID4—OWLS. 141

round facial disc and forehead dark brown ; feathers surround-
ing bill grey ; rest of facial disc rufescent ; under parts whitish,
tinged here and there with rufous and irregularly streaked and
vermiculated with dark brown ; bill pale yellow ; feet feathered ;
claws horn-colour, darker towards tips ; irides black. Length rg
to 17 inches; culmen 1°2; wing toto 11; tail 6°5 ; tarsus 1°95.

Young in first plumage: Covered with greyish-white
down and barred more or less regularly with brown; tail-
feathers white-tipped ; feet not much feathered.

Distributiom: Resident in most parts of Europe except in
those portions of Russia and Scandinavia north of lat. 61°, and is
not found in Corsica or Sardinia.

Habitat : Woods and sheltered, cultivated country.

Note.—This species is subject to much variation in tint, some sub-arctic
specimens being much greyer, whilst those from sub-tropical regions
are more rufous,

URAL OWL.
syrnium uralense (Pa//).

Adult: Upper and under parts whztish, broadly streaked
with dark brown; upper tail-coverts brown, mottled with
ashy-grey ; forehead dark brown ; wings and tail brownish-grey,
barred with brown; face greyish, bill yellow; claws black ;
irides dark brown. Length 20 to 24 inches ; culmen 1‘2 ; wing
14; tail 11°10 (central feathers much longer than rest); tarsus
Stay

Distribution: Resident in North-eastern Europe and
Siberia.

Habitat: Similar to that of preceding, but frequents more
Open country in winter.

Note.—This species seems, like the last described, to vary considerably in
tint.

LAPP OWL. X%
Syrnium lapponicum (Sfarrm).

Adult : Above ashy-brown, streaked and vermiculated with
white ; wings and tail-feathers dark ashy-brown, broadly barred

142 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

with whitish ; in the latter, those bars are vermiculated with
pale brown ; face greyish-whgge, narrowly, but concentrically
barred with dark brown ; region immediately surrounding eyes
and chin blackish ; under parts white, entirely streaked with
dusky brown; eyes greyish, barred regularly with brown ; bill
yellowish-horn colour; irides pale yellow. Length 27 to 28
daches ; culmen 3°93; wing “187 to °1S'75 ; ‘tail S2°5 te Tee
tarsus 2°55.

Nestling: Considerably darker throughout than adults,
especially dark on head, under parts closely barred with dark
brown.

Distribution: Resident in North-eastern Europe, occa-
sionally occurring in Central Europe.

Habitat: Dense pine forests.

Genus NYCTEA.
SNOWY OWL. “

Nyctea scandiaca (Lznz).

Adult Male: Entire plumage w/ite, the “As of a few
feathers of upper parts dlackish-brown ; bill and claws black ;
feet covered by long feathers ; irides yellow. Length 20 to 22
mehés ; culmén'1*25; wing 16 to 16°75; tail 9 109-75 3 tarsus
aos.

peananse : Considerably larger.

Nestling : Covered by dense sooty-brown down, and show-
ing white patches of feathers in various parts of the body.

Immature Birds: Upper and under parts conspicuously
barred, or spotted with dark brown ; tail-feathers broadly barred ;
lower abdomen, legs and feet pure white.

Distribution: Resident in the extreme north of the Pale-
arctic and Nearctic regions, occurring further south in winter.

Habitat: Barren fells or tundras.

Genus SURNIA.
HAWK OWL. ws

Surnia ulula (Zznz).

Adult : Above dark brown, blotched, spotted and barred

STRIGIDA—OWLS. 143

with white ; wings pale brown and white spotted ; tail gradu-
ated; semi-circular band over ear-coverts, a patch on sides of
neck, and region round the eyes dark brown ; face silvery-white ;
under parts whitish, narrowly but closely darred with brown ;
billand soles yellow ; claws black ; irides straw-yellow. Length
15 to 16 inches ; culmen 0'9 ; wing 8°8 tog; tail 7 ; tarsus o'9.

Immature Birds: Generally duller than adults ; throat
and sides of neck tinged with buff; legs and feet less feathered,
otherwise very similar.

Distribution: Inhabits northern parts of the Palearctic
region, occasionally straggling further southward in winter.

Habitat: Both forest and open country. Diurnal.

Genus NYCTALA.
TENGMALM’S OWL. VA

Nyctala tengmalmi (Gme/).

Adult : Above dull brown, spotted more or less conspicu-
ously with whitish ; tail-feathers crossed with four bars of white ;
facial disc greyish-white, in some marked with blackish ; a ring
round eyes, and lores black ; margin of facial disc dark brown,
spotted copiously with white ; under parts white, davved and
otherwise marked especially on sides of body zwzth reddish-
brown; bill yellowish, set with black bristly feathers ; feet
clothed with long white feathers ; claws black ; irides bright
yellow. Length 85 to g inches ; culmen 1; wing 6°25 to
6°75; tail 4°4; tarsus I.

Female: Slightly larger than male.

Nestling: Entire plumage dull sooty-brown, face blackish-
brown, with a spot of white over each eye ; traces of white spots
also on wings ; abdomen and vent drabbish-brown, mottled with
dark brown.

Immature Birds: Plumage chocolate-brown, darker on
face; feathers at base of bill, a broad stripe above the
eye and a smaller one below the eye white; wings mot-
tled with white; tail-feathers crossed by three ill-defined
whitish bars ; under parts brown, mottled with white.

Distribution: Resident in the northern portions of the
Palearctic region, occurring also in Central Europe.

Habitat: Thick forest regions. Nocturnal.

144 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus SCOPS.
SCOPS-EARMED OWL. *

Scops giu (Sco).

Adult : Above gveyish-brown, in places washed with buffish
or chestnut, streaked with black and vermiculated with dark
brown ; tail-feathers barred with black or dark brown and pale
brown; 20 operculum over the ear; beneath grey, whitish on chin,
otherwise tinged with orange buff, finely vermiculated with
brown and conspicuously streaked with dark brown; bill
black; feet dare; claws pale at bases with black tips ; irides
bright yellow. Length 7 to 7:5 inches; culmen 0°7: wing 5°75
toxo; tall 2°75 < tarsus 1.

Young: Appear more rufous than adults, otherwise are
very similar.

Distribution: Inhabits the temperate portions of Europe,
Western Asia and Northern Africa ; of casual occurrence only
in the British Isles.

Habitat: Groves, gardens, densely wooded ravines, &c.

Genus BUBO.
EFAGLE-OWL. 7

Bubo ignavus forst.

Adult: Adove yellowish rufous-brown, becoming more
rufous towards tail, and Jlotched and mottled throughout zwth
dark brown; feathers of crown black with rufous margins ;
elongated ear tufts very large, wing-quills blackish ; rectrices pale
rufous, both being regularly barred ; facial disc incomplete; ears
not furnished with an operculum ; feathers at base of bill and
chin white, the former tipped with white ; under parts ferru-
ginous-buff ; centres of feathers more or less broadly streaked,
and vermiculated with dark brown; biil and claws blackish ;
irides orange. Length 24 to 26 inches; culmen 1°53 wing 16°5
to 16°55 tail TS 5 tarsus<2°75:

Female : Considerably larger than the male.

Nestling: “In the older nestlings described by Linnezeus,
the bill was black; irides saffron-yellow ; pupil bluish-black ;

STRIGIDE—OWLS. 145

the general plumage soft ; the wings dark, with reddish-brown
spots ; feathers of the breast brick-red, with a dark indented
longitudinal stripe; wing and tail-quills still short, blackish
with roundish red spots; feet reddish-brown ” (Newton).
Distribution: Resident over most of the Palearctic region :
a scarce visitor to Great Britain.
Habitat: Forests, deep ravines or old buildings. Nocturnal.

Genus GLAUCIDIUM.

PIGMY OWL.
Glaucidium passerinum (Lizz).

Adult: Adove umber-brown, tinged with grey and spotted
with fulvous ; crown and wings copiously spotted and tail barred
with white ; face whitish, barred or mottled with dark brown;
sides of throat and chest marked with brown ; centre of throat
white ; rest of under parts white, the flanks streaked with brown;
bill and irides yellow; feet closely feathered ; claws blackish.
Length 6:25 to 6°75 inches; culmen 0°4; wing 4; tail 2°25 to
2°75 ; tarsus o's.

Immature Birds: Generally browner than adults, under
parts more boldly striped, whilst the upper parts are less spot-
ted, and duller.

Distribution: Resident in Central and North-eastern
Europe, and Northern Asia.

Habitat: Forest regions. Nocturnal.

Genus ATHENE.

LITTLE OWL. X
Athene noctua (Sco).

Adult: Above greyish-brown, inclining to rufous on tail,
and spotted profusely with white, the crown spots smaller than
the rest ; back of neck closely mottled with white, forming a
sort of white collar; tail barred with yellowish-white ; cheeks
whitish, streaked with dusky ; uuder parts white ; chin un-

L

146 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

marked ; chest and flanks streaked boldly with brown ; bill pale
yellow; zoes covered with brisfdgs, but not feathered ; claws black ;
irides yellow. Length about'd°5 inches ; culmen o°6 ; wing 6 to
6755 tail'3*25 tarsus! 1°2'5.

Young: Are more rufous than adults.

Distribution : Resident in Europe south of Scandinavia.
Of casual occurrence only in the British Isles.

Habitat: Woods, ruins, gardens, &c. Nocturnal.

Note.—This owl, like many others, is subject to considerable variation in
size, as well as in general tint. -In Northern Africa, a paler and more
rufous form occurs, which has been described by many authors as a
distinct species, under the name of Adhene glaux. Specimens identical
with this form appear to occur in Southern Europe, as well as inter-
mediate forms,

nA Family VULTURIDZ:

Genus GYPS.

GRIFFON VULTURE.

Gyps fulvus (Gwe).

Adult: Head and neck covered with white hairy down ; neck-
ruff white; back, rump and scapulars pale buffish-brown; zzzgs
and tatl dark brown ; some of wing-coverts have dark centres;
beneath reddish-brown, tinged with yellow; bill at tip pale
slate-colour ; cere nearly black; legs and feet leaden-grey ;
claws black ; irides reddish-orange. Length 42 to 48 inches ;
culmen’ 3; wing 27 t0 30> tail 149 fo 15 ; tarsus 4.

Immature Birds: ‘ Have the head and neck dirty white,
varied with brown, and the rest of the plumage much lighter
than in the adult, with white and grey markings ” (Shelley).

Distribution: Resident in Southern Europe, Northern
Africa and in parts of Central Asia; of casual occurrence in
Northern Europe.

Habitat: Mountainous regions, especially frequenting
precipitous cliffs.

VULTURID4—VULTURES. 147

Genus VULTUR.

BLACK OE CINE REOUS VULTURE:
Vultur monachus Zinn.

Adult: Downy feathers on crowz, stdes of face and throat
black ; rest of neck and throat bare of feathers ; plumage of
both upper and under parts drownish-black ; base of bill and
space between rami of lower mandible flesh-colour ; anterior
portion of both mandibles black; legs and feet flesh-colour ;
irides brown. Length 42 inches; culmen 3°3; wing 28 to 30;
tarsus 4.

Young: Similar, but much browner.

Distribution: Inhabits Southern Europe, of rare occur-
rence northward. Abundant in Spain. Found also in
Northern Africa and in India.

Habitat : Wooded districts.

Genus NEOPHRON.

EGYPTIAN VULTURE.
Neophron percnopterus (Zz).

Adult: Bare parts of head and neck yellowish ; plumage of
upper and under parts chiefly white, tinged with buff; wings
black, the outer webs of many of the feathers washed with white ;
base of bill yellow, the rest dusky ; legs and feet flesh-colour ;
irides crimson. Length 26 to 27 inches; culmen 3; weng
18-5 to 19; tail 10; tarsus 3°4.

Immature Birds: Brown both above and beneath, darker
on the neck, ruff and elsewhere marked with creamy-buff ; bill
duller than in adults ; irides brown.

Distribution : Inhabits those European countries border-
ing the Mediterranean, also Africa and South-western Asia; of
casual occurrence in Northern Europe.

Habitat: Dry, sandy regions ; high cliffs, near human habi-
tations: gregarious.

yee -

148 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus GYPAETUS.

BEARDED VULTURE.

Gypeetus barbatus (Lzzz).

Adult : Crown whitish, hinder crown and elongated /anceo-
late neckSeathers tawny-buff ; rest of upper parts chiefly black,
the feathers mostly narrowly streaked with white; scapulars
washed with ochreous-brown, wings and tail-feathers blackish-
brown with white shafts ; elongated chin feathers, ores, bristles
covering nostrils, a broad line above and another below the eye,
black ; general colour of under parts rich tawny-brown ; bill
deep horn-blue, darker at tip; feet leaden-grey ; claws pale
horn-colour; irides pale orange. Length about 42 inches; calmen
g°7 ;hwme. sor; tailizo.:. tarsusi2:

Young assuming first plumage: Feathers both above
and beneath deep brown, with whitish tips to many of back
feathers, wing-coverts and breast feathers ; downy parts smoky-
brown.

Young in Spring: Head and neck deep blackish-brown ;
back brown (dark or light) mixed with buff, especially on fore
parts and on wing-coverts; wings dark brown ; secondaries paler
and buffish at base of outer web ; tail dark brown ; under parts
dull buff, washed with rufous on fore parts ; irides hazel-brown ;
bill and legs very much as in adult.

Distribution : Inhabits the higher ranges of the Pyrenees,
Alps, Atlas and North-western Himalayas.

Habitat: High mountainous regions, precipitous cliffs.

Family FALCONIDA.

Genus CIRCUS.
MARSH HARRIER.
Circus zruginosus (Zzzm).

Adult : Head buff, streaked (especially behind) with brown ;
back and scapulars dark brown, the latter obscurely shaded
with paler brown ; wings dark brown, except secondaries, which

FALCONIDA\—HARRIERS. 149

are washed with grey on outer webs; tail-feathers grey; throat
and chest buff, boldly marked on lower part of latter with dark
brown ; rest of under parts dark brown, washed with ferru-
ginous; bill bluish-slate colour ; legs and cere yellow; irides pale
yellowish. Length 19 to 23 inches; culmen 1°3 ; wing 15 to
16 ;,tail g to 105; tarsus 3:3 10 3°45. Female larger than
the male.

Young in first plumage: Almost uniform chocolate-
brown, tinged, especially on upper tail-coverts and under parts,
with paler brown. The yellow on head, neck and throat is
assumed during the second year.

Distribution : Resident throughout most of Europe, except
in the extreme north, also found across Asia to Japan and in
many parts of Africa.

Habitat: Open, marshy country, especially where water-
fowl abound.

Note.—This species is subject to much variation in colour.
‘

HEN HARRIER.
Circus cyaneus (Lz).

Adult Male: Upjer parts ash-grey, marked on nape with
brown ; wing quills blackish ; secondaries chiefly white on
inner webs; upper tail-coverts pure white ; //roat and chest
grey ; rest of under parts white; bill and claws black ; cere,
legs and irides yellow. Length 18 inches ; culmen 1°15 ; wing
13°5; tail 9; tarsus 2°7.

Adult Female: Somewhat larger than male; head and
neck buff, the latter tinged with rufous and both heavily
streaked with brown, especially on crown ; neck-ruff distinct :
general appearance of upper parts deep umber-brown ; some of
wing-coverts broadly margined with rufous-buff ; upper tail-
coverts white ; tail-feathers dark brown, central pair broadly
barred transversely with greyish-brown, and outer ones with
rufous-buff, all rectrices pale tipped; under parts buff, streaked
chiefly on throat with brown ; irides yellowish-brown.

Young: Resemble adult female, but are more rufous.
especially on the tail-feathers and under parts, and the stripes
on breast are broader and of a reddish-brown. Young males
are rather less rufous than young femaies.

150 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution: Found throughout Europe, most of Asia
and parts of Northern Africa.
Habitat: Open country, @ors or marshes.

MONTAGU’S HARRIER.
Circus cineraceus (4/nz).

Adult Male: Head, neck, centre of back, and scapulars
ashy-grey ; wing-coverts, secondaries and tail paler grey;
secondaries marked with three dusky bars on inner webs;
outer web of fifth primary entire (not notched); outer tail-
feathers barred with chestnut and whitish ; upper tail-coverts
white ; chest ashy-grey; rest of under parts white, dreast-
feathers having a narrow central streak of chestnut; bill
black; legs, feet,cere and irides yellow. Length 17 to 18 inches;
CHLIMen Ts swing 13°7'5% Stall o725% tarsus 2°95:

Adult Female: Above dark brown, marked with pale
rufous ; wings darker brown, barred with greyish rufous-brown ;
tail-feathers very much as in female of C. cyaneus ; under parts
pale rufous buff, streaked more or less with deep chestnut-
brown ; slightly larger than the male.

Young: More uniform chocolate-brown above than adult
female; crown and wing-coverts margined with pale rufous; outer
tail-feathers rufescent-buff, barred with dark brown; upper
tail-coverts white, with narrow shaft-lines of brown; some of
anterior ones washed with tawny ; throat pale ochreous ; facial
ruff and rest of under parts pale rufous-buff, streaked on chest
and flanks with reddish-brown.

Distribution : Occurs throughout most parts of Europe,
Asia and Africa, but is a summer visitant only to Northern
Europe, not ranging further than about lat. 60° N.

Habitat : Similar to that of C. cyaneus.

PALLID HARRIER.
Circus swainsoni (Smzth).

Adult Male: Closely resembles male C. cyaneus, but has
the web of the fifth primary unnotched, is paler grey alove, has

FALCONIDA—BUZZARDS. 151

the white upper tatlcoverts barred with grey, and the throat
only tinged with grey. Length 17 inches; culmen 1°2; wing
13°75; tail 8°75; tarsus 2°8.

Adult Female: Forehead and superciliary stripe buff ;
upper parts generally dark brown, mixed with white on nape,
and most of feathers margined with paler brown ; upper tail-
coverts white, barred with brown ; primaries and secondaries
buff on inner, webs, and barred, more or less distinctly, with
dark brown; under parts and a line beneath the eye whitish
or tinged with cream-colour; chest copiously and_ broadly
streaked with dark brown ; abdomen and flanks also streaked
but more narrowly, and with a more rufous-brown ; irides hazel-
brown ; somewhat superior in size to the male.

Young: Above brown, the feathers chiefly bordered with
rufous-brown ; cheeks dark brown ; facial-ruff and under parts
pale ferruginous-brown ; flanks streaked sparingly with reddish-
brown ; upper tail-coverts white; otherwise very like adult
female.

Distribution : Found in Southern Europe, Asia and most
of Africa.

Habitat: Open country ; cultivated land, &c.

Genus BUTEO.

COMMON BUZZARD.
Buteo vulgaris Leach.

Adult: Head pale brown, marked with dark brown; rest of
upper parts dark brown with pale margins to the feathers, except
tat/-feathers, which are pale brown, or whitish, crossed by 12 or
13 dark brown shaded bars ; primaries nearly black ; basal half
of inner webs chiefly white ; under parts white, or creamy-
white, mottled and spotted, chiefly on breast and sides of body,
_ with brown ; chin and under tail-coverts unspotted, or almost
so ; bill bluish-horn colour ; cere and legs yellow ; irides brown.
Length 20 to 23 inches; culmen 1°4; wing 15 to 16'5; tail
Q; farsus 3°I.

Immature Birds: Similar to adults, but of a paler brown
above, the feathers being margined with very light brown ;
many white feathers mixed with the brown on nape ; beneath

152 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

brown, mixed with white or feathers margined with whitish ;
throat brown, streaked with white; quills blackish-brown, the
tail-feathers tipped with rufouM and only crossed by ten dark
bars.

Distribution: Found throughout Europe, except in the
extreme north, and in Western Asia.

Habitat: Both open country and in forests. Precipitous
cliffs. |

Note —This species is subject to great variation in colour, and also to
some extent in size. Many old males have very dark brown breasts,
mottled or spotted with white or yellowish.

AFRICAN BUZZARD.
Buteo desertorum (Daud).

Adult: Zz general appearance more rufous throughout than
B. vulgaris ; above shaded brown, most of feathers bordered
with pale brown, and many, especially on back and rump, with
rufous-brown ; feathers of crown, and sides of face streaked
with dark brown ; in some old males the fore part of crown is
whitish, and very sparingly marked with brown; primaries
nearly black, bordered externally with dull ashy-grey ; central
tail-feathers reddish-brown, outer rectrices greyish-brown, and
all barred with darker brown ; under surface of rectrices yellow-
ish-white, faintly barred with dusky ; under parts creamy-white or
pale rufous, boldly blotched (on flanks almost barred) with rusty-
brown ; billand claws bluish-black ; legs and cere yellow ; irides
brownish-yellow. Length 19 inches ; culmen 1°25; wing 13°5
tosrs 5. ‘tail 3"2 3 rtdrsts2°7.

Young: Very nearly resemble some dark forms of JZ.
vulgaris, but are smaller and more rufous above, also the
markings on flanks; under parts generally whiter and less
marked than in adults. :

Distribution: Inhabits South-eastern Furope, and most
parts of Africa and India. |

Habitat: Very similar to B. vulgaris.

Note.—This species, like the last, is most variable in tint, and occasionally
the two are scarcely to be distinguished apart,

FALCONID.4—BUZZARDS. 153
LONG-LEGGED BUZZARD.

Buteo ferox (Gme/).

Adult : Crown, nape, throat and chest creamy-buff, washed
with rufous, and streaked more or less broadly with dark brown ;
feathers on nape very open, showing white bases; feathers of
upper parts generally dark brown, margined with rufous-brown ;
primaries almost black, washed on outer webs with grey, and
marked on inner webs with white ; zaz/feathers creamy-white or
pale rufous-brown, more or less distinctly barred with brown ;
chin whitish; abdomen and flanks chestnut, more or less
mingled on former with buff or pale rufous feathers ; bill and
claws blackish ; cere and legs yellow ; irides tawny-brown.
Length 22 to 25 inches; culmen 1°25; wing 16°75 to 18°75;
tail 9°5 ; tarsus 3°5 to 4.

Young: Darker above than adults ; tail-feathers ashy-brown,
fulvous tipped and shaded with ashy-grey ; abdomen rufescent-
buff, marked with brown.

Distribution: Found in South-eastern Europe, Western-
central Asia and North-eastern Africa.

Habitat: More open localities than B. vulgaris as a rule,
otherwise similar.

Note.—This species exhibits considerable variation in colour, some being
much paler, and others again much darker, than the description given
above. Very old birds appear to become almost entirely chestnut
beneath.

Genus ARCHIBUTEO.

ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD.
Archibuteo lagopus (Gme/).

Adult : Crown and neck creamy-white, copiously streaked
with dark brown; upper tail-coverts and basal half of tail-
feathers white (the former blotched with brown) ; ¢az/-feathers
white, tinged with greyish towards tip, and crossed by four or five
broad brown bars ; rest of upper parts shaded brown ; some of
feathers of interscapular region margined with rufous-buff; pri-
maries blackish-brown, the outer ones tinged with grey on outer

154 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

webs, and all having white bases; forehead, ear-coverts, and
chin buffish-white, or white slightly streaked with brown ; be-
neath yellowish-white ; szdes @* throat, chest, and abdomen
heavily blotched or streaked with brown; legs barred with
brown, and feathered to the toes ; bill brownish-black, paler at
base; cere and feet yellow; claws black; irides brown.
Benoth:ro to 23 inches; .culmenm*23 wing 16 to 17-75 sstai)
Oto, 5o ; farsus 2°5 00. 2°75;

Young: Are considerably darker and duller above; tail-
feathers with terminal two-thirds brown, tipped with dirty-
whitish ; abdomen almost uniform chocolate-brown ; legs
mottled with brown, not barred.

Distribution : Inhabits the northern portions of Europe
and Asia ; an irregular visitant to the British Islands, chiefly in
autumn and winter.

Habitat: More open localities than Buteo vulgaris: other-
wise very similar. Partial to precipitous cliffs.

Note.—Like the Buzzards, this so-cics exivits very considerable variation
in plumage and size.

Genus AQUILA.
BOOTED EAGLE.

Aquila pennata (Gme/).

Adult : Top of Zead and nape pale sandy-brown, streaked
with dark brown ; forehead more or less white; rest of upper
parts dark brown ; most of feathers being margined and tipped
with very pale brown; scapulars paler than back feathers ;
wing and tail-quills blackish-brown, the latter tipped with
creamy-white ; sides of head pale brown ; ear-coverts darker
brown ; under parts white (or in some pale brown) streaked
with dark brown; bill bluish-horn, blacker at tip; cere and
feet yellow ; claws black ; irides pale hazel. Length r& to-2r
inches ; culmen 1°6; wing 14 to 16°5 ; tail 8 to 10; tarsus 2°5
to28.

Young Male: Wing and tail-feathers more or less broadly
tipped with white or whitish ; under parts dark reddish-brown,
narrowly streaked with darker brown; under wing-coverts dark
brown.

FALCONIDA—EAGLES. Is

ol

Distribution ; Inhabits Southern Europe and Africa, occa-
sionally straggling into Central Europe.
Habitat: Forest regions.

SPOTTED EAGLE.
Aquila clanga Fal/.

Adult ; Plumage very dark brown, somewhat glossy above ;
primaries nearly black ; a few feathers about upper and under
tail-coverts white ; bill bluish-black ; nostrils round ; cere and
feet bright yellow ; irides brown. Length 24 to 28 inches ;
culmen 2°4; wing 19 to 20; tail 11°8; tarsus 4 to 4°45.

Immature Birds: Copiously spotted on hinder parts
above with buffish ; secondaries and tail-feathers broadly
tipped with greyish ; upper tail-coverts chiefly brownish-buff ;
under parts streaked with tawny-brown ; tarsi dark brown,
marked with white ; under tail-coverts buffish.

Distribution: Inhabits Southern Europe and Eastern
Russia, ranging across Turkestan and Central Asia, occurs also
in Northern Africa.

Habitat : Secluded forest regions ; often hunting in more
open country.

LESSER SPOTTED EAGLE.
Aquila nevia (Gel).

Adult : Plumage dark brown; feathers of head and nape
bordered with pale brown ; rump marked with pale brown and
white ; quills and tail very dark brown, the latter tipped with
pale brown, slightly barred with blackish ; under tail-coverts
buttish ; bill dark horn-colour; cere and feet yellow ; irides
yellowish-brown. Length 24 to 28 inches ; culmen 1°75 ; wing
a5°t0 £o9°25,; tatl.o:25 5. tarsus ‘3745;

Young : Plumage generally more of a chocolate-brown ;
crown streaked and nape with large patch of rufous-buff -
feathers of back and wing-coverts spotted with buffish in
centre ; tips of secondaries and tail-feathers greyish ; under parts
streaked in centres of feathers with buffish.

156 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution : Resident in Pomerania, ranging southward
through Russia, and ae on migration in Egypt and
Northern Africa.

Habitat: Similar to that of A. clanga.

STEPPE EAGLE.
Aquila nipalensis //oc'ss.

Adult: Prevailing colour pale brown, both above and he-
neath ; some of back feathers and crown darker ; wing-coverts
more or less broadly tipped with pale fulvous ; wing and tail-
quills blackish-brown ; the latter pale tipped and crossed by
ashy-grey transverse bars ; upper tail-coverts white, or marked
with brown ; abdomen paler brown than rest of under parts,
and slightly shaded with rufous; bill horn-black ; nostrils ob-
long and vertical; cere and feet deep yellow; irides brown.
Length 30 to 31 inches ; culmen 2°73 wing 235 tail’ 1752
tarsus 3°8.

Young: In general appearance dark earth-brown above and
beneath, paler on chin; upper and under tail-coverts pale
ochreous-fawn colour; wings and wing-coverts more or less
broadly tipped with buff; tail barred with ashy-grey and
broadly tipped with shaded reddish-buff ; under wing-coverts
dark brown, marked with rufescent-buff. In some the nape
and back feathers are somewhat speckled with buff at the ex-
treme tips.

Distribution : Inhabits South-eastern Europe, Western-
central Asia and India.

Habitat: Wild open country. High steppe regions.

WHITE-SHOULDERED OR SPANISH
IMPERIAL EAGLE.

Aquila adalberti 4rehm.

Adult : Centre of crown, back and under parts dark brown ;
nape and sides of face sandy-brown ; a large patch on either
carpal joint and several feathers on the back between the
shoulders pure white ; tail dark brown, marbled with grey ; a few

FALCONID4:—EAGLES. 157

white feathers mixed with the brown ones cn breast and tarsi ;
bill dark horn-blue ; cere and feet yellow ; claws black ; irides
light brownish-grey. Length 32 to 33 inches ; culmen 3'1 ;
wing 24°4; tail 13°75; tarsus 4.

Young Male: “Head, neck, back, scapulars and wing-
coverts light sandy-brown, here and there intermixed with
darker brown, and dull rufous feathers ; rump and upper tail-
coverts pale creamy-rufous:; tail sandy-grey, edged and tipped
with pale rufous-brown ; primaries dark brown ; secondaries
dull brown, edged and tipped with creamy-yellow ; under parts
renerally dull uniform sandy-brown, tinged with rufous ; under
ail and wing-coverts pale creamy-rufous ” (Dresser).

Distribution: Resident in Spain, Portugal and North-
western Africa. ;

Habitat: Wooded plains.

IMPERIAL EAGLE.
Aquila heliaca Savgny.

Adult: Crown, sides of head and nape creamy-rufous,
marked conspicuously on centre of crown with brown ; rest of
plumage darker brown than in 4. adalberti, showing no white
whatever on shoulders, but only a few white feathers on scapu-
Jars; abdomen strongly tinged with rufous ; tail and soft parts
much as in A. adalberti, the former tipped with buff. Length
30 to 31 inches; culmen 3; wing 22 to 23; tail 11°65 ; tar
sus 4.

Young: Feathers of both upper and under parts with
pale yellowish-brown centres, and secondaries and rectrices
with broad buffish tips ; none of scapular-feathers white ; chest
listinctly streaked with fulvous.

Distribution: Inhabits Southern Europe (except the
{berian peninsula) Northern Africa, Persia, India and China.

Habitat: Bare, open country or thin, low jungle.

GOLDEN EAGLE.
Aquila chrysaétus (Zzvn).

Adult: Crown and nape rich rufous-brown ; back and most

158 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

of under parts dark brown, darker on chin and throat and
paler on abdomen and tars quills blackish-brown ;_ tail-
feathers shaded brown, darkefat tips and mottled with dark
grey ; thighs uniform dark brown; bill bluish horn-colour,
darker at tip; cere and feet yellow ; claws black ; irides hazel-
brown. Length 30 to 36 inches; culmen 2°75 ; wing 23°5 to
24°5 ; tail 13 to 13°5 ; tarsus 4°25. Female slightly larger than
the male.

Immature Birds: Head and neck more uniform in colour
with the back; the tail white at the base; under parts show
more white than adults, and the tarsi are dull white, somewhat
mottled with brown.

Distribution : Inhabits most of the Palearctic and
Nearctic regions.

Habitat : Mountainous regions, high moors, &c.

BONELLI’S EAGLE.
Aquila fasciata Vze7//.

Adult: Above deep brown, most of feathers margined with
lighter brown, especially on head and neck, and most of those
of fore parts white at bases; quills blackish-brown, mottled
with white ; inner webs barred with brown ; tail-feathers brown,
washed with greyish, and obscurely barred with dusky brown,
paler at tips; under parts white, or tinged with pale rufous-
buff, and narrowly streaked, pretty uniformly, with blackish ;
bill dark horn-colour, paler at base; cere and feet yellow ;
irides orange-brown. Length 24 to 28 inches; culmen
FeeutO 20> wilt TS 5 00 2k sia tr .O 501 O «yee saseee
lo 43.

Young: Very similar to adults, but under parts are rufous-
brown or (on fore parts) almost foxy-red, and closely streaked
with deep brown.

Distribution: Inhabits Southern Europe, Northern
Africa, and ranges eastward into India.

Habitat: Wooded regions near to water, breeding in
cliffs.

FALCONIDAE—EAGLES. ~ 159
Genus HALIAETUS.

WHITE-TAILED OR SEA-EAGLE.
Haliaetus albicilla (zzz).

Adult: Above brown ; fore parts exceedingly pale (almost
white in very old birds) ; ¢az/ zw/zte; under parts deep brown ;
bill, cere, feet, and irides yellow ; claws blackish. Length 28
to 30 inches ; cu/men 3°6; wing 24 to 26; tail 11°5; tarsus
4°2. All these dimensions in adult females are somewhat
larger.

Immature Birds: Plumage both above and beneath more
uniform dark brown than in adults ; tail dark brown or whitish
mottled with brown; bill black ; cere and feet yellowish or
yellowish-brown ; irides dark brown. Fully as large as adults.

Distribution: Inhabits the Palearctic region, occurring in
Southern Europe and in Northern Africa chiefly on migration.

Habitat: Sea cliffs, inland lakes or high precipices not far
away from water.

PALLAS’S SEA-EAGLE.
Haliaetus leucoryphus Pui.

Adult : Fore parts pale shaded rufescent-brown, palest on
chin and upper part of throat ; back and wings deep brown,
deeper on the latter ; tac? white, broadly banded with black at
the tip ; beneath shaded reddish-brown ; bill dark horn; cere
pale green ; legs and feet whitish ; irides pale yellow. Length
B2eiches ; culmern 2°55 wing: 225 tail 1r-7; “tarstis ¢:65.
Female similar but superior in size.

Young: Upper parts dark brown; the dorsal feathers
darker at the base; wing-coverts lighter, the median coverts
with light brown margins, the larger ones tipped with pale
brown ; quills blackish, externally washed with ashy ; tail dark
brown, with an ashy shade; upper tail-coverts margined with
pale brown ; head and neck dark fulvous-brown, streaked with
sandy-brown ; rest of the under parts rather lighter fulvous-
brown, the feathers on the breast tipped and margined with
whity-brown ; legs pale lemon-yellow (Dresser).

160 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution: Inhabits most parts of India and Central
Asia, straggling into South-eastern Russia, and Asia Minor.
Habitat : Wooded countr# generally not far from water.

Genus CIRCAETUS.

SHORT-TOED OR SERPENT-EAGLE.
Circaetus gallicus (Gme/).

Adult: Above ashy-brown, with a faint purplish gloss on
back ; some of the feathers with paler margins; head very
broad, usually paler than the rest of upper parts ; region round
base of bill whitish; superciliary streak of black, bristly
feathers ; wing-quills black or deep brown, their inner webs
marked with white; wing-coverts pale tipped ; tail chocolate-
brown, crossed by three deep blackish bands ; deneath white ;
the throat streaked with brown, and showing distinct black
shafts to the feathers ; chest and flanks spotted or barred with
pale brown ; bill bluish-black; cere, legs, feet and irides yellow.
Length 26 to 28 inches; culmen 2; wing 20°5 to 21°5; tail
12's; tarsus (bare) 3°5 to 4.

Young: Above dull brown ; feathers on nape conspicuously
white at base; most of back feathers and wing-coverts edged
with pale brown ; wings and tail much as in adult, but the lat-
ter tipped with white and its under surface whitish ; feathers of
throat and chest pale dirty brown, with white bases and black
median shaft lines ; rest of under parts more boldly spotted than
in adults.

Distribution: Resident in Central and Southern Europe,
Northern Africa and in many parts of Asia.

Habitat : Thick woods or damp jungle.

Genus ASTUR.
GOSHAWK.

Astur palumbarius (Zzzz).

Adult: General colour of upper parts shaded earthy-brown,
darker on crown, which is dordered, especially on nape, with

FALCONIDAZ—HAWKS. 161

white, mottled with blackish ; wings and tail dark greyish-brown,
the latter barred with darker brown ; under parts white, closely
barred with blackish-brown, especially on fore parts, where many
of the feathers have also median streaks of blackish ; bill pale
horn-colour ; cere, legs and feet yellow ; irides orange. Length
IQ to 23 inches; culmen 1°3; wing 13 to 14°5; tail 9°5 to11;
tarsus 2°75 to 3.

Young: White parts of head tinged with ferruginous ; most
of back feathers tipped with buffish; tail showing five broad
bars ; under parts greyish or pale buff, each feather having a
central, longitudinal, drop-shaped brown mark; legs and feet
yellowish-brown.

Distribution: Ranges over the whole of the Palearctic
region. Of rare occurrence in Great Britain.

Habitat: Forest and open country, chiefly the former.

Genus ACCIPITER.

SPARROW-HAWK.
Accipiter nisus (Zzzz).

Adult Male: Adove brownish ashy-grey ; feathers on nape
white at base, some of white showing above; tail and under
surface of wings barred with brown ; cheeks and uzder parts
dull white or washed with ferruginous, Jarred (especially on
hinder parts) z7¢# darker rufous or rufous-brown ; bill bluish-
horn ; cere, legs and feet yellow ; irides orange. Length about
12 inches ; culmen 0°65; wing 7.5 to 7.9; tail 6; tarsus 2.

Adult Female: Above greyish-brown, darker on head and
neck ; superciliary region streaked with white; a large amount
of white showing on hind neck: ear-coverts and interscapular
feathers edged with rufous; some of wing-coverts and inner-
most secondaries white in centre; primaries blotched with white
on inner webs ; tail-feathers crossed by five broad dusky bars,
and more or less conspicuously pale or even white tipped ;
beneath white ; chin and throat finely streaked with brown ;
breast feathers closely barred or marked with triangular blotches
of brown ; rest of under parts regularly barred, more narrowly

M

162 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

so towards the vent; bill bluish-horn, cere, legs, feet and irides
yellow. Length about 4 ———_ culmen 0.75 ; wing 9 to 9°75 ;
tanley?2 5 to 7° ; tarsus 2,

Young Males: Resemble old females, but the back
feathers are edged with rufous-brown, and the upper tail-
coverts washed with the same ; under parts are more irregularly
marked.

Young Females: Differ from the foregoing chiefly in size
and in being less marked with rufous-brown on the back.

Distribution: Resident throughout the Palearctic re-
gion.

Habitat: Woodland regions, but often also to be seen
hunting for its prey in the more open country in the vicinity of
woods.

LEVANT SPARROW -HAWK.
Accipiter brevipes (Severfz).

Adult Male: Above shaded ashy-grey; bases of secondaries
white, washed with grey externally ; central and outermost tail-
feathers unbarred ; thighs very pale and faintly barred with
dull rufous, foes shorter, otherwise very lke adult male of A.
nisus ; irides deep yellow. Length 13°3 inches; culmen 0°75 ;
wing 8°95; tail 6; Zarsus 7°75.

Adult Female: Above brown, the white bases to the
scapulars and innermost secondaries well concealed; lores
whitish ; cheeks, ear-coverts and sides of neck clearer brown,
wing-coverts slightly tinged with grey; quills blackish-brown,
greyish at tip, and white at base of inner webs, all wing-quills
barred with blackish; central tail-feathers inconspicuously
barred, otherwise much resembles A. wesws. Larger than the
male.

Young Male: Inner webs of secondaries white; tail-
feathers greyer than in young A. mzsus, very faintly barred, and
under parts much more boldly blotched or barred with rich
brown.

Distribution: Resident in Southern Russia, the Levant,
Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine.

FALCONIDA—SITES. 163

Genus MILVUS.
COMMON KITE.

Milvus ictinus Savigny.

Adult Male: Head pale greyish, narrowly streaked with
brown ; quills blackish ; ¢az/ /orked, the feathers rufous-brown ,
rest of under parts rufous, the feathers all having dark brown
centres ; chin and throat greyish, streaked with dusky, rest of
under parts rich rufescent-brown, streaked longitudinally with
dark brown; bill horn-colour ; cere, legs, feet and irides yel-
low. Length 24 to 26 inches; culmen 1'5 to 1°8; wing 20°'5 ;
tail 14°5 ; tarsus 2°25.

Adult Female: Closely resembles the male, but is per-
haps a trifle greyer about the head, and more rufous beneath,
also somewhat superior in size.

Young: Head rufous-brown streaked with darker brown,
and mottled with white ; otherwise very similar to adults.

Distribution : Occurs in temperate Europe and Northern
Africa, resident in parts of Southern Europe.

Habitat: Well wooded and watered regions, often in the
vicinity of villages.

BLACK KITE.
Milvus migrans (ud).

Adult Male: Head and neck whitish, closely streaked
with brown ; dack and ¢arl-feathers dark earthy drown ; wing-
quills blackish ; coverts pale margined ; deneath dull reddish-
brown, streaked with dark brown; Jd2/7 black ; cere, legs, and
feet yellow; irides pale yellow. Length 22 to 23 inches;
Pulmen 173; wing 17 to 18°5; tail To} to 1075 $ tarsus 2°75
to 2.

Young: Head browner than in adults ; back-feathers and
wing-coverts margined or tipped with yellowish-white, tail with
brown bars, and whitish tipped; under parts reddish-brown,
copiously streaked with buffish.

Distribution: A summer visitant to Europe south of the
Baltic. Of doubtful occurrence in Great Britain. Occurs
throughout Africa and in Western Asia.

Habitat: Like the preceding species, selects wooded
regions, also more open country.

M 2

164 ; A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus ELANUS.

-
BLACK-WINGE®D.,. Ki TE:

Elanus coeruleus (VLes/).

Adult: Upper parts, including central tail-feathers, ashy-
grey ; forehead, superciliary stripe, outer tail-feathers, and
under parts white ; innermost secondaries chiefly white on
inner webs; swadller wing-coverts black ; chest slightly tinged
with grey; bill very dark horn; cere, legs and feet yellow ;
irides crimson. Length zr to 13 tuches; culmen 0°75; wing
Tistot2::) tatlia:7 50 5553; tarsusmn ns,

Nestling: Head, back and scapulars dark brown, the lat-
ter conspicuously pale tipped ; some of wing-coverts marked
with rufous-brown, and all tipped with white ; primaries and
tail-feathers tipped with white ; irides dark brown.

Young (Autumn): Above ashy-brown, the feathers tipped
with creamy-white ; wing-coverts black, indistinctly tipped with
white ; forehead and superciliary stripe white, streaked with yel-
lowish-brown ; sides of breast washed with yellowish-brown ;
irides light brown.

Distribution: Inhabits the whole of Africa, ranging east-
ward into India. Of rare occurrence in Southern Europe.
Habitat: Well wooded localities, avoiding bare plains.

Genus PERNIS.

HONEY-BUZZARD.
Pernis apivorus (Zznz).

Adult Male: Cvowz and cheeks ashy-grey; rest of upper
parts earthy-brown, tinged with grey ; wing-quills barred with
blackish ; tail-feathers crossed by three or four conspicuous
bars of dark brown at irregular intervals ; denxeath white, more
or less blotched or broadly barred wzzth dark brown; bill
blackish, except at base, where the cere is yellow ; legs, feet and
irides yellow. Length 23 inches; culmen 1°25; wing 16°25;
fail 16°25 3 tarsus 175,

FALCONIDA—FALCONS. 165

Adult Females are larger, and appear to have browner
heads, and the under parts more marked with brown.
Young: Crown and neck feathers white, more or less
broadly tipped with brown ; rest of upper parts dark brown,
most of the feathers having pale margins, and wing-quills
tipped with whitish ; under parts in some only streaked with
brown, in others almost uniform chocolate-brown, whilst inter-
mediate specimens, with broad dark brown blotches on fore
parts, and bars on the hinder parts, appear most commonly.
Distribution: Inhabits the Palearctic and Ethiopian
regions; does not however occur in the extreme north of
Europe, and is a migrant only to the Mediterranean shores.
Habitat: Both woodland districts and open country.

Genus FALCO.

GREENLAND FALCON.

Falco candicans Gme/.

Very Old Male: Above white; feathers on back and
wing-coverts with large spots of blackish near the tips ; prima-
ries subterminally barred with black more or less broadly ;
shafts of upper tail-coverts and rectrices in some birds blackish ;
under parts pure white, or slightly marked on flanks; d2¥
yellowish, bluish towards tip; legs and feet dull yellow;
irides dark brown. Length 19 to 21 inches; culmen 1°3 ;
wing 14 to 15; tail 8:2; tarsus 2°5 to 2°75.

