^ UNlVERSlTYy^^ PENNSYLVANIA LIBRARIES L Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2009 witii funding from Lyrasis IVIembers and Sloan Foundation http://www.archive.org/details/handbookofhorsOOdoll HOKSE-SHOEING Frontispiece, ] A HANDBOOK OP HORSE- SHOEING INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS ON THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT BY JNO. A. W. DOLLAK, M.R.C.V.S. EDITOR AND TRANSLATOR OF MOLLEK'S "VETERINARY SURGERY." AUTHOR OF "an ATLAS OF VETERINARY SURGICAL OPERATIONS," ETC. WITH THE COLLABORATION OF ALBEKT WHEATLEY, RK.C.V.S. New York : WILLIAM R. JENKINS, VETERINARY PUBLISHER AND BOOKSELLER, 851 AND 853 Sixth Avenue, 1898. HEW BOLTOr* CENTtR Copyright, 1898, by William R. Jenkins. All Righis Reserved. UN!V£i\SiTY OF I PENNSYLVANIA PREFACE. The friendly reception accorded to previous efforts encouraged the hope that a volume dealing with that less studied though scarcely less useful subject, Horse-shoeing, might fiud similar acceptance. To provide material, all the best known German, French, and Italian treatises have been ransacked, the leading English works referred to, and the information thus gained collated. Without any intention of disparaging the labors of other authors, the writer feels bound to confess that he has found no work of more practical and scientific value than Leisering-Haitmann's masterly Handbook, "Der Fuss des Pferdes;" which, though in a much modified form, and with the addition of a. large amount of new matter, has been adopted as ther model and substantial basis for the present volume. Other sources of information are indicated in the Bibliography hereto attached. The first nineteen i)ages, on the history of Horse-shoeing, have been translated, with little alteration, from Leisering- Hartmann. In the section devoted to the Anatomy of the Foot, Professor Mettam has kindly contributed pages 61 to 65, and fig. 66 on page 106. The part dealing with practical Horse-shooing has been almost entirely re-written, while many additions drawn from the writer's own experience or from Continental literature have been made in order to adapt the book to the requirements of English readers. To Mr. Albert Wheatley is due one of the chief features of the book, viz., the large-sized blocks of horse-shoes printed on separate sheets, and the descriptions accompanying them. VI PREFACE. The engraving of these has occupied considerably longer time than was at first anticipated, but the important character ol the added matter fully compensates for any delay, and must be held as largely contributing to whatever degree of success the book may eventually attain. To the pains Mr. Wheatley has taken in superintending the preparation of both shoes and illustrations, the enthusiasm he has exhibited in the work now completed, and the personal kindness he has at all times shown, the writer cordially testifies. Messrs. Schonefeld of Dresden have kindly permitted the use of the majority of the wood-cuts, and Messrs. Phijison & Warden, iron merchants, etc., Birmingham, have accorded a similar privilege in respect of the illustrations marked with an asterisk. To Professor M'Queen, of the Royal Veterinary College, London, who rendered such valued service during the publi- cation of the work on Veterinary Surgery, the writer has once more the sincere pleasure of tendering his thanks, and of gratefully acknowledging how much he owes to that gentle- man's kindly encouragement and assistance in revising proof- sheets during the two years devoted to this later task. JNO. A. W. DOLLAR London, October, 1897. CONTENTS. Introduction, History, PAGE 1 2 PART I.— THE [STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. Section I. — The Structure of the Foot. General Remarks on the Horse's Foot, Chapter I, The bones of the foot, ... 1. The lower end of the great metacarpus, 2. The suffraginis bone or first phalanx. 3. The two sesamoid bones, 4. The coronet bone or second phalanx, 5. The pedal bone or third phalanx, 6. The navicular bone, .... Chapter II. The ligamentous structures of t lie foot, 1. The fetlock joint, .... 2. The pastern joint, .... 3. The pedal or cofiin joint. Chapter III. The locomotor apparatus of the foot, 1. The extensor pedis tendon, 2. The flexor pedis perforatus tendon, . 3. The flexor pedis perforans tendon. Chapter IV. The elastic tissues of the foot, 1. The lateral cartilages, 2. The plantar cushion, .... Chapter V. The blood-vessels and nerves of the foot, A. Blood-vessels, 1. The arteries, 2. The veins, B. The nerves. Chapter VI. The protective A. The horn-secreting structures, 1. The pei'ioplic ring, 2. The coronary band, 8. The sensitive laminae, 4. The sensitive sole, 6. The sensitive frog, , structures of the foot. 20 24 24 24 26 27 28 30 32 33 37 88 40 41 41 42 45 46 48 52 52 54 57 59 61 67 67 68 70 72 73 vin CONTENTS. B. The horny structures, 1. The liorny wall, .... '2. •The horny sole, .... 3. The horny frog, .... Section II.— The Functions of the Foot. Chapter I. Histology of horn, Chapter 11. The growth of the hoof, Chapter III. The mechanical functions of the foot, Changes in form of the hoof, Bearing of the above on practical shoeing, PAGE 73 74 84 90 93 101 111 115 137 PART li.— THE HORSE'S FOOT IN 'RELATION TO SHOEING. Section I.— Shoeing of Healthy Feet. Chapter I. Horse-shoes, etc. , 1. Material for the manufacture of shoes, 2. Shoes and their properties, 3. Foi-ging tlie shoe, 4. Varieties of shoes, Chapter II. Winter shoeing, 1. Rough nailing, . . . 2. Roughing by means of sharp lieels and toes, 3. Roughing with screws, 4. Cogs, ..... 5. Shoes with removable toe-grips, 129 129 133 140 146 153 154 156 158 164 167 Section II. Chapter I. The foot in its relation to the entire limb, 1. Conformation of the limbs, 2. f Jeneral conformation of the feet, when viewed from in front, behind and the side, . 3. The metliod of advancing the hoof, 4. Form of tlie hoof, 5. Characteristics of the sound hoof, 0. Wear of tlie lioof and of the shoe. Chapter II. Tlie practice of shoeing, 1. ^lanagement and control of the horse, 2. Detennining the style of shoeing, 3. Removal of the old shoes, 4. Prej>aration of the hoof for shoeing, , 5. Working without shcjes, 6. Gonr-ral priiici])Ies to be observed in the clioice of the shoe, 7. Choice of the slioe for specific uses, . , . . 171 171 178 182 185 191 192 196 196 199 201 202 r:3 210 217 CONTENTS. IX (1) Hacks, ..... c Special shoes for hacks, .... Fullered fore shoe, .... Fullered seated fore shoe with thick heels, , <3) Hunters, ,.,... Temporary shoes, .... Special shoes for hunters, Fullered seated fore shoe, Concave partially-fullered "dub-toed" fore shoe. Concave fullered, feather-edge fore shoe, Stamped fore shoe, .... Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, Charlier hind shoe, . o , . (3) Race horses, . . . , , Racing plate (fore), .... Concave fullered fore shoe (for steeplechasing), (4) Trotting horses, . o • . . Partially fullered fore shoe (for trotters), (5) Carriage horses, ..... Special shoes for carriage horses, . ,. Fullered fore shoe, seated and tapped for screws, " Rod way " fore shoe. Thin heeled fullered seated fore shoe. Fullered fore shoe (dished on ground surface), (6) Omnibus horses, ..... Special shoes for omnibus work. Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work), with two calkins, ..... Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work), with calkin and wedge heel, .... Stamped fore shoe for omnibus work, (7) Cart horses, ..... Special shoes for cart horses, Cart liorse hind shoe for town work, Cart horse stamped fore shoe for show purposes, Cart horse stamped hind shoe for show purjioses, " North country " stamped fore shoe, "North country " stamped hind shoe, Stamped fore shoe for farm work, Stamped hind shoe for farm work, . Stamped fore shoe for railway shunting horses, Stamped hind shoe for railway shunting, (8) The Charlier shoe, .... (9) Tips. . . . = . (10) Sir F. Fitzwygram's shoe, CONTENTS. (11) The Turkish or Oriental shoe, . . » (12) Special grooved shoes with rope inlaid, 8. Changing from one style of shoeing to another, 9. The shape and fitting'^of the shoe, 10. The nails, ...... 11. Nailing on the shoe, ..... 12. Examination of the horse after shoeing, 13. Disadvantages of shoeing, .... 14 Effects upon hoofs and limbs produced by work on paved especially stone paved, streets, Chapter III. Forging and cutting. 1. Forging, ...... Special shoes for horses that forge, . Fullered hind shoe for harness horse which forges and wears wall of hind foot, .... Diamond-toed fullered hind shoe for harness horse, Diamond-toed hind shoe with " toe-spur " for harness horse which forges and wears wall of hind foot, 2. Cutting or striking, ..... Special shoes for horses that cut, Fullered feather-edged hind shoe (with two calkins), Feather-edged stamped hind shoe (with two nails inside toe), . . Partially feather-edged fullered hind shoe, Partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe. Fullered hind shoe, " set" inside, . Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe for harness or riding horse, ..... Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe, • Fullered feather-edged concave fore shoe, Fullered hind shoe for hack. Concave feather-edged hind shoe partially fullered. Concave partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe, Feather-edged fullered concave fore shoe, Concave three-quarter hind shoe. Three-quarter partially fullered hind shoe. Chapter IV. Leather and rubber soles, etc. , 1. Leather soles, ...... 2. Rubber pads on leather, .... 3. Downie & Harris's rubber pad with frog cleft, 4. Hartmann's removable rubber pad, . 5. Rope pads (fixed), ..... G. Straw pads, ...... 7. Cork pads, ...... 8. Felt pads, ...... 9. Pads of elastic cement, ..... Chapter V. The shoeing of mules and asses, PAGE- 261 26a 264 265- 272 273 277 280 282 282 284 284 284 285 286 293 293 293 294 294 295 296 296 297 297 298 298 299 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 307 307 308 308 309 310 CONTENTS. xi PAGE Chapter VI. Care of the hoof, . » . . . 3ia (a) Treatment of unshod hoofs, ..... 313 (b) Care of the shod hoof, • . . . . 313 Section III.— The Shoeing of Diseased Feet and of Lame Horses. Chapter I. Inflammation within the hoof, Concave bar fore slioe, ..... Fullered bar hind shoe (seated around toe), Fullered seated bar fore shoe, .... Fullered seated three-quarter bar fore shoe (for harness horse) Stamped bar hind shoe (for cart horse). Substitutes for horn, ..... Chapter II. Deformities and diseases of the hoof, 1. Flat sole, ...... Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse). The " quoit " shoe, Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse) " set " around outer margin, ...... Stamped hind shoe (for cart horse), 2. Upright hoof, ...... Stamped cart hind shoe, with toe-piece, . 3. Special shoes for horses knuckled over at the coronet or fetlock, ....... 4. Contracted foot, ..... A. Methods of re-establishing the counter-pressure of the ground, or compensating for its absence, B. Mechanical methods, .... Fullered fore shoe (for harness horse) with frog plate, Tip for producing frog pressure, Professor F. Smith's fore shoe for expanding con- tracted feet, ..... C. Operative interference in contraction, . 5. The laterally distorted hoof, .... 6. The curved hoof, ..... Chapter III. Solutions of continuity in the horn, 1. Sand cracks, . .... (a) Sand crack originating at the coronary margin, (b) Sand crack of the bars, .... 2. Transverse cracks of the wall, 3. Loose wall, seedy toe, etc., .... 4. Thrush, Chapter IV. Inflammation of the structures enclosed by the hoof, ...... 1. Pricks in shoeing, 2. Picked-up nails, ..... Stamped cart fore shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ...... 383 XU CONTENTS. Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ..... Plates for surgical shoes, .... Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ..... Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressmg foot, ..... 3. Treads on the coronet, ..... 4. Inflammation of the perioplic ring, . 5. Corns, ....... Three-quarter fullered seated fore shoe, . Fullered fore shoe ' 'set" on ground surface of inside heel 6. Shoeing after laminitis, .... 7. Keratomata, or horn tumors, 8. Canker of the frog or sole, .... 9. Ossification of the lateral cartilages. Side bones, . 10. Navicular disease. ..... 11. Curb, strain of flexor tendons, and capped elbow, . Stamped wedge-heeled hind shoe. Fullered wedge-heeled hind shoe for harness horse, Fullered patten hind shoe, .... Stamped patten (or " staple ") fore shoe, Stamped patten (or "staple ") hind shoe. Patten hind shoe, ..... Fullered seated fore shoe, .... 383 384 384 385 386 386 387 395 395 396 398 400 402 407 410 410 411 411 412 412 413 413 APPENDIX A.— THE SHOEING OF OXEN. Chapter I. The structure and functions of the ox's foot, . 415 Chapter II. The shoeing of oxen, ..... 422 APPENDIX B. I. Farriers' teaching schools, ..... 427 II. Shoeing competitions, ...... 429 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. 2. 3. 4, 6, 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Berkshire County Council's Schoool, . Frontispiece. Iron hipposandal, Celtic shoe, .... Shoe from the grave of Childeric, 5. The most ancient Northern shoe, 7, 8. Shoes of the Middle Ages, . Postero-lateral view of right fore foot, Perpendicular mesial section of right foi-e foot, Colored plate. Section of horse's foot, Antero-lateral view of bones of foot, Pastern and sesamoidal bones. Posterior view of pastern and sesamoid bones, Antero-lateral view of coronet bone. Posterior view of coronet bone, Plate. The bones of the foot, Antero-lateral view of pedal bone, Postero-lateral view of pedal bone, Inferior surface of pedal bone, Antero-superior surface of navicular bone, Postero-inferior surface of navicular bone. The bones of the foot and their ligaments viewed from the side, ........ 23. The bones of the foot and their ligaments viewed from behind, ........ Pedal bone, etc. , . Antero-external view of right fore foot. Posterior view of right fore-foot, . . . . Right fore-foot seen from behind and slightly from one side, Pedal bone, etc., ....... Right fore foot, ....... Postero-lateral view of jDedal bone and inner lateral cartilage, Infero-posterior view of right fore foot, Plantar cushion seen from below, .... Plantar cushion seen from above, .... Vertical mesial section of plantar cushion, Vertical section of foot from side to side, Lateral view of fore foot, ..... Foot, seen from below and behind , . . . . Right fore foot, seen from below, behind, and somewhat from one side, ........ Vertical section through the human nail and nail-bed, 4 6 9 10 . 12, 13 21 22 facing 23 25 26 26 27 27 facing 18 28 29 29 31 31 34 35 39 40 43 43 46 46 47 49 50 50 50 50 54 56 58 61 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 40. Foot deprived of horny capsule. . . . . . 41. Foot from which the outer portion of the horny wall and the ^eater part of the sensitive structures have heen removed 42. Horn-secreting papilla; from the coronary band, 43. Lower surface of foot denuded of horny capsule, 44. Hoof with vascular structures removed, 45. Under surface of right fore foot, 46. Under surface of right hind foot, 47. Mesial vertical section of hoof with horny frog removed, 48. Hoof with portion of wall removed, 49. Portion of inner surface of hoof where horny wall and horny sole join, ..... 50. Transverse incision through the laminal sheath, 51. Vertical transverse section of hoof with very thin sole 53. Left lower part of above section, 53. Vertical section from sole (magnified), . 54. Horny frog removed from hoof, . 55. Vertical mesial section of horny frog, 56. Perpendicular section from horn of wall (magnified), 57. Horizontal section of wall, 58. Horizontal section through a part of the wall, . 59. Horn cells from wall, etc., 60. Horn cells from sole, etc. , ... 61. Horn cells from the perioplic ring, 62. Horn cells from the frog, .... 63. Cells from horn lamina, .... 64. Horizontal section of a fragment of cast horn from sol 65. Perpendicular section of horn frog, 66. Horizontal section of horny lamina, etc., 67. Cross section of the connecting sheath of the wall, 68. Transverse section of two horn laminae still connected witl the middle sheath of the wall, 69. Vertical cross section of a foot seen from behind, 70. Vertical cross section of foot seen from behind, 71. 72. Eight fore foot seen from below and above, 73. Special forms of rolled bar iron, 74. Rodway bar, 75. Single fullered bar, 76. Bevelled bar, 77. 78. Concave bar, 79. Plain concave bar, 80. Corrugated "Grip" bar, 81. Charlier steel bar, 82. 83. Racing plate steel, 84. Racing plate iron, 85. Right front shoe seen from below 86. The same seen from above, 87. Left hind shoe seen from above. FAGS 69 69 70 72 74 75 75 77 81 83 83 85 85 86 88 89 93 94 95 96 96 97 97 99 106 108 109 123 124 126 130 130 130 131 131 131 131 131 131 132 134 134 134 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV XIG. 88. 90. 91. 93. 93. 94. 95. 96- 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108, 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120- 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. Transverse section of a fore shoe through one of the nail holes, ..... Cross sections of four fullered shoes, . German military shoe for fore feet, , Firenian's tools, ..... facinglil Partly completed fore shoe, Partly completed hind shoe, Right fore shoe with calkins, Shoe with obliquely cut off heel, Shoe fitted for removable toe and heel pieces, ■98. Heel-pieces (sharp), Blunt heel-piece, .... Removable toe-piece, . . Removable toe-piece. Tool for removing old heel-pieces, Left hind shoe with toe-grip and calkins. Steel rod with toe and heel grips partly formed, Frost nail and stubs, Delperier's frost nail. Stamp for Delperier's frost nail, . Section of shoe with Delperier's nail inserted, Outer heel " sharpened," Inner heel " sharpened," . Count von Einsiedel's winter shoe for front feet. The same for hind feet, . Heel of " screwed " shoe with countersunk hoi Anvil for making screws, Screws (full size) provided with Whitworth thread. Screw-cutting machine, . Frost screw with concave sides. . Frost screws used by the German army, Mould for making screws, 124. Screws, .... Taper tap, ..... Plug tap, ..... Screw with H-shaped head. Screw with + -shaped head, Screw with angled head, . Screw with Y-shaped head, Hollow screA\', .... Perforated screw. Universal screw-key, Sharp cog, ..... Blunt cog, ..... Counter-sink for enlarging holes in shoe, Round sharp cogs. Mould and anvil, .... Transverse section of toe of grip-shoe for draught horse, XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. no. PAGK-- 140. Toe-grip with oval shank ami nut, .... 169 141. Transverse section of shoe, ..... 169 142. Patent shoe with movable toe-grip, .... 169 143. Nonnal position of fore limbs, . . . . ' , 173 144. Tnrned-out toes, ....... 173 145. Calf-kneed formation, ...... 173 146. Pigeon-toed formation, . . . . . .173 147. Noi-mal confoiTnation of limbs as viewed from the side, . 174 148. Leg over-extended, ...... 175 149. Backward incurvation at knee, ..... 175 150. Oblique pastern, ....... 175 151. Upright pastern and limb, ..... 176 152. Bowing over at knees, ...... 176 153. Normal position of limbs, ..... 177 154. Hocks turned in, . . . . . . .177 155. Hocks turned out, ...... 177 156. Excessively curved hocks, ..... 178 157. Entire hind limb placed too far back, . . . ^ 178 158. 159. Pair of normal feet seen from in front and from behind, 179 160. 161. Form of feet where toes are turned outward, . . 179 162, 163. Form of feet where toes are turned inward, . . 180 164. Foot of normal limb and foot of abnormal limb, . . 180 165. AbnoiTiially fiat (oblique) hoof, ..... 180 166. Normal hoof, ....... 180 167. Upright hoof, ....... 180 168. Two feet viewed from the side, ..... 183 169. Peculiar distortion, hoof upright, pastern oblique, . . 182 170. Normal progression (showing position of feet), . . 183 171. Mode of progression with turned-out toes, . . . 183 172. Mode of progression with turned-in toes, . . . 183 173. Lateral view of hoof, normal progression, . . . 185 174. Oblique hoof, mode of progression, .... 185 175. Upright hoof, mode of progression, .... 185 176. Normal right fore foot, ...... 186 177. Right fore foot (out-turned toe), .... 187 178. Right fore foot (in-turned toe) , . . . . . 187 179. Normal riglit hind hoof, . . . . . .188 180. Wide "spreading" hoof, . ..... 188 181. Narrow hoof, ....... 188 183. Diagram of proportions of fore foot, .... 189 183. Diagram of proportions of hind foot, .... 189 184. Diagram of proprotions of fore foot (lateral A'iew), . .190 185. Diagram of proi)ortions of hind foot (lateral view), . . 190 186. Diagram of proportions of fore foot (seen from above), . 190- 187. Diagram of proportions of hind foot (seen from above), . 190 188. Overgrown and laterally distorted hoof, . . . 193 189. Examining style of movement (horse receding), . . 199 190. Examining style of movement (horse approaching), . . 199^ LIST OP ILLUSTEATIONS. xvu FIG. PAGE- 191. Examining formation (lateral view), . . ^ . 20O Doorman's tools, ...... facing 203: 192. Arabian shoeing knife, ..... 204 193. Section through normal hoof, . . . ~ . 205 194. Section through hoof with thin sole, . . . - . 205 195. Section through normal foot, ..... 205 196. Front foot, ....... 206 197. Right fore-foot of normal and turned-in limb, . . 206 198. Vertical section through wall at toe, .... 207 199. Hoof too oblique, . . . . . .208 200. The same hoof properly prepared, .... 208 Colored plate. Hoof prepared for shoeing, . . facing 208 201. Two feet seen from the side (a, too long a toe; h, too long heels), 209 202. Foot axis in oblique foot, ..... 211 203. Foot axis in normal foot, . . . . .211 204. Foot axis in upright foot, ..... 211 205. Diagram showing influence of long heels, etc., . . 212 206. Diagram showing influence of long heels, etc. , . . 213 207. Diagram showing influence of long heels, etc., . . 214 208. Ewerloff's Podometer, . . . . .216 209. Fullered front shoe for hack, . . . . .217 210. Fullered fore shoe for hack, .... facing 218 211. Fullered seated fore shoe with thick heels, . . " 219. 212. Fullered front shoe for hunter, . . . "220 213. Lateral view of concave front shoe for hack or hunter, . 231 214. Hind shoe for hunter, ...... 221 215. Temporary shoe with leather boot and straps, . . 223 216. Fullered seated fore shoe, .... facing 223 217. Concave partially-f uUered " dub-toed " fore shoe, , " 223 218. Concave fullered feather-edged fore shoe, . . " 224 219. Stamped fore shoe, . . . . . " 224 220. Concave partially-fullered hind shoe, . . " 226 221. Concave iiartially-fuUered hind shoe, . . "' 226. 222. Concave partially- fullered hind shoe, . . " 228 223. Charlier hind shoe, . . . . . '• 228. 224. Racing plate, ....... 22ft 225. Section of racing plate iron, ..... 230 '• 226. Racing plate (fore), ..... facing 231 227. Concave fullered fore shoe (for steeplechasing), . " 2.31 228. Steel fore shoe for trotter with toe-weight, . . . 232l 229. Steel hind shoe for trotter, . . . . .232; 230. Hind hoof shod with weighted shoe, . . . 233: 231. Weights seen from front and side, .... 234 282. American toe- weighted shoe, .... 234 233. American quarter-weighted shoe, .... 234 234. Partially fullered fore shoe (for trotters), . . facing 2'i~i, 235. Fullered front shoe for carriage horse, ground surface, . 23&. 236. Fullered front shoe for carriage horse, foot surface, . . 237 XVlll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. TIC. I'AGK 237. Concave fore shoe for carriage horse, . . . 238 238, 239. FullereJ fore shoe, .... facing 241 240. '• Eod way " fore shoe, . . . . " 242 "241. Thin heeled fullered seated fore shoe, . . facing 243 242. Fullered fore shoe, . . . . . " -243 243. Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work) with two calkins, " 245 244. Stamped hind shoe (for omnibus work) with calkin and wedge heel, . . . ■ • . " 245 245. Stamped fore shoe for omnibus work, . . " 246 246. Cart horse hind shoe for town Avork, . . " 249 247. Cart horse stamped fore shoe for show purposes, . " 250 248. Cart horse stamped hind shoe for show purposes, . " 250 249. " North Country " stamped fore shoe, . , " 251 250. " North Country" stamped hind shoe, . . " 251 251. Stamped fore shoe for farm work, . , , " 252 252. Stamjied hind shoe for farm work, ..." 252 253. Stamped fore shoe for railway shunting horses, . " 253 "254. Stamped hind shoe for railway shunting, . . " 253 255. Ordinary tip, ....... 257 256. Upright hoof shod with a tip, . , , . 257 257. Special knife with stop used in preparing groove for Charlier tips, 258 "258. Hoof prepared for Charlier tip, .... 258 259. Hoof shod with Charlier tip, , . . , .258 260. Stamped fore tip, . , . . . .259 261. Sir F. Fitxwygram's shoe, . . . . .260 262. SirF. Fitzwygram's shoe, . . , , . 261 263. Oriental shoe, ....... 262 264. Special grooved shoes with rope inlaid, . . . 263 265. Front shoe rounded at the toe, .... 267 266. Left hind shoe for horse with turned-in toes, • . . 069 267. Left hind shoe for horse with turned-in toes and contraction of outer quarter and heel, ..... 271 ^68. Hand-made nails, ...... 272 269. French nails, ,....., 272 270. Madiine-made nail, . . . . - . 272 271. Badly-formed nail head and shank defective, . . . 272 ^72. Cross section of a sound and well-shod hoof, . . . 275 273. Forceps, ....... 276 ^74. Right fore shoe with rounded inner edge (forging shoe), . 282 275. Right hind shoe with two lateral toe-clips (forging shoe), . 282 "276. Fullered hind shoe for harness horse which forges and wears wall of hind foot, ..... facing 284 '277. Diamond-toed fullered hind shoe for harness horse, . " 284 278. Diamond-toed hind shoe with " toe-spur " for harness horse which forges and wears wall of hind foot, . . facing 285 279. Examination of horse that strikes, , . . . 287 280. Cutting shoe, ground surface, , . . . 2S8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX 283, 283 284 285 286 287 OSS toe, PAGE 288 289 289 289 290 facing 293 293 294 294 295 281. Cutting shoe, foot surface, Cutting shoe for left hind foot, Cutting slioe for right fore foot, Cutting shoe (right hind) for horse that cuts with the Shoes for horse that turns the toes out, Fullered feather-edged hind shoe, with two calkins, Feather-edged stamped hind shoe, witli two nails inside toe. Partially feather-edged fullered hind shoe, 289. Partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe, 290, 291. Fullered hind shoe, "set" inside, . 293. Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe for harness or horse, ....•• 293. Fullered seated feather-edged fore shoe, 294. Fullered feather-edged concave fore shoe, 295. Fullered hind shoe for hack, 296. Concave feather-edged hind shoe partially fullered, 297. Concave partially -fullered feather-edged hind shoe, 298. Feather-edged fullered concave fore shoe, 299. Concave three-quarter hind shoe, 300. Three-quarter partially-fullered hind shoe, 301. Rubber bar pad on leather, 303. Rubber frog pad on leather, S02a. Downie's rubber pad, .... 302b. Showing method of inserting Hartmann's pad, and tongs, ...... 303. Hoof surface of shoe with Hartmann's pad inserted 304. Special shoe for straw or iibre pad, 305. Upper surface of above shoe, 306. Hind foot of ass, seen from below, 307. Fore foot of ass, seen from below, 308. Fore foot of mule, seen from below, 309. Instruments for cleaning out feet, 310. 311. Special pincers for examining diseased feet, 313. Special "searcher " used in giving exit to pus, 313. Bar shoe, seen from above, 314. Concave bar fore shoe, .... 315. 316. Fullered bar hind shoe (seated around toe), 317. Fullered seated bar fore shoe, 318. Fullered seated three-quarter bar fore shoe (for horse) , . 319. Stamped bar hind shoe (for cart horse), 330. Section of flat hoof with weak sole, 331. Special shoe for above foot, 323. Transverse section through a flat-soled hoof with shoe, 333. Left front foot with inside half of sole " dropped " or convex, 334. Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse) . The ' ' quoit " shoe, facing 334 325. Stamped fore shoe (for cart horse) "set" around outer margin, facing ZZ^^ riding facing 296 " 296 " 297 " 297 " 298 " 298 " 299 " 299 " 300 . 303 . 303 . 304 use of . 305 . 306 • 307 . 307 . 310 . 310 . 310 . 313 . 318 . 321 . 322 facing 324 " 335 " 33S larness facing 337 " 337 . 330 . 330 332 333 XX LIST OF ILLUSTBATIONS. TIG. 326, 327. Stamped hind shoe (for cart horse), . . facing 335 328. Stamped cart hind shoe, with toe-piece, . . " 338 329. Shoe for "knuckling over," . . . . . 33» 330. Special shoe for " knuckling " associated with obliteration of the coronet joint, ...... 339 331. Strangulation of the frog by the bars, .... 341 332. Excessive contraction of heels, ..... 341 333. Unilateral contraction, ...... 341 334. Instrument for expanding De Fay's shoe, . . . 351 335. Shoe for expanding the hoof, . .... 352 336. Einsiedel's shoe, seen from behind, .... 352 337. Fullered fore shoe (for harness horse), with frog plate, facing 353 338. Tip for producing frog pressure, . . . " 353 339. Professor F. Smith's fore shoe for expanding contracted feet, 354 340. Contracted hoof from unshod horse, .... 356 341. Left fore foot with weak heels, .... 357 342. Foot with local contraction, . . . ' . . 357 343. Bar shoe for laterally distorted hoof, .... 361 344. Right hind foot of foal with three-quarter shoe of unequal thickness, ....... 362 345. Right fore foot showing lateral curvature, . . . 363 346. Cross section of a right fore foot, showing lateral curvature, 364 347. Hoof showing sand cracks at coronary and at bearing margin, 365 348. 349. ......... 367 3o0. Sand-crack strap, ....... 368 351. Hoof shod for sand-crack of the toe, .... 369 352. Hoof shod with bar shoe for quarter-crack, . . . 369 353 . Vertical section of a hoof, ..... 373 354. Hind foot shod with surgical shoe for retaining dressings, . 381 355. Shoe for surgical dressing of the foot, .... 382 356. Cover for shoe shown in previous figure, . . . 382 357. Stamped cart fore shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ...... facing 383 358. Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ...... facing 383 359. Plates for surgical shoes, . . . . . " 384 360. Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ...... facing 384 361. 362. Stamped cart hind shoe (surgical) with arrangement for dressing foot, ...... facing 385 363. Showing appearance of hoof after long-continued inflamma- tion of the perioplic ring, ..... 387 364. Cross section of the horny and sensitive walls from a case of contracted heel, ....... 388 365. Transverse section of horny and sensitive wall from case of corn of the wall, ...... 389 866. Portion of the inner surface of the wall showing ciianges after old standing corn, ....." 390 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Xxi '^X; PAGK 367. Ground surface of pedal bone showing bony enlargements on the wings (retrossal processes) in consequence of old standing corn, 390 368. Three-quarter bar shoe, ...... 393 369. Ordinary three-quarter shoe, ... , . 393 370. Three-quarter fullered seated fore shoe, . . facing 395 371. Fullered fore shoe " set " on ground surface of inside heel, " 395 372. Longitudinal section of hoof one year after severe attack of laminitis, ....... 396 373. Longitudinal section of hoof three months after attack, . 396 374. Hoof after laminitis, ..... 396 375. The same shod, ....... 396 376. Special broad shoe for laminitis, .... 397 377. A piece of the toe wall removed, together with keratoma, . 399 378. Shoe prepared for canker dressing, .... 401 379. Cover for above shoe, ...... 401 380. Special shoe for canker, with cover applied, . . . 402 381. Left fore foot, seen from the outer side, . . . 403 382. Pedal bone, with ossification of lateral cartilages, . . 404 383. Right fore-foot altered in form in consequence of side bone, 405 384. Shoe for above foot, with broad outer limb, . . . 405 385. Preparation illustrating navicular disease, . . . 407 386. Showing normal relations of bones of foot and of flexor per- forans tendon, ....... 409 387. Formation causing increased strain on navicular bone and perforans tendon, ...... 409 388. Showing manner of trimming hoof so as to diminish effects of navicular disease, ...... 409 389. 390. Stamped wedge-heeled hind shee, . . facing, 410 391. Fullered wedge-heeled hind shoe for harness horse, " 411 392. Fullered pattern hind shoe, . . . . "411 393. Stamped patten (or " staple ") fore shoe, . . " 412 394. Stamped patten (or " staple ") hind shoe, . . " 412 395. Patten hind shoe, ....." 413 396. Fullered seated fore shoe, . . . . " 413 397. Antero-external view of ox's left fore foot, . . . 4i6 398. Antero-external view of ox's left fore foot, . . . 418 399. Supero-posterior view of an ox's hoof removed by maceration, 420 400. Ox's claw with shoe attached, ..... 423 401. Voigtland shoe for oxen, ..... 423 402. Travis for cattle, ....... 424 403. Improvised travis, ...... 425 Berkshire County Council's School, . . . facing 427 Groiuid plan of buildings for shoeing competition, . . 433 Index, ........ 435 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bergeron, Guide theorique et pratique de marechalerie. Brussels, 1890^ Berliner Thierarztliche Wochenschrift. Berlin, Vols, for 1892-7. Bracy Clark, On the Horse's Foot. London, 1861. Brambilla, Horse-Shoeing. Milan, 1870. DelpI;rier, Monographie des ferrures a glace. 1887. Der Hufschmied (monthly). Dresden. DOMINIK, Lehrbuch iiber Hufbeschlag. Berlin, 1887. Douglas, Horse-Shoeing, etc. London, 1873-. FiTZWYGRAM, Lieut.-Gen. Sir F., Directions for Shoeing Horses. London, 1896. FoGLiATA, Manuale di Ippo Podologia. Pisa, 1886. Giornale della veterinaria militare. 1893. GOYAU, Manuel de marechalerie militaire. GOYAU, Traite pratique de marechalerie. Paris, 1890. Hunting, The Art of Horse-Shoeing. London, 1895. Journal de med. vet. de I'Ecole de Lyon. Files for 1890-97. Journal de medicine vet. et Zoot. Files for 1890-97. Juan A. S. y Rozas, Tratado completo del arte de herrar y forgar. Saragossa, 1879 Leisering-Hartmann, Der Fuss des Pferdes. Dresden, 1861. LuNGWiTZ, Der Lehrmeister im Hufbeschlag. Dresden, 1895. MoLLER, Prof, Dr., Anleitung zum Bestehen der Hufschmiede-Prufung Berlin, 1897. MoLLER, Prof. Dr., Die Hufkrankheiten des Pferdes. Berlin, 1895. Pader, Precis theorique et pratique de marechalerie. Peters, Die Formveranderungen bei Einwirkung der Last, etc. Berlin, 1883. Peuch and Lesbre, Precis du Pied du cheval et de sa ferrure. Paris, 1896.. Eey, Traite de marechalerie veterinaire. Eeceuil de medicine veterinaire. Files for 1887-97. Roberge, The Foot of the Horse, etc. New York, 1894. Russell, Scientific Horse-Shoeing. Cincinnati, U. S. A., 1895. Steglich, Uber dem Hufmechanismus des Pferdehufes. Leipzig, 188S. Thary, Marechalerie. Paris, 1896. The Veterinarian. Files for 1870-97. The Veterinary Journal. Files for 1878-97. The Veterinary Record. Files for 1888-97. Watrin, Le pied du cheval et sa ferrure. Paris, 1887. i:n^troduction HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. INTRODUCTION. From the description of its structure and functions, hereafter given, the hoof will be seen to act as a protective covering to the sensitive structures of the foot. In the wild horse this protection is perfect. In proportion as the bearing surface of the hoof wears away, it is renewed from above ; but immediately the horse is made to draw or carry on ordinary roads, the hoof wears more rapidly than it can be produced. Some artificial protection then becomes indispensable, and in almost all countries this takes the form of an iron strip or plate, fastened to the hoof with nails, and termed a ' shoe,' Everything relating to the preparation and application of such means of protection comes within the sphere of horse-shoeing, which therefore may claim to be both a science and an art. A science, because a knowledge of horse-shoeing presupposes an acquaintance with the principles and practice laid down by veterinary surgery for the maintenance of the hoof in a sound condition, for im- proving the faulty, and partially or completely restoring the function of the diseased. Horse-shoeing derives from anatomy a knowledge of the construction of the foot, from physiology relative guidance in treatment, and from surgery an acquaint- ance with the methods appropriate to the relief of diseases of the foot. Horse-shoeing is an art, because its exponents are handi- craftsmen engaged not only in the making of shoes, but in fashion- ing them to the foot, the ground surface of which demands careful preparation to ensure a correct position of the limb, and there- fore normal action, and to secure proper fitting of the shoe. A 2 HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. The object of shoeing is manifold. It serves to prevent excessive wear of the hoof, and in some measure to protect the sensitive structures which the hoof contains ; to hinder slipping on smooth roads, on ice and snow, and on muddy streets ; to improve in certain instances faulty action ; and as an accessory in the treatment of diseased hoofs. It can rarely be dispensed with, though horses doing light work in towns or on land are sometimes sufficiently protected by ' tips.' In most cases, however, the shoe should protect the entire ground edge of the wall. As growth is then uninter- rupted, the normal relations of the hoof to the ground gradually change, and it becomes necessary, by occasional judicious trim- ming, to restore the hoof to proper shape. This is usually done at each shoeing, but is just as necessary in unshod horses which are resting. Shoeing is by no means the simple affair it appears to the non- professional mind. The form of the shoe and the preparation of the foot demand endless variation, depending upon the shape of the hoof, the condition of the sole, the quality of the horn, the action of the horse, his work and his weight. Only when shod, and well shod, can the horse exert his best powers ; and any inattention or neglect is followed by injury to the hoof, if not by loss of the animal's services. In addition to a knowledge of the structure and functions of the limb and foot, the farrier nnist possess bodily and mental endowments of an average order, besides experience and common-sense. He must determine quickly and accurately the necessities of each case, and leave little to chance. The completed shoe should, in its form, thickness, breadth, length, stamping, and seating, bear a proper relation to the hoof, as well as to the animal's work and weight, and everything must be done with a careful eye to the end in view. HISTORY. Though much debated, it is still uncertain to whom, or even to what race, we owe the invention of horse-shoeing. Accounts may be found in medical, veterinary,agricultural,military,arch£eo- logical, and other publications ; but having no intention to make this their chronicle, we shall give only a short sketch of the subject. HISTORY OF HOESE-SHOEING. 3 Whether the Eomans or Greeks were acquainted with nailed-on shoes is undecided ; for though they were aware of the insensibility and hardness of the horn, as shown by the writings of Homer, Virgil, and Horace, it is well known that the horses of Alexander's army suffered severely during marches through Asia in consequence of the wearing of their feet, and that vast numbers, becoming lame, had to be abandoned. Mithridates, King of Pontus (first century B.C.), while laying siege to Cycicus, sent his entire cavalry to Bithynia 'or treatment, on account of the manner in which the horses' feet had suffered from prolonged marching. No Greek or Latin writer on mihtary science, hippology, or agriculture mentions shoeing with nailed-on shoes. Vegetius Flavins certainly describes the forging of weapons and other instruments, but says nothing of either shoes or nails, as probably he would have done had they been used in his time. jSTor is there the barest indication of a horse-shoe on Trajan's Column, on the bas-reliefs of Castor and Pollux, the frieze of lie Parthenon, on the mounted statues of Pompeii, nor in the mosaics representing the overthrow of Darius by Alexander, in the Naples Museum. A further proof of unacquaintance with nailed-on shoes is given by numerous authors of this time, who describe methods to render the hoof resistant, and give directions for treating excessively abraded parts. Xenophon, the general and author, for instance, states : — " To render the hoof as hard as possible, the horse should be kept on a stone pavement, both when in the stable and when in the court being cleaned." Columella recommends oak for the floor of the stall, which hardens the hoof in the same way as stone. In 1827 an ordinance of Diocletian (303 a.d.) was discovered, in which the prices of labour and the necessaries of life are fixed, and in which there are two instances of fees for the services of the veterinary surgeon (Mulomedicus), viz., for clipping the animal and paring the hoofs, 6 denars* ; for groom- ing and cleaning the head, 20 denars. Had shoeing been known then, it would doubtless have been referred to in this edict. In spite of the general agreement in selecting horses with * Deiiar, a Roman coin, wliicli in Diocletian's time equalled about Is. 4^d. IIISTOin" OF HOKSE-SHOEING, hard and rounded hoofs and concave soles, and the care taken to improve the quality of the horn, many grades were recog- nised, as shown by the terms ungulcc, attritcv, detrifcc, snhfritcc, etc., which continually recur in the writings of Absyrtus, Theonmestus, and Yegetius. For baggage horses, Xenophon recommends leather soles and shoes. Aristotle speaks of a kind of sock which was bound on the feet of camels used in war. The Greek veterinary surgeon Absyrtus clearly indicates the evils due to the straps by which the soles were affixed. Cato suggests that tlie under surface of draught animals' feet should be smeared with Huid pitch to make them more resistant. Columella, Theonmestus, and A^egetius describe pro- tecting soles or shoes formed of woven broom, reeds, and bast (solecc s2Ktrtccc), and fastened to the hoof by straps. Similar shoes are still used in Japan. The Eomans also used metal shoes {solecc ferrece). Suetonius states that Nero took with him on a certain journey 1000 carriages drawn by mules shod with sandals or soles of silver. Pliny asserts that the mule of Popea (wife of Nero) was provided with gold soles. These soles, termed hipposandals, etc., are found all over Germany, France, and England, wherever the Eomans settled. The richest discovery was made in 1851 and 1855, during the excavations at Dalheim in Luxembourg. Hipposandals, though varying in form, usually consist of an oval metal plate, prolonged backwards on either side, and sometimes carrying a curved hook. In front and laterally are wings, provided with eyes and rings. Others are dis- tinguished by the sides being bent upwards in front and behind, so that when seen from the side they resemble an ancient galley (fig. 1). Straps passed through these ' cli])S,' hooks, eyes, and rings, fastened the shoe to the foot. It would therefore appear that such shoes were only used for slow work, or for animals whose hoofs were already excessively worn. This view is con- firmed by the rarity of such hipposandals, as compared with nailed-on shoes. Fl<;. 1. — Iron liipiJOsaiKliil, fdund during tlie excavation of a Konian liatli near Lazenhansun (WUrtemberg). HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 5 As for the instruments used to shorten over-long feet, we know, from the accounts given by Hippocrates, Absyrtus, and Vegetius, and by the remains found in Gastra Peregrina, Pompeii, and Masium, that tliey were ahnost precisely similar to the ' toeing-knife ' of the present day. In general, the horse-shoes of both these classical peoples were neither practical nor perfect. The Celts, however, are credited, especially by French investi- gators, with having employed nailed-on shoes before the opening of the Christian era, and having extended their use throughout Gaul, Germany, and England. Though described by the Romans as barbaric, these people excelled in such occupations as agriculture, mining, shipbuilding and sailing, commerce and art. The Gauls and other Northern I'aces of this period hoped to resume their work after death, and therefore buried weapons and other property, and even favourite horses, along with their dead. From such remains archaeologists have been able to determine the habits and customs, and even the industries of these ancient races. Amongst articles discovered have been horse-shoes. The French pakeoutologist Capstan, during excavations on the site of the ancient town of Alesia (in the Department of the Cote d'Or), found, in addition to wheel tyres and horses' bones, fragments of bronze horse-shoes, worn througli at the toe, and a collection of nails, the heads of which resemble violin pegs. The same observer, in examining a Celtic barrow, found buried in a quantity of ashes the bones of men, horses, pigs, and bears, and beneath them a triangular file, a portion of a flat file, a chisel, masses of iron dross, a piece of bronze casting, an iron buckle, an iron hammer about five pounds in weight, an iron ring, and part of a small horse-shoe, with a nail attached. The remains were mixed with broken fragments of rude Celtic pottery. Between the French towns of Langres and Dijon, where most probably the last battles which preceded the siege of Alesia (b.c. 52), and delivered Gallia into the hands of Caesar, were fought, relatively large numbers of small fullered shoes have been found at a depth of 2 to 3 feet. Some carried nails resembling in form a Poman T, which were provided with clenches, showing how the shoes were fastened HISTORY OF IIORSE-SIIOEING. to the feet. Similar shoes have been found in Celtic monu- ments by the French paLrontologist Foquet, the Swiss Troyon, and others. Quiquerez discovered some in the Bernese Jura, buried in an earthen mound along with horses' bones, and, from the evidence furnished by the superincumbent earth, referred them to the sixth century B.C. All these shoes are characterised by six large roundish nail- holes, opposite each of which the border of the shoe is bulged outwards. There are shoes with and shoes without heels ; but all are very small and weak (about f^. inch thick, and ^ to ii inch broad). They vary in weight from 3 to 3^ ounces, and their shape is irregular and defective. The nail-heads are flat, and rounded off towards the side. The shanks are short, four-sided, tapering, and always pointed, showing that the nail was not cut and clenched after driving, but simply turned over and beaten flat on the horn. According to Veterinary-Surgeon Mathien, however, other shoes of a more modern stamp exist. They have been found at Alesia, at Mont-Auxois, at Ancy le Franc, and in the valleys of La Brenne and L'Armencon. In 1871, on the occasion of erecting new buildings at the Sevres porcelain factory, careful excavations were carried out, at the suggestion of Mathieu, who hoped to find similar shoes, it being known that the Gauls under the command of Camu- logenus, who were defeated by Labienus, had fled towards Meudon, through the Sevres valley. The search was successful, shoes being found at a depth of about 9 feet. It is therefore clear that nailed-on shoes were in use before the lioman subjugation of Gaul, and that several forms of shoe were made ; while it seems probable the art was known at more than one centre, and that if the Gauls were not the actual inventors of nailed-on shoes, they at least were the first to practise the art of horse-shoeing. At that time the very light, slender shoe wns fastened with- out the use of clips, the hoof was not yjared, and the nails were simply turned over. It is believed that the Druids made and fastened on the shoes for the Gallic warriors. Fig. 2.--Celtic slii.c (after Mi'gniii). HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 7 The period comprised between the Koman conquest of Gaul and the fall of the West Eoman Empire in 47G, termed by the French the Gallo-Eoman period, affords however other examples of shoes. These are found in great numbers in the ruins of tliis period, associated with coins, weapons, and various other objects, and many are to be seen in the principal museums of Germany, France, Belgium, and England. They resemble those of the Celtic period, and have the same bulging opposite the nail-holes, but are larger and heavier (weighing from 6 to 9 ounces), and therefore appear destined for larger and heavier horses. This might seem to indicate that the breeds of horses were undergoing improvement. The nails had smaller heads, the shanks were always quadrangular, the point never cut, but folded over on the hoof, either in a straight line, or else in the form of a ring. The clenching was incomplete, and resembled that practised at the present day by certain nomad tribes and by the Eastern nations. The shoes found in Switzerland, Germany, and Belgium usually show a distinct fullering, and six to eight nail-holes. The outer border is somewhat bulged, as in the plain shoes. The toe is wide. Many shoes have narrow thick heels, or even calkins. Occasionally there is a toepiece. In the museum at Avignon is a bas-relief of the second century. It represents two horses drawing a carriage contain- ing three persons — the driver with his whip, a man in Gallic costume, and a lictor provided with his staff of office. The shoes, and even the nails, on the fore-feet of one horse are quite clearly visible. In the Louvre Museum, Paris, there is a bas-relief of a carriage with horses, the first of which is shod on all four feet. The nails are clenched. The general appear- ance recalls the time of the first Emperor. The horses of the Eoman patricians were not invariably shod, in many cases the front-feet alone being so protected. According to French authors, some of the peoples, more especi- ally those of German origin, included in the Eoman Empire, possessed the art of shoeing. The references to shoeing during this period are obscure, and often repose on the evidence of fables and songs. According to one account, St George (who lived about the end of the third century), while in pursuit of a dragon, lost a shoe, and continued the chase until his horse's 8 HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. foot bled. This would indicate that shoeing was known about that time in Germany. A shoe, said to be the one in question, is still exhibited in the Nicolai Church in Leipzig. The obscurity as to the origin of shoeing was somewiiat dis- sipated by the discovery of shoes in the Eoman fortress of Saalburg, near Homburg, in 1870. The castle was built by Drusus a few years before the birth of Christ, and remained more or less continuously in the hands of the Eomans until the last quarter of the third century. The shoes there found exhibit calkins in some cases, and are provided with four to eight nail-holes. Whether these shoes belong to a Eoman or a Germanic race of this period is still doubtful. The heels of those unprovided with calkins present a certain resemblance to the heels of interfering shoes, — that is, they are deep, and narrower at the ground than at the hoof surface. The shoe figured * is one quarter of the real size, shows no fullering, is from 1^ inch to 1^ inch broad in the web, 4 to 5 inches long, and 3 to 4 inches broad over all, — that is, it is below medium size. Many authors believe that certain tribes in Africa, Asia, and Eastern Europe were already acquainted with and practised horse-shoeing before the dwellers in the Eoman Empire. Thus, in the East, the Mongols claim to have shod with iron since the earliest times. Their shoes resemble our bar shoe, save in being fastened by three clips instead of nails. The Arabian shoe is said to be merely a modification of this Asiatic pattern, with the single difference that it is fastened with nails. (Com- pare Bouley and Eeynal, Dictionnaire de MMecine Vdtirin, 6.) Shoeing was more widely practised in the Middle Ages. The oldest shoe of the Merovingian time is that from the grave of Childeric, King of the Franks (died 481), which was found in 1653, together with other remains. It was, however, so injured by rust that on being grasped it fell to pieces, — the larger piece has been completed in the figure (fig. 3). Beckmann, and afterwards Eueff, doubted whether this had been a shoe. Eueff, who claimed that it was a portion of a saddle frame, supports his case as follows : — " So many other portions of harness were present, such as bits and stirrups, that it seems possible the saddle was also interred. Is it not straining the point to believe that, in a grave * (Johauseu and Jacol)i (Das RiJniercastell Saalburg). HISTOKY OF IIORSE-SHOEING. Fig. 3.— Slioe from the grave of Childeric, King of the Franks. where only a horse's head was found and no remains of feet, shoes should have been included as something of particular value ? " The view advanced by Eueff, that the shoes were added by the Alemanni, seems much more probable, because they were addicted to the consump- tion of horse-flesh, and there- fore had better opportunities of discovering the formation of the different portions of the foot (?) ; and also because the horse being to them an indis- pensable means of transport in war, they would make it a special study, and seek for a more practical method of shoe- ing than the hipposandals of the Eomans. The excavations of the battlefields of the Alemanni, near Ulm, support this view. Eueff continues : — " Compared with other antique shoes, it is narrower at the toe, is unprovided with calkins and toepiece, and has six nail-holes, the punching of which has somewhat bent the outer border of the shoe. " In examining the graves of the pre-Christian Alemanni, Hassler found one containing the remains of weapons, and close to it a horse-shoe. This has some resemblance to other antique horse-shoes found in the same country ; it is broad at the toe, has three nail-holes and quadrangular calkins. The graves date from the middle of the fourth to the end of the sixth century." Next to this shoe must be placed one found, together with four smaller shoes, at a place of sacrifice near Gavannes, in Switzerland. In the eighth and ninth centuries horse-shoeing was practised in the Scandinavian peninsula, although in quite a different manner. Professor Dr Olof Pehrson Bendz of Alnarp, South Sweden, states that these shoes, called broddar,* consisted of a kind of cramp with forward prolongations, the points of which * Brodd. (Swed.) = Fro.st-nail ; broddningen = to shoe. 10 HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. were driven through the wall of the toe and clenched (figs. 4 and 5). This shoe was found in the so-called " Schwartzen Bodenart," 18 inches below the surface ; also in different cairn& Figs. 4 and 5.— The most ancient Xoithern shoe, seen from hi front and from l)elo\v. a, toe- piece or grip ; b, points which were driven through the wall of tlie toe. in Scandinavia, and in Christian graves, as well as in the Viking ship discovered in Sandefiord, Norway. The horse's skeleton which was excavated had a similar shoe on each foot. In certain parts of Finland these shoes are still used, under the name of Biskari.* 80 far as we can judge, this broddar shoe- was intended more to prevent slipping than for general use. The first written descriptions of shoeing are found in the Military liegulations of Emperor Leo IV. of Constantinople (ninth century), in which crescent-shaped shoes with nails are specially mentioned. French investigators believe that the farrier's art was introduced into the West Eoman Empire at the time of the barbaric invasion by some Germanic race. After the ninth century shoeing with nails became general, as is shown by precise references. According to Goyau and others,, the old law-books like the Code Vencdotien, Sachsensjjiegd, and Gottesfrieden contain passages referring to horse-shoeing. Duke Boniface of Tuscany, on his marriage in 1034, had his horse shod with silver shoes. In lloO the horse of the * Lungwitz refers to a very old Finnish shoe wluch .was sent to him by Herr Groasnian, teaclier of farriery in Dorpat. It is only a setnicircle, and seems to liave been u.sed for the outer hiilf of the hoof. It lias a low calisin at either end,, and wa.s fastened with nails. HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 11 Norwegian King Sigard the Crusader was shod with crescent- shaped golden shoes on his entry into Constantinople. Father Daniel, however, states in his writings on horse- shoeing, that the hoof was only shod in frosty weather, or when exposed to special wear, as in travelling. The history of Sicily shows that shoeing was known there in the eleventh century. At that time Sicily was held by the Saracens ; and when they disagreed amongst themselves and went to war, the weaker party called in the aid of Grecian cavalry. The combined forces defeated their opponents, who in retreat threw behind them sharply-pointed spikes, in order to hinder the pursuers. But " the horses' feet were so shod that the spikes could not injure them, nor impede the pursuit." William the Conqueror is said to have found horse-shoeing practised in England on his arrival in 1066, but others believe he introduced it. He commissioned one of his noblemen, Wakelin von Ferrari is, whom he promoted to be Count of Ferrers and Derby, to superintend and encourage the art of farriery. The shield of the Ferrers family carries six black shoes on a silver ground. Their castellan at Oakham, in the county of Eutland, has the privilege of demanding a horse-shoe as tribute from every nobleman or baron of the Kingdom on his first journey through the town. The shoes, together with the giver's name, are attixed to the door of the castle.* In the year 1214 references are made to the art in French history. On the occasion of bringing Count Ferrand of Flanders to Paris as a prisoner, it is mentioned that " four well-shod horses " drew Ferrand's carriage, — a proof that shoeing was then known. After this time it is frequently referred to, as in the works of Eufo in 1492, of Laurentius Eusius, who in 1531 wrote a work on veterinary science, in which he devoted especial attention to shoeing, the treatment of deformed feet, and to injuries from nails ; and especially of Cesare Fiaschi (first edition, 1539), and of Carlo Euini in 1598. Fiaschi describes and figures shoes for many varying purposes, his illustrations being the first in the literature of farriery. This author distinguishes not only between front and hind shoes, but between right and left, and between shoes with and without * This right is still in existence, and was exercised as late as the present year (1897). -Jno. a. W. D. 12 HISTOKY OF HOKSE-SHOEING. Fig. t. heels and toepieces, hinged shoes and shoes with rounded toe. He already makes a clear difference between toe, quarter, and heel clips. He employs shoes with rings in the heels in order to give increased shoulder action. It, therefore, seems right to regard Italy as the country of origin of systematic horse-shoe- ing. In Germany the art attained prominence towards the end of the sixteenth century. Seuter of Augsburg in 1598 published a book on the medical care of animals, in which are described special shoes for the treatment of contracted feet. Most of the ancient horse-shoes found in Germany resemble more or less those sliown in figs. 6, 7, and 8. The broad shoes are often described as Swedish, though it is by no means proved that this form origin- ated in Sweden. On the contrary, ac- cording to Schniid of Munich, broad shoes had been employed in Germany for a long time before the invasion from Sweden. In France, in the seventeenth century, appeared Solleysel's Parfait Mardchal. This book was translated into many languages, but, according to Veterinary-Surgeon Megnin, was only a paraphrase of Fiaschi's work. Solleysel's shoe is moderately broad, and provided with eight nail-lioles, placed well Figs. 6 and 7.— Shoes of tlie >ri(Ulle A^'es (about the 13th century), found in excavating foundations for tlie Gymnasium at Bonia in 1876. HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 13 forward. The author was the first to notice the slipper-shoe, with its bearing surface inchned outwards, named after De la Broue. In Germany, during this century, horse-shoeing was only slightly touched on ui veterinary works, — the Thirty Years' War retarding the development and advance of science. With the institution of veterinary schools in the eighteenth century, the farrier's art once more rose to prominence, mainly owing to the discoveries in connection with the anatomy and physiology of the horse's hoof. Towards the close of the eighteenth century the literature of farriery received many important addi- tions; and the improvement of horse - breeding, due to the intro- duction of Ori- ental blood, had an indirect though sensibly beneficial action in advanc- ing the art. In France, dur- ing the course of the eighteenth century, a work on horse - shoeing was published by Lafosse the elder, in which was reconnnended a special shoe, — thick at the toe, thinner towards the heels, flat on the ground surface, and provided with eight nail-holes, equally distributed throughout its extent. Lafosse clearly recognised the advantage of allowing the frog to touch the ground. To minimise slipping on smooth pavement, he suggested a system of shoeing which presents a striking likeness to the Charlier method, introduced a hundred years later. In 1768 Bourgelat, the founder of the first veterinary school at Lyons, described with great exactness the proportions for fore-shoes, and the height of the heels and toepieces. His shoe is long and trough-shaped ; and when seen from the side, presents a certain resemblance in outline to a boat. While the French owe to these two authors a large debt of gratitude for their efforts in 14 HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. perfecting horse-shoeing, other European nations have to thank Enghsh veterinarians of the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries for much of the improvement then observable. Up to the end of last century the farrier's craft depended upon very defective anatomical knowledge, while it had absolutely no physiological basis. Shoeing was done by rule of thumb. J. Clark first drew attention to the elasticity of the hoof, and was followed by Osmer, Coleman, ]\Ioorcroft, and Goodwin, who invented shoes difieriug completely from those previously employed. Most of these were fashioned with a knowledge of the elasticity of the hoof, as is shown by their horizontal and seated-out foot surface ; Goodwin's is the only shoe concave on the ground surface, but like the others it shows a completely level bearing for the hoof and a rounded toe. Goodwin was the first to use seven, instead of eight nail-lioles, four being on the outer and three on the inner side, as shown in his illustrations. The greatest impression, however, was produced by Bracy Clark's writings on the general anatomical formation of the foot and the elasticity of the horny box. This author advanced the theory of the expansion of the posterior portion of the hoof during movement, and the simultaneous sinking of the frog and flattening of the sole, from which originated many new views and experiments. On it he founded the use of a shoe hinged at the toe, by which he sought to allow of expan- sion and contraction when weight was placed on or removed from the foot. Although his shoe met witli little acceptance, Clark rendered great service by drawing attention to the injurious contraction of the foot which followed the existent system of shoeing. He advocated turning out horses unshod in order to promote expansion of tlie foot, and made important contributions to the study of laminitis. His views on the changes of form produced in the hoof by pressure were adopted by the Germans and French, and provided a scientific basis for the practice of farriery. Until the middle of the present century the German horse- shoe was almost always provided with calkins and usually exhibited eight nail-holes. It was very broad, and had open heels, the inner of which was about one- third thinner than HISTORY OF HOKSE-SHOEING. 15 the outer heel. In short, it was far from conforming to the shape of the hoof, and had many bad points. Well-formed shoes, like well-formed hoofs, were rare ; and wliilst in many parts of England great progress had been made, Germany con- tinued in the old ways. Only Hanover, which for a long time had been under English influence, presented any exception. The hoof was prepared for the shoe to such a degree that the sole could be indented with the finger, and was excessively weakened. The toe was usually left too long in proportion to the heels, and heavy badly-shaped shoes which pinched the heels were applied. Even model shoes of this period exhibit many defects. In spite of a number of good books on farriery, such as those of Dieterich, Gros, and Straus, in which the functions and anatomy of the foot are described, the art of farriery was much neglected, and farriers, as a class, were wanting in the knowledge necessary to combine science with practice. At the beginning of 1840 an attempt was made to introduce from France the method of hot fitting, and the use of Riquet's podometer, but although previously employed for many years in the Frencli army, these were soon given up in Germany, because of their unpractical nature. Nor did Pauly's attempt to dispense with nails meet with any greater success. In 1852 a further stimulus to the art was given by English influence in Miles's brochure on The Horse's Hoof, and hoio to keep it Healthy, the 7th edition of which was translated by Guitard. This book gradually produced an entire change of views. Miles was the first to show how the shoe should be fitted to the foot, and how it should be made in order to preserve the elasticity of the hoof when shod : he recommended six nail-holes, but used only five nails ; and he suggested round- ing the toe, so as to conform to the natural wear of the hoof. Although much of his teaching is erroneous, his writings have an enduring value. Even at the present day their influence can be distinctly seen in the shoeing system of the Austrian army. In Saxony, Hartmann's atteinpts to break with old tradi- tions are worthy of notice. Hartmann and Leisering's work on the horse's foot, published at Dresden in 1861, produced a marked impression, both on account of the excellent illustrations relating to the anatomy and physiology of the foot, and of the principles set forth in the second part for the practice of 16 HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. shoeing. Hartmaun's shoe resembled the English in regard to its fullering and seating, but its fitting and bearing surfaces were more like the French pattern. This author maintained the importance of the frog bearing weight. Count von Ein- siedel, a contemporary of Hartmann, took up the purely physiological position. The system of shoeing named after him is based on the views of the English authors Miles and Field. He recommended for front-feet a heelless shoe, of equal breadth throughout, the ground and bearing surfaces horizontal, well seated out, moderately rounded at the toe, and having somewhat finely punched nail-holes ; for hind-feet the ' inter- fering ' shoe. His exertions largely contributed to the improve- ment of shoeing in Saxony and Prussia. Charlier's system, inaugurated in 1865, which consists in sinking the shoe in the wall of the hoof, thus surrounding the hoof like a ferrule, produces precisely the opposite effect to that desired. Instead of preserving the hoof it destroys it. Goodenough's method, published in 1869, was less injurious, but only suited to particular purposes. Its object was to promote the natural function of the horny sole and frog. The shoe has five prominences on its ground surface. In 1879 this method was revived, without, however, achieving any great success. Dorainik took up a purely theoretical standpoint in regard to shoeing. He believed that the wall of the hoof should always be supported at right angles by the upper surface of the shoe. The idea, however, is not practicable. JSTevertheless, his observations on the action of animals before and after shoeing, and his demonstrations, proved of great service. Since 1869 various methods of roughing have been introduced, and have proved almost indispensable in cold countries. The American, Judson, invented the round frost cog. Dominik made some, but preferred the quadrangular form, as being sinqjler to produce. Since that time both varieties have been successfully employed. But no improvement in farriery can be of service until incor- porated in the daily practice of the shoeing-smith ; and, abroad, this has only been po.?sible since the foundation, in the middle of the present century, of colleges for the instruction of farriers. Previous to this, only students attending the Veterinary Colleges had received instruction, but at the present time special in- HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. 