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1903.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

T HI IE

*

OF

Horticulture and Viticulture

OF

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

BY A, DESPEISSIS, M.R.A.C.

2ND EDITION.

P E E T H :

BY AUTHORITY : WM. ALFRED WATSON, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.
1903.

^^^^^^^^> '^'^^

PREFACE

To First Edition.

As it is a physical impossibility for the Yiticnltural and
Horticultural Expert of the Bureau to be in all places at all times,
;and as the demands for Mr. Despeissis' advice have been so great,
the Bureau of Agriculture considered it advisable to have Mr.
Despeissis' views on cultural matters embodied in book form.
Before commencing the HANDBOOK OF HORTICULTURE AND VITI-
CULTUEE OP WESTERN AUSTRALIA, which is now presented to the
reader, Mr. Despeissis visited all the districts in the South- Western
Land Division of the Colony, so "he knows whereof he speaks."
Neither the Bureau of Agriculture nor Mr. Despeissis have spared
pains or expense to make the Handbook as complete as the some-
what limited time at the authors' disposal would permit. It was
hoped that the HANDBOOK would have been issued before the
present planting season, but the work insensibly outgrew its
originally prescribed limits. The HANDBOOK has been written as
much for the new-comer as those already settled upon the soil, and
for this reason chapters on the preliminary preparation of the land
have been included. Errors, almost inseparable from the some-
what hurried preparation of a book requiring a vast amount of
thought and research, may be discovered in these pages, but it is to
be hoped they will be immeasurably counterbalanced by the mass
of valuable information the HANDBOOK contains. In conclusion,
the Bureau of Agriculture would take this opportunity of acknow-
ledging the kind assistance received from the Hon. the Minister of
Agriculture of New South Wales, the proprietors of the " Austra-
lian Agriculturist," Messrs. Sandover & Co., and others, in lending
many of the blocks which illustrate this volume.

L. LINDLEY COWEN,

Secretary Bureau of Agriculture

of Western Australia.
Perth, 12th July, 1895.

270426

PREFACE

To the Second Edition.

To W. PATERSON, Esq., the Director Department of Agriculture
of Western Australia.

For several years past, the demand for the HANDBOOK OF
HORTICULTURE AND VITICULTURE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA has
been so persistent that a second edition of the work, long] since]out
of print, had to be taken in hand.

In this volume much of what appeared in the first one] "is
reproduced, but to such an extent has the work been re- handled
that it is only in name that it may be said to be related to the
HANDBOOK issued by the direction of the Bureau of Agriculture.

Owing to the pressure of work on the eve of my leaving
Western Australia for a visit to the vinegrowing districts of
Algeria, Spain, Portugal, and the South of France, I have delegated
to one better qualified than myself the care of preparing the
chapters dealing with the description of the more common insect
pests of our orchards, and of those beneficial insects which do duty
as natural checks to these pests ; and in the hands of our
entomologist, Mr. G-. Compere, the subject will be dealt with
authoritatively.

To Mr. Lindley Cowen, the late Secretary of this Department,
the idea of bringing out this book belongs, and I have endeavoured
to carry out as best I could the plan he had thought out. .

I have also to acknowledge the valuable assistance given to
me in bringing this book out by Mr. G-. Chitty Baker, the editor of
the Journal of this Department.

In collating the mass of information which will be found
grouped within the several chapters of this HANDBOOK I have, as
far as possible, acknowledged the sources whence that information
was derived ; and the value of those sources, together with the
personal experience I have been able to gain in questions dealt
with in the following pages, will, I hope, be of some benefit to
those who may consult this book.

A. DESPEISSIS, M.R.A.C.
Department of Agriculture,

Perth, W.A., 30th June, 1903.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introductory

West Australia as a Fruit Land 5

Our Soils 15

Bingbar king and Clearing Land 22

Preparing Land for Planting 35

Drainage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40

Shelter 45

Fencing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51

Laying out the Ground ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56

Planting 63

Grafting .' ... 86

Budding "... 106

Pruning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 114

Vine Pruning 119

Summer Pruning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 169

Irrigation and Eoot Management ... ... ... ... ... 193

What Fruit to Grow 204

Small Fruits 285

Tropical Fruits 303

Fruit Drying 316

Drying Vegetables ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 326

Fruit Candying 327

Canning and Fruit Pulp 331

Pulping Fruit 335

Gathering and Marketing Fruit ... ... ... ... ... 337

Rules for Exhibitions and Judging 358

The Oversea Fruit Trade ... 365

Wine Making ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 374

Unfermented Grape Juice 470

Infertile Grape Vines 475

Insect and Fungoid Pests... ... ... ... ... ... ... 480

Garden and Orchard Crops, their pests and remedies 485

Plant Fumigation ... ... ... ... ... ... 501

Fungus Diseases ... ... ... ... ... 506

Description of Insects, injurious and beneficial ... 532

THE HANDBOOK

OF

HORTICULTURE AND VITICULTURE

or

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

BY A. DESPEISSIS, M.E.A.C.

HE awakening of Western Australia as a fruit-producing
State dates only from the beginning of the past decade.
It is concurrent with the development of the wonderful
gold belt which has since been proved to run through it, from the
Great Australian Bight, in the South, to Cambridge Gulf and the
tropical Kimberleys, in the North.

Previous to that epoch, sufficient had been achieved by the
older colonists to show that Western Australia could produce vines
and fruit of great excellence, but the gardens of the State were few
in number and far apart. Yet, fruit was then more easily procur-
able than it has since been, and the requirements of the 50,000 odd
consumers were liberally satisfied ; indeed, fruit was then so cheap
that no market value was attached to it. It was mostly consumed
on the spot, and the surplus rotted under the trees, and was not
worth carting away. In those days consumers were producers
themselves ; long distances and lack of rapid communication mili-
tated against the marketing of fruit, and methods of picking and
packing for distant markets were not familiar to fruit-growers, nor
had they any experience regarding varieties which, better than
others, lend themselves to long keeping and travelling.

With the discovery of gold came the rush of gold-seekers. The
constant stream of population which then set in soon taxed the
resources of the farming districts ; supplies of all sorts were soon
exhausted, and all the commodities of life had to be largely
imported. The ever-increasing flow of population continued its
course to the inland goldfields.

Every new coiner proved a consumer. Even the settlers
deserted their farms and rushed to the arid interior in quest of gold.
Famine prices were offered and given for all products of the soil.
Then a new current set in, and whilst the main stream of population

rontiin-.-i to pdti^ntQ%e,Goolgardie and the Murchison goldfields,
a smaller stream spread over the moister coastal districts. Gold
was to be won from the ploughed fields as well as from the quartz
reefs.

A great many may claim, to have first discovered that Western
Australia was teeming with gold, but the pride of having discovered
that the State was teeming with latent horticultural and agricultural
wealth must belong to the proprietors of the West Australian news-
paper. At their instigation, the late Mr. L. Linclley-Cowen set out
on a vovage of discovery through the agricultural districts of what is
known 'as the South- West Division of Western Australia — a pro-
vince covering an area of country 350 miles from North to South
by 100 to 200 miles from West to East. From every point of that
territory which he visited Mr. Cowen, in a series of articles which
at the time attracted attention, as well as enlightened the settlers,
old and new, described the achievements of the pioneer agriculturists
of the country, and prognosticated the era of wonderful development
which every branch of agriculture has since entered upon.

That Western Australia bids fair to eclipse the other States of
the group as a fruit-producing territory is firmly believed by all who
have paid any attention to the circumstances which favour or retard
fruit-growing as an industry. Its soil is virgin, and for ages without
number has supported gum trees and shrubs of various sorts
without a rest, and been fouled by their residues, until at last it
welcomes fruit trees with the same eagerness as does a corn-sick
field some other crop in the course of the rotation.

Its climate is consistent and not capricious. When going
beyond well-defined and moist zones for the purpose of starting
fruit-growing, the settler has himself to blame for courting failure ;
his crops a/re not periodically threatened by destruction from hail-
storms, such as are at times heard of in other parts of Australia.

Untrammelled by errors which, in the Eastern States, have
defeated the aims of the earlier fruit-growers, and proved a source
of loss to them, Western Australian growers start with the
experience of others, and are reaping the fruit of the knowledge
dearly bought. Thus they are able, with comparatively few faults,
to start a clear course on embarking into fruit-growing on
commercial lines.

This State besides possesses, amongst all Australian States
the incalculable advantage of being from 1,200 to 2,000 miles
nearer the European markets ; or, in other words, its perishable fruit
crops, owing to its geographical position, are produced from four
to eight days nearer the consumer's table.

Another advantage of no mean importance is that the popula-
tion of Western Australia— very small until the discovery of gold
-has since been increasing steadily and rapidly, as the mineral and
agricultural resources of the country are being developed. Such
indeed are the demands of the local market that a ready sale, at a
profitable price, is obtained for all fruit of good quality ; and, whilst

preparing for extensive fruit export, the grower is enabled to dispose
locally at highly remunerative prices of small parcels of fruit he may
gather from his young trees.

WEST AUSTRALIAN FRUIT LAND.

From Cambridge G-ulf, in the tropical North, to the Great
Australian Bight, in the temperate Southern regions, Western
Australia unfolds a coast line of over 1,200 miles capable of growing,
according to latitude, some sort of fruit or other.

Under the regulating influence of the monsoons, the rainy
season follows the dry one with almost clockwork precision ; and
thus, within the coastal zone, the grower knows what to expect,
nor is he confronted either by a sweeping deluge or a prolonged
drought.

Farther inland great waterless tracts of fertile land occur, which,
with the spread of settlement, disclose favoured spots without
number where artificial irrigation is rendered possible, and where
fruit-growing offers great possibilities.

In this handbook no reference will be made to that part of
Western Australia extending from the Kimberley districts on the
North to the latitude of the Murchison River 28° S.

That vast stretch of country is for me unknown territory, and,
until an opportunity is offered me of getting acquainted with its
natural features, I feel loth to pass judgment as regards its capabil-
ities for growing fruit. Few settlers, hitherto, in that vast stretch of
country, until recently given almost entirely over to pastoralists,
have paid systematic attention to horticulture. The cause is
easy to discover. Few, if any one, of those who in the past
have lived at the Nor'-West and the North of this State have had
any idea of permanently settling down. WhiJst there their whole
attention has been engaged in more or less nomadic occupations ;
the small cultivated patch has proved sufficient to supply the
requirements of the household, and no inducement had until now
offered to plant largely, owing to the lack of frequent and quick means
of communication with the markets of the South. Sufficient is, how-
ever, known to state that at several places where facilities offer for
irrigation, or where the soil is naturally moist, the cultivation of
tropical plants and fruit trees has been atte tided with such success
as points to great possibilities in that direction.

One of the most successful undertakings of that nature is that
of the Trappists' Mission at Beagle Bay, about 21deg. lat. S.,
where some 10 acres have been planted, chiefly with bananas, man-
goes, guava, figs, tamarind, date palm, cocoanut trees, oranges, and
lemons, which all thrive well.

In a report on the capabilities of the East Kimberley district,
Mr. R. Helms, the biologist of the Bureau of Agriculture, said : —

" The greatest prosperity of the country will begin when the
cultivation of specially tropical products is taken up in earnest.

it will then be that the country becomes populated, for a couple of
iimdred acres, well tilled and planted with suitable crops, enables a
nan to acquire an independency. The country possesses not onlv
he rare advantage of being perfectly healthy, but the land best
uited for the growth of tropical products is free from timber. It,
herefore, requires no coloured labour to produce cotton, sugar,
ocoa, tobacco, rubber, or fibre, and other profitable articles of com-
ierce. Europeans can do the work, and no great capital is required
o prepare, the land, the grubbing of trees in a tropical forest being
Iways a great expense. Moreover, irrigation can be carried out at
minimum of expense. In a number of places it will be found that
rater can be conserved in such a way as to enable large areas to be
Catered by gravitation ; but where that method is impracticable,
indmills may effectively be employed, as a steady breeze generally
lows throughout the day."

The districts that will be more particularly considered in this
andbook are those comprised between the Murchisoii Eiver, 50
liles North of Champion Bay, lat. 28deg. S., to King George's
ound, lat. 35deg. S., and an imaginary line enclosing a somewhat
"iangular-shaped territory, about 50 miles broad at the Murchisoii
ad to 300 miles at its base, from the Leeuwin to Esperance.

Such area is shown on the maps issued by the Lands Depart-
tent of Western Australia as the South- West Division.

That a great extent of the country is admirably suited for vine
ad fruit growing is abundantly demonstrated by the success which
as accompanied the numerous attempts made in that direction by
jttlers in the various districts of the State.

The variety of climatic conditions and soil make it possible to
row in this division of Western Australia almost any fruit of the
>ol-temperate as well as semi-tropical climates, and for the purpose
' guiding the choice of intending settlers and growers, as well as
Lose already established on the land, in selecting the sorts of fruit
• plant, the areas susceptible of growing profitably fruit and vines
•e sub-divided into zones or fruit-growing districts.

The boundaries of these zones must, by reason of the great
inability in the configuration of the country, be only approximate,
id not regarded in the light of a definite line, on one side of which
'me varieties of trees could be grown with profit which would
irish if planted the other side.

Wherever possible, permanent watercourses or ranges of hills
ive been selected as the boundaries of the several fruit-growing
stricts, which, in order to prevent confusion and complication,
ive been restricted to four, viz. : —

1. The "Northern Coastal Division, including the lower Mur-
tison, Champion Bay, the G-reenough flats, down to the Moore
iver.

2. The Eastern Division, comprising the Victoria Plains,-
von Valley, and the agricultural country through which runs the
reat Southern Railway.

7

3. The Central Coastal Division, extending from Gringin, an
including the Swan to the Collie River.

4. The Blackwood and adjoining districts Eastward to Albar
and Esperance.

A better understanding of the requirements which underlie tl
pursuit of modern fruit-growing — one of the most interesting an
profitable branches of agronomy — brings out several features in ib
West Australian climate, which point to the particular suitabilit
of this country for fruit-growing.

For the purpose of illustrating this statement, no more coi
vincing means offer than comparing the climate of the South- Wes
Division of this State with the climate of some of the most note
fruit districts of the world, and especially California, in — 1st, ten
perature ; 2nd, light ; 3rd, air humidity ; which are all climat:
conditions, absolutely necessary to fruit ripening. According 8
these three conditions are met with in a more or less suitable degn
the fruits ripen with greater or less perfection.

TEMPERATURE.

When compared with the chief fruit-growing districts of Cal
fornia, the West Australian climate shows to advantage, its elm
characteristics being — 1st, freedom from extremes of low and hig
temperature ; 2nd, an abundance of sunshine ; 3rd, summer atmos
phere, with a low percentage of humidity.

The following table, which gives the lowest thermometric reac
ings during a period of five years, at six places which can well sen
as land marks in dealing with the fruit-growing districts of th:
State, compares favourably with some Calif ornian stations whei
fruits of the citrus tribe, for instance, are known to attain to gres
perfection : —

Geraldton
Perth

Bunbury ...
Albany . . .
York
Katanning

I

)eg. Fahr.
... 38
.. 32
.. 35
.. 32
.. 29
.. 27

San Francisco
San Jose ...
Los Angeles
San Diego
Sacramento
Fresno

Deg. Fahr.
28
22
28
32
19
18

If, on the one hand, temperature must not be too low for th
profitable cultivation of trees such as those belonging to the citru
tribe, which retain their foliage all the year round, it must not, o
the other, rise to too high a degree in the summer months withou
exposing the trees to sun scald.

Careful experiments made tend to demonstrate the fact tha
" a temperature above a certain minimum of heat is found neces
sary for germination, another for chemical modification, and a thir<
for flowering, a fourth for the ripening of seeds, a fifth for th
elaboration of the saccharine juices, and a sixth for the develop
ment of aroma or bouquet."

8

The same botanist who laid down the above rule (Boussin-
ilt) determined that, in the case of the grape vine, while a mean
59deg. Fahr. during the growing months will allow the plant to
irish, a much higher mean temperature is necessary during the
nmer and autumn months from the time the seeds are formed
:il full maturity, to bring the fruit to perfection, and there must
a month the mean temperature of which should not fall below
2deg. Fahr.

The following table gives the average summer temperature
'ing the growing months at various Western Australian and Cali-
nian points : —

Deg. Fahr.
. 75-5
. 72-9
. 70-5
. 67-3
. 77-2
. 72-1

San Francisco
San Jose
Los Angeles .
San Diego
Sacramento
Fresno ...

Deg. Fahr.
.. 59-4
.. 56-2
.. 69'7
.. 68-4
.. 71-4
84-1

Geraldton
Perth ...
Bunbury
Albany . . .
York ...
Katanning

These tables show that, compared with the most noted Cali-
nian fruit-growing centres, the South-Western Division of
istern Australia is possessed of a summer climate warm enough
the growth of any of the fruits of temperate zones ; while the
iter, never severe enough to frost-kill these fruits, is, however,
ficiently cold to insure for them the three or four months of rest
y need.

With the exception of Albany and similarly situated localities,
indant warmth occurs for the ripening of all kinds of grape
.es, of all temperate climate fruit, a most exacting one as regards
rmth. Even in Albany, the early grapes do ripen, unless exposed
the chilling Southern breeze ; while only a few miles inland the
3r-growing grapes as well reach maturity. Elsewhere, such as in
i northern portion of the Eastern division on the eastern side of
s Darling Ranges, the great excess of summer temperature over
,t absolutely required for the proper maturing of the grapes results
higher sugar formation in the juice. When to this higher
nmer temperature is associated a longer growing season, we find
nbined the elements conducive to the production of a second
P-

LIGHT.

Light also plays an important part in the perfect maturation
fruit, and an abundance of it, in conjunction with a congenial
*ree of temperature, results in better flavoured fruit, and in the
,ter development of the colour, bouquet, and aroma.

Reference to the information supplied in the meteorological
>orts of the State, for a series of years, testifies abundantly to
5 fine and bright state of the atmosphere during the summer and
;jUmn months at the stations mentioned above. On the faith of
s same reports, we find that Albany is the locality with the
allest number of cloudless days during those growing months ;

9

while Bunbury, which comes next as regards a low mean sum
temperature, as given in the above tables, is reported to have dui
the growing months an almost continuous succession of brii
cloudless days, which are conducive to sugar production. Thr
is seen that, although the temperature in the district aro
Bunbury is fairly cool in the summer months, yet the great pi
ness of the atmosphere is favourable to the perfect maturaticw
grapes, as the plant profits during those months by its full shar
the chemical effect of the direct rays of the sun.

Viewed in the light of practical fruit-growing, abundanc
cloudless days in connection with high and protracted heat, res
in high sugar production, which is of great advantage in
production of raisin and prune, and also in the successful riper
of a second crop of grapes in a season.

It is thus shown why wine, for instance, made from grj
produced from cuttings of the same varieties, and perhaps obtai
from the same parent vine, but grown in a hot and clear dist
in the one instance, and on the other hand in a cooler locality, i
perhaps an atmosphere not quite so bright and clear, will presen
the palate and to laboratory tests quite different characteris
If, for instance, we take Malbec or Cabernet as an example, 1
will produce a rounder and stronger wine in the first district, ar
wine of a lighter character and more of the claret type in the co
localities ; for, in the process of wine-making, sugar means alcol
strength.

In order to continue the parallel between Western Austra
and Californian climates, and also the climate of other State:
America, the following table is given to compare the relative de
of sunshine at various places mentioned below.

In this table cloudiness is rated from 0 to 10 ; two observat
are taken daily at 9 a.m. and 3 p.m.

Geraldton
Lawlers ...
Kalgoorlie
York

Perth ...
Bunbury
Katanning
Albany ...

. 2-7
. 3-1
. 3-4
. 3-0
. 4'4
. 5-5
. 5-2
. 5-0

Sacramento, Cal.
San Francisco, Cal.
Fresno, Cal.
San Diego, Cal —
New York, N.Y.
Philadelphia, Pa.
New Orleans, La.
Jacksonville, Fla.

2-0
4-0
2-1
4-2
5-0
5-0
4-5
4-5

VALTJE OF DRY AIR.

For the purpose of fruit-growing, it can safely be stated th
moderately dry air, especially during the summer and aufr
months, is in many respects more desirable than a vapour-k
atmosphere.

In the first case, pests and blights of fungus origin — n
lichens, etc. — are not anything like so troublesome as in hi
localities.

10

The o'idium of the vine, for instance, is much more troublesome
noist than in dry seasons ; and, for the same reason, in the moist
districts close to the sea, than in districts situated further inland,
3re the atmosphere is drier.

For another reason is dry air of value to the fruit-grower. It
9urs the better penetration through the atmosphere of heat and
it, and their access to the plant. The effect of the chemical
s of the sun, which, although not appealing to our senses in the
le measure as its thermal rays, are nevertheless essential in
iging about the perfect ripening of fruit. Now, a layer of vapour-
en atmosphere floating over the earth acts as a screen, which,
lough pervious to the heat rays, shuts off in a great measure
chemical rays of the sun. . A practical illustration of this fact
been noticed by everyone. However hot the season, fruit will
3n slowly and rot on the plant if the atmosphere is dull, moist,
L muggy ; whereas in a dry and bright autumn, fruit will be
respondingly luscious and richly flavoured, and will put on the
?htest of those tints of colour by which each variety is differ-
iated from the other.

Mean Monthly Relative Air Humidity — August to April-
Annual. (Saturation = 100.)

ind Mean

j

Mean

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

March.

April.

Annual
(12

M'nths)

aldton . . .

74

74

72-6

70

75

73-6

67

72-6

67

71-6

k

71-6

73

66

53-3

59

54-3

53-3

63-6

54

63

th

73-6

69

69

63-6

63-3

61-6

62-3

60-3

61-3

66-2

ibury

75

76

73

67-6

65-3

68-3

68

71-3

72-3

73

any

77-3

77-6

77

72-6

80-3

74-3

80-6

75

75-3

76

Mean

April.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Annual
(12

M'nths)

Angeles . . .

73-1

75-2

73

75-4

76-2

72-9

74-3

66-6

73-3

sno ...

59-3

52-7

427

34-7

34-7

43-6

55-1

64-1

48-3

raniento . . .

67-6

67-6

66-1

59-8

59-8

59

62-4

66-8

63-6

THE RAINFALL AND WATER SUPPLY.

The rainfall of the zone running along the sea coast of Western
stralia for a distance of 80 to 100 miles from the coast is regular
L reliable. More abundant in close proximity to the seashore,
L also on the higher table land of the Darling Ranges, the
ifall gradually decreases the farther inland we go.

11

Practically, there are only two seasons, the " dry " and
" wet." Both are influenced by monsoonal action. In the Nort'
part the wet season sets in during the summer months, commen
in December and lasting till March or April. During that
smart cyclones, locally called "willy-willies " and "cock-eyed bobs
times sweep over the land, causing occasionally damage to stock
property. In the South, the wet season sets in after Ea
generally May, lasts through the winter and ends in October,
a few occasional showers during the summer months. During t
winter months the weather is made up of heavy showers and c
sunny intervals. In the South- Western corner the moisture-h
clouds which are carried on one side over the Southern Ocean,
the other over the Indian Ocean, impinge over the rangt
mountains which rise a few miles from the coast line, and i
parallel with it for a distance of over 300 miles, and there diss
into heavy rain. Once blown over these ranges, farther to
eastward, they meet with no obstruction to bring about t
precipitation, and thus are carried away into the vast unset
interior, where the farther from the coast the drier is the cliniat

The following table gives the average rainfall in Wes
Australia at points located in the several divisions of the State

Locality.

Height

Above Sea
Level.

Average
Number of
Wet days.

Average
Eainfall, in
Inches.

No
Yea
Avei

East Kimberley —

Wyndham

55

29

West Kimberley —

Broome

65

24

North- West Division —

Port Hedland

24

11-7

Fortescue

20

11

Onslow ...

25

7'4

Gascoyne Division —

Dirk Hartog Island

48

9

Hamelin Pool ...

16

7-5

Gullewa

60

10

Abrolhos

25

50

13-4

Northampton

52

19

Geraldton

15

80

18

Newmarracarra

600

22

Dongara

30

70

1Q-K

Carnamah ...

880

1 v

66

-L»7 O

14

Dandaragan ...

80

23*5

New Norcia ...

600

18

Moora

7^

1Q.K

"

Rottnest

1 O

94

-LO O

24

Perth ...

110

31

12

Locality.

Height
Above Sea
Level.

Average
Number of
Wet Days.

Average
Bainfall, in
Inches.

No. of

Years of
Average.

Guildford
Eockingham
Newcastle

30
'470

91
95

30
33
19

23

715

15

Clackline
Northam
Grass Valley

778
491
640
730

80.
52

17'5
15-5
14-5
12

Kellerberrin
York

807
580

68

88

11-5
15-5

Narrocrin ... . ..-

1,114

17

Bridgetown...
Canning Waterworks
Jarrahdale ...
Pinjarrah ...

505

'l28

28

80

31
41
39
37
21

17

TVickepin

92

17

12

Colliefields
Bunbury

604

18

30
34

Boyanup
Wagin
Katanning ...
Kojomrp
Cape Leeuwin
The Warren
Mt. Barker
Pallinup

123

840
1,022

'30

80
90
90
1GO
168
105
74

33
15-5
17
20
38-5
41
25-5
14-5

23

"l7
5

Albany

170

36

Eastern Division —
Lawlers
Mt Margaret

40
23

4
5'6

Kalgoorlie

40

6-8

Boorabbin . . .

60

7'5

Eucla Division —
Esperance
Israelite Bay ...

100
60

21
14-4

16

Balladonia

44

9

9

Eyre

65

10-2

15

Encla

60

10

16

Apart from the rainfall, which is thus seen to be fairly well
distributed all over the coastal zone, the country is well watered by
means of springs, swamps, and brooks. Rivers are few, and, except
in the South- West corner of the State, do not run all the year
round ; but they all form along their course chaplets of pools, which
afford an abundant supply of water for irrigation.

Although the country, on the whole, looks somewhat wanting
in fresh running streams, there is underground an immense store
of water, which is reached by sinking wells, varying in depth from
10 to 80 feet. Many of those wells, however, more especially in the

13

inland districts, are often too highly mineralised to be of any use for
the purpose of watering plants.

Soaks abound over the country, and almost invariably follow
on the process of clearing land of trees previous to cultivating ;
wherein their presence is made manifest on the surface by the look
of the green patches during the dry months, when all vegetation
looks brown and languishing around ; there water may be obtained
by shallow excavation. Indeed, in the Eastern districts, some 100
miles or more from the coast, soaks constitute the chief source of
water supply.

In those drier districts, strewed over the surface of the country,
occur bold, bare outcrops of cap slab granite, from 10 to 100 feet in
height, covering from 10 to 60 or 80 acres. These outcrops rise from
sandy and loamy flats. They seem to have been provided by Nature
for the conservation of water in that arid region. After even the
lightest rainfall they shed water like a house-roof; whilst and
almost invariably, somewhere at the foot of those denuded rocks,
fresh water soaks occur in natural dams or basins filled with sand,
which, when cleaned, supply for stock or for trees an abundant
supply of fresh water.

Nowhere in the South- West Division of Western Australia
need fruit-growing be checked by dearth of water, as, apart from
natural sources of supply, any amount commensurate with the
requirements of the orchardist can, at small cost and with little
trouble, be impounded in tanks and dams excavated by means of a
plough and an earth scoop.

But, apart from the source of visible water, attempts made of late
years to obtain fresh water by artesian boring have proved eminently
successful. The first bore put down was in 1894, at Midland
Junction, when, by means of a hand plant, an abundant supply was
struck at a depth of 500ft., and the bore now discharges through a
4in. lining 260,000 gallons of water per day.

Since then many more bores have been put down along the
coastal plateau from the Greenough Plains to the Preston River.
Brackish and mineralised water has been struck in two or three
instances, but, as a rule, pure, fresh artesian water, suitable for
all domestic purposes and for irrigation, is struck at depths varying
from 230 to 1,000 feet. Around Guildford alone, four or five bores
have been successfully sunk, the details of which are thus given in
the Western Australian Year Book, published by the Registrar
General : —

" The Woodbridge Estate bore, completed in 1896, depth 236ft.,
cost c£418 ; discharges at the surface 150,000 gallons per day. The
Bebo Moro bore, 1896, put down to a depth of 308ft., cost £265;
yield, 86,000 gallons per day. The Waterhall Estate bore cost
*<£474, depth 691ft., with a daily supply of 194,000 gallons.
The Lockeridge bore, at a depth of 798ft.," daily supply 123,000.
Guildford Municipal bore, 1,202ft., supply 1,000,000 gallons

14

per diem. These figures are given to show that almost any-
where on the plains stretching between the hills and the sea
artesian water can be struck at a moderate cost, wherein the
height of the surface of the ground does not exceed 30ft. to 40ft.
above the sea level."

In many cases, however, especially in those districts with a
scanty rainfall, more highly mineralised soil and indiiferent drainage
facilities, the advisableiiess of using artesian water or any water at
all for the purpose of irrigation is one which should receive careful
consideration, as it is well known that under such conditions
irrigation almost invariably raises the salt line to an extent which
may prove injurious to fruit trees.

SELECT VARIETIES OF FEUIT ACCORDING TO CLIMATE.

In broad lines, the* temperature and the rainfall of various
regions of the State have been rapidly mapped out. In every
respect they are shown to be favourable to the successful cultivation
of fruit trees, from tropical as well as from temperate climates.
The physical or the chemical characteristics of soils can be altered,
but the main features of climates are always the same, and cannot
be disregarded in the selection of crops. Thus, soil eminently
favourable for requirements of the grape vine may be met with in
Scotland, as well as in the most renowned districts of the south of
Europe ; yet malt liquors and whiskeys contribute to the wealth of
the Scotch farmers, and brandies and wines that of the vine- growers
of the sunny south.

But apart from the influence of latitude, altitude and aspect
also tend to modify climate. Snow is met with under the equator
on mountains of high altitude. According to the explorer Hum-
bolt, the thermometer falls one degree for every 340ft. of elevation ;
and under the influence of this law the climate is cooler, and
consequently fruits ripen later on the hills than they do in the low
land. An instance of this is afforded along the trunk railway line
running from the sea over the hills to the eastward. There we see
that under the influence of otherwise similar climatic conditions
the maturation of fruit crops and grapes is retarded by two or three
weeks on the Darling Eanges, at Mundaring or Chidlow's Well, at
an altitude of about 1,000ft. above the plains on the Swan.

If we proceed another 100 miles eastward, we notice that this
period of maturation of fruit is entirely reversed under the influence
of intervening causes.

At Tammin and Kellerberrin, for instance, with an altitude of
200ft. only less than at Mundaring or Chidlow's Well, and some
750ft. above the Swan, grapes and fruits come to maturity a week
or two earlier than they do on the coast. There the retarding
influence of altitude is counterbalanced by the more active light,
the lesser degree of air humidity, and probably by the greater
degree of heat absorbed by the soil.

15

Due consideration to local climatic conditions should, therefore,
influence fruit-growers in the selection of what to plant, with the
idea of avoiding a glutted market. Thus the settlers at a greater
altitude within the influence of the coastal climate should cater for
the later market, whereas those located further inland in the
brighter but drier regions will, with earlier varieties, have a good
hold of the early market. But here, again, other points have to be
considered, and good carrying capabilities must not entirely be
overlooked when seeking for earliness.

Aspect will also modify the climate to some extent. Many
tender plants will thrive in sheltered spots which would succumb to
exposure to the rigours of the climate only a short distance away.
Low lying damp hollows subject to late ground frosts often prove
fatal to potatoes or to those vines which break into leaf early in the
season, although these would have been quite safe on a warmer
slope only a stone's throw distant. Then again an eastern aspect,
other things being equal, will generally hasten the ripening of fruit
by several days. Clay bands or ridges of rocks running across a
field will, by throwing up the water, often modify the climatic con-
ditions either for good or evil within a row or two.

Exposure to winds, the colour and the texture of the soil, or in
other words, its power of absorbing and of retaining heat and
moisture are all factors which to some extent modify a local climate.

OUR SOILS.

Great stress has been laid on the merits of the climate
of the several districts of Western Australia capable of pro-
ducing fruit, but, before pronouncing on the suitability of any
given area, either for agricultural purposes, or more especially fruit
growing — a branch of agriculture which is being more particularly
discussed in these pages — the fact that the soil is in some measure
suitable for the purpose one has in view, must be ascertained.

In the pursuit of fruit-growing, soil must give precedence to
climate in as much as the first can, by means of judicious manuring
and cultivation, be made to lend itself to the special requirements
of the plant, whereas in the second instance, the welfare and pro-
ductiveness of the plant is mainly dependent upon the nature and
peculiarity of the climate.

It is a well-known fact that soils are more or less suited to
different sorts of trees, and it is one of the leading features of
Western Australia that the nature and character of the soil is
extremely variable ; the line of demarcation of one kind being in
many instances somewhat abrupt and sharp in its delimitation. On
closer examination, however, the soils which are met with in the
agricultural districts of this State belong to only a few well-defined
types. These are often intermixed together in various ways, and
cover, generally speaking, small areas only. Their recurrence at
frequent intervals, according to the contour of the locality, lends to
the country a motly appearance ; a characteristic which has been

16

appropriately expressed by the word " patchy," which applies more
or less to the whole of the territory figured on the map published
for the clearer understanding of the localities reviewed in these
pages. Most conspicuous amongst the soils of the South-West
Division of this State are the following : —

IRONSTONE G-RAVEL.

With which the Darling Ranges are mostly covered, and which
shows on the surface. The soil consists of ferruginous claystones,
showing as coarse pea gravel, varying in size from that of shot to
that of marbles. In colour it varies from a light yellow to a dark
red, according to the amount of oxide of iron it contains. It is
generally mixed with a fertile ,loam, the result of its own disinte-
gration, and at places consolidates into a hard conglomerate which
would have to be rent asunder by the pick, or better still with the
use of cartridges of dynamite, before planting either trees or vines.

The soil when mixed with a fair proportion of loam is par
excellence the best suited for the production of a high-class wine ;
clean to the taste, rich in colour, and of pleasant bouquet. Fruit
trees generally do well on it. So far, owing to its gravelly appear-
ance, it has been condemned as poverty-stricken land ; while the
cost of clearing it of the timber which grows on it has caused the
more timid-hearted settlers to disregard it in preference to more
fertile looking soil carrying a class of timber which is more easily
burned.

This soil is healthy, warm, and well-drained, and the looseness
of the material it is made of favours the far-reaching propensities of
the roots of fruit trees in quest of food. The application of
phosphates and of potassic fertilisers are desirable on such soils,
if not at the outset and soon after breaking up and planting, yet
after regular crops of fruit have been taken away.

In gullies and in favoured spots, a rich deposit of brown and
red loam, varying in depth from 6 to 24 inches, covers up this soil,
and wherever land of that description occurs, fruit trees or vines
will bear abundantly and thrive luxuriantly.

Underlying the ironstone gravel a white pipe-clay occurs, which,
according to locations, is found at a shallow depth underneath the
surface or at some considerable distance underground. The best
criterion of the proximity or predominence of these various soils is
offered by the indigenous trees which cover the stretch of country
where the soils just described show up more prominently, and that
country extends the whole length of the Darling Ranges, from the
latitude of Geraldton right down to the Blackwood. The gravelly
ironstone is generally identified with the name of " jarrah " country
(Eucalyptus marginata, Smith). Wherever there is a certain depth
of brown loam on the surface, the jarrah is associated with the
native grass-tree or "blackboy" (Xanthorrhcea}, of which there
exists two distinct varieties. Pockets of deep loam amongst the
ironstone gravel are indicated by the presence of the red gum

17

tree (E. calophylla, R. Brown). Wherever jarrah, red gum, and
blackboys grow together and attain large proportions, there the soil
is certain to be deep, well-drained, fertile, and suitable in every way
for the purpose of fruit and vine-growing. The " blackbutt "
(E. patens, Bentham) is at intervals met with on the moist slopes
of the Darling Ranges amongst these trees, and is indicative of one
of our most fertile class of soils, a free-working, gravelly loam. It
does not burn readily, hence the patches it covers having so long
been left in its virgin state. The occurrence of pipe-clay, either on
the surface or at a shallow depth, is, on the other hand, revealed by
the presence of white gum tree (JE. redunca, Schauer). White
gum alone is an indication of predominance of pipe-clay, or of a
cold, retentive porridge made up of pipe-clay and gritty sand, soft and
slushy in the winter months and hard in the dry summer season.
Small blackboys growing amongst white gums are an evidence of
the presence of this stratum of loam on the surface, and similarly
jarrah and white gum are indicative of a mixture of ironstone gravel
and pipe-clay. Lime and phosphates, associated with drainage, are
necessary for the raising of good crops on such soil.

Over the same area frequent outbursts of trap rock and vol-
canic dykes run through the country or occur in patches, and are
easily recognised by the occurrence of boulders of blue metal em-
bedded in a rich red loam of volcanic origin. Where such dykes
occur, or appear as if churned up with the ironstone gravel, trees
and all sorts of crops grow to great perfection, and oranges thrive
splendidly.

In the gullies alongside the brooks and around the springs, as
well as on low alluvial soil bordering water-courses, the Flooded
gums, often associated with blackboys, mark out fertile strips of
land, rich in potash, but which after a few years cropping require
the application of phosphates. In the South- West the Yate tree
(E. cornuta, La Billardiere) grows on such land.

Fresh water can be obtained almost anywhere on this forma-
tion at a depth of 12— 35ft. on reaching the pipe-clay bottom,
whilst springs often break out on their own accord after ring-barking
the forest trees or clearing the land for cultivation.

CHOCOLATE SOIL.

Known locally as the " jam " or " wattle " country. This kind
of soil is very widely distributed, and extends from the Murchison
and the Irwin over the Victoria Plains, up the Avon Valley to Wagin
and Katanning. It is overgrown at the north by the " wattle,"
and southwards by the " raspberry jam tree," a kind of Myall
(Acacia acuminata, Bentham). On the whole, this belt of country
is drier than the preceding one, but much easier to clear and to
cultivate, and eminently suitable for the cultivation of fruit-trees
and vines, as well as of cereal crops.

The soil consists of a chocolate loam, sometimes of great depth,
varying in texture from a heavy loam, characterised by a greater

18

or smaller admixture of the "York guni" tree (E. loxophleba,
Bentham) to the wattle or jam tree. Such land makes splendid
corn land, and is more generally found on the slopes of the
undulating country which constitutes its home. On the flats the
soil is often of a lighter character, and there the wattle or the
jam bushes predominate. On the river banks and in patches over
the country, a lighter loam still is found and is generally over-
grown by the above-named trees, in company with the banksias, of
which there exists several varieties, and at times with the "sheaoaks"
(Casuarinas).

Considered on the whole, the chocolate loam or wattle and jam
or York gum land is one of the best balanced in the elements of plant
food in the South- West districts of the State, and were it not for,
in some seasons, a scanty rainfall, would carry enormous crops of
grain, hay, or fruit. Fields not long cleared and cultivated yield,
in average seasons, 16 — 26 bushels of wheat to the acre, and 30 —
40 cwts. of hay. Richer patches of land occur in this country,
where the "manna gum" tree grows (Acacia microbotrya) cele-
brated for its enormous yield of gum). Those patches are
generally of volcanic origin and of great fertility; blackboys of
very large size also grow on such soil. At places over that country
salt patches are not uncommon, and generally follow up the
clearing of the land. Their occurrence is more noticeable in what
would have been the most fertile land in the field, in hollows, or at
the base of sloping ground, where these salts accumulate, owing to
the leaching process after heavy rainfalls, as well as by the general
seepage of the more easily soluble alkali salts, notably those of
sodium.

SALT PATCHES.

Two sorts of salt patches occur in the drier regions of the State :
the white patches caused by formation of crust or efflorescences on
the surface of the soil of salts, which present the appearance of
hoar frost on the ground. These salts mostly consist of common
salt (chloride of sodium), with chlorides and" sulphates of calcium
and magnesium. Unless present in large quantities, these salts are
comparatively harmless.

The second, the black salt patches, are more injurious to vegeta-
tion, and in addition to common salt contains G-lauber's salt
(sulphate of soda), and with it a varying amount of a substance most
destructive to vegetable tissues, viz. : — carbonate of soda or sal.
soda. The presence of that salt is always indicated by the colour of
the soil in the black salt patches. The latter salt has, on the
tissues of plants, a corrosive action ; it dissolves the humus con-
tained in the soil, and thus gives it the characteristic black colour
often noticeable in such patches. The presence of this chemical
salt in the soils is absolutely detrimental to the growth of roots of
the plant, whereas the salts found in the white patches are only
injurious when their accumulation becomes excessive, especially at
the surface.

19

The reclamation of salt patches for the purpose of bringing
them under cultivation rests upon three chief points :

1. Draining to carry away the excess of salt and preventing

fresh amounts being drawn up from the subsoil below.
This is the one efficacious and radical way of reclaim-
ing salt patches of any sort. The underdrainage in
deep hollows is not only often impracticable but is
generally costly. Besides, there is often found, in con-
junction with these noxious salts, other chemicals of high
fertilising value, such as sulphates, nitrates, phosphates
of potash and soda, which would run away to waste in
the drains and be lost to the soil. Should this be the
case, it would in many instances be advisable to alter the
poisonous substances in the soil and neutralise their
injurious effect, so as to place them beyond the means
of causing any injury, and this can be affected by —

2. Neutralising the corrosive salts by means of chemicals

and changing their nature into that of the more
innocuous ones. To best effect this, some cheap sub-
stance, which by chemically reacting on the sodium
carbonate would transform it into an inactive salt, is
necessary, and is readily found in gypsum or sulphate
of lime, which by a mutual shuffling or interchange
of the basic and acidic elements, become respectively
carbonate of lime or limestone and sulphate of soda or
Glauber's salt. The gypsum, moreover, renders
insoluble the humus taken up and dissolved by the
carbonate of soda, and thus retains it in the soil.

3. The injurious substances having been neutralised, it is

essential to reduce the surface evaporation which
would tend to accumulate on the surface layers the
soluble salts sucked up by means of capillary attraction.
This is best effected by means of deep cultivation, fre-
quently repeated, and by growing crops which root
deeply and cover the ground, as well also as salt-loving
plants such as plants of the cabbage and of the beet
tribe or such plants as asparagus, saltbushes, and a
variety of others. By such means the successful and
profitable cultivation of the soil would, in mild cases,
be quite feasible.

Besides that of neutralising the injurious effects of the
carbonate of soda, gypsum has a correcting effect on the physical
conditions of the soil, which often becomes glutinous and forms a
clayey hardpan. It coagulates the glutinous substance formed by
the carbonate and destroys the puddled condition of the clay, thus
enabling the roots to penetrate and the waters to drain through
such soils.

20

FOREST ALLUVIUM LAND.

Throughout the interior, from the Irwin towards the
Eastern G-oldfields railway line, and far beyond, stretches of country
occur which are now mostly under tall salmon gum trees (E.
salmonophloia, F. von Mueller). These stretches of country were
formed by running water wearing away the old rocks and carrying
the finer soil down in their course, and depositing it on the lower
level, where it forms extensive rich plains. They show as large
clay and loam flats, often many miles wide.

With the salmon gum is associated the gimlet wood or
fluted gum tree (E. salubris, F. von Mueller). Both these
Eucalypti yield a large percentage (4 per cent.) of excellent oil on
distillation of the leaves, and it would seem that the dropping of
the leaves and bark on the surface of the soil has a deadly action
on the natural herbage. Soon after the trees are destroyed, either
by ring-barking or sapping, the natural grasses grow plentifully, and
all this country, which until recently was reputed barren, has since
been proved to constitute, when cleared, ploughed up, and brought
under cultivation, corn land of great value.

Wherever on these forest lands a few Morrell gum trees occur
(JE. longirostris) , there the soil is richer still, and the ears of corn
crops fill well and weigh heavy, as is the case when the land has
been liberally dressed with phosphatic fertilisers. These soils would
be benefited by green manuring, which would considerably add to
their store of humus. This formation rests on marl and limestone.
All these trees burn readily, and on this account the cost of clearing
is much reduced. As these lands occur in a somewhat arid zone of
country, their true value has for a long time been overlooked. By
means of water conservation in clay tanks, and after ring-barking,
the look of that country soon improves, and luxuriant grasses
spring up, which turn the drought stricken looking forest land into
nourishing pastures.

SANDY SOILS.

Interspersed more or less over the several formations above
described, and especially in the intervening lower ground between
the foot of the ranges and the sea, are patches of soil varying from
a coloured sandy loam to a pure white sand. That country supports
shrubs of different sorts of banksias, and in places, where it is not
very deep, either white or red gums, with at times blackboys, and
also near the coast the Willow Myrtle or Peppermint tree (Agonis
flexuosa, de Candolle), and on limestone coast hills eastward of
the Darling Range the tooart (E. gomphocephala, de Candolle).
Little hope, of course, exists of ever cultivating with profit the
patches of pure sand scattered over the country, but in many places
the soil assumes a darker colour, varying from orange to dark grey,
and wherever limestone or a loamy subsoil underlays the sand at'a
small depth there vines and stone-fruit trees grow with great
luxuriance.

21

Many swamps occur through these sandy patches where rushes,
the " Paper bark " (Melaleuca leucadendron, Linne), and ti- trees
abound. These swamps can be easily drained, and when thus
reclaimed can be turned into market gardens of marvellous fertility.
In many instances, especially along the coast, the soil is made of an
accumulation of silt, mud, and vegetable detritus, which settling in
the water collected in basins bottomed by calcareous hardpans, form
a rich black mould.

These hardpans consist of a conglomerate of greyish mud in
which are thickly embedded fragments of sea shells, and which
after being subjected to the process of weathering, crumble down
readily and assume the normal condition of a soil rich in lime,
phosphates, potash, and organic matter. These hardpans prevent
the penetration into the deeper soil of roots as well as of water, and
their breaking up previous to the cultivation of those marshes is of
primary necessity. Whenever they are met with at a small depth
the pick or the crowbar readily breaks them up into cakes or slabs,
but should they be found at a greater depth, one of the readiest
and at the same time cheapest ways of breaking them up is by means
of small charges of dynamite, which so shatter and crack the
hardpan that not only can roots penetrate through the clefts, but
the stagnant water also sinks by gravitation, and the land is
generally drained to such an extent that it gradually softens and
crumbles down until ultimately the hardpan completely disappears.
Should fruit trees have already been anywhere planted without the
precaution of breaking up this hardpan having already been taken,
the trees are sure sooner or later, whenever their roots reach the
retentive hardpan, to languish and flag; in such cases small
dynamite cartridges exploded on each side of the tree in the winter
time when it is dormant will, without injuring the tree, remove the
obstruction and bring relief.

As can reasonably be expected, the frequent application of
fertilisers will be necessary for the production of heavy crops in
sandy soils. Generally speaking, the lack of potash is the weakest
point of such soil, and wherever the reefs of coral limestone met with
in the neighbourhood of the coast are not present, phosphates will be
required, while nitrogenous fertilisers, and preferably those of a
less readily soluble kind, will likewise be necessary. On such soil
the process of adding to its fertility by means of green manuring —
the ploughing in of some quick-growing green crops is much to be
recommended.

By their intermixing in variable proportions, these several typical
soils of the South -West division of Western Australia give rise to
a greater variety of soils, some of which, like those of a sedimentary
nature, occur along the course of existing or old river beds, and are
usually deep, well drained, very productive, and by reason of their
generally well sheltered situations, eminently well adapted for the
purpose of fruit growing.

99

KING-BARKING AND CLEARING LAND.
Mr. L. Lindley-Cowen, late secretary of the then Bureau, now
Department of Agriculture, thus summarises in this chapter the
practise and the opinion of experienced settlers from various parts
of the agricultural districts of this State: — "To new comers
unacquainted with the readiest methods of converting bush land
into fruitful farms and orchards, much valuable information will be
gathered from the teachings of others."

Following are the common and botanical names of the trees
referred to in the returns on ring-barking reviewed below : —

Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata, Smith)

Red Gum (E. calophylla, E. Brownl

Flooded or " Blue " Gum (E. salinga, Smith)

White Gum (E. redunca, Schauer)

Peppermint (Agonis flexuosa, de Candolle)

Yate (E. cornuta, La Billardiere)

Sheaoak ( Casuarina Fraseriana, Miguel)

Paper bark (Melaleuca sp.)

York Gum (E. loxophleba, Bentham)

Jam (Acacia acuminata, Bentham)

Manna Gum (E. Viminalis, La Billardiere)

Salmon Gum (E. salmonophloia, F. von Mueller)

Morell, or Parker's Gum, or Mallee of Victoria (E. olesoa, F.
von Mueller)

Mallet, or Fluted Gum, or Gimlet Wood (E. salubris F von
Mueller)

Blackboy (Xanthorrhcea)

Wattle (Acacia leiophylla, Bentham)

„ Badjong- ( A. microbotyra, Bentham)

Karri (E. diversicolor, F. von Mueller)

Spearwood (E. Doratoxylon, F. von Mueller)

Tooart (E. gomphocephala, de Candolle)

Blackbutt (E. patens, Bentham)

Zamia (Cycas Sp.)

The object of ring-barking or of sap-ringing is to kill the trees,
in order that the pasture and water supply may be improved, and
to facilitate clearing in the future.

Trees are destroyed by ring-barking when a belt of bark

about a foot in width
is taken off the stem,
whilst sap-ringing con-
sists in cutting into
the sap or outer wood
of the tree as well as
taking off the bark.
The illustration here-
with shows the different
methods, and on per-
usal of the following
pages it will be found
which varieties of trees,
in the opinion of old
colonists in various
districts, should be ring-barked and which sap-ringed.

23

When setting about ring- barking and clearing, a few trees
should be left standing. Shade is quite as grateful in the hot
summer months to stock as feed.

SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT.

Varieties of Trees. — Jarrah, red gum, flooded gum, banksia,
white gum, blue gum, peppermint, yate, blackbutt.

Method and Time of Destruction. — Great diversity of opinion
exists apparently, both as to the method of killing the trees,
whether by ring- barking or sap-ringing, and also as to the period of
the year during which the work should be done. There is, however,
a unanimous opinion that jarrah, red gum, banksia, and blackbutt
should be. destroyed by ring-barking, and yate, peppermint, and
flooded gum by sap-ringing. In the case of blue gums the
advocates of sapping and ring- barking are equally divided, while in
the case of white gums the advocates of ring-barking are in a large
majority. One correspondent does not enumerate the trees in his
locality (Bridgetown), but advises "all to sap when the trees are in
flower;" while another correspondent would "advise all newcomers
to adopt ring-barking."

In regard to the time of the year when the ring-barking or
sapping should be done, there is a wide range of opinion. All the
months in the year are recommended, except April, May, and June.
There is a slight preponderance of opinion in favour of ring-
barking the trees from October to February. One correspondent
at Jayes reports having killed jarrah and white gum in three days
by ring-barking in February. July to October appears to be the
best period for destroying the red gum. January. February, and
March for the blue gum, white gum, flooded gum, peppermint,
yate, and black-butt. All, with one exception, agree that the
banksia may be killed by ring-barking at any period of the year,
the dissentient being in favour of the months of January, February,
and March.

Referring to jarrah, red gum, and blackbutt, Mr. J. Forster
Johnston, of Leschenault, writes : — "I have had over 1,000 acres
ring-barked on my Preston property in different months, varying
from March to November, and found it all effective." Referring
to the "Leschenault blue gums," the same writer says : — "These
trees I find very difficult to kill. Some few will die right out and
others live for years." Mr. Andrew Muir, of Lake Muir, writes : —
" I find the best time to ring-bark in our district is in the months of
September, October, and the early part of November, for jarrah,
red gum, and blackbutt. Yate requires ringing in January, as if
rung at that time it will die in a few days, and will not throw up

suckers, which it will do if rung in the winter months

White gum you can ring at any time when the bark strips freely ;
in fact, it is no use ringing any tree if it will not bark freely."

Mr. J. P. 0. Wellard, of Mornington, writes : — " In ring-
barking I have found the months named (January, February, and

24

March) the best for my land. The trees take longer to die, but
they do not throw out any suckers. I think it will be found very
hard to lay down any hard and fast rules about ringing, as it will
be found not only to Vary in different districts, but also in the same
districts as to the best time of the year."

Blaclcboys. — Mr. Wellard continues : " What is almost as
necessary as ringing the timber here in the hills is having the
blackboys cut down. I have had some land chopped and find the
stock niuch prefer the cleared land to that where the blackboys
are still growing in the same paddock. Price for chopping the
blackboys about 2s. per acre." On this subject Mr. J. Forster
Johnston writes : — " I have 100 acres at the Preston ... so thick
with blackboys that I have known a stockman to ride three times
round the block before he could find a beast in it, so I determined
to have the blackboys chopped off. I let 50 acres to an old man at
2s. 6d. per acre . . . and on settling up he was so satisfied
that he walked back 40 miles to do the other 50 and had a nice
cheque to take. My neighbours laughed at me for doing this,
saying it was money thrown away, but I see now a good many of
them are following my example. You can now see nearly all over
the paddock, and there is a good swath of English grasses growing
in a large portion of it." The Preston progress Association
reports that " chopping down blackboys greatly improves the
carrying capabilities of the land."

Effect of the destruction of trees upon the water supply and growth
of grasses. — There is a decided unanimity of opinion that the killing
of the timber increases the water supply in all the localities from
which correspondents have replied, but apparently more so in some
localities than others. The increase in the water supply is pro-
bably governed by the diversity of the timber and the geological
formation of the ground, and thus the slight difference in opinion
may be accounted for. With one exception, that of the Ferguson
Farmers' Association who report that "the natural grasses die
out" after ring-barking, there is a decided unanimity of opinion
that the destruction of the timber is followed by a marked increase
in the stock carrying capacity of the land. So unanimous is this
opinion that one is led to believe that the exception referred to
above has been caused, perhaps, not by ring-barking, but by the
young and finer grasses which the destruction of the timber had
induced to grow being fed out by overstocking. In fern (bracken)
country ring-barking appears to be of doubtful benefit. Mr.
Andrew Muir, Lake Muir, writes : — " From my own experience I
should say that ring-barking improves all lands where there are
no ferns ; but in fern country the killing of the timber stimulates
the growth of the ferns to such an extent that they completely
choke out the grasses in a few years."

Cost per acre of ring-barking and sapping. — The highest price
paid for ring-barking is, according to the returns, 2s. 6d. per acre,
the lowest Is., the average price per acre being Is. 9|d. The

25

highest price for sap-ringing is given at 4s. 6d. per acre, the lowest
at Is. 6d., the average per acre being 2s. 9£d.

Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of the
trees. — In nearly all cases the returns show that the cost of clearing
the land ready for the plough is reduced to one-half after the
timber has been killed by ring-barking or sapping. The highest
price for clearing is returned by the Ferguson Farmer's Associa-
tion at £20 to £25 per acre before ring-barking and =£10 to ,£12
per acre after the timber is dead. Mr. Andrew Muir returns the
cost of clearing at £15 per acre before, and £12 per acre after
ring-barking in his district. Nearly all the other returns give the
cost at £10 to £12 per acre before ring-barking, and <£5 to =£7
after. Omitting the two returns mentioned above, those of the
Ferguson Farmers' Association and Mr. Muir, the average cost of
clearing over the whole area covered by the returns, is before ring-
barking, £9 14s. per acre, after ring-barking, <£5 10s. 6d. per acre.

MURRAY DISTRICT.

Varieties of Timber. — Jarrah, red gum, blue gum, banksia,
sheaoak, paper bark, wild pear tree.

Method and time of destruction. — Jarrah, ring-barking. Red
gum, Mr. Richardson recommends ring-barking, while the Murray
Horticultural Society recommends sapping. Blue gum, sheaoak,
paper bark, wild pear, sapping ; banksia, ring-barking.