Younger Male: Similar to above, but differs in being
streaked on head with blackish, and having broad bars of the
same across the tail.

Adult Females: Resemble the males, but are consider-
ably larger, the wing of the former usually measuring 16 to 17
inches.

Young: Differ from adults in having the upper markings
attenuated into drop-shaped markings or streaks; indications
of tail-bars imperfect.

Distribution : Probably resident throughout most of the
Circumpolar regions, occuring further south casually.

Habitat: Wild open country.

166 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

JER-FALCON.
Falco gffalco Linn.

Adult Male: Adove leaden-grey, paler and bluer towards
the tail, barred with slaty-grey, and margins of most feathers
whitish ; forehead whitish ; crown, sides of head and dstinct
moustache mottled with d/ackish-grey ; quills dark brown, the
outer webs freckled with grey ; tail broadly barred with dark
grey, and whitish towards tip; beneath white, the fore parts
little marked ; breast and abdomen marked with long drop-
shaped streaks, and flanks with bars of blackish ; bill bluish-
horn, blacker at tip ; cere, legs and feet yellow ; irides and claws
blackish. Lexgth about 20 inches; culmen 1°33 wing 13'5
fou4?s.;- tall 3 5 tarsus 2.

Adult Female: Resémbles the male except in size
Length 21 to.24 inches; wing 15 to 16; tail 9°) to 105 tarsus
BEOH £O 3.

Young: Brown, with fulvous spots and mottlings on the
edges of the scapulars and inner secondaries, rather more
distinct on the upper tail-coverts ; tail dark brown, with im-
perfect bands of fulvous, all the wing-coverts and quills exter-
nally dotted with minute fulvous spots, the latter externally
barred with buff; crown, sides of head and nape buffy-white,
striped with dark brown; forehead white with very narrow
dark streaks; under surface white, with central dark brown
patches on each feather, narrower on the throat; bill horn-
blue, yellow at base of lower mandible.

Distribution: Inhabits Northern Scandinavia, Northern
Russia, and the Arctic regions of Northern Asia and America.

Habitat: Similar to / candicans.

ICELAND FALCON.

Falco islandus Gwme/.

Adult Male: ead white, streaked with blackish, very
narrowly so on forehead ; cheeks marked like crown; prevail-
ing colour of wpper parts brownish slaty-grey, the feathers
barred and bordered with whitish; tail-feathers greyer than
back, and barred with darker grey ; chin and throat pure white,

FALCONIDA:—FALCONS. 167°"

the latter scarcely marked ; rest of under parts white, sparingly
marked with elongated drop-shaped spots ; azks blotched cr
barred with blackish-brown ; 62/7 dull horn-b/ue, yellowish at
base beneath ; cere, orbits, legs and feet yellow; irides dark
brown. Length 21°5 to 22 inches; culmen 1°35; wing 14°5
tO 25 5 tail So tarsus 2°25.

Adult Female: Resembles the male except in size.
Length 24 inches and over; culmen 1°5 ; wing 16 to 16°25 ;
tail 9 ; tarsus 2°4.

Young: Much browner above than adults, the tail less con-
spicuously barred ; under parts more or less broadly marked
with brown, except throat, which is only streaked ; cere and
feet bluish-grey. May be distinguished from / gyzfalco chiefly
by its lighter head and absence of any marked moustachial
stripe.

Distribution : Resident in Iceland and parts of Green-
land, sometimes occurring as far south as the British Islands.

Habitat: Similar to that of & candicans.

PEREGRINE FALCON.
Falco peregrinus TZzmst.

Adult Male: Cvown, nape, sides of face, and moustachial
region black; back and upper .parts generally bluish-grey,
shading into ashy-grey towards tail, and barred with greyish-
black ; quills blackish, tinged with grey, slightly bordered on
external margins with white towards tips ; tail-feathers blackish,
broadly barred with slaty-grey, darker towards tips; beneath
white, tinged with rufous-buff, the dzeast and sides of body
broadly barred with dusky ; chin and throat minutely streaked ;
bill bluish, darker towards tip; cere, legs and feet yellow ;
irides brown. Length 15 to 15°5 inches ; culmen 1°1; wing
me tO. ne55.> tai O's > tarstis 2-1.

Adult Female: Resembles the male, but is much larger.
Length 17 to 19 inches; wing 14; tail 7°75.

Immature Birds: General appearance of upper parts
greyish-brown, most of the feathers margined with pale red-
dish-brown: nape marked with creamy-white and blackish ;
region round eyes and malar stripe blackish as in adult; chin
and upper throat finely lined or spotted ; rest of under parts

168 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

whitish or cream-coloured (especially towards vent) and
broadly marked longitudinally, or blotched with brown ; bill,
cere and fzet bluish ; irides ag#in adult.

Distribution: Found throughout most of the Palearctic
region. Does not appear to occur in Iceland, or, if so, only
casually.

Habitat: Rocky eminences, sometimes sea-cliffs, generally
near water.

Note.—In the Mediterranean basin there is another form of the Peregrine,
Falco punicus, differing chiefly in size, the wing only measuring I1 5
to 12 inches, This form is, however, more strictly African than
European.

LANNER FALCON.
Falco feldeggi Sch/.

Adult Male: Zop of head and nape pale rufous, shading
into zearly white on forehead and finely streaked with black ;
moustachial region and eyebrows dark brown; inner webs
of primaries, and ¢az/feathers barred with cream-colour ; rest
of upper parts dark grey, the feathers of back and wing-coverts
bordered with buff; under parts very pale buff, shading into
almost pure white on throat, with dark brown, round drop-
shaped or (on chest) elongated spots ; bill bluish-horn, yellow-
ish at base; cere, legs and feet yellow; irides brown. Length
V7 to.18 tnches --culmen rt ;° wing 13125-; tail7"5 s tarsus S10:

Adult Female: Similar, but a trifle larger.

Immature Birds: Have the upper parts almost uniform
dull sandy-brown, or some of feathers with paler margins ;
crown very pale, shading into slightly rufous on nape, and
strongly marked with blackish longitudinal bands; central
tail-feathers uniform brown, outer ones spotted, and all tipped
with buff; under parts heavily marked with dark brown ; the
flanks almost uniform brown; moustache more highly de-
veloped ; legs and feet greyish, tinged with yellow.

Distribution : A North African species which also breeds
in Spain, and occurs not unfrequently in other parts of Southern
Europe.

Habitat: Chiefly rocky regions, but sometimes frequents
wooded country ; partial to the vicinity of water.

FALCONIDAZ—FALCONS. 169
SAKER FALCON.

Falco sacer Gwmel.

Adult Male: Head and nape wire, or tinged with rufous
and streaked with dark brown; upper parts generally dull
brown, the feathers margined with rufous; wings dark brown,
the primaries marked on inner webs with cream-coloured or
white blotches or bars; a// tazl-feathers pale brown, each one
having conspicuous cream-coloured spots on both webs, and whit-
ish tips ; under parts white, copiously marked on breast and
flanks, and less conspicuously on chest, with large round or
oval spots of brown; cere and legs yellow; bill horn-blue ;
irides brown. Length 17 to 18°5 inches; culmen 1°2; wing
ig25 tOves asta). 9-5 > tarsus 2°25.

Adult Female: Resembles the male, but is considerably
larger.

Immature Birds: Have the upper parts a pale dingy
brown, the feathers being narrowly margined with greyish
or tinged with rufous, central pair of rectrices unmarked ;
entire under parts (except chin) boldly blotched with dark
brown. Females can easily be distinguished from males by
their greater size.

Distribution: Eastern and South-eastern portions of
Europe, Northern Africa, and ranges in Asia as far east as
China.

Habitat : Partial to wooded localities, but is also found in
open country. Used in some countries for hawking purposes.

Note.—Very old birds appear to become more and more barred with rufous
on the back and less spotted beneath, while the ground colour of the
under surface approaches cream-colour.

ron sy.
Falco subbuteo zzz.

Adult Male: <Adove dark slate-grey, darker on head and
fore parts, and clearer on rump and tail-feathers ; primaries
blackish, these and the rectrices spotted on inner webs with
white or very pale rufescent ; beneath pale buff, sides of neck,

170 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

cheeks and moustache black; breast and sides of body broadly
streaked with black ; thighs and under tail-coverts ferruginous ;
bill blackish-slate ; cere, orb legs and feet yellow; irides
dark brown. Length 11.5 to 12 inches; culmen 07; wing
AG 70.77; tail-5"5 to.6's tarsus 128.

Adult Female: Rather larger, otherwise similar to the
male.

Immature Birds: Browner above, and most of feathers
(except on upper part of back) with narrow pale margins,
broader and more conspicuous on rump and upper tail-coverts ;
wing-quills narrowly margined with whitish; tail tipped with
rufescent-white or rufous ; thighs rufescent-buff.

Distribution: Breeds throughout most of the temperate
portions of the Palearctic region, wintering in Southern Africa
and India.

Habitat: Both wooded districts and more open country.

MERLIN.

Falco zesalon Zunstal/.

Adult Male: Adove slate-blue streaked in centres of feathers
with black, darker on the head and upper back ; zage feathers
chiefly xzfous, forming an ill-defined band; wing-quills black-
ish, barred with white on inner webs; tail-feathers broadly
barred with black towards their apices, whitish tipped, and all
(except central pair) barred and mottled with black on inner
webs ; throat white ; sides of face streaked with black especially
in malar region ; rest of under parts washed with ferruginous,
becoming clearer on thighs, and longitudinally marked with
blackish, less conspicuously so on flanks and anal region ; bill
bluish, darker at tip; cere, legs and feet yellow ; irides brown.
Length 10 to 11 inches; culmen oS; wmg 8, tail 5; tarsus
125.

Adult Female: Top of head, back, wing-coverts, and
secondaries dull olive-brown, the shaft of each feather darker ;
tail-feathers brown, with narrow transverse bars of wood-brown ;
under surface of the body pale brownish-white, with darker
brown longitudinal patches ; somewhat superior in size to the
male.

Immature Male: Resembles adult female.

FALCONIDA:—FALCONS. Oy

Young in first plumage: Also resemble adult females,
but are marked with rufous above.

Distribution : Breeds in the northern portions of Europe
and Asia, ranging southward to Africa, Northern India and
Northern China in winter.

Habitat : Wild open country, frequently on high moors.

RED-FOOTED FALCON, OR ORANGE-
LEGGED HOBBY.

Falco vespertinus zn.

Adult Male: Most of plumage s/afe-grey, darker above
and paler on wings; ¢highs, vent and under tatl-coverts rich
Jerruginous ; bill dark bluish-horn towards tip; base of bill,
cere, orbits, legs and feet vermilion; irides dark brown.
Length 10°5 to 11 inches; culmen 0°65 ; zwmg 92 to 10; tail
5; tarsus I.

Adult Female: Crown, neck and under parts rufous,
excepting chin and throat, which are white, tinged with rufous ;
rest of upper parts slate-grey (darker between shoulders),
barred transversely with blackish ; wing-quills dusky, washed
with grey, and marked on inner webs with white spots; a dis-
tinct black ring round the eyes. Superior in size to the male.

Young in first plumage: Forehead whitish, shading
into rufescent on crown, and mixed with white on nape; the
entire upper part of head more or less streaked with black; rest
of upper parts dingy slate-grey, the feathers broadly bordered
with pale rufous; primaries conspicuously margined at their
tips with white; under parts white, shading into pale buff (or
entirely pale buff), broadly marked on breast and abdomen
with brown.

Male after first moult: Differs from the adult in being
a uniform pearl-grey with ferruginous thighs and flanks ; outer
tail-feathers and a few of lower back or wing-feathers barred as
in first plumage.

Distribution: Breeds in Central Europe and in Western-
central Asia, occurring in winter as far south as Damara
Land in Africa. Of casual occurrence in Great Britain.

Habitat: Large forests ; groves, or more open country,
frequently the latter.

£72 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
ELEONORAN FALCON.

Falco ele@Morz Gené.

Adults: Entire plumage blackish-brown ; wings darker
brown, almost black; rectrices marked with rufescent trans-
verse bars on the inner webs; bill and claws black; basal
part of lower mandible, orbits, Zegs and feet yellow, irides
dark brown. Length 15 to 16°5 inches; culmen 0°8 ; wing 12
to 23"; tal 7:54 tarsus aes;

Young in first plumage: These closely resemble young
Hobbys, but may be distinguished from them by their greater
size. In the tint of their colours there is considerable differ-
ence, some being much paler than others.

Distribution : Found in parts of Southern Europe, North-
western Africa, Syria, Palestine, and some of the Mediter-
ranean islands.

Habitat: Chiefly barren rocky regions.

KE Sar eek i.
Falco tinnunculus LZzzz.

Adult Male: Top of head, rump and tail grey, the latter
with a broad subterminal band of black and tipped with white ;
wing-quills blackish, paler margined ; rest of upper parts rust-
coloured, broadly spotted with black; forehead, cheeks and
throat creamy-white, malar stripe dark grey; rest of under
parts rufescent-buff, marked, especially on breast and flanks,
with black spots; those on the former elongated ; bill at base,
cere and legs yellow; rest of bill horn-blue; claws dlack ;
irides brown. Length 13 to 14 inches; culmen 0°7 ; wing 8.5
fOie75 ;tailiG-7 sto 7 5 tarsus a5:

Adult Female: Above deep rufous-brown (somewhat
paler on the head), the latter streaked and the back and wing-
coverts regularly barred with black; tail crossed by narrow
interrupted bars of black with broad subterminal bar as in
adult male; under parts pale rufous striped with brown ;
flanks spotted ; chin and throat paler and unmarked.

Immature Birds: Of both sexes resemble the adult
female, but their plumage generally is paler; feathers of upper

FALCONIDA:— OSPREY. 173

parts having more or less broad pale margins and tips ;
especially noticeable on the tips of the primaries.
Distribution ; Occurs throughout the Palearctic oe
(except in the extreme north), also in Africa.
Habitat: Precipices, moorland, cultivated land, &c.

LESSER KESTREL.
Falco cenchris Vaum.

Adult Male: Head, nape, rump, upper tail-coverts and tail
and innermost secondaries grey ; back absolutely unspotted, but
having the broad black subterminal tail-band as in & “nnun-
culus ; beneath similar to / ¢znnunculus, but sparingly spotted ;
base of bill, cere and legs yellow; tip of bill bluish-black ;
claws usually whitish ; rides brown. Length 17-5 to 12°5 inches ;
culmen 0°65 ; wing 9°‘5; tail 6; tarsus 1°1.

Adult Female: Very much resembles the female / tn-
nunculus, but may be distinguished by its white or at any rate
much paler claws, smaller size, and grey central rectrices.
Lengtn 12 to 13 inches; wing 9.

Immature Birds: Resemble adult female but are paler,
the tail-feathers being tinged with rufous; quills, scapulars
and secondaries pale tipped.

Distribution : Summer visitant to the northern shores of
the Mediterranean and eastward into Persia. Winters in
Southern Africa. Of casual occurrence in Northern Europe.

Habitat: Rocky localities, or among ruins. Insectivorous.

Genus PANDION.
OSPREY.
Pandion haliaétus. (Zzz.)

Adult: Forepart of head brown, crown and xafe white,
streaked (more or less broadly) with brown, the feathers
on latter elongated ; rest of upper parts dark brown ; primaries
white, on inner webs, barred with brown; inner webs of tail-
feathers (except central pair) alternately barred with whitish and
brown ; beneath white, with a droad band of pale brown across

174 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

chest ; bill black, cere and legggrey ; irides yellow. Length ar
to 23 inches ; culmen 1°6 ; winf 19 to 20; tail 8°5 ; Zarsus 2°25.

Immature Birds: Differ from adults in having the
feathers of upper parts tipped with buffish; the nape not
streaked with brown ; and the chest-band either wanting alto-
gether, or evident merely by a few dark feathers.

Distribution: Found in most parts of Europe, Asia,
Africa and North America, and in South America as far south
as Brazil.

Habitat: Sea coast, neighbourhood of lakes or large rivers.

Note.—There seems to be no appreciable difference in the sexes, excepting
that the female slightly exceeds the male in size, and shows more
brown on the chest,

PELECANIDA:—CORMORANTS. 175

Order STEGANOPODES.

Family PELECANID/.

Genus PHALACROCORAX.

CORMORANT.
Phalacrocorax carbo (Lz).

Adult (Summer) : Forehead, crown, neck and under parts
black, feathers of crown elongated (said to be more so in female
than in male); those of neck more or less mixed with white
hair-like feathers ; gular pouch yellow, bare, surrounded with
white ; quills and tail-feathers black ; rest of upper feathers
dark brown, bordered with black ; Zarge patch on either thigh
pure white; bill brown; irides green ; legs and feet black.
Length 34 to 36 inches; culmen 3°6; wing 14to14°5 ; Zaz, of
fourteen rectrices, 7; tarsus 2°7.

Adult (Winter) : Paler and greener in general tint ; head
and neck feathers more conspicuously mixed with white ; white
band surrounding gular pouch much larger in extent.

Immature Birds: Have the back feathers browner,
tinged with bronze ; head and hind neck brown; under parts
brownish-white, marked with brown; sides of body dark
brown, no white spot on thighs ; bill brown, paler beneath.

Young in down: Pale sooty-brown.

Distribution: Almost a cosmopolitan species, frequenting
most coasts except those of the Western Pacific.

Habitat: Precipitous sea cliffs. Breeds in colonies.

SHAG. '
Phalacrocorax graculus (Zzvm).

Adult (Summer) : General colour rich dark green, glossed

176 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

with bronze and purple, the fggthers of back and wing-coverts
margined with black; crown-feathers elongated into a crest,
curving forward ; bill black, yellow at base ; irides green ; legs
and feet black. Length 26 to 27 inches; gape 3°6; wing 9 to
10°75; tail (of twelve rectrices), 5°6 ; tarsus 2°3.

Adult (Winter) : Similar, but lacks the crest.

Immature Birds: Upper plumage brown, tinged with
green ; chin and vent feathers whitish, rest of under parts dull
brown , sometimes marked with white. May be readily dis-
tinguished from the young of P. carbo by having only twelve
tail-feathers.

Distribution: Found throughout most of the coasts in the
Western Palearctic region.

Habitat: Inhabiting sea cliffs or marine caves. Usually
gregarious.

PYGMY CORMORANT.
Phalacrocorax pygmeus Fa//.

Adult (Summer): Top of head and neck reddish-brown,
darker on forehead ; scapulars and wing-coverts blackish metal-
lic-grey, bordered with black ; wing and tail-quills black ; dack
and under parts glossy greenish-d/ack ; neck, under parts and
upper tail-coverts marked with minute white elongated spots ;
bill, legs and feet black ; irides brown. Length 21 to 23 inches ;
eulmen, 1°35 > wie oi. tail ky t0 G75; tarsus 1°32.

Adult Female: Smaller, less spotted about body, and with
some grey feathers about the crissum. |

Adults (Autumn): Resemble those in spring plumage,
but lack the white spots, retaining few only about the eyes.

Young: Upper parts blackish-grey with some greenish re-
flections ; scapulars and great wing-coverts bordered with black
and tipped with grey; chin and throat whitish; rest of under
parts dull brown, mixed with white ; abdomen almost entirely
white ; flanks and under tail-coverts black ; bill yellowish.

Distribution: Inhabits South-eastern Europe, Southern
Asia and the north of Africa.

Habitat: Both fresh and salt water lagoons, or reedy banks
of rivers.

PELECANIDA:—PELICANS. 177

Genus SULA.

GANNET.
Sula bassana (Zzzz).

Adult: Head and neck duff, which increases with age; all’
the rest of the plumage white, except primaries, which are black ;
bill horny-white ; naked skin of the face bluish-black ; irides
pale straw-yellow ; legs and toes in-front green, otherwise
nearly black. Length 30 to 34 inches; culmen 4°75 ; wing
19°75 to 195 taieS;25; tarsus 2/7.

‘In the bird of the first year the bill is almost black ; the
general plumage mottled dusky-ash and buff below, and
blackish-brown above, flecked with white.

‘Tn the second year the under parts are principally white, the
head and neck being streaked with ash-brown; wings and
mantle still dark, with fewer white spots. The third year the
head and neck are white with a little tinge of buff, and the
mantle is diversified with white, especially on the scapulars and
secondaries ; tail also shows some white; bill nearly white.
During the fourth and fifth years the white gradually increases
and pervades the upper parts, and in the sixth year the bird
attains full plumage” (Saunders).

Distribution : Inhabits the coasts of Northern Europe and
the Atlantic coasts of North America.

Habitat : Strictly marine. Rocky islands. Gregarious.

Note—In a specimen in first plumage in the author’s collection, the bill is

horn-brown, paler beneath,

Genus PELECANUS.

ROSEATE OR WHITE PELICAN.
Pelecanus onocrotalus Zzzz.

Adult: Crown feathers somewhat elongated; primaries
black ; secondaries blackish on inner webs ; tuft of feathers on
chest yellowish-brown ; rest of plumage white, tinged with rose-
colour, feathers of forehead pointed towards culmen ; bare parts of
head and gular pouch pale yellow ; egs and feet rosy-pink ; bill

N

178 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

grey, pink at sides ; irides re Length about 5 feet ; culmen
13 inches; wing 25 to 28; tail 7°8; tarsus 4°5.

Immature Birds: Much duller than adults, being dull
buff above, marked with pale brownish ; wing-quills brown, in-
stead of black ; plumage not tinged with rose-colour ; feathers
of forehead pointed.

Distribution: Inhabits Southern and South-eastern
Europe, Northern Africa and Asia.

Habitat: Reedy sides of, or bare islands in, fresh water
marshes.

DALMATIAN PELICAN.
Pelecanus crispus Bruch.

Adult : Feathers of occiput elongated ; wing-quills blackish,
greyishat bases; scapulars and greater wing-coverts with blackish
shafts ; a large patch on lower throat pale yellow; bare part
round eyes flesh-colour ; forehead feathers ending in an abrupt
curved line, concave towards ridge of culmen; gular pouch yel-
low; rest of plumage chiefly white, more or less tinged with
grey; bill grey, red at sides; irides greyish; Zegs and feet
deep grey. Length 60 to 72 inches; culmen 14°3 ; wing 26°3
to 28; tail 7°5 ; tarsus 4.7.

Immature Birds: Resemble the young of P. onocrotalus
in being brownish-grey ; but the feathers at the base of the bill
come to an even line across the forehead, and not to a point ;
head devoid of crest ; pouch greyish ( Dresser).

Distribution: Inhabits South-eastern Europe, Northern
Africa and ranges into Asia as far east as India.

Habitat: Very similar localities to P. onocrotalus.

ARDEID4—HERONS. 179

Order HERODII.

Family ARDEIDZ.

enus ARDEA.

COMMON HERON.
Ardea cinerea Zznn.

Adult Male: Fore part of crown, fore-neck, cheeks, a
patch on chest, abdomen and lower tail-coverts white ; occi-
pital plumes black, much elongated ; neck shaded with grey,
broadly streaked in front with black, the feathers of lower part
much elongated ; primaries black ; upper parts generally ashy-
grey, with elongated feathers paler grey, szdes of breast marked
boldly with black ; bill and irides yellow ; legs and feet greenish.
Length 36 inches ; culmen 5; wing 17°5 to 185; tail 7 ; tarsus

to 5°5.

: Adult Female: Differs only from the male in having
slightly duller coloration and shorter occipital and neck
plumes.

Immature Birds: Crown dull grey; back of neck and
back brownish-grey ; occipital plumes and those of chest
scarcely elongated; front part of neck and chest more
conspicuously marked with black ; whole of under parts duller
than in adults ; bill brownish above, yellow beneath ; legs
brownish.

Distribution : Inhabits most parts of Europe, Asia and
Africa, excepting in the extreme north of the two former conti-
nents.

Habitat; Margins of rivers or lakes ; salt lagoons.

N 2

1So A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

PURPLIHERON.
Ardea purpurea Zznz.

Adult : Crown and nape bluish-black, feathers of occiput
elongated ; chin and throat white, neck reddish-brown, streaked
with black and on the chest with creamy-white and the
feathers elongated; Jack slaty-grey furnished with rufous
plumes ; carpal-joint buff; wings conspicuously shaded with
rufous ; deneath shaded rufous, marked with grey and black ;
bill yellow, shaded with brown above; legs and feet greenish,
dusky in front ; irides yellow. Length 30 to 36 inches ; culmen
eo: wing 14 tor4 5 > tail 5 tansus| Ase Os.

Female: Smaller and duller than male.

Immature Birds: Forehead blackish ; occipital feathers
and those of scapulars and chest not elongated ; neck much
paler, especially in front, where it is whitish streaked with
black ; black streaks on sides of neck absent; under parts
rufous shaded with white ; bill pale yellow, dark brown on ridge
of culmen ; irides pale yellow.

Distribution: Inhabits most of the temperate and tro-
pical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; migratory in the
morthern parts.

Habitat: Dense reedy morasses or the reedy margins of
lakes.

GREAT W.HILTE EGRET:
Ardea alba Zinn.

Adult (Summer): Entire A/umage white ; lower parts of
back furnished with hair-like plumes reaching to the tail;
feathers on crop also elongated and lanceolate, occipital
feathers very little elongated ; bill black ; legs and feet brown,
paler on tibia. Length go to 42 inches; culmen 5; wing 16 to
Lo ¢ai 6°75 5 tarsus 735;

Adult Female: Has shorter plumes upon the back.

Adult (Winter): MHas the bill yellow shaded with
brown.

Immature Birds: Lack the elongated feathers, which are
assumed about the third year; bill yellowish; legs and feet
pale brown.

ARDEIDA—HERONS. 181

Distribution: Inhabits South-eastern Europe, Western
Asia and Northern Africa.
Habitat: Similar localities to the preceding.

LITTLE EGRET.
Ardea garzetta Lenn.

Adult (Summer): Plumage entirely white; two feathers
on occiput considerably elongated ; back and crop feathers also
elongated and lanceolate, the former hair-like ; bill and legs
black ; feet yellowish ; soles yellow ; irides pale yellow; bare
space round eye greenish. Length 22 fo 23 inches ; culmen 35 ;
wing ro to 11; tail 4°3 ; ‘tarsus 4 to 4°5.

Adult (Winter) : Similar but lacks the plumes, both dorsal
and occipital.

Immature Birds: Are white with greyish tinge, and have
no elongated plumes.

Distribution: Inhabits Southern Europe, Africa, most
of Asia and Australia. Of casual occurence in Northern
Europe.

Habitat : Swamps and reed-beds where vegetation is very
dense.

BUFF-BACKED HERON.
Ardea bubulcus Aud.

Adult Male (Summer): Cvowz, nape, chest and back-
plumes rufous buff, the feathers of those parts much elongated
and filamentous ; rest of plumage entirely white ; bill and bare
space in front of eye yellow ; legs greenish-yellow ; irides yellow-
ish. Length 17 to 20 inches; culmen 2°43 wing 9°5 ; tail 3°9 ;
tarsus 3°2.

Adult Female: Similar, but smaller with less conspicuous
plumes.

Adult (Winter) : Plumage white, only shaded with rufous-
buff on crown.

Immature Birds: Closely resemble adults in winter plum-
age, but back also tinged with pale buff.

182 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution: Inhabits ~Southern Europe and Africa
generally, but occurs in a in the south-western parts
only.

Habitat: Marshes; pastures, often among cattle or wild
animals,

SQUACCO HERON.
Ardea ralloides Scop.

Adult: Crown feathers much elongated, white, edged with
black ; sides of face, neck, chest and back creamy-buff, becom-
ing browner and shaded with purple between the shoulders ;
crop feathers much elongated (less so in female); rest of
plumage white ; bill black at tip, pale bluish at base ; legs and
feet olive ; claws black ; lores and orbits green ; irides yellow.
Length 18°5 inches; culmen 2°6; wing 8'5 to 9; tail 3°5;
tarsus 2°25.

Immature Birds: Differ only from adults by having
much shorter occipital plumes, which have a buff ground-colour
and not white ; back darker in general tint and throat feathers
streaked with black.

Distribution: Inhabits Southern Europe and Africa,
ranging eastward to the Caspian. Of casual occurrence only
in Northern or Central Europe.

Habitat: Marshy localities, often found with herds of
domesticated animals.

Genus NYCTICORAX.

NIGHT HERON.
Nycticorax griseus (Zzm7).

Adult : Crow, nape, back and scapulars black, with a green
ustre especially on the back ; zéngs and tail grey ; long plumes
depending from occiput and rest of plumage (including fore-
head and eyebrows) white ; bill blackish ; legs and feet brown :
irides dark red. Length 27 to 23 inches; culmen 2°75 ; wing
rm*5 to 123 tail 4°O$ tarsts 3,

ARDEIDA:—BITTERNS. 183

Immature Birds: Upper plumage dull ashy-brown, the
head darker and neck streaked with pale yellowish brown ;
feathers of back and wing-coverts tipped conspicuously with
pale brownish-white ; under parts whitish, somewhat obscurely
streaked with dull brown; ridge of culmen and tip of bill dark
brown, rest of bill yellowish ; legs and feet greenish ; irides
brown.

Distribution ; Inhabits Southern and Eastern Europe,
Africa and Southern Asia.

Habitat : Densely wooded regions in swampy localities.

Genus ARDETTA.

LITTLE BIFTTERN.
Ardetta minuta (Zzvz).

Adult Male: Crown, nape, éack, scapulars and tail black,
glossed with green ; wing-quills black, the coverts, cheeks, sides
of neck, and under parts generally buff, shading into white on
chin and atvent; some of feathers at side of chest with brown
centres ; irides, bill, lores, legs and feet yellowish, the legs
tinged with green. Length 12 to 13 inches; culmen 2; wing
5°85; tail 2; tarsus a

Adult Female: Crown brownish-black ; cheeks, hinder
part and sides of neck rufous; fore part of back and
scapulars chestnut-brown, margine | with buff; patch on carpal
joint rufous ; wing-quills dark brown ; fore part of throat and
chest feathers with brown centres ; rest of plumage much as
in male.

Immature Birds: Closely resemble adult female, but
more marked with buff on back, and streaked with brown on
throat.

Distribution: Breeds in Central Europe and Western
Asia, ranging southward as far as Central Africa in winter. A
rare visitor to Northern Europe.

Habitat: River-banks, willow or reed-beds.

184. A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus BOTAURUS.
BITTERN.

Botaurus stellaris (Zzuz.)

Adult: Crown uniform glossy-black, upper parts generally
buff, irregularly vermiculated and otherwise marked with dark
Srown or blackish, more boldly so on upper back and scapu-
lars ; zezngs blackish, barred with chestnut ; under parts buff,
streaked on throat with chestnut and elsewhere streaked or
vermiculated with dark brown; on either side of chin and
upper throat a broad blackish streak ; bill greenish-yellow,
brown towards tip above ; legs and feet greenish ; irides brown.
Length 25 to 28 inches ; culmen 2°8; wing 11°75 to12°5 ; tail
4°25; tarsus 3°65.

Immature Birds: Closely resemble adults.

Distribution: Found throughout most of the Eastern
Hemisphere, excepting in the extreme north.

Habitat: Densely overgrown marshy places, very retiring
in habits, feeding at night.

Family CICONIIDZ.

Genus CICONIA.
WHITE STORK.

Ciconia alba PAechst.

Adult: Greater wizg-coverts, primaries, secondaries and
scapulars black; rest of plumage white; bill, legs and feet
coral-red ; bare skin round eye black; irides brown. Length
40 to 44 inches ;culmen 7°5 ; wing 22°5 to 24; tailg; tarsus 8'9.

Immature Birds: Black on the wings duller than in
adult, bill blackish, legs and feet dull red. Bi

Distribution: Breeds in Central and Southern Europe
and Africa, ranging as far north as Southern Sweden, and as
far east as Turkestan, migrating southward in autumn. Of
casual occurrence in Great Britain. Winters chiefly in South
Africa.

Habitat: Open marshy country, frequenting also towns
and villages.

PLATALEIDA:—SPOONBILL. 185

BLACK STORK.
Ciconia nigra (Zzzn).

Adult: Entire head, neck, and uffer parts black, glossed
with purplish or coppery reflections; wings and tail more
glossy black ; wader parts white; bill, naked skin round eye,
legs and feet scarlet ; irides reddish-brown. Length 4o to 42
inches ; culmen 7°4; wing 19 to 21; tail 9°5; tarsus 7°4. |

Immature Birds: Are much browner above than adults
and in first plumage have whitish tips to the feathers of head
and neck ; legs and bill greenisb.

Distribution: Inhabits a large proportion of the Palearc-
tic region, also India and Africa. Of rare occurrence in
Northern Europe, including England.

Habitat : Frequents marshes or marshy woods. Solitary
in habits.

Family PLATALEIDA.
Genus PLATALEA.
SPOONBILL.
Platalea leucorodia Lznz.

Adult : Occipital feathers elongated into a cres?, these ana
feathers round lower neck jade yellow, the former paler ;
rest of plumage entirely white ; bill dark slate-colour, barred
with black in places, the terminal, dvoad/y flattened portion
yellow, bordered with dusky brown ; chin yellowish ; legs and
feet black; irides crimson. Length 32 inches; culmen 7°! ;
wing 15 to 16; tail 5; tarsus 5 ; bare part of tibia 3°5.

Adult (Winter) : Similar, but lacks crest.

Immature Birds: Resemble adults in winter, but have a
brown bill.

Distribution : Inhabits Central and Southern Europe, the
Azores, Canaries, Northern Africa, and ranges across Asia to
India and Japan.

Habitat: Open marshy places, or mud-banks near the sea-
coast. Gregarious.

186 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Family “1BIDZ.
Genus PLEGADIS.

GLOSSY IBIS.
Plegadis falcinellus (Z7nz).

“ Adult: Top of the head and cheeks, back, wings, tail,
flanks, and under tail-coverts bright metallic-green and purple ;
remainder of the plumage, upper part of the back, and a broad
band on the wing-coverts bordering the shoulders bright /e~
ruginous-brown ; beak and legs olive-black ; irides dark brown ”
(Shelley). Length 22 inches ; culmen 5°25; wing 11°5; tail
4°7; tarsus 4. (The adult female slightly less.)

Immature Birds: Dull brown both above and beneath,
and lack the glossy appearance of adults ; throat patched, and
crown and hind neck streaked with greyish-white.

Distribution: Breeds in Southern Europe, and is distri-
buted over most of the temperate and tropical regions of both
hemispheres.

Habitat: Lagoons or marshes, densely overgrown with
reeds or bushes. Gregarious.

Family PHCENICOPTERIDA.

Genus PHCENICOPTERUS.

FLAMINGO.
Fhoenicopterus roseus Pai.

Adult: Primaries black, rest of wings and wing-coverts
pale scardet; rest of plumage white shaded with rose-colour;
bill, legs and feet pale pink, black towards tip of former ;
irides pale yellow. Length 44 to 45 inches; culmen 5'5 ;
wing 16 to 16°5 ; tail 7; farsus 12°25.

PHENICOPTERIDA—FLAMINGO. 187

Immature Birds: Are dull brown on back and wings,
marked with darker brown or black, and with a tinge of red on
latter; neck and under parts tinged with buff; bill, legs, feet
and irides dull lead-colour.

Distribution: Found in Southern Europe, in countries
adjoining the Mediterranean, in Africa and in Asia, as far east
as India. :

Habitat: Inland lakes, shallow lagoons or sea-shore. Gre-
garious.

188 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

-

Order ANSERES.

Family ANATIDA.

Genus ANSER.

GREY-LAG GOOSE.
Anser cinereus JZeyer.

Adult: Head, back of neck and upper part of back ashen-
grey shading into /avender-grey on rump ; back-feathers mostly
pale margined ; wings shaded grey, with paler grey margins and
primaries tipped with dark brown; middle wing-coverts like
the back ; tail-feathers broadly tipped with white, brown at
bases ; narrow frontal band white; beneath white, shaded on
neck and breast with pale brownish-grey ; flank-feathers ashy-
brown with broad pale margins and tips; bill pinkish; zaz7/
whitish; legs and feet flesh-colour ; irides brown. Length 30
toms inehes; iculmen 25; wing 17°5 ¢tail5°75> tarstises:

Immature Birds: Resemble adults but are darker, the
grey shoulders and rump, and pink colour of legs and feet dis-
tinguish them from the young of other species of Geese.

Distribution : Inhabits the Palearctic region, wintering in
Northern Africa and India.

Habitat: Open marshy country, frequenting both salt and
fresh water. Gregarious except during the nesting season.

BEAN GOOSE.
Anser segetum (Gme/).

Adult: Though very similar to preceding species may be
distinguished by the centres of back feathers being much

ANATIDA:\—GEESE. 189

darker brown ; lower part of back and rump uniform dark
brown ; bill orange in central part, “pped with black and black
at base beneath; Zegs and feet ovange-yellow ; irides_ hazel-
brown. Length 31 to 34 inches; culmen 2°35; wing 18 to
18"9 ; tail 5°5 3 tarsus 2°75.

Young in first plumage: Only differ from adults in
being slightly paler in colour, and are suffused with buff on
head and neck (Seebohm).

Distribution: Inhabits the Northern Palearctic region,
migrating as far south as North-west Africa in autumn.

Habitat: Inland marshy localities or open country, also
frequents the sea-coast.

PINK-FOOTED GOOSE.
Anser brachyrhynchus ZLazv/.

Adult: Closely resembles the Bean Goose, but is shorter in
the wing and has the central portion of bill, Zags and feet pink
instead of orange. Length 28 to 29 inches; culmen 1'95 ;
wing 17°5; tail5°8; tarsus 2°75.

Immature Birds: Differ only in being somewhat darker
in general coloration.

Distribution: Breeds in the northern portions of the
Palearctic region, migrating southward in autumn.

Habitat: Similar to that of A. segetum.

WHITE-FRONTED: GOOSE.
Anser albifrons (Scop).

Adult: Base of upper mandible and forehead white ; crown
and neck brown, rest of upper parts darker brown, the back
feathers having pale margins and rectrices broadly white
tipped ; wing-quills black ; coverts grey, the greater ones white
tipped ; upper part of chest and flanks brown, shading into
whitish on centre of body (whiter in winter); Jdveast and
abdomen boldly blotched with black; bill, legs and feet yellow ;
nail of upper mandible whitish; irides hazel-brown. Length
27 to 28 inches; culmen 2°25; weng 77; tail 6; tarsus 2°6.

Immature Birds: Darker in plumage; frontal feathers

190 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

darker brown than those on cr@@™m ; black blotches on breast
almost entirely absent ; bill pale brownish at tip.
Distribution: Breeds in the northern portions of the
Palearctic region, migrating southward in autumn as far as
Northern Africa and India.
Habitat: Marshy localities ; grass fields, &c.

LESSER WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE.

Anser erythropus (Zzzz).

Adult Male: A small form of the White-fronted Goose, with
darker plumage, though otherwise closely resembling 4. a/dz-
Jrons ; bill pinkish-white, the nail horn-colour ; legs and feet
orange-yellow ; irides brown. Length 20 inches; culmen 1°5 ;
wing 15°55 tals tarsus! 225.

Adult Female: Resembles the male, but is smaller,
rather duller and more rufescent in tinge of colour (Dresser)

Young: Unknown.

Distribution: Breeds in Arctic Russia and Siberia, mi-
grating southward in autumn.

Habitat: Similar to that of A. albifrons.

WNote,—This species, like the preceding one, is variable in size,

Genus BERNICLA.
BRENT GOOSE.

Bernicla brenta (Pa//).

Adult (Eastern Form): Zack, scapulars, wing-coverts
and tertiaries dvownish-black ; crown, neck, chest, wings, rump
and tail black, ox ecther side of neck a white patch, not meeting
in front, marked with black ; feathers of lower part of breast
and abdomen slaty-grey with paler margins; vent, upper and
under tail-coverts white ; bill, legs, feet and claws black ;
irides dark brown. Lezgth 2z to 23 inches; culmen 1°5 ; wing
1e*s: tol 18% tailia-e)s tarsus 2%

Immature Birds: Upper parts much browner than in the
adult, dark brown taking the place of black on head, wings,
&c., white neck patches absent ; under parts similar to adult.

ANATID.A—GEESE. IQl

Distribution: Breeds in the Arctic portions of the Pale-
arctic region, migrating southward as far as the Mediterranean
in autumn.

Habitat: Sea-shore, or waste grounds and stubble fields in-
land.

Note.—In the Western Atlantic birds the lower part of the breast is brown-
ish-white, and the sides are barred with pale brown.

BARNACLE GOOSE.
Anser leucopsis (echst).

Adult: Forehead, cheeks and throat pure whzte; lores
black ; crown, neck, and wing and tail-quills black; dack
feathers vey, barred subterminally with black and tipped with
white ; hinder parts beneath white, with pale grey bars on sides
and flanks ; bill, legs, feet and claws black ; irides hazel-brown.
Length 25 inches; culmen 1°65; wing 15°75 to 16; tail 5'9;
tarsus 2°85. Female slightly less.

Immature Birds: Black part; chiefly brownish-black (es-
pecially on the back); white on face suffused with buff.

Distribution: Breeds in Arctic Europe, passing southward
on migration to the Mediterranean and Egypt.

Habitat: Marshes (either salt or fresh water), inland
lagoons, &c.

RED-BREASTED GOOSE.
Bernicla ruficollis (Pa//).

Adult : Crown, hind neck, back, wings and tail black ; loral
patch, a broad stripe round auriculars, extending on to lower
part of neck, where it nearly meets a narrow collar, white ;
auricular patch, throat and chest chestnut; chin and upper
breast black ; abdomen, sides of rump and tail-coverts white ;
flanks barred with black; bill, legs, feet, and claws black ;
irides hazel-brown. Length 20 to 22 inches; culmen 1 ; wing
14 to 14°5; tail6; tarsus 2°1. The female differs from the
male only by being slightly smaller.

Immature Birds :. Auricular patch whitish, with spot only

192 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

of rufous in centre; general @g#our of upper and under parts
dark brown, tinged on chest with rufous.

Distribution : Found in the extreme east of Europe dur-
ing migration. Breeding in Northern Siberia.

Habitat: Probably very similar to that of A. drenfa.

Genus CHEN.
SNOW GOOSE.

Chen hyperboreus (/a//).

Adult Male: Primaries black, shading into grey at base,
with white bases to shafts; primary coverts grey; rest of
plumage snow-white ; bill pale red ; legs and feet darker red ;
irides hazel-brown. Length 30 to 33 inches; culmen 2 to 2°5 ;
Wie 17 tO 19; tail6 ; tarsus 2°75 to 3.

Adult Female: Differs only by being a trifle smaller than
the male.

Immature Birds: Differ in having the upper parts
brownish-grey, the scapular feathers bordered with white ; sides
of head, rump, tail, and under parts white ; neck and chest suf-
fused with grey ; bill darker than adults ; legs leaden grey.

Distribution: A Nearctic species which is also found in
Eastern Siberia, and occurs not unfrequently on passage in the
Urals and other European localities. Has been met with in
Germany, Greece, &c.

Habitat: Very similar localities to the Wild-Goose.

Genus CYGNUS.
MUTE SWAN.

Cygnus olor (Gme/).

Adult: Plumage white ; bill red, with large tubercle at base,
edges of mandibles, nail and orifices of nostrils and _ lores
black ; irides brown ; legs and feet black. Length about 60
inches; culmen 3°5 ; wimg 25 to 27 , tail 10; tarsus 4°25.

Immature Birds: Plumage nearly uniform greyish-brown,
slightly paler beneath ; bill blackish, showing scarcely a trace
of tubercle at first; legs pale leaden-grey.

ANATIDA—SWANS. 193

Distribution : Inhabits-most of the Palearctic region.
Habitat: Both inland and salt waters.