17 stitutes exist throughout Germany, having trained teachers and a thorough syllabus, in which theory and practice are united. The first School of Farriery was erected at Gottesaue, near Karlsruhe, in 1847. In Saxony the military authorities soon followed suit, and to provide capable shoeing-smiths for the army, military farriers were, in 1849, appoiutetl to the position of teachers of horse-shoeing in the Veterinary School at Dresden. The same arrangement still exists. Since 1853 courses of instruction in horse-shoeing for civil farriers have been given in Hanover, and since 1857 in Dresden. From 1858 to 1869 the authorities in Saxony imposed an examination, that is to say, every person who wished to practise farriery was obliged to pass an examination in the Royal Veterinary School. In 1860 Count von Einsiedel's School of Farriery was appointed the Government School for Upper Lusatia. Since 1864 H. Behrens has conducted a teaching school in Eostock. Military schools of farriery were founded in Berlin in 1868, in Konigsberg in 1874, in Breslau in 1875, in Hanover in 1886, and in Bockenheim, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, in 1890. In 1870 the school at Altona was opened, and in 1877 the Agri- cultural Union at Griefswald founded one in that town. In Bavaria the first military school arose in 1874. Schools for civilians existed in Munich and Wiirzburg in 1875. In Austria there are military institutions of this kind in Vienna, Brunn, Olmiitz, Prague, Lemberg, Graz, Laibach, Buda-Pesth, Comorn, Temesvar, and Hermannstadt ; schools for civilians in Vienna, Lemberg, Graz (1883), Klagenfurt, and Laibach. In addition, classes are occasionally held in different districts. Similar institutions exist in Denmark, Sweden, Eussia, and the Balkan Peninsula. They teach shoeing, promote and encourage exhibitions of farriery, carry out competitions, etc., and their objects are set forth in special publications, such as Der Hufschmied. The great importance attached to good shoeing by the German Government is shown by the fact that the Imperial law of 1883 allows the allied States to make it incumbent on all persons engaged in the practice of farriery to possess a certificate of examination. In consequence, all the countries included in the German Empire have passed similar laws and have instituted schools. In regard to horse-shoeing. Saxony has again attained the B 18 HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING. position which it occupied before 1869. Since the political renaissance of Germany, and especially since the foundation of an Imperial Patent Office in Berlin, the farrier's art has been the subject of a great number of discoveries and inventions. In every department novelties have been introduced. Iron is no louger considered sufficient for shoeing : organic materials, such as leather, cloth, oakum, rubber, gutta-percha, felt, wool, straw, horn, cork, wood, and so on, have been used, either alone or in combination with iron, and inventions continue to be produced. The efforts to prevent the many evils inherent in our methods of shoeing are well indicated by these devices, which aim at minimising strains, slips, and injuries to the limbs. Patents are exceedingly numerous. Many refer to movable toepieces and heels and to nailless shoes. There are also shoes to be applied with cement, shoes with special nails, and shoes to insure regular distribution of weight, etc. The methods of shoeing have thus become so numerous that the ordinary farrier, and even the veterinary surgeon, can scarcely keep himself informed as to what is or is not of value, the more so as no critical treatise has yet appeared on the subject. Many of these discoveries are absolutely worthless ; many more are exceedingly questionable. Very few are really valuable or of great promise, but machine-made nails, various forms of rubber pads, and, especially, machine-made shoes mark undoubted advances. The reason so few of these inventions are of real worth is the difficulty of exactly fitting them to the foot. The majority of inventors have incorrect impressions of horse-shoeing, and especially of the formation of the foot, other- wise they would certainly have spared themselves the pains, time, and money which they have expended. It is much to be regretted that the only body in England claiming to be representative of farriery, viz., the Worshipful Company of Farriers of London, when in 1890-91 carrying into operation a scheme for the registration of shoeing-smiths, omitted to put into operation the most promising clauses of their published programme, and instead of assisting practical teaching or apprenticeship, or founding one or more teaching schools, substituted a short theoretical examination under which hundreds of farriers (sic) were enrolled. The attention of the public was drawn to the matter, and a reorganisation attempted. HISTORY OF nOltSE-SHOEING. 19 but unfortunately not until confidence in the valut; of the Company's certificate had been lost. This is the more un- fortunate, as it must, for many years to come, have a most prejudicial efiect on any effort made to improve the farrier's art in England. Considering the scope and difficulties of the art of shoeing, it is desirable that the efforts made during the last fifteen years by the Eoyal Agricultural Society and other bodies to produce good practical and theoretical farriers should be still further extended, so that the workman may fit and apply the shoe with knowledge of the effect it will produce on the foot and limb. Without awarding the preference to any particular system of shoeing, it may be said that that most deserves it which least alters the condition and form of the hoof, which is simplest, and which adapts itself most readily to varying requirements. PART I. THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. SECTION T. THE STEUCTUEE OF THE FOOT. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE HORSE'S FOOT. The lower portion of the horse's limb is called the foot. As the horse is of little value to man except as a beast of draught or burden, and as the lower portions of the limbs are chieMy concerned in movement, the foot is one of the most important parts of the horse's anatomy. The reason the horse's foot is subject to so many diseases is to be sought in the strains and many injurious influences to which it is exposed both when the animal is at rest and when moving, and also in the injury done by defective shoeing and ignorant attempts at treatment. Many diseases could be avoided if the foot were regarded not as a dead mass but as a living and highly organised portion of the limb, which would not lightly bear interference and unnatural treatment, while many more would be more easily and rapidly cured if the structure and functions of the parts were clearly kept in view. It is, therefore, very desirable tliat owners and attendants should have some knowledge of this })ortion of the animal's anatomy, while to the shoeing-smith, whose duty it is to keep sound feet healthy, and to the veterinary surgeon, who has to convert diseased into sound feet, a thorough acquaintance with it is an absolute necessity. •20 GENEKAL REMARKS ON THE HOESE'S FOOT. 21 The parts of the limb to be included under the term " foot " depend on the purpose witli which the expression is employed. Some persons regard " foot " as including only the portion of the limb enclosed in the horny capsule. Others, again, extend the term to those structures in the horse which correspond to the foot of man, that is, the metatarsus or metacarpus and all below it, though, according to this view, the horse's fore-foot should include the knee, and the hind-foot the hock _^ FIG. i).-Postero-lateral view of right fore-foot. A, lower eud of metacaipus B, feUock joint; C, sutfragiiiis or pastern bone; Z>, coronet , -^. "oo/' -^^ aik F', outer and inner l.ulb of tlie lieel ; G, small corneal growth at l)ack of fetlock. joint. Leisering's definition, which is here followed, covers more than the portions surrounded by the horny capsule, though holding it unnecessary to take into consideration the entire limb from the knee or hock. It includes the fetlock joint and parts of the limb below, i.e., the structures correspond- ing to the finger or toe of man. These parts are represented in fig. 9. •79 THE STRUCTUUE OF THE FOOT. Externally we distinouish the lower end of the metacarpus (A) : the fetlock joint (B) ; the suffraginis (C) ; the coronet (D) ; the hoof and parts included therein (E) ; and the bulbs of the heels (F). Fig. 10.— Peipendicular mesial .section of riglit fore-font (tlie position of the lower l)oiies is shown rather too upright). A, lower end of great metacarpus : B, suffra- ginis or pastern l)one ; C, imier sesamoid bone (to render tlie bone visible, a portion of the intersesanioidenn ligament has ))een removed) ; D, coronet bone ; B, pedal l)one ; F, navicular hone ; a, extensor pedis tendon ; b, superior sesamoidean or sus- Iien.soiy ligament; b', inferior sesamoidean ligament; c, flexor pedis perforatus tendon; c', great sesamoid sheath; (I, flexor pedis perforans tendon: e, capsular ligament of tlie fetlock joint; /, capsular ligament of pastern joint; ;/ and g', capsular ligament of cofhn joint; h, l)ursa of flexor pedis perforans; /, plantar cushion ; i', portion of plantar cushion forming the Inilhs of tlie heel ; k, lioronary band; I, sensitive wall; )/(, sensitive sole; n, sensitive frog; o, horny wall; ^>, horny sole; ly, horny frog ; /, ergot at base of fetlock ; n, skin. At the first glance the horse's foot, as represented in fig. 9, might appear to one who had not studied its construction to be exceedingly simple. By making a perpendicular mesial (C "i _i ui O (o h. lu < -J O c uj 1_ > O cc < _i < > CO U-CQ 0_J < D U. <0Q OQ uja. ."V-- > Sh.^ ^, M\ o o W o o fe P P5 Li QQ o ,,^ % »^*^ .«^ ./ -v- GENERAL REMARKS ON THE HORSE'S FOOT. 23 section of the foot, however, as shown in fig. 10, the erroneous character of such a conclusion is evident, and yet this section exhibits only a few of the structures constituting the foot. In order to become acquainted with the form and func- tions of the foot, one must study each part separately and in a certain order. Many writers on the horse's foot begin with the external parts and gradually proceed to the deeper seated. With some care all the anatomical structures can thus be demonstrated on one foot, but much then remains doubtful which would certainly be clear by observing the opposite process ; for this reason we commence our description of the foot with the bones. CHAPTER J. THE BONES OF THE FOOT. We have agreed to consider the horse's foot as beginning at the fetlock joint, and have, therefore, to study (1) the lower end of the great metacarpus ; (2) the suffraginis bone ; (3) the two sesamoid bones; (4) the coronet bone; (5) tlie pedal bone; and (6) the navicular bone. The relations of these bones are shown in fig. 11, and those of the bones to surrounding parts in fig. 10. 1. The Lower End of the Great Metacarpus. (Figs. 10 and 11, A.) The metacarpus or cnnnon is the long bone which begins at the knee, and is continued downwards in an almost perpen- dicular direction to the fetlock joint. Its lower end presents an articular surface extending from side to side, covered with articular cartilage and rendered irregular by three prominences and two depressions. The middle prominence or ridge extends furthest forward, and is the highest both in front and behind. The lateral prominences are broader, and are separated from the middle prominence by two shallow depressions. At the sides of the lower end of the metacarpus are two rough grooves for the attachment of ligaments. The articular surface is in contact with that of the os suffraginis both in front and below, while behind and below the joint is completed by the anterior surfaces of the sesamoid bones. 2. The Suffraginis Bone or First Phalanx (Figs. 10 and 11, B ; Figs. 12 and 13, A) Extends between tlie great metacarpus and coronet bone or second phalanx in an ol)lique direction downwards and forwards, 24 THE SUFFRAGIXIS BONE. and forms with the metacarpus an angle of about 130 to 140 degrees. In the hind-limbs this angle is greater than in the fore, being usually about 150 degrees. The suffraginis bone is, roughly, one-third the length of the metacarpus, though a slight dilference exists in this re- spect between the fore and hind limbs, the metacarpus being somewhat shorter than the metatarsus. The suffraginis bone is divided into an upper, middle, and a lower portion. The upper portion is the strongest, and pre- sents an articular surface (fig. 12, a), which is sur- rounded by a somewhat promi- nent border. It responds exactly to the anterior half of the lower extremity of the metacarpus or metatarsus. The centre of its articular surface presents a marked depression for the middle prominence of the metacarpus or shin bone, and on either side two shallow depressions for the lateral prominences of the shin bone. The mass of bony tissue forming the upper part terminates on either side in a prominence directed backwards and outwards, to which the ligaments of the joint are attached. The middle portion possesses an anterior, a posterior, and two lateral surfaces. The anterior is slightly rounded and fairly smooth ; the posterior is Hatter, and exhibits a well-marked roughened triangle (fig. 13, a). This runs from each of the Fig. 11. — Aiitero-lateral view of hones of foot. A, lower end of metacarpus ; B, paistern ; C, outer sesamoid ; B, coronet ; E, pedal bone. 26 THE BONES OF THE FOOT. lateral prominences already mentioned in a downward direction almost as far as the lower end of the bone. The triangular surface thus formed is rough for the insertion of ligaments. The lateral surfaces of the bone are rounded and very rough towards the base. The lower end of the bone is smooth and covered with carti- rio. 12. — Pastern and sesamoideal l)ones seen from same point as fig. 10. A, pastern ; B, sesamoid I)ones ; a, upper articular surface of pastern ; b, do. of sesamoids: c and (I, rough surfaces for insertion of ligaments; e, lower arti- cular surface. Fig. 13. —Posterior view of pastern and sesamoid bones. A, pastern ; B, sesamoids ; a, rough triangle for ligamentous insertion ; b, surface forinsertion of superior sesamoidean. ligament ; c, surface covered (in liie) by intersesamoidean ligament. lage. Its centre presents a slight depression (fig. 12, e), and on either side a prominence, the inner being somewhat larger than the outer and projecting rather further backwards. Above these prominences are rough surfaces fur the insertion of liga- ments (fig. 12, d). 3. The two Sesamoid IjOnes (Figs. 10 and 11, 6'; Figs. 12 and 13, B) Are small rounded pyramidal bones lying at the back of the lower portion of the great metacarpus. They appear to con- tinue the suffraginis bone. Eacli has three surfaces, a summit and a base. The anterior surface (fig. 12, h) is slightly concave, almost triangular, and covered with articular cartilage. The opposed borders of the two bones are so rounded off that when in position tliey enclose a groove corresponding to and con- tinuing the central groove on the upper end of tlie suli'raginis bone. The two sesamoids, combined with the suli'raginis bone. THE CORONET BONE. 27 form a surface which responds to that of the great metacarpus, with which they are in contact. The outer surface of the external sesamoid and the inner surface of the internal are very rough, and show marked depressions for the insertion of hgaments. The two remaining surfaces of the bones (fig. 13, c) are convex and smooth ; in front they are in contact, posteriorly they recede more and more from each other, and when in position form a groove filled with cartilage in the living animal, over which the flexor tendons play. The upper end or apex is pointed and formed by the con- vergence of all three surfaces. The lower end or base is rounded off. 4. The Coronet Bone or Second Phalanx (Figs. 10 and 11, D ; Figs. 14 and 15) Lies below the suffraginis but above the pedal and navicular bones. It is approximately one-hali; the size of the suffraginis. In form it resembles a cube, slightly compressed from before to Fig. 14. — Antero-lateral view of coronet bone, a, upper articular surface ; 0, anterior surface ; c, lateral surface ; d, lower articular surface. h'ld. 1 bone -Posterior view of coronet «, smooth facet, over which the tle.Kor pedis perforans tendon glides ; b, lower articular surface. behind. It, therefore, presents six surfaces. The upper and lower are for articulation ; the upper shows two lateral depres- sions and a very slight central prominence ; the lower (figs. 14 and 15, h) in this respect resembling the lower end of the suffraginis bone, two lateral prominences and a central depres- sion. The anterior edge of the upper articular surface exhibits a broad, low projection. Towards the sides this edge is sharp, behind strong and rounded ; powerful ligaments are attached to it. Behind is a smooth area (fig. 15, a), which serves as a gliding surface for the flexor pedis perforans tendon. The anterior and posterior surfaces (figs. 14, h, and 15) are, when 28 THE BONES OF THE FOOT. healthy, tolerably smooth, and are perforated with a multitude of little holes. The lateral surfaces (fig. 14, c), on the other hand, are always rough. 5. The Pedal Bone or Third Phalanx (Figs. 10 and 11, E ; Figs. 16, 17, 18) Is the lowest bone of the foot, and is entirely surrounded by the lioof and by soft tissues. It presents three surfaces, three prominences, and tliree borders. The anterior surface responds to the wall of the hoof (fig. 16, a, and fig. 17). In general, it takes the same form as the hoof, that is, it is convex from side to side, is crescent -shaped, and runs obliquely downwards and for- FiG. i6.-Anuro-iaterai view of pedal wards or outwards. The autcrior l:;;!Sa";pw:^'^;'to'j;;n;;^hep^Sl part of the upper border shows a rrtlr\4;gTped7iton? marked prominence, which has which ill cases of "sideboiie" IS often i nllprl flip pnvnnoirl i-iroppcis couverteil into a foranieii. The portion OCen CaiieCl ine COlOnOlQ piOCebb, of the wing above this is ternied the i i. i „ Kppn ^^^r,YP. Pnv^PPtlv rip basihir, that helow the retiossal pro- '^^^ ^^'^^ Deeu mOlC 001x6011} CIC- cess ; ., piephmtar groove. scribcd as the pyramidal process of anatomists. The backward continuation of the outer surface forms on either side a process, termed the wing of the pedal bone (fig. 16, c.c). The coronoid or pyramidal process is the highest point of the pedal bone ; from it the borders gradually descend backwards towards the wings. Each of the wings is marked by a deep depression, the preplantar groove, which extends forwards to about the centre of the (juarter, where it disappears. This surface is pierced by a large number of holes and fine grooves giving the bone an appearance somewhat resembling pumice- stone. The dipper surface (fig. 16, h, and fig. 17) is for articulation with the coronet bone, but being too small to engage with the whole articular surface of that bone, it is completed behind by the navicular Ijone. As a whole, this upper surface is crescent- shaped, and falls rapidly away in a l)ackward and downward direction. The centre shows a slight prominence, the sides To face p. 28.] THE PEDAL BONE. 29 Fig. 17.— Postero-lateral view of pedal l)one; in this figure the entire upper surface is not visible. B, inner lateral cartilase. shallow depressions. On the posterior edge of this surface is a narrow elongated facet, to which the navicular bone is applied (fig, 24). The lower or plantar surface (fig. 18) is slightly concave, so that when the bone is resting on a plane only the external margin actually touches it. This surface presents two half-moon-shaped portions, of which the posterior is smaller and thrust into the anterior. The anterior (fig. 18, a) is covered by the sensitive sole and is fairly smooth ; at the back, however, where the body of the bone becomes continuous with the wings (fig. 1 8, h), it is rough and full of holes. The posterior, and smaller, portion appears as though cut out of the anterior ; and the border (fig. 18, c) which divides it from the anterior part is rough for the insertion of the fiexor pedis perforans ten- don. In the centre, close behind this border, is a protuberance con- sisting of firm, bony substance, and serving for tlie insertion of a ligament. On either side of this protuber- ance is the mouth of a canal (fig, 16, d), the plantar foramen, from which a groove, termed the plantar groove, runs. These canals are continued into the interior of the pedal bone and meet, forming a semicircle, from which are given off in various directions numerous small secondary canals. The grooves, holes, and canals permit of the passage of blood-vessels and nerves (compare fig, 38). The coronoid or pyramidal process, already mentioned, serves for the insertion of the extensor pedis tendon. The two wings Fig. is. — Inferior surface of pedal iione. a, anterior portion covered in life by sensitive sole; b, wing of pedal bone; the part shown is retrossal process ; c, rough crescent-shaped portion for in- sertion of flexor pedis perforans ; d, plantar groove leading to e, plantar foranien. 30 THE BONES OF THE FOOT. of the bone lue most widely separated at tlie back (tig. 16, d). Each wiug is divided by a notch, continuous vvitli the pre- plantar groove, into an upper and lower portion, though in old horses the two parts may be united by exostoses, and instead of a notch a hole alone exists. To the wings are attached the lateral cartilages (fig. 17, B), which w^e shall afterwards describe more fully. It not unfrequently occurs that these cartilages become ossified, especially at their point of origin, causing the wings of the bone to appear nuich larger than they really are. The three l)orders of the pedal bone are : an upper, a lower, and a posterior. The upper border runs from one wing to the other, first in a forward and upward, then in a downward and backward, direction, and divides the articular from the anterior surface. It is continued over the pyramidal process, and is somewliat excavated and rough on either side for the insertion of ligaments. The lower border divides the anterior from the plantar surface, and is sharp and well-defined. Its centre point often shows a slight notch. As the os pedis is somewhat inclined in the normal position of the hoof, as shown by the section (fig. 10), the anterior part of this border is the lowest portion of bone in the limb. Just above the border are a number of large holes for the passage of arteries. The posterior border divides the articular from the plantar surface, and runs obliquely from one wing of the os pedis to the othei'. Posteriorly, it is in contact with the navicular bone. 6. The Naviculah Bone. (Fig. 10, F, and Figs. 19 and 20.) This is a short, transversely elongated bone placed between the wings of the pedal bone, articulating with the posterior edge of its upper surface, and assisting to form the cavity for the recep- tion of the lower end of the coronet bone. It possesses an anterior and a posterior surface, an upper and a lower edge, and an inner and an outer extremity. The anterior surface is also directed slightly upwards, and is covered with articular cartilage. A vertical ridge divides the surface into two unequal ])ortions, the inner of which is the larger ; both are concave, and witli the ridge continue posteriorly THE NAVICULAR BONE. 31 Fig. 19. — Aiiteio- superior surface of navicular bone. the conformation of the articular surface of the pedal bone. The posterior surface is more extensive than the anterior, and it looks downwards as well as backwards. Generally it resembles the anterior, but is not so smooth. Over this surface the flexor pedis perforans tendon plays. Of the two edges the upper is less extensive, rough and porous in appearance, and receives the insertion of the postero- lateral ligaments of the coffin joint. (To be afterwards de- scribed.) The lower edge is divided into two portions — one, the anterior, carries a narrow, elongated smooth area for articulation with the pedal bone, the other, or posterior portion, is rough, showing the openings of numerous small canals, and provided for the insertion of the interosseous liga- ment that binds the navicular to the pedal bone. The two extremities of the bone, inner and outer, are bluntly rounded and tapering, and show nothing worthy of note. The foregoing remarks on the bones of th6 foot apply equally to the fore and hind extremities. It need only be remarked that the bones of the hind foot are somewhat longer and more slender than those of the fore. The posterior os pedis, being laterally compressed, has a more upright appearance, while its plantar surface is more concave than that of the fore-limb. Fig. 20.— Postero-inferior surface of navicular bone. «, anterior border; b, tendinous surface. CHAPTER II. THE LIGAMENTOUS STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. The tissues connecting the bones of the foot are termed L'ga- ments. The capsular ligaments surround all the bony elements of the joint like a sheath or capsule, and consist of two super- posed layers. The external layer is firm and fibrous, and in certain of the joints is exceptionally developed. It may be regarded as a prolongation of a portion of the periosteum from one bone to another. The inner or synovial layer is a soft, delicate, and vascular tissue, which clothes the interior of the outer sheath, and is intimately connected with it. This sheath, however, is not con- tinued on to the articular surface of the bone, as was formerly supposed, and, therefore, does not form in itself a closed sack. Its function is to secrete the fluid which lubricates the joint and facilitates movement. This fluid is mucoid and sticky, closely resembling egg-albumen, is of a yellowish-white or yellowish-red colour, and is termed synovia or joint oil. The lateral and other ligaments consist of whitish, glistening, fibrous material, and form strong bonds of union, varying in thickness and length, between one bone and another. They possess enormous strength, so that they rarely rupture, the bones into which they are inserted usually breaking more readily than the ligaments. Their points of attachment on the bones are usually rough and uneven. The joints we have been considering are known as gingly- raoid or hinge-like, and only permit of flexion and extension. Movement is certainly considerable, but only occurs in one plane. Lateral displacement is either impossible or only l^racticable in a very slight degree. Such articulations may be compared to those of a pocket-knife or of a door. In a gingly- .".2 THE FETLOCK JOINT. 33 moid joint a convex surface glides upon a concave surface (the two surfaces being more or less adapted one for the other). To facilitate this backward and forward movement it is necessary that the surfaces be smooth, and that they be lubricated. Both requirements have been provided for in the most complete manner. The articular surfaces are covered by cartilage, which, whilst very smooth, possesses a certain elas- ticity. The lubricating fluid is supplied by a peculiar secreting membrane, which we shall consider later. The horse's foot presents the following joints : — (1) the fetlock joint ; (2) the coronet joint ; (3) the pedal joint. The ligaments are shown in figs. 21 to 23, to which the under-mentioned letters refer. 1. The Fetlock Joint. In this joint the lower end of the metacarpus forms the upper articular surface. The upper end of the suffraginis bone and the anterior surfaces of the sesamoid bones are so combined that the articular surface of the suffraginis forms the anterior, the sesamoid bones the posterior, portion of the lower articular surface. To attain the necessary strength, this joint is provided with numerous strong ligaments. (a) All the bones which contribute to the formation of the fetlock joint are enclosed by a synovial membrane (fig. 10, e). This surrounds the lower end of the great metacarpus and the upper end of the suffraginis bone throughout their entire extent, but in the case of the sesamoid bones is only inserted around the articular borders. Behind, a portion extends between the great metacarpus and the superior sesamoidean ligament : its walls are very thin. Anteriorly, however, between the metacarpus and suffraginis bones the walls are thick, and are attached at either side to the lateral ligaments. Another part of this capsule closely surrounds the flexor tendons. (b) The great metacarpus and suffraginis bones are con- nected by an inner and an outer lateral ligament. Each of these consists of a comparatively weak, superficial layer, which arises from the lateral surface of the lower end of the metacarpus and extends to the middle of the suffraginis bone, and of a deeper, short but very strong, layer, which arises from the c LIGAMENTOUS STKUCTUKES OF THE FOOT. depression at the lower end of the metacarpus, and becomes attached to the rough spot on the side of the upper end of the sufifraginis bone, and partly also to the excentric surface of the sesamoid. (c) The connections between the sesamoid bones are much more complicated than those of the bones hitherto re- garded. (1) The sesamoid bones are connected with one another by means of an inter- sesamoidean liga- ment (b). This con- nection is so strong as almost to convert the two sesamoids into one mass, and to render movement between them out of the question. The inter-sesamoi- dean ligament con- sists of very strong, fibrous tissue (with an admixture of white fibro-cartilage), the fibres of which run the bones of the foot and their ligaments obliouely bctWCCn the side, figs. 22 and 23 viewed from behind. , . the opposing surfaces and completely fill the space which would otherwise exist between the bones. This tissue is pro- longed upwards above the sesamoids, forming an oval mass which posteriorly is somewhat concave and markedly exceeds in si/e the sesamoid bones themselves. The posterior surface is very smooth and permits of the tendon of the flexor pedis per- FlG. 21. Fig. 21 shows viewed from The letters indicate same parts in each figme. a, exter nal lateral ligament of pastern joint ; b, intersesanioidean ligament ; c, superior sesamoidean ligament ; d, middle limb of inferior sesamoidean ligament; d', lateral limb of do.; e, cruciate ligament ;/, lateral sesamoidean ligament; (/, outer lateral ligament of the pastern joint; k and h', posterior corono-sutfraginal ligaments ; i, outer lateral ligament of pedal joint; k, postero-lateral ligaments of uavicular bone ; I, fibrous sheath of synovial membrane of coffin joint. THE FETLOCK JOINT. 35 forans and of the encircling libres which tlie flexor pedis perfor- atus gives to the peiforans at this point, gliding freely over it. (2) Above, the sesamoid bones are attached, or perhaps we should say slung, through the medium of the superior sesa- moidean or suspensory ligament (c, and fig. 10, h, and fig. 25, b). This is a very strong tendinous cord, the substance of which always presents more or less muscular tissue, for which reason it has been termed the flexor suffraginiij. It is, in reality, a modified interosseous muscle. Its upper end is attached, in the fore-limb, behind the knee, in the hind-limb, behind the hock, and becomes continuous 36 LIGAMENTOUS STKUClUliES OF THE FOOT. with the other ligaments coveriug the posterior surfaces of these joints. From this point it runs downwards immediately in contact with the posterior surface of the metacarpus, lying between the two small metacarpals. At the lower third of the metacarpus it divides into two portions, which become attached to the corresponding surfaces of the sesamoids. From this point each division gives off a considerable reinforcing band, which runs in an oblique direction downwards and forwards, to become continuous with the extensor pedis tendon at the front of the suffraginis bone. This is the " ligamentum extensorum " of l^ercivall. (3) The sesamoid bones are attached below by two ligaments, the inferior sesamoidean ligament and the cruciate ligament. The inferior sesamoidean ligament {d and d', and fig. 10, h') is a strong band, in which three parts may be distinguished. The middle portion (d) (superficial inferior sesamoidean ligament of M'Fadyean) is the most superficial ; it arises at the lower end of the two sesamoid bones and runs, more or less covering the two lateral portions, with which it is connected by a few fibres, in a downward direction to be inserted into the strong posterior margin of the upper surface of the coronet bone. Here it becomes intimately united with the two limbs of the flexor pedis perforatus tendon, forming one mass. The two lateral limbs {d') (middle inferior sesamoidean liga- ment) arise from tlie lower part of the sesamoid bones, run downwards and inwards, converging at an acute angle. They become attached to the posterior surface of the centre of the suffraginis bone, and extend downwards to near its lower end, C(jvering the already described rough triangle on the posterior surface of that bone. The cruciate ligament (c) (deep inferior sesamoidean ligament), formed of fiat crossed fibres, closely applied to one another, is covered by the lateral limbs of the inferior sesamoidean liga- ment. The fil:»res themselves arise from the upper part of the posterior surface of the suffraginis bone, and, after crossing, end at the lower part of the sesamoid bones. (4) Towards the sides the sesamoid bones are attached by tlie two lateral sesamoidean ligaments (/'). These arise from the lower part of the corresponding surface of the sesamoid l)ones, and divide into two portions, the upper becoming attached THK PASTERN JOINT. 37 in the ligamentous pit of the lower end of the metacarpus, the lower to the side of tlie upper end of the suffraginis bone.* 2. The Pastekn Joint, Consisting of only two articular surfaces, the lower end of the suffraginis and the upper end of the coronet bones, is the simplest joint of the foot. The suffraginis bone possesses a convexity, the coronet bone a corresponding concavity, which is completed at the back by tendinous and ligamentous structures. The ligaments of the coronet joint are : — (1) A capsular ligament, or rather, a synovial membrane (fig. 10,/), attached to the borders of the respective articular surfaces. Its outer sheath is anteriorly and laterally fairly strong, in front it is attached to the extensor tendon of the foot, and laterally to the lateral ligament ; posteriorly to the cartilaginous mass formed by the tendons and ligaments there inserted, at which point it is very thin and lax. (2) An inner and an outer lateral ligament (g). These are short, but fairly strong, bands, arising from the sides of the lower end of the suffraginis bone, and being attached to the lateral surfaces of the upper part of the coronet bone. They are con- tinued downwards and backwards as the postero-lateral liga- ments of the coflin joint, and each eventually is inserted into the end of the navicular bone of its own side, and into the wing of the os pedis. (3) The posterior corono-suffraginal ligaments are four in number. The two central (h) arise from the sides of the rough triangle at the posterior surface of the suffraginis bone about its centre; between them lies the lower part of the central limb of the inferior sesamoidean ligament (superficial inferior sesamoidean ligament). The lateral (//) arise from the sides of the suffraginis bone, about its lower third, and are in contact, on either side, with the terminal branches of the flexor pedis perforatus tendon. They are weaker than the central, and are * Prof. Mettam considers it is doubtful if the lateral sesamoidean ligament divides into two portions. He prefers rather to look upon that directed upwards, as here related, as a portion of the lateral ligament of the fetlock joint, and the lower portion inserted into the sesamoid as the true lateral sesamoid ligament. — [Jno. a. W. D.] 38 LIGAMENTOUS STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. covered by strands of tissue that act as a check ligament to the flexor pedis perforans, with which they are usually so inti- mately united that they might be regarded as belonging to that ligament. As already indicated, these ligaments at their insertion into the posterior part of the coronet bone combine intimately with the central limb of the inferior sesamoidean ligament and with the terminal portions of the flexor pedis perforatus, so as to form a single mass and to permit only of artificial separation. 3. The Pedal or Coffin Joint Is formed by the union of the articular surfaces of three bones. The convexity is formed by the lower articular surface of the coronet bone, the concavity by the upper surface of the os pedis and by the navicular bone. (a) All three bones are united by a synovial membrane (fig. 10, g), which, as in other joints, surrounds the articular surfaces of the joint. The outer sheath is strong in front, where it is firmly united to the extensor tendon. Behind, the capsule is distended so as to form a kind of blind sac (fig. 10, blood-vessels ; k, foramina in lateral cartilage WhlCh the homy irog IS for passage of blooil-vessels. , i « -, • 1 1 secreted ; tor this reason all the central part of the plantar cushion has been termed the BULBS OF THE FOOT. 51 secreting or sensitive frog. The sensitive frog is much hrmer than the sensitive bulbs ; the elastic tissue being slight, the tendinous or fibrous abundant in quantity. The inferior surface of the base of the bulbs and the postero- inferior surface of the sensitive frog are divided by a cleft of varying depth into two similar parts (figs. 32, c, and 34, c). Above, this conformation is continued in the bulbs (fig. 32, a). Anteriorly, the two parts unite to form a level, pointed surface. The two lateral surfaces are fiat, and marginate the limbs on either side. They run towards the middle line of the foot, and meet at the point of the plantar cushion (figs. 32 and 33, h). The cushion itself is fixed in position partly through the medium of the elastic cords and tissues enumerated, partly through its intimate connection with the lateral cartilages, but chiefly by the fibrous material which most intimately unites the sensitive frog with the lower surface of the pedal bone. CHAPTER V. THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. Between the bones, ligaments, tendons, and elastic tissues on the one side, and the protective structures of the foot on the other, lie a number of organs, which, though not perhaps of the same importance in a mechanical sense as those already reviewed, nevertheless exercise a paramount intiuence in the play of such phenomena as growth, nourishment and sensation. These organs are the blood-vessels and nerves. A. BLOOD-VESSELS. The blood-vessels are a system of membranous Lubes which convey the blood from the centre of circulation to all parts of the body, and return it thence to the heart. As the blood, on which the growth and nourishment of the entire animal body depends, is continually moving, it is clear that the same tubes which conduct it from the heart cannot return it there. For tliis reason two varieties of blood-vessels are distinguished — those coming from the heart, termed the arteries, and those going to it, the veins. With few exceptions, the arteries can be distinguished from the veins in the dead as well as in the living subject. They have thicker walls, are of less calibre, and fewer in number than the veins. In the dead l)ody they seldom contain blood, while the veins are more or less filled. Before Harvey's dis- covery they were supposed to carry air ; hence their name. If, in a living animal, a large artery be pressed on with the finger, a regularly-rejjeated light bent (the pulse) can be felt. If such a vessel be opened, bright red blood issues in a jerking stream. Tlie veins exhibit no pulsation ; their blood is dark red, and escapes from the severed vessel in a steady fiow. BLOOD-VESSELS. 53 111 addition to the blood-vessels are other tubes, which con- tain a yellow or yellowish-red iiuid. These have very thin walls, are small, and usually accompany veins, into which they finally pour their contents. The fluid is termed lymph, and the vessels themselves lymph-vessels. Such vessels can be found in the foot, but are so attenuated as scarcely to be visible. A lengthened description would be inappropriate here. A few remarks on the blood-vessels must suffice. At their origin from the heart the arteries are large and thick-walled, but, as they recede from this point, they continu- ously divide, and their walls become thinner. Large stems branch off into smaller ; from these twigs originate in all direc- tions until, finally, all trace of them appears to be lost in the siu-rounding tissues. The arrangement can best be compared to a tree, the trunk of which divides into main stems, the stems into branches, and the branches into innumerable twigs. The splitting up of the vessels which provide blood for the organs of the body ultimately produces a net-work, which can no longer be distinguished with the naked eye. The minute vessels" of this net-work are termed capillaries. The capillaries, after a short course, re-unite in the same fashion as they had arisen from the arteries, — that is, by their union they gradually form larger and larger vessels, termed veins, which at last empty into the heart. The veins, more especially those of the limbs, have valves which support the column of blood ascending against the action of gravity. The course of the veins is precisely com- parable to that of the arteries, though in them the blood flows in an opposite direction. The arteries and veins being the conductors of blood to and from the various organs are of great importance, but the capillaries are equall}- indispensable to nutrition and secretion. Passing through their thin walls the fluid portions of the bright red arterial blood bathe the tissues of the different organs, bring- mg to each the material necassary for its existence and function. All parts of the foot are provided with blood-vessels and contain more or less blood, with the single exception of the horny tissues. The parts, however, concerned in producing horn, receive a large supply, and are the most vascular parts of the entire foot. 54 THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. 1. The Ai!TERIES. Before the blood from the heart can reach tlie foot it must traverse a large number of arteries, which are variously named. At the metacarpus the principal vessel is termed the meta- carpal artery, a name which it retains down to the region of the fetlock joint. An inch or two above the fetlock joint and in front of the flexor tendons this vessel divides into two branches of similar size, which then pass downwards on either side of Fig. 36.— Lateral view of fore-foot, witli prepared vessels and nerves, a, digital artery ; 6, perpondic'ular artery; e\ preplantar artery ;/, twigs from the plantar artery which escape through the foramina, just ahove the lower niarsin of the os pedis, and hy tlieir anastomosis form /", the circumflex artery of the toe; A, digital vein ; B, coronary venous plexus ; C, laminal plexus ; G, circumflex vein ; 1, digital nerve; 2, anterior terminal branches of digital nerve ; 3, posterior ter- minal branches of digital nerve ; 4, cutaneous branches. the limb as far as the pedal bone, being known as the digital arteries. At the pedal bone each digital divides to form the preplantar (fig. 36, e') and plantar artery (fig. 38, f). Examining the vessels more closely, one notices, (l) that each digital artery (a) is a fairly-large vessel, lying at the sidd of the flexor tendons, to which, or to the check ligament of ARTERIES OF THE FOOT. 55 which, it is fastened by connective tissue, in front is placed the vein of the same name ; behind it the digital nerve. About the middle of the os suffraginis it gives off: — (a) The suffraginal artery. This is a very short vessel, which runs at right angles to the digital artery, and almost immediately divides into two twigs. {aa) The perpendicular artery (the German term means anterior suffraginal artery) (tig. 36, h) runs forward, and divides into a short and a long twig ; the former running upwards, the latter downwards. Both anastomose freely with the similar artery of the opposite side. They are distributed to the ex- tensor tendon, the skin and the fetlock joint. The lower twig assists in supplying blood to the perioplic and coronary bands. (hh) The posterior suffraginal artery. This is one of Bouley's rameaux 6chdonnds (fig. 38, l), passes backward and supplies the flexor tendons and their synovial sheaths, the inferior sesamoidean ligament, the suffraginis bone, etc., and anastomoses with its fellow of the opposite side. (&) The artery of the plantar cushion (figs, 37 and 38, c) arises at about the lower end of the os suffraginis, runs backwards and downwards below the centre line of the foot, and gives off numerous branches in the plantar cushion, and especially in the sensitive frog. In addition, it sends twigs to the sensitive bars. (c) About the middle of the coronet bone there arise from the digital artery, sometimes together, sometimes separately — {aa) The anterior coronary artery, or anterior artery of the coronary band (fig. 36, d). This is the larger branch of the two, and chiefly supplies the coronary band. It anastomoses with its fellow of the other side, forming a very complete net-work termed the coronary circle. {hh) The posterior artery of the coronet bone (fig. 38, d), or posterior artery of the coronary circle, which passes backwards, unites with its fellow of the opposite side, forming a net-work, and supplies the synovial membrane of the coronary and pedal joints, the coronet bone, flexor tendons, ligaments, and skin.* • Professor Mettara regards the arteries to the coronary band as derived in front from the coronary circle and behind from the artery to the plantar cushion. The arteries from the coronary circle are tv;o descending on either side of tlie extensor pedis tendon. They divide, right and left branches uniting, and the eflerents from the artery to the plantar cushion doing the same, and uniting with branches from the others, a circumflex artery of the hand is formed. — [Jno. A. W. D.] 56 THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. Finally, the digital artery arrives at a point between the navicular bone and the wing of the pedal bone, where it divides nito two branches, of which one runs outwards over the sur- face of the OS pedis, the other into the substance of tlie bone. The former is termed — (2) The preplantar artery, or artery of the wall (figs. 36, c! , and 38, c). Before passing outward this vessel gives off a twig, which is dis- tributed to the plantar cushion and sensitive sole. It then passes through the foramen, between the wing of the OS pedis and the lateral cartilage, and at once divides into three branches. Tiie most im- portant (fig. 36, e!) runs in a forward direction in the preplantar groove, and is chiefly distributed to the sensitive laminte. The branch running backward supplies the outer surface of the posterior part of the lateral cartilage and the tissues adjoining with Ijlood : that running down- wards has connections with the artery next mentioned. (3) The plantar artery, inner pedal artery, or artery of the sensitive sole (fig. 38,/) is a direct continuation of the digital. After giving off some twigs to the ])edal joint (fig. 38, g), it passes, lying in the phmtar groove toward.^ the plantar foramen, through which it enteis the interior of the pedal bone, where it anastomoses with its fellow of the opposite side, forming a net-work, the plantnr-fnch or semihniar anastomosis, from which small arteries are given oil" in all directions (fig. 38, f). These FIG. .'57. — Foot, seen fioiii below and beliiiul. a, disital artery ; c, artery of the plantar cushion ; /"", twigs of the plantar artery, whicli divide to form the solar plexus ; A, digital vein ; />', lateral portion of coronary plexus ; IJ, solar plexus ; G, circumflex vein of toe ; ;i, jjosterior division of digital nerve ; 4, cutaneous branches of digital nerve. VEIXS OF TIIR FOOT. 57 minister to the nutrition of the pedal bone, but a number, termed the anterior laminal arteries, escape from the bone by the numerous foramina piercing its anterior surface, and supply the sensitive laminw. Others again, known as the inferior connnunicating, pass out- wards through the eight to twelve or more little channels open- ing on the external surface of the os pedis, just above its inferior margin (fig. 36,/'), run chiefly downwards, and unite with twigs given off by the preplantar artery, forming a more or less well- marlvcd vessel, which encircles the lower border of the pedal bone, and is termed the circumflex artery of the too (^^Hg. 36,/''). From this twigs pass backwards over the lower surface of the foot, supplying chiefly the sensitive sole (fig. 37,/'"). 2. The Veins. After the blood has traversed the capillaries, which in the horn-secreting structures are somewhat large, it is collected into another series of vessels, which form several superimposed net-works, and are so intimately connected one with another tliat its return by one path, if for any reason impeded, can always be effected by numerous alternative channels. The blood brought to the foot l)y the arteries finally arrives in a large vein, which runs parallel with the digital artery, and is termed the digital vein (figs. 36 and 37, A). This vein is formed by— (1) The solar plexus (fig. 37, D), the net-work of small veins which closely cover the imder surface of the foot, aided by tliose from the plantar cushion and sensitive bars. It discharges partly tln'ough the net-worlc formed by the veins of the plantar cushion (solar plexus) (fig. 37, £), partly through that formed by the deep coronary vein which collects the blood from the inner face of the lateral cartilage (fig. 38, B), and possibly through the coronary plexus, with all of which it is in direct communication. (2) The laminal plexus (fig. 36, (') resembles, in most re- spects, that of the sole. The blood which it contains is either discharged into the coronary plexus, or makes its return liy the circumflex vein of the sole. The venous net-work of the sensitive sole (solar plexus) and 58 THE BLOOD-VESSELS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. that of the sensitive laminae (laminal plexus) are connected by— (3) The circumflex vein of the toe (figs. 36 and 37, G). This is not perhaps a true vein, but might rather be regarded as a sinus, being formed of several thin - walled tubes or sacs of vary- ing length, which en- circle the lower border of the OS pedis, and are of much greater calibre than the veins of the solar and lam- inal plexuses with which they are con- nected. (4) The coronary plexus encircles the entire coronet with the exception of the anterior part, cover- ing both the outer and inner surfaces of the lateral cartilage, by which it is divided moved, together with sufflcient of the pedal bone to render intO a Superficial and visible the vessels, etc., in its interior. Tlie nerves acconi- " panyiriji arteries /are sliown too thick; tliey should be a dccp POrtion. less tlian half as broad as flsnred. «, digital artery ; 6, 1 r posterior snffraginal artery; c, artery of plantar cushion (a) The Superficial (cut througli) ; rf, posterior artery of coronary circle ; /, ^ plantar artery, wliich anastomoses with its fellow witliin plexUS (flff. 36 U^ the pedal bone, and gives off twigs /, wliich pass to the ^ V fo* ' / anterior surface of the pedal bone, just al)ove its lower COVCrS the OUtCr SUl'- edge ; g, twigs of plantar artery supplying coffin joint ; E, deep lateral layer of coronary plexus, clothing inner sur- faCC of the lateral Car- face of lateral cartilage ; F, divided ends of superficial part of coronary plexus. From these arise the digital vein (not tila act as moulds, upon which the horn tubes are cast, and from them the tubes grow like the hairs from the papillae sunk in the corium of other regions, as noted above. The epithelial cells covering the depres- sions between the papilhe form horn in a fashion precisely similar to those forming the horny laminae, and hence the horn tubes or fibres are cemented together by a horny matrix, as may be ascertained by consulting any good illustration of a section through the wall. Occupying the horn tubes may be found a material that has been named intratubular material ; this is de- rived from the cells covering the extreme tips of the papillte on the coronet, and hence the different portions of the horn form- ing the wall are named tubular, intertubular, and intratubular, according to their origin from the cells covering the sides of the papilloe, the depressions between, or the summits of the papillae. The horn of the frog is developed partly from the cells covering the numerous papilhe of the sensitive frog or from the depressions between. The peculiaiity of the frog may partly be accounted for by the mass derived from the non-papillated regions, and partly by the secretion formed by the sudoriparous glands found in the frog. Close and attentive examination of these glands show that they are not true sweat glands, secreting sweat as it is usually understood. The material formed, as observed in the ducts of the gland tubes, resembles ear wax rather than true sweat, and such a secretion would keep the frog in the condition we find it, better than a watery secretion subject to rapid evaporation. Moreover, the ragged nature of the frog may be explained by the hypothesis that the horn of purely cellular, as distinct from a moulded and papillated origin, is present in greater abundance than in the wall, and, as we shall observe later, such an explanation may be offered as to the structure of the horny sole, but here no glands are present. The cellular horn of the frog, as distinct from the tubular horn, has a remarkable appearance on close examination with the microscope. The cells are disposed in two alternating E 66 THE PKOTECTIVE STKUGTURES OF THE FOOT. dii'ectious, and passing through these alternating strata and at right angles to them are the horn tibres. Such an arrangement must consolidate the whole structure and resist traction when brought to bear in any direction, and that the toughness of the horn of the frog is surprising anyone will admit who has attempted to pull a piece away. The horny sole also is developed from cells covering the papilla' of the sensitive sole, and from those covering the surface, of the corium between them. The papillae, however, are sliort, and the amount of horn derived from other than a papillary origin is relatively abundant. The two factors taken in conjunc- tion, the short tubes and the cellular horn, explain the lack of colierence and the rapid exfoliation. Further, there is no natural secretion provided to keep the horn from rapidly desiccating and crumbling, as in other regions, where, if no secretion is provided, as in the frog, yet a thin protecting pellicle descends over the nascent liorn, prevents it from cracking until it is sufficiently hard to withstand the usages to wdiich it is put. The absence of secretion, or of periople, together with alternations of excessive dryness or of moisture to which the sole is subjected, accounts for the crumbling and breaking down of the horny sole ; and, beyond this, it should Ije mentioned that certain structures, as hairs, tend to break off and disintegrate when they have reached a certain length, or, in other words, have passed beyond the sphere of influence of the tissues from which they have been derived. The perioplic horn is derived from the cells covering the perioplic ring. Here, again, as in other regions, there are present papilhe. The horn developed passes over and becomes super- ficial to the horn derived from the coronary band, and its rela- tion to the latter part of the hoof wall is like that of a varnish. It has been termed, not inaptly, an epitlielial varnish, and as such it acts. The newly-formed horn from the coronary band when submitted, as it sometimes unwittingly is, to desiccation, cracks ; and, according to the extent of the crack, a lesion serious or not may arise, but fissures in the horny capsule are rarely seen, un- less of traumatic or of violent origin, if the periople is still in- tact; and, doul)tless, many cases of so-called brittle feet are due to a deficiency of secretion from the perioplic ring. The periople passes down over the wall as a thin pellicle of horn, and may be THE I'EKIOPLIC KING. 67 ti'aced as far as the clenches, where it commences to break down, and is removed as tlakes.* The corium consists of interlacing binidles of white fibrous tissue, with a varying quantity of elastic fibres. Its surface is papillated, i.e., it is broken up by innumerable conical promi- nences, which, though of small size in most situations, attain a relatively enormous development in others, such as the coronary band, sensitive sole, frog, etc. A. THE HORN-SECRETING STRUCTURES. In the foot, stripped of its horny covering, five great divisions of the horn-secreting corium may be recognised. In front and at the sides, the perioplic ring, coronary band, and sensitive laminffi ; below, the sensitive sole and the sensitive fro^r. To prepare a specimen for study, the foot may be macerated in water for a few days. In from four to eight days, according to the prevailing temperature, the hoof can be detached from the vascular structures it covers. To preserve its form the hoof, when removed, may be filled with liquid plaster of paris : otherwise it loses its characteristic form on drying. 1. The PEiiiorLic Eing. (Figs. 40 and 41, h.) The perioplic ring forms a band about one-sixth to one-quarter of an inch broad, lying between the hair-bearing skin and the coronary band, and extending completely round the foot to the bulbs of the heel. In front it is somewhat broader than at the sides, but its greatest breadth is attained close to the bulbs, over which it extends to blend imperceptibly with the frog. The perioplic ring, though somewhat deeper seated than the hair-bearing corium, cannot be sharply differentiated from it. On careful examination under water, it will be noted, however, that between the last hairs are little papilke belonging to the perioplic ring. Tiie division between the coronary band and perioplic ring is indicated by a well-marked, sharply-defined linear depression, the coronary groove {Kronenfah of Moller). The outer surface of the perioplic ring bears numerous, closely-arranged, fine papilhv, from one to two twenty-fourths of I am indelited to Professor Mettam for kindly supplying the foregoing passages (pp. 61-67) on the skin.— [Jxo. A. W. D.] 68 THE PKOTECTIVE STKUCTUKES OF THE FOOT. an inch in length, which, from their close apposition, give to this part of a freshly-stripped foot a shining appearance, especially when the surface is rubbed with the finger or with any hard body, thus at once distinguishing the perioplic ring from the hair-bearing cutis above, which has a finely- punctated appearance, and from the coronary band, which has a rougher look. The perioplic ring produces the soft horn of the periople and the superficial layer of the wall. The periople has been regarded as a portion of the coronary band ; but, as the horn which it secretes differs in many respects from that of the coronary band, it has been thought well to distin- guish it from that structure, and to regard it as a separate portion of the horn-secreting corium. To show that this superficial layer of horn is not merely a layer of epidermis, which it was long thought to be, a foot should be saw^ed through in a circle about an inch below the coronet until the sensitive structures are reached, and macerated for a few days. The portion thus divided may then be sepa- rated from the other parts of the hoof, and, with the exercise of some c&re, may slowly be detached from the foot. During the act it will be seen that the tine papillae of the perioplic ring, described by Leisering, are drawn out of their horny sheaths, just as the papilla' of the coronary baud are drawn from the depressions in which they lie in the horn of the coronet. 2. The Cokonaky Band. (Figs. 40 and 41, c.) The coronary band is a rounded structure about ^ of an inch wide, which encircles the foot from the region of one bulb to that of the other, and is situated between the perioplic ring and the upper extremities of the sensitive lamime. It is divided from the perioplic ring by the above-mentioned " coronary groove," and is so related to the underlying parts that, at the front of the foot, its upper border extends above the highest part of the pyramidal process of the pedal bone, and lies in front of the lower third of the coronet bone, where it covers the extensor pedis tendon. Its sides stretch obliquely backwards and downwards, covering the lateral surfaces of the coronet bdiie and the supero-anterior ])art of the lateral cartilage. Its THE CORONARY I'.AND. 69 posterior portions, however, are overtopped by the lateral carti- lage, and by the perioplic ring (compare fig. 41). The coronary band is convex on its ante- rior surface, and is broadest and strongest above the toe. Towards the sides it somewhat diminishes in size and becomes less pro- minent, until, in the region of the bulbs, it almost alto- ^ gather loses its convex ^ shape, becoming nearly Hat. The coronary band ex- hibits numerous papilla?, which, though they vary greatly in length and thick- ness, are, as a whole, much longer and stronger than those of the perioplic ring. They are best marked in the lower tliird of the band, where the strongest of them are to be found, as can easily be seen by examining the upper part of the hoof after removal. The length of these papilla- varies in general from \ to \ inch, though Leisering has seen some as short as xV inch and others as long as \ inch. These papillae, however, do not Fig. 40. — Foot deprived of hoiny capsule. «, comini, Iiearing hairs ; towards the left the hairs have been removed by gentle stroking;, h, perioplic ring ; c, coronary baud ; ). The coronary band produces the central portion of the horny wall. 3. The Sexsitivk Lamin.i: (Figs. 40, 41, d, and 43, a.) The corium below the coronary band presents a very different structure from that above. Certain ])ortions become thinner (compare with section in fig. 41), and the tissue shows, instead of papillse, a large number of parallel closely-packed leaves, which extend in straight lines from above downwards and forwards. These leaves are termed the sensitive laminte. The portions of the cutis bearing such leaves may be col- lectively termed the sensitive wall. The sensitive wall covers the anterior surface of the pedal bone and the lower portion of tlie lateral cartilages. Towards the back of the foot the two sides approach the middle line, forming an acute angle, and aro inclined towards each other from above downwards. At the heels the sensitive wall of either side is sharply reHected forwards at an acute angle with its former course, and lying between the papilla- of the sensitive sole and those of the reflected coronary band (already described), forms a strip about 1 to 1:] inches wide, which secretes th^ THE SENSITIVE LAMINJ-;. 71 second (laminal) constituent of tlie bars. A\"e, therefore, see that the bars are compound in origin, and may theoretically be divided into a " coronary " and a " laminal " portion. Although, when the hoof is removed, the isolated sensitive lamina? appear to lie closely packed together, they are really divided by deep furrows, whicb, in life, accommodate tlie hornv lamina? of the wall. The sensitive lamiuie may be compared to the leaves of a book,— that is, they are fastened by their posterior margin to the corium covering the pedal bone and vessels, whilst their anterior margin and lateral surfaces are free. The isolated laminas are very narrow above, just below the coronary band, and become broader as they descend, attaining their greatest breadth at the centre, which breadth they preserve as far as the ground, decreasing, however, in thickness, so that at the base they are markedly thinner. They terminate in papilke resembling those of the sensitive sole. The " toe " of the foot presents the broadest and most numerous lamin8e. Towards the sides and quarters they become narrower and more widely spaced. In the bars they are most slender and widest apart. In a similar way the laminte of the toe are the longest; those of the quarters become shorter and shorter, until they gradually cease. Their breadth varies from ^'s to 1 of an inch, their length from -jV at the bars to 2 or 3 inches at the toe, depending on the size of the foot. The number of lamime is not always the same. As a rule, there are about 25 to a centimetre at the toe,* 21 to 22 at the (quarters, 15 to 17 at the heels, and at the bars only about 10, so that the entire number may be estimated as between 550 and 600, depending on the size of the foot. To the naked eye the lamime appear quite Hat, but under the microscope they are seen to present a number of small projections which have Ijeen called secondary lamina?, running more or less in the same direction as the lamin;r : in fact, each lamina reproduces the same structure in miniature as the entire sensitive wall. The sensitive lamina? produce the laminal portion of the wall, and serve especially to connect the corium and the horny wall. The strength of this elastic connection is greatly increased by the enormous surface presented by the secondary lamime (compare with fig. 50). * Two and a half centiinctres equal nearly one inch. 72 THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. Moller distinguishes in the sensitive wall three layers, viz., (1) the periosteal layer (stratum-periostale) ; (2) the vascular layer (stratum-vasculosum) ; and (3) the real laminal layer (stratum-phyllodes), corresponding to the corium of other parts of the body. Moller estimates that at the junction of the upper and middle thirds of the toe primary laminte are from 24 0 to jio i'lch, and the secondary laminae from t;,\o to 3^0 of an inch in thickness. At the lower end of the wall the primary laminte are about 4J,, inch, the secondary about 12^00 to 4^0 ii^ch. At the centre of the toe, in many cases, a small depression may be found, which extends on to the wall, and contains papillae corresponding in position with the little rounded prominence to be found at the toe of the horny capsule. 4. The Sensitive Sole. (Fig. 43, h.) The corium, after clothing the wall, is reflected over the lower border of the pedal bone to the sole, and then loses its laminal character, except at the bars, ex- hibiting instead papilke which partly resemble those of the perio- plic ring, partly those of the coro- nary band. The portion of tlie under surface of the foot covered by long, thick papillce, like those of the coronet, is termed the sensitive sole (fig. 43, h). This, often flecked with black colouring material, or irregularly tinted, includes the entire anterior third of the under surface, and is divided into two parts by the sensitive row orthV?nV' 'into wVich'tiTe'" frog- frog, betwccu whicli and the sensi- stay" fits ; e, l)ull)ar expansion of pcrio- . *■ , i . . pile rinj;, which is seen to he continu- tlVC Sole, llOWCVCr, intervene the 0U8 with the sensitive frog. . . , . bars. The sensitive sole is con- nected, as already remarked, with the coronary band by a number of rows of large papilke insinuated between the " laminal " portion of the bars (secreted by a continuation of the sensitive laminte) and the sensitive frog. The sensitive VlQ. 43.— Lower surface of foot lienuJeil of homy capsule, a, sensitive bars ; b, sensitive sole ; c, sensitive frog ; d, fur THE SENSITIVE SOLE AND FROG. 73 sole carries a very well-marked venous plexus, and produces tlie horn of the sole. 5. The Sensitive Froo. (Fig. 43, c.) The sensitive frog is that portion of the corium which covers the plantar cushion. It clothes the groove of the frog (d), and insensibly unites in the neighbourhood of the bulbs (e) with the perioplic ring, so that no distinct boundary can be drawn between them. In general, the sensitive fro^ is not so well supplied with vessels as the sensitive sole, and, therefore, presents a lighter colour. The papillse on the lower surface are somewhat longer than those at the sides and base. The sensitive frog produces the horny frog. Under the term sensitive frog is often included the pLmtar cushion, together with its horn-secreting covering. This, how- ever, is anatomically incorrect. The sensitive frog clothes the plantar cushion in the same way as the sensitive sole clothes the under surface of the os pedis, and the sensitive wall the laminal surface of this bone. The plantar cushion and the horn-secreting surface are entirely different structures. The former is not a mere thiclvcning of the latter, but a tissue, formed of elastic and fibrous components, which fulfils a special physiological function. n. THE HORNY STRUCTURES. The collective masses of horn produced by the active epithelium of the foot are termed the hoof (fig. 44). This presents the appearance of a capsule enclosing the lower end of the limb, and comports itself towards the latter much as a shoe to the human foot. The connection between the horny capsule and the corium is so intimate that in the healthy tissues the two can never be dissected apart. Only in certain diseases of the foot do the sensitive and insensitive parts of tlie foot become more or less disunited. Occasionally, and in very severe cases, the hoof may, however, part from the corium, but after death decom- position very soon loosens the connection, the line of separation 74 THE PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. occurring along tlie row of cells from whieli the inner portion of the horny capsule is developed. The hoof may be divided into three different parts, which,, however, though differ- ing from one another in essential particulars,, must, on account of tlieir position and func- tion, be looked on as. three parts of one and the same structure. No one of these portions can be removed without in- „.,„,.,, , , , iury to all and without lIG. 44. — Hoof with vascular structures removed, 'i, . periople : owiiif; to maceration in water this is swollen weakeilin*^'' all. Their and prominent ; the outer border exhil)its adherent ^ hairs, the inner fine punctatious. Towards the heels indivisibility and mUtU- («') the periople is seen to broaden out and become . "^ continuous with the horny buii)s. At a" a portion of al interdependence are horn has been removed. From the point to b consti- ^ tutes the toe, from h to c the quarter, and from c to d bcSt Uudcrstood by CarC- the heel of the foot ; ?, projecting portion of frog ; /, . "^ . coronary furrow or cutigeral groove, showing nunier- fully rCCardinO" the iu- ous punctatious ; ij, laiuin;il sheath of wall. . '^ terior of a hoof after removal. At no point can sharp divisions be recognised ; each part unites and becomes continuous with the other. The three parts of the hoof are wall, sole, and frog. 1. The Horny Wall Ls that part of the hoof which is visible when the horse is standing (fig. 44), and which protects the foot in front and on either side. If we compare the foot with a man's shoe, the wall represents the upper, though, with this difference, that it extends down to the ground and eml)races the sole. The horny wall exactly responds both in position, course, and direction, as well as in the combination of its various parts, to the sensitive structures that produce it. It extends obliquely downwards from the border of the skin, decreasing in length (or height) towards the back. At the heels it bends inwards at either side (com])are figs. 45, 46, and 47),. runs for a short distance in a forward direction, and gradually becomes lost in the sole. The horny wall, therefore, does not surround the foot like a riiiy-, but its extremities are infolded THE HORNY WALL. 70 and inclined towards eacli other, forming tliree angles, the middle posterior angle be- ing open at the back for the reception of the frog, the two lateral facing for- wards and grasping the posterior prolongations of the sole. The horny wall presents an onter (anterior) smooth, slightly ribbed, or undu- lating surface, convex from side to side (fig. 44), and an inner (posterior) and correspondingly concave surface (figs. 47 and 48) : an upper border in contact with the cutis, and a lower which marginates the sole. The upper (tig. 44, cc) is genei-ally known as the coronary border, whilst the lower (figs. 45 and 46, a) is termed the plantar or l)earing border. For convenience of de- scription the wall may be divided by imaginary ver- tical lines ; thus, one drawn through the centre of the hoof will divide the wall into an inner and an outer half (inner and outer walls), or four lines may be so drawn as to divide the wall into five equal parts, termed respectively the toe, the inner and outer quarters, and the inner and outer heels. (a) Thfe anterior portion or to€' (fig. 44 from the point of the KlG. 45.