August to December for all trees except banksia, which may
be rung at any time, and paper bark and wild pear, the best period
for ringing these being returned as doubtful. " The blue gum can
be killed at any time of the year within 24 hours if it is properly
sapped " according to the Murray Horticultural Society's return.
The honorary secretary of this society, in returning the form
writes : — " It is the general opinion here that ring-barking and
sapping tends io toughen the roots of the trees, making the trees
harder to pull up for some time after, so if you cannot afford to
wait for two or three years to allow the roots to rot it is a better
plan to pull up the trees green, as the heavy tops help to bring
them down. But having waited the time mentioned, the clearing
of land is made all the easier, as the trees come down willingly."

Effect of the destruction of the trees upon the water supply and
growth of native grasses. — There is a very decided opinion expressed
in both returns that the destruction of the timber largely increases
both the water supply and feed.

Cost per acre of ring-barking and sapping. — From Is. to 2s.
for ring-barking, according to the quantity of timber. From 2s. to
3s. for sapping.

Cost per acre for clearing before and after the destruction of the
trees. — The returns show the cost of clearing to be reduced to one-
half after the timber is dead. Before ring-barking the cost is set
down by the Murray society at from £3 to £5 per acre, and by Mr.

26

Eichardson at from =£4 to ,£15 per acre. After ring-barking from
£2 10s. to £8 per acre.

GREAT SOUTHERN RAILWAY DISTRICT.

Varieties of Trees. — "White gum, York gum, jarrah, jam,
sheaoak, stinkwood, manna gum, flooded gum, red gum, yate,
salmon gum, Parker's gum or morrell, mallet or fluted gum.

Method and time of destruction. — In three of the returns
sapping is recommended for all the trees mentioned above with
the exception of the salmon gum, which one correspondent advises
should be ring-barked. York gum and flooded gum are liable to
throw up suckers, it is said, in another return. " Sap ringing is
desirable in each case for immediate results, but ring-barking is
preferable if one can afford to wait the results for say four years."
— Wagin- Arthur Farmers' Alliance. The Ka tanning Farmers'
Association advocates destroying the white gum and jarrah either
by ring-barking or burning around the butts; and ring-barking,
jam, sheaoak, and manna gum, and sapping York and flooded gums.
Stinkwood if cut down dies out. York gum and jam should be
rung when the sap is well up. The bark will then fall off every
limb and the roots can be burnt right out. Flooded guin is very
difficult to kill. Firing round the trunk in the month of March
very often has the desired effect. Two correspondents state their
experience has shown that ring-barking and sapping may be
carried on all the year round with successful results if the work is
properly performed. The Wagin-Arthur Farmers' Alliance
advises that the work should be done during December, January,
and February, while the Katanning Farmers' Association advocates
ring-barking or sapping, as the case may be, in September and
October, for all trees except manna gum ; the period for this variety
being extended from September to March. Sheaoak may be treated
at any time.

Effect of the destruction of timber on the water supply and growth
of grasses. — All the correspondents are of the unanimous opinion
that the destruction of the timber improves very materially both
the water supply and the stock-carrying capacity of the land. The
Katanning Farmers' Association, however, makes a reservation in
favour of the retention of jam trees — " Jam is the only tree which
does not injure the grass to any extent. When all the trees are
destroyed, the sun has more power over the grasses, which quickly
dry up. In the middle of the summer, the grass is often found to
be green and succulent under the shade of the jam trees when it is
dried up elsewhere. . . . Stock eat the leaves of the stinkwood
and young sheaoak s."

Cost per acre of ring-barking or sapping. — In two returns from
the Wagin district the cost of sapping is put down at Is. less per
acre than that of ring-barking : the prices being 2s. to 3s. per acre
respectively. In the other returns, the cost of ring-barking is from
9d. to Is. 6d. per acre, and of sapping from Is. 9d. to 2s. per acre.

27

The average cost per acre, taking all the returns into consideration,
for ring-barking is 2s. Id., and sapping, Is. IHd.

Cost per acre of clearing before and after destruction of the trees.
— The Wagin- Arthur Farmers' Alliance return puts the cost of
clearing, both before and after the destruction of the timber, at £3
10s. per acre. The other returns show that the cost of clearing,
after the timber has been killed by ring-barking or sapping, is
reduced fully one-half. The Broome Hill Agricultural Society's
return put the cost of clearing prior to ring-barking at ,£3 per
acre, and after the timber is dead, at £1 10s. per acre. In the
Katanning return the figures are <£3 and £2 per acre respectively.

YORK DISTRICT.

Varieties of Trees. — York gum, white gum, salmon gum, jam,
blue bush, native cassia, manna gum, morrell gum, flooded gum,
sheaoak.

Method and time of destruction. — The Beverley branch advises
ring-barking all the eucalypti, while the York branch advocates
sapping without any reservation. The Greenhills Progress
Association advises that old York gum trees should be sap-ringed,
and that young ones should be ring-barked ; that white gum,
salmon gum, cassia, and jam, should be sap-ringed, and that the
blue bush should be cut down. It will thus be seen there is a
preponderance of opinion in favour of sap-ringing.

From January to April is the opinion of the York and Beverley
branches for ring-barking or sapping all trees, while the Greenhills
Association advises November to April for ring-barking York gum,
and May to October for sapping this tree. November to May is the
period advised for destroying white gum and cassia, and " any
month " for the remaining trees.

Mr. W. Padbury filled in a return embracing his experience in
the Eastern Districts, the Victoria Plains, and at Yatheroo. His
remarks may be inserted here. He says : — " I would not cut
through the sap of trees on land I wanted to cultivate ; as when the
tree is dead and the tree-puller is put on to it, if it has been cut
through the sap, it is liable to break off and leave the stump in the
ground. I prefer using the tree-puller in clearing, to the ordinary
grubbing, as it pulls more roots clean out, and in ploughing after-
wards you do not find so many obstructions. For red gums, white
gums, salmon gums, and York gums, I find sapping the best, and
the time I do it is as soon as the bark will run after the first
winter rains until the sap goes down again. With flooded gums I
find you must cut through the sap, as they will not die otherwise.
My experience is that trees that have been sap-ringed do not
generally throw out so many suckers. Some trees take two or three
years to die, according to the nature of the tree and the land on
which it grows. I think when the sap is well up, say September,
October, and November, is the best time for ring-barking, as the
tree dies more quickly if the work is done at this time."

28

Effect of the destruction of tke trees upon the water supply and
growth of native grasses. — There is an unanimous opinion expressed
that a most marked increase takes place in both the water supply
and the number and vitality of the native grasses that spring up
after the trees have been destroyed.

Cost per acre of 'ring-barking or sapping. — From Is. 3d. to
2s. 6d. per acre are the prices given for ring-barking, and Is. 7d. to
2s. 6d. for sapping. The York branch puts down the first cost of
sapping at Is. 3d. to Is. 9cl. per acre, and second cost 4-d. to 6d. per
acre for killing suckers.

Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of the
trees. — The cost of clearing for the plough after the country has
been ring-barked from two to three years, is in all cases estimated
at half that of clearing prior to ring-barking. The average cost of
clearing when the trees are green is, for the district, £2 15s. per
acre, and half this sum per acre when the trees are dead.

NORTHAM DISTRICT.

Varieties of Trees. — York gum, jam, morrell, white gum, gimlet
wood, salmon gum, manna gum, wattles, sheaoaks, flooded gum.

Method and time of destruction. — Mr. Gregory advises ringing
salmon and flooded gums, sheaoak, and jam, and sapping white and
York gums. This, in the main, is also the advice of the Irishtown
branch, while Mr. Throssell advises sapping all the trees except the
jam, which should be rung. Mr. Dempster furnishes an interest-
ing note on the destruction of the York gum. He writes : — " All
trees or scrub can be killed at once by sap-ringing, but the York
gums throw out shoots for years after the top of the tree has been
killed, and the cost of keeping under the suckers is more than that
of ringing in the first instance. I have not yet met anyone who can
speak positively as to the best time of the year for ringing these
trees. Occasionally some die, and give no further trouble, but as a
rule they will not, under the present system. Killing the tree slowly
by barking, I think, is the most effectual. I have an idea, supported
by facts, that goes to prove that by killing the tree slowly the
strength returns to the soil, for the best results I have ever seen
from ringing have been by the slow progress."

Mr. Dempster and Mr. Throssell have apparently succeeded in
killing the other trees by either ring-barking or sapping all the year
round, but they both evidently incline to doing the work in the
summer. The former says : " I rather think that the summer ring-
barking is best for York gums and large trees of the same class."
Mr. Throssell writes : " I have not arrived at any conclusion, as I
have succeeded in the matter of effectually killing the gums by
ring-barking during all the months of the year. I prefer summer
for either sapping or ring-barking. In the latter the process is
slower, but more effective." The Irishtown branch advise that the
work should be done between November and March, while Mr.
Gregory favours January and February for York and white gums,
and September and October for the others.

29

Effect of destruction of trees upon the water supply and growth of
grasses. — There is a decided consensus of opinion that the destruc-
tion of timber improves both the water supply and the growth of
the native grasses. Mr. Throssell writes in reference to the latter : —
" Especially is this noticeable on the salmon gum country, which,
prior to killing the timber, is devoid of herbage. The effect is
marvellous, as different species of grasses put in an appearance the
first winter after the timber has been ring-barked, and grow
luxuriantly. Owing to this 'discovery' the salmon gum country is
coming into great favour."

Cost per acre of ring-barking and sapping. — From Is. 3d. to
Is. 9d. for ring-barking, and Is. 6d. to 2s. for sapping.

Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of the
trees. — The highest price quoted for clearing before the timber has
been destroyed is <£3, and the lowest £2 per acre. The highest
quotations given for clearing after the timber is dead is £2 10s.,
and the lowest <£! 10s. per acre. The average per acre of the
returns is, before ring-barking, <£2 14s. ; after the timber is dead,
£1 17s. 6d. Mr. Throssell writes : — " Referring to the value of
killing timber as a preparatory measure to clearing for agriculture,
it requires to be explained that in setting down the saving at only
10s. per acre, that I refer to landowners who let out their clearing
by contract at so much per acre. But for the farmer who
thoroughly ring-barks or kills off the timber some years before
clearing, and then clears his land with his own or monthly hired
labour, under his own supervision, the saving, I am confident, would
be fully one-half."

TOODYAY DISTRICT.
Varieties of Trees. — White gum, jam, York gum, red gum.

Method and time of destruction. — White gum, r ing- barking ;
York gum, ring- barking or sapping ; jam, sapping ; red gum, not

stated.

White gum should be destroyed from September to October ;
York gum, February to March ; jam, at any time ; red gum, not
stated. The secretary adds in a note : — " The branch is of an
opinion that the red gum should never be interfered with on the
pastoral lands, as these trees do not do any harm to the feed and
are invaluable as shade."

Effect of the destruction of trees upon the water supply and the
growth of native grasses. — The destruction of the timber has a most
beneficial effect in increasing the water supply and the growth of
the native grasses.

Cost per acre of ring -barking or sapping. — Is. to Is. 6d. per acre
for either operation.

Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of the
timber.— Before, =£3; after, £2 10s. to £2 15s. The secretary
writes as follows :— " For agricultural purposes, the branch is of the

30

opinion that grubbing when the timber is green is preferable t«
killing the timber by ring-barking or sapping before clearing. Tb
cost per acre of clearing after ring-barking is from 5s. to 10s. less
but this is from two to three years after the ring- barking has beei
done."

G-ERALDTON DISTRICT.

Varieties of Trees. — Wattles, York gum, jam, flooded gum.

Method and time of destruction. — Wattles, York gum, and jam
by ring-barking ; flooded gum by sapping.

November or December when the sap is down, is returned ai
the best time for destroying the trees.

Effect of the destruction oj trees upon the water supply and growt)
of native grasses. — The effect is very great upon the water supply
Even within six months after ringing, the supply gets stronger
the grass grows thicker and is appreciated more by stock.

Cost per acre of ring-barking or sapping. — Eing-barking abou-
5s. per acre. Price for sapping not stated.

Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of th(
trees. — Before ring-barking £5 per acre (wheat lands). After th<
timber has been killed =£3 per acre.

Note. — Mr. McKenzie Grant, Newmarracarra, writes: — "Ring
barking I find is only the beginning of clearing the land, as th(
saplings and young shoots keep springing up, and have to be grubbec
out year after year."

CLEARING ; HOW TO DO IT, AND HOW NOT TO DO IT.

The removal of timber from virgin land preparatory to plough'
ing, is known in Australia as " grubbing and clearing." The cosl
of doing this work, of course, varies very greatly, as will have beer
gathered from the earlier chapters which give the average price oJ
clearing in the various localities described. The chief factor in th(
cost of clearing is the quantity of timber that has to be removed
and there are also subsidiary causes which regulate the price a1
which the work can be done, as, for instance, the nature of the soil
the time of the year at which the work is carried on, the variety oi
timber, the proximity to the labour market, and the mechanicaraids
that may be employed. Taking all these things into consideration
and speaking generally, the spring and early summer are the besl
periods of the year in which to do this work. If the land is clay, o:
at all inclined to be stiff, it will have been well soaked by the wintei
rains, and be easier to remove from around the roots of the trees
Land cleared in the spring and ploughed the same season is less
prone to throw up suckers from the fragments of roots that an
bound to be left on the ground, no matter how carefully the work is
done, than land cleared or ploughed in the autumn or winter
Another advantage of clearing in spring and early summer is thai
the rains are less frequent and the timber has a better chance oi

31

burning. Light sandy soil covered with banksia and other woods
that burn readily, may be cleared at any time of the year. The
new settler may think that anyone who has sufficient strength can
do grubbing and clearing as well as the next one. This is a great
mistake. One cannot exalt clearing into an art or a science, but
there is a knack in doing the work that, simple as it looks, requires
a good deal of practice before one can become master of it. So
much is this the case that if the inexperienced settler has the money
at his command, my advice to him is to get this most laborious
work done by contract.

If he has not, and is compelled to do the work himself, the
hints conveyed in the following notes may be of use to him. If I
now give, in skeleton form, the outline of a specification for clearing,
it will, I think, with a little explanation, convey to the mind of the
new settler the chief features of the work that has to be done, and
the proper way in which it should be performed : —

1. All trees to be grubbed completely round and out to

a depth of not less than 18 inches, and all roots to be
run to the same depth, or until they can be broken by
the hand.

2. All underground blackboys to be grubbed out below

the crown.

3. All zamia palms to be grubbed and completely removed

from the ground.

4. All scrub large enough to impede the progress of the

plough, or that cannot be completely turned in in
ploughing, to be grubbed out.

5. The timber and scrub, after having been grubbed, to be

burnt, and the ashes spread as far as they can be cast.

6. All wood not absolutely required for burning the butts

and stumps of trees, to be left on the ground.

7. No holes to be filled in until they have been examined by

or his agent ; when passed, to be filled in three
inches above the level of the surrounding ground.

8. The whole of the ground to be left ready for the plough,

and the contract to be completed in a workmanlike
manner on or before

9. If the contract is not completed on or before the date

abovementioned a penalty of shillings per day

for every day over the specified time, to be paid by the
contractors, and deducted from any money that may be
due to them.

Such is the rough framework of a specification for a grubbing
and clearing contract. The first clause is self-explanatory. The
second and third clauses refer only to that part of the country
where zamia palms and underground blackboys are to be found.
The latter, if not grubbed well below the crown, that is, where the
leaves shoot from the bole, will continue to spring up perennially.

32

Clauses 4 and 5 need 110 explanation, unless it is to say that, the
reason for having the ashes spread is that they are a most valuable
potash manure, and should be made as much use of, and spread over
as large a surface of ground as possible. Clause 6 is inserted at
discretion. If work is very plentiful, and the settler has a large
area, it may be omitted ; but if the area is 100 acres or less, the
economy of firewood cannot, begin too soon. It may appear to the
settler that there is plenty of wood for all the world, and for ever ;
but even if there was, there is no sense in wasting it. There is no
sense in wasting anything, so far as my experience goes. But, as a
matter of fact, it does not take very long, if clearing is vigorously
pursued, to exhaust the wood supplies on a 100-acre farm ; for it
must be borne in mind that, even with the most careful management,
about 80 per cent, of what would otherwise be available for firewood
has to be used in burning the trunks and butts of trees that cannot
be utilised.

It is important that no holes should be filled until they have
been examined for roots, and when they are filled in they should be
heaped up a little, in order to allow for the settling down of the
loose soil that must eventually take place. It is for the person
letting the contract to say whether he will supply tree pullers, tools,
explosives, and rations. As a rule, the contractors supply them-
selves with all these things, and it is better, as it saves possible
complications, that they should.

Before going any further, I should like to impress upon the
minds of not only new settlers, but old settlers also, the desirable-
ness of having all contracts made in writing. Memory is so apt to
play us false ; black and white, never. The risks to both sides of
acting upon a verbal agreement are infinitely greater than com miting
oneself to any serious error in signing a written contract that- has
been mutually agreed upon.

To return to clearing, and the new and inexperienced settler
who has, perforce, to undertake the work himself.

On clearing the lighter soils, which generally, in this State,
mean lighter and easily removed timber, there is very little to be
said. Common sense in this, as in everything else, must be the
settler's best guide. It may be that it will be considered desirable,
the first year, to leave all the large timber standing, in which case
it should be ring-barked at once, no matter what time of the year
— and grub out only the small stuff, say 12 inches in diameter "and
under. If the large trees are not too thick, this can be done
with advantage, and the ground can be ploughed — " scruffed up "
is the better expression, as it is hardly ploughing, under the cir-
cumstances—with a stump-jump plough. This plough, as its
name implies, is constructed in such a manner as to permit
ground of the very roughest kind being worked. If an obstacle
which cannot be cut through is encountered by the share,
the movable beam is raised by the tractive force, and, after the
obstacle is passed, the share falls into the land again and recom-

33

mences work. The stump-jump plough is, however, an expensive
item — a double-furrow costing about =£17, and a treble-furrow
£23 — the small settler will be hardly able to afford, and unless he
can get the work done by contract, an ordinary single-furrow plough
will have to be called into requisition. Ploughing only partially
cleared land with a single-furrow rigid plough is a most exhilarat-
ing, but not altogether satisfactory, operation, but still it can be
done with a little care and without damaging the implement. If
the land is to be cleared outright at once, which is by far the best
way, if time and means permit, the settler must gird up his
loins and make up his mind to tackle the job bravely. If a
big tree has to be got out, it is no use playing round the

THE

WRONG
WAY

roots. Dig the soil away well round the tree, so that you
have plenty of room to work. There is nothing gained by chopping
off the roots close by the trunk, for you must remember that every
root has to be traced until it is well out of the way of the plough that
is to follow clearing. Again, the tap root has to be got at, and this
cannot be done unless you give yourself ample room to work round and
under the tree. If the tree has plenty of top, when the main lateral
roots are cut, in all probability it will fall ; but if there is little or no
top, then either the tap root will have to be cut, or the agency of fire
will have to be invoked. Don't be too ready with the fire stick.
Grub well round the tree to the full depth before you think of start-
ing the fire. Once you have started your fire, do not think of
letting it go out. Clearing is not eight-hours-a-day work. Last
thing at night and first thing in the morning the fires have to be
gone round and put together. A sapling from six to seven feet
long is used as a lever for putting the logs together whilst burning.
A second and more expeditious method of clearing is by means
of a tree-puller or " forest devil." Several of these machines, both
for horse and man power, have been invented and perfected in this
State, and will be found satisfactory in every way. Where clearing

34

has to be done quickly and on a large scale, the tree-puller is almost
indispensable ; but on a small piece of land, and especially when it
is intended for vines or fruit trees, I am inclined to think that the
slight extra cost of clearing entirely by hand is money saved in the
long run.

A third method is by the use of explosives, and this I have
found both expeditious and profitable, especially on ring-barked
country where the timber is dead. I have always used dynamite in
preference to either powder or rackarock, the only other explosives
I have tried. It is not necessary to use sufficient explosive to blow
the tree down, but merely to loosen the ground about the roots and
create a vent under the butt of the tree. When the timber is dead,
a fire-stick will generally do the rest. A hole should be bored with
a two-inch auger, not in the butt of the tree, but immediately under
it, in the fork of the roots. From Jib. to |lb. of dynamite will be
quite sufficient to shake up the roots and create a vent for the fire
under the largest tree. Last summer I had to have some ground
cleared. It was stiffish clay land, and the ground was very hard,
and I found a considerable saving in time, and consequently money,
was effected by using a small quantity of dynamite, as I have
described, to loosen the ground round the trees. Dynamite may be
had in 51b. packets, costing 8s. 9d.; detonators cost 9d. per doz.,
and fuse Is. per coil.

At one time it was thought the royal road to clearing had been
found in the use of saltpetre and -kerosene. I have tried the follow-
ing method myself, but must say have only found it to be advan-
tageous with timbers that will in any case burn readily. A hole,
eighteen inches deep, is bored with a 1 J inch auger down the centre
of the stump after the tree has been felled. Into this hole
two or more ounces of saltpetre are put, or it is filled up with
kerosene and plugged up. In fine weather, in the spring, the plug
is removed, and about a quarter of a pint of kerosene is put in if
the saltpetre has been used, or the hole is again filled up with the
oil, if oil has been previously applied. This being set on fire, it is
said the stump will continue to burn away quietly until both stump
and roots are consumed. Personally, I am of opinion that a little
dynamite properly applied, or one of the other methods of clearing
mentioned in this chapter, are cheaper and more satisfactory in the
end, where the hard burning wood of Western Australia is con-
cerned.

There is a fourth method which is certainly the most expe-
ditious, but it requires a large amount of capital, and would only
pay where a large area of country had to be cleared. I refer to the
use of traction engines fitted with long wire ropes, by means of
which the trees can be pulled down as they stand without any
preliminary preparation, and then " snigged " up into rows eight
or ten chains apart, and there left for all time or to be burnt off at
leisure. If this process is followed, there is nothing to do but to fill
up the holes and set the stump-jump plough to work.

35

BURNING OFF.

With some varieties of trees it is much easier to get them down
than to get rid of them after they are down. This is particularly
the case when the timber has not been previously killed by ring-
barking. The usual method of getting rid of the timber is by
burning it, first cutting the smaller limbs up into convenient
lengths for handling with an axe or crosscut saw. The larger limbs
and butts of the smaller trees should be also cut up and pulled up
to the largest trunks by horse power. The mistake is sometimes
made, by those who have not done this work before, of stacking up
all the small timber on the trunks and setting fire to the whole lot
at once. This should not be done except in the case of trees that
are dead and consequently dry, and that are known to burn freely.
Burning off is at best, under the most favourable circumstances, a
tedious process, and though it may seem very slow work, it is quicker
in the long run to economise the smaller stuff and add a little to
the fires as needed. It occasionally happens, in spite of the
greatest economy, there are still butts unburnt which are too
large to be moved whole and which cannot be split by the wedge
and maul. When this occurs, it has to be decided whether it is
cheaper to haul more timber to the spot or break up the butts by
means of explosives.

Another way which has been recommended to me, but which
I have not tried, of getting rid of the huge butts of red gums and
other trees that are full of sap and refuse to burn except under •
the most intense heat, is to throw earth up to them and treat them
in the same manner as if burning charcoal. In burning off, in fact,
in the whole operation of clearing for the plough, it should not be
forgotten that it is one hundred per cent, labour, and in order to
cheapen the process as much as possible, not cheap labour, which is
very often dear labour in the long run, but mechanical appliances
and every other available means should be employed to assist the
capable labourer in his work. In the rudimentary, but necessary,
work of clearing, brains should come into play as well as hands.
The foregoing remarks are not intended as a complete discourse on
the whole art of clearing, but merely to indicate to the newcomer
the several methods which may be followed with advantage. In
this, as in everything eJse, a little practical experience is of more
value than a whole library of theory.

PREPARATION OF LAND FOR PLANTING.

The locality of the future orchard or vineyard having been
selected, and the land cleared on a site best suited for the purpose,
a few words on the preparation of the land will be found of use.

In this country where high winds must occasionally be expected
within the coastal zone, naturally sheltered sites should as much as
possible be sought for. This will apply equally well to inland dis-
tricts, where the hot scorching North-Easterly winds at times blight
the tender foliage of plants. Fruit trees must have shelter. If

36

nature does not offer it, artificial means will have to be resorted
to. Deep gullies and damp, drafty hollows are as unsuitable for
them as the denuded summit of exposed hills, it often happens
that the blossoms will not set in either situation.

Fruit land requires more thorough treatment than soil set
apart for general farming cultivation.

In planting a vineyard or an orchard, it should always be
borne in mind that the work is being done for a long succession of
years, and that its future success depends very much on the way it
is first planted. No return will be expected for the heavy
outlay it involves for the first two or three seasons, although for a
long succession of years to come the grower may expect to be
handsomely recouped for the money, thought, and care spent in
first establishing the plantation. In order to achieve success, the
work must be carried out thoroughly and intelligently. Be well
impressed with the fact that a 20-acre vineyard or orchard, well
planted and carefully tended, will produce a crop nearly as heavy
as 40 or 50 acres of trees merely stuck in a soil badly drained,
unaerated, and only partially stirred. The vines and trees, more-
over, in the properly planted and thoroughly cultivated orchard
or vineyard will be more luxuriant, longer-lived, the crop more
healthy, more abundant, the produce will be easier to handle,
infinitely superior in quality, while at the same time the toil,
risks, and anxiety of the grower, will be considerably lessened.

The nature of the soil influences appreciably the character of
the produce, and, to a certain extent, the different classes of trees.

The vine, for instance, although one of the hardiest of the cul-
tivated plants, does not yield the same type of produce in all kinds
of soil.

A typical and congenial soil for vines is a friable, easily
worked loam, deep in preference, with a healthy subsoil, naturally
well drained, to which both air and warmth can penetrate from
the outside, and which at the same time is sufficiently retentive of
moisture to invigorate the roots of the plant and permit it to resist
the most severe drought. Our red gum country typifies that class
of soil.

The object the vine-grower intends to pursue should to a great
degree influence his selection of soil for planting his vineyard.

For table grapes and raisins it may be stated that the richer
the soil the finer will the grapes be, and the more handsome the
well nourished bunches, with well-set swollen berries.

The choicer " wines " on the other hand, are produced in soil
of a poorer description, especially on light sandy loams and iron-
stone gravel. In the case of wine, it often happens that quantity
is adverse to quality : on very rich alluvial flats, for instance,
the must contains sometimes an excess of albuminous matter, which
affects the keeping quality of the wines, while bouquet is lessened,
and a peculiar earthy flavour, disagreeable to the palate and the
nose, is distinctly perceptible.

37

A sandy soil generally gives a dry thin wine, and if the season
be moist the colour may be poor. The wines, however, produced
on these soils are generally straight to the taste — that is to say can
be blended with most other wines, in order to dilute them, without
changing their respective characters.

A heavy clay soil, on the other hand, produces a full-bodied
wine, heavy, rich in extract, and in some cases may impart to it a
peculiar taste known as an " earthy taste."

Between these two widely different soils, there are other inter-
mediate ones that partake more or less of the character of the one
or the other, according to the respective proportion of their sandy
or their clayey constituents.

On limestone formations, the wine will be delicate to the taste,
with a fine brilliant colour and a pleasant flavour, which in the
drier localities may be inclined to be fiery.

Volcanic soils will produce vigorous dry wines.

Besides the geological character of the land, the natural flora
which cover it give some indication as to its suitableness for wine-
growing and fruit-growing.

A slope always assists drainage, but more especially in the
drier districts of this State a vineyard always looks more luxuriant,
and gives a better yield on the flats and on slightly undulating
country, the reason being, that during the long droughts and
excessive heat which sometimes prevail, the slopes often get too
dry, and the vine suffers considerably. During the heavy down-
pours of rain, too, that come down occasionally, tons and tons of
soil are sometimes washed down the steep slopes, leaving the land
denuded and deeply cut by the rush of water down the incline.

In the cooler climates, such as the centre of France and the
banks of the Rhine, the slopes are generally planted in vines, in.
order to utilise the full amount of sunshine and warmth ; but in
this country of light and heat, shelter from the wind is of far
greater importance, and should mostly be studied in establishing a
vineyard or an orchard.

Generally speaking, in our singularly genial climate and
wherever the moisture is sufficient, many fruit trees will grow and
produce some fruit in almost any soil, except dry, pure sand or wet
swamps. The several sorts of fruit trees grown, however, accommo-
date themselves more readily to the different classes of soils, and in
that respect the likings of each genus should be studied and as
far as possible satisfied.

As a rule, the liyht sandy loam, which is very prevalent all over
this country, by reason of its warmth and the easily assimilable
nature of the plant food it contains, is quicker than stronger soils ;
it is also more easily cultivated, but it soon runs out, and unless
the drain on its store of plant food caused by a few years' cropping
is made good by applications of fertilisers, the vigour of the tree is
checked, it is comparatively short-lived and soon becomes unproduc-

3$

tive. Such trees very often fall a prey to the attack of insect and
fungoid pests, unless these are vigorously kept down. Peaches,
nectarines, almonds, figs, vines, melons, and tomatoes will, with care,
produce good crops on such soils.

Deep trenching, wherever the subsoil is of a heavy nature, or
top-dressing with clay, swamp or river mud, or farmyard manure will
considerably alter and improve the texture of such soils. So also
will green manuring or the ploughing in of some green crop,
preferably a leguminous crop.

Deep gravelly loams constitute a better orchard soil, and the
hardier fruits will do well on it. For vines and cherries it is very
well adapted.

Strong loams are about the best all-round orchard soils. The
trees grown on them do not, as a rule, bear quite so early as on
more sandy loams, as the growth of wood is more vigorous and
fruit-buds are not so soon formed and matured, but they are more
vigorous and hence less liable to the attacks of pests, and they live
and bear longer. Apples, pears, gooseberries, raspberries, straw-
berries, and all kinds of fruit will do well on such soils, which,
besides being richer in the constituents of plant food, retain
moisture better than does a light sandy loam, which does not rest
on a stronger subsoil.

Heavy loams, with a large admixture of clay, make very good
fruit soils whenever well drained, either naturally or artificially.
Apple, pear, plum, apricot, cherry, and quince will thrive on such
soils, and withstand the attacks of fruit pests with better result.
On the heavier soils, pear and plum will do best of all, provided
the climate suits the pear, which, in this respect, is more particular
than the plum. Such soils are not so suitable for vines ; in wet
weather they are difficult to cultivate.

Heavy clay, unless deeply drained and limed, should better be
left alone by the fruit growers.

The site of the vineyard or orchard having been selected, it
remains to clear it, if it has not yet been previously put under
cultivation, and to prepare the soil for the plough. Autumn is the
best time for ploughing, when the rain has softened the earth.
Hand trenching is always a very costly operation, and, except when
the patch to be planted is very small, can better be dispensed with.
The vine, however, like all other fruit trees that occupy the ground
for a number of years, does best in a thoroughly stirred soil; The
character of the soil regulates, to a great extent, the depth of the
ploughing — a moderate depth is sufficient in rich loose loams, while
conversely, in poorer soils or heavy clays, the plough should be run

It is reckoned that one inch of rainfall, covering one acre of
ground, is equal to 100 tons of water per acre ; similarly, taking the
density of the soil as two, as compared with water, we get for every
inch deeper we stir the soil 200 tons of earth per acre, which, by

39

being broken up, are more easily penetrated by the rootlets of the
plants in search of food. The soil at the same time is more
thoroughly acted upon by air, warmth, and water, and reduced by
their combined agencies during the process of weathering, being
thus rendered more healthy, more mellow, and quicker as a feeding
ground for the plant. A deeper subsoiling has, besides, the
advantage, which should not be overlooked, especially in a hot and
dry climate, of promoting the growth of the roots at some distance
from the surface, and thus lessening the effects of drought.

In first ploughing or subsoiling in heavy and retentive soil,,
the furrow should always be in the direction of the fall of water,
otherwise, it will lodge in the subsoiler's tracks, and rot the roots-
of the plants in wet seasons.

Although the heavy soils are those most benefited by thorough
tillage, it is generally advisable, and experience has demonstrated
that even in the loose and shifting sands a deep stirring is always
accompanied by a corresponding vigour and increase of yield in
the case of the vine, as well as of fruit trees.

In most cases, surface ploughing and deep subsoiling should
be recommended in preference to trenching proper. There are
some special cases, however, when deep trenching previous to the
establishment of a vineyard is beneficial ; as, for instance, when a
loose surface sand overlays a more compact subsoil, which is
susceptible of improvement by being exposed to the disintegrating
action of air, sun, and rain. In that case, a deep furrow is turned
by means of a strong trenching or digging plough, or two ploughs
are made to run one after the other, each turning a furrow about
eight to nine inches deep. In other cases, on the other hand, the
surface soil is often much better than the subsoil, which is little
susceptible of improvement by the process of weathering, and for
that reason should be left where it lies.

The most economical and the best plan of ploughing this class
of land is to turn with an ordinary plough, worked by two or four
powerful horses, according to the class of land, a furrow seven to eight
inches deep, and follow up with a strong plough with the mould
board detached, or a subsoil plough, drawn by a team of three to-
four horses.

In first breaking up the land, bullocks are sometimes prefer-
able to horses, as they give a more steady and better equalised pull
in overcoming the considerable resistance offered by the meshwork
of roots that exist in virgin soil. A team of eight to ten bullocks,
according to the character of the soil, for the first ploughing, and
another one of ten to fourteen for subsoiling will do the work
comfortably, without too much strain on the animals.

The work can to a great extent be made lighter for the team
in setting the plough so as to turn a narrower furrow, but the soil
should be broken up as deeply as possible.

10

In some instances, deep subsoiling or trenching may be un-
necessary, or not to be recommended, such as, when the surface
soil consists of a very thin layer overlying a substratum of loose
and broken stones. In that case, the naturally brashy character of
the subsoil, by permitting the roots to penetrate it, renders deep
tillage either unnecessary or even unadvisable.

Under cooler climates, when the soil does not receive much
warmth from the sun, and this does not concern the Australian
vine-grower, it is advisable to stir the soil as little as possible, and,
moreover, to plant thickly, so as to dwarf the vine and favour the
growth of superficial roots, which will benefit by the full amount of
heat from the sun's rays, while the grapes will be richer in fruit-
sugar and the wine of a, better quality. In Champagne and
Burgundy, for instance, the soil is only ploughed about 10 inches
on an average, as against 18 to 20 inches in the South of France
and in Algeria.

In Australia a thorough stirring of the soil to the depth of 14
to 16 inches, according to localities and to soils, would certainly not
be excessive, and would soon repay its cost over and over again, by
the surplus yield which may well be expected.

The best time for ploughing is after the autumn rain has
softened the soil. After ploughing a thorough harrowing should
be given, and as much couch and noxious weeds as possible removed
and burnt.

The land is left in this rough condition all through the winter,
then harrowed and ploughed crosswise — not subsoiled — late in the
winter, and prepared for planting by means of more harrowing and
rolling, if necessary.

Late ploughing in the winter will leave the ground dirty, as at
the cross-ploughing a quantity of seeds of weeds will be brought to
the surface, which will germinate and soon overrun the field ; while,
on the other hand, by early autumn and winter ploughing these
seeds will germinate and be eradicated before planting time, while
the land will be given a chance of getting thoroughly sweetened by
the mellowing action of rain and air during the winter months,
and the cuttings, as well as rooted plants, will in consequence strike
better.

DRAINAGE

is as essential to the healthy growth of fruit trees as it is to the
sanitary requirements of the surroundings of the habitation of
man and beast.

Damp soil, on which sheep contract foot rot, liver rot or fluke,
marshy stretches overgrown with rushes, sedge, or other water,
loving plants, will not, unless properly drained, grow healthy fruit
trees or vines. Marshy patches and water-logged soils are often to
be met with on level flats or in hollows ; occasionally also they occur
on hillsides, should a bank of clay or a ledge of rock cause an

41

accumulation of water and prevents it free escape. Whenever such
conditions occur the soil must be artificially drained.

Moving water supplying moisture to the roots of plants and
bringing air and warmth in its train is invigorating and life-
giving ; but stagnant, lifeless water, on the other hand, by
favouring the decomposition of the organic matter in the soil, makes
it sour, causes the emission of noxious gases, rots the rootlets of
trees, limits the depth of soil they are abl3 to feed on, starves them
out, renders them liable to the attacks of diseases, and is utterly
adverse to the healthy growth of trees.

There is a widespread idea that in a dry, warm country, with
only a scanty rainfall during the growing months, the more water
the soil retains, the better for the plant. This popular fallacy, how-
ever, stands no discussion. In the winter or the rainy season, such
soil is turned into a slushy bog, on which the operations of plough-
ing and digging are carried on under great difficulties and with little
if any good results. During the hot, dry summer months, on the
other hand, all the water is pumped out of these quagmires, which
are turned into a hard cake as dry as brick, in which what few roots
the plants have been able to preserve from rotting during the winter
months are in turn roasted and will perish in the baked soil in which
the plant has been thus placed.

Draining may be said to sweeten the soil by checking the
formation of the sour products of fermentation and rotting of the
organic matter it contains ; it also removes the excess of saline
matters in the soi], and prevents alkaline salts from rising from
below. It equalises the temperature of the soil, and prevents any
possible chill to the plant. It restores to health plants suffering
from attacks from fungus diseases. It brings warmth to the roots
in the winter time and keeps them cool during the summer months.
It deepens the layer of soil the roots of plants feed in. It favours
the absorption and the circulation of air and moisture, and thus helps
to pulverise the soil and unlock its fertilising elements, which are
made available for the rootlets. Drainage of cold, damp ground
favouring a higher temperature in the soil, hastens the growth
of plants, and thus often brings on maturity of the fruit several days
earlier.

Drainage is effected by several methods, viz., open drains or
underground drains. Open drains again comprise arterial and
surface drains.

Arterial Drainage embraces a comprehensive scheme for
draining a large patch of country. This work is generally under-
taken by the State, as its benefits extend not only to one or two
particular settlers, but to the whole district at the same time. Such
a scheme is now being carried out by the Government in the
vicinity of the Harvey agricultural area. The size of these drains
depends upon the gradient ; the less the gradient, the greater the
capacity of the drains. In order to keep it clear of silt, a gradient
of at least one foot per mile is necessary. Streams of smaller size

42

require a gradient of three feet to four feet per mile, whereas minor
ditches require at least eight feet per mile. In order to guard against
the erosion of the sides and the banks being undermined by the
water, the soil is cut open at an angle which varies according to its
nature. In sandy soil an angle of 45deg. is required ; in loamy
-soils, an angle of 60deg. or 70deg.; whilst clay may be cut almost
perpendicularly, as it has much tenacity.

A velocity of three inches per second will remove fine clay ; of
six inches per second, fine sand ; eight feet, sand ; 12 inches, fine
gravel ; and 24 feet will carry off pebbles. Where the ground is
not too full of roots, an able-bodied man may dig from eight to
ten cubic yards per day.

Surface Drainage is the more widely used-system adopted by
fruit-growers. Its chief objection is that it at times interferes with
horse-cultivation. It is chiefly used for draining boggy land, and
often prepares the way for deep drainage.

For draining a slope or cutting of water rushing from a rising
catchment area on to a low flat below, these drains should be made
almost at right angle with the flow and empty into a main drain
below. The cost of making them is small, and if scoured before
the wet season sets in they often prove amply sufficient for draining
a piece of ground.

Sinkhole Drainage. — Amongst the limestone coastal ridges,
swamps are often met with which have a retentive marly bottom.
Underlying that hard pan, sand and limestone are again found. That
marl is rich, but as the surface soil above is shallow, and for the
greater part of the year partly under water, the ground is unfit for
fruit culture. In such hollow localities, where water cannot be
carried away by any of the other methods of drainage, holes sunk
through the retentive hard pan would carry the water away into
the porous soil below very economically.

Deep Drainage is, if costly, for cultivated fields, the most
suitable system of improving wet land. Teams and implements
can run without obstruction ; weeds and rubbish are swept away,
and have no chance of taking a hold of the land, and the greatest
amount of benefit is derived from cultivated crops. It dispenses
with open ditches and prevents surface wash, and consequently
often great waste of fertility. The method consists in opening
deep furrows or ditches, filling them partly with brushwood, logs,
stones, or setting draining pipes in them and covering them up
with the soil thrown out when excavating the ditch.

Blackboys and grass trees (Xanthoreas), which are plentiful in
the moister region of Western Australia, where drainage is chiefly
required, supply excellent material for drains. A trench is dug to
the required depth, sufficiently wide to allow two blackboy trunks
being laid side by side, the scales facing the way the water runs.
Over these a third blackboy stem is laid, the three forming a
triangular prism. The trench is then filled with earth, which is
trampled down to counteract subsidence, and a crown one or two

43

inches high is raked together along the line of trench to throw off
heavy storm-water, which might carry away the freshly-dug earth
in such places where a slope occurs. Blackboys, and more
especially grass trees, on account of the resinous matter which is
contained in their scales, last a great number of years. Other
material as well may be used, such as branches and stems of
ti-tree or of jamwood, which stand a long time in the wet ground
without rotting, are Very suitable material. A box drain, four to
six inches square, and constructed of jarrah board, and bored with
holes made with an auger, would answer admirably. Rubble
drains, where stone is available, are cheaply made, and very

effective. In this method the drains are cut out in the bottom
much wider than in pipe- making, so as to admit of two side walls
of stone with a space between them. These side!walls are built
of narrow stones to a height of four to six inches, and flat covering
stones, occupying the whole width of the drain, rest upon them.
If well done, this method of draining may be taken as almost as
permanent as pipe draining; its chief objection being that it does
not exclude such vermin as rats, rabbits, etc., and these mischievous
animals soon choke up the drains by scratching soil in them.

Round tiles are in great favour in cultivated fields, but
orchard I have seen instances where they utterly failed
the purpose they were laid down for. Forest, hedge row, and fruit
trees alike all seem to direct their roots towards the underground
pipes where wa-jCi and air freely* circulate, and in many instances
penetrate and stop up the drain as effectually as if a tow mop had
been crammed inside. The failure of a single tile will cause much
mischief. For this reason, I feel diffident in recommending the use
of draining tiles in the orchard. This system of draining is also
costly, and cannot systematically be done under £7 to <£10 per
acre in this State, where both pipes and labour are costly. These
pipes measure 12 inches in length, and vary from 1| inches to 12
inches inside diameter. For short distances suitable pipes are two
inch to two and a-half inch ones near the sources ; for distances,
say, over 100 yards, they should be increased near the mouth to
three inches. Main drains require pipes four to twelve inches in

44

diameter. The bed of the trench should be smooth, firm, and
even ; the inclination of no drain should be less than half an
inch or more than eight inches per chain.

The direction of the main drain should first be settled, and the
minor drains are then mapped out in such a manner that the
undulations of the surface are taken due advantage of in the way
of securing a free and easy descent of the water. Great care must
be taken that, though the surface be undulating, the pipe-bed has
a uniform and even descent, and that there are no depressions in it
where the water could lodge, eventually decomposing the pipes and
filling up the drains with sediment. The depth of the main always
exceeds by a few inches the depth of the laterals, which should be
laid in a direction generally perpendicular to it, although where
they enter the main drain that direction should be at an easy angle.
These lateral drains, when laid fish-bone fashion on either side of
the main drain, should not enter it immediately opposite, but should
alternate to fit and adjust two pipes. The smaller one is chipped at
one end, flute-shape, whilst a hole is knocked out of the larger pipe
to receive it. The last pipe, at the outlet, is of iron, and its end is
well grated to guard against the intrusion of vermin, whilst each of
the minor pipes is also protected where it springs, to prevent earth
and silt finding its way inside the drain and blocking it. Should a
stoppage occur, an excavation is made and the cause, whatever be
its nature — displacement of tile, accumulation of silt, or roots of
trees — removed. A correct plan of the deep-drainage system is
in every case necessary for future use.

The following table gives, for the character of the soil it is
intended to drain, the distance apart the drain is generally set, the
depth from the surface, and the number of 12-inch long tiles
required to the acre: —

Soil.

Distance
apart
in feet.

Depth
in
feet.

Pipes
required.

Stiff clay

15

3

2,804

Friable clay...

18

3

2,420

Strong loam ...

21

3

2,074

Gravelly loam

30

3

1,613

Light loam ...

33 3-6

1,320

In setting this table, it should be borne in mind that if the
drain is too shallow the water will run directly to it, without
benefiting the soil with its fertilising power ; if too deep, it won't
draw, and will not work.

Drains will drain in porous soils much greater superficies than
in stiff soils. For instance, in porous, free soil, a drain will lay dry
eight to nine feet wide for each foot it is in depth ; in soil of medium
consistency, six to seven feet, whereas in heavy soil it will only draw
four to five feet for each foot it is in depth. Whatever the case
may be, if draining is worth doing at all, it is worth doing well ; and
it is money saved and efficiency attained to drain five acres perfectly
than ten imperfectly, and leave the five until this work can be
properly attended to.

In conjunction with systematic and extensive irrigation
especially, and whenever the subsoil is not sandy or gravelly,
but is of a somewhat retentive nature, drainage becomes essential
to the fruit-grower, and in consideiing its cost he should bear in
mind that fertile drained laud will improve the yield by 20 to 30
per cent, compared with undrained land of the same nature.

SHELTEE.

Much damage is caused to fruit trees in exposed places, by
high winds howling through the orchard, breaking branches,
withering up tender leaves, as well as blossoms, and throwing the
trees out of shape, stunting them, and making them set early, and
stop making any more progress.

Whenever natural shelter from a range of hills, a belt of forest
or the natural slope of the ground can be utilised, it should be
taken advantage of. If natural shelter should not exist, an artificial
one must be provided before or at the time of planting. If the
live hedge can be dispensed with, however, it is preferable to renounce
the luxury. A quick hedge growing round a vineyard or an orchard,
will rob the trees of their nutriment, unless means are taken of
preventing them doing any harm.

Many of the trees used for the purpose, such as the olive, the
black wattle, the white boxthorn, the mulberry a re at times attacked
with scale insects, which, unless kept down, would soon infest the
fruit trees. They also harbour a host of troublesome birds that
do a vast deal of damage about the time the fruits ripen. A quick
hedge is, however, sometimes necessary for the protection of vine-
yards and orchards situated near a town, a village, or along a public
road. Should a hedge, however, be found necessary, a deep trench
about two feet deep should be run along it so as to cut off the
growth of the roots towards the direction of the vines or fruit
trees.

A short description of a few hardy plants which have proved
suitable for the purpose, taken mainly from Baron von Mueller's
" Extra Tropical Plants," will prove of use to those who require wind
breaks for their orchards or gardens : —

ACACIA, Locust A. (Robinia Pseudacacia, Linne) or North
American Locust Acacia. — A high quick-growing tree, producing a
hard and durable wood eligible for axle trees and turnery, may be

46

planted closely for timber belts and hedge shelter for farm lands.
A very good tree for renovating exhausted land and improving poor
soil. Also a bee-plant ; one of the easiest trees to grow on bare sand,
where it will maintain its hold in hollows or drifts, though requiring
more mineral aliment than Pinus Silvestris.

ALMOND TREE (Pinus Amygdalus, J. Hooker, and Amygdalus
communis, Linne). — From Caucasus. Resists drought well, and
yields a valuable crop. The cost of gathering the crop in South
Europe is about 20 per cent, of its market value. The flower
affords to bees, early in the season, nectar and pollen. There exists
hard and soft-shelled varieties of both the sweet and bitter almonds.
Can even be grown on sea shores.

BAMBOO-REED (Arundo Donax, Linne) . — The tall, evergreen*
lasting bamboo-reed of Northern Europe, South-Western Asia, and
Northern Africa, is fairly hardy, and attains a height of 20 feet
and more. One of the most important plants of its class for quickly
producing scenic effect in picturesque plantations, also for inter-
cepting almost at once, the view of unsightly objects, and for giving
early shelter. The canes are used for fishing-rods, for light props
and various utensils. Easily transplanted at any season. Rows or
belts of it intercept sewage or exsiccate stagnant drainage. Pasture
animals like to browse on the young foliage. Dr. Bancroft, in
Queensland, proved this plant a splendid "stayby"in seasons of
drought, and recommends reserve fields of it regularly to be kept.

THE CAROB TREE, synonym Locust Bean (Ceratonia Siliqua,
Linne). —One of the best, if not the best, shelter tree for this
State . Indigenous of the Eastern Mediterranean regions, attains
a height of 40ft. to 50ft., and resists drought, hot winds, succeeds
well in all kinds of soils — rocky, gravelly, hilly, but thrives more
particularly on calcareous sub- soil, and on deep fertile loams.
Would grow in this country at all altitudes. Splendid specimens of
it grow near Geraldton and at New Norcia, and also at Pinjarra,
yielding annually two to three hundred-weights and more of
saccharine pods or St. John's bread; of great value as stock food,
and worth for that purpose, when crushed, 5s. to 6s. a cwt.
The exportation of the pods from Cyprus, Crete, and Syria, is very
large. In most of the Mediterranean countries horses, cattle, and
pigs are almost exclusively fed, during the dry months of the year,
upon the pods, which contain 50 per cent, of sugar and gum. The
meat of sheep and pigs is greatly improved in flavour by this food.
At Gibraltar, Malta, and in Egypt, the fine commissariat mules
are fed with a mixture of Carob beans and pulse, to horses and
cattle 61 bs. a day are given of the crushed pods, raw or boiled, with
or without chaff.

For a wind-break the trees should be planted in double or
single rows, 12ft. to 15ft. apart, when their evergreen branches
will entwine and resist the most fierce wind. The tree is very
symmetrical in growth, and highly ornamental in paddocks, where
they afford in copses or singly a good shelter for stock. As a road

47

border, or in avenues, it also offers a striking effect. It stands
clipping well. It grows quicker than the Olive tree, the gathering
of its fruits, which are knocked down by means of long poles, is
easier, while the pods can be bagged or stored away for a long time
without loss. In the proximity of orchards, it moreover offers over
the Olive tree the marked advantage of being pretty free from
insect pests, and more especially the black scale that finds in the
Olive a favourite host plant.

The Carob trees are propagated from seeds, which, being hard,
require soaking for a few days. When the germ begins to show
they are sown in seed beds, preferably in ground with a hard sub-
soil, so as to check the downward growth of the tap root. After a
fortnight or so, the young plants begin to show. When about
three feet high, in one year or two, they are transplanted in a
nursery, cut back to 12 inches or so, and the year after they are
grafted with scions from some prolific tree, bearing large pods.
Unless this is done, many of the trees will prove sterile. The
frequent unisexuality of the flowers accounts to some extent for the
want of productiveness in fruit of this plant when few trees exist,
or this sterility may be traceable to insufficiency of lime or other
substances in the soil. After a year or two in the nursery the
young trees are planted out, suckers rubbed off, and after two or
three years cultivation will yield three to four cwts. of fruit without
further cultivation.

BRACHYCHITON POPULNETJS. — From Gippsland to Southern
G-ippsland a splendid avenue tree, recommended for its pyramidal
growth, evergreen shining foliage, somewhat variable in shape,
and short stout branches which render it almost wind proof.
Succeeds well on rocky and dry ground, and is comparatively easy
to transplant even when of good size. Leaves eaten by pasture
animals. Allied to the " plane-tree ; " makes a gorgeous display of
coral-like inflorescences.

THE BITTER ORANGE (Citrus Bigaradia). — Very suitable for
avenue planting in the towns of the citrus belt, and much used for
that purpose in Southern Europe, where it is trained with a clear
stem 6ft. to 8ft. high, and a regularly shaped crown. Very attrac-
tive on account of its beautiful aromatic foliage, delicious blossoms,
which furnish the Neroli oil, and golden fruit, the rind of which is
used for candied orange-peel and marmalade; produced all the year
round. Furnishes one of the best stocks for orange grafting.

CYPRESS (Cupressus macrocarpa, Hartweg, and C. Lambertiana,
Gordon). — California, grows in the granite, as well as sandstone-
formation, sometimes in Sphagnum-moors. A beautiful and shady
tree attaining to a height of 150ft., with a stem of 9ft. in circum-
ference ; is one of the quickest growing of all conifers, even in
poor dry soils ; does well also on limestone-soil and is one of the
best shelter-trees on sea-sands, naturally following the coast-line,
never extending many miles from the shore in temperate localities.
Not to be planted in places, where stagnant humidity exists under
ground, nor where the soil is but little penetrable.

48

FIG (Ficus carica, Linne), Syria and Persian Gulf. — The most
useful and at the same time most hardy of half a thousand
recorded species of Ficus. The extreme facility with which it can
be propagated from cuttings, the resistance to heat, the com-
paratively early yield and easy culture recommends the Fig-tree,
where it is an object to raise masses of tree- vegetation in widely
treeless lands of the warmer zones for shade and fruit. Has a
high reputation as a drought-resisting tree. Can be grown even
on sand lands. Two main varieties may be distinguished ; that
which produces three crops a year, and that which yields but one.
The first crop of figs grows on wood of the preceding year ; the last
crop however on wood of the current year.

THE " LOQUAT " (Photinia eriobotrya, J. Hooker, P. Japonica,
Frauchet and Savatier), a beautiful ornamental and quick-growing
evergreen shrub from China and Japan, easily raised from seed, or
superior varieties can be grafted not only on its own stock, but
also on the white thorn, or better still on the quince. Bears
copiously on moist places. In Australia flowers during mid-winter.
The flowers of this beautiful shrub are also very fragrant, and its
fruits are about the first to ripen, about August and September.

MAGNOLIA. (Grandiflora or M. Acuminata). — Very attractive
both for foliage and flower, which exude much honey-nectar for
bees, and are valuable for perfumeries.

MACADAMIA TERMINALIA. — Theamt tree of sub- tropical Eastern
Australia, attaining a height of 60ft., hardly as far South as
Melbourne. Bears fruit in six to eight years. The nuts have the
taste of hazel, a very handsome tree. Endures slight frost.

CAMPHOR TREE (Cinnamomum camphora), China and Japan. —
The trees are very attractive for their neat, fragrant foliage.
Endures a slight frost. The wood like all other parts of the tree is
pervaded with camphor, hence resists the attacks of insects.

DRAGON BLOOD TREE of CANARY ISLANDS (T)racsena Draco}. —
Will grow even on poor dry soil. An imposing feature in scenic
horticulture.

MULBERRY.— The White Mulberry (Morus alba, Linne) upper
India and Western China. Provides the food for the Chinese
silk-worm (Bombyx Mori.) One pound of silk may be produced —
so far as the food of the Bombyx is concerned — from thirty pounds
of mulberry leaves or from a single tree. Grows easily from cut-
tings or from well matured seeds. It is usually unisexual, and
attains a very large size. Spots for mulberry culture must not be
over moist when the leaves are to be utilised for the Bombyx. For
sericulture purposes the trees are planted 10ft. x 10ft., and kept at
t bush size, make good hedges or copses.

The Black Mulberry (M. nigra, Linne) of Persia, grows into a
large tree ; valuable for its pleasant refreshing fruit, which can also

49

be fermented iiito a vinous beverage. Well adapted for sandy coast
ridges ; the leaves, although not so good as M. alba, afford food for
the ordinary silk worm. It is said that wherever mulberries grow
that most destructive frugiverous bird, the " silver-eye," concentrates
all its attention to its fruit and thus keeps away from the vines.
This tree would, in that case, prove a most useful auxiliary to the
fruitgrower in keeping this feathered enemy away from the orchard
and the vineyard.