POLISH SWAN.
Cygnus immutabilis Yarr.

Adult: Resembles C. o/or in most respects, but the 47/7 is
redder and the tubercle decidedly smaller ; legs and feet slate-
grey; irides brown. Length about 60 inches; culmen 3'5 ;
wing 21°5 to 27.5, tail 6°8 ; tarsus 4.

Immature Birds: Back white, suffused with buff; bill
differing from adults only in having the red parts pale pinkish ;
legs and feet dull grey.

Distribution: Probably inhabits the Palearctic region,
has sometimes occurred during winter in England.

Habitat: Similar to that of C. odor.

WHOOPER SWAN.
Cygnus musicus Lechst.

Adult: Loral region, dasal portion of bill with part of nasal
depression yellow; edges of mandibles, nostrils and anterior
portion of bill black; irides brown; legs and feet nearly
black. Length about 60 inches; culmen 3°75; wing 23:5 to
eos = tatl.8*9 ;.tafsus. 4°3.

Immature Birds: Plumage pale ash-brown, paler beneath,
shading into white on abdomen ; bill, legs and feet dull flesh-
colour.

Distribution: Found throughout most of the Palearctic
region, breeding within the Arctic Circle.

Habitat: Similar to that of preceding.

BEWICR’S SWAN.

Cygnus bewicki Varr.

Adult: Bill with a large patch at either side of basal por-
fo)

104 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

tion of upper mandible, wit e loral region, lemon-yellow ;
rest of bill (including nostrils) Black ; irides brown ; legs and feet
black. Length 46 to 50 inches ; culmen 3°4 ; wimg IQ to 21;
tail 7 ; tarsus 3°8.

Immature Birds: Plumage greyish-brown, their smaller
size at once distinguishing them from the young of other spe-
cies.

Distribution: Found in most of Palearctic region except
in Iceland, but more abundantly so in the eastern portion.
Probably does not breed west of the Petchora Valley.

Habitat: Closely resembles that of other Swans.

Genus TADORNA.

SHELDRAKE.
Tadorna cornuta (Gwel.).

Adult Male: Head, front part.of.mneck and scapulars
glossy black ; chest, basal portion of neck, centre of cack, tail
and smaller wing-coverts zw/ite; a broad ring of chestnut round
upper part of body ; primaries and tips of rectrices black ; outer
webs of secondaries very metallic-green ; centre of chest, dveast¢
and abdomen é/ack; bill and legs bright orange; irides
brown. Length 25 to#26 inches; culmen 2°15; wing 13 to
15, talles setarsus 2:

Adult Female: Resembles the male but measures rather
less.

Immature Birds: Differ from adults in having a patch
on forehead white, the black parts browner, and the chestnut
ring round upper part of body not so broad or dark ; centre of
breast and abdomen brown instead of black.

Young in first plumage: May be readily distinguished
by the feathers at base of bill, a streak on throat and under
parts being white with a few brown tips to some of the side-
feathers.

Distribution: Inhabits the coasts of Northern-central and
Southern Europe, the latter chiefly in winter only. Breeds in
the Black Sea and Caspian regions. Breeds also on high
Central Asiatic lakes, occurring as far east as Japan.

Habitat: The sea coast or salt lagoons.

ee ee

ANATID.E—DUCKS. 195

RUDDY SHELDRAKE.
Tadorna casarca (Linn.).

Adult Male: Head pale creamy-rufous, white on forehead;
a narrow ring round lower neck, primaries, upper tail-coverts
and fail black ; wing-coverts white ; outer web of secondaries
metallic-green, otherwise rufous-buff ; bill, legs and feet black ;
irides brown. Length 24 to 25 inches ; culmen 1°7 ; wing 13
fo-145 taligca5. LAsuS 2°25.

Adult Female: Similar to male but without any ring
round the neck ; fore part of head also paler.

Young in first plumage: Are paler than adult females
and have the wings and wing-coverts largely suffused with
brown.

Immature Birds: Closely resemble adult female.

Distribution: Found in South-eastern Europe, where it
breeds, as also in Northern Africa and in Central Asia. Com-
mon winter visitant to India. Of rare occurrence in Northern
Europe.

Habitat: Fresh inland waters; reedy margins of rivers or
lakes.

(NON-DIVING DUCKS).

Genus ANAS.
WILD DUCK.
Anas boscas Zinn.

Adult Male: Head deep metallic-green; narrow collar white ;
lower neck, fore part of back and chest chocolate ; scapulars
grey and brown, pencilled with dusky-brown ; back, rump and
middle tatlfeathers black, glossed more or less with purple ;
outermost rectrices bordered with white ; central ones narrow
and curled upwards ; wings greyish-brown, the sfecu/um deep
metallic purple and green, bordered on either side by black and
white ; under parts greyish-white, finely vermiculated with grey ;
bill yellow ; legs and feet orange; irides dark brown. Length
23 to 24 inches; culmen 2°25 ; wing 10°5 to 11; tarsus 2.

In summer the female plumage is assumed by the male
until October.

e.2

196 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Adult Female: Above qggk brown, the feathers all mar--
zined with brownish-buff, more conspicuously so on the back ;
beneath dull buff, streaked or dappled with dark brown, except
on chin and upper throat ; bill dark olive-grey with black nail.

Young in first plumage: Very nearly resemble the
adult female.

Young Male (October): Differs from adult bird in hav-
ing the head almost similar to the female but with some slight
trace of green gloss on the crown ; white collar absent ; throat
sparingly spotted with brown; upper back greyer; chest
feathers narrowly bordered with whitish.

Distribution : Inhabits most of the Palearctic and Nearctic
regions.

“Habitat : Marshes, —— and rivers or sea coast and salt
marshes in winter.

MARBLED DUCK.
Anas angustirostris J/énétr.

Adult: Plumage generally du// brown, marbled with pale
greyish-brown , wings clear grey-brown; zz7zzg-speculum pale
creamy-brown , tail-feathers tipped with cream-colour ; around
the eyes dark brown ; beneath greyish-white, the neck streaked,
and breast and flanks barred with brown; bill, legs and feet
leaden-grey ; irides brown. Length 1475 inches; culmen 1°75 ;
wine 7:9; tarsus 1:2.

Immature Birds: Apparently unknown.

Distribution: Inhabits the extreme South of Europe, and
North-western Africa, ranging eastward as far as Scinde.
Breeds in Spain.

Habitat: Reedy marshes inland.

GADWALL.

Anas strepera Linn.

Adult Male: Crown and nape dusky-brown with reddish
speckles ; rest of head and neck whitish, speckled with brown ;
general colour of wpper parts brown, transversely barred with
narrow, undulating qwzze lines; upfer and under tail-coverts

ANATIDA—DUCKS. 197

black; some of scapulars brown with buff edges ; primaries
greyish-brown ; some of secondaries brown, others ddack and
others again zwAzfe on outer margins, giving a variegated specu-
Jum; most of smaller coverts chestnut ; chest and flanks
marked like fore part of back, but more boldly and with black-
ish-brown ; centre of abdomen whitish ; bill black ; legs and
feet orange-brown ; irides brown. Length 19 to 20 inches ;
culmen 1°9 ; wing 10°5 to 1:; tail 4:2; tarsus 1°4. Female
plumage assumed in summer.

Adult Female: General appearance of upper parts much
resembling A. doscas, but may at once be distinguished by its
white wing speculum, but showing less chestnut on coverts ;
chest pale rufous-brown, shading into white on breast, each
feather having a blackish centre ; chin and rest of under parts
white, obscurely spotted on flanks with brown.

Young in first plumage: Closely resemble adult females
but lack any chestnut on the wing-coverts.

Immature Birds: Differ from the adults in being less
boldly marked about the wings and young males are said to
have narrower margins to the feathers of the back.

Distribution: Inhabits both Palearctic and Nearctic
regions, breeding in Northern Europe and also in Spain.

Habitat: Lakes, rivers and other fresh waters.

SHOVELLER.
Anas clypeata Linn.

Adult Male: Head and fore neck deep metallic-green,
most of lower neck and scapulars white; elongated scapulars
white, black and blue; centre of back brown ; rump and tail-
coverts glossy black; zmg-speculum metallic-green ; tips of
greater wing-coverts white ; smaller wing-coverts slaty-grey ;
under parts below the chest chocolate-brown ; bill broadly
dilated, black; legs and feet orange; irides yellow. Length
about 21 inches; culmen 2°75; wing 9 to 10; tail 3; tarsus
1°3. Female plumage assumed in summer-time.

Adult Female: Above dark brown, the back feathers
having broad buff margins ; wings as in male, but the grey of
the smaller wing-coverts is duller and less pronounced, and
speculum less brilliant ; beneath brownish-buff, blotched on

198 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

breast, flanks and under tail-cgyerts with dark brown ; bill dark
brown above, orange beneath’, irides brown.

Young in first plumage: Resemble adult female, but the
females show scarcely a trace of blue on the wings or lustre on
the speculum ; bill pale reddish-brown; legs and feet flesh-
colour.

Males in first breeding plumage: Are marked with
white on throat with a few dark crescentic bands on breast,
dark bars on lower abdomen and black under tail-coverts mot-
tled with chestnut and white (Seebohm).

Adult Males in moult: Distinguishable from females by
having darker upper parts generally, more brilliantly coloured
wing-speculum and dark, plain upper tail-coverts (Seebohm).

Distribution: Found in the Palearctic, Northern Ethiopian
and Nearctic regions, ranging further south in winter. Breeds
in most countries of Europe, except in the extreme north.

Habitat: Both fresh waters and salt, but more often the
former.

TEAL.

Anas crecca /7zun.

Adult Male: //ead chestnut; from the eye towards back
‘of neck a broad metallic band (green or purple according
to the light) bordered by black and white; many of back
feathers and those on sides of body finely vermiculated,
alternately with white and blackish; zemg-speculum black ex-
ternally, internally green, bordered by black; chin black;
chest and breast white, the former boldly spotted with black ;
under tail-coverts black at bases, some otherwise buff; bill
black ; legs and feet dull brown; irides hazel. Length about
id inches; culmen 15 ; wing 7°25; tail2-7; tarsus. a.) ours
summer the female dress is assumed.

Adult Female: Dark brown above, most of the feathers
bordered by pale reddish-brown ; wing-speculum much as in
male but bordered by a white band, formed by white tips to
some of secondaries ; chin and throat white; rest of under
parts dull white, most of the feathers having obscure brown
centres.

Young in first plumage: Differ only from the adult
female in being more distinctly spotted with brown beneath,
the young females also having a less brilliant wing-speculum.

ANATIDAZ—DUCKS. 199

Distribution: Inhabits the Palearctic region and occurs
rarely in the Nearctic. Breeds in Europe from Iceland to the
Mediterranean.

Habitat : Inland fresh waters.

GARGANEY.
Anas querquedula Zznz.

Adult Male: Crown and nape deep umber-brown, bordered
by white ; chin black; rest of head and upper throat reddish-
brown, streaked with white; elongated scapulars black, con-
spicuously banded with white; prevarling colour of wings
bluish-grey; speculum green, margined on either side wth white ;
fore parts beneath yellowish-brown, each feather marked with
semicircular black bars ; rest of under parts white, finely ver-
miculated towards vent with blackish ; under tail-coverts spot-
ted with black ; bill blackish, paler at base beneath ; legs and
feet greyish-brown; irides hazel-brown. Length 14 to 15 inches ;
Gaimem15 + wine 76; tail 2°85 tarsus 1-1. “The female
plumage is worn for a long period during summer.

Adult Female: Slightly smaller. Above dark brown,
darker on head ; back feathers margined with sandy-brown and
whitish ; wing-speculum duller’ than in male with no metallic
gloss ; coverts ashy-grey, the greater ones tipped with white ;
chin white ; under parts generally white, spotted on sides and
abdomen with brown, eye-stripe indistinct.

Young in first plumage: Resemble adult female but are
darker and have more rufous under parts.

Adult Male in Autumn: Very similar to dark females,
but show a more brilliant wing-speculum.

Distribution: Inhabits most of the more temperate and
southern portions of the Palearctic region, occurring in winter
as far south as the Malay Archipelago.

Habitat: Fresh water ponds or lakes where there is
abundance of vegetable growth.

PINTAIL.

Anas acuta Zinn.

Adult Male: Head and fore part of neck dark brown ;

200 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

under parts of body and a a a either side of neck white ;
back and scapulars finely vefMiculated with grey and brown,
the latter elongated ; zuémg-speculum metallic-green, bordered
before by red and behind by white ; daz/ grey, except central
feathers which are black, elongated and acuminate ; lower tail-
coverts chiefly black ; bill black on centre of culmen, leaden-
blue on the margin; legs and feet black; irides brown.
Length about 2 feet; culmen 2 inches; wing 10°5 to 11°25;
tan oss tarsus 55; ;

Adult Female : Head and neck reddish-brown, speckled
with darker brown; feathers of upper parts generally dark
brown, bordered or otherwise marked with reddish-white ;
wing-speculum dull brown ; tail-feathers less elongated than
inmale; beneath dirty yellowish-white, spotted on flanks and
under tail-coverts conspicuously and elsewhere obscurely with
dark brown ; bill dark brown: shghtly smaller than the male.

Adult Male (Summer): Very nearly resembles the
adult female, but may be distinguished by being duller brown
above, the rump washed with grey, wing-speculum brighter,
bill pale blue and of greater size.

Young in first plumage: Closely resemble the adult
female.

Distribution: Inhabits most of the Palearctic and
Nearctic regions, occurring in the Indian region during winter.

Habitat : Frequents both large inland waters and the sea-
coast.

WIGEON.
Anas penelope Zznn.

Adult Male (Winter): Headand neck rich ferruginous,
except crown and forehead which are ochreous-buff ; chest
tinged with chestnut ; lower part of neck behind, éack and
scapulars finely vermiculated white and dark grey, the latter
elongated; innermost secondaries nearly black with white
margins to the outer webs; primaries brown, wing-coverts
white except on shoulder where they are brown ; greater
coverts black-tipped ; zzzg-speculum deep metallic green, bor-
dered with black ; under parts chiefly white, finely vermiculated
with grey on flanks ; under tail-coverts black ; bill slaty-grey,
black at tip; legs and feet dark greyish-blue, darkest on the

ANATIDZ—DUCKS. 201

webs ; irides hazel-brown. Length 20 to 21 inches; culmen
1°43 wing 10°25; tail 4°6; tarsus 1°3.

Adult Female: Head and neck buffish-brown, marked
with blackish ; feathers on upper parts brown, margined with
buffish-brown ; wings dusky-grey, some of coverts tipped with
white ; speculum dull grey, not metallic ; under parts below
chest white, shaded with brownish-buff on flanks ; under tail-
coverts barred with dark brown.

Adult Male (Summer) : Head and neck as in female ;
back darker, some of feathers obscurely vermiculated ; wings
as in winter, but having the coverts chiefly grey ; many of
back and scapular feathers margined with fulvous ; chest and
flanks ferruginous-brown ; under tail-coverts grey, blotched
with black.

Young in first plumage: Do not conspicuously differ
from adult female ; males may be recognised by the metallic
wing-speculum and females by the grey and white of upper
parts being replaced by brown and buff (Seebohm).

Distribution: Found throughout most of the Palearctic
region and sparingly in the Nearctic.

Habitat: Fresh waters or marshes inland; also the sea-
coast.

(DIVING DUCKS),

Genus FULIGULA.

POCHARD.
Fuligula ferina (Zzvz.).

Adult Male : Head and neck chestnut ; chest and fore part
of back brownish-d/ack ; back, wing-coverts and breast greyish-
white, finely vermiculated with dark grey ; upper and under
tail-coverts black ; wings and tail dull greyish-brown ; wing-
speculum grey ; lower abdomen washed with dark grey and
closely vermiculated ; bill pale blue in centre, black at base
and tip ; legs and feet bluish-grey except membranes which are
black ; irides orange. Length about 18 inches ; culmen 22505
wing 8°4; tail 2°75; tarsus 1°5.

Adult Female: Fore parts buffish-brown ; throat whitish ;

202 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

back and wings much as in @€le, but the vermiculations are
brown, and are absent on wing-coverts ; chest reddish-brown,
the feathers with paler mottlings ; abdomen greyish-white,
flanks vermiculated and otherwise marked with brown.

Young in mrst plumage: Resemble adults but are
browner above and less marked on the flanks. Males may be
distinguished by their redder fore parts and backs speckled
with white.

Immature Males: Are browner on the chest.

Distribution: Found throughout most parts of Europe,
excepting in the extreme north; ranges across Central Asia
to Japan and occurs in various parts of India.

Habitat : Ponds and fresh-water lakes, or the sea-coast in
winter.

RED-CRESTED POCHARD.
Fuligula rufina (Fad’.).

Adult Maile: ead and fore neck reddish-brown, the crown
feathers somewhat paler and elongated ; lower neck, breast
and abdomen black ; back and tail pale brown ; secondaries
and some of primaries white ; zng-speculum, shoulders and
Jtanks white ; bill, legs and feet bright orange ; the nail of bill
white ; irides reddish-brown. Length 21 inches ; culmen 2°25 ;
Wwing-To tO 10°75 ;-tarsus 175)

Adult Female: Crown feathers less elongated: general
colour of upper parts greyish-brown, suffused with yellowish-
brown on head, darkest on rump and palest on margins of
some of scapulars; white shoulder-spot absent; white of
primaries and secondaries suffused with grey; beneath white
mostly marked with grey.

Young in first plumage: Much resemble adult female
but are marked beneath with brown. Males at all ages have
longer crests than females.

Distribution : Inhabits the southern countries of Europe,
breeding in Eastern Spain, the Mediterranean islands, also in
southern parts of Germany and Russia. Breeds also in
South-western Asia and in the Northern Sahara.

Habitat: Frequents fresh waters almost exclusively.

ANATIDAA—DUCKS. 203

SCAUP.
Fuligula marila (Lzvz.).

Adult Male: Head cnd entire fore parts deep, glossy black ;
centre of back and scapulars greyish-white, vermiculated with
black; rump and tail-coverts deep brown ; prevailing colour of
wings dusky-brown, the lesser coverts mottled with white,
secondaries white, broadly tipped with brown ; abdomen white ;
bill pale blue, the nail black; legs and feet dark grey,
membranes blackish ; irides yellow. Length 18 to 20 inches ;
culmen 1°8; wing 8°5; tail 2°5; tarsus 1°4.

Adult Female: All feathers round base of bill nearly
white ; general colour of upper parts and chest chocolate-
brown, sparingly vermiculated with whitish ; flanks obscurely
barred with brown.

Young in first plumage: Have less white round base of
bill, very little vermiculation above ; breast feathers tipped with
white, otherwise much resembling adult female.

Distribution: Found throughout most of the Western
Palearctic region, occurring in the southern parts in winter.
Distributed also over Northern and Central Asia and the
Nearctic region.

Habitat : Chiefly confined to fresh waters.

TURTED DUCK:
Fuligula cristata (Leach).

Adult Male: Entire fore parts and breast glossy black,
the crown feathers considerably elongated ; rest of upper parts
black or brownish-black, very finely vermiculated on centre of
back and scapulars with brown; secondaries white, broadly
tipped with dark brown; under parts below breast glossy
white ; under tail-coverts black ; bill pale slate-colour with
black nail; legs bluish-grey ; membranes dusky ; irides pale
yellow. Length 15 to 17 inches ; culmen 1°53 wing 8:2 ;
tail 2-4: tarsus 1°25.

Adult Female : Differs from the male by being dark brown
above; crest shorter; abdomen brown’sh-grey, shading into

204 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

dark brown on under tail-covergges flanks blotched with reddish-
brown ; wing-speculum smaller.

Young in first plumage: Are paler brown than adult
females and have a considerable number of white feathers
about base of bill and on abdomen; crest absent.

Immature Males: Are less glossy than adults, the breast
feathers are white-tipped and the chin is partly white.

Distribution: Inhabits the more temperate parts of the
Palearctic region.

Habitat: Like the last-named frequents fresh waters, also
the sea-coast in winter.

FERRUGINOUS OR WHITE-EYED DUCK.
Fuligula nyroca (Gu/d.).

Adult Male: Head, neck, upper throat and sides of body
rich ferruginous ; lower neck encircled with a dusky collar ;
spot on chin whitish ; dack, wings and tail dark brown; wing-
speculum white, bordered before by black ; breast and under tail-
coverts pure white, shading into brown on abdomen ; bill slaty-
grey with black nail; legs and feet dark lead-colour, blackish
on webs ; z7zdes white. Jength about 16 inches; culmen 1°6;
wing 7 to 75% tail 2°39); tarsus a:

Adult Female: Differs from male in having the colours
more obscure, the feathers of back and breast having lighter
tips ; abdomen marked with brown, and irides not so white...

Adults (Winter) : Duller and less conspicuously red than
in breeding dress, and have the chest feathers tipped with
white. Females may be distinguished by their tawny abdo-
mens, some of the feathers having white tips.

Young of the year: Scarcely distinguishabie from the
adult female, though a trifle less ferruginous.

Distribution: Found in the temperate and southern
portions of the Palearctic region. Of rare occurrence in
Northern Europe.

Habitat: Chiefly confined to large fresh waters.

ANATIDA—DUCKS. 205
GOLDENE YE.

Fuligula clangula (Lenz.).

Adult Male: 4 large spot below the lores, lower portion
of neck, under parts, zzzer secondaries, middle and greater
wing-coverts and scapulars pure white, the latter streaked with
black, tail-feathers dusky-grey ; zest of plumage black, glossed
on head and neck with green and violet ; bill black ; legs and
feet orange, the membranes and soles almost black ; irides
bright yellow. Length 17 to 18 inches; culmen 1°25; wing
Bo €0:9°55)) tall 2175 5, tarsus 55.

Adult Female: Considerably smaller. Head and fore
neck uniform umber-brown; lower neck in front, abdomen
and flanks white; upper parts blackish, the feathers margined
with ashy-grey; wing-speculum white; greater wing-coverts
white, tipped with black ; chest dark grey, the former mottled
with white.

Young in first plumage: Resemble the adult female,
but are duller and show browner thighs. The males may be
distinguished by their larger size.

Distribution: Frequents the Northern Palearctic and
Nearctic regions. Scarce in South-western Europe.

Habitat: Principality frequents rivers and lakes, but may
also be found on the sea-coast.

ISLANDIC OR BARROW'S GOLDENEYE.

Fuligula islandica (Gme/.).

Adult Male: Resembles #: clangu/a, but is larger, the
head is more fully crested, and the gloss on the head is pur-
plish, varying in some lights to bott}e-green with a purplish
tinge ; between the eye and the bill is an zrregular crescentic
white patch ; rest of plumage as in & clangula ; but the white
markinzs on the scapulars are broader and rounder, and the
white on the wing consists of ¢wo smaller patches divided by a
broad black band , bill dark plumbeous ; irides rich yellow ; legs
yellow. Length about 20 inches; culmen 1°5 ; wing 9°2; tail
4; tarsus 1°6 (Dresser),

206 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Adult Female: Can o be distinguished from the
female of / clangula by its larger size and possibly by a
somewhat larger bill.

Distribution : Resident in Iceland and many of the Cir-
cumpolar regions.

Habitat: Inland lakes or rivers and fjords.

HARLEQUIN DUCK.
Fuligula histrionica (Zzmm.).

Adult Male: Forehead and crown black, at first bordered
by white and towards the nape by chestnut; a large d/otch
between eye and bill, a spot on ear-coverts, a stripe at either
side of neck, a droad collar (narrowing towards the front), a
broad patch bordered with black on sides of chest and part of
scapulars, pure white; rest of head and fore neck blackish-
blue ; zng-speculum metalic-purple; flanks chestnut, rest of
plumage chiefly ashy-grey, shading into brown on centre of
abdomen and into black on tail-coverts, the outermost under
ones tipped with white; bill dark slate-grey ; legs and feet
brown with darker webs; irides hazel-brown. Length about
7 tmeches ; culmen 17; $wme 7°75 to-o3 tailed 2c eiaesue
2s

Adult Female : Somewhat smaller. Upper plumage deep
brown ; white patch before the eye obscure and separated into
two parts by a brown stripe ; auricular-patch more pronounced ;
under parts copiously spotted or mottled with white ; flanks
reddish-brown.

Young in first plumage: Resemble adult female, but

are browner on chin and throat and the white patch before —

the eye is mottled thickly with brown.

Males in first breeding dress: Browner beneath
than adults, show very little chestnut on flanks and less white
on scapulars.

Distribution : Found in the northern portions of Europe
and America. Breeds abundantly in Iceland.

Habitat: Rapid streams or rivers in secluded regions.

ANATID.Z—DUCKS. 207

LONG-TAILED DUCK.
Fuligula glacialis (Zzun.).

Adult Male (Summer): //ead, fore part of neck and
upper back wre, loral region shaded with brownish-grey ; on
either side of throat a large patch of brown; back, rump,
wings, tail-feathers and upper tail-coverts dark brown ; ¢he two
central rectrices very much elongated and narrow ,; elongated
lower scapulars, and under parts below the breast pure white ;
the flanks shaded with pale grey; extive breast brown ; basal
portion of bill and nail black, otherwise orange-red ; legs and
feet dark slate-colour, darker on webs; irides reddish-brown.
Length (without central rectrices) about 22 inches; culmen
I°2; wing 8°4 to 9; tail 6°9 ; tarsus 1-2.

Adult Female (Autumn): Crown, nape and _ region
below the ear-coverts dull sooty-brown; cheeks and _ throat
whitish, mottled with dull brown; a ring round lower neck
nearly white ; upper parts generally dark brown, most of the
feathers more or less broadly margined with rufous; rump
feathers tipped with whitish ; beneath white, shading into dull
brown on breast which becomes darker towards the white
neck-ring ; most of chest feathers with darker centres.

Adult Male (Winter) : Differs from the summer plumage
by having the cheeks only greyish-white and the scapulars
furnished with broad rufous or rufous-buff margins and dark
centres.

Young in first plumage: Resemble the adult female,
but are greyer about the head and more uniformly brown on
the back, the scapulars and feathers of mantle margined with
dull rufous-brown.

Immature Males: Show whitish bases to the scapular
feathers, which contrast strongly with very dark brown of
centre of back.

Distribution: A Circumpolar species which migrates
southward in autumn through both Eastern and Western
Hemispheres.

Habitat: High fresh-water lakes or tarns. Frequents the
sea-coast in winter-time.

208 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus SOMATERIA.
EIDE® DUCK.

Somateria mollissima (Zzvz.).

Adult Male: Forehead and crown black with a whitish
line on the hind crown; hinder part of cheeks and nage pale
green ; throat, hind neck, back, scagulars, innermost (elongated)
secondaries, most of wing-coverts and a patch on either side
of the rump w&zte ; upper breast suffused with rich reddish-
buff; wing and tail-quills dark brown ; rest of plumage chiefly
black ; bill dull green ; legs and feet pale olive-green ; irides
hazel-brown. Length 24 to 26 inches ; culmen (from forehead)
2°25 svn B25 5 teal 4.3 tarsus. 17s.

Adult Female: Plumage reddish-brown, marked on head
and back of neck with streaks of dusky-brown, elsewhere
barred transversely with black; wing and tail-quills dark
brown; greater wing-coverts and some of secondaries fur-
nished with white tips.

Immature Males: At first like adult female, but when
changing in their first winter the head and neck are mottled
with two shades of dark brown, with a few white feathers
appearing through in different parts ; lower portion of neck,
and upper part of back, mottled black and white; wing-
coverts and inner secondaries becoming white; rest of
plumage black ; legs and bill greenish-grey. ‘The pure white
colour is assumed by slow degrees and the appearance of the
adult birds is not attained until the third winter (Saunders).

“Young in first plumage: Closely resemble adult
females, but the two white alar bars are very indistinct and
the margins of all the feathers are grey instead of chestnut ”
(Seebohm).

Distribution: Breeds in the northern and arctic portions
of the Western Palearctic region, migrating southward in
autumn, also found in Arctic America.

Habitat: Almost exclusively confined to the sea-coast.

KING EIDER.
Somateria spectabilis (Zznz.).

Adult Male: Crown and nape pearl-grey, cheeks washed

ANATID E—DUCKS. 209

with pale green ; neck and fore part of body, most of wing-
coverts, and a spot on either side of rump white; breast
washed with cream-colour; feathers on centre of upper man-
dible reaching to the nostrils, feathers bordering frontal
tubercles, a V-shaped mark on throat, elongated innermost
secondaries, and rest of plumage chiefly Alack ; bill orange, with
two elevated, compressed ¢udercles at the base; legs and feet
orange; irides yellow. Length 22 to 24 inches ; culmen 1°2 ;
wing 10°75 to 11; tail 4; tarsus 1°65.

Adult Female: Resembles the female of S. modltssima,
but the forehead feathers project beyond those on the side of
the bill instead of extending little more than half as far
(Seebohm).

Immature Males: Tubercles at base of upper mandibles
small; less white on wing-coverts ; otherwise similar to adult.
Moulting adults may always be recognised by their bills.

Young in first plumage: Resemble other immature
Eiders except in the formation of the bill and the arrangement
of the feathers bordering it.

Distribution: Resident in the Northern Palearctic and
Nearctic regions. Scarce south of the Arctic Circle.

Habitat: Probably similar to that of S. modlissima.

STELLER’S EIDER.
Somateria stelleri (Pa//.).

Adult Male: Longitudinal band on centre of throat, a
broad ring round wpper neck, hinder. neck, mantle, centre of
back, rump, tail-coverts, two spots on either side of breast and
orbits deep Jack, glossed with green or purple ; wing- and tail-
quills dark-brown ; wmg-speculum violet ; elongated, decurved
innermost secondaries glossy blue on outer webs, and white on
the inner; loral spot and a large patch on hinder crown green ;
éreast and sides pale ferruginous, deepening into ches‘nu* at the
middle and shading into black at the vent; bill dark slate-
grey with lighter nail; legs and feet dusky-grey with darxer
webs; irides brown. Length 18 to 19 inches; culmen 1°45 ;
wing 8°5 tog; tail 3°5; tarsus 1°25.

Adult Female: Dark reddish-brown, becoming blackish
on belly and under tail-coverts, much mottled and barred with

P

210 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

black, especially about the k and breast ; no white except
on linings of wings and ips coverts and secondaries,
these forming two white bars ; the speculum imperfect, bluish-
black.

Males in first breeding dress: Have grey markings on
the wing-coverts and flanks (Seebohm).

Young in first plumage: Somewhat resemble adult
females, but have no black on the belly (Seebohm).

Distribution: Breeds on the shores of the Arctic Ocean,
in Northern Russia and Siberia, occasionally wandering into
temperate Europe during winter.

Habitat: Essentially a coast bird, otherwise little is known
respecting it.

Genus CEDEMIA.

COMMON SCOTER.
G&demia nigra (Lznz.).

Adult Male: L£xtire plumage glossy black ; bill with patch
in centre and a shade underneath ye//ow, otherwise black ; legs
and feet blackish, the webs darker ; irides hazel-brown. Length
18 to 20 inches ; culmen 1°9; wing 9°4; tail 4 ; tarsus 1°7.

Adult Female: Feathers of upper parts dark brown,
darker on head and pale-edged on back ; sides of head greyish-
black ; chin and throat white; rest of under parts brown,
shading into greyish-white (brown mottled) on abdomen ;
wings and tail blackish-brown ; bill black, somewhat swollen
at base of upper mandible.

Immature Male: Resembles adult female but has the
cheeks, chin and throat almost uniform dirty white, freckled or
speckled with brown ; tubercles at base of upper mandible
imperfectly developed ; nostrils yellow.

Young in first plumage: Except for being duller gener-
ally, very closely resembles adult female.

Distribution : Breeds in Arctic Europe and North-
western Siberia, occurring in South-western Europe and down
the Volga to the Caspian on migration.

Habitat: The sea-coast except during the breeding season

ANATIDA—DUCKS. art
VELVET SCOTER.
GEdemia fusca (Zznm.).

Adult Male: A sfot behind the eye and wing-speculum pure
white, otherwise glossy black above, rather browner beneath ;
bill chiefly orange, black on the nostrils and tubercles, also
round margin of upper mandible ; legs and feet dull orange,
brownish on webs ; irides pale brown. Length about 22 inches ;
culmen 1°4; wing 10°7; tail 3°5 ; tarsus 1°75.

Adult Female : Browner above than the male; beneath
grey, spotted and streaked with brown ; wings as in male; on
the lores and above the ear-coverts a greyish-white patch ; bill
dark brown ; legs and feet duller red than in male.

Young in first plumage: Resemble adult female, but
males are generally darker and show scarcely anything of the
light face patches.

Distribution : Breeds in the northern portions of the
Palearctic region, though not so far north as O. nigra. Occurs
on migration as far south as the Mediterranean.

Habitat: Like the Common Scoter, frequents the sea-coast
in winter, returning inland to breed.

Genus ERISMATURA.

WHITE-HEADED DUCK.
Erismatura leucocephala (Scof.).

Adult Male: Head white, except centre of crown, which
with back of neck below the nape are d/ack ; remainder of the
plumage ferruginous-brown, freckled with pale brown and dusky,
darkest on fore part of chest and upper tail-coverts ; abdomen
dirty white ; tail and legs black ; d2// dlue-grey, without a spot ;
irides brown. Length 17 to 18 inches; culmen 1°8; wing 6
to 6°25; tail 4°45 tarsus 1°3.

Adult Female: The white on the head restricted to the
chin and upper throat and a stripe passing below the eye;
plumage generally darker and much more rufous.

Young: With still less white on the head. Plumage
generally brownish-black ; bill and feet bluish-black.

ReZ

212 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution : Residenggm Southern Europe and Northern
Africa, ranging into South-western Asia.

Habitat : Fresh-water lakes where reeds or other aquatic
plants abound. Also frequents the neighbourhood of the
coast.

Genus MERGUS.

GOOSANDER.
Mergus merganser Lenn.

Adult Male: Entire Zead and fore neck black, glossed with
green; fore part of back, most of scapulars and primaries
black : lower back, rump and tail ash-grey ; secondaries and
wing- -coverts pure white; rest of plumage w47?/e, suffused (when
alive) with delicate salmon-buff ; bill vermilion with black nail ;
legs and feet orange with darker webs; irides red. Length
about 20. inches > culmen (2:4; wing »10'5. to: a1.5 wralaeee
LArSUS "OQ tO"2,

Adult Female: Head and fore neck pale chestnut, shading
into white on chin ; occipital feathers conspicuously crested ;
upper parts generally slaty-grey, streaked with brown; prima-
ries dusky-brown ; central rectrices and broad tips of greater
wing-coverts white ; beneath white, marked on sides and flanks
with grey ; bill, legs and feet less bright than in male. Slightly
smaller.

Males in moulting dress: Closely resemble adult
females but have traces of a black ring round the neck, are
darker on the back and shoulders, and show the whitish wae
of the immature bird (Seebohm).

Young: Resemble adult females, but are dullerand possess
short occipital plumes.

Distribution: Inhabits the Palearctic and Nearctic
regions, breeding in the north and migrating southward in
autumn.

Habitat: Chiefly frequents fresh waters not far from the
coast, but is also often met with in bays or estuaries of the sea.

ANATIDA—SMEW. arg
RED-BREASTED MERGANSER.

Mergus serrator Zznm.

Adult Male: Head, a pendent crest on the occiput, and
upper part of the neck gveentsh-black, with glossy reflections ;
lower neck white, a mesial line behind black ; dveast reddish-
brown, spotted and variegated zwzth black ; near the insertion of
the wing several large white spots bordered with black ; upper
part of the back, scapulars, edge of the wing- and adjoining
coverts, and primary-quills black; the rest of coverts and
secondary quills white, but these last, as well as the greater
coverts, black at bases, the whole together forming a large
speculum divided by two transverse bars ; some of the inner-
most secondaries white edged with black; lower back,
rump, and flanks, greyzsh-wite with fine transverse, undulating
black lines; belly and abdomen white; tail brown; bill
orange-red, the ridge and nail dusky ; irides red; legs orange.
Length 22 inches; culmen 2°4; wing 9°5 to 10; tail 3; tar-
sus 2.

Adult Females and Young in first plumage: ‘So
closely resemble birds in similar plumage of the Goosander
that they can only be distinguished by their smaller size ; they
measure in length of wing 8°25 to g inches instead of 9°5 to
fo°25 inches” (Seebohm).

Males in first breeding dress: ‘ Have brown lower
backs, and the white on the sides and back of the neck is
streaked with brown ” (Seebohm).

Males in moulting dress: ‘Closely resemble males in
first plumage, but have the dark markings on the breast and
flanks grey instead of brown” (Seebohm).

Distribution: Found throughout the Palearctic and
Nearctic regions.

Habitat: Rock-bound bays and estuaries or inland fresh
waters.

_ SMEW.
Mergus albellus Zznz.

Adult Male: Fore part of cheeks, elongated nape-feathers,
centre of back, two narrow crescentic tapering bands on either

214 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

side of chest, margins of so f scapulars, primaries and some
of secondaries black, the latter having white tips; innermost
secondaries, vwmp, tail and vermiculations on flanks gvey ;
plumage otherwise white ; the black head patches glossed with
green ; bill, legs and feet slaty-grey, the webs darker ; irides
reddish-brown. Length 16:5 to 17:5 inches; culmen 1°25 ;
wing 7°5 to.7°75.; tail 3°3.; tarsus 1°3.

Adult Female: Forehead, crown, nape and back of neck
dull chestnut ; round the lower neck an obscure grey ring ;
loral region black ; upper parts generally slate-grey, barred with
pale grey and shading into nearly black on the rump; wings
much as in the male.

Adult Male in moulting dress: Resembles adult
female but is distinguishable by the crescentic marks on the
sides of the chest.

Young in first plumage: Are very similar to adult
females, but have brown lores and a more highly developed
grey ring round the lower neck ; the lesser wing-coverts consi-
derably marked with brown ; wing otherwise as in female.

Distribution : Inhabits the northern portions of Europe
and Asia, migrating southward in autumn.

Habitat : Chiefly found on inland fresh waters, but also
frequents estuaries or bays of the sea.

COLUMBIDAI—DOVES. 215

Order COLUMB.

Family COLUMBID.
Genus COLUMBA.
WOOD.-PIGEON OR RING-DOVE. “
Columba palumbus Zznz.

Adult : Above brownish-grey, shading into pale slate-grey
on lower back and rump ; sides of neck and nape glossed with
green or purple (according to the light), having also below a
large white patch on either side of the neck ; wings dark brown,
the feathers narrowly bordered on outer webs with white ; owt-
ermost wing-coverts white on outer webs ,; tail blackish-brown
with a broad subterminal band of lavender-grey ; beneath vina-
ceous-grey, shading into pale grey on centre of abdomen ; bill
scarlet at base, yellowish towards the tip; legs and feet coral-
red ; irides pale yellow. Length 16 to 17 inches ; culmen 0’9 ;
Wine OS 10 JO; tail G's; tarsus 1°2.

Adult Female: Closely resembles the male, but has
smaller white patches on the neck, and the metallic colours less
brilliant.

Young: Differ from adults in having no white on the neck.

Distribution: Inhabits the Western Palearctic region
except in the extreme north, ranging through Western Asia also.

Habitat: Open cultivated country and woods (both ever-
green and deciduous).

Columba livia Aonnat.

ROCK-DOVE.

Adult Male: Prevailing colour bluish-grey, shading into
paler grey on upper back ; lower part of back and rump white ;

216 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

tail-coverts ashy-grey ; tail neggly black at tip ; wings conspicu-
ously marked with ¢zwo broadMblack transverse bars ; feathers of
chest and sides of neck glossed with shades of green and
purple ; bill brownish-black ; legs and feet deep red ; irides pale
orange. Length 11 to 13 inches; culmen 0°7; wing 8°5 ; tail
Aa5i5 tarsus 1.

Adult Female: Distinguishable only by its slightly
smaller size and less conspicuously coloured neck.

Young in first plumage: Are suffused with brown on
the back and under parts.

Distribution: Generally distributed over the Western
Palearctic region, except in the far north.

Habitat : Precipitous cliffs, chiefly on the coast.

STOCK-DOVE.\

Columba cenas Zznn.

Adult Male: Plumage generally, including the rump, grey-
ish-blue ; fore part of breast washed with vinaceous-red ; szdes
of neck glossed with metallic green and purple ; some of wing-
coverts and innermost secondaries marked with brown patches, ~
thus forming a rudimentary wing-bar ; bill red at base, whitish
towards tip; legs and feet coral-red; irides red. Length
about 13°5 inches; culmen 07; wing 8°5 to 9; tail 4; tar-
sus I,

Adult Female: Slightly smaller and with less of the
metallic gloss on the neck or of the pink suffusion on the
chest.

Young: Browner and with no metallic appearance on the
neck.

Distribution : Occurs throughout the Western Palearctic
region as far north as lat. 60° or 61°, and ranges into Asia
as far as the Tigris river.

Habitat : Wooded regions, commons, etc., nesting in holes
in trees or in old rabbit burrows.

Genus TURTUR. ee
TURTLE DOVE.

Turtur communis Se/dy.
Adult Male: ead and nape davender; on either side of

COLUMBIDA—DOVES. 217

the neck a patch of black feathers, white tipped, back chestnut ;
rump lavender tinged with brown, shading into brown on tail-
coverts ; scapulars, innermost secondaries and most of wing-
coverts dark brown, broadly margined with yellowish-brown ;
wing- and tail-quills dusky brown, shaded with grey; Zaz
broadly tipped with white (except central feathers) and outer-
most feathers externally bordered with white ; breast pinkish-
lavender, paler on chin and shading into purer lavender on
flanks ; abdomen and under tail-coverts white ; bill and claws
brown, legs and feet crimson, irides reddish-brown. Length
115 to 12 inches ; culmen 0°75 5 wing 7; tail 4°5 ; tarsus 0°8.

Adult Female: Duller in tints, otherwise similar to the
male.

Young in first plumage: May at once be distinguished
by the absence of the black and white neck patches.

Distribution: Found throughout temperate portions of
the Western Palearctic region, in Northern Africa and in Asia
as far east as Yarkand.

Habitat: Thick deciduous woods, tall hedgerows, etc.

COLLARED TURTLE DOVE.
Turtur risorius (Zzz7.).

Adult: Head, neck, and under parts pale grey, suffused
with red and shading into bluish on abdomen and under tail-
coverts; on sides of neck a black transverse band, nearly
meeting behind ; back, scapulars, some of secondaries and
wing-coverts pale drown, shading into blue on sides of rump ;
outer wing-coverts also blue; wings and bases of tail-feathers
beneath dark brown, ‘ad/-feathers above, dark brown at bases
shading to whitish at tips ; ceztral rectrices brown throughout ;
bill black ; legs and feet dark red ; irides crimson. Length
about 11 to 12°5 inches; culmen 0'8; wing 6 to 7 ; tail 4°3 5
tarsus O°9.

Young: Differs from the adult in being much duller in
colour ; the vinous coloration less apparent, the light ending
to the tail is smaller; and there is only little indication of the
collar on the hind neck.

Distribution : A Southern Asiatic species chiefly, ranging
into Asia Minor and Palestine. Resident also in Turkey.

Habitat : Palm groves, among dense bushes.

218 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Ll
Family PTEROCLID.

Genus PTEROCLES.

BLACK-BELLIED SAND-GROUSE.
Pterocles arenarius (Pal).

Adult Male: Crown and nape grey, tinged with red;
fore parts beneath grey, with an isabelline tinge, shading into
vust-colour on upper throat; lower breast and abdomen black ;
across the chest a transverse band of black ; feathers of upper
parts dark grey or blackish, the tips broadly blotched with
reddish-ochre ; wing-quills bluish-grey with black shafts ; some
of inner primaries slightly tipped with white; outer webs of
secondaries marked with orange ; tail brownish-ash colour,
tipped with white and barred towards base with dark brown,
central feathers brownish-grey ; under tail-coverts pale yellowish-
white ; feathers on tarsus pale buff ; bill and irides dark brown ; -
feet leaden-grey. Length about 14°5 inches; culmen 0°65 ;
wing 9°2 ; fail g,; tarsus 1°25.