— riidcv siirfMci; of right fore-foot, rt, a, bearing surface of toe ; «, i/, of quarters ; b, c, of lieels ; rf, conimeneement of bars ; e, lateral aspect of bars ; /, sole ; /', seat of coru : ^ c ^^^a^^s C C fi^ Fig. 50. — Transverse incision through the laminal sheath, a, inmost part of the middle sheath ; the horn tubules are seen to reach rif,'ht up to the horny lamina; ; 6, body of the sensitive wall ; c, cornitted portion of lamina; connected with middle sheath of wall ; c' , irregular laminse, which do not extend as far as body of sensitive wall ; c", non-cornified portion of rete niucosuni ; d, vascular laminro ; cf, vascular laminular horn between wall and sole, to be found also between the individual lamina'. by this space, the branches or wnigs of the sole (figs. 45 and 46,/). The sole presents an upper and a lower surface, an anterior semicircular and a posterior indented border, as above noted. The upper surface is convex (fig. 51, e) and lies in contact with the sensitive sole. The highest part is above the point of the horny frog (/) ; whence it slo]^es downwards towards the wall both in front and at the sides, rising again, however, to a slight extent in the immediate vicinity of the wall. Exactly in the middle line of the toe, where the sole joins the wall, is a small but distinct prominence (fig. 48, i), which extends on to the wall and corresponds to the excavation in the 86 THE rROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT. sensitive wall mentioned on page 72. It is difficult to ascribe any particular purpose to this prominence, which is not in- variably present. The degree of convexity of the upper sur- face of the sole varies greatly in different hoofs, being, cccteris parihm, greater in hind than in fore feet, while in diseased hoofs it may be entirely suppressed or the hoof may even be concave. The upper surface of the sole, like the cutigeral groove, is dotted with small holes, the openings of little funnel-shaped canals of varying size, which horn -secreting the sensitive ,/ fi.:¥!^^''4^<*'''Mf*5M^. , fig. 57). Under a low power the sec- fi^^^^fi|l<7^^4'"^'%'^^^^ tion shows a number of rounded or ^mt'''^^^^^^'^*'''^^^^\ *^^^ holes («) surrounded by dark, J """ ""^ crossed lines, which again are em- ^"l^if^^^Sl^oil^l^l I'edded in a lighter coloured mate- 6, inter-tubular lidi-n. Tile dark i.w.l /7,\ specks seen in the section repre- ' "''■'■ \"/- sent masses of pigment. rpj^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^g-^. ^^^^.j, g^rrOUnd- ing tissue correspond in position to the parallel dark striae found in longitudinal sections, hence we conclude the strise of the wall are hollow tubes, which, liowever, are not always empty but often contain loosely packed cells or broken-down cell pro- ducts. They are, in fact, horn tubes, a more correct term than that of horn fibres, which has also been given them. The lighter horny material surrounding them lias been termed inter- tubular or connective horn. Examination of the sole and soft liorii of the frog or [jeriojile sliows an almost exactly similar appearance. The lower surface of the sole, like the upper, exhibits minute openings. On section in an antero-posterior direction, stria; -are seen running obliquely from above downwards iind forwards, the microscopical examination of which shows tliem also to be horny tub(;s, though they dilier fnjin those of the middle sheath of the wall in their greater breadth and more oblique direction. Sections of fresh, soft horn (like that of the frog) exhibit very fine striai, which usually take a somewhat wavy course. When, however, soft horn is allowed to soak in water for some time STKUCTURE OF WALL, WHITE LINE, AND SOLE. 95 Striae appear as thicker, thread-like lines, and are then very distinct. By making a horizontal section, embracing portions of the bearing surface of the wall, of the white line and of the sole (fig. 58), we see that the spaces between the individual horny laminaj are not filled by connective horn alone, but that a number of horn tubes are included. The horny laminae possess no horn tubes. Their surfaces show slight striai and small secondary laminae or lamellae, more or less vertical (fig. 56, ^ and e), resembling those of the sensitive laminte ah-eady described at p. 71. Transverse sections of the horny laminte show these secondary lamina? as small radiating prominences (fig. 66, d), which are to be found botli in old and young hoofs. The horn' *'^'^"ifir°;°''i''°"*''/ ^"^^'"'^ *J"°\'Sh a part of the wall, the white line and the sole, a, horn ufr'o\;..';oSUrrho?^so^°™ ^•^"°""^""-" "^'^ '"'"^ '=°"^-- »^-" *"l-^ '^' -'^ of the hoof, therefore, with the exception of the horny lamina, consists of innumerable distinct, parallel, closely-packed horn tubes, running obliquely downwards and forwards, and sur- rounded by an inter-tubular horn which cements them firmly together. We may next go a step further, and seek to discover the nature and mutual relations of the horn tubes and of the inter- tubular horn which connects them. The moderate amplifica- tion which revealed the tubular structure of the hoof is now insufficient. Powers of 200 to 300 diameters are required, and the examination will be found to present peculiar difficulties. To facilitate cutting we must employ horn which has been long macerated, or, if possible, parts from young animals, and some- 9(5 HISTOLOGY OF HORN. times subject the horn to solutions which soften its structure and make clearer its finer characteristics ; the most useful is caustic potash or soda. Taking some dead, almost powdery, horn from the sole, or a little of the white cheesy material from the cleft of the frog, we place it on a slide, add a little clean water, and dropping over it a cover-glass, subject the specimen to moderate pressure. Under the microscope such a preparation shows only a number of cells resembling those of the epidermis described on p. 61. These are horn cells. By making a second preparation with some of the slimy KiG. ."JD.— «, horn cells from wall ; h. isolated horn tube from the wall of a new-born foal's foot (has been treated with caustic potash). KiG. (iu. — Uorn cells from the sole, a, young cells from the surface of the sole ; b, cells from horn which has been cast. material always to be found on the inner surface of the sole, frog, etc., after removal of the hoof (especially when the hoof has undergone prolonged maceration), we see nothing but thousands of horn cells, though in this case they are yoimger than in the former. Of horn tubes and inter-tubular horn we see absolutely nothing in either case. We may next take a minute particle of dead horn from the sole, or loosen a fragment of the striated soft horn from a macerated foot, and examine it microscopically after the addition of a little caustic potash. We shall then see clearly both horn CELLULAR CONSTITUENTS OF HORN. 97 tubes and inter-tubular horn. The horn tubes are formed, like the inter-tubular horn, from single cells (compare figs. 62, c, 64, and 65). By pressing on the cover-glass, cells may be detached from the horn tubes and are then difficult to distinguish from those forming the inter- tubular horn. The same appearance is presented by the horn of the middle sheath of the wall (fig. 59, 6), though in this case examination is more difficult, and seldom succeeds without the use of some caustic fluid. Leisering has, however, made Fig. 61.— Horn cells from the peiioplic ring, a, young ; 6, older cells. Vm. 62.— Horn cells from the frog. a, young ; b, older cells ; c, iso- lated horn tube. good preparations from macerated young hoofs. The horn tubes which project above the bearing surface of the wall in new-born foals, after the removal of the cap which covers the toe until birth, are useful for such demonstrations. The horny laminse, as we have seen, contain no tubes, but may be divided in a similar way into single horny cells. In their case it is not so essential to add an alkali. From the results, then, of microscopical examination it may be concluded that the horny cells are the elements from which the horn is built up. The horn tubes, the inter-tubular horn connecting them, and G 98 HISTOLOGY OF HORN. FiQ. 63.— Cells from horn lamina. « fresh cells obtained by scrapin}^ sensitive wall ; b, older cells from a fragment with caustic potash) the horny laminiii all consist of cells, which are vario\isly described as tubular, and inter-tubular or connective cells. Leisering states that, in general, the cells of the soft horn and of the sole are larger than those of the wall. The cells of the horny laminae are longer and less thick than those of other portions of the hoof. Young, imperfectly cornified cells lying close to their point of formation (papillae, sensitive laminae) are rounded, soft, and soon disappear after the addition of caustic potash solution ; they are, therefore, better studied in dilute acetic acid, which destroys them less all ; b, older cells from i-rinirllv of horn lamina (treated "F^^^^ J • Leisering believes that the cells of the horn tubes lie with their greatest length in the direction of the tube ; the inter-tubular cells, however, at right angles to the . tube. The tubular -^ ' ' and connecting cells, therefore, cross more or less in direction. This is well shown in sections of the soft horn of the frog, where the cells cross almost at right angles (fig. 65). Leisering has ob- served the same fact FIG. 64.— Horizontal section of a fragment of cast horn in the middle shcath from sole. The horn tubes a, like the inter-tubular horn r j.i n • n b, are seen to consist of cells. At c some of the horn 01 tnC Wall, especially tubes have been torn away. . \ t i ■ in young hoofs and m such as have been long macerated. In the sole the formation is somewhat different. The tubular cells there lie with their greatest length more nearly transverse to the direction of the tube. Perhaps this position of the cells and the less intimate connection which exists between them throughout the sole explain the flaking of the sole during work. The cells of the horny laminae always lie with their greatest length across the CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF HORN. 99 )^W^ Fig. 65. —Perpendicular section of horn frog. a, horn tubes; b, cells of the inter-tubular horn, which are seen to run at right angles to the horn tubes. lamina, in a somewhat oblique direction from tixed border to free edge, or downwards and inwards. The tendency of the homy lamina? always to tear in this direction appears due to the arrangement of their cells (fig. 56,/). The exceedingly tine particles of brownish, blackish, or deep black material which the microscope always shows to he present in greater or less amount between the cells of tlie tubes and inter-tubular horn is pigment. As its presence interferes greatly with micro- scopical examination, it is best to employ uncoloured hoofs. This pigment appears to serve no particular purpose in the construction of the hoof, the colour of which varies from white, yellow, or grey to a deep black according to the amount of pigmentation. As the pig- ment is produced by the corium, striped hoofs are due to absence of pigment-forming cells in certain regions of the coronet. It is said that dark hoofs are stronger than light, but this requires confirmation. The contents of the horn tubes consist of loosely packed, incompletely cornified cells, with broken - down material. Sometimes traces of blood are found in the tubes, especially after severe bruises of the corresponding horn-secreting parts. A very few lines on the physical and chemical properties of the horn must suffice. The horn forming the hoof, when fresh or after soaking in water, is fairly elastic ; but after drying it loses this property. It is a bad conductor of heat, and there- fore protects the parts it covers from freezing in winter weather and from burning during the fitting of a hot shoe. Burning horn produces a thick smoke, which has a character- istic smell resembling that of burning feathers. Acetic acid acts least, nitric acid most on horn, the latter turning it soft and yellow ; sulphuric acid produces its effect slowly and renders the cells more distinct. Caustic alkalis (soda and potash) dissolve the inter-cellular substance and break up the horn into its component cells. Ammonia acts similarly : 100 HISTOLOGY OF HORN. hence it must be iiijurious to the feet to be coiitiiiually in contact with manure which contains considerable quantities of this alkali. According to Mulder the elements of the horse's hoof are: — Carbon, 51"41 ; hydrogen, 6'9G ; nitrogen, 17'46 ; oxygen, 19 "94 ; sulphur, 4"23, Clement's analysis is as follows : — Water, Wall Sole. Frog. 1612 36-00 42-00 Fatty material, .... 0-95 0-2;") 0-50 Mateiial soluble iu water, 1 04 IT.O 1-50 Insoluble salts 0-26 0-25 0-22 Animal matte is, .... 81-63 62-00 100-00 55-78 100-00 100-00 Lungwitz found by experiment that fresh, healthy horn from the frog contained about 40 per cent, of water. In the case of perioplic horn, however, this figure rises to 50. The excess of water in the perioplic horn explains its greater softness and flexibility. Fat is also present in small quantities in the horn, being formed by fatty degeneration of the loose cells contained in the hern tubes. In the soft horn structures of newly-born animals the quantity of fat is sometimes so considerable that little drops of it may be seen under the microscope. CHAPTER 11. THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. MoLLER distinguishes three periods in the development of the hoof: — (1) The period of general epidermal formation ; (2) The period of the provisional hoof ; and (3) The period of the hoof proper. The period of general epidermal formation comprises the first two months of uterine life, during which one can only distinguish at the extremity of the limli a slight thickening of the epidermis, marking the position of the future hoof. The second period extends over the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth months of foetal life, during which are formed the coronary l)and and the remainder of the keratogenous or horn- secreting membrane. At the seventh month tlie wall itself appears distinctly, then the sole and frog, whicli are completely developed soon after birth. The third period is characterised by the greater hardness of the horn. Development takes place from the region of the toe towards that of the heels. During the latter half of gestation the hoof begins to assume the appearance of ordinary horn, the change commencing at the coronet. At birth the hoof is conical in shape ; its horn soft and elastic. The frog is greatly developed and the sole is not yet apparent. It is only towards the fifteenth to eighteenth month that the hoof assumes its final form. At first like a truncated cone with its base above, it gradually assumes a cylindrical form, finally changing once more to the conical shape, but with the base below. Tlie lieels, formerly very oblique, Ijecome parallel to the toe, and the sole develops a marked concavity. An examination of the feet of a fully grown but imshod 101 102 THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. horse which has been employed in field work, and has not been much on hard roads, will show that they are of the same size and length. If the hoof be marked with a rasp or file, it will be found, after some time, that the mark is receding from the coronary border and approaching the ground ; in a word, it is " growiug " downwards. If, however, the horse is not working (or is shod) its hoofs will become longei'. Both appearances — the recession of the mark and the elonga- tion of the hoofs — show that the latter grow from above down- ward, Just as do our nails and hair. The explanation, however, why the unshod hoof of a horse working on the land remains the same length and the shod hoof increases, is to be found in the fact that in the first instance as much horn is worn away from the bearing surface as is produced above, whilst in the other, wear is prevented by the protection afforded by shoes or by the absence of movement. Growth seems to be regular, at least in the wall. Hartmann, who made numerous experiments to discover whether the toe grew faster than the quarters or heel, always found that the fine transverse incisions, which he made at similar distances from the coronary border (though at different points of the circumference of the foot), preserved an equal distance from the coronary border during their passage downwards, so that he concluded growth was equal at all points in the wall. It being so difficult to study the growth of horn in the sole and frog, it is at present not possible to say whether it takes place there more rapidly than in the wall. Hartmann says the frog grows most rapidly when the animals are kept hard at work, though only then if the part comes in contact with the ground. Grohn ascertained negatively the influence exerted by nerve supply upon the growth of the hoof, and found that when the digital nerves of one leg were divided, the wall of the corre- sponding foot grew more rapidly than that of its fellow. The time required for the horn to grow from the coronary border to the ground edge of the wall varies greatly, being from eight to sixteen months at the toe, six to ten months at the quarters, and four to six months at the heel. The length (or height) of the wall and the angle it makes with the ground must, of course, be taken into consideration. If we KATE OF GROWTH. 103 regard the average growth as 8 millimetres (y\ inch) per month, the length of time required for complete renewal of the hoof at any point is easily reckoned. But, as before stated, the rate of growth is not always the same. Lungwitz studied this question somewhat closely and formulated his results as follows : — 1. The growth of the horny wall is slow and averages about 8 millimetres (y^^j inch) per mouth. 2. Unshod hoofs grow more rapidly than those shod. 3. Hind hoofs grow more rapidly than fore. 4. The wall grows slower in stallions than in other horses. 5. Growth takes place to an equal extent round the entire hoof. 6. There is no connection between the colour and rapidity of growth of the hoof. Growth is favoured by the hoise going barefooted. The following case is given in the Hufschmied, v. p. 38 : — A horse, the normal growth of whose front hoofs was 3 millimetres monthly, was sent to grass without shoes for three months. A light cantharides blister was applied around the coronet. During this period the growth rose to 8*9 millimetres per month. In horses which are shod, growth is favoured by free move- ment on moderately soft ground, by careful shoeing which provides for the expansion of the foot, by regularly shorten- ing the wall, by nourishing diet, normal state of health, and by all factors which increase local circulation. Growth is retarded by want of movement, ill health, low condition, exercise on hot sand or on stones, drought, excessive length of the hoof, unequal distribution of weight in the two limbs, and by continued standing on one foot. Wear depends to some extent on the pace. Thus at a full gallop or fast trot the heels seem to wear most, at a walk or slow trot the toe. That is to say, that at a fast pace the foot is brought tiat to the ground or even with the heel first, but at a walk the toe strikes the ground first. It is worthy of note that draught horses usually wear the outer quarter more than the inner. The question of how the hoof grows cannot well be answered by direct inspection of the parts, and requires a careful study of the formation of the specialised corium, which produces the horn, of the microscopic appearances of the horn itself, and of 104 THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. the processes of renewal which are always going ou in the hoof-forming tissues. On page 62 it was shown that the surface of the eorium is continually secreting cells which form the epidermis, that the older of these are compressed by the yoimger and last-formed, in consequence of which they become flatter and drier, take on ;i horny character, and finally are thrust ' off. The growth of the hoof is very similar. Like the epidermis, the hoof consists of cells secreted by the specialised eorium, and gradually compressed and dried into a solid adherent mass corresponding to the more superficial epidermjil layers. Nevertheless, the arrangement and forward growth of the horn cells diflbr essentially from those of the epidermis. As the hoof eorium, which produces horn cells, is not a level surface like that of the skin, but presents numerous papillae and lamince, tlie growth and formation of horn naturally presents many peculiarities. This folding of the horn-secreting surfaces ensures a very intimate connection between the horny and sensitive parts, a union characterised by firnniess and resistance to dis-" placement, but presenting also a sufficiently yielding char- acter to permit of the growing down of the wall. Leis- ering suggested the following theory of the growth of the hoof : — Every point in the eorium, however small, is capable of producing horn cells. The papillse, the little surfaces be- tween them, the sensitive laminie and their interspaces, are all concerned in producing horn, but each in a particular way. Let the reader imagine the papilLe in function. Firstly, they produce a circular layer of horny cells ; below these another layer, a second, a third, a fourth, and so on. As, however, the older cells cannot continue to retain their original position as the newer cells are formed, they are gradually thrust outwards and onwards in proportion to the space required by the new cells. As each papilla is more or less conical, the rows of cells are first arranged in a funnel shape, and finally each papilla becomes the growing base of a horn tube. As, however, the individual (and concentric) layers of cells are firmly united to one another, and as each layer is intimately connected with the next, there are no marked intervals be- HORN TUBES AND INTER-TUBULAR SUBSTANCE. 105 tweeu the little tubes thus produced. Each papilla, therefore, furnishes tlie material for and produces a horn tube modelled on its own form. The horn tubes correspond in size to the papilhe producing them, the thicker papilhe producing larger tubes. But this is only a part of the process, for were there no cementing substance the innumerable tubes thus produced would only loosely cover the sensitive foot, just as hair covers a man's head or the mane a horse's neck, and therefore we have to note that whilst the papilLe are producing tubes, the surfaces between are secreting inter-tubular cells which interlock with those of the tubes, and bind the whole into one firm mass of horn. The strength and hardness of horn depend to some extent on the age of the hoof. The older the cells the harder they become ; hence the horn close to the secreting parts is softer and more readily cut than that further removed. The degree of toughness appears to depend largely on the arrangement of the cells, being greater the more varying the direction between the cells of the tubes and those of the inter-tubular horn; it is perhaps greatest in the softer horn structures and middle sheath of the wall, where the cells run in every direction (compare fig. 65). The horn of the sole in which the arrangement of the cells is entirely different exhibits little toughness. Having obtained an idea of the method in which the horn of the wall, sole, and frog is produced and grows, it only remains to note how the horny wall and horny sole are connected with their respective sensitive tissues. . The wall is produced by the coronary band. The horn grows downwards, surrounding and, protecting the internal portions of the foot. But it would be connected with neither the sensitive laminte nor with the horny sole were it not that the lamime have the property of producing horny material. The laminal horn is produced in comparatively small quantities, and is not tubular. As there is no spot between the coronary band and sensitive wall where the secretion of horn is interrupted, and as the inter-papillary parts of the lower border of the coronary band are continuous with the commencement of the sensitive laminai, 106 THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. there can be no sharp margin drawn between the horn pro- duced by the coronary band and that produced by the sensitive laminse. The horn produced by the vascular lamina?, however, has a different structure, and bears the impress of the tissue from which it grows. The following explanation has been given of the production of horn by the sensitive laminae. Each lamina produces a row .1^; > ' P' \. •"'• ■^/4>" si,\^jf,\ ^■n*^ ^ ^-^^-^^^ , '''\^^^l^^r ' 'M . I/W \'f. >, ^ I 'f -v'" L\ «M m^fki'r Fig. 66. — Hori7X)ntal section, showing relation of a horny lamina to the coriuni. A, the horny lamina derived from the cells B, B, which have grown into the coriura C. When the horny lamina is withdrawn after macerating the foot, the space it occupied is the cleft between the " fleshy " laniintc, and the processes upon which the lines from B end are then known as secondary lamina;. It will be seen that they increase the horn- producing area ; the cellular character of the horny lamina is, however, still evident. (From a micro-photo., Oc. 3, obj. 7.) , of horny cells on either of its surfaces. The opposing rows of horny cells between each pair of sensitive laminae unite, forming a single horny lamina. Hence each pair of sensitive laminai enclose a horny lamina, and the total number of horny and sensitive lamina? is approximately equal. The amount of horn contributed by the sensitive laminie to the middle layer of the wall is extremely small, being confined to a very thin layer of cells secreted by the margins of the sensitive lamime, PART PLAYED BY THE LAMIN^l-:. 107 and collected in the interspace between two horny lamina. All the rest of the cells go to the formation of horny laminpe. Henle {Das Wachsthwn des me^ischlichen Nagds und des Pferdchufs, Gottingen, 1884, p. 32) says, " In my opinion the laminai of the sensitive wall correspond to the folds of the corium in the human nail-bed. The horny laminae correspond to the stratum mucosum of the nail, and between the two structures there is only this difference, that in man the stratum mucosum and the horny layer are sharply differentiated from one another, whilst in the horse the horny lamina? and the horny wall insensibly coalesce. From this fact I conclude that in man the body of the nail glides forward over the deeper structures without taking up new elements, whilst, as in the hoof the horny laminae and wall are intimately connected, it seems quite possible that the wall may receive additions from the lamina'. That this increment is very slight however, is shown by the fact that the wall remains of equal thickness throughout any vertical line." (For cut of human nail-bed, see p. 61.) The horny laminae produced by the sensitive wall are gradually thrust or carried by the downward growth of the horny wall towards the ground, remaining, however, in un- broken continuity with the middle sheath of the wall, and, as a whole, representing the inner sheath. On the ground surface of the hoof they form the white line. Normal growth of the wall essentially depends on a normal condition of the sensitive and horny laminae. The layers of cells formed by the latter may be regarded as permitting the gradual downward movement of the horny wall, and as preventing its quitting its proper direction. Sucli an explanation is strengthened by the existence of a remarkable peculiarity in the formation of the horny laminae, which will later be de- scribed. The firm connection between the laminal and middle sheaths of the wall, and the interdigitation of the horny and sensitive laminae, explain the intimate connection between the horny and sensitive walls, but not that between the horny wall and sole, for the laminal sheath, which in its continuous downward progress projects beyond the laminae, would not of itself form a sufficient 108 THE GROWTH OF THE HOOF. bond between the two. The lower ends of the sensitive laminae are providetl, however, with horn-secretiug papilhe, which again are continuous with those of the sensitive sole, so that in the hoof after removal from the foot they appear merely to be the marginal papilla' of the sensitive sole. At the point where wall and sole meet, and between the individual horny lamintie, these papilla; and the surfaces between them produce tubes and inter-tubular horn, and thus fill the spaces })reviously occupied ^ a> <^ Fig. 67. — Cross section of the c^iiiieftiiiK sheath of the wall. «, iinieniiost portion of the protective slieath of the wall ; the horn tubes are seen to extend right up to the horn lamina; ; 6. portion of the vascular wall ; o, portions of horn laniinre connected with iKirn wall ; <;', irregnlarly developed horn lamina; ; c", the so-called secondary lamina; ; d, sensitive or vascular lamina; ; rf', irregularly developed vascular laminie ; r, injected arterial vessels. by the sensitive laminic, which would otherwise divide the horny lamiu£e. The horn thus thrown out connects the lower portions of the laiiiiual sheath with the sole, and assists in forming the " white line " (compare fig. 58). Strictly speaking, therefore, the white line is produced by the sensitive wall alone. The horny laniimc are derived from the lateral surfaces of the sensi- tive lamina-, which, however, they have left behind ; the interr laminal horn is a later acquisition, being produced by the papilhe which terminate each sensitive laiuiiiii, and, like the horn of the sole, is still in connection with tlic structure pro, ducing it. An interesting point has been raised as to liow the coronary papillai secrete tubes of horn and not solid cylinders. I^ is, of course, clear that, as the papilla becomes covered with FUNCTION OF THE SENSITIVE WALL. 109 cells and these again are thrust off by coutimied growth, a cylinder must be formed. It would seem, however, that the cells produced by the tip of the papilla are different in cliaracter to those produced by the sides, and that at a very short distance from the papilla itself the central cells of the horn cylinder begin to contract so that spaces are left, much in the same way as in the stalks of certain grasses. As growth proceeds, the cen- tral cells contract more and more, until the original cylinder becomes a veritable tube. By examining a cross section of horn laminoe, like that shown in fig. 68, with ;j-inch objective, it is seen, even after treatment with water alone, that the lamina consists of two distinct parts. The condition is better brought out by the use of alkalis or colouring materials. On treating the section with dilute potash solution the outer part of the lamina clears up and becomes almost invisible, while the centre remains un- altered, save that its cells become rathei' more distinct. Again, the outer layer of cells readily absorbs a carmine stain while the inner refuses it. The outer portion consists of young, uncornified cells just secreted by the sensitive la- mime. The central, darker part is made up of cells which have already become cornified. The function of the well-developed mucous sheath (stratum mucosum) of the wall appears to be to facilitate the downward movement of the wall from coronet to bearing margin. After disease of the sensitive wall the downward growth appears impeded and the crust is apt to show defor- mation. The function of the sensitive wall has been the subject of Fifl. 68. — Transvei-se section of two horn lamina: still connected with the middle sheath of the wall, a, middle sheath ; 6, trans- verse section of horn tubules ; c, central cornified portion of horn lamina; d, e, and/, young horn surrounding the fully cor- nified parts. 110 THE GRO^VTH OF THE HOOF. lively controversy. The principal views on the point are as follows : — (1) The sensitive wall only produces the laminal sheath of the horn wall. This is the generally accepted view, and is supported by H. Bouley and Leisering. (2) The sensitive wall produces the entire mass of cement substance or inter- tubular horn (Fuchs). (3) The sensitive wall produces the inter-tubular horn of the inner (white) sheath of the wall (Brauell). (4) The sensitive wall has no part in the production of horn laminae, but the entire wall, including the laminae, grows downwards from the coronet. The sensitive wall produces a fine layer of horn lying between the laminie and the mucous sheath of the sensitive laminas. This view appears untenable, if only because it fails to explain the gradual increase in width of the horny lamina' as one proceeds from above downwards. CHAP T E R 1 1 1 . THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. At rest the horse's weight is distributed over four columns, the framework of each of which is formed by bones. Taking any one of these columns we find the load finally falls on the pedal bone, and is transmitted by it to the hoof, which may be compared to a socle or plinth sustaining the entire limb. The body-weight, however, is not distributed equally over the four hoofs, the front feet, which lie nearer the centre of gravity of the body, carrying a greater proportion than the hind. Every object must be supported, at least at one point. If all the parts surrounding this are themselves in equilibrium the point of support will lie vertically below the centre of gravity. Living objects, including the horse, have, instead of a point, a surface of support, which, in the horse, may be delimited by lines uniting the outer borders of the hoofs, and will therefore be found to take the shape of an elon- gated rectangle. The centre of gravity of the body falls at a point somewhat in advance of the intersection of the two diagonals. When the horse stands on three legs, the centre of gravity is shifted, and the surface of support becomes triangular. If a hind-foot is rested, the point will be displaced in a back- ward direction, if a fore-foot, forwards. As the feet can only sustain weight when in contact with the ground, it follows that in movement the surface of support may be an elongated strip, i.e., a surface as broad as the hoof, and as long as the space between the two hoofs (trot), or may even be diminished to the area presented by the single hoof, which for the time being carries the entire body-weight (gallop). In addition to the weight of the body, the limbs have often to bear a con- 111 112 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. siderable added load, and are hence exposed during severe work to many chances of injury and disease. The action of weight ou the hoof differs at a slow walk and at higher rates of speed. At a walk the rise and fall of the load is slight, but at the trot, gallop, or leap it greatly increases. At these paces the impact of the body- weight is violently trans- mitted to the lower parts of the limbs, and, in proportion to the rapidity with which the animal moves, the hoof suffers a more or less violent shock at each contact with the earth, such shock producing in its turn a corresponding counter-shock. Considering the weight of the animal's body, it is clear that, were it not for the peculiar anti-concussive arrangements in the hoof and limb, such violence must be followed by severe injury both to limb and trunk. The angular formation of the limbs, and the position in which they come in contact with the earth, the presence of joints, and the excentric form of their articular surfaces, the resiliency of articular cartilages, the lubrication by synovia, the elasticity of ligaments, of the lateral cartilages, plantar cushion, coronary band, anci horny capsule, and, finally, the peculiar union between hoof and pedal bone, all co-operate in diminishing the effects of violent impact with the earth, and in preventing transmission of shock to the trunk. An exhaustive examination of these anti-concussive media would extend to even more distant regions, for the entire limb is elastic, while the fore-limbs are connected with the trunk, not by bones, but by muscles, a device which, in itself, tends very materially to minimise shock. The hind-limbs, certainly, are directly connected with the rest of the skeleton, but this is compensated for by their angular formation, and by the ligament- ous tissues connected with the stifle and hock joints. In every joint, therefore, the vibration transmitted to the limb is some- what diminished, and, as a consequence, the body sustains only slight and unimportant disturbance. Of the lower joints of the limb, the fetlock shows this anti-concussive mechanism best. Its articular depression, into which fits the lower extremity of the metacarpal bone, consists of three bones, con- nected together, but nevertheless relatively movable. By means of the powerful suspensory ligament, the sesamoid bones are suspended from the bones of the carpus, and are connected to the upper end of the metacarpus ; hence, when the fetlock I HOW CONCUSSION IS NEUTRALISED. 113 joint is excessively Hexed under the incidence of the body- weight, these bones yield to a considerable extent. The sus- pensory ligament, in common with the inferior and lateral sesamoidean ligaments, and the two bands of the suspensory which pass downwards and forwards (fig. 25, h^) to unite with the extensor pedis tendon, assure to this joint a secure position without any exertion of muscular strength, while yet permitting the backward and downward movement of the lower end of the metacarpal bone during movement. The anatomical peculiarities indicated greatly assist the fetlock joint in neutralising shocks produced by the incidence of the body- weight, so that in the normal position of the fet- lock the force of impact is at least diminished by one-half, and what remains is transmitted through the bones of the foot to the hoof. As at the coronet joint the coronet bone is firmly attached to the suffraginis, little movement can occur, and, therefore, little diminution of shock. The coronet bone is connected directly with the suffraginis, and indirectly with the sesamoid bones and common extensor pedis tendon, an arrangement which prevents displacement of the coronet joint under any ordinary load. So far as the dissipation of shock is concerned, the pedal joint is much better arranged, its lower articular surface consisting of two bones, the pedal and navicular. The mobility of this joint is greater than that of the coronet joint, though not equal to that of the fetlock ; on the other hand, the joint allows of considerable lateral deviation. It is assisted in distributing concussion, firstly, by the division of its articular surface into two ; secondly, by the possibility of movement between the pedal and coronet bones ; and thirdly, by the elastic nature of the structures between the pedal bone and hoof. The pedal and navicular bones are connected by ligaments, namely, two strong lateral ligaments, two suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone (postero-lateral ligaments), which run upwards somewhat spirally arranged, and the fibro-elastic apparatus attached to the skin, referred to, p. 43 (fig. 27, e), in addition to the ligaments connecting the navicular and pedal bones (strahlbeinhufbeinbander) and the navicular bone and lateral cartilages (strahlbeinhufknorpelbander). Broadly viewing, then, the collective ligaments of the three joints of the foot, they are seen to lie chiefly on the posterior H 114 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OK THE FOOT. surfaces of the bones, and, owing to their method of origin and insertion and tlieir radiating formation, to be capable of assuring the relative position of the bones forming the joints without the intervention of other structures. The justice of this theo- retical deduction is shown by the fact that, after section of the tlexor pedis perforans and perforatus, the angle between the metacarpus and os suffraginis often remains little altered. The joints named, and especially the pedal joint, are further supported in position by tendons, particularly by the flexor tendons, with their limiting and encircling ligaments. Immediately the foot comes in contact with the ground the ligaments and tendons are thrown into tension, the position of the hoof remaining the same from the beginning to the end of this period. We see that the articular depression of the pedal joint forms the point of rotation for the termination of the column of bones carrying the weight of the body. We see, also, that, varying with the weight carried by the limb, the fetlock joint moves to a certain extent backwards and down- wards, though it returns ogain immediately the load diminishes, and that while the fetlock has full play the hoof remains stationary. This play of the fetlock would be impossible were the pedal joint immovai)ly connected with it. The strain on tendons and ligaments is not, liowever, equally severe throughout these joints at all times, but tension and relaxation alternate according as the axis of the fetlock is more or less inclined to the horizontal plane. At the moment when the fetlock is most oblique, all the ligaments of the fetlock joint, and especially the superior suspensory ligament and the perforans and perforatus tendons, are exceedingly tense. The ligaments of the pedal joint, on the other hand, are relaxed. But just before the hoof leaves the ground, all the ligaments of the pedal joint become tense to their extreme margins. At this moment, in consequence of the forward movement of the body, the foot is tilted, but the flexor muscles do not begin to act fully until the toe of the foot quits the ground. As the weight diminishes, the suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone, the four posterior corono-suffraginal ligaments, the ligaments passing between the lateral cartilages and skin of fetlock, constituting the plantar aponeurosis, and CHANGES IN FOUM OF THE HOOF. 115 especially the cartilaginous plate at the back of the pastern (fig. 27, e), become excessively tense, causing the navicular bone to be applied closely to the posterior part of the articular surface of the coronet bone, and the anterior rounded part of its articular prominence to be pressed firmly into the articular depression of the pedal bone. The formation of the articular groove of the coronet bone favours the fixation of the pedal joint at the moment when the parts are relieved of weight. When tiexion is complete, extension immediately begins, and the hoof is advanced, wliereupon tlie stage of weight-bearing commences and is followed by relaxation, a series of changes which recurs again at each step. In order to ensure free and perfect action, it is absolutely necessary that the hoof should leave the ground lightly and easily. Everything which impedes this phase of movement interferes with action, and may lead to disease of tendon, ligament, or bone. Such action can, however, only result when weight is equally distributed throughout the joints of all four limbs, and the (imaginary) axis of the foot, as viewed from the side, appears nearly straight. Slight deviation of the axis of the foot in a forward direction, thus I does no harm, but deviation backwards is excessively injurious, be- cause it leads to greater weight being thrown on the above- mentioned ligaments, and may produce lameness without the horse being exposed to any special strain. Injury may result even when standing in the stable, especially when the surface of the pavement falls too much towards the heel-post. Bearing in mind these facts, the farrier should strive to so form tlie hoof that the load between the ligaments and tendons in the region of tlie pedal joint is evenly distributed. Changes in Form of the Hoof. We have seen that the body- weight is conveyed to the pedal bone through the medium of the coronet bone. As, however, the pedal bone is connected through the laminal sheath of the sensitive wall with the horny wall, it is clear that the weight is f urtiier conveyed to the horny wall itself. This, like the other parts of the hoof, is somewhat elastic. Elastic bodies change their shape under pressure, a rule to which the hoof 116 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. is 110 exceptiou. The character and extent of these changes of i'orni, and how and at what times they occnr, are points which have heeii studied both in Hving and dead hoofs, though results vary greatly, and in some instances even contradict one another. Tliis is explained partly by the different interpretations of different observers, partly by the difierence of the objects examined, and partly by variations in methods of examination, though it is also probable that contradictory results have, in certain cases, been caused by unappreciated or doubtful anatomical conditions in the hoof. Historical. — The elasticity of the hoof was recognised even in the last century by Lafosse, jun., and J. Clark, although they attributed it to the elasticity of the horn alone. In 1810 Bracy Clark went a step further. He referred the elasticity of the hoof to the formation of the horny capsule, which he divided into three chief parts — wall, sole, and frog. He also laid great stress on the flattening of the concavity of the sole, and the driving apart of the heels by the frog at the moment when weight was placed on the foot. He concluded that any interference with this lateral movement of the heels by the shoe might be injurious, and his observations were, therefore, of great practical importance, for they form part of the foundation of our present system of shoeing. The shoe he recommended had no heels, possessed a perfectly horizontal bearing surface, and had nail holes distributed through its anterior half only. A Frenchman, Peiier, attacked these views to some extent in 1835, for while he allowed that the sides of the bearing surface of the hoof might move slightly, he denied that the heels as a whole did so. An English experimenter, Gloag, of the Army Veterinary Department, working on both living and dead hoofs, initiated new ideas in 1849. He found no lateral movement, no sinking of the sole, but only a slight sinking of the bulbs of the heel. Next year, however, Gloag's results were contradicted by Keeve. In order to demonstrate the descent of the sole in the living horse, he used a shoe which carried between the quarters a cross bar provided on the upper side with small upright spikes. After the horse had been walked a few steps, the hoof was examined, l)ut showed nothing to indicate that the sole descended. The horse was then trotted and galloped ; EARLY EXPERIMENTS ON EXPANSION OF THE FOOT. 117 a second examination left no doubt, for each spike, which was still at the same distance from the surface of the sole as at the commencement of the examination, had produced a mark in the sole. There were altogether nine visible punctures, showing that the sole during movement had sunk and risen again. In a similar way he also proved the lateral expansion of the hoof at the bearing surface. The famous French experimenter, H. Bouley, in 1851, like- wise proved the dilatation of the hoof and the descent of the sole during movement. In 1852 Mills traced the circumfer- ence of the hoof, both when bearing weight and when free, and showed that the circumference of the hoof when loaded was greater than when unloaded. Leisering and Hartmann, in 1861, made experiments on dead and living hoofs. Leisering found that in dead feet the posterior parts of the horny sole sink more than other points, provided the navicular bone is also under pressure. He con- sidered that the descent of the sole is accompanied by only a slight dilatation of the periphery and bearing surface, and that at the coronary border of the wall there is even diminution in size. According to his view, the hoof carries the greatest weight at the moment when the fetlock joint is most extended forward (dorsal flexion). Experimental measurements of living hoofs, which he made in company with Hartmann, gave the following results : — Dilatation of the lateral walls of the hoof at the bearing surface, about 1 to 2 millimetres, at the coronary border an equal degree of contraction ; dilatation of the walls of the heel at the coronary margin, 2 to 4 millimetres, and at the bearing surface, 2 to 3 millimetres. Leisering's views on the movement of the foot were generally accepted until 1880, but in 1881 Lechner came forward with his experiments made on dead hoofs. These seemed to directly contradict the views previously received. Lechner even believed that the previously received views as to the movement of the hoof were entirely erroneous and had stood in the way of rational shoeing. He placed especial weight on what he called rotation of the foot, and laid down the following dicta : — 1. Dilatation at the bearing surface in the sense of the older theories, that is, increase beyond the normal size of the 118 THE MECHANICAL FUXCTIOXS OF THE FOOT. hoof when bearing weight, never occurs in a normally formed and sound hoof. 2. The hoof dilates, or at least becomes tense, at the moment of greatest dorsal Hexion* of the fetlock, along the entire coronary border, but not along the bearing margin. On the contrary, at this moment the posterior part of the hoof " rotates " on the bearing surface, especially the angle of the bars and the walls of the heels, together with the other tissues lying between them, whilst the wall and sole of ihe anterior half of the hoof move towards the middle line, that is, the hoof becomes narrower below at the moment when the anterior half of the bearing surface is under the greatest strain, 3. The sole does not sink at the moment indicated, the bars and portions of the sole next them rather rising and approaching one another laterally. The sole, therefore, presents a narrower and not a wider appearance. 4. The limbs of the frog are not thrust asunder at the above- named moment, that is, broadened and pressed backwards, but are pressed together, thickened from the sides, and their length, as a whole, increased, the under portions of the bulbs being drawn somewhat backwards and outwards. 5. This rotary movement in the hoof occurs both above and below synchronously and isochronously, that is, simultaneously and at equal periods of time. Lechner's results, which are entirely supported by those of Gierth, introduced new views as to the physiology of the horse's hoof, and at the same time gave rise to fresh experiments. Lungwitz and his assistant (now Oberroszarzt a. 1). H. Schaaf) made experiments on living hoofs in regard to dilatation of the hoof at the bearing surface, using a specially constructed instrument. The dilatation of the bearing border during the period when the hoof carries weight is shown in the following table : — * It will be noted that the fetlock joint may he Hexed in a forward direction (dorsal flexion), as during the last phases of movement, preparatory to the foot leaving the ground. Dorsal flexion of the fetlock is sometimes, though perhaps less precisely, described as " extension." Flexion backwards (volar llexion) takes place during movement of the limb through the air, and is the condition most often indicated, in this country, by the term " flexion. '' LUNGWITZ'S CONCLUSIONS ON EXPANSION. 119 Number of Kxperiments. 32 33 69 12 Dilatation in Millimetres. At Outer W.all of Heel. At Inner Wall of Heel. Between. 0-55 1-28 2-23 3-04 At rest, Walk, Trot, Gallop, 0-25 0-55 0-84 106 0-30 0 70 1-22 1-81 In addition, Lungwitz by himself undertook another series of experiments on living feet, using girdles, callipers, and pieces of gummed-on paper. He came to the following conclu- sions : — 1. Dead hoofs, both sound and diseased, except those with ossified lateral cartilages, dilate at the coronary margin of the heels. 2. In healthy hoofs the bearing surface dilates, both at the coronet and at the ground surface. 3. Tliis dilatation results in a slight shortening of the longi- tudinal diameter of the hoof, which is best shown at the coronary border. 4. Dilatation of the bearing surface of the wall is shown in different ways, according to the form of the hoof. In flat or laminitic hoofs it increases from the toe towards the heels, but diminishes again towards the bearing surface. 5. Dilatation of the bearing surface is impeded by shoeing and by dryness of the horn. 6. Flexibility of the horn, and a well-developed but un- trimmed frog, favour dilatation of the hoof at the bearing surface. 7. In hoofs with wired-in heels and compressed bars, dilata- tion under the body-weight may still occur, but the most posterior part of the bearing surface of the heel does not take part in it — rather the contrary. In the year 1882 Bayer undertook experiments on the dilatation of the living hoof, using an electrical apparatus. He also found that, when weight was placed on the foot, dilatation occurred at the heels both at the coronary and bearing margins. 120 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. Martinak measured tlie living hoof by means of callipers, and found well marked dilatation at the bulbs and heels of the hoof when loaded. His experiments on the living hoof, in which he used a bar shoe, also seemed to contradict Lechner's rotation theory. Steglich, along with Schenkel, made experiments on dead hoofs. They concluded that : — " The weight of the body produces lateral dilatation of the hoof, greatest at the coronary border and least at the bearing surface of the horny capsule. Dilatation both of the coronary and bearing surfaces is best marked in the region of the heels. Towards the quarters it becomes less, and where the quarters abut on the toe it entirely disappears. The cause of dilatation at the coronary margin is the thrusting downwards and inwards of the broader parts of the os coronie between the lateral cartilages at the moment of greatest extension (greatest weight). Dilatation at the bearing surface is produced by lateral dis- placement of the plantar cushion and horny frog under the pressure of the body-weight. The simultaneous descent of the horny sole permits of expansion of the bearing surface of the foot." Schwentzky measured twenty-two living hoofs, and, except in the case of four abnormal hoofs, found that, when the animals were standing at rest, the amount of dilatation at the bearing margin was from 1 to 2 millimetres ; the average 1*45 millimetre. Peters has taken a prominent part in the study of the expansion of the foot. He advanced what was termed the " depression theory," and placed particular stress on the possibility of elongation of the laminal sheath of the wall and on the direction of its fibres, by which alone descent of the pedal bone becomes possible, and in the further study of which the explanation of all the phenomena of the movements of the foot is to be found. His experiments led him to the conclusion that the pedal bone, which is fastened to the wall, enjoys a certain degree of mobility, owing to the possibility of elongation of the laminal sheath and to the elasticity of the coronary border of the hoof ; that movement occurs around the toe of the OS pedis as around a fixed point, and, therefore, that the navicular bone, being, as it were, an appendix of the os pedis, must take part in these movements. I'lie depression or elastic THEOKIES OF STEGLICH, PETERS, BAYEK, ETC. 121 distention of the wall occurs in a backward direction, causing change in the lateral profile of the hoof. He advances, as the most important of his conclusions, the following : — 1. The OS pedis and lateral cartilages, together with the navicular bone, perform movements within the horny capsule, rotating in the segment of a circle round the point of the toe. 2. The elastic wall, through its laminal sheath, is forced to follow this movement, and, therefore, the quarters of the hoof change in shape, while the coronary border, being thrust out- wards and backwards, descends to a slight extent, and the height of the hoof is diminished. 3. Diminution in height is accompanied by increase in the transverse diameter of the lioof ; as nmch space being thus gained at the sides, botli at the coronary and bearing borders, as is lost by reduction in height. Lateral dilatation is produced by the walls being pressed outwards and the bearing surface following suit under the pressure of the pedal bone and lateral cartilages. 4. The posterior part of the sole becomes flattened under the pressure of the body- weight, and, by thrusting aside the portions of the wall nearest it, provides space laterally exactly correspond- ing to that lost owing to the pressure from above. Fambach's experiments on the laminal sheath of the hoof also support the depression theory. Bendz refers the dilatation of the heels to the pressure of the navicular bone on the bars. Bayer, who employed an electrical instrument to detect the changes of form in the hoof, was of the same opinion. Foringer, and afterwards Lungwitz, Guteniicker, Schwentzky, and others, made similar experiments. Foringer, who employed a specially constructed electrical apparatus, with an alarm bell, examined living hoofs, and found that the wall of the heel dilated both at the coronary and bearing surfaces, and that the sole was depressed during movement. Guteniicker, employing Foringer's apparatus, made certain discoveries which appear to support Peters' depression theory. Schwentzky also used an electrical apparatus. His experiments appear to agree on essential points with those of Bayer, Foringer, Guteniicker, and Lungwitz. Lungwitz probably made the greatest number of experiments on the living hoof. He modified Foringer's 122 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. apparatus in sucli a way as to permit all parts of the hoof to be examined. He expernueuted both on the animal at rest and in motion, and demonstrated movements in all parts of the wall. His researches prove the occurrence of expansion at the coronary and bearing surfaces of tlie lieels, and simultaneous depression of the sole at the moment when the fetlock joint was most extended (or dorsally flexed). Dominik's experiments, on the other hand, which extended to both living and dead hoofs, seem rather to favour Lechuer's rotation theory. The complicated construction and form of the hoof, its con- nection with the limb, and the continuous variation of the conditions during movement, prevent our attaching the same- importance to post-mortem experiments as to those made on the living animal. Intra-rifcu/i experiments, moreover, have a greater claim to consideration, partly because of the great number which have been performed, and partly because of the agreement in their results. The following principles, based on numerous experiments, agree in great part with the more important experiments both old and new, and only conflict with, those of Lechner and a few others. The point of rotation is the pedal joint. At the moment when the foot first meets the ground pressure is slight. It increases as the limb approaches the perpendicular, and is greatest when the fetlock is most markedly extended, after which it diminishes until the hoof is raised from the ground. The changes in form are most marked at the moment of greatest extension (dorsal flexion) of the fetlock joint. They consist, firstly, in lateral expansion of the entire heel region ; secondly, in contraction of the coronary border of the anterior half of the hoof ; thirdly, in diminution in the height of the hoof as a whole, with simultaneous descent of the bulbs, and, fourthly, in descent of the sole. These changes occur simul- taneously and bear a direct proportion to the weight imposed on the foot. Leisering acce]>ts I'etcrs' depression theory as explaining these, with, however, the qualification that he regards the moment of greatest change in form as coincident not with the removal of weight but with greatest extension (or dorsal flexion) of the fetlock joint. The extent of displace- ment of the heels and sinking of the sole is slight, and varies from 0"5 to '2 millimetres, seldom n)ore. GENEKAL CONCLUSIONS ON EXPANSION. 128 In order to understand the desircable to study the changes closely. According to Peters' theory, the pedal bone, with its comple- mentary parts, the na- vicular bone and lateral cartilages, rotates in the segment of a circle around its own point, which is to be regarded as its axis. If we bear in mind that the inter- vals between the elastic lamina' and the horny wall increase towards the heels (Fambach), between the mechanics of the hoof, it is in movement somewhat more Fig. 69. — Vertical cross section of a foot seen from behind. A, coronet bone; /J, navicular l>one ; C, pedal bone; a, lateral cartilage ; h, anterior portion of plantar cushion; c, divided part of litxor ]jedis perforans ten- don; d, postero-lateral ligaments of navicular bone; I, horn wall ; m, horn sole ; /?, white line ; o, horn frog. it will be seen that the connection sensitive and horny laminte is not everywhere equally firm, but becomes less so towards the heels, and, there- fore, that at this point the greatest movement might theoreti- cally be looked for. In consequence of its formation, its strong and long wall, and its connection with the pedal bone, the toe would be expected to suffer least displacement under pressure, whilst the posterior parts of the hoof, being less thick and less firmly attached to the bone, would yield to a greater extent. In its descent the os pedis tends to draw the laminte backwards and downwards, so that their inner margins, instead of pointing towards the centre of the foot, tend to point towards the bulbs, a condition which results in slightly diminishing the height of the hoof, diminishing the diameter of the toe and lateral parts of the coronet, pressing backwards the bulbs, cnusing the posterior parts of the sole to descend and the heels to widen. Immediately pressure is removed, the laminre seek to return to their former position and thus restore the normal state of the foot. At the time when the fetlock is most extended, the lateral cartilages and plantar cushion also come more prominently into play. The posterior, i.e., the broadest, part of the coronet bone glides backwards and downwards between the lateral car- tilages, thrusting them apart, and through the medium of the 124 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. tendons exercising pressure on tlie plantar cushion. As the latter is closely connected with the lateral cartilages and com- pletely tills the upper depression of the liorny frog, it tends to drive apart the quarters and to cause the bulbs to swell, while, as the horny frog now rests on the ground, it contributes to this dilating effect. In the shod hoof, however, the horny frog is not always in contact with the S^^^^itfjs^Pt^ ""^^ ground,oratleastnotthrough- out its whole extent ; it is, therefore, easy to understand f£ why the expansion of the hoof is more marked at the coro- nary border than at the bear- FiG. 70.— Vertical cross section of foot seen from iug SUrfaCC of the hccls. It bebiinl (this section has been made nearer tlie ^ i i i i j.i i, heels than lig. 69). a, posterior part of plantar mUSt alSO DC remembered that cushion; 6, median ridge of frog; c, lateral i <> i i i j. i. i cartilage ; rf, horn wall ; c, lateral face of frog ; llOOtS WhCU Shod are apt tO DC f, point of union lietween the bars and frog. , i . i n i very tlry, and the rrog poorly developed, or diminished by excessive paring or by disease, and, therefore, dilatation at the bearing surface is often difficult to detect. These considerations go far towards explaining the somewhat common, though erroneous, belief that the bearing surface of the heels is incapable of dilatation. All parts of the foot, not even excepting the os pedis, are elastic, although not to the same extent. The os pedis is least elastic ; then comes the horny wall, horny sole, horny frog, lateral cartilage, plantar cushion, coronary band, cutis, and sub- cutis. The posterior half of the hoof allows of the greatest change in form ; a fact which explains the frequent occurrence of disease of this portion of the foot under the influence of severe work, neglect of the hoof and faulty shoeing. 1. Movement at the Coronary Border (tig. 72). — While the horse stands equally on all four feet, the anterior and lateral parts of the coronary border, and especially the points opposite which the wall forms an acute angle with the earth, are in a condition of tension and incline to contract. At the posterior part, where the wall forms an obtuse angle with the ground, there is a tendency to dilatation. When considerable weight is placed on the foot, that is, during backward and downward movement of the fetlock, a slight contraction occurs in the anterior parts of the hoof, and extends backwards to a varying EXPANSION AT CORONARY BORDER. 125 distance. In the region of tlie heels, on the other hand, there is distinct dilatation ; the coronary border of the heels bulges outwards, a condition clearly visible in hoofs in which the coronary border is well curved. Where, however, the latter is straight, bulging is imperceptible or fails to occur. The bulbs of the heels swell, and are tln'ust somewhat backwards and downwards. If, now, the fetlock rises, the dilatation of the coronary border of the heels disappears in a forward direction like a fluid wave and with a rapidity proportioned to the speed of ascent of the fetlock ; while the contraction of the lateral and anterior regions of the coronary border is replaced, immediately the foot is lifted, by slight swelling and dilata- tion of the coronary border of the toe. With the renewed sinking of the fetlock these changes of form are repeated in inverse order. Low, flat, broad hoofs show these changes more distinctly than those which are deep and upright. Absolute rest of the coronary border (at least while the animal is stand- ing on the foot) is inconceivable, for the slightest movement of the body immediately evokes some change in its form. The coronary border of the hoof may be compared with an exceed- ingly elastic ring which yields to the slightest pressure of the body-weight, dilatation at one part producing a corresponding retraction at another. The great elasticity of this ring is due to the perioplic horn, which is found at the points where the greatest movement occurs — along the quarters as far as the bulbs, and at the toe front. Permanent defects in the position of the limbs (such as knuckling, etc.) interfere with the normal function of the coronary border, and may be followed by irregular formation and distortion of the hoof. 2. Movement at the bearing margin or ground surface differs somewhat from that at the coronary border. In front, and as far as the centre of the quarter, no distinct change occurs ; from the centre of the quarter, however, to the end of the bearing surface (fig. 71) it is always possible to demon- strate dilatation in sound, unshod hoofs, especially when the horny sole and horny frog are supported. The amount of this dilatation varies, with the weight on the foot, from 01 to 1-5 millimetre at either side, while it is also greatly depend- ant on the angle formed by the heel with the ground. In heels which converge in their course from above downwards 126 THE -MECHANICAL FUNCIIONS OF THE FOOT. dilatation is slight, and, in fact, in narrow-heeled feet con- traction may replace the normal expansion. The greatest obstacle to dilatation, however, is shoeing, inasmuch as it removes the counter pressure of the ground to a greater or less extent, and prevents the horny sole, horny frog, and bars performing their functions in the same degree as they other- wise would. In horses working on hard roads it has been recommended to employ pads of rubber, so as to transmit the counter pressure of the ground to the sole and frog, and so promote dilatation, but the advocates of this plan overlook the fact that pads press continuoudij on the frog, and that much of their beneficial action is thus lost. Figs. 71 ami 72.