MYROBOLAN PLUM (Prunus cerasifera, Ehrhart, and P. Myro-
bolanus, Desfontaines). — The Cherry Pluintree. Countries at and
near the Caspian Sea, of rather tall growth. The fruits called also
Mivables (which name is given to some varieties of P. domestica as
well), whence long ago the objectionable designation Myrobolan
cherry -plum arose. Flowers very early and before the development
of its leaves. Splendid for hedges ; grows vigorously in the poorest
soil ; ramification impenetrably dense ; bears almost any extent of
clipping ; not hurt by exposure to sea air. Planted for hedges in
two rows 18 to 24 inches apart.

OSAGE ORANGE (Madeira aurantiaca, Nuttall), Texas, Arkansas,
Louisiana. This thorny deciduous shrub can be well trained into
hedges ; unisexual, resists severe frosts, on rich river banks grows
to a great height, valuable for all purposes where toughness and
elasticity are required. The plant is not readily subject to blight
or attacks of insects. The foliage is as good a food for silk-worms
as that of the white mulberry.

Makes one of the best hedges for this climate, being, if kept in
order, close and almost impenetrable to stock or trespassers. Propa-
gated by sets ; the line of fence having been marked, the soil should
be stirred to a good depth. Sets should be planted in a double row,
sets being six or eight inches apart and the rows ten to twelve inches
apart. Press the soil firmly to the sets. If a hedge is planted on
sloping ground a furrow or ditch should be run along the line of the
upper side to protect the hedge from being worked away. A deep
trench should be run between the hedge and the first line of vines
or trees for the purpose of keeping the roots from trespassing on
the cultivated land. Osage orange hedges are said to not harbour
small birds as most quick hedges do, and for that reason are
recommended, as small birds do enormous damage at times to the
vines.

PEPPER TREE (8hinus Nolle, Linne). — A fast-growing ever-
green shrub or small tree of the cashew family, native of South
America and Mexico, and cultivated for ornament and shade in
Southern California, Australia, and other warm dry climates ; will
bear droughts aod intense summer heat of Central Australia better
than almost any introduced plants. S. Terebinthifolia, from Brazil,
form fine promenade trees in Victoria, Algeria, and Tunis, having
a better habit and richer foliage than the preceding.

POMEGRANATE (Punica granatum, Linne). — North Africa and
South-Western Asia ; widely cultivated for its showy flowers and

50

fruit much overlooked regarding its value as a hedge plant ; will
grow freely from cuttings. Purposely cultivated in Algeria for
walking sticks. Passed with very few other plants through years
of drought in Central Australia.

PRIVET (Ligustrum Japonicum, Thunberg). — The Japan Privet,
a shrub evergreen or nearly so, promising to become a valuable
hedge plant. Grows readily from cuttings, like the ordinary
European privet, Ligustrum vulgare (Linne). Both will grow
under trees, where scarcely anything else would -live.

QUINCE (Pyrus Cydonia, Linne, and Cydonia Vulgaris, Per-
soon). — The Caspian Sea, one of the hardiest of orchard trees, and
serves a great many useful ends. Raised by cuttings or by layers
which strike root freely. Frequently used as a stock for other
trees. Very little pruning is required ; extensively used as a hedge
or screen.

TAGASASTE (Gytisus prolifereus, Linne fil.). — Canary Island. A
fodder shrub for light dry soil ; finally tall, rather intolerant to
frost and drought. Valuable also for apiarists. In some places it
was found that horses and cattle dislike this plant as nutriment.
It grows quickly again when cut.

THE TREE TOBACCO (Nicotiana glauca, Graham). — Argentina
and Uruguay. Grows amazingly on the sandy country around
Perth, Geraldton, etc. On the Greenough flats I saw a most
efficient break-wind made of this quickly- growing arborescent
species, planted 3ft. to 4ft. apart ; with stems half cut through at a
height of 2ft. with a tomahawk, bent down almost at right angle,
and tied up to the next plant. From these curved stems numerous
strong shoots grow straight up, and as they are very elastic and
almost unbreakable by the wind, make very efficient shelter hedge.
One of the best of plants to establish shelter and stay the shifting
of the sand waves, where the poisonous property of its foliage is
not objectionable. It is inadmissible to pastoral places on account
of its deleteriousness.

THORNLESS OPUNTIA or Indian Fig ; Thornless Prickly Pear
(Opuntia Ficus indica). — Very useful for big edges; not inflam-
mable. The leaves are larger and thicker than the common thorny
variety (0. vulgaris), being fleshy, whilst their power of evapora-
tion is comparatively small. They resist prolonged droughts ; a
native of Central America, but much cultivated in the drier parts of
Algeria and Tunis for cattle and the pigs. The leaves are as
nourishing as the fruit or figs, but the thinning • of the plants
weaken them, hence it is preferable to use the fruit mostly. As
food for stock, three cwts. are equivalent in nourishing value to one
cwt. of hay; they are mixed for that purpose with chaff. The
prickly variety is also useful for hedges and for stock, but in warm
climates it easily spreads over uncultivated land and proves a
nuisance. The leaves and figs of this sort are previously scorched
and then cut up for stock feed, mixed with dry chaff. For planting

51

the leaves are first allowed to wilt a little and planted two feet
apart along furrows, stable manure is packed at their base and
then, with a hoe, the earth is drawn around them. They begin
bearing in about four years.

THE WEEPING WILLOW (Salix Babylonica, Tournefort, S.
pendula, Moench). — North China. One of the quickest growing
and most easily reared of all shade trees. Pasture animals browse
on the young foliage. The tree is important for consolidating riyer
banks, a powerful scavenger of back yards, but apt to undermine
masonry and to get into cisterns.

THE BITTER WILLOW. — S.purpurea, Linne), Europe, Northern
and Western Asia, one of the osiers. In deep, moist soil, not
readily otherwise utilised, it will yield annually per acre four to five
tons of the best rods, qualified for the finest work. Impenetrable,
not readily inflammable ; screens as much as 25 feet high can be
reared from it in five years. This species is not touched by cattle.
For hedges, cuttings are planted only half a foot apart, and must
be entirely pushed into the ground. To obtain additional strength,
the shoots can be interwoven. Grows well on light soil or warp-
land, and will grow fairly well on gravelly soil, but not on clay.
No basket willow will thrive in stagnant water, humid places should
therefore be drained. The cutting of the shoots is done close to the
ground after the fall of the leaves. The accidental introduction from
abroad of destructive saw-flies (particularly Nematus ventralis),
which prey also on the currant and gooseberry bushes, should be
guarded against.

THE COMMON OSIER (S. viminalis, Linne), Europe, Norther*
and Western Asia. Height, to 30 feet. The best of basket
willows for banks subject to occasional inundations. A vigorous
grower, very hardy, likes to be fed by deposits of floods or by irri-
gation and disposes readily of sewage. One of the best for wicker-
work and hoops. One of the best willows for copses and hedges,
very quick growth and foliage giving deep umbrage.

In all cases proper attention should be bestowed on the live
hedge, more especially during the early period of the growth of the
trees which should be pruned and trimmed periodically to secure a
close base growth. Nothing looks more unsightly and is less
efficacious than a badly kept live fence.

FENCING-.

In the first edition of this Handbook, Mr. L. L. Cowen (late
secretary to the Bureau of Agriculture) thus summarised the
question of fencing: —

" This Handbook is intended as much as a guide to the new-
comer as to those already settled upon the land, and it would not

52

be complete without a few words on fencing. In the more thickly
settled districts vermin have almost disappeared, and any fence that
is sheep-proof will be found to suit the vine and fruitgrower. The
pioneer or the settler in a sparsely populated district will have to
fence out vermin — boodey rats, opossums, and other rodents, which
will, if permitted, commit incalculable havoc in a young orchard
or vineyard. Fortunately, there is neither the rabbit nor the hare
to be reckoned with ; but the " boodies " and 'possums will be
found to sorely try the patience of the settler. Particularly the
latter, and it is a question whether such a thing as a 'possum-proof
fence has yet been invented. To fence out ground vermin is not
a difficult matter, but to fence out the 'possum taxes one's ingenuity
very severely.

" Before proceeding to discuss the different classes of fencing,
it might be well to say a word or two about the different kinds of
timber generally used in this State. The new-comer cannot do
better than be guided in the selection of the timber by the
experiences of those already settled in the district in which he-
purposes to make his home. It must be remembered that the white
ants (termites^) are omnipresent, and only timber which these
voracious insects dislike should be used for posts. The wood of the
raspberry jam (Acacia a ccuminata) stands pre-eminent for durability
and its ability to resist the attacks of white ants. When jam posts
are obtainable they should be used in preference to all others.
Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) is deservedly popular for fencing,
but only good wood should be used, as in some localities, and under
certain conditions, it is known to succumb to wrhite ants. The
new-comer will find a good deal of diversity of opinion expressed as
to the value of various kinds of wood. There is no doubt that the
white gum, for instance, growing in certain parts of the State, is a
wood of the greatest durability, while that found growing in another
locality, perhaps not far removed, is comparatively worthless for
underground work. The same thing applies to other timbers, and
the new-comer will do well to be guided by the experience of those
amongst whom he intends to settle.

" Charring the posts at the ends which will be in the ground
adds to their durability, or they may be well smeared with coal tar.
Wherever it is possible it is always better to use timber that has
had a chance to season, in preference to putting in posts direct from
the stump, and full of sap.

" Where ground vermin only exist, wire netting trenched into
the ground six inches, with two top wires, will make an excellent
fence. But, where the festive opossum disports himself, fruit-growers
will have to take more elaborate measures to prevent the intrusion
of this most pestiferous and importunate rodent. In the first place,
all overhanging trees should be cleared from around the boundaries.
It is advisable to do this in any case, and a little more money spent
at the first in thoroughly clearing the line is invariably a judicious
investment.

53

" The accompanying diagram will indicate a fence which it has
been suggested to me will prove 'possum proof :

GROUND

" Wire netting, trenched into the ground to a depth of six
inches, is carried up the posts and curved over an iron bracket.
Two top wires complete the fence. When the 'possum runs up the
post, he finds himself confronted by the curved wire netting. So
far as I know this kind of fence has not been tested, and there are
several objections to it, though it has in theory much to recommend
it. It is expensive, and would be easily damaged by stock, and I
am inclined to think its possible effectiveness might be improved by
substituting barbed wire on the curve for wire netting, and offering
inducements at intervals for the 'possum to climb. The 'possum
will always run up a stick set at an angle in preference to a
perpendicular post, and at intervals of a chain or so apart I would
place sloping sticks against the fencing posts leading nearly to the
top, and over the top of the post make with wire netting an alley
leading down on the other side into a trap, into which the 'possum
must go or stay out of the orchard altogether. Perhaps some
enterprising orchardist who suffers from the depredations of
opossums may be induced to try this kind of fence, and put these
suggestions to a practical test.

" It is a difficult matter in putting on wire netting to stretch
it so as to take out the bagginess. Ordinarily this fencing is slack
and very untidy. It needs to be thoroughly stretched. To do this

the plan shown in the sketch
may be used to advantage.
A strip of board has four or
more hooks arranged on one
side to hold the roll firmly
and to stretch each section
as it is unrolled. A pulley

54

attached to the following post draws Jthe netting tightly past
the preceding post, where it is secured 'firmly with staples and
the work advanced to the next pos t.

[7

" Grates are a most important feature in a fence, and where
paddocks have to be protected they are absolutely necessary. The
following is an illustration of a cheap and veryj satisfactory gate
which I have had in use now for some years : —

" The largest piece of timber in the gate is 6in. x lin., and there
are no mortices to work loose. The timber for a gate — jarrah,
karri, or any hard wood — can be purchased at the mills for 8s., the
bolts for 3s., and the strap hinges top 18in. x 2in., f iron, bottom
6in., and hooks cost 6s. the set ; total, 17s. Any one who can use
a saw and a brace and bit can put a gate together and hang it in
two hours and a half. Putting the labour down at Is. per hour,
this brings the total cost of the gate up to £1, if you have to pay
for labour. Here are the quantities for a gate 12ft. x 4ft. 6in.
high:

"Two pieces, 7in. x lin. x 4ft. 6in., for hanging stile; four
pieces, Sin. x lin. x 4ft. 6in., two each for closing and middle stile;
two pieces, Sin. x in. x 9ft., for diagonal brace ; three pieces, 7ft. x
lin. x 12ft., for rails; one piece, Sin. x lin. x 5ft., for latch; two
pieces, Sin. x lin. x 1ft., for packing top hinges.

" Bolts. — Two, 4|in. x Jin., one each top and bottom hinges ;
two, 4Jin. x fin., for top hinges; eighteen, SJin. x fin., for fastening
stiles and braces.

" Rails. — Take the three boards 7in. x lin. x 12ft. and mark off
4in. at one end and Sin. at the other. Run a line and rip down
diagonally. This will give you six rails 4in. wide at one end,
tapering to Sin. at the other. Five rails will be wanted for the
gate. The mill will do the ripping for you if you like. This is the
only real work there is in the gate. Lay on the ground on chocks
sufficiently high to get your hand under so as to get the bolts in
one side of the hanging stile 7in. x lin. x 4ft. 6in., and 8ft. from
this and parallel to it the middle stile Sin. x lin. x 4ft. 6in., and 4ft.
further on again the closing stile Sin. x lin. x 4ft. 6in. Whatever

55

the length of your gate, the middle stile should be two- thirds of
the whole length from the hanging stile. Lay on these pieces the
five rails any distance apart you like, only be sure and have the 4in.
ends all at the hanging stile and the saw cuts turned alternately.
This is most important, as herein lies all the strength of the gate.
When you have laid the rails on the top of them, place the other
hanging, middle and closing stile pieces ; get your brace and bit
and bolts, and bolt the whole lot together, putting in a f-in. bolt at
each intersection, reserving the two ^-in. bolts for the hinges.
When the gate is bolted together, turn it up on edge, square it,
tighten up all the bolts, and then put the braces on, one on each
side, running from the foot of the hanging stile to the top of the
middle stile. Bolt with f-in. bolts at each intersection. Then put
on your hinges and latch — a sliding piece 5ft. long, with two chocks
on it to prevent it shooting too far, is as good as any — hang your
gate, and the thing is done. A coat of Washington whitewash,
which is about a tenth the cost of paint, and very durable, and you
have in your gate ' a thing of beauty and a joy for ever.'

"Washington whitewash is so named from the fact that the
White House at Washington, the official residence of the President
of the United States, is coated with it. It is made as follows, and
if properly made will neither wash off nor rub off, and has all the
appearance of paint : — Slack a bushel of quick lime in a barrel,
covering with a bag while the lime is working. Melt lib. common
glue to a thin size. Make Hlbs. ground rice into a thin paste with
boiling water. Mix up lib. of whiting as you would mustard.
When the lime is quite slaked add the glue, whiting, and rice paste,
and half-peck of common salt. Mix well and let stand for 48 hours,
keeping covered. Thin down to consistency of ordinary whitewash
and apply hot."

FENCING MATERIALS.
Black and Galvanised Steel Fencing Wire.

PER TON.

|

II

WEIGHT REQUIRED PER MILE.

Black.

Galv.

s

!i

1 Wire.

2 Wire.

3 Wire.

4 Wire.

5 Wire.

£ s.

£ s. No.

Yds.

c. q. Ibs.

c. q. Ibs.

c, q. Ibs.

c. q. Ibs.

c. q. Ibs.

10 10

12 0 6

469

330

720

11 1 0

15 0 0

18 3 0

10 10

12 0 8

586

300

600

900

12 0 0

15 0 0

10 15

12 10 9

727

2 1 19

4 3 10

710

9 2 20

12 0 11

10 15

12 10 10

880

200

400

600

800

10 0 0

4-point thick set barbed fencing wire (448 yards per cwt.) .£16 per ton.

Wire Netting, in rolls of 50 yards.

Mesh. Width 24in. 30in. 36in. 48in. 60in. 72in.

l^in. Price per yard ... 2^d. 3d. 3£d- 4^d per yard

2in. „ „ ... 2d. 2£d. 3d. 4d. 4^d. 5d.

Sin. „ „ ... l^d. Ifd. 2d. 3d. 3£d. 4d.

56

Galvanised fencing staples 35s. cwt.

Beid's wire strainers ... ... ... ... ... 20s. each.

Boring machines (post hole) complete, with six bits, each (^in., fin., fin..

lin., l^in., 2in.) 35s.
Prices supplied by W. Sandover & Co.

LAYING OUT THE GROUND.

After the land has been cleared, ploughed, and harrowed, the
laying out of the ground is the next thing to attend to.

Several methods are adopted in this respect : — 1° the square,
2° the diagonal, 3° the hexagonal or equilateral or septuple, 4° the
quincunx.

For planting a large orchard or vineyard on undulating land, it
is advisable to set off the land with, a theodolite, or employ a
surveyor to do the work, so as to ensure precision. There are,
however, simple methods of carrying out this work which anyone
can follow, and which rest on geometrically accurate propositions.

In any case it is essential to start from a base line.

A surveyed line for this purpose is generally to be found
alongside the field of operations, as roads and boundaries are every-
where to be found.

1°, Square planting, seems the simplest plan of laying out an
orchard, but it will be seen that the others are just as easy.

A

fence

=a — a

57

In the first instance, the base line having been traced, which
can be done by measuring the width of a prospected roadway from,
say, a line of fence to the intending first row of trees or vines, pegs
are set in the ground, so that the two lines, fence, and row of trees
are parallel. A roadway of 18 to 20 feet is all that is necessary to
allow the horses and implements to turn at the headland. On this
line, as a base line, the next thing to do is to figure out a right
angle corner, and the following way of doing this is mathematically
correct : — First, along the base line of the given piece of ground we
may imagine it is purposed to put under vines, at distances of
10 feet square, measure with the tape three intervals of 10 feet each,
putting pegs at each distance. Then having secured a flexible line,
such as picture wire, marked off into nine or more 10-feet intervals
by means of string or strips of calico ; set one end of that line at the
corner peg A, where the first vine is going to be planted, then
stretch it as correctly as guesswork will permit in a direction
perpendicular, or at right angle to the base line, and at the fifth
mark which shows the fourth interval drive down a peg ; round
this peg turn your wire, and bring it to the peg B, driven at the
third interval along the base line. If the mark along the measuring
line meets the peg B along the base line A, E, then the angle
B, A, C is a right angle, if it does not, shift peg C until the 10th

fence

58

mark or the end of the ninth interval along the measuring line
connects with peg B on the base line. It is mathematically true
that in every instance when the three sides of a triangle are as
3, 4, and 5, the angle opposite the longest side or hypotenuse is a
right-angled triangle.

Another method, which may be used as an alternative, consists
in guessing a triangle and measuring the diagonal distances
between the opposite corners A, D, and E, C on the figure, unless
those distances are equal to a fraction of an inch the square
is not perfect, and by manipulating and shifting the pegs until
those two lengths coincide the desired lines running at right angles
to one another can be planned out.

2° Diagonal planting has few, if any, advantages. As shown in
figure 2, the base line is first determined and a true corner found as
in the case of the square. On the lines thus determined rows of
trees will be set. The alternate rows are obtained by running
with a line a diagonal from two squares which have already been
mapped out. From the corner A, mark off one-fourth distance
along this diagonal and you have the spot where the first tree
along the second row will stand ; from these points plot out
parallel lines to A B, A C, etc., and along these lines mark off
the required distances as had already been done on the base lines.

3° Hexagonal, Equilateral, or Septuple planting, so called because
seven trees enter into its figure ; which consists of six trees — disposed
after the figure of the cells of the honeycomb —

59

or hexagon, and enclosing a seventh tree. The term equilateral is
due to the fact that each tree is equidistant from any other tree
around it. By this method of planting less ground is wasted, and
while the roots of every tree has theoretically the same amount
of ground to feed on, assuming that the roots spread evenly round
the stem, it is at the s ame time possible to pack fifteen per cent, more
trees to the acre by this method as compared with square planting.

The hexagonal is as easy a method of plotting a piece of ground
as is the square, and I have found it even easier than that latter
method whenever an irregular piece of ground has to be planted.

By this arrangement, the space not only is more fully occupied
than by any other, but, moreover, cultivation can be carried out in
three different directions.

To find the number of trees to the acre when planted on
the septuple system, find out the number given by" the square
system and add 15 per cent, to it.

Various ways lend themselves to setting to work and laying
out an orchard according to the septuple system, but the following
is one which commends itselt for its simplicity.

Determine the base line; peg along it a few equal spaces
it is desired to plant the trees at, say, for argument's sake, five
intervals of 22 feet each, the distance between A and B along the
base line is thus 110 feet ; one end of two lines also 110 feet each are
fastened at the pegs A and B and are drawn together taut until the
other two ends meet at 0. Along the lines A C and B 0 mark off
likewise five intervals of 22 feet each, and fill in the triangle as
shown on the figure. Once the equilateral triangle is set, the lines
•are prolonged to whatever limit it is intended to reach, and
wherein they intersect pegs are put in. Be the piece of land
regular, or the boundaries irregular, as happens, for instance,
when a vineyard or an orchard are planted on a river bank,
the rows wTill all be in symmetrical lines. An easy method of
laying out hexagonals with a triangle is also shown on the above
figure. Three pieces of flexible wire, such as light clothes lines, are
cut to precisely the same lengths, their ends are spliced to rings
two inches to two and a-half inches in diameter as shown
in the above figure — the sides E D, D F, and F E are equal.
Place one of the sides, say, E D, along the base line, and drive pegs
at E and D ; stretch the third angle until the other two sides of the
triangle are taut, and drive likewise a peg through the ring. Then
round the peg F as a centre, revolve the triangle right round,
stretch the side lines taut, and drive short pegs straight down through
the centre of the rings at G- and H. Next move the wire triangle to
the next distance and do likewise, repeating the operation until the
eind of the row is reached. In this way, a man and two assistants
can mark out three rows with the greatest accuracy, provided that
they always ascertain before driving the peg into the ground that
the lines are reasonably tight ; on flat, even ground the triangle can
be stretched flat on the surface of the ploughed land; but on
sloping ground a little levelling is required, the triangle being

60

stretched as nearly horizontal as possible by raising one or two corners
as required, and a stake driven down plumb to the right spot.

The Quincunx is a method involving groups of five trees, the
fifth tree occupying the centre of a square. It is only useful where
long lived and slow growing trees are planted, when it may be
desirable to set amongst them some quick growing trees, such as
peaches, nectarines, or Japanese plums, which will begin bearing
early and can be cut down to make room for the longer lived trees,
when after ten or twelve years their period, of usefulness is
on the wane. For laying out this system, squares are first lined,
then diagonal lines are drawn from opposite corners of the square
and a peg driven down at the intersection.

Marking off with light wire lines, No. 12 gauge or light clothes
wire gives more accurate results and answers for laying out either
squares, quincunx, or rectangles. Wire lines are preferable to
string, because they don't shrink or stretch. A wire line 209 feet
long (a trifle over three chains) will form the side of a one acre block.
At each end fasten an iron ring two or three inches in diameter
for slipping on pegs. Along this line mark out with a piece of
solder the exact distance apart the vines or trees are to be set at.

Should vines be planted in a parallelogram instead of a square,
two lines will be required, with the distances between the rows
marked off on one of them and the distance along the rows on the
other.

DISTANCE APART.

Before planting an orchard or a vineyard it is well to consider
and decide what distance apart the trees or the vines will be set at.
The following table shows the number of plants to the acre at the
distances given below. It will be noticed that the septuple system
allows 15 per cent, more trees to the acre and the quincunx 12 per
cent, more than does square planting.

1

3 •

1

$^

m *

1J

M

h

1 j

H

o *>

PH

S

o "

fe PH

g

5

'1.2

S-g

|

I

IS

I«

i

s

.2

PI

CO

3

!8

I

'3

<y

I

QM

£•

1

'3

1

1

i

43,560

50,300

18

324

134

151

154

2

4

21,780

20

4(10

109

116

125

3

9

4,840

21

441

99

110

114

4

16

2,722

22

484

90

100

103

5

25

1,742

1,966

2,003

24

576

75

83

86

6

36

1,200

1,362

1,390

25

625

69

77

80

7

49

889

999

1,002

26

676

64

71

73

8

64

680

762

782

27

729

60

67

69

9

81

537

600

617

28

784

55

61

63

10

100

435

482

500

29

841

50

56

56

11

121

360

399

414

30

900

48

53

55

12

144

302

335

347

35

1,225

40

44

46

14

196

222

250

255

40

1,600

31

34

35

16

256

170

191

195

A certain diversity of opinion exists regarding the best distance to
plant vines and fruit trees. In this case, as in many others, extreme

61

views in the matter are not to be copied, and a medium course
should be adopted.

If we consider vines, we must bear in mind that under the
Australian climate, where the sum of the sun's heat is always
sufficient for the complete ripening of grapes, the question of
orientation is not so important as under cooler climates, and the
direction to be given to the lines will be to a greater extent
influenced by the shape of the field, the intensity of the hot winds
if in the interior, or the sea breezes if in the coastal region. In
places, also, where hail-storms sometimes occur and follow certain
winds which generally come from the same quarter, the edge of the
lines should be pointed towards the direction the wind blows, and
not the flank, if it can be avoided.

Lines laid along the longer axis of the field rather than in
the direction of its shorter width also save a considerable amount
of time and exertion on the teams, which have less turning to do.

If the vineyard is to be planted on a slope with a very marked
incline, the lines and ploughings should follow the contour of the
slope and be laid at right angle to its fall, so as to prevent in
some measure the soil being washed down the incline during heavy
downpours of rain.

Whatever disposition is given to the vineyard, the land should
be exclusively planted in vines, and no other crop or trees put in.

In hot and dry districts where a thick growth of foliage would
rob the ground of a considerable amount of its store of moisture,
wide planting is generally resorted to, while in the cooler and
moister districts, where it is desirable to promote the evaporation
from the ground of as much moisture as possible, and besides
encourage the growth of the roots nearer to the surface, close planting
is the most profitable.

If one takes France as an example, one notices a striking differ-
ence between the Champagne district, for instance, where there
are as many as 16,000 to 18,000 vines to the acre, while the number
decreases the farther South one goes, being 10,000 to 12,000 in
Burgundy, 4,000 to 5,000 in the Hermitage, 2,000 in the Herault,
and 1,000 in Algeria.

In Australia experience has proved that the vines do better when
planted further apart, and the following distances are met with : —

SQUARE FORMATION

4 ft. apart

5 „
6

7

8

9
10
11
12
14

ON.
per acre.

JKECTAN
ft. ft.

. 2,725

4x1

. 1,742

6x4

. 1,200

6x5

889

7x4

680

8x5

537

8x6

435

9x6

360

9x7

302

10 x 6

222

10 x 8

10 x 12

RECTANGULAR FORMATION.

per acre.

10,900

1,816

1,452

1,556

1,090

908

806

692

726

545

363

62

The distances 12ft. by 12ft, and lift, by 10ft., for ordinary
grapes, are certainly excessive and an unwarrantable waste of space,
the cost of periodical ploughing, scarifying, outlay on purchase of
land, clearing, staking and trellising, fencing being out of proportion
with the number of vines. For currants and sultanas the distances
might well be 10ft. x 12ft.

In the drier districts a superficial area of ground of 64 to 100
sq. ft. should be given to the vine ; this is obtained by planting the
vines : —

8ft. x 8ft. giving 64 sq. ft. each and 680 to the acre.

9ft, x 7ft. „ 63 „ „ 692 „

10ft. x 6ft. „ 60 „ „ 726 „

lOffc. x 10ft. „ 100 „ „ 435 „

12ft. x 6ft. „ ,72 „ „ 605 „

The advantages of 10ft. x 6ft. over 8ft. x 8ft., are apparent for
the reason that for a given area of ground more vines are
planted to the acre ; the distance between the rows allows drays to
enter the vineyard anywhere, for carrying away grapes or the
wood after pruning, while moreover, should at any time the vines be
put on trellis, fewer posts, less wire, and fewer holes for the posts
will be required per acre. The only disadvantage lies in the fact
that those growers who work a 6ft. wide scarifier, require a narrower
one when working the land crossways.

The object of reducing the number of plants per acre, as
shown above, as one proceeds from the cooler districts towards the
hotter or drier ones, is to equalise the development of the root
system underground with the development of the aerial organs
of the plant. In the South of France for instance, as well as in
Algeria, where the object sought for is to promote a luxuriant
growth and an abundant yield, the growth of the deeper
roots must be encouraged by every means, so as to make the plant
independent of droughts, and enable it to get nourishment propor-
tionate to its yield. It is also evident that in a dry soil, where the
mineral food required by the plant is not dissolved and in a state
fit for assimilation, the plant requires a greater cubic space of
ground than is the case in moister and richer soil.

So much for the distance apart vines may be planted. In the
case of fruit trees, a superficial area of ground proportionate to their
natural growth must be provided for.

Small trees like the navel orange, some dwarf apple trees,
pear trees with an erect habit of growth, quince, etc., will
require less space than the larger orange, apple, and pear trees.
An orchard, however, laid out at distances varying according to the
sort of fruit grown would certainly look unsightly and would more-
over be difficult to cultivate ; a uniform interval between the trees all
through the orchard should therefore be decided on.

Many orchards are planted at distances 15ft. to 18ft. apart, but
these are decidedly too close. The average fruit trees should
not be planted at a lesser interval than 20ft., whereas a favourite

63

distance would be 22ft. or three trees to the chain, which would
give 90 trees per acre if planted on the square, and 100 trees if
planted in quincunx, and 103 if set in according to the septuple
formation ; 24ft. as well as 25ft. apart are also favourite intervals
suitable for soils and localities where trees grow luxuriantly.

For the guidance of those orchardists who desire to plant certain
kinds of fruit trees in blocks by themselves, the following table is
given of distances found suitable for setting apart : —

Bhubarb 4 feet apart.

Gooseberries and Currants 8 „

Rock Melons ... ... ... ... 6 to 8 „

Water Melons 10 „ 12

Table Grapes 8 „ 10

Coffee 10 „ 12

Guavas 12 „ 18

Bananas and Plantains 12 „ 18 „

Persimmons ... ... ... ... 18 „ 22 „

Mandarines and Kumquats 18 „ 22 „

Oranges and Lemons 20 30 „

Plums and Prunes 20 22

Peaches and Nectarines ... ... 20 22 „

Pears ... 20 25

Large Cherries 20 25

Duke's Morellos 20 25

Apricots 22 30

Apples 22 30

Figs ... , 20 40

Walnuts and Chestnuts 30 40

If planted in rows : — Strawberries, in double rows of l|ft. to
2ft., with 4ft. between the double rows.

Pine Apples : — In double rows 2ft. with 8ft. to 10ft. between
each double row.

Raspberries : — 4ft. to 8ft. between the rows.

PLANTING.

Before planting a vineyard or an orchard, the question should
have been fully discussed what special market it is intended to
supply. Whether it is intended to dispose of the fruit locally or
to ship it ; to manufacture the grapes into wine or brandy ; to turn
them into raisins, or to sell them fresh as table grapes.

The natural circumstances of soil, climate, and orientations
should also influence the selection of the varities it is intended to
grow. Favour the quick ripening of early sorts by planting on well
exposed slopes. Again, in the case of fruit trees and vines, study
the likings of each sort ; putting the yellow Bellflower apple on the
lighter patches of soil, in preference to the Newtown pippin, which
prefers a stronger soil. Some varieties again show greater pre-
disposition to diseases in low moist locations, and should for that
reason be planted on well drained slopes; the Cleopatra apple,
which is somewhat subject to the " bitter pit " disease, is a case in
point. Other questions as well require consideration when planting,

64

for instance, such self sterile fruit as the Bartlett and other pears.
Top graft a few of these or plant amongst them some varieties
which will supply the pollen necessary for insuring cross fertilisation
and the better setting of fruit. Pears and plums do better on a
strong retentive soil than peaches and nectarines. Cherries do
better on stony land on a high slope. Walnuts and chestnuts in
well sheltered, shaded and moist situations. Almonds and figs in
the warmest and driest parts. Oranges in rich, warm, and well-
sheltered places. With reference to grape vines due attention
should be paid in those places periodically visited by late frosts to
the time the several varieties burst into leaf. Amongst those
varieties budding late are : Carignane, Mataro, Cabernet Sauvignon.
Amongst those pushing forth their buds early the Chasselas, Mal-
bec, G-renache, Verdot, Pinot, Muscat, Black Hamburgh.

In close proximity to a large market, and where easy means of
communication exist, summer and early autumn fruits that are not
suitable for distant transportation and require to be consumed as
soon as ripe would be profitable ; there also early sorts will pay
better than late varieties that could perhaps be grown to greater
perfection in some more remote district.

On the other hand, the more distant grower will find autumn
and winter apples, pears, and fruits that carry well more profitable.

Only those varieties that have been well proved as suitable in
regard to soil, climate, or the special purpose they are grown for,
should be cultivated, and of these, the varieties that succeed re-
markably well in a particular locality more largely planted.

Having made up your mind what sort of produce you want to
turn out, and satisfied yourself as to which varieties succeed best in
the particular locality you are in, plant as few varieties as possible.
You will find a readier market for your produce if you only keep a
few " lines," to use a term employed in commercial circles. Do not
have all the sorts ripening at the same time ; in an early district
favour more especially early sorts, and in a late one, late varieties of
fruit, as you will then, with your produce meet a firm market that
is not glutted with fruits of all sorts.

VINE-PLANTING.

Some vines, such as the Malbec, for instance, are much liable
to the accident of coulure, or of imperfect setting of the flowers,
when grown on low ground with bad drainage, and do far better on
deep, free, undulating ground. Table grapes should be planted in
the richest soil in the vineyard, more especially if they can receive
a few extra waterings from the time of flowering till the period the
berries change colour.

Whatever kind of grapes are planted, let each variety stand
separately. I have seen on some of the most famous and ancient
vineyards of the Medoc near Bordeaux, the Cabernet, the Malbec,
the Merlot, and the Verdot planted indiscriminately in the same

65

field, but that practice has prone out of favour now ; and although it
is advisable to blend the grapes in the fermenting vats together, so
as to insure their several constituents getting incorporated thoroughly
with each other during the process of fermentation, this blending
can be just as easily made in the suitable proportions without the
different varieties of vines being grown indiscriminately together.

The advantages of keeping the varieties separate may thus be
summed up : —

1 . The vines look more uniform in the field, and a more

delicate and perhaps superior variety of vine is not thus
exposed to be dwarfed or choked in its growth by more
common and more rustic vines.

2. Varieties more liable to specific fungoid or other pests

can receive special attention, and the disease be thus
warded off or kept down.

3. Each variety can be trained, pruned, or summer topped,

according to the method best suited to its particular
habit of growth.

4. The picking can be done in succession by taking the

varieties as they come to maturity in their proper order.

The best way of stocking a vineyard is by using cuttings
w^herever the spring and summer months are moist enough, or
rooted plants when there is a risk of a long spell of dry weather.
Seedlings are never raised for extensive planting, as they do not
bear a crop until the fifth or sixth year at least, and besides, like
most other intensely cultivated plants, vines grown from seeds
always show a tendency to sport and generate new varieties.

The best cuttings are obtained from the middle portion of the
bearing canes of the previous season, the wood being well summered,
keeping for a long time, and striking root and budding readily.
The shorter the cutting the stronger the vine.

Yery tender cuttings are those that grow quickest : but they
are also very apt to soon get dry, on account of the pithy condition
of the wood, and are not to be relied on in dry seasons and open-air
cultivation on a large scale. It often happens that the plants they
grow are, besides, of a weak constitution. On the other hand,
cuttings with hard and tough wood do not strike root so easily, and
show a tendency to grow more wood than fruit. Whenever, there-
fore, it is possible, the middle part of a cane, of well constituted
summered wood, should be chosen from prolific plants.

Cuttings 10 inches to 14 inches long are the best for planting
in this country, arid only one of the buds should show above
ground and not two or three as are often left. The complete
covering of the cutting and of the terminal bud under some sand or
loose soil, delays the growth of the leaves, which are the essential
organs of evaporation of the plant, whilst the young roots gradually
take hold of the ground and supply food for the requirements of
the young vine. If more than one bud be too much exposed to

66

the air and light, too many leaves might grow, and as the evapora-
tion through these organs is excessive, compared with the amount
of moisture the tender rootlets can absorb, the young plant, after
having shown a fictitious growth for a while, soon withers and
gradually dies away.

The joints should be short and numerous, and no cuttings
should be taken from a vine attacked by any fungoid pest, such as
anthracnose or cndium, &c., as they are as a rule less vigorous, and
there is always the risk of propagating the disease and infecting the
young vineyard with the disease.

These details having been attended to, cuttings will be obtained
that will strike more readily and produce stocks that will soon bear
a heavy crop of fruits. The fresher cut, the better will cuttings
strike. It is not always possible though to get cuttings freshly
pruned, as late pruning delays the bursting of the buds in the
spring, and causes the vine to weep, thus weakening it, whilst it
may happen that cuttings may have to be got from great distances.

A good packing for vine cuttings, when sending them a long
distance, is to tie them into bundles of 100 to 200 each, and put
around them some straw very slightly moistened with water, and
wrapped up in more dry straw and then put in cradle cases or in
gunny bags, which, on arrival, should be opened, the bundles taken
out and placed in an open furrow in some place of the vineyard not
liable to be flooded and where the soil is loose and well drained.

The best time for planting is at the beginning of the spring, in
the moister districts, as at that time the surface soil has been
sufficiently penetrated by the warmth of the atmosphere to favour
the growth of the tender rootlets. In drier places, where the hot
weather comes early and the rainfall gets scarce as the spring draws
on, the planting should be done a little earlier.

The importance of only planting such cuttings as are likely to
strike is evident, as if many blanks have to be filled in the season
after, it is always at greater expense, and at a loss of twelve
months, so far as the bearing of the vines is concerned. Should
any doubt be entertained as to the striking capabilities of the
cuttings — and some varities, such as the brown Muscat, for
instance, are very hard to strike — the bundles are often taken
from the trench where they have been lying, and placed a few inches
deep into water. After three or four days, the bark gets sappy,
and small wart-like swellings, covered with a little gummy substance,
show at the butt. The cuttings should then be planted without
delay, as the rootlets of the plant, looking like delicate white little
threads, soon break out and might possibly be damaged during the
operation of planting.

A single eye cutting produces a more vigorous root system than
a cutting 10 to 12 inches long, and a medium size one will, in a
similar manner, strike a better constituted root system than long
cuttings 18 to 20 inches long, in which case a distinct system of
roots will come out in layers out of every joint, and will not be so

67

strong and vigorous as if they issued from the same joint as near
the surface as possible, and with a tendency of striking deeply into
the soil, in a downward direction.

Eye Cuttings.

In order to insure a, good proportion of these single eyes strik-
ing, they are set in the spring, in moist sand under glass frames,
and when the shoots commence to push upwards, fed by the tender
roots in the sand, they are gradually hardened by more direct
exposure to the air and are finally transplanted, when they make
sturdy plants.

It is often necessary to keep the vine-cuttings a month or
two before they can be planted out ; they should in that case be
put temporarily in a trench dug in well drained and moist soil and
banked up with earth where they will keep dormant ; at planting
time, only a sufficient number of cuttings for the day's requirements
should be taken out.

Rooted vines, whenever obtainable at a reasonable price, are
much more certain to strike root and grow, and although in many
parts of the Eastern States, where the spring and summer
months are moist, cuttings are generally planted in preference, yet
in this State they will be found to give better results and reduce to
a very considerable extent the percentage of misses. On the one
hand the cost of rooted plants is five or six times as much as that
of cuttings, but, as a compensation for the heavier outlay, the
certainty and the more uniform growth and early cropping are in
favour of rooted vines as compared with cuttings.

A small nursery should be planted to provide rooted vines for
filling up blanks occurring after the first season's planting. Few
cuttings, probably, strike better than vine-cuttings and those can be
got at pruning time for little over the cost of trimming.

For stocking a nursery, shorter cuttings than those generally
used for planting out in the open field are preferable, as they
develop a better root system, and are less liable to dry up and
perish, as more care and attention can be given them, and the
desirable amount of moisture in the ground can be better maintained
by means of more thorough cultivation or by [occasional waterings,
mulchings, etc.

A. Strong vine from short cutting, showing vigorous root system, growing from the same
joint. B. Weaker vine from long cutting showing disposition of roots. — (Foex.) • ( ,

In the nursery the cuttings can be put in at a distance of 6|jto
10 inches, with an interval of 18 to 24 inches between the rows. The
plants should be lifted up with much care so as to injure the tender
roots as little as possible, and these should be carried to the field
either wrapped up in a wet bag and put in a basket or placed in a
bucket of water.

The holes having been previously dug, the bruised roots are
trimmed with a sharp knife or a secateur, and the rooted vines
planted in the way fruit trees are generally planted ; all shoots but
one are then cut off, and on this two good buds alone are left.

Unlike cuttings which are planted very early in the spring,
rooted vines may be put in the ground at any time in the winter ;
they then establish themselves and take a good hold in the ground,
and make a vigorous growth as soon as the spring sets in.

Sandy loams do not show a tendency to crack in dry and hot
weather; but in heavy soils the ground, by contracting in the
summer, very often leaves an open space round the cutting, especially
if it has been put in vertically, without having been slightly bent.

69

In that case, and unless some sand can conveniently be put round
the cutting, the hole should be well trampled down, up to about
two-thirds of the length of the cutting or rooted plant, and the
remaining third banked up with the more friable and well-pulverised
soil, which is left loose on the surface.

A handful of bone-dust or some other phosphatic manure and
wood ashes, kainit, or better still either sulphate or muriate of
potash, worked with the earth round the plant will in many places
provide nutriment for the young rootlets, and insure the rapid
growth of the vine or fruit tree as the case may be.

TREE PLANTING.

The ground should be marked off, so that whichever way the
rows are looked at they all seem to be in perfectly straight lines ;
then the holes are dug.

The holes for fruit trees should be wide enough to permit of
the spreading of the roots ; the wider the better. In heavy,
retentive soil they should not be deeper than the land has been
ploughed, as otherwise such holes would get full of stagnant water,
and would hold it like a basin ; many a fruit tree has been killed
through the roots thus decaying instead of growing in a healthy
condition.

Before the holes are dug and in order to insure that the trees
will occupy the exact spot the stakes were in, a simple contrivance
known as the " tree -setter " is of great use.

o

V

0

4ft.

It consists of a light piece of board 1 inch thick, 4 inches
wide, and 4 to 5 feet long. Cut a V shape notch in the centre and
either bore a hole H inch in diameter at 3 inches from each end ;
or, instead of the holes, cut notches at each end of the board.

To use the " tree- setter," the Y shaped notch is put against the
stake, which marks the spot the tree is to occupy. Through the hole
at each end, or in the notches, as the case may be, drive into the
ground pegs 1 to 1J inch in diameter and 12 to 15 inches long
that will easily pass through the holes. This having been done,
remove the central stake in the V notch, lift the board over the two
terminal pegs, which are left in the ground, and dig the hole.
When planting, replace the " tree- setter " over these two pegs,
and place the stem so that it will fit into the V ; it will then occupy
exactly the same spot the stake occupied when the ground 'was laid
out.

N.B. — The figures indicating1 the number of trees to the acre given in the chapter ou
the laying out of the ground, are correct in so far as one single acre is concerned ; for a
larger number of adjoining acres, a small deduction should be made.

70

The hole should be three feet square, convex in the centre, or
of the shape of an inverted saucer. This is done by heaping up
some loose surface soil, so that when the tree is planted its base
stands a little higher than the roots, which spread out evenly round,
radiating outwards with a slight dip downwards.

Wherever patches of hard ironstone conglomerate, such as are
met with at places on the Darling Range, or of impervious peaty or
calcareous hardpan, such as exist sometimes round ti-tree swainps in
the coastal zone, occur, a cheap and convenient method of getting
rid of them will be by shattering them by means of cartridges of
dynamite, or else by IJlb. cha.rgesof black blasting powder rammed
into holes two inches in diameter bored through the hard pan. By
this means numerous crevices will be formed which will promote the
drainage of the land and permit the roots of the plants penetrating
through the pan and gaining access to the subsoil underneath.

Selecting the trees from the nursery requires some discrimination.
The varieties to be planted having been decided upon, place the
order with a good and reliable nurseryman, preferably a local one
with a reputation to keep up. Sixpence more on the price of a tree,
when compared with the fruit peddler's quotations, may have to be
paid, but it will be money well invested. I am every season
receiving for identification fruit from trees ordered from bogus
nurseries, or from " cheap " trees sold by auction, which often are
not what they were represented to be. These are mostly the
unsold stock of nurseries, and are often sickly, and may not
be true to name.

When buying trees it is well to stipulate that the stems should
be smooth, the roots not too much hacked about ; that the trees, if
peaches, should be on peach stock, except when planted on heavy
clay or in damp places, when they might be on plums ; apples on
northern spy, citrus trees on bitter orange, or on pomelo, to guard
against collar rot. It is well to require some guarantee that the
trees are free from fungi and injurious insects, and more particularly
some of the worst scale insects.

On arrival, each tree should be carefully examined for any
indication of root galls, scale insects, black aphis, borers, or fungoid
disease, and unless it is accompanied with a certificate of disinfection
at the nursery, it should be treated by dipping in warm whale-oil
soap suds (lib. of whale-oil to 3 gallons of water), or in kerosene
emulsion for a couple of minutes in the case of insect pests, or in
Bordeaux mixture in the case of fungoid disease.

They are then heeled in without delay. For that purpose a
trench is dug in moist but well-drained soil and the trees placed in
it, slanting towards the same direction, and loose, well- pulverised
earth banked up round the roots and every part of the stems ; the
trees will stand in that state until required for planting.

It happens that they are sometimes barkbound, showing a
leathery, shrivelled bark. In that case they should be thoroughly
drenched first and then stratified or covered up with moist loose

71

earth or sand, root, stem and branches for a couple of days or so,
when, unless too far gone they assume their healthy look again.

The best time for planting all sorts of trees is when the sap is
down, and after the autumn and winter rains have penetrated the
soil to a good depth. That time in this State will be from May
till August. Citrus trees are best set out after the first autumn
rain or, better still, late in the winter in August. Do not plant
while the earth is water-logged, as its handling at that time would
puddle it, and it would cake round the roots of the tree and
subsequently crack and let in the hot air that might parch up the
tender roots.

On taking the trees from the trench, make, with a sharp
pruning knife a clean cut of any bruised root, and taking the tree
to the hole dug on the spot it is going to occupy, with a few
shovelsful of earth raise the bottom of the hole so that the collar or
ground line on the stem is flush with the surface ground of the
orchard. The tendency until a few years ago has been to plant
trees, more especially in this State, much too deeply, with the idea
that during our dry summers, the roots should be put as deep down
into the ground as possible so as to insure a proper amount of moisture
being: always within their reach. Collar rot, the rotting of the roots,
stunted growth, are all due to this defective method of planting,
and to this cause mainly must be attributed the loss of so many
fruit trees planted in this country. Deep planting, insufficient
pruning, deficient cultivation, neglect of pests, may be said to be at
the bottom of the failure of a great many fruit trees in this State.

As a general rule, if the soil in which the tree is planted is the
same as the one from which it was taken, the tree should be set the
same depth as it was before it was removed from the nursery row.
If the soil is heavier, the tree should be set a trifle shallower, if
lighter it should be planted a shade deeper.

Tree too deeply planted. Tree rightly planted.

Tree set too shallow.

72

The above illustration shows the wrong and the right way of
setting a tree. The horizontal line represents the ground surface.
On the left hand side is an illustration of a tree badly planted, after
the fashion beginners generally favour. A deep narrow hole is sunk
ioto the ground, the tree is let down with its roots twisted anyhow,
and covered with soil, or worst of all, soil with stable manure poured
over them. If the ground is at all heavy the roots will with difficulty
penetrate through the wall of such a hole, the earth packed around the
bark will prevent the butt of the tree expanding; the bark will lose its
elasticity and will set tight around the tree, which will either die of
collar rot or will always be stunted and live a miserable life. The figure
on the right shows another extreme ; it represents a shallow hole with
the roots simply resting two or three inches below the surface. Such
a tree will be easily blown down by wind storms ; its roots will suffer
severely from the heat of the sun, or will run the risk of being
desiccated during the dry summer. Such shallow planting is only
to be recommended on damp, peaty ground, where the water still
lies within two feet of the surface, and where drainage is somewhat
difficult to secure. Between these two extremes lies the right way
of setting a tree.

How TO MANURE WHEN PLANTING.

If the trees are planted late in the season, when dry weather
sets in, it is advisable to pour a bucketful of water around the stem
to settle the earth well on the roots. Mulch the ground about the
newly planted trees with a light coating of stable manure or of straw.

Fertilisers are sometimes used at the time of planting for
giving a good start to the trees, but avoid putting farmyard
manure under the roots of the plant, as it would in many cases
attract insects and favour the growth of parasitic moulds that
would be injurious to the tree. Of chemical fertilisers a couple of
handfuls of phosphates and potash manures mixed will in many
cases prove of great value, well worked with the earth round the
roots. Whenever farmyard manure is used, it should be in the
form of a mulching on the top of the soil' as its beneficial effect
will then be twofold ; the plant food it contains will be washed
from the surface down to where the roots are established by the
winter rains, and it will act as a screen which will be of
considerable benefit to the plant by preventing the evaporation
from the soil, and by smothering any weeds that might happen to
grow round the trees. When the planting is done on freshly-cleared
ground, sour and heavy lime is an excellent preparation. The places
where the trees are going having been marked, 61b. to 71b. of lime
are spread around the stakes ; the holes are subsequently dug and
the trees put in. This will correct the sourness and the stiffness of
the soil and induce a healthy growth. Some open up the tree-hole
some time before planting, but if the ground is at all stiff and
heavy, the liming as described above is preferable. Unless this
dressing is applied it often happens that the sides and bottom of the

73

holes are coated with a viscous glaze which prevents the tender roots
reaching to the soil beyond.

After all the precautions have been taken for insuring the
proper planting of the right sort of trees, all the efforts of the
beginner are often frustrated by neglect of another important detail.
The newly planted tree must be cut back, or shortened in, or else
its growth will be checked, and it will not uncommonly perish.
So long as it was in the nursery, the root system of the young plant
was unimpaired, absorbing from the soil all the nutriment the
branches required, but when taken up, no matter how carefully
done, many of the fine feeding rootlets are torn and bruised, the
feeding capacity of the tree is no longer in keeping with the
amount of shoots it carries, and unless the superabundance of
these is cut back and the balance re-established between the feeding
and the breathing and evaporating organs of the plant, it will make
a miserable struggle for existence and in many cases even perish.
The bark will become leathery and limp, the sap will heat and
ferment under the action of the sun, and the tree will fall an easy
victim to the attacks of borers and other noxious insects.

As soon as ever the operation of planting has been done, it will
be found of the greatest use to draw a map of the orchard on which
is indicated the respective position of each tree, with numbers which
will refer to an index carefully recording the name of the trees
planted. With such a plan, although labels may be lost or torn
away, no possible mistake can happen at any time regarding the
correct name of any tree grown in the orchard*.

LABELS FOR FRUIT TREES.

More especially in the home garden a variety of trees is often
planted, and as it would be inconvenient to keep continually
referring to the map of the ground to ascertain the name of trees,
it is advisable to attach labels to them.

Of these several kinds are sold by seedsmen and florists. The
zinc labels at first look very neat, but unless they are punched with
letters or definite marks the writing disappears after a season or
two.

Cheap and convenient labels are ordinary painted pine labels,
1J inches wide and 6 inches long. A piece of galvanised wire is
fastened to them at one end. The name of the tree or plant is
written with a soft pencil upon the label, which is then dipped in
white of lead well thinned with oil. The paint at first obscures the
writing, but on drying the lettering comes out again more distinctly,
and remains visible for quite a long time.

SUMMER CULTIVATION

Is in a hot and dry climate as necessary and indispensable to
the healthy growth of fruit trees, and the production of a crop, as is
pruning itself. In England, and the moister localities on the

74

Continent of Europe, orchards under grass are of frequent occur-
rence. In Australia, where climatic conditions are totally different,
the old methods have likewise been tried and have failed. Vines
and fruit trees, to be profitable in this climate, must not only be kept
scrupulously clean, but the surface of the soil must be stirred at
frequent intervals.

Some growers rest satisfied after they have r-idden the ground
of the growth of thirsty weeds whose roots rob the vines and trees
of their full share of the nutriment and the moisture available.

This, however, is only half of what should be done in a country
like this ; clean cultivation is not all that summer cultivation
implies : it is only part of it. Summer cultivation acts besides in a
variety of other ways ; it maintains the soil in a condition favour-
able to the growth of the roots of the plants ; it retains moisture
in the ground, and it also leaves it in the most favourable condition
for absorbing more moisture from the atmosphere ; by opening up
the soil it promotes its sweetening through the action of the
atmosphere on the particles of the soil.

The mechanism by which moisture is retained in the soil by
means of summer cultivation may thus be exemplified, for the sake of
impressing on the mind its capital importance so far as the pursuit
of fruit-growing is concerned. It is a fact of every day observation
that a brick wall built on moist ground is always more or less
damp, and sometimes covered with a growth of green mould to a
height which varies from a few inches to a few feet above the
surface ; the same thing noticeable on stakes driven into the ground,
as well as on old trunks of dead trees. The moisture is sucked up
from below by capillary attraction. It is also owing to capillary
attraction that the oil in the lamp rises in the wick, and that little
hairlike vaccine tubes, for instance, can be filled up with calf lymph.
Similarly, in a hard and set soil, moisture is often drawn up from a
depth of several feet, and precisely as the oil burns, when the lamp
is lighted, on the end of the wick exposed to the air, so the water
drawn up from below is evaporated when it reaches the crust of the
soil heated by the sun and fanned by the wind. As fast as the oil
burns more oil is drawn up from the lamp to replace it ; so in soil,
as the water is evaporated on the surface more water from below
rises to replace it, and the hotter the sun the more exposed the
surface to the action of the wind, and also the harder and more
compact the crust of the soil, the more active is the evaporation,
and, consequently, the drying- up of the soil, until at last it becomes
as " dry as brick."

The best method, therefore, of preventing that wasteful escape
of moisture from the ground is by loosening and breaking up the
crust of the soil ; by so doing the capillary attraction is, for a time,
destroyed close to the surface, although it goes on without check
a little deeper down; water continues, without sensible interrup-
tion, to be drawn up all the same from the subsoil, but, owing to
the fact that it is no longer sucked up to the surface, where it would

75

evaporate under the agency of sun-heat and wind, it accumulates
in the layer of soil in which the roots feed, moistening it, keeping
it cool, and dissolving the fertilising elements contained in the soil,
thus favouring root-growth, which has such a direct influence on
the development of the plant, and, consequently, on the yield of
the crop. It is essential, however, in order to achieve this end,
that the surface soil should be as well pulverised as possible, and
not ripped up into coarse clods. This would allow of the pene-
tration into the deeper layers of the soil of too much heat and
of the desiccating wind which, by evaporating what amount of
moisture is continuously rising under the action of capillary force,
would frustrate the object, of the grower to keep in the ground the
moisture necessary to dissolve plant food and prepare it for the
roots, which can only utilise it when presented to them in the liquid
form. A well cultivated field is also better prepared to absorb and
imbibe whatever amount of water comes down in rainy weather,
instead of allowing it to run to waste on a hardened crust into the
drains or the gullies which carry it away to the rivers. Loose earth
acts as a sponge which gets permeated during the night by the
damp air, condenses and retains its moisture, and freshens up the
crop.

The thorough cultivation of the soil answers, moreover, another
object.