Adult Female: Above sandy-ochreous, barred (or on
head and hind neck streaked) with black ; fore parts beneath
dull greyish-ochreous, becoming more rufous in tint on chest ;
cheeks streaked like the crown, but more minutely ; upper
throat crossed by a horizontal black stripe; chest spotted with
black ; across the breast a black, horizontal band as in the
male ; abdomen black; feathers on the tarsus dull yellow and
on the under tail-coverts whitish.

Young Male: Head, neck, breast and entire upper parts’
dull sandy-yellow or pale ochre, barred and marked with black ;
feathers on the wing-coverts and breast with a subapical black
bar following the contour of the feather; quills dull greyish-
black, broadly tipped with dull clay, slightly marbled with
blackish-brown ; secondaries dull yellowish-white except at the
base, where they are white and broadly tipped with dull
greyish-black, slightly marbled with dull fulvous; elongated
inner secondaries marked like the dorsal feathers, but slightly
washed with fulvous ; tail dull clay-yellow, marked with fulvous
and barred with black ; abdomen black.

PTEROCLIDA—SAND-GROUSE. 219

Distribution: Found in South-western Europe, Northern
Africa and Western Asia.
Habitat: Open sandy or grassy plains.

PIN-TAILED SAND-GROUSE.
Pterocles alchata (Lzzz.).

Adult Male: Above drvownish-grey, spotted on back and
scapulars with dull golden-yellow ; primaries bluish-ash colour
on outer webs, and greyish-brown on inner webs; first quill
with outer web chiefly black ; wing-coverts all narrowly bordered
with black ; rump and upper tail-coverts pale yellow, barred
with black ; central rectrices elongated and tapering ; apical
portion dark brown; remaining tail-feathers blackish-ash on
inner webs ; barred with black on outer webs ; chin and upper
throat black, shading into dull yellow on lower throat ; across
chest a broad band of chestnut, bordered above and beneath
by black; abdomen white ; bill brown ; feet greyish-brown ;
irides dark brown. Length about 14 inches; culmen 0'65 ;
wing 7°3; fail 5°3; tarsus 1°15.

Adult Female: Above yellowish, closely barred with
black and grey, most of back- and scapular-feathers with a
broad sub-terminal ashy-blue band ; wings paler than in male ;
coverts barred at their bases and tipped with black ; chin and
upper throat white, bordered with reddish ; chest band less
extended than in male, bordered above by two black bands.

Young Male (Autumn): Though closely resembling the
adult above, except for the absence of the elongated tail-
feathers, the under parts are distinct; chin and upper throat
white and black mixed; lower throat dirty ochreous, barred
with pale brown ; chest chiefly dull ferruginous, but also mixed
with a few blackish and ochreous feathers, the latter barred as
on lower throat ; the black band below ill-defined.

Young in first plumage: Probably resemble the adult
female, but the tail-feathers are much shorter.

Distribution: Inhabits Southern Europe and Northern
Africa, ranging eastward as far as India.

Habitat: Sandy plains like P. arenaria.

220 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS,
Genus SYRRHAPTES. ra

PALLAS’S SAND-GROUSE. *
Syrrhaptes paradoxus (/al/.).

Adult Male: General colour of upper parts sandy-buff or
isabelline ; back, scapulars and innermost secondaries, rump
and upper tail-coverts, the two centre tail-feathers, and the
inner webs of the remainder are transversely barred with very
dark brown ; primaries lavender, with black shafts ; secondaries
are’dark brown on the outer webs, otherwise pale buff, as are
also the primary-coverts ; outer webs of tail-feathers, except
two centre ones, narrowly edged and broadly tipped with buff ;
an obscure ring round the neck and ear-coverts yellowish-
orange ; beneath sandy-buff, paler on chin, thighs and under
tail-coverts; feathers of the upper breast have narrow dark
brown tips; J/ower breast and belly dlackish ; vent white ;
axillaries buffish-white, tipped with brown ; bill and claws
brown ; irides dark brown. Length 14 to 15 inches ; culmen
0°4; wing 9 to 10; Zaz 7°O; tarsus 1.

Adult Female: ‘“ Differs from the male in having the
barring on the back more obscure and extending on to the
hind neck and crown; the yellowish-orange on the head and
neck is paler, and bounded on the throat with a black margin ;
the dark band across the breast is entirely absent ; and the
outside primaries and centre tail-feathers are not so elongated ”
(Seebohm).

Young Male: “Has the barring on the back intermediate
between that on the adult male and female” (Seebohm).

Distribution : Inhabits the Tartar steppes of Central
Asia, periodically occurring throughout most of Europe, often
in vast quantities. Has nested in Great Britain.

Habitat: High steppe regions: salt plains.

PHASIANIDAI—PHEASANT. 221

Order GALLINE.

Family PHASIANIDA.

Genus PHASIANUS.

4

PHEASANT. “
Phasianus colchicus zzz.

Adult Male: Head and neck metallic-purple, or green,
according to the light; ear-coverts brown ; naked skin round
the eyes scarlet, spotted with black; general tint of back-
feathers copper-coloured, tipped with black, or with dark brown
centres, and marked with pale yellow; rump and upper tail-
coverts light brownish-red ; wings greyish-brown, mottled with
darker brown; long tail-feathers yellowish-brown, regularly
barred with black; feathers on breast and abdomen orange-
red, with purplish and golden reflections, tipped and evenly-
margined with violet-black ; lower abdomen, vent and under
tail-coverts brownish-black; bill pale horn-colour ; legs, feet
and spurs greyish-brown ; irides, hazel. Length about 3 feet ;
culmen 1°2 inches; wing 9°5 ; tail 18 to 24 ; tarsus 2°5.

Adult Female: Prevailing tint yellowish-brown, variegated
with grey and rufous, with the centres of most feathers on head,
neck and back black; region round the eyes feathered ; tail
shorter than in male, dull ochreous, vermiculated and barred
with black ; beneath dull buff, the centres of feathers black ;
in size somewhat inferior to the male.

Young in first plumage: Resemble the adult female.

Distribution : Originally a native of South-eastern Europe
and Asia Minor; now naturalised over most of temperate
Europe.

Habitat: Wood and plantations where there is plenty of
cover. ;

Note —The Chinese form with white neck ring is most commonly found in
England now.

222 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus CACCABIS. -

GREEK PARTRIDGE.
Caccabis saxatilis (J/eyer).

Adult: Prevailing colour of upper parts greyish-blue,
washed on nape and back with reddish tinge; quills dark
brown, outer webs of primaries partly ochreous, secondaries
margined externally with yellowish-white ; inner secondaries
and scapulars washed with buffish-brown ; central tail-feathers
and bases of the remaining ones bluish-grey, tail otherwise deep
fox-red ; a broad d/ack band encircles the upper part of the
throat, which is white, passing through the eyes and traversing
the forehead and /oves ; superciliary region whitish ; dveast de-
low black band dove-blue, the feathers slightly edged with buff ;
flank-feathers dove-blue, conspicuously barred across with black
and chestnut ; rest of under parts rich ochreous ; bill, legs and
feet coral-red ; irides dark brown. Length about 14 inches ;
culmen 0°85 ; wing 6°4; tail 3°9; tarsus 1°5.

Young: “Resembles the adult, but is duller, the collar is
much narrower, the upper parts are much darker and browner,
and there are traces of bars on the tail; the feathers on the
flanks are also much less richly coloured ” (Dresser).

Distribution : Inhabits the higher mountain regions of
Southern Europe.

Habitat: ‘“ Arid, rocky, elevated localities, descending to
the lower mountain regions in hard weather.”

CHUKOR PARTRIDGE.
Caccabis chukar (Gray).

Adult: Differs from C. saxatifis in being more distinctly
rufous on the back; ear-coverts washed (partly) with rufous ;
chin and throat yellowish-buff; vegzon before the eyes at base of
upper mandible pale yellowtsh-white ; three black spots at base
of lower mandible. Length about 12°5 inches; culmen 0°8 ;
wing’ 645 tail 3°3)> tarsus 1-75.

Distribution : Inhabits the Greek islands. Found also

PHASIANIDA2—PARTRIDGES. 223

in Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, and eastward as far as Northern
China.
Habitat : Stony hill-sides.

Note.—This species is subject to much variation.

f

FRENCH, OR RED-LEGGED, PARTRIDGE. wi
Caccabis rufa (Zzvn.).

Adult: Closely resembles C. saxatilis, but differs in having
the feathers on lower throat, chest and hind neck spotted with
black, the spots in front being very conspicuous, and appearing
like a broad fringe to the black gorget ; irides hazel-brown.
Length 12'5 to 13°5 inches; culmen 0°65 ; wing 6 to 6°25 ;
tail 3°65 ; tarsus 1°7.

Young in first plumage: Browner beneath than adults,
and the black on the lower throat is not continuous.

Distribution : Inhabits Western Europe. Naturalised in
south-eastern counties of England.

Habitat : Open cultivated country, commons or bushy hill-
sides.

BARBARY PARTRIDGE.
Caccabis petrosa (Gmel/.).

Adult Male: Top of head and nape deep chestnut, back
and rump greyish-brown ; wing-quills dark brown, the outer
webs of most partly ochreous ; four central tail-feathers coloured
like the back, and obscurely vermiculated ; remaining ones
chestnut; sides of head, chin, and upper ¢/roat light grey; be-
neath, a broad collar of deep chestnut, spotted with white ; rest
of under parts much as in C. rufa ; bill, legs and feet scarlet ;
irides hazel. Length 13 inches; culmen o'9; wing 6 to 6°5 ;
tail 3°75 ; tarsus 1°85.

Adult Female: Differs from the male in being a trifle
smaller, in having a less extensive collar and being generally
rather duller.

Distribution: Resident in Southern Europe and in
Northern Africa.

Habitat: Open, uncultivated localities.

224 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus PERDIX. -

e

PARTRIDGE. V
Perdix cinerea Za‘/.

Adult Male: Head and upper part of throat pale chestnut,
shaded on crown and nape with brown, and streaked with buff;
general colour above browntsh-grey, vermuiculated with black, and
barred with buff and chestnut; wing-coverts and scapular-
feathers with a distinct pale yellow median stripe; centre tail-
feathers coloured like the back, the remaining ones chestnut ;
beneath grey, shading into white on.the abdomen, and on
breast and flanks closely and finely vermiculated with black ;
abdomen with two very broad, deep chocolate marks, confluent on
the upper half; some of flank-feathers blotched with chestnut
at the tips ; bill, legs and feet pale grey ; irides hazel. Length
Z2 > imehness culmen 0755 wine 6°55 Mall ac3 tansis mG:

Adult Female: Closely resembles the’male but is some-
what smaller ; the upper parts are darker, and more marked with
brown and buff; the chestnut on the head is paler, and the
patches on the abdomen much smaller than in the male.

Young in first plumage: Lack the chestnut on head
and threat, also the abdominal patches ; the general colour
much browner than adults.

Distribution : Inhabits Central Europe, the British Isles,
Denmark and Germany, being found eastward as far as West-
ern Siberia in the north and Persia in the south.

Habitat: Open cultivated country.

QUAIL. vs

Coturnix communis JSonnat.

Genus COTURNIX.

Adult Male: Crown and nape very dark brown, marked
with reddish-buff, and with a central and two lateral lines of
buff; dack, scapulars, some of wing-coverts, and rump “ght
brown, marked with black and dark brown, and streaked with

TETRAONIDAZ—PTARMIGAN. 225

buff ; wings brown, marked with buff, and darker brown; sides
of neck buffy-white; cheeks pale brown; throat rufous, bounded:
by a double crescent of black ; lower neck and breast pale
rufous, shading into pale buff on the abdomen ; flanks rufous,
longitudinally striped with buff; bill, legs and feet yellowish-
brown; irides brown. Length 7 inches; culmen 0'5; wing 4°5;
tail 2"5 ; tarsus 2.

Adult Male (Winter): Cheeks and lower throat buff ;
flanks not so bright chestnut, nor so much spotted.

Adult Female: Closely resembles the male, but has the
chin and throat pale buff, and breast and flanks thickly spotted
with dark brown.

Distribution: Found throughout Europe (except in the:
far north), in Africa, and ranges through Asia to China,

Habitat: Frequents corn-fields and open country,

Note.—This species is very variable in colour, especially in males,

Family TETRAONIDA.

Genus LAGOPUS.

COMMON PTARMIGAN.
Lagopus mutus Leach.

Adult Male (Summer): Chin, under parts below the
chest and wings, pure white ; the primaries, with fore part of
shafts blackish ; tatl black, the central feathers narrowly tipped
with white ; plumage otherwise almost black, finely vermicu-
lated with buffish-brown, with a few white feathers or white
spots about the neck and head ; lores black; bill and claws
dark brown; irides hazel-brown; above the eyes a scarlet
wattle. Length about 15 inches; culmen 0'75; wing 7°5 to 8;
tail 4°25 ; tarsus 1°3.

Adult Female (Summer): Head, neck, upper parts,
breast and flanks blackish, barred and vermiculated with rusty- ;
yellow, the feathers here and there tipped with white; under
tail-coverts partly coloured like the back ; plumage otherwise
similar to the male.

Q

226 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Adult (Autumn): Dangrupper parts, head, neck and
chest pale grey, with black vermiculations.

Adult Male (Winter) : Lores black ; tail-feathers greyish-
black, white at their bases and tips ; shafts of primaries brown ;
plumage otherwise pure white. The female usually has the
lores white.

Young in first plumage: Resemble the young of Red
Grouse, but are greyer.

Distribution: Resident in Scotland, the Lofoden Islands,
and on the higher mountain ranges of Scandinavia, Central
and Southern Europe, as well as in the Urals, Altai Moun-
tains, &c.

Habitat: Stony mountain-sides and tops, particularly
among bilberry bushes.

RED GROUSE. vs

Lagopus scoticus (La/z.).

Adult Male: Above deep chestnut-brown, vermiculated and
otherwise marked with blackish; wing and outer tail-guzlls
blackish-brown ,; sides of head, throat and chest more rufous
than rest of plumage, and less marked; rest of under parts
dark chestnut-brown, finely vermiculated with blackish-brown ;
hair-like leg-feathers dull greyish ; a few feathers at base of
lower mandible, and some of feathers on central abdomen
tipped with white ; bill, dark horn-colour ; claws pale brown ;
irides hazel-brown ; above the eyes a distinct scarlet wattle or
comb. Length 15°5 to 16 inches; culmen 0°65; wing 8°2 to
S75 5: tail 4:25; tarsus 2°75.

Adult Female: Smaller than the male. Above much paler
chestnut, and more spotted; beneath considerably paler and
more of a yellowish-brown ; comb smaller.

Young: Closely resemble adults according to the sex, but
have more white feathers about the head and abdomen.

Distribution: Peculiar to Great Britain.
Habitat: Moorland districts.

TET RAONIDE—PTARMIGAN. 227
ROCK PTARMIGAN.
Lagopus rupestris (Gme/.).

Adult Male (Summer): Upper parts, chest and sides of
body dark brown, barred and vermiculated with orange-brown,
or cinnamon, darker on crown ; lores and tail-feathers blackish,
the latter tipped with white ; vest of plumage white, the shafts of
primaries blackish-brown ; bill, irides and claws dark brown :
a comb over the eye light scarlet. Length rg inches; culmen
0°6 ; wing 8; tail 4°75; tarsus 1°2.

Adult Female (Summer): Above vermiculated, barred,
or otherwise marked with pale cinnamon-brown and black ;
inner wing-coverts similarly coloured to the back ; fore parts
beneath dull ochre-yellow, barred and vermiculated with black ;
lores not black ; some of flank-feathers ochreous, barred or ver-
miculated with black; comb over the eye less conspicuous.
Somewhat sinaller than the male.

Aduit Male (Autumn): Upper parts with each feather
vermiculated with brownish-grey and brownish-black, in about
equal proportions, giving it a generally brownish-grey tint ; chin
and upper throat chiefly white.

Adult Female (Autumn): Above much as in summer,
but feathers of hind neck are barred with creamy-white and
black ; many of chin and upper throat-feathers white, neck and
chest barred creamy-white and black ; rest of under parts white,
excepting for a few cinnamon and black feathers on flanks and
abdomen.

Young (Autumn): Very nearly resemble their parents,
according to the sex, but have the forehead chiefly white, and
less indication of a comb over the eye; upper plumage largely
mixed with white, much more so than adults at a correspond-
ing date.

Adult (Winter) : Indistinguishable from Z. mutus at same
season.

Distribution: Inhabits Iceland, Greenland, Arctic
America, and possibly parts of Arctic Siberia.

Habitat: Birch scrub in valleys, where there is plenty of bil-
berry and Dryas octopetala, as wellas on rocky, mountain sides.
Note,—The Spitzbergen Ptarmigan has been described under the name of

L. hemileucurus, but as it chiefly differs from Z. rupestris in being a

trifle larger, and in having more white on the bases of the tail-
feathers, it seems doubtful whether it is worthy of specific rank.

Q 2

228 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
WILLOW#PTARMIGAN.
Lagopus albus (Gmel.).

Adult Male (Summer): Upper parts, neck, breast and
sides of body rich chestnut, most uniform on throat and chest ;
back, neck and breast-feathers mottled and vermiculated with
black ; crown-feathers with black centres; rump, upper and
under tail-coverts like the back ; tail-feathers nearly black,
tipped with white ; wings, lower breast, centre of abdomen, and
a small patch at bases of forks of lower mandible wzze; uill-
shafts brownish towards tip; bill dark horn-colour; irides
brown; above the se a scarlet comb. Length 15 inches;
culmen 0°7 ; wing 8; tail 5 ; tarsus 1°5.

Adult Female (Summer): Altogether paler than the
male, and somewhat smaller. Upper parts blotched with
black, and vermiculated with black and buff, or pale rufous ;
head and neck more rufous; chest dull rufescent-buff, barred
with black ; chin yellowish.

Adults (Autumn): Have a large admixture of white
feathers among the coloured ones and the central tail-feathers
are white; no grey in the plumage either above or beneath.

Adults in Winter: May be distinguished from the other
Ptarmigans by their larger size and white lores.

Distribution: Inhabits the northern portions of both
Palearctic and Nearctic regions. Does not occur in Great
Britain, the Faroes, or Iceland.

Habitat: Lowland regions, where there is plenty of under-
growth of birch or conifers.

(renus BONASA.

HAZEL-GROUSE.
Bonasa betulina (Sco/.).

Adult Male: Upper parts ashy-grey, tinged with rufous,
and éarred or vermiculated with black ; crown feathers long ;
lower back and rump clearer grey, and less marked with black ;
wings brown, externally margined with fulvous; scapulars
rufescent, varied with black and white spotted; faz/ grey,

TETRAONIDA:—GROUSE. 229

vermiculated with black, all the feathers except two central ones
crossed by a broad subterminal black band ; chin and fhroat
black, encircled by a white band, which springs from base ot
upper mandible; a few feathers behind the eye white;
feathers of breast and flanks brown, becoming rufous at their
bases and broadly tipped with white; bases of abdominal
feathers black ; under tail-coverts variegated with brown and
red, and tipped with white; bill blackish horn-colour ; legs,
feet and irides brown; eyebrows bare. Length about 12:5
inches ; culmen 0°65 ; wing 6°5; tail 5 ; tarsus 1°25.

Adult Female: Slightly smaller and more rufous above :
ear-coverts distinctly rufous ; throat yellowish-white, slightly
varied with black spots ; eyebrows feathered.

Young: Upper parts paler grey ; head clear brown mottled
with black; throat pale fulvous, mottled with dusky brown :
under parts generally shaded with fulvous; otherwise similar
to the adult female.

Distribution: Found in the elevated regions of Northern
and Central Europe and Northern Asia, ranging from the
Pyrenees to Japan.

Habitat: Alpine regions where there is undergrowth of
bushes or heather.

MENZBIER’S HAZEL-GROUSE.

Bonasa griseiventris JZenz.

Adult: Ground colour throughout, both above and beneath
distinctly cinereous, washed with brown on the crown, ana
irregularly with paler brown on the under parts; upper parts
marked as in #2. detulina, but not so boldly on the scapulars
and wing-coverts ; no white on upper parts except a few
feathers behind the eyes ; dark sub-terminal tatl-band, tll-defined
and not conspicuous, asin B. betulina ; none of the rectrices white-
tipped ; under parts. narrowly and closely barred with brown,
most conspicuously so on the chest ; chin feathers pure white ;
eyelid in male bare; bill, legs and feet as in B. detulina.
Length 13°5 inches ; culmen 0°75 ; wing 6°5 ; tail 5 ; tarsus I.

Young: Unknown. ?

Distribution: Inhabits the extreme east of Russia, nea
the sources of the Petchora and Kama rivers.

Habitat: Probably similar to that of B. detulina.

230 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
Genus TETRAO. cd
BLACK GROUSE. whe

Tetrao tetrix Zn.

Adult Male: Plumage chiefly g/ossy black, shaded on
scapulars and wing-coverts with brown; head, neck and rump
glossed with purple; zwzxzgs brown, crossed by a broad white
band; axillaries and wnder tail-coverts pure white; some of
latter longer than central rectrices ; outer tail-feathers hooked
outwards, the tail thus appearing lyre-shaped ; above the eye
a scarlet comb ; bill, feet and claws nearly black ; irides hazel-
brown. Length (to end of longest rectrices) 20 fo 23 inches ;
culmen 1; wing 9°5 to 10; tail 7°5 ; tarsus 1°8.

Adult Female: General colour chestnut, shading into
grey on wing-coverts, breast and under tail-coverts, throughout
barred, blotched and vermiculated with black; under tail-
coverts nearly white ; bill, feet and claws dark brown ; irides
hazel. Considerably smaller than the male. .

Young in first plumage: Resemble the adult female.

Young Male in Autumn: The head, wing-coverts,
scapulars, and upper tail-coverts coloured much as in female,
otherwise d Jl black, with very little indication of the curved
outer rectrices.

Distribution: Inhabits Northern Europe, including the
British Islands, also some of the higher districts of Central
and Southern Europe. Ranges eastward across Siberia to
China.

Habitat: Moorlands and forests (especially coniferous).

GEORGIAN BLACK GROUSE.
Tetrao mlokosiewiczi (7Zuacs.).

Adult Male: Axz//aries and some of under wing-coverts
white; entire plumage otherwise deep black, glossed with deep
green; quills and legs much browner; tail long, the outer
feathers curved outwards as in male 7? Ze¢rv7x, but less decidedly,
and more pointed ; comb scarlet as in 7: fe¢vzx ; bill, feet and

TETRAONID.4—CAPERCAILLIE. 231

claws brown. Length 20 inches; culmen1; wang 7'9; tail
g; tarsus 2°25.

Adult Female: Differs from female of Z: ¢e¢vix in the
following respects: ‘‘ General coloration greyish, closely ver-
miculated with blackish-brown and rusty-brown, the upper
parts being rather more rufous-brown, and the under parts
rather less rufous ; throat whiter, the markings being wider
apart ; quills dark brown, the primaries marbled on the outer
web with light brown, and the secondaries rather boldly marked
with blackish and light reddish, and tipped with white ; tail
long, almost square, blackish-brown, closely variegated with
rufous and sandy-yellow ; under parts closely vermiculated
with blackish-brown on a greyish ground ; centre of abdomen
marked with black ; under tail-coverts reddish, broadly barred
with blackish and tipped with white. Culmen 1°05; wing
(oj tall O25 > tarsus 2°25-" (Dresser).

Distribution: Apparently confined to the Caucasus.

Habitat: Elevated regions, covered with herbage, not
found in the low country.

CAPERCAILLIE.
Tetrao urogallus Zznn.

“Adult Male: Prevailing colour ashy-grey, much darker on
the head ; chin feathers elongated, black ; scapulars and wings
chestnut-brown, finely vermiculated and speckled on all the
upper parts with dusky ; longest upper tail-coverts, and some
of winy-coverts tipped with white ; tail much rounded, black ;
breast glossed with dark green, rest of under parts blackish,
speckled in parts with white; feathers of tarsi brown, and
hair-like ; bill greyish-white ; feet and irides brown ; bare skin
above the eyes scarlet. Length 34 to 36 inches; culmen 2'5 ;
wing 14°8 to 16; tail 11 ; tarsus 3.

Adult Female: Prevailing colour pale chestnut, darker
and richer on the throat and chest, which are almost spotless ;
the feathers elsewhere barred, spotted or vermiculated with
black, many having also white tips ; wings brown, mottled with
rufous ; tail bright rufous, barred with black, and broadly tipped
with white, as are also the secondaries and tail-coverts.

Young in first plumage: Resemble the adult female.

232 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Males of the Year : Thgggh in some respects resembling
the adult male, retain the female plumage in parts, especially
on the mantle, upper tail-coverts, breast and flanks.

Distribution: Inhabits the pine forests of Scandinavia,
Central Europe, the Pyrenees and Carpathians. Found in
Siberia as far east as Lake Baikal.

Habitat: Partial to fir forests, often at considerable eleva-
tion.

Genus TETRAOGALLUS.

CAUCASIAN SNOW-PARTRIDGE.
Tetraogallus caucasicus (FPa//.).

Adult Male: Crown, nape and hind neck ashy-grey ; chin
and throat white, bordered laterally by a band of ashy-grey ;
sides of neck also white ; upper parts generally greyish-black
vermiculated (except on fore part of back) with buff; wing-
coverts and scapulars spotted with buff and fox-red ; central
rectrices black, vermiculated with buffy-white ; remaining ones
black, tipped with chestnut ; chest buffy-white, closely barred
with black ; rest of under parts very dark grey, mottled with
buffy-white, the flanks more slaty in tinge, each feather d70adly
margined on either side with rufous, and externally with black ;
under tail-coverts white ; bill yellowish, browner towards tip ;
legs orange-yellow ; irides dark brown. Length 2z inches ; cul-
men 1°24 wink 10754 tail 7; tarsus.225.

Adult Female: Resembles the male, but is much duller
and paler in colour ; crown and hind neck tinged with reddish-
brown ; moustachial band reddish-brown.

Young: Closely resemble adult female, but are much greyer
about the head and neck.

Distribution : Restricted entirely to the range of the Cau-
casus.

Habitat: High mountain ranges above the region of trees.

TURNICIDAE—BUSH-QUAIL. 233

Family TURNICID:.

Genus TURNIX.

ANDALUSIAN BUSH-QUAIL OR
HEMIPODE.

Turnix sylvatica (Des/font.).

Adult Female: General colour above sandy-brown ; on
either side of crown a black and rufous longitudinal band ;
remaining feathers dark brown, tipped with rufous ; feathers of
back and scapulars and upper parts generally, finely pencilled
with black, their centres marked with rufous ; many of wing-
coverts boldly spotted with black ; wings dark brown, margined
with pale brown ; sides of head buffy-white, barred with brown ;
chin, upper throat, and centre of abdomen cream-colour , sides of
neck, chest, szdes of body, flanks, and under tail-coverts pale
ferruginous, 4o/dly spotted with black; bill, legs, feet and
irides yellowish-brown. Length 8 inches; culmen 0°45 ; wing
a°7 > tail 1°7 ; tarsus 1.

Male: Much smaller, otherwise similar.

Adult (Winter): Very similar, but duller and consider-
ably whiter beneath, especially on the throat.

Young: “Resembles the adult in winter dress, but there is
more white in the markings of the plumage, the under parts are
white, and the markings on the sides of the neck and flanks are
reduced to dark brown dashes or blotches” (Dresser).

Distribution : Found locally in Spain and Portugal, in
Sicily and Northern Africa.

Habitat: Ground covered with thick herbage or rough
grass: often not far from water.

234 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

ca

Order GRALLA.

Family RALLIDA.

Genus RALLUS.
WATER-RAIL. V

Rallus aquaticus Zz.

Adult Male: Crown and upper parts generally /fulvous-
érown, with a blackish centre to each of the feathers ; quills
dusky brown; tail-feathers dark brown, bordered with olive-
brown ; chin whitish ; sides of head, neck and wzder parts to
centre of abdomen uniform s/aty-grey - flanks black, transversely
barred with white , vent buff ; some of under tail-coverts white.
Length 10 or II inches ; culmen 1°5 ; wing 4°7; tail 2; tarsus
1S;
Adult Female: Slightly duller than the male, otherwise
similar.

Young in first p umage: Above more olivaceous, chin
and centre of throat nearly white, clouded with grey ; breast
duller than in adults, and mottled with dusky brown and buff;
lower abdomen considerably marked with creamy-brown.

Distribuiion: Frequents the Western Palearctic region,
south of the Arctic Circle, becoming more abundant further
south. Found eastward into Central Asia.

Habitat: Marshes, reedy banks of rivers or streams.

Genus PORZANA.
SPOTTED CRAKE. a

Porzana maruetta (Leach).

Adult Male: Upper parts olive-brown, with blackish centres

RALLIDA—CRAKES. 235

to the feathers and spotted or streaked with white; wings
brown, with outer web of first primary white ; lores brown ;
chin, throat, sides of head and chest slaty-grey, shaded with
olive on chest and more or less spotted with white; abdomen
white ; fanks brown, conspicuously barred with white ; under
tail-coverts buff; bill yellow, orange at. base; legs and feet
olive-green ; irides hazel. Length 8-5 to 9 inches ; culmen 0'8 ;
wing 4°7 ; tail 2; tarsus 1°3.

Adult Female: Slightly smaller, duller, and has more
brown on the sides of the head and on flanks.

Young: ‘“ Have the sides of the head, the throat, and the
abdomen much marked with white, and the spots are
smaller and less defined, on a generally duller ground ” (Saun-
ders).

Distribution : Found in the Western Palearctic region
except in the extreme north, inhabiting the southern portions in
winter. Ranges eastward into Central Asia and India.

Habitat: Similar localities to that of Rallus aquaticus.

BAILLON’S CRAKE. Moi

Porzana bailloni (Vec//.).

Adult Male: Above olive-brown, with black centres to the
feathers of crown, nape, rump, centre of back, and scapulars ;
the two latter wth wing-coverts irregularly spotted with pure
white; outer edge of first primary white; //azks, vent and
under tail-coverts d/ack, pretty regularly darred across with
white; sides of head and neck, and rest of under parts bluish-
slate ; bill olive; legs and feet dull brownish flesh-colour ;
irides red. Length 6:5 to 7 inches ; culmen 0°6 ; wing 3°6 ; tail
2 ta eSUs:.T.

Adult Female: Paler above than the male, ear-coverts
and lores brown; under parts more tinged with brown.

Young in first plumage: Resemble the adult female,
except that the under parts are greyish-white, and the breast
marked with brown.

Distribution : Breeds in the marshes of Western Europe,
and occurs thoughout the Mediterranean basin in winter. In
Africa this Crake ranges as far south as Natal, and in Asia as
far east as Japan ; in winter being found southward into Borneo.

Habitat : Similar to that of Aallus aguaticus.

236 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
LITTLH*CRAKE.
Porzana parva (Sco/.).

Adul Male: Above olivaceous-brown, paler on the wing-
coverts ; feathers of centre of back obscurely marked with black
and with a few while spots ; wings clove-brown ; flank-feathers
grey ; under tail-coverts black, or dark brown, barred with
white : forehead, cheeks, sides of neck, and rest of under parts
slate-grey ; bill green, tinged with red at base; legs and feet
green ; irides red. Length about 8 inches; culmen 0°7 ; wing
45. tall 2°95" tarsus’ 1.

Acult Female: “Differs from the male in having the
slate-grey confined to the forehead and eye-stripe ; the general
colour of the under parts being buff, shading into nearly white on
the chin and throat, and into brown on the flanks, which are
transversely barred with white” (Seebohm).

Young in first plumage: Superciliary region and under
parts pale buffish-white, more barred or spotted with brown
than the adult female. May be distinguished from the young
of P. vailloni by the absence of white on the first primary.

Distribution: Breeds in Central Europe, Italy and the
Caspian region, occurring also in other parts of Europe.
Eastward as far as Scinde it is found on migration or as a
winter visitant.

Habitat: Similar to that of Rad/us aguaticus.

Genus CREX.

CORNCRAKE OR LAND-RAIL. /
Crex pratensis Lechst.

Adult Male: Upper parts pale brown, with dark brown
centres to the feathers ; wing-quills reddish-brown, the coverts
rufous ; outer webs of first primary whitish ; sides of head
bluish-grey ; band through the eye brown ; chin, upper throat
and abdomen white; rest of under parts sandy, tinged on
lower throat and chest with grey and shading into rufous

RALLIDA—MOORHEN. 237

on flanks and under tail-coverts, on which the feathers are
barred and mottled ‘with white ; ax7//aries chestnut; bill, legs
and feet flesh-colour; irides pale brown. Length about sro
inch2s ; culmen 1; wing 5°8; tail 2; tarsus 1°5.

Adult Female: Slightly smaller and paler than the male ;
the grey of the sides of head and under parts not so distinct.

Young in first plumage: Have no grey on the under
parts ; cheeks mottled with pale brown.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Northern and Central
Europe and Western-central Asia from Africa, where it occurs
as far south as Cape Colony.

Habitat: Damp corn-fields and meadows.

Genus GALLINULA.

WATERHEN, OR MOORHEN.
Gallinula chloropus (Z7zz.).

Adult : Head, neck and upper part of back deep s/aty-grey ,
rest of upper parts deep olive-brown ; edge of the wing and
under tail-coverts white, some of the latter tinged with buff ;
franks longitudinally banded with white ; a few feathers below
the vent black; rest of under parts slate-grey, shading into
brown on flanks; feathers of abdomen having white tips ; bill
and frontal plate scarlet, the former shading into yellow at tip ;
legs and feet green, irides hazel. Length 13 inches ; culmen
and frontal plate 1°5 ; wing 6°7 ; tail 3 ; tarsus 2.

Young in first plumage: Crown and nape, like rest of
upper parts, olivaceous-brown ; chin and upper throat white ;
under parts generally greyish-brown, most of the feathers hav-
ing white tips; flanks tinged with olivaceous; frontal plate
(which is smaller than in adult) and bill brown, the latter
greenish towards tip.

Distribution : Found in temperate Europe, through Africa
to Cape Colony and across Central Asia to Japan and the
Philippines.

Habitat: Marshes or reedy margins of rivers.

238 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

al

Genus FULICA.

CGOOT../
Fulica atra Zinn.

Adult: Head, neck and wander tatl-coverts nearly black ;
tips of secondaries whitish, rest of plumage slate-grey ; bill flesh-
colour at base ; frontal plate and tip of bill wAzze ; legs and
feet olive, shading into orange above the tarsal joint ; irides
crimson. Length 75 to 16 inches ; culmen and frontal plate
210.2°5 ; wing 3°25 t0/8'75; tail 2°55 tarsus 2°25.

Young in first plumage: Are paler both above and
beneath ; most of feathers on chin, throat, breast and abdo-
men with greyish-white tips ; frontal plate less developed.

Distribution: Generally distributed over the Palearctic
region, except in the extreme north. Abundant in Northern
Africa and also in parts of the Oriental region in winter.

Habitat: Large inland lakes, reedy rivers and extensive
ponds.

CRESTED COOT.
Fulica cristata Gwie/.

Adult: “Entire head and neck sooty-black ; upper parts
generally slaty-black ; wings and tail brownish-black, zz¢hout any
white on them; under parts paler than the upper parts, being
more of a dark greyish-slate ; beak and frontal shield white,
the latter terminating in ¢zvo conspicuous red knobs; legs ashy-
white ; iris reddish-brown. ‘Total length about 16 inches;
Gulmen, 3,34 £ape, 1745) wine ,o; tail. 2:65 tarsus tana
(Dresser).

Young: “ Much paler than the adult ; the feathers on the
under parts are tipped with greyish, as are also those on the
chin and neck ; the frontal shield is but little developed, the
knobs are very small and the bill is evidently dark in colour
and not white” (Dresser).

Districution ; Inhabits Africa, but likewise frequents
parts of Spain and Portugal, some of the Mediterranean islands,

GRUIDA—CRANES. 239

and is of casual occurrence in other countries of Southern
Europe.
Habitat: Similar to that of & atra.

Genus PORPHYRIO.

PURPLE GALLINULE.
Porphyrio czruleus (Vand.).

Adult: ‘ Crown, hind neck and eztire upper parts deep rich
6fuz ; quills on the inner web and the tail-feathers black, with
a slight bluish tinge ; sides of the head, chin, throat and upper
breast rich turquoise-blue, the remainder of the under parts
blackish-blue, except the under tail-coverts, which are pure
white ; frontal plate and bill bright sealing-wax red ; iris
lake-red ; legs flesh-red. Total length about 18 inches ; gape
1°7; wing 9.5; tail 4°13; tarsus 3°5; middle toe with claw
4°8; claw t” (Dresser).

Young: ‘Crown sooty blackish-blue, hind neck dark
slaty-grey with a bluish tinge; upper parts of a duller blue
than the adult, the rump slaty-blackish ; sides of head dull
ashy-grey with a wash of blue; chin and upper throat ashy-
white ; rest of the under parts dull bluish-slate, the feathers
broadly tipped with ashy-grey, the centre of the abdomen
whiter, and the under tail-coverts pure white ” (Dresser).

Distribution: Inhabits Southern Europe and Northern
Africa, of casual occurrence only in Central or Northern
Europe. Ranges eastward into Persia.

Habitat: Fresh water where there is plenty of dense vege-
tation.

Family GRUIDZ.

Genus GRUS.
COMMON CRANE. van
Grus communis Bechst.

Adult: Feathers of forehead and lores, hair-like, black ;
crown naked and red; nape, chin and fore part of throat

240 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

greyish-black ; quills black ; “@#fermost secondaries elongated
and gracefully plumed, the tips blackish; rest of plumage
pale s/aty-grey ; bill olive-green, paler towards tip and becoming
flesh-coloured at base beneath. Length 45 or £6 inches ; culmen
4°73 wing 24 to 26; tail 8; tarsus 9°75 to 10.

Young in frst plumage: ‘“ Have the parts of the head
which are naked in the adult covered with feathers, and the
black and white on the head and upper part of the neck are
replaced by brown and grey ; the plumes are much smaller and
less curled” (Seebohm).

Distribution: A summer visitor to Northern Europe and
Asia, migrating southward in autumn to Northern Africa and
India.

Habitat: Marshy plains.

DEMOISELLE CRANE. >
Grus virgo (Zznz.).

Adult Male: Sides of head, chin, throat, fore part of
neck, quills, and tips of innermost secondaries black, the
latter feathers elongated beyond the tail and straight ; behind
the eye a tuft of elingated white feathers; rest of plumage
ashy-grey ; bill olive-brown, yellowish towards tip; legs and
feet blackish ; irides deep red. Length about 3 feet; culmen
2°5-inches; wing 20 to0255 tarsus 7. .

Adult Female: Resembles the male, but is duller, and
has the white tufts on the head less developed.

Young in first plumage: Grey, with greyish-white ear-
tufts, and a brown patch in the middle of the neck ; inner-
most secondaries not elongated.

Distribution: Inhabits parts of Southern Europe, Africa
and Asia, of rare occurrence as far north as Scandinavia and
the British Isles.

Habitat: Margins of rivers, lakes or ponds.

~ SIBERIAN CRANE.

Grus leucogeranus fad.

Adult: Plumage white, except primaries which are black ;

GRUIDA—CRANES. 241

innermost secondaries elongated ; bill umber-brown ; fore
parts of crown and cheeks bare, dull red ; legs and feet dull
pink; irides pale yellow. Length 52 inches; culmen 7°4;
wing 23°4 ; tail 8; tarsus ro°9. Female slightly less.

Young: General colour rufous-buff or sandy-buff, clearest
and deepest buff on cheeks and crown and on chin very
pale ; primaries and greater coverts black; legs paler than in
adults.

Distribution : Inhabits Siberia in Asia ranging southward
to India in winter. Not unfrequently found on passage in
the east of Russia.

Habitat : Shallow ponds or lakes.

242 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

eo

Order LIMICOLZ.

Family OTIDZ.
Genus OTIS.

GREAT BUSTARD.%
Otis tarda Linn.

Adult Male: Head slaty-grey ; a long moustachial-tuft
on either side springing from base of lower mandible; throat
and upper part of neck white; lower neck chestnut-buff; on
centre of crown a longitudinal black streak ; dack, scapulars,
lesser wing-coverts, rump and tail-coverts ye/lowish or reddish-
buff, conspicuously barred and otherwise marked with black ;
greater wing-coverts and some of secondaries grey ; primaries
brownish with white bases; under parts below chest white ;
bill slaty-grey, darker at tip; legs and feet brown ; irides dark
brown. Length about 45 inches; culmen 2°5 ; wing 2475 to
204 tan nt. -tarsus.6 2,

Adult Female: Much smaller than the male, otherwise
very similar in general appearance, but lacks the long feathers
at side of head, and the chestnut-buff collar.

Young in first plumage: “Of both sexes resemble
adult female, but have the white wing-coverts broadly barred
with black, and three instead of one black band across all the
outer tail-feathers ; the white both of the upper and under parts
is also suffused with chestnut, and mottled with grey. Many of
the primaries are mottled with white, and all are tipped with
white, and some of the feathers of the crown are coloured like
the back” (Seebohm). ,

Distribution: Found in Central and Southern Europe,
rarely in Northern Africa, and eastward across Central Asia
to China and Japan. Used to breed abundantly in Great
Britain, Denmark, and Southern Sweden.

Habitat: Secluded grassy plains ; open, cultivated country.

OTIDA—BUSTARDS. 243
HOwUnRAEA BUS TAR D::

Otis undulata (7ac.).

Adult Male: “A long crest of white feathers, and a thick
ruff of long narrow ones on each side of the neck, the upper
ones black, and the lower ones white ; the whole of the upper
plumage is sandy-brown, each feather marked with zigzag bars
of dusky colour; primaries white at their base, and dark
brown towards their ends ; tail barred with grey and black ;
throat white, freckled with brown; some sandy-brown feathers
on the chest: remainder of the under surface of the body
white, beak and legs olive-green ; irides brown” (Shelley).
Length about 26 inches; culmen 2; wing rg-25; tail 8'5 ;
tarsus 4.

Adult Female: Differs from the male in being smaller,
and in having the crest and ruff less perfectly developed.

Young Birds: Appear to be very similar to the adult
female.

Distribution: Found throughout a large proportion of
Africa. Of unfrequent occurrence in Southern Europe.

Habitat: Vast sandy plains or stony mountain sides.

MACQUEEN’S BUSTARD.

Otis macqueeni 7 &. Gray.

Adult Male: “In general character of plumage resembling
Otis undulata, but differing as follows: the crest is scarcely
as full and most of the feathers are dlack on the terminal
portion ; the back is quite differently marked from what it is
in Otts undulata, being finely vermiculated with black on
rufescent ochreous ground, the markings here and there col-
lecting so as to form irregular blotches ; tail marked with only
three blue bars, the basal portion being pale ochreous-rufescent ;
under parts as in Ovzs undulata, but the elongated feathers on the
lower throat are blue-grey, and not white; soft parts as in O.
undulata. ‘Total length about 26 inches; culmen 1°7 ; wing
I5°4; tail 8°6 ; tarsus 39” (Dresser).

Adult Female: “ Differs in being rather smaller in size
and in having the crest and ruff less developed ” (Dresser).

R 2

244 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution: A rare stf™®gler from Northern India and
Mesopotamia on migration. Has been recorded from various
countries of Europe, even as far as Finland and Great Britain.

Habitat: Similar to that of O#s undulata.

LITTLE. SusraARyD:
Otis tetrax Zznz.