— RiKht fore-foot seen from below and above. The dotted lines show the changes in form which occur at tlie moment of extreme extension of tlie fetlock joint. 3. Moveviciits of the Sole. — Tlie horny sole becomes Hatter under the body-weight, most distinctly at the posterior parts of the sole, and least so at the toe and towards the periphery. The width of the hoof and tliickness of the horny sole are of considerable importance in determining the extent of this movement, the descent of the sole being greatest towards the heels in flat and spreading hoofs. A proof of the changes in form of the hoof may be found in the bright and sometimes excavated friction surfaces at the heels of the shoe. l*eters says these prove the existence of two movements of the bearing surface of the hoof, that occurring in the longitudinal direction MOVEMENT OF BEAllING MARGIN AND SOLE. 127 producing the deepest depression. One result of this friction is the wearing away of the bearing surface of the heel on the shoe ; the loss of horn may amount to 5 millimetres or more within a month. The advantages of expansion of the hoof are manifold. 1. The yielding of the tissues protects the hoof and its contents from injury, even under the greatest shocks. 2. It greatly diminishes at its point of origin the concussion, which would otherwise be transmitted to the body, thus assisting the action of the limb and adding to its elasticity. 3. It favours nutri- tive processes in the parts enclosed by the horny capsule, and is of importance in the production of the hoof itself. Move- ment is of great importance in insuring sound hoofs and the production of healthy horn. If for any reason movement is lessened or prevented the hoof suffers. Bearing of the above on Pkactical Shoeing. In the practice of shoeing, the chief precaution is to preserve normal movement in the foot. We know that shoeing, by diminishing or preventing contact between the horny sole and frog and the ground, and by fixing the bearing surface of the wall to an inflexible ring of iron, checks or prevents movement at tlie bearing margin. One method of shoeing which avoids this disadvantage is the tip or modified Charlier. The task of the farrier is, therefore, to so form and affix his shoe as to minimise ill consequences. In paring the hoof and frog, intelligent ideas must prevail. The counter pressure of the ground should, if possible, be preserved, and the parts allowed to sustain weight each in its appropriate degree. For this reason the flat shoe is the most natural. For diseased feet the bar shoe is very advantageous ; it unites in itself all the good points of the ordinary shoe with few of its disadvan- tages. It arouses the normal movements of the foot when in abeyance, regulates them when disordered, and, if properly used, never injures but always improves the diseased or faulty hoof. A further point of great importance is a horizontal bearing surface in the posterior half of the shoe, equable dis- tribution of pressure over the entire circumference of the wall, and the insertion of nails in tlie anterior half of the shoe alone. 128 THE MECHANICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FOOT. As pads of different kinds indirectly convey to the sole and frog the counter pressure of the ground, they may be of use for horses working on hard, stony ground, or the pavement of towns. For military and agricultural horses they can be dispensed with. PART 11. THE HORSE'S FOOT IN RELATION TO SHOEING. SECTIOE" I. SHOEING OF HEALTHY FEET. CHAPTER 1. HORSE-SHOES, ETC. The production of a good shoe demands intelligence, skill in the use of tools, and the ability to measure accurately with the eye ; while the farrier who desires to excel must possess and constantly apply a knowledge of the formation and functions of the foot. 1. Material foe the Manufacture of Shoes. Wrought Iron. — The best material is tough, fine grained, ductile, wrought iron, which, however, must retain its toughness when hot and stand the test of fullering. To obtain special durability old shoes are sometimes employed, from one and a- half or two of which is produced a new shoe. Such are more difficult to make, but being ' steely ' last considerably longer. A great many patterns of rolled iron are on the market, from which shoes for light horses and for special purposes can be made. These special bars when of English manufacture are usually seated on the hoof surface ; the German patterns are flat. The ground surface of some is roughened by projec- tions and recesses, arranged either cross-wise or length-wise or in both directions. Of these latter there are many different I 130 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. patterns (tig. 73), but they are now comparatively little used in England. "With, perhaps, the exception of the ' Grip ' (fig. 80) pattern, bars with cross depressions are liable to break on the outside when being bent, and, as a rule, shoes prepared from them are less tough than those made from ordinary bar. Fio. 73.— .SiicL-ial foiius of lolled bar iron. English manufacturers have always been noted for the high quality of their products and the essentially practical nature of the improvements they have introduced. ]3elow are figured the sections of rolled bars most widely used. Fig. 74. Eodway section, seated on hoof surface, made in sizes from f X ^ inch to 1|^ x -f inch. This iron was introduced ^_____, many years ago by Messrs Phipson & Warden, ^^ ^ the patentees, and is now very extensively used. It makes suitable shoes for all animals drawing light vehicles in cities. Tlie corrugated surface gives an excellent foothold, wliich, on the first introduction of the section, was sought to be increased by the use of a specially soft iron. Tliough excellent for the purpose mentioned, this section is not sufficiently durable for horses in heavy work. Fig. 75. Single fullered iron, made in sizes from f X |- inch to 1-i- X |^ inch, is most suitable for light harness and saddle horses. As the nails are scarcely Fig. 74.— r.oil way bar.* fullered bar. ' SECTIONS OF ROLLED BAR IRON. 131 SO secure in a fullered as in a plaiu stamped shoe, and the dura- bility is less, it is not so useful for horses in very heavy work. Fig. 76. I'lain bevelled bar is made in sizes from | x ,~g inch to 1^ X |- inch, and is used for making plain ^ - stamped shoes, the bevelling saving labour in f seating out. It serves for shoes for all horses in medium and heavy draught, and is especially use- enedb^r.*"' ful for defective feet on account of the facility with which plain shoes can be fitted. This subject will be referred to later when speaking of stamped shoes. Figs. 77 and 78. Concave iron is made in sizes from \ x /^ inch to 1|- X I inch and is used for " hacks and hunters, occasionally for "^^ p. , FA carriage liorses, which must, how- ^'^"' ^ ^ '^ ^ ever, have strong feet and well ^^i««- " and 78.-co,icave bar.* arched soles. Section 77 has rather less hold on the ground than section 78, but wears correspondingly longer. On account of the shape of its inner margin, the latter is best suited for horses which forge. Fig. 79. Plain concave bar, sizes from ^X^ inch to 1 X -| inch, useful for ponies, hacks, and hunters. When mm\ nail holes are stamped in this iron the outer wall / j becomes vertical, so that a bevelled edge is only left ^ .„ ^, . ' '^ J Fig. 79.— Plain inside. Horses shod with it require, on account of wncavebar.- the narrow bearing surface, specially strong feet with arched sole and strong wall. Fig. 80. Corrugated ' Grip ' iron, sizes J x j% inch to l^ x ^"g inch, useful for horses in medium draught. This iron is less liable to break than other sections with cross depressions, but should only be used on strong feet, as the nails cannot be placed just where needed, and (owing to the proiections) cannot be so fig. so -comi- fig. si. - r^ . , "^ ^ gated 'Grip Charlier well driven nome as in plain shoes. ^^'^■* steeibar.* Fig. 81. Charlier steel, sizes from '^Xj inch to | x ^ inch. For Charlier shoes only. Figs. 82 and 83. Eacing plate steel; 82, ^ X i inch ; 83, -| x :^ inch. This section used only for actual racing. In training, light figs. 82 and 83 - fullered shoes are connnonly employed. -icmg p ate steei.* 132 IIOKSE-SHOES, ETC. Fig. 84. Eacing plate iron, ^y. ^ inch. Now little used, _ having been superseded by steel. ^v^' Cast Iron.— To effect a saving in cost many FIG. 84.— Racing attempts have been made to introduce cast shoes. plate iron.* Up to the present no real success has been recorded, although shoes have been produced which admit of being shaped and punched at a red heat, if special precautions be observed. Even the best cast shoes are extremely brittle both when hot and cold, are difficult to 'fit out,' wear more rapidly than wrought shoes, give a bad foothold, and expose the horse to the danger of slipping. Steel is fairly ductile and malleable and possesses the power of being ' tempered,' in which condition it is harder and more elastic, though more brittle, than before. Certain improve- ments recently made in the manufacture of steel seem to point, however, to the possibility of using it more extensively, and the Paris General Omnibus Company have now employed it for some years both for front and hind shoes, to the exclusion of iron. In France steel of the kind used costs less than iron. It is said to wear with perfect regularity until the shoes are extremely thin. The farriers like it, and can turn out per day a larger number of shoes than with iron, but certain precautions are needful where it is employed : the metal must not be overheated, suddenly quenched, nor much worked, in this respect differing from iron, which is improved by hannnering. The present opinion in England is that good iron is sufficiently durable, and that steel, unless of a low grade, is too difficult to work, and becomes too smooth in use, so that it gives no foothold; but this view deserves reconsideration after the successful experiments in Paris. Aluminium, being one-third the weight of iron, has been used with success for racing plates. When pure, it can even be worked cold, but must then be free of silicon, which renders it brittle. It should never be heated above a dull red. To diminish wear of the shoe, steel nails, with soft shanks and hardened heads, are used. Chrome aluminium, being very hard, might perhaps be used with advantage. Aluminium bronze, composed of aluminium 90 parts, copper 10 parts, is harder than the pure metal, but must be heated, being difficult to work cold. Shoes of this substance are there- fore cast, but have not been found sufficiently durable. CHARACTERS OF SHOE — FORM. 133 Aluminium copper can bo wrought at a red beat, but is just as heavy as iron. Although aluminium resists the action of acids it is readily attacked by alkalies, and even on chalky roads wears away very quickly. Phosphor bron:c was used at Brussels in 1S8U. The shoes are cast, must not be warmed, are softer than iron, and seem to check slipping. The difficulty of fitting and want of dura- bility are, however, against tbeir extended use. 2. Shoes and theiii Properties, A horse-shoe is an iron or steel rim fastened by nails to the wall and covering the bearing surface of the hoof to a greater or less extent. All ordinary shoes present two branches, an inner and an outer. The anterior part, where both branches unite, is termed the toe. The upper surface, upon which the hoof rests, is termed the foot surface, the lower is the ground surface. The fullering is on the ground surface, the seating on the foot surface. Shoes are variously named, according to the objects for which they are destined, or to tlie method of manufacture ; for example, fullered shoes, stamped shoes, fiat shoes, shoes with calkins, summer and winter shoes, etc., of which more will be mentioned below. Another division is into hand-made and machine-made shoes, but neither of these divisions is of special importance. Characters of the Shoe. — These may be divided into essential and non-essential. The non-essential, however, such as calkins or grips in winter, may, under certain circumstances, become of great importance. (1) Form. — A good shoe should respond exactly to the shape of the hoof ; the farrier must therefore, in making the shoe, keep clearly in his mind the form of the foot for which it is intended. Front and hind, left and right feet differ in shape, and each requires a shoe with certain special modifica- tions (figs. 85, 86, and 87). Too much stress, therefore, cannot be laid on the fact that the farrier must make himself thoroughly acquainted with the normal form of the bearing surface and fashion his shoe accordingly. It is always well to make the shoes in pairs, that is, a left and a right. 134 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. (2) Brcadtli and Thickness. — The breadth of the shoe depends, firstly, on the form of the hoof, whether it is narrow or wide ; secondly (but the point is very important), on the Fig. 85.— Right front shoe seen from helow. Fig. so.— The same seen from above. a, bearing' surface; b, seated sur- face. thickness of the wall. As a general ruk% twice the thickness of the wall, including the white line, will be sufficient. The breadth of the toe will, therefore, be from ^ to 1^ inches. Wide hoofs require a broader .shoe than narrow ones. As the wall varies in thickness at different points and in different feet, the shoe also varies, being broader at the toe than at the heels ; and when intended for fore-feet, being broader than for liind. For special purposes, like racing, very narrow shoes may be required, whilst for work on stone-paved streets the breadth may advantageously be in- creased. In Paris, where the shoes, for economical reasons, are made very narrow, the feet are in general exceptionally bad. Excessive breadth, however, increases the risk of slipping on muddy or frozen roads. The thickness of the shoe also varies according to the size, weight, and duty of the horse and to the kind of ground on which it Fig. 87. — Left hind shoe seen from above. CHARACTERS OF SHOE — SURFACES AND BORDERS. 135 worlis, and may vary from ^ up to ^ of an inch or even more. As a rule, shoes should be of such thickness that on a horse with sound limbs and doing ordinary work they wear for four weeks. Generally, the shoe is made of an even tliickness throughout, though this is subject to exceptions, — Hat shoes being sometimes thicker at the toe, sometimes at the heels. The necessity for such special shoes must be judged of by the wear of the old shoes. Before thickening any portion of a shoe it is well to recall that, cKteris paribus, undue thickness at any point means un- equal tread, that thickening one side of the shoe only transfers the wear to the other, that if one side has to be raised it is usually advisable to narrow it from side to side so as to preserve an equal balance of weight between the two sides, and lastly, that the upper surface of the shoe must always be flat, i.e., the projection must appear on the ground and not on the foot surface of the shoe. As a rule, it is inadvisable to attempt correcting excessive local wear by thickening the shoe at the point worn ; by far the better course is to weld in a piece of steel, or to give more cover, which increases the dura- bility of the part without disturbing the correct relative heights of the two sides of the foot. (3) Surfaces and Borders. — The upper or hoof surface of the shoe may be divided into a bearing surface and a seated surface. Tlie bearing surface (fig. 88, a), or that part of the shoe which comes in direct contact with the wall, must be absolutely horizontal and broad enough to cover the bearing surface of the wall, including the white line, and a narrow rinii- of the outer circumference of t'lfi. ss-Tiansverse section ~ of a fore shoe through one the horny sole. In making shoes it is cer- «/ the naii holes ; natural •^ o size, a, hearing surface ; tainlv not always possible to know how &, seated surface; c, fuller. J r Dig ; (i^ iiail hole. broad the bearing surface of the wall may be, but this is not so very important, because the bearing surface of the shoe can very easily be made a little broader or narrower when fitting. Shoes for heavy horses are always made with a rather broader bearing surface than those for light horses. The seated part of the surface (fig. 88, h), which is opposed to the horny sole, without, however, touching it, is more or less hollowed out according to the condition of the sole, but must 136 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. always be quite distinct from the bearing surface. Shoes for horses with very concave soles require little seating, and it is only necessary to carefully round off the inner margin. This is usually the case in hind shoes (fig. S7). The object of this rounding off is to prevent pressure by the slioe against the sole. The seating of the hoof surface of front shoes need not be deep ; it is sufficient if it amount to, say, ^ of an incli ; its width varies from a quarter up to a half the width of the entire upper surface. A greater amount of seating than this is, in shoes for sound hoofs, rather injurious than useful. It is, however, absolutely necessary to see that the inner upper edge of the shoe is rounded off. As a matter of fact, in many districts shoes having an absolutely level hoof surface are used, though the ground surface is recessed or deepened in some other way. This sliows that, if the paring of the foot and the otlier details of shoeing be carefully performed, no injury results. Shoes with recessed or dished ground surface are not, as is often supposed, at all new. They were known at the beginning of the present century (see A New System of Shoeing Horses, by J. Goodwin, London, 1820). Many different forms of shoe with recessed ground surfaces exist. The under or ground surface of the shoe exhibits the nail holes, with or without fullering. The fullering, or nail furrow, is a groove near the outer border of the shoe, through which the nail holes are stamped ; sometimes it extends from one heel to the other, sometimes it is interrupted. In the latter case, the toe and ^ to f of an inch of the heels are plain. The fuller should extend through at least two-thirds of the thick- ness of the iron, which will, therefore, also determine its breadth (fig. 88, c). To ensure proper stamping of the nail holes both walls uf the fuller nmst be ol)lique. When the inner wall is perpendicular (tig. 89, i) to the surface of the shoe the nail holes are apt to point inwards. The outer border of the fuller should never be sharp, and, considering the deeper posi- tion of tlie nail holes at the toe, must be somewhat wider towards the front. Although fullering is not absolutely necessary, as horses work very well in stamped shoes, yet it is certainly a great advantage, for, firstly, it lessens the weight of the shoe ; secondly, on account of its roughening the ground surface, it somewliat diminishes slipping ; thirdly, it gives the FORM OF GROUND-SURFACE OF SHOE. 137 shoe a greater range of usefulness ; and fourthly, it facilitates the renewal of nails. It is scarcely necessary to say that a shoe wliich is intended for fullering must be forged with an oblique outer border, as otherwise the outer under edge would be driven too far out- wards by the fuller. Opinions, both of authors and practitioners, vary greatly as to the form of the outer border of the shoe. Some believe that the border of the shoe, when the latter is in position, should run obliquely downwards and outwards, as though it Fig. 89.— Cross sections of four fullered shoes. 1. FuUeriiis bad, inner wall l)einjr too upright. 2. Good. [This is a rolled sec- tion of iron. In hand-made shoes the bottom of fullering is sharper.] 3. Faulty ; the fullering being too broad for its depth. 4. Very faulty ; inner wall inclining inwards. formed a prolongation of the hoof. Others are of opinion that it should be rounded off, as a round border is best calculated to diminish brushing and other like injuries. As a rule, the outer border should run downwards and inwards, that is, the cii'cum- ference of the shoe should be slightly smaller at the ground than at the hoof surface; otherwise the width may cause striking, the shoe will be heavier, and there will be increased danger of its becoming loose, or even being cast in soft, heavy ground. Exceptions, nevertheless, occur, and will, later, be dealt with in the chapter on Fitting. The inner border should be smooth and rounded off above and below or dished. 138 HOESE-SHOE.S, ETC. (4) A'ail Holes (figs. 86 and 88, d). — The form, direction,, distribution and number of the nail holes are very important and deserve careful consideration. The fact must be carefully borne in mind that the nail should not lose its hold until the shoe is virtnally worn out, and, therefore, the nail is formed with a pyramidal head and the shoe witli a deep fuller, through whicii the uail lioles are stamped. The fullering must, there- fore, correspond with the form of the nail head, so that the one exactly fits the other, and necessarily the fullering tool must correspond in section to the shape of the head of the nail. The shoe should be fastened with the smallest number of nails whicli will hold it firmly, and it has been stated by Miles that under some circumstances even three nails are sufficient to give a good hold. Each nail makes a hole, wiiich weakens the wall. Experience teaches that six nail holes are sufficient, at least in front shoes, and that only very large and heavy shoes, and hind shoes especially, require as many as seven or eight. A well-fitted shoe is very easy to affix, but a faulty shoe may be difficult to secure even with eight or ten nails. The best formed nail holes, however, may be very bad indeed if badly placed, and it is imperative to remember that nail holes should be so disposed that nails driven through them with reasonable care will enter sound horn, will not injure the .soft parts, will not .split the horny wall, and will not diminish the elasticity of the hoof. To meet these demands the nail holes must, when the shoe is in position, correspond with the white line at the point where the latter comes in contact with the bearing surface of the wall. In a well-formed shoe, therefore, the nail holes appear close to the inner border of the bearing surface (fig. 88, d). The distance of the nail holes from the outer margin of the shoe must vary according to the thickness of the horny wall. When they are so fai' from the outer margin that the nail tends to penetrate the horny sole, the nail holes are ' coarse ' ; when, on the other hand, they approach the outer margin of the shoe so that the nail passes directly into the outer sheath of the horny wall, they are ' fine.' In either case, the holes are improperly punched or the shoe is ' badly lioled ' if intended for a normal foot. When the holes, though in good position, point too obliquely inwards, and, therefore, give the nail a wrong direction, the shoe is alsO' 2s AIL- HOLES — FORxM AND I'OSITIOX. 139 described as badly holed. Each hole must be funnel-shaped, clean and open. In the fore-feet the nail holes can only be placed in the anterior half of the shoe without injury to the elasticity of the foot, and the last nail hole in the outer quarter of the shoe should not be more than ^'~ to -^ of an inch Ijehind an imaginary transverse line dividing the shoe into two equal parts ; that in the inner branch as close as possible to it. This division of the foot into an anterior and posterior half responds to the varying thickness of the w;dl and to the dilatation which occurs in the posterior half of the foot. The direction of the holes must vary according to the varying obliquity of tlie wall of the foot. The nail holes of the toe should, there- fore, be directed obliquely inwards, the more lateral less so, and the nail holes of the quarter should point almost directly up- wards. In contracted feet it may in fact be needful to even give the nail holes of the quarter a slight cant outwards. Further, it should be remembered that the less thickness of the inner horny wall and the position of the shoe on the foot call for Jinco' piincMng in the inner limb of the shoe.* The nail holes of the hind shoe may be distributed througli the two anterior thirds of the shoe, though the nail holes of the toe should be wider apart (fig. 87). The hind foot has, in com- parison with the fore, stronger quarters and is less exposed to disease. The extension of the nail holes into tlie posterior half of the shoe is justified by practice. Were it neglected, the shoe would soon become loose or lost during work in heavy ground. This prac- tice is especially necessary in shoe- ing military horses, either during manteuvres or in war. The offi- cial German military shoe, accord- ing to its size, contains from six- teen to twenty nail holes (fig. 90) ; not, however, for the purpose * III this connection it is surprising to find veterinary surgeons (wlio are also owners of forges) still gravely disputing as to whether nail holes should correspond in inclination to the -wall of the foot or be perfectly perpendicular. See Veter- inary Record, Nos. 404 and 405, 1896, nnd Veterinarian {R^\3 [^o/acf p. FORGING A FORE-SIIOE. 143 vigorously, and once the fire is found to be going well a few shovelsful of damp coal are scattered over all. During the time the first doorman is preparing the fire and heating the bars the fireman and second doorman will have cut a couple of dozen lengths of iron. Forging a Fore Shoe. — As soon as the first pair of bars is seen to have reached a regular bright cherry-red heat, the fireman grasps a bar in his tongs and, withdrawing it, lays one end on the head of a sledge held by doorman No. 1, near the heel of the anvil, and, allowing it to rest lengthwise on the anvil, strikes with his turning hammer near the centre in turn with the second doorman, who, of course, uses a sledge. He then lays it edge up on the fiat of the anvil, and the two doormen, strik- ing alternately, and working from toe to heel, draw down the bar and partly form (bend) the shoe. The bar is then trans- ferred to the beak of the anvil, and, still working from toe to heel, is still more drawn down, while, by reason of the manner in which it is held, the foot surface is fashioned rather wider Fig. 91.— Partly completed fore shoe. than the ground surface, to allow for subsequent dilatation at the ground surface caused by punching nail holes. Shoes to be afterwards fullered must be made much wider, as the fullering drives out the edge of the shoe to a considerable extent. It is at this stage, when the shoe is transferred to the beak, that it acquires the form necessary for a right or left foot as the case may be. By turning his hand outwards, so that the knuckles come upwards, the fireman gives the bevel for a right-sided shoe ; on the other hand, by turning the hand 144 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. inwards, with the thumb above and the knuckles downwards, a left-sided shoe is started. Though difficult to describe, the manoeuvre will be easily understood on grasping a pair of tongs and imagining the results of turning the hand in either of the directions described. In bending the shoe at this stage the curve must be exaggerated, as the subsequent 'seating-out' tends to straighten the iron once more. In making a fullered shoe a good workman will, icMle working on the heal', diminish not only the thickness, but also the breadth, of the toe, leaving it slightly thinner than the quarter. The width is restored in seating-out, as the seating is more pronounced at the toe than elsewhere. We have italicised tlie words ifhile working on the beak, because, although often omitted nowadays, owing to its difficulty, it is only at tliis stage that such thinning can properly be performed. From the beak the shoe is returned to the flat of the anvil and seated out to within ^ or ^ inch from the heel under the rounded ends of the two sledge-hammers. If needful, the shoe is next fullered, commencing at the toe and terminating at the heel. The ' crease ' is applied ^-.y to ^ of an inch from the outer margin, according to the size of the shoe. Doorman No. 1 then leaves to prepare the next bar, and No. 2 strikes for the fireman who stamps the nail lioles. These are formed so as to correspond in direction with the inclination of the wall, and not vertically as stated by certain writers. The fireman then pritchels the nail holes, removes the bulgings (due to stamping holes) from the outside of the shoe, finishes the seat- ing-out, leaving the surface smooth and even, and returns the shoe to the fire. The inner branch of the shoe is formed in a precisely similar way, though fullering takes place in the reverse direction. Forging a Hind Shoe. — In forging a hind shoe the iron is bent as above and transferred to the beak of the anvil, on which the quarter is drawn down under the two sledges, assisted by the fireman's hammer. The toe and heel must, however, be left of full strength, the former on account of the toe being the part most exposed to wear, and the latter because, to secure a sound and strong shoe, the calkin must be turned over in the full thickness of the iron. JMany firemen draw down the heel excessively and have then to turn over a great FORGING A FORE SHOE. 145 length of iron to form the calkin and to bring it to the proper thickness under the sledge. This is bad practice for two reasons : it is wasting energy to draw down the bar and then ' upset it ' again, and the fibre of the turned down portion cuts through and weakens that of the branch of the shoe just Fig. 92.— Partly eompleteil hind shoe. where it should be strongest, i.e., just at the commencement of the calkin. In turning down the calkin the shoe is laid fiat on the anvil and steadied by the doorman placing on it his sledge while the actual bending is done by the fireman with his turning hammer. Another fault of the bad workman is not to turn over his calkin sg'Ma?'^, and thus to render the inner margin of the shoe considerably shorter than the outer. The shoe is now returned to the anvil, ground surface upwards, and the calkin flattened down under the turning hammer and sledge. The fireman then ' takes out the hammer-marks ' on the beak of the anvil at the same time that he straightens the shoe, if, as is often the case, the toe be too round, and also rounds the quarter or heel to the necessary degree. The better the workman the less of this work will be needed. The nail holes are next stamped, the outside toe nail hole being stamped rather ' fine ' {i.e., near the outer margin of the shoe) but obliquely, and each succeeding nail hole being rather ' coarser ' but more upright than its pre- decessor. The inside nail holes are stamped somewhat finer, but at about the same inclination, or perhaps a trifle more upright than the outer. In making a double-heeled shoe the above process is re- K 146 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. peated, the uail holes being, however, stamped in inverse order, bnt in making a wedge-heeled shoe, after forming the outside as before, the second operation is as follows : the iron is first turned on edge on the flat of the anvil and the wedge formed, after wliich tlie quarter is drawn either on the beak or fiat as may be preferred. In making a shoe for cutting or interfering, the second opera- tion is all conducted on the beak. It commences by slightly drawing the toe (in this respect differing from the method of making all other shoes) ; the full strength of the iron is then used to form the inside branch of the shoe, while the bar is so inclined that the inside branch shows a marked bevel. Only two nail holes are stamped, slightly towards the inside of the toe. After punching these it may be needful to lay the shoe ground surface upwards on the face of the anvil and give two or three blows to flatten the shoe at the toe ; otherwise every- thing is done on the beak. In making a bar-shoe the piece of iron selected must be considerably longer than that needed for an ordinary shoe. The bar is bent at the toe, and with the same heat the amount of iron necessary to form half the ' bar ' is turned round at right angles to the greatest thickness of the bar. The shoe is next rounded and shaped on the beak, seated on the face of the anvil, the half of the ' bar ' turned round is ' scarfed ' (i.e., thinned down), and the nail holes are punched (in many cases only two or three nail holes are inserted at this stage). The inside of the shoe is formed at the second heat, and the fireman may then try the shoe on the foot. As the subsequent welding of the two parts of the ' bar ' drives apart the heels by half an inch or more, the shoe must at this stage be somewhat narrow at the back. A third heat is required for welding the two parts of the ' bar,' and a fourth or even a fifth may be required for fully fitting out the shoe and stamping the last nail holes, especially if the foot be much broken or otherwise defective. Altogether the making of a. bar-shoe is a very excellent test of the fireman's skill and judgment. 4. Vaiueties of Shoes. A great number of varieties of shoes can be distinguished CLASSIFICATION OF SHOES. 147 accordin- to their breadth, Lliickness, weight, the presence of calkins or toe-grips, the kind of work demanded of the horse, and the special objects for which shoes are sometimes required' such, for instance, as the treatment of diseases of the foot, or the prevention of slipping in frosty weather. Among tliem we distinguish shoes for (1) hacks ; (2) hunters • (3) race-horses ; (4) trotters ; (5) carriage horses ; (6) omnibus horses; (7) cart horses; (S) special systems of shoeing like Charher's, Fitzwygram's, and the Turkish shoe; (9) winter shoes; (10) shoes for 'forging' and 'cutting'; and (11) shoes for defective and diseased hoofs. When we remember that all these styles are of difterent sizes and vary in themselves, we may obtain some idea of the varieties of shoes, especially as each particular kind may be modified for a special purpose. For example, a shoe with toe- grip and lieels may be used in forging and cutting or may serve as a winter shoe, or it may be arranged to take a special pad, etc A few remarks (chiefly in relation to manufacture)' on shoes with calkins, toe-pieces, etc., are offered below, but a de- scription of the special shoes required for different services demands considerable technical knowledge, and is therefore reserved for a later chapter. Shoes with Calkins.—Shoes with calkins are formed by turning down the heels of the shoe towards the ground or Fig. 93.— Right fore shoe with calkins, a. cliji. Fig. 94.— Shoe uith obliquely i-iit off lieel. (occasionally) by welding on a piece of steel to the heel. Oal- kms may, therefore, be regarded as downward prolongations of the limbs of the shoe. Little need be said of the makino' of such, the form, breadth, surfaces, borders, and nail holes bSng of just the same description as in other shoes. Under the head of cart-horse shoes may be included a short description of calkins and toe-grips, especially in relation to front shoes. 148 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. Calkins should be at right angles to the shoe, regular and quadrangular in outline and not too high. The best are more or less square in section and their corners are rounded off (figs. 93 and 103, h). When of this form they are most easily sharpened in winter. Front .shoes are sometimes provided with calkins bevelled away obliquely at the back. They are most useful for horses that cut (fig. 94). The height of the calkin should be twice the thickness of the portion of the shoe immediately in front of it, and both calkins should be of the same height. The greatest injury is done when the outer calkin is lower than the inner. The inner upper edge of the heel should be well rounded off so as to give space for the frog. Shoes are sometimes formed with a longish quadrangular projection termed a toe-piece or toe-grip (fig. 103, a). Toe-grips were introduced later than calkins. They were intended to grasp the ground and to give the shoe greater durability. Toe-pieces in hind shoes give draught horses a much better hold in winter and on slippery ground. The grips, usually made of a special steel, though sometimes only of iron, are separately forged. According to their form they are termed diamond-headed, chisel-headed, and blunt. The diamond-headed require two heats, the chisel-headed only one heat in forging. The chisel-headed also is a better and more useful form than the diamond and does not require any special anvil. The blunt grip is applied by heating the grip and shoe and then welding together. In practice some prefer one form, some another. One manufacturer, Mr Wooldridge, makes a specialty of self-fastening toe and heel-pieces. His system consists in fit- ting a tapered-shank cog into a parallel-sided hole. The hole should be of such size that when the cog is inserted and lightly driven homo a space exists between the shoulder of the cog and the surface of the shoe. The weight of the horse acting on the cogs then tends to drive them still further home, so that the longer the cogs are worn the more firmly do they be- come fixed. We believe this method of shoeing has proved very successful and is largely used in the North. In fitting, a punch is first driven through the foot surface of the shoe. Then a drift is passed through tlie aperture left by the punch, SHOES WITH KEMOVABLE TOE AND HEEL PIECES. 149 care being taken not to hanmier the shoe so as to alter the size or shape of the hole after drifting. When the shoe is cold the rough edges left on the ground surface are tiled away Fig. 95. — Shoe fitteil for leniovable toe and heel pieces. and the holes opened with an opening punch, so that the cog or toe-piece will go half way into the shoe without driving. This completes the operation and leaves the shoe as shown in Figs. 96, 97, and 9S.— Heel-pieces (sharp). FiG. 99.— Blunt heel-piece. fig. 95. The succeeding figures show various forms of cogs and toe-pieces. Owing to their form, these cogs, etc., always wear with a sharp edge, and their shanks being elongated, the holes required do not weaken the shoe. To remove old cogs the wedge-shaped pronged tool illustrated is driven between the shoulder of the cog and surface of the 150 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. shoe, when the worn cog can at once be detached and replaced by a new one. For winter use this method is of undoubted value. The inventor also recommends it as a permanent means of shoeing. Being without personal experience of the results, we pronounce no judgment on this head. Toe-grips should never be higher than the calkins, but the Fig. inn.— Removable toe-piece. Fk;. ini.- Reniovaltle toe-piece calkins may well be some fractions of an inch thicker than above indicated. The height and breadth of the grip, and even the exact position where it should be inserted, depend mainly upon the way the horse moves and the wear of the old shoe. Whether steel or iron should be employed depends upon special circumstances. When it is necessary to increase the durability of the shoe, or, as during frost, to make the sharpened grips last longer, steel is the best material, l)ut Fig. 1102.— Tool for removing old heel-pieces. when it is only a question of preventing slipping on stone pavement iron is preferable. In fore-feet calkins and toe-grips are seldom necessary, nor are they desirable for the health of the hoof ; on the other hand, in winter they are sometimes very useful (see ' Winter Shoeing- '). In summer they do not prevent slipping and stumbling on stone pavement with absolute certainty. The (ondition of the pavement is here of less account than the convexity of the individual stones ; the more convex the latter the less secure the horse's foothold. In this respect careful driving is of more importance than special shoeing. Though calkins are less used MACHINE-MADE SHOES. 151 Fig. 103. -Left hind shoe with (a) toe-grip and (i) calkins. than formerly they are still often employed when they might well be dispensed with. In the majority of cases they are certainly not necessary in front shoes. Fore-feet are more liable to disease than hind-feet, which fact should alone be sufticient giound for using calkins on fore shoes as little as possible. In Glasgow, Edinburgh, the North of England, and in Vienna, calkins are very common ; in Paris and Lon- don less so, a proof that the above principles are not to be rigidly adhered to in every case. Macliine-madc Shoes. — The trade in machine-made shoes, which has been in existence for the past thirty years, has now assumed enormous pro- portions, the small de- fects that exist in most machine - made shoes being more than coun- terbalanced by the sav- ing in time and money. The nail holes are not always correct, most machine-made shoes being too finely holed. There is little distinction between right and left shoes, and to give increased durability, greater toughness is desirable. In Germany many shoes are sent out ready for driving, the heels being finished, calkins turned down, toe-grips affixed, clips drawn, and the shoes finished complete in every part. Such shoes, therefore, only require to be selected and fitted to the feet, the necessary alterations being slight. They are especially useful when hot shoeing is inconvenient or impossible, as, for instance, in the Colonies and on military expeditions. Without going into the question whether cold is better than hot fitting, we may say that the production of finished machine-made shoes should Fig. 104. — steel rod witli toe and heel jirips partly formed. 152 HORSE-SHOES, ETC. certainly give a great impulse to the former method. Finished shoes are supplied by one or more German firms, and we should imagine some of our English firms might undertake the same business with success. Every method of shoeing, even the best, produces numerous bad results, such as contraction, diminished horn production, etc., as well as other more recondite changes. Such results become most noticeable when the horse is worked on hard pavements, and are less serious on soft, heavy ground. They are aggravated by slipping on smooth surfaces and by shocks of all kinds. The many small but unavoidable effects of shoeing form a prolific cause of disease in the limbs. This fact has long been recognised, and attempts have been made to remedy it by changes in the method of shoeing. Each of such changes removes one or more evils. One of the most important was the attempt to produce an easier, softer method of going, which should both prevent slipping and diminish the shock to the limb. Accordingly, soft, elastic materials have been employed, either to entirely replace iron, or to be used in combination with it. In consequence, pads composed of rubber, plaited rope, leather, wood, etc., have been provided to cover varying pro- portions of the hoof. These will be further considered in a special chapter. The reasons why many of these novelties have only a fleet- ing existence are, that they do not sufficiently fit the hoof, and because they will not bear the necessary warming or working. As the hoof should never be formed to fit the shoe, but the shoe to fit the hoof (due regard being had to the distribution of weight), the ground of this failure is fairly apparent. CHAPTER 11. WINTER SHOEING. In order to give the horse a better foothold when the roads are covered with ice and snow, special shoes or special modifications of the ordinary shoe, which at other times would be superfluous or even injurious, become necessary. These additions or modifications vary according to the severity of the weather and the work required of the animal. They are all comprised under the collective term ' roughing,' though the special styles are too numerous for detailed descrip- tion heie. Therefore only a few of the more practical will be noted. In the far north, where snow lies deep and winter weather continues for several months, simple methods of roughing may be employed, though in more changeable latitudes these would soon be rendered useless by contact with the hard ground. All systems of roughing at present in use are more or less imperfect. The chief objects to keep in view are briefly summarised below. (1) Simplicity. — No system can ever succeed which is not simjde of execution, or in which the farrier is required to use many special tools. Furthermore, the applica- tion of the ' rough ' must be an even simpler matter than the preparation of the shoe, so that any stable- man may affix it. Finally, the ' rough ' must be easy to remove. (2) Rapidity in the preparation of the shoe and the affixing and removal of the ' rough ' is almost as important as .simplicity of application, especially in the army. (3) Economy must be kept in view, as the expense of roughing a large stud during a long winter would otherwise prove excessively costly. 154 WINTER SHOEING. (4) Durability. — The ' rough ' must neither wear away fast nor become loose, otherwise it may lead to dangerous cutting or to severe falls. At the same time, as increase of weight is a disadvantage, durability must be sought by the use of the best material. Tlie method of fastening must also be such that the ' rough ' can be aftixed even when the shoe is considerably worn. (5) Adaptability. — A proper system should be adaptable to- all horses, all kinds of work, and to all shoes. (6) Efficiency is more or less represented by the sum of the above, but also depends on the depth to which the ' roughs ' enter the ground, and on their number. It becomes less, of course, as wear advances. 1. Rough Nailing. Eough nailing consists in removing an inner and an outer nail, and replacing them by others with pointed or chisel-shaped heads. This method does very well for saddle horses and animals used only occasionally and for light work. In the German army rough nails are employed in addition to screws of three sizes. In Denmark and other northern countries large, strong nails, with heads case-hardened by means of ferrocyanide of potassium, are a common means of roughing, ft specially large hole being punched in the toe of the shoe. Such nails are termed ' broddar,' and leplace the ordinary ,toe-grip. They can, of course, be changed from time to time, and appear to suit the local requirements excellently. Eough nails, the shanks of which do not pass through the horny wall, but are driven through special holes in the shoe, and turned down on its upper and outer border, are technically known as ' stubs,' and are largely used in England, France, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and North America. They can be inserted at any point in the shoe, though the heels and inner and! outer parts of the toe are the best places. Of those shown here the wedge-headed are the best, and wear longest. Owing to their small mass the diamond-headed soon lose their efficiency, in addition to which they are more likely to inflict injury on the coronet of the opposite foot. FKOST NAILS AND STUBS. 155 Delperier invented a special form of nail now largely used in France, to prevent slipping on smooth granite ' setts ' and Frost iijiils. Frost stubs. FIG. 105. also on frozen macadamised roads. It is simple, durable, and effective. The nail consists of a head, neck, and shank. The head is cubical, this form having been found more durable and gener- ally useful than the pointed or wedge heads. The wearing surface presents two deep cuts dividing it into four parts, and Fig. IOC— Delperier's frost nail. improving its holding power on the roadway. The head is of the same height as the web of the shoe to which the nail is attached. Experience shows that this is more than sufficient to wear for one day. The neck and shank are relatively very short and stout. 156 WINTER SHOEING. For making the holes in the shoe a special stamp (see fig. 109) is employed. The shoe being at a red heat, the stamp is applied at the proper point on the lower surface, and driven through half the thickness of the shoe in a vertical direction ; the stamp is then slightly inclined, and with a few more blows of the hammer is caused to emerge at the upper and outer edge. The liole is then punched back so as to leave a clear passage, and when the shoe is cold, any burr is filed oft'. Two holes are punched in each limb of the shoe. To prevent the holes being filled up or burred over, Del- perier uses two forms of nail, one for ordinary and one for frosty weather. As the nails are disposed at similar points in each half of the shoe, the balance is in nowise altered, and this method is now extensively used in Paris and other large towns throughout the year. In use the nails are slipped into the holes, driven home and tlie shank turned down on the outer edge of the shoe. If KiG. 107.— Stamp for Delperier's h'lG. 108.— Section of shoe with Delpei'ier's frost uail. nail inserted. the shoe be thin, it may ])e necessary to cut the shank some- what shorter, just as the point of an ordinary horse nail is cut before forming the clench. 2. Roughing by Means of SuAur Heels and Toes. The outer heel is ' steeled,' then drawn down, and sharpened on the anvil at a right angle; to the web of the shoe (fig. 109). METHODS OF ROUGHING. 157 Fig. 109. i'lG. 110. Fig. 109.— Outer heel 'sharpened.' Fig. 110.— Inner heel 'sharpened.' This form reuiaiiis sharp for a longer time and wears more regularly than any other. The inner heel is wedge-shaped, and is also at right angles to the web. To prevent cutting it is best not to make it quite sharp and to round off the outer edge (fig. 110). This is tlie oldest method of roughing, and may be applied to all horses employed at slow work. In heavy cart horses a small piece of steel is sometimes let into the toe (of the shoe) and sharpened. A special kind of steel is made for this purpose, which welds easily and thoroughly with iron. In order to obtain the greatest wear, such toe-grips should be hardened, though it is not desirable to render them too brittle by suddenly cooling the entire shoe. -^ • Eoughing one heel is insufficient, and should be condemned. As the above method of roughing requires the removal of the shoe each time it is renewed, serious disadvantages follow its repeated use. Firstly comes the loss of the animal's service while waiting at the farrier's, to which must be added the too frequent injuries from pricking as well as injuries to the wall. Fig. 111.— Count von Eiu.siedel's winter shoe for front feet. Fig. 112.— The same for hiud-feet. Even when the greatest care is used, the hoof will not bear removal of the shoe more than five to six times per month. These drawbacks led to the invention of Count von Ein- 158 WINTEK SHOEING. siedel's winter shoe (tigs. Ill and 112). This shoe has neither calkins nor toe-pieces ; its ground surface is divided into two sharp edges by means of a deep fuller. It is made from three-cornered rolled iron which is cut into the necessary lengths, bent into form, and then fullered. The hind shoe differs from the front in that its heels are sharp and are bent forward in the direction of the bars. They are thus very useful in preventing slipping in a forward direction. 3. Roughing with Sckews. The necessity for the use of good iion has already been in- dicated, but this is of special importance in the manufacture of shoes which are destined to carry screws, because if it be want- ing in toughness, brittle at a red heat, or show a tendency to fissure, it will not permit of screwing. With the exception of the heels, the shoe exactly resembles an ordinary shoe, and even the heels do not re- quire to be much thicker or broader than in the common variety. The holes are made either by punching or boring. In punching an almost cylindrical punch is used, and the hole completed on a round drift thickest in the middle. This drift, for a distance of I of an inch in the centre, should be as thick as the tap afterwards employed to produce the screw. The ground opening should be slightly countersunk (fig. 113), so that after the thread KiG. 113. --Heel of has bccu cut, the screw may sit close to the wiui countersink surfacc of the hcel. '"*'*^' The screws are made either of iron or a special steel, and their manufacture is seldom undertaken by the work- ing farrier. Iron is soft, and, therefore, less durable, but steel is excellent for the ])urpose, and when the screws, with the excep- tion of the thread, are hardened by heating to a dull red and cooling in damp sand, they possess the greatest resistance to wear, and at the same time sufficient toughness. The method employed by Schiifer of Dresden is as simple as it is practical. It is also used in the School of Practical Farriery, Dresden. As it may be useful under certain circumstances, a short de- FKOST SCREWS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 159 scription is appended. The screws are formed of square steel from- ^ to 'I inch in thickness, a special anvil being employed (fig. 114, c and a). The mould for forming the shank (a, a) is held in the centre of the anvil in two special guides (?i, n). It is of steel, and possesses, as shown by the figure, two moulds or grooves of dissimilar breadth, of which that on the right is for the preparation, and that on the left for the com- pletion of the shank. These moulds correspond also to the Fig. 114. — Anvil for niakiiis; screws, a, mould for forming shank ; b, cutter ; c, mould for making sharp-headed screws ; d, plate carrying set screws, g, and held in position by the two screws, e, e ; /, die carrying the moulds, a, a. This can be set at any distance from the pl.ite, d, by moving the set screws, g. The length of the shank is thus fixed ; h, forging hannner. forging hammer (h), which is slid into the grooves (n) and comes down on the piece of square steel : as soon as the hammer (h) and the mould (a) come in contact, the shank is of the proper thickness. Although the steel is drawn out by working in tlie right mould, it is still too large for the left, into which it is next inserted, and in which it is finished. The difterence in the diameter of the two moulds determines the amount of elongation which the shank undergoes in the process. In making blanks or blunt screws, the height of the screw is next marked, the stop (/) placed in position, the heated bar passed first into the mould (a) and then into the mould on the left, and forged until the forging hammer and mould come in contact. It is then cut off, roughly finished. In making chisel-headed screws (fig. 115) the mould (c) is first used, and the same process gone through to form the shank 160 WINTER SHOEING. r-vi- 1Zi as given above. Before cutting the thread, which is performed with the machine shown in fig. 116, the screws are heated with charcoal and the end of the shank filed off st|uare. Tlie screw is then grasped between the claws {a) and the slide-rest {h) advanced until the shank engages the die (c, d) and the latter begins to cut ; the gradu- ating screw {r) serves to fix the position of the two portions of the die, so that the shanks of the screws may be of equal thickness. The thickness of the shank is about ^ an inch, the thread is on Whitworth's scale, for saddle horses a trifie smaller, say, -pg of an inch. In England and Denmark screws with a concavity on either Fig. 115. — Screws (full size) provided with ^Vllit^vorth thread. Fig. 116.— Screw-cuttiiif,' machine, a, claws for grasping screw ; 6, slides for adjusting the cutting part.s of die, candd; r, set screw for determining the thickness of the finished shank. face are also used (fig. 117). In the German army screws are largely employed. The shank is about ^ an inch thick and about ^ inch long, the screw being formed of square steel bar a trifle more than ^ an inch on either face. The process is as follows : — A mould, speci- ally designed for field use (fig. 119), is carried. The steel bar is first raised to a white heat and the chisel edge roughly sharpened on the beak or horn screw with con- of the anvil by means of the hand-hammer. The cjivc sides steel rod is then laid in the hollow part of the mould, so that the chisel head rests against the front. With the help of the forging hammer, and by continually turning the MANUFACTUKE OF FROST SCREWS. 161 Fig. 118.— Frost screws used by the German army. :Measiirements in mm. rod, the shank is formed, the hammer being used at first visfor- ously and afterwards more lightly. The chisel head of the screw, which has become somewhat turned up by striking against the front of the mould, is then once more sharpened, and the partially finished screw cut off with the hand-chisel on the front of the anvil. In mak- ing blunt screws a piece of the bar, about J, an inch in length, is left projecting beyond the mould. The end of the shank is rounded off and the thread cut upon it by means of a screw-cutting machine, which is dropped into the cross channel. A practised smith is said to be able with this mould to produce about 100 screws per hour. In form- ing the thread only one screw-cutting machine is required, as, of course, it will take any ordinary size of screw. The advantages of well- manufactured screwed shoes are so many that this method deserves preference over any other. The ob- jections that screws are lost, broken, etc., can usually be referred to carelessness in manufacture and the use of bad materials. The use of screws is one of the best methods of roughing. A set of sharp and blunt screws and a small key should be supplied with each set of shoes. The screws shown herewith are those most commonly used L Fig. 119.— Mould for making screws. Army pattern for field use. 162 WINTER SHOEING. in England. The wedge shape (fig. 120) is the most popidar, as it gives a good foothold and at the same time wears well : KIG. 124. Fig. 125. the modified wedge with concave faces (tig. 121), though per- haps giving a rather better hold, is not so durable, while the diamond-pointed screw (fig. 123) soon loses its sharp- ness, wears rapidly, and has the grave drawback when new of inflicting dangerous wounds on the coronet should the horse cross his legs or slip. For these reasons it is now little used. The square-headed screw (fie. 124) is called a ' blank,' and is used for preserving the holes during ordinary work. It also gives a certain amount of foothold, and is sometimes used even during frosty weather. The screw tap shown is preferable to Taper tap. ^^iq ordinary form, as the increased size of the head gives greater leverage in screwing, and renders the tap less liable to break at this point. Fig. 126 shows a plug tap for clearing the screw holes before in- serting the screw, combining with the tap a ' picker,' useful for clear- ing the holes and removing hard masses of snow, etc., from the foot. Modified forms of Screws. — The fact that in large towns, where snow is removed from the streets and the screws come in direct contact with KiQ. via. 11 1 • 1 hard pavement, all chisel or pyra- midal screws soon become blunt, renders shoeing both more costly and more troublesome. Attempts have therefore been made to produce screws which remain permanently sharp and prevent slipping even after long wear on hard ground. Such, certainly, have advantages. SPECIAL FORMS OF FROST SCREWS. 163 Amongst them we may cite, firstly, the screws and cogs with an H-formed surface (fig. 127). 2. Screws with a cross-shaped bearing surface (fig. 128). 3. Screws and cogs with T-formed Fig. 1'27.— Screw witli H-shaped liead. KiG. 12S.— Screw with +-shaped head. ground surface. 4. Screws and cogs with S-shaped ground surface. 5. Angled screws (fig. 129). 6. Screws and cogs with inserted rubber plugs. 7. Screws with radiating Y-shaped Fig. 12'J. Fig. 1^0. Fig. 129.— Screw with angled head. Fig. 130.— Witli Y-shaped head. Fig. 131. Fig. 132. Fig. 131.— Hollow screw. Fig. 132. — Perforated screw. bearing surface (fig. 130). 8. Hollow screws (fig. 131). 9. Perforated screws (fig. 132). And 10. Spring cogs. The durability of these screws and the foothold which they Fig. 133. -Universal screw-key. give depend chiefly on their diameter and the direction of the wearing surfaces. So far as experience teaches, those with the narrowest and fewest wearing surfaces are least durable, but this 164 WINTER SHOEING. may be compeDSated by the use of thoroughly good material. The improved foothold is of course a great advantage. In inserting and removing screws a key is employed, one of the simplest and most effective forms being that shown in fig. 133, which fits all forms of screws ; the head is hardened. 4. Cogs. Shoes destined to receive cogs differ in uu important respect from ordinary shoes. To prevent the cogs being lost they should be conical in form and exhibit a taper of about one in ten, while the holes for their reception must correspond exactly in size with the thickness of the centre of the shank. (a) Eound cogs were invented in 1869 by Judson. Tlie holes to receive cogs can be made in the heated or unheated shoe. In the first case the hole is formed with a round punch rather smaller than the shank of the cog and finished, after fitting the shoe, by means of a conical slightly oiled steel drift tapering from either end about one in ten. The holes can also be bored and countersunk in the cold shoe. For this purpose a drill (the best form is the American twist drill) is necessary, the diameter of which exactly corresponds to the thickness of the upper end of the cog (figs. 134 and 135, c). After the shoe is fitted to the foot the holes are widened by means of the counter-sink shown in fig. 136, which is introduced from the ground surface. As the shank of the counter-sink corresponds in thickness to that of the cog, the latter should then fit firmly. Any little rough- ness of the margin of the hole is removed with a file and the border once more smoothed off by introducing the counter-sink. The cogs are made of rolled cast steel of round section, and may be the same diameter as the hole or about -.,~- inch thicker. Fig. 134. Fig. 135. Fig. 13(;. Fig. 134. -Sharp cog. Fig. 135. — Blunt cog. a, head ; h, shank. Fig. 136.— Counter-sink for enlarging holes in shoi FROST COGS. 165 A mould, the holes in which liave been made by the coiuiter- sink, is necessary ; the steel rod is slightly warmed and drawn until it will enter the mould to within about one-twentieth of an inch of the end. A sulticient length is then left pro- jecting and the bar so deeply notched that it can easily be broken oil This may be done immediately, and the cog cooled, a blank resulting ; or if a chisel edge is required, the cog is grasped with special tongs having short jaws bored out to receive the shank, and the chisel edge is then formed with a hammer. It is much easier, however, not to give tlie shank a conical form, but merely to produce a chisel edge and to cut oh' the cylindi'ical cog thus formed. Diamond-headed cogs are pro- duced on an oblique tool, similar to that in fig. 142, h, hj using a special liammer and turning the bar frequently. The cogs (fig. lo7) can easily be cut to the same length l)y fixing a stop at the necessary distance in front of the cutter. They are made on the anvil shown in fig. 114, it being only neces- sary to have proper moulds and a proper hammer. Before nail- ing on the shoes the cogs should be tried. They are well made when the shanks tit tightly all round and their ends fill the en- tire hole, with the exception of a space of o^j to ^ inch at the upper surface of the shoe. The cogs are inserted after shoeing : the first introduced can be fixed by means of a light blow ; in inserting the second, however, it is necessary to press gently on the first, which might otherwise jump out under the shock of hammering. All that is necessary to insure their holding is care in manufacture and fixing. {!)) Quadrangular cogs were suggested by Dominik of Berlin. In using cogs of f inch thickness in the shank, a hole is punched through the heel of the shoe by means of a square, moderately conical punch, the end of wiiich measures, say, ^ inch ; this hole is enlarged with a drift. The holes should be punched from the ground surface, care being taken to hold the tool at right angles to the surface of the shoe. KiG. 137.— Kound sharp cogs, a, for draught; b, for ridnig horses (nat. size). 166 WINTER SHOEING. The slight burr produced on the upper surface of the shoe by the passage of the drift should always be removed with a file, and never beaten down with the hammer. The first hole is widened by using a drift. In this process the heels of the shoe are warmed to a dull red, and the drift driven through at right angles to the surface by a few light rapid strokes. A simple method of manufacturing cogs was invented by a veterinary surgeon named Schleinitz. The blunt cogs are made cold, the chisel- edged warm. In forming a blunt cog the end of the square rod is hammered on all sides until it will KiG. 138.— (I, upper; «', lower end of anvil for forming .slianli ; /;, anvil ffir forming head. enter the mould (fig. 138, a) to within about one-twentieth of an inch of the end, when it is cut off with the ordinary cutter. Chisel-edged cogs are similarly fitted and sharpened and cut oJBf on a special anvil (fig. 138, I). They can then immediately be hardened. The thickness of the drift at its widest part corre- sponds to the greatest width of the mould. One man can thus make cogs without assistance. As coinparcd with screws, cogs have certain advantages, viz. : — 1. They never break off. 2. Their manufacture and use are simpler. 3. Being so cheap, everyone can keep a few in stock and affix them without special lielp. MERITS AND DRAWBACKS OF FROST COGS. 167 Their disadvantages, however, are : — 1. That even with care- ful fitting they are sometimes lost. This seldom occurs when the cogs are inserted by the farrier ; on the other hand, it is favoured by the horse cutting. When the snow ' balls ' in the feet, and when horses are going up-hill over hard roads, the cogs are very liable to become loose, because they fail to touch the ground. 2. Cogs are difficult to renew on account of becoming fixed in position, though this can be prevented by removing them immediately the horse returns home. To facilitate removal different instruments have been invented, most of which, how- ever, can only be used when the heels are very long ; but such heels are a great disadvantage, especially in riding horses. When the horse is worked without cogs the lower margin of the hole ' burrs up,' and the insertion of new cogs becomes difficult. After the drift has been in use for some time its edges become rounded and the cogs no longer fit the holes it produces. 5. Shoes with IiEmovable Toe-grips. Eoughing by the insertion of one or two ordinary screws in the toe of the shoe has long been practised. Provided animals thus shod are not used on stone pavements this method succeeds ; but in large towns screws of any form soon become loose and fall out. As they have afterwards to be removed the attendant frequently refrains from screwing them fully home : hence under the action of the severe strains to which they are exposed they are soon lost. It is better to employ blanks, which can be screwed in firmly at first, for although this certainly does not get rid of the strains to which the screw is exposed, it greatly diminishes the number of lost screws. Toe-cogs have stood the test of many years' trial and deserve to be more widely employed. The simplest forms are the best, and none of those which require any special contriv- ance, such as a wedge, a split pin or screw, to prevent loosening, can be regarded as practical. The chief point is the shape of the shank. This should increase in tliickness about 1 in 7 or 8 ; when less tapered, — for example, 1 in 10 or 1 in 12, — cogs at first become too firmly fixed and are difficult of removal, and 168 WINTER SHOEING. later dilate the holes so that the crown of the cog comes in contact with the shoe ; the cog then becomes loose and eventu- ally lost. It is of little importance wliether in transverse section the shank is elongated, rectangular, or oval, though it is very necessary that the measurement from side to side sliould greatly exceed that from before to beliind. The breadth, thickness, and length of the shank may vary within considerable limits, according to ihe weight of the horse and its work. In heavy horses, to wdiich toe-cogs are most applicable, the shank may be -| to |- inch broad, |- inch in thickness, and |- inch in length ; for lighter horses /\. inch in bi-eadth by ^ inch in thickness and ^ inch in length, thickness, and breadth measured close lielow the head. (a) Toe-grips with elongated rectan- gular shanks (fig. 139). These are manufactured of steel, about -g inch in breadth and -g- inch thick. The shank is first forged, the head then formed on an anvil with an oblique face and so far '\"oe'irgSshrfof.irSt cut through as only to require breaking ^°^^^- off^ warming to a white heat and placing in a mould of the necessary shape, in which a few light blows of the hannner sutlice to perfect the form. To change these grips a tliin double-jawed lever with wedge- shaped head (see fig. 102) is driven between the shoe and grip, which is then loosened by a few blows on the shoe. Shoes intended to carry these toe-grips must be somewhat thicker than usual at the toe. Heavy shoos should be from I inch to I inch and light shoes from ^- inch to ~ inch thick. This prevents dilatation and loosening. The dilatation of the opening for the toe-grip is peculiar and docs not occur when cogs are used. It is produced by the enormous pressure to which the toe is exposed, especially in hind-feet, for which reason t(^e-grips sliould l)e formed of a more conical shape than cogs. After tlie clip has been drawn, the hole f. .MuK.rniuIlv Hat (obli(iuu)li..iif. KlG. 166. — Normal hoof. KiG. 167.