It prevents the plant growing a meshwork of tender rootlets
close up to the surface, and enables the deeper seated roots to hold
their own and carry on their functions under the most favourable
circumstances. In vine and fruit growing, the cultivation of the
soil should be so regulated that the principal roots of the plant are
not injured and torn off ; it should be deeper in hot and dry localities
where surface roots are more liable to get scorched and desiccated
in times of drought, than in moister and cooler districts. A
maximum of six inches in dry and hot places, and four to five
inches in moister localities, is deep enough for all purposes. Unless
this cultivation is every year carried out, the surface-feeding rootlets
will soon assume upon themselves the duty of foraging for the
maintenance of the plant, and thus finally cause the gradual wither-
ing up and atrophy of the deeper-seated roots. The result of sub-
sequent cultivation, followed up by intense summer heat, may well
be imagined. The superficial rootlets having been destroyed by the
field implements, it might happen that the deeper ones would not
prove equal to the tax suddenly thrown upon them alter having
been out of working order as it were, and the result on the} plant
would soon make itself only too apparent, j _Jj[ !TU!1

To sum up, the rationale of summer cultivation consists in
destroying the thirsty and hungry weeds ; in intercepting the
upward motion of moisture from the subsoil, and storing it up in
the feeding layer of earth round the roots of plants ; in enabling
the soil to soak in and condense more water ; in sweetening it by
promoting the ready access of the atmospheric air; in hindering
and preventing the invasion and propagation of noxious insects by

76

exposing them to the action of a roasting sun-heat or to the
attacks of insectivorous birds and other natural enemies.

FIELD IMPLEMENTS USED IN CULTIVATION.
Three sets of horse implements are necessary for the thorough
cultivation of the land in the pursuit of vine and fruit growing —
A suitable plough,
A scarifier,
A set of harrows,

without mentioning the hand hoes, pick, digging forks, and minor
tools and appliances in use for working the soil close up to the tree.

A considerable variety of implements are offered by the
trade which claim to do the work they are expected to do in the
best style and at the cheapest cost. The ingenuity of modern
makers has been considerably taxed of late by the desire to excel
their rivals, and the result, so far as design and workmanship are
concerned, has attained to a high state of perfection when com-
pared with the implements used for similar purposes only a
few years ago.

It may be that, after clearing, the ground does not present an
even surface and that there are ridges to level down and hollows to
fill. This is done with an earth scoop after the surface has been
" scruffed " up with the plough. Another suitable implement for
this work is a " buck scraper " made of a solid wooden beam, 2 inches
x 12 inches, cut bevel with the adze on one side and iron-shod to
scrape the earth.

Two guiding handles bolted to the scraper are used for holding
the board at an angle when paring a slice of the uneven ground.
One length of chain at each end of the scraper a,nd looped to the
whipple-tree complete the implement.

Another serviceable land leveller is thus described in the
Settlers' Guide issued by this Department : — " The leveller may be
made on the farm, all the aid it will be necessary to invoke being
that of the blacksmith to make the iron nose and even this is not
an absolute necessity, as our hardwoods will stand a good deal of
friction before wearing away.

To make the leveller, take two hardwood planks about 12 feet
in length, two inches thick, and eight inches wide. Cut down one
edge with a drawing knife, plane, or adze, so that it will be about
half an inch on the edge. Put the boards together in Y shape, with
the flaring edges at the bottom inside and resting on the ground.
Take an eight-foot board, trimmed down the same, but two inches
narrower. Mortise and bolt the ends into the side boards about
two feet from the ends. Put two bolts through where the side
pieces are joined to make the front of the leveller. Bolt a hook on
top so that the whipple trees may be attached. Nail an eight-inch
board across near the centre. When you want to cut down a ridge,
ride upon the board, drive the horses on one side, and swing your
weight so as to cut into the soil. If you wish to fill up dead fur-

77

rows or ditches, drive along one side and throw the weight of the
body where the soil is to be moved from, and thereby gauge the
filling of the hole.

Serviceable Land Leveller.

Every year almost witnesses the production of implements
possessing special merit ; among those in favour at present are the
Digging Plough, the Spading, the Acme, and the Spring-tooth
Harrows, as well as the old Drag or Zigzag harrow, the Planet
Junior Horse Hoe.

The annual cultivation of the soil in the orchard and the
vineyard may be said to begin in the winter time, when one or two
ploughings are done according as the soil is lighter or heavier, and
the work of cultivation effected more thoroughly.

At least one of these winter ploughings should be deep, and
the plough should be set in the middle of the rows of trees or vines
to a depth of six to seven inches. When finishing off, a lighter
plough may be used with advantage, or the depth of the furrow
reduced to three or four inches.

Our orchardists, as a rule, fail to pay sufficient attention to
this deep cultivation, with the result that in the height of a dry
summer the numerous feeders which have taken possession of the
soil a few inches under the surface of the ground wither and dry
up, the plant as a consequence showing signs of distress. Deeper
ploughing, whilst checking the growth of these superficial roots,
offers an encouragement to the growth of the deeper-seated ones.
When an orchard or a vineyard has long been ploughed only three
to four inches deep, it would be manifestly injurious to deepen the
cultivation all at once to six and seven inches, as a considerable shock
would result to the plant ; but in a dry and warm summer, such as
our West Australian summer, due attention should be paid to the
gradual deepening of winter cultivation.

Various sorts of ploughs are made for the purpose ; the one
horse Vine Ploughs specially constructed by Eansome, Sims, and
Jefferies, of Norfolk ; Howard, of Bedford, and other good makers
are made for vineyard work, and answer splendidly for turning the
last furrow or two, close up to the trees in the orchard, without
bruising the bark. They are light, with a short beam, and the body
thrown six inches off the centre on the mould-board side ; they do
not turn a furrow so deeply as the ordinary plough, and the plough-
man has complete command over his implement, being able to

78

throw it out of the furrow instantly should it happen to come into
contact with a vine stump.

A better plough still is the Digging Plough, which, in breaking
up and pulverising the ground, approaches nearer the spade and
the fork than any in the class of work it turns out. It also
possesses over the long mould-board wrought-iron ploughs marked
advantages. It is easier in draught and lighter in weight ; it is
cheaper in price, and the component parts can easily be obtained at
a low cost, and replaced without trouble whatever by any plough-
man. An " Oliver Chilled, No. 40," costing JM, with a team of two
to three horses, will turn a furrow nine inches deep and 16 inches in
width, and only weighs 1301bs., as against 1701bs. to ISOlbs. of the
wrought-iron plough, cutting a furrow six inches deep and only
nine inches in width.

Digging Plough.

Whilst the long mould-board plough half turns the furrows
into long symmetrical parallel ribbons, the Digging Plough turns
and pulverises the ground thoroughly, leaving the surface —
especially if the land be free and light — comparatively smooth and
better exposed to the weathering action of frost, sun, air, and rain.
It is made of cast iron or steel, the steel ploughs being far superior,
both as regards durability and lighter draught.

When only one ploughing is done, the earth should be thrown
away from the trees or vines ; while when two plough ings are given,
the first is generally away from the rows of trees and the second to
the vines or trees. In the first case, it is necessary to afterwards
level the surface of the ground by means of a scarifier.

Whenever weeds are high in the field, as sometimes occurs on
neglected places, or where a green crop of some kind of leguminous
plants has been grown for the purpose of being ploughed in and
thus manuring the lighter description of soils, a short -looped drag
chain attached to the beam of the plough will bend down the grass
and facilitate the operation of ploughing.

In order to break up the wall or strip of hard land in the line
of the trees, the two ploughings are done crossways; and whenever

79

the slope is not too great and the soil too heavy, a gang plough
turning two furrows at the one operation will get through the work
quicker, one man with a pair of horses doing nearly as much work
again as if the single-furrow plough only was used. There is little
need to say that the horses worked in the orchard and vineyard
should be steady and well broken in, the man careful, and the
whipple-tree as short as possible, so as to guard against any pos-
sibility of bruising the trees.

However careful the ploughing and scarifying is done, it is not
always possible, nor advisable, to come nearer than a foot or 18
inches to the tree, round which the ground has consequently to be
dug and turned by hand labour. For this work the forked spade
is the most convenient tool to use. It has five stout cast-steel tines
about an inch wide and somewhat pointed. For loosening the
earth about the roots of the trees and turning in manures, etc., it is
much less liable to cut and injure the roots than the spade.

THE SCARIFIER OR CULTIVATOR.

These implements have been so much improved of late years
that they may be said to be as efficient, and in some cases even more
so, than the plough, and they are generally used in conjunction
with the plough in order to cut and root up weeds, and to secure
a fine tilth. Of this class of implements, Coleman's Scarifier or
Cultivator may be considered as the prototype.

Coleman's Scarifier.

80

The more modern scarifiers, however, are of a lighter draught,
and the tines are so arranged that they cover arid break up the track
of the wheels.

Among those more especially adapted for orchard and vine-
yard work are the Spring-tooth Harrows made by the Canadian firm
of Massey-Harris and the United States firm, Osborne & Co.

Spring-tooth Harrow.

THE PLANET JUNIOR HORSE HOE,

of which there are two sizes, the five and the nine tooth imple-
ment, combines several of the essentials of a good agricultural
implement ; they are moderate in price, light, strong, are sold with
or without interchangeable pieces, do very good work, and are par-
ticularly suitable for market gardens, corn or potato cultivation, and
small vineyards. The plates which, like the rest of the implement,
are made of the best steel, are also secured to the standard by bolts ;
they are reversible; and can thus be used until worn out; they are
cheaply and easily replaced, and the attachments are so useful that
one tool may, by various combinations of the different plates sup-
plied with the implement, be made to do a large portion of the
preparation for, and the cultivation of, any crops. The same
makers have also brought out for extensive cultivation the Top
Notch Cultivator, a two-horse implement, and one of the best
of scarifiers for vineyard and orchard work.

81

The improved Harrows deal with the ground even more
thoroughly ; they cut and root up the weeds, pulverise the earth,
churn it up into fine particles, and leave it level behind. They have
to a great extent superseded the scarifiers.

The Planet Junior Horse Hoe.

Among the harrows that have of recent years gained favour
with the vine and fruit growers, can be mentioned

THE SPADING HARROW,

made by D. S. Morgan and Co., an American rotary harrow,
made all of steel and iron, except the pole and seat support.

To give an idea of the construction of this implement, it may
be said that the action of each cutter is similar to that of a spade,
lifting and turning the soil from a depth of four to six inches
and doing most perfect work. The spades are of forged steel,
made S shaped, and put together in sets of three each, forming six
points or spades. Thus in a six feet harrow of 12 sets of spades
there are 72 small spades cutting and turning the soil. The gangs
are so arranged that they freely float over the ground, thus enabling
the most uneven ground to be thoroughly harrowed and left level,
without any furrows or ridges. The draft is from the under side of
the pole, and the seat is set well to the rear, making a perfect
balance, and relieving the horses of any neck weight. For very
mellow soil, or when going over roads, the rider should not ride, so
as to lighten the machine. All parts are interchangeable ; break-
ages, however, are quite uncommon, and each piece can, if neces-
sary, be replaced or repaired in a few minutes and at a small
expense. A cleaner, which is very effective in sticky soils, or long
stubble and weeds, is supplied with the implement.

The lateMr. L. Lindley Cowen, who used this spader at Guildford
on rough, fallow ground, hard, compact stubble land, and cultivated
vine land as well, thus described the work it performs : —

" I have had one of the six-feet spaders at work during the
past four years and find it lighter in draught than I anticipated,

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and*far superior in the work it does to the older-fashioned disc and
cutaway. I tried it in a heavy clay fallow, in stubble, and on light
loam, in every case with excellent results. A smart team of two
horses would do from eight to 10 acres a day. For orchard and
vineyard work it is admirably suited, as well as for general farm
work.^It appears to be strong, well made, and not likely to get
easily^ out of order."

Illlllliiill if

Several sizes are made, but the one horse three feet width, two
horses six feet width, are now generally used ; the price of the latter
is about £10.

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THE CUTAWAY HARROW

finds great favour for loosening, crumbling, and lightening the
soil. It is an improvement on the Disc Harrow, and consists of
gangs of discs with four triangular notches cut out so that each
disc has the appearance of four spades with their tops welded
together ; there are four to six discs on each of the two bars, which
work in an universal joint, and can be set at any desired angle, and
rise and fall with the irregularities of the land. The steel discs are
dished or concave in shape, and as they revolve they lift and to
some extent invert the soil to the depth they penetrate. The seat is
placed over the back of the pole, which is balanced by the weight
of the driver. This implement does excellent work in eradicating
weeds and cultivating the soil thoroughly.

THE ACME HARROW

is also a very good implement (cost, two-horse £6) for reducing the
surface of the field to a fine tilth.

It is also a riding harrow, and consists of sets of two curved
blades or coulters made of spring steel, one of which performs a
paring action, and the other one a crushing action, the implement
performing the three operations of clod-crushing, levelling, and
harrowing at one time. It is of light draught, simple and durable ;
unlike the spading harrow, it does not turn under the soil like a
plough. In very mellow soil, and in covering in seed in such soil,
the driver should not ride.

One advantage the " Acme " harrow possesses for use in orchards
is, that it can be fitted with hooks and clips, which enable the driver
to unhook the pole or shafts from the centre of the harrows, and
attach it to either side, thus allowing the horses to walk clear of the
branches whilst three-fourths of the harrow is working the soil
underneath them.

84

THE DRAG HARROWS OR THE ZIG-ZAG HARROWS

are of the greatest use in the vineyard or the orchard for collecting
weeds and rubbish, and keeping the surface of the soil perfectly
mellow and friable a few days after the running of the scarifiers or
cultivators, or after a summer shower of rain has battered the
surface of the soil down.

I would strongly advise scarifying the roadways, as well as the
space between the vines, and keeping them clean and bare of weeds,
as roads on which grass is allowed to grow prove a never-ending
source of trouble and infection to the vineyard, the implements, in
turning, carrying along with them fragments of these grasses, which
soon spread about and necessitate the almost continuous use of hoes,
scarifier, and harrows.

It is not always possible, when working close up to the
trees and vines, not to graze and bruise them with the harness
or the ends of the whipple-tree. In orchard harness, the hames
should be short and the whipple-tree for one horse not more than
18 inches wide.

Arrangement for Ploughing Close to Trees and Vines.

This contrivance, much used in California, consists of a
whipple-tree so constructed that the middle staple or pin will be
nearer the end next to the tree than the other, say, one-third only of
its length. Besides this, a side block of wood, one and a-half
to two inches thick, is placed on the side of the plough beam
opposite to the side the furrow is turned on, when the soil is being
turned to the trees, and on the same side of the beam when the
furrows are being turned to the trees.

85

MULCHING

is often resorted to in nurseries and places where it is not
always possible to give to the trees the amount of attention they
require. It acts as a screen that prevents the rapid evaporation
of the moisture from the ground, keeps the surface cool ; but, on
the other hand, it often harbours insect pests, gives to the place
an untidy appearance, favours an undesirable growth of the young
thread-like rootlets of the tree close up to the surface of the
ground, so that when the mulching becomes thin, or when a
protracted drought ensues, the trees often perish. Mulching is in
no way superior to the thorough cultivation of the ground by
means 'of the harrows and horse-hoes, by means of which a dry
earth mulch is constituted. By this means, however, the land gets
parched, and nitrification in the soil consequently checked, unless
the cultivation is frequent and thorough, which is not always
practicable. An effective method is to scatter evenly over the
ground short fibre manure or litter by means of the cultivator or
with the hoe. After some time, when the appearance of weeds
make it necessary, the cultivation is repeated. By this means the
moisture is just as effectively conserved in the ground, and the
roots grow in their proper position. On steep inclines though,
where the field implements cannot conveniently be worked, or in
raising rooted vines and trees in the nursery, mulching is found of
great use for smothering the weeds and keeping the soil cool and
moist.

When rotted manure is used for mulching, it is not only pro-
tective, but also nutritive.

Showing at A the proper place to mulch. »

It is generally wrongly applied right around the stem (B), where
there is no need for it and where it may be injurious, instead of in
a ring (A) some distance away. When thus placed it effectually
protects the active rootlets underneath, and the drainage of any
manure which is washed down reaches these roots, which are con-
stituted to utilise it.

86
\

GRAFTING.

This operation consists in inserting into the root, the stem, or
the branch, as the case may be, of a plant host, known as the stock,
a part of another plant, which is called the scion. It is performed
in a manner and under conditions such that they unite, and the
scion will derive from his host the stock the nourishment necessary
for its growth, and will bear fruit of the kind belonging to the plant
from which it was taken. On some idea of the circumstances
which make grafting practicable, and of the methods suitable to
the performance of this operation depend the success or the failure of
the graft. To be successful, grafting must be made with the right
kind of wood. The stock and the scion must be botaiiically related ;
the closer the relationship the more successful the graft. Grafting
is not practicable on all kinds of plants, but is restricted to those
botanically known as exogenous plants, which are possessed of pith,
wood, and bark, and grow outwardly. This term is used in contra-
distinction to that of endogenous, which refers to a class of plants
which increase by internal growth and elongation at the summit
instead of externally, and have no pith, wood, and bark. Reeds,
palms, and cereals belong to this order, and, for the reason referred
to, cannot be grafted.

In order that grafting may be successful, the growing tissues of
both stock and scion must be closely fitted together, so that the
nourishing fluid may be forced by one into the other. For such an
interchange to take place the growing tissues of each must be fresh,
sound, and gorged with moving sap ; the tissues conveying such
sap must be in contact. These tissues are botanically known as
cambium, a word which means " exchange." It consists of a layer
of extremely delicate tissue formed between the wood and the bark.
The cells of this tissue have very thin walls, and they are filled
with protoplasma, or organisable nutrient matter. It shows like a
thin film of mucilage. These cells develop on the one side into
sap-wood or alburnum, which means " whitish," and on the other
side into new bark, whilst at the same time fresh cambium is formed
for the continuation of the work.

It can thus be understood why endogenous plants such as
grasses, palms, etc., cannot be grafted.

OBJECTS OF GRAFTING.

This operation, which has been practised for ages without
number, possesses advantages which are often availed of by the
fruit grower.

1. It enables us to cultivate, on roots foreign to the plant
itself, fruit trees which, on their own roots, would fail to thrive in
soils uncongenial. Thus the pear on the quince, the peach on the
plum or the almond, can be cultivated on a wider range of soils
than would be practicable were they growing on their own roots.

87

2. It enables us to propagate plants which could not be
propagated true to name from seeds. This is the case with most
highly improyed plants.

3. It is an easy and valuable means of rapidly propagating
some sorts of plants, and of obtaining a large amount of wood from
a shoot of a rare or choice variety.

4. It also enables us to combat blights and pests by using either
roots or top of varieties little subject, or not liable to, the attacks
of such pests. Thus most apples are now worked on roots of the
Northern Spy, the Winter Majetin, the Duchess of Oldenburg, or
some other recognised varieties proof against the woolly aphis, and
also the choicer European vines are grafted on phylloxera- resistant
vines.

5. It is a valuable means of speedily obtaining large trees of
kinds by working scions of such kinds on the top of high stems.

6. It is a ready means of replacing varieties of little or no
value possessing vigorous roots and substituting for their tops
varieties better adapted to one's requirements.

7. It is often practised for uniting on the same stock branches
of unisexual trees, or of plants which need be within reasonable
proximity to become fruitful. This plan is recommended in the
case of the Smyrna fig, which is sterile unless fertilised by the
blastophaga wasp, which dwells within the Capri fig.

GrRAFTING TOOLS AND MATERIALS.

A saw, a pocket knife, and a chisel, dexterously used, are often
the only tools used for grafting. Those tools, however, best suited
for the work have been described in the chapter on pruning.

The knife, which is used for cutting and facing and preparing
the grafts should be kept sharp, so as to make a clean cut.

Grafting Knife.

The saws should be thin, fine- toothed wide set tools, so as not
to clog. They should be kept well set.

88

Two good patterns of such saws are here illustrated. They are
thus described by Mr. B. M. Lelong, the late Secretary of the State
Board of Horticulture of California. The lower one — a bow saw —
is provided with a handle, which fits closely into the hand. Both
ends of the blade are fastened by means of a little screw on to a
bolt having the other end riveted into a countersunk hole. The blade
can thus be turned at any angle, or it may be kept in one position
by tightening the thumb-screw at the end near the handle. Two
small pieces of wood are riveted on either side of the bow at the
lower end, which serves as a handle to prevent injury to the hand.

Pruning Saws.

The bow is made of steel, and springs a little. These saws can be
made by anyone, and for cutting large limbs have no equal, as the
blade being thin and narrow, and the teeth set wide, will cut
through a limb with great rapidity, without sticking or getting
pinched in the cut — a difficulty met with in many other saws. The
blade may be reversed if one chooses, and made to cut by drawing
it instead of shoving. In this way they are not so readily broken.

The top saw is another pattern, this one having a handle about
16 inches long, and the blade guided by it. For using it the
handle and bow are grasped together by the hand, which sometimes
is very awkward, especially when the large limbs or a considerable
number have to be cut. In any case it is more tiresome to the
hand than the first one shown.

Chisel and Mallet.

For grafting stout branches, a chisel and mallet are required.
The figures illustrate convenient tools of that description. An old
file can be turned by a blacksmith into a very serviceable chisel,
The prong at the end is useful for keeping apart the split when the
graft is being inserted.

The mallet is not absolutely necessary, as any piece of wood
will do, but is convenient, and one made of tough hardwood

89

answers the purpose well. A hole is bored in the centre with an
auger, a handle driven right through, and a peg inserted through
the projecting end of the handle at the other side, so as to prevent
itjcoming off.

Chisel and Mallet.

Tools for Bench Grafting.

Special tools have been devised for 'preparing both stock and
scion, preparatory to uniting them. This work is often • done at so
much a thousand grafts, and can be effected indoors and at any
time in the winter. The illustration shows such an apparatus as is
used for the purpose, and the outlines of the work turned out.

Polygrett'e Eoy,

Waxing Pot.

Where waxed cloth or waxed paper is not used, the grafts are
smeared with plastic grafting wax, by means of a brush.

The proper consistency is obtained by placing lumps of the
grafting wax in a " glue-pot." The vessel dips in a hot water bath,
which is heated by means of an oil lamp placed underneath. The
wax is thus kept soft, but is not exposed to burning, as it might
should the pot be placed in direct contact with the flame.

90

Grafting Wax.

Several formulae are given for the preparation of grafting wax.
They all, however, contain beeswax, resin, and either tallow or raw
(not boiled) linseed oil.

In warm, regions, where the grafting wax is apt to run, raw
linseed oil is often preferred to the tallow, and the proportion of
resin is increased, whilst that of the beeswax is reduced, the cost
being thereby also reduced.

Wax made of the following proportions, and well pulled, will
not crack, and will be little affected by the weather : —

Beeswax ...-., 1 to 21bs.

Resin ' 41bs.

Tallow lib.

or

Raw Linseed Oil £ pint.

Slowly melt all together, stirring well to cause the ingredients
to better incorporate with one another. When ready to pull, in 1 5
to 20 minutes, pour into a bucket of lukewarm water. Then
grease the hands to prevent the wax sticking, and pull the wax
until it becomes light yellow and tough. Make into balls of con-
venient size, and throw into a bucket of cold water to stiffen, and
use when required. If too hard then, put a lump into warm water
for a few minutes, and it can soon be worked with the hands.
Some prefer to put the wax on hot and in liquid form ; a small paint-
brush is convenient for this purpose, but this method is more
wasteful of material. The wax can be applied safely much warmer
than can be borne by the hand, but should be well below the boiling
point of water.

Other Coverings. '

Gum shellac dissolved in alcohol is too expensive, and it also
cracks.

Paint is not good, as it contains oil, and that deadens the bark
on the rim and does not heal very well.

Grafting clay is cheaper, and very serviceable. It is made of
one-third part cow dung and two-third parts of clay or clayey loam,
with a little chopped hair — as used in plastering — to prevent crack-
ing. Beat and temper this for two or three days, until it is thoroughly
incorporated.

Waxed cloth or waxed paper are preferred by many to any of the
foregoing. This material is got ready before the operation. When
budding is practised it is to be recommended in preference to any
other material, as it answers the double purpose of holding the bud
or graft — and thus doing away with tying — and of excluding the air
or moisture. It also prevents the bud or graft from drying.

91

Two parts of beeswax and one of resin are melted over the fire,
and calico or strong rnuslin is dipped into it. When the cloth is
saturated, all the surperfluous hot wax is scraped off before the
cloth cools. This is done by drawing and squeezing the cloth
between two sticks, or between the melting pot and a stick. The
cloth is then spread out to cool, after which it is torn, when required
for use, into strips of one-quarter to one-half inch wide, and 10 to
12 inches long.

Some people roll old calico or thin muslin on a stick, and place
it in melted wax. When saturated it is allowed to cool by being
unrolled on a bench. It is then cut into strips to suit.

Tie Bands. — The best of all ties is Raphia fibre, the cuticle of
the leaves of the Raphia palm, which grows on low, swampy lands
in Madagascar. It is damped before using, and does not cut the
bark, on which it lies flat.

For tying grafts buried underground, Raphia should be steeped
in a solution of sulphate of copper, which makes it more resistant
to rot. This fibre is sold in bundles by all seedsmen.

Affinity of Stock and Scion.

The closer related the plants put together the more perfect the
graft. This rule, however, is not without exceptions ; this may be
due to the fact that the various systems of classification of plants,
although acceptable enough, are more or less artificial and conven-
tional. For this reason it is not always possible to state with
certainty when the degree of relationship is such that grafting either
becomes permissible or is of no avail. In fact, numerous examples
are on record of successful grafts having been effected on plants
apparently wide apart in a botanical sense, and of unsuccessful
grafts between plants very closely related. Thus from the Cornell
University experimental station we hear of grafts of tomatoes upon
potatoes and potatoes upon tomatoes, growing well and fruiting (two
solanacese of different species). The tomato on potato plant bore
good tomatoes above and good potatoes beneath, even though no
sprouts from the potato stock were allowed to grow.

On the other hand, apple and pear trees, which botanists classify
close together under the genu&Pyrus on account of their resemblance,
do not graft successfully when the apple is worked on the pear, and
only unite indifferently when the pear is worked on the apple. That
same pear, however, worked on the quince, which belongs to a
different genus (Cydonia) in the botanical classification, unites
without trouble.

A striking anomaly in the behaviour of two plants of the like
genus, or of genuses closely related, grafted together, when the one
is deciduous and the other evergreen, is that an evergreen scion will
establish itself on a deciduous stock, but a deciduous scion never
takes on an evergreen stock. The loquat, an evergreen, can be
worked on the quince, a deciduous tree, although the reverse is not
attended with success.

92

The popular mind is somewhat imbued with the idea that the
resultant effect of the intimate union of two plants is often a cross
which exhibits some of the characteristics of both parents. The
fable of the orange becoming blood red in consequence of its being
grafted on the pomegranate finds a fertile ground in the imagination
of a great many. Some still believe that the rose grows black when
grafted upon the black currant bush, and wonderful tales are told
of the marvellous union of some of* the most dissimilar plants.
Whenever such plants strike, it is invariably owing to the fact that
one of them has struck root like an ordinary cutting and then
pushes forth on its own independent accord.

In a graft, both the stock and the scion continue to behave the
one independently of the other, as if they had nothing in common.
If a longitudinal section is made of a graft and if that section is
smoothly polished, the outlines of the original graft can easily be
seen ; in this is the more striking, when the grain of the wood and
its colour are more dissimilar, a peach grafted on a plum offers
a good illustration of this juxtaposition. This fact is at times very
clearly brought to our notice by the clean rupture of the tree at the
point of grafting many years after the tree has left the nursery.
The only direct influence of the stock on the scion is the degree of
vigour which it imparts to it. This is noticeable in the case of
pears grafted on sturdy seedling of the wild pear, or on quince
roots, or again on apples worked on Northern Spy or on the
dwarfing Paradise stock, and further on cherries worked on
Mazzard or on Morello and Mahaleb roots.

A graft, therefore, only differs from a cutting in this much that
in its case the soil is replaced by the stock. Its growth is not so directly
influenced by the fertility of the soil in which it grows as by the
nature and the greater or lesser amount of vigour of the stock
which carries it. One common stock is often seen carrying several
grafts of as many varieties, and the produce from each of the indi-
vidual grafts is in no way influenced by the one growing next
to it.

If grafting does not affect characteristics of the fruit, it often
improves the size, the sweetness of the fruit, and the productiveness
of the plant. It is a well-known fact that most budded or grafted
trees bear earlier and bear more evenly than trees of the same sort
growing on their own roots. Indeed, experiments made by grafting
and budding on seedling trees, scions and buds taken from these
very same trees have imparted to the limbs operated upon the
characters of early production noticeable in worked trees ; such trees
do not, as a rule, attain such large developments as seedlings, and
it would seem that the operation, whilst evincing a somewhat
dwarfing or weakening effect on the plant, stimulates at the
same time its productive capabilities. A parallel effect is notice-
able when the process of annular incision or ring-barking is
applied to bad setting grape vines in order to cause them to better
set their fruit.

93

FRUIT TREE STOCKS.

Of all botanical families, three — the Rosacese, which comprise
most deciduous fruit trees and a few evergreens ; the Aurantiacete,
which include citrus trees ; and the vitis under which grape vines are
grouped — lend themselves best to the operations of grafting. Even
then, although the rose, the apple, pear, plum, peach, almond,
cherry, and many others all belong to the order of rosaceous plants,
still there are amongst these, as has already been stated, affinities
which make successful grafting practicable between a few of them
only. The rose requires a briar or some form of rose stock ; the
apple, the wild crab or some form of apple stock ; the hawthorn,
the pear, quince, and medlar can be more or less successfully worked
on one another's stocks ; the peach, nectarine, apricot, plum, and
almond, although doing best on their own stock, are likewise inter-
changeable. Which of these several stocks answers best under
particular conditions is a consideration which will be dealt with
under several of the headings which follow.

Apple Stock.

The apple tree on its own root is now-a-days hardly ever
grown. In Europe that fruit has for time immemorial been worked
on the sturdy crab stock, or on seedling stock. This practice, how-
ever, has little to recommend itself to, as there is no advantage to
be gained in propagating from transplanted seedling stocks which
the Americans call "whole root" stocks, as compared with the
ordinary root grafts.

Where the object is the " dwarfing " of the apple, the French
Paradise stock is used ; this is also a European wild apple which is
propagated by layering. The advantages of the dwarf, it might be
said in passing, are closer planting and as near as 10ft. apart ;
greater ease in pruning, spraying and picking ; better resistance to
the winds of autumn, which cause the fruit of high trees to fall
before maturity. Although these advantages appear striking,
it may also be said that tree on dwarf stock are better suited to
the amateur's garden than to the orchard owner who plants trees
for the sake of the profit to be derived from them.

In respect of raising apple trees, however, the old country has
a lesson to learn from the Australian grower. The European
methods proved a failure in Australia, where the woolly aphis
(Schizoneura lanigera} cankered the tree and ultimately killed it.
It is due to an observing Ballarat (Vic.) nurseryman to first
introduce the winter Majetin as a blight-proof stock for the apple.
The roots of this stock are, however, too fibrous, and not sufficiently
penetrating for an ideal stock, and it was soon superseded by the
more robust Northern Spy, which is now adopted as a blight-proof
stock not only in Australia, but is now gaining favour in America
as well.

There are besides several other blight- proof kinds of apples,
but except for special conditions none excel the Northern Spy ;

94

amongst these the Duchess of Oldenburg gives good results on
s indy soils.

For the purpose of dwarfing, the trees have to be double-
grafted, and the structure rests upon Spy roots', French Paradise
stem, and any fancied top required. Blight-proof stocks are raised
by uniting together by means of the whip and tongue, graft two
lengths three or four inches long, and of the thickness of a pencil,
of Northern Spy wood and roots. The union is then tightly bound
with raphia fibre or with waxed calico, and when a number of grafts
have been prepared they are put out in nursery beds to callus.
The work of uniting root and wood can be done indoors, and is often
performed by lamp-light round a table at night early in the spring.
When planted out they are set in rows, 2ft. apart between the rows,
and 1ft. in the rows ; one bud only is left out of the ground. With
the advent of warm weather the scions begin to shoot, and all the
shoots except a strong straight one rubbed off. If Northern Spy
trees are required nothing further is done, but if other varieties of
apples are required these young plants are used as stocks, and are
budded six inches or so above ground. As already mentioned in
the chapter on budding, these buds are allowed to remain dormant
all through the winter, when the stock is partly cut off and, as a
result, the bud forced into growth. In early districts, and if the
budding has also been done early, the bud may be started into
growth directly it has taken, and the young plant may thus be
set out the following planting season.

Pear Stock.

On no account use pear suckers ; they prove a source of trouble
to the orchardist, as they themselves sucker most abundantly, and
often prove to be more shy bearers than pears of the same varieties
worked on seedling stock or on quince. The best pear stocks are
raised from seeds of the more vigorous and more blight- resistant
sorts ; they need not be the best eating sorts. The seeds are raised in
sandy loam ; if too thick in the spring they are thinned out, and
the strongest left to grow ; these are budded the subsequent winter
with any particular variety it is desired to propagate. Dwarf pears
are raised by working the pear scion on the quince stock. For this
purpose rooted cuttings of a vigorous variety, the Angiers, is used.
These are slow growers, but produce at an early age very fine fruit.
Some varieties, as the Duchess d'Angouleme and the Bartlett, do
particularly well on quince roots ; whilst, on the other hand, with
some other sorts, as the Sechel, the quality is not so good on the
quince. As a rule, dwarf pears on quince roots require a moister
and stiffer soil than the standard on pear roots. When manuring
these pears, the fertilisers should, besides, be placed closer to the
butt of the quince stock, as its roots are not so searching as are
those of the pear.

For sandy soil, such as occurs on the littoral of this State, the
Oriental pears (Chinese and Japanese) or their hybrids are better
stocks than either pear seedlings or the quince. These varieties do

95

best on a light loam on a well-drained slope, whereas the standard
or pear seedling prefers a light loarn with a clay subsoil, such as
is met with 011 the Darling Ranges, where pears of a great degree
of excellence are produced.

Plum Stock.

Few plum stocks do not sucker ; amongst them are the
cherry plum or Myrobolan and the Mariana (Prunus cerasifolia) ,
of which there are two varieties, the red and the white. This stock,
however, does not suit greengages and some small round plums, but
is a good stock for the "Diamond and Orleans types. The Mariana is
propagated from rooted cuttings. Seedling plums of any free grow-
ing variety are also used, as also the black Damas and St. Julian,
but these only prove partly suitable. They are at times used for
stocks for apricots or peaches as well as plums. Some nurserymen
use ordinary plum suckers with advantage, but on this point opinion
is divided ; others layer plum wood, and cut off into separate
plants the shoots which spring up. Plum stocks are used for the
peach in preference to the peach or the almond stocks, when the
ground is stiff and wet, but they are often disappointing, and the
peach top often dies back with little warning. For dwarfing the
plum, the Sloe may be used with advantage.

Peach and Nectarine Stock.

Peach on peach stock gives the best result. For this purpose
peach stones are collected in the season, and when winter comes they
are stratified in sand or in light loam in boxes out in the open.
In the spring they may be put out in nursery rows. Some nursery-
men crack the hard shell with a specially constructed nut-cracker,
in order to obtain a better germination. When a foot or two high
the tap root is severed from the plant by pushing a spade obliquely
underneath the young seedlings, which thus strike stronger surface
roots. When they have recovered, they are budded, and the plants
either put out next winter, or if not vigorous enough, kept in the
nursery for another year. In grafting on peach, extra care has to
be taken to fit the scion well and wax carefully, as the peach bark
shrinks back badly.

The Apricot Stock.

According to nature of climate and of soil, stocks of various
kinds are used. The apricot, as a rule, does not unite very
readily with its stock, and it at times snaps at the graft under the
weight of a. heavy crop, and under pressure of a strong gust of wind.

Apricot on apricot seedling does well on loamy soil in warm
moderately dry localities. Under such conditions it does equally well
on peach stock. The resulting trees are vigorous growers, and at
times are even too apt to waste on rank growth energy that should
have been directed in maturing a fruit crop. Apricot roots are
generally known by the reddish look of the bark when slightly
scratched with the nail or a knife. Apricot on almond is not a

96

desirable union ; the trees do well for a few years, but generally
die out when they begin to bear. Apricot on Myrobolan and St.
Julian plum stocks have the advantage on heavy wet soil, but all
varieties do not unite very satisfactorily, and in this respect the
American plum stock is preferable. The plum stock, as a rule, has
a dwarfing tendency, and the union of stock and scion is never
perfect, whilst the tree is more liable to gumming disease.

The Cherry Stock.

Three stocks are chiefly used — the Mazzard or sweet cherries,
including Bigarreaus for the Heart type, and all lofty and rapid-
growing sorts.

The Mahaleb for small dwarf varieties.

The Morello, or common Red Pie cherry, for dwarf trees of the
Duke and Morello classes.

The Orange and other Citrus Stocks.

A number of stocks have been tried for trees of the citrus
family, and while some possess special points of merit, such as rapid
and luxuriant growth, yet they are found in unsuitable localities to
fail in other respects and succumb to disease. Of these, the most
dreaded is the gumming disease or mal-di-gomma. To this affection
the lemon stock and sweet orange stock are particularly liable,
more especially the former, and for that reason they are undesirable
stock for flat, damp localities, and all such foot-rot regions.
These stocks should only be used for high, dry, and well-drained
land, and in such localities the rough lemon and the lime will do
better than any other stock.

The sour orange is of all stocks the most resistant to foot-rot,
but it requires a moist, rich soil to thrive in.

The Pomelo is spoken of as another vigorous and resistant stock,
which withstands occasional periods of drought better than does
the sour orange ; it does better in warm localities, free from severe
frost.

The Trifoliate orange, the hardiest of all citrus stock, is at
times used, but not in every case, with uniform success. The
Satsuma, a Japanese mandarin, does well on it. Some claim that
vigorous stocks, such as the pomelo or the lemon, have a tendency to
produce coarse, thick-skinned fruit ; they certainly seem in some
measure to influence the size of the fruit, and in the case of the
Navel oranges they are said to add to the productiveness of the
trees.

The Grape Vine Stocks.

Perhaps in none of our cultivated plants more than on the
grape vine is the influence of the stock so noticeable. The practice
of grafting vines has for a long time been carried out, but until
recent years it was almost exclusively restricted to the changing of
varieties, pudding is now, in many instances, superseding grafting,

97

with most satisfactory results. The systematic grafting of vines is,
however, a more modern operation, and was devised to counteract
the attacks of the phylloxera on the European vineyards.
Quite a formidable array of grape vine stocks have for this pur-
pose been suggested, tested, and found wanting. Some are not
sufficiently phylloxera resistant; some do not readily take the
graft ; others are not vigorous enough ; whilst others, again, fail
to grow in limestone formations or have such liking for some
particular character of soil, that when established on any other
they cease to grow with sufficient luxuriance. Of all the varieties
tried the Riparia family, or " plain vines," the Rupestris family,
or " rock vines," and the Berlandieri f amily have supplied the stocks
required for vines grown on moist alluvial soils, or hilly and rocky
localities, or on limestone country. All members of these families,
again, have not to the same extent proved equally satisfactory,
and a few select ones only have been found to present the conditions
of a stock suitable for grafting vines on. Some of the most notable
members of these families the Department of Agriculture has
introduced into this State, where they are now being propagated.
Every precaution, it is needless to say, has been taken against the
introduction, at the same time, of the phylloxera pest, or of the
other disastrous blights and rots which prey on the grape vine in
Europe and America. The varieties introduced, and which are the
most suitable for grafting vines to are : — Riparia Glory of Mont-
pellies (Syn. Portalis), Riparia Giant Glabre, Rupestris Monticola,
or St. George, Rupestris Martin. The characters of these varieties
will be described in a subsequent chapter. Apart from these
resistant stocks, other partly resistant sturdy American vines, such
as the Labrusca family, have the greatest affinity to European vines,
and readily unite. Some of these varieties, such as the Isabella
Concord, are well known to most growers.

WAYS OF GRAFTING.

A number of ways have been devised for uniting together two
subjects, a stock and a scion, with the view of building up a com-
plete plant.

Inarching

•consists in bringing together two plants growing alongside one
another. This is effected by inlaying a piece, cut slanting, of a
stem or branch of one plant into a stem or branch of another plant,
tying them fast together.

Whip Grafting.

The method is thus described and illustrated by B. M. Lelong,
of the State Board of Horticulture of California : —

This is one of the most simple of the divers methods of graft-
ing young stocks, and is operated either in the field or indoors —
on the bench. In grafting seedling stocks (one or two years) in
the field, the stems of the stocks are cut off at the collar. The
stems are cut by simply drawing the knife upwards, making a

98

smooth, even, sloping cut an inch or so long ; then, reversing the-
knife, about a quarter of an inch from the centre of this cut
(towards the end) a slit or tongue is made downwards. The scion
is then prepared (which should always contain three or four buds)

in a like manner as the stocks,
at the lower end of the scion
a sloping cut is made down-
wards, and, by reversing the
knife, a slit or tongue is made
in it upwards, which should
correspond with tha,t in the
stock into which it is then
inserted.

The bark of the scion and
the bark of the stock must be
placed in close contact on
one side; the other is im-
material, as soon as it heals
over. The union of the two,
scion and stock, should be
complete and fit firmly. The
grafts are then either waxed
over or wrapped with waxed
paper.

This completes the opera-
tion. The earth may then be
banked on either side with
a hoe, and nothing more is
done until they begin to start,
when they require attention,,
especially in keeping them
clear of weeds and all unde-
sirable growth, suckers, etc.*

A. The scion, a. The sloping cut. b. The
tongue, c. Show thickness of tongue. B. The
stock, d. The sloping cut in the stock, e. The
tongue. /. Shows thickness of stock from
the cut or tongue. C. The scion inserted,
ready for waxing.

ROOT GRAFTING.

For root grafting the seedlings of one or two years growth are
taken up and the best roots cut into pieces about four inches long.
These are taken indoors, washed free from all dirt, and grafted as
follows : The operation is performed in the same manner as on the
seedlings, out of doors as previously described. The oblique or
sloping cut or tongue is made in the root ; and the scion, which
should be three or four inches long, is likewise prepared and inserted,
as shown in Fig. 8.

It is then waxed over, either with wax or waxed paper ; the
latter, however, is much preferred. The grafts are then put away
in sand until planting time, in February,* in the following manner :
On the floor of the propagating house or shed sand is spread out
from six inches to a foot deep, then the grafts are put in it, stand-
ing thic.kly, and covered with sand. The entire graft, to within

* August iu Australia.

99

an inch or two of the top, may be covered without injury to it.
They should, however, not be kept too wet, as the bark of the
grafts is liable to decay ; and, again, they must not be allowed to
get dry, as the bark of the graft will shrivel, and adhesion is
avoided. During the time they are thus stored away the parts
united (scion and stock) knit or callus over, and shortly after
planting begin to grow.

1. 2. 3.

1. The root showing sloping cut at A, and the tongue at E.

2. The scion showing sloping cut at A, and the tongue at B.

3. The union of scion and stock ready for waxing.

CLEFT GRAFTING.

This method is mostly practised on stocks too large to be
whip grafted, although it is also operated on young trees success-
fully. The stock is first prepared by being cut squarely off, as
shown in Fig 2, at g : a sloping cut is then made in the stock at
./, and the top shaved smoothly at g, so that the point of union
between the bark and the wood may be plainly seen. The blade of
the knife is then driven into the stock, as shown in Fig. 1, to split
it as represented. It is always best to prevent the stock from
splitting or cracking clear through. This is avoided by using the
knife properly. The point of the knife is driven in, as shown in
Fig. 1, a.t C, and the blade is driven in at B, and instead of forcing
the knife down further to produce the split, it is drawn upwards
and towards you, and a perfect cut without cracking through is
made, as shown in Fig. 2, at h. The scion (Fig. 2, A) is cut
precisely in the form of a wedge, with the part cut for insertion
about an inch or an inch and a-half long. It should always have
a bud -at the shoulder where it is to rest on the stock, and the

100

outer edge thicker than the inner, and inserted so that the point of
union between the bark and wood on both the stock and scion will
exactly coincide, as shown in Fig. 2, at C.*

B. The point of the split. C. Length to.
split; the position (shown at.B and C) shows how cracking of the stocks is avoided.

1. A. The knife as used in splitting.

2. A. The scion, showing how it is prepared — wedge-shaped — with a sloping cut,
B. The stock prepared to receive the graft, /. The sloping cut. g. The horizontal cut. 7i.
The split C. The scion inserted in the stock, showing the close fit of both, and ready for
waxing.

On larger stocks the stem is sawed squarely off, and the surface
dressed or shaved off with a knife. The knife is then driven into
the stock as shown in Fig. 1, and should be to one side of the pith.
The split is kept open with a knife, until the scion is inserted. It is
always best not to split to<> deeply, to allow the graft to work its
way down a little and be held firmly, otherwise the graft will loosen
and will not adhere. Then, again, the operator must see that stocks
do not close so firmly on the scions as to crush the ends. To avoid
this, a small wedge is driven into the split on the opposite side.
This, however, is seldom required where two grafts are inserted, as
shown in Fig. 2. In most instances both scions grow, and as they
are too close together one is afterwards removed. There is more
than one way to shape or face the scion, but the point in question
should be the most expeditious one, arid it has always proved that
when the work is done rapidly the grafts take better, not because it
requires carelessness (which must not be inferred), but because the
sooner the graft is in position in the stock, with less handling or
whittling, the better. Where time is no object the following is a
very good method of preparing scions.

* This method of grafting will be found useful for changing varieties of vines and
grafting stumps of vines already growing.-— A. D.

101

The end of the scion is first cut (obliquely), then a cut is made-
at a and b but deeper at a, then a shaving is taken by drawing the
knife from the end towards a and 5. This scion differs from the
one previously described only in the method of preparation. It is
inserted in a like manner. The method of inserting the scion and
the splitting of the stocks is not confined to those described, and
growers generally find a way which the method operated can, in
some way or another, be improved. For instance, where the
splitting is done obliquely instead of parallel, the grafts are better.
This is especially so in grafting prunes. The bark of the scion and
stock come obliquely together, and the scion is held firmly in place..

Fig. 1. Fig. 2, Fig. 3. Fig, 4.

Fig. 1.— The stock split, ready to receive the scions.
Fig. 2. — A.B. The scions inserted, ready for waxing.
Fig. 3.— A. The scion ; a.?). The horizontal cut severing the chip on either side j

c. The wedge, d. Pith, e. Point of scion, cut ohliquely.
Fig. 4. — Graft inserted in stock obliquely.

The accompanying figure illustrates a method of renewing the
top of citrus trees or of vines by means of cleft grafts. When
vines are grafted the operation is best done in the early spring when
the sap begins to move. The top of the vine is sawn clean off
half-an-inch to an inch below the surface, the stump split with a
chisel, the two lips of the split trunk forced apart by means of a
small hardwood wedge. One or two scions of the sort it is desired
to grow are cut two eyes long. The basal side of the scions is cut
bevel shape, and sharper on the inner side than the bud side, which
is close to the stock. These scions are then pushed gently down
the cleft, where they fit snugly and smoothly with the inner bark of
both stock and scion in close contact. The hardwood wedge is

102

removed, the lips of the split trunk close in on the wedge-cut scions,
and nothing else is done except to bank moist earth in a small mound
over the cut. This earth absorbs the
dripping sap from the old trunk and keeps
the wound well drained. The use of
grafting wax would be here worse than
useless, as it would prevent the sap run-
ning away and would literally drown and
rot the plant and prevent the formation of
the knitting tissue or callus gum. Sep-
tember is the best time for grafting vines.
At that time the stock is beginning to
burst into leaf ; the scions, which consist
of last year's wood, should have been kept

Cleft Graft for Old Trees or . , . J , ,

vines. back in cool sand.

Fig. 1. Fig, 2.

Grafting under the Bark.

I.— A. The scion, side view, showing thickness of cut at points a and b. B. Scion
transverse view, showing how faced at c. C. The stock, showing how it will cut
off, and the incision made to receive the graft,

2.— Operation complete.— Stock grafted with two scions and applicable to stocks
with one scion. A. Twine, showing how it is tied. B. Waxed top surface.
C. Waxed on the side covering graft. D. Graft waxed at the end. JB. Ter-
minal bud, waxing at end not required.

103

GRAFTING UNDER THE BARK.

This is a very simple operation, and is performed just as the
sap begins to rise in the stocks. Young peach, plum, and pear
seedlings put forth quite early and are grafted at any time after
the leaves begin to grow, by the following method : —

The stocks are sawn off, and with a knife a vertical incision is
made on one side of the stock, the same as for a bud. The graft is
then prepared by simply facing on one side, as shown in Fig. 1 at
c. It is then inserted in the slit, in the manner that buds are
inserted, and is then tied and waxed over. For tying, waxed cloth
is greatly preferred, as it serves for both purposes — that of tying
and waxing — in one operation.

CROWN GRAFTING.

Trees, and especially citrus trees, are afj times killed to the
ground by the disease of gumming or are cut back by severe frost, and
whenever the roots are healthy and well established there will be a
great saving of time, instead of rooting up and replacing the tree,
to cut it down below the surface of the ground to where the
wood is sound and cleft grafting it, or, perhaps, better still, crown
grafting it.

Crown Grafting- old orange stock (H. J. Webber).

For this purpose scions are procured of mature wood from a
thriving tree of the kind wanted, cut five to six inches long and
sharpened into a long, slanting cut, as shown on the fig. These

104

"two or three on one crown, to make sure that at least one will grow,
are pushed between the bark and the wood, preferably in the creases
and concave portions of the trunk, when the bark can with less
xlanger of splitting, be pressed out. In this way the scion will be

held firmly against the trunk without
the assistance of any ties. When
thus made under the ground, the
moist clay and cow dung moulded
round the graft will exclude the air
which would otherwise interfere
with the success of the operation.
When done above ground, small
strips of waxed cloth over the cavity,
formed between the bark and the
wood, are necessary.

Some gardeners use no grafting wax,
but lay a few of the leaves of the plants
on the grafts, the whole being tied up
hermetically with a cap of strong
paper. The paper being a non-con-
ductor, the moisture of the leaves
Toeing brought out by the heat of the sun, keeps the grafts damp,
and causes them to grow freely. This cap, however, is liable to
harbour insects that eat the buds as soon as they open.

GRAFTING THE FIG AND THE WALNUT.

J^JLarge useless trees can be renewed with comparative ease by
means of grafting. Hitherto these trees, as well as those with a
large amount of pith, were considered bard to graft on account of
the difficulty of preventing the air getting into the pith, and also
drying up the sap channels left unprotected by a shrinking bark.
In grafting such trees, therefore, do not split through the central
pith, but better at one side of it. A few limbs are cut to within a
foot or so from the stem, whilst it is advisable to leave others to
afford shelter to the young grafts and to draw the sap. Cut V-shaped
pieces of bark 1 to 1J inches long, trim the scions taken from wood
of the size of a lead pencil, and cut the end bevel shape, so as to fit
the notches ; fit these scions into the notches referred to, wrap tightly
with raffia fibre or with waxed calico, and smear the wound all over
with liquid grafting wax, also wax top the scion to prevent drying out.
No cavity is thus left in the heart of the limb. The waxed calico
strips are removed after a few weeks.

G-RAFTING THE OLIVE.

The olive is most successfully grafted, says Lelong, during the
months of March and April,* but preference is given to those
grafted in March, by the following deft method : —

* August and September in Australia.

105

In this method the stocks are not split down the centre as in the-
old way, but instead, the cut is made obliquely, so that the barks of
the stock and scion may come obliquely together, and in which way
the grafts make a surer and better union. The graft is faced on
both sides, to be large at the surface side and thin at the inner side,
exactly in the shape of a wedge. The graft is driven down as far
as it will go, and made to fit exactly, the barks of the scion and
stock to be even on the surface side, the other side does not matter >
as the scion unites with the stock of the first only on the surface-
side, and in time both sides heal over. The graft having been
inserted, it must be tied and waxed. For tying, cloth or twine may
be used, arid the wax applied over it. In grafting nursery trees in
the field it is best to graft them low, the grafts to be covered with
earth within an inch or so from the top, leaving as little of the*
graft exposed as possible. This is a protection to both scion and
stock, especially from scorching heat, which causes grafts and stocks
to die back when left exposed. The leaves of the grafts should
never be broken, but cut, nor must they be cut entirely oft'; at
least one-third of the leaf should be left (as shown in the figure) to
prevent the graft from dying before it has had time to unite with
the stock. Neither must the entire leaf be allowed to remain on
the graft. The trimming of the leaf prevents it from carrying off
too rapidly the fluids by evaporation.

Scion.

Stock.

106

SIDE GRAFTS

•are used for restoring symmetry to the branches of pippin fruit trees
when grafting by approach cannot be resorted to, or to transform too

vigorous but unfruitful branches
into fruit-bearing ones. For
graft, a branch slightly arched
is selected ; cut the lower part
into a long slant; make on
the stem a vertical incision B
and a transverse one C,
driving the knife well into the
growing wood to stop at that
flow of rising sap ; lift the bark
with the fla.t handle of the
knife; slip in the graft, bind
round, and cover with grafting
wax. This kind of grafting is
done when the eyes are swelling.
I have seen a small branch
of Rome Beauty, bearing fruit
buds, and grafted in a Lord
Suffield stem, blossom and
carry splendid apples the same

Side Graft. Season.

AFTER-CARE OF GRAFTING.

After vines are grafted flush with the ground, they should be
protected by a small stake, driven on the side of the prevailing
winds in summer, to which the young, tender shoots of the graft
<?an be tied as they appear. The stock will also often push forth
tender suckers from underneath, these should be pulled off as they
appear above ground or removed by cutting with a knife ; the flow
of sap will thus run without interruption from the stock to the
scion.

As regards trees, the ligatures are cut off directly it is seen that
the graft is growing ; and if the shoots from the graft are pushing
forth too luxuriantly, they are pinched back to save them being
carried away during windy weather. At the time of grafting old
trees it is advisable to whitewash the stems to guard against sun-
burn ; some people wrap them up in sacking.

Suckers will soon put in an appearance. These it is not
advisable to rub off entirely, but a few should be left growing the
first year so as to take up the surplus sap and maintain a healthy
root growth.

BUDDING

is the short name for bud-grafting, and is performed during
the growing months, when the sap is moving, thus providing

107

material for healing the wounds the operation entails. It is
performed by removing from a shoot of the current season's growth
a suitable bud and inserting it in the proper manner under the
bark of another tree, sufficiently closely related to insure the
absorption by the bud of the nourishing fluid of the host plant.
When a tree is lop-sided, a symmetrical head may at times be
provided by inserting under the bark of the tree a bud removed
from one of its own branches in such a position that the resulting
growth will fill the unsightly gap.

Buds inserted early in the season are called " spring buds,"
and become active at once, showing towards the end of summer
marked growth ; whereas buds put in late in the summer or in the
autumn are called "dormant buds," and remain inactive all
through the winter and until next spring.

Such questions as: "Influence of stock and scion" and
" choice of stock " will be discussed in the chapter on grafting.

(A) The point which should not be used, as the buds are generally
blind, (B) Point from where the buds are developed, (c) Beyond this
point the buds are too tender, and should not be used. (D) Indicates
the scion, or budding stick, to be used, being between points B and c.
(E) The scion, or budding stick, trimmed ready for budding.

108

Several conditions are necessary in order to favour the union
•of the bud and the stock. The seeds must be well developed and
matured. The figure illustrating the kind of buds to select is
taken from Mr. B. M. Lelong's paper on budding, published by the
State Board of Horticulture of California.

The bark must raise freely from the stock, and the more
luxuriant the growth of these the more active the flow of sap.