Adult Male: Much resembles QO. ¢arda in coloration of
upper parts, but there is less chestnut apparent, and the mark-
ings are less bold; rectrices and crown feathers coloured like
the back ; chin, upper throat and ear-coverts pale slate-grey ;
rest of under parts white, with two broad black bands across the
chest ; bill brown, darker at tip; legs and feet dull yellow ;
irides golden-yellow. Length 16 to r7 inches ; culmen 0'8 ;
wing 9°5 to 9°75; tail 4°5 ; tarsus 2°25.

Adult Female: Above lighter than the male, with bolder
markings ; neck and sides of head sandy-brown, striped with
black ; the breast and sides also marked with black.

Adult Male (Winter): Differs little from the adult
female, having lost the black and white chest bands, but the
markings on the back are much finer.

Young in first plumage: Resemble adult females.

Distribution : Breeds in Western and South-eastern
Europe, Sicily, Sardinia and parts of Russia; elsewhere in
Europe it chiefly occurs on migration. Breeds also in North-
western Africa, Northern Persia, and in parts of Turkistan ;
wintering in the valley of the Indus.

Habitat: Extensive plains, or “steppe” country.

Genus CEDICNEMUS.
NORFOLK PLOVER, OR THICK-KNEE.~
Gidicnemus scolopax (Gye/.).
Adult: Upper parts greyish-brown, the feathers having

paler margins and dark brown centres; wing-quills black, the
first two primaries banded with white; a light band across the

GLAREOLIDA‘\—PRATINCOLES. 245

wing between greater and lesser coverts ; tail-feathers very pale
brown, mottled and variegated with darker brown, and tipped
(except central pair) with black ; outermost rectrices white at
bases ; under parts whitish, shading into buff at the vent ;
moustachial region, chest and sides of body conspicuously
streaked with dark brown ,; bill pale yellow, or greenish-yellow
at base, apical half black ; legs, feet and irides yellow. Length
about 13°5 inches; culmen 1°43; wing 9; tail 4°5 ; tarsus 2°75.

Adult (Winter): Resembles the summer plumage in
general arrangements of colour, but the markings throughout
are clearer, bolder, and the general effect brighter. |

Young in first plumage: Very nearly resemble adults in
summer, but are smaller, somewhat duller above, the marking
both above and beneath less conspicuous, and the central
rectrices barred to their bases.

Distribution: Inhabits temperate Europe, Northern
Africa and South-western Asia.

Habitat: Barren plains, heaths, and open corn-land.

Family GLAREOLIDA.

Genus GLAREOLA.
PEA TINC OL E;
Glareola pratincola Lenn.

Adult: Above olive-brown, shaded on head and nape with
sandy-buff; wing-quills and greater coverts blackish ; tail-
coverts and tail white, the latter having a broad dark brown
terminal band; chin and throat buff, encircled by a narrow
black band; lores black; chest pale sandy-brown, laterally
clouded with brown; axillaries and under wing-coverts chest-
nut ; rest of under parts white; bill black, reddish at base;
legs, feet and irides dark brown. Length 9g to ro inches ;
culmen 0°5 ; wing 7°5 to 7°7; tail 4°75 ; tarsus 1°2.

Young in first plumage: Feathers of upper parts subter-
minally marked with blackish-brown, and many white tipped ;
tail-feathers margined at tips with whitish, and outer ones
much shorter than in adults; under parts dirty buffish-white,
becoming purer white towards vent ; throat-ring only apparent

246 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

in the form of streaks of dark#®6rown ; chest obscurely mottled
with brown.

Birds of the year: Have obscure buff margins to feathers
of upper parts, and a streaked throat.

Distribution: Summer visitant to Southern and South-
western Europe and Central Asia, wintering in Africa as far
south as Natal. Occasionally wanders northward to Great
Britain on migration.

Habitat: Sandy ‘‘steppe” country, marshes, and the
proximity of lakes and rivers.

NORDMANN'S PRATINCOLE.
Glareola melanoptera WVordm.

Adult : Differs from G. pratincola chiefly in being some-
what darker in general tint, and in having back axillaries, and
under wing-coverts. Length 9 to roinches; culmeno’s5 ; wing
(i755 fall 453.5 tarsus 1-5,

Young in first plumage: Have the axillaries black, mar-
gined with chestnut.

Birds of the year: “ Resemble the adult, excepting that
the feathers on the upper parts are slightly edged with fulvous,
and the black line enclosing the throat of the adult is wanting,
the throat being dirty ochre-yellow, marked with black, and
the breast is marked with blackish ” (Dresser).

Distribution: Occurs in summer in South-western Asia,
and in the extreme south-eastern portions of Europe, wintering
in Southern Africa.

Habitat : Similar localities to G. pratincola.

Family CHARADRIID-.

Genus CURSORIUS.
CREAM-COLOURED COURSER.
Cursorius gallicus (Gwe/.).

Adult: Crown slate-grey ; nape and a line to the eye d/ack ;
superciliary stripe, extending to hind neck, white ; upper parts
generally sandy-buff; beneath paler buff, shading into white

GLAREOLIDZ—PLOVERS. 247

on throat and under tail-coverts ; primaries and wuder wing
feathers nearly black ; secondaries dark brown, with buff outer
webs; tail-feathers, except central pair, white, tipped and
subterminally banded with black; bill black, paler at base
beneath; legs and feet greyish-brown; irides hazel-brown.
Length about ro inches; culmen 1 ; wing 6 to 6°25; tail 2°6;
tarsus 2°I.

Immature Birds: Black on the head faintly indicated,
or entirely wanting; feathers of both upper and under parts
more or less mottled with brown.

Distribution: Inhabits the Canary Islands, Africa north
of the Sahara, and South-western Asia, occurring casually only
north of the Mediterranean.

Habitat: Dry sandy plains.

Genus CHARADRIUS.

GOLDEN PLOVER.
Charadrius pluvialis Zznz.

Adult Male (Summer): Adove brownish-black, copiously
spotted with yellow ; primaries blackish ; chin, throat, breast and
abdomen black, bordered on sides of neck with white ;. axz/-
faries and under tail-coverts z/zte; bill, legs and feet nearly
black ; foes three in number ; irides dark hazel-brown. Length
about 10°5 inches; culmen 1 ; wing 7°5; tail 3; tarsus 1°6.

Adult Female (Summer): Like the male, but has
usually less black upon the under parts.

Adults (in change of plumage): Have the under parts
black, mixed with white feathers.

Adult (Winter): Chin and abdomen white, chest and
breast shaded and obscurely mottled with brown, or greyish-
brown.

Young in Autumn: Differ from adults in winter by being
more distinctly spotted beneath, and in having the abdomen
also shaded with greyish-brown, and mottled with brown.

Distribution: Inhabits Northern Europe, and is found
also in Western Asia as far as the Yenesei. Passes through
Southern Europe to the Mediterranean region and to Northern
Africa in autumn; some occurring as far south as Cape Colony
_ in winter.

248 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Habitat: High mountain@%t moorland districts, frequent-
ing the sea-coast in winter.

Note.—The Eastern Golden Plover, C. /u/vus, distinguished by its smoky
axillary plumes, has occurred sometimes in Europe, including twice in
the British Isles.

Genus SQUATAROLA.

GREY PLOVER.
Squatarola helvetica (Zzzz.).

Adult Male (Summer) : Forehead, superciliary stripe,
sides of neck, thighs, vent, upper and under tail-coverts white,
or nearly so ; general colour of upper parts including tail, zv/zze
barred with black and brown ; wing-quills dark brown, marked
with white on inner webs; sides of head, most of under parts
and axillaries black; bill, legs, feet and a small hind toe
black ; irides hazel. Length about 10°5 inches ; culmen 1°2 ;
wing 7°3; tail 2°75; tarsus 1°7.

Adult Female (Summer): Back bars much browner ;
white parts clouded and mottled with brown, under parts
browner.

Adult after autumn moult : “ Upper parts of the male
are brown narrowly barred with white, whilst the under parts
are white streaked on the sides of the neck and breast and on
the flanks with brown. Inthe female the white bars of the
head and back are reduced to obscure pale ends to the feathers,
and the streaks on the under parts are more abundant and less
clearly defined” (Seebohm).

Young in first plumage: Above dark brown, spotted
with yellow ; under parts very similar to adults in winter, but
more suffused with buff, and more broadly and copiously
streaked. In this plumage they somewhat resemble the Golden
Plover, but may easily be distinguished by the black axillaries, —
which are present in Sgzataro/a at all ages.

Distribution: Breeds in the extreme north of Siberia,
occurring southward on migration through a great part of Asia,
through Europe to northern half of Africa, and is also found in
North America.

Habitat : Similar to that of Charadrius pluviatis, but is more
partial to the sea-coast.

GLAREOLIDA—PLOVERS. 249

Genus AEGIALITIS.

RINGED PLOVER OR RINGED DOTTEREL.
AX gialitis hiaticula (Zznz.).

Adult (Summer): Forehead, space between the eye and
bill and sides of face black ; forehead and a patch behind the
eye white; chin, throat and a broad ring round the neck
white ; across the chest a broad black band, narrowing at the
sides and meeting behind below the white collar ; rest of under
parts white : crown and upper parts generally pale hair-brown ;
primaries dark brown; the zg when opened showing a white
bar across it; bill orange at base, black at tip; legs and feet
orange ; claws black ; irides brown. Length about 7 inches ;
culmen 0°6 ; zing 5; tail 2°43; tarsus I.

The very old female is scarcely distinguishable from the
male.

Young in first plumage: Have those parts which are
black in the adult, coloured brown like the back; most of
feathers of upper parts with very narrow pale terminal margins ;
bill uniform black.

Distribution: Breeds in the north of Europe and Asia,
ranging southward over Southern Europe and Africa on migra-
tion, and in Asia sometimes occurs in winter as far south as the
north of India.

Habitat: Shingly beaches, mud flats, margins of lakes, or
marshes inland.

Note.—The Ringed Plovers inhabiting and passing through the British
Islands and the Western European coasts appear to constitute a smaller
race than those found elsewhere.

LITTLE RINGED PLOVER. v

ZEgialitis curonica (Gme/.).

Adult: Resembles Z. Avaticula, but “the white on the pri-
martes ts confined to the shaft of the first primary ; the yellow
‘on the bill is confined to the base of the lower mandible, and
the legs and feet are dull yellow instead of orange-yellow ;

250 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

orbits yellow ; irides dark hazeM(Seebohm). Length 6 inches;
culmen 0°45 ; wing 4:4 , tail 2°25 ; tarsus 0'9.

“The changes of plumage dependent upon age, sex and
season resemble those of the Azmged Plover” (Seebohm).

Distribution: Found in summer throughout most of
Europe south of the Arctic Circle and in the Eastern Palearctic
region, occurring in winter in most parts of the Oriental region
and on both east and west coasts of Africa.

Habitat : Banks of rivers and other inland waters.

4
A

KENTISH PLOVER. “
fEgialitis cantiana (Za/h.).

Adult: Above pale hair-brown, shading into buff on hind
neck and crown ; forehead, a broad streak over each eye, a
ring round the neck, and under parts white; fore part of
crown, lores, a patch behind the eye, and one om ezther side of
chest black ; primaries dusky brown, with white shafts except
at tips ; secondaries paler, and more or less edged with white ;
bill, legs and feet d/ack ; irides dark brown. Length about 6
inches ; culmen 0°65 ; wing 4; tail 1°75 ; tarsus 1°I.

Adult Female: ‘The parts which are black in the male
are brown, and the hind head and nape have very slight traces
of buff” (Seebohm).

Adults (Winter) : Closely resemble the adult female in
summer dress.

Young in first plumage: Most of the brown feathers
have broad buff margins.

Distribution: Found on the temperate Palearctic coasts
during summer, wintering in Africa, India and Southern China.

Habitat: The sea-coast or salt marshes.

Genus EUDROMIAS. x
DOTTEREL. “

Eudromias morinellus (Zcuz.).

Adult Female (Summer): Crown- and nape-feathers
black, mottled on forehead with white; superciliary stripe

GLAREOLIDA—PLOVERS. 251

white, extending far behind the eye, and bordering the black of
the nape ; general colour of upper parts pale hair-brown, the
lower back- and wing-feathers (except primaries) bordered with
ochreous-buff ; primaries darker brown, the shaft of first white ;
chin and upper throat white ; lower throat pale hair-brown,
with some blackish marks between; across the chest a white
band, bordered above by black ; éveas¢ and flanks rich rufous ;
centre of abdomen black ; under tail-coverts white ; axzllaries
grey; bill and claws black ; legs and feet dull yellowish-brown ;
irides hazel-brown. Length about g inches ; ce/men 0° ; wing
6; tail 2°8; tarsus 1°4.

Adult Male: Very similar in general appearance, but
somewhat smaller and less richly marked, especially on the
under parts.

Young in ‘first plumage: Upper parts dull brown, the
scapular feathers and innermost secondaries conspicuously
margined with buff ; under parts strongly tinged with buff, with
dull brown centres to the breast-feathers, and slight indication
only of the black on abdomen.

Distribution : Widely distributed through Europe during
the summer, wintering in Africa north of the Equator. Occurs
in Western-central Asia on migration.

Habitat : Found during the breeding season on high moors
or mountain tops, retreating in winter to the lower county, often
to the sea-coast.

Genus VANELLUS.

SOCIABLE PLOVER.
Vanellus gregarius (/a//).

Adult: Forehead, cheeks and chin pale buff; superciliary
stripe white; top of the head and a streak from the gape,
through the eye, black ; back of the neck, back, scapulars, and
wing-coverts stone-grey ; primaries black, zhe shortest ones more
or less white on the inner webs ; secondaries and tail white,
central rectrices banded with black towards the end; throat
sandy-brown, becoming greyer on the chest, and shading into
black on the abdomen; lower abdomen and vent chestnut ;
thighs and under tail-coverts white ; bill, legs and feet black ;

252 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

irides dark brown. Length 120 13 inches ; culmen 1°1 ; wing
DG iias"5); tarsus 22.

The female is slightly duller than the male.

Youny: Generally duller than the adults. The black on
crown and through the eye much browner ; black and chestnut
on abdomen wanting. May be most easily distinguished by its
black sbortest primaries, with white inner margins.

Distribution: Breeds on the steppes of South-eastern
Russia, and Western-central Asia, wintering in India and
North-eastern Africa.

Habitat: Very similar to that of the Lapwing.

LAPWING, GREEN PLOVER OR PEE wie

Vanellus vulgaris Bechst.

Nik. Me: a ces. Leer eu lt webwcaaielatel | kaka ae ok

Adult Male (Summer): Crown, crest, throat, chest and
primaries black, the latter with a slight purplish tinge, and the
outermost ones tipped with dirty whitish ; feathers above and
behind the eye, sides of throat, breast and abdomen white ;
back, scapulars and wing-coverts metallic-green or purple ; upper
tail-coverts pale chestnut ; basal half of tail-feathers white ; upper
ones chiefly white ; the rest having the anterior half black, with
pale tips ; under tail-coverts rufescent-buff; bill black, legs and
feet reddish-brown ; irides dark brown. Length 13 inches ; cul-
INERT Wing 6-6 t0-0'°25 3 tail 4°75: tarstisia oe:

Adult Female : Somewhat paler than the male, the black
crown duller, and on throat not so extensive and mixed with
white ; the wing-coverts greener, crest shorter.

Young in first plumage: Lack the black on throat,
have very short crests, and some of back- and scapular-feathers.
tipped with buff; sides of head washed with buff; outermost
rectrices entirely white.

Distribution: Summer visitant to the northern and cen-
tral portions of the Palearctic region; resident in the British
Isles and some other North European countries. Found in
winter as far south as Northern Africa and Northern India.

Habitat: Elevated moorland, damp pastures, or swampy
plains.

GLAREOLIDA:—OYSTERCATCHER. 253

Genus STREPSILAS.

TURNSTONE. sgh
Strepsilas interpres (Zz).

Adult Male (Summer): Most of head, lower part of
back and under parts below the chest w/te ; from the fore-
head, through the eye passes a black band, joining broad malar
band beneath; entire chest and sides of upper neck black ;
crown-feathers black, margined with white; hind neck chiefly
white; mantle and scapulars black, mixed with chestnut ; wings
dark brown, varied with pale chestnut and blackish ; greater
coverts white tipped ; upper tail-coverts black and white; tail
white, banded towards the tip with black ; bill nearly black ;
legs and feet orange ; irides dark brown. Length Q inches ;
culmen 0°8 ; wing 5°8 to 6; tail 2°4; tarsus 1.

- Adult Female: Similar, but the black portions of the
plumage are duller; the white on head and neck suffused with
brown ; the chestnut on the back paler.

Adult (Winter): Differs from the summer plumage in
lacking the bright chestnut ; upper parts blackish-brown, the
black on the head and across the chest somewhat obscured by
pale margins to the feathers.

Young in first plumage: Very like adults in winter,
but paler above ; upper parts generally dull brown, most of the
feathers margined with pale yellowish, and on the wing-coverts
with reddish-buff ; chest variegated with dull brown, and black-
ish on the sides ; legs and feet pale orange.

Distribution: Breeds in Iceland, on the Scandinavian
and Baltic islands, and on the Northern Asiatic and American
coasts. Migrates southward in autumn to Polynesia, Africa and
South America.

Habitat : Shingly sea-beach, or marine mud flats.

Genus ee een
OYSTERCATCHER.
Hematopus ostralegus Zinn.

Adult: Lower part of back, ramp, upper tail-coverts, basal

254 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

half.of tail-feathers, a broad bast across the wings, entire uuder
parts below the chest, and under wing-feathers z/z¢e ; primaries
marked on inner webs with white ; plumage otherwise black ;
bill orange, deeper towards the base ; legs and feet purplish
flesh- colour ; irides crimson. Length ‘about 16 inches ; culmen
2°75; wing 9°5 to 9°75 5 taili45 tarsus 1°3.

Adults (Winter): Similar, but have white round the
front and sides of the neck ; bill browner towards the tip.

Young in first plumage: “The greater wing-coverts,
innermost secondaries, and scapulars have pale buff margins,
the longest upper tail-coverts are barred with buff and black at
the tip, and, as in adult summer plumage, there is no white on
the throat” (Seebohm).

Distribution : Summer visitant to most European coasts
(resident in some northern countries) and to a few inland
waters, also to Western Siberia. Occurs during winter as far
south in Africa as Senegambia and Mozambique, and in Asia to
Ceylon and Burmah.

Habitat: The margins of rivers and lakes, or the sea-coast.

Family SCOLOPACID.

Genus RECURVIROSTRA.

YAVOGCE DT: vw
Recurvirostra avocetta Linn.

Adult: Forehead, crown, back of neck, some of scapulars,
lesser wing-coverts, primaries and some of innermost secondaries
black; plumage otherwise white ; d2//7 (slender and recurved)
black, legs and feet bluish-grey ; irides reddish-brown. Length
nearly 18 inches ; culmen 3°25 ; wing 8°5 ; tail 3; tarsus 3°6.

Young in first plumage : Black parts brown, many of the
feathers having pale rufous margins, white parts likewi ise suf:
fused with brown.

Distribution : Eee the central and southern portions
of the Palearctic region, breeding as far north as Denmark,
migrating southward in autumn to Ceylon in Asia and Cape
Colony in Africa.

Habitat: The sea-coast, shores of lagoons, or mud flats.

SCOLOPACIDE—PHALAROPES. ~ 255

Genus HIMANTOPUS.

BLACK-WINGED STILT.
Himantopus candidus Aonnat.

Adult Male: Crown, nape and upper surface of body and
wings black, glossed on back with green ; upper tail-coverts and
tail grey, plumage otherwise pure white, with an evanescent
pink tinge on the breast ; 42/7 (straight) and claws black ; legs
and feet rosy-pink ; irides crimson. Length 13 to 13:5 inches ;
culmen 2°5 ; wing 9°5 to 9°8; tail 3; tarsus 4°5 ; bare part of
tibia 3°3. Very old males have pure white heads and necks.

Adult Female: Similar, but back distinctly brownish, and
not glossed with green.

Young: “ Have the feathers of the back and wings brown,
edged with white, and more dark feathers about the back of the
head ; the legs orange” (Saunders).

Distribution : Breeds in Ceylon, India and in south-western
portions of the Palearctic region, also in some parts of Southern
Europe. Winter visitant to Eastern Asia and Africa, in the
country also a resident. Of casual occurrence in north of
Europe.

Habitat: Sea-shore, salt marshes, or borders of inland
lakes, ete.

Genus PHALAROPUS.

GREY PHALAROPE.
Phalaropus fulicarius Zzn7.

Adult Female: Forehead dusky grey, crown black, fore
part of back, scapulars and inner secondaries black, margined
with light red ; wing-coverts and quills greyish-black, the former
with the secondaries tipped with white ; rump greyish, streaked
with blackish ; tail deep grey, dusky towards tip ; wxder parts
chestnut; bill flat, broader at tip, where it is blackish, otherwise
yellow ; legs and feet olive-brown ; irides dark brown. Length
about 8°5 inches; culmen 0'8; wing 5°35; ai (graduated)
2°75; tarsus 0°75. Male smaller and not so brightly coloured.

256 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Adult (Winter): Fears round the eye, ear-coverts
and back of head dusky, éack and scapulars uniform pearl-
grey ; secondaries, greater wing-coverts and tail-feathers dark
grey, margined with white ; priraaries nearly black ; p/umage
otherwise white; bill black, paler at base beneath ; legs and
feet yellow. |

Young in first plumage: “Closely resemble on the
under parts adults in winter plumage, but the colour of the
upper parts is very similar to that of the male in summer
plumage ” (Seebohm).

Distribution: Breeds in the circumpolar regions of both
Eastern and Western Hemispheres, migrating southward for
winter. It occurs as far south as Scinde, Northern Africa, and
Central America.

Habitat : The sea-coast, or inland sheets of water.

RED-NECKED PHALAROPE.
Phalaropus hyperboreus (Zzz.).

Adult Female: Crown, sides of head, nape, hind neck,
and upper parts generally deep slate-grey, becoming blackish-
brown on the wings and central rectrices : the former crossed
by a white band ; back and scapulars broadly marked with pale
chestnut ; front and stdes of neck chestnut, bordered below by
slaty-grey ; sides of chest slaty-grey ; a patch over the eye and
under parts otherwise white, marked on flanks with grey; d2//
slender and tapering, black ; legs and feet greyish ; irides brown.
Length about 7 inches; culmen 0°8; wing 4°37; tarsus 0°7.

Adult Male: Smaller, browner above, with paler chestnut
throat and back markings ; sides of face greyish-brown, tinged
with red, and showing more white about the eye.

Adult (Winter) : “The chestnut and grey bands across
the neck disappear, as well as the chestnut on the back and
scapulars ; and all the slate-grey and brown feathers of the
upper parts have white edges, which on the head almost
ohscure the dark bases, except on the upper ear-coverts ”
(Seebohm).

Young in first plumage: “Are suffused with brown on
the breast, and have the feathers on the forehead, mantle,
scapulars, innermost secondaries, upper tail-coverts and tail
dark brown margined with chestnut” (Seebohm).

SCOLOPACIDZ—WOODCOCK. 257

Distribution: Breeds in the circumpolar regions of both
hemispheres, migrating southward in autumn. Does not occur
very far south in Europe, but reaches Northern India, and fre-
quents the east coast of Asia down to New Guinea. In the
Western Hemisphere it ranges to Central America.

Habitat: More partial to marshes inland than P. Julicarius.

Genus SCOLOPAX.

WOODCOCK. ww
Scolopax rusticula Zinn.

Adult: Fore part of head dull greyish-brown, hinder crown
and nape rufous, crossed by four broad black bands ; chin
and upper throat white, spotted on sides with brown ; from
eye to gape a broad blackisb-brown band ; back and scapulars
yariegated with rufous-brown and black and conspicuously
spotted with pale grey or yellowish ; feathers of rump and upper
tail-coverts rufous-brown, with pale tips and vermiculated with
brown ; tail-feathers blackish, with grey tips on the upper
surface and silvery-white tips beneath, their outer webs spotted
with chestnut ; wing-quills dusky, Zarred with chestnut; under
Parts greyish-buff, nargowly darred with brown and marked on
sides of neck with chestnut ; bill dull flesh-colour, dark brown
at tip; legs and feet dull flesh-colour; irides dark brown.
Length about 14 inches ; culmen 2°5 ; wing 7°5 to 8; tail 3°3;
tarsus 1°4.

Young: Closely resemble adults, but have the forehead
more buff in tint and the chestnut spots on the outer margins
of the tail-feathers are lengthened into bars reaching the
shaft.

Distribution: Breeds in the temperate portions of the
Palearctic region, migrating southward in autumn to Northern
Africa, India and Ceylon; of very rare occurrence on the
North American coasts.

Habitat: Dense woods and forests, both deciduous and

evergreen.
S

258 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Genus GALLINAGO. al

GREAT OR DOUBLE SNIPE. x
Gallinago major (Gme/.).

Adult: Chin and sides of head whitish, speckled with
brown; hinder crown and neck buffish, marked with brown ;
on either side of crown a band of blackish-brown, with a
whitish band between ; general colour of upper parts brown,
black and chestnut; outermost scapular and mantle-feathers
conspicuously margined with buff; quills brown ; secondaries
and median wing-coverts broadly tipped with white; ¢az/-
feathers (sixteen) chestnut, mottled with black, white-tipped
and black at bases ; outermost rectrices chiefly white ; neck and
breast buff; closely marked with blackish-brown; rest of
under parts white, tinged on abdomen and flanks with buff,
and barred more or less conspicuously with brown ; bill pale
brown, darker at tip; legs, feet and irides brown. Length 11
to 12°5 inches; culmen 2°4; wing 5°5 ; tarsus 1°5.

Young in first plumage: Very nearly resemble adults,
but have the outermost tail-feathers subterminally barred with
brown.

Distribution: Inhabits Holland, North Germany, the
north-east of Europe, and in Northern-central Asia, migrating
southward in autumn, but not recorded from India or China ;
of casual occurrence in England.

Habitat: Peaty swamps, moist meadows, &c.

COMMON SNIPE. vi
Gallinago ccelestis (/7enz.).

Adult : Differs from G. major in being smaller ; in having
the secondaries only tipped with white and the outermost tatt-
feathers pale chestnut buff, tipped with white and subterminally
barred with blackish ; abroad patch on the lores dark brown ;
bill pale brown at base, dark brown at tip; legs, feet and
claws brown; irides hazel. Length 10 to 11°5 inches; culmen
2°38; wing 5; tail (of r4 feathers) 2'4; tarsus 1°2.

SCOLOPACID4—SANDPIPERS. 259
Distribution : Inhabits Northern and Central Europe and
Asia, migrating southward in autumn to Northern Africa, and
in Asia to Ceylon and the Philippines.
Habitat: Swamps, marshy meadows or moorlands.

JACK SNIPE. W
Gallinago gallinula (Zznz.),

Adult : Crown black, marked with rufous and bordered on
either side by buff; a broad patch before the eye brown;
éack and scapulars d/ack and rufous, with purple reflections,
outer margins of scapulars creamy-buff, forming two bands down
the back: wings brown, the coverts margined with pale brown
and white-tipped ; sides of head, chin, breast and abdomen
white, the two first speckled with brown; throat, chest and
flanks conspicuously shaded and mottled with brown; axillaries
white ; bill brown, paler at base ; legs and feet pale brown ;
irides dark brown. Length 8 inches; culmen 1°6; wing 4 to
4°5; tarsus (slender) o°8.

Distribution: Breeds irregularly in the Arctic regions of
Europe and Asia. In winter frequents the basin of the Mediter-
ranean, Northern Africa and Southern Asia as far east as
Burma. A winter visitant to Great Britain.

Habitat: Very similar to that of G. cedestis.

Genus LIMICOLA.

BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER.
Limicola platyrhyncha (7Zemm.).

Adult (Summer) : Above blackish-brown, most of feathers
margined with chestnut .and a few with white; ~wm, upper
tail-coverts and two central tail-feathers coloured likethe back ;
outer rectrices and smaller wing-coverts greyish-brown ; wing-
quills brown, the secondaries narrowly margined with white ;
crown blackish tinged with rufous and greyish-white ; safer-
aliary stripe white, a streak before the eye dark brown ;
feathers of neck, breast, flanks and under tail-coverts white,
with brown centres; rest of under parts white; bill dark

Sue

260 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

brown, paler beneath, veryvi@@ide and flat, much longer than
head; \egs and feet blackish; irides hazel-brown. Length 6
to 6°5 inches ; culmen 1°3 ; wing 4°2; tail 1°6; tarsus 0°8.
Adult (Winter): ‘From the base of the beak to the eye
a brown streak, over that a broad one of white; top of the
head, nape, back, all the wing-coverts and tertials ash-grey,
the centre of each feather darker and the margin lighter ;
primaries black ; chin, neck in front, and all the under surface
pure white ; legs blackish-brown ” (Saunders).
Young in first plumage: Have the wing-coverts, white
margins to the back feathers and breast suffused with buff.
Distribution: Breeds in North-eastern Europe, migrating
through Central Europe to Northern Africa in autumn.
Occurs as far east in Asia as Japan, and in winter on the
Indian coasts. <A rare straggler to Western Europe.
Habitat: Inland marshes, shores of fresh-water lakes.

Genus TRINGA. -
f

DA NE PN,
Tringa alpina Linn.

Adult (Summer): Feathers of upper parts black, with
chestnut margins; scapulars more chestnut than black ; wings
and tail greyish-brown, the latter having the central pair
darker than the rest; wing-coverts pale tipped, the greater
ones white tipped; chin white; scarcely spotted; throat,
breast and sides of neck greyish-white, each feather streaked
more or less conspicuously down the centre with blackish-
brown ; cextre of abdomen blackish-brown ; axillaries and rest
of under parts white; bill, Zegs and feet d/ack; irides hazel.
Length 6°5 to 7:5 inches; culmen 1°23; wing 4°3 to 4'5; tail
og ; tarsus 1.

Adult (Winter): Above nearly uniform ashy-grey, the
centres of the feathers darker and their margins paler ; throat
greyish-white, obscurely marked with dull brown, vest of under
parts white.

Young in first plumage: Feathers of upper parts much
as in the adult in summer, but the pale edgings also consist of
buff and white and are somewhat more conspicuous; rump,

SCOLOPACIDA—STINTS. 261

upper tail-coverts, and wing-coverts coloured like the back ;
under parts white shaded with buff, and on chest with rufes-
cent-buff; the»latter with sides of body more or less con-
spicuously spotted with blackish-brown.

Young in Autumn: Are greyer above than the preced-
ing and show the white edgings to the back feathers very con-
spicuously; beneath whiter and more clearly and_ boldly
spotted.

Distribution: Inhabits the Palearctic and part of the
Nearctic regions, breeding in the northern portions of its
range, including the mountain districts of the north of England
and Scotland.

Habitat: The sea-coast, mud flats, &c., retiring to high
moors to breed.

Note.—There are two distinct races of the Dunlin inhabiting Europe; the
one observable by its large size and wild disposition, and a smaller
one frequenting marshy land contiguous to the sea more especially.
The latter birds are very tame, are of a more slender build and more
brightly coloured on the upper parts, while beneath they show less
black in summer,

LItTLeE STINT
Tringa minuta Lezs/.

Adult (Summer): Most feathers above blackish-brown,
margined with chestnut, the chestnut scarcely observable
however on upper tail-coverts; wing-quills brown; greater
coverts tipped with white; lesser ones greyish-brown with
dark centres; fail greyish-brown, the two central feathers
blackish with narrow chestnut margins; beneath white, the
breast suffused with buff and obscurely marked with brown ;
bill, Zegs, feet and claws Jdlack; irides hazel-brown. Length
5:5 to 6 inches ; culmen o°7 ; wing 3°75 ; tail 1°5 ; tarsus o°8.

Adult (Winter): Feathers above greyish-brown with
darker centres; upper tail-coverts darker with narrow pale
margins ; forehead and entire under parts pure white.

Young in first plumage: Differ from adults in summer
plumage in having the loral region dusky ; hind neck grey
streaked with brown ; some of scapular-feathers conspicuously
margined with white; lesser coverts margined with chestnu*
spots on chest wanting.

262 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Birds of the year: “ DMfer from adults in winter plumage
in having chestnut margins to the wing-coverts and the two
centre tail-feathers ” (Seebohm).

Distribution: Breeds in the extreme north-east of
Europe and in Northern Asia, occurring elsewhere in Europe
and Asia on migration. Winters as far south as South Africa
and India.

Habitat: The sea-shore and marine mud flats, retiring to
the “tundra ” to mest.

TEMMINCK’S STINT.
Tringa temmincki Lezs/.

Adult (Summer): “The general colour of the upper
parts is greyish-brown, many of the feathers, sometimes more
and sometimes fewer, being dark brown, margined and irregu-
larly barred with buffish-chestnut ; the four centre tail-feathers
are dark brown, and the ¢hree outer ones on each side are white ;
the quills are brown, the first only with a white shaft, and a
white bar is formed across the wing by the greater coverts
having white tips. In the colour of the under parts it does
not differ from the Little Stint. Bull brownish-black ; legs,
feet and claws brownish- grey; irides hazel” (Seebohm).
Length 5:5 to 5°75 inches ; calmen 0°65; wing 3°75; tail 1:9;
tarsus 0°7.

Adult (Winter): Above brownish-grey, the feathers
having dark centres and pale margins; beneath unstreaked ;
tail-feathers as in summer.

Young in first plumage: Feathers of upper parts with
buff margins and dark brown sub-marginal bands; beneath
suffused with buff on flanks and breast and on latter streaked
with brown, otherwise very similar to adult in winter. May
be readily distinguished by the white outermost tail-feathers.

Distribution: Breeds in North-eastern Europe and
Northern Asia beyond the limits of forest-growth, ranging
southward in autumn across both continents to both eastern
and western shores of Africa, to India and the Malay Archi-
pelago.

Habitat: Very similar to that of Z ménuta.

SCOLOPACIDZ—KNOT. 263
CURLEW SANDPIPER.
Tringa subarquata (Gii/Z).

Adult (Summer): Face, streak over eye and throat
white speckled with brown; feathers of crown and neck
chestnut streaked with black and white; rump, upper and
under tatl-coverts white, barred with black; tail ashy-grey with
white shafts; wing-quills blackish with white shafts; greater
coverts ashy-brown, margined with greyish-white ; rest of upper
parts chestnut, barred with black ; beneath chestnut, shading
on sides of body and at vent into reddish-white, where it 1s
marked with black; J2// slightly decurved; \egs, feet and
claws nearly black ; irides hazel-brown. Length 7°5 inches ;
culmen 1°4; wing 4°8; tail 1°8; tarsus I°I.

The adult female is slightly larger and has a longer bill.

Adult (Winter): Above hair-brown, the centres of the
feathers darker ; wings dark brown with pale margins; upper
tail-coverts white; axillaries and under parts generally white,
striated on sides of neck and breast with brown.

Young after first moult: Neck ashy-grey with dusky
mottlings ; upper parts generally dark brown with a distinct
metallic gloss, the feathers narrowly margined with buff or
whitish ; axillaries, chin, abdomen, upper and under tail-
coverts white as in adult; breast, throat and sides of body
more or less suffused with warm ochreous.

Young (Winter): Have distinct pale margins to most
feathers above.

Distribution: Probably breeds in the Arctic regions.
Found on most European coasts during migration, occurring
in winter as far south as Cape Colony, India and Tasmania.

Habitat: Very similar to that of Z: alpina.

KNOT. VX

Tringa canutus Linn.

Adult (Summer): Crown and hind neck pale chestnut,
the former thickly streaked with blackish ; dack, scapulars and
tertiaries D/ack, spotted or broadly streaked wth pale chestnut

264 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

and white ; wing-quills greyi#®brown with white shafts ; wing-
coverts grey with pale margins ; upper tail-coverts white, sub-
terminally danded with blackish and more or less suffused with
pale chestnut ; tail pale greyish-brown ; axillaries white, barred
with dark brown; under parts generally chestnut, here and
there mixed with white; bill, legs and feet nearly black ;
irides hazel-brown. Length 9.5 inches; culmen 1°25; wing
6°25 to6"7); tarl2°5 5 tarsus 2°n5.

Adult (Winter): Rump and upper tail-coverts white as
in summer barred with black, a patch from base of upper
mandible to above the eye white ; general colour of upper parts
brownish-grey, all the wing-coverts having pale margins; be-
neath white, the throat, chest, axillaries, sides, and under tail-
coverts streaked or barred with greyish-brown.

Young in first plumage: Nearly resemble adults in win-
ter, but the feathers of upper parts have narrow sub-terminal
dark bands and pale buffish tips which later on become white ;
beneath much as in adult (winter) but spotted on chest rather
than barred.

Young (Winter): Differ from adults chiefly in having
dark sub-terminal bands and pale tips to some of wing-coverts
as in first plumage.

Distribution : Found on European and North American
coasts during autumn and winter. Breeds in Grinnell Land,
&c.

Habitat : Sea-coast, mud flats or marine marshes, probably
never moving far inland even in the breeding season.

PURPLE SANDPIPER. V
Tringa striata Linn.

Adult (Summer): Fore parts above dark greyish-brown,
the feathers margined with chestnut ; 7m, upper tail-coverts
and central tail-feathers 4/ackish-brown ; outer rectrices grey ;
wings greyish-brown, crossed by a white band; some of inner-
most secondaries chiefly white ; wing-coverts with pale tips ; an
obscure streak over the eye ; axillaries and under parts white,
the chest and flank-feathers having greyish-brown centres ; bill
dark brown, paler at base beneath; legs and feet dull yellow ;

SCOLOPACID4—SANDERLING. 2605

irides hazel. Length 8 to 8-5 inches; culmen 1°23; wing 4°75
to .5°5; tarsus 0°85.

Adult (Winter): Upper parts suffused with rich purplish,
the feathers margined with grey; eye-stripe almost obsolete ;
fore parts beneath sooty-grey, the chin whitish and chest-
feathers margined with white; flanks also marked with dark
grey ; centre of abdomen and axillaries pure white.

Young in first plumage: Several of the feathers of upper
parts margined with white, including the wing-coverts.

Distribution: Common summer visitant to the Arctic
regions of Europe, Eastern Asia and parts of North America,
passing southward on migration. Occurs in winter southward
as far as Cape Colony.

Habitat: The sea-coast, retiring to elevated moors to
breed.

Genus CALIDRIS.

SANDERLING. “~~
Calidris arenaria (Zzw7z.).

Adult (Summer): Feathers of fore parts above and be-
neath buffish-chestnut, spotted or streaked with blackish-brown ;
back- and scapular-feathers chiefly of this colour ; wing-coverts,
rump- and outer tail-feathers greyish-brown, the latter with white
shafts and the two former with dark median streaks ; greater
coverts broadly tipped with white ; some of upper tail-coverts
coloured like the back ; under parts below the breast white ;
bill, legs, and feet black; irides hazel-brown. Vo hind ‘oe.
Length 7°5 to 8 inches ; culmen o°8 to 1; wing 4°8; tail 2;
tarsus 0°9.

Adult (Winter): Feathers above drab-grey, with dark
shaft streaks and paler margins ; wing-coverts darker and with
white margins; feathers over the eye, forehead and entire
under parts white.

Young in first plumage: The chestnut of the adult re-
placed by pale buffish-white both above and beneath; this
colour soon fades into white, leaving the back chiefly dark
brown, spotted with white ; a few dark pencillings about the
sides of face and chest; innermost secondaries with dark brown
centres and white margins.

266 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Young (Winter): Clos@ resemble adults, but may be
distinguished by their dark brown innermost secondaries with
white borders.

Distribution : Summer visitant to the Arctic regions of
both hemispheres, occurring on most European coasts on pas-
sage. Some winter in the Mediterranean region; found also
at that season in South Africa, Southern Asia, Patagonia, &c.

Habitat: The sea-shore, rarely retiring far inland.

Genus MACHETES.

<7
*

RU Poy *
Machetes pugnax (Lzuz.).

Adult Male (Summer): Face covered with yellow warty
pimples ; sides of occiput adorned by two tufts of elongated
feathers ; avound the throat a large and conspicuous ruff; in
colour exceedingly variable, changing occasionally even in the
same individual in different seasons ; some are yellowish-white,
barred with black, or black glossed with purple, or barred with
white, chestnut-red, or chestnut barred with black or white, &c.
Upper parts likewise variable in colour, the general appearance
being a mixture of greyish-brown, yellowish-white, reddish-brown
and black, sides of breast and flanks pale reddish-brown, barred
transversely with black or entirely black ; abdomen, under tail-
coverts and axz//artes white; wing- and tail-quills almost uniform
brown, the central rectrices barred with dark brown ; bill yel-
lowish-orange, darker at tip ; legs and feet yellowish-brown ;
irides hazel. Length 10-5 to 12 inches; culmen 1°5 ; wing 7 to
won. otal 295 eteamStS MT;

Adult Male (Winter): “ Differs from the summer dress
in entirely lacking the ruff and tubercles on the face ; the chin
is whitish; the throat and neck greyish-brown, varied with dark
brown ” (Dresser).

Adult Female (known as the Reeve) (Summer) : Smaller
than the male ; without the ruff and occipital tufts at all sea-
sons ; above cinereous-brown mixed with velvety-black ; neck
and breast very similar, but paler ; abdomen white ; bill brown-
ish ; legs and feet yellowish-brown.

Young in first plumage: ‘ Resemble adult females in
summer plumage in the colour of their upper parts, but in that

SCOLOPACID42—SANDPIPER. 267

of their under parts they resemble adults in winter plumage,
except that in both the white is replaced by buff, very pale in
the centre of the belly and the under tail-coverts ” (Seebohm).

Young (Winter) : Very like adults, but much darker on
the breast.

Distribution: Breeds throughout the greater part of
Northern Europe and Asia, except in the extreme north. Oc-
curs also in North America casually and is found in winter as
far south as Cape Colony, India and sometimes in Borneo.

Habitat : Extensive marshes or swampy moorlands.

Genus TOTANUS.

COMMON SANDPIPER. ed
Totanus hypoleucus (Zzn.).

Adult (Summer): General colour of upper farts olive-
brown, glossed, especially on the hinder parts, with bronze,
barred, streaked or otherwise marked with dark brown ; wings
dull blackish-brown, Jarred with white; spurious wing white,
outermost rectrices chiefly white barred with brown, most of
the other tail-feathers white tipped; superciliary stripe and chin
white ; breast and sides of neck greyish, streaked with brown ;
rest of under parts including axi//aries white ; bill dark brown,
paler at the base beneath; legs and feet greyish-olive ; claws
black ; irides hazel. Length 7 to 7°25 inches; culmen 1 ;
wing 42, tail 2; tarsus o’9.

Adult (Winter): Dark streaks on upper parts hardly
observable except on wing and upper tail-coverts ; sides of
breast and neck washed with brown, but hardly streaked at all.

Young: Most of feathers on upper parts tipped with buff
and subterminally banded with dark brown; beneath as in
adults in winter.

Distribution: Temperate portions of Europe and Northern
Asia in summer, migrating southward in autumn to the coasts
of Africa, to the Indian and Australian regions.

Habitat: Margins of mountain streams or tarns, or during
the migrating period frequenting mud flats or rocky coasts.

268 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
wl
GREEN SANDPIPER.
Totanus ochropus (Zzzz.).

Adult (Summer): Above dusky-green ; sides of head and
neck streaked, and mantle, scapulars and innermost secondaries
spotted with white ; wpper tazl-coverts and tail w/e, the latter
broadly barred with brown ; wing-quills dusky brown ; beneath
white, streaked on neck and chest with brown; axz//aries brown,
narrowly barred with white; bill (from gape) above an inch
and a half long, blackish ; legs and feet slaty-grey, greenish at
the points; irides hazel-brown. Length about 8°5 inches ;
culmen I°3; wing 5°5; tail 2'2; tarsus 1°3.

Adult (Winter): The head and neck lack the white
streaks and the back spots are smaller than in summer.

Young in first plumage: Resemble adults in winter, but
are darker ; the spots on upper parts chestnut-buff, not white.