— Upright hoof. 158, 162, 165 to 167), indicates whether the hoof and fetlock are or are not normally related. In the normal position (fig. 158) this line runs directly for- THE FOOT AXIS. 181 wards and downwards, in the out-turned toe position obliquely outwards, and in the in-turned toe (fig. 162) obliquely inwards. Viewing the foot from the side we distinguish a normal position of the foot axis (fig. 166), and may term all variations from this in a forward direction as oblique (fig. 165) and all variations in a backward direction as upright (fig. 167). Speaking generally, the foot axis, shown in figs. 165 and 167 as a dotted line, should follow a straight course in each of the four feet, provided the limbs are all bearing weight. Any deviation from this straight line, as shown in fig. 168, is abnormal. During rest, the wall of the toe and the foot axis should be almost or quite parallel with each other. It is allowable in shoeing to leave the toe of the foot a trifie more upright than the general axis of the pastern. The direction of the foot axis is of great importance in the practice of shoeing. The oblique foot (fig. 165) forms an angle of less than 45° with the ground, and, compared with the two other forms, its hoof has a long toe and low heels. In the normal position (fig. 166) the angle is about 45° to 55°, the toe beiug shorter and the heels higher than in the oblique foot. Theorists have described the correct angle of the hoof and pastern as 45°, claiming that it ensures equal distribution of the weight of the body between the column of bones and the tendons, but animals so formed are not considered well shaped by the best judges ; the pastern is too sloping. It is clear that, as there is no danger of injury to the bones from shock when the animal is at rest, it would be advantage- ous could these support a greater proportion of weight than the tendons and suspensory ligament, which would be correspond- ingly relieved, (^n the other hand, when, during movement, the limb comes violently in contact with the ground, the major part of the weight should fall on the tendons, etc., and thus shield from injury the l)ones, which must otherwise certainly be fractured. General opinion seems to regard the best angle as somewhat less than 50° for front feet and as 50° or somewhat more for hind. The greater length and obliquity of the pastern in fore- limbs compensates for the greater weight and the more violent shocks experienced ; length and obliquity being factors emin- ently favourable to neutralising concussion. 182 THE FOOT IX ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMli. When the angle is above 55'' (fig. 107) the height of the heels naturally increases in the same proportion as the length of the toe diminishes. The same conditions rule in hind-feet, Fk.;. lU^.- T\v(i IV'ct vicu td li-ijiii the siiU'. «. witli foot axis distorted in a backward direction : /'. in a forward direction. The arrows indicate the proper position of the fetlock, which is jiiven in dotted outline. In a the toe and in h the heels require shortenini;-. I'lo. 1G9. —Peculiar distor- tion, in which the os pedis becomes upright, while the suffraginis is much in- clined. with the exception, however, that the angle formed with the earth is here somewhat greater. A peculiar position of this kind is shown in fig. 169, in which the foot axis is bent, the os pedis being much more upright than the suffraginis, the hoof following the direction of the OS pedis. o. The Method of ADVANfTxr; the Hoof varies even when the animal is moving on level ground and not drawing a load. In the normal form of the limb the hoof is moved almost straight forwards (lig. 170), The toe points in a forward direction and the hoof is set down fiat. But the converse; is by no means true, i.e., the foot may be perfectly shaped, the proportions of its various parts absolutely- normal, but the formation of the limb, and therefore the style of going, quite defective. Defects of conformation in the limb, though little marked when at rest, often appreciably affect the style of moving. In horses of normal formation the limbs are flexed and advanced in a direction parallel to that of move- ment or of the longitudinal axis of the body. When the horse is viewed from behind the hind-limb ' covers ' the front, when from in front the fore-limb ' covers ' the hind ; at a trot the right and left fore and hind limbs METHOD OF ADVANCING THE HOOF. 183 respectively are separated to a sufficient distance, and are moved in perfect time ; the limbs are neither lifted too much nor too little, so that while there is no loss of time there "is also no danger of catching the toe and falling. The method of carrying the limb is not affected by the form given to the hoof, though disproportion in any part of the latter has a marked effect on the pare. For instance, as the limb CD 0 (!) 1 CD © Q' 0 0 0 0 ■0 Fig. 170. Fig. 171. '■0 KIG. 172. Q ® Q swings in the arc of a circle around the toe, as around a fixed point, prior to leaving the ground, the longer the toe is left, the longer does this swinging continue ; hence loss of time in raising and advancing the limb. Low heels and a long toe are therefore obstacles to speed. When the toes turn out, the hoof is moved forwards, in- 184 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. wards, and again outwards (fig. 171) in a circular direction, the outer wall of the toe coming first in contact with the ground and sustaining the greatest part of the impact. The toe here pomts either directly forwards or outwards. In the in-turned toe form things are reversed, the hoof being carried forwards, outwards, and again inwards (fig. 172). The manner in which the hoofs are moved is shown semi- schematically in figs. 170, 171, and 172, No absolute rule can, of course, be laid down and many deviations occur, re- sulting partly from peculiarities in direction of individual bones and consequent irregularities in movement, from pace, that is, whether the horse walk or trot, from the way in which the animal's weight is distributed between his fore and hind limbs, and from the position and amount of the load which the horse either draws or carries. The four feet of any one horse seldom correspond exactly in direction ; one pair may point outwards, the other inwards, the hoofs being correspondingly advanced. Sometimes a defect in one part of the limb counterbalances a defect in another, so that, although close attention will enable us to classify the conformation and action with which we have to deal, yet judging of gait will always be a matter of difficulty for beginners and for the unskilled. Deviations from normal conformation are always a draw- back to the performance of work. When strongly pronounced, and especially when two or more defects occur in one limb, they greatly predispose to striking, cutting, and to disease of joints and of the foot. The course followed by the hoof when viewed from one side (figs. 173, 174, and 175) is of less importance to the farrier. In normally formed limbs it is regular (fig. 173). When the fetlock is very oblique, however, the hoof at first traces a sharp curve, which soon becomes more flattened and is pro- longed forwards before meeting the earth (fig. 174). In the case of upright fetlocks the lifting and advancing of the hoof is performed in precisely reversed order. The shock to the foot and liml) is evidently least in the style of movement shown by fig. 174 and greatest in that shown by fig. 175. As every rider knows, the pace in the former case is easy, in tlie latter rough and unpleasant. ACTION OF THE LIMBS. 185 From the foregoing may be deduced two principles for the practice of shoeing, viz. : — (1) The normal form of the hoof should be preserved or restored, hut with due regard to the conformation of the limhs and to the aniinaVs action. (2) The functions of the various parts of the foot must be aroused to full activity. In regard to the first, the normal form of the foot is under- stood to be that which would result were the animal unshod Fig. 173. Fig. 175. and in a state of nature. It need scarcely be said that, given this normal form, the balance of the limb must not be dis- turbed by inequalities of thickness in different parts of the shoe, but that the hoof surface of the shoe must lie in a hori- zontal plane. llespecting the second, it is indispensable that the frog and sole come in contact with the ground. One must not forget that expansion of the foot depends entirely on the action of the plantar cushion, and therefore primarily on frog-pressure. 4. FOEM OF THE HOOF. The normal front hoof (fig. 176) shows little difference in the direction and thickness of its inner and outer walls. The outer is slightly thicker and rather less upright than the inner 18G THE FOOT IN TTS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LLMi; (compare tigs. 158 and 159). In consequence, it describes a somewhat larger curve, as is seen on examining the bearing-^ and coronary borders. The height of the heel, in com])arison with that of the quarter and toe, is approximately as 1:2:3 or as 1?, : 2 : .■'.. The toe forms an angle of about 45° to 50° with the earth (compare with fig. IGG), and when viewed from the side its direction corresponds with that of the suffraginis. When the Kmbs are straddled (as in fig. 144), the hoof (tig. 177) is always mori' oblique, because the outer part of the wall is naturally somewhat longer and stands more obliquely in relation to the ground than the inner (compare figs. IGO and IGl). The outer bearing margin of the hoof describes a wide curve, the greatest prominence -■at of which is at the point fi where the quarter join& the heel ; the inner, on the other hand, is straighter, consequently the outer division of the hoof is broader than the inner. So long as the hoof is healthy, the limbs of the frog are equally devel- oped. The obliquity of the hoof results from the form of the leg, and must be dis- tinguished from obliquity produced by disease. When the toes alone are turned out (as shown in fig. 145), the hoof (fig. 178) differs from the foregoing in that the circum- ference of the bearing margin is less curved at the outer border of the toe and the inner heel than at the inner portion of the toe and the outer heel. In consequence, two deep and two shallow curves lie opposite one another. Tiie toe of the hoof * The artist has slightly exaggerated tlie thickness of the wall at the heel. It must not be forgotten, however, that owing to the reflection of the bars, the wall at this point is apparently reinforced, and that, as the wall is worn away obliquely, if InolcH tliickcr llian it in reality is. Fio. 170.— Normal right fore-foot.' FORM OF HOOF AS RELATED TO CONFOR^IATION. 18^ points outwards, the foot is not brought level to the ground but with the outer wall of the toe first. When the toes are turned in (as in lig, 146) a somewhat similar, but less pronounced, form of hoof is developed. The inner wall is less oblique than the outer, as is best seen at the quarters (figs. 162 and 163). The lower outer margin more nearly resembles that of the ordinary hoof, but the wall of the inner quarter and heel describes a somewhat greater curve. Not infrequently the outer heel wall appears contracted. This form of hoof is commonest in horses which bring the foot to i'lG. 177.— Eisht fore-foot (oiit-tumed toe). KiG. ITiS.-iaght foi-efoot (iii-tuiuetl toe). the ground toe first. Front feet are almost invariably round at the toe. The foregoing remarks as to the influence of limb conforma- tion in determining shape of hoof apply in most respects to hind as well as to fore feet. The hind-foot (fig. 179) is not round, but elongated or oval at the toe. Its greatest width is at the commencement of the posterior third. The sole is usually more concave and tlie wall, seen from the side, some- what more upright than the corresponding parts of the front hoof ; the angle which the toe forms with the ground varies between 50° and 55"^^. At times, moreover, one sees unusually wide or narrow feet, the shape of which is not due to the position of the limbs, but to inborn peculiarities of the various breeds. The ' wide ' hoof (fig. 180) is broad, almost circular : its 188 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. wall obliquely inclined towards the ground, the sole slightly concave, and the frog strong and massive. The narrow hoof /r / ^ Fig. 179. — Xornial ri^ht hind-hodf. (fig. 181) is elongated, has upright quarters, a strongly concave sole, and comparatively a small frog of fine and tough fibres ; in the opposite form the horn fil)res are usually much larger. KiG. 180.— Wide 'spreading' hoof. KiG. 181.— Narrow hoof. In the wide-spreading hoof there is a tendency to separation of the wall and to flattening or dropping of the sole. Figs. 165, 166, and 167 represent res])ectively the normal. PROPORTIONS OF HOOF. 189 the oblique, and the upright foot. A few remarks on the forms of hoof belonging to these respectively may here be appropriate. In the first place, the wall of the toe should correspond in direction with the general axis of the three terminal bones of the digit, and just as one speaks of an oblique or upright foot, so one might speak of the corresponding forms of hoof. In the normal hoof the wall of the toe forms an angle of 45° to 55° with the ground (fig. 166). When the angle is less than 45° the hoof may be described as oblique (fig. 165). Such a hoof has comparatively a long toe and low heels. When, on the other hand, the angle is greater than 55°, the hoof is upright (fig. 167), possessing a comparatively short toe but high heels. In the latter the anterior, in the former the posterior, half of the hoof carries the greater weight. The proportion already stated approximately as 1 : 2 : 3 or 1^ : 2 : 3, which should exist between the height of the wall at the heel, quarter, and toe, is naturally disturbed in changes of other parts of the hoof. The above is true of hind as well as of fore hoofs, though in general the normal hiud hoof is about 5° more upright than the fore. The following summarised account from Lesbre and Peuch sets forth, from another standpoint, approximately the same views expressed in the foregoing pages. The walls of the quarters in fore-feet form an angle of 10° to 12° with the vertical ; in hind-feet of 6° to 8°. In fore- KIG. 182. Fig. 183. feet the coronary circumference is about |- that of the plantar ; in hind-feet about f . Viewed from the side, the toe of the fore foot forms an angle of nearly 50° with the ground; that of the hind an angle of 55°. The heel is nearly parallel with the toe, and should be at least half as high. 190 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. lu the tore foot the height of the loe usually equals § the leugth of the sole, and in the hind -^q. The length of the sole varies little in the fore and hind feet of the same animal, the apparent difierence depending on the narrower shape of the hind -foot. Compared with that of the plantar margin, the length of the coronary margin in fore-feet is as 9 : 10 ; in hind-feet a little more. Viewed from below, the foot is almost as broad as long. In Fig. 1S4. Fig. 1S5. contour it resembles the segment of an oval. The sole is thick and arched. The degree of concavity depends on the size of the foot. The frog is strong, firm, and resistant to the pressure of tlie thumb. When the foot is lifted, it should stand higher Fig. 186. Fig. 1S7. than the level of the wall, and therefore, during movement, should meet the ground before the quarters and heels. The bars, which participate in bearing weight, should be strong and prominent, and should be on the same level as the plantar margin of the wall, at least up to a point opposite the middle of the frog. In some feet the weight-bearing surface includes the lower surface of the frog, all of the sole, and the lower margin of the wall ; in others only those portions of the sole bordering; on the wall are included in it. CHARACTEKISTICS OF THE SOUND HOOF. 191 Variations in the direction of the foot axis iiud in the form of the hoof naturally alter the distribution of pressure in the joints, and when due to faulty shoeing, and especially when exaggerated, are of grave importance. Obhque hoofs, particu- larly if shod so as to raise the frog from contact with the ground, are apt to show contraction of the heels, whereas in normal hoofs the change either fails to occur or is long delayed, the reason probably being the greater weight thrown on the posterior half of the foot. On account of this increased weight on the posterior portions of the foot, the Ijars and frog are unable to withstand the tendency of the heels to contract or to be thrust inwards, and if the oblique hoof has also weak heels it is very soon converted into a contracted hoof, the bars growing inwards and corns making their appearance. The horse, especially if he ha\'e good action, soon becomes useless for work on hard roads. This form of lioof, when accompanied l)y out-turned toes and Hat soles, is very troublesome. The unequal distribution of weight is the chief evil, a fact which explains why, in horses with out-turned toes, corns are more frequent in the inner, and in those with in-turned toes in the outer heel. In horses with out-turned toes, unequal distribution of weight is also responsible to a very large extent for the pro- duction of sand cracks and separations of the inner wall, and in upright hoofs of sand cracks at the toe. 5. Characteristics of the Sound Hoof. The description of the hoof by no means terminates with consideration of its form. On the contrary, its characteristics vary to such a degree that one might almost venture to say of a hundred horses no two could be found with hoofs which would exactly correspond. They vary almost as men's faces, a fact which explains the differences in size, form, and fitting necessary in shoes. One of the first things the farrier has to consider is whether the hoof is healthy. It may be said, in passing, that healthy hoofs are not so common as is believed. The wall of a healthy hoof, when viewed from in front and from the side, should run in a straight line from the coronary to the bearing margin, so that a straight-edge laid on it in the 192 THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. direction of the horn tubes should everywhere be in contact. It should neither show longitudinal nor transverse splits. The significance of rings depends on their position and course. Rings running parallel to the coronet are, as a rule, of little importance ; they only indicate irregular nutrition, but those which deviate from this course to any great extent, or which are more prominent at one part of the wall than at another, point to disease. Viewed from the ground surface and from behind, the bulbs should appear rounded off, strongly developed, and not displaced. The sole should be concave and show no cracks in the white line. The frog should be large, its cleft narrow, dry, and clean, and its forward prolongations equal in size. The lateral furrows, although fairly fine, should not be too narrow ; the bars should run in a straight line forwards and inwards towards the point of the frog. Any deviation towards the heels suggests commencing contraction. The sole should show no red colouring in or about the corners of the heels. The lateral cartilages should be elastic and equally developed. Finally, in forming a judgment as to its shape and sound- ness, the hoof should never be regarded alone, but in relation to the limb. 6. Weak of the Hoof and of the Shoe. In the first part of this work it was stated that the hoof grows downwards and forwards at the average rate of ^ to -^ inch per month. Horn is lost either as a result of friction at the bearing surface or of shelling out of the sole. Two kinds of movement combine to produce this friction ; one the forward movement, at the moment when the hoof is brought to the earth, the other the rotary movement, when it is everywhere in contact with the ground. The rate of loss varies with the weight of the animal, the quality of horn, and the roughness and hardness of the ground. On modern hard roads wear exceeds growth, and finally renders necessary some artificial protection. In fore- feet, the foot is brought to the ground more obliquely, and the toe usually wears more rapidly than in hind-feet. It is of importance to remember that, although the point which first WEAR OF THE HOOF, 193 reaches the ground may vary in position, the toe is always the last to leave it. If the farrier in preparing the hoof leaves one point or one side of the wall too high, the portion thus left touches the ground first until the inequality is removed by increased wear. Were the horse under perfectly natural conditions this would be of little importance, but as the shoe prevents the natural remedy, and as the error is often repeated at each shoeing, any injury thus produced is perpetuated. The part left too high grows even more rapidly than the rest, causing the wall to lose its straight direction and become curved. In the specimen shown (fig. 188) the outer wall has for a considerable time been left too high. It will be noted that the rings lie closest together ; on the low side of the hoof. If the toe is left unduly long it bends outwards ; if the heels are neglected they are apt to bend forwards and inwards. The hoof, moreover, wears even when shod, though only at points where friction can occur between it and the shoe, that is, at the heels. This wear is favoured by weak- ness of the wall, bad quality of horn, heaviness of the body, wet weather, faulty shape of the hoof and bearing surfaces of the shoe, and by much work on hard ground. The process itself is not directly visible, but may be detected by making marks on the wall and noting their dis- tance above the shoe. At the next shoeing these marks will be found to have approached the shoe or, in some cases, even to have disappeared. Immobility of the heels, produced, for example, by ossification of the lateral cartilages, diminishes or entirely prevents this wear. The amount worn away between one shoeing and another is certainly not much, but sufficient to require attention under special circumstances. The few experi- ments that have been made fix the amount thus worn away as from 0 to "1^ inch per month. The inner heel usually wears more quickly than the outer. The form of the friction surface N Fig. 188.— Overgrown and laterally distorted hoof. 194 THE FOOT IX ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB. resembles an elongated wedge, the base lying towards the back, the point extending forward as far as the heels are capable of movement. The result of this friction is to reduce the height of the heels ; in unilateral friction, to disturb the balance of the foot, to loosen the heel nails, and sometimes to produce pressure on the inner and posterior portions of the sole. As an indirect result we see increased wear of the shoe at the toe or outer quarter. Wear of the Shoe. — To the practical farrier the wear of the shoe affords valuable information. From a theoretical standpoint it should be as regular as possible ; when this is the case we know that the horse has usually a free gait, that he is not suffering pain, and that he treads level, while his shoes wear longer and — a great advantage — admit of being made lighter. Such regular wear indicates skill in shoeing, though, of course, it is impossible of attainment where the limbs or joints are already deformed. Unequal wear is very common and may be variously caused. Thus, the nearer any part of the shoe, such as the toe, the inner or outer quarter, or one or other heel, lies to the centre of the hoof, all other parts maintaining their proper position, the more rapidly it wears ; on the other hand, by so fashioning the shoe as to remove any part further from the centre, wear is diminished and in proportion to the distance. The same occurs when the shoe is badly made or nailed on, when it is too wide at one spot or too narrow at another, or when the toe is too long or too short. Even the form of the outer border of the shoe has some influence, the part lying nearest the centre of the hoof bearing a larger proportion of weight than portions further removed. The shoe wears unequally when the horse treads unequally. An uneven tread may be caused : 1. By faulty trimming, one spot being left too high, or (which is the same thing) the opposite being unduly lowered. 2. By an unsuitable shoe ; for instance, one with toe-grip where no grip is needed, a shoe with a narrow toe where the hoof is upright or where thrush exists, a shoe too short for an oblique foot, or a shoe too narrow and too finely holed in the outer branch for a foot with in-turned toe. 3. By well-marked faults in the conformation of WEAK OF THE SHOE. 195 the horse's limbs ; iii this case the entire formation must be taken into consideration. 4. By shortening the stride; this always produces severe wear of the toe. The stride is shortened and the horse treads on his toe when his prooress is checked by the curb or by too heavy a load. Wear of the shoe may be caused principally as the foot either meets the ground or leaves it. In the latter case it is always at the toe, in the former it may be at the toe, at one or other quarter, or at the heels, or it may be distributed over the entire surface of the shoe. Both kinds of wear fall on the toe when this part has been left too long, when the horse is in heavy draught or in fast saddle work, when it is suffering from thrush, contraction of the flexor tendons, spavin, or from any of those conditions in which the action of the fetlock is limited. The wear produced by bringing the foot to the ground is greatest on the outer quarter when this is higher than the inner, or when the corresponding part of the shoe is too narrow, as well as when the toe is turned out. As, in the last case, the wear produced when the toe leaves the ground IS most marked at the inner side, an expert can sometimes diagnose the conformation of the limb from the wear of the shoe. In the following pages the wear produced when the foot comes in contact with the ground will be referred to as descent, falHng, or extension wear ; that produced as the toe leaves the ground as ascent, lifting, or flexion wear. Descent or extension wear is very seldom seen on the inner limb of the shoe, a fact explained by the way in which the working horse usually treads. It is, however, seen at the heels in horses which suffer from laminitis or which go on their heels. This short rcsimS indicates, that from the wear exhibited by the old shoe may be more or less accurately learned the conformation and distribution of weight in the limb, the proper way to pare the hoof, and the position, form, and length to be given to the shoe, all of which are of immense importance in practical farriery. The old shoe is the model from which the new must be formed, not that it should be followed slavishly, but used as a guide to possible improvement. To read its lessons aright demands keen observation and careful reflection. CHAPTER II. THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. 1. Management and Contkol of the Hoese. The horse, as a rule, and especially when well treated, is eminently tractable, and if we have frequently to deal with animals which resent the manipulation necessary during shoe- ing, it is less on account of the horse's vice than of the farrier's bad management. The farrier may fairly require that horses brought to him should be accustomed to ordinary handling. It is scarcely his business to practise horse-breaking, thougli he occasionally finds some restraint absolutely necessary. Such means must be used, however, with great discretion, unless they are, on the one hand, to degenerate into cruelty, or, on the other, to render the subject worse than before. In handling horses we should endeavour to obtain their con- fidence, and, therefore, quietness, firmness, a certain amount of strength and courage are required, as well as a knowledge of horses in general. We should try to discover whether the horse is restless from being unused to shoeing, from fear of a repetition of previous ill-treatment, from excess of spirit, from the absence of a com])anion, or from pain in the feet or joints. The method of handling older horses, or such as are accustomed to shoeing, is of less importance. As a rule, when properly managed, they lift their feet willingly, and shoeing proceeds without difficulty. It is otherwise, however, in young, raw, vicious, or timid horses, which require special precautions. The following points should be borne in mind : — (a) The horse should never be tied up with a fixed knot. The best plan is to pass the shank of the halter through a rint;', and then twist the free end two or three times around the CONTROL OF HORSE DURING SHOEING. 197 fixed part, so that, if the horse ' hangs haclc,' the halter will readily untwist and release him. (h) Horses which are known to resist being quietly shod should not be fastened up, but be held by a reliable assistant. (c) No attempt should be made to hold up the foot con- tinuously until the horse has been accustomed to allow the leg to be handled, except in the case of ticklish horses, which, as they seem to resent firm treatment less than light handling, ought to be grasped firmly. (d) The foot to be shod must never be suddenly grasped, and it is well to accustom the animal first to standing on three legs. In lifting the leg it should be noted whether the animal stands fairly on the other three. The farrier should avoid any un- necessary noise, the work being better performed quietly, rapidly, and with as little inconvenience to the animal as possible. In young horses the limbs should not be kept raised too long ; an interval of rest is desirable. The legs of stiff, old horses should not be lifted too high, especially at the beginning of shoeing. When the hocks are very stiff, the limb should not be drawn forwards, Ijut backwards and upwards, care being taken that the animal does not fall. Vicious horses are better shod in a winker bridle with strong snaffle, by which they can be better controlled. Any attempt at vice should be immediately punished, either by jerking the bridle or by calling to the animal in loud tones. If this is insufficient the horse may be forced to move backwards in soft ground, as this form of exercise soon wearies and reduces it to subjection. In lifting the hind-feet a broad piece of webbing may be fastened to the tail and then passed completely round the fetlock from the outside, emerging again at the back. The webbing is grasped close to the fetlock, the foot drawn under the body and held as above described. This arrangement forces the animal to carry a portion of its own weight, while it effectually prevents kicking. In first applying the webbing it is well to lift the fore-foot of the same side. Twitches are undesirable and should not be employed, except in carrying out painful operations on the feet. The plan of drawing the hind-limb backwards and upwards by means of a rope is also bad, and sometimes results in rupture of the flexor metatarsi. The ' side-line ' consists of a long rope with a fixed 198 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. loop which is passed round the animal's neck. The free end is passed from without around the fetlock, carried forward, passed through the fixed loop and drawn tight, thus lifting the hind- foot. It is useful in dealing with heavy animals, but must be employed with care, as violent struggling is apt to be followed by heavy falls and serious injury. In dealing with a trouble- some animal, it is often sufficient to place him against the wall in charge of the groom, who is instructed to hold his head high, and occupy his attention by patting and speaking to him or by gently playing with the bit. Some animals, which resist being tied up or even held, will stand quietly if left completely at liberty with the reins passed over the neck. Others, which are troublesome in a watering bridle, at once become quiet when the eyes are covered. Certain horses can only be shod when along with a stable companion. Sensitive animals are often so irritated in summer by the attacks of flies that they can only be shod early in the morning or late in the evening. Finally, some horses, which are quite intractable at the farrier's, can be shod without difficulty in the stable. Travises or stocks are usually unnecessary, save for shoeiug very heavy horses. In Germany an assistant holds the foot while the shoe is fitted to the foot, but this is unnecessary if, as in England, animals are accustomed from an early age to the feet being lifted. The farrier lays his tools close to the animal's feet. In taking off. say, the left fore-shoe, he grasps the hoof at the toe with the right hand, allows it to descend slightly, passes his left leg around the limb, grips the horse's foot between his knees and places his feet a little apart to give him a firm foothold. In this position the shoe is taken ofl", the hoof pre- pared and the shoe nailed on. Once the clenches are turned down he carries the foot forwards, places it on his thigh, nips olT the points of the nails, turns over the clenches and finishes the work. Tiic liind-foot is not grasped between the knees, l)ut laid on the thigh, the cannon l^one resting more or less on the farrier's hip. The work is finished in a similar way to that of the fore-foot, the hoof being Ijrought forward and placed on the farrier's knee. When, however, the horse is EXAMINATION OK ANIMAL BEFORE SHOEING. 199 heavy or troublesome, an assistant is of great service and sometimes almost indispensable, while the work can be better done as the foot need not be raised so hiah. 2. Determining the Style of Shoeing. In judging of the style of shoeing to adopt, the horse must be seen both at rest and in motion, the objects being to form a clear idea of the conformation and action of the limb, of the form and condition of the hoof, of the way in which tlie horse brings the foot to, and lifts it from, the ground, of the shape and length to be given to the shoe, of the number and position of the nail holes, and of the wear of the old shoe, in order ^j,'=tt'fh=m-^-- Fig. 190. that all tlie peculiarities thus discovered may be utilised to remove or palliate existing defects. The horse is led away from the observer in a straight line, the hind-limbs being first examined (fig. 189), and on its return the fore-limbs (fig. 190). This is continued until the examiner makes up his mind whether the horse goes normally or not. In the latter case, that is, if the horse goes in some irregular way, one of two conditions may exist, that is, the deviation may be inwards or outwards. The foot and hoof 200 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. of either limb is then examined, special attention l)eing given to the direction of the fetlock and of the quarters of the hoof, it being borne in mind that the fetlock and hoof should follow the same general line, as otherwise the foot axis will be bent. At the same time the manner in which the hoof is carried and the angle of the fetlock should be noted, both when weight is placed upon it and when it is removed. A few paces at the trot will show whether the animal is lame or not. The con- formation of the limbs and the form of the hoof, together with the manner in which it is carried and put down, having been ascertained, the horse is examined at rest, and a mental note made of the hoof and style of shoeing, as far as can be done by viewing the parts from in front and behind. The appear- ance of the coronet, the presence of any curvature, of rings or fissures in the wall, and, at the same time, any other defects or peculiarities, such as one hoof being narrower or more upright than another, receive attention. The examination of the animal at rest and from the side comes next in order. Tlie farrier will note at a glance the wei'Tht, height, and length of the body, the position and direc- tion of the limbs and lioofs, whether the form of the hoof corresponds to the direction of the limbs, whether the line of the fetlock agrees with that of the toe wall, and whether the toe and heel walls run parallel ; at the same time the general EXAMINATION OF FOOT AND OLD SHOE BEFORE SHOEING. 201 formation of the hoof will be remarked. In the event of the wall exhibiting rings, their relation to one another and to the coronet, whether they cross, etc., should be observed, while the length of the shoe must not be overlooked. Finally, the feet are lifted and the width of the hoof, the condition of the sole, whether little or no horn is being shed from it and the frog, the depth of the lateral grooves of the frog (which indicates the thickness of the sole), the state of the lateral cartilages and bulbs of the heels, and the presence of cracks or cavities in the horn of the wall will be seen. The form, holing, position, wear, and age of the old shoe nmst be borne in mind. It will be seen whether the shoe corresponds in form to the hoof, and whether the number and distribution of the nail holes and nails appear good. The shoe may com- pletely cover the bearing surface of the wall or may project on either side and thus give rise to brushing or unequal wear. The distribution of wear is of great importance. Unilateral wear is often seen conjoined with irregular tread and deformity of the wall, especially when this irregular wear has been allowed to continue for several shoeings. As a rule, the side of the shoe thus excessively worn is too narrow and the opposite too wide, or that part of the wall lying above is too high, the opposite too low, or the shoe is applied ' across the foot.' In all such cases the bearing surface at the point uf excessive wear is too small. The object of the examination should be to give the farrier a clear notion of the conformation of the limb, of the gait, of the form of the foot and of the hoof. His object should then be to obviate such defects and supply such wants as he observes. 3, Removal of the Old Shoes. In horses with sound hoofs all the shoes can be taken off one after the other, but in handling diseased hoofs this should be avoided. In removing shoes considerable care is required and violence should never be used. If very dirty the hoofs can be cleaned with a brush. The doorman feels for the clench with the point of his finger, places the buffer against it, and with a smart blow of the hammer cuts it without injuring the 202 THE rRACTICE OF SHOEING. wall. In order to remove the nails singly the shoe must b( loosened. One can either use pincers with a wide mouth passing below and grasping the entire shoe, in which case t\u pincers are moved like a lever in the direction of the limb o; the shoe, or the buffer may be driven from behind betweer the shoe and the hoof. The former plan is preferable. Once the shoe is loosened the nails can be drawn separately. When the shoe has recently been put on, or when the horse is trouble- some, another method is sometimes employed. Taking the foot on his knee, the doorman cuts the clenches, and, with thi pointed end of the buffer, drives down each nail separately, removing it afterwards in the usual way. This plan is also advisable if the feet are very brittle or broken. 4. Peepakation of the Hoof fou Shoeing. The continuous growth of the horn and absence of wear render paring of the hoof from time to time necessary. A further reason is the provision of a solid bearing surface for the shoe. Trimming must be so carried out that, firstly, the wall when viewed from in front and from the sides corresponds in direction with the common axis of the bones, and secondly, so that at ordinary paces all parts of the bearing surface of the wall meet the ground at the same moment, in other words, that the hoof is set down fiat. Varying with the direction and form of the hoof, quahty of horn and character of the work, the foot requires lowering every three or four weeks. If the animal goes for six, eight, or ten weeks, not only does the relation of the hoof to the fetlock become changed, but the gait loses in freedom and certainty, the toe grows too long, an increased strain is thrown on the flexor tendons which favours stumbling, the shoes become re- latively too short and too narrow, and are overgrown by the hoof, while corns may be caused by pressure on the angles of the heels. The hoof increases in width, favouring separation between the wall and sole, and the animal may strike itself. Horses whose hoofs have become too long almost always fall lame when much worked, especially on hard roads. In broad, liat feet, and to a certain extent in oblique feet, these bad results occur more rapidly than in those which are narrow and THE doorman's TOOLS. 203 upright, for which reason Hat feet require more frequent atten- tion than upright, whether the shoes are worn out or not. Many owners only send their horses to the farrier when shoes become loose, but, as a rule, new shoes are required every three to five weeks. As we have now to consider the work which more especially falls within the domain of the doorman we may perhaps be permitted to digress for a moment to give a short description of the doorman's tools. A slight deviation has been made from the original plan of the book ; hence the tools used by the doorman in shoe-making as well as in preparing the foot and nailing on the shoe are given here. The shoeing hammer is used in conjunction with the buffer to cut the clenches, before removing the old shoe, to drive and turn down the nails, and, in many cases, to twist off the points. The buffer is usually made from a piece of worn-out rasp. Some care is required in tempering it so that it may neither be so brittle as to break when struck, nor so soft as to soon lose its edge. The pincers are also made from worn-out rasps. They are used in removing the shoe, drawing down the clenches, and cutting off the points of tlie nails. Drawing-knives may be made from old files. Two or three sizes are needed, the smaller being used for completing the cut- ting out of feet, etc. A nail cap is best formed of a heavy block of wood sur- rounded by a rim of leather. The base being heavy there is less chance of the cap being upset. The most widely used rasps are ' Turner's,' 15 inches in length, half file cut and reversible. These are cut by hand, but some very useful machine-cut rasps of American make are now in the market. Toeing-knives are often made from old rasps, though in London pieces of disused sword blade are more commonly used, as they need no preparation. The toeing-knife is very useful when judiciously employed, but in many shops its use is altogether prohibited ; it being found that the ease with which large masses of horn can be removed often tempts hasty or careless workmen to use it instead of the drawing-knife, and so to inflict serious injury on the foot. Of the tools used by doormen in shoe-making the sledge hammer is of the pattern shown, with one flat and one convex 204 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. face. It weighs about 9 lbs. The fire-tongs are for holding the old shoes which are being worked up as ' heats,' in the fire. When the heat is ready for welding it is grasped with the fireman's tongs and transferred to the anvil. Fire-tongs are often used for beating down the wet coals while forming a ' back.' The ' clamp ' is intended to hold a concave or fullered hunt- ing shoe when being filed out. The shoe is grasped by the jaws of the clamp and the latter inserted in the vice. The jaws are curved so that the shoe is brought into a more convenient position for the work- man than if it were inserted directly in the vice. In preparing the hoof a good rasp and a farrier's drawing-knife are quite sufficient. Here and there in France the Arabian form of knife shown in fig. 192 is still employed. After glancing at the limbs, etc., and judging of the relative strength of the hoof to the weight of the animal's body, the hoof is trimmed and any stubs care- fully removed. The information already gleaned must be kept in mind when judging whence and how much horn is to be taken away from the sole and wall. It is not altogether superfluous to ask whether horn must be taken away, be- cause cases occur where the hoof is so weak that, if it were possible, we should be justified in adding rather than removing. A faulty shoe can immediately be replaced by a better, but once horn is removed it can only be replaced by a very slow process of growth. In any case loose portions of horn should be removed, after which the white line is examined, and its condition and relation to the circumference of the wall, which indicate the thickness of the wall itself, noted. It is clear, of course, that only the wall should be lowered KIG. 192. PKEPARATION OF HOOF FOU SHOEING. 205 the sole should be freed of loose portions of horu but nothing more. This done, the bearing surface of the wall is lowered until a narrow strip, the width of a straw, on the outer border of the sole, and in contact all round with the white line, forms part of the new bearing surface. This Fig. 193.— Section tlirouf^li normal hoof, showing strength of connection l)e- tween wall and sole. Fig. 194. — Section through hoof with thin sole, sliowing con- nection hetween wall and sole. avoids weakening the connection between the wall and sole (figs. 193. 194, 195, and 196). When the sole shows no large cracks, and its outer circum- ference forms a continuous surface with that of the wall, noth- ing should, as a rule, be removed. At most the wall is to be levelled with the rasp, and the bars, if curling inwards, slightly reduced. All portions of the wall lower than the margin of Fig. 195.— Section through noinnl foot a, os pedis b sensitive sole, c, horn sole; d, bear- ing margin of wall, e, boundaiy between glowing hoin and that leady to be cast, indi- cating how far the sole should be pared. the sole can be removed ; if no part projects below this point nothing should be removed. The bearing surface then con- sists of the thickness of the wall, including the white line, and a narrow strip of the outer margin of the sole. This should be completely levelled with the rasp and only rounded off slightly at the toe. In case of doubt as to how much to remove, the horn of the •206 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. sole can be tried with the knife at a spot close to the apex of the frog. Dull colour and small cracks of the horn, together with deep lateral grooves at the sides of the frog, indicate a thick sole. Loosening and shedding of the horn of the sole are dne to two causes, the first being growth of the sole. As the sole becomes thicker it is exposed to strain, because it is unable to follow the growing, and hence expanding, circumference of the wall. Secondly, shedding of horn is favoured by alternating mois- ture and dryness, by the elas- ticity of the sole, and by its movement during the animal's a, prepared for tiie paccs. Thcso f actors actiug to- gether favour shelling of the sole, and in fiat hoofs operate so effectively that a strong sole is rare. In upright feet, however, the sole is usually strong and its margins, at least, perfectly capable of supporting weight. The bars should be spared and their connection with the wall under no circumstances weakened, much less cut through. Fig. 196.— Front foot, shoe ; 6, before preparation Fig. 197.— o, right fore-foot of normal limb; b, of turueil-in limb, liotii showing- incorrect paring. The correct form is indicated by dotted lines. It is Ijcst to leave them level with the wall or a very little lower, though the extreme posterior parts of the sole should be lowered at least ^ inch. The point where the wall is incurved to form the bars requires particular attention. In sound un- shod hoofs the bars run in an almost straight direction, from PREPARATION OF HOOF FOR SHOEING. 207 a spot somewhat behind the point of the frog, backwards and outwards. In shod hoofs, however, they tend to deviate from this course, to converge again at the bulbs, and thus to encroach on the space normally occupied by the frog. Kemoval of the angle of the bars {i.e., the point at which they join the wall) should never be allowed. The frog is left sufficiently strong to project below the bearing surface of the heel, a distance equal to the thickness of an ordinary shoe. If weakened, it atrophies, and the hoof contracts. It should, therefore, only be pared when diseased ; in other cases loose parts alone are to be removed. It need scarcely be pointed out that, if strong, the frog will soon wear to proper proportions. The sharp edge of the bearing margin of the wall should be rounded as shown in fig. 198, but in normal hoofs the general surface must only be rasped if curved or deformed, as sometimes happens on the inner aspect, Eounding the edge prevents splitting and facilitates fitting the shoe. The foregoing remarks on trim- ming the wall apply, of course, only to the hoofs of normal limbs ; other cases require special attention. When the toes are turned out, the outer wall, if viewed from the front, is longer than the inner and to an extent corresponding with the extent of the defect. When the toes, on the contrary, are turned in, the inner wall is longer than the outer. Before pro- ceeding to trim the hoof, therefore, the position of the feet and the direction of the foot axis should be noted. Goyau gives the following directions (which have been summarised) for the preparation of the hoof. Imitate the effects of natural wear. Natural wear produces a flat foot of a form best suited to the conformation of the limb it terminates. It shortens and rounds the toe, lowering it to a greater extent than the heels ; removes horn only from the anterior part of the sole, leaving the connection between walls and sole of full strength ; rounds off the outer edge of the wall more than the Fig. 198.— Vertical section through wall at toe. a-c, absolute; a-b, apparent thickness. The curve, c-b, indicates the necessary round- ing of the toe. 208 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. inner, and spares the sole, frog, and bars, which shed their supertiuous growth naturally. Natural wear gives to the foot the form best suited to the animal's action, and produces a perfectly Hat bearing surface from the quarters to the heels. Finally, Goyau declares that the equilibrium (aplomb) of the limb should result as far as possible fro)n the preparatiun of the foot and not from varying the thickness of different regions of the shoe. Special care should be taken in paring the hoof to bring the wall into line with the axis of the foot (fig. 197). In dealing with the foot as seen from the side, the question resolves itself into one of the relative heights of the toe and heels. The axis of the foot must be the guide. In normal feet it is parallel with the wall of the toe (figs. 165-167). If the hoof becomes too long, the intersection of the hoof and foot KiG. 199. — Hoof too oblique, horn to be removed shown by dotted line. Fig. 200. — The same hoof pro- perly prepared. axes forms an obtuse angle (fig. 199). This renders it more difficult for the load to be moved, and leads to disease of the coronet joint through strain on the ligaments connecting the suffraginis and coronet bones. Shortening the toe compensates for this, and restores the foot to its proper position (fig. 200). There is less injury to the joints when the heels are too high (fig. 201, h), because the back of the shoe is then worn away. By sliortening the toe or heel the fetlock and foot axes are thus readily brought into line, as shown by fig. 201. It has been found that excessive lowering of the heels tends to strain of the perforans tendon, while excessive height relieves SECTION OF IIORSE'J Wall Horny Lamin/e Groove White Line Inner Surface of Sole Frog Periopue Bulb aooR FACTORS J)ETE11MINING POSITION OF GEEATES'J' WEAK. 209 the perforans at the expense of the perfoiatus. Excessive length of the toe is therefore more injurious than the opposite condition because of the importance of the perforans. The bearing of the hoof is normal when all parts of the bear- ing surface of the wall or of the shoe meet the ground at the same time, and when the toe wall and heel, viewed from the side, correspond in direction with the common axis of the bones of the foot. It must always be a matter for the judgment of the farrier, when paring the foot, to what extent he shall adopt the in- dications given by the wearing of the heels or of the toe, but Fig. 201.— Two feet seeu from the side ; in a tlie toe is too long, in b the lieels. The dotted lines indicate the correct relations between hoof and pastern. this much seems quite certain, that wearing of the heels necessitates shortening of the toes, and marked wearing of any part of the shoe generally shows that the portion of the wall above that spot needs lowering, or that the shoe is too narrow at that point ; but in all doubtful cases a final judgment should be deferred until the horse has been seen in motion. We say generally, because it must be remembered that wear depends not only on conformation but on -pace and the nature of the work performed. Thus the spavined horse wears most at the toe. The stepping horse and the fast trotter wear at the heels. The saddle horse wears all parts evenly. The draught horse wears the toe excessively. To lower the toe of the spavined horse and of the horse with low heels is good practice, but to do the same with the heavy draught horse, or to lower the heels of the stepping horse, would be a grave error. Finally, it should be remembered that in changing from fiat shoes to shoes with heels, or vice versa, the hoof must be properly prepared so as to preserve the relations between the axes of 0 210 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. the foot and of the hoof. As each hoof is prepared for the new shoe the latter should be applied and the animal allowed to stand on it, the foot being then examined and compared with its fellow. Only when the position, etc., of the limb appear normal should the shoe be nailed on. The two fore and two hind hoofs should, when in like positions, not only be of similar size, but should be in proportion to the size and weight of the body. 5, WOHKING WITHOUT SHOES. Working without shoes is only possible when the hoof is strong and the ground soft. Only loose fmgmejits of horn sliould be removed from the frog, thus allowing the weight of the body to be equally distributed over the entire bearing surface of the hoof. The sharp edge of the wall is then well-rounded off with a rasp to prevent pieces breaking out — flat, oblique hoofs being more rounded ofi" than those which are upright. With this preparation the hoofs are much im- proved by the animal being worked barefoot. From time to time they should be examined and any irregularities of form corrected. It may be necessary to again round oil" the wall, especially when the feet are very flat, while the heels may require lowering, as they do not always wear as rapidly as the toe. 6. General Principles to be Observed in the Choice of the Shoe. Considerable care is necessary in selecting shoes from stock. In the first place the shoe must be suited to the size and weight of the horse, to the kind of work, to the surface on which the animal is working, and to the form of the hoof. Yoimg horses, as a rule, wear their shoes less, and are more liable to cut or brush if shod heavily than stiff, old animals, and should, therefore, be shod correspondingly lighter, as should horses in easy draught and those whose work lies on soft ground. Even for paved roads heavy slioes are to be avoided, especially when the pace is faster than a walk. Sufficient strength should, however, be given to ensure the shoe wearing from three to four weeks, and it may be necessary GUIDING PKINCIPLES IN CHOICE OF SHOE. 211 to secure greater durability by inserting a piece of steel at the point of greatest wear. /. In order to allow of frog pressure the shoe must be formed as thin as is consistent with durability and with the preserva- tion of its form. Excessive weight injures the action and exhausts the animal. This, of course, does not apply to the training of horses, where heavy shoes are often used to teach the animal to lift his feet and thus increase his 'action.' When we remember that during fast work the foot is lifted about sixty times per minute, the amount of energy wasted in ten to twelve hours will be seen to be very great. Flat or ' dropped ' soles require more * cover ' than strong feet with well-arched soles, but a certain amount must always be given. In Paris the cover is usually reduced to a minimum — and with the worst possible results to the feet. As wear is rapid in large towns some compromise must be made between thickness and cover, because were both given the shoe Fig. 202. Fig. 203. Fig. 204. would be too heavy. Very broad shoes increase the risk of slipping. Special attention must be given to the length of the shoe. All shoes become too short after a time, and should, therefore be selected of sufficient length to completely cover the bearing surface of the wall and in most cases to project a little,* The exact excess of length depends both on the form of the hoof when viewed laterally and the style of shoe, but as a general rule oblique hoofs require longer shoes than upright. When the foot is upright and the shoe flat, ^ inch is quite * An exception may perhaps be made in favour of hunting shoes, but even here the heel is often prolonged, being narrowed and turned upwards, so that the point is embedded in the wall of the heel. 212 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. sufficient, but can be increased to ^ or ;| inch, in some cases, indeed, to 1^ inches, according to the size and weight of the horse. Long shoes throw greater weight on the anterior half of the hoof ; short ones have an opposite effect. In heavy draught horses the heels may be so long as to meet a vertical line dropped from the bulbs of the heel, but for light horses, working at a trot or gallop, this would be quite inadmissible, on account of the danger of shoes being trodden on and torn off. This question is worthy of careful consideration. When the foot is on the ground the length of the heels can have no special influence on the direction of the pastern, etc. The foot rests on the shoe as it would on the ground. But at the moment preceding that of bringing the foot to the ground the length of the heels is of great importance. The foot just FIG. 205. before it touches the earth is not parallel to the general surface, but forms a slight angle with it. That is to say, that at the moment of putting down the foot the animal raises the toe and lowers the heels. Then he slightly draws back the foot, and brings it parallel and in contact with the ground. This movement can be noted by viewing the horse either from in front or from the side. In a horse trotting towards the observer the toe is often lifted, just before being set down, sufficiently high to allow of the ground surface of the shoe being seen. This only applies to fore-feet. The foot being lifted at A (fig. 205) passes into the position ACTION OF LONG HEELS AND CALKINS. 213 shown at B by describing a modification of the arc D E. From the position B it passes backwards to assume the position C, describing the curve E' G'. It is, therefore, clear that if the heels of the shoe are longer than the hoof the prolongation will describe a curve which will cut the ground surface. In other words, at the moment the hoof is brought to the ground the heels of the shoe will make contact much earher than the toe, and the foot will come to rest at E' instead of at G. It will at once be seen how injurious this is, especially to the heels. Calkins are just as harmful as long heels for front feet. To those who doubt this, we may commend the practical test of applying a pair of front shoes with heels, say, 1 or 1-^ inches longer than the feet, or with calkins 1^ or 2 inches high. On making the horse trot, a peculiar shoulder action will be observable and the horse will go as though affected with laminitis. The foot seems to be brought to the ground as shown in B, fig. 205. In hind-feet lengthening the heels is not accompanied by these disadvantages, but, within limits, tends to increased speed. In America a practice prevails of lengthening the heels of trotting horses' hind shoes with this object, although the rationale of the process is not recognised. The following is a possible explanation. Before actually coming to the ground the horse's foot assmnes the position C (fig. 206), with the sole directed more or less forwards. During the next instant it describes the arc of the circle C D and is firmly planted on the earth. If, however, the heels of the shoe are prolonged, although the hoof still tends to describe the curve C D (fig. 207), the heel C, describing a parallel but larger curve, will touch the earth at A'. The increase of the stride will then equal the distance 214 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. A to A'. Although this may be very little on each occasion it becomes an important quantity when multiplied several hundred times, and quite suffices to convert a losing into a winning race. The exertion and risk of strain are naturally greater, but are of little importance when contrasted with the gain. Heavy horses with tumed-in toes go best in rather heavy shoes with broad outside quarter, fitted rather ' full ' and with Fig. 207. nail holes punched somewhat coarser than usual. This gives a broader bearing surface outside. It is scarcely needful to say that, in choosing a shoe, the position and direction of the nail holes must be taken into account, as well as its form, a point of great importance in shoeing defective feet. Viewed from the ground surface a well-made front shoe is seen to be rounded in form, almost as broad as long, the two branches of approximately equal length, the inner, however, being somewhat less round. The cover is almost the same throughout, the toe and quarters, which sustain the severest wear, being rather broader than the branches ; the nail holes are suitable in size and number to the class of shoe and placed so as not to be injured by drawing the clip ; the two toe-nails are in a line with each other, at equal distances from the centre of the toe, and punched somewhat obliquely; the last nail holes should be opposite the centre of the shoe (antero-posterior measurement) ; the outer nail holes are punched a little ' coarse,' the inner at about the same distance from the margin of the shoe as those of the toe. All the nail holes should be equally spaced, quadrangular, and clean-punched, the counter- sinks being sufficiently deep to allow nearly the whole of the nail head to enter. FOKM AND PROPORTIONS OF SHOE, 215 Viewed from the side the hoof surface is flat, except under very special circumstances, as when the toe is 'rolled,' and the shoe of the same thickness throughout. The fore shoe should only carry calkins when a toe-piece of equal height is used. Viewed from above, the nail holes of the inner quarter and inner toe should be seen to open nearer the margin of the shoe than those of the outer quarter. A well-made hind shoe should be of oval sliape, the branches of the same length, the inner, however, being straighter than the outer, the toe should exhibit more ' cover ' than the branches, the heels should be finished square, the toe should show no nail holes, the nail holes of the inner side should be punched finer than those of the outer, and the last nail hole of one side should be approximately opposite that of the other. The other charac- teristics are similar to those of the fore shoe, save that the toe {in draught horses) is thicker than the heels. Calkins, even when of equal height, entail certain disadvan- tages. Thus they lift the frog clear of the ground and place it out of action ; entering the ground unequally they tend to strain the joints ; in turning or in the stable they are apt to be set down on the coronet of the opposite foot and cause danger- ous wounds. Their power of checking slips rapidly decreases with wear. They are quite out of place when used to raise naturally low heels, and in no way prevent strain of the tendons (as is often supposed), because the tendons themselves are then of a length corresponding to the flatness of the foot. Further- more, they cause the foot to rest continually on an inclined surface. Though employed for all classes, they are most useful on the hind shoes of heavy cart horses, where they favour the action of the tendons during draught and ensure a firm foot- hold on slippery ground. In shoeing horses with turned-in toes the increased wear of the outer limb of the shoe is compensated by making the ' web ' somewhat broader. Upright feet require a shoe with web of the same width at quarters and toe, or somewhat broader at the toe. As the weight of the shoe has considerable influence in determining the style of going, animals with little action are sometimes shod with a heavy shoe, and in those having a 21G TH?: PKACTICE 01- SHOEING. tendency to brush or strike it may be desirable to weight the toe or quarter as afterwards referred to. The exact amount to api>ly requires careful judgment. In choosing a new shoe the old one is usually the best guide. Some farriers use simply a straw on which they niarlc the length and Lireadth. During the early part of the present century a large number of instruments were invented for this purpose, with the object not only of showing the length J''Ki. iOS.— Ewcrloft's Podometer. and breadth, but the exact circumference of the hoof, and one form is still regularly used in the French army. Most were unpractical; tlie only one of any value was that suggested by the Swedish ol'licer, Ewerluff, in 1(S76 (see fig. 208). It con- sists of strong tin and is cut into teeth as shown. In using it the instrument is laid on the hoof, the shape of which is marked on it with chalk. ' I'odometers,' however, are now never used in Kno-land. GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN SHOEING [TACKS. 217 7. Choice of the Shoe rou Specific Uses. We shall now consider the shoes more commonly employed in each of the classes mentioned on p. 147. The general principles to be ob8er\ed in shoeing each class (such as hacks, hunters, race-horses, etc.) will first be given and will be followed by descriptions of specific shoes for the uses indicated. 1. HACKS. As saddle horses are seldom used for more than a few iiours per day, they require light, closely fitted shoes, which afford sufficient protection to the feet without endangering ' cutting ' or ' overreaching,' and witliout in any way impeding freedom of action. At the same time, it is very bad policy to unduly Fig. 209.— Fullered front shoe for hack. As in several of the following figures, the foot has been cut out so that bars appear unduly prolonged. reduce the ' cover ' of the shoe, as is often done in order to produce a neat appearance, because a certain quantity of iron is necessary to give durability, and as the ' cover ' is reduced the thickness of tlie shoe must be proportionately increased. Carried to an extreme, this narrowing of the shoe is a grave evil. • In preparing the foot, the heels should be left as strong as possible, because, under the rider, the pn stern descends and the major part of the weight is thrown on the back of the foot. 218 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. leading, in weak heels, to the production of bruises, corns, etc. Wliere the heels are low and spreading, the heels of the shoe may be fitted ratlier fuller than usual and somewhat prolonged. The hind shoe should be of equal height inside and out, the inner branch fashioned almost straight from the inner edge of the toe to the posterior third of the foot and made rather narrower than the outer, or a feather-edged shoe may be applied. This has the advantage of preventing injury to the coronet of the opposite leg either in work or in the stable. The clip should be at the centre of the toe, which should be well rounded in front. The heels may project -I; to |- inch. In general, the shoes of the hack resemljle those of the hunter, next described, though, as the pace of the hack is slower and the efforts he makes less violent than those of the hunter, the excessive precautions taken in the case of the latter are un- necessary. SPECIAL SHOES FOR HACKS. FULLERED FORE SHOE (Fig. 210). Made from \ inch x ^ iron. This shoe is suitable for animals with small, upright, ' boxy ' feet, or for small hunters, cobs, and ponies. It should not be used where the feet are fiat or weak. The shoe is made ' wrong way on,' and thus wider at ground than at foot surface, and therefore gives show cobs, etc., the appearance of having large well-developed feet, even when this is not the case. The inside edge is filed out, and as the ' cover ' is narrow, the shoe gives the foot an appearance of extra width. Filing out the inner edge also lessens the chance of the horse * forging,' the noise of which is often very distinctly heard when the animal is trotted on grass. The shoe shown, being intended for a defective foot, has eight nail holes, but might be made with six ; and if required, the last quarter nail on the outside might be placed further back. To give extra durability, the shoe may be made of steel. HACKS. Fig. 210. — Fullered fore shoe for liack. Made from h inch x 1^% iron. [To face p. 2 IS. HACKS. Fig. 211. — Fullered seated fore shoe with thick heels. Made of ^ x | inch iron. To fact p. 219. J SPECIAL FOKE SHOES FOR HACKS. 219 FULLERED SEATED EOEE SHOE WITH THICK HEELS (Fig. 211). Made o/|- X f inch iron. This shoe is used chieliy for horses suhering from strain of tendons, ligaments, etc., the tension on which it relieves, allowing the animals to work with less pain. In larger sizes it is also very useful for cart horses with strain of the sub-carpal ligament. Occasionally such a shoe is applied to the lower of two carriage horses which work together, so as to bring it more on a level with its fellow ; but this is scarcely a legitimate use of the shoe, though sometimes resorted to by dealers. The disadvantages of the shoe are that it lifts the heels from the ground and thus prevents frog pressure, a condition soon followed by atrophy of the frog, thrush, etc. ; that it is iipt to press unduly on the heels, and, especially in weak feet, to cause corns, and that, by throwing increased weight on the toe, it favours the production of sand-crack, or aggravates it if existent. As a rule, thick heels are contra-indicated in front shoes, particularly in shoeing horses with flat or dropped soles. The farrier is often asked to thicken the heels of shoes for horses which wear at that point, but the request should not be com- plied with. In making this shoe, tlie toe is first thinned and the heels afterwards thickened (' upset ') by a few blows delivered in the direction of the web of the shoe, whilst the latter is held in the vice. It is difficult to ' upset ' the heels on the anvil itself. 220 THE PlIACTICE OF SHOEING. 2. HUNTERS. The ground surface of hunting shoes must be formed with due regard to the prevention of slipping and the minimising of suction in deep ground. This is obtained by dishing out the ground surface, th(> dished portion terminating just in front of the heel at a sharp angle. The greatest care should be taken to prevent overreaching, and all hunting shoes should be of particularly good construction, neitlier loo broad nor too heavy. The concave shoe herewith illustrated is a very favourite hunting shoe. It possesses the advantage of being light, giving a good foothold, and, owing to the slope of the heels, which may if necessary be slightly embedded in the horn of the wall, it presents no projections on which the horse might tread or I'lc. '2^■2. KiiUl-ivi I front shoo for hunter. which might be cauglit in heavy ground or when 'landing' over a fence. The concavi; sliape causers the shoe to enter the surface of the ground at each stiide and is said to facilitate its withdrawal. For animals with slrong walled feet and thick, well-arched soles this shoe is ])rol(ably thf^ most suitable. When, in addi- tion, the sole is tliin and flat more cover is indispensable, and the shoe shown in lig. 212 is to be preferred. A certain breadth is indis})ensal)le to prevent the shoe 'spreading' when half worn through and so cutting the opposite fetlock or GUIDING PKINCIPLES IN SHOEING HUNTERS. 221 coronet. Abroad, many hunters are shod with leathers, the sole being protected with a thick ' stopping ' of tar and tow, and in France the use of a soft copper plate, applied precisely like a leather pad, has even been recommended. Fig. 213.— Lateral view of concave front slioc fi)i- hack or liunter. The hind shoe usually has a low calkin outside and is ' knocked-up ' inside. The inside l)ranch must be fitted very closely and its outer wall {i.e., the wall nearest the opposite shoe) should slope slightly downwards and inwards. Care must be taken to remove any rough edges from either the shoe or margin of the hoof, especially if the animal 'goes close.' KiG. 214.— Hind shoe for hunter. The toe is rounded and set back to prevent overreach. Tlie sole has been pared so as to cause the bar to appear as if extending to the point of frog. The toe should be square and fitted close ; the clips placed on either side of the toe. The heels should be as nearly as pos- sible of the same height, though, as the hunter usually travels on soft ground, a slight inequality in this respect is less in- jurious than in animals working on hard roads. 222 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. As hunters are very liable to overreach when landing over a fence their hind shoes recjuire special care in fitting. The toe must be fitted straight, be well rounded both inside and out and set back slightly behind the margin of tlie toe wall. The- portion of the shoe which inflicts the wound is usually the back, not the front margin of the toe of the shoe. The reason of horses overreaching is often to be found in the toe of the front foot being left too long and the heels being lowered. This renders it more dillicult for the muscles of the fore-limb to lift the body-weight ; hence the animal does not ' get away ' quickly in front and the hind foot overtakes the fore, inflicting a wound. The remedy here is to shorten and round the toe of the fore-foot and to spare the heels. TEMPOEARY SHOES. During manoeuvres or a run with hounds a horse not un- frequently casts a shoe, and, to prevent injury and breakage of the hoof, some special contrivance becomes necessary. To meet such emergencies shoes have been invented which can be easily appHed and which dispense with the use of nails. Fio. 215. — Temporary shoe with leather boot and straps, a, hinge. Several have been patented, but the most practical is that figured. It consists of a light shoe hinged in the centre and provided with a kind of leather boot, which fits over the hoof and is fastened by straps. The illustration (fig. 215) shows its form and construction very clearly. HUNTERS. Fig. 216. - J'ullpied seated fore slioe. Made of | x ^ inch iron. Fig. 217. — Coucavi' |iartiiil!y-fullered, ' dub-tood ' fore slioe. Made from ^ X ^ inch iron. To fact jt. '^-2^.] HUNTING SHOES. 223 SPECIAL SHOES FOR HUNTERS. FULLERED SEATED FORE SHOE (Fig. 216). Made of ^ X ^ inch iron. This shoe is useful for hunters with fleshy soles, or for animals with wide feet and slightly-dropped soles. It should not be seated out much on the foot surface. Many animals forge in going, but on account of their feet being weak, and on account of the difficulty of ' boxing-up ' a concave shoe to any great extent at the quarters and heels, they must be shod with a fullered shoe, as this can be fitted comparatively ' full ' at the heels. To prevent the square toe of the hind striking the inside margin of the fore shoe, and thus producing noise or tearing off the shoe, this fullered shoe is filed out around the inside of the toe and quarters. The more marked the sound, the more should the quarters be filed out. The shoe is most useful for hunters which are exercised on roads, though on account of its giving an appearance of strength to a really weak foot, without at the same time proving heavy, it is often used for show purposes. For ordinary work, as on carriage horses which require cover, and which forge slightly, this shoe- might with advantage carry seven instead of five nail holes. CONCAVE PAETIALLY-FULLERED 'DUB-TOED' FOEE SHOE (Fig. 217). Made from ;f X -g^ inch iro7i. This shoe is indicated for ' stale ' hunters, broken-kneed horses, animals which catch the toe and trip, and in some cases for horses with contracted flexor tendons. Before fittins: the shoe, the toe of the foot must be well-rounded with the rasp. In making the shoe, about two and a half inches of the toe are left solid {i.e., is not fullered). This portion is somewhat 224 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. thinned down, and is rolled round on the beak of the anvil, the outside toe being most curved, as this is the part which gener- ally comes tirst in contact with the ground. It is very important that the fullering cease well behind the toe, both to give greater strength at this part, and also to prevent any interruption of the regular curved form of the toe. Were the fullering continued round the shoe, the back wall of the groove would present a sharp angle, liable to catch in the ground and cause the horse to stumble to an even greater extent than occurs with an ordinary shoe. If considered necessary, a toe-clip can be drawn, though the rolling of the toe usually gives a sufficient hold on the foot. CONCAVE FULLERED, FEATHER-EDGED FORE SHOE (Fig. 218). Made of ^X ^ inch iron in concave tool. This is a useful shoe for horses that cut, brush, or strike. By chamfering the inside toe and quarter a much greater foot- bearing surface can be preserved than was possible in the old- fashioned feather-edged shoe. The inside limb and heel of the shoe do not then sink into the corresponding portions of the foot, and the risk of producing corns, or, in the case of a weak foot, splitting away a greater or less amount of the wall is avoided. The two inside toe-nails being stamped, the inner toe and quarter can be fitted finer to the foot and the risk of striking lessened. Should the horse brush badly, a single nail hole can be stamped at the inside toe, close to the clip. For a horse which crosses his legs in going, or is ' tied -in at the elbows,' this shoe answers exceedingly well, and may replace the ordi- nary feather-edged shoe. STAMPED FORE SHOE (Fig. 219). Made from Charlicr steel y^ inch square. This shoe is useful for hunters or hacks with strong, ' boxy ' feet. Horses which forge or cut when provided with shoes of HUNTERS. Fig. 218. — Concave fullered, featlier-edged fore shoe. Made of | x ^ inch iron in concave tool. Fig. 219. Stamped fore shoe. Made from Cliarlier steel rV inch square. [To face p. 224. FORE SHOES FOR HUNTERS. 225 ordinary cover often cease to do so when shod with this shoe. It is useful both for fore and hind feet, and should always be kept perfectly flat, as shown. The heels are sloped off obliquely to prevent their coming in contact with the elbows when the horse lies down, and producing ' capped elbow.' Where the horse brushes, the outer margin of the inner limb of shoe should be chamfered down before stamping the inside toe-nails. This prevents the parts burring over and forming a saw-like, cutting edge which might otherwise inflict severe injury on the opposite limb. Chamfering down, however, causes the heads of the nails to overhang the edge of the shoe when the latter is nailed or^ , these overhanging portions must therefore be afterwards filed or rasped level with the edge. Another point worthy of note is that, owing to the difference in hardness, iron nails have a tendency to sink when inserted in steel shoes, and so to allow the clenches to rise. The constant hammering of the feet on the ground drives the nail further and further home, the head and neck gradually yielding. This shoe is too light, and wears too short a time for work on roads ; its use is therefore chiefly confined to animals exercised on arass. 226 THE rRACTICE OF SHOEING. CONCAVE PARTIALLY-FULLERED HIND SHOE (Fig. 220). Made ill coiicacc tool from ^^ x ^ inch iron or {preferably) from old shoes. This shoe is intended tor a hunter that cuts his fetlock joints and, at the same time, overreaches. It is level on the ground- surface, is fullered on the outside, and two nails are stamped at the inside heel. Clips are drawn at the outside toe and inside heel. The inside edge is chamfered down, and hot rasped off. The shoe must be fitted straight across the toe, which must be well set back, and the inside toe fitted very fine. The clenches of the heel nails inside must be well drawn down on the pincers, and the heads of the nails rasped off level with the shoe. CONCAVE PARTIALLY-FULLERED HIND SHOE (Fig. 221). 3Iade of ^ x t^ inch iron in concave tool. This shoe has the inside chamfered down, and two nail holes stamped at the inside toe. It is useful for horses that cut or brush their hind fetlock joints. Having a calkin on the outside heel, it gives the horse a good grip of the ground. As the callcin enters the ground, the balance of the foot is not disturbed to any appreciable extent, and in this case its advantages far outweigh its drawbacks. The illustration does not show them, but clips can be drawn Jit the toe and outside quarter, or on either side of the toe, as is usual among hunters ; the former method is preferable, as it prevents the shoe driving back. It is also of great advantage when tlie horse cuts ' between hair and hoof,' as it allows the inside toe and quarter (i.e., the parts with which injury is most often inflicted) to be fitted very close. In such case a single inside nail hole near the toe-clip is preferable to the two H IJNTERS. Fig. 220. — Concave paitially-fullered hind shoe. iMade in concave, tool from T X h iiioli iron or (preferably) from old shoes. Fig. 221. — Concave ])artially-fullered hind shoe. Made of ^ ■ J inch iron in concave tool. [To face p. 22. I SHOEING OMNIBUS HORSES THAT WEAK AT TOE. 245 SPECIAL SHOES FOE OMNIBUS WORK. STAMPED HIND SHOE (foe Omnibus Work), WITH TWO CALKINS (Fig. 243), Made from old shoef;. The toe being the seat of greatest wear in by far the majority of cases, this omnibus hind shoe should have a thick- ness at that point of ^ inch. To give the necessary durabil- ity in cases where wear is exceptionally severe (in ' toe-biters,' as the working farrier terms them), a piece of steel may be welded into the toe. When the horse drags the toe, a short, thick toe-clip is drawn, in which the steel is worked round. This protects the point of greatest wear. Clips can be drawn at the toe, the toe and outside quarter, or at the outside and inside quarters : the latter arrangement is of service when it is difficult to keep shoes on. The shoe shown is for feet varying from 5^ to (i^ inches in width. Since the wide adoption of foot brakes on omnibuses, many horses in this service are shod with flat shoes behind. Many persons still prefer calkins, however, as giving horses a better foothold when descending hills and turning corners. STAMPED HIND SHOE (for Omnibus Work), WITH CALKIN AND WEDGE HEEL (Fig. 244). Made from old shoes. This shoe only differs from the preceding in having a wedge heel inside in place of a calkin. The wedge heel is greatly to 246 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. be preferred when a horse is in the habit of resting the heel of the hind shoe on the coronet of the opposite foot while in the stable, or when an animal, in consequence of skin irritation, scratches its hind-legs with the heels of the shoes. J In such cases the wedge heel can be cut off obliquely, leaving a sloping surface, much less likely to inflict dangerous wounds than is the square-sided calkin. The size and thickness of the shoe are similar to those of that preceding. STAMPED FOKE SHOE FOR OMNIBUS WOEK (Fig. 245). Made from 1 X -f inch iron. This is the shoe commonly used in London for omnibus work, though machine-made fullered shoes are also largely employed. It should be fitted quite full at the quarters, and well ' boxed up ' to the foot, i.e., the upper outer edge should be rasped round so as to present a slanting surface about -^ inch in breadth extending round the outer and upper margin of the shoe. This minimises risk of the shoe being torn off. The heels should be fitted fairly long, care being taken, however, that they are not so prokmged as to endanger the shoe being trodden off. The foot surface of this shoe is seated. OMNIBUS H () R S E S. Fio. 245,— Stainjted fore shoe (for omnibus work). Made from 1 X I inch iron. I To fata p. 246. PROPORTIONS OF CAUT HORSE SIIOE^. 247 7. CART HORSES. Owing to the position assumed in hauling heavy weights, the cart horse wears most heavily at the toe and outer quarter. These points must, therefore, be strengthened to the utmost without unduly increasing weight, whilst the less worn parts must be of a strength corresponding to the degree of attrition. A careful examination of the old shoe will soon show what parts require to be strengthened. The front shoe is generall}- of equal thickness throughout. The cover is greatest at the toe and diminishes towards the heels. There are seven to eight nail holes, those on the outer rather more widely spaced than those on the inner side. To increase the solidity and wear of the shoe nail holes are some- times omitted from the parts where friction is greatest. The toe-clip is, if anything, somewhat towards the outer side of the toe. The hoof surface presents a plain rim sutticiently wide to cover the wall and about | of an inch of the outer margin of the sole. The seating terminates 1 to 1^ inches from the heel, which is well rounded and which should project ^ to f of an inch beyond that of the foot when the shoe is affixed. Although in London the front shoe is usually flat it is customary in many parts of the country, especially in Newcastle, Liverpool, and Scotland, and on the continent, to raise the heels by the use of low calkins or, short of this, to considerably increase the thick- ness of the heel itself. This will be referred to in the succeed- ing pages. The hind shoe is thickest and broadest at the toe ; the inner branch is narrower than the outer, is fitted close to the foot, and the inside nail holes extend back to a less distance than the outer; there are two calkins of equal height, the inner somewhat narrower than the outer, and two clips, one at the toe and one at the outer quarter. The calkins should not much exceed in height double the thickness of the shoe at the quarter. Horses which ' tread ' the opposite coronet may be shod with an inside wedge heel. Calkins favour the muscular action of the limb and greatly assist the animal in descending hills. To help the animal in starting, Pader suggested placing 248 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. the calkins much further forward than usual. The upper surface of the shoe is perfectly flat and only the inner margin is slightly rounded off. Cart horses seldom overreach or cut in their ordinary work, so that no special precautions are needed on this account. The Scotch cart-horse shoe is usually straighter in the branches than the English shoe, the calkins are broader from side to side but not so long, and the quarters are fullered. Shuntitig Jiorses, employed for moving railway trucks, should be shod very close and short and the heels of their shoes bevelled to prevent the shoes becoming fixed in points or sleepers ; calkins are absolutely contra-indicated. Pit ponies require similar precautions. CAKT HORSES. Fig, 246. — Cart lionsf liiml slioe lor tuwn M-ork, Made from old slices. To fare p. 24 9. CAKT IIOKSE SHOES FOR TOWN WORK. 249 SPECIAL SHOES FOB. CART HORSES CAKT HORSE HIND !SHOE FOE TOWN WOKK (Fig. 246). Made from old shoes. Being made from 'old stuff this shoe is more durable than if made from new iron. It has a thickness at the toe of | inch. The clip is drawn at the toe, or at toe and outside quarter. The calkins should be square, short and strong, not higher in fact than is necessary to ensure a secure foothold. Calkins are of considerable importance to the town cart horse, because, as a rule, the strain of checking the load on inclines falls entirely on the horse, foot-brakes being fitted only to certain of the four- wheeled vehicles and to few of the two-wheeled. Further- more, they are almost indispensable to the animal in backing a load. The shoe illustrated is for feet of 6 to 7 inches in width. Though less durable, cart horse hind shoes can be made from new iron. A useful size is 1^ x f inches. Front shoes made from l^X^ inch iron should be fitted rather long, very full at heels and well 'boxed up.' They usually require an outside quarter clip to prevent their being driven across the foot. 250 TIIK PHACTICE OF SHOEING. CAET HORSE STAMPED FOEE SHOE FOR SHOW PURPOSES (Fig. 247). Made from \ \ x ^ inch iron. To give an appearance of strength to defective, weak, or shelly feet, and to improve the appearance of fairly good feet, the shoe is made ' boxed up' (as it is termed) ' the wrong way on.' In less technical language, the outer wall of the shoe is given such a bevel that when the shoe is nailed on it appears as a continuation of the wall of the foot ; or, the circumference of the shoe is greater at the ground than at the foot surface. This makes the foot, when lifted for inspection, appear wider. This shoe is unsuited for ordinary work on account of its favouring cutting, especially when somewhat worn ; the inner ground edge then ' burrs over,' forming a sharp saw-like margin, and may inflict ugly wounds on the opposite coronet or fetlock. Owing to its shape, the nail holes must be so stamped as to appear very ' coarse ' when viewed from the ground surface. Vide illustration. CART HORSE STAMPED HIND SHOE FOR SHOW PURPOSES (Fig. 248). Made from IJ X ^ inch iron. I'his shoe is made and used in precisely the same way and for the same purpose as the foregoing. The heels may be level, ;i8 shown, or wedged, according to whether it is desired to give a natural bearing or to raise the heels. o m < o Tofuccp. 251.] CART HORSE SHOES FOK WORK ON GRANITE ' SETTS.' 251 'NORTH COUNTRY' STAMPED FORE SHOE rFiG. 249). Made from l.\ x ?, incJi iron. This shoe has strong low calkins and a long toe-piece welded or ' shut-on ' across the toe ; the toe-piece extends about 1^ inch on either side of the toe. It is used throughout the North ; in fact, wherever steep inclines paved with granite ' setts ' are to be found. The toe-piece drops into the interval between two rows of stones and gives a firm foothold for starting a load, while the calkins enable the horse to hold back his load in coming down hill and assist him greatly when backing. The toe-piece and calkins being of equal height do not disturb the natural level of the foot, though they necessarily lift the frog from the ground. The shoe {^vide illustration) is well seated out to prevent pressure on a weak or ' dropped ' sole. 'NORTH COUNTRY' STAMPED HIND SHOE (Fk;. 250). Made from l\x }y inch iron. This is the hind shoe corresponding to that just described and is similarly fitted. With regard to the toe-piece, a few words may be said as to the process of welding or ' shutting-on.' The shoe must be finished and the clip drawn preparatory to welding. A light rod of iron having been selected, the end is drawn down so as to form the intended toe-piece and the part half cut through but not detached, as the bar is intended to form a handle for manipulating the toe-piece. The toe-piece and shoe are then heated together to a white (welding) heat, care being taken to keep both free from dirt and not to melt the clip from off the shoe ; (this may easily happen if the clip is allowed to come in the direct line of the blast). The toe- piece and bar should be so hot as to ' sizzle ' when withdrawn from the fire. The toe-piece is adjusted in position on the shoe, and with one or two light blows is welded. Some farriers stamp a hole in the shoe and draw out a tang on the toe-piece with which to fasten the two together before heating. The first described is, however, the most workman-like method. 252 THE PRACTICE OF SHOEING. STAMPED FOKE SHOE FOR FARM WORK (Fig. 251). Made from 1^ or 1^ X ^ inch iron. As the amount of wear at farm work is comparatively light, the above section of iron is found quite sufficient for horses with feet up to 7 inches in width. The shoe is slightly seated and has i or from -^X^ inch iron. This shoe has the inside edge chamfered down, is level on the ground surface, and has only one nail hole, stamped well forward close to the toe -clip. The clips are not shown in drawing, but are usually drawn at the toe and outside quarter, the shoe being intended for use when the horse cuts badly. In exceptional cases the slioe may be cut down to three quarters or even less inside. Assuming that tlie horse cuts to this degree, only one nail can be placed inside, and even then special care is required tO' see that the nail is well hammered home, the clench well drawn, and the head of the nail rasped off Hush with the inside of the shoe (i.e., the surface opposed to the injured fetlock). The nail hole must not he back-pritchelled, or only very slightly so, as this is a frequent cause of clenches ' rising ' wlien the shoes become worn. As a very great strain falls on the single nail, it is often advisable to draw a clip at the inside heel, in addition to those at the toe and outside quarter. In this position the clip relieves the single nail of all lateral or ' shearing ' stress, and is a natural advantage. The toe of the foot may be allowed to overhang that of the shoe. It may not be out of place to repeat that the inside margin of shoe opposite the fetlock, which is struck, must be well chamfered down, as shown. CONCAVE PARTIALLY-FULLERED FEATHER-EDGED HIND SHOE (Fig. 297). Made in rvnrnrc tool from old shoes, or from 'l X }, hteh irov. To ignore this shoe might l)e looked upon as an oversight, but although it is included its general use cannot be recom- mended. The shoe is clipped at either side of the toe ; has a calkin on the outside, and an inside feather-edge of equal height witli tbe calkin. Fid. 296. — Concave feather-edged hind shoe, partially fullered Made in concave tool, from old shoes or from f x ^ inch iron. Fig. 297. — Concave partially-fullered feather-edged hind shoe. Made in concave tool from old shoes or from | x ^ inch iron. [To face p. 298. Fig. 298. — Feather-edged fullered concave fore shoe. ^Made in concave tool from 2^1 inch iron or steel. Fli;. 299. — Coii(;iue three-quarter hind shoe. ;{■ X I inch iron. To face p. '299.] ill ciiiiCiivc tool from K AGING AND HACK SHOES FOR SEVERE CASES OF CUTTING. 299 The objections to it are, the narrowness of its inside foot surface, which becomes imbedded in the foot after two or three weeks' wear, and may loosen tlie wall at the inside quarter or heel, and the fact that, as the fullering extends round the toe, a sharp knife-like edge is produced capable of inflicting very severe injury on the heel of the fore-foot in case of the horse overreachinu'. FEATHEK-EDG^EL) EULLEIiED CONCAVE EOTJE SHOE (Fig. 298). Made ill concave tool from lx\ inch iron or steel. This shoe, being very light, is suitable for steeplechasers, or light-weight hunters, which are exercised on grass. The inside is hammered or chamfered down to a very narrow- ground surface, although the foot surface of the inside of shoe is preserved of equal or, if anything, of greater width than that of the outside. The inside of shoe exhibits one nail hole only, and is fitted very fine. Sometimes it is possible to stamp a second nail hole, but the nail heads must then be rasped off flush after nailing on the shoe. The above is a useful shoe for horses which forge badly and cut the opposite leg. If the horse is used on the road, the shoe must be of steel. The fullering is produced by a ridge in the groove of the concave tool. CONCAVE THKEE-QUARTEE HIND SHOE (Fig. 299). Made in concave tool from | x i inch iron. In some cases of cutting, as, for instance, when tlie cutting part is near the heel, this shoe is very effective. Having no nail holes at the toe, it can also be well ' set-back ' at that point, in the event of the horse overreaching, and on account of 300 THE PKACTICE OF SHOEING. the inside heel being cut off, it may be advantageously used for a horse with inside false quarter. Being most frequently used for hunters which are always on soft ground, the calkin is a distinct advantage ; but when ani- mals thus shod are worked on hard roads, there is a tendency to strain the joints, as the bearing is uneven. As shown by the illustration, the clips are on either side of the toe. THREE-(^UARTER PAllTIALLY FULLERED HIND SHOE (Fig. 300). Made front old shoes, steel, or |- X ^ hich iron. Many horses which otherwise cut badly can be kept at work by using this shoe. As the fullering stops short of the outside toe nail-hole, both toe nail-holes can be stamped, and the inner one can be placed well forward, wliile a strong clip can also be drawn. The position of the clips is sufficiently indicated in the drawing. The inside limb of shoe is gradually thinned down to about a quarter of an inch. The inner margin of the shoe (opposite the part struck) is chamfered down and hot rasped, so as to present a rounded surface. The inside toe of the shoe must be fitted very fine. In extreme cases of cutting, the shoe can be cut off close behind the inner nail hole. The disadvantages of this shoe are that, as the position of the inner nail hole cannot be changed, the nail holes come in precisely the same spot, time after time, when shoeing ; if the feet are weak and brittle, this constitutes a grave drawback. It is perhaps scarcely needful to point out that to place the inner nail liole closer to tlie toe would inter- fere with drawing the clip, while to place it fnrtlier back would probably result in the animal again cutting. Fied. Smith (see " The Chemistry of the Hoof of the llorse," Veterinary Journal, 18H7, page 373), the horn very readily loses water, fresh wall horn losing in twenty-four hours from 1'92 to 2*45 per cent., and in five days from 4*30 to HOOF DRESSINGS AND THEIU ACTION. 315 4-7] pci- ceni. Smith gives the following figures as to the capacity for absorption of fresh wall horn. Tn from twenty- six to ninety-eight days tlie horn absorbed :■ — Water. . . . 20'oG per cent. Castor oil, . . ()*234 per cent. (^l>rittle, dr}- horn)> Olive oil, . 2*2 per cent. Lanoline, . . -S-f* per cent. The loss of such substances in a given time is more or less the same as the gain. Dominik has confirmed the experiments of Zschokke and added to them as follows : — 1. Horn loses moisture but slowly ; evaporation is greatest from tlie periople, frog, sole, and portions of the wall which have been rasped or fissui-ed. 2. Horn takes up water to a slight extent, absorption being freest in the frog and periople ; less so in the freshly pared sole and in the rasjted and fissured wall. 3. The frog and periople become completely softened and their length and thickness alter. 4. Hoof ointments diminish both evaporation and absorption^ of water, especially by the periople and frog. 5. Oil is a less valuable dressing than ointment. The dressing should be of moderately firm eonsistencc and may contain wax, turpentine, and fat. 6. Tar penetrates and softens the superficial layers. It is,, therefore, only suitable for the sole and frog, in which the superficial parts are naturally shed. 7. Ointments of wax, turpentine, and fat are most effectual on the periople, on the freshly trimmed frog and sole, and on the rasped or fissured wall. They preserve the elasticity of the horn chiefiy by preventing evaporation. Poultices and foot-baths are only necessary where the feet become excessively dry from horses standing continuously in the stable. As ointments have little power of softening horn, their use should always be preceded by that of water. SECTION III. THE SHOEING OF DISEASED FEET AND OF LAME HORSES. ■On account of the intimate connection and interaction between the hoof and the limb above it, changes in one part are usually associated with changes in the other, and it is not always possible to draw a sharp line between sound action and lameness. Disease of the limb may produce changes in the form and condition of the foot, while, vicr versa, changes in the foot or faults in shoeing may be followed by disease in the limb. The diagnosis of disease of the hoof and limb is chiefly the function of the veterinary surgeon, but the instructed farrier should possess at least an elementary knowledge, because it is his duty, on the one hand, to avoid inducing disease, and, on the other, to prevent or minimise its evil effects. CHAPTER J. INFLAMMATION WITHIN THE HOOF. Lameness is usually produced by a localised disease process, consisting of interference with nutrition and its resulting phenomena, which are recognised under the title of inflamma- tion. The first stage of inflammation is indicated by the sudden determination of blood to the part. This is followed by congestion and even by complete stoppage of circulation iu INJURIES TO HORN SECRETING STRUCTURES. 317 the injured area. Certain constituents of the blood may then pass through the vessel walls into neighbouring tissues, causing changes in form and relation and interfering with the function of the inflamed parts. The symj^toms of inflammation are five, viz., pain, increased warmth, local reddening, swelling, and impaired function. These symptoms are only to be observed in their entirety during inflammation of superficial portions of the body. Inflammation of internal organs, on the other hand, can only be conjectured from disturbed function and its consequences. In inflammation within the hoof the five above named symptoms are all present though not all observable; thus swelling and redness can only l)e noted when the coronary band and the bulbs are inflamed, and even then redness is only to be seen in non-pigmented skin. In laminitis, however, another important symptom is usually present, viz., increased pulsation of the digital arteries. I'ain, increased warmth, and lameness are, however, invariably present, and are, therefore, of the greatest diagnostic value. The seat of inflammation is usually the corium. When lameness is solely due to contrac- tion, etc., of the hoof, symptoms of inflammation are wanting, though laminitis is probably more apt to occur in weak and fleshy than in sound, strong hoofs. The inflammation in from about two to six days ends in resolution, or may be followed by so-called rheumatic or chronic laminitis, suppuration, which is indicated by continued pain, or even by necrosis and septic-inflammation, which are usually followed by loss of the hoof and death. The examination should be commenced by walking the horse, when it will be seen whether the animal is lame at all, and if so, on which limb. The statements of the groom are not always to be relied on, nor (after exercise) is the lameness always so marked as to be seen at the first glance ; sometimes it is only visible at a trot or on hard pavement. The horse when walked or trotted, especially on hard ground, will be seen to go short and timidly on the lame foot, the limb not being extended in the ordinary way, the diseased foot being lifted from the ground more rapidly than the sound one, and the weight of the body thrown more rapidly and with more force on the normal foot. The body, therefore, appears to 318 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF sink towards the sound side. In short, the horse nods. Once the lame limb is discovered the foot may be examined. The painful spot may ])e only of small size, and, therefore, the examination should be thorough. Specially formed tongs have been made for this purpose, the smaller of which (fig. 310) is for the examination of parts close to the circumference of the sole, the larger for parts further removed and for the examination of the joint and navieidar bone. The farric^r's ordinary pincers serve every purpose, however. It requires considerable care to distinguish between the natural sensitiveness of the horse and the pain caused by ■disease. Eough, violent use of the pincers must always be KiGS. 310, all.— Siiucial pinciis for cxaniiniiiu iliseascd feet avoided, for severe pressure; will produce pain even in the soundest hoof. The same force must be applied at each spot, the hoof being tested at short intervals over its entire surface, as the diseased spot and corresponding area of tenderness are often very restricted. The degree of pressure sliould be adapted to the coudiliou of the sole. When the parts are thin and yielding, very little pressure produces pain, and the tender spot is quite sufficiently indicated by slight quivering of the muscles of the shonldei- and upper limb. Sometimes the jjincers fail; the suspected spot may then be tested by light blows with the hammer. Increased local warmth sometimes gives information, which can be confirmed COMBINATION FARRIER'S TOOL. The tool illustrated combines in itself pincers, hammer, and buffer. Af\ it occupies no more space than an ordinary pair of pincers, it may be carried with- out inconvenience, and is useful for removing a shoe in an emergency. By remov- ing the nut, the hammer and buffer can be used to cut the clenches, and by replacing it a ]iair of pincers for removing the shoe and ' trying round the foot is obtained. [To face p. 318. EXAMINATION OF HOOF FOR COIiXR, E'J'C. M^ hy the use of the hammer. The condition of the latei;tl ■cartilages should be noted and the individual joints of the foot tested by passive movement and l)y manipulation to detect new growths or excessive sensitiveness. If, in spite of all this, no satisfactory indication of disease is fortlicomincp, the Hexor tendons may be examined by running the thumb and fore- Hnger along theii- course and noting any thickened or painful spot. The causes are numerous and varied. They ma}- be divided into (1) congenital, (2) mechanical, (o) thermal, (4) chemical, and (5) specific. The first three, however, are of chief import- ance. Congenital causes are to be found in faulty conforma- tion of the limb and irregularities in the condition of the hoof causing unequal distribution of pressure. Mechanical causes are numerous ; amongst them must be ranked, errors in trim- ming the foot, weakeniug the lioof, bad fitting (causing local pressure), dryness of the hoof, unskilful or excessive driving, as well as direct wounds and bruises of the sensitive structures of the hoof. Amongst thermal causes is burning of the toe during fitting. Chemical and specific causes are rarer. The fact that the coriuni lies between the hard horny box and the equally hard os pedis explains the frequency with which it is bruised and inflamed. The front feet (especially in their inner half) are more often diseased than tlie hind. This results from the greater weight they carry and tlie drying influences to which they are exposed. In shoes with heels or heels and toes, one heel is apt to be higher than the other, and as the foot is then raised unnaturally high, any slight error in form or fitting is exaggerated, the Joints are strained, and the hoof itself suffers. Treatment. — The chief object is to remove the cause, ])er- manently if possible. The shoe is carefully taken off, and its form, position, and l)earing surface examined. By replacing it for the moment we note whether it fits at all points or not. The hoof is then carefully examined in every part ; the white line especially should receive attention. After removing a thin slice from the white line and neighbouring parts the form and direction of the nail holes can be seen. Any sitperfiuous horn is then removed from the wall and sole. The frog is cautiously 320 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. triiiimed, partly to assist the action of poultices, should such be required, partly to make the horny capsule more yielding (and to discover injury caused by gathered nail, etc.). If the sole is coloured yellow, yellowish-green, yellowish-red, red, or pink, we know that blood has been extravasated and has penetrated the horn. The cutting out of tlie diseased hoof should follow the examination with pincers, and the amount removed should not be sufficient to alter tiie direction of the limb, nor tlie manner of tread. To limit the local inflammation the hoof should be kept cool ;ind soft. The difficulty is less to cool it than to soften the horn, and so, by relieving pressure on the inflamed spot, to favour free circulation of blood. Linseed-meal poultices, to which is added some antiseptic, act most effectually, especially when frequently moistened with water. A piece of sacking 20 to 30 inches square is taken, the poultice placed in the centre, the foot placed on tlie poultice, and the sides of the sacking drawn upwards and fastened around the coronet by a bandage or straw band, which impedes the flow of blood much less than cords or straps. The portions of sacking which pro- ject above the straw band are then turned downwards and fastened securely below the straw band by means of a tape. To thoroughly soften the hard, dry hoof it is necessary to leave the poultice forty-eight hours in position and to moisten it freely with water during that time. In fact it does no harm to leave the poultice in position until the pain has greatly diminished. But this method must not he resorted to when fus formation has occurred, as it favours discharge of pus at the coronet and the formation of ' quittor,' After removing the poultice the hoof is washed clean, the shoe replaced, if necessary, and the hoof rubbed with vaseline or fat. Instead of the poultice described, six or eight thicknesses of wet linen may be wound round the hoof and retained in position by a leather or felt boot. The onset of suppuration is notified by severe, continued pain and marked pulsation of the digital arteries. To provide free drainage for the pus, the most painful spot has first to be discovered. The sole should then be thinned all round the painful spot until the sensitive structures are reached, the bear- ing surface of the wall being left intact. For this purpose a ' searcher,' i.e., a special knife with a slender blade, or the in- TREATMENT OF SUPPURATING CORN. 321 strument shown in fig. 312 may be used. The margins of the opening, so far as they are formed by the sole, should be thinned until they yield to the pressure of the finger. If pus be discovered the parts are next Hooded with warm 5 per cent, carbolic, creosote, or creolin solution, and covered with carbolic, sublimate, iodoform, or salicylic wool. There is some advantage in afterwards painting the parts with a resinous tincture, like tincture of myrrh or the compound tincture of myrrh and aloes. The dressing is held in position by broad strips of gauze and a Fig. 312.— Special ' searcher ' used in giving exit to pus. shoe with leather sole applied. A better way to fix dressings in position is by thrusting two thin strips of wood or hoop iron cross-wise between the dressing and shoe. If no pus be found, cold poultices or baths may be continued. The colour of the pus is of importance. A grey fluid dis- charge is a result of superficial inflammation of the corium; a condition which readily yields to treatment. The production of yellowish thick pus, however, even in very small quantities, points to inflammation of the deeper lying layers of the corium and to a more obstinate condition. Under such circumstances the advice of a veterinary surgeon should be sought. X 322 INFLAM-AIATION OF THE HOOF. , The shoe is made wider or longer in the diseased region than at the points opposite. If, for example, the inner heel is painful, the inner heel of the shoe should be a little longer and a little wider than its fellow, and vice versa. To prevent the shoe pressing on the painful spot, the wall is slightly rasped away around that point. But if an ordinary shoe is so fitted that one side of the hoof is free of pressure, it will be noted that during movement the hoof approaches, and actually comes in contact with, the shoe at that point, and with a rapidity in direct proportion to the flatness of the hoof. The hoof springs, in fact. Under such circumstances there must inevitably be pressure upon the diseased spot, and, therefore, in flat feet, ordinary shoes should never be used. In strong, upright feet, on the other hand, this ' springing ' is much less, the heels descend comparatively little, because the posterior half of the hoof bears much less weight than in flat feet. The bar shoe (fig. 313), so called because its heels are united by a transverse bar, is of the greatest service for injured or diseased feet. It enables the frog to assist in supporting the Fig. 313.— Bar shoe, seen fi-oin above. body -weight, thus relieving the wall to a corresponding extent, and whilst with ordinary shoes the frog is almost always functionally passive, the bar shoe restores it more or less to itg normal function. In heavy horses with weak feet this relief is of great importance. A few practical examples will confirm this. We may take the action of the ordinary seated shoe, having a narrow bearing SHOEING AFTER CORX. 3!23 surface covering that of the wall but not extending to any portion whatever of the sole. In horses with narrow upright hoofs and in those working on soft ground this shoe is quite satisfactory, but is liable, under opposite conditions, to produce separation of the wall. By increasing the width of the surfaces ■of contact between shoe and hoof, or by applying a bar shoe, this is, however, entirely avoided. In horses with weak heels the ordinary shoe is apt to cause the heel to turn inwards and its use to be followed by pro- duction of corns and contraction of the hoof. The cause is the shape of the shoe, which relieves the frog and sole of weight at the expense of the heels, which yield, bend inwards, and cause lameness. The lameness disappears, when, by the appli- cation of a bar shoe, the frog is forced to sustain a portion of the weight. In sandcrack and cracks of the bar, this form of shoe supports the posterior part of the foot, and by increasing its functional activity encourages growth and expansion. Where a hoof shows more than one crack the action of the bar shoe is assisted by applying a thick leather and padding the space between it and the sole of the foot with tow. A portion of the weight is then borne by the frog and by the sole itself. A bar shoe can always be applied, even when one quarter or quarter and heel are much broken, provided the frog be sound and fairly developed. Should the frog be healthy, but small, it may be built up by applying gutta-percha or the special icement later described. In case of the frog being affected with thrush, the pro- cedure is as follows : — After the shoe is fitted, all loose pieces of horn are removed by a searcher, the parts thoroughly washed with water, then with 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid, creosote, or creolin, the entire ground surface of the hoof smeared with wood tar or Venice turpentine, a pad of tow applied, a leather sole fitted over all and the shoe nailed on. The bar shoe should oiot be employed in navicular disease, double side-bones, or in the case of picked-up nails (which ■almost always enter the frog). The bar shoe permits any part of the bearing surface of the hoof to be left uncovered and to be relieved of pressure without stoppage of work. The entire frog is capable of bearing weight, but the posterior part is best suited for the purpose, and there the bar should take its bearing. J24 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. CONCAVE BAR EOEE SHOE (Fig. 314). Made in concave tool from -f X -| inch iron. This is a bar shoe for hunters suffering from sandcrack or any of the other conditions in which bar shoes seem indicated. Although it is often stated that bar shoes are inapplicable to hunters as they are sure to be torn off, the experience of the authors is to the contrary, and Mr Wheatley has on many occasions applied them with success. Special precautions, however, are necessary. The shoe must be drawn from the centre of the quarter towards the bar until the extreme posterior part is only about ^ inch in thickness, and the bar must not project even a fraction of an inch behind the heels. To obtain the best results the heels must be fitted ' full ' on either side, and the upper outer edge hot-rasped to the dimen- sions of the foot, so as to present an oblique bevelled margin about -jig or -y inch wide. There is then no danger of the shoe beinw trodden off. Fig. 314. — Concave bar fore shoe. JIade in concave tool from f x | inch iron. I'l'o face p. 324. Figs. 315, 316. — rullered bar hind shoe 'seatiM] around toe). I\Iade from 5 X I inch iron. To face J). 325.] BAE SHOES. 325 FULLERED BAE HIND SHOE (SEATED AROUND TOE) (Figs. 315, 316). Made from f X -§ iron. This is a special shoe for harness or riding horses with * dropped sole ' in a hind foot ; it can also be used for the treatment of 'seedy-toe,' as the diseased parts can be dressed through the seating without the shoe being removed. Clips are drawn on either side of the toe, because in many- cases there is not sufficient horn at the toe to permit of their being placed there, and also because clips in this position allow the shoe to be placed further back if required. The shoe is slightly cradled, i.e., it is thinner at the toe and heel than at the quarter, a formation which enables the animal to place more weight on the back of the foot, thereby relieving the toe. In many cases this is a very important consideration. The toe of the shoe is widened as well as seated-out, so as to give ample ' cover ' to the injured or diseased parts. 326, INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. FULLERED SEATED BAR FORE SHOE (Fig. 317). Made from -g- X }, inch iron. This is the ordinary form of bar shoe for harness horses. Among the conditions in which its nse is indicated are : — 1. Corns. Here it relieves the heels of pressure by imposing a proportion of the weight on the frog. A bar shoe can also be fitted ' fuller ' at the heels than an ordinary shoe, and hence is less likely to produce pressure on the seat of corn than a narrow heeled shoe. 2. Flat or dropped sole following laminitis. The heels of the shoe should be thinned, or the heels and toe also may be thinned, the quarters being left of full strength. This ' cradling ' of the shoe much improves the gait of horses with dropped sole. 3. Flat feet with weak, low heels. By giving a broad bearing surface at the heels and by transferring weiglit to the frog, attrition between the heels of foot and of the shoe is lessened, and an opportunity is given for the parts to grow and become stronger. 4. Sandcrack and seedy toe. It is possible that in the case of sandcrack steady pressure on the posterior parts of the foot lessens the chance of the crack opening, and, by retaining, the edges of the crack in apposition, favours the growth of a (new) sound wall. AVherever there is any pahiful affection about the toe of the foot and the horse goes on his heels, bar shoes are useful. They should be fitted ' full ' at the heels, and either ' boxed up ' or ' hot-rasped ' up to the heel of the foot. This is more impor- tant than fitting them so long at the heel, as is customary. Fia, 317. — Fullered seated bar fore shoe. Made from | x J; inch iron. [To face p. .326. Fig. 318. — Fullered seated three-quarter Ixir fore shoe (for harness horse). Made from ^ x h uich iron. Fig. 319. — St.-nnjied har hind shoe (for cait horse). Made from] I] X ^ inch iron. To face p. 327.] BAR SIKJES. 327 FULLEKED SEATED THEEE-QUARTEE BAR FORE SHOE (FOR HARNESS HORSE) (Fig. 318). Made ft'om -| X ^ inch iron. This shoe is intended for a fleshy, low-heeled, weak foot, or for a foot witli dropped sole and with a corn in the inner heel. In eases of suppurating corn it allows of the parts being efficiently poulticed, and in sandcrack or false quarter invol- ving the extreme back portion of the inside quarter is very useful. The back part of the inside quarter of shoe must be fitted ' full,' otherwise it is liable to cause the hoof to split away at this point, especially as hoofs affected with sandcrack are usually very brittle. The clip may be at the toe or outer quarter, or a clip may be placed at both points. The outer quarter is recommended, however, as the preferable spot. STAMPED BAR HIND SHOE (FOR CART HORSE) (Fig. 319). Made from 1^ x \ inch iron. This shoe is intended for cases where the hoof shows a ' false- quarter ' inside, and where the horse has sustained an injury to the inner heel, which must be relieved of weight. The inside nail holes are therefore placed opposite the only sound part of the foot, viz., that close to the toe. The clips are at the toe and outer quarter. 328 INFLAMMATION OF THE HOOF. Substitutes fok Horn. De Fay's hoof cement was the first material introduced for the treatment of cracks, etc., in the wall. It consists of purified gutta-percha and gum ammoniacum. The gutta-percha is softened in water, divided into pieces the size of a hazel nut, mixed with an equal proportion of gum ammoniacum and melted in a vessel of tinned iron over a slow fire. The mass is slowly stirred until thoroughly mixed, when it has the colour and appearance of chocolate. Lastly, it is formed into sticks. Thus prepared, it is hard at ordinary temperatures, and is, therefore, suited for use in summer ; softer mixtures for winter use can be prepared by increasing the proportion of gutta- percha. De Fay's artificial horn closely resembles natural horn in consistence and toughness. It can readily be softened and moulded, is iu soluble in water, and adheres very firmly to the hoof. It may be employed to build up too low a wall or to replace lost portions; to close sandcracks and thus prevent entrance of dirt ; in the various forms of dropped sole to raise the bearing surface of the wall in seedy toe, or, before applying a bar shoe, to build up the frog if atrophied and functionally inactive. It should not, however, be resorted to in cases of loose wall, because, after hardening, it acts as a wedge and increases the separation. In use it is warmed till fluid, and applied with a spatula to the part to be filled up or raised. To smooth off the surface the spatula is moderately heated and once more passed over it. Before applying the composition, the horn should be freed from grease, thoroughly dried and slightly roughened. To remove grease, the parts are rubbed over with a few drops of sulphuric ether or benzolin applied on a pledget of tow. As repeated heating injures the qualities of the mass, it is advis- able to melt only the exact amount needed on each occasion. Until recently this was the best known material for repair- ing and replacing horn, but of late another and better material has been produced. It is a German preparation, and is termed ' huflederkitt.' As purchased, it resembles leather, is reddish- HOKN SUBSTITUTES. 329 brown in colour, and appears to consist largely of gutta-percha with the addition of some india-rubber and inorganic materials. It is very elastic and tough, can be warmed either in water or over a hre, when it becomes plastic ; on cooling, it again assumes its hard, leather-like condition, without losing the form given it. It may be used in any part of the hoof where additions are required. As compared with De Fay's artificial horn it possesses the following advantages : — 1. After melting it solidifies more rapidly than De Fay's preparation. 2. In cooling it remains firmly fixed to the horn wall and does not shrink, whilst De Fay's mixture contracts, and is apt to lose its hold. 3. It can be melted as frequently as required without losing its qualities, whilst De Fay's cement rapidly deteriorates, 4. It requires no special preparation, like the removal of grease or the roughening and drying of the horn, though such precautions are perhaps still advisable. In all cases where De Fay's artificial horn can be used with advantage this preparation may now be substituted for it. In Germany it is largely used instead of vulcanised rubber or rope in special grooved shoes designed to diminish slipping on smooth pavements. It has also been employed as a dressing for hoofs. In this case the under surface of the hoof is care- fully cleaned and disinfected, and the melted ' huflederkitt ' applied with a spatula. The frog may be covered or left ex- posed. If the space be filled up as far as the bearing surface of the shoe, the counter-pressure of the ground is transmitted very perfectly to all parts of the sole, etc., whilst at the same time slipping on asphalt or stone pavements is minimised. CHAPTER 11. DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 1. Flat Sole. A FLAT sole is one which exhibits no arching towards the centre, but lies more or less evenly in the same plane as the wall, the latter being usually very oblique. The condition is commoner in front than in hind feet, and is frequently con- riG. 320. — Section of flat hoof with weak sole, a shows weakened sole ; b, weakening of tluv union between wall and sole. genital, especially in horses reared on soft marshy ground. It may also be produced by paring away too much of the sole around its union with the wall (figs. 320 and 321), and keeping the hoof continually moist. Apart from congenital conditions Fig. y21. — Special slioe for above foot. the most frequent cause, however, is the use of slices which' raise the frog clear of the ground, and thus throw the entire weight on the wall. On account of its oblique course, the wall is then unable to sustain the load, and the os pedis, especially in its posterior parts, gradually descends ; the FLAT SOLE. 331 descent being greater on the side which bears the greater weight. The union lietwecn the sensitive and horny structures is exposed to severe strain, the laminaj gradually enlarge and yield, and the os pedis presses on the sensitive and horny soles until it finally thrusts them downwards. This is followed by changes in tlie sole and atrophy of the os pedis, best marked at its wings and sharp plantar margin. The more developed the atrophy the more convex does the horny sole appear. Change in position of the os pedis, again, produces distortion of the coronary band and displacement of its papillte. This gives rise to the formation of rings and splits in the wall, while, owing to its oblique position, the wall itself tends to bend out- wards at the bearing surface. The more oblique the wall and the heavier the horse the more rapidly do such changes pro- ceed. When the toe is nmcli turned out they only affect the inner half of the foot, but then occur very rapidly. The flat- soled hoof grows chiefly forwards and outwards, and is hence very liable to suffer from separation of the wall. When the heels are weak and the sole flat the heels turn inwards ; when the hoof is less spread the bars may grow over the posterior portions of the sole : in either case corns are commoiL It is impossible to cure this flat condition of the sole. Possibility of improvement exists when the condition is not far advanced, when the horn fibres are fine and tough, and the animal is of light weight, but, as a rule, all the unfavour- able factors are combined. The animal is then absolutely un- suitable for rapid work on hard roads, and can be employed only at a walk or in the fields. Something may be done to improve matters and prevent the changes which have taken place becoming aggravated. The sole, being very thin, should be trimmed as little as possible. Loose fragments of horn may be removed, the bars, if over- lapping the posterior portions of the sole, cut back, and the bearing margin of the wall levelled with the rasp. The outer edge of the wall, especially at the toe, should be well rounded off, and unduly convex portions as far as ])ossible levelled. The frog and sole must be spared. Where the position of the limb is normal and the horn of good quality an ordinary flat, wide-webbed, well-seated shoe with a broad bearing surface, and made from thick iron, is suitable ; the heels should be some- 332 DEI'OR.MITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. what long, A leather sole is useful, and the frog should be allowed to come to the ground. In all other cases, as when the horn is of bad quality, or when corns, contraction, sand crack, separation of the wall, etc., are present, bar shoes are preferable. The bearing surface should be as large as possible, so that the weight may be distributed over the entire foot. The wall, white line, and outer margin of the sole should all assist. Where the wall projects below the sole, the bearing surface of the shoe may be given a slight cant inwards (fig. 322, h), but a horizontal bearing surface should be preferred when the wall has grown down again. The toe-clip can be Fig. 322. — Transverse scLtioii thiou^h i Hit -okd lioof \mi1i >,hoe At a the wall is siiffi- cieutly high and tlu suif.xce of tlie shoe is thtit-foic flat At h the wall is not high enough and the beaiiiig oi.ifa.-i, ol tlio sh^e is th^^icfoio i^ai.tcd lUwards. let into the foot almost as far as the white line without injury — sometimes several clips are required ; the direction of the nail holes must in all such hoofs be governed by the direction of the wall. The space caused by separations in the wall may be filled with tar or Venice turpentine. De Fay's hoof cement mass should never be used, because as it hardens it acts like a wedge, and causes further separation. Two quarter-clips may be raised opposite the point of the frog, and will be found very useful in retaining the shoe in position. To protect the sole, it may be smeared with Venice turpentine, pitch, or soft resin. Where the wall and frog are defective, a leather sole can be applied. If, however, the frog is large, and projects below the heels, the cross piece of the bar shoe may be allowed to bear on it, or an ordinary flat shoe provided with low heels may be applied. The condition just discussed may be still more aggravated. The sole is then distinctly ' dropped ' or convex. This con- dition may involve either one or both sides of the hoof ; in FLAT AND ' DROPPED SOLK. 333 fig. 323 only one-half of the sole, the inner, is so deformed. The wall generally exhibits rings and furrows, and is more or less depressed at the centre, its outline being concave. In the unshod hoof the frog and horny sole then take the entire weight, hence animals with convex sole can neither go nor stand continuously without shoes. The wavy appearance sometimes shown, which reaches from- Fia. 323.— Left front foot with inside half of sole 'dropped' or convex, seen from below, in front and in section, a-b, direction of section ; c, broken wall ; d, ' dropped ' portion, of sole ; e, os pedis atrophied by pressure ; /, depression extending from coronet to ground ; g, concave inner (luarter. the coronet to the bearing surface, and the form and condition, of the hoof, point strongly to the displacement of the os pedis. Dropped sole may result from a continuation of the process which produces flat sole, or from laminitis. In the former case one lateral half of the sole is usually deformed, and the white line is not increased in breadth ; in the latter the convexity usually appears in front of the point of the frog, the white- line is perceptibly broader, and the rings on the wall are close together at the toe, but diverge as they extend towards the heels. In general, the same treatment is appropriate in convex as in flat sole. When the sole projects so far below the bearing surface of the wall that it would touch the ground even after the application of a thick bar shoe, it may be necessary tO' build up the wall with an artificial composition, and to secure the sole from contact with the ground by the use of toe-pieces and heels. Screws are then very useful in conjunction with bar shoes. On account of the brittleuess of the wall, as few nails as- possible should be employed, and to secure the shoe it is often well to form a quarter-clip at either side. The position of the- 334 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. nails should be slightly changed at each shoeing. Horses with convex soles are, of course, quite useless for rapid work. To prevent the sole being bruised the shoe must be well seated out, and, unless the case is very aggravated, a leather sole applied. To save the hoof being softened by long con- tact with moisture during wet weather, a hoof ointment should be used. STAMPED FOEE SHOE (EOR CAET HORSE). THE 'QUOIT' SHOE (Fig. 324). Made from 1-g^ X |- hich iron. In making this shoe the outer margin of the web is tliinned down to ^ or 1^ inch, the inner margin being left of tlie full -| inch strength. The shoe has been recommended for cases of laminitis where exudation is occurring and there is danger of the sole Ijecoming convex, but where paiu is slight. Some practitioners consider this condition is best treated by applying a ' quoit ' slioe and steadily working the animal on soft ground. STAMPED EOPtE SHOE (FOR CART HORSE) 'SET' AROUND OUTER MARGIN (Fig. 325). Made from 1^ x | inch iron. This shoe is 'set' around the outer margin of the ground surface and is deeply seated-out on the foot surface, and has two calkins. The ' set ' tool resembles a single-faced hammer. It is lield and applied in the same way as a stamp or fuller ; the result of ' setting ' is well shown in the illustration. This shoe is intended for a horse with very convex (dropped) soles and weak feet and large frogs. ^ o [To face p. 334. To face ■p. 335.] SHOES FOR CART-HORSE WITH 'DROPPED' SOLES. 335 STAMPED HIND SHOE (FOR CART HORSE) (Figs. 326, 327). Made from 1^ X |- inch iron. Being intended for a foot with ' dropped sole ' or ' seedy toe ' (or both), this shoe is deeply seated out round the toe, at which point, in consequence, it has extra ' cover.' The shoe has a clip on either side of the toe, and the nail holes are stamped a little further back than usual, in order to obtain a firm hold of the foot even when the toe is ' seedy,' and to allow the shoe to be set further back on the foot and the toe to be shortened. Calkins as shown are necessary to give working horses a good foothold, though it is open to question whether they could be pronounced advantageous were one considering the question of disease alone. 336 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. 2. Upeight Hoof. The description ' upright ' may be applied to any hoof, the toe of which, when viewed from the side, forms an angle of more than 60° with the ground, and the heels, compared with the toe, appear too high. The relative lengths of heel and toe vary. While in slight cases of upright hoof the length of the toe is scarcely double that of the heel, measured at the posterior border, in aggravated cases the height of the toe and heel may be equal. The toe is then at right angles to the earth, and the quarters nearly perpendicular. The sole is usually very concave, though the os pedis does not always correspond. In walking, the toe is most worn, and (except in the conformation shown by fig. 169) the entire weight of the body falls on the anterior half of the hoof. Upright hoof is seen in all classes of horses, and affects both the fore and hind feet. The condition is peculiar to the positions shown in figs. 151 and 169. It is due to hereditary tendency, or is produced by neglect of the feet in young animals, the toe being dis- proportionately shortened in comparison with the heels, and is apt to follow diseases of the limb, which, for lengthened periods, prevent extension of the fetlock joint. Among such are inflammation of the flexor tendons and of the posterior ligaments of the limb, spavin, and ring bone. Thrush is very apt to accompany this formation of hoof. According to Siedamgrotzky, it is always present in old standing cases of contracted tendon. In consequence of the gradual shortening of the flexor tendons, the os pedis undergoes a partial rotation on its transverse axis. The resulting pressure on the toe leads to the papillae of the coronary band assuming a more upright position, and to the formation of an upright, thin, but firm toe wall. This is followed by a similar change in the heels, while, under continued pressure, the anterior portion of the sole becomes flattened and the white line increased in breadth. The prognosis depends on whether the condition is congenital, i.e., whether it results from the conformation of the limbs or whether it is acquired. SHOEING HORSES WITH UPRIGHT FEET. 337 When due to faulty conformation the defect is incurable, but less grave than when acquired. The uncertain, stumbling, boring gait seen in horses with such hoofs is oftener a result of defects in the limbs than of the form of the hoof. The worst cases are those in which the heels do not touch the ground during movement, and the condition is not due to mal- formation of the limb. The tendons and ligaments are then continuously under great strain, and, in unshod animals, the sensitive structures of the toe are bruised in consequence of excessive wear. In congenital cases the heels bear an undue proportion of the weight. An approximately ecpial wear of the shoe and a level tread show that the faulty position of the limb has been compensated by change in form of the hoof. In fact, where the conformation of the limb is abnormal, uprightness of the hoof is, strictly speaking, neither pathological nor faulty. The method of shoeing varies. The upright hoof, wlien compensatory to defective conformation, must be left alone. This is the case where the entire foot from the fetlock down- wards is upright, or where the suffraginis bone is nearly horizontal. But if it result from increased wear of the toe in foals which have not been shod, and it seem impossible to restore the normal position by shortening the heels, a tip or plain shoe with thin heels may be applied. On the other hand, in heavy bodied horses doing hard work on streets the heels should be lowered and care taken that the tread is kept level, while the axis of the foot is rendered somewhat more oblique. Uprightness consequent on excessive paring of the toe can be diminished by using shoes with thin heels and broad toes, sometimes by building up the toe with a horn substitute {hufiederhitt), or by gradually lowering the heels. If the cause be some diseased condition of the limb above the hoof, the object of the farrier should be to ensure a level tread, and it may be necessary to apply shoes with calkins or with thickened heels. In this case the production of upright hoof should be favoured, a course which at first sight may appear objectionable, but will be better understood by recalling the improvement which follows the application of a thick-heeled shoe in fiat-footed horses with strain or contraction of the Y 338 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. flexor tendons. The hoof is then too low at ihe heels to allow of regular distribution of weight and must be raised. In pro- portion as the disease of the limb, which causes uprightness, disappears, a better form can be given to the hoof by appropriate paring. To attempt to convert an upright into a normal hoof at one operation is only allowable in view of performing tenotomy. In shoeing ordinary working horses with upright feet it is generally necessary to strengthen the toe. This is best effected by letting in a piece of steel at that point, by drawing up a strong toe-clip and by ' rolling ' or rounding oft' the toe. The shoe must be broad in the web, and take a good hold of the toe of the hoof. The calkins should be so high as just to touch the ground when the horse is standing level on all four feet. In shoeing horses with spavin, ring bone, and shortened tendons a similar shoe, but witli wedge heels instead of calkins, is useful. STAMPED CAET HIND SHOE, WITH TOE- PIECE (Fig. 328). Made from 1^ X |- inch iron. In cases of connnencing contraction of the flexor tendons of the hind limb this shoe will often be found useful. The calkins give the animal an assured foothold, while the toe-piece prevents ' knuckling ' at the fetlock, limits wear of the toe of shoe, and maintains a steady though limited pull on the con- tracted structures. At each shoeing the calkins may be slightly lowered, so as to keep pace with the improvement in position of the limb. Many horses, which would otherwise rapidly become useless,, can be rendered workable, if not actually cured, by the applica- tion of this shoe. The toe-piece, which is about \\ inches long, is made inde- }jendently of the shoe, and is ' shut ' or welded on to the foot .surface. Fjg. 328, — Stamped cart hind shoe, with tuu-piece. Made from 11 x 4 inch iron. [To face ih 338. SHOEING HORSES THAT 'KNUCKLE OVEK/ 339 3. SrECiAL Shoes fok Houses Knuckled Over at THE Coronet or Fetlock. ' Knuckliug ' at the coronet or fetlock is produced by shortening of the flexor tendons or by bony growths around the joints ; the foot, from the fetlock downwards, takes a perpendicular or nearly perpendicular course, so that the animal treads on the toe alone. This condition can sometimes be modi- fied, though never cured by shoeing. Sufficient may be done. Fig. 329. — Shoe for 'knuckling over.' a, boue deposit around the coronet ; b, flattened end of the shoe, which is kept from touching the wall by the leather disc, c. Fig. 330.