The time for budding varies greatly according to trees ; thus
peaches, almonds, and cherries ripen their buds early, and may be
budded in the early summer ; if budded later in the autumn, they
remain dormant through the winter. Apples and pears, which are
slower of growth, are generally budded later in the summer and lie
dormant until next spring. Citrus trees are budded all through
the summer, and whenever the sap is running more actively and
young shoots sprouting readily. Plump buds from healthy young
round wood are preferable to those taken from angular wood.

Immature buds remain dormant in the stock until they have
developed, sometimes until late in the summer, or even until next
spring.

In order to hasten the development of young buds, the tips of
the branches it is intended to use are sometimes nipped off ; the
shoots are thus made to harden, and the buds are taken when they
just begin to start growing again.

BUDDING MATERIAL

consist of a pruning knife to cut the scion bevel shape
(such a knife is illustrated in the chapters on grafting and on

Budding Knife.

pruning), and a budding knife, which has a sharp round blade and
a flat handle to raise the back of the stock. In budding sharp
tools are to a great extent the secret of success.

Wrapping material is also required and consists of rafia fibre,
cotton cord, yarn, or strips of waxed cloth. These are made of
cheese cloth or coarse calico folded into convenient sizes and
dipped into molten beeswax and resin, two parts of the former to
one of resin. The surplus wax is then scraped off by pulling the
calico between a stick and the edge of the melting pot. The waxed
calico is then spread to cool and then torn into strips of the desired
size, generally j-inch to ^-inch wide, and about 12 inches long when
required for use.

These waxed strips hold the buds firm, prevent them from
drying, and keep out moisture. One disadvantage they have, is to
make the fingers more or less sticky, which is a decided objection
when a great number of buds have to be inserted.

109

How TO BUD.

The operation, to be successful, must be so performed that the
freshly-cut inner bark of the bud is firmly placed in close contact
with the growing wood or cambium of the' host.

Several methods are used for that purpose, but there is one
which is more particularly practised amongst nurserymen and
amateur orchardists as well, and which is known as shield' or "eye"
budding. It is the one I propose to describe, as it is suited to most
deciduous trees as well as to citrus trees.

'

>iit Back to force New

' Shcafo ?«r Budding,-

If the tree to be budded is too old, it is necessary to prepare it
for the operation by cutting off the top the previous autumn and
rubbing off all the shoots crowding around the stumps, except those
required for budding. The figure illustrates an old, coarse citron
tree thus rejuvenated and ready to receive buds from some choicer
varieties of citrus fruit.

With the blade of the budding knife a longitudinal cut is made
through the bark where the bud is to be slipped, and either at the
top or at the base of that cut, a horizontal cut as well is made, so

110

that the two cuts present the appearance of a letter T, standing
either straight up or inverted.

This cut should be made a few inches from the ground if
nursery stock is budded, or at any convenient height if other trees
are operated upon. In all cases, the stick operated upon should
have a smooth, young bark, easily lifted. When the vertical cut
and the crosscut are made the corner lips are slightly raised with

(A) The stock. The
transverse cut.
The vertical in-
cision.

(A) The stock, (u)
The bud inserted.

(A) The stock after
budded. (B) The
twine as tied, (c)
The tie at the
finish. (D) The tie
at the beginning.

the blade or with the flattened ivory handle. This done, pick up
the stick of bud wood and cut out a plump young bud, making the
section about lin. to IJin. long, and a little longer below the bud
than above. Some advocate picking out the portion of wood cut
out with the bud, but good result is obtained without doing this.
Then, with the point of the knife, slightly raise the bark, slip the
bud in, and gradually push it iu under the bark. If in the proper
condition for budding, the bark lifts readily. The bud is now ready
for tying or for wrapping with the waxed cloth. When doing this
commence slightly below the crosscut if it is at the bottom of the
vertical cut, or slightly above if it is at the top; wrap pretty
tightly around the stock over the bud in a spiral manner, each turn
slightly overlapping the previous one until the whole cut is covered,
then twist the waxed strip back and press the end against the folds
already made, when it will adhere. In changeable weather it is
well that the strips should overlap from above downwards, so as to
prevent water running down the stem penetrating the cut. In
Western Australia, where fair weather occurs pretty well all

Ill

through the budding season, darning wool or rafia fibre are often
used for tying the bud.

FORCING THE BUDS.

After 10 to 12 days the buds are examined, and if plump,
green, and alive, they are allowed to remain covered for another week
or two, when the ties can be removed entirely. If the bud is dead,
a fresh one can be inserted in a fresh cut. Left too long, the tie
may cut into the growing tissues of the stock and smother the bud.
If it is desired to force the buds, the tops of the branch on which
the bud has been inserted is partly cut off 10 to 12 inches above
the bud, once it has been ascertained that the bud has taken. A
brush of foliage is left on the resulting stump to drain the sap
beyond the bud, which at the same time will assimilate some of it
and will soon start to grow ; unless this is done, the stump may die

(A) The brush left on tho stock to induce the bud to start, by acting as
suctions— drawing up the sap. (u) The stcck. (c) Point where the bud may
be tied to protect it from breaking. (D) Point where the old stock is to be
cut away, the dotted line beiow it indicating how much the- bud is endan-
gered by cutting lower than this line.

112

back and endanger the bud. The illustrations taken from Mi\
Lelong's paper will explain how this is done. When the shoot
from the bud has reached a sufficient length it is often loosely tied
to the old stump until quite strong and tough, when the old stump
is removed altogether and cut smooth a little above the bud, so that
it will soon heal over without forming an ugly scar. It is not
necessary to protect the wound with gum, shellac, or any kind of
covering. " Dormant buds " are often left on the stock, and are
only forced in the spring, so as to insure a stronger growth. In
that case the top of the stock is left untouched until the time comes
to force the bud.

BUDDING THE FIG.

The fig is perhaps the most difficult tree to bud, on account of
the milky exudation or latex which runs from the incised wound,
sours and kills the bud. The following method is recommended
by Lelong : —

" For the fig, the best method is to cut a ring right around the
stock (say) from three-fourths of an inch to an inch long. Then
another ring of bark is taken from a limb (the scion), of the same
size, having the bud wanted. This is then slipped into the cut in
the stock, and bound tightly with the soft cotton twine or cloth,
covering it up to exclude the air. By this method the ascending
sap will unite with the sap of the bud. The operation should be
performed from November to January."

BUDDING THE VINE.

Budding is not generally resorted to for propagating the vine,
grafting having hitherto been almost exclusively used for changing
undesirable varieties of vines. The budding of the vine can,
however, be performed just as easily as the budding of the apple or
the pear, and is a most rapid and valuable means of propagation.

Of the several methods in voojue for this purpose, the one
known as Salgue's Green Budding, after the name of its first sponsor,
is one of the easiest. In order that it should prove successful, the
stock as well as the scion should be carefully chosen.

The operation is performed in a slightly different way to the
one already described above. The bud, which is also an eye or
shield bud, is carefully chosen from the buds at the tender end of
the shoot of the vine it is intended to propagate. Few desirable
scion buds are available for the purpose on the young shoot ; a little
experience soon teaches which are those suitable for the purpose.
They are recognised by the following characteristics : — When a
green shoot is cut lengthwise the tissues, which are lignified
and provided with pith towards the base, become more tender as
the terminal buds are reached, until towards the end they are quite
tender and almost transparent. Those buds, at the third to fifth
node from the top, show a diaphragm or partition through the
tissues, but are yet unprovided with pith : they are desirable eyes for

113

budding. When it is desired to bud, a longitudinal section of 1J-
inch is made with the grafting-knife on any internode of the shoot
to be grafted ; the shoot is bent inwards, bow fashion, when after

slightly raising the bark on each side of the incision with the blade
of the knife, when the lips of the incised bark will open slightly and
a bud such as has been described is cut and slipped in. The shoot,
is then left to spring back as it was before bending, and the scion-
bud is compressed between the bark and the growing wood of the
stock. A ligature of wool or rafia is then tied round, or a strip of
waxed calico wrapped round the wound. In a couple of weeks' time
the ligature is removed, and if the bud has taken it is either
forced to grow if early in the season by pinching the shoots
of the stock directly after budding, and reducing them further a
fortnight later, and finally cutting them above the bud, or it may,
on the other hand, be allowed to remain dormant until next spring.

The main objection to this method of budding is the difficulty
of selecting the right sort of scion-bud, and for this reason the next
method is preferred.

VOTJZOU BUD.

This method is in every respect similar to the one described as
suitable for fruit trees. It can be performed all through the
growing season, and preferably from October to January. One
point worth noting is that when detaching the bud, and previously
to inserting it in the T-shaped incision, the veneer of wood which
is cut off with the bud is not picked out, and it is even desirable to>
cut deep enough to just reach the pith. There is no inconvenience
to leave some of it opposite the cut. A section of one-third to one-
fourth of the node bearing a solitary bud gives good results. A
fortnight after the bud has taken, the canes of the stock are cut
back to insure knitting and shooting of the bud. The ties, however,
are not removed until a month after budding. This method is
simple, gives a high percentage of strikes ; good knitting can be

See New Methods of Grafting and Budding.— Dubois and Wilkinson, p 12,

114

performed on a stuinp of any age, and on more canes than one, and
it can be renewed during the same season on some other joint, in
case of in success.

For early spring budding, cuttings from the previous season's
growth are buried in the cool moist sand to retard their growth, and
they are inserted directly the sap is in full flow and the bark easily
lifted from the wood.

Whichever method of budding the vine is used, it is desirable
to fasten the tender young shoots to a stake as they grow in length,
as they are very easily disjointed when young.

PRUNING.

Several objects are aimed at when pruning. It helps to
control the growth of the plant and train it in such a way that the
operations of cultivation, of treating and dressing the trees and
vines whenever required, and of gathering the fruit, are made easier
and less costly. It equalises the wood and fruit production $f the
tree, checking the one to favour the other if need be, suppressing
rank growth of the boughs or limiting the productiveness of the
plant in such a way that the quality is not affected by the excessive
quantity of the fruit crop.

It checks the growth of suckers, water sprouts, and unsightly
knobs and enlargements along the stem and branches ; it tends to
keep the plant in a thriving and healthy condition, promoting the
growth of luxuriant foliage which tend to shelter the fruit and
limbs from sunburn.

PRUNING OUTFIT.

The tools required for pruning are few, but it is essential that
they should be of the best quality and of a type suitable for the
work to be done. It is also essential that they should be kept in
good order, sharp and smooth, as a jagged or a blunt blade will
inflict upon the wood bruises and injuries which will either cause
the sap to sour and the limb to die back or will delay the healing of
the wound, and thus leave a door open to the entrance of the fungi
of canker and other moulds productive of rot and decay.

Secateurs, or pruning shears, are easier to handle than the
pruning knife. They do the work quickly, neatly, and without
giving a jerk to the branches of fruit trees and vines as does the
pruning knife.

The first illustration represents Rieser's Secateur, which can
be procured in Perth. It is sold with a duplicate blade, made of
well-tempered steel, the prong is made of chilled steel, the tool is
nine inches long, strongly made and well finished.

The second illustration shows two types of secateurs and a
handy pruning saw. The longer pruning shears, 15 to 17 inches
long, is a two-handled one and a very powerful tool, suitable for

115

pruning strong vines and hard and knotty wood. One of its
handles is chisel-shaped, and is found very convenient for suckering
vines or trees, an operation which, when made with the blade, jags
its edge and makes it blunt.

Eieser Secateur.

The edge of the blade of the secateur should be kept sharp by
the use, whenever required, of a small hone or an oil stone, while
the file will keep the teeth of the pruning saw well set.

Pruning I mplements.

116

When using the secateurs a clean and neat cut is given by
seeing that the blade, and not the prong, faces the part of the wood
which is left on the plant. As strong branches as can well be inserted
between the blade and the prong can with little effort be snipped by
gently pushing the top part of the branch or rod it is intended to cut
away from the operator and against the prong side of the secateur.

The pruning knife previously illustrated in the chapter on
grafting, if kept sharp, will, in the hands of an experienced pruner,
do very good work, and makes a very clean cut, which soon heals
over. The blade should be strongly made, of the best steel, and
with a beak curved at a sharp angle. A rough buckhorn handle
will ensure a good grasp in the hand while in use; the blade, well
ground, will be found useful for trimming and paring the wound,
and giving it a smooth face after sawing.

To the other tools and appliances described, the following two
will be found of great use when high trees have to be pruned and
handled : —

Branch Cutter,

This long pruning shear, mounted on a light pole about the
size of a broom stick, six to eight feet long, is a very handy device
for reaching to the tops of the higher trees. It is found at the
leading ironmongers.

Fruit Ladder.

117

An orchard ladder, properly constructed, is a very handy
appliance when pruning trees and gathering fruit.

Orchard ladders of several designs are made. Some consist of
a pole of a fibrous kind of timber, such as stringy-bark, bound with
a, strong band of hoop-iron a foot or so from the top end ; this will
prevent the pole, which is sawn to that point, splitting when the
two lower ends are stretched and the rungs fastened.

Hinged, four-footed step-ladders, like the one here illustrated,
•are, as a rule, clumsy appliances, which are inconvenient on hill-
side or uneven ground, besides
being heavy and easily dislocated.
Those found ready-made for sale
in shops are often so lightly made
as to be of little use in the orchard.
Yarnish or wax paper is found
useful for preventing wounds,
caused by the removal of a large
limb, cracking and decaying owing
to exposure ; it also promotes a
more speedy healing. For that
purpose gum shellac is often used.
It is made by dissolving in a little
strong alcohol as much gum shellac
as will make the varnish of the
An Undesirable Fruit Ladder. consistency of paint. This varnish

is kept in a well-corked flask, with

a [mouth wide enough to admit a brush, and is thus always ready
for use. It is applied over the cut surface, well pared with the
knife. Other good coverings for wounds made in pruning are also
common white lead paint, grafting wax, coal tar, in the order named.
The last-named is often a hindrance, while pine tar is even some-
what detrimental to healing.

CUTTING TO A BUD.

It is important before cutting off a branch of a tree or a rod of
a, vine to make sure that the last bud left on the plant, and which
is intended to prolong the growth of the plant, is a sound, plump
one, likely to grow, or whether it has accidentally been rubbed off or
otherwise destroyed. Such a terminal bud should be a leaf bud,
and not a fruit bud.

Leaf buds differ from fruit buds in being more elongated,
flattened, and more pointed in the same species of plants ; they
are either single, or give growth to single shoots, or double and
even triple, when grouped in small clusters, two or three together,
;as in the case of stone fruits, they produce either leaves or
branches.

118

B

Fruit buds are distinguished from leaf buds by their rounder
and fuller form, the scales that cover them are broader, and they
begin to swell and burst open earlier in the Spring.

Fruit buds are also single, as in the case of apples, pears,
quinces, or single, double and triple, as in stone fruits and berries.
They are, besides, simple or compound ; that is to say they produce
but one flower, as in the peach, nectarine, almond, and apricot, or
two or more flowers, in clusters, as in apples, pears, plums, and
cherries.

All buds are leaf buds when first formed ;
some at a later stage develop, either by
being allowed to mature naturally or by
artificial means, into fruit buds. Many trees
develop their fruit buds towards their terminal
shoots, unless these are cut off, when those
left at the base of the branch, or along it,
are thus excited into growth, and transformed
into lateral fruit buds.

When cutting to a bud a slight slant is
generally given to the cut, at a place close to
the bud, although in so doing it is advisable
not to approach the bud too closely, nor on
the other hand leave above it a useless stump,
which might engender decay ; a piece of wood
about an eighth of an inch above the bud is
sufficient to leave. In the case of the grape
vine the practice is often to cut through the
joint, above the last bud it is intended to leave
on the spur, as shown at 02. A longitudinal
section of the young wood of a vine shows in
each joint a tubular cavity filled with pith ;
at each joint or node that tube is closed, as in
the case of the bamboo, and if the section

and Pith. below is at times endangered. The section

should be made either at C or at €2 as shown 011 the fig., and never
at Ci. The buds B are those left on the spur. D is an axillary
bud which often fails to shoot. E is a piece of the previous season's
wood.

WHEN BEST TO PRUNE.

For the winter pruning of deciduous trees, May, June, July,
and August are the best months. Pruning may be started directly
the wood is ripe, when the leaves fade and begin to drop off. It is
recommended to give to apricots and cherries a preliminary pruning
in the late summer, after the crop has been gathered. Trees thus
pruned are less subject to gumming and dying back, and the leaf
buds have thus more time to transform into fruit buds, and to-
perfect themselves.

119

Asa rule older trees are ready for pruning before younger ones.

In frosty localities, where stagnant cold air hangs about
hollows and gullies, it is advisable to delay the pruning of vines,
peaches, and plants whose sap moves early, until later in the
season. This delays the period of active growth, and may save
the crop. As regards the grape vine, later pruning is, if anything,
also preferable to early pruning, in respect to yield of the crop and
•eaiiiness of the period of maturity ; but, of course, where wide areas
have to be gone through, it is not possible to delay until the right
moment this operation.

VINE PRUNING.

PRUNING AT TIME OF TRANSPLANTING.

In Western Australia, where the summer season is dry and
protracted, rooted vines are more in favour than cuttings when
planting a vineyard. The figure below shows how a typical
rooted vine from the nursery bed is cut back previous to planting.
The bruised roots are trimmed off, as shown at C, as well also as

Trimming rooted vine before planting.

120

those fibrous roots along the steins of the rooted vines which, were-
they allowed to grow, would be too close to the surface, and
would in the long, dry summer fail to maintain through the plant
the requisite flow of the nourishing sap, and two good buds only
are left on the rooted plant to supply the wood and the foliage-
which the vine will carry the first season of its growth.

PRUNING FOR WOOD AND FOR FRUIT.

Excessive wood growth is detrimental to heavy bearing, but
on the other hand, excessive bearing checks the growth of the vine.
The art of pruning consists, in a great measure, in so balancing
the productive and the vegetable vigour of the plant that regular-
average crops are borne annually of good sized, well nourished and
healthy grapes.

The shoot from a bud is generally considered good for two
bunches of grapes, and a good size vine growing under favourable
conditions out in the field may be allowed from one to three dozen
buds. These should be uniformly distributed, according to the system
of training adopted, as symmetrically as possible over the vine,
the stronger arms being allowed, according to their vigour, more buds
than the weaker ones. Sturdy vines trained on overhead trellis may
be allowed as many as eighty buds, and even more in particular
circumstances.

In connection with the pruning of the grape vine there are
several facts which should be borne in mind.

The vine bears on wood of the present season's growth, issuing
from a bud on wood produced the preceding year.

The activity of the sap is much greater in those shoots which
grow more erect, than on those which are bent down or are trained
horizontally ; it is also greater towards the extremity of a cane than
towards its base.

A bend or a twist to a ca,ne which has a tendency to shoot
upwards will, while checking that tendency to excessive wood
growth, favour its productiveness.

Only leave matured wood, of medium size, and short jointed,,
in preference to either luxuriant " full canes" or spindly stunted
growths with a weak constitution.

A vine with a tendency to " go to wood" should be pruned for
fruit, by resorting to either long or to mixed pruning. If, on the
other hand, a vine shows signs of distress and does not make a fair
amount of wood, it should be severely pruned so as to reduce the
number of the fruit-bearing buds.

Suckers and water shoots should be cut clean out, unless
required for renewing the top of the vine, or part of it ; these shoots
are, as a rule, sterile the first season after they come out. When
cut back the growth issuing from them carries fruit sparingly the-
first year.

121

PRUNING YOUNG VINES.

The aim of the primer is to form a stem on which to build the
framework which will carry the future crop of grapes. The year
of planting the growth of the young vine is not
interfered with. The subsequent season all the
shoots but one are cut off, and the remaining one cut
back either to a height of six to nine inches, if it is
intended to train the vine gooseberry bush fashion, or
to a height of 14 to 15 inches if it is meant to train
it on a trellis. If a suitable shoot is not procurable,
cut the young vine hard back to two buds and train
the strongest shoot which will spring from one of
these buds erect to a stick or a piece of bamboo set

into the ground. Forming young

vine.

STRUCTURE OF THE BUDS.

Some knowledge of the nature of the buds of the grape vine
will help in understanding the reason for long or for short pruning.

Two kinds of buds are found on a vine cane. At the base,
axillary buds, or, in some sorts, half -developed buds occur, which,
if cut in two with a sharp knife, and examined under a microscope,
would show a core surrounded with scales. These buds are unfertile,
and, if they grow at all in the spring, they form wood shoots.

Higher up the cane, and the further away from the base, the
buds become more fertile ; a section of such buds show, around the
core, microscopic grape bunches and tendrils. They represent, in
embryo, the coming season's crop. If, by some agency or other,
either wind, frost, or accident, the shoots issuing from them are
destroyed, fresh shoots are often produced, which are produced by
less developed secondary buds, and the crop will, in consequence, be
reduced. It is thus seen why some vines fail to bear fruit if they
are pruned too short, and others overbear if too much wood is left
011 them.

When it is admitted that the coming crop is present in embryo on
the vine at the time of pruning, it is easy to understand how a
droughty season, or blights of some sort or other, by weakening the
vine and stunting its growth, is not only detrimental to the visible
• crop, but also affect the next season's crop as well.

SYSTEMS OF PRUNING.

Pruning and training differ, insomuch as pruning affects the
growth and the productiveness of the vine, and the quality as well
as the quantity of the grapes, whereas training is purely con-
Tentional, and does not affect the growth and fruitfulness'of the
vine to the same extent. Training varies according to locality and
to circumstances, and it is simply adopted for the sake of uniformity,
and to facilitate cultivation, dressing the vines, and gathering the
; grapes.

122

The methods of training are numerous and varied ; the several
systems of pruning, on the other hand, may be cut down to three-
main types, according to the length of spurs or of fruiting canes,
left on the vines, viz., short, long, and mixed pruning.

Short, or Spur Pruning consists in leaving on the vines short
spurs of one to three buds only — generally two buds. It is applic-
able to those vines of moderate growth, which fruit most readily
from every joint of their fruiting wood. Although the crops are
thereby reduced, and the bunches fewer in number, they are, in
consequence, of larger size and more showy.

Long Pruning consists in cutting long one or more of the
previous season's fruiting canes. Six to ten buds are left on the
canes or rods of these varieties, which only bear fruit on buds,
situated further away from the crown, the lower buds being mostly
sterile, or not regularly fertile. Should such varieties be pruned
short, most of the fruitful buds would be removed, and the result
would probably be a luxuriant wood and leaf growth, and a very
small crop.

Mixed, or Half -long Pruning : Between these two systems is an
intermediate one found useful in the case of vines which have been
pruned short, and are planted
on rich ground, and run into
rank growth at the expense of
fruit production. It is also use-
ful in the case of vines which,
of the class that is pruned long,
fail, through exhaustion and
lack of necessary vitality, to
carry a full crop of well
developed grapes.

As the illustration shows,
it is advisable to leave for each
longer spur a short one cut back
to two buds, whose duty it is to
provide wood for the following
year. When that pruning cornes
the longer spurs now illustrated
are cut off, and a new fruiting
spur or cane, together with a
shorter wood spur, are selected
from the shoots issuing from

the wood
figure.

spur

shown in the

Mixed or half -long pruned vine.

GRAPE VINES GROWN IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

How to Prune them.

The following list supplies the names of vines which in fairly^
moist and fertile localities are better pruned short or long, as the-
case may be. In dry districts, however, it is preferable to be sparing

123

of long pruning and high training, and to adhere more closely to short
pruning and low bush training. This insures a more rapid and freer
circulation of the sap through the channel of the tissues of the plant,
and consequently better nourished bunches. In such localities it may
advisable to make up for the low fertility of the basal buds of the
canes by multiplying the number of spurs.

Prune short the Roussillon family of grapes, viz., Grenache
Garignane, Mataro, Aspiran, Morastel; also Cinsault, Aramon,
Sauvignon vert (Colombar), Semillon, Pedro Ximenes, Folle blanche
Trebbiano, Doradillo, Clairette, Gouais, Zinfandel, the Muscats,
Black Hamburgh, Cornichon, and a great many table grapes.

Prune long Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet franc, Malbec, Merlot,
Verdot, Sauvignon blanc, the Pinots, Verdelho, Shiraz, Boussanne,
(White Hermitage), Riesling, Green Hungarian (Tokay), Malaga,
Early White Malvasia (Lignan), Sultana, the Currants.

Prune half-long any of the above sorts, according to circum-
stances as detailed above, and more particularly Mondeuse,
Marsanne (White Shiraz), Chasselas, Muscatel, Sauvignon blanc,
Sauvignon vert, Merlot, Pinot-Chardonnay, the Port Wine
varieties, the Sauterne varieties, Blue Portuguese (CElillade), Black
Morocco, Emperor, Shiraz, Crystal, Almeria, Pedro Ximenes.

METHODS OF TRAINING.

As I have already pointed out, training is merely a matter of
convenience. The numerous methods of training may be reduced
and grouped under two types :

1 . Vines growing upright, with or without stalks.

2. Vines trained on horizontal wires or trellises.

First Group : Vines Trained Upright. — To this group belong the
''Gooseberry Bush, or " Goblet " shape vines, trained according to

Bush vine after pruning.

Bush, vine after
second pruning.

124

this method, and of the class that require short pruning. The-
single stem sturdy and straight, having been formed, a fork of two
spurs, with two buds on each, is left when pruning the second year ;
these will constitute the first two arms of the vine ; the subsequent
season one or two spurs are left on these arms, and so on until
the number of spurs is increased to six or eight, in the case of a
strong vine. When well- shaped the vines need not stand in the
way of the horse implements, and when the arms became too long,
advantage is taken of the presence of any water shoot conveniently
situated closer to the stem. This shoot is at pruning time cut
back to two buds, and turned into a spur to fill the gap of tha
longer and older arms, which can then without inconvenience be-
sawn off or cut hard back. .

SPUR PRUNING.

A. A. shows the points of section and spur left after pruning. Method of pruning wood
growing on a short spur, set on a permanent rod. A. and B. show where to cut (FoEx).

To this group also belong vines pruned half -long and trained
goblet shape. The figure above (page 122) illustrates this method of
training.

The heavy initial cost of staking or trellising a vineyard
planted with sorts requiring lon^r pruning at times makes it
convenient to train vines without support.

The wood-cut alongside illustrates
this method of training. One or
more long rods, consisting of six to
ten eyes (C) , with a short wood spur
of two eyes at the base of each (S),
are for this purpose left on the vine.
the end of the rods being either bent
down and tied to the base of the oppo-
site rod, or the rods are made to en-
twine together in the form of a bow.

It is customary to leave the long
rod above the short wood spur, which
are left closer to the stem, in
order to keep the arms of the vine
from rising too rapidly, as the long
rods being cut off the subsequent
pruning, the wood necessary to con-
tinue that method of pruning is found
supplied by last season's short spurs.

Long rods and short spurs.

125

Second Group: Trellised Vines. — Vines trained on trellises are
pruned either with short spurs along permanent rods, or with long
fruiting rods. In France, vines trained on wires, with a branch on
each side of the stem, are said to be trained espalier fashion, in con-
tradistinction to those trained with one main branch only bent on
one side of the stem, cordons being the term applied to that system
of training.

The adjoining figure represents the Guyot Cordon and the
double Guyot, or Bordeaux Espalier, is represented below. They
are limited to these vines which have their fertile buds away from
the base of the canes, or those whose basal buds are not regularly
fertile.

Guyot Cordon before pruning.

The Guyot cordon consists of a long fruiting cane (c), about
three or four feet long, and a short wood spur (s) cut back to two
buds, which is intended to provide the wood necessary for the
subsequent season's pruning.

For that purpose the cane c is cut clean off, one of the canes
shooting from s is tied down in its stead, and another cane from &
likewise is cut back to two good spurs — the axillary buds not being
counted.

Guyot Cordon after pruning.

This method of pruning and training, which is suitable for
weakly vines of the Pinot tribe, growing on the poor limestone of a>
cool country, where it is much in favour, is not to be recommended
for our richer soil and under a forcing climate like that of Western
Australia.

A modification of it, and one better suited to our local con-
ditions, with vines like the Cabernet, Malbeck and Eiesling, is a

126

modification of the G-uyot system, known as the Bordelais espalier,
which is correctly represented in the accompanying figure. It gives
more scope to the vine, and should it be found necessary to give

Bordeaux Espalier.

even more wood to particularly luxuriant vines growing on rich,
deep, soil, two new rods maybe left.

BORDELAIS ESPALIER. — Vigorous vine, with two long fruiting canes and short wood spurs
on each side of the stem.

These vines are formed thus : — The first pruning is in every
way similiar to the one already described. The trellis is made of
two wires, the first 16 to 18 inches from the ground, and the second
20 to 22 inches above it. It is advisable to train the stem along a
short stake for a year or two, so as to better keep it straight. The
second year the stem is pruned to a height of 12 to 14 inches, or it
may be cut back about the height of the lower wire, the blade of
the secateur being made to cut through the top node ; this stem can
then be tied firmly to the first wire and staking thus dispensed with
From the joints below shoots will grow, two of which at the time of
the third year's pruning will be cut back to two buds only. The
shoots from these short spurs will be trained as represented, one
horizontally on each side of the stem and along the bottom wire,
while the other shoots from these spurs will be cut back to two
buds to provide wood and fruiting canes for future pruning. It is
important that all shoots not required should be rubbed off as they
appear on the stem.

2. PERMANENT RODS AND SHORT SPURS.

This method of pruning and training is typically represented
by the Thomery espalier, named after the favourite method of
pruning followed by the vinegrowers of the fertile village of
Thomery, near Paris. It is one well adapted to our local require-
ments.

127

Diagram of Thomery espalier, before pruning (Foex).

The fig. (after Foex), is not as good as I would like it. It does
not show the two wires of the trellis, which may be placed at distances
similar to those mentioned when describing the
method of training according to the Bordeaux
^ espalier. It consists of two main arms set
$ horozontally on each side of the stem along the
I lower wire. Along those permanent arm spurs are
| left at intervals of nine to ten inches. The inter-
^ val between the first spur on each permanent
g arm is 12 inches or a little more. It is essential,
~' more particularly in the case of trellised vines, that
.fi there should be one stem only to each vine ; in the
1, case of the Thomery espalier it is important that
J the right and the left arms should start at nearly

1 as possible from the same level, so as to better
J equalise the flow of sap and avoid wide blanks
^ being created and much of the space available over
£ costly trellises remaining idle. To guard against

2 this, the arms should be encouraged to spring from
I the stem at about the same level and they should
o be trained sharply along the first wire, thus giving
-^ to the vine the form of the letter T. For this

purpose, as soon as the stem has grown three or
four joints above the lower wire it is pinched just
a,bove the bud which is level or is nearest to that wire ; this is done
sometimes in the summer. Fi om the end of this still tender shoot
another small shoot will grow, and this is also pinched back, generally
when it is on£ or two inches long. The vine being still in full
growth, another shoot will soon appear from that terminal bud
which has been strengthened by this process of pinching back. This
shoot is allowed to grow, it carries at its base a cluster of two, or it
may be more, buds. At pruning time, when mature, cut back to the
point (a) indicated on the fig. From these shoots will grow, the
stronger two of which are bent down, directly they cease to be
brittle, to the wires, where they are fastened .

Before the end of the season, and when they are a foot or two-
long, these horizontal shoots are pinched back, with the result that
they will throw up laterals which will form the bases of the spurs.

128

the following season. It is not advisable to give to the permanent
arms their full length the first year, but it is preferable to add a
few joints to the arms every year until the space from vine to vine
along the lines has been filled up. This is done by always pruning
to a lower bud the last joint left on the vine, and from this lower
bud will grow a shoot which will naturally take a horizontal direc-
tion. An upper bud would probably throw up a shoot which would
have to be bent down and would show by a kink the interruption in
the growth of the arm. Once the spurs are established they are cut
every year to two buds, as has already been explained.

3. PERMANENT K.ODS — MIXED OR HALF-LONG PRUNING.

An example of this method of pruning is the Cazenave cordon.
The only advantage it possesses over the Thomery espalier is that,
being one-sided, there is no occasion to use when pruning the
amount of discrimination necessary when training a vine espalier
fashion, in which case the proper equilibrium of the plant is main-
tained or re-established by maintaining the two arms in the same
state of vigorous growth, if they are of equal development, or
by favouring the growth of the weaker arm by hard pruning if
found necessary so to do. Although the figure does not show it,

Cazenave Cordon.

three wires are better than two in training vines according to this
method. If the distance from vine to vine is too great, the cordon
is not all laid down at once, but half of it may be trained first, the
cane being cut to a lower bud, which will produce a straight
horizontal shoot which will be utilised for lengthening the cordon.

The permanent arm is made to grow spurs, which each produce
a fruiting cane and a wood spur. It takes four seasons to properly
form a Cazenave cordon.

4. CAZENAVE CORDON MODIFIED.

This is a very neat and very useful way of training vines
^requiring long pruning and growing on rich ground. It is thus
.seen that once the framework of the vine is well formed, it may be
pruned with all the modifications of short, half long, or long
pruning already described.

129

This mixed system of pruning which finds favour with some
is suitable for localities where both soil and climate are favourable
to a luxuriant growth of the vine.

Permanent rods and long bent rods. (Bioletti).

5. SYLVOZ CORDON.

This method of training necessitates three wires. The stem is
higher than in the case of the Cazenave cordon, and is raised to the
middle wire ; about three feet from the ground a permanent main
branch is established, and along it spurs are found at intervals of
about 12 inches, which are pruned to one bud, producing a shoot
which will be bent down and tied to the first wire. This sharp
bending will induce the basal bud to grow more vigorously than
the others, which will produce fruit bearing shoots ; at pruning
time this bent cane is cut back to the first shoot ; this is in its
turn sharply curved down.

Sylvoz Cordon.

130

This system of pruning is not suitable for every locality, and
soon exhausts the vine unless it is of a particularly vigorous growing
sort, established on deep fertile soil. It suits the Currants, Crystal,
Sultana, Gros Colraan, Wortley Hall, Almeria, and also those
individual vines which show an exaggerated tendency "to go to
wood," and for that reason are often shy bearers.

GARDEN TRELLISES.

Perhaps nowhere is the want of systematic training and prun-
ing of the vine more glaringly exhibited than on the private garden
trellises. The second of the two
accompanying illustrations forcibly
exhibits such amateurish method
of training and pruning vines.
There the vines are allowed to grow
without restraint, and at pruning time
canes are bent and directed in the
most fanciful manner to fill a gap
here and there. These vines, which
are generally grown in close proximity
to the house, as a rule receive more
attention ; they are manured, sul-
phured, the ground is dug round
them, and as they bear well the
owner takes little or no trouble in
the first years of their growth to
train them with some sort of method,
until with years his mistakes are made
apparent to him. The side buds are
robbed by the higher ones, they get
feebler and feebler, and at last cease
to grow at all ; the sides of the trellis
become denuded, and all the energy of
the vine is spent 011 the top. The sketch
printed in these pages illustrates a
method of training vines on the home
trellis which, if copied, will result in
the owner deriving from his vines both
shelter and fruit. The sketch is drawn
to scale, the vines planted six feet
apart, and trained with one permanent
arm only. On that arm, at intervals
of 10 to 12 inches, spurs are left and
cut back to two eyes, unless the vine
shows a tendency of running riot, in
which case one of the methods of
pruning reviewed in a previous chapter
on pruning, and preferably the modi-
fied Cazenave method, may be adopted.
This method consists in leaving on
the permanent arms one or several

long rods supplied 'with five to ten The proper way of Training Vines

on the Garden Trellis.

131

eyes. These rods are bent down and tied ; they carry much fruit
and supply an outlet for any excessive flow of sap from the vine

How vines should not be trained.

T-HEAD TRELLISING FOE CURRANT VINES.

Unless adequate development is given the currant vine, it often
remains infertile. The following method of training these vines,
which has for a number of years been adopted with marked
success by Mr. Thomas Hardy, of South Australia, is found to be
suited to those vines : —

The vines are planted 10 feet in the rows, which are 12 feet
apart. Posts, 4J feet out of the ground, are set every 30 feet.

!

Currant Vine Trellises.

132

Cross-heads, 27 inches long, made of split wood 2 inches x
4 inches, are bolted on at the top of the posts. Lower cross-heads,
a little shorter, about 24 inches long, may also be bolted at a lower
level — say, 18 inches from the ground. Three wires for each tier
are used, the middle one slightly lower than the outer ones. The
end posts are well strutted ; No. 8 is used for the central wire and
No. 10 for the outer wires.

The currant vines are trained alternately on the top and bottom
tier, and thus more room is afforded for their development. The
vines may either be trained right and left T fashion, or with one
single bent arm like an inverted L. The main arm is trained up
along the middle wire (3), the long rods (a) being tied alternately
to the outer wires, any buds beyond the wire being cut off. The
short rods (b) usually bear as much fruit as the long rods.

COST OF STAKING AND TEELLISING.

The cost of trellising currant vines according to thej above
method, recommended by Mr. Thomas Hardy, if done in a substantial
manner, says that gentleman, is in any case a heavy one, and to do
it in any other way is false economy. The figures given below
would vary somewhat with the cost of posts and of wire.

For one acre of vines it will take : —

£ s. d.

118 posts at 6d. each 2 19 0

11 straining posts at Is. .... ... ... 0 11 0

11 struts at 6d 056

123 crossheads at 10s. per 100 012 3

5£cwt. of wire at 10s. .... 2 12 6

301bs. bolts at 3d 076

Labour erecting- .. ... ... ... 3 1 6

If two tiers, extra ... ... ... 4 10 6

<£14 19 3

STAKING AND TRELLISING VINES.

A great many vine-growers are deterred from staking or
trellising their vineyards on account of the somewhat heavy expendi-
ture of money it entails. Instead, therefore, of pruning such vines
long, as require long pruning, they spur prune them, with the result
that the crop the vineyard is capable of producing is, in a great
many instances, shortened by one-third or even more.

133

If a given area of vineyard can, at a comparatively small
additional expense, be made to yield a much heavier crop, jthe
returns will be equivalent to those of a much larger area. 7 For
instance, if by spending £5 to £6 per acre to the cost of
preparations for suitable pruning and training of the vines the net
profits are increased by 30 per cent., the result is equivalent to
increasing the area under cultivation by one-third, and that at a cost
much below that which such addition would involve. An acre of
vineyard, for instance, worth, say, .£50, would be practically, by the
extra expenditure of =£5 for staking or trellising, be made to yield
a return of one acre and one-third, and represent a capital value
of £67.

As it will be seen in the chapter on pruning of the vines, such
extra expenditure would not be justified in the case of vines
requiring short pruning, and only applies to the choicer and nobler
varieties requiring long pruning.

For stakes, the sizes generally used are 2x2 incjies, 6ft. long.

In different places, the cost of material would vary ; the cost
of purchasing, hauling, sharpening, and setting good jarrah or
raspberry jam stakes would be generally about ,£10 a thousand
vines, or about £6 5s. an acre for vines planted 8ft. square.

In trellising 6ft. posts, Sin. x 4in. are used 2ft. below and 4ft.
above ground, and at the end of the rows, straining posts, 6in. x 3iu.
and 6ft. to 6ft. 6in. long. Two wires only are necessary, viz., near
the coast, No. 10 galvanised wire, and inland, where the corrosive
action of the air is felt to a lesser degree, the cheaper No. 10 black
steel wire will answer admirably.

The first wire is set at a height of 18 inches from the ground.

The second wire 20 to 24 inches higher, or about 3ft. 2in. to 3ft.
6in. from the ground.

The following is an estimate of what the cost of trellising a
10-aere vineyard would probably be at per acre. Supposing the
block of vineyard measures 10 chains x 10 chains, and the distance
between the rows is 10ft., there would be per acre 6i rows,
requiring : —

& s. d.

13 straining posts per acre, at 6d. each ... 0 6 6
156 ordinary posts, 28ft. apart, at 20s. per 100 1 11 6
156 holes for same, at 3s. 6d. per 100 ... 0 5 6

4cwt. g-alvanised No. 10 wire, at 12s. 3d. ... 2 90
Boring holes, putting up, and straining- ... 012 6

^65 5 0

FRUIT TREE PRUNING.

In this chapter the shaping and the pruning of the several
varieties of those temperate clime fruit trees grown in our orchards
will be more particularly referred to.

GENEEAL PRINCIPLES.

There are a few rules which are applicable in every circum-
stance, and which should be borne in mind whatever the system of

134

training, or the kind of tree to be pruned, may be. Thus, when
pruning, cut off all dead wood ; also one of any two branches which
may happen to cross and rub against each other, thus chafing the
bark and injuring the limb. Suppress water shoots and suckers.
When cutting to a bud do not leave a stump above the bud ; but on
the other hand do not cut the wood off too close to that bud. When
compelled to remove large limbs, pare off the wound with a sharp
knife, and cover the wound with some dressing, such as already recom-
mended in the previous chapter on pruning, or even with clay,
which, while preventing the air and the dampness from drying and
rotting the wood, will not prevent the young bark overgrowing the
wound and gradually healing it. Before cutting a limb off try to
see what the result of your action is likely to be a few years hence,
and thus save at an early stage the possible necessity of having to
cut large limbs at some future period.

Should it be found necessary to cut a large limb, saw it a short
distance from»the bottom first. Then saw down from above, and
the limb can be removed without fear of splitting off below. Never
cut a branch without having a reason for doing so. Under the
climatic conditions which prevail here, it is better to err on the side
of cutting hard back, so as to keep the tree low, than on the side of
sparing the tree the first years of its growth, and letting it run up a
high stem, topped with long, lanky branches.

SYSTEMS OF TRAINING AND SHAPING FRUIT TREES.
Climatic conditions to a great extent influence the methods of
training trees. Thus in colder climates they are often trained
Gordon fashion, or in Espaliers. Then again the Pyramid shape
was for a long time a favourite in warmer climates, until the Lou-
Standard or Vase system supplanted it.

1. Cordons, which are either vertical or horizontal or oblique.
Trees trained as horizontal cordons, have their stems bent at right
angles and fastened to a wire. These cordons are either single, as

Horizontal Cordon.

shown in the fig., or double, i.e., with a branch on each side.
Although this method of training trees is sometimes employed for
apple and pear trees, it is better adapted for vines, and as it is
absolutely unsuited for this climate I shall dispense with describing
the method of thus shaping trees, as well also as the formation.

135

Espalier trained tree.

2. Espaliers, a popular method of training apples, pears,,
apricots and peaches in the Northern climate of Europe, where
specimens of this system of shaping trees, illustrating the skill and
handiwork of the European gardener, can be seen in public and
private gardens. In warmer climates, this method of training has.
nothing to recommend itself and needs 110 description.

3. The pyramid shape of training was, until not very long ago,
when the low standard or " vase " system supplemented it, much in
favour for trees grown in the open air in the cooler climates of

England and central Europe. It
\ is more especially suitable for

pears and cherries. This form of
training takes at least five years
to bring to perfection, and it
often happens that, either before
or after this work has been satis-
factorily completed, a fierce gust
of wind, a snowstorm, or some
other unexpected accident, will
destroy in one act the work of
years of patient training. Trees
trained pyramid shape require
besides a good deal of ground to
allow for the full development of
the plant, and for the easy work-
ing of teams and implements ;
for this purpose the interval from
tree to tree should be at least
(and preferably more) 30 feet.
One advantage it presents over
the " vase " system, which I shall
next proceed to describe, is that
the limbs are well knit to the
central stem, and not liable to

Pyramidal training of a Pear Tree.

136

split under the load of fruit. To sum up : Every variety of fruit
tree is not equally suited to this system of pruning ; it takes too
long to form, it occupies too much space, it is too high for pruning,
spraying, and picking, and is too much exposed to winds.

4. The low standard or " vase" system has been found by long
experience to be the form best suited to the Australian climate ; it
is also the one best adapted to Californian conditions. Unlike the
pyramid shape, which has the cone pointing upwards, the " vase,"
" goblet," or " wineglass " form, rests 011 its cone, and directs its
branches upwards and outwards. Amongst the advantages it offers
— It is simple to understand and master ; it is applicable to all kinds
of fruit trees ; it is suitable to all localities where fruit trees can be
grown out in the open without artificial shelter ; it forms a vigorous
stocky tree, well balanced, easier to prune, spray, and pick ; it
efficiently shelters the stem against sun scald; it resists the
onslaught of heavy gusts of wind better than the other forms of
training ; it requires less space than the pyramid form ; it offers
greater facility of approach to the stems by the horses when
cultivating.

The above paragraph sets forth the advantages of this system
in preference to others. The low standard system of training,
however, best suited for the climatic conditions which obtain in
countries like Australia and California, where hot summers prevail,
has been materially modified from its prototype, the " vase " or
" goblet " form, found in the gardens of Europe.

EUROPEAN VASE OR GOBLET.

There the tree is headed back to two or three feet ; three or
four branches disposed round the stem are drawn outwards by means
of strings fastened to pegs, which will form the main limbs of the
tree. On these limbs, which are. cut back the next winter to a lower
bud. which will continue the main branch, and either to the left or
the right of it, a side shoot is allowed to grow and all the other
shoots are pinched back ; these two shoots are bound to a light hoop
to keep them in place, and constitute the main branches of the
young tree. The next winter again this process is repeated, with
this difference, that the side shoot is allowed to grow on the opposite
side of the previous year's side shoot. These form secondary
branches, and are fastened to larger hoops ; all shoots which start to
grow either inward towards the centre or outward are rubbed off, so
that after a year or two the tree presents as nearly as possible the
shape of a vase or goblet, with a hollow centre and an even exterior
outline with a thin wall of foliage.

MODIFIED VASE FORM OR Low STANDARD.

It is apparent from the outset that such a symmetrical and
open system of training, if adopted under a climate such as
ours, would, without fail, result in much damage being done by the
scorching sun to both the tree itself and to its crop of fruit. I have

137

purposely referred to it here so as to spare to the beginner in fruit-
growing the trouble as well as the disappointment of taking his
pattern in training his young trees from the classic sources favoured
in Europe. The California!! modified vase, with a low standard, has
now proved itself to be the best suited to Australian conditions, and
it is this system of training which I shall have in my mind in the
course of the following notes.

FIRST PRUNING.

Young budded trees in nursery rows present, the first season of
their growth, the appearance of a straight switch, with good buds
all along the stem. Sometimes they grow so vigorously that they
throw out laterals. Both such young trees are found in nurseries.
As their customers like to see as much growth as possible, nursery-
men generally send out their trees without cutting them back.

Experienced orchard owners generally
prefer, when ordering from the nursery, one
year old trees, which are merely straight
switches with good buds all along the stem.
These they can cut back to the height they
prefer, with a length of stem pretty well
uniformly the same all through the orchard.
If they plant trees with a head ready formed in
the nursery they cut it short back on the
laterals. Those who, on the other hand, have
little or no experience of fruit growing, would
do wisely to select from the nursery trees with
their heads ready formed. When cutting
back, especially in the warmer and drier
localities, a stem 12 to 18 inches high will be
found the best. In the cooler districts it can
be given a height of 1 8 to 24 inches. Cut back
to a good bud, care having been taken that the
tree has not been planted too deeply, but that
its collar, or point of junction between the roots
and the stem, be as nearly as possible flush
with the surface of the ground. If the tree has
suffered much, and the buds are very small, the
bark leathery and wrinkled, the stem somewhat
dried, and the roots much injured, it is ad-
visable to cut the stem lower still, say at a
height of about 9 inches from the ground,
or even lower, but in every case above the
graft. In such cases, however, the proper
height should be given to the stem, either
by pinching the straight shoot which will
grow from it as soon as it reaches that desired height, or
by cutting it back later on at the time of winter pruning. From
a stem topped to a height of 15 to 18 inches several short
shoots will be sent up from the upper buds ; of these, three or four

A YEARLING TREE j
WITHOUT BRANCHES.

The cross line shows
where to cut back when
planting . — Ba rry .

138

of the best shoots, placed symmetrically round the stem, are allowed
to grow, all superfluous vegetation being rubbed off. These three
or four shoots, which will form the main limbs of the tree, should be
placed in such a manner that they form a well balanced head, and do
not all come out in a bunch together, but spring out of the stem with
an interval of an inch or two between them. This knits them better
to the trunk, and they are thus less liable to split, as they sometimes
do in windy weather, when grown in forks and laden with fruit.
The apricot more especially, with buds very close together, has a
tendency to grow its limbs all in a bunch.

Three limbs growing symmetrically round the stem are better
than four. During the first season, these three or four shoots are
left to grow without interference, so as to favour as good a root
system as possible. Should one of the rods, however, grow with
such exuberant vigour that it draws all the sap for its own use, to
the detriment of the other two or three, it would be advisable to
pinch it off and check it, so as to maintain a fairly equal growth
of the head. A tree is very easily thrown off its balance
at this stage of its growth, and unless properly trained and
watched it might be difficult subsequently to re-establish the
harmony of growth between the main branches that constitute the
head.

SECOND PRUNING.

During the summer following the first pruning, the young tree
should be allowed to grow unchecked, so as to ensure a good root
development. Some young trees, however, at
times persist in sending up one solitary shoot.
Should this be the case, the tender growth is
pinched back when it has reached a length of
five or six inches, and this will excite the bud
immediately underneath into life, with the
result that the three or four limbs required to
form a well balanced head will be secured.

The reverse at other times happens, the
young trees sending up a bunch of shoots, or
such vigorous and luxuriant shoots that there is
danger of the stems splitting. To guard a gainst
this, it is in such case also, although for a
different purpose, advisable to take in the sails,
and relieve the plant of any excess of shoots, or
of its threatening top weight.

During the first winter following the plant-
ing of a yearling tree, the three shoots, or may
be the four which constitute its head, are
shortened to four to ten inches, according as to
whether these shoots are feeble, or strong and vigorous. Fruit-
growers often get their trees from the nursery at this stage of their

Pruning of a two year
old tree from the biid.
— Barry.

139

growth, and the accompanying figure illustrates their shape after
pruning. This operation excites the somewhat dormant buds at
the base of the shoot into active life. As previously said, the
terminal bud should be a plump and healthy one. It should be
directed either upwards, downwards, or sideways, so as to prolong
the growth of branch outwards or inwards, or towards a lateral
blank space.

The growth of the main shoots is regulated by pinching, and
should a third or fourth twig grow amongst them between the
forks they are rubbed off. When the tree is ready for pruning a
third time it has then, if three main limbs only, six branches, which,
at the time' of the

THIRD PRUNING,

Are cut back to 6 to 12 inches, according to their strength. Two
of the top shoots on each of these branches with an upward
direction are left, and the lateral shoots from
the other buds on the limbs below are pinched
back in the summer time, when they are a few
inches long, to three or four leaves.

These little tufts of leaves shelter the
branches, strengthen them by converting sap
into woody tissues, and ultimately develop
fruit spurs. Branches which approach the
vertical line most are cut shorter than those
inclined to an angle to thus force the buds at
the base to grow.

FOURTH PRUNING.

The same treatment described in the case
of the first, second, and third pruning is
applied in the case of the fourth pruning, and
generally at this age the tree will begin to bear
readily. At this period a stocky, low standard
tree will have been formed, which will have a
well-balanced head, constituted of branches
growing in an upward direction, and carrying
fruit spurs all along their length. Such a tree will resist high winds
well, can easily be approached by horse and implements, so that
comparatively little hand labour will be required to keep the orchard
in a high state of cultivation ; the crop will be evenly carried along
the main branches, which will not stand in need of artificial props,
lest they should break down under the load of fruit which, at this early
stage, they will begin to carry. The pinching of the superabundant
laterals is best done in the early autumn, when buds, which would
otherwise have remained sterile, are transformed into fruit buds.
This operation will besides save much butchering in the winter time,
as by suppressing either entirely or partly an undesirable shoot at an
early stage, much sap, which would be turned into wood growth,

Winter Pruning of a
tree three years from
the bud. — Barry.

140

destined to be cut off in the winter, is saved, and the energy and
the.vitality of the plant thrown into more useful channels. * This
practice leads to the enunciation of the fact that severe winter

pruning induces wood
growth, while summer
pruning tends to fruit
production. Thus, if a
tree is stunted, and for
some obscure reason does
not make much wood, but
shows a tendency to pro-
duce more fruit buds than
it can safely carry, prune
close in the winter ; if, on
the other hand, a tree
grows so quickly that all
its energy is wasted in
wood and leaves, and does
not pause to produce fruit,
either summer pruning or
root pruning will throw it
into bearing. By such
means the plant, realising,
while in full flow of sap,
that its constitution has
been attacked and its life
menaced, will make an
effort to reproduce its kind
forthwith, and the result
will be the evolution of
leaf buds into fruit- bearing
spurs. Subsequent prun-
ings consist mostly in rub-
bing off water shoots, in
suppressing branches that cross and rub against one another, and
trimming the twigs and the fresh growth made during the season's
growth. At this stage the tree will have ceased making much
wood, and will begin the business of setting and carrying fruit.

SEDUCTION OF SWELLINGS AND HIDE-BOUND TREES.

At the time of pruning swellings are occasionally noticed 011
the stems or limbs of trees. These swellings are either due to the
disproportionate growth of the scion or fruiting part, compared with
the stock or root end of the tree.

They may also be due to strings used in previous seasons as
ties, which have cut through the bark. These swellings, which
interfere with the free circulation of the sap, must be reduced. This
is best done by running longitudinal incisions from C downwards
to the stock B. The bark will thus expand, and should the
deformity continue the next season, these incisions should be
renewed.

Young standard tree, four years from the bud,
after pruning.— Btirri/.

141

Trees which have been neglected, or whose
growth has been stunted by the presence of moss and
lichen, scale insects or other pests, or by want of
drainage of the soil, by the aridity and poverty of the
ground, or are debilitated in consequence of having
been allowed to bear too early, often show a miserable,
sickly appearance. Their growth is stopped, the
bark becomes tough and leathery ; they are hide-
bound. The cause of the mischief may have already
been removed, and still they will make no growth.

Such trees should be similarly treated at the
time of pruning. They should be cut hard back and
at pruning time the knife should be run longitud-
inally through the bark, from the heel to the top of
the stem, and even along the main limbs. It is also
advisable to whitewash the stems of such trees, incision to reduce
Lime, in the shape of whitewash, is well known to be th^gi^oSfthe
beneficial in most bark diseases. stem.

Under this treatment the stunted trees of last season are seen
to spring into fresh and healthier growth. The cambium or grow-
ing wood layers force the strip of leathery bark apart, the stems
and limbs are soon seen to swell, the sap runs freely from the
roots to the top branches of the plant, and the whole growth looks
healthier.

INCISION TO CONTROL THE G-ROWTH OF SHOOTS AND BUDS.

Should, during the preceding
growing season, any one of the lateral
branches have been imperfectly de-
veloped, it should be cut back lightly
when pruning, and if it is much too
small compared with the others it is
sometimes advisable to make, imme-
diately above the point of attachment
to the branch (B), a notch or small
incision through the outside layers of
growing wood, so as to force the sap to
run up the branch and develop it. The
cut should be prevented from healing
too rapidly. It is also sometimes
desirable for the symmetry of the tree
to force a dormant bud into growth,
and in that case an incision as shown
at A will be found .useful. On the
strong branch become uncontrollable in
spite of heading back, it may, in extreme cases, be advisable to
check the flow of sap towards it by making an incision as shown at
0, immediately below its point of attachment to the stem.

Thus we have a means of transforming a wood bud into a fruit
bud and vice versa, by making a cut below the rudimentary bud if

A—

{ Incisions. — Du Breuil.

other hand, should

142

we want a fruit bud, or above it if we want a wood bud. These
methods should, however, be only used with discrimination, else
more harm than good would ensue.

RENOVATING OLD TREES.