Young of the year: Resemble adults in winter, but are
much less spotted above.

Distribution: Generally distributed over Europe and Asia,
breeding in the more northerly parts and migrating in autumn
to Africa and India.

Habitat: Marshes, margins of lakes and rivers, rarely the
sea-coast.

WOOD SANDPIPER.
Totanus glareola (Lzmz.).

Adult: Differs from Z: ochropus in being smaller, having a
shorter bill and wings and longer legs ; upper parts darker, more
olive and more mixed with white about the back than in
T. ochropus ; outermost tail-feathers white, barred or spotted
with brown on outer webs; axzllaries white, obscurely barred
with brown ; bill olive; legs and feet yellowish-green ; irides
dark brown. Length 7°5 inches ; cu/men r-15; wing 4°8 ; tail
2; bare portion of tibia o'8 ; tarsus 1°45.

Young in first plumage: Are very like adults, but the
feathers of the fore parts above have marginal spots of buff and
white ; fore parts beneath very obscurely streaked.

SCOLOPACID.EA—REDSHANKS. 269

Distribution : Found throughout most of the Palearctic
region, passing southward in autumn to Southern Africa, India
and the Philippine Isles.

Habitat: Open moorland ; among brushwood near water.

MARSH SANDPIPER.

Totanus stagnatilis Lechst.

Adult (Summer): Above greyish-brown, more or less
tinged with buff; head and neck streaked and mottled with
dark brown; mantle and scapulars boldly blotched and barred
with blackish ; ower back and rump white ; tail white, barred
with brown ; primaries and lesser coverts almost uniform dark
brown ; secondaries nearly untform grey ; chin and under parts
generally white, marked with brown on sides of chest and
breast ; bill black, greenish at the base; legs and feet pale yel-
lowish-green ; irides dark brown. Length 9g inches; culmen
iO) wine’ 53; tater ; tarsus 1°9.

Adult (Winter) : General colour above cinereous, some of
the feathers centrally streaked with dark brown ; wing-coverts
dark blackish-grey, speckled with white ; beneath white, almost
unmarked.

Young in first plumage: Above blackish-brown, the
feathers margined with yellowish and some of the greater wing-
coverts transversely barred with deep brown; beneath white,
minutely spotted on cheeks, neck and breast with brown; legs
and feet greenish-grey.

Distribution: Breeds in central portions of Europe and
Asia, occurring southward on migration. Winters throughout
Africa, in India, and down to the Malay Archipelago.

Habitat: Closely resembles that of Z: ochropus (Lord Lil-
ford).

REDSHANK.
Totanus calidris (Zznz.).
Adult (Summer): Fore parts above brown, barred,

streaked, and spotted with buffish-grey ; vwmp white ; central
rectrices greyish-brown, outer ones white and all barred with

270 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

dark brown; primaries daxggebrown, the inner ones white,
marbled with brown towards the tips; secondaries pure white,
mottled with brown at their bases; beneath white, thickly
striated with dark brown on chin, throat and breast, less so on
the abdomen ; flanks and under tail-coverts barred with brown;
bill orange, black towards tip; /egs and feet orange-red ; claws
black ; irides hazel-brown. Length rr inches; culmen 1°75 3
wing. 6°2 ; tail 2°75 ; tarsus 1°8.

Adult (Winter): Crown, nape, hind neck, mantle and
scapulars hair-brown ; beneath white, washed with brown on
sides of chest, and sparingiy streaked on neck and breast with
darker brown.

Young in first plumage: Feathers of fore parts above
brown, margined with buffish-white spots, each spot obscurely
emphasised by blackish behind; under parts more streaked
than adults in winter and less so than those in summer dress.

Distribution : Found throughout most of Europe and Asia
in summer, migrating southward in autumn to South Africa
and the Indian region.

Habitat: Sea-shore or marine mud flats, breeding in
marshes inland.

SPOTTED OR DUSKY REDSHANK.
Totanus fuscus (Lzyz.).

Adult (Summer): Head, neck and under parts dull slaty-
grey ; back, scapulars, secondaries, and inner primaries dark
glossy brown, spotted or barred with white ; outer primaries
and lesser wing-coverts dusky brown; rump white ; tail white,
closely barred with brown ; centre of abdomen, flanks and
under tail-coverts more or less marked with white ; bill black,
orange at base beneath; legs and feet orange-brown ; irides
hazel-brown. Length about 12 inches; cudmen 2:3; wing 6°25
fo°6"5 5 tail 2:6; tarsus, 272%

Adult (Winter) : Head, hind neck, mantle, scapulars, and
innermost secondaries uniform greyish-brown, the margins
of the latter having dark brown and white spots ; superciliary
region white; beneath white, shaded with greyish-brown on
breast and flanks ; legs and feet brighter orange ; otherwise as
in summer.

SCOLOPACIDAE—GREENSHANK. 271

Young in first plumage: “Closely resemble adults in
breeding-plumage, but are browner on the head and _ neck,
duller in colour and more spotted; the under parts are greyish-
white, barred and streaked with brown, the lores are very dark
brown, and a white streak extends over the eye” (Seebohm).

Birds of the year: Have the entire under parts barred
with brown ; otherwise resemble adults in winter. In all stages
of plumage Z: fuscus may be distinguished from 7’ calidris by
its longer bill and brown secondaries, barred with white.

Distribution: Breeds in Europe and Asia within the
Arctic Circle and ranges in winter into the Mediterranean
region, Northern Africa, India, China and Japan.

Habitat: Marshes and swampy ground inland: less fre-
quently observed on the sea-coast than T. calidris.

GREENSHANK.
Totanus canescens (Gwe/.).

Adult (Summer): Head and neck white with dusky
streaks ; breast, upper part of abdomen and flanks white, spot-
ted with blackish ; rest of under parts, lower back and rump
pure white; feathers of scapulars, mantle and innermost
secondaries black, some having greyish margins; rest of
secondaries almost uniform brownish-grey ; primaries blackish ;
wing-coverts dark brown ; tail white, barred with pale brown ;
bill black (ant-rior half slightly recurved); legs and feet olzve-
green; irides hazel. Length 13°5 inches ; culmen 2°2; wing
7-3; tail 3; tarsus 2°3.

Adult (Winter): “The black blotches on the feathers of
the upper parts are reduced to subterminal margins, and the
streaks on the under parts are confined to the sides of the neck
and of the breast, the under wing-coverts, and the axillaries ”
(Seebohm).

Young in first plumage: “Have the feathers of the
upper parts blackish-brown, with very pale buff margins, and
on the innermost secondaries and scapulars are obscure dark
spots ; the colours of the rump, upper tail-coverts, quills and
tail are the same as in the adult, but the bars on the centre
tail-feathers are more conspicuous, because the ground-colour is
white, but those on the axillaries are nearly obsolete. The
spots on the under parts are much less distinct than in breeding-

272 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

plumage, but much more sqgghan in winter dress, extending
across the throat and far on the sides of the breast” (See-
bohm).

Distribution: Breeds in Scotland and in the more north-
erly parts of continental Europe, and in Asia as far east as the
Stanoi Mountains. Ranges in winter as far as South Africa and
Australia.

Habitat : High mountain marshes or loch sides, resorting to
the sea-coast in winter.

TEREK SANDPIPER.
Totanus terekius (Laéf.).

Adult (Summer): Adove pale hair-brown, mixed with
white about the neck and streaked with blackish on crown and
centre of back ; some of innermost secondaries almost entirely
blackish-brown ; primaries and least wing-coverts dark brown,
some of inner primaries and secondaries broadly tipped with
wite; sides of head, sides of neck and chest streaked with
brown; under parts otherwise and axcllaries pure white; bill
blackish, greenish at base beneath ; legs and feet pale green ;
irides blackish-grey, Length 8 inches; culmen 1°75; wing 5;
tail 2°25 ; tarsus I.

Adult (Winter): Greyer in general tint than in summer,
with scarcely any black about the back and little on the scapu-
lars, and tinged here and there with fulvous.

Young in first plumage: Resemble adults in summer,
but are more conspicuously streaked on the back with blackish.

Distribution : Found in summer in North-eastern Europe
and Asia from lat. 65° to lat. 70°. Ranges in autumn to the
Southern Asiatic shores.

Habitat: Very like the Common Sandpiper, frequenting
the margins of inland lakes or streams: the sea-coast in
winter.

Genus LIMOSA.
BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

Limosa lapponica (Zznz.).
Adult Male (Summer) : Above dark brown, spotted with

SCOLOPACIDZ—GODWITS. 273

chestnut on crown, mantle and scapulars ; wing-coverts greyish-
brown with darker centres and whitish margins; wings dark
brown, the secondaries margined with white ; 7wmp white, some
of feathers marked with brown; tail-feathers and axz/laries
white, barred with brown; sides of head, back of neck and
under parts rich ferruginous, marked about the flanks with
brown; bill brown, paler at the base; legs and feet black,
irides brown. Length 15°5 inches; culmen 3; wing 8; tail
2°75; tarsus 2.

Adult Female (Summer): The chestnut both above and
beneath is decidedly paler. Larger than the male.

Adults (Winter): Feathers above greyish-brown with pale
edges and dark shaft-lines ; tail-feathers plain ashy-grey, slightly
marbled at the base; wing and upper tail-coverts and rump
much as in summer; throat and chest greyish-white, streaked
with brown ; abdomen almost white ; bill tipped with black.

Young in first plumage: Resemble adults in winter, but
are browner above, where some feathers are tinged with chest-
nut, especially about the scapulars ; tail barred as in summer ;
beneath more suffused with buff.

Distribution: Breeds in North-eastern Europe, ranging
southward in autumn to the Gambia and Somali Land. In
Asia it occurs as far south as India during the cold season.

Habitat: Found on the sea-coast or on inland marshes ;
gregarious.

BLACK-TAILED GODWIT.
Limosa zgocephala (ZLzmz.).

Adult Male (Summer): Crown black, the feathers mar-
gined with bright chestnut ; eye-stripe whitish; lores brown ;
throat and neck bright chestnut, shading into white on the
chin, here and there obscurely speckled with brown; mantle
and scapulars dark brown, barred or spotted with chestnut ;
wings dark brown, crossed by a conspicuous white bar ; wing-
coverts chiefly ashy-grey, some tipped with white; dower back
and rump black; upper tail-coverts and Jdases of rectrices
white ; tatl otherwise blackish, tipped with white ; breast and
flank-feathers chestnut, barred with brown and tipped with
white ; centre of abdomen, lower tail-coverts and axillaries

z

274 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

white ; bill dark brown, ora at base ; legs and feet black ;
irides hazel. Length 18°5 to 19 inches; culmen 3°38; wing
8°25; tail 3°45; tarsus 2°75.

Adult Female (Summer): Much less brilliant in tint
than the male and considerably larger.

Adult (Winter) : ‘The general colour of both the upper
and under parts resembles that of the Bar-tailed Godwit, but
the dark shaft-streaks of the feathers are absent. The wings,
wing-coverts, lower back, upper tail-coverts, and tail of the
Black-tailed Godwit in winter resemble those of summer, and
are points which serve at all ages and in all seasons to distin-
guish this species from the Bar-tailed Godwit ” (Seebohm.)

Young in first plumage: “ Differ from adults in winter
plumage in having the feathers of the head, neck, breast, and
flanks suffused with buff, and those of the mantle, scapulars,
and innermost sécondaries broadly edged with buff” (See-
bohm).

Distribution : Summer visitant to many parts of Europe
and to Siberia, wintering in the Mediterranean region, and as
far south in Asia as Ceylon.

Habitat: Very similar to that of Z. dapponica.

Genus NUMENIUS.

CURLEW.
Numenius arquata (Zzvz.).

Adult: Head, neck and breast brownish-buff, tinged with
rufous, the shafts and central portion of the feathers dark
brown ; mantle and scapulars blackish-brown, the feathers more
or less broadly margined with pale rufous-brown ; lower back
and rump white, boldly spotted with blackish ; tail white, shaded
with brownish-buff, and barred with brown; primaries dark
brown blotched with white on inner webs ; chin and abdomen
white, the latter streaked with brown; flanks barred, streaked
and shaded with brown; #77 (long and decurved) brown,
blackish towards tip; legs and feet dusky; irides brown.
Length (male) about 20 inches; culmen 4 to 4°7; wing II;
tarsus: 3.

SCOLOPACIDAZ—CURLEWS. 275

Adult Female : Differs from the male in its larger size
only, which is especially noticeable in the bill.

Young in first plumage: More rufous above than adults,
and the scapular and innermost secondary markings have more
tendency to take the form of bars; beneath much more buff
and more copiously marked.

Young in down: Have a perfectly straight bill.

Distribution : Summer visitant to Northern Europe, occur-
ring throughout the central and southern portions on migra-
tion. Winters in Africa.

Habitat: Vast heathy commons and high moors, retiring to
the sea-coast in autumn.

WHIMBREL.
Numenius phzopus (Zzuz.).

Adult: Crown dark brown with a mesial band of greytsh-
white ; pale markings on the back and wings, margins of neck-
feathers and superciliary stripe dull greyish or greyish-brown ;
tail pale brown, barred with darker brown; axillaries strongly
barred with brown; plumage otherwise much as in JV. arqguata;
bill (decurved) dark brown, paler at the base beneath ; legs and
feet dull slate-grey ; irides hazel-brown. Length about 17
inches ; culmen 3; wing 325 to 9; tarsus 2°2.

Female larger, otherwise similar to the male.

Young in first plumage: Mantle, scapulars, innermost
secondaries and wing-coverts marked with buff instead of grey-
ish ; rump distinctly streaked with brown.

Distribution: Breeds in Arctic Europe, migrating in
autumn to South Africa, Madagascar and the Indian region.

Habitat: Very similar to that of WV. arguata.

SLENDPER-BILLED CURLEW.
Numenius tenuirostris Mzez//.

Adult: “ Very similar in plumage to JV. avguata, but much
smaller and more mealy looking. The chest is white,-and the
"2

276 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

spots on the under parts are®€ar-shaped. It may at once be
recognised from iV. pheopus by its not having a dark crown, as
well as by the colour of the axillaries and under wing-coverts,
which are pure white” (Shelley). Length 14 inches ; culmen
2°75; wing 9 to 9-3; tarsus 2°3. Female larger than the male,
the bill especially being much longer and the breast more
thickly spotted.

Distribution : Resident in the Mediterranean region.

Habitat: Probably very similar to that of VV. arguata.

LARIDAI—TERNS. 277

Order GAVIA.

Family LARIDA.

Subfamily STERNINA.
Genus HYDROCHELIDON.

BLACK TERN.
Hydrochelidon nigra (Zznz.).

Adult (Summer) : Head and neck dark lead-grey, blackish
on crown and nape; back, wings and tatl nearly uniform slate-
grey, becoming whitish on the shoulders ; breast and abdomen,
like head and neck, dark lead-grey ; under wing-coverts pale
grey ; vent and under tail-coverts white ; tail distinctly, though
not deeply, forked ; outer feathers on either side the longest ;
bill black; legs and feet dark reddish-brown; irides dark
brown. Length ro inches ; culmen 1°25 ; wing 8°5; tail 3°25;
tarsus 0°65.

Adult (Winter): Forehead, chin, throat and loral region
white, otherwise as in summer, except for a few white bars
across the breast. .

Immature Birds: “Forehead, cheeks, and under surface
of the body white; back, wings, and tail leaden-grey inter-
mingled with brown” (Shelley).

Distribution: Breeds in suitable localities throughout
most of Europe south of the Baltic, also in North America.
Winters in Africa and in South America as far as Chili.

Habitat: Inland marshes and margins of lakes and rivers ;
the sea-coast during migration.

278 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
WHITE-WING@ED BLACK TERN.
Hydrochelidon leucoptera (Schznz.).

Adult (Summer): Head and fore parts above glossy
black, Zesser wing-coverts and edge of wing white ; rest of wing-
coverts and secondaries grey ; primaries grey or black, shaded
with grey ; shafts and a streak on inner webs white ; upper tail-
coverts and ¢az/ white; beneath black except under surface of
tail which is white ; bill red ; legs and feet orange-red ; claws
black ; irides hazel-brown. Length 9:5 inches ; wing 8:2 ; tail 3;
tarsus 0°'8.

Adult (Autumn): “The black portions of the plumage
become white on the head, neck and under parts, and slate-
grey on the mantle ...some black is never absent from the
nape and ear-coverts ” (Saunders).

Young in August: “The bill livid brown; lores and
forehead white ; crown and nape brownish-grey ; a dark streak
behind the ear-coverts ; sides of the neck white, tinted with
buff ; upper back and scapulars slate-grey, tipped or overlaid
with brown, which gradually wears off; back grey mottled with
brown ; rump white, passing to grey on the tail-coverts ; tail-
feathers grey, darker and browner at tips ; primaries darker on
inner webs than in the adults; under wing-coverts and under
parts white ” (Saunders).

Distribution: Breeds in parts of Central and Soutkern
Europe and in Asia from the Caspian to the Amoor and
Northern China, also in parts of Northern Africa. Occurs in
Western Europe on migration, and winters in Southern Africa,
India, and wanders even to Celebes.

Habitat: Large inland marshes and lakes, frequenting the
sea-coast during migration.

No’e.— By its longer and more slender toes and claws, and deeply incised
webs, this species may be distinguished from 4, xigra at all ages,
whilst its generally smaller dimensions serve to separate the young
from that of 4. Ayérida” (Saunders).

WHISKERED TERN.
Hydrochelidon hybrida (Pal).

Adult (Summer): Adove pearl-grey, head and nape black -

LARIDE—TERNS. 279

cheeks, throat, under surface of wings and tail white, rest of
under parts leaden-grey ; bill blood-red ; legs, toes, and mem-
branes deep red; irides dark brown. Length 11°5 inches ;
culmen 1°45 ; wing 9°2; tail 3°45 tarsus 0°9.

Adult (Winter): Forehead, crown, and under parts
white ; some streaks on hinder crown and neck black.

Birds of the year: Crown, occiput, and ear-coverts
greyish-black ; feathers of back, scapulars, and secondaries
dark brown in’ the centre, barred and tipped with buff; tail-
feathers grey, darker towards the tips, margined with white ;
bill brown, reddish at base ; legs and feet flesh-colour.

Distribution: Breeds in South-western Spain and in
South-eastern Europe, also in Asia, from as far as Mongolia,
and in Northern Africa. Winters in South Africa, and to the
eastward has been found as far south as Australia.

Habitat : Very similar to that of . migra and H/. leucoptera.

Genus STERNA.

GUELABLL LED: TERN:
Sterna anglica Joni.

Adult (Summer): Forehead, crown, and nape black ;
hind neck greyish-white ; rest of upper parts pale ashy-grey ;
beneath white ; 42/7 deep and powerful, entirely black, legs,
feet and claws black. Length 14 to 15°5 inches ; culmen 1°5 ;
wing 13; tail 5; tarsus 1°25.

Adult (Wicter): Head white, streaked with grey and
black ; a dark stripe through the eye and ear-coverts.

Immature Birds: “The bill brown; head on the top
dull white, varied with pale brown and dusky streaks ; on the
ear-coverts a spot of greyish-black ; neck all round white:
back, scapulars, and tertials orange-brown, spotted with darker
brown ; wing-coverts ash-grey, tipped with pale orange-buff ;
primaries pearl-grey ; tail but little forked ; chin, neck, and all
the under surface of the body white ; legs and feet brown.”

Distribution: Breeds on the Danish coast, in Spain,
South-eastern Europe, and Northern Africa ; also occurs in the
Indian, Nearctic, and Neotropical regions.

Habitat : Sea-coast lagoons or marshes. Gregarious.

280 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

ALLIQD TERN.
Sterna media ors/.

Adult (Summer): Crown and nape black; back, rump
and tail pearl-grey, the outermost rectrices white ; inner webs of
wing-quills blackish next the shafts and at tips, otherwise white ;
cheeks, throat and under parts white; bill yellow; legs and
feet black ; irides brown. Length 13:5 to 16 inches; culmen
2°2:; Wink 115°5 10 12°5s tagsis a,

Adult (Winter): Forehead grey; crown white, spotted
with black, nape black, otherwise as in summer.

Young: “Resembles the adult in winter, but the wing-
coverts are marked with sooty-grey, the blackish-grey on the
quills covers a larger area, and the tail is tipped with blackish-
grey, the outer rectrices being much shorter than in the adult ”
(Dresser).

Distribution: Inhabits the Mediterranean region, the
Red Sea, and the coasts of Madagascar, ranging eastward
along the Indian coasts to the Malay Archipelago and Aus-
tralia.

Habitat: Closely resembles that of S. cantiaca. Gregari-
ous.

CASPIAN TERN.
Sterna caspia Fal/.

Adult (Summer): Feathers of forehead, crow and nape
deep d/ack, those of occiput elongated ; above (from lower neck
downwards) ashy-grey ; first six primaries darker at tips and on
inner webs, their shafts white ; beneath white; bill bright red,
paler towards tip; legs, feet and claws black; indes dark
brown. Length 19 to 27 inches; culmen 2°8; wing 16°5 ; tail
OS tarsus 155.

Adult (Winter): Crown white, streaked with black ; an-
terior angle of eye and spot behind the ear-coverts black.

Young in first plumage: “Have the beak of a dull
red, horn-coloured at the point; the forehead and top of the
head white ; the upper surface of the body varied with patches
of ash-brown, and darker transverse bands ; the feathers of the

LARIDA—TERNS. 281

tail have dark ends ; the primary quill-feathers are also dark ;
all the under surface of the body pure white ” (Saunders).
Distribution: Breeds on the Danish and Baltic coasts
and in the Mediterranean region. Found in Asia from the
Caspian to China, and inhabits also the coasts of Australia,
New Zealand, Africa, and North America.
Habitat: The sea-coast, not retiring far inland.

SANDWICH TERN.
Sterna cantiaca Gmel.

Adult (Summer): Cheeks, neck, ¢ac/ and under parts
white, on the latter often a flush of delicate pink; ead above
the eyes, d/ack, feathers of occiput elongated into a loose
plume, back and wings pearl-grey, ends of secondaries and
upper primaries almost white ; longest primary slate-grey with
a white shaft ; d2// black, tipped with yellow ; legs and feet black.
Length 15 to 1575 inches; culmen 1°9; wing 10°5 to 12; tail
6°75; tarsus 1.

Adult (Winter): Very similar, but top of head white,
spotted and streaked with black.

Young: Back varied with pale brown and black; tail
brown, ashy towards the base and white-tipped ; bill and legs
dark brown, the former paler at base beneath.

Distribution : Breeds in Northern Europe (including the
British Isles) ranging southward to the Cape of Good Hope
and Bay of Bengal in winter. Found also along the Atlantic
coast of America as far south as Brazil.

Habitat : Similar to that of S. caspia.

ROSEATE TERN.
Sterna dougalli JZont.

Adult (Summer): Top of head black ; back and wings
delicate grey, upper tail-coverts washed with grey ; outer webs
of primaries and a narrow streak next the shaft on inner webs
dark grey, and droadly margined with white, which is apparent
on the tips ; plumage otherwise white, “ged strongly on the

282 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

breast with rose-colour ; bill Wth basal portion red, otherwise
black ; legs and feet red ; irides dark brown. Length 15°5 to
ry imches; culmen 1°73 wing9 to 9.25; atl’ o > tarsus o'75-

Adult (Winter): Similar, but with a white forehead and
entirely black bill.

Young: Are conspicuously marked above with brown and
yellowish-white ; tail grey, tipped with white; beneath all
white ; primaries as in adult; bill orange-yellow at base ;
legs pale red.

Distribution: Inhabits many of the European coasts as
well as those of the eastern Nearctic region. Inhabits also
the Indian, Maiayan, African, and Australian coasts. A sum-
mer visitant to the northern portions of its range.

Habitat: The sea-coast and marine islands.

COMMON TERN.
Sterna fluviatilis Naw,

Adult (Summer): Cvown and nape black ; back and
wings grey, edges of wings white; quills with outer webs
nearly black ; zzner webs white inwardly, with a broad blacktish-
grey band next the shaft ; rump and tail white, latter with outer
webs of most feathers grey; beneath grey on breast and
abdomen ; bill and legs coral-red, former blackish towards
tip; rides dark brown. Length 13°5 to 15 inches; culmen
14 to.1°6; wihg 10%5 to an5-tailj5 to.6 ; ¢azsus 7 Ze On

Adult (Winter): Colour of bill, legs and feet paler than
in summer.

Young: Head much browner than in adults; forehead
greyish-white ; back-feathers with subterminal bands of reddish-
brown and _ pale-tipped; many of primaries white-tipped ;
beneath almost white ; bill dusky red, orange at base beneath.

Distribution: Inhabits during summer most European
waters, and is found from the Caspian to Mervin Asia, likewise
on the Atlantic coast of North America. In winter it occurs
along the western coast of Africa.

Habitat: The sea-coast, but also occurs on inland fresh
waters.

LARIDE—TERNS. 283
ARC LIC ‘TERN,
Sterna macrura /Vaum.

Adult: In general colour and changes of plumage very
similar to .S. fluviatilis, but may be distinguished by the prima
ries having a xarrow dusky-grey band on inner webs next the
shaft, no broader than the outer web ; tarsi much shorter than
in S. fuviatilis and bill uniform coral-red. Length 15 inches ;
culmen 1°25; wing 11; tail 7°25; 7arsus 0-5.

Distribution: Breeds in the Circumpolar regions, rang-
ing southward in autumn along the Atlantic coasts to Southern
Africa.

Habitat: The sea-coast, rarely appearing far inland.

LESSER TERN.
Sterna minuta Zznn.

Adult (Summer): Forehead white; crown and nape
black ; back and wings grey ; two outermost primaries dusky,
broadly margined with white on inner webs ; plumage otherwise
white ; bill yellowish-orange, tipped with black; irides dark
brown ; legs and feet orange. Length 8°25 to Qinches ; culmen
I‘I5 ; wing 7; tail 3; tarsus 0°6,

Adult (Winter): Black on head duller, in other respects
similar to summer plumage.

Young: Forehead greyish-white ; crown varied with brown ;
round the eyes and nape black, the latter mottled with white ;
feathers of back and scapulars grey, margined conspicuously
with dark brown; primaries white-tipped; bill dark brown, —
paler at base beneath.

Distribution : Summer visitant to and breeding on
European coasts and many rivers south of the Baltic, also on
the Caspian, in Lower Egypt, India, and eastward to For-
mosa. Found in winter along the Western African coast.

Habitat : Low, flat marine islets or shingly beaches.

284 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Sub famine RIN.
Genus XEMA.

SABINE’S GULL.
Xema sabini (7 Sadzne).

Adult (Summer): L£xtire head dark slate-grey; round
the neck a narrow black collar; lower part of neck white;
back and wings French-grey ; primaries black, marked with
white on the tips and on outer half of inner webs; rest of
plumage white ; bill black at base, yellow at tip; legs, feet and
claws reddish-black ; irides dark brown. Length 14 inches;
culmen 1°25; wing 10°75 ; ¢atl (forked) g'°6 ; tarsus 2°4.

Young in first plumage: Appear to have the prevailing
colour of upper parts blackish-grey ; tail tipped with black ;
outermost primaries black, brownish at base; chest-feathers
pale ash-colour.

Young in second year: “The forehead and crown
white ; an irregular and rather broad dark band or patch on
the nape where the collar joins the hood in the adult; the
white tips of the primaries are abruptly abraded . . . legs and
feet clay-brown ; mantle, tail, under parts and bill as in the
adult ” (Saunders).

Distribution: Almost Circumpolar. Occurs casually in
temperate Europe. In the Pacific Ocean, ranges south of the
Equator, but in the Atlantic is not found south of the Ber-
mudas.

Habitat: Strictly oceanic.

Genus LARUS.
LITTLE GULL:
Larus. minutus /7el/.

Adult (Summer): Sack, wings and coverts delicate
french-grey ; under surface of wings greyish-black ; axillaries
greyish-white ; ext¢rve head black ; plumage otherwise, including
tips of wing-quills, pure white, the breast sometimes tinged
with delicate pink ; bill dark red ; legs and feet coral-red ; irides

LARIDA—GULLS. 285

deep brown. Length 1roto1zinches; culmen 0’9 ; wing 88;
tail 3°6; tarsus o'9.

Adult (Winter): Very similar, but with the head white,
the nape marked with grey.

Young in first plumage: Crown, ear-coverts, mantle,
lesser wing-coverts, and innermost secondaries dusky, the
latter white-tipped ; primaries smoky-grey, broadly margined
on innermost webs with white ; tail with broad terminal black
band ; bill nearly black.

Distribution: Breeds in North-eastern Europe and in
temperate Asia, as far north as the Sea of Okhotsk. Found
on European coasts and inland waters during migration, fre-
quenting also the Mediterranean Sea and northern shores of
Africa.

Habitat: Marshes and inland lakes, retiring to the sea-
coast in autumn.

BLAC Ki nB ADDED *G@uL-L..
Larus ridibundus Zzzz.

Adult (Summer): Head dark brown , first primary black
on most part of outer web, whzte on inner web ; with a blackish
margin and tip; second and third primaries the same but
with narrower dark margins ; tips black, shafts white; fifth and
sixth primaries grey on both webs, bordered on inner webs
and tipped with black; back, secondaries and wing-coverts
uniform delicate grey; tail and under parts white, the breast
tinged with rose-colour; bill, legs and feet lake-red ; irides
Hazel, Length 26 inches ; .culmen: 1:35 wimg 2; tail 5;
tarsus 1°75.

Adult (Winter): Feathers round eyes and ear-coverts
dusky-grey ; nape marked with grey ; head otherwise white.

Young in first plumage: Hinder crown, nape, hind
neck, back, scapulars and smaller wing-coverts more or less
brown, with pale tips ; greater coverts and secondaries Irench-
_ grey; outer primaries with shafts and central portion chiefly
white, otherwise black; tail broadly banded at end with
blackish ; bill yellowish-brown, blackish at tip.

Young after first moult: Are greyer on the back, but
retain the brown marked lesser coverts and head, also the
black tips to the tail-feathers.

286 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Distribution : Inhabits st of Europe and ranges from
Palestine to the Indian coast, also across temperate Siberia,
to China and Japan. Found in Northern Africa during the
winter.

Habitat : Inland lakes, marshes, rivers or wet moors ; the
sea-coast in winter.

MEDITERRANEAN BLACK-HEADED GULL.
Larus melanocephalus JVate.

Adult (Summer): Differs from Z. ridibundus in having
the dead black, not dark brown ; first primary with line of black
on outer web; primaries otherwise white; (in less mature birds
the first five quills are streaked and subterminally banded with
black) ; d¢27 coral-red, very stout, with a dark band in front of
the angle. Length 17 inches; culmen 1°6; wing 11°5 to 12;
tailnoe tarsus: 1°90.

Birds of the year: First five primaries have outer webs,
shafts, and greater portion of inner webs dark brown both above
and beneath with light margins, otherwise similar to adults.

Distribution: Breeds in Spain, Asia Minor, and on the
Black Sea. Has occurred not unfrequently as a straggler in
France, and once or twice in England.

Habitat: Sea-coast, breeding in marine marshes.

GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL.

Larus ichthyaetus Pa//.

Adult (Summer): Head deep black; behind the eye a
small white patch ; mantle and wing-coverts dark grey ; first
primary white with a patch of black on inner web and a nar-
row band of black on outer web ; next three primaries subter-
minally barred with black and white-tipped ; secondaries con-
spicuously white-tipped; rest of plumage pure white; Jd2//
orange, yellower at base, zzth transverse black bar before the
angle; legs and feet greenish-yellow; webs orange; irides
dark brown. Length 27 inches; culmen 3°43; wing 18°75
to 19; tarsus 2°8.

LARIDA—GULLS. 287

Adult (Winter): Head and neck white, the nape and
back of neck with a few dusky markings ; central tail-feathers
sometimes grey.

Young: Above mottled with brown; primaries dusky-
brown ; secondaries brown, broadly tipped with white, their
anterior portions margined with white ; tail broadly and uni-
formly banded with black, outer rectrices edged with white.

Distribution: Inhabits the Eastern Mediterranean, the
Caspian, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf, ranging to the coasts of
India.

Habitat: Rivers or lakes during the breeding season ; fre-
quents the sea-coast in winter.

COMMON GULL.
Larus canus Zznz.

Adult (Summer): ead, neck, upper tail-coverts, tail and
under parts pure white ; back, wings and coverts grey ; second-
aries broadly edged and tipped with white ; frst primary grey
at base of inner web, otherwise black, with a band of white
across the end, and just tipped with black, rest of primaries
grey at bases, black towards the end and white-tipped ; bill
bright yellow at tip, greenish at base; legs and feet greenish-
yellow ; irides golden-brown. Length 18:5 inches ; culmen
I°4; wing 14°25 ; tail 5°6; tarsus 2. |

Adult (Winter): Head, neck, sides of chest, and some
feathers about the carpal joint spotted with pale dusky brown,
or dull ashy ; legs and feet olivaceous ; otherwise as in summer.

Young: Crown, sides of head, and nape closely mottled
with greyish-brown ; rest of upper parts dull brown, most of
the feathers with pale margins ; a few grey feathers about the
back and scapulars ; apical half of primaries chiefly blackish-
brown, greater wing-coverts chiefly grey ; tail-feathers broadly
banded with blackish-brown at tips; sides of throat, chest, and
breast closely mottled with greyish-brown; bill yellowish-
brown, nearly black on apical half; legs and feet yellowish-
brown.

Distribution : Inhabits the Palearctic region, breeding in
the more northerly parts. Breeds in Scotland, but is chiefly a
winter visitant to English coasts. Visits the basin of the

288 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Mediterranean, the Black S@®and Caspian, and eastward ex-
tends to Japanese and Chinese waters in winter.

Habitat: Marine islands or inland lakes and rivers, retiring
to the sea-coast in autumn.

HERRING GULL.
Larus argentatus Gmed.

Adult (Summer): Very similar to Z. canus in summer,
but larger, and has the outer primary chiefly black, with a grey
wedge from base down inner web, and broadly tipped with
white ; second primary with the white tip broken by a sub-
apical black band ;' third, fourth, and fifth barred with black ;
rest of primaries grey, tipped with white ; bill large, yellow,
red at angle of lower mandible; /egs and feet flesh-colour ;
irides straw-yellow. Length 22 to 24 inches; culmen 2°25 ;
wing 16°75 to 18; tail 6°75; tarsus 2°5 to 2°75.

Adult (Winter): Head streaked with dusky-grey, other-
wise as in summer.

Young in first plumage: Head, neck and under parts
greyish-white, streaked or mottled closely with greyish-brown ;
upper parts brown, the feathers with broad buffish margins and
tips; tail-feathers broadly banded with dark brown towards the
tips which are white; primaries dusky-brown; bill nearly
black ; legs and irides brown.

By the third year some feathers on the mantle are grey and
some of upper tail-coverts white ; outermost primaries become
white at their apices.

By the end of the fifth year the bird attains its fully adult
plumage, the wing-coverts being the last to lose the brown
mottlings.

Distribution: Resident on the Northern and Western
European coasts ; also found upon the Eastern Nearctic shores.

Habitat: The sea-coast.

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL.
Larus fuscus Zznn.

Adult (Summer): Back and wing-coverts dark slate-grey ;

LARIDA—GULLS. 289

innermost secondaries and longest scapulars tipped with white ;
primaries nearly black with white tips; the longest with a sub-
terminal white spot also; rest of plumage pure white ; bill as
in LZ. argentatus ; legsand feet bright yellow ; irides pale yel-
low. Length 18:5 to 23 inches; culmen 1°8; wing 15°75 to
16°25 ; tail 5°75 to 6; tarsus 2°25.

Adult (Winter): Head and neck streaked with dusky-
brown.

Young: “ Very similar in plumage to the immature Herring
Gull, but the general tint of the upper parts is darker, the pri-
maries are of a nearly uniform black, and the tail is black with
white mottlings only on the upper parts, and on the outer
feathers on each side. With increasing age this dark band
breaks up and finally disappears. The legs and feet, which
are first light brown, very soon assume a yellowish tinge.
This species takes three years in arriving at its adult plumage,
and breeds when all but four years old ” (Saunders).

Distribution : Inhabits the more temperate coasts of the
Western Palearctic region, migrating in autumn to the south as
far as the Mediterranean and Western Africa. Resident also
in Egypt and on the Red Sea.

Habitat: The sea-coast, sometimes wandering further in-
land.

SLENDER-BILLED GULL.
Larus gelastes Lucht.

Adult (Summer): Back and wings delicate grey ; mayor
part of first four primaries white; outer web of first, inner
margin of first four, and ends of all, black ; rest of plumage
pure white ; the under parts shaded with pink ; d2// slender,
coral-red; legs, feet, and edges of eyelids coral-red ; irides pale
yellow. Length 16 inches; culmen 1°63 wing rr-5 to 12;
tail 4°5 ; tarsus 19 to.2°1.

Adult (Winter): Bill orange-yellow ; legs lemon-yellow,
otherwise as in summer.

Young (Winter): “Differs from the adult in having
rather more black on the primaries, in lacking the rosy tinge
on the breast, in having the crown and nape marked with grey,
and the back, inner secondaries, scapulars, and wing-coverts

U

290 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

marked with ashy-brown, anfthe tail with a terminal blackish
band” (Dresser).

Distribution: Inhabits the Mediterranean, breeding on
south coast of Spain, at the mouth of the Rhone, in the Black
Sea, Egypt, &c. Ranges eastward into Scinde and southward
on the Western African coast to Senegal.

Habitat: The sea-coast, seldom flying far inland.

AUDOUIN’S GULL.
Larus audouini Payr.

Adult (Summer): “ Back and entire mantle pale French-
grey or pearl-grey ; frst two primaries black, with a large white
spot at the tip ; remainder French-grey, black towards the tip,
and tipped with white; rest of the plumage pure white, the
under parts sometimes with a faint rosy tinge; legs and feet
dark lead-grey ; claws black ; bill coral-red, with a black band
at the tip; iris hazel, edge of the eyelids coral-red. - Total
length about 20 inches; culmen 2°35; wine 75-7 ; tail G55
tarsus 2°4” (Dresser).

Adult Female (Summer): “ Undistinguishable in plum-
age from the male” (Dresser).

Young of the year: Plumage generally washed with
several tints of grey and brown; mantle brown, irregularly
spotted with clear brown and reddish; tail more or less
speckled with black and brown (Degland).

Distribution: Inhabits the Mediterranean region, especti-
ally about the western islands and coast of Africa.

Habitat: The sea-coast, seldom found far inland.

MEDITERRANEAN OR YELLOW-LEGGED
HERRING GULL. |

Larus cachinnans /2v.

Adult: Differs only from Z. argentatus by its darker
mantle, yellow legs and feet, and the deep orange-red ring
round the outside of the eye (Saunders). Length 22 to 26
inches ; culmen 2°4; wing 17 to 18°5; tail 7°7 ; tarsus 2°75.

LARIDZ—GULLS. 291

Young: Probably undistinguishable from the young of
L. argentatus, except that the legs are said to be flesh-coloured.

Distribution: “ Resident in the Mediterranean and Black
Seas, and ranges eastward through the Caspian and Aral Seas
to Lake Baikal and the valley of the Amoor ” (Seebohm).

Habitat : The sea-coast, and inland lakes and rivers.

SIBERIAN HERRING GULL.
Larus affinis Reinh.

Adult (Summer): Resembles Z. fuscus, but has a much
paler mantle, has a proportionately smaller foot than either Z.
argentatus or L. cachinnans, but larger than Z. fuscus. From
the last it may also be distinguished by its larger size and the
distinct “pattern” of the outer primaries, the grey wedge
being quite marked on this species, whilst it is absent in the
outer feather of LZ. fuscus ; bill, legs and feet yellow. Length
about 20 inches ; culmen 2°75 ; wing 17°4; tail 7; tarsus 2°8.

Young: “Resembles the young of Larus Juscus, but is
rather paler and more marked ” (Dresser).

Distribution : “Breeds in the Arctic regions of Siberia,
from the White Sea to Behring’s Straits, across which it ranges
into Alaska, passes through the Caspian on migration, and
winters in the Arabian Sea ” (Seebohm).

Habitat: The sea-coast as well as inland waters.

GREATER BLACK-BACKED GULL.
Larus marinus Zinn.

Adult (Summer): Closely resembles Z. Juscus, but may
be distinguished from that species by its larger size, in having
a distinct wedge on the third and fourth primaries, and in
having the degs and feet flesh-colour. Length 30 inches; culmen
2°75 ; wing 20; tail g; tarsus 3. Female rather smaller.

Adult (Winter): As in Z. fuscus, the head and neck
are spotted and striated with brown.

Young: “The young birds in their stages to maturity
resemble the young of the Lesser Black-backed and Herring

Ur2

292 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Gulls, but are always BN ag eet their legs are paler in
colour, and the light and dark markings of the plumage are
more sharply defined than in the Herring Gull, with which
alone they can possibly be confounded ” (Saunders).

Distribution: Breeds in northern and temperate Europe,
passing southward in winter to the Mediterranean as far as
Greece and the Canaries. Breeds also in Greenland and
Labrador, ranging as far south as Florida in winter.

Habitat: The sea-coast almost exclusively.

GLAUCOUS GULL.

Larus glaucus /adr.

Adult (Summer): £xtire plumage white, washed on back
and wing-coverts with pale grey ; bill yellow, orange-red at the
angle beneath ; legs and feet pinkish flesh-colour ; irides pale
yellow. Length 32 inches; culmen 2'5; wing 19; tail 8°5 ;
tarsus 2°8. Females often considerably smaller.

Adult (Winter): Similar, but has the head and neck
streaked with ashy-grey.

Young: Above whitish, mixed with dull brown ; scapulars,
innermost secondaries and tail-coverts transversely barred
with pale brown, primaries and secondaries uniform pale
yellowish-grey, tail yellowish-brown ; wings not reaching beyond
end of tail; beneath dull white, more or less mottled with
dull brown, the abdomen chiefly greyish-brown, bill pale brown,
horn- coloured towards the point.

Before the final moult into adult plumage an intermediate
dress is assumed of entirely creamy-white or white.

Distribution: Inhabits the Circumpolar region, seldom
breeding south of the Arctic Circle, wanders southward in
winter occasionally as far as the Mediterranean, to Japan, and
to Long Island, in North America.

Habitat: The sea-coast.

ICELAND GULL.
Larus leucopterus fader.

Adult: Closely resembles Z. g/aucus, but may be distin-
guished from that species by its slightly smaller size, slenderer

LARIDA‘—GULLS. 203

build, longer legs and proportionately longer wings, which latter
extend considerably beyond the tips of the tail-feathers.
Length 22 inches; culmen 2°5; wing 16 to 17; tail 7°6;
tarsus 2°5.

Young: Like adults, are mainly recognisable by their pro-
portionally longer wings than in young of Z. glaucus.

Distribution: Breeds in Alaska and within the Arctic Circle
from Greenland to Behring Straits. Straggles southward in
autumn and winter as far as the coast of France.

Habitat: The sea-coast.

Genus PAGOPHILA.
IVORY): GULL.
Pagophila eburnea (Piipps).

Adult (Summer): Luxtire plumage pure white ; bill yellow,
greenish-grey at base; /egs and feet d/ack ; irides dark brown.
Length 16 to 18 inches; culmen 1°4; wing 13; tail 6;
tarsus I°4.

Young in first plumage: Are said to be of an almost
uniform ash-grey.

A young female before us, shot in January, has the base of
the bill and upper throat clouded or mottled with greyish-
black ; shoulders, scapulars and some of wing-coverts with
terminal blackish spots ; longest primaries broadly tipped with
white ; bill horn-coloured at base, whitish towards tip; other-
wise white as in adult.

Distribution: Inhabits the Circumpolar regions; of
casual occurrence during autumn or winter south of the
Arctic Circle.

Habitat : The sea-coast, never penetrating far inland.

Genus Rissa.
KITTIWAKE.
Rissa tridactyla (Lzun.).

Adult (Summer): Back and wings s/ate-grey, secondaries

294 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

tipped with white, outermosjgprimary with the outer web and
tip black; innermost ones grey ; the rest either black-tipped
or subterminally black ; rest of plumage pure white; bill
yellow ; legs and feet blackish ; irides dark brown. Length I5°5
to 16 inches ; culmen 1°4; wing 12 to 12°5; tail 5°5; tarsus
1°3,; Aind toe absent or only rudimentary.

Adult (Winter): Hind neck slate-grey ; nape, top of
head and ear-coverts streaked with dark grey.

Immature Birds (January): Feathers in front of eye
and ear-coverts dusky-grey ; lower neck behind, carpal joint
and lesser wing-coverts conspicuously marked with black ; edge
of wing and outer webs of longer primaries black ; outermost
tail-feathers all white, next pair with a blackish spot on tip of
inner web ; rest of tail-feathers broadly tipped with blackish ;
tail distinctly forked ; bill nearly black. Older birds lose the
blackish neck-band, and retain merely a few spots about the
lesser wing-coverts.

Distribution : Breeds in Arctic and Sub-arctic Europe
including the British Isles, also on the Siberian coast and in
Arctic North America. Occurs during winter down to the
Mediterranean, the Canaries and Bermuda.

Habitat : The sea-coast: marine cliffs.

Subfamily STERCORALIINA.

Genus STERCORARIUS.
GREAT SKUA,.
Stercorarius catarrhactes Zinn.

Adult: Prevailing colour dark brown, somewhat lighter
beneath; nape and back streaked with reddish-brown, or
margined and streaked with greyish-white ; primaries blackish,
white at bases; axillaries sooty ; d2// (hooked at tip), cere, legs

and feet black ; irides dark brown. Length 22 to 25 inches ;

culmen 1°75 to.2°; wings \talll7-; tarsus .2°-6.

Young: Appear to resemble adults closely but are more
narrowly marked above with chestnut.

Distribution : Breeds in Iceland, the Faroes and Shet-
lands, also to the north of Hudson’s Straits. Wanders in

LARIDE—SKUAS. 295

winter along the Western European coasts down to Gibraltar,
and in America as far south as New England.
Habitat: The sea-coast, breeding inland on high moors.

POMATORHINE SKUA.
Stercorarius pomatorhinus (7Zemm.).

Adult: Crown, back, wings, scapulars and tail dark brown ;
two central rectrices four inches longer than the rest and twisted
upwards ; neck and most of under parts white; feathers of
former washed with golden-yellow ; across the chest a band of
sooty-brown mottlings, which in extremely old birds entirely
disappears ; some markings on sides of body, lower abdomen
and under tail-coverts sooty-brown ; bill dark horn, black at
tip; legs and feet black; irides brown. Length 212 inches ;
culmen 1°55 ; wing 14°25 to 15; tail 8°75; tarsus 2°T.

Young: Above entirely brown, most of feathers tipped with
wood-brown ; central tail-feathers little elongated, shafts of
primaries and a large portion of inner webs white; beneath
closely marked with dusky- and wood-brown alternately: bill
greenish-brown at base; legs and basal portion of feet yellow,
anterior portions of toes black.

Distribution: Breeds in Asiatic Siberia, Alaska, and
across Arctic North America to Greenland. An autumn
visitant to the more northerly coasts of Europe. Has occurred
during winter as far south as Australia, Southern Africa and
Peru.

Habitat: The sea-coast, breeding on the “ tundras.”

Note-—A dark form is sometimes met with which is almost uniform dark
brown both above and beneath, but shows the golden colour about the
neck as in the commoner form.

RICHARDSON’S SKUA.
Stercorarius crepidatus (Bamss).

Adult : Upper parts generally slaty-grey ; neck washed with
yellow ; central tatl-feathers much elongated (about three inches

296 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

beyond rest of primaries) shafts of all primary feathers
white ; beneath white, shaded on sides of body, lower abdomen
and under tail-coverts with brownish-grey ; bill slate-grey, black
at tip; legs and feet black; irides hazel. Length 20 to 21
inches; culmen 1°2; wing 7? 2077-75; tail 8:9; tarsus 1°75.

Adult (dark form): Plumage almost uniform sooty-brown
throughout, a trifle paler beneath ; neck-feathers washed with
yellowish.

Young after first moult: Top of head and neck pale
brown streaked with dark brown; rest of upper parts dark
brown ; most of the feathers tipped with whitish- or wood-
brown ; shafts of primaries white as in adults, beneath dull
wood: brown, mottled and transversely barred with umber-
brown ; basal portion of feet yellow, otherwise black.

Immature Birds: May always be distinguished from
those of S. parasiticus by their uniformly white primary shafts -
and black legs.

Distribution: Breeds in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions
of both hemispheres (in Europe down to the Orkneys). Fre-
quents the European and African coasts in winter, and has
occurred as far south as New Zealand and in the South Atlantic
to Rio de Janeiro.

Habitat: The sea-coast, or moors in the neighbourhood.

BUFFON’S SKUA.
Stercorarius parasiticus (Zzzz.).

Adult: Crown and nape blackish; neck white, washed
with yellow; upper parts generally slaty-grey: central tait-
feathers 9 inches longer than the others; shafts of outermost
pair of primaries only pure white ; beneath white, shading into
dull grey on sides of bady and lower abdomen ; throat washed
with yellow ; bill brownish at base ; black at tip ; ; legs yellowish-
olive ; feet black ; irides brown. Length 21 to 22 inches;
culmen 1°15; wing rr75 to 12; tail 13; tarsus 1£°5.

Young: Closely resemble the young of S. crepidatus, but
may always be distinguished by their pale legs and dusky
inner primary shafts.

LARID—SKUAS. 207
Breeds in the Circumpolar regions and
fjeld in Norway, not however in Iceland.
‘sation to the Mediterranean and the

, as far as N. lat. 40°.

298 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
-

Order TUBINARES.

Family PROCELLARIIDA.

Genus PROCELLARIA.

STORMY PETREL.

Procellaria pelagica Lznz.

Adult : Plumage generally sooty-black, paler beneath, rump
white; a band across the wing whitish; bases of under tail-
coverts and sides of crissum white; bill, legs and feet black ;
irides brown. Length 5:5 inches; culmen o0'5; wing 4°6;
tall.2°2: tarsus Oo:

Young: Similar to adults, but show less white on the
wings and at sides of crissum.

Distribution : Inhabits the North Atlantic, breeding upon
its eastern shores, also in the Mediterranean, also frequents
the Norwegian coast and occurs in winter throughout the South
Atlantic.

Habitat : Strictly oceanic.

LEACH’S OR FORK-TAILED PETREL.
Procellaria leucorrhoa Vzez//.

Adult : Plumage generally sooty-brown ; upper tail-coverts
and some of under ones white; ¢az/ deeply forked; smaller
wing-coverts and some of secondaries brownish-grey; bill, legs
and feet black; irides brown. Length 7°25 to 7°5 inches ;
culmen 0°65; wing 6; tail 3°43; tarsus 0°95.

Young: Probably closely resemble adults.

Distribution : Breeds on St. Kilda and the outer Hebrides.

- PROCELLARIID4—SHEARWATERS. 299

Common in America from Labrador to the Bay of Fundy,
occurring southward to Virginia in winter. Breeds in the
Northern Pacific. Winter visitant to England and other
European countries.

Habitat: Similar to that of P. pelagica.

Genus OCEANITES.

WILSON’S PETREL.
Oceanites oceanicus (Auwh/.).

Adult: Plumage sooty-black with a greyish tinge beneath ;
upper tail-coverts and some of flank-feathers pure white; ¢az/
almost square; bill black; basal portion of feet membranes
yellow, otherwise black. Length 6-5 to 7 inches; culmen 0°45 ;
wing 6; tail 2°75 ; ¢arsus I'25.

Young: Probably closely resemble adults.

Distribution: Inhabits the Atlantic and Southern Pacific
Oceans, occurring not unfrequently on European coasts
including those of the English Channel.

Habitat : Strictly oceanic.

Genus PUFFINUS.

MANX SHEARWATER.
Puffinus anglorum (Zemm.).

Adult: Above nearly black ; beneath pure white; sides of
head and neck fenclled with greyish-black and white; bill
brownish-black above, beneath bluish ; legs and feet yellowish
flesh-colour; irides brown. Length rg inches; culmen 1°4;
wing 9°25; tail 3°25; tarsus 1°65.

Young: Are considerably browner above, and sides of
body beneath more washed with greyish-black.

Distribution: Resident in the Atlantic Ocean down to
the Canaries, also in the North Sea. Breeds in large numbers
in South-western Iceland, the Faroes, Channel Islands, &c.

Habitat: Strictly oceanic.

300 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
MEDITERRANE@M@N SHEARWATER.

Puffinus kuhli (ove).

Adult : “Crown, nape and hind neck cinereous-brown, be-
coming paler and greyer on the sides of the head and of the
neck ; back, rump, and upper tail-coverts similarly coloured,
but the feathers are margined with pale brownish-cinereous ;
primary-quills blackish ; secondaries, scapulars, and wing-
coverts dark brown, the latter with lighter margins ; tail dark
brown, darker towards the tip; under parts pure white; bill
livid yellowish, becoming dark brownish-horn at the point;
legs livid yellowish; iris dark brown. Total length about 18
inches ; culmen 2°8 ; wing 13°6 ; tail 5°6 ; tarsus 2°1 ” (Dresser).

Young: “Upper parts deeper in colour than the adult,
and the under parts less pure white in coloration; beak dark
horn ; legs livid bluish ” (Dresser).

Distribution: Resident in the Mediterranean and on the
coasts of Madeira and the Canary Islands.

Habitat: Similar to that of P. anglorum.

GREATER SHEARWATER.

Puffinus major Fader.

Adult: Above ashy-grey, with paler margins to most of the
feathers, neck white nearly all round; wings and tail nearly
black ; deneath white, less pure towards the vent, where it is
slightly marked with greyish-brown ; bill dark horn-colour ;
legs and toes brown ; webs yellowish flesh-colour ; irides dark
brown. Length 18 to 19 inches; culmen 1°8; wing 12°5
to ra stail'ay > tarsus 272;

Distribution : Inhabits the Atlantic Ocean. Of irregular
occurrence on the British coasts in autumn. Has occurred on
Heligoland.

Habitat: Similar to that of P. anglorum.

SOOTY SHEARWATER.
Puffinus griseus (Gwel/.).

Adult: Adove sooty-brown, with pale margins to feathers of

PROCELLARIIDA—FULMAR. 301

back, scapulars and wing-coverts ; wings and tail blackish ;

beneath greyish-brown, shading into nearly white on chin, many

of the feathers having obscure pale margins ; bill blackish-horn ;

outer portion of tarsus and outer toes dark brown ; rest of tar-

sus, inner toes and webs brownish-ochreous ; irides dark

brown. Leugth 16 to 20 inches; culmen 1°6 to 1°75; wing
23 tail 4-95 to 4°25 > tarsus’ 2:2.

Distribution: Inhabits the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans,
breeding in the Southern Hemisphere. Not unfrequent in its
occurrence during autumn upon European coasts, including
those of the British Isles.

Habitat: Oceanic, like the preceding.

Genus FULMARUS

FULMAR PETREL.
Fulmarus glacialis (Zzzz.).

Adult: Head, neck and under parts white, or tinged with
buff ; primaries slate-grey ; a spot before the eye dusky ; plum-
age otherwise (including faz/) pearl-grey ; bill chiefly greenish-
yellow ; legs and feet pale grey (yellowish after death) ; irides
dark brown. Length r9 to 20 inches; culmen 1°8; wing 12
tO 13 5 tarsus 2.

Young in first plumage: Closely resemble adults.

Distribution: A casual autumn and winter visitant to
temperate Europe from the North Atlantic, except some of
islands off north-west coast of Scotland, where it breeds.

Habitat : Strictly oceanic.

Note.—A dark form frequently occurs, in which the prevailing colour of the
plumage is ashy-brown, paler beneath.

302 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
rr

Order ALC.

Family ALCIDA.

Genus ALCA.
RAZORBILL.

Alca torda Zznz.

Adult (Summer): Head, throat and upper parts black, in
parts slightly tinged with green, browner on wings and tail ;
under parts below the throat, ¢ps of secondaries, and a narrow
line from top of bill to the eye pure white ; bill black, crossed in
the centre of each side dy a white band; legs and feet nearly
black ; irides hazel-brown. Length 17 inches; culmen 1°45 ;
wing 7°5 to 7°75; tarsus 1°2.

Adult (Winter): Chin and throat white ; above browner.

Young: Have much less elevated bills, are browner above
and have the white tips to the secondaries less pure ; white
stripe before the eyes almost obsolete.

Distribution : Inhabits most of the coasts of the Palearctic
and Nearctic regions.

Habitat : Strictly oceanic.

Genus URIA.
COMMON GUILLEMOT.
Uria ‘troiwle {Zz77z.).

Adult (Summer) : Head, neck and upper parts blackish-
brown, with a slaty tinge on the back ; wader parts below throat,
and tips of secondaries zAzte; b2ll almost untform black; legs
and feet olivaceous-brown ; irides hazel-brown. Length 17°5
inches ; culmen 1°9; wing 7°5; tarsus 1°4.

Adult (Winter): Under parts, chin, throat and sides of

ALCIDA—GUILLEMOTS. 303

head, with exception of an elongated patch behind the eye,
pure white.

Young: May be most readily distinguished by their shorter
bills and paler legs. The white parts also are less pure.

Distribution : Inhabits the northern coasts of Europe and
the North Atlantic.

Habitat: Strictly oceanic.

Note.—Very old birds retain their summer plumage throughout the whole
year.

A Guillemot known as the Ringed or Silver-eyed Guillemot also inhabits
European coasts. It is distinguished by having a pure white streak
behind the eye on the side of the head, and also a white ring round
the eye,

BLACK GUILLEMOT.
Uria grylle (Linn.).

Adult (Summer) : Basal portion of primaries, greater and
median wing-coverts and axillaries white ; plumage otherwise
sooty-black ; bill black (inside of mouth orange) ; legs and feet
vermilion; irides brown. Length 12 to r4 inches; culmen
£2; wile 6'5 ; tarsus 1°F5.

Adult (Winter): Upper parts black, copiously barred
and speckled with white; rump nearly all white; wings and
tail as in summer ; under parts pure white.

Young: Are recognisable by having more brown about the
head and neck ; white wing patch streaked with brown.

Distribution: Inhabits Northern and Arctic Europe,
breeding as far south as the Baltic, Scotland and Ireland.
Also inhabits the Atlantic coast of North America. During
winter occasionally found as far south as the English Channel.

Habitat : Similar to that of U. ¢roile.

Note —A form known as U. mandti (Spitzbergen Guillemot), inhabiting
the Eastern Arctic Ocean, differs from the type in having “a more

slender bill, and the feathers which form the wing-spot are pure white
without any black.”

BRUNNICH’S GUILLEMOT.

Uria bruennichi (Saé.).

Adult: Closely resembles U. svoile both in plumage and

R04, A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

habits, but is distinguishabl@™by the 2c27 which is very short
and thick and the upper mandible, horn-coloured at the vase.
Length 16'5 to 18 inches; culmen 1°3, greatest depth about
o°6; wing 8°5; tarsus 1°5.

Distribution: Inhabits the Circumpolar regions, occur-
ring as far south as the North Sea coasts very occasionally
during winter.

Habitat: Similar to that of U. ¢roz/e.

Genus MERGULUS.

LitTee AUX.
Merculus alle (Zzm.).

Adult (Summer): A spot over either eye, margins of
some scapulars, tips of secondaries and under parts below
chest wAite, otherwise black; bill black; legs and feet brown-
ish flesh-colour ; irides hazel. Length 8 inches ; culmen 0°6 ;
wing 4°75; tarsus 0°8.

Adult Winter: Throat and chest white, otherwise much
as in summer.

Young: Are browner than adults and lack the white over
the eye and on scapulars.

Distribution: Breeds in Greenland, on Grimsey Island
(Iceland), in Novaya Zemlya and Spitzbergen. Occurs south-
ward in winter to the North Sea and westward to the
Canaries and down to New Jersey.

Habitat: Strictly oceanic.

Genus FRATERCULA.

PUFFIN:
Fratercula arctica (Zzzz.).

Adult (Summer): User parts and a broad collar black,
browner on the wings and crown ; face and chin white, shaded
with ashy-grey; rest of wader parts white; bill higher than
long, slate-blue, ridged across with orange ; legs and feet orange ;

ALCIDAW—PUFFIN. 305

naked skin at gape yellow; eyelids orange; irides grey.
Length 11 to 12 inches; culmen 1°7; height of bill at base
1'5; wimg 6; tarsus 11. Billof female slightly smaller than
that of the male.

Adult (Winter): Bill smaller and less conspicuous in
colour, the basal sheath having been shed in autumn.

Young: Differ from adults in having the cheeks much more
suffused with grey ; lores smoky-grey ; bill about half the depth
of adults—brownish.

Distribution: Breeds in suitable localities on the coasts
of North-western Europe and Eastern North America.

Habitat : Sea cliffs and rocky islets.

Note.—On Spitzbergen a larger race distinguished by some under the
name of /, g/acialis occurs.

306 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.
e

Order PYGOPODES.
Family COLYMBIDZ.

Genus COLYMBUS.

GREAT NORTHERN DIVER.
Colymbus glacialis Zzn.

Adult (Summer): ead and neck velvet-black, with green
and purple reflections ; beneath the throat a transverse semi-
lunar white band with black streaks ; on lower neck an inter-
rupted broad collar, streaked longitudinally with black and
white; upper parts generally black, copiously spotted with
white, most conspicuously on the scapulars ; under parts below
throat white ; bill black, legs and feet blackish, paler on the
inside ; membranes whitish ; irides brown. Length 32 to 33
inches ; culmen 3; depth of bill at nostril o°9 to 13; wing 13°5
to > dail 32)" darsus 35:

Adult (Winter): Lacks the black throat-bands.

Young: Upper parts dull brownish-black, some of feathers

with light margins and a few white spots on scapulars and wing-

coverts ; inner webs of wing-quills brownish ; tail tipped with
grey; under parts white; bill chiefly whitish; legs black,
whitish inside ; toes black, membranes nearly white.

Distribution : Breeds in North America from Greenland
to Alaska and southward to the Great Lakes, also in Iceland.
Occurs elsewhere in Europe principally in winter. May
possibly have nested in the north of Scotland.

Habitat: The sea-coast, also on fresh waters inland.

WHITE-BILLED NORTHERN DIVER.
Colymbus adamsi (G. 2. Grey).

Adult: Very nearly resembles C. gdacéalis but is larger, the

COLYMBIDA—DIVERS. 307

head is glossed with green and the lower neck with purple ;
the white scapular spots are larger ; the streaks upon the upper
throat-band are,only six in number, and on the lower one ten;
the 422/ is yellowish-white at all seasons and deeper.

In the changes of its plumage it does not differ from C.
glacialis.

Distribution: Inhabits the Circumpolar regions, having
occurred in winter as far south as the British Islands and
Japan.

Habitat: Similar to that of C. glacialis.

BLACK-THROATED DIVER.
Colymbus arcticus Linz.

Adult (Summer): Cvown and nape greyish-brown ;
scapulars with 12 or 13 transverse white bars ; wing-coverts
speckled with white, rump and back otherwise deep black ;
throat black, crossed by a band of black and white streaks ;
chest and sides of neck longitudinally banded. with black and
white ; under parts below chest white, the flanks black ; bill
black ; legs and feet dark brown ; irides crimson. Length 26
inches ; culmen 2°6; depth of bill at nostrils o°7 to o'8 ; wing
2175 ; tarsus 2°09.

Adult (Winter): Closely resembles the last species, but
is usually smaller and has a more slender bill.

Young in first plumage: Are smaller than those of C.
glacialis, otherwise similar.

Distribution: Breeds in Scotland and in North-eastern
Europe down to the Baltic. Ranges also across Siberia to the
Pacific and to the fur countries of North America. Occurs
during winter down to the Mediterranean.

Habitat : Similar to that of C. glacialis.

RED-THROATED DIVER.
Colymbus septentrionalis Zeun.

Adult (Summer): Crown, nape and back of neck longi-
tudinally streaked with black and white; rest of upper parts
dusky-brown, more or less marked about the back wth oval

x2

308 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

white spots (fewer with age) ; @rehead and sides of head and
neck grey; centreof throat ferruginous ; under parts silvery-white ;
bill and legs black, the latter tinged with green ; inside of toes
and centres of membranes yellowish ; irides brown. Length 23
to 25 inches; culmen 2; height of bill at nostrils 0-5 ; wing 11
fowL1 5; tarsus 2°75.

Adult (Winter) : Top of head and hind neck slate-grey,
speckled with white ; rest of upper parts greyish-brown, spotted
with white; wing and tail-quills brown; entire under parts
pure white.

Young in first plumage: Are browner above than adults,
and the white markings, especially of scapulars and wing-
coverts, are lengthened and more conspicuous ; sides of head
and neck mottled with ashy-grey.

Distribution: Breeds in the Arctic and Sub-arctic regions
of Europe (including Scotiand), Asia and America, ranging
southward in winter to the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian
Seas, Formosa and China, and to Maryland in America.

Habitat: Closely resembles that of C. glacials.

Family PODICIPIDIDA.
Genus PODICEPS.

GREAT: CRESTED, GRESBE:
Podiceps cristatus (Lzz.).

Adult Male (Summer): Above sooty-brown, some of
back feathers greyish-margined ; chin, cheeks and a streak over
the eye white ; crown and occipital-tufts greenish-black ; neck-frill
chestnut, margined behind with black ; across the wings a broad
white band ; beneath silvery-white, becoming ferruginous upon
the flanks ; bill dusky, yellowish at base ; legs and feet greenish-
black, greenish-yellow internally. Length 27 to 22 inches;
culmen 2; wing 7°25; tarsus 2°2 to 2°5.

Adult Female: Resembles the male very closely, but
is somewhat smaller and the occipital-tufts and neck-frill less
highly developed.

PODICIPIDIDA:—GREBES. 309

Adult (Winter): Plumage very much as in summer but
with the occipital plumes and neck-frill absent.

Young in first plumage: Are browner on crown and
nape, and have reddish-brown streaks on sides of head and
neck, otherwise much resemble adults in winter. May be
distinguished from young of C. rudbricollis by their white eye-
stripe.

Distribution: Resident in most of the central and southern
portions of the Palearctic region, ranging southward to Southern
Africa, India, Australia, and New Zealand.

Habitat: Strictly a water bird, wintering on the sea-coast,
and retiring to large inland lakes to breed.

RED-NECKED GREBE.
Podiceps griseigena (Sodd.).

Adult (Summer): Occipital tufts, crown and hind neck
black; rest of upper parts olive-black ; secondaries white ;
chin and cheeks ashy-grey, shading into white marginally ;
Jore neck chestnut ; rest of under parts silvery-white, becoming
blackish at vent; bill dusky, yellowish at gape; legs dark
olive ; feet internally dull yellowish. Length 17:5 tor&8 inches ;
culmen 1°75 ;-wing 7°25 to 7°75; tarsus 2°2.

Female: Slightly smaller than the male.

Adult (Winter) and Young: Closely resemble similar
plumage in /. cristatus, but it may be distinguished by their
smaller size and absence of white above the eye.

Distribution : Breeds in North-eastern Central Europe,
Southern Scandinavia, Russia, from Archangel to the Caspian,
and in Asia as far east as Turkestan. Elsewhere in Europe
chiefly a winter visitant. Found also in Northern Africa.

Habitat: Like that of P. cristatus, but usually frequents
smaller sheets of fresh water.

SCLAVONIAN GREBE.

Podiceps auritus (Zznz.).

Adult Male (Summer) : Top of head, chin and neck-ruff

310 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

blackish-brown ; superciliag# stripe and erectile ear-tufts
ochreous-chestnut ; upper parts generally brownish-black,
marked with grey; primaries brown ; secondaries chiefly
white ; fore eck, chest and flanks chestnut ; rest of under parts
silvery-white ; 02/7 straight, black, whitish at tip ; irides crimson ;
legs and feet olive-green, palest on webs. Length 12 to 13
inches ; culmen o’g ; wing 5°25 to 5.5 ; tarsus 1°75.

Adult (Winter) and Young: Under parts entirely white ;
neck-ruff and ear-tufts wanting.

Distribution: Breeds in Iceland, Scandinavia, and Russia,
ranging across Siberia to Japan. Breeds also in the fur
countries of North America. Occurs in the British Isles and
down to the Mediterranean in winter, and in America as far
south as Bermuda.

Habitat: Both fresh-water lakes and the sea-coast, the
latter chiefly in winter.

BLACK-NECKED OR EARED GREBE.
Podiceps nigricollis (C. Z. Brehm.).

Adult (Summer): Head and neck black, with an olive
tint especially on crown ; behind the eye a patch of elongated
feathers golden and russet ; back and wings chiefly dark brown ;
last two primaries and secondaries whize ; flanks chestnut, rest
of under parts silvery-white ; 07/7 slightly recurved, black ; legs
and feet olive; irides red, encircled with white. Length 712
inches; calmen o’9; wing 5 to 5°25; tarsus 1°6.

Adult (Winter) and Young: Closely resemble the same
states of plumage in P. auritus, but may be readily distinguished
by the slightly recurved bill and white innermost primaries.

Distribution: Breeds in suitable localities throughout
most of temperate Europe and Asia, also in Africa, in which
country it ranges southward to Cape Colony. Occurs in
Great Britain and Southern Scandinavia only on migration.

Habitat: Very similar to that of preceding species.

LITTLE GREBE.
Podiceps fluviatilis (7zmst.).

Adult (Summer): Head, hind neck and upper parts

PODICIPIDIDZI—GREBES. 311

generally dlackish-brown ; secondaries chiefly white ; ear-coverts
and front of neck ferruginous-brown ; under parts otherwise
silvery-white, mottled on chest and sides of body with brown ;
bill black, horn-coloured at tip; legs and feet dark olive ;
irides brown. Length 8:5 to ro inches; culmen 0°8; wing 4;
tarsus 1°35.

Adult (Winter): Chin and upper throat white ; sides of
head and fore neck rufous-buff ; chest and flanks brownish-
grey ; otherwise much as in summer. Distinguishable from
preceding species by its smaller size.

Young: Are browner above and the under mandible is
yellow.

Distribution: Resident in most of temperate Europe and
Asia, also found in the Malay Archipelago, Northern Australia,
Madagascar and Africa.

Habitat: Fresh waters where aquatic plants abound ;
occasionally also on the sea-coast

APPENDIX A.

A List or Nearctic (NoRTH AMERICAN) SPECIES WHICH

ARE STATED TO HAVE OCCURRED IN EUROPE.

American Robin: Zurdus migratortus.
Hermit Thrush: Zurdus pallast.
Olive-backed Thrush: Zurdus swatnsont.
Wilson’s Thrush: Zurdus fuscescens.
American Pipit: Azthus ludovicianus.
Purple Martin: Azrundo purpurea.
Red-eyed Flycatcher: Vireosylvta olivacea.
White-winged Crossbill: Loxza leucoptera.
White-throated Sparrow: Zonotrictia albicolts.
Red-winged Starling : Stwrnella_ magna. \\'
Rusty Grackle: Scolecophagus ferrugineus.
Belted Kingfisher: Ceryle alcyon.

Black-billed Cuckoo : Coccyzus erythropthalmus.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo: Coccyzus americanus.
Hairy Woodpecker : Picus vzllosus.

Downy Woodpecker: Picus pubescens.
American Hawk Owl: Surnia funerea.

Mottled Owl: Scogs aso.

Swallow-tailed Kite: Mauclerus furcatus.
American Goshawk: Astur atricaptllus.
Red-shouldered Hawk: Buteo fineatus.
American Kestrel: Falco sparvertus.

Passenger Pigeon: Lctopistes migratorius.
American Golden Plover: Charadrius virginicus.
Killdeer Plover: gzadlitis voctfera.

Wilson’s Snipe: Gallinago witsont.

Red-crested Snipe: Macrorhamphus griseus.

314 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Semipalmated Sandpiper: ZAM@netes pusillus.
Pectoral Sandpiper: Zringa maculata.
Bonaparte’s Sandpiper: 77inga fusctcolts.
Yellow Shank: Zotanus flavipes.

Solitary Sandpiper: Zo¢anus solitarius.
Spotted Sandpiper: Z7ingotdes macularius.
Buff-breasted Sandpiper: Z7ingites rufescens.
Bartram’s Sandpiper : Lartramia longicauda.
Hudsonian Curlew: MWumentus hudsonicus.
Esquimaux Curlew: Vumentus boreals.
American Bittern: Lotaurus lentiginosus.
Trumpeter Swan: Cygnus buccinator.
Cassin’s Snow Goose: Chen albatus.
American Wigeon: Anas americana.
American Green-winged Teal: Anas carolinensts.
Blue-winged Teal: Azas adiscors.

Lesser Scaup Duck: Fuligula affints.
Ring-necked Duck: Fuligula collarts.
Buffel-headed Duck: Fuligula albeola.

Surf Scoter: Gdemia perspicillata.

Hooded Merganser: JZergus cucullatus.
Capped Petrel : “strelata hesttata.

Bulwer’s Petrel: Bulweria columbina.
Laughing Gull: Larus atricilla.

Bonaparte’s Gull: Larus philadelphia.

Sooty Tern: Sterna fuliginosa.

Smaller Sooty Tern: Sterna anestheta.
Noddy: Axnous stolidus.

APPENDIX B.

A List or ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SPECIES WHICH
STATED TO HAVE OCCURRED IN EUROPE.

Red-throated Thrush: Zurdus rujicollts.

Indian Redstart : Rutictlla rufiventrts.

Pied Chat: Saxzcola lugens.

White-tailed Stonechat: Pratincola hempricht.
Ruby-throated Warbler: Calliope camtschatkensts.
Red-flanked Blue-tail : Wemura cyanura.
Bowman’s Warbler: Sylvia momus.

Bright Green Tree Warbler: Phyloscopus nitidus.
Greenish Tree Warbler: Phylloscopus viridanus.
Pallas’s Warbler: Locustella certhiola.

Dusky Bulbul: Pycnonotus barbatus.

Palestine Bulbul: Pycnonotus xanthopygus.
Gold-vented Bulbul: Pycnonotus capensts.
Isabelline Shrike: Lanius tsabellinus.

Hooded Shrike: Zelephonus erythropterus.
Chestnut-bellied Swallow: Azrundo savignit.
Algerian Chaffinch: /ringilla spodtogena.
Trumpeter Bullfinch: £7ythrospiza githaginea.
Crimson-winged Finch: Lrythrospiza sanguinea.
Strickland’s Bunting: Emberiza cinerea.
Chestnut-headed Bunting: Zmderiza luteola.
Yellow-browed Bunting: Emdberiza chrysophrys.
Curve-billed Lark: Certhilauda alaudipes.
Dupont’s Lark: Certhilauda dupontz.

Desert Lark: Ammomanes desertt.

Gould’s Desert Lark : Ammomanes cinctura.
Lesser Short-toed Lark: Calandrella minor.
Algerian Shore Lark : O¢ocorys bilopha.

ARE

316 A HANDBOOK OF EUROPEAN BIRDS.

Purple-winged Starling : Stu7M@s purpurescens.
Brandt’s Jay: Garrulus brandt..
Needle-tailed Swift: Acanthyliis caudacuta.
Egyptian Nightjar: Caprimulgus egyptius.
Philippine Bee-eater : JZerops philippinus.
Indian Roller: Coracias indicus.

Cape Eared Owl: Asvo capensis.

Southern Little Owl: Arhene glaux.

Tawny Eagle: Aguzla rapax.

Egyptian Kite: AZzlvus egyptius.

Lesser Peregrine: Falco minor.

Barbary Falcon: Falco barbarus.
Black-necked Heron: Ardea melanocephala.
Spur-winged Goose : Plectropterus gambensts.
Egyptian Goose: Chenalopex egyptiacus.
Baikal Teal: Amas formosa.

Falcated Teal: Anas falcata.

Asiatic Turtle Dove: Zurtur orientalis.
Egyptian Turtle Dove: Zurtur senegalensis.
Francolin: Francolinus vulgaris.
Green-backed Gallinule : Porphyrio smaragnotus.
Allen’s Gallinule : Porphyrio allent.

Balearic Crane: Lalearica pavonina.
Eastern Golden Plover: Charadrius fulvus.
Caspian Plover: 4g7alitis asiatica.
Black-headed Plover: Pluvianus egyptius.
White-tailed Lapwing: Chettusta leucura.
Spur-winged Plover: //oplopterus spinosus.
Cape Pigeon: Daftion capense.

Accentor, Alpine, 44
Accentor collaris, 44
Accentor, Hedge, 45

a Mountain, 45
Accentor modularts, 45

», montanellus, 45
Accipiter brevipes, 162

A nisus, I6T
accipitrinus, Asio, 140
Acredula caudata, 48

», trbyt, 48

ie rosea, 48

,, lephronota, 48
Acrocephalus agricola, 38

re arundinaceus, 39

_ aqguaticus, 40

st dumetorum, 38

. palustris, 39
= phragmttis, 40
‘5 Streperus, 39
acuta, Anas, 199
adalberti, Aquila, 156
adamst, Colymbus, 306
Aedon galactodes, 37
», familiaris, 37
afinis, Larus, 291
African Buzzard, 152
i gialitis canttana, 250
FF curontca, 249

a hiaticula, 249
Lligithalus pendulinus, 53
ah castaneus, 53

e@gocephala, Limosa, 273
Archibuteo lagopus, 153
arcticus, Colymbus, 307
@ruginosus, Circus, 148
@salon, Falco, 170
agricola, Acrocephalus, 38
Alauda arborea, 108
»» arvensis, 107
ys LCKESLALG, TOS
alba, Ciconia, 184
yo eA dee Too
,, Motactlla, 58
albellus, Mergus, 213
albicollis, Cinclus, 46
albictlla, Haltaétus, 159
albifrons, Anser, 189

eB EX.

albus, Lagopus, 228
Alca torda, 302
A lcedo ispida, 133
alchata, Pterocles, 219
alle, Mergulus, 204
Allied Tern, 280
alpestris, Otocorys, 113
Alpine Accentor, 44

i “Ghoushs 117

ys snow Finch, 85

jx, DWE, 124
alpinus, Pyrrhocorax, 117
alpina, Tringa, 260
aluco, Syrnium, 140
Ampelis garrulus, 72
Anas acuta, 199

5, angustirostris, 196

5, 0SCaS, 195

1, clypeata, 197

iy ROCCE ROO

», penelope, 200

5, guerquedula, 199

strepera, 196

Andalusian Hemipode, 233

- Short-toed Lark, 110

anglica, Sterna, 279
anglorum, Puffinus, 299
angustirostris, Anas, 196
Anser albifrons, 189
», brachyrhynchus, 189
», etnereus, 188
» erythropus, 190
», segetum, 188
Anthus campestris, 65
» cervinus, 64
» gustavt, 65
1», obscurus, 66
» pratensis, 63
is Wiehe, GF
», Sptpoletta, 65
trivialis, 63
apiaster, Merops, 135
apivorus, Pernis, 164
apus, Cypselus, 123
Aquatic Warbler, 40
aquaticus, Acrocephalus, 40
a Cinclus, 46
oa Ratlus, 234

318

Aguila adalberti, 156
», chrysaetus, 157
»» elaaga, TSS
», fasctata, 158
5. Mea, T57
») MeVIA, I55
», mtpalensis, 156
pennata, 154
arborea, Alauda, 108
Arctic Bluethroat, 20
i VLeRm, 283
arctica, Fratercula, 304
Ardea alba, 180
,, Gubulcus, 181
j). emereéa, 179
5» garzetia, 18t
», purpurea, 180
,, ralloides, 182
Ardetta minuta, 183
arenaria, Calidris, 265
arenarius, Pterocles, 218
argentatus, Larus, 288
arquata, Numenius, 274
arundinaceus, Acrocephalus, 39
arvensis, Alauda, 107
Asio accipitrinus, 140
Py ROUES eL3@
Astur palumbarius, 160
ater, Parus, 49
Athene glaux, 146
AZZ OGLUD IAS
atra, Fulica, 238
atricapilla, Muscicapa, 74
a Sylvia, 26
atricapillus, Garrulus, 119
atrigularis, Turdus, 5
Audouin’s Gull, 290
audouint, Larus, 290
Auk, Little, 304
aureola, Emberiza, 101
aurita, Saxicola, 11
Avocet, 254
avocetta, Recurvirostra, 254
Azare Vit; 52
Azure-winged Magpie, 119

Barbary Partridge, 223
Barnacle Goose, 191
betica, Calandrella, 110
batllont, Porzana, 235
Baillon’s Crake, 235
barbatus, Gypetus, 148
Barn Owl, 139

bassana, Sula, 177
Barred Warbler, 27
Barrow’s Goldeneye, 205
Bar-tailed Godwit, 272
Bean Goose, 188

INDEX.

earded Tit, 47

es Vulture, 148

Bee-eater, Blue-cheeked, 135
i Common, 135

betulina, Bonasa, 228
Bernicla brenta, 190

an leucopsts, 191

BS ruficollts, 191
Bewick’s Swan, 193
bewickt, Cygnus, 193
biarmicus, Panurus, 47
bifasciata, Loxia, 94
Bittern, 184

an Little, 183
Black-bellied Sand-Grouse, 218
Blackbird, 7
Blackcap, 26
Black-eared Chat, 11
Black-headed Bunting, 95

Ne Gull, 285
A Jay, 119
Wagtail, 62

Black Lark, I12

s Vulture, 147
Blackstart, 18
Black-tailed Godwit, 273
Black-throated Chat, 12

Ss Diver, 307
‘Thrush, 5
Black- -winged Stilt, 255
Kite, 164

Black Chat, 15
i Grouse, 230
i Guillemot, 303
9) Mite 63
» Redstart, 18
po LOE, 165
: 0) ermine
Blue-cheeked Bee-eater, 135
Blue-headed Wagtail, 61
Blue Rock Thrush, 9
Blue-throat, Red-spotted, 20
os White-spotted, 20
Blue Tit, 5x
Blyth’s Reed Warbler, 38
Bohemian Chatterer, 72
Bonelli’s Eagle, 158
fe Warbler, 32
bonelli, Phylloscopus, 32
Bonasa betulina, 228
» grisetventris, 229
Booted Eagle, 154
», Warbler, 36
borealis, Phylloscopus, 33
a Troglodytes, 58
boscas, Anas, 195
Botaurus stellaris, 184
brachydactyla, Calandrella, 109

brachyrhynchus, Anser, 189
Brambling, 87
Brent Goose, 190
brenta, Bernicla, 190
brevipes, Accipiter, 162
brittanicus, Parus, 50
Broad-billed Sandpiper, 259
bruennicht, Uria, 303
Briinnich’s Guillemot, 303
Bubo ignavus, 144
bubulcus, Ardea, 181
Buff-backed Heron, 181
Buffon’s Skua, 296
Bullfinch, Common, 92
By Northern, 92
Bunting, Black-headed, 95
ne Cirl, 97
i Common, 96
9 Cretzschmar’s, 99
Ae Lapland, 106
bts Large-billed Reed, 104
ie Little, 102
fH Meadow, 98
oe Ortolan, 98
a Pine, roo
- Reed, 103
Aa Rustic, 102
if Snow, 105
AS Yellow, 96
44 Yellow-breasted, 1o1
Bustard, Great, 242
a Houbara, 243
5 Little, 244
ms Macqueen's, 243
Buteo desertorum, 152
ne oc Pee
», vulgarts, 151
Buzzard, African, 152
ci Common, 151
Me Honey, 164
a Long-legged, 153
“ Rough-legged, 153

cachinnans, Larus, 290
ceruleus, Elanus, 164
Ae Parus, 51
i, Porphyrio, 239
cesta, Emberisza, 99
5. etltas 55
Caccabts chukar, 222
i petrosa, 223
a rufa, 223
saxatilis, 222
calandra, Melanocorypha, 110
Calandra Lark, 110
Calandrella betica, 110
on brachvdactyla, 109
Pe pispoletta, 110

INDEX,

Calidris arenaria, 265
ve Totanus, 269
caligata, Hypolats, 36
campestris, Anthus, 65
candicans, Falco, 165
candidus, Himantopus, 255
canescens, Totanus, 271
cannabina, Linota, 89
canorus, Cuculus, 137
canttaca, Sterna, 281
cantiana, gialitis, 250
canus, Gecinus, 131%
» Larus, 287
canutus, Tringa, 263
Capercatllie, 231
Caprimulgus europeus, 124
$3 rutcollis, 125
carbo, Phalacrocorax, 175
Carduelis elegans, 78
Carpodacus erythrinus, 90
ee rubicillus, gt
Carrion Crow, 121
caryocatactes, Nucifraga, 117
caspia, Sterna, 280
casarca, Tadorna, 195
Caspian Tern, 280
castaneus, githalus, 53
catarrhactes, Stercorarius, 294
caudata, Acredula, 48
Caucasian Rose Finch, 91
i Snow Partridge, 232
caucasicus, Tetraogallus, 232
cenchris, Falco, 173
Certhia familiaris, 56
cervinus, Anthus, 64
Ceryle rudis, 133
Cettia cettiz, 43
cettit, Cettia, 43
Cetti’s Warbler, 43
Chaffinch, 86
Charadrius fulvus, 248
a pluvialis, 247
Chat, Black, 15
,, Black-eared, 11
,, Black-throated, r2
ye HIESErt ee
», Eastern, Black-throated, r2.
ws (eastern Pied; 14
»» Isabelline, 14
Chelidon urbica, 76
Chen hyperboreus, 192
Chestnut-crowned Tit, 53
Chiff-chaff, 31
HF Siberian, 31
chloropus, Gallinula, 237
chloris, Ligurinus, 81
Chough, Alpine, 117
6 Common, 116

320

chrysaetus, Aquila, 157
Chrysomitris spinus, 79
a citrinella, 79

chukar, Caccabis, 222
Chukor Partridge, 222
cia, Emberiza, 98
Ciconia alba, 184

nm. Migr, £65
Cinclus albicollis, 46

», aguaticus, 46

1, melanogaster, 46
cinctus, Parus, 51
cimeraceus, Circus, 150
cinerea, Ardea, 179

53) erate, 22a
Cinereous Vulture, 147
cinereus, Anser, 188
Circaetus gallicus, 160
Circus eruginosus, 148

»» cimeraceus, 150

5 cyaneus, 149

», Swazmsont, 150
Cirl Bunting, 97
ctrlus, Emberiza, 97
Cisticola cursitans, 44
citreola, Motacilla, 59
Citril Finch, 79
citrinella, Emberiza, 96
clanga, Aquila, 155
clangula, Fuligula, 205
clypeata, Anas, 197
Coal Tit, 49
Coccothraustes vulgaris, 82
Coccystes glandarius, 137
celebs, Fringtlla, 86
celestis, Gallinago, 258
colchicus, Phasianus, 221
Collared Pratincole, 245

nA Turtle Dove, 217
collaris, Accentor, 44

», Muscicapa, 74
collurio, Lantus, 70
collybita, Phylloscopus, 3%
Columba livia, 215

a @nas, 216
ae palumbus, 215
Colymbus adamst, 306
+ arcticus, 307

my glacialis, 306

- septentrionalis, 307

Common Bee-eater, 135
~ Bunting, 96

is Buzzard, 151
8 Crane, 239

vis Guillemot, 302
i Gull, 287

ce Heron, 179
. Jay, 118

INDEX.

‘ommon Kite, 163
iy Ptarmigan, 225
A Quail, 224
‘5 Sandpiper, 267

19 Scoter, 210
rr Sheldrake, 194
” Snipe, 258

nf Swift, 123
- Teal, 198
a Tern, 282
ap Wren, 57
communis, Coturnix, 224
% Grus, 239
Ns Turtur, 216
conspicillata, Sylvia, 24
cookt, Cyanopica, 119
Coot, Common, 238
i Corested, 220
Coracias garrula, 134
corax, Corvus, 122
Cormorant, 175
r» Pygmy, 176
Corncrake, 236
cornix, Corvus, 12
cornuta, Tadorna, 194
corone, Corvus, 121
Corsican Nuthatch, 55
Corvus corax, 122
WA AAA een
59 COrone, Ter
», Srugtilegus, 121
», monedula, 120
Cotile riparia, 77
5) PUDCSIIIS, a.
Coturnix communis, 224

Courser, Cream-coloured, 246

Crag Martin, 77
Crake, Baillon’s, 235
»» little, 236
5, . epotted 234
Crane, Common, 239
», Demoiselle, 240
» siberian, 240

Cream-coloured Courser, 246

crecca, Anas, 198
Creeper, 56
ty Wall, 56

crepidatus, Stercorarius, 295

Crested Coot, 238

Wark 5ros

pe eet ee
Cretzschmar’s Bunting, 99
Crex pratensis, 236
crispus, Pelecanus, 178
cristata, Alauda, 108

se Fulica, 238

ats Fuligula, 203
cristatus, Parus, 52

INDEX.

cristatus, Podiceps, 308
ae Regulus, 29
Crossbill, 93
Se Parrot, 94
Bi Two-barred, 94
Crow, Carrion, 121
», ‘Hooded, rer
Cuculus canorus, 137
Cuckoo, 137
fet Great Spotted, 137
Curlew, 274
», Sandpiper, 263
ee Slender-billed, 275
curonica, egialitis, 249
curruca, Sylvia, 23
cursitans, Cisticola, 44
Cursorius gallicus, 246
curvtirostra, Loxia, 93
cyanecula, suecica, 20
- Wolf, 20
cyaneus, Circus, 149
Cyanopica cookt, 119
cyanus, Monticola, 9
‘5 Parus, 52
Cygnus bewicki, 193
», tmmutabilis, 193
1, MUSICUS, 193
sa), 107, T92
cypriotes, Parus, 50
Cypselus apus, 123
+5 melba, 124
» pallidus, 123

Dalmatian Pelican, 178
Dark Thrush, 6
Dartford Warbler, 28
Daulias luscinia, 21
», phtlomela, 22
Demoiselle Crane, 240
Desert Chat, 13
deserti, Saxicola, 13
desertorum, Buteo, 152
Dipper, Black-bellied, 46
», Common, 46
~ Pale-backed, 46
Diver, Black-throated, 307
», Great Northern, 306
» Red-throated, 307
», White-billed Northern, 306
domesticus, Passer, 83
Dotterel, 250
y Ringed, 249
dougalli, Sterna, 281
Dove, Collared Turtle, 217

i), is, eee
» Rock, 215
», stock, 216
», Lurtle, 216

Duck, Eider, 208

», Ferruginous, 204

», Harlequin, 206

» King Eider, 208

», Long-tailed, 207

», Marbled, 196

», .steller’s, 209

0 ettedy2eg

3s |) Wild 198

», White-headed, 211

», White-eyed, 204
dumetorum, Acrocephalus, 38
Dunlin, 260
Dusky Redshank, 270

| Phresh sw

Eagle, Bonelli’s, 158
» Booted, 154
a “Golden, 757
», Imperial, 157
», Larger Spotted, 155
», Lesser Spotted, 155
», Pallas’s Sea, 159
S25 159
», short-toed, 160
», Spanish Imperial, 156
», Steppe, 156
», White-shouldered, 156
1, White-tailed, 159
Eagle Owl, 144
Eared Grebe, 310
Eastern Black-throated Chat, 12
oo, led Chats 24
0), apnorediaris tra
»» stonechat, 16
», Golden Plover, 248
eburnea, Pagophila, 293
Egret, Great White, 180
jae eittlew ner
Egyptian Vulture, 147
Eider Duck, 208
Ss King, 208
* Steller’s, 209
Elanus ceruleus, 164
elegans, Carduelis, 78
Fleonoran Falcon, 172
eleonore, Falco, 172
Emberiza aureola, tot
Rs cesta, 99
oe cla, 98
Pt ctrlus, 97
a citrinella, 96
a hortulana, 98
a leucocephala, 100
- melanocephala, 95
na mtltaria, 96
x pustlla, 102
» pyrrhuloides, 104

32T

322

Emberiza rustica, 102

Af scheniclus, 103
enucleator, Pinicola, 93
epops, Upupa, 136
Erismatura, leucocephala, 211
Erithacus rubecula, 21
erythrinus, Carpodacus, 90
erythropus, Anser, 190
@ rythrogastra, Ruticilla, 19
Eudromias morinellus, 250
europea, Sitta, 54

“ Pyrrhula, 92
European Shore Lark, 113
europeus, Caprimulgus, 124
Eversmann’s Warbler, 33
excubttor, Lantus, 68
exilipes, Linota, 88

falcinellus, Plegadis, 186
Falco esalon, 170
», candicans, 165
», cenchris, 173
», eleonorae, 172
», jeldeggi, 168
» gyrfatco, 166
,, wslandus, 166
»» peregrinus, 167
», punicus, 168
1) SACET, OD
,, subbuteo, 169
,, tinnunculus, 172
vespertinus, 171%
Falcon, Eleonoran, 172
» Greenland, 165
- a lcelangr 166
Ai) Jer; 166
, Lanner, 168
» ereprine, 167
», Red-footed, 171
Saker, 169
familiaris, Aédon, 37
af Certhia, 56
Fan-tailed Warbler, 44
fasctata, Aquila, 158
Jeldeggi, Falco, 168
ferina, Fuligula, 201%
Serox, Buteo, 153
Ferruginous Duck, 204
Fieldfare, 3
Finch, Alpine Snow, 85
», Caucasian Rose, 91

J) a ATT #76
,, Red-fronted, 80
»» serin, 80

Fire-crested Wren, 29
Flamingo, 186
flammea, Strix, 139
flava, Motacilla, 61

INDEX.

flavirostris, Linota, 90
fluviatilis, Locustella, 42
Sterna, 282
Flycatcher, Pied, 74
= Red- breasted, 75
ae Spotted, 73
a4 White-collared, 74
Fork-tailed Petrel, 298
Fratercula ar ctica, 304
French Partridge, 223
Fringilla celebs, 86
# montifringilla, 87
Jrugilegus, Corvus, 121
Fulica atra, 238
»» ertstata, 236
fulicarius, Phalaropus, 255
Fuligula clangula, 205
i cristata, 203
bs jerina, 201
5 glacialis, 207
< histrionica, 206
pA tslandica, 205
Pe marila, 203
a nyroca, 204
rufina, 202
Fulmar Petrel, 301
Frulmarus glacialis, 301
Sulvus, Charadrius, 248
» Gyps, 146
fusca, Edemia, 211
Juscatus, Turdus, 4
Juscus, Larus, 288
», Lotanus, 270

Gadwall, 196
galactodes, Aédon, 37
galbula, Orto:us, 67
gallicus, Circaétus, 160
x Cursorius, 246
Gallinago celestis, 258
i gallinula, 259
major, 258
Gallinula chloropus, 237
gallinula, Gallinago, 259
Gallinule, Purple, 239
Gannet, 177
Garden Warbler, 27
Garganey, 199
garrula, Coractas, 134
garrulus, Ampelts, 72
Garrulus atricapillus, 119
aa glandarius, 118
garsetta, Ardea, 181
Gecinus canus, 131%
», Ssharpt, 131
»» . Mtridts, 730
gelastes, Larus, 289
Georgian Black Grouse, 230

Gypetus barbatus, 148
giu, Scops, 144
glacialis, Colymbus, 307
ch Fuligula, 207
a Fulmarus, 301
glandarius, Coccystes, 137
Garrulus, 118
Glareola melanoptera, 246
“f pratincola, 245
Ee Totanus, 268
Glaucidium passerinum, 145
Glaucous Gull, 292
glaucus Larus, 292
glaux, Athene, 146
Glossy Ibis, 186
Godwit, Bar-tailed, 272
e Black-tailed, 273
Golden-crested Wren, 29
Golden Eagle, 157
» Oriole, 67
5» Plover, 297
Fe Eastern, 248
Goldeneye, 205
f Barrow’s, 205
ts Iceland, 205
Goldfinch, 78
Goosander, 212
Goose, Bean, 188
», Barnacle, 191
75... rent, E96
», Grey-lag, 188

,, Lesser White-fronted, 190

», Pink-footed, 189
», Red-breasted, 191
», snow, I92
White- fronted, 189
Goshawk, 160
Gould’s Redstart, 19
graculus, Pyrrhocorax, 116
Pr Phalacrocorax, 175
Grasshopper Warbler, 41
Great Black-backed Gull, 291
,, Black-headed Gull, 286
,, Bustard, 242
», Crested Grebe, 308
», Grey Shrike, 68
», Northern Diver, 306
», Reed Warbler, 39
», skua, 294
», snipe, 258
», Spotted Cuckoo, 137
a Lith ag
White Egret, 180
Greater Shearwater, 300
Grebe, Black-necked, 310
» Hared, 310

Woodpecker, 126

Woodpecker, 126

INDEX.

323

Grebe, Great-crested, 308

”

Little, 310
Red-necked, 309
Sclavonian, 309

Grecian Woodpecker, 128
gregarius, Vanellus, 251
Greek Partridge, 222
Green Sandpiper, 268
Greenshank, 271

Green Woodpecker, 130
Greenland Falcon, 165
Grey-backed Warbler, 37

”

”

Grey-

headed Green Woodpecker, 131

headed Wagtail, 61

legged Willow Warbler, 33
Phalarope, 255

Plover, 248

Wagtail, 60

lag Goose, 188

Griffon Vulture, 146
griseigena, Podiceps, 309
grisetventris, Bonasa, 229
griseus, Nycticorax, 182

Puffinus, 300

grisola, Muscicapa, 73
Grosbeak, Pine, 93

Ay Scarlet, go
Grouse, Black, 230

”

”

”

”

Georgian Black, 230
Hazel, 228
Menzbier’s Hazel, 229
Red, 226

Grus communis, 239

”

leucogeranus, 240
Virgo, 240

grylle, Uria, 303
Guillemot, Black, 303

e Briinnich’s, 303

Fy Common, 302

ps Spitzbergen, 303
Giildenstadt’s Redstart, 19
Gull-billed Tern, 279

Gull,

”

”

”

”

”

Audouin’s, 290

Black-headed, 285

Common, 287

Glaucus, 292

Great Black-backed, 291

Great Black-headed, 286

Herring, 288

Iceland, 292

Ivory, 293

Kittiwake, 293

Lesser Black-backed, 288

Little, 284

Mediterranean Black-headed,
286

Sabine’s, 284

Siberian Herring, 291

Vaz

324 . INDEX.

Gull, Slender-billed, 289
,, Yellow-legged Herring, 290
gustavt, Anthus, 65
Gypetus barbatus, 148
Gyps fulvus, 146
gvrfalco, Falco, 166

Hematopus ostralegus, 253
Haliaétus albicilla, 159
a leucoryphus, 159
haliaétus, Pandion, 173
Harlequin Duck, 206
Harrier Hen, 149
», Marsh, 148
», Montagu’s, 150
“e Pallid, 150
Hawfinch, 82
Hawk, Levant Sparrow, 162
», Sparrow, T61r
Hawk Owl, 142
Hazel Grouse, 228
1s Menzbier’s, 229
Hedge Accentor, 45
heliaca, Aquila, 157
helvetica, Squatarola, 248
Hemipode, Andalusian, 233
Hen Harrier, 149
Heron, Buff-backed, 181
» ? Common, 't79
,, Great White, 180
» | Night, 182
» Purple; 180
», squacco, 182
Herring Gull, 288
htaticula, Agialitis, 249
Himantopus candidus, 255
Hirundo rufula, 76
Ae rustica, 75
hispaniolensis, Passer, 84
histrionica, Fuligula, 206
Hobby, 169
,, Orange-legged, 171
homeyert, Lantus, 69
Honey Buzzard, 164
Hooded Crow, 121
Hoopoe, 136
hortulana, Emberiza, 98
hortulanus, Serinus, 80
Houbara Bustard, 242
House Martin, 76
», Sparrow, 83
hybrida, Hydochelidon, 278
Hydochelidon hybrida, 278
o leucoptera, 278
+ nigra, 277 F
hyperboreus, Chen, 192
ie Phalaropus, 256
Hypolats caligata, 36

Hypolais icterina, 34
a. olivetorum, 35
5 opaca, 36
3 pallida, 35
» polyglotta, 34
hypoleucus, Totanus, 267

Iceland Falcon, 166
», Goldeneye, 205
Gull, 292
Ibis, Glossy, 186
ictinus, Milvus, 163
ichthyaétus, Larus, 286
zcterina, Sylvia, 34
Icterine Warbler, 34
zgnavus, Bubo, 144
zgnicapillus, Regulus, 29
zmmutabilis, Cygnus, 193
tnfaustus, Pertsoreus, 118
interpres, Strepstlas, 253
Imperial Eagle, 157
trbyt, Acredula, 48
tsabellina, Saxtcola, 14
Isabelline Chat, 14
tslandus, Falco, 166
tslandica, Fuligula, 205
tspida, Alcedo, 133
ttalie, Passer, 83
Italian Sparrow, 83
Ivory Gull, 293
Lynx torqutlla, 132
Jackdaw, 120
Jack Snipe, 259
Jay, Common, 118
», Black-headed, 119
», siberian, 118
Jer Falcon, 166
Kentish Plover, 250
Kestrel, 172
+ Lesser, 173
King Eider, 208
Kingfisher, Common, 133
e Pied, 133
Kite, Black, 163
», Black-winged, 164
,, Common, 163
Kittiwake, 293
Knot, 263
kuhli, Puffinus, 300

lagopus, Archibuteo, 153
Lagopus albus, 228

a hemtleucurus, 227

- mutus, 225

Si rupestris, 227

re scoticus, 226
Lanceolata, Locustella, 42
Lanceolated Warbler, 42

Lantus collurio, 70

1» excubitor, 68

,, homeyeri, 69

,, leucopterus, 69

5, major, 69

», meridionalis, 69

» minor, 69

EE ITATEE SS GE:

a pomeranus, 71
Lanner Falcon, 167
Lapland Bunting, 106
Lapp Tit, 51
lapponica, Limosa, 272
lapponicus, Plectrophanes, 106
Lapwing, 252
Lapp Owl, 141
lapponicum, Syrnium, 141
Larger Spotted Eagle, 155
Large-billed Reed Bunting, 104
Lark, Andalusian Short-toed, 110

a Black; 112;

i Calandra.) 716

,, Crested, 108

,, Eastern Shore, 113

», Pallas’s Short-toed, 110

Shore, 123

,, Short-toed, 109

ie. SEY; TOF

», White-winged, 111

,, Wood, 108
Larus affinis, 291

», argentatus, 288

», @udoint, 290

,, cachinnans, 290

ye CUS, 287

» fuscus, 288

» gelastes, 289

», glaucus, 292

5, wtzhthyaetus, 286

», leucopterus, 292

»» marinus, 291

,, melanocephalus, 286

5, minutus, 284

,, wvidibundus, 285
Leach’s Petrel, 298
Lesser Black-backed Gull, 288

,, Grey Shrike, 69

, Kestrel, 173

,, Redpoll, 88

,, Spotted Woodpecker, 129

»» Mer, 283

», White-fronted Goose, 190

,, Whitethroat, 23

5» Spotted Eagle, 155
leucoptera, Hydrochelidon, 278
leucocephala, Emberiza, 100

e Evrismatura, 211

leucogeranus, Grus, 240

INDEX.

leuconotus, Picus, 127
leucomela, Saxicola, 14
leucopterus, Lanius, 69
ues Larus, 292
leucopsis, Bernicla, 19%
leucoryphus, Haliaétus, 159
leucorrhoa, Procellaria, 298
leucorodia, Platalea, 185
leucura, Saxicola, 15
Levant Sparrow Hawk, 162
Ligurinus chloris, 8%
lilfordi, Picus, 128
Limosa egocephala, 273
4p lapponica, 272
Limicola platyrhyncha, 259
linaria, Linota, 87
Linnet, 89
Linota cannabina, 89
», extlipes, 88
», flavirostris, 90
,, hornemanni, 88
,, tinaria, 87
», rufescens, 88
Little Auk, 304
;, dHittern; 1283
,, Bunting, 102
», Bustard, 244
;, . Crake, 236
ys | =6eeret; 183
a Grebe, sro
- Gull2sn'
», Owl, 145
,, Ringed Plover, 249
»» stint, 261
livia, Columba, 215
Locustella fluviatilis, 42
FA lanceolata, 42
BS luscintotdes, 43
Me nevia, 41
Long-eared Owl, 139
Long-legged Buzzard, 153
Long-tailed Tit, 48
i. Duck, 207
Loxia bifasciata, 94
» eurvirostra, 93
,, pityopsittacus, 94
lugubris, Parus, 50
- Motacilla, 59
luscinia, Daulias, 21
Lusciniola melanopogon, 4
luscinioides, Locustella, 43

Machetes pugnax, 266
Macqueen’s Bustard, 243
macqueent, Otts, 243
macrura, Sterna, 283
Magpie, 120

+ Azure-winged, 119

326

major, Gallinago, 258
», Lantus, 69
» arus, AS
Spe LELCUus. Teo
1» Puffinus, 300
» Pyrrhula, 92
Manx Shearwater, 299
Marbled Duck, 196
martla, Fuligula, 203
marinus, Larus, 29%
Marmora’s Warbler, 28
Marsh Sandpiper, 269
, Harries 248
» Warbler,39
a oe oat eee
Martin, Crag, 77
», douse, 76
». mand; 77
martius, Picus, 126
maruetta, Porzana, 234
Masked Shrike, 72
maura, Pratincola, 16
Mealy Redpoll, 87
Meadow Bunting, 98
FS Pipit, 63
media, Sterna, 280

INDEX.

Mediterranean Black-headed Gull, 286

nf Herring Gull, 290

f Shearwater, 300
medius, Picus, 128
melanocephala, Emberiza, 95

a Motacilla, 62

an Sylvia, 24
melanocephalus, Larus, 286
Melanocorypha calandra, 110

5 Szbtvica, 111

5 yeltontensts, 112
melanogaster, Cinclus, 46
melanoleuca, Saxicola, 12
melanope, Motacilla, 60
melanopogon, Lusciniola, 41
melanoptera, Glareola, 246
melba, Cypselus, 124
Melizophilus sardus, 28

- undatus, 28
Melodious Warbler, 34
Menzbier’s Hazel Grouse, 229
merganser, Mergus, 212
Merganser, Red-breasted, 213
Mergus albellus, 213

», merganser, 212

An serrator, 213
meridionalis, Lanius, 69
Merlin, 170
Mergulus alle, 304
Merops apiaster, 135

o Perstcus, 13
merula, Turdus, 7

ezoleuca, Ruticilla, 17

Middle Spotted Woodpecker, 128

migrans, Milvus, 163
miliaria, Emberiza, 96
Milvus ictinus, 163
5, migrans, 163
minor, Lantus, 69
i Picus, 129
minuta, Ardetta, 183
an Sterna, 283
ay Tringa, 26%
minutus, Larus, 284
Missel Thrush, 1
mlokostewiczt, Tetrao, 230
modularis, Accentor, 45
mollissima, Somateria, 208
monachus, Vultur, 147
monedula, Corvus, 120
Montagu's Harrier, 150
montanellus, Accentor, 45
montanus, Passer, 84
Monticola cyanus, 9
3 saxatilis, 9
Montifringilla nivalis, 85
montifringilla, Fringilla, 87
Moorhen, 237
morinellus, Endromias, 250
Motacilla alba, 58
of citreola, 59
a flava, 61
nA lugubris, 59
a melanocephala, 62
ne melanope, 60
a6 vatt, 62
a viridis, 6
Mountain Accentor, 45
Moustached Warbler, 41
muraria, Tichodroma, 56
Muscicapa atricapilla, 74
+3 collaris, 74
grisola, 73
4 parva, 75
musicus, Cygnus, 193
-y, Turdus, 2
Mute Swan, 192
mutus, Lagopus, 225

nevia, Aquila, 155
», Locustella, 4
naumannt, Turdus, 4

- Neophron percnopterus, 147

neumayert, Sitta, 55

Night Heron, 182

Nightingale, 21

1 Northern, 22

Nightjar, 124
a Red-necked, 125

nigra, Ciconia, 185

nigra, Hydochelidon, 277
», CGdemia, 210
nigricollis, Podiceps, 310
nipalensis, Aquila, 156
nisus, Acctipiter, 161
nisoria, Sylvia, 27
nivalis, Montifringilla, 85
», Llectrophanes, 105
noctua, Athene, 145
Nordmann’s Pratincole, 246
Norfolk Plover, 244
Northern Bullfinch, 92
a Nightingale, 22
SG Nuthatch, 54
Pe Wren, 58
nubicus, Lanius, 72
Nubian Shrike, 72
Nuctfraga caryocatactes, 117
Numentus arguata, 274
oy pheopus, 275
es, tenutrostrts, 275
Nutcracker, 117
Nuthatch, Corsican, 55
7 Northern, 54
F Southern, 55
Syrian Rock, 55
Nyctala tengmalmt, 143
Nyctea scandiaca, 142
Nycticorax griseus, 182
nyroca, Fuligula, 204

obscurus, Anthus, 66

ae Turdus, 6
oceanicus, Oceanttes, 299
Oceanites oceanicus, 299
ochropus, Totanus, 268
ochrura, Ruticzlla, 19
GEdemia fusca, 211

ne nigra, 210
Gdicnemus crepitans, 244
enanthe, Saxicola, 10
wenas, Columba, 216
Olivaceous Warbler, 35

i) Western, 36

olivetorum, Hypolats, 35
Olive-tree Warbler, 35
olor, Cygnus, 192
onocrotalus, Pelecanus, 177
opaca, Hypolais, 36
Orange-legged Hobby, 171
Oriole, Golden, 67
Oriolus galbula, 67
orphea, Sylvia, 25
Orphean Warbler, 25
Ortolan Bunting, 98
Osprey, 173
ostralequs, Hematopus, 253
Otis macqueent, 243

INDEX. 327

Otis tarda, 242
» leltrax, 244
», undulata, 243
Otocorys alpestris, 113
ae pentcillata, 113
otus, Asto, 139
Ouzel, Ring, 8
», Water, 46
Owl, Barn, 139
», Eagle, 144
» Hawk, 142
3 Lapp, IA
», Little, 145
», Long-eared, 139
» Pygmy, 145
», scops-eared, 140
», Short-eared, 140
»» snowy, 142
», Lawny, 140
», Tengmalm’s, 143
Ural, 141
Oystercatcher, 253

Paddy-field Warbler, 38
Pagophila eburnea, 293
Pale-backed Dipper,
Pallas’s Sand-Grouse, 220

», short-toed Lark, 110

», wea Eagle, 159
Pallid Harrier, 150

» swift, 123
pallida, Hypolais, 35
pallidus, Circus,

6 Cypselus, 123
palumbarius, Astur, 160
palumbus, Columba, 215
palustris, Acrocephalus, 39

5 Parus, 50
Pandion haliaétus, 173
Panurus biarmicus, 47
paradoxus, Syrrhaptes, 220
parasiticus, Stercorartus, 296
Partridge, 224

i Barbary, 223

i Chukor, 222

=! Greek, 222

an Red-legged, 223
Parus ater, 49

», batcalensis, 50
», borealis, 50

», Oritannicus, 50
», ceruleus, 51

os, Gerclas,, ST

yh me OtSLALUS; 52

in CVYERUS,. 52

» eypriotes, 50

», lugubris, 50

»» major, 49

328

Parus palustris, 50
parva, Muscicapa, 75
», Porzana, 236
parvulus, Troglodytes, 57
Passer domesticus, 83
», &Atspaniolensis, 84
fy) SESAEEe. AS
_ montanus, 84
passerinum, Glaucidium, 145
Peewit, 252
Pastor, Rose-coloured, 115
Pastor roseus, 115
pelagica, Procellaria, 298
Pelecanus crispus, 178
La onocrotalus, 177
Pelican, Dalmatian, 178
= White, 177
- Roseate, 177
Penduline Tit, 53
pendulinus, 4githalus, 53
penelope, Anas, 200
pentcillata, Otocorys, 113
pennata, Aquila, 154
percnopterus, Neophron, 147
Perdtx cinerea, 224
Peregrine Falcon, 167
peregrinus, Falco, 167
Perisoreus infaustus, 118
Pernis aptvorus, 164
persicus, Merops, 135
Petchora Pipit, 65
Petrel, Fork-tailed, 298
Fulmar, 301
5». Lieach’s* 265
», stormy, 298
» Wilson's, 299
Petronia stulta, 85
petrosa, Caccabts, 223
pheopus, Numentus, 275
Phatlacrocorax carbo, 175
‘6 cristatus, 175
pygmeus, 176
Phalarope, Grey, 255
Red-necked, 256
Phalaropus hyperboreus, 256
+ Julicarius, 255
Phastanus colchicus, 221
Pheasant, 221
philomela, Daulias, 22
Phenicopterus roseus, 186
phenicurus, Ruticilla, 17
phragmitis, Acrocephalus, 40
Phylloscopus bonelli, 32
‘i bor ealis, 33
“3 collybita, 31
5 plumbeitarsus, 33
ae stbilatrix, 32
- superciliosus, 30

INDEX.

hylloscopus tristis, 31
“4 trochilus, 31
Picotdes tridactylus, 130
Pica rustica, 120
Picus leuconotus, 127
», tlfordt, 128
5, major, 126
», martius, 126
», meatus, 128
»» minor, 129
pipra, 129
Pied Flycatcher, 74
», Kingfisher, 133
», Wagtail, 59
Pigeon, Wood, 215
Pigmy Owl, 145
pilaris, Turdus, 3
Pine Grosbeak, 93
,, Bunting, roo
Pinicola enucleator, 93
Pink-footed Goose, 189
Pintail, 199
Pin-tailed Sand-Grouse, 219
pipra, Picus, 129
Pipit, Meadow, 63
») Pétchora,y 65
», Red-throated, 64
», Richard’s, 67
i, ‘Rock, 66
» Tawny, 65
py eens, 269
Water, 65
pispoletta, Calandrella, 110
pityopsittacus, Loxia, 94
Platalea leucorodia, 185
platyrhyncha, Limicola, 259
Plectrophanes nivalis, 105
lapponicus, 106
Plegadis falcinellus, 186
Plover, Eastern Golden, 248
». Marey, 246
i Golden, 247
1. JXentish, our
», Little Ringed, 249
», Ringed, 249
Sociable, 251
plumbeitarsus, Phylloscopus, 33
pluvialis, Charadrius, 247
Pochard, 201
Red-crested, 202
Podiceps auritus, 309
oF cristatus, 308
ne fluviatilis 310
» grisetgena, 309
ve nigricollis, 310
Polish Swan, 193
polyglotta, Hypolais, 34
pomeranus, Lantus, 71

INDEX, 329

Pomatorhine Skua, 295 Red-footed Falcon, 171
pomatorhinus, Stercorarius, 295 Red-fronted Finch, 80
Porphyrio ceruleus, 239 Red Grouse, 226
Porsana batllont, 235 Red-legged Partridge, 223
4 maruetta, 234 Red-necked Grebe, 309
“e parva, 236 be Nightjar, 125
pratensis, Anthus, 63 a Phalarope, 256
be Crex, 236 Redpoll, Coues’s, 88
pratincola, Glareola, 245 - Greenland, 88
Pratincola maura, 16 re Lesser, 88
rubetra, 15 i Mealy, 87
oe vubicola, 16 Redshank, 269
Pratincole, Collared, 245 ag Dusky, 270
a Nordmann’s, 246 rc Spotted, 270
Procellaria leucorrhoa, 298 Redstart, 17
Aa pelagica, 298 He Black, 18
Ptarmigan, Common, 225 i Ehrenberg’s, 17
A: Rock, 227 He Gould's, 19
is Willow, 228 -- Giildenstadt’s, 19
Pterocles alchata, 219 Red-rumped Swallow, 76
a arenarius, 218 Red-tailed Fieldfare, 4
Puffin, 304 Red-throated Diver, 307
Puffinus anglorum, 299 o Pipit, 64
ve griseus, 300 Redwing, 2
», kuhli, 300 Reed Bunting, 103
Si major, 300 rf Large-billed, 104
pugnax, Machetes, 266 Reed Warbler, 39
Purple Gallinule, 239 we Blyth’s, 38
», Heron, 180 af Great, 39
», Sandpiper, 264 Regulus cristatus, 29
purpurea, Ardea, 180 ve zgnicapillus, 29
pusilla, Emberiza, 102 vichardi, Anthus, 67
pusillus, Serinus, 80 Richard's Pipit, 67
pygmaeus, Phalacrocorax, 176 Richardson’s Skua, 295
Pygmy Cormorant, 176 vridibundus, Larus, 285
| “Owl 145 Ring-Dove, 215
Pyrrhocorax alpinus, 117 Ring Ousel, 8
iG graculus, 116 Ringed Dotterel, 249
Pyrrhula europea, 92 »» Plover, 249
Es major, 92 ae 4. Little; 249
pyrrhuloides, Emberiza, 104 vrisorius, Turtur, 217
Rissa tridactyla, 293
Quail, 224 riparia, Cottle, 77
,, Andalusian Bush, 233 River Warbler, 42 :
querquedula, Anas, 199 Rock Dove, 215
» Pipit, 66
Rati, Motacilla, 62 , Ptarmigan, 227
Rail, Water, 234 »» Sparrow, 85
ralloides, Ardea, 182 +». eDFush, g
Rallus aquaticus, 234 Roller, 134
Raven, 122 Rook, 121
Razorbill, 302 Rose-coloured Pastor, 115
Recurvirostra avocetta, 254 Rose-Finch, Caucasian, 91
Red-backed Shrike, 70 rosea, Acredula, 48
Redbreast, 21 Roseate Tern, 281
Red-breasted Flycatcher, 75 rs Pelican, 177
nh Goose, I9gI voseus, Pastor, 115

i Merganser, 213 », Phenicopterus, 186

339

Rough-legged Buzzard, 15
rubecula, Erithacus, 2%
rubetra, Pratincola, 15
rubicillus, Carpodacus, 91
rubicola, Pratincola, 16
Ruddy Sheldrake, 195
rudts, Ceryle, 133
rueppellt, Sylvia, 25
rufa, Sylvia, 22
» \Gaccabis, 223
rufescens, Linota, 88
Ruff, 266
rujina, Fuligula, 202
ruficollis, Caprimulgus, 125
53 Bernicla, 191
Rufous Warbler, 37
rufula, Hirundo, 76
Riipell’s Warbler, 25
rupestris, Cotile, 77
Aa Lagopus, 227
Rustic Bunting, 102
rustica, Emberiza, 102
», trundo, 75
so, VEGA, ALO)
rusticula, Scolopax, 257
Ruticilla erythrogastra, 19
An mesoleuca, 17
sf ochrura, 19
ao phenicurus, 17
is titys, 18

Sabine’s Gull, 284
sabint, Xema, 284
sacer, Falco, 169
Saker Falcon, 169
Sanderling, 265
Sand Grouse, Black-bellied, 218
a Pallas’s, 220
Pin-tailed, 219
Sand Martin, 77
Broad-billed, 259

Sandpiper, Common, 267

An Curlew, 263

a Green, ‘268

aA Marsh, 269

i Purple, 264

a Terek, 272

Wood, 268

Sandwich Tern, 281
Sardinian Starling, EUS

4 Warbler, 24
sardus, Melizophilus, 28
Savi’s Warbler, 43
saxatilis, Caccabis, 222

i Monticola, 9
Saxticola aurita, 11

. deserti, 13

INDEX.

oxtcola tsabellina, 14
a leucomela, 14
; leucura, 15
af melanoleuca, 12
- enanthe, 10
stapazina, 12
Scarlet Grosbeak, go
scandtaca, Nyctea, 142
Scaup, 203
scheniclus, Emberiza, 103
Scolopax rusticola, 257
Scops giu, 144
Scops-eared Owl, 144
scoticus, Lagopus, 226
Scoter, Common, 210
os Velvet, 211
Sea Eagle, 159
Es Pallas’s, 159
Sedge Warbler, 40
Moustached, 41
segetum, Anser, 188
septentrionalis, Colymbus, 307
Serpent Eagle, 160
Serin Finch, 80
Serinus hortulanus, 80
», pustllus, 80
serrator, Mergus, 213
Shag, 175
Sharpe’s Green Woodpecker, 131
sharpt, Gecinus, 131
Shearwater, Great, 300
os Manx, 299
4) Mediterranean, 300
Sooty, 300
Sheldrake, Common, 194
“4 Ruddy, 195
Shore Lark, Eastern, 113
European, 113
Short-eared Owl, 139
Short-toed Eagle, 160
i Lark, 109
Shoveller, 197
Shrike, Great Grey, 68
», Lesser Grey, 69
»» Masked, 72
», Red-backed, 70
», southern Grey, 69
».. Weobdehat, 7x
Siberian Crane, 240
Be Chiffchaff, 31
ah Jay, 118
», Lesser Spotted Woodpecker,
129
Thrush, 7
siberica, Melanocorypha, Ir
sibericus, Turdus, 7
sibilatrix, Phylloscopus, 32
Sitta cesta, 55

Sitta europea, 54
,, meumayert, 55
,, whiteheadi, 55
Skua, Buffon’s, 296
», Great, 294
,, Pomatorhine, 295
,, Richardson’s, 295
Skylark, 107
Siskin, 79
Slender-billed Curlew, 275
+ Gull, 289
Smew, 213
Snipe, Common, 258
» Wouble,; 256
» .. Goreat;..258
1 * Jack, “259
Snow Bunting, 105
,, Goose, 192
,, Finch, Alpine, 85
,, Partridge, Caucasian, 232
Snowy Owl, 142
Sociable Plover, 251
Sombre Tit, 50
Somataria mollissima, 208
An spectabilis, 208
+ stelleri, 209
Song Thrush, 2
Sooty Shearwater, 300
Southern Grey Shrike, 69
bs Nuthatch, 55
Spanish Sparrow, 84
», Imperial Eagle, 156
Sparrow, House, 83
is Italian, 83
“ Rock, 85
a Spanish, 84
or Tree, &4
Sparrow Hawk, 161
a » Levant, 162
spectabtlis, Somateria, 208
Spectacled Warbler, 24
spinus, Chrysomitris, 79
spipoletta, Anthus, 65
Spitsbergen Guillemot, 303
Spoonbill, 185
Spotted Crake, 234
sy > -Baple, 155
», Flycatcher, 73
», Redshank, 270
Squacco Heron, 182
Squatarola helvetica, 248
stagnatilis, Totanus, 269
stapazina, Saxicola, 12
Starling, 114
- Sardinian, 115
stellaris, Botaurus, 184
Steller’s Eider, 209
stelleri, Somateria, 209

INDEX. 331

Steppe Eagle, 156
Stercorarius catarrhactes, 294
en crepidatus, 295
si parasiticus, 296
a pomatorhinus, 295
Sterna anglica, 279
», eantiaca, 281
», caspta, 280
», dougallt, 281
», fluviatilis, 282
», macrura, 283
», media, 280
,, minuta, 283
Stilt, Black-winged, 255
Stint, Little, 261
,, Lemminck’s, 262
Stock Dove, 216
Stonechat, 15
‘A Eastern, 15
Stork, Black, 185
1». White, 184
Stormy Petrel, 298
strepera, Anas, 196
streperus, Acrocephalus, 39
Strepsilas interpres, 253
striata, Tringa, 264
strix flammea, 139
stulta, Petronia, 85
Sturnus vulgaris, 114
ue unticolor, 115
subalpina, Sylvia, 23
Subalpine Warbler, 23
subarquata, Tringa, 263
subbuteo, Falco, 169
succica, Cyanecula, 20
Sula bassana, 177
superciliosus, Phylloscopus, 30
Surnia ulula, 142
Swallow, 75
Ry Red-rumped, 76
swainsont, Circus, 150
Swan, Bewick’s, 193
» Mute, to2
» Polish; 193
,, Whooper, 193
Swift, 123
» Alpine, 124
i Pallids123
,, White-bellied, 124
sylvatica, Turnix, 233
Sylvia atricapilla, 26
», conspictllata, 24
1 ourracd, 25
», melanocephala, 24
», mtsorta, 27
», orphea, 25
» wrueppellt, 25
wp | Tusa, 22

332 INDEX.

Sylvia salicaria, 27 Tit, Lapp, 51
», Ssubalpina, 23 », Long-tailed, 48
Syrian Rock Nuthatch, 55 3) renduline,.53
Syrnium aluco, 140 », Marsh, 50
ie lapponicum, T41 », sombre, so
Gs uralense, 141 ,, Lurkish Long-tailed, 48
Syrrhaptes paradoxus, 220 White-headed Long-tailed, 48
titys, Ruticilla, 18
Tadorna casarca, 195 torda, Alca, 302
a cornuta, 194 torquatus, Turdus, 8
tarda, Otis, 242 torquilla, Iynx, 132
Tawny Owl, 140 Totanus calidris, 269
bode Ape, OS i canescens, 271
Teal, Common, 198 a fuscus, 270
temmincki, Tringa, 262 sib glareola, 268
Temminck’s Stint, 262 ee hypoleucus, 267
tengmalmt, Nyctala, 143 i ochropus, 268
Tengmalm’s Owl, 143 sg stagnatilis, 269
tenuirostris, Numentus, 275 - terektus, 272
tephronota, Acredula, 48 Tree Pipit, 63
Terek Sandpiper, 272 »» Sparrow, 84
terekius, Totanus, 272 tridactyla, Rissa, 293
Tern, Allied, 280 tridactylus, Picotdes, 130
1», Arctic, 263 Tringa alpina, 260
5» » Black, 277 » canutus, 263
», Caspian, 280 », minuta, 261
», Common, 282 ve) Strtata, 264
», Gull-billed, 279 », subarquata, 263
Hi) pwLUESSer, 265 temminckt, 262
5)» OSeate, 28 tristis, Phylloscopus, 31
», sandwich, 281 trivialis, Anthus, 63
», Whiskered, 278 trochilus, Phylloscopus, 31
White-winged Black, 278 trotle, Uria, 302
Tetrao mlokostewicst, 230 Troglodytes borealis, 58
iy) ReEER2 a0 9 parvulus, 57
5 urogallus, 231 Tufted Duck, 203
Tetraogallus caucasicus, 232 Turdus atrigularts, 5
tetrax, Ottis, 244 », Suscatus, 4
Thick-Knee, 244 yp) CHROME 2
Three-toed Woodpecker, 130 a merula, 7
Thrush, Black-throated, 5 - MUSICUS, 2
ms Blue Rock, g ae NAUMANN, 4
a Dark, 6 % obscurus, 6
i Dusky, 4 sa. PRCarES, "3
* Missel, 1 jG Sebewecus. 7
a Rock, 9 ve torquatus, 8
a Siberian, 7 uj vartus, 6
Song, 2 viscivorus,
White's, 6 Turkish Long-tailed Tit, 48
w & ichodroma murarta, 56 Turnix sylvatica, 233
tinnunculus, Falco, 172 Turnstone, 253
Tit, Azure, 52 Turtledove, 216
», Bearded, 47 + Collared, 217
7) Hele, ier Turtur communis, 216
5» Coal, 49 »» wvesortus, 217
», Chestnut-crowned, 53 Twite, 90
» Crested, 52 Two-barred Crossbill, 94

», Great, 49

ulula, Surnia, 142
undatus, Melizophilus, 28
undulata, Otis, 243
untcolor, Sturnus, 115
Upupa epops, 136

Ural Owl, 141

uralense, Syrnium, 141
urbica, Chelzdon, 76
urogallus, Tetrao, 23%

vanellus vulgaris, 252
» gregarius, 251
varius, Turdus, 6
Velvet Scoter, 211
vesper tinus, Falco, 171
virgo, Grus, 240
viridis, Motacilla, 61
», Gecinus, 130
viscivorus, Turdus, I
vulgaris, Buteo, 151
a Coccothraustes, 82
ze Sturnus, 114
ie Vanellus, 252
Vultur monachus, 147
Vulture, Bearded, 148
os Black, 147
te Cinereous, 147
- Egyptian, 147
yy . Garizion, 146

Wagtail, Black-headed, 62
as Blue-headed, 61
a Grey, 60
i Grey-headed, 61
S Pied, 59
# White, 58
~ Yellow, 62
Yellow-headed, 59
Wall Creeper, 56
Warbler, Aquatic, 40
a Barred, 27
Se Blyth’s Reed, 38
as Bonelli's, 32
ss Booted, 36
oe Cetti’s, 43
‘ Dartford, 28
x Eversmann’s, 33
_ Fan-tailed, 44
- Garden, 27
‘9 Grasshopper, 41
es Great Reed, 39
eY Grey-backed, 37
Grey-legged Willow, 33
Icterine, 34
Pe Lanceolated, 42
Ae Marmora’s, 28
Ks Marsh, 39
Melodious, 34

INDEX.

Warbler, Moustached Sedge, 41
a Olivaceous, 35
9 Olive-tree, 35
3 Orphean, 25
i Paddy Field, 38
7 Reed, 39
3 River, 42
3 Rueppell’s, 25
re Rufous, 37
53 Sardinian, 24
% Savi’s, 43
F Sedge, 40
kf Spectacled, 24
? Subalpine, 23 °
Western Olivaceous, 36
* Willow, 31
ie Wood, 32
Yellow-browed, 30
Waterhen, 237
Water Ousel, 46
Water Pipit, 65
i) eee, 234
Waxwing, 72
Western Olivaceous Warbler, 36
Wheatear, 10
Whimbrel, 275
Whinchat, 15
Whiskered Tern, 278
White-backed Woodpecker, 127
White-bellied Swift, 124
White-billed Diver, 306
White-collared Flycatcher, 74
White-eyed Duck, 204
White-fronted Goose, 189
whiteheadt, Sitta, 55
White-headed Duck, 211
White-headed Long-tailed Tit, 48
White Pelican, 177
White-shouldered Eagle, 156
White-spotted Blue-throat, 20
White Stork, 184
White-tailed Eagle, 159
White’s Thrush, 6
Whitethroat, 22
Lesser, 23
White 'Wagtail, 58
White-winged Black Tern, 278
White-winged Lark, 111
Whooper Swan, 193
Wigeon, 200
Wild Duck, 195
Willow Ptarmigan, 228
», Warbler, 31
sae White eh
Wilson’s Petrel, 299
wolfi, Cyanecula, 20
Woodchat Shrike, 71
Woodcock, 257

333

334 INDEX.

Wood Lark, 108 Wren, Common, 57
», Owl, 140 », Fire-crested, 29
Woodpecker, ea Black, 126 ,, Golden-crested, 29
4 Great Spotted, 126 », Northern, 58
a Grecian, 128 » Willow, 31
- Green, 130 », Wood, 32

Grey-headed Green, 131 | Wryneck, 132

Lesser Spotted, 129

Middle Spotted, 128 Xema sabini, 284

Sharpe's Green, 131

Siberian Lesser Spotted, | Yellow-breasted Bunting, tor

”

”

129 Yellow-browed Warbler, 30
sy Three-toed, 130 Yellow Bunting, 96
White- backed, 127 Yellow-headed Wagtail, 59
Wood Pigeon, 215 » Wagtail, 62
», sandpiper, 268 yeltoniensis, Melanocorypha, 112

», Warbler, 32

HAYMAN, CHRISTY AND LILLY, LTD.,
PRINTERS,
HATTON WORKS, 113, FARRINGDON ROAD,
AND 20, 22, ST. BRIDE ST., E.C.

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