— Special shoe for ' knuck- ling ' associated with obliteration of the coronet joint. however, to permit of the animal continuing for a long time at work. The shoes should be provided with heels which just touch the ground when the auimal stands on all four feet, but in aggravated cases this is not sufficient, and to assist in move- ment it becomes necessary to lengthen the toe of the shoe. The exact extent and form of this prolongation cannot be given, as they must necessarily vary in each case. Such shoes have the disadvantage of being torn off occasion- 340 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. ally, the prolongation at the toe acting as a lever. To prevent this, Neuschield thins and flattens the extremity and bends it upwards and backwards so as to take a bearing on the wall of the toe, a stout piece of leather being interposed. For the early forms of this condition in foals a special shoe has been used, provided with a kind of iron splint welded to the toe and extending upwards above the fetlock joint. It is made to fit the front of the large metacarpal bone, to which it is secured by a well-padded bandage. The steady opposition to the pull of the shortened tendons gradually causes elongation and reduction of the knuckling. 4. CONTKACTED FOOT. (A). Contraction of heels. — In contracted foot the posterior half of the hoof becomes narrower and presses on the con- tained structures, such as the corium, lateral cartilages, etc. The condition frequently affects flat feet, and is commoner in front than behind. It may develop to a very varying extent, and its recognition demands a clear perception of the form of a normal hoof. This should have, firstly, a broad and well- developed frog. Both limbs of the frog should be of equal size, and between them should lie a moderately deep but broad groove. In unshod horses neither the central nor lateral furrows are widely open, because the horny frog is pressed flat and thrust closely against the bar at either side. In the contracted hoof the triangular space destined for the reception of the frog is diminished in size and the frog itself is smaller to a corresponding extent. The extremities of the wall, therefore, approach one another. When the condition is aggravated the lateral and central grooves of the frog are narrow, they exist as more or less deep fissures, and in fully developed cases the limbs of the frog almost disappear. The bars are sometimes even in contact or overlap one another, and the previously rounded prominent bulbs of the frog become thin and closely pressed together. Whilst in hoofs of good form the bars are straight, in this condition they describe a curve, directed towards the bearing surface of the wall, that is, they run backwards, outwards, and again inwards. In flat CONTEACTION OF THE FOOT. 341 hoofs the frog sometimes becomes compressed by the bars (fig. 331) ; this is not infrequently the forerunner of contraction. Just as the space occupied by the frog diminishes, the direc- FlG. 331.— strangulation of the frog by the bars. tion of the walls at the heel alters. The heels gradually encroach on the frog, converging from the coronet towards the bearing surface ; they draw together either in an equal degree jJvkZ?^' '*^ Fig. 332. — E.xcessive contraction of heels. The frog has almost disappeared. Fig. 333.— Unilateral contraction. (fig. 332), or one to a greater extent than the other (fig. 333). It must not be supposed, however, that every hoof in which the walls at the heel converge is a contracted hoof, because, 342 DEFOKMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. with the exception of pronounced upright hoofs, all show moderate convergence of the posterior parts of the heel walls. Horses with contracted heels usually stand with the fetlock upright while the axis of the foot is not infrequently bent backwards (see fig. 201), The diseased foot is placed a little in advance and is also slightly flexed. When both feet are diseased the animal rests them alternately, and when the con- dition has existed for long there is bending at the knees. Both the last named symptoms result from tendeiness of the sensitive structures. The gait is low, ' shuffling,' and uncertain, especially for the first few steps. The foot strikes against obstacles and the animal stumbles, even on fairly level grovmd. This symptom, most marked when the horse is ridden, renders him both unpleasant and unsafe. At a trot he fails to extend the front limbs, and if only one hoof is affected may go quite lame. If the shoes impede expansion of the heels, the pain may even become acute enough to throw the horse off its feed, and cause it to lie continually. The pain forces the animal to go on the toe, and there is at first increased wear of that part of the shoe, tliough, when the process is complete, the shoe may again be worn level. Manual examination reveals slightly increased warmth at the heels, pulsation of the digital arteries, pain on pressing and on tapping the heels. In consequence of the changes going on in the hoof it loses its normal form and becomes longer and narrower, the horny sole being usually more concave, and the horn of the heels weaker and less tough. The bulbs are atrophied so that the frog partly disappears. On dissection, there is often to be found in the posterior half of the foot atrophy of the coronary band, of the plantar cushion, and sometimes even of the os pedis. Atrophy of the pedal bone is best seen at the wings, but in severe cases may extend even to other parts. As the hoof contracts at the heels the sensitive sole is sub- ject to continued pressure in direct proportion to the degree to which the heels converge and to which they are thrust down- wards. Both conditions are most marked in flat feet, and, as a consequence, fiat feet with contracted heels almost always exhibit corns as a complication. Tlie point which suffers most is perhaps CHANGES IN FORM OF CONTRACTED FOOT. 343 where the coronary band is reflected forwards to become con- tinuous with the corresponding part of the bars. The strain on the cijronary margin often causes sandcrack, and as the bars Ijecome distorted from the continued approach of the heels they may also exhil^it fissures. Contracted feet expand to a much less extent than do normal feet, and experiments on the living animal show that in well- marked cases this movement is diminished, sometimes even entirely absent or replaced at the most anterior portion of the bearing surface of the heel by contraction. The coronary margin of the heels, on the other hand, dilates, and whilst, in the healthy foot, contact of the frog with the ground produces dilatation both at the coronary .and bearing margins, in con- tracted feet this is always diminished if not inhibited. The symptoms seem due to the position of the heels relatively to the ground, because the more the heels converge, from above down- wards, the less does the bearing margin expand. Under the body- weight the portions comprised between the two heels, that is, the plantar cushion, lateral cartilages and sensitive wall, are strongly compressed by the inner surfaces of the heel walls, especially when the shoe is fitted ' too fine ' at the heels. This pressure (caused by the body- weight) is rendered more injurious by the shoe preventing any yielding at the heel — a condition comparable to that produced in man by too narrow a boot. This contraction at the heels leads to bruising of sensitive structures, rupture of small blood-vessels, and extravasation of blood, which stains the new liorn red, while the increased strain at the coronary margin favours splitting and formation of sand- cracks. Though usually easy to detect, the condition may be mistaken for shoulder lameness, chronic navicular disease, or strain of the pastern joint. The corns which occur as a sequel are sometimes regarded as the principal disease. The causes are numerous, but may he divided into two groups, namely, predisposing and exciting. (a) The predisposing causes include faulty conformation of the limb and defective shape of the hoof, but they seldom come into play before the hoof is shod. The greatest tendency to contraction is seen in weak feet, wliich naturally possess long 344 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. toes and low heels, and in which the anterior and posterior margins, viewed from the sides, form an angle of less than 45° with the earth. The more oblique the hoof, the more rapidly does contraction proceed, whatever the previous condi- tion of the heels. Despite every care in shoeing, contraction may still occur in consequence of the altered direction of the walls at the heel and of the greatly increased load they are called on to bear. It is the excessive pressure on oblique and inwardly-directed heels, in the absence of counter-pressure on the sole and frog, which so rapidly produces the change in form. At the same time, instead of the coronary and bearing margins of the heels being equally exposed to the expanding strain when weight is thrown on the foot, dilatation occurs only at the coronary margin, which is, therefore, continually in tension, while the bearing margin is fixed or even thrust from all sides towards the centre of the sole. A well-developed frog and strong bars, especially when exposed to the counter-pressure of the ground, prevent contraction. If, however, the parts are weak or diseased and the horny frog no longer bears weight there is notliing to opjDose its progress. It has even been suggested that a small or diseased frog and weakened bars form the sole cause of contraction, a view in a measure sup- ported by the following examples. In severe thrush in flat feet the portion of the frog marked h, in fig. 35, may be lost. Under such circum- stances the hoof contracts precisely to the extent left vacant by tlie portion lost. In upright hoofs, on the other hand, even when this part of the frog is lost, contraction does not occur. The cause of contraction is, therefore, not thrush, but the pres- sure of the l)ody-weight, which forces the walls of the heel downwards, forwards, and inwards. On the same day two young carriage horses were shod for the first, time. In one horse the front hoofs formed an angle of 40 and in the other of 55 with the ground. All four hoofs were sound. These animals were shod in precisely tlie same way for a year, but, despite similar treatment, the flat hoof was visibly contracted as compared with the other. In this case the greater weight thrown on the posterior half of the hoof was not the only cause. A pair of trotting horses, of similar age, size, weight, and breed, had each weak fore-heels. In one case, however, the CAUSES OF CONTRACTED FOOT. 345 hoofs were flat, in tlie other upright. The horse with flat hoofs suffered from contraction, the other did not, the reason appear- ing to be simply that in upright hoofs the heels bear less weight than in flat hoofs. As a rule, when the formation of the limb as viewed from in front appears normal, both heels contract equally, but when the toes are turned in or out contraction is unequal. AVith turned- out toes the inner, with turned-in toes the outer, heel appears to suffer most. Once the heel contracts sufficiently to run downwards and inwards, the body-weight aggravates the condi- tion. The heel becomes more and more oblique and the affected half of the frog diminishes in size. The os pedis wing of the same side also suffers and may undergo atrophy. The change progresses with a rapidity proportioned to the extent to which the ''toes are turned out or in, and is sometimes very marked in flat feet. When contraction is limited to one side of the foot the bulbs of the heel may be displaced. (&) Exciting Causes.— 1. The first of these is defective shoe- ing, that is, not only the use of badly constructed shoes but faulty preparation of the feet. Of the latter class of errors perhaps the most serious is weakening the bars and frog by excessive paring, and next, thinning the sole. It may be laid down as a principle that to remove more than loose horn is a fault. Fortunately, excessive use of the knife is much less common than formerly ; at one time it was usual to pare the parts until the sole yielded to the pressure of the finger and spots of blood appeared on the frog. In-curved heels, which tend to compress the frog, should be carefully lowered without weakening the union between heel, frog, and bar (see fig. 331, «, h). When the heels are lowered overmuch the toe becomes disproportionately long and the axis of the foot distorted, so that worse effects are produced than by corresponding lowering of the toe. The direction of the foot axis must always be kept in view when paring the foot. In flat hoofs contraction may also be favoured by insufficient paring or by allowing the shoes to remain on for too long a time. Shoes with bearing surfaces inclined inwards at the heels and shoes fitted too wide, that is, in which the heels (of the shoe) do not cover those of the hoof, compress the latter. 346 DEFOKMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. Tlie same effect is produced wlien the seating is continued right up to the heel of the shoe, especially if the bearing- surface of the heel (of the hoof) rest in the seated out portion. Shoes with calkins favour contraction more than tiat shoes. Finally, by shoeing young horses too early complete develop- ment of the hoof is checked and contraction favoured. 2. Dryness. — Dryness of the horn diminishes its elasticity and volume. 3. Insvfficicnt Exercise. — If young horses, after being shod for the first time, are long confined to the stable, the posterior half of the hoof invariably contracts, while want of exercise causes the front hoofs to become hard and dry and the hind-feet to be attacked with thrush. Circulation and horn secretion are also less vigorous. In yearlings all these ill results are seen in an aggravated form. Prognosis. — Attention should first be directed to the state of the lateral cartilage, because, when this is ossified, no improve- ment in form need be expected. Next, the conformation of the limbs demands consideration. When the axis of the foot rind the form of the hoof seen from the side are upright or normal, tlie prognosis is favourable. If, on the other hand, the foot axis is oblique and the hoof flat, and if in addition the toes are turned out, the conditions all point to contraction, and in such cases the inner heel will be found wired in and the bulbs of the frog displaced. In old animals, which fVjr years have suffered from contraction, the prognosis is unfavourable, because atrophy of the os pedis has often occurred, and complete recovery is impossible ; but in young animals even well-marked contraction, if uncomplicated, can frequently be cured without much difficulty. Preventive measures have occupied the attention of many investigators, but owing to the treatment of working horses and the various styles of shoeing, success has been distinctly limited. It is often useful, after correcting the form of the feet, to turn the horse out to grass without shoes, and later to apply a shoe which permits free movement of the posterior siiction of the foot and allows the frog to come to the ground. Treatment, therefore, comprises the application of a flat shoe, with a horizontal surface at the heels, non-interference with •the frog, and abundant exercise on moist ground. The farm TROBABILITY OF RECOVERY AFTER CONTRACTIOX. 347 horse seldom shows contracted hoof, for he is ahnost always on soft ground, and his soles are, therefore, exposed to the counter- pressure of the earth. Horses working in towns require this moisture to be supplied artificially, and it is sometimes necessary to use flat shoes and to fill the space between the limbs of the shoe with felt pads or to give a foot-bath occasionally. In severe cases bar shoes promote the growth of the frog and hinder contraction. The treatment aims at restoring the normal width of the hoof, and is best commenced by the use of poultices or warm baths which soften the horn. Thereafter several courses are open. (A) Hestoration of the counter-pressure of the ground. This may be regarded as the natural method of cure. Under it are comprised :— (1) Turning horses out to grass without shoes. (2) The use of tips. (3) Of shoes with thin heels. (4) Of heelless shoes with leather soles. (5) Of bar shoes with or without leather soles. (6) Of pads covering the entire sole. (B) The use of mechanical devices, which thrust or ih-aw apart the heel, such as : — (7) De la Broue's slipper shoe. (8) Shoes with bar clips. , (C) Operations on the hoof itself, either alone or in conjunc- tion with one or another of the methods already named. A. Methods of Ee-establisiiing the Couxter-Pressuke of THE Ground or Compensating for its Absence. 1. Eest at grass, to be effectual, should be continued from four to six months, at any rate not less than three, and is not advisable for animals with very weak low heels. As a preparation, excess of horn should be removed, the wall rounded off, incurved heels, pressing on the ground, removed, and the point of the frog (to the commencement of the central groove) lowered to the same lieight as the bearing surface of the wall; the limbs, on the other hand, may be left somewhat higher. The horse can tlien be turned out to 348 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. grass or, if this be impracticable, regularly exercised in a large shed. Light saddle or draught work on soft ground is useful. In horses with well-marked unilateral contraction, turning out to grass is inadvisable and it is better to trust to proper shoeing. 2. The use of tips produces a somewhat similar effect to- turning out to grass, and can be recommended when the animal cannot be rested or when, on account of the condition of the ground, the hoof tends to contract in spite of light work. Two kinds of tips may be distinguished : the ordinary and the modified Charlier ; both are well adapted for feet of the upright and ordinary shapes, but less for oblique feet. The methods given under 1 and 2 have the advantage of producing a more rapid growth of horn because of the natural distribution of weight in all parts of the ground surface of the hoof, which favours the normal movement of the parts and the circulation of blood. The final result is to increase the width and strength of the hoof at its posterior half. 3. Shoes with thinned heels can be used both for upright feet and those of normal angle, but are less desirable in fiat feet. They act by allowing the frog to come to the ground and bear a certain proportion of weight. 4. Heelless shoes with or without leather soles are sufficient in all cases of moderate contraction if the frog is strong enough to touch the ground, and their effect is more marked the more faulty the previous treatment and shoeing. Where the sole and bars have been weakened and the seating out of the shoe has been continued to the heels, it is sufficient to round the toe and to apply a shoe with a perfectly horizontal bearing surface at the heels to produce in two or three shoeings a marked improvement. The application of a leather sole will hasten recovery. 5. Ear shoes, with or without leather soles. Where the frog is healthy and the bar can take a bearing on it, a leather sole is scarcely required. Should the bearing surface of the hoof be defective or broken away, or should corns or sand- cracks co-exist with contraction, the ordinary, or the three- quarter bar shoe, is perhaps to be preferred. It is fitted close at the toe and quarter and slightly ' sprung ' at the heels. Expansion of the hoof is greatly assisted by carefully filling TKEATMENT OF CONTKACTION. 349 the lateral and central furrows of the frog with some plastic composition. If, however, the frog is attacked with thrush, or if other diseases of the hoof accompany defects in the bearing surface of the wall, a simple leather sole and stopping are more useful. The bar shoe with leather sole can also be used in uni- lateral contraction with displacement of the bulbs. As the chief object is to restore the bulbs of the frog to their normal position and to thrust outwards the contracted wall, it must be borne in mind that the upward displacement of the bulbs results from excessive and irregularly distributed weight. Various authors and practitioners recommend lowering the affected heel wall until there is a clear space between it and the shoe, thinking thus to allow the affected bulb to sink, but experience shows that this often fails in its object. Lowering the affected heel is not sufficient ; it is of much greater im- portance to throw the weight of the body on the wall of the opposite quarter and heel. To efiect this the hoof should be pared and shod so as to bring the higher side to the ground a little earlier than the other, though it is necessary to avoid distorting the axis of the foot, and to fit the shoe close to the outline of the sound heel, but somewhat broader and longer than that of the unhealthy one. If this style of tread cannot be produced by trimming the hoof alone, the branches of the shoe can be made of unequal thickness. A leather sole with plenty of stopping will greatly assist recovery. 6, Filling the hoof with cement is a slow method, and it is absolutely necessary that the cement should thoroughly cover the limbs of the frog. Straw or cork soles or Hartmann's rubber pads are to be preferred on account of their continued pressure, though precautions must be taken against thrush. The gutta-percha composition may advantageously be tried ; being perfectly plastic it moulds itself to all the depressions of the ground surface of the hoof, and exercises an exceedingly even and, therefore, efficacious pressure. In the treatment of unilateral contraction the bar shoe and leather sole are to be preferred to all other measures. Plenty of tow must be used in the furrow of the frog on the diseased side, so as to main- tain constant pressure. 350 DEFOPiMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. B. Mechanical Methods. 7. De la Broue's slipper shoe tends to expand the entire wall of the hoof. It is claimed that the bearing margin lying on an oblique surface spreads outwards under the pressure of the horse's Ijody-weight, and that the shoe is useful in all cases of contraction where the coronary margin is wider than the bear- ing margin of the hoof. It exposes the white line, however, to excessive strain, and is, therefore, no longer used in this form, especially as there are other and less dangerous methods of expanding the hoof. By confining the outward slope of the bearing surface to the heel (or heels, when both sides of the foot are affected), it, however, renders good service. Never- theless great care is needed in determining the exact amount of slope, and the distance to which it should extend, otherwise severe lameness results. It is usually sufficient if the outer margin of the hoof surface is -^.j to J- inch lower than the inner, and this oblique surface should only extend as far forwards as the wall of the heel forms with the ground an acute angle. The same principle may, of course, be applied to the heels of bar shoes. 8. Shoes icith har-clips. — («) De Fay's is a Hat shoe with a clip at the inner margin of either heel. The clips should lie in the lateral furrows of the frog, exactly at the points wliere the wall is reflected to form the bars. They should fit evenly on the bars, but should not extend to the bottom of the lateral furrow of the frog. The foot surface at the heel must be absolutely horizontal. The shoe should be cooled and nailed on, and the dilator (fig. 334) then adjusted with its cheeks between the heels, which are expanded by turning the screw h. This forcibly widens the hoof. The method requires the greatest care, and is certainly not often applicable. On the first occasion it is sufficient to dilate the parts -jL to i inch, and nothing further should be done until the space gained can be filled with horn, that is, in from ten to fourteen days. (&) Hartmann's expanding shoe (fig. 335) is narrow, and possesses one or more saw-cuts on its inner border. When it is desired to dilate the hoof equally, these cuts are made at METHODS OF DILATING THE FOOT. 351 the centre opposite the toe-clip, but when contraction has taken place at the heel, the cuts are placed towards the side of the shoe at which contraction is visible. (c) Einsiedel's automatic hoof- expanding shoe (fig. 336) is. I'IG. 334.— Instrument for expanding De Fay's shoe, a, the iron cheeks which fit between the heels of tlie shoe ; b, square head on tlie right and left-handed screw, for taking the key. an ordinary flat shoe with bar-clips, the bearing surfaces of which are moderately inclined outwards. After accurately fitting, but before nailing the shoe, it is advisable to dilate the 352 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. heels about ^ inch. The animal's own weight is the expanding power. It produces its eftect slowly but surely. In uni- FiG. 335.— Shoe for expanding the hoof, a shows the point where the bar-ulips should come. lateral contraction the bearing surface of the clip only inclines outwards on the affected side. Shoes with bar-clips should Kii;. '.',:iu — EiiiMeilel's shoe, seen from behind. not be used when the heels are very low and when the lateral clefts of the frog are correspondingly shallow. Other special shoes for promoting expansion of the foot are •described in the next two pages. Fig. 337. — Fullered fore shoe (for harness horse), with frog plate. Made from 1 x ^ inch iron. Fig. 338. — Tip for producing frog pressure. Made from | x J^ inch iron. To face p. 353. ] SHOES FOR PRODUCING FROG PRESSURE. 353 FULLERED FOEE SHOE (FOR HARNESS HORSE) WITH FROG PLATE (Fig. 337). Made from 1 X -^^ inch iron. To obtain frog pressure without interfering with the animal's paces, and to widen the foot and to promote the growth of a strong healthy frog, are the objects of this shoe. Care must be taken, when fitting the shoe, that the frog plate has a good bearing on the frog itself, otherwise it will prove ineftective. To ensure a bearing, it is sometimes neces- sary to rivet pieces of leather on the frog plate, so as to raise it to the needful height. TIP FOR PRODUCING FROG PRESSURE (Fig. 338). Made from |^ X -g- inch iron. The tip is made in the same manner as the ordinary pattern, the frog plate being made, and welded on after- wards. The clip is then drawn, and the tip is ready to fit to the foot. The plate must take a good bearing on the frog ; sometimes it is necessary to rivet on pieces of leather in order to secure frog pressure. The above tip is very useful for horses having one foot smaller than the other. Its application will often expand the contracted foot to a marked degree, but it requires care in fitting. The quarters must be fitted full, to prevent the tip sinking into foot at this point, and splitting away the wall. The frog plate should be a trifle shorter than the animal's frog, otherwise the toe of the hind-foot is liable to catch it, and tear off the tip. 354 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF TME HOOF. PEOFESSOK F. SMITH'S FORE SHOE FOR EXPANDING CONTRACTED FEET (Fig. 339). Made from, ^ y. ~y inch iron. The diagram sufficiently explains the construction of the shoa By means of the screw, steady, but slight, pressure is exer- cised on the bars. Neither Mr Dollar nor Mr Wheatley has used this shoe, but it has been highly recommended by Pro- fessor Smith, who kindly lent the shoe from which the illus- tration was made. It will be seen to closely resemble Fourre's shoe for the same purpose. Fig, 339. — Protessoi- F. Smith's fore shoe for expaiidiug contracted feet. Made from^f x J inch iron. [To face p. 354. SURGICAL OPERATION FOR CONTRACTED FOOT. 355 C. Operative Interference in Contraction. (a) Thinning the wall of the toe was recommended by Dominik, but is of little real value, the improvement noted probably resulting from the animal's being turned out to grass without shoes. (b) Collin's method consists in making a groove about -g- inch broad and as deep as the sensitive wall, beginning I inch from the skin of the coronet and running parallel with it. From this he carries two wider grooves as far as the lower margin of the hoof, the posterior groove being about ^ inch from the heels, the anterior running obliquely backwards ; its highest point being about l-^- inches, its lowest about ^ inch from the posterior furrow. The wall of the quarter behind the anterior furrow is lowered with the rasp until it no longer touches the shoe. Where both quarters are diseased, the same procedure is adopted on either side. A bar shoe is then applied. When the frog is insufficiently developed to afford the shoe proper support, a leather, gutta-percha, or vulcanised pad is applied, and the grooves are filled with ointment, with which the entire hoof is dressed. If movement is painful, the feet can be placed in a foot-bath, and poultices applied, after which lame- ness soon disappears. Collin's method undoubtedly produces good results when the animal can be rested for several months ; otherwise, the next in order should be tried. (c) Thinning the Wall of the Contracted Heel. — A portion of the coronary margin, about ^- inch in breadth, should be left intact. A bar shoe is then applied, which should not touch the heels by about i inch. The limbs of the frog should, however, take a good bearing on the bar of the shoe. If necessary, the frog may be filled up with artificial horn com- position or a leather sole, and plenty of stopping applied. To prevent drying and hardening, the exposed parts should be dressed with a tampon of tow or wood wool saturated with tar, and lightly bandaged. The results are good ; the horn of the heels grows in a better direction, and lameness soon dis- appears. (d) Simple Incision bcloiv the Coronet. — Three-quarters of an inch below the meeting of hair and hoof, parallel with it and 356 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. to an extent corresponding to the contracted wall, an incision is made with a searcher, saw, or an instrument resembling a drawing chisel, the horn being removed as deep as the laminal slieath. The groove is filled with wax. The further treat- ment may comprise any of the methods given under A. A bar shoe taking a good bearing on the frog succeeds best if the horse cannot be completely rested. The effect is shown by the upper margin of the incision overlapping the lower in consequence of expansion at the coronet. Cure results from the portion of the wall above the incision growing down in the normal direction. Many other methods have been suggested, such as those of Bracy Clark, Coleman, Fulch, Barbier, Beaufils, etc., but cannot be recommended. {B) Weak heels (figs. 340 and 341) are sometimes developed to an extraordinary degree. Being too weak to carry the body- Fia. 340.— Contracted hoof from iinshod liorse. 'I'his growth resulted from want of move- ment and neglect of the feet, a, excessively long heels ; b, clefts in the region of the white line. weight when the horse is shod, they grow inward over the posterior parts of the horny sole and bars ; indeed in some cases over the limbs of the frog, and cause bruising, which we recognise as corns. The hoof becomes narrower, and falls within the definition of ' contracted hoof.' Weak heels are only too common in thin, shelly feet, and WEAK HEELS. 357 when occurring in Hat hoofs render the animal useless for rapid work on stone-paved streets. The best application is a bar shoe and leather sole, the frog resting on the bar, but the heels being kept clear of the shoe. The nail holes should be confined to the anterior two-thirds of the shoe. Pads, etc., are of little service. (C) Local Contraction, or Contraction at the Coronary Margin. — Instead of the wall of the heel running in a straight line from the coronet to the bearing margin, it pursues a curved course (fig. .342, a\ This contraction affects either one Fig. 341. — Left loie foot with weak heels. The dotted lines indicate the portion to be removed. \f 10.. J42. — Foot with local contraction. a, the contracted spot. or both heels ; the hoof appears as if drawn in by the applica- tion of a cord, and its outline has been compared to an hour- glass. Occasionally, instead of this wide curve, it presents local deformities, but the latter are most common in flat hoofs. The horse goes in a shuffling style, or is positively lame, especially at a trot. Pressing on the hoof with pincers pro- duces pain, as do light blows over the contracted portion of the wall. Broad, flat feet are especially disposed to this form of contraction, though it is also found in hoofs of normal character and in those with turned-out or turned-in toes. In upright lioofs, however, it never appears to such an extent as to produce 358 DEFOEMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. lameness, though even hoofs with very strong walls do not always escape it. The comparative frequence after the first shoeing of this form of contraction in horses which work on hard dry ground leaves little doubt that desiccation of the hoof and want of counter-pressure are its principal causes, though these again depend upon the artificial conditions set up by shoeing. All who have carefully studied the question agree that the change in the normal direction of the heel wall is produced by inter- ference with the expansion of the hoof. Dominik, who first described the condition, refers it to interference with expan- sion at the coronet. The tendency to contraction is, therefore, greatest at the coronary margin. Fambach regards it as due partly to excessive obliquity of the heel wall, and to removal of support from the frog. In this connection it may be pointed out that almost all hoofs that show local contraction of the heel wall are otherwise sound. The contraction at the coronary margin probably results as follows : — By lifting the frog clear of the ground, the shoe more or less prevents expansion of the bearing margin of the heel. The coronary margin, being the most yielding part, spreads outwards under the continuous strain of the body-weight. The direction of the coronary papillse is changed, the horn they secrete takes a more perpendicular course, and the wall, previously quite straight, shows, after eight to ten days, an apparent slight contraction opposite the lower third of the coronary groove. By growth from the coronet the contracted part is thrust downwards ; finally it reaches the centre of the heel wall, where it produces an appearance resembling an hour-glass. Arrived at the bearing margin it gradually disappears just as it had appeared above. The effects, however, continue, for on close observation it will be seen that the entire portion of wall involved has become more upright, so that instead of pointing outwards and back- wards it now points forwards and inwards. In other words, the heel walls previously diverged ; now they converge. The hoof has become narrower at the bearing margin of the heels. When the weight is greater on one side and the hoof very fiat, well-marked furrows may appear on one or other heel wall, as can be proved by comparative measurements of the hoof immediately before the first shoeing and a few weeks or months CONTRACTION AT COEONARY MARGIN OF HOOF. 359 later. Kest in the stable will produce similar results. The causes are shoeing, deficient frog support, desiccation, and insufficient exercise. The prognosis is favourable and lameness disappears when the contraction has grown down as far as the lower third of the wall. When it affects only the posterior part of the heel it can be removed in two or three shoeings, but if the feet are flat and the contraction extends further forward it may persist for a much longer time. Treatment consists in paring the hoof, so as to produce a level tread and straight foot axis ; the use of shoes of a thickness proportioned to the animal's size and work, and such as will allow the frog to bear weight. The bearing surface of the shoe should be horizontal at the heels ; the other portions may be horizontal or inclined slightly inwards, depending on whether the sole is concave, flat, or con- vex. If the frog is well developed and projects below the wall an ordinary thin-heeled shoe is most suitable, as it allows the frog to touch the ground. If, however, the frog is low or badly developed, a liar shoe is preferable. With tliis the neces- sary frog pressure can generally be produced, even when the frog is affected with thrush. In such case the frog is cleansed and disinfected, well smeared with tar or Venice turpentine, and the bar shoe, provided with a leather sole and plenty of stopping, nailed on. Needless to say any, portions of the wall which appear painful must be eased, that is, where it is impracticable to sufficiently seat out the shoe, a slight amount must be removed from the bearing surface directly l^elow, before affixing the shoe. In cases of even well-marked lameness thinning of the heel wall and four to eight days continued poulticing is often sufficient. The hoof should be kept moist and the animal exercised at a walk. This treatment is not directed towards preventing contraction at the bearing surface, but only aims at restoring the natural counter-pressure of the ground and thus promoting expansion of the hoof. Other means of relieving the heels and forcing the frog to Ijear a certain amount of weight, like the use of tips, filling the hoof with elastic cement, etc., are sometimes found advantageous. So far as its occurrence, position, and treatment , are concerned, contraction of the coronary margin may be 360 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. regarded as a modification of ordinary contraction, for the main differences between them are — the former affects fiat, spreading feet and only the extreme posterior part of the heel region, whilst ordinary contraction is commonest in upright feet and affects both quarters and heels. Many other sub-divisions of contracted hoof are described by German writers but have little interest for English readers, the practical advantages of such classification being almost nil. 5. The Laterally Distorted Hoof is produced by one quarter and heel being upright, while the other takes a slanting direction. Such a hoof, therefore, when cut through its longer diameter consists of two unequal portions. It has previously been remarked that oblique limbs usually have oblique hoofs, which may, therefore, be termed normal oblique hoofs and wliich should not be regarded as pathological. In determining whether a hoof of this description really is pathological, attention should be paid to the direction of the walls when viewed from behind and the width of the back of the hoof. When one-half of the wall runs from above down- wards and inwards, i.e., towards the middle line of the hoof, and the corresponding half of the frog is smaller than its fellow, the hoof is abnormal. The condition, in fact, may be regarded as unilateral contraction. Similar distortion is produced by faulty paring of the hoof. Causes. — Whilst in normal oblique hoofs the primary cause is almost always bad conformation of the limb, and consequent unequal distribution of weight, in pathological oblique hoofs the same unequal distribution of weight is aided by excessive par- ing or wear of the upright half of the wall. All faults in shoeing which favour contraction promote this condition, especially when they affect the upright wall. One of the most fertile causes is neglect of the hoof during the first years of life. The degree to which this malformation may be developed varies immensely. In some, the upright wall is drawn inwards, and the corresponding limb of the frog almost entirely atrophied ; in others, the (previously) normal wall may be affected as well, being bent outwards and exhibiting a convex surface. TREATMENT OF LATERAL DISTORTION. 361 Prognosis. — When the distortion of the hoof is a result of the deformation of the limb, and the old shoe shows com- paratively level wear, the condition is not serious. If, however, the hoof is much deformed, the horn of the wall weak, the wall itself curved inwards, and if, in addition, other disease exists, improvement is difficult and affected animals are of little use for work on hard roads, least of all at a rapid pace. Hoofs so deformed show a great tendency to disease, the up- right wall always suffering first ; corns and sanderacks are of frequent occurrence. The style of shoeing de])ends on the degree of disease and on the conformation of the limb, the two chief objects being to^ remove or minimise existing defects and to promote the return of the foot to its normal shape. The hoof must be trimmed so as to make the tread level, the bars and sole of the u})right side being left stronger than those of the opposite, for a strong sole and well developed bar Fig. 343.— Bur shoe for laterally ilistoi ted hoof, a, the upiiuht (((iiitructed) wall ; b, Uie spot over which tlie lioof is ' si>niii;i-.' prevent contraction of the wall better than any special shoe. Flat shoes {i.e., without heels) are most suitable, because they favour a level tread and equalise wear. Too much weight may be thrown on the upright wall, as- happens when, during the extension of the fetlock joint, the fetlock, instead of remaining behind the middle line of the hoof, tends to assume a position above the contracted coronary mar- gin of the heel. In such case an attempt should be made to relieve the contracted wall of weight. The hoof is, therefore, trimmed so that the upright wall comes in contact with the ground before its fellow when the animal is walked. Unless 362 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. striking is to be feared the limb of the shoe covering the up- right wall should be fitted as full as possible, the extreme edge being perpendicularly beneath the coronary margin of the con- tracted wall, whilst that on the sound side should exactly fit the wall. A bar shoe is even more useful, especially when the bulbs of the frog are displaced ; the shoe, however, should be fitted as described and the bar should take a bearing on the outer limb ■of the frog (fig. 343). Pathologically oblique hoofs may also be treated with De Fay's dilating shoe (see ' De Fay's shoe '), the notches on the inner margin of the shoe being made at the same side as the deformed wall, so that the effects may be confined to that side. If the hoof has been pared unevenly and the disproportion in the height of the two walls cannot be removed by trimming the horn, the parts may be built up by using some gutta-percha composition. Once improvement occurs and the upright wall assumes the Fig. 344.— Kight hind-foot of foal with three-quarter shoe of uneciual thicliuess. Tlie foot is tlius tipped iuwards. b, untouched bar; c, bar cut bacli. same direction as the limb, while the posterior portions of the hoof are of nearly normal width, treatment should cease, as its continuance may ])roduce other evils. The distortion of the hoof sometimes seen in unshod young horses cannot always be cured by paring and rasping the hoof, LATERAL DISTORTION AND CURVATURE OF HOOF. 363 •and a special shoe becomes necessary. The heel is thick on the same side as the contracted wall, and the shoe gradually becomes thinner from this point to its termination (fig. 344). In severe cases the shoe need only extend as far as the centre of the quarter (three-quarter shoe). 6. The Curved Hoof, The form of this hoof is well seen in fig. 345. One side is bent outwards, the other inwards, so that when viewed from in front they respectively appear convex and concave. Exagger- •ated cases of this distortion are uncommon. Fig. 345.— Kight lore-foot showing lateral curvature. The causes are unequal distriljution of weight and unequal wear ; in unshod horses and foals neglect of the hoof is a fertile cause. The curvature is often accompanied by contraction. In older (shod) horses the same condition may be produced by injudicious trimming of the hoof and by shoes badly made or fitted. If, for instance, one or other quarter is left too high for several shoeings, the corresponding side of the wall (fig. 346, a) becomes convex, whilst its fellow tends to become con- cave (b). Such distortion is favoured, for instance, by the outer half of the shoe being fitted too narrow in comparison with the •circumference of the hoof and the opposite portion too wide. The bowing of the hoof always sets in from above. Prognosis. — As a rule in curved hoofs the column formed 364 DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES OF THE HOOF. by the pastern, coronet, and pedal bones is twisted to one side, i.e., there is lateral distortion of the foot axis, the greater angle being directed towards the convex side of the hoof. In conse- quence the weight of the body is unequally distributed over the articular surfaces of the coronet and pedal joints, there is a tendency to bruising of the bones, while the lateral ligaments- of these joints are exposed to strain. The chief indication in treatment is to restore the normal position of the hoof. The convex half of the wall (fig. 346, a) is usually too high and too narrow, the opposite half {h) too low and too wide. The indications for fitting are, therefore, plain. The bearing surface of the shoe corresponding to the high and narrow side should be as wide as possible. A straight-edge I'IG. 346. — Cross section of a n^lit tuie-foot, showing lateral curvature. The horsu turns his- toes outwards. «, convex outer wall ; 6,"concave inner wall. The line c-d shows how much too high is the outer wall. The lines c-e and (j-h show the points to which the outer and inner linilis of the shoe must respectively he produced ; / indicates the amount of horn to he removed. laid on the convex half of the wall onl}' touches it in the centre, and the point at which it meets the (imaginary) pro- longation of the bearing surface shows how far the bearing surface of the shoe should extend outwards. The opposite half of the wall exhibits a concavity at the centre. With the- straight-edge it is easy to determine how much of the lower margin must be removed before fitting the shoe. The cure of this deformity requires considerable time. CHAPTER III. SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. 1. Sandceacks. A SANDCEACK is a tissure ia the wall running parallel with the direction of the horn fibres. Its position, length, and depth Fig. 347.— Hoof showing saiulcraoks at coronaiy and at bearing margin, and a sandcrack extending throughout the wall. The latter exhibits a uail inserted for the purpose of 'rivetinsr' the craok f.sRnii-dias-rammatifV ' riveting ' the crack (semi-diagrammatic). are all of importance in determining its probable results and the proper treatment to adopt. According to position we distinguish sandcracks of the toe, quarter, heel, and bar. Some affect the coronary margin, some the bearing margin, while some extend from one margin to the other of the wall ; some are superficial, others penetrate the thickness of the horn wall. There is little ditficulty in recog- nising sandcrack, except when a slight fissure has just com- menced at the coronet and the hoof has been dressed with an ointment or when the crack has been filled up. To avoid overlooking such cases the hoof should be thoroughly cleansed before examination. Deep cracks which extend from top to bottom of the wall are easily seen, because bleeding often occurs when the animal is worked, and lameness is a frequent though not a constant feature. When of old standing, and involving the entire thickness of the wall, sandcracks show prominent edges, which sometimes overlap and which are very noticeable. 366 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. The depth of the crack may be measured with a nail beaten tlat at the point. Some sandcracks are ' open,' others are ' closed ' or only slightly open. The causes comprise : injuries destroying a portion of the coronary band and thus leading to changes in the character of the wall ; excessive tension at the coronary margin in upright feet (producing sandcrack of the toe) and in flat and con- tracted hoofs (sandcrack of the qviarter). Fissuring is favoured by weakness of the wall, drying of the horn, bad fitting of the shoe, ' springing ' the heels when shoeing with ordinary shoes, in the case of carriage horses by trotting work on hard, rough, or frozen streets, and in riding horses by trotting, galloping, or jumping with a heavy rider. Sandcracks sometimes start from the bearing margin, as when horses are turned out without shoes and without the hoofs having been rounded off; when the bearing surface of the shoe is uneven, and when the counter-sinks allow the nails to penetrate too far or when the nails themselves are too large. Prognosis. — Sandcracks vary in gravity according to their cause and position. The most troublesome, perhaps, are those resulting from excessive strain on the coronary margin produced by unequal distribution of weight, because recovery then depends upon the downward growth of an unbroken mass of horn from the coronary band, and this again depends upon the length of the crack. The animal may be useless for months, for a time, in fact, sufficient for the hoof to be entirely renewed. During this period fresh cracks may develop if attempts are made to use the horse for trotting, galloping, or jumping, and again postpone recovery or seriously imperil it. Cracks result- ing from wounds of the coronary band are also grave, especially when a portion of the horn-secreting structure is destroyed. On the other hand, those due to drying of the horn or to bad shoeing are unimportant, provided the hoofs are well-shaped and sound. The same is true of cracks at the bearing surface. Treatment. — Eecovery is assisted by fixing the opposing margins of the crack firmly in position, thus preventing the new horn from being torn through. Immobilisation of the edges is not, however, the principal point, and it is much more important to attend to the distribution of weight in the hoof and to improvement of its form. METHODS OF FIXING TOGETHER EDGES OF SANDCRACK. 367 The margins of the crack may be fixed together by one of the following methods : — 1. By means of clips, which may be either bought ready made or fashioned out of thin rod iron by the farrier himself. A depression to receive the clip is made in the horn by apply- ing a specially shaped red-hot iron. The clip is then placed in position and the ends pressed inwards by means of special pincers. The operation should be performed while the animal stands on the foot, and the clip, which should be sunk almost flush with the wall, applied immediately after removing the iron, because then the horn is soft and allows the points ta m^ i^ ^=^ (^=b Figs. 348, 340. penetrate, while it ensures the clip holding firmly. According to the length of the crack one to three clips may be applied. This method is only applicable to sandcracks around the toe and in strong hoofs. 2. By metal plates (fig. 351), fastened with small wood' screws corresponding in length to the thickness of the outer sheath of the wall. For quarter and heel cracks shorter but broader plates are used, in which the screws are applied one below the other. The plate is slightly countersunk before being screwed on, by heating to a dull red and pressing it on the proper spot. Plates can be used for any kind of crack, except those at the extreme ends of the heel. They appear to have given satisfaction. 3. By rivets. One or two specially prepared horse nails are driven through the borders of the crack and afterwards clenched in the usual way. The operation is rendered easier by boring or burning the holes for the rivets beforehand. This is the oldest process and if carefully performed is very successful, but can be employed only at the toe and quarters. 4. By means of the special teethed sandcrack band invented by Koster. The hoof is cleansed, the edges of the crack, if necessary, smoothed, and grooves for inserting the jaws of the 368 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. band burnt with a special iron. The band is then inserted from above in the grooves and driven downwards to close the ■crack. This band holds exceedingly well, and in consequence of the toothed edge it never slips back ; nevertheless, it some- times has a tendency to produce fresh splits in the horn at the spot where the grooves have been burnt. 5, By means of sandcrack straps (fig. 350). These are intended to hold the edges of the crack firmly together. The broad, enlarged, and concave portion of the strap lies around the coronet. A mass of tow moistened with some fatty material is placed below it and the whole drawn together. The strap is removed every three or four days, the crack Fig. 350. — Sandcrack strap. cleansed and a fresh tampon of tow applied. The advantages stated by Schleg are: (1) it allows of permanent application of fatty materials, which render the horn more elastic, and assist the normal growth from the coronet, while it prevents the separation of the edges ; (2) it can be used along with any other method of fixation ; and (3) it can be used as a preventive on brittle hoofs. It is, however, difficult to draw it sufficiently tight. 6. By means of broad linen tape. After applying a mass of tow moistened with tar, fat, or oil to the coronet, the tape is moistened and wound firmly round the upper part of the lioof. The ends are tied or sewn together, and the whole is then smeared with tar. This dressing, which acts somewhat like the strap, remains in position until the next shoeing. 7. To check the continued opening and closing of the crack, a shoe with ' bar-clips,' fitted closely to the bar of the foot on either side, has been successfully employed. By diminishing expansion at the heels, this shoe lessens movement in all other parts and prevents the sensitive tissues being nipped between the margins of the crack. USE OF STRAPS, TAPE, ETC., FOR SANDCRACK. 369 The methods 1 to 4 are applicable where the crack follows the direction of the horny fibres, but are of no value where the margins are irregular, zigzag, wavy, or overlapping. In the latter case the parts should be thoroughly thinned with a rasp or fine searcher, but bleeding should be avoided. The animal is then shod and the strap (5) or linen tape applied. All these methods act by bringing the edges of the crack together, and minimising movement at the coronet. Grosswendt in 1888 suggested another method for use in spe- cial cases. As the crack was open and filled with granulations from the sensitive parts, riveting would have been useless (or worse). Grosswendt, therefore, applied a wooden wedge, thrust between the edges of the crack, thus holding it open. With suitable local treatment he effected a cure. (a) Sandcrack originating at the Coronary Margin is the form most commonly seen. In seeking the best method ■of shoeing it should be borne in mind that everything which renders the hoof broad and strong, improves its form, and relieves the diseased portion of the wall of pressure, favours recovery. Accordingly, tips, dilating shoes, bar shoes, and stop- pings which cause counter-pressure on the sole assist recovery. Fig. 351.— Hoof shod for sandcrack of the toe. Fig. 352.— Hoof shod witli bar shoe for ((uarter crack. Tlie part of the wall which has been ' eased ' is shown by dotted lines. 1. Toe sandcrack is best treated by trimming the hoof so as to give a level tread and by applying a shoe with two toe- clips. The nail holes should be punched somewhat further back than usual. The edges of the crack may be fixed together by metal plates (fig. 351) or by the insertion of a few rivets or 2 A 370 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. special clips. The choice of these must be determined by the position and character of the crack. Bar shoes are only resorted to when the bearing surface of the wall is defective, 2. Quarter and heel cracks are best treated by the use of bar shoes. Before nailing on, the portion of the wall below and behind the crack should be lowered so as to relieve it of weight. The exact area from which to remove horn can be judged as follows. The crack is prolonged in imagination in the same direction as the horn fibres until it reaches the bearing surface. From the npper end of the crack an im- aginary vertical line is dropped to the bearing surface of the hoof. The portion comprised between these two lines is then lowered sufficiently to prevent any pressure on that part until the next time of shoeing (fig. 352). Another, and per- haps preferable, method is to seat out the shoe at the points indicated, leaving the wall untouched. The same rule applies to cracks at the heel, even when the imaginary vertical line falls behind the bearing surface. Stoppings are of value because they convey a portion of the body- weight to the sole and frog, lead to expansion of the hoof, and diminish concussion during movement, all of which tend to prevent the new horn from cracking. "When the crack is widely open and the frog small, or when the hoof is contracted, a shoe with bar-clips may be employed. If the edges of the crack are irregular or overlapping, all projecting parts should be removed. To assist the growth of sound wall and diminish the tendency to fresh fissures, the upper portions of the wall near the crack should be thinned, the hoof kept moist, and a sandcrack boot or tape applied. French clips are not advisable in cracks of the quarter, and are distinctly injurious in cracks of the heel. To prevent the fissure extending further, a furrow may be burnt or cut at its extreme end, and at right angles to its general direction. The furrow is made at the lower end of cracks starting from the coronet, and at the upper end of those starting from the bearing margin of the wall. Blisters of cantharides or biniodide of mercury are some- times applied to the coronet to stimulate the growth of horn. The wall secreted is found to be thicker than before. Animals suffering from sandcrack often recover without treatment if SANDCRACK OF CORONARY MARGIN AND BARS. 371 turned out barefooted, tliougli an exception must be made as regards those with sandcrack starting from the bearing surface. If during the first few days there is inflammation and lame- ness cold poultices may be applied. When lameness is absent liorses may be used for slow work. Carriage and riding horses should not be used at a fast pace until at least half an inch of sound horn has grown. (b) Sandemcl- of the Bars nearly always results from deformity of the heels, produced by contraction or by allowing the heels to become too high. It almost invariably affects fore-feet and is generally accompanied by corns. When it exposes the sensitive structures, superficial inflammation and lameness supervene. The limb is knuckled over at the fetlock during rest, and unless treatment is at once commenced, the inflammation extends to deeper-seated struc- tures as far even as the plantar cushion, the bulb of the heel on the affected side shows tumefaction and severe lameness results, which demands the attention of the veterinary surgeon. The bars form part of the most yielding portion of the hoof. The crack alternately opens and shuts during movement and tends to increase in length, while the sensitive parts become irritated and inflamed. By paring the parts after removal of the shoe, the split is seen as a black line, which exudes a little of the grey horn pus, or, in severe cases, even blood. Treatment should be directed towards producing a fresh growth of sound horn. The borders of the crack are to be entirely removed, the surrounding horn thoroughly thinned, and the affected heel wall relieved of all shoe pressure. The heel wall is lowered and a bar shoe with leather sole and stopping applied. Eemoval of the margins of the crack may leave a deep groove, especially in upright hoofs. If the bottom of this groove appears moist, a little tampon of tow moistened with tincture of myrrh or aloes is inserted, and the space filled with wax. The crack gradually closes, if due precautions be taken. 372 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HOKN. (c) Crachs at the Bearing Margin of the Wall are commonest in unshod horses, and result from excessive outward strain on this part. They can generally be prevented by rounding off the lower edge of the wall with a rasp before turning the horse out. In shoeing, such cracks may result from the use of large nails, especially when the nail holes are punched too near the outer edge of the shoe. Every crack at the coronet may in time extend to the bearing surface. To prevent such cracks in unshod horses it is usually sufficient to shoe them, but in horses already shod attention must be given to the position of the nail holes and the use of thinner nails. The bearing surface in the neigh- bourhood of the crack should be lowered in the way afterwards described. To prevent the crack extending, a deep transverse furrow is cut or burnt at its upper end. 2. Tkansverse Cracks of the Wall may occur at any point ; they are generally seen at the inner quarter and toe, as a result of treads from sharp or faulty calkins. Pus from suppurating corns, etc., may break through at the coronet, and produce the same result by interrupting, for a time, the connection between the horn and coronary band. Such cracks are occasionally seen at the heel, the horn fibres having broken across, owing to dryness and contraction of the horn. They are not of much importance, and need only attract attention when they come within the region embraced by the nails. In order to avoid disfiguring the hoof, the horn below the cleft should be preserved as long as possible, the wall at this point being lowered and kept clear of the shoe. If, however, the piece becomes loose, it is better to remove it and fill up the resulting cavity with gutta-percha or some composition. 3. Loose Wall, Seedy Toe, etc. (a) When at any point in the white line the connection between the wall and sole is destroyed, the resulting condition is described as ' loose wall.' SANDCRACK, LOOSE WALL, AND SEEDY TOE. 373 It is commoner in fore than in hind feet, and at the inner than at the outer side. Taken as a whole it is not of in- frequent occurrence, though it only attracts notice when it extends to the soft parts and makes the horse lame. On account of this fact an artificial division between superficial and deep-seated loose wall has been made. The latter causes lameness by reason of the separation extending towards the lower margin of the sensitive wall and there producing super- ficial inflammation or even pus formation. Loose wall can only be detected with certainty by removing the shoe and searching the foot, although its presence may sometimes be guessed by the bulging of the lower margin of the wall (fig. 353, a). The prognosis depends on whether the separation is super- ficial or deep, and whether it involves a large portion of the wall. Separations occasioning lameness are, like sandcracks, apt to be very troublesome. Fig. 353. — Vertical section of a hoof (semi-diagranmiatic). a, loose wall ; h, seedy wall (the process has extended furtlier). The causes of loose wall are various. When the wall forms an oblique angle witli the ground, it is more liable to separate than when upright. Wide, fiat hoofs, therefore, are its commonest seat, but laterally distorted and contracted hoofs also exhibit the condition. The soft horn composing the white line is doubtless largely responsible for the occurrence of separations, offering, as it does, little resistance to the ammoniacal fluids, etc., to which it is so often exposed, and suffering more severely than contiguous parts from the heat of the shoe when applied for fitting. Contact with manure alters its nature, the heat of the shoe dries it, and causes cracks and irregular strains in different portions, while the downward progress of the wall, which rather favours tension and cracking of the sole even when sound, contributes to the production of 374 SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HORN. loose wall. Front feet suHer more frequently, because they are kept drier and carry greater weight. Eapid work on hard ground and faulty fitting of the shoe are also frequent causes. Narrowness of the bearing surfaces and an inclination outwards at the heels particularly favour separation. Loose wall can only be cured by the downward growth of healthy horn. In this case the old advice to remove the cause is especially applicable. Careful preparation of the hoof is of great importance. The connection between the wall and sole should never be weakened, though all ' seedy ' and broken-down horn must be removed, and the bearing surfaces should be made as broad as possible by allowing the shoe to slightly overlap the margin of the sole. This relieves the loose part of the wall of weight without doing any harm. Convex walls should be judiciously rasped so as to bring them towards their normal direction. If the hoof is weak, the bearing surface of the shoe may be very slightly inclined inwards. If, however, in addition to loose wall other disease of the hoof exists, a bar shoe with leather sole should be applied ; sometimes quarter-clips are useful. When lameness is present, the separated section of the wall should be relieved of weight, but this is not always possible when the separation is of large extent. To prevent drying and the entrance of dirt the space may be filled with tar, or, better still, with Venice turpentine and tow, failing which, wax can be used. Horn substitutes like gutta-percha become hard, and are apt to act as a wedge, increasing the size of the space ; they should, therefore, be avoided. If pain is excessive and suppuration feared, the suspected area can be opened at its lowest point with a small centre-bit, and any blood-stained or purulent fluid removed, when the pain will diminish. After-treatment is similar to that given on page 320. In unshod horses loose wall is treated by removing all the separated horn and, if necessary, by applying a shoe. (h) Seedy toe is a condition in which the laminal and tubular sheaths of the horn wall are divided in the direction of their respective surfaces. Compared with that previously described, this condition is rare. TKEATMKNT OF LOOSE WALL AND SEEDY TOE. 37") The presence of seedy toe may be suspected when a portion of the wall appears either prominent or hollow, and gives forth a hollow sound on being struck. To confirm the diagnosis the shoe must be removed. The white line is then seen to be replaced by a narrow slit, which, however, in no way indicates the extent of the disease. The division between the two por- tions of the wall extends further upwards than in loose wall, in many cases as far as the coronet. The space is usually dlled with degenerated horn. Tlie width of the diseased part may at times be very considerable. Moller states that it varies from -|- inch to 4 inches. Seedy toe is generally painless, but lameness is caused when weight is thrown on the diseased portion of wall and when the animal is worked at a fast pace. The aiusG is stated by Moller to be an interruption in the formation of horn. In fact, there is considerable diversity of opinion on this point, but tentatively seedy toe may be con- sidered as possibly due to the action of some fungus-like organism which obtains entrance to the inner sheath of the wall and induces change in the horn. A cure requires con- siderable time. In shoGing, the diseased portion of wall should always be relieved of weight. The cavity should be cleared out and, after dressing with pure carbolic acid, filled with tow and tar, turpentine, or wax. When the disease is more extensive a bar shoe should l)e applied and the nails omitted at tlie diseased spot. The radical method of dealing with seedy toe is to remove all separated and disintegrated horn, thoroughly disinfect the parts with pure carbolic acid, apply a bar shoe and blister the coronet. This, of course, necessitates a long rest. 4. TiiKUSir is characterised by the presence in the cleft of the frog of an ill-smelling, blackish fluid, and by the frog itself being ragged or atrophied. The disease usually begins in the central furrow of the frog and extends thence to the other portions, which it destroys partly or even entirely. The products of decomposi- tion irritate the sensitive parts and cause tenderness if not 376 • SOLUTIONS OF CONTINUITY IN THE HOEN. actual lameness. The central portion of the frog first dis- appears ; and as a result of the unopposed pressure of the wall the limbs next approach and till up the previously existing cleft, a condition which renders it ditticult to keep the space clean. At the same time, the discharge gradually attacks the horny bulbs and may lead to a similar process in the periople. This is followed by the formation of rings in the superficial horny sheath of the wall. The rings can be distinguished from those of the deeper sheath both by their appearance and course. They usually consist of slight elevations, which approach in front and towards the upper part of the foot,, where they may end or again may take an irregular course backwards, extending as far as the opposite half of the wall. They always cross the rings of the deeper sheath ; indeed, when thrush has existed for a long time, they some- times cross one another. This peculiar ring formation, which is almost pathognomonic of thrush, shows that the disease has existed for at least several months. Thrush results chiefly from want of cleanliness, insufficient exercise, and faulty shoeing. If for a long time tlie frog is prevented touching the ground by excessive trimming, or by the use of unsuitable shoes, it either atrophies or thrush develops. Prolonged rest, however, without any fault in shoeing, may produce the disease. It has been suggested that thrush is due to inflammation of the sudoriparous glands of the frog. Prognosis. — The views held as to the significance of thrush are unusually varied. Some regard it as a very trifling disease, which may continue for years without any particular ill consequence, or even as a benign condition not to be inter- fered with. If thrush in itself is not of much importance, it often leads, liowevcr, to much more serious conditions. It weakens the framework of the hoof, and in flat feet favours the advent of contraction. It may interfere with the animal's use, and even when not actually producing lamoness, it causes the stride to be shortened and diminishes freedom of movement. When affecting one side of the frog, it is apt to lead to unilateral contraction and obliquity of the hoof. In addition, it has been held responsible for the production of corns, sandcracks, and even canker. THRUSH. 377 The irmtmtnt of thrush is neither complicated nor difficult, provided neglect has not resulted in serious changes in the hoof. When the attack is recent and there is no marked change in form, cure will be obtained by allowing the diseased frog to come in contact with the ground and exercising the animal freely. In more serious cases removal of all loose fragments of horn, thorough washing of the diseased frog several times daily, and the application of some antiseptic or mild astringent, such as raw pyroligneous acid or a 5 per cent, solution of sulphate of copper, will usually prove sufficient. To prevent irritation by manure, etc., the frog should be cleansed and smeared with Venice turpentine, after which a moderately warm iron may be slowly passed over the parts without actually burning them ; if, however, the disease is of old standing, the frog almost denuded of horn, and the hoof so contracted that the walls of the heel press on the plantar cushion and frog, De Fay's shoe (page 350) may be employed with great advantage. Contraction at the heels favours the disease, and conversely its removal assists recovery. As soon as possible the frog should be allowed to come in contact with the ground. Needless to say, the dilating shoe is useless except when the hoof is contracted. By using the knife in conjunction with astringent powders, thrush can be cured, i.e., the offensive discharge can be stopped ; but, as compared with the sound, well-developed organ which results from proper shoeing, the small, dry, shrivelled frog thus produced is most unsatisfactory. Thrush can only he regarded as cured when the discharge has ceased and the frog is once more dry and well developed. This is not to be obtained by the application of chemicals ; regular exercise and the intermittent pressure it causes can alone produce sound horn. Canker can only be efficiently treated by the veterinary surgeon, and the work of the farrier in such cases is confined to fashioning the neces- sary shoe. CHAPTER IV. INFLAMMATION OF THE STliUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. 1. Pkicks in Shoeing KESULT from misdirection of the nail in driving, in consequence either of the driver's carelessness, or (and much more fre- quently) of badly-punched nail-holes. They may be divided into two kinds, direct and indirect. The effects of the first are immediately perceptible, those of the second may be delayed. In cases of direct injury tlie nail penetrates the sensitive sole or wall, and the lesion may vary from simple perforation to fracture of the edge of the os pedis. There is always bleed- ing, though the blood may not be seen. In the second case the nail does not penetrate vascular tissues, but passes close to them, thrusting the soft horn inwards, pressing on sensitive structures, and in the course of a few days producing inflammation and lameness. There is no bleeding. This condition is often termed ' binding.' Sjjmptovis. — The first symptom of direct injury is pain, shown by the limlj being pulled away, and intimating to the farrier that the nail has taken a wrong course. When removed, more or less blood follows the nail or discolours its point, but bleeding may occur inwardly without being visible. It is otherwise when the foot at some part is bound or indirectly injured. Tain is not then immediately evinced, or at least not until the animal places weight on the foot. Tf attempts are made to raise the opposite foot the horse leans in that direction iind appears uneasy. The effects of indirect pricks usually become apparent in from two to three days, but may be post- poned for eight to fourteen days, when inflammation and lame- DETECTION OF PPJCKS FROM SHOEING. 379 5iess draw attention to the foot. The hoof is tlien hot, painful to percussion and to pressure with the pincers ; there is slight swelling, increased pulsation of the digital arteries, and partial or complete inability to bear weight on the foot. Pricks in shoeing may be suspected when the animal is tender on the foot, when it has been newly shod, when the hoof appears too small for the size of the body, when the wall is excessively rasped or portions are broken away, and when the nails are very high or very unequally placed. Premising that even with every precaution pricks in shoeing •are sometimes unavoidable, the more common causes may be arranged as follows : — (1) badly placed or misdirected nail tholes ; (2) excessive paring and lowering of the hoof ; (3) thin- ning the wall by rasping the outside ; (4) faults in fitting the shoe ; using very narrow shoes ; sinking the toe-clip too far into the hoof (the nail holes, instead of corresponding with the white line, then fall within the region of the sole) ; (5) faulty driving ; the use of badly pointed or excessively large nails ; •(6) placing the nail too deep, or reversal of its point. As accidental causes may be mentioned, (7) old stubs left in the hoofs ; (8) very thin or broken walls ; (9) abnormal softness of the horn, which renders it difficult to ascertain the course •of the nail by the resistance and sound : (10) restlessness of the animal while the nails are being driven ; and (11) (nowadays a very uncommon event) splitting of the nail in the hoof. To detect pain in the foot the pincers are applied with moderate and regular pressure all round the sole and the •clenches, and the lower part of the wall is gently tapped with the hammer. If the horse flinches at a certain spot, the shoe must be removed, each nail being drawn separately. Note should be taken of the direction and thickness of the nails and of any adherent blood, blood- serum, or pus. The point where <3ach nail enters the hoof should be examined. If, instead of passing through the white line, one of the nail holes appears within it, i.e., nearer the centre of the foot, it is in the highest degree probable that that particular nail hole is at fault. Each hole is then examined by passing a clean nail into it and pressing the point towards the soft tissues at different depths. Under such conditions symptoms of pain are a sure indication of the animal having been pricked. It need scarcely be said 380 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES EXCLOSEP BY THE HOOF. that the position and direction of the nail lioles in the shoe- niiist be carefully examined. Treatment. — If the horse Hindi while a particular nail is being driven, the nail should at once be removed, the hole disinfected with a few drops of carbolic oil (5 per cent.) and closed with wax. There is seldom any bad result. But when bleeding follows, the shoe should once more be carefully tried, and only affixed when it is seen to fit perfectly and the nail holes to exactly correspond with the white line; the nails should be left out in the neighbourhood of the injury and the latter disinfected and closed with wax or tar. After severe stabs or pricks a more or less well-marked inflammation of the corium is to be expected, though it may lie prevented by cutting out and disinfecting the injured part, resting the animal, and using cold poultices. When, however, the wound is clean and fresh no good object is served by cutting it out. ' Binding ' (or nail pressure) often remains undetected until' pain becomes severe. In such cases the offending nail when withdrawn is usually covered with, or followed by, pus, or a dark coloured, sometimes stinking fluid. To allow the freest possible exit for this discharge it is advisable to remove all horn which has become ' underrun,' i.e., which is separated from the sensitive tissues. The particular nail hole may be cut out sufficiently to accommodate the little finger, the surrounding parts of the sole well thinned, and discharge assisted by warm baths or poultices. Excessive paring is to be avoided. If pain continues after removing the nail and allowing the pus^ to escape, warm Imths of 3 to 5 per cent, carbolic solution are very useful. The moisture and warmth soften the horn and diminish pain. If after two or three warm baths the pain is diminished or not very severe, a few drops of carbolic oil or tincture of myrrh' may be applied to the injured part and the opening closed with a little carbolic jute or wood wool. In most cases com- plete recovery will soon occur. If shod so as to prevent pressure on the injured spot, horses which have been pricked can often be returned to work in a few days. The shoe must take its bearing only on the wall, and pressure on the white line and margin of the sole must be avoided. No nails should be driven in the neighbourhood of the injury. Although, when PRICKS IN SHOEING AND PICKED-UP NAILS. 381 •early detected and appropriately treated, pricks in shoeing are not dangerous, yet in some cases they lead to extensive suppuration and loss of the hoof, or become infected, determine the onset of tetanus, and thus prove often fatal. 2. PicKED-up Nails. It not infrequently happens that nails and sharp bodies accidentally penetrate the hoof, either through the horny sole or Irog, and, driven onwards by the weight of the animal's body, Fig. 354.— Hind-foot shod with surgical shoe for retaining dressings. reach the sensitive sole, sensitive frog, plantar cushion, per- forans tendon, navicular sheath, pedal bone or even the coffin joint. The hind feet are perhaps more frequently affected than the fore. The commonest points of perforation are the lateral furrows of the frog, and, when weakened by excessive trim- ming, the sole and frog. The symptoms are usually sudden pain and lameness. The shoe should be removed and a thin slice taken off the sole and frog when the point of entrance of the foreign body (or the body itself), whether a nail, piece of glass, or other pointed 382 INFLAMMATIOX OF STltUCTUKES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. object, will be discovered, and should be cautiously removed, particular care being taken not to leave any fragment behind. As the prognosis largely depends on how deep the foreign body has penetrated, the latter should be preserved, so that the veterinary surgeon may examine it. In slight injuries of the sensitive sole or frog, where pain is. only moderate, the wound should not be enlarged, and it is only necessary to carefully thin the adjacent horny parts. In deeper penetrating injuries and when pain is severe, a veterinary surgeon should be called in. Poultices or dressings are then necessary, and the special shoe (fig. 354) may be found useful. The shoe is well seated Fig. 355.— Shoe for surgical dressing of the foot, a, screw holes ; and b, depression on upper surface for fastening the cover shown in next fig. b'lG. 35G. — Cover for slioe shown in. previous fig. The letters indicate simi- lar points. out and the dressing itself held in position by flexible pieces of wood thrust between the shoe and the horny sole. By using two crossed ' splints ' of thin wood or hoop iron, a dressing may he retained in an ordinary shoe, the special form then being unnecessary. In very special cases, when it is desired to exercise pressure on the injured spot and when the entire ground surface of the hoof must be protected, the shoes shown in figs. 355 to 362 may be used ; the sole is protected by an iron plate affixed by means of a point at the toe and a screw at either heel. rS. -G Sb--" S S OQ O £ a Tofac^p. 383.] SURGICAL SHOES. 383. STAMPED CAET FOEE SHOE (SUEGICAL), WITH AERANGEMENT FOE DEESSING FOOT (Fig. 357). Made from 1|- x ^ inch iron. This shoe, specially made for treating cases of canker, etc.^ is seated out to the heels to allow of an iron plate {sec following figures) being inserted between it and the foot. The modus operandi is to dress the foot, insert a proper stopping of tow, wood-wool, etc., and insert the plate, which serves the double purpose of retaining the dressing and excluding moisture. As it is usually needful to dress the foot daily, this shoe- obviates the necessity for removal and is of important service. STAMPED CAET HIND SHOE (SUEGICAL), WITH AEEANGEMENT FOE DEESSING FOOT (Fig. 358). Made from 1^ X ^ i7ich iron. This shoe corresponds in purpose with the preceding. It must be well seated out to the extreme limits of heels to allow the plate to be introduced. In most cases it is advantageous- to have, as here depicted, a toe and two quarter clips. They give greater support to the shoe and prevent it shifting. 384 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. PLATES FOE SUEGICAL SHOES (Fig. 359). Made from 16 gauge sheet iron. This plate closes the under surface of the foot, retaining the •dressing, preventing the entrance of moisture or dirt, and pro- tecting the parts from injury. The sheet iron used must be fairly stout, otherwise the plate bends and rapidly wears out. Before the shoe is nailed on the foot it is used as a guide for marking out the plate, which is made to slip in and out with a certain amount of friction. When the shoe is nailed •on, the plate is inserted and the length of heel marked. Lastly, the heel portion is turned over in the vice and the holes for straps are punched. STAMPED CAET HIND SHOE (SUEGICAL), WITH AEEANGEMENT FOE DEESSING FOOT (Fig. 360). Made from 1^ X -I- incJi iron. This shoe is used for a similar purpose to those preceding. The plate is attached by three screws, one at the toe and one at each heel. Being more complicated, the shoe is, in general, less useful than that with sliding plate. [To face p. 384. Fig. 3(31. — Stamped cart bind .sl)oe (isurgical), ^\•itIl aiTaiigenient for dressing foot. Made froiii 1 1- x .', iiicli iron. T.— '\'he same shod. The dotted lines indicate the previous form. changes, those of the quarters and heels being less affected. Varying with the degree of disease the connection between the- ANATOMICAL CHANGES AFTER LAMINITIS. 597 sensitive and horny laminrc is more or less obliterated, the os pedis sinks, and at the same time a depression occurs round the coronet (figs. 372 to 375). The form of the hoof, therefore, alters and the heels appear higher. Eings form on the wall, the course of which is quite characteristic. At the toe they lie close together, gradually di- verging from this point towards the heels (fig. 374). Below the •coronet the toe wall generally sinks in, while its under parts appear thrust outwards. The white line is abnormally broad, its horn is ' cheesy,' loose, and easily broken down ; as a consequence, the relations between the horny wall and horny sole are altered and there is a tendency to the formation of hollow wall. If no relapse occurs, recovery sometimes results, the new horn Fig. 376. — Special broad shoe for laminitis, with two toe-clips and a frog-clip. growing down in the normal direction from the coronet, though as a rule the horn of the white line appears altered in character. If, however, the first attack be severe or repeated, the horny sole becomes flattened or even convex around the toe in consequence of descent of the os pedis. In aggravated cases the toe of the os pedis may penetrate the horny sole in front of the frog. The wall of the toe, previously little changed, is then completely distorted and bulged outwards. Early treatment by a veterinary surgeon may cut short the attack and entirely prevent the changes in form and condition of the hoof, but when this is neglected the disease is apt to 398 INFLAMMATION OF STKUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. become chronic, and pathological changes in the hoof can never be completely prevented. The animal may certainly recover sufficiently to be used, but its gait is always characteristic. The feet are not lifted fairly from the ground, but thrust forward and set down heel first. The heels of the shoe, therefore, wear most. In preparing such hoofs for shoeing, a large amount of the prominent, bulging toe may be removed without injury. The sole should be spared and the heels lowered only slightly. The choice of a shoe depends principally on the condition of the sole. When this still remains somewhat concave an ordinary shoe can be used, but if it is flattened or absolutely convex a broad shoe, preferably a bar shoe (fig. 376), should be chosen, especially if the bearing margin of the wall be broken. As long as the toe continues sensitive toe-clips should be avoided and a pair of side-clips substituted, the portion of the wall lying between the clips being lowered J inch to prevent pressure on the diseased toe (see fig. 375). In horses which have suffered from laminitis the shoe is sometimes displaced forwards on account of the animal's unequal tread. This may be avoided by providing each heel or the heel prolongation with a clip (fig. 376). 7. Keratomata, OR Horn Tumours, consist in thickening of the inner surface of the horn wall (fig. 377). They are not common. Their most frequent seat is the toe, rarely the wall of the quarter. Guteniicker regards them as due to chronic inflammation of the sensitive wall with suppuration between the sensitive and horny laminae. The pus is retained, causes partial degeneration of the sensitive laminae and separation of the sensitive from the horny laminae. After the pus has escaped through a passage established by pressure or through an artificial opening, the space left is only partially filled up, and, in consequence of the inflam- mation, small prominences form on the free margins of the sensitive laminie, which are the chief agents in the production of keratomata. As the free margins of the sensitive laminae increase in thickness the track of horn they secrete becomes OBSTINATE CHARACTER OF KERATOMATA. 399 wider. The keratoma thus produced gradually occupies the formerly empty space, and in its turn may lead to partial atrophy (pressure atrophy) of the os pedis. Keratomata may be caused by chronic inflammation un- accompanied by suppuration. The cavity in the os pedis corresponds in form and extent with the keratoma. Symptoms. — Horn tumours do not invariably produce lame- ness, but, when lameness is present, pain, increased warmth and pulsation of the digital arteries may usually be detected. The growth can only be removed after it reaches the bearing surface. The white line is then distorted at some part of its Fig. 377. — A piece of the toe wall removed, together with keratoma, a, coronary margin ; b, plantar margin ; c, keratoma ; d, depression containing pus. course, describing a semicircle around the horn tumour, which appears at the ground surface as a waxy-lookiug body. The new growth occasionally undergoes degeneration, producing a depression of varying depth, with dark coloured walls, from which a greyish-black pus is sometimes discharged. Causes. — Chronic inflammation of the sensitive wall conse- quent on bruises, pricks in shoeing, clefts in the horn, corns, or treads. The prognosis is unfavourable whether lameness exists or not. Under any circumstances lameness is probable and liable to recur even after removal of the growtb. Treatment. — When suppuration has seriously affected the 400 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. sensitive wall, or when severe pain has existed uninterruptedly for a long time, operation is advisable and can only be suc- cessfully attempted by a veterinary surgeon. If, however, suppuration is only slight, and pain insignificant, the best treatment is to thin the neighbouring parts, expose the sup- purating spot, and then to dress and plug the cavity with a 20 per cent, solution of iodoform in ether. This treatment should be repeated at every shoeing until improvement occurs. The latter, however, depends principally on thorough cutting out and cleansing of the suppurating spot. Shoeing. — When the wall is good an ordinary shoe is suffi- cient, but if broken away or diseased a bar shoe, well seated out at the affected part, is preferable. The spot itself should be relieved of all pressure. 8. OaNKEK OF THE FrOG OR SOLE is a peculiar intractable disease of the corium, which always tends to become aggravated, and which is attended with pro- liferation of the sensitive papillaj or laminse, disturbance in the ordinary formation of horn, and the secretion of a thick, offensively smelling fluid. It usually begins unnoticed in one of the lateral furrows of the frog, less frequently in the sole, and is only detected after having made considerable progress. A moist discharging spot, from which the horn has been shed, is then noticed. Its base is pale red, swollen, and spongy, and not infrequently the sensitive frog, sole or wall exhibits warty, cauliflower-like or brushy growths. There is seldom lameness at this stage. The disease makes steady but slow progress, and a long period may elapse before it extends from the frog to the wall. At a later period the hoof, if not already very oblique, increases in width towards the heels. The causes are not yet sufficiently known. Slight inflamma- tion due to bruising, especially when the corium is exposed, is said to be sufficient to cause an attack. Although canker is quite distinct from thrush, the latter disease seems to favour the production of canker. The prognosis is unfavourable and .should always be guarded. The principal indications are afforded by the condition of the PKOGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF CANKEI!. 401 parts, the extent of the disease, the length of time it has existed, the rapidity of its return after treatment, and the number of feet affected. Treatment comprises the removal of all loose horn, and the careful paring away and exposure of the diseased spot. For this purpose a searcher, scalpel, and forceps are required. The parts should be spared as much as possible and care taken that the surface in which the sound and diseased parts meet exhibits Fig. 378. — Shoe prepared for canker dressing. a, heels tapped and screwed ; b, depression for taking the toiigue of the cover shown in next fig. Fig. 379.— Cover for above shoe. no hard margins. Bleeding shotild, if possible, be avoided. The paring, therefore, requires some skill. The parts are next thoroughly cleansed with clean lint or tow, without using water, and the dressing applied. All kinds of drugs have been tried, some with good, some with bad results. Distinct granulations should be removed by the use of mild caustics and the real curative material (generally an astringent and disinfectant) thereafter applied, Schleg recommends a mixture of sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, and pulverised tormentilla root in the proportions of 1 : 2 : 3, or equal parts of salicylic acid and pulverised tormentilla root. Professor Putz suggests nitrate of lead. When the materials are used in the form of powder they must be rubbed in. Finally all parts denuded of horn should be subjected to moderate regular pressure by a surgical dressing, or less preferably by means of a special shoe and cover (see fig. 380). Wood wool or jute tampons are applied to the spot, 2c 402 INFLAMMATION OF STliUCTUKES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. the sheet of iron slipped into position and fastened. When the diseased parts appear very dirty it is useful after cleansing to saturate the new growth with tincture of iodine. The dressing is repeated daily, all loose fragments of horn being carefully removed. At a later stage the dressing need only be applied every two or three days. The special shoe presents nothing peculiar in regard to form, surface, nail holes, etc. ; but ¥i(A. 3S0.— Special shoe for canker, with cover applied. is made specially light and narrow, and presents at the centre of the toe a depression to receive the point on the front of the sheet-iron cover. The outer margin of the cover is rounded off and rests for a distance of about -} inch on the inner and upper margin of the shoe, which is seated for this purpose. The cover should not touch the ground. This prevents the front of the cover being pressed inwards. According to the condition and position of the diseased spots the shoe may be varied. 0. Ossification of the Lateral (Jaktilages. Side Bones. Lungwitz states that, in 1251 horses examined, side bones occurred as shown in annexed table : — FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF SIDE BONE. 403 Description. is, 53 P Remarks. Belgian cart horse, Danish carriage horse, Heavy riding horse, Do., ... Light riding horse, \ Riding horses (various weights), . Military horses, .... Officers' horses (heavy), 98 .120 388 132 133 140 200 40 68 25 36 •8 3 1 3 69-5 21 9 6 2 0-5 7-5 Working only on liard pavements. Do. Working in heavy ground and partly on hard pavements. Working on light sandy soil. Working on light ground. Do. Working on medium heavy ground. Working on varied surfaces. 1251 144 14-4 1 1. Ossification of the lateral cartilage occurs principally in heavy, coarse-bred horses. 2. The fore feet suffer more Fig. 381.— Left fore-foot, &etn fiom flit . utu side I Ik -kin has been nartiallv rpmnvp,! fc"litT *^* ""^''T ^«>, "' "-' '^^t"^' -•^''"^^''^ ^^lnc^p\Sts'^^bove the hoo'f'^ 6, ligament running from lateral cartilage to fetlock, one-tliird natural size. ' frequently than the hind; 3, the cartilage of the left hoof suffers more frequently than that of the right; and 4, the 404 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. outer cartilage suffers more frequently than the inner. 5. Ossification sometimes occurs at an early age, usually when the I'lG. 382. — Pedal bone, with almost complete ossification of the lateral cartilages, a, pedal bone ; b, wing of pedal bone, from which point, as a rule, ossification commences ; c, articular surface ; rf, rough, uneven surfaces. animal is first put to work. 6. Well-bred animals suffer less frequently than others. 7. The use of animals, of heavy build, on hard roads favours the occurrence of side bone. The symptoms vary according to whether one or both carti- lages are affected, and whether ossification is partial or com- plete. E.xpansion of the hoof is always diminished, and ma}- be entirely suspended. The diagnosis of side bone is easy as soon as the upper margin of the cartilage has become ossified ; it then feels hard. On the other hand, when ossification has only attacked the lower portion of the cartilage lying within the hoof, it is either very difficult or absolutely impossible to detect the change, though the form of the hoof sometimes gives valuable indica- tions. Side bones produce a clumsy constrained action and at times marked lameness. The symptoms are aggravated by rapid work on hard roads, by allowing the hoofs to become dry, and by using high calkins. When, however, the hoof is kept moist, animals may work for a long time without inconvenience. The causes are (1) congenital predisposition, in heavy, coarse- bred horses, and (2) excessive concussion produced by work on hard roads, for which reason the disease is frequent in large towns. The fact that the outer half of the foot suffers the CAUSES AND PKOGNOSIS OF SIDE BONE. 405 greater shock during movement, explains why the outer cartilage more frequently becomes ossified than the inner. The prognosis depends on the horse's work, weight, and breed, on the form of the hoof, and on the extent of ossifica- tion. Heavy horses with completely ossified lateral cartilages are of little use for rapid work on paved streets. When only one cartilage is affected, or when the animal is worked on soft ground, side bones are comparatively unimportant. Whilp Fig. 383.— Right fore-foot altered in funii in consecjuence of side bone. Fig. 3S4.— Shoe for above foot, with broad outer Hmb. ossification is in active progress the animal goes tender, if not actually lame, but as soon as it becomes complete the lameness tends to disappear, though it readily returns in consequence of bruising or strain if the tread is not level. Lameness is usually temporary, but the diseased cartilage can never be restored to its primitive condition. After ossification is complete, lameness may be produced by bruising of the plantar cushion and of the sensitive wall, which are then enclosed between two hard, unyielding structures ; the plantar cushion, being confined by the ossified cartilages, can expand neither towards the right nor left at the moment at which weight is placed on the foot and the sensitive wall being similarly placed between the horny wall and ossified cartilage. A partial improvement may occur when the plantar cushion diminishes in volume. If, in addition, the wall is contracted at the heels, the condition is even more serious. 406 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. In shoeing animals with side bone it is important to know whether the condition is imi- or bi-lateral. In side bone of the outer heel the wall of that side is comparatively immobile, and the corresponding quarter and heel of the shoe is excessively worn. On removing the shoe the outer wall is found much higher than the inner. The external heel of the shoe is thin, the internal comparatively little worn. The hoof is either unchanged in form or the wall of the outer heel is contracted, and sometimes covered with rings (fig. 383). The outer por- tion of the coronet is more prominent, and the outer limb of the frog smaller than the inner. Bruises or strains in the wall not infrequently exist. The shoe should be fiat, the outer limb broader than usual, the seating out should terminate behind the last nail hole, so that the entire breadth of the heel surface may form a horizontal plane (fig. 384). The outer wall should be lowered more than the inner, and the shoe so formed that its inner limb fits as close as possible, the outer being left sufficiently wide to meet a perpendicular line dropped from the coronet. The supporting surface is thus widened towards the outside, and, in consequence of the level tread, more even wearing of the shoe produced. When both lateral cartilages are ossified, a thick leather sole materially assists in diminishing shock. Special deeply- fullered shoes with rope inlay are also of value, but pads and bar shoes seem (in theory at least) contra-indicated, and, at first, cause pain by pressing on the frog and so tending to thrust asunder parts that are now unyielding. Side Ijones are often accompanied by corns, which are usually extremely persistent. As, however, these are not primary but secondary conditions, they deserve less attention when choosing and fitting tlu^ shoe than the ossification. Under these circumstances ' springing ' the heels, which is frequently practised in order to relieve corns, produces local strain and pain, and should l)e avoided. Treatment consists in applications which soften and cool the hoof. In work, the hoof should be moistened daily, and afterwards smeared with some fat or ointment so as to preserve the elasticity of the horn. definition and symptoms of navicular disease. 407 10. Navicular Disease is a chronic inflammation of the lower surface of the navicular bone and the portion of flexor perforans tendon passing below it. The disease consists essentially in change in the gliding surface of the navicular bone and of the cartilage covering it. The previously smooth surface of the bone becomes roughened, the tendon abraded, inflammation then increases, the portions Fig. 385. — IVeparation illustrating navicular disease. 1, os pedis ; 2, flexor pedis perforans tendon drawn downwards ; 3, lower (gliding) surface of the navicular bone ; 4, coronet bone ; a and b, roughened, abraded spots on the flexor perforans tendon ; c, eroded spots on the navicular bone; d, proliferations from periosteum on the upper margin of the os pedis. of the tendon involved may, in extreme cases, become necrotic, and still furtlier aggravate the existing mischief; finally, periostitis and rarefying ostitis set in, and deposits form around the margins of the bone. Occurrence. — The lameness usually afi'ects one or both of the fore-feet. Horses with very concave soles appear more subject 40S INi-LAMMATlON OF STKUCTURES ENXLUSED BY THE HOOF. to it than those with flat hoofs. Compared with other forms of lameness it may be said to be rare. Symptoms. — The first symptoms are slight tenderness on starting ; the animal goes rather short or stumbles, but this soon wears off. Next, the foot or feet are ' rested ' after any considerable exertion, but in many cases it is only after months that the symptoms become distinct. The foot is then extended and directed slightly tow^ards the side, the fetlock is more upright in order to minimise tension on the flexor pedis perforans tendon, the gait becomes clumsy and difhcult, especially at the beginning of movement and on hard, uneven ground. When only one hoof suffers, there is distinct lameness, but when both are affected, the gait is short and cramped, and the animal seems to suffer most at the moment when weight falls on the limb. Where the disease is well developed, the fore-limb is advanced with the toe first, and the pace comes to resemble a run. Attention to the feet and rest diminish the symptoms. The lameness is most marked on leaving the stable, but diminishes as the animal moves ; after some considerable time, however, especially if the pace be rapid, lameness returns. In old standing cases the hoof is contracted. On compress- ing the heels or the body of the frog pain is evinced. Increased pulsation of the digital arteries and increased warmth of the hoof are seldom present, but pain and thickening of the flexor tendons in the depression of the heel can sometimes be noted. When the foot is oblique contraction soon sets in. Slight rings sometimes form on the horny wall. Any considerable weight thrown on the diseased hoof causes pain, especially when the horse has prominent frogs and is unshod. Sometimes there is atrophy of the muscles of the shoulder and fore-arm. The causes are severe strains, due to severe rapid work on hard, rough, or frozen streets. The lameness is most frequent in riding horses. The 'p'f'ognosis is unfavourable, for even when the diseased process can be checked the freedom of movement never com- pletely returns, because the destructive changes which have taken place are ])ermanent. The animal's worth is thus greatly diminished. Treatment, stiictly speaking, is only pilliative. Attempts SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT OF NAVICULAR DISEASE. 409 should be made to diminish the pressure between the navicular bone and flexor pedis perforans tendon, and, in the early stages, to diminish inflammation. First of all the hoof must be softened and permitted to dilate. The shoe should be removed and the entire hoof immersed for twenty-four to forty-eight hours in a poultice, frequently moistened with lukewarm water. Tlie hoof is then trimmed and shod. The points to Fig. 386. Fio. 3S7. Fig. 388. Fig. 386. — Showing normal relations of the bones of the foot and of the flexor perforans tendon. Fig. 337.— Formation causing increased strain on navicular bone and perforans tendon. Fig. 388.— Showing the manner of trimming the hoof so as to diminish, as far as possible, the effects of navicular disease. (The above illustrations are diagrammatic.) remember are (1) that the hoof sbould be somewhat more upright than the fetlock, and (2) that it should be dilated. The toe is, therefore, lowered freely, but the heels spared. The frog is cut down to the height of the bearing margins of the heels and a flat shoe, with thin heels and bar-clips, applied and dilated to the extent of about J, inch. The toe should be ' rolled.' For the next four to six weeks the feet should be kept well moistened. At night the animal should be bedded down with good straw. The hoof, if its form allow, should, during this time, be once or twice redilated. In any case, however, pre- cautions should be taken by using fat or ointment to prevent the horn becoming dry. If a long rest cannot be given the coronets may be repeatedly blistered with a 1 to 8 ointment of biniodide of mercury. As neither shoeing, nor the use of the firing iron, nor of blisters completely restores the action, neurectomy has, for many years, been resorted to as a remedy. It certainly removes sensation from the foot and once more renders the animal useful, but the foot is then no longer spared, and when the animal, especially if a hunter, is used on hard 410 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. ground, the pedal or navicular bone may be fractured. Not infrequently the flexor tendons undergo a kind of colloid de- generation and become ruptured. So far as shoeing is concerned, the before-mentioned prin- ciples apply. Bar shoes are contra-indicated and horses usually go best in ordinary shoes, especially those which raise the back of the hoof, that is, shoes with thick heels or with calkins. Attempts may with advantage be made to dilate the hoof and to diminish concussion. The action of a shoe which raises the back of the hoof will immediately be seen from the diagram- matic figs. 386, 387, and 388. The improvement produced by high heels depends on the concussion being conveyed in greater degree to the pedal bone, while pressure on the perforans tendon is diminished. 11. Curb, Strain of Flexor Tendons, and Capped Elbow. Special shoes have been devised for the treatment of each of these conditions. A few notes on some of those more com- monly employed are given below. STAMPED WEDGE-HEELED HIND SHOE (FiG8. 389, 390). Made frovi f X ^ inch iron. The above shoe is intended to give relief in cases of curb, spavin, or injury to ligaments and tendons, by raising the heels of the hind-foot. Should the horse not be lame or be adjudged by the veterinary surgeon to be capable of light work, he may be worked in this shoe. The height of the wedges is 1| inches. Fig. 389. — Stamped wedge-heeled liiiid shoe. J\[ade from ii x ^ inch iron. Fig. 390. [To face p. 410. Fig. 391. — Fullered wedge-heeled hind shoe (for haiiiess horse). Made from J x {, inch iron. Fig. ;i02. — Fulleied patten hind shoe, ilade from '•'; % :^ incli iron. To face p. 411.1 SHOES FOR DISEASED HOCKS AND INJURED TENDONS. 411 FULLERED WEDGE-HEELED HIND SHOE FOR HARNESS HORSE (Fig. 391). Made from -f- X ^ incli iron. Many horses suffering from diseased hocks and tendons can be worked in this shoe, the purpose of which is similar to that of the shoe preceding, save that it is for a lighter class of horse. The height of the wedges is 1\ inches. FULLERED PATTEN HIND SHOE (Fig. 392). Made from ^ x '^ inch iron. Patten shoes are intended for horses suffering from injuries to tendons and ligaments, but which must necessarily be rested. That shown is suitable for a thoroughbred. The patten (sometimes termed ' staple ') is only 1|^ inches in height and is set on obliquely, so that the cross bar rests flat on the ground. It is made separately from tlie shoe, and after the usual fitting is complete is ' shut-on' to the shoe. A defect in the shoe illustrated is that the nail holes extend rather too far back. 412 INFLAMMATION OF STRUCTURES ENCLOSED BY THE HOOF. STAMPED PATTEN (OE 'STAPLE') POKE SHOE (Fig. 393). Made from f X -^ inch iron. The shoe illustrated is for a recent and severe case of ' break- down ' or cut tendon, where the tendon has been more or less ■evered. It affords by far the safest and most convenient method of raising the heel under such circumstances. The staple is rather more than 3 inches in height. STAMPED PATTEN (OR 'STAPLE') HIND SHOE (Fig. 394). Made from f X ^ inch iron. This shoe is only for animals which are resting, either in the stable or in, say, a straw yard. Its purpose is similar to that of the other staple shoe described. The staple is three inches liigh, and spreads outwards as it approaches the ground, so as to give a wide base of support. With this object the sides are bent outwards and the bottom is set on obliquely, so that when the shoe is affixed and the animal stands upon it the whole of the bottom bar is in contact with the ground. Fig. 393.— Stamped patten fore slioe. ^[ade I'rom t ;< ^ inch iron. Fig. 394.— Stam})ed patten hind shoe. Jlade from f x i inch iron. [To face p. 412. Fig. 395, — Patten hind shoe, ]\Iade from i^ x f inch iron. Fk). 396. -Fullered seati'd fore shoe. Made fiom J x ^ inch iron. To fact: p. 413.] SHOES FOR CURB, STRAINED TENDONS, AND CAPPED ELBOW. 413 PATTEN HINU SHOE (Fig. 395). Made from ;| X § %7ich iron. The shoe from which this illustration is made was for a foot 4^ inches in width. The patten is 4 inches in height, and has two holes in the uprights through which straps are passed and secured, through the medium of a pad, above the hock. The pad which is fixed on the hock has a buckle on either side to receive the straps. This shoe is for cases where the tiexor tendons of the hind leg have been partially divided, as happens in race horses when they are struck by the fore-foot of the animal immediately following, and in other animals under a variety of circumstances. The horse must necessarily be placed in slings. FULLERED SEATED FORE SHOE (Fig. 396), Made from •§- X ^ indo iron. To prevent horses bruising their elbows, and so producing the unsightly swelling termed capped elbow, the shoes must be sloped oil" very obliquely at the heels, which should be kept of a rounded form, and should closely follow the contour of the foot, i.e., should be fitted ' fine.' This is, in fact, one of the few- conditions in which 'fine ' fitting at the heels is necessary or desirable. APPENDIX A. THE SHOEING OF OXEN. CHAPTER I. THE STEUCTUEE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX'S FOOT. As it is sometimes necessary to shoe oxen employed for work, a short anatomical description of the foot may not be inappro- priate. The ox's foot differs from that of the horse in possess- ing two distinct toes, each consisting of three bones, like the single toe of the horse, but presenting certain special anatomical features of its own. The rounded or triangular horny appen- dages at the posterior surface of the fetlock joint are termed after-claws. They need not occupy our further attention. The lower end of the metacarpal bone is divided by a deep cleft into two distinct parts, an inner and an outer, each of which comports itself to its particular toe just as the lower end of the great metacarpus of the horse to its single toe. In other words, each portion of the lower end of the metacarpus presents an articular surface, which forms, with its special pastern and two sesamoid bones, a distinct ginglymoid joint ; the ox in fact has, at the point where the horse's fetlock joint occurs, two fetlock joints. With regard to individual bones, the two first bones of the toes or phalanges in form and relation resemble to a considerable extent the first phalanx of the horse, though they are comparatively shorter and weaker. The same is true of the two coronet bones or second phalanges, which are comparatively somewhat longer than the horse's coronet bone, and differ from it in that their two lateral 416 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX S FOOT. surfaces, whicli meet in front, are of a more triangular form. The upper articular surface of each coronet bone is concave, the lower is convex, and extends almost as far backwards as the middle of the posterior surface. The third phalanx, or bone of the claw, however, differs markedly from the horse's pedal bone. The claw bone is peculiarly formed, having been compared to a wedge or three- sided pyramid, the point of which is directed forwards and downwards. Each claw bone presents an upper or articular surface, an outer turned away from the cleft of the hoof, an inner turned towards it, a lower surface, an anterior and a posterior end, and three margins. The articular surface is Fig. 397."-Antero-external view of ox's left fore-foot. 1, lower end of metacarpal bone; 2, external sesamoid bone; 3, external, and 3', internal pastern bone; 4, external, and 4', internal coronet bone ; 5, external, and 5', internal claw bone; 6, left navicular bone. concave and extends forwards and upwards as the pyramidal process. The outer surface is slightly convex, with numerous small apertures and with a flat groove or furrow running from behind forwards. The slightly concave inner surface exhibits at its upper posterior part a large aperture, corresponding to the plantar foramen (see p. 29), and extending into the interior of the bone. The lower surface slopes away from the cleft of the hoof towards the outside. It is comparatively smooth and provided on its lower part with a shallow groove. The anterior margin formed l)y the union of the outer and inner surfaces is blunt, the outer margin sharp and curved, the ANATOMY OF OX's FOOT. 417 inner margin, in consequence of the groove above it, exhibits a ledge at its anterior part. The front end is pointed, the back is blunt, and exhibits a transverse furrow, covered with carti- lage, for articulation with the navicular bone. In oxen the ])rolongations corresponding to the wings of the horse's pedal 1)one are absent and there are no lateral cartilages. In oxen, as in horses, the joints are completed by other small bones, which, in general, resemble the sesamoid and navicular bones but are somewhat smaller. Each fetlock joint has two sesamoids and each claw joint a navicular bone. Broadly speaking, the connections of the joints with one another and with the bones named resemble those of the horse, especially in regard to the lateral and capsular ligaments. The chief differences are as follows. The suspensory liga- ment of the sesamoid bones or superior metacarpo-phalangeal ligament exhibits more muscular fibre than in the horse. As it serves both fetlock joints it is divided at the posterior surface of the great metacarpal into three parts, two lateral, small in size, and a strong central ligament. The two lateral ligaments extend to the two outer sesamoid bones and send in addition a cord (ligamentum extensorum) to the extensor tendons of their respective claws Cfig. 398, 4'). The middle and strongest limb divides a short distance below into three parts, the two lateral of which run to the two inner sesamoid bones. The middle portion, on the other hand, passes in a forward direction through the groove on the lower end of the great metacarpus, then divides into two branches, which join the extensor tendons of the inner and outer claws respectively (fig. 398, 4"). The inferior sesamoideal ligament is absent. The suftraginis or pastern bone and the bone of the claw are connected by external and internal suffragino-pedal ligaments, which are particularly strong and imite with the ligamentous tissues arising from the coronet bone. The cruciform ligament or transverse ligament of the toe con- necting the two claws consists of two cords, which arise from the postero-superior parts of the coronet bones turned away from the cleft of the claw, run obliquely downwards, become more or less intimately fused at the point where they cross, and are finally inserted into the inner (i.e., opposing) surfaces of the claw bones and into the inner extremities of the navicular 2 D 418 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX S FOOT. bones. They cover the posterior surfaces of the perforans tendons of the claw, and servo principally to prevent the claws being too widely separated. The movements of the joints of the toe are effected by muscles lying in the region of the fore-arm, and arranged in general like the analogous muscles of the horse. As, however, in the ox the nmscles and tendons are attached to a double limb below the fetlock, some differences necessarily exist. Each of the two claws has a separate extensor muscle, as well as a muscle which is common to both claws. The muscle corresponding to the extensor suflraginis of the horse is, in KiG. 398.— Antero-extenial view of ox's left fore-foot. 1, extensor tendon of outer claw; 2, extensor tendon of inner claw; 3, extensor tendon common to both claws; 3', limb of do. attached to left, and 3", to right claw; 4, superior sesamoideal ligament; 4' and 4", reinforcing slips from same to extensor tendon ; 5, left ' after-claw.' the ox, the extensor of the outer claw. From the compound extensor of the foot, which consists of several masses of muscle, two tendons spring ; one passes to the bones of the inner claw becoming the extensor tendon of the inner claw, the other passes down the centre of the great metacarpal bone and at its lower end divides into two parts, one of which is attached to the pedal bone of the outer, the other to the pedal bone of the inner toe. Tlie arrangement in tlie hind-foot is similar. The extensor (peroneus), whose tendon in the horse runs parallel with that of the extensor pedis, is in the ox the extensor of the outer ANATOMV Ol- ox's FOOT. 4I9 oJavv. The extensor pedis becomes the extensor ot tlie inner claw and also acts in co.ninon on botl, claws The arrangement ot the Hexor pedis perforans and perforatus tendons .s rather n.ore eomplieated than in the horse'^ 4ffiee LT7; '" ""■ P"f°^^ "> ^y ">at the tendon of the supcrhcial flexor perforatus of the toe forms a sheath for the endon of the deep flexor (perforans). This she Id vides on limb of the deep liexor after its division. The tendons of the near the upper end of the snffraginis bone, become inserted into the lower end ot the snlTraginis, and (cl iefly) Ihe suTero imbs of the tendon of the deep flexor of the toe (perforans tendon is attached to the postero-inferior surface of Tte respective pedal bone. »uuace ot its The tendons of the flexor muscles are held in place by a bvT; rr^! f ^ ''""'"■ P'*^'^ ""■<'°»= ""^ "I^o supported by the cruciform mter-digital ligaments ahst:tt:^\t'^'''^'"^'"'"'^°"^^^"''p'^'^'- <=-"- -« the'Vre tT the"" "'"""-r ^'^ '' ^'>-" be noted that iu oetween the two after-claws towards the cleft of the foot whilst that passing down the anterior surface of the great metacarpal runs in an opposite direction, that is backwSs ar::f thf; the"" T"" -r^*^ '"™" *^'''" arte'nts ™lr thJe'o(*?li''h:;sr " *"■• -""''"' *^'"^""- — "^ With a few exceptions the protective structures of the termmal digits correspond with those of the horse The skt .3 specially modified as in the latter to form a hom-secre W structure m which a perioplic band, coronary band srsi detail teTT "•' 'n '' *^«''g"-'-'>; tlie senS lol absent. The periophc band lies between the skin and coronarv band and surrounds each toe like a ring Posteriorlv it he^ ^ much broader and forms slight h„lbsrwhicr;™t ItZ 420 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE OX's FOOT. with those of the opposite claw by a more or less well-marked bridge. The coronary band lies between the perioplic band and sensitive wall. It is comparatively broad but flat. At its broadest spot it may measure, according to the size of the animal, as much as IJ- inches. In the direction of the bulbs it first becomes slender and then totally disappears. The sensitive wall covers the two lateral surfaces and the anterior margin of the bone of the claw ; it extends from the coronary band downwards to the plantar margin, and back- wards as far as the bulbs. It exhibits a large number of parallel lamina-, which decrease in length towards the bulbs and to a more marked degree on the inner than on the outer surface of the claw. The number of lamina? may be estimated at about a thousand. ^ 3 3' Fig. 399.— Supero-po'-ti-iior ^ie\\ of an ox's lioof ivnioved by maceration (seen from the inner side), llie inuer wull is fuiesliuiteucd u^viiij; tu tlie point of view. 1, periople, which at 1' becomes continuous with the l)ull)s; 2, furrow for reception of coronary band; 3, laminal sheath of the outer wall, and 3', of the inner wall; 4, upper surface of sole. The sensitive sole covers the under surface of the bone of the claw and extends in a backward direction, becoming con- tinuous with that portion of the coronary band forming the bulbs, there being no distinct boundary between the two structures. With the exception of the sensitive wall the portions named display a number of very small papilku from which the horn of the claw is secreted, the best marked and largest appearing at the perioplic band. In the ox the laminje of the sensitive wall exliibit no secondary lamina- such as have been described as existing on the sensitive laminic of the horse. The horny claw is the product of this specially modified corium. It may, in general terms, be compared with the half of a horse's hoof, from which, however, the frog is absent. . We THE ox's HOOF. 421 distiDauish in it a wall and a sole. The wall can again be divided into an outer and an inner part. The portion furthest from the cleft of the foot, i.e., the outer part, is convex and somewhat curved inwards at the toe. The portion towards the cleft is smooth and usually slightly concave. The two sides of the wall meet in a blunt, somewhat elongated anterior border. The upper part of the horny wall or perioplic ring is formed by the perioplic band and runs backwards to form the rounded horny bulbs. The coronary band rests in a flat, broad furrow at the upper part of the wall. The horny lamiuie of the wall correspond in number and size to the sensitive lamin;t'. The space below marginated by the wall is enclosed by the horny sole, which in front is pointed and very strong and towards the back becomes continuous with the horny bulbs. The horny bulbs of the two toes are sometimes con- nected by a bridge of soft horn. The wall is united to the horny sole through the medium of the white line as in the horse. Needless to say that in oxen, in which the walls are not bent inwards as in the horse, the bars are wanting. The claws of the hind-foot are somewhat longer and more slender than those of the fore-foot. CHAPTER IT. THE SHOEING OF OXEX. The slioeing of oxen differs essentially from that of horses, because the ox's foot is cloven, while the pastern, coronet, and pedal bones are in duplicate. The ox, therefore, may be said to have on each limb two hoofs, termed claws, which can be distinguished as an outer and an inner. The walls are thinner than those of the horse. The sole is thin and the bulbs low. As a consequence the shoe must be thin and broad. The nail KiG. 4(10. — Ox's claw witli shoe attached. holes should be punched fine and the nails should be short but strong. Each shoe is provided with a long thin clip at the inner margin of the toe, which is bent upwards and outwards around the point of the claw (fig. 400). A clip on the outer margin of tlie shoe increases the hold. In the Saxon ^'oigtland the inner clip, which lies in the cleft of the claw, starts from MEANS OF RESTRAINT. 42a the [)Osterior third of the shoe and is then bent forwards, upwards, and outwards over the wall of the toe. The smaller clip is at the outer part of the toe, close to the anterior margin of the shoe. This shoe (fig. 401) is more ditticult to fashion, but when well made fits better than any other. To apply a single shoe to the two claws would, of course, prevent the natural movement of the parts. The fixing of the foot for shoeing is often very difficult. It is first necessary to fasten the animal's head to a tree or wall. The fore-foot is then secured with a broad piece of webbing, which is thrown over the withers and held on the opposite side. The hind-foot is lifted by means of a round piece of wood thrust in front of one hock and above the other and grasped by two men, or may be kept bent by applying a leg twitch above the hock. Oxen mav also be shod in an ox Fig. 401.— Voigtland shoe for oxen. travis — the foot being secured in a grooved wooden arm and the ox's body supported by a sling. In places where many oxen are shod a travis is very useful (fig. 402). This travis consists of four strong posts 11 feet high (of which 3 feet is firmly fixed in the earth) and .S inches square (aa, hh), fastened together by longitudinal and transverse stays (cc, d). In the middle of the two front posts is the head post (e) of equal height and strength. Five feet above the ground this is provided with an aperture, 4 inches broad and 20 high, in which revolves a pulley (i) ; below this is a windlass (k) with ratchet and pawl for the purpose of winding up the rope fastened round the animal's horns. Each pair of posts have, on their front or back surface, a deep slot about 3 inches broad (?i^ within wdiich run two rails (o aud^?), capable 424 THE SHOEING OF OXEN. of being raised and lowered or fastened at any point by means of iron pins. The two posts to the right are provided with a revolving eight-sided axle, to one end of which is attached a ratchet and pawl. On one of the eight surfaces of this axle are six iron hooks, to which the belly piece can be attached. Opposite the axle and at the same height is a fixed bnulk (/) with six hooks (//y). The belly piece, 6 feet in length and G inclies in breadth, carries at either end cords 21 feet in length, provided with iron rings at their free ends. On tlie inner si o 60 ^6 o Taking off Shoes and preparing Feet. Fore. Hind. 1 ( 433 ) GROUl^D PLAN OF BUILDINGS REQUIRED FOR SHOEING COMPETITION. GROUND 24 YARDS SQUARE. Scale ^ inch to the yard. REFERENCE TO NUMBERS ON PLAN. ,^ .22. 29 //rr tv/ee Zl 25 24- 25 2C n 27 28 29 tlfr. mo£ 3 FT. wioa 29 9 FT. W/0£ 1. Doorway, 4 ft. wide, leading to stablin,^ for horses, 2. Competitors' room, 16 ft. by 15 ft. 3. 4, 5, and 6. Blacksmiths' shops, 9 ft. wide. 7. Judges' and Stewards' room, 16 ft. by 15 ft. 8, 9, 10, and 11. Forges, 3 yards square, 12, 13, 14, and 15. Anvils, 16, 17, 18, and 19, Benches and vices, 20, Doorway, 3 ft, wide, 21. Doorway, 3 ft. wide. 22, Space for Judges, 9 ft. wide. 23, 24, 25, and 26. Shoeing sheds, 8 ft,' wide, 7 ft, 6 in. high to eaves, and 12 ft, long, boarded up to 4 ft. 6 in. at front, and with wooden floors. 27. Space between shoeing sheds and standing place for public, 9 ft, wide all round as shown. 28. Drop rail, for admitting to shoe- ing sheds and smiths' shops, 3 ft, 6 in, high, 29. Standing room for ])ublic. 30. Grand stand for public, 18 ft, wide. 31. Entrance, 6 ft. wide. 2e INDEX Advancing foot, method of, 182. Aluiuinium shoes, 132. Ancients unacquainted with horse-shoe- ing, 3. _ Anti-concussive mechanism of limb, 112. Arteries of foot, 54. Asses, shoeing of, 310. " Back," making a, 142. Bare-foot, working, 210. Bar shoes, special, 324-327. Bars of foot, 70, 77. ,, angle of, 77. ,, relations and extent of, 78. " Binding," a cause of lameness, 380. Blood-vessels, description of, 52. Bones of foot, 24. The great metacarpus, 24. The suffraginis bone or 1st phalanx, 24. The sesamoid bones, 26. The coronet bone or 2nd phalanx, 27. The pedal bone or 3rd phalanx, 28. The navicular bone, 30. Bulbs, cellular, of foot, 49. Calkins, 147. ,, disadvantages of, 215. " Canker " of the frog or sole, 400. ,, special shoes for dressing, 383-385, 401, 402. Capillaries, description of, 53. Capped elbow, shoe for, 413. Carriage horses, general remarks on shoeing, 236. ,, ,, special shoes for, 241-243. Cart horses, general remarks on shoeing, 247. ,, ,, special shoes for, 249-252. Cartilage, description of, 45. ,, lateral, 46. Celtic shoes, 5. Changing the style of shoeing, 264. Charlier shoe and system, 254. ,, tip, 258. Cogs, frost, 164. Competitions, shoeing, 429. Competitions, ground plan of buildings for, 433. ,, judge's book for, 432. Concussion, how it is neutralised, 113. Conformation of foot, 179. „ limbs (fore), 172. „ (hind), 177. Contraction of heels, 340. , , , , predisposing causes, 343. ,, ,, exciting causes, 345. ,, ,, treatment, 347, 359. ,, ,, mechanical treat- ment, 350. ,, ,, ^^ Fay's shoe for, 350. ,, ,, Hartmann's expand- ing shoes for, 350. ,, ,, Einsiedel's shoe for, 351. ,, foot, special shoes, etc. for, 353, 354. ,, ,, operation for, 355. ,, ,, weak heels, 356. ,, ,, local, 357. Control of horse, 197. Corium, 61. Corn, litting shoe for, 322. Corns, 387. ,, microscopical changes in wall after, 388. ,, varieties of, 389. ,, special shoes for, 393-395. Coronary band, 68. ,, plexus, 58. Cracks, transverse, of wall, 372. Curb, shoes for, 410, 411. Curvature, lateral, of hoof, 363. Cutigeral groove, 81. Cutting or striking, general remarks on, 286. ,, special shoes for, 288-300. ,, ,, boots for, 291. ,, ,, Delperier's remedy for, 291. ,, ,, weighted shoes for, 291. 436 INDEX. Developmest of hoof, periods in, 101. Direction of horn cells in different structures, 98. Disadvantages of shoeing, 278. Disease of feet and limbs due to concus- sion, 280. Distortion, lateral, of hoof, 360. Dorsal Hexion of fetlock, 118. "Dropped" sole, 333. ,, ,, special shoes for, 334, 335. E.\RLY German shoes, 12. Einsiedel's, von, winter shoe, 157. Elastic tissues of foot, 45. ,, tissue, description of, 45. Epidermis, 61. Examination of horse after shoeing, 277. ,, prior to shoeing, 199. Expansion of hoof, early experiments on, 117. ,, ,, general conclusions on, 117. Farriers' schools, 16, 427. Fire, farrier's, 142. Fitting the shoe, 265. ,, ,, to normal feet, 267. ,, ,, for irregular confor- mation of limbs, 268. ,, ,, for rapid work, 270. ,, ,, for heavy draught horses, 270. Fitzwygram's (Sir F.) shoe, 260. Flat sole, 330. ,, ,, shoe for, 330. Foot-axis, 181, 208. Foot, bones of, see " Bones." ,, conformation of, 179. ,, definition of, 20. ,, structure of, 20. ,, ligaments of, see "Ligaments." Forging, general remarks on, 282. ,, special shoes for, 284-286. Forging the shoe, 140. ,, a fore shoe, 143. ,, a hind shoe, 144. ,, a bar shoe, 146. Form, changes in, of hoof, 115. Frog, sensitive, 51, 72, ,, horny, 88. Frog-stay, 88. Frost cogs, 164. ,, nails, 155. ,, stubs, 155. ,, screws, 158. Fullering, 136. Functions, mechanical, of hoof. 111. ,, of foot, 90. Function of sensitive wall, theories of, 110. Glands, sebaceous, 63. Groove, cutigeral, 81. Growth of horn, influence of nerve supply on, 102. Hacks, general remarks on shoeing, 217. ,, special shoes for, 218, 219- Hair, growth of, 62. Hardening the hoof, ancient methods of, 3. Heels of shoe, length of, 212. Hipposandals, 4, Histology of horn, 93. History of horse-shoeing, 2. Hoof, form and ]>roportions of, 185. ,, sound, characteristics of, 191. ,, rings on, significance of, 192. ,, wear of, 193. ,, ointments, action and composition of, 314. Horn, histology of, 93. ,, tubes or fibres, 94. ,, cells, 96. ,, cells, directions of, in different structures, 98. ,, physical and chemical properties of, 99. ,, pigment, 99. ,, constitution of, 100, ,, growth of, 103. ,, substitutes for, 328. ,, De Fay's artificial, 328. , , tumours, or keratomata, 390, 398. ,, frog, how formed, 65. ,, sole, how formed, 65. „ wall, 74. ,, ,, division into toe, quarter, heel, etc., 75. ,, ,, thickness of, 76. Horse nails, 272, Horse-shoeing a science and an art, 1. ,, ,, objects of, 2. Horse-shoes, characters of, 133. ,, form of, 133. ,, breadth and thickness of, 134. ,, surfaces and borders of, 135. ,, machine-made, 151. " Hufiederkitt," 328. Hunters, general remarks on shoeing, 220. ,, special shoes for, 223-228. Inflammation within the hoof, 316. , ,, M symptoms of, 317. ,) 11 >> treatment of, 319. INDEX. 437 Irregular conformation, fitting shoes for, 268. Joint, ginglymoid, definition of, 32. fetlock. 33. " pastern, 37. " pedal or cofiin, 38. Joint oil, 33. Keratomata, 390, 398. Knife, Arabian, 204. " drawing, 203. "Knuckling over" at fetlock, 339. " special shoes for, 338, 339. Laced-ON shoes. 222. Lacunte of frog, 78. Lacuna, median, of frog, 89. Lameness from shoeing, statistics of, 279. Laminae, sensitive, 70. length of at various points, 71. horn. 82. " number of, 84. " breadth of, etc., 84. " secondary, 95. Laminal plexus, 57. Laniinitis, shoeing after, 396. Leather soles, 301. Ligaments of the foot, 32. " fetlock joint, 33. " suspensory or superior sesa- moidean. 35. " pastern joint, 37. coffin joint, 38. Limbs, conformation of (fore), 172. (hind), 177 Loose wall, 372. Lymphatics, description of, 53. Material for shoes, 129. Mechanical functions of hoof. 111. Meclianism, anti-concussive, of limb, 112. Middle-ages, shoes of the, 8. Moving, how hoof is advanced in, 182. Mules, shoeing of, 310. Nail-holes, 138. Nail-holes, "coarse'' and "'fine," 138. Nailing on the shoe, directions for, 273. Nails, 272. Navicular disease, 407. " gait in, 408. Navicular disease ,symptoms of. 408 •' " shoeing for. 409. Nerve supply, influence of, on growth of horn, 102. Nerves of foot, 59. Omnibus horses, general remarks on shoeing, 244. '' '' special shoes for, 245, 246. Oriental shoe, 261. Ox, anatomy of foot, 415. " shoeing of, 422. " -travis, 423. " -travis, improvised, 425. Pace, its influence on wear of hoof, 103. Pads, rubber, 301. Downie's, 304. " " . Hartmann's, 305. " rope, 307. " straw, 307. " cork, 308. " felt, 308. " elastic cement, 309, Periople, 79. ' * how formed, 66. Perioplic ring, 67. " " inflammation of, 386. Phosphor bronze shoes, 133. " Picked-up " nails, 381. Plaited soles used in Ja^jan, 4. Plantar cusliion, 48. " " venous plexus of , 59, Plexus, laminal, 57. " coronary, 58. " venous.of plantar cushion. 59. Podometer. 216. Preparing hoof for shoeing, 202. Pricks in shoeing, 378. " " cau.ses of, 379. " " treatment of, 380. " Pumiced " sole 331. Pus, color of, important, 321. Race-horses, general remarks on shoeing, 229. " " spt^cial shoes for, 231. Railway shunting horses, special shoes for, 253. Removing the old shoes, 199. Rings on hoof, 192, " Rodway " bar iron, 130. "Rolled bars," 130. "Rolling "the toe, 267. 438 INDEX. Rope-inlaid shoes, 263. Roughing, 158. Rough-nails, 154. '• " Delperier's, 155. Rubber soles, 301. Sandcrack, definition of, 365. *' treatment of, 366. " coronary. 369. " of bars, 371. " at ground surface, 373. Scandinavian "broddar," 9. Schools, farriers', 427. Screws, frost, 158. " Searching " the foot, 318, 379. Sebaceous glands, 63. Secondary laminae, 95. Seedy toe, 372. Sensitive laminae, 70. sole, 72. Shaping the shoe, 265. "Sharpened" heels (roughing), 157. Sheath, middle of wall, 80. " laminal or connecting of wall, 82. Shod hoof, care of the, 313. Shoe, wear of, 194. " choice of, 210. Shoeing, disadvantages of, 278. Shoes, material for, 129. Shunting horses (railway), special shoes for, 258. Side-bone, 402. ' ' statistics of occurrence, 403. " precautions in shoeing for, 406. Skin, description of, 61. Sole, horn, 84. Soles, leather and rubber (see also "Pads,"), 301 uses of. 801. " " disadvan- tages of, 302 Spanner or screw-key for frost- screws, 163. Strained tendons, shoes for, 411-413 Structure of foot, 20. Style of shoeing, choosing the, 199 Surgical dressing, shoes for, 382- 385. Synovia or joint oil, 32. Taps, for frost-screws, 162. Temporary shoes, 222. Tendon of extensor pedis, 41. " of flexor pedis perforatus, 41. '• " " perforans, 42. Thrush, 375. dressing for, 323. Tips, description and applicability of, 256. " Charlier. 258. Toe-grips, 148, 167. Tools, fireman's, 141. " doorman's, 203. "Treads" on the coronet, 886. Trotting horses, general remarks on shoeing, 262. ' ' special shoes for, 283-235. Turkish shoe, 261. Unshod hoofs, treatment of, 312. Upright hoof, 336. Veins of foot, 57. Vicious hoi'ses, control of, 197. Volar flexion of fetlock, 118. Wall of hoof, how formed, 64. " the three layers or sheaths of, 79. " sensitive ; theories of its function, 110. Wear, descent, falling or exten- sion, 195. Wear, ascent, lifting or flexion, 195 Wear of hoof, influence of pace on, 103. Weight, liow distributed in foot, 174 "White line," 86. Winter shoe, Count von Einsidel's, 157. Wood -inlaid shoes, 264. ersity of Pennsyh- nia I/il lation ^ m