Fruit trees planted in good soil and possessed of a good stem,
are susceptible of living to a great age. It, however, often happens
that through years of neglect their branches have grown to exces-
sive length and are, to a great extent, deprived of fruit shoots, or
that the crop is carried up too high, hence adding considerably to
the cost of gathering ; or again the trees are diseased, and in order
to successfully combat the pests which infest
them they must be shortened in. Again, the
variety of fruit the trees bear may be unsuit-
able, and it may be expedient to change it
by means of budding or of grafting. In
all these cases it may be desirable, or even
imperative, to shorten the tree and head it
back. For that purpose the saw is called into
requisition, and the cuts are smoothly pared
with a sharp knife, the wound being then
smeared with clay, or with the shellac paint, or
some of the other paint already referred to.

The figure illustrates an old plum tree
which has thus been renovated. The plum, Top of au old plum tre-
better than most other fruit trees, stands ^fo^^S^s™*
cutting back hard to old wood without

showing symptoms of dying back, which, under similar con-
ditions, are often shown by apples and more particularly by peaches
and nectarines.

Early in the spring, the roots of the tree, which may be good
for many years more, become active, the sap commences to move
upwards, and a number of hidden and dormant buds are excited
into life. Shoots burst out of the old stumps, and as they grow
they should be thinned out to the number of three or four only,
well placed and likely to form a symmetrical head. Should these
few shoots, which are destined to serve as main limbs, grow too
rankly, they may be pinched or cut back during the summer, and
laterals will grow on the tree, which will be shortened at the time
of winter pruning. Should, however, these shoots show only a
moderate growth, they are better left alone until the pruning season,
when they are cut back and treated as directed under the heading
" First and second pruning."

Except in the case of plum trees referred to already, it is
inadvisable to cut back trees in the process of renovation to blind
stumps, but this should preferably be done just above a young branch
or a small shoot, so situated that it can be used for giving start to
the fresh growth. Old apple trees, apricots, and especially peaches
are at times killed through overlooking this detail. The sap

143

becomes stagnant, a dying back process sets in, which carries off
the limb. Peach trees more particularly must be cut back with
judiciousness when it is intended to renovate them, the reason being
that fewer buds are found on the old bark of peaches and nectarines
than on the old bark of ponies, and what few buds there may be
left are less easily thrown into active life again than buds of apples
and pear trees.

When renovating trees of the citrus tribe, it is also advisable
to cut large limbs above on young, fresh growth, although in their
case this is not so essential as in the case of deciduous trees, and
more especially the peach. These trees are fairly well stocked with
miniature, dormant buds, which are thrown into life whenever the
emergency arises.

SPLIT LIMBS.

The method of training trees explained above presents one
disadvantage. The suppression of the central stem and the starting
of several main limbs from the same level on the stem often exposes
those limbs loaded with a heavy crop of fruit, and swayed by high

Method of supporting split limbs.

winds, to split from the trunk. It is, therefore, advisable at the
time of shaping the young tree to see that the branches do not all
spring from the same level, but that an interval of a couple of
inches or even more be left between them to insure their better
attachment to the trunk. Limbs which threaten to split can also be
strengthened by using the pruning saw and the knife, and so

144

distribute the weight over the branches that the weak ones are
relieved of. too heavy a strain.

In particularly dangerous cases it becomes necessary to bind the
bifurcated branches together so as to prevent them splitting. The
accompanying illustrations show both the right and the wrong way of
doing this. Ropes are temporary ties at the most; besides, they stretch
easily, and finally rot and snap. A piece of fencing wire, doubled
round the limbs and twisted until the requisite strain is obtained,
s often used in orchards, but this method presents the serious
inconvenience of cutting through the bark and interfering with the
circulation, the growing wood overlapping from above and

presenting an unsightly
swelling. Whenever a
contrivance of this sort
is used, pieces of lath or
some bagging or leather
pad should be placed be-
tween the limb and the
wire to shield the bark.
When the forked limbs
are actually split, the torn
and jagged wound should
be smoothly pared with
the knife and the two
pieces brought together.

Above the iron band
in the illustration a more
suitable contrivance is
shown for mending split
limbs. It consists of
a straight iron bolt, run
through auger holes
bored in the limbs ; the
bolt is supplied with a
large head and a large
nut, which is screwed up
porting weak limbs, to the proper point. The
hole should not be much
larger than the bolt, so as to exclude the wet or the air ; for that
purpose it is advisable to apply a little tar or wax where it enters
and leaves the bark. Such a bolt will not damage the limb or
interfere with its expansion.

The right and the wrong way of suj
(Garden and Fiel

FRUITFTTLNESS OF SPURS AND WOOD.

Easy circulation of sa,p results in formation of new leaves|and
formation of woody tissue and fruit spurs. Pruning by cutting off
hardened, gnarled, moss-infested twigs and branches forces the sap
into fresh channels and new fruiting wood is produced. The
desiccation of fruHing wood and its barrenness varies with climate

145

and soils. Where conditions are favourable, the climate mild
and moist, the soil fertile and congenial, spurs and wood will prove
fruitful for twenty to thirty years, as is instanced by the pear. In
a dry and parched climate, on the other hand, or on unsuitable
soil, the useful life of such wood might not exceed five or six years.
Apples, plums and many other trees are subject to the same in-
fluences. Peaches and nectarines require frequent renewing.

ROOT PRUNING.

Some trees, and more especially apricots, exhibit at times an
exuberant wood growth, and fruit but sparingly, or not at all, all the
energy of the plant being diverted towards the branches. Root
pruning often induces those trees to bear. This is better done in
the autumn, when the tree has finished its active growth for the
season, and when the sap runs sluggishly, the shock being at that
time less severe, while during the following few weeks the energy of
the tree will be partly spent towards the transformation of fruit buds
from the leaf buds, which unless checked, would next spring have
continued to run riot. The method, sometimes recommended, of
indiscriminately cutting with a spade all the roots of such a tree in
a semi-circle one year and completing the circle next season, and two
or three feet deep from the stem is to be deprecated. The better way
is to dig a trench a couple of feet wide and eighteen inches deep, four
or five feet from the stem, then with a small fork hoe work gradually
towards the stem, laying some of the main roots bare. When about
two feet from the stem the long straight roots only, and all roots
pointing downwards, are cut off with a sharp knife or a saw, the cut
being afterwards smoothly pared ; the other main roots with some
fibrous roots on them are cut three feet or so from the stem and then
as many of the other small rootlets as can be spared are left untouched,
covered evenly with soil sifted through the fingers, the holes being
subsequently filled in with ordinary soil ; the ground is then watered
to settle the soil round the roots, and it is advisable to mulch lightly.
This operation is done on one side of the tree the first year, and is
repeated on the opposite side the subsequent autumn.

Now that information applicable to the pruning and training of
all trees in general has been given, a few remarks respecting the
individual peculiarities of the most important fruit trees and shrubs
in cultivation will be found of use.

PRUNING THE APPLE AND THE PEAR.

The pruning of these two kinds of trees, which both belong to
the genus pyrus, is very much alike, and will for that reason be
considered under the same heading.

In shaping and training the trees the first four or five years of their
growth, the detailed information which has been given with regard
to the management of low-standard trees should be closely followed.

Like other deciduous trees, they can be pruned whenever the
wood is mature enough, which is indicated by looking at the

146

terminal buds and the yellow colour of the leaves. Pruning should
then be pushed forward rapidly, and the pruiiings removed before
the ground gets sodden with rain water. Deciduous trees, unlike
citrus trees, should not be touched in the active growing season,
except with the thumb nail, cherries and apricots, as seen below,
forming the exception to this general rule.

Some varieties of apple, such as the Irish peach, and also
of pears, bear the best fruit at the extremities of their long, slender
and decumbent shoots. In such cases the small side shoots, which
measure a few inches in length, are not pinched back, as explained
farther on, but allowed to bear as they like best, and as many of
them as possible are left on the tree, only the longer shoots being
shortened. This method is pursued until the main growths of the
tree become very short or almost cease to move at all, when a certain
number of these fruit spurs are cut off, so as to induce new growth.
The rapid formation of numerous fruit spurs will stunt a tree ; when
this is the case they should be cut out at pruning time, otherwise
the trees will be short lived. On the other hand, with such varieties
as Ben Davis and Baldwin apples, which have a more compact form
and a better distribution of fruit, thinning the branches should be
practised after the bearing stage is reached. A wise rule to follow
consists in cutting out or back every year to get a healthy growth
of wood.

According to the habit of growth of the tree it is pruned to an
inner bud, if it is intended to close it in, as in the case of the
Yellow Bell Flower, which would otherwise soon reach the ground,
like a weeping willow ; to an outer one, if it grows too straight up
after the manner of the Northern Spy or the Bartlett pear, which
grow like poplars. If it is intended to train a branch in the straight
line, it is pruned to an outer bud one year and to an inner bud the
next year.

The branches of irregular-growing sorts, or of those exposed to
the influence of high winds, will require to be secured for some
time by stakes and soft-tying material.

If we examine a young shoot of an apple or a pear tree of the
previous season's growth in the winter when the tree is in a
dormant stage, we find leaf buds all along
its length. When the sap begins running,
in the spring, the terminal buds produce
wood shoots, the others on the middle of
the twig called darts are either transformed
into fruit buds straight away, or produce
short side shoots which in subsequent
years carry fruit buds. The buds at the
base remain dormant unless excited into
life by the suppression of those above
them, so that by shortening a branch the
sap, which naturally has a tendency to

small shoot in the middle of rush to the points, feeds these small
(branch called « dart." dormant buds at the base, starts them

147

sp

lower end of branch or
basal bud.

into growth, and forces them into what will
eventually become fruit spurs. By follow-
ing the mode of training and cutting back
described above, we have, therefore, around
limbs and branches, well distributed about
the head, leaf buds which will continue the
growth of the tree, and also fruit spurs and
fruit buds evenly distributed all over the
tree.

After the fifth year of training, and
the sixth year in the case of some later

varieties, and when the tree has settled down to the bearing stage,
little hard pruning will be required. The new wood of the tree is
trimmed back every year, and all dead wood, branches that cross
and rub against another, and water shoots, are cut out.

The fruit spurs, however, require at that period some manage-
ment, and will then continue bearing for many years more ; unless
these spurs are looked after we should have trees over-bearing one
season and taking a rest for one season or two after. This is
accounted for by the fact that if in young trees the fruit buds are
several years in process of formation, they take in bearing trees two
or three years, according to circumstances, and it becomes necessary,
in order to renew and maintain their vigour, to systematically cut
off the old part periodically and thus favour the formation of new
buds at their base.

MANAGEMENT OF THE FRUIT BUDS AND BRANCHES.
In pinching back side shoots intended to carry fruit buds, care
must be taken not to shorten them too
severely, but allow them about four
inches. If pinched too short, the little
butt or shoot either ceases to grow and
dies, leaving a vacant space on the
branch, or else a year or two after this
excessive pinching two small basal
buds push forth on each side of the
suppressed shoot; those will ulti-
mately blossom, but at the loss of a
season or two, or again premature

Shoot rightly pinched. gh(X)tg ^ grQWj which ^ likewise

be a longer time setting to fruit, and are not likely to be so fruitful
as better constituted shoots properly pinched would be.

Shoots pinched too far back, and the result in different stages of growth.

148

We have seen already that
the basal buds (see fig., p. 147)
which grow slightly the second

Terminal shoot cut back 9 to 12 inches.

year of pruning eventually form
young fruit spurs. The shoots
or darts showing in the middle of
the twig grow a little more:

Termina! shoot partly fractured. ^.^ ^ ^^ ^ ^

shoots, on the other hand, towards the end of the branch grow more
vigorously, and are cut back at the time of pruning, or are partially
fractured. They will, after a few years, also carry basal fruit buds
and darts.

The third year after pinching back the young terminal shoot,
the basal buds (see page 147) have only developed a rosette of
flowers, having a bud in the centre, and have increased a little in
length. They now have the appearance shown in the figure illus-
trating a matured fruit spur, the bud being plumper. They blossom
the following spring, and are now matured fruit spurs (as seen
below) .

Matured fruit spur.

Two-year-old darts.

Fruit spur after first
fructification.

At that period the darts have also developed several fruit buds,
and probably also the shoots at the top end of the brand1,.

149

At the fourth season of pruning, the fruit spur has fructified,
and has formed at its termination a spongy swelling called a purse,
while it carries at its base smaller buds, which become flower buds
in the course of two years or so.

Should one of these buds grow into a vigorous shoot A, it is
pinched back at C ; the swollen purse, being
liable to decomposition, should be cut off
at the top, as shown in the figure. The
buds on the dart are now a little more
advanced, and will soon burst out into
blossom, which at the subsequent winter
pruning, after fruiting, is treated like the
basal buds carrying the purse, as shown
above, and so are the bads on the terminal
shoots.

As illustrated and mentioned aboye,
the fruit spurs, after bearing, often after
Fruit -spur with small branch a year or two produce new flower buds
pinched. at their base, these spurs having rami-

fied as shown in the figure ; so also the

fruit spurs on the darts, which, after eight years or so, will be
somewhat as represented in the accompanying figure, and after a
few more years will represent the appearance shown in the woodcut.

Six years' ramified fruit spur.

Eight years' fruit spurs on a dart.

It is now advisable, in order to have fine fruit, to cut some of
these buds back, so as to insure to the fruit a sufficient supply of
sap, and this is done as showrn above. The sap then forces into

frowth some fresh dormant buds at the base of the enlargement,
f the fruit buds have already grown to large dimensions, they are
gradually cut back, the first year to B, and the following at C, and
the next at D. Should they be cut straight away at D, there will

NOTE. — Most of the illustrations givtu in tlie chapters on pruning the apples, p
and apricots are from Du E retail's "Culture of Fruit Trees." — A.D.

ears,

150

in all probability not be much fruit the next year, whilst the tree
will be forced into fresh wood growth.

Method, of pruning an old fruit spur. — Du BKEUIL.

PRUNING THE QUINCE.

No fruit tree is more neglected than the quince, which is
hardly ever pruned. Its natural habit of growth is that of I a
confused and scattered bush ; by proper training, however, it can
be made more shapely and more productive. A stout and straight
trunk should be secured by cutting off all the other stems and
keeping it tied up to a stake to prevent it from straggling. This is
cut back the second year at a height of 12 inches from the ground,
and treated in the manner described when dealing with the training
and shaping of young trees.

The bearing branches of the quince are small twigs produced
on wood at least two years old ; these produce besides short shoots,
on the point of which the fruit is borne singly. At pruning these
bearing branches are shortened back and produce new fruit spurs.

PRUNING STONE FRUITS.

What has been said about the early training of deciduous trees
as low standard, applies to stone fruit as well as to pome fruit.
The subsequent management of the fruit spurs of stone fruits
differs, however, in several points from that of pome fruits. In the
former, the fruit spurs require two to three years for their growth,
but when formed they last, with proper attention, for a long period.
In stone fruit the fruit spurs are of much quicker formation, and in
the peach and nectarine, notably, they blossom the spring following
their first appearance on the previous season's growth.

PRUNING THE PEACH AND THE NECTARINE.

The peach and the nectarine, like the apricot and the plumr
are profuse bearers, often inclined to over-bear, and are in con-

151

sequence not very long-lived, especially the first two, whose period
of useful existence extends to 10 to 15 years, unless their strength
and exuberant vitality are checked and controlled by judicious
pruning and thinning out of the superabundant fruit crop.

At the time of planting, if a yearling tree, cut them back to a
straight stem about 18 inches high, and prune to side branches, on
which are left one single bud at the base.

From their habit of growth, the peach and nectarine require
constant and yearly primings, the method adopted in these instances
being that of shortening in.

A standard stone-fruit tree is trained in precisely the same
manner as described above, with a low head, which affords shade
to the roots and the trunk and limbs, and facilitates pruning,
spraying, gathering, etc.

A clear understanding of the constitution of the bearing shoots
of these trees will throw light on the best method of pruning them.

On account of the larger size of the circulating channels in
these trees, the sap tends to rush towards the extremities of the
shoots much quicker than in other trees, and the buds that do not
push and form shoots the first season are — unless the branch which
carries them is cut back — lost, as, unlike most other fruit trees, they
are not excited into growth, by cutting back in subsequent seasons.
This explains how it is that trees that have been neglected or wrongly
pruned in their youth present long limbs denuded of young wood
and bark, and look like skeleton trees, which soon perish after
over-bearing themselves.

In the peach, nectarine, and apricot the fruit branches are
productions of the season's growth, the fruit buds forming one

season and blossoming the next. In
the first two more especially, the fruit
is borne on wood of the previous
season's growth, and any limb, or part
of a limb, destitute of such wood is
sterile, so that the great object of the
grower is to so prune the tree by
cutting hard back a proportion of
the lateral twigs that it is always
A peach tree without pruning, as covered with a regular and constant

commonly seen — DOWNING. . /, i i • i

succession ot annual bearing shoots.

As in the case of all stone-fruit trees, wood that has borne
fruit will bear no more.

The young shoot (one or two feet long) of the peach and the
nectarine is furnished with a certain amount of wood buds and of
fruit buds. There are one or more wood buds at the terminal
points, fruit buds in the middle, and two or three wood buds at the
base. If the branches are left untouched the fruit buds blossom
and produce fruit, and the terminal shoots, which should carry the
next season's crop, grow thin and weak, as the fruit below have

152

absorbed most of the sap and dried up the twig, while the wood
buds at the base fail to grow, leaving a barren, useless stick.

By proper pruning, however, or shortening in, one-half or so
of last year's growth, outside as well as in the interior, the lower parts
of some twigs are cut back to one or two basal buds and the other
twigs only slightly trimmed, the shorter ones being left untouched ;
still there may be too much bearing wood for the tree to carry
and bring to full size and perfection, unless thinned out; the
flow of sap is fully utilised by what is left of the young wood ;
the leaf buds at the base produce vigorous young shoots, which
will keep the tree well supplied with bearing wood for the next
season ; the foliage will be more luxuriant, the fruit larger and
more luscious. At the same time that the shoots are shortened
in, those that have already borne fruit are cut out. Whenever
practicable, leave for fruit the twig from the top bud of a two-eye
spur, and shorten in for wood to two eyes the twig from the lower
eye of that spur.

A peach tree before pruning-.

This method of pruning being carried out year after year, the
small wounds heal readily. Large limbs have not to be cut back
so often, thereby endangering the life of the plant, owing to the

153

part drying up or decaying, and the sap poisoning the other parts of
the tree and favouring the gumming, one of the worst diseases of
stone-fruit trees.

The same peach tree after pruning.

After seven or eight years the growth of the main branches
will slacken, and the pruning will consist mainly of the
cutting out the twigs that bore fruit the previous year; (2) thin-
ning out the twigs that will bear the following year; (3) cutting
back half to two eyes and trimming the longer twigs of the
remainder. The latter will depend on the location of the fruit
buds. In shy-bearing varieties, where the fruit buds are towards
the extremity of the twigs, the cutting back is omitted. In the case
of heavy bearers, like Early Crawford, Foster, Elberta, that have
plenty of fruit buds all along the twigs, there will still be plenty
left after cutting back. Do likewise with the Nectarine and the
Almond.

Very vigorous trees are sometimes shy bearers, and can be
induced to bear by continued summer pruning, and occasionally
an autumn root pruning. In a good season, when fruit sets well,
thinning out when about the size of a marble, and before the kernel
has hardened, will prevent breakages owing to overloading, and also

154

spare the tree and enable the rest of the fruit to develop to larger
size.

PRUNING THE ALMOND.

The first few years the young tree is trained on the principles
laid down when dealing with the formation of a low-standard or
" vase "-shaped trees. Some varieties have a weeping- willow habit
of growth, and all branches pointing downwards should be cut to
insure the symmetry of the tree. After the third or fourth year the
pruning will simply consist in cutting dead wood, cross and broken
branches, and the shoots pointing downwards, which might inter-
fere with horse cultivation.. When three or more shoots grow from
the fork of a limb, the number should, by pruning, be reduced to
only two.

The almond carries its fruit on laterals growing on new as well
as on old branches, and, unlike those of the peach, the laterals of
the almond do not die back annually, but remain productive for
several seasons; they should not, therefore, be cut back as in the case
of the twigs of the peach that have just borne fruit.

PRUNING THE PLUMS AND PRUNES.

Low training is to be recommended for the plums and prunes,
and cutting back severely, during the first three years, the long
shoots so as to shape the tree, form a stocky and erect growth, and
favour the formation of fruit spurs along the main Branches, where
the bulk of the crop should be carried, thus preventing the excessive
bending down of the branches under the weight of the fruit. The
centre branches are well thinned ont, thus leaving the interior more
open to the genial influence of the sun, light, and air, and stimu-
lating a consequent development of fruit buds in the inside of the
tree, instead of leaving exterior branches to bear all the burden.

Should the tree show an inclination to run to wood and be
tardy in putting forth fruit spurs, summer pinching, by checking its
growth, will hasten the time of productiveness. When in full
bearing the trees require very little pruning, beyond the removal of
rank shoots which are misplaced and by the excision of dead wood
and others.

The plums produce their fruit on small natural spurs situated
at the ends and along the sides of the bearing shoots, one year up
to four or five years old, but mostly on two-year-old wood. These
spurs will continue in bearing for several years.

For the guidance of growers and pruners, it may be stated as a
general rule that the longer the wood of any variety of fruit trees
takes to come into bearing the longer these spurs will remain
fruitful.

A young plum shoot presents nothing but wood buds. That
branch cut at A develops at the subsequent growth more or less
vigorous shoots, according as they are nearer to the extremity.

155

Thus the buds at B will develop but slightly, those at C, growing
about the middle, will grow two or three inches In length, while
those shoots at D will probably reach a couple of feet. These last,

1. First year's pruning for forming fruit bud spurs. 2. Second year's pruning of fruit spurs.
3. Third year's prunning of fruit branches.

with the exception of the terminal shoot, are cut bnck at the time
of pruning to a length of four to six inches. The terminal shoot
will thus extend and fruit buds will develop over the shoots left.

A year or so after, the short spurs at B give birth to a few
flower buds, they have in the centre a wood bud which will slightly
extend their length. These spurs must not be cut. The larger
ones at C have flower buds in the middle and wood buds at the top
and must be cut back slightly, while those at D, which are more
vigorous, are shortened either bv cutting or by partial fracture (see
fig., p. 148).

After another year and in subsequent seasons, the lengthened
spurs must be cut back a little, so as to diminish the number of the
blossoms and prevent the too great lengthening of the shoots. The
same is done year after year, and when the fruiting shoots cease to
bear they are cut back slightly, in order to develop new replacing
branches towards the base.

Some growers only shorten plums and prunes once in every
two or three years, after coming into bearing. This practice holds
as well with pears, but will not do with peaches, apricots, and
Japanese plums, which require similar pruning to peaches.

156

Apricot branch
before pruning-.

PRUNING THE APRICOT.

The fruiting habit of the apricot is much like that of the plum,
and the same method of shortening-in is adopted in this instance.
It moreover, like the plum, bears fruit spurs on
older woods ; these bear for several years, and being
provided with leaf buds at the base, can be renewed
by cutting back when they grow feeble.

The apricot is a spreading and rank grower,
which, unless kept well within bounds, runs long
branches, which are liable to split asunder in windy
weather, when laden with fruit. For that reason
no two shoots should come from one bud, or be
directly opposite.

Pruning to inner buds is greatly to be recom-
mended when shaping the tree, while summer
pruning is frequently resorted to just after the crop
has been gathered, so as to promote the formation
of fruit buds at the base of the twigs, and minimise
the risk of gumming, the wounds healing at that
time rapidly. When large limbs have to be sup-
pressed, they should be well trimmed and coated
over with white lead, gum-shellac varnish, clay or
other covering, otherwise there is danger of the
branch dying back and killing or injuring the tree.

Unruly branches are better tied up with short string till they
naturally grow in the position they are meant to occupy. During
the first two or three years the trees need to be gone over two or
three times during spring and early autumn to remove suckers
and lateral growths that may start 011 the lower side of the limbs,
which, if left, would check the growth of the permanent limbs above
and the formation of fruit spurs. Many successful growers prune
their full-grown apricot trees, if found to be shy bearers, soon
after the fruit is picked, in the early autumn — preferably after a
shower of rain (March in Western Australia) — though not too
heavily, unless the tree is weakened by over- bearing. This develops
the buds for the next year. This operation is only recommended
after the trees have reached the bearing age. While the tree is
still young and being shaped, all the pruning should be done in the
winter. If the season is dry a good watering should be given to
the trees after the summer pruning.

The management of the fruit branches is much the same as in
the case of the cherry ; unless the shoot is cut back, the basal bud
will remain dormant, as shown in the following illustration of an
unpruned branch, and the terminal shoot will grow, lengthening
the branch which, long and lanky, will ultimately bend, and, unless
propped up, break down under the load of fruit. It is, therefore,
advisable to cut the young shoot at A (fig. i.). The sap will thus be
forced towards the base, and produce new fruit branches (A, fig. 2).

157

The primitive branch B is cut at a, and the new fruit branch A at b,
order to obtain the same result. In the last figure the small

in

branch is cut at A so as to force a new fruit branch from the base.

1. Apricot fruit branch, pruning neglected. 2. Fruit spur, year after first pruning.

3. Other fruit spur, year after first pruning.— Du BRETTIL.

PRUNING THE CHERRY.

The instructions given about the shaping of young trees apply
to the cherry. The stem should be low and headed back to 12 to
15 inches when planting ; the main limbs are also cut short, as the
tree is very subject to sunburn. To guard against this it is a good
practice to pinch all side shoots not necessary for the extension of
the tree to a pair of leaves or two ; fruit spurs will thus, in time, be
formed all along the lower branches, while these tufts of leaves will
afford to the branches protection against the sun.

Cherry trees in general produce their fruit upon small spurs,
or studs, from half-an-inch to two inches in length, which proceed
from two, three, or four year old wood. New spurs will continue
to shoot out right up to the extremities of the branches ; in the

158

centre of every cluster of fruit spurs there is a wood spur, which,
as it extends each season, bursts into blossom and carries the year's
crop ; this should be remembered when priming. These spurs will
carry fruit for several years.

Once the cherry tree has commenced to fruit it should, unlike
the peach and the apricot, be very sparingly touched with the
knife, as it is besides very subject to " gumming." This peculiarity
of the plant is aggravated in individuals presenting long stems
exposed to the sun, on trees with many forked limbs, and on those
which have had large limbs taken off. It is found that by doing
all the necessary severe cutting during the summer, and after the
crop has been gathered, the wounds heal more readily. Whenever
a branch thicker than the size of the finger is cut off it is advisable
to apply to the fresh cut a covering of white lead, gum shellac
varnish' of hot wax or of clay.

The Heart and Bigarreau sorts, which are sweet varieties, are
luxuriant growers, attaining large size, and possess large drooping
leaves. Mazzard stock are preferred for these, the trees being long-
lived, larger, and healthy when planted on fairly good loam.

' The Duke and Morellos classes are slow growing sorts of the
sour kind. The first have stiff and erect branches with smaller
leaves, thicker and of a darker green colour than the preceding
classes ; the second or Kentish Cherries are of a bushy habit, with
smaller leaves still and more drooping and more numerous twigs.
The branches must be kept far enough apart to admit the sun and
air freely amongst them, and the stem and main branches
strengthened by cutting hard for several seasons. If the tree grows
too luxuriantly, an occasional root pruning will throw it into fruit.
They do best on Mahaleb stock, which gives smaller trees, but is
more accommodating as regards soil. This stock gums on wet,
retentive soil. If it were not for the sprouting habit, sour varieties
on their own roots do very well. Cherry trees when shaped for the
first few years as a rule keep a good form, and bear well without
pruning.

PRUNING THE FILBERT.

Suckers should be carefully eradicated every season, and the
bushes pruned somewhat after the fashion of the quince, or else
they will be a mass of branches, and remain almost barren. Yet
the filbert, in the majority of cases, is completely left to itself,
although to be fruitful it requires proper and regular pruning. The
blossoms, like those of the walnut, are monoecious, i.e., the male
flower or catkins, and the female flower are born on the same tree,
but from different buds. These fruit buds bear in a cluster at the
extremity of small twigs, and are produced on shoots of one year's
growth, and bear the next.

Unless the bushes are pruned, they bear very heavily one year,
and remain barren several seasons to recuperate. The mode of
pruning consists in cutting back severely the first few years, so as

159

to favour the growth of side shoots, which are shortened to prevent
the whole nourishment being carried to the top of the branch, the
consequence being that small shoots grow from their base, which
carry fruit. By this method of spurring, bearing shoots are
produced, which would otherwise have remained dormant.

PRUNING THE WALNUT AND CHESTNUT.

Much of what is said about the pruning of the fig applies to
these trees. Their habit of growth is symmetrical, and the growers
will, by cutting off misplaced branches, broken or dead, and by
shortening bending limbs, do much to keep them growing symmet-
rically. As their feeding roots are close to the surface, light hoeing
only should be done in close proximity to the trees. They should
be trained with a general upright tendency, so as to interfere as
little as possible with cultivation. Limbs branching low down will
protect the stem from sunburn.

PRUNING THE LOQUAT.

The loquat, or Japanese medlar, has hitherto been raised from
the seed as a tree suitable for wind breaks. The choicer varieties
are, however, now propagated by grafting or by budding, either 011
its own roots or on the quince, to which it is botanically somewhat
related. In the first instance it forms large trees, which take four
or five years to mature its fruit. In the second instance it conies
into bearing at an earlier age. When grown for shelter the higher
trees worked on loquat seedlings should be selected and trained with
a stem three or four feet high. In the second case, whether it is on
its own or on quince roots, it should be headed lower down. As the
tree carries permanent foliage, and later on heavy crops of fruit,
the main limbs should be as strong and sturdy as possible, and
trained with a generally upright direction. These hi course of time,
as the branches extend and carry more foliage and more fruit, will
gradually be bent down, hence the importance of throwing strength
and vigour into them at an early stage. This is done by encouraging
the growth of three or four leaders, low down on the stem (if not
grown as a wind break) ; all other shoots are either cut off or
pinched back, and the young tree is subsequently shaped much in
the same manner as has been explained in connection with the
shaping and framing of young trees generally. The fruit bunches
issue from the terminal point of young shoots. They bear at their
base wood buds, which will in growing season push out young
shoots. These, if too numerous, should be thinned out to two or
three only, so as to insure for each its due share of light, air and
sun. The decaying flower stalks are cut 'off, as well also as all dead
branches.

PRUNING THE FIG.

Fig trees naturally form symmetrical heads. They are best
shaped when young with the main arms arranged symmetrically

160

round the stem. Figs for table purposes are headed low, so that
the fruit can be picked without difficulty. Figs for drying are
headed higher, so that the picking of the dead ripe and fallen fruit
can be easily done over the smooth ground. The fig tree suckers
pretty freely, and these should be removed in the winter time.
Wherever the ground is rich the tree will often run excessively to
wood, and in that case root pruning will force it into bearing.
Drooping branches are cut off, and those growing obliquely upright
retained. Dead wood and branches that cross and interfere with
one another are suppressed, but the end of the shoots should be
sparingly touched with the pruning knife on account of the mode
of bearing of the tree. This is as follows : — The fruits are carried
either singly or in pairs in the axils of the leaves, and they appear
on the branch as growth proceeds. If a tree is examined after it
has cast its leaves it is seen that all along the younger branches
scars show where leaves grew the previous summer. At intervals,
just over these scars, diminutive buds, which will in the spring
constitute the first crop of figs, appear ; while a pointed conical
wood bud crowns the head of these branches. When spring comes

ait

Fig Branch showing First and Second Crops.

161

the first crop of figs shows more plainly ; the fruit hangs down
from the branch without a leaf alongside of it. Further on the
conical terminal shoot grows on and leaves come out around it ;
just in the axils of these leaves more diminutive buds also show,
which, later in the summer, constitute the second crop of figs. In
prolonged seasons the growth of terminal shoots, as well as of
laterals, continuing without interruption, may in this manner evolve
even a third crop, but more generally the third crop remains
dormant until the following early spring, and it is then a first crop
again. It is thus seen that if laterals and terminals are cut back
in the winter a proportion of the first crop is cut off, and this
pruning leading to the growth of a greater number of laterals, these
will produce a larger second crop proportionately with the number
of young shoots which have burst into growth. No apparent
flower is seen on the fig, those organs being hidden from view by
the skin which covers them ; as the fruit enlarges the blossoms
expand, and when fertilised the seeds mature.

Old fig trees which have grown in a distorted manner and
require rejuvenating are simply cut hard back to the height desired,
and the numerous latent buds under the bark will, in the spring,
start growing ; these shoots should be thinned out to a few only .
Large wounds should be dressed with some covering mixture.

PRUNING THE OLIVE.

The tree should be kept low, and trained with a globular head,
somewhat vase-shaped in the middle ; this permits of easier and
more careful gathering of the fruit by hand, and a larger surface
exposed to the sun and light.

During the first year or two the main effort of the grower
should consist in throwing all the vigour and energy of the young
tree into one stem only. This is shortened to a height of three
feet or so, and a head formed by allowing three to four branches to
grow. Like all fruit trees, great expense is saved in gathering the
crop by having the trees branched low ; they are also better able
to resist the winds, and the bodies are thus protected from the
hot sun.

The olive bears its crop on the growth of the previous year,
and it is therefore essential to favour the multiplication of new
shoots in order to increase annual production. This is done by
shortening the terminal shoots when shaping the trees, suppressing
the " gluttons," or fruitless water shoots, removing all branches
that are misplaced, crossed, or are in the way, and keeping down
the suckers. A dense growth of foliage in the centre of the tree
should be reduced by thinning out some of the branches. This
also checks the black scale and the sooty mould. Whipping the

162

branches in gathering the crop, or pruning off the young growth,
will make the tree barren the following season.

The best time for pruning is after the severe winter frosts are
over, and just before the sap begins to rise in the spring. In this
country, however, where ground frost only is experienced, pruning
can be done at any time in the winter, provided care is taken to
coat any fresh wound with the gum shellac varnish, or a thin paste
made of cow dung and clay.

CITRUS TREES.

Citrus trees, which are evergreen, unlike deciduous trees, are
not subjected to methodical annual pruning.

If the growth from the bud in the nursery is sufficiently vigor-
ous, the young plant is headed back to 20 to 24 inches, and the
crown is formed from a few well-placed laterals — three only by pre-
ference— growing symmetrically around the stump, at an interval of
two or three inches from each other, so as to ward against the danger
of splitting when the tree begins to bear heavily. Should, on the
other hand, the growth in the nursery have failed to permit of the
head being formed there, the tree is cut back at planting to a lesser
height, and shaped as if dealing with a deciduous tree. As in the
case of other trees, one stem alone should be allowed to grow. The
object to aim at is to train a low-headed, stocky tree, with a short
stem and a globular head, which shelters well the trunk, the main
limbs, as well as the superficial roots of the tree. The knife and
pruning saw should be used more sparingly on trees of the citrus
tribe than on deciduous trees. Hank water shoots and dead or dying
branches should be removed, as well as branches which cross and rub.
If the branches grow too thickly in the centre a judicious thinning
out is necessary to allow light and air to penetrate freely amongst
them. This is done by cutting off small leafy twigs, which grow in
the crotches of branches, as well as over the main and secondary
arms. Trees thus thinned out afford less shelter and hiding place
to scale insects and spores of fungoid diseases, which are thus kept
in check. When sprayed or fumigated the spraying liquid or the
deadly gas penetrate more readily the mass of foliage. Large
wounds should be well pared off with the knife, and coated with
white lead, gum shellac varnish, clay, or some other ointment.

The young tree is planted with its roots very shallow, or else
gumming and canker of the wood at the collar will supervene and
destroy it. The stem is tied up to a stake, all shoots below the bud
are rubbed off, as well as those above the bud to a height of nine to
twelve inches from the ground, and the head consisting of three or
four shoots, allowed to grow freely so as to strengthen the stem as
well as the root sjstem. Long rank shoots, often seen, more
especially on lemon trees, are pinched hard back so as to favour the
growth of laterals and balance the head of the tree.

163

Young plants should be encouraged to make as much wood as
possible for the first three or four years, and any fruit showing
after blossoming is rubbed off.

The orange and other citrus trees carry their fruit on one year
old wood only, and at the extremity of their branches and twigs ;
after the crop is off, young dormant buds at the back of the pre-
vious season's fruit shoot out, overgrow last season's fruit stalk,
and blossom in due course. It will thus be seen that the mode of
shortenmg-in described for the peach is not applicable for trees of
the citrus tribe, which would thereby be made barren for the next
season. It is also necessary, in order to obtain heavy crops, to
maintain the tree in a thrifty state of growth.

Orange tree before pruning-.

Some varieties of citrus trees, and more especially the Thorny
mandarin, grow a very thick and compact head, which requires
some amount of thinning out and cutting back, or else they are
given to overbear one season and vegetate the next, for the purpose
of recuperating. The twigs, besides, when left untouched, become
so numerous and so puny that a large proportion of undersized and
inferior fruit result in seasons of bearing of the trees, whereas no
fruit at all is produced during the off year.

It is at times desirable to renovate old citrus trees which
through neglect or disease have ceased to become profitable. A

164

common variety of a coarse type may also give place to a better
sort. Whenever the roots are sound and growing in fertile soil, it
may be expedient to cut off the top in the winter, after the heavy frosts.
A number of tender shoots then sprout out in the spring ; these are
thinned out to three or four, symmetrically placed around the stem,

Orange tree after pruning.

and when strong enough, in the summer or the early autumn, they
are budded if it is desired to change the variety. See illustration in
article "How to Bud" (p. 109.) As this lopping operation thus
exposes the trunk to the full force of the summer sun, it is advisable
to clothe it in coarse bagging, or to paint it with a protecting lime-
wash.

PRUNING THE PERSIMMON.

Persimmons bear on new wood, hence the advisableness of
pruning hard back to induce fresh growth. When cut the plant
exudes through the wound a corrosive sap, which cakes on the blade
of the knife or the secateur, and causes the cut branch to die back,
unless the instrument is, at frequent intervals,- cleaned on a piece of
leather.

PRUNING THE PASSION VINE.

The passion vine is kept under control by pinching back and
removing straggling shoots. Older vines can be rejuvenated by

165

cutting back to the main stalk, from which fresh shoots soon grow
and replace the older ones.

PRUNING THE RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY.

At the time of planting choose root canes or suckers with a
good root system attached ; cut the cane back about 12 inches above
the ground. From the base, strong and sturdy fruit canes will
spring up. During the summer keep weeds down by frequent
shallow hoeing, and at the same time knock off the superabundant
suckers that may appear, leaving only from four to six. Remember
that deep digging with the spade or hoe is injurious to the plant,
cutting its tufts of fibrous roots, which are surface feeders and
nourish the crops. The plant carries deep, strong, woody roots as
well, which produce and support the canes.

When the canes are several feet long they are topped off, and
the subsequent laterals are pinched back about 12 inches from the
stem. In the autumn, after the old crop has been gathered, the
old canes, which will not fruit any more, are cut off close to the
ground by means of a bent sharp hook fixed at the end of a long

cane. This implement may be made of an old rasp ; the cutting
edges come together at a point like the letter V, and will cut on
both edges, while it will also catch and hold the cut cane, which
has to be removed from amongst the canes left on the plant. Thus
the newer canes have a better chance, under the additional amount
of sun and air they get, to mature and become more fruitful.
These should have 10 to 12 inches of their ends cut off, as this
part has not summered properly and is of no value. By this
means also noxious insects and fungoid diseases are also better
destroyed, and the cutting of the spent canes is easier than if they
were dead and dry.

Raspberries and blackberries are either trained upright or
without supports, by cutting hard back, or, better still, by trellising
over stakes, laths, or wires. On large plantations the pruning is
done more economically — more especially in the case of the black-
berry— and consists, besides removing the worn-out canes in the
autumn, in slashing the laterals on each side of the hedge in the
summer, to allow cultivation, and tying the bunches together or to
the trellis.

PRUNING G-OOSEBERRY AND CURRANTS.

Both plants receive pretty well the same treatment. At
planting, short jointed young shoots are cut about 14 to 18 inches
long. It is advisable to blind with the knife or the blade of the
secateur all the buds which will be underground, or else the plants

166

will be continually throwing up suckers. The accompanying
illustration shows a bush with four branches, and a sucker springing
from the base, which, unless carefully suppressed,
will spoil its shape. The branches should be well
raised above the ground, say 12 inches. By this
means the fruit is kept clean, and sun and air
having full access to the branches, favour its fruit-
fuJness. To ensure this, the branches are cut half
back, with the result that there are at least double

-Gooseberry cutting.
(J. WRIGHT.)

Gooseberry bush a year from the cutting.
(J. WRIGHT.)

the number the next season, as shown by the dotted
lines. When the time for the second pruning comes
these canes are cut back to about 12 inches in length
to good buds pointing upwards or outwards, so as to
keep the bush well above the ground.

Unless gooseberries are pruned, the fruit never
or seldom attains to any size, and the bush is soon
exhausted. The gooseberry, like the currant, bears
well on spurs of two years or older wood ; they also

bear well on the young annual shoots, when these are left with a

certain amount of discretion.

The illustration, one and two-years old wood on a gooseberry
branch, shows on the older wood natural spurs forming all along it,
and also two lateral shoots cut back at (x x). Unless these had
been cut back it would have been almost impossible to pass the hand
down the head of the bush for gathering the crop. It is essential
that all laterals should be shortened to at least allow the hand to
reach to the centre of the bush. A young shoot as shown in the figure
may be left at intervals, so as to enable the cutting back every few
years of the worn-out older spur-carrying shoots in the centre, or
the bushes have a tendency to soon cease bearing, except on the
outside.

The currant bushes are formed in the same way as the goose-
berry bushes, but when the plant has as many branches as it can
carry, the additional growth of fresh new wood should not be
encouraged. The distance between the branches should be such

167

that the hat can be put amongst them. The illustration shows

mostly fruit buds, except at the ex-
tremity of the branches, where the
young wood has been cut back to about
nine inches. In the summer both the
gooseberry and the currant receive the
following treatment : —

The young shoots which are seen push-
ing upwards are pinched back five or six
inches in length, as shown at (x x) in the
following illustration (p. 168) ; this will

stttt

A red currant busli after pruning. — J. WEIGHT.

allow sun and air to reach the crop of
fruit. A young shoot may here and
there be left if -there is room for its
growth. Should fresh shoots show on
those which have been cut back, they
should be pinched again, so as to favour
the formation of fruiting spurs.

PRUNING THE STRAWBERRY.

consists in trimming

the roots at planting

time, so as to favour

the growth of the

fibrous roots which

will feed the plant, and later on in cutting
all runners before the fruiting season, and as
soon as they make their appearance. Unless
this is done the fruiting of the plant will be
seriously checked. Even after the fruiting, some
growers still remove the runners, and only leave
them on if young plants are required. In fact,
treat all runners as weeds the first season. The
illustration shows the design of a convenient
runner-cutter, which saves much trouble. The
crescent blade is of such a diameter that it will

Gooseberry branch, one and two
years old.— J. WRIGHT.

Strawberry runner-
cutter.

168

encircle one side of a strawberry plant, and may be made with an
arc of about nine inches. The appliance is pushed down on one
side of the plant, and then on the other side, thus cutting all

A fruiting branch of gooseberry. — J. WRIGHT.

runners spreading around. Where the ground is moist the leaves
of the strawberry plants are mowed clean off in the winter, then
gathered up with a rake and burned. This checks the spread of
the leaf spot disease. The same purpose is at times attained by
spraying the beds with a solution of sulphate of iron.

PRUNING THE TOMATO.

If large-sized, early tomatoes are required, the plants should
either be forced and planted out early, or sown towards the end of
August, and protected from frost by means of a light mulching.
One stalk only is allowed to grow, and lateral leaf shoots pinched
off, the terminal shoot alone being allowed to remain. The fruit
bearing laterals are left on the plant, and will soon set to fruit.
The plant is trained either along short stakes or along a trellis,
made of wire stretched between two short posts stuck at each end
of the rows. This will keep the plants off the ground, and make
the operations of spraying and picking easier. The tomato rot
is not so severe on staked vines as on plants crawling over the
damp ground, whilst by training the plants it is easier to get at the

169

cut worms and the green caterpillars with arsenical baits and
sprays. After a while a few leaf laterals are allowed to grow, if it
is feared that the crop might be injured by sun-burn.^Large-sized

Tomatoes staked with laterals pinched off .

and early tomatoes will thus be obtained. For home use the
tomato plant is seldom pruned. It bears enormously, but the fruit
is smaller and somewhat later in ripening.

SUMMER PRUNING AND THINNING OF FRUIT.

As generally understood, pruning is an operation performed in
the winter time, the object of which is the shaping of the plant, the
adjustment of its wood and of its fruit-bearing capacity, and the
easier management of such operations as cultivation, spraying and
dressing of the trees and vines, and gathering the fruit. In the
summer months, however, the attention given to the plants for the
purposes already named, are supplemented by operations which are
spoken of as " summer pruning." In its proper sense, summer
pruning consists of pinching and disbudding.

PINCHING

is the operation by which strong and vigorous shoots, which are out-
running slower growing ones, are set back in order to give those
other shoots a chance of catching up to the stronger ones, or of
diverting the flow of sap into other channels where it is wanted.

It consists in suppressing, by nipping between the finger and
thumb, the tender growth of terminal shoots, without, for that
purpose, removing much or any of the foliage at all. It is by

170

pinching that trees, when in their nursery beds, are given the shape
which it is meant they should assume before they are sent out to
customers to be planted.

Pinching is often practised in the summer for promoting the
formation of fruit buds. The illustration on page 147 shows where
to pinch the tender shoot.

In pinching back side shoots, intended to carry fruit buds,
care must be taken not to shorten them too severely ; it is not too
much too allow them three or four inches. If pinched too short,
the little butt or shoot either ceases to grow and dies, leaving a
vacant space on the branch, or else, a year or two after this
excessive pinching, two small basal buds push forth on each side of
the suppressed shoot; these will ultimately blossom, but this will
involve the loss of another season or two, or again premature shoots
will grow, which will likewise be a longer time setting to fruit, and
are not likely to be so fruitful as better constituted snoots properly
pinched would be, as already referred to and illustrated under
Pruning.

When pinching back, and especially where the tree is full of
running sap and of vigour, the shoots, instead of being cut or nipped
clean off, are half broken through, and the terminal end left hang-
ing. In this way the tension of the sap is partly diverted to half
nourish the broken part, and the pressure is not strong enough to
stimulate the growth of side shoots on that half -broken spur. At
winter pruning that spur will present the appearance shown on the
figure, the hanging piece will be excised, and the spur below will be
stocked with fruit-bearing buds. These, after they have perfected
their internal organs — a process which, according to sorts of fruit
trees, takes from one to three years to accomplish — will, in due
course, blossom and carry fruit.

DISBUDDING

consists in rubbing off with the thumb any misplaced buds or tender
shoot.

Pinching and disbudding are the most rational methods of
gradually directing the growth of trees and vines, thus avoiding, at
the time of winter pruning, the severe cutting of much unnecessary
wood, on which some of the plant's best energy may have been
spent during the growing months.

Indeed, if literally carried out, there would be little winter
pruning left to be done, except shortening the leading branches of
young trees. However, if pinching and disbudding can be made to
answer a useful purpose, the beginner should guard against too
rigidly carrying it out under every circumstance, as it often happens
that a better root growth, and much useful shelter in the summer
months against the ardent rays of the sun, are obtained by not too
strictly following the rules of pinching and disbudding.

171

To illustrate the methods of nipping and of disbudding, no
better example can be taken than that of the apricot. These trees
often throw out two or three shoots from the same knot. In
shaping them a good deal of disbudding has to be done, as it is
essential that they should not grow in a bunch out of the main
stem.

Supposing at planting time the young tree has been cut back
to a stick 18 or 20 inches high, the first shoot should start 12 inches
from the ground, and not more than three others at most should be
left to divide the space between that height and the top of the stem.
Around that stem these three or four branches should be so
disposed as to evenly balance, all other intervening shoots being
rubbed off as they appear.

The first year it will be necessary to go over the trees at
intervals and rub off all unnecessary shoots, thus to preserve the
balance of the tree. Only strong and vigorous shoots are pinched
back, any general heading back tending to dwarf the trees.

The method of cutting back the first winter has been explained
in the course of a previous chapter.

When the young tree starts its second year's growth, all the
shoots that come out on the underside of the main limbs — which
have in the winter been cut back to 6 to 12 inches — are rubbed offr
with the exception of two growing upward and outward on each
limb, so as to continue the growth of the tree and maintain its-
proper balance and shape.

The following year again, when the new shoots are a few inches
long, they are again thinned down to two leading ones on
each branch, all lateral growths and water shoots which tend to
throw the tree out of shape being rubbed off. In doing so care
must be taken not to take off the fruit spurs. Thus a strong tree
is built up, with sturdy limbs, directed in an upward and outward
direction, and capable of carrying a heavy load of fruit, well
distributed around those limbs. ' The third year a few apricots will
ripen, and after they have been gathered the trees are gone over
and topped.

This operation favours the formation of fruit spurs, and,
moreover, prevents the dying back of the branches, which, more
especially with stone fruit trees, is a common occurrence when
pruned in the depth of a wet winter, at a time when the sap is
dormant, and its healing power is not so marked. This done, all
that remains to be done is to rectify early in the spring any errors
of pruning which may have been done when the foliage did not
permit of a correct view of the tree ; at that time about one-half of
the season's growth is cut back, due regard being paid to shape and
balance, and cross shoots ; water sprouts and dead branches are also
taken out.

172

Grape vines should not be topped too early, unless they happen
to be in exposed situations where they are liable to be broken by
strong winds. A great many growers I have met will, on the other
hand, leave this topping until late in the season, so, as they fancy,
to keep down labour, and at one stroke slash back both shoots and
laterals. This practice has of late given rise to much adverse com-
ment, and by degrees it is satisfactory to notice growers are
moderating the intensity of this summer slashing, and the vines
in consequence are much benefited both in growth and in pro-
duction.

Wherever the vines are trellised very little topping, if any at
all, will be required, and the shoots, after being tied up to the top
wire, should be allowed to droop down in
festoons. When growing bush -fashion, just
enough trimming should be done to enable the
team and implements moving between the rows
without knocking the shoots too much. This
is generally done early in November, and
three or four joints are left above the last
bunch of grapes.

" Defoliation," which in cold and damp
countries was practised for promoting the
colouring and the ripening of the grapes, and
thus saving them from bursting and rotting,
is now seldom practised. In such a genial
climate as the Australian one it has
nothing whatever to recommend itself, and
should be absolutely discarded ; all the efforts
of the grower, on the other hand, should tend
to provide for the grapes as much shelter as
possible against the direct and scorching rays vine cane rightly topped.
of the sun in the height of summer.

THINNING THE FRUIT

is an operation which consists in rubbing off fruit which is imper-
fect, insect-infested, diseased, overcrowded in clusters, and all
surplus fruit which can well be dispensed with, thereby improving
that which remains, and sparing the energy of the tree. It is almost
as important as pruning, and it is becoming to be regarded as
essential to the profitable production of first-quality fruit as is
pruning, cultivating, and manuring. Thus, in its proper season, it
should receive as much attention on the part of the grower. The
best time for thinning fruit is after the late spring frosts and other
early accidents are passed, but before they have become of sufficient
size to be a tax upon the tree.

In connection with thinning, the following points are worth
bearing in mind : — Fruit trees form their blossom buds a year or

173

two before these buds actually bear fruit. It thus follows that if
a tree is allowed to overbear, it is hardly expected that it will also
nourish as it should do the ensuing season's crop of blossom buds,
and these being feeble and wanting in vigour and strength will, it is
more than likely, in the proper time fail to set and perfect their
fruit. Occasional heavy crops, therefore, more especially on trees
growing in land of only moderate fertility, thus accounts for the
fact that many trees which are allowed to grow and bear at their
own sweet will are seen to carry prodigious crops one season and to
be shy bearers the season after.

Overbearing not only enfeebles the coming season's buds, but it
also severely disturbs the constitution of most trees. More energy
is spent by them in perfecting the embryo, which is the essential
part of the plant's seed or kernel, than is required in elaborating
the pulp, and as much, if not more, valuable mineral constituents
are abstracted from the soil in order to produce the seed as it does
to manufacture the flesh part of the crop. Thinning, therefore, by
reducing the number of matured seeds, considerably lessens the
drain on the vitality of the plant and of the soil. Thinning, some
argue, is a costly operation, and necessitates in some cases the ex-
penditure of 6d. to 2s. a tree in labour spent on that operation alone,
and in some cases, when old and vigorous trees have to be carefully
gone over, it may cost as much as Is. to 3s. for so doing. It should
be considered, on the other hand, that the fruit must be picked
sooner or later, and that as far as actual cost goes, it does not matter
whether this amount is spent before the seeds form or when the
fruit is ripe and ready for market.

The extra cost of picking, therefore, need not be entertained,
as it is practically the same, whether part of the crop is picked
when thinning and part at the time the fruit ripens, or whether
the whole crop is picked at the one time. But, apart from the
consideration of more even crops in a succession of seasons,
thinning also influences to a marked degree the season's crop.
Although less in number, fruit from a thinned tree equals in
weight, and certainly surpasses, as regards size and market value,
fruit from a like tree left unthinned.

A few figures will demonstrate that the lesser number of
fruit from a tree that has been thinned equals or even surpasses
in volume the crops from an overloaded tree that has not been
thinned.*

Two peaches measure respectively If inches and 3 inches in
diameter ; some might imagine that the second is twice the size of
the first, in reality it is eight times as voluminous, or, in other words,
it would take eight times the number of If -inch fruit to fill a bushel
case which would hold a given number of three-inch peaches, for
the cube of 1'5 is 3'375, whereas the cube of 3 is 27, or eight
times as much. In the same way, two apples measure 2 inches

174

and 4 inches in diameter, the larger fruit is not twice as big as
the first, but eight times larger, for the cube of 2 is only 8,
whereas the cube of 4 is 64, or eight times more. By a similar
reasoning it is easy to demonstrate that fruit 3 inches in
diameter is more than double the size of fruit 2 inches in
diameter. For convenience of calculation in multiplying and
dividing let us reduce the inches to quarter inches, and it is thus
found that the volume of a fruit 12 quarters in diameter is more
than three times the size in cubic measurement of another fruit
8 quarters in diameter.

Thinning not only increases size, but also improves appearance.
It thus pleases the consumer, sells easier, and is more profitable to
the grower. Poor fruit, on the other hand, gluts the market,
brings down prices, and often does not pay for handling.

The theory of thinning having now been minutely gone into, a
few practical hints regarding the method, so far as the different
varieties of fruit trees go, may be of value.

Hand labour, as in many other operations which require
skill as well as judgment, is the only practical method at present.
Apricots are the first fruit which come ready for thinning, and this
may be commenced when the fruit is about the size of marbles,
sometime towards the beginning of November ; at that time the
fruit has stopped dropping, and the seeds have not commenced to
harden.

Apricots intended for canning or drying should not go more
than 10 to the lb., and to attain that weight they must measure If
inches in diameter, and should be thinned to about 2| inches apart
on the branches where the trees are well loaded, and havre not been
thinned by frost or by beetles. Should they have dropped a great
many fruit, and left them, in bunches, the smaller fruit only, which
would not develop, are rubbed off. Californian apricot growers
consider that a healthy tree, having a body three inches in diameter,
or a little over, should carry fifty pounds of fruit, and at 10 to the
pound this would take 500 full size apricots to the tree. By
counting the apricots on a few trees, the operator soon learns when
sufficient thinning is done, though the tendency at first is to leave
too much fruit. Other practical growers estimate that, on a limb
four feet long, with three to five laterals, there are, under conditions
of unrestricted growth, between 100 to 125 apricots. When
properly thinned and cut back that limb should produce not more
than one fourth of that number, or 20 to 24 apricots, but they are
perfect in quality, superior in size, and classed as " extras."
Apricots thus treated measure about 2^ inches in diameter; the
ordinary fruit of this class measures only 1J inches. In other
words the larger fruit is over three and a half times the size of the
smaller one, and the one-fourth thinned crop will occupy about
three-fourths bulk space of the full unthinned crop.

175

Peaches and nectarines, next to apricots, require thinning,
and according to the earliness or lateness of the variety, and of the
locality, this operation should be done from the middle of Novem-
ber to the middle of December. They are generally thinned when
about the size of a hazel nut, or a little larger, and a space of 4 to
6 inches should be left between each fruit. In Michigan and in
Georgia, where peach growing ranks as one of the leading industries,
only two peaches are left on twigs J inch in diameter, after the
trees have been well pruned ; three or four on twigs | inch in
diameter, and if the land is not irrigated and is not naturally
moist, only half ; thus the trees will bear a good crop every year,
and will be long-lived. All thinning is carefully done by hand,
and all double fruit is taken off. The fruit on the points of the
branches should be much further apart than that along the limbs
of the tree. Peaches (except the early flat China peach), when less
than If inches in diameter, are not .saleable, and by thinning their
size are easily increased to 2J inches, or three times the size ; they
then bring much better prices.

Apples are thinned from the time they are of the size of a
hazel nut until they are thrice as large. The ordinary rule in
thinning them is, after the tree is in good bearing, only leave one
apple to the spur, or one, or at most two, where there were bunches
of three to 10.

Prunes, it is the Californian experience, need thinning to give
good fleshy fruit, especially when they show a tendency to overbear,
when they only produce fruit that, when dried, is nothing but skin
and seed.

Grapes in hothouses in the cooler climate of Europe a,re
systematically thinned, and the careful grower, armed with a sharp
pair of pointed scissors, snips off the tail end of the bunches, as
well as the hanging wings or shoulders, and also all small and half-
developed berries. 'By this means the bunch assumes the shape of
a somewhat conical cylinder, and every berry grows to a larger and
more uniform size. In this country, however, where labour is so
dear and grapes so cheap, and where, above every other reason, the
mass of the consumers will give little more for grapes of extra
quality than they would for ordinary fruit, it is questionable whether
thinning grapes on a large scale and except for special purposes
can be recommended as profitable. In my opinion, it would be
better, under the conditions that obtain here, to regulate the crop
by proper pruning in the winter time.

To conclude these notes on thinning fruit, it may be said that
the grower who allows his trees to overbear, and the stock-owner
alike who overstocks his run, both show an error of judgment ;
neither will attain the full measure of success which both might
well reach but for following wrong methods.

176

MANUEES AKD MANUBINd.

The fruit-grower, having secured fruit trees and vines suitable
for the purpose he has in view, will find few more profitable invest-
ments than the expenditure of a few shillings per acre in suitable
manures for the purpose of adding to the fertility of the soil or
restoring the elements of plant food extracted from it by the crop.

The science of agricultural chemistry has thrown such light on
the question of fertilisers and in the study of the requirements of
cultivated plants that we are now able, with a certain amount of
certainty, for every pound spent in suitable manures to expect a
good return.

Few soils can do without manure of some sort in order to yield
a maximum crop. Occasionally some, however, are, if anything, too
rich and too forcing for the purpose of fruit-growing; they induce an
extravagant growth of leaves and wood to the detriment of the
fruit. Wine grapes on such soils produce a thin must of little value
for the purpose of wine-making as compared with must from similar
grapes grown on poorer ground.

Most soils respond liberally to the application of suitable
manures, and in order to satisfy the requirements of the crops
entrusted to them, some knowledge of what is plant food and how
plants feed must necessarily prove helpful.

WHAT is PLANT FOOD.

Plants, in order to live and fructify, require certain elements
of food, fourteen in number, some of which are supplied by
the air, and some are found in the soil. Those supplied from the
air are combinations and compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, they constitute, with the compounds of nitrogen and
sulphur, which, in the case of fruit trees, are drawn from the soil,
the organic part of the plant, which on combustion, either by fire,
fermentation or putrefaction, return entirely or partly to the air.
The mineral part of the plant which is represented by the ashes
left behind after complete combustion constitute the inorganic
constituents, they consist of potassium, phosphorus, calcium,
magnesium, iron, silicon, sulphur, sodium, chlorine, and manganese.

Some knowledge of the composition of the tissues of plants and
fruits will be useful for understanding in what proportion the
different elements indispensable for plant growth occur in most
crops.

Nearly two-thirds consist of water which disappears on dessi-
cation, and the balance is made up of combustible organic matter
(carbo-hydrates), such as fibre, starch, sugar, gum, oils, alkaloids,
and albuminoids, gluten, albumen, etc. ; and also one to three per
cent, of mineral or inorganic matters represented by the ashes.

177

To agricultural chemistry and such works as those of Wolff, in
Europe, and Professor Hilgard, of the University of California, we
owe a great deal of the knowledge we at present possess, respecting
the:—

MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF THE ASHES OF VARIOUS PLANTS.

Potash.

Lime.

Magnesia.

Iron.

Phosphoric
Acid.

Apple

35'68

4-08

8-75

1-40

13-59

Pear

54-69

7-98

5-22

1-04

15-20

Plum

59-21

10-04

5-46

3-30

15-10

Prune

63-83

4-66

5-47

272

14-08

Orange ...

48'94

22-71

5-34

0-97

12-37

Lemon ...

48'26

29-87

4-40

0-43

11-09

Grape

63-14

9-05

3-97

0-06

10-42

Peach

74'46

2-64

6-29

0-58

16-02

Apricot ...

59'36

3-17

3-68

1-68

13-09

Fig

48-60

9-12

5-32

0'84

11-20

Strawberry

49-24

13-47

8-12

1-74

18-50

Almond ...

27-95

8'81

17-66

0-55

43-63

Cherry ...

51-85

7-47

5-46

1-98

15-97

Damson ...

45-98

12-65

8-17

1-19

13-83

Olive

60-07

15-72

4-38

1-19

8-35

Gooseberry

38-65

12-20

5-85

4-56

19-68

Quince ...

2739

7-79

13-11

1-19

43-32

Chestnut

39-36

7-84

7-84

1-03

8-25

The above table taken from a paper on orchard manures by
Mr. H. C. L. Anderson, M.A., formerly Director of Agriculture,
N.S.W., gives an insight into the composition of the ashes of
18 of the most extensively cultivated fruits. Thus says Mr.
Anderson : — Run down the column of figures under potash and see
how widely the percentages differ— the ashes of peaches containing
nearly 75 per cent, of that mineral (potash), and the ashes of apples
not half as much. Then look at the figures under phosphoric acid,
and see how they vary, from nearly 44 per cent, in the ashes of
almonds and quinces down to less than one-fourth of that amount
in grapes, and less than one-fifth in olives.

The other columns are not deserving of special attention, and
are given merely to convince the student that the substances lime,
magnesia, and iron are of lesser importance when compared with
potash and phosphoric acid.

In practice four only of the fourteen mineral contituents of
plants are, in the majority of cases, supplied to the crop under the
form of fertilisers, and these are nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid,
and lime; the first three especially are the most sparsely distributed
in soils and are also the most costly to replace.

With every crop of fruit removed from the orchard the avail-
able stores of postash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen in the soil are
correspondingly diminished.

178

FERTILISING MATTER REMOVED BY VARIOUS FRUITS.
(From analyses by Mr. G. E, Colby, University of California.)

FRESH FRUIT.
1,000 pounds.

Total Ash.

Potash.

Lime.

Phosphoric
Acid.

Nitrogen.

Ibs.

Ibs.

Ibs.

Ibs.

Ibs.

Almonds*

17-29

9'95

1-04

2-01

7-01

Apricots ...

5-08

3-01

•16

•66

1-94

Apples

2-64

1-40

•Jl

•33

1-05

Bananas ...

1078

6-80

•10

•17

•97

Cherries ...

4-82

2-77

•20

•72

2-29

Chestnuts

9-52

3-67

1-20

1-58

6-40

Figs

7-81

4-69

•85

•86

2-38

Grapes

5-00

2-55

•25

•11

1-26

Lemons ...

5-26

2-54

1-55

•58

1-51

Olives

13-50

9-11

2-43

1-25

5'60

Oranges ...

4-32

2-11

•97

•53

1-83

Peaches ...

5-30

3'94f

•14f

•85f

l'20f

Pears

2-50

1-34

•19

•34

•90

Prunes, French . . .

4-86

3-10

•22

•68

1-82

Plums

5-35

3'41f

•25f

•75f

1-81

Walnuts*...

12-98

8-18

1-55

1-47

5'41

Including Shells.

t Estimated.

The above table shows that the drain of Potash on the soil from
the removal of fruit crops is most marked in the case of olives, grapes,
figs, peaches, prunes, apricots, lemons, and oranges, in succession,
and least in almonds, apples, pears, plums, and cherries.

Phosphoric Acid is higher in the ashes of quinces, almonds,
olives, figs, strawberries, grapes (seedless varieties have less),
peaches, lemons, oranges (except seedless varieties), and less in
apples, pears, and cherries.

Of Nitrogen olives requires most, and are followed by peaches,
figs, apricots, oranges, grapes, plums, lemons, while the fruits poorer
in nitrogen are apples and pears.

Lime is extracted from the soil by lemons, oranges, olives, and
figs to a greater extent than by other fruits.

These analyses throw some light on the great sustaining power
of the olives and figs and nuts, which form an important part of
the diet of the inhabitants of those southern parts of Europe and
northern parts of Africa which encircle the Mediterranean.

They also show that the drain on the soil is greater in the
case of the orange than in that of the apple, while the former is
also more nourishing.

WEIGHT OF ONE ACRE OF SOIL AND OF ITS CONSTITUENTS.

To the untrained mind the perusal of a statement of a soil
analysis conveys no tangible idea of the amount of the con-
stituents declared therein and contained in any definite depth of
soil on, for instance, one acre of land. An approximate idea of the

179

•weight of average agricultural land gives a relative idea a.s to its
richness or deficiency in any of the manurial constituents. One
acre contains 43,560 square feet of surface, and a depth of one foot
of that area therefore contains 43,560 cubic feet of soil. The weight
of one cubic foot of soil varies greatly from the heaviest — rocky and
and sandy soils — to the lightest — peaty and clayey soils. The average
ordinary agricultural soil weighs about SOlbs. per cubic, foot, so that
the total weight of one acre of dry soil, one foot deep, would be
3,484,8001bs, or, say, 3,500,0001bs. ' This being so, a rich soil con-
taining one per cent, of potash or phosphoric acid would contain
35,0001bs. of such plant food on an acre one foot deep. Similarly
should the analysis disclose '1 per cent, the amount on that area
would be 3,5001bs. and a crop removing, say, 501bs. of potash or of
phosphoric acid a year would thus take 700 or 70 years, as the case
may be, to exhaust such a soil absolutely of either of the substances
referred to.

Although theoretically that lapse of time would be necessary
for the crops to entirely drain that soil of its potash or some of
the phosphates, it is nevertheless found that beyond a limit the soil
tenaciously holds up and refuses to part in favour of the crop with
the whole of its elements. It then becomes imperative to either
restore to the ground those elements of plant food which have been
removed or by fallowing and spelling provide fresh supplies from
the deeper strata and from the upper layer itself by the process of
weathering. It is fortunate that the future is thus protected against
the rapacity of the present. An examination of one of our own
soils, a free dark chocolate loam, on the bank of a brook, will serve
as an example of the teachings which soil analysis conveys to the
mind. The land in question is under black wattle, flooded gum, and
blackboys, and looks very fertile. Its analysis is as follows : —

Moisture '. 8'0200

Organic Matter 13'9900

* Phosphoric Acid 0'0255

*Potash Q'0848

Oxide of Iron and Alumina ... ... ... 17165

Carbonate of Calcium ... ... ... ... 0'6400

Soluble Silica 0'3660

Insoluble Silica 73-9260

* Nitrogen ... ... ... ... ... ... 0-420

Equal to Ammonia ... ... ... ... O'SIO

*Sodium Chloride 0-3714

Magnesia Chloride... ... ... ... • • ... 0'1504

This analysis shows that the land in question is a free dark
loam. It contains 74 per cent, of sand and is also rich in humus.

Approximately, one acre of that soil, one foot deep, contains : —

Of Potash 350X85= 2,9751bs.

Of Phosphoric Acid 350x25= 8121bs.

Of Nitrogen 350 x 42 = 14,700lbs.

Of Salt (Sodium Chloride) ... 350 x 37 = 12,9501bs.

Of Magnesium Chloride ... ... 350X15= 5,2501bs.

180

Supposing this land was cropped annually, and the crop
removed from the ground 501bs. each of potash, phosphoric acitf,
and nitrogen, the ground would be completely exhausted of the
first in 600 years, of the second in 16 years, and of the third in
3,000 years.

This assumption, however, wo aid be entirely unsupported in
practice. The high percentage of salt is an indication that the
land in question is badly drained ; in fact, it is often waterlogged,
and the soluble salts, instead of being washed out of the ground,
accumulate to an alarming .extent. The roots, then, of the more
tender crop plants instead of feeding on a layer of soil one foot deep,
would rot and corrode and only penetrate to a few inches. The
mass of plant food revealed by chemical analysis is in practice
found to be beyond the reach of the crops, and, besides, whatever
amount of that plant food lies within reach of the shallow roots of
the crop is of such a crude and raw quality that it is not in a fit
state to act as plant food.

DIFFERENT SOURCES OF FERTILISERS.

According to their origin or the sort of food stuff they supply
to plants, manures are spoken of as :

"Animal Manures." — These are characterised by the large
quantity of nitrogen they contain, and the ease with which they
decompose and yield their fertilising matter in available form — e.g.,
guanos, desiccated blood, bones, and superphosphate.

" Vegetable Manures," which undergo decomposition more
slowly ; some, as the leguminous plants, having a large percentage
of nitrogen — e.g., green manuring, farmyard manure, sea.-weeds,
and oil-cakes.

" Mineral Manures," which are extracted from minerals, and
yield ash constituents to plants — e.g., sulphate of ammonia, of lime,
of potash, nitrate of soda, of potash, lime, etc.

Then again, manures are spoken of as " general " manures
when they contain all the necessary elements for plant growth, or
" special manures " when they only supply one or several of these
elements.

These elements, again, are said to be " dormant," " latent," or
" active," according as they are insoluble or soluble in the corroding
liquid which exudes from the rootlets and are thus made available
for plant food or are locked up in an inert form in the soils.

Fertilisers, however, for the practical purpose of the fruit-
grower and farmer, should be better considered as nitrogenous,
phosphatic, potassic, calcareous fertilisers, according as nitrogen,
phosphoric acid, or potash, or lime is the predominating valuable
constituent.

Nitrogen is the rarest and most costly element of plant food ; it
occurs in abundance in the air as free nitrogen, but is not available

181

in that form to most crops, except those of the leguminous class, on
whose roots are gall-like swellings known as root tubercles, which
are formed under the influence of micro-organisms living in the
soil. It has been found that the presence of these bacteria and
root tubercles enables some plants to draw from the vast stores of
nitrogen in the air a supply which will enrich the ground in that
valuable element and enable it to grow more abundant crops.

The more common source of nitrogen on the farm or at the
orchard is found in farmyard manure, which consists of —

/-Water ... 70

FAKM YARD \ Organic Matter 27 — Nitrogen, '4 to "65 per cent. = 9
MANURE. 1 to 151bs. per ton.

( Ash ... ... 3/ Phosphoric Acid, '2 to '5 per

— j cent. =4 to lOlbs. per ton.
100 ) Potash, -3 to '6 per cent. -5 to

( 131bs. per ton.

A good dressing per acre, 5 to 10 tons.

The other forms of organic nitrogen, i.e., the nitrogen of animal
and vegetable matters which is chemically united to carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, are —

Ammoniacal Guanos. — Are the best of the concentrated complete
manures, as they have nitrogen 8 to 12 per cent., phosphates 15 to
25 per cent., and a little potash. It is a very valuable manure for
most crops, but is rather expensive. It more nearly resembles farm-
yard manure in its composition than other artificial manures, and
its great use is to replace this manure when it is scarce. A good
dressing, 2 to 3 cwts. to the acre.

Dried Blood. — The refuse of slaughter house, being a very
complex substance, it is also a very valuable manure, contains
nearly as much dry matter as flesh — e.g., about 23 per cent. When
dried without other substances it contains about 10 per cent, water
and 8 to 10 per cent, ammonia, with a little phosphate and traces of
potash. It is one of the best forms of manures in light lands, and
is not readily washed away. Often mixed with gypsum, which
decreases its value ; useful for making composts. Fair dressing per
acre, 3 to 4cwt.

Dried Nightsoil or Poudrette. — Contains 2 to 4 per cent,
nitrogen, 3 per cent, phosphate, and 1'5 per cent, potash ; often
mixed with gypsum and earth, which reduces its value. A bulky
manure which would hardly pay to carry a long distance, when
freight and carriage is a consideration.

Other forms of organic nitrogen are those of seeds, such as
cotton seed cake and other oleaginous seeds after the extraction of
the oil.

Leather and peat are also classed as nitrogenous manures, but
they are comparatively slow in their effect on vegetation, and for
that reason are less valuable.

Nitrogen occurs as minerals and notably ammonium salts and
nitrates and nitrites.

182

Sulphate of Ammonia. — Supplies one of the cheapest forms of
nitrogen in the market. When pure, contains 24 to 25 per cent, of
ammonia, equivalent to 20 of nitrogen, and is one of the most
concentrated forms of nitrogen available. It is obtained from coal
gasworks and extracted from the gas liquor, and is purified of the
ammonia thiocyaiiate (a plant poison) it contains before being
put in the market. As it is not quite so soluble as nitrate of
soda, it is not so liable to be washed out of the soil as are nitrates,
A simple test for showing the absence of most, at any rate, of the
impurities with which sulphate of ammonia is likely to be
adulterated is to throw a pinch of the sulphate on a red hot iron
plate ; the sulphate of ammonia, if pure, will be quickly volatilised
and dissipate entirely. Applied at the rate of J to Ifcwt. per acre
in the spring, mixed with some dry, well-ground material such as
sand, earth, or other fertilisers, so as to ensure its even distribution.

Nitrate of Soda. — As imported from Chili, contains rather more
than 15 per cent, of N. or 18 to 19 per cent, ammonia. Its price
is almost prohibitive in Australia. More soluble than sulphate of
ammonia, and for this reason especially useful in a dry season,
owing to its being deliquescent. Applied at the rate of \ to If cwt.
per acre in the spring, mixed with some dry, well-ground material,
so as to ensure its even distribution.

Soil or manure analysis often express the nitrogenous contents
as nitrogen or as ammonia. And in order to better understand
the difference between the amount of each, it is useful to remember
that 17 parts of ammonia (NH3) contain 14 of nitrogen (N) and
that 66 parts of pure sulphate of ammonia, or 85 parts of nitrate of
soda, also contain 14 parts of nitrogen. Excess of organic nito-
genous manures, it should be borne in mind, are often productive of
harm, and cause such diseases as " die back" of the trees. In white-
ant infected districts it must also be used with caution. " I have
used sheep manure for orange trees," writes a Narra Tarra fruit
grower ; "it acts very well, but proves a hotbed for white ants."

Phosphorus is, next to nitrogen, the most costly ingredient of
fertilisers, in which it occurs in the form of phosphates of lime,
iron, and aluminium, or, in case of superphosphates, partly as free
phosphoric acid. In good soils it rarely exceeds 2 per cent.

The trade uses with regard to phosphoric acid several terms
which to the layman are not very familiar, thus : —

Soluble phosphoric acid implies phosphoric acid or phosphates
that are soluble in water or in a solution of ammonium citrate. It
diffuses into the ground and thus reaches the feeding rootlets of the
crop instead of lying inert in the soil, as do the mechanically-mixed
insoluble phosphates, until the rootlets find them out and attack
them.

Insoluble phosphoric acid requires a stronger solvent than
ammonium citrate to make it available as plant food.

183

Reverted, reduced, or precipitated phosphoric acid is phosphoric
acid, which was once soluble in water, but which, by combination
with lime, iron, or aluminium in the soil, has become insoluble
again. In that form it is, however, readily assimilated by crops.

The chief sources of phosphatic manures are :

Bones are found in commerce broken up as " half-inch,"
" quarter-inch," and as " bonedust ;" the finer the better, as they
act more quickly. Commercial bones are either "raw" or "steamed"
and degelatinised. Their respective composition is —

Raw Bones.

Steamed Bones.

Water ...

10 per cent.

10 per cent.

* Organic matter

33 :,

18f

)>

Phosphates

50

58

>»

Carbonate of lime

4

8-5

j?

Sand

•3

r

}}

Alkaline salts . . .

27 „

4-5

„

100-0 100-0

* Equal 3'5 to 4*5 ammonia, t Equal 1*4 ammonia.

Bonedust and half and quarter-inch have a similar composi-
tion to the raw product they are made from. The coarser the bones
the heavier should the dressing be. Bonedust is applied at the
rate of 3 to 4cwt. to the acre.

Phosphatic Guanos, such as Abrolhos and Sharks Bay guanos
contain 44 to 50 per cent, of phosphate and only \ per cent, of
ammonia, the balance being mostly sand and moisture. They can
be got in several ton lots at a very reasonable price, and answer
well when mixed with a small proportion of a more soluble phos-
phate, such as concentrated superphosphate and sulphate of
ammonia. A fair dressing would be 3 to 4cwt. to the acre.

Thomas' Phosphate Powder, or Basic Slag, is another, source of
phosphates. It is derived by means of the Thomas G-ilchrist
process in making steel from pig iron by smelting it in converters
lined with lime ; when the iron is melted the air is blown through,
part of the iron and impurities are oxidised, and the phosphoric
acid combines with the lime, forming phosphate of lime. This
contains 14 to 17 per cent, of phosphoric acid, equal to 30 to 36
per cent, of phosphate of lime, and also 40 per cent, lime, and
18 per cent, iron oxides, and 6 per cent. sand. It is very cheap
in England, where it sells at the factories for £1 a ton, and is
retailed at 30s. It is so finely divided that it acts very readily.

Coprolites and Apatites constitute mineral phosphates of great
value, either ground into a fine powder or for making super-
phosphates ; they occur in some geological formations under the
form of concretions, and consist of the fossil excrements and
remains of extinct animals. They vary in richness from 10 to 75
per cent, of phosphates.

Superphosphate of Lime. — Either of the raw materials referred
to already are ground and treated with sulphuric acid, thereby

184

made more soluble and hence quicker in its action. The actual
composition of superphosphate varies with the material of which
it is made, and ranges from 35 to 40 per cent, down to 20 per cent,
phosphates rendered soluble. In this state, owing to its diffusi-
bility, superphosphate is able to permeate through a greater quantity
of soil, and penetrates further than other merely mechanically-
divided phosphates, and thus more readily taken up and assimi-
lated by crops. A good dressing consists of 2 to 4cwt. per acre ;
or, in conjunction with farm-yard manure, 2cwt.

Fermented Bones can readily be prepared on the farm by
mixing with bones J their weight of earth or burying them in the
manure heap, moistening them with water, urine, or liquid manure,
and covering the whole heap with earth. After a time, depending
on the temperature, the bones enter into fermentation, and
crumble to powder when they are dug out and used. Fermented
bones act more rapidly than raw bones, and can be compared in
their action to bone superphosphate.

The relation of phosphoric acid (P2O5) to phosphate of lime
(Ca3P2O8), such as is expressed in soil or manure analysis, is as 142
is to 310 or a fraction less than half. Thus bonedust containing
50 per cent, of phosphate of lime contains somewhat less than half
this amount of phosphoric acid, or, in exact figures, 22'58 per cent.

Potassium is the constituent of a fertile soil or of fertilisers
which ranks third in costliness. It does not occur as such, but as
combinations, such as chloride (muriate), sulphate, carbonate,
nitrate, silicate, etc.

Potash is also known as potassium oxide (K20), and as such is
reckoned when valuing fertilisers.

In manures it occurs as sulphate and as muriate (chloride of
potassium), the sulphate form being a little more costly than the
muriate.

The chief sources of potash are —

Wood Ashes, which constituted for a long time the chief source
of supply of potash used for agricultural purposes. The incombus-
tible part of " ash " of farm crops and timber contains from one-
fourth to one-third its weight of potash. For this reason newly
cleaned land, well timbered, on which the wood has been burnt off
the ground, will have an ample supply of potash to supply the
requirements of the crops for some seasons, at all events.

Kainit is, on account of its low price in Europe, in great favour
as a cheap form of potassic fertiliser. Owing to its great bulk,
however, the price in Australia is- about double what it is in Eng-
land. It is chiefly extracted from salt mines in Germany, and was
originally deposited from sea water, and is associated with salt,
gypsum, and other saline substances. The crude kainit found in
commerce contains 12 to 13 per cent, of potash (equivalent to about
25 per cent, sulphate of potash), 27 to 30 per cent, of magnesia
salts of little or no use as a manure, and 30 per cent, of common

185

salt, which in the Eastern districts of this State, particularly where
the land is in places more or less permeated with saline matters,
could certainly be dispensed with. It is more valuable in light
loam than in heavier soils, which it makes more sticky. A fair
dressing per acre would be from 3 to 6cwt., mixed with other fer-
tilisers, and worked into the soil by means of the plough or the
digging harrows.

Sulphate of Potash, which is the chief potash salt in kainit, is
also sold in a more concentrated form than in that crude salt, and
if found in commerce with a percentage of 50 to 54 per cent, of
potash, or more than four times the amount per cent, found in
kainit. Although its price is considerably higher than that of
kainit, at the same time, growers far inland will find it more
advantageous wherever freight and cartage is a consideration, the
fertiliser being four times more concentrated ; Icwt. per acre forms
a good dressing, in conjunction with other manures.

Chloride, or Muriate of Potash, is the most soluble of the various
salts of potash, and when purified contains as much as 63 per cent,
of potash or 80 per cent, muriate of potash. It is obtained as a
by-product in the manufacture of chlorate of potash, in the
purification of nitre and other manufactures. Its use, however, is
harmful on certain crops, as in the case of sugar beets, in which
it lessens the percentage of crystallisable sugar, while potatoes are
rendered waxy, and the tobacco leaves are deteriorated in vulue ; in
the soil it is, besides, apt to give rise to the formation of common
salt, while the sulphate gives rise to the formation of gypsum, which,
in saline soils, is especially of value.

In soils it occurs in quantities ranging from '01 to 2 per cent.,
equivalent to 3501bs. to 70,0001bs. per acre taken to a depth of 1ft. ;
it is derived from the weathering of minerals containing it as an
ingredient, and chiefly from felspars, one of the constituents of
granite. It may be said that a soil showing '03 per cent, of potash
on analysis does not usually need, a potash fertiliser. Crops not fed oft'
on the ground remove amounts of potash which vary greatly. Beets
may remove as much as lOOlbs. per acre, and cereals about 301bs.
A table given above (p. 178) gives the relative likings of various
fruit crops for potash. The percentage of that element of plant
food in soils usually rises with their contents of clay. Reclaimed
swamps and sandy soils are almost invariably benefited by the
application of potash fertilisers.

SOIL AMENDMENTS OR IMPROVERS.

Besides the fertilisers reviewed in the previous pages, soils often
need the application of methods of fertilising, which exercises on
them both a mechanical and a chemical effect.

Amongst the most commonly used amendments are :

Lime, which is especially valuable for the renovation of worn-out
soils and for breaking down stiff clay and making it more friable and
pervious to water; it supplies plant food; it assists in the decomposi-

186

tion of organic matter, and for this reason a soil poor in humus should
receive more sparing applications of lime than soils of a peaty
nature, or rich in organic matter ; it sweetens sour soils in neutral-
ising the acids; it decomposes injurious substances in the soil
(ferrous oxide, a plant poison, into ferric oxide, a plant food) ; it
promotes the process of nitrification by encouraging the presence of
special micro-organisms ; it increases the fertility of the soil by
helping some of the chemical processes which result in the more ready
absorption by the soil of phosphoric acid, potash, and ammonia.
Clay soils which show a tendency to "puddle" and form clods
when improperly tilled, are greatly improved by a dressing of lime.
This substance possesses 'the property of flocculating or coagulating
the clay particles, thus opening the pores of such soils and making
them less retentive of water and more permeable to air.

Quick or caustic lime, which results from the burning of lime-
stone or carbonate of lime, is, chemically speaking, carbon oxide
(CaO). It acts more energetically than carbonate of lime, or mild
lime, and should be preferred for soils rich in organic matter and
on sour soils.

Oyster shells and marble give the purest lime. Our coastal
limestone is not so good, and contains from 6 to 20 per cent, of
sand. When exposed to the air, or when moistened, quick lime
absorbs carbonic acid gas, and reverts to carbonate of lime (CaCO3),
becoming slaked lime. During this process it increases considerably
in volume, and falls to powder. A bushel of good stone lime weighs,
when quick, 901bs. ; when slaked, it will measure nearly three
bushels ; each of which will weigh about 451bs. A bushel of
unslaked oyster shell lime weighs 601bs. When slaked it will
measure something over two bushels, each of which will weigh 401bs.

The quantity of lime to use at one application depends on the
amount of vegetable matter the soil contains. Thirty bushels of
lime (12cwt.) is a safe application if the soil is quite thin and
contains but little vegetable mould. Several small applications of
lime are safer than one heavy one. Gas lime is another fairly cheap
source of agricultural lime. It rarely, however, contains more
than 40 per cent, of lime, the rest being made up of moisture and
compounds of sulphur or sulphites and sulphocyanates, which are
injurious to vegetation, and should be allowed to be corrected by
the action of the air before being ploughed in. During this
operation the noxious sulphites are converted into gypsum (sulphate
of lime). Limekiln ashes are also desirable land amendments ; they
contain about one per cent, each potash and phosphoric acid, besides
some lime.

For the destruction of sorrel, heavy liming is recommended, and
applications amounting up to two tons to the acre may be used for
that purpose.

Qhalk is dug out and exposed to frost, and then spread, as it
is constituted by minute microscopic shells, as well as fragments of
shells of larger size ; it contains a little phosphoric acid generally in

187

combination with lime as phosphate of lime, to the extent of O10 to
1*25 per cent, (or lOOlbs. of this burned lime contains 2^1bs. of
phosphate of lime).

Marls consist of carbonate of lime, generally resulting from
the fragments of shells which have accumulated at the bottom of
fresh water lakes, which have generally been filled up by clay or
sand, or by the growth of peat. They contain from 1 to 2 per cent,
of phosphate of lime, and at times small amounts of potash.

Marling only pays where the material is close at hand and can
be put on the land at a cost of a few shillings a ton. An application
of two to three tons to the acre is by no means excessive.

Gypsum, or hydrated calcium sulphate, has been much used as
a manure,' but as it occurs in superphosphate and is not charged
for, is rarely applied to crops nowadays. It occurs in places
crystallised, and is found very useful for leguminous plants,
especially for red clover, lucerne, etc. Applied from two to six
cwts. per acre. Supplies lime and sulphate to the crops and acts as
a solvent, which sets potash free from its state of dormant
combination in the soil. Appears to promote the process of nitri-
fication. Is a valuable absorbent on the manure heap and in
stables, cow sheds, and poultry yards, where it fixes the volatile
ammonia into non-volatile sulphate of ammonia. Very useful in
reclaiming alkaline salt patches containing carbonate of soda.

Ashes. — Supply in small quantities magnesium, potassium,
calcium, iron, phosphorus and sulphur — all mineral matters neces-
sary to the growth of plants, and for that reason they constitute a
very good fertiliser. Besides their value as plant food, they also
have on it a mechanical effect similar to that of lime. They are
•especially useful on light and sandy lands, rendering them moister.
The value of ashes vary with the kind of wood burned, and with the
care that has been taken of them. Limekiln ashes can at times be
obtained at a reasonable price. They contain about 1 per cent, of
potash and phosphoric acid and about 40 per cent. lime.

Green Manuring affords one of the best and cheapest methods
of adding humus or organic mould to poor sandy soils more
especially. The term is applied to some quick-growing crop which
is ploughed in green. Two classes of plants are used : those which
are not exacting in their demand for plant food and constitute a cover
in the winter which checks loss by washing or drainage, and those
which gather plant food from the air as well as from the subsoil and
leave it on the surface for the use of succeeding crops. To the first
class belong rye, buckwheat, rape, dandelion (Cape weed), Cape and
beardless barley ; to the second, the legumes — clovers, peas, vetches,
lupins. By the process of green manuring, loose soils are made more
retentive, and clay soils lighter. Cow peas, although very desirable as
green manure, are not used in orchards where winter-growing
plants are exclusively grown. For that purpose the most desirable
plants are crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum}, an annual which
germinates and develops quickly. Eight to ten pounds of seeds will

188

sow an acre. The growth of the crop will be greatly stimulated by
the application of some phosphate and potash fertilisers. When
grown, it will act in three distinct ways : as a winter covering to the
soil, as a summer mulch, as a plant food gatherer. Experiments at
the Jersey Experiment Station, U.S., found that a growth of 13
inches produced 1681bs. of nitrogen, worth <£5.

The Canadian field pea has also given very satisfactory results.
Sow about 85 to lOOlbs. per acre, or plough the crop in the early
spring, using a chain on the plough to cover and drag in all vines
under the earth.

Green manuring may, under particular circumstances, be
detrimental. In dry localities it may lead to the desiccation of the
soil. It is calculated that one part of vegetable matter requires
300 to 500 times its own weight of moisture, so that every ton of
green manuring crop in a dry locality would absorb 300 to 500
tons of water ; and unless plentiful rain or abundance of artificial
water can be relied upon, the process may in some cases be
detrimental.

The results of commercial fertilisers are much more marked
when applied on land well stocked with humus than when used on
land depleted of vegetable mould.

VALUE OF FERTILISERS.

Under the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act it is imperative
on the manure vendors to furnish with the invoice for any fertiliser
sold a certificate showing the per cent, of nitrogen, phosphoric
acid (soluble and insoluble), and potash contained in the manure.
Mention of any other ingredient is of little or no value, and may be
considered as so much padding, which is liable to confuse the
purchaser. Failure to comply with this enactment may be meted
out by a =£20 fine. The more concentrated the fertiliser is, as
regards any one or more of the three elements mentioned, the more
valuable it is, so much less dead weight having to be handled and
carried to the field.

The value of the three chief elements of a fertiliser — viz.,
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash — is not uniformly the same,
and is mostly influenced by sea and railway freight, and by its
degree of solubility. The market quotation is expressed at so much
a unit, the unit value being the value of one per cent, of the
particular ingredient in a ton of manure.

Nitrogen in sulphate of ammonia or in nitrate of soda or of
potash is worth in Western Australia 16s. to 18s. per unit; in
Melbourne it is worth about 12s., and in Sydney a trifle under. In
blood, bones, or offal (ground fine) it is worth 14s. to 15s. in this
State, and about 10s. in the Eastern States.

If we express by 10 the worth of nitrogen in nitrate of soda, of
potash, or of sulphate of ammonia and of ammonia in live guano, the
nitrogen in blood and bones or meat is only worth 7, while in wool

189

waste, hair, horn, and leather it comes down to only 2 or 3, that
is to say : — If an application of nitrogen under the form of nitrate
of soda, or the substances grouped with it, would produce a surplus
crop of l,0001bs. of fruit, an equivalent amount of nitrogen derived
from blood, bones, or meat would produce an increase of 7001bs.,
and a similar dressing of nitrogen from wool waste, hair, ground
horn, or leather would only produce an increase of 200 to BOOlbs.
of fruit. It is thus seen how important in selecting the materials
from which nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are to be derived
to see that the material is readily available.

Phosphoric acid varies greatly in value, whether it is soluble or
insoluble in water. As regards " Citrate soluble " phosphoric acid —
i.e., from a phosphate soluble in a weak acid solution, such as one of
ammonium citrate — the value is intermediate between the above
two, thus : Water soluble phosphoric acid is worth in Western
Australia 7s. and in the Eastern States 6s. a unit. Phosphoric acid
insoluble in water is worth with us 3s. and in the East 2s. 6d. a
unit, whilst citrate soluble phosphoric acid, worth here 5s., is valued
in Sydney and Melbourne 4s. 6d. a unit.

Potash in soluble salts is worth in Western Australia 7s. and
in the East 6s. a unit ; while potash in natural manures, such as
dried nightsoil, is worth 5s. and 4s. respectively. These prices, of
course, fluctuate a little according to the state of the market, the
quantity of fertilisers bought, and as to whether the transaction is
a cash one or one involving terms.

To arrive at the value of a fertiliser, and unless it is specified
whether the nitrogen, the phosphoric acid, and the potash are derived
from the better prized material, these ingredients are considered as
being derived from the baser ones when calculating values.

Knowing these values, it is easy, when furnished with^an
invoice certificate, to determine the real value of the manure offered.
Thus a mixed fertiliser contains —

Nitrogen (as Sulphate of Ammonia) ... 4 percent.

Phosphoric Acid — Water Sol 5 „

Citrate Sol 2

„ „ Insoluble ... ... ... 3 „

Total Phosphoric Acid 10

Potash or Muriate ... ... ... ... 4 „

This statement is treated as follows : —

«£ s. d.

4 per cent. Nitrogen and Sulphate of Ammonia,

at 16s 340

5 per cent. Phosphoric Acid, soluble, at 7s. ... ] 15 0

2 „ „ Citrate, sol., at 5s. ... 0 10 0

3 „ „ Insol., at 3s 090

4 „ Potash, at 7s 180

^760

190

Or again — a bonedust contains 4'5 per cent, ammonia, 3'7 nitrogen,

and 22 per cent, phosphoric acid: —

£ s. d.

3-7 at 14s 2 10 0

22 at 3s 360

£5 16 0

Tn this manure the purchaser can arrive at a fair value of the
manure offered to him, to which, of course, must be added the cost
of carriage from the manure works.

EFFECT OF FERTILISERS ON FRUIT CROPS.

Experiments made a few years ago in the State of Missouri
brought to light the fact that twigs, fruit spurs, spurs with fruit
set of apples, analysed, showed that the much larger amount of
lime, phosphoric acid, and potash in the bearing twigs is very
marked as compared with non-bearing twigs. It would thus seem
that the effect of fertilising fruit trees cannot possibly manifest
itself in the same year in an increased fruit crop, but appears to a
certainty the year after, and that fruit growers, in valuing fertilisers,
must bear this in mind to arrive at a correct conclusion of the
action of manures on their fruit crop.

Speaking in a broad sense, nitrogen, applied as a fertiliser,
produces wood and leaves ; phosphates produce fecundity ; and
potash produces sweetness and flavour; gypsum and sulphate of
iron help to fix the fruit on the tree.

An abundance of nitrogen is indicated by rank growth and
dark green foliage, and by size and coarseness of fruit. Con-
versely, stunted growth and pale leaves often show lack of nitrogen ;
fewer fruit are formed ; these are of smaller size and colour early.
On oranges, excessive organic nitrogen results in thick rind,
abundant rag, and sometimes in causing defoliation, die-back, and
gumming diseases.

Lime and potash correct the effect of heavy doses of organic
nitrogen.

Mineral nitrogen stimulates the production of fruit more than
excessive applications of organic nitrogen. In oranges, thinner skin
and little rag or fruit pith is produced ; sulphate of ammonia, when
there is a slight deficiency of potash, tends to sweeten the fruit.

Phosphoric acid starvation is at times manifested by the
appearance of the young and tender leaves, known as " frenching "
or variegations of the foliage. It throws the tree into fruit quicker
and has a most beneficial influence on the growth of the plant.

Potash fertilisers are not sufficiently used by fruit-growers,
considering what an amount of this element is found in the ashes
of fruit.

Heavy doses of potash, unless correspondingly accompanied by
other fertilisers, produce sour fruit. Lack of potash is shown by
spindly growth of wood, which summers badly and is easily injured

191

by frost. On account of its hygroscopic property, good results
have been obtained in applying it in early spring to aid the plant in
withstanding the spring drought, which often causes a great
quantity of fruit to drop off.

Lime is notable in its effect on table grapes. It also tends
to hasten the ripening and perfect the colouring of oranges.
Deficiency of lime is often accompanied by thick skin and poor
aroma.

WHEN AND HOW TO MANURE.

The question is often asked : When is it best to apply
fertilisers ? Phosphates may be a,pplied at any time from the
beginning of the autumn up till the end of the winter. Potash is
better applied early in heavy soils, which it has a tendency to clog,
so as to give to the winter rains and the frost time to counteract
that particularity. The application of lime with it will also correct
this tendency. On light dry sandy loam it is advisable to apply
potash fairly late, so as to utilise this hygroscopic feature towards
storing up moisture in the vicinity of the roots of the plant.
Nitrogenous chemical fertilisers it is better to apply in the early
spring amongst deciduous trees, and before the trees bloom. In
regard to evergreen trees, such as those of the citrus tribe, it is
immaterial at what time, so long as the trees are systematically and
regularly fed. It is recommended for citrus trees to divide the
amount of chemical nitrogenous manure to be applied during the
year into two applications.

Experience will teach the orchardist how to regulate the spread
of any quantity of the manure whilst covering an acre of land.

The following rule-of -thumb practice is found to be fairly correct
for such fertilisers as potash salts, and nitrate of soda, sulphate of
ammonia, or any fertiliser of approximately the same weight.

In broadcasting, sowing a handful at each step, the right foot
steps forward, and scattering it 12 to 15 feet in breadth, there will
be applied 150 to 200 pounds per acre.

Non- soluble fertilisers, such as bonedust, it is preferable not
to sow broadcast for the manuring of orchard or vineyards, as this
practice draws the roots from underneath to the surface, where they
are periodically hacked about by the tines of the scarifier. A better
plan is to set the plough to its full depth of 9 to 10 inches and open
a furrow up and down the centre of the land between the two rows
of trees or vines and sowing in these deep gutters the amount of
insoluble fertiliser it is meant to give to each acre of land. When
this is done, the plough is again set to its proper depth and the earth
is thrown back on to the manure, which is thus buried under.
Should the land be too stiff, or the team too light for opening such
deep furrows, the plough can be run once again in the bottom of a
first top furrow, and the requisite depth is thus attained. In this
manner numerous small rootlets issue from the severed roots of the
plants and go and feed on the manure in the deep trough, twisting

192

and coiling around each particle. When trees are manured by
means of insoluble fertilisers, dig with the spade, some three to four
feet from the stem, three trenches a foot deep and several feet long,
in the form of a triangle ; place the manure at the bottom of these
trenches and cover up with soil. When manure is forked into the
ground, it should not be applied right against the bole of the tree,
but a small distance away. The plate in the article on mulching
illustrates the distribution of the main roots and of the rootlets in
the ground. The first, whose main functions is to brace up and
support the structure, are fairly barren of rootlets ; they give rise
to branch roots which, in their turn, carry towards their periphery
the fibrous rootlets, which, are in a true sense the feeding mouths
of the plant, and absorb the moisture and food required by the
growing tissues. The diagram shows where water and manure
should be applied and where mulching does most good.

EXPERIMENT FOR YOURSELVES.

Chemical analysis of a soil will indicate on broad lines the
wealth or the poorness of a given soil, but its teachings are in no wise
as accurate as those derived from personal observation drawn from
the result of local experiments. Growers can, with little or no trouble,
find out for them selves the elements that are more urgently required by
their trees. For this purpose, a row or two are set apart, every third
tree is manured in some manner or other ; the trees on each side of it
are left unmanured, as witnesses to show by comparison whether a
manured tree greatly differs from them or not. Some form of
nitrogenous manure may be applied to one or more of the trees
in the experimental line ; then some form of phosphatic manure to
one or more others ; then again, some form of potassic manure to
one or more trees. The experiment can further be widened by
combining together for testing on some fresh trees any two of the
manures used singly on the first lot of trees, and finally more trees
are tested with a complete fertiliser, resulting from the combination
of the three fertilisers used singly, or of any fertilisers containing
in some available form the three elements — nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, and potash.

One thing the grower must well penetrate his mind with, that
crops, like animals, must be generously fed to keep healthy and bear
abundant crops. Just as the digestive organs of the animal assimilate
the nourishment, of its body, so the assimilatingorgans of plants utilise
the food placed within their reach. Like the animal also, they require
a " complete ration;" that is to say, one with no needful element of
plant food lacking, and when well fed the plant will thrive,
produce without effort, and withstand and offer no encouragement to
the numerous parasitic pests that assail our cultivated crops.
Spraying and manuring operate conjointly, and well-fed trees, once
freed from parasites, remain clean without further dressing for a
very long time. The varying state of health and vigour in even a
small 10-acre orchard, when the climatic conditions are otherwise
alike, point out to variations in the constituents of the soil.

193

IRRIGATION AND ROOT MANAGEMENT.

How PLANTS ABSORB WATER.

Plants, flowers, and fruits are made up mostly of water.
Analysis shows that there is as much as 901bs. to 941bs. of water in
every lOOlbs. of some of the more succulent fruits and vegetables,
such as asparagus, cabbages, cucumbers, lettuce, melons, rhubarb,
tomatoes, and strawberries ; as much as 801bs. to 851bs. of water in
every lOOlbs. of such fruit as apples, apricots, grapes, lemons, and
pears ; green fodders contain 60 to 85 per cent, of water according
to their state of maturity. It is essential that the contents of the
cells which enter into the structure of the growing plant should be in
a half -liquid condition in order that nourishment and construction
material should be carried and distributed wherever required, be it in
the stem, the tender buds, or the ripening fruit. When the cells cease
to be distended with fluid sap they get flaccid and the plant wilts.
Unless this state is promptly remedied by an influx of sap these
cells thicken, they lose their elasticity, the plant first gets stunted
and finally dries up and dies. The water necessary for plant
growth is absorbed by the hair-like rootlets issuing from the
stronger roots which penetrate the ground in search of food and
moisture ; it does not, however, enter into the circulation of plants
quite pure, but contains in solution variable quantities of substances
which plants feed upon. From these rootlets it is passed on from
cell to cell, by a process of diffusion, first along the larger roots
which anchor the plant to the ground, thence to the stem, on to the
branches, the buds, leaves, and fruit.

That cell-to-cell motion, or that diffusion of the nourishing sap,
from the capillary rootlets to the tip of the branches, is quickened
by evaporation.

The evaporating organs of the plants are the leaves. These,
when fanned by the breeze, allow a considerable amount of
moisture to escape through the stomata or breathing pores. In
bright daylight these pores open to allow the admission of carbon
and of oxygen to the working cells of the leaves. As this takes
place a good deal of the moisture which saturates the air in the
intercellular spaces of the leaves escapes to the drier outside air.
A vacuum is thus created, and more moisture exudes from the
gorged cells to replace the amount lost through evaporation. In
this manner a current of sap is created from the rootlets upwards
towards the branches.

Under certain circumstances this current may run quicker than
the plant is able to absorb moisture from the ground. This is
noticeable on a dry, hot day, when the plant flags.

This being so, it is easy to understand that other conditions
of soil texture and of particular plant requirements being alike, a
given field crop, or trees of the same sorts and age, will show signs
of wilting and need for water much sooner in the drier air of the

194

inland districts than in the moister air of the coastal zone. In both
instances the soil may have been wetted to saturation point by the
winter rains ; but, evaporation being more active inland than on the
coast, that store of moisture is more rapidly exhausted in the first
instance as compared with the second.

This perspiration of the leaves keeps the plant cool when
everything else around is scorched, but as soon as that perspiration
ceases leaves and fruit get burned. Whenever, therefore,
perspiration threatens to stop for want of moisture rising from the
roots we find in watering and in irrigation a ready means of
stimulating it.

ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION.

In the coastal districts of Western Australia, where fruit
growing is more extensively carried on, little or no heed has
hitherto been paid to the advantages of irrigation. The reason is
that within that zone which is more directly under the beneficial
influence of monsoonal and maritime climate, that climate is
consistent and not capricious. The ground receives a deep and a
thorough soaking every winter, and the air is all through the year
charged with a sufficiency of moisture which checks a too rapid or
too prolonged evaporation or perspiration through the leaves.
Further inland, however, these conditions are not noticeable to
the same extent. The rainfall is not so abundant and the
evaporation is greater ; furthermore, adequate and suitable water for
irrigation is often deficient.

Numerous spots, however, are found dotted over the country
where irrigation can be carried out with profit and ease. In such
places, and wherever deep and thorough drainage is associated with
it, irrigation eliminates any risks arising from any freaks and
anoinalities of the season. Such privileged spots are always, for
that reason, much sought after. Although alive to the value and
potentialities of these spots, few owners however, have hitherto
taken advantage of their sources of water supply and led them
along suitable channels to where they can double or treble the
production of the ground.

EVILS OP IRRIGATION.

Although irrigation has been a source of large profits to some,
it may be said to have, on the other hand, led in as many cases
to considerable losses. The practice should only be adopted with
judgment. The initial cost of leading water on to the land
may be so great that the expenditure may not be justifiable.
Moreover irrigation without efficient and thorough drainage is always
fatal, sooner or later. The ground thereby alternately gets chilled
and baked ; there is no get away for the water except by evapora-
tion ; this cools the ground to a point which is uncomfortable and
detrimental to vegetation and leads to the rotting of the roots. In

195

irrigating or watering an orchard, the water should never be led or
poured into a cup-shaped bowl, dug around the stem. This causes
a gummy exudation to ooze out at the crown of the tree, and the
plant dies of collar rot. The stem should always be protected from
actual immersion in water by a small mound of earth which is
banked up around it.

Irrigation on ground which is not naturally well drained, or
where no attempt has been made to deep drain the soil, is often the
cause of the displacement of masses of injurious alkaline salts from
deep down towards the surface, where they finally accumulate and
corrode the roots and stem and kill the trees. Much valuable
information on this rising of the soluble alkalies in irrigated soils
is due to Professor Hilgard's researches in California. It has been
shown that the presence of as much as a quarter of one per cent.
(•25 = 8,7501bs. on one acre of soil 1ft. deep) of carbonate of soda,
one of the most corrosive of soil alkalies, renders that soil sterile.

Over-irrigation is one of the greatest causes of failure in the
hands of the amateur irrigationist. In a climate like ours, where
the ground is well soaked during the winter months, there is little
need to water the trees until early in summer if on deep loamy
ground. Two or three more thorough waterings at intervals of a
month, followed up by thorough cultivation and pulverisation of
the surface ground, would thence meet the requirements of most
trees.

A good soaking is better than two or three niggardly waterings,
which, instead of encouraging root growth deeper down into the
soil, attract the tender rootlets towards the moistened surface, where
they lie exposed, to be hacked about by implements of cultivation,
or to be dried up should a hot, dry spell of weather set in.

The benefit derived from irrigation is often annulled by neglect
to suitably manure the land. It stands to reason that, if a soil can
supply the necessary plant-food for half a-dozen successive crops of,
say, two tons of fruit to the acre, without showing any need for a
supplement of that food in the shape of manure, it will, when pro-
ducing, say, four tons of fruit, when put under intensive culture,
with the aid of irrigation, show signs of falling oft' much quicker
than it would otherwise have done.

The belief that a crop is all right because it has been irrigated,
unfortunately proves only too often a delusion ; unless the operation
can be carried out at a reasonable cost, with suitable water, on well-
drained ground, properly manured, and unless the operation is not
overdone, irrigation cannot be profitable. It is also essential, when
orchards and vineyards are concerned, that the pruning and thinning
operations should receive proper attention, and that pests and
blights should be vigorously suppressed and not allowed to share
with the owner the surplus crop which irrigation carried out under
favourable circumstances always ensures.

196

WATER MEASUREMENT.

The cultivator who handles water must be able to determine
fairly accurately the amount of water needed for a crop on a given
soil, and a few figures in relation to the measurement of water will
be helpful in calculation : —

1 gallon of water weighs lOlbs., and measures 277,274 cubic inches.
1 cubic foot of water weighs 62^38., and contains 6£ gallons,
1 ton of water contains 224 gallons, and measures 36 cubic feet.

1 inch of water over an acre of land weighs 101 tons, and therefore
means 22,624 gallons, an amount which would be held in a
tank with a 3,600 cubic foot capacity.

A miner's inch is the amount of water running from a hole one inch
square Avith a head pressure of 6 inches in one second or one
minute.

WATERS FIT FOR IRRIGATION.

Water is the universal solvent, and no water except that
trickling from the condenser of a distilling apparatus is absolutely
pure in its natural condition.

Thus rain water, which is considered the purest of all, washes down
from the air impurities which to a great extent constitute valuable
plant food. In close proximity of the sea coast, for instance, 30 to
401bs. of common salt to the acre are brought down annually by the
rain. Of ammonia 2 to 101bs.,and of sulphuric acid 10 to 201bs. are
added from the same source to every acre of land in localities
favoured with a fair amount of rain.

Of stream water some prove better than others when used for
irrigation, and they vary according to the amount of substances
they carry either in solution or in suspension.

Well water is, as a rule, even more highly mineralised than stream
water, and is often injurious to vegetation,, especially in the Eastern
and inland districts, where it is not unfrequently unfit for con-
sumption.

Taste is the readiest means of ascertaining whether water is fit
for domestic or irrigation use.

A crystal clear well water often proves worthless for irrigation
purposes, whereas a spring or a well well-stocked with, aquatic
plants and luxurious vegetation, and where stones at the bottom
are covered with green slime, always holds water fit for irrigation.

The best indicator of the fitness of water for irrigation is the
palate, and when the taste is decidedly mawkish it is advisable to
have a sample analysed before going through the trouble and the
cost of providing for its lifting and cost of distributing it on the
ground. An analytical statement is often perplexing until the
array of figures is understood.

197

In water analysis the residue or solid matter either held in
suspension or in solution is expressed in so many grains per gallon,
or so many parts in 10,000 parts. We have seen in a previous
chapter when dealing with manures that the weight of one acre of
agricultural soil one foot deep is approximately 3,500,0001bs. It
has, moreover, been determined by chemical investigation that a
soil containing '1 per cent, of soluble salt is unsuitable for cropping,
and is only fit for growing salt-loving plants.

The question, therefore, which the irrigationist has to solve is :
What amount of water containing a given quantity of salt will be
necessary to cause the accumulation into the ground of approxi-
mately '1 per cent, of salt (equivalent to 3,5001bs. to one acre one
foot deep).

That question, indeed, can only be approximate, as a certain
proportion of that saline matter would be leached out of the ground
during the rainy season ; sandy soil could, besides stand more salt
than the more retentive soils, such as loam and clay, and drainage
would also delay to some extent the period when that dangerous
point of '1 per cent, of salt would be reached. When calculating
the amount of salt added to the soil by water containing a known
number of grains of that substance to the gallon, it must be borne
in mind that one gallon contains 7,000 grains. As 1 inch of water
over 1 acre is equivalent to 22,630 gallons (101 tons) it follows
that every grain of salt per gallon adds VoVo* — Sjlbs. of salt to
the ground whenever that amount of water is used in irrigation.

It would be unsafe to use extensively for the purpose of
irrigation a well or pond water containing more than 70 grains of
salt to the gallon. Such an amount would mean an addition of
about 2cwt. (22 7 Jibs.) of salt to the acre, for each one-inch
watering. Such a water used in the more arid regions, where rain-
fall is light, would soon accumulate in the surface of the ground an
amount of salt which would prove injurious to vegetation, and 10
irrigations of one inch each would add to the soil over a ton of
salt, which, added to the amount of that substance already in the
ground, would make it sterile.

In the coastal districts, where the rainfall is more abundant, a
water containing 30 grains of salt to the gallon could be used
pretty freely for irrigation, provided the soil is of a light and porous
nature and is well drained. But if used on stiffer soil it would, in
in the course of two or three years, bring the amount of salt up to
danger point.

A water containing 3 to 6 grains of common salt to the gallon
is often used for all domestic purposes.

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE IRRIGATION.

No cast-iron rule can be laid down regarding the amount of
water necessary for obtaining the best results from a given crop.

198

rainfall, the depth and nature of the soil and of the sub-
soil, the particular variety and age of the trees, the climate, the
quantity as well as the quality of the water at command, and the
means and facilities of bringing water on to the land all require
consideration.

Speaking generally, a rainfall of 20 inches on deep loam fairly
rich in vegetable matter, and possessing good absorbing and reten-
tive power, may prove sufficient for an orchard planted with
deciduous trees, provided that amount of moisture is well tended,
and by good cultivation prevented from escaping by evaporation.

Under similar circumstances, 25 inches may not be too much
for evergreens, such as citrus trees, which require more water.

On deep, dry, sandy, or limestone formation, however, or on
thin soil overlying solid rock, the plants would very likely show
signs of distress even with a greater amount of rainfall.

Crops possess different degrees of thirst, their exigencies in
this respect running approximately in the following order : —

i . Meadows and artificial pastures.

2. Maize and sorghum, for green crop.

3. Lucerne.

4. Rape and root crops.

5. Tares, oats, and peas.

6. Fruit trees.

7. Wheat and rye.

8. Grape vines.

In the course of an ordinary season, the climate and the soil of
thejbulk of the South- Western division of Western Australia has
been proved to possess sufficient rainfall and sufficient absorbing
and retentive power to supply all requirements of the last four of
these groups of cultivated crops. After a dry season, however,
even these more pronounced drought-resistant crops will suffer
more or less, and fail to yield a full crop, except at especially
favoured spots, or unless artificially watered in the proper season.

The age of trees, too, and the distance apart they are planted,
influence to a very marked degree their moisture requirements.
Evidence is not lacking of a number of orchards established in
various parts of the country which, when young, produced crops of
first-class fruit, and which as the trees became older and the space
between the trees decreases with their growth, bear a class of fruit
inferior in size, appearance, and flavour. In such instances water-
ing often proves very profitable. It is simply reduced to a question
of ways and means.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION

differ with the nature of the crops grown. As a rule, the
method of flooding land is practised in the case of pastures,

199

meadows, and cereal crops, whereas either permanent ditches or fresh
furrows are resorted to in watering orchards, vineyards, or crops
grown in lines.

In this second case furrows are traced each side of rows running
from the distributing channels down the slopes. On steep and
broken slopes difficult to plough and where the soil is apt to wash,
permanent ditches are laid out on gentle grades for slow running of
the water, which slowly percolates from these ditches and supplies
moisture to the trees or crops below them. The great drawback of
this system of watering land is that a considerable amount of hand-
hoeing has to be done on the banks of the furrows, which, not being
turned up by the plough, would soon be covered with a thick growth
of weeds. For this reason, and on level country, wherever the
land has been well graded and levelled, as it is the practice on most
irrigation colonies, the fruit trees are watered by means of plough
furrows, which are closed after each watering. Where the grade is
steep, a shovelful or two of earth thrown at intervals in the channel
w^ill break the current of the water. As soon as the water has
reached the lower end of the furrow, the watering may be stopped
altogether and other furrows filled ; or should a good soaking be
required, one- half or two-thirds of the water should be cut off and
smaller streams allowed to trickle a few hours longer, until the land
has been sufficiently moistened. A rapid flow of water along the
distributing furrows will glaze the surface and will prove an
obstruction to the water soaking deeply down into the ground.

The Supply Furrow, which is fed from the Main Channel, is
made to run along the highest side of the ground and supplies the
water to the Distributing Furrows, which are made to run perpen-
dicular to its own direction. It is easily made by running first an
ordinary plough, which traces the furrow and is followed by a
double mould-board or ridging-plough, which not only opens up the
channel, but throws the loose earth on both sides so as to form the
bank. Should a deep channel be required, this operation is repeated
over again.

The Distributing Channels are easily traced by running an
ordinary single furrow plough up and down the same furrow.

It is important that the water should not come into actual
contact with the bark of the trunk, as trees which have thus been
standing in water for some time are apt to develop the " collar
rot," which is an exudation of sap at the root crown, and is very
similar to the gum disease. Many a promising young tree has
thus perished through being improperly watered. For this reason,
water should not be applied to the trees in the bowl-shaped reser-
voirs which beginners often think is the best way of watering them ;
whenever water is thus applied a little mound of earth should be
left as a protection round the trunk. Another reason why water
should not be thus applied is that in order to be more beneficial,
it should be placed within easy reach of the tender rootlets which
radiate round the plant, and to which it is most beneficial. I have
already called attention to the structure and disposition of the roots

200

of the plant round the stem, so that the reason is plain why it is
more beneficial to water the plant at some distance from the trunk,
where all these tender rootlets radiate, rather than close up to the
plant itself.

Showing at "A" the proper place to mulch, manure, and water.

The distance of the furrow on each side varies according to the
size of the trees.

For young vines a furrow on each side 18 to 24 inches away
from the lines might be drawn, whereas for older vines planted
8 to 10 feet apart in a loamy soil one furrow midway between the
rows is quite sufficient.

For young trees the distance from the trunk would vary from
two to three feet, and if the trees are large the furrows would be
opened four to six feet away from the stem.

Whether the soil is heavy or light, the method of applying
water is the same, and the next day or the day after, as soon as it
is sufficiently drained, the whole surface is scarified with the culti-
vator ; or if the surface is already clean and loose, the furrows
alone are broken up by means of the cultivator or scarifier, which
should not be less than three feet wide, so as to take in a good
strip of land.

At each subsequent irrigation the furrows are run in a
different place, and thus is the land maintained into a uniform
degree of moisture.

SPREAD OF WATER PROM DEEP FURROWS.

Clay and sand will absorb water at a different rate, and, having
absorbed it, hold and retain it more or less loosely.

These properties have been measured at the sub-stations of the
College of Agriculture of the University of California, and the
following diagrams show the extent to which water from fairly deep
furrows penetrates the sandy soil and the heavy loam at the sub-
station .

201

The spread and the descent of water are carefully mapped out
on these charts.

The furrows are seven inches deep, and the water was run two
days of twelve hours each. Seventy- two hours after irrigation the
extent of soil-saturation was measured, the sectional area showing
that in clay water had wetted somewhat under sixteen square feet as
against about thirty square feet in the case of the lighter, more
porous soil. It is contended that a still deeper and narrower water
channel in the case of the clay soil would have carried the water
deeper, and would have resulted in economy in the use of water, a
smaller flow producing as large an area of saturation with less
surface.

Clay Loam,
//t Ut. 0 ift

Sandy Soil.

m. o m.

4Jt

5Jt

72 HOURS AFTER IRRIGATION

Percolation experiments, showing spread of water from deep furrows
in clay and sandy soils.

202

Cost. — It is reckoned that with one horse and plough one
man can prepare ten acres for irrigation in a day at a cost of 9s., or
a little under a shilling per acre. With a scarifier six feet wide and
a pair of horses, one man can cultivate the same area of ground after
each watering at a cost of 12s., or Is. 2|d. per acre.

AMOUNT OF WATER REQUIRED.

No hard-and-fast rule can be laid down. Local experience, as
well as the general appearance of the crop, are the best guide in
this matter ; for instance, the amount of rainfall varies sometimes
considerably even in the same seasons in different years ; again
one soil may be more retentive than another ; or, owing to its con-
figuration and the more or less porous and gravelly nature of its
sub-soil, may either be very quickly drained or else may receive
abundant moisture from the drainage of the slope above it ; the
varieties and age of the trees have also a direct bearing in regu-
lating the amount of water to be applied ; thus certain soil will
be quite moist enough for deciduous trees, such as plums, apples,
pears, and would require irrigation for citrus trees, or moist enough
for young and not for bearing trees. In a very dry climate, for
instance, the young orange orchard should be irrigated every three
weeks at first, and then once a month during the first season by
simply running one furrow at a distance of two or three feet on each
side of the trees.

The second and third seasons, the trees having been well
established, less irrigation will be required, and in our climate one
watering every six or eight weeks will be sufficient.

By the fourth year, the trees having gradually increased in
size and being in bearing, the number of furrows between each row
will likewise be increased until, when the trees have grown to their
full size and produce heavy crops, by the tenth year, the distance
between the furrows is brought to five or six feet and the time given
for each watering is gradually prolonged. As a rule, orange trees
in full bearing will require as much as three times the quantity of
water required by the same trees during their second and third year
in the orchard.

In the case of the vine, the water management also requires
judgment. During the first season of planting, one or two good
waterings are more than will be needed, the ground having re-
ceived a good soaking previous to planting out the cuttings or the
rooted plants. The second season, one early autumn and one
summer watering will be found sufficient, and later on as the vines
enter into bearing they should not be irrigated more than once every
five or six weeks in the case of table or raisin grapes, and once
every six or seven weeks in the case of wine grapes. In either
case, the watering should cease when the berries have attained their
full size and are ripening, or else they will burst, viz., according to
localities and varieties, the beginning of December to the beginning
of February. In the case of wine grapes, the last irrigation should

203

not be given later than the time the grapes are " turning," or other-
wise the must will be watery and the wine will be thin, poor in
colour, in flavour, and in keeping qualities.

Over the fruit-growing districts of this State, described in this
handbook, grape vines do remarkably well without the assistance of
any irrigation whatever, provided the soil is kept in a state of good
cultivation.

So far as I have been able to observe, the tendency generally
with fruit growers who have water laid on in their orchards is to
overdo irrigation. Fruit trees more especially need to be
irrigated with discrimination, or else the fruit, instead of being
firm, fleshy, of good flavour, and of good keeping quality, is, on the
reverse, spongy, squashy, insipid in taste and flavour, easily
bruised during the course of carrying to market, and of poor keeping
quality.

In planting an orchard where irrigation is contemplated, the
grower should bear in mind that each variety of fruit requires
watering at different times ; for instance, watering with cold water
when the tree is in full blossom might lead, through sudden shock,
to considerable injury, and, as a consequence, reduced crop. With
trees, therefore, blossoming at different times it is advisable to
keep them separate ; again each row should be planted with trees
of the same age for reasons already discussed. Another reason is
that by keeping the trees separate each sort may be treated
differently, some kinds of fruit requiring more watering than
others.

Practical irrigationists turn on water in the distributing
channels in the afternoon, and unless the trees imperiously need it,
cut it off in the morning, as during the day the soil may get so hot
that should cold water be applied suddenly to the roots serious
injury would ensue.

Late in the season the irrigation of fruit trees might be more
injurious than beneficial, for the reason that the soil and the water
beginning to cool, the trees might receive a sudden shock, or they
might start growing again, striking new shoots, instead of concen-
trating all their energy towards ripening the fruits and building up
fruit buds.

One more important point, if neglected, would annul the bene-
fits derived from irrigation.

It refers to the necessity of combining Drainage with irrigation.
Unless the soil is naturally well drained a copious supply of water
will turn it into a quagmire, which will prevent proper cultivation
and at the same time injure the roots of the trees.

It may be said that wherever land is so situated that natural
drainage does not exist and the cost of sub-soil drainage would
exceed the value of the profits expected from the application of
water on to the land, irrigation is impracticable ; in fact, under-
ground drainage may be said to remove the excess of moisture in

204

winter, and to tend to retain moisture in the summer months, thus
making the soil, and consequently the roots, warm when the weather
is cold and cool in dry and hot weather. Complete drainage and
moderate moisture are as necessary to the healthy growth of the
root system of the plant as pruning and spraying with insecticides
to the healthy growth of the branches and leaves, and the produc-
tion of a crop of sound, showy, and well-matured fruit.

WHAT FRUIT TO GROW.

The following chapter contains a carefully- selected list of fruits
which have either been proved to be successfully grown in the S. W.
division of Western Australia, or are known to thrive in other fruit-
growing countries bearing, with ours, strong features of similarity as
regards those natural conditions which are congenial to fruit trees.

The letters E., M., and L. mean early, medium, or late respec-
tively, and S., A., and W. denote summer, autumn, and winter;
F. and C., freestone or clingstone.

PLANT BREEDING.

Until a few years ago the art of man had seldom been directed
towards improving our cultivated plants. Seeds were collected of
varieties exhibiting special features deemed worthy of reproduction
and improvement. These were planted under favourable conditions
and received the benefit of careful cultivation ; the rest was left to
Providence. Under such circumstances, a great many of our
choicest select seedlings, varieties of fruit trees, and plants have
originated; a great many more are the result,, of chance seedlings.
This process however is, if at times efficacious, somewhat empirical,
and some of our more modern fruit growers have of late brought
their commercial genius to bear in selecting and in mating varieties
embodying special features which, when blended together, would
approach closer to the ideal they have set themselves to create.
Time is thus saved, and if the result does not always come up to that
ideal, it often constitutes a subject which is worth putting to the
test, and which is finally adopted or rejected by either the breeder
himself or by the cultivator.

This is effected by the process of cross fertilisation or of
pollination. For so doing something must be known of the
structure of the flower.' Inside the corolla, which is formed of the
variously-coloured petals, are the organs of fructification of the plant.
These consist of a pistil, so called because it somewhat resembles a
pestle, and which includes an inflated tip or stigma which receives
the pollen, a style or miniature tube which conveys the pollen
to the ovary, which in the course of development becomes the fruit.
They also consist of thread-like bodies called stamens, which are the
male organ of flowers and surround the pistil. These organs secrete
the pollen or fecundating dust which is contained in little capsules
called anthers.

205

The appliances necessary for cross-fertilising plants are a pair
of long-pointed scissors, a pair of tweezers, a magnifying glass, and
paper or gauze bags.

Soon after the blossom opens, the petals of the corolla may be
removed ; the stamens which surround the pistil are excised on those
flowers of the plant it is intended to use as the foster-mother of the

POLLINATION.

FIG. 1.— A grape vine floral bud.

FIG. 2.- -Same showing the petals of the corolla detached from the base and
united above, pressing the anthers against the pistil.

FIG. 3.— Same with the corolla removed, and showing the anthers ready for
excision. — (Fosx.)

FIG. 4.— Tweezers and scissors. Gauze bag. Same expanded by wire
frame.— (FOEX.)

new variety, and the paper bags, whose edges are damped slightly
are tied on the twig supporting these organs. This done, the
blossom on the parent tree which is to supply the pollen is watched
with the aid of the magnifying lens, and as soon as ever the pollen
sacs are seen to begin bursting, these flowers may be cut, seized with
the tweezers, and after carefully lifting the paper bag from
the blossoms with the male organs excised, they are gently rubbed
on the exposed pistils ; the covering bags are then fastened on again
and left to remain for a few days until the setting takes place.

206

PEDIGREED FRTJIT TREES.

The individuality of the tree having been secured, either
accidentally or owing to the foresight and the experience of the
breeder, it can be transmitted and preserved with a fair amount of
permanency. Some strains of cattle and live stock are well known
which embody to a high degree of perfection all the good points of
the breed, whilst other strains are also known to have thrown back
and degenerated and to only beget mongrels ; so in our orchards there
are strains of vigorous and feeble trees bearing, some heavily, others
lightly. This being admitted, it behoves all nurserymen and fruit-
growers to only propagate from the most productive and the best of
trees. After individual trees seemingly inferior to the accepted
standard have failed to improve under the stimulus of cultivation,
manuring, suitable pruning, and requisite treatment directed against
the eradication of pests on the removal of unhealthy surroundings,
there is but one thing left to secure the rising of that tree up to the
desired standard, and that is to cull it out and work on it a scion
from some selected strain.

POME TREES.

These are commonly meant to comprise fruit grown from pips,
such as apples, pears, and quinces.

They were some generations past known by country folk as
pippins, pearmains, russets, costards, codlins, and so on.

Pippins were chance seedlings which were in themselves so
perfect that they did not require grafting or budding. Pearmains
were somewhat elongated or pear-shaped. Russets were covered
with a rough skin, and were generally sorts which hang well to
the trees. Costards were large and bulky apples, whereas codlins
were apples which fell to the ground when green, and were chiefly
used for cooking, sauces, etc. Cider apples exemplified those apples
— some astringent and some bitter — which were best adapted for
the manufacture of cider.

So with pears. We have Beurres, Bergamottes, cooking, and
perry pears.

Beurres are melting, juicy pears, which at one time were thus
distinguished from hard cooking sorts. They vary widely as
regards shape, period of ripening, markings, and for that reason
the old classification has not been maintained, each of the Beurres
being qualified by its patronymic name. Bergamottes once included
a fair number of pears, each being differentiated by a specific name,
while perry pears included those most suitable for fermenting into
perry.

SELECT APPLES (Pyrus Mains).

There are over 1,500 varieties of apples catalogued by* nursery-
men. Of these, the following suit our requirements and climatic
conditions best. Of summer apples, plant only a few. They should

207

208

be worked on Northern Spy stock, preferably to any other. Do not
plant deeply, lest the variety worked upon the Spy should throw its
own roots, and become blighty and ultimately useless. They are
named as much as possible in the order they ripen.

EARLY MARGARET (syn. Red Juneating) S. — The earliest of
all apples, ripens before Christmas, but will not keep, and soon
becomes mealy. Fruit small, roundish, ovate, and narrowing
towards the eye, where it is angular, yellow greenish on shaded
side, bright red next the sun, striped with darker red ; a few grey
russety dots.

RED ASTRACHAN (of Russian origin), S. — A very early,
abundant bearer, ripens towards Christmas and the New Year.
Tree vigorous. G-ood for market on account of its rich colour.
Fruit of second-rate quality, and must be gathered at the right
time or else turns mealy.

MR. GLADSTONE, S. — Ripens with Red Astrachan. Small,,
oblate, highly coloured, handsome and good, will not keep.

The last three sorts named ripen from the 20th December to
the 10th January ; thev require gathering every few days, otherwise
they fall.

IRISH PEACH, S. — Ripens in January, good bearer, but not a
keeper; does not blight. Fruit medium size, somewhat flattened
and slightly angular. Pale yellowish -green, tinged with dull
reddish- brown, and lively red thickly dotted with green dots on
shaded side and yellow spots on sun side. Flesh greenish white,
tender, crisp.

LORD SUFFIELD, S. — A valuable, early, English cooking apple,
excellent for jelly making ; described as an improvement on Kes-
wick Codlin. Should be shipped in February. Tree an early and
very prolific bearer, and one of those varieties which, on account of
these properties, is not long lived. Fruit large, conical pale,
greenish-yellow, with a brown tinge on the sunny side. Flesh white,
firm, tender, brisk sub-acid.

GRAVENSTEIN (of German origin), S. — Ripens in February.
Tree very vigorous, spreading. Young shoots reddish brown ; very
productive, an early bearer. Fruit fairly large, roundish flattened,
pale waxen yellow, pencilled and marbled with red and orange on
the side next the sun. Flesh tender, crisp, high flavoured, aromatic.
One of the best qualities of apples grown, requires frequent picking
over as they colour. Moderately good keeper, but hardly good
enough for shipping to English market.

EMPEROR ALEXANDER, A. — A very large showy, cooking, and
early variety. Tree vigorous, spreading, productive, and when
grown as a dwarf, producing fruit of the largest size and greatest
beauty, greenish-yellow, few streaks of red on shaded side, and
orange-streaked with bright red on the side next to the sun, covered
with numerous russety dots. Does well in the cool districts.

209

210

REINETTE DE CANADA, A (Normandy). — Ripens early autumn.
Tree vigorous, with an open, spreading head, very productive ; young
shoots, clear reddish brown, slightly downy. Succeeds well wher-
ever planted; large oblate, rather irregular with projecting ribs.
Fruit yellowish-green, tinged brown on side next the sun, sprinkled
with dots and russet patches. Flesh nearly white, rather firm,
juicy, with a rich, lively, sub-acid flavour. Keeps very well ; an
apple of first-rate quality, either for culinary or dessert use. The
finest fruits are produced from dwarf trees.

CELLINI, A. — A culinary apple of the first quality, firm and
showy, somewhat like the, Nonesuch. Fruit rather above medium
size, roundish and flattened at both ends. Skin rich deep yellow,
with spots and patches of lively red on the shaded side, and bright
red, streaked and mottled with dark crimson next the sun, with here
and there a tinge of yellow breaking through. Eye large and open in
shallow, slightly plaited basin, stalk very short in funnel-shaped cavity.

TRIVETT'S SEEDLING, A. — An Australian blight-proof seedling.
Early, regular, and heavy bearer. Fruit medium size, oblong and
slightly ribbed, covered with red and striped with darker red.
Requires thinning. One of the first apples ready for shipping.

RIBSTON PIPPIN, A. — One of the finest English dessert
apples. Ripens in the autumn. Tree forms a spreading top, is in
general hardy, a vigorous grower, and a good bearer, provided it is
grown in a dry soil ; but if otherwise, it is almost sure to canker.
Fruit medium sized, roundish, and irregular in its outline. Skin
greenish-yellow, changing to dull yellow, marked with pale red
streaks, which become deep crimson on sunny side, and russety
patches over the base. Eye small. Flesh yellow, firm, crisp, rich,
and sugary, charged with a powerful aromatic flavour. Fairly
good keeper. This is one of the first apples we have ready for ship-
ping— ripens end of February. Like Gravenstein, wants suitable
soil and climate to give good results. Better suited for cooler
districts. Subject to woolly aphis.

JONATHAN (New York), A. — Ripens in the autumn, from first
week in March, and keeps till midwinter. Tree hardy, moderately
vigorous, forming an upright, spreading, round head ; early and
abundant bearer, young shoots rather slender, slightly pendulous,
greyish brown. Fruit medium to large, roundish, conical or taper-
ing to the eye, even and regular in its outline, eye closed, skin thin
and smooth, clear light yellow ground, mostly covered with red,
deepening in the sun ; flesh white, very tender and juicy, rich, vinous.
Succeeds wherever grown, and proves one of the best in quality and
most profitable, either for table or market.

BEN DAVIS, A. — Tree very hardy and free grower, with very
dark reddish-brown, slightly greyish young wood forming an erect
round head, bearing early and abundantly, and blooming late in
spring. The apples grow close to the limbs, which are on that
account not likely to break down. Fruit medium, sides often

2tl

212

unequal ; light red and deep red on yellowish ground, dotted with
russet dots. Recommended for dry, warm districts.

YELLOW BELLFLOWER, A. — Large, handsome, and excellent
dessert apple ; oblong, a little irregular, tapering to the eye, skin
smooth, pale lemon yellow, often with a blush next the skin, stalk
long and slender in a deep cavity, calyx closed, set in a rather
narrow plaited basin. Seeds in a large hollow capsule or core.
Tree moderately vigorous, spreading, a regular and good bearer ;
thrives well in sandy soils.

ADAM'S PEARMAIN, A. to W. (England). — Ripens in the autumn.
Tree a free and healthy grower, producing long slender shoots, by
which, and its spoon-shaped ovate leaves, it is easily distinguished.
It is an excellent bearer in cool districts, even in a young state,
particularly on the Paradise or Doucin stock, and succeeds as well
on Espalier, a good exporting variety. Fruit large, pearmain- shaped,
very even and regularly formed. Skin pale yellow, tinged wit>fe green,
covered with russet on shaded side, but deep yellow, tinged with red
and streaked with livelier red on sunny side. Flesh yellowish, crisp,
juicy, rich, and sugary, with an agreeable and pleasantly perfumed
flavour.

Cox's ORANGE PIPPIN, A. to W. — One of the best dessert
apples. Ripens in winter. The tree is well adapted for dwarfs, and
a free bearer. Fruit medium sized, roundish ovate. Skin greenish-
yellow, and streaked with red in the shade, but dark red when
exposed to the sun ; patches of ash-grey russet forming a smooth
crust, eye small, set in a shallow saucer-like russet basin ; stalk
somewhat fleshy, set in a moderately deep cavity covered with russet,
and with a slight swelling on one side. Flesh yellowish, tender,
crisp, juicy, and sweet, with a fine perfume and rich flavour.

BISMARK, A.— A fine showy Victorian variety, good either for
cooking or dessert. Keeps fairly well. Tree strong grower and
early bearer.

CLEOPATRA, W. (syn. Pomeroy,New York Pippin). — One of the
best for dry districts. Keeps and carries well. Dessert or cooking.
Tree grows large and bears well. Fruit ripening in winter, rather
large, of an oblong figure, rather irregular in its outline, and with
five angles on its side, forming a kind of lip at the crown ; eye closed.
Skin greenish yellow, few green specks intermixed with a thin grey
russet, and tinged with brown on sunny side. Flesh firm, crisp,
tender, juice plentiful, sweet, with a slight aromatic flavour. Does
well on ironstone gravel slopes. Affected by " bitter pit " when
grown on moist, badly-drained soil.

FIVE CROWNED PIPPIN (syn. London Pippin), W. — Dessert and
cooking, drying, or cider. Ripens in late autumn and keeps sound
late, showing no symptoms of shrivelling. The tree attains about
the middle size, is not a strong grower, but quite hardy and clean,
and an excellent bearer. Fruit medium to large, angular in its
outline, and much ribbed round the eye. Skin smooth and shining,

213

lemon -yellow on the shaded side, and with a bright red cheek on the
side next the sun ; a few russet dots, eye large and closed. Flesh
crisp, tender, juicy, and richly flavoured with a brisk acidity.
Not suitable for warm, dry localities.

ESOPUS SPITZENBTJRG (New York), W. — Tree an upright
grower, with long slender shoots ; healthy. Fruit keeps fairly, seeds
in a hollow core, large, oblong, tapering roundly to the eye ; skin
smooth, covered with rich, lively red, dotted with distinct yellowish
russet dots, and on shaded side yellowish ground with streaks and
broken stripes of red ; stalk rather long and slender ; eye small
and closed ; flesh yellow, rather firm, crisp, juicy, with a delicious
rich, brisk flavour; considered equal to the Newtown Pippin.
Bears well while young, but does not live very long unless well
cultivated and carefully sprayed to ward off the attacks of fungoid
diseases and of insects. Requires liberal manuring. Subject to
" bitter pit " disease.

BEAUTY, W. — Ripens early winter. Tree a good grower,
late bloomer, productive. Young wood, clear reddish brown,
slightly downy or grey. Fruit large, to very large, roundish, yellow,
shaded and striped with red, sprinkled with light dots. Flesh
yellowish, juicy, sprightly ; core rather large, fruit keeps late. Tree
bears early, subject to woolly aphis. Does well on deep, heavy
loam.

MAIDEN'S BLTJSH, W. — Ripens early winter. Tree of rapid
growth, with spreading head, and bearing large crop of fruit of medium
size, very regularly shaped. Skin of a delicate waxy appearance,
pale lemon yellow in the shade, with a bright crimson cheek next
the sun ; eye closed ; flesh white, tender, sprightly, pleasant, sub-acid.
Cultivated and admired for table, cooking, and market, and also for
drying.

SCARLET NONPAREIL, W. — A good English sort. Tree hardy on
well-drained soil (rather subject to woolly aphis), a good grower,
though slender in its habit, and a very good bearer. Fruit medium
sized, round, narrowing towards the apex, regularly shaped, should
be thinned out. Skin yellowish on the shaded side, streaked with pale
red, but covered with red, which is streaked with deeper red on
sunny side, and covered with patches of russet and large russety
specks. Flesh yellowish-white, firm, juicy, rich, and sugary.

PRINCE ALFRED, W. — A large, excellent dessert or cooking
apple, showy, much liked in Tasmania ; a good keeper.

BLENHEIM ORANGE, W. — Fruit, good size, globular, and some-
what flattened, broader at base than apex ; skin, yellow, with a
tinge of dull red and streaked with deeper red; eye, large and open
in a deep basin ; stalk, short and stout ; flesh, yellow, crisp, juicy ;
a fine culinary or dessert apple ; a strong grower ; bears little at first.

NICKAJACK, W. — Large, handsome, cooking or dessert apple ;
tree a strong grower and somewhat light bearer at first.

214

DUNN'S SEEDLING, W. (syn. Munroe's Favourite). — One of
the best all-purposes apples. Tree hardy and prolific. Excellent
keeping apple ; one of the best for cooking.

NORTHERN SPY (New York), W. — Tree a rapid, upright
grower, requires good soil, blooms late, productive, but not an early
bearer. Young shoots, dark reddish brown ; fruit large, yellowish
green, with yellow-red cheek in the sun, and thin white bloom.
Flesh white, tender, fragrant, juicy, crisp, brisk sub-acid, keeps
well. It is also well known as a blight-resistant stock.

BOKEWOOD (Bullock's Seedling), W. — A first-class Australian
dessert apple of good keeping and carrying quality, and an abun-
dant bearer. Sizes uneven when the tree gets old, requiring sort-
ing. Fruit roundish, oblate, skin deep orange, heavily shaded with
crimson, and dotted with brown russet. Eye somewhat open, tube
conical and short, stamens medium, core ovate, axile, and solid.
Flesh yellowish, firm, sugary, and juicy. Stalk short, set in a conical
basin lined with russet.

SPRINGDALE, W. — An apple of recent origin, and a fine late
keeper of large size. Colour, bright red. Tree hardy, good grower,
and blight-proof, dark-green foliage, said to be a regular and heavy
bearer.

NEWTOWN PIPPIN (New York), W. — Eipens late in the winter.
Fruit medium size, roundish, little irregular, caused by two or three
obscure ribs on the sides. Skin dull green, changing to olive
green, brownish on the sunny side, dotted with small grey specks.
Flesh greenish-white, very juicy, crisp, with delicious aromatic
flavour. It commands a high price in Coveiit Garden market,
London. When in perfection stands unrivalled in all the qualities
which constitute a high-flavoured dessert apple, to which it com-
bines the quality of long keeping without the least shrivelling,
retaining its high flavour to the last. The tree, like the yellow
Newtown Pippin, is of rather slender and slow growth, and even
while young is remarkable for its rough bark. Should be tried
with caution first, to ascertain whether it suits the locality. Re-
quires a fertile, strong, deep, warm soil to attain its full perfection,
and should be well manured every two or three years.

RYMER (English), W. — Tree vigorous, productive. Fruit
ripens late ; large and beautiful deep red, covered with yellowish
grey dots on sunny side, faint streaks of pale red with reddish-
brown dots on shaded side, roundish and flattened with five obscure
ribs on the sides ; eye closed ; stalk short, in a round deep cavity
lined with rough russet. Flesh yellowish, tender, and sub-acid.

STRAWBERRY PIPPIN, W. — Large late apple, a good keeper;
white flesh, tender, juicy, sub-acid ; colour, yellow, splashed with red.

SHOCKLEY, W. — Medium size, somewhat conical ; pale yellow
overspread with red and small dots ; late, good keeper ; tree early
and regular bearer, productive.

215

STONE PIPPIN, W. — Does well, especially on marly ground of
the S. W. districts. Fruit medium size, roundish, pale, waxy, yellow
when ripe, and dotted with white specks ; flesh firm, crisp. A long
keeper and very good culinary or dessert variety. Tree strong,
upright, and very good bearer.

STURMER PIPPIN, W. — An English dessert apple, ripens in
winter. Tree hardy and an excellent bearer, and attains about the
middle size. Fruit medium size, roundish, somewhat flattened.
Skin yellowish-green, with tinge of dull red on side next the sun,
and almost entirely covered with brown russet. Flesh yellow, firm,
crisp, very juicy, with a brisk and rich sugary flavour.

SELECT PEARS (Pyrus communis).

In giving a description of the choicest pears to grow, either for
home use or for market, the well-known Bartlett (Williams' Bon
Chretien) will be considered as the typical summer pear, and the early
varieties will be those which ripen before that fruit, whilst the late
ones will comprise those ripening some time after. The indifferent
bearing of a great many pear trees may be attributed to blights
and to defective pollination of the flowers. Recent experiments are
throwing a good deal of light upon this question, and by mixing
varieties and planting in adjacent rows sorts which bloom approxi-
mately at the same time, a considerable improvement has been
noticed in the bearing of some pears. Pear trees should be worked on
seedling pears, as suckers are troublesome. Quince stock is not
always suitable. Early pears are best when gathered before they
part readily from the trees and laid up for a few days. For the
later kinds the season may be prolonged. Every care should be
taken not to store any bird-pecked or bruised fruit ; and at all
times they should be delicately handled and kept in a cool, dark
place.

CITRON DBS CARMES, E.S. (Fig. 4). — The best of the earliest
sorts, ripening end of November and early in December. Fruit
small, obovate ; skin smooth and thin, bright green, changing to
yellowish green with a faint tinge of brownish red, strewed with
grey dots. Flesh pale, yellowish white, delicate, very juicy, melting ;
sometimes cracks on the surface. Tree a hardy and abundant
bearer. Does also well on quince stock.

SOUVENIR DU CONGRES, S. — One of the best early varieties,
very large, but somewhat subject to smut ; skin smooth, bright red
when fully ripe. Short lived on quince stock. Flesh much like the
Bartlett, having the musky flavour, though in a less degree.

CLAPP'S FAVOURITE, S. (Fig. 7). — Tree upright, spreading,
vigorous grower and heavy bearer. Fruit evenly distributed, and
almost uniform in size ; ripens just before the Bartlett. Fruit,
medium size, obovate, slightly obtuse pyriform, surface uneven ; skin
thin, pale lemon yellow, faintly splashed with crimson and fawn when
exposed to the sun, sprinkled with dots and russet patches. Flesh
white, melting, sweet, a little perfumed.

216

BARTLETT, S. (syn. Williams' Bon Chretien) .—An English pear
and the most popular of all the summer varieties. Tree grows
upright, with thrifty, yellowish-brown shoots, and narrow, folded
leaves ; early bearer and healthy, not much affected by the fusi-
cladmm ; bears freely on the quince stock. Fruit large, obtuse
pyriform, irregular and bossed in its outline, smooth, clear yellow,
sometimes with delicate blush ; stalk an inch long, stout, and in-
serted in shallow cavity, calyx open ; flesh white, fine grained,
juicy, melting, highly perfumed (musky), vinous flavour. It should
be gathered before it becomes yellow,* otherwise it speedily decays.
Some pears blossoming approximately with the Bartlett should be
planted with these trees to supply pollen to set the Bartlett crop.
Amongst those are Clapp's Favourite, Howell, Duchesse d'Angou-
leme, Le Lectier.

HOWELL, S. (Fig. 8) .—Follows Bartlett. Tree upright and a free
grower ; an early- and profuse bearer ; fruit large, waxen yellow,
sprinkled with russet dots and patches ; flesh whitish, juicy, melt-
ing ; a very good market pear.

LE LECTIER, S. — An excellent French pear, the result of a cross
between Bartlett and Bergamotte Fortune. Tall, erect, vigorous,
regular bearer ; flesh fine, juicy, without granulations ; highly per-
fumed.

KIEFFER'S HYBRID (American), A. — Raised from seed of the
Chinese Sand Pear, accidentally crossed with Bartlett or some
other kind. Fruit medium to large ; oval pyriform ; rich golden
yellow, sprinkled thickly with small dots, often tinged with red on
the sunny side. Flesh slightly coarse, juicy, melting, with a pro-
nounced quince flavour. Good for canning only. If intended for
eating, let hang on the tree until fully ripe, and keep a few days in
a cool dark room and its quality will be fully developed. However
mature a Kieffer pear may be, it is never good when first picked
from the tree. Keeps and packs well, and for that reason suitable
for export. A vigorous as well as an early bearer. If allowed to
become overloaded or starved, the tree produces small, hard fruit
of poor flavour.

LE CONTE, A. — A variety of the Chinese Sand, like Kieffer's
Hybrid, vigorous grower with luxuriant and distinct foliage, large
bell-shaped fruit. Should be treated as the Kieffer pear.

FERTILITY, A. — Ripens at the same time as Louise Bonne de
Jersey. Fruit large, well coloured, and of high flavour. Tree
vigorous and healthy grower ; a good and regular bearer.

LOUISE BONNE DE JERSEY (France), A. (Fig. 6). — Ripens in the
autumn. Succeeds admirably on the quince, producing then a
delicious pear. Tree vigorous, upright, very productive. A profitable
market pear where it succeeds, healthy. Fruit large oblong
pyriform, a little one-sided ; glossy, pale-green in shade, brownish-
red in sun, numerous grey dots ; stalk curved, rather obliquely

217

Fig 1. Gansei's Bergainottc
Fig. 3. Beurre Clairgeau.

Fig. 2. Beurre Capiaumont.
Fig 4. Citron des Cannes.

218

inserted, without depression, or with a fleshy, enlarged base ; calyx
open in a shallow, uneven basis ; flesh very juicy and melting, rich
and excellent ; very prolific.

G- ANSEL'S BERGAMOTTE, A. (Fig. 1). — A dessert pear of the
highest quality. Tree rather shy bearer for the first few years, then
productive, moderately vigorous, and spreading in habit. Young
wood, dull greyish-brown. Fruit medium to large, roundish
obovate, but much flattened. Skin roughish brown, becoming
yellowish -brown at maturity, tinged sometimes with a russet red
cheek and sprinkled with spots of russet. Stalk short, fleshy at
both ends. Cavity moderate. Calyx short and small, placed "in a
smooth moderate hollow. Flesh white, melting, very juicy, rich,
sweet, and aromatic.

BETJRRE DE CAPIATJMONT, A. (Fig. 2.) — Fruit medium size, pyri-
form. Skin pale yellow in the shade, almost entirely covered with
cinnamon-coloured russet, strewed with grey specks, and with
reddish orange shining out through the russet on the sunny side.
Flesh white, delicate, fine, melting, with a rich, juicy, sugary
flavour. A fine dessert pear. Tree hardy, vigorous, and a good bearer.

BROOMPARK, W. — Fruit medium, obovate. Skin sprinkled with
cinnamon-coloured russet. Flesh yellowish, melting, with a musky
flavour. Tree vigorous and excellent bearer ; succeeds well either
on the pear or the quince stock. Does well on heavy loam.

BEURRE CLAIRGEAU, W. (Fig. 3). — Ripens in winter. The size,
early bearing, productiveness, and beauty of this pear render it a
profitable market sort. In some cases it seems disposed to shed its
leaves prematurely — a serious defect. On young trees the fruits
are often large and drop off easily ; age remedies this defect. Tree
very vigorous, forming a beautiful pyramid. Young wood red-
dish brown. Fruit large, curved, pyriform, with unequal sides ;
yellow, shaded with orange and crimson, thickly covered with
russet, sometimes sprinkled with russet ; stalk short, stout, and
fleshy, inserted by a lip at an inclination almost without depression ;
when lip is absent, the cavity is uneven ; calyx open ; flesh yellowish,
buttery, juicy, granular, sugary, perfumed, vinous, coarse unless
properly ripened. A popular variety for local and distant markets.
Not much subject to fusicladium. Suitable for export.

VICAR OF WINKFIELD, W. (syn. Napoleon). — A large, fair, and
handsome French variety, also a first-rate baking pear, but some-
times too astringent; second-rate for a table pear. Tree grows
thriftily, with drooping fruit branches, shoots diverging, dark olive
brown, very productive, hardy; fine size fruit and a profitable
market cooking pear. Fruit large and long pyriform ; often one-'
sided, pale yellow, fair and smooth, sometimes with brownish cheek,
and marked with small brown dots ; stalk slender, obliquely inserted
without depression ; calyx large, open, set in a basin very slightly
sunk; flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, writh good sprightly flavour.
Not much touched by fusicladium nor by the pear mite. Suitable
for export and stewing.

Fig. 5.— Josephine de Malines.
Fig. 7.— Clapp's Favourite.

Fig. 6. — Louise Bonne of Jerse7.
Fig. 8.— Howell.

220

JOSEPHINE DE MALINES, W. (Fig. 5). — One of the best winter
varieties. Tree a moderate grower, somewhat straggling, hardy, foli-
age small, quite productive. Should be planted on rich soil or
grafted on a strong growing sort. Young wood olive-yellow-brown,
very short jointed. Buds round, projecting. Fruit medium, roundish,
flattened ; pale yellow or straw colour at maturity, sometimes
nettled and patched with russet; flesh white, tinted with rose,
juicy, melting, sweet, slight aroma. Ripens midwinter, and often
keeps till spring. Suitable for export.

WINTER NELIS (syn. Bonne de Malines), W.— Reported liable
to fusicladium, and an irregular bearer in the coast region of
California ; in other localities a hardy and thrifty tree, rather
slender and a poor, crooked grower, better grafted on a strong
growing variety, an early and regular abundant bearer ; the crop
usually needs thinning, especially on trees of considerable age ;
fruit is always inferior when the tree is overloaded, but this applies
to nearly all varieties, though not in the same degree. Fruit
medium, roundish, obovate, narrowed near the stalk; yellowish-
green, dotted with gray russet and a good deal covered with russet ;
stalk rather long, twisted, and set in a narrow cavity ; calyx open in
shallow basin. Flesh yellowish white, fine-grained, buttery, very
melting, and full of rich, sweet, aromatic juice. Suitable for
export.

L'INCONNUE (Belgium), W. — A very excellent winter pear.
Tree hardy, vigorous, upright, very productive. Fruit medium or
below, broad oval pyriform, light yellow, nettled and patched with
russet and many russet dots ; stalk long, curved, inclined and set
in a slight depression, sometimes by a lip. Calyx open. Segments
long and curved. Basin shallow, uneven. Flesh yellowish- white,
juicy, crisp, very sweet, rich and pleasant. Packs and carries well.

SELECT QUINCES (Pyrus Cydonia).

ANGERS, A. — This is the variety most generally used for
stocks on which to bud the pear. Fruit large, yellow, keeps well.
A strong growing sort, and abundant bearer.

APPLE OR ORANGE, A. — A popular variety, large, roundish
fruit, bright yellow. Ripens early, s.tews quite tender; excellent
flavour. Bears most abundant crops ; leaves oval.

CHAMPION, A. — Fruit very large, smooth ; tree very productive,
bearing abundantly when young ; flesh cooks tender and without
hard spots or cores.

BOURGEAUT, W. — A vigorous French variety of good quality,
keeps well, cooks tender. Fruit very large, golden colour, smooth
velvety skin and resistant to the leaf blight.

VAN DIEMAN, W. — Seedling of " Portugal," but much more
prolific and an early bearer. Fruit large and of excellent quality.
One of the best.

221

SELECT LOQUATS (Erisbotrya Japonica).

Some amount of attention has of late been given to those
fruits which, coming in at a time when the market is practically
bare, constitute a kind of hyphen between the winter and the
summer fruits. The majority of seedlings more generally grown are,
at the best, ornamental trees, but are singularly devoid of those
qualities which constitute an acceptable dessert fruit. Art and
selection, however, have of late brought forward some choicer
varieties, which are rapidly becoming popular, and amongst these : —

ADVANCE. — A Calif ornian loquat ; said to be prolific ; oblong to
pear shape ; bearing large clusters.

HERD'S MAMMOTH, E. — Matures in October. Fruit large; few

seeds.

"B."— Victory Loquat.

VICTORY, M. — Ripens end of October and beginning of
November. Fruit large, egg-shaped ; yellow-tinted amber on side
exposed to the sun ; flesh juicy, sugary, and pleasant in flavour.

222

STONE FRUITS.

These comprise such fruit as apricots, cherries, peaches,
nectarines, plums.

SELECT APRICOTS (Prunus Armeniaca).

These trees are best worked on apricot root in the warmer and
drier districts, as it stands drought fairly well, and is, in moister
localities, apt to grow too vigorously. Plum stock stands wet better
than the apricot root, has a more dwarfing tendency, and grows
fine fruit, but suckers when cultivated too deeply ; the union is
sometimes imperfect, and it often produces gumming and the die-
back diseases. Peach roots do better on lighter soil, and is generally
a good stock to work apricots upon. An ideal apricot district is one
which is neither too hot nor too cold, neither too dry nor too wet,
but one enjoying just a happy mean.

NEWCASTLE EARLY, E. — The earliest fair size apricot. Ripens
a week after Red Masculine, and a fortnight before Oullin's Early
Peach. The tree, according to Wickson, is an early, regular, and
good bearer ; a medium grower, being rather more upright in its
habit than the Royal. Fruit full, medium size, round ; rich golden
yellow, with brilliant red cheek in the sun ; freestone ; flavour, sweet
and rich ; three times as large as Red Masculine, not quite as large
as the Royal, nor quite as rich in flavour.

OULLIN'S EARLY PEACH, E., of which there is an improved
strain. This is an early form of the Peach Apricot ; of large size,
most delicious flavour, and ripens three weeks earlier. Like the
Peach, a variety from Piedmont ; about 2 inches in diameter ;
roundish, rather flattened and somewhat compressed on its sides,
with a well-marked suture. Skin yellow in the shade, but deep
orange mottled with dark brown on sunny side. Flesh of a fine yellow
saffron in colour, juicy, rich, and high flavoured. Stone can be
penetrated, like Moorpark, and with a bitter kernel. Strongly
resembles the Moorpark ; fruit rather larger, finer, and earlier.
Successful in the warmer districts.

ROYAL, E. — A fine large French variety, nearly as large as the
Moorpark (when well thinned out) , but with larger leaves forming
on long footstalks, and without the pervious stone of that sort ;
quite as high flavoured, and ripens a week or ten days earlier. A
favourite with the canners, and an excellent variety for drying.
One of the leading Californian apricots, being a freestone, of
good pale orange colour and flavour, ripening evenly. Fruit, large,
roundish oval, and slightly compressed; skin dull yellow, with
orange cheek and a shallow suture.

BLENHEIM, E. (syn. Shipley.) — A very good early variety,
above medium, oval, orange with a deep yellow, juicy, and tolerably
rich flesh ; good grower, and regular prolific bearer. Fruit runs a
little larger than the Royal, and is usually better distributed 011
the tree, but it must be well thinned. This variety is approved by
canners. Ripens a little later than the Royal.

223

ROMAN, E. (syn. Early Moorpark). — One of the largest grow-
ing and hardiest apricot trees, and bearing good crops where few
others succeed. Fruit middle-sized, oblong, with sides slightly
compressed, with but little or no suture ; skin entirely pale
yellow, or very rarely dotted with a few red spots on one side; flesh
dull yellow, soft, rather dry; stone oblong with bitter kernel; pro-
nounced to be the best apricot for Southern California, going there
under the name " Early Moorpark."

HEMSKERK, M. — A large and fine English variety of fine
quality, much like the Moorpark, of which it is a variety. Stone
not perforated, rather small, and kernel bitter. Esteemed because
the tree is more hardy and a more regular bearer than the Moor-
park, and the fruit ripens evenly on both sides — unlike the Moor-
park too, not liable to gum and die off in the same manner. The
reputation this variety enjoys in the Eastern States is not main-
tained in Western Australia.

MOORPARK, M. — A noble apricot, but an uncertain or shy
bearer, resembling the Peach Apricot closely, with this difference,
that it will grow on the common plum and mussel stock, while the
Peach will not, and the Moorpark does not grow on the Damas Noir,
while the Peach Apricot does. Fruit ripens middle season ; large,
roundish, about two inches and a-quarter in diameter each way ;
rather larger on one side of the suture than the other. Skin orange
in the shade, but deep orange and brownish-red in the sun;
marked with dark specks and dots. Flesh quite firm ; bright
orange ; parting free from the stone ; quite juicy, with a rich and
luscious flavour ; stone peculiarly perforated at the back, where a
pin may be pushed through ; kernel bitter. The tree is a rank
grower, especially in its earlier years, and shows an amount of
vegetation which is not conducive to fruitfulness. It is, besides,
tender and very liable to sudden die-back in the spring. The
effect arises from sudden shock, like injuries received by the tissues
of the wood by late frosts, digging round in wet weather, etc.
Bears irregularly, but occasionally carries prodigious crops. Should
be planted very sparingly.

WARWICK, M. — Large ; resembling Moorpark ; constant
bearer; flesh orange, firm, rich, and sugary.

MRS. HART. — A promising Queensland variety, suitable for the
warmer districts of the State. Tree, a vigorous grower and a good
cropper.

PALE SUPERB, L. (syn. Camden Superb). — A late colonial
variety of great excellence. Vigorous grower and cropper.

ALSACE, L.— Very large size and first quality fruit; ripens
late. It is a variety of the Moorpark, but does not die off in
bunches like the Moorpark.

MANSFIELD SEEDLING, L. — Fruit very large, and one of the
finest grown. A good bearer and a late one.

224

SELECT PEACHES (Primus Persica).

These peaches are arranged approximately in the order of
ripening.

FLAT CHINA, E., F. — Of which there is an improved variety.
Ripens earliest of all — beginning of November. Tree, a strong
grower and an early and abundant bearer ; for that reason, not a
long-lived variety. Suitable for the warmer districts of the State.

BRIGG'S EARLY RED MAY (California), E., F. — The best of
early peaches. Ripens middle of November. Fruit medium to large,
round ; white skin with rich, red cheek ; flesh greenish -white,
melting, juicy, rich ; stone partially free ; a standard early variety ;
subject to mildew. In the coastal districts, West of the Darling
Ranges, this variety is a disappointing one, dropping its fruit buds
very extensively in certain seasons.

ALEXANDER (American), E., C. — A very early and excellent
peach. Fruit medium to large; greenish white, nearly covered
with rich red. Flesh whitish, melting, juicy, sweet, the only fault
being its adhering slightly to the stone. Two weeks before Hale's
Early. Leaves with round glands ; flowers large. Its flesh is so
tender it quite melts before it can be separated from the stone.
Somewhat liable to curl leaf, and drops its fruit buds badly in some
seasons.

HIGH'S EARLY CANADA, E.,F. — Ripens with Alexander's Early
before Christmas ; a better bearer than Briggs' Red May.

AMSDEN, E., F. — Medium size, greenish white and bright red
on the sunny side ; stone separates freely. An American peach ;
remarkable for its earliness ; ripening a fortnight before Hale's Early.

EARLY RIVERS, E., F. — Fruit large size ; roundish ; marked
with a distinct suture ; sometimes cracks at the stone. Skin pale
lemon yellow, with the slightest blush on one side. Flesh pale,
gelatinous, translucent, with white veins through it ; very tender and
juicy, and with a fine brisk nectarine flavour. One of the finest
early peaches. Raised from seed of Early Silver. Too luscious
and tender for shipment, but invaluable for the home garden.

HALE'S EARLY (American), E., F. — Tree very hardy ; a
vigorous grower and abundant bearer, but is liable to rot in some
localities. Leaves with round glands ; flowers large. Fruit medium,
nearly round, greenish, mostly covered with red. Flesh white,
melting, juicy, rich, and sweet. Fair for local market and export.
Follows Early Rivers — early in January.

JONES' EARLY RED, E., F. — Sets well in the coastal districts
Westward of the Darling Ranges. Fine colour.

FOSTER, E., F. — Very widely grown in California, and is
especially recommended for canning. Fruit uniformly large ;
slightly flattened ; slight suture ; stem moderately depressed ; flesh
yellow, very rich and juicy ; colour deep orange, dark red in the sun ;
tree hardy and productive. Ripens before Early Crawford, which
it somewhat resembles, but is of better quality. Heavy bearer.

225

CRAWFORD'S EARLY, M., F. — The most splendid of all early
yellow-fleshed peaches. Very popular for the garden or the orchard.
Tree is vigorous, fruitful, and hardy ; leaves with globose glands ;
flowers small. Fruit very large, oblong, swollen, point at top
prominent, suture shallow, skin yellow, with red cheek. Flesh
yellow, rich, and excellent.

ROYAL GEORGE, M., F. — Large globular, broad, and depressed ;
suture deep and broad, extending around two-thirds of the fruit.
Skin pale or white, sprinkled with red dots and deep red cheek.
Flesh tender, white, but very red at pit, juicy, rich, high flavour;
.subject to curl leaf.

MOUNTAIN ROSE, M., F. — A well-coloured, hardy, and valuable
medium peach. The product of a cross between Chinese Cling and
and Early Crawford, ripening just after the latter.

SHANGHAI, M., C. — Large yellow peach ; skin pale yellowish
green on the shaded side, and light red next the sun. Flesh pale
yellow, very deep red at the stone, to which some of the strings
adhere; melting, juicy, and richly flavoured. Tree a very good
bearer. Ripens beginning of February.

ELBERTA M., F. (Georgia). — Fruit very large; round oval,
with deep suture ; golden yellow, with enough blush to make it
showy. Flesh yellow, red at the pit ; excellent flavour. It bears
well and ships well ; large foliage but subject to curl leaf. Ripens
just ahead of Muir, towards the middle of February.

MUIR (California), M., F. — Fruit large to very large; perfect
freestone ; flesh clear yellow, very dense, rich and sweet ; pit small ;
tree a good bearer and strong grower, if on rich soil, to which it is
best adapted. Fruit a good shipper and canner, and peculiarly
adapted to drying, because of exceptional sweetness and density of
flesh. Yield lib. dry from less than 51bs. fresh. Ripens end of
February.

LOVELL, M., F. — Is now running a strong favourite to Elberta
in California. Pronounced to be one of the best peaches as a dryer,
canner, and shipper. Tree a strong grower, bears heavily and
carries the fruit well ; for drying it is close to the Muir in weight of
dried fruit per pound of fresh, and makes finer dried fruit. Large
.size, round, yellow. Flesh fine, texture firm, solid, clear yellow to
the pit. Said to curl in some places.

LADY PALMERSTON, L., F. — A fine late English peach ; generally
flowers small ; leaves with kidney-shaped glands. Large, skin
greenish-yellow, with a crimson cheek ; flesh pale green, rich, and
melting.

COMET, L., C. — A very large yellow flesh peach; fine for
canning. A seedling from Salway, which it resembles, but is
rather smaller, and fourteen days earlier (middle of April).

SALWAY (English), L., F. — Fruit large, roundish, one side
enlarged, suture distinct ; creamy yellow, with a marbled rich,

226

brownish-red cheek ; flesh yellow, firm, red to pit (somewhat like
an apricot), juicy, rich, sweet, vinous. Of great value as a showy
late peach.

McKEvrrr's CLING (California), L., C.--A very large white
peach; flesh very firm, fine grained, sugary, and rich high flavour,,
white to pit ; skin strong and fruit excellent for shipping or
canning. Tree remark-ably strong in growth and free from disease.

PHILLIP'S CLING, L., C. — A highly-commended Californian
peach for canning. Fine large yellow cling, no colour at the pit,
which is very small ; exceedingly rich and high coloured.

SELECT NECTARINES (Prunus Persica, var.).

A Composite Fruit: part Peach, part Nectarine. — Gardener's Chronicle.

The peach and the nectarine are closely related, as shown in an
illustration of a strange commixture or blending of the peach and
of the nectarine on the same specimen. Although the peach is the
mother of the nectarine, and this latter fruit is generally reproduced
by budding, yet it has often been demonstrated that the nectarine
can be reproduced from the stone without grafting or budding.

As a rule, the nectarine does not adapt itself so well as the
peach to varied surrounding circumstances.

IRREWARRA, E., F. — The earliest ; ripening middle of January.
Medium size, highly coloured, of good flavour.

LORD NAPIER, E.,F. — One of the earliest nectarines, and also
one of the largest. A heavy and regular bearer. Largo pale cream
colour, streaked with blood-red to dark crimson on the sunny side.
Flesh white, melting, tender, juicy, separating freely from the stone,
and with a rich " Stanwick " flavour. Flowers large ; leaf glands
kidney -shaped.

227

HUNT'S TAWNY, M., F. — An early medium-sized fruit, roundish
ovate; skin pale orange, with dark red cheek mottled with numerous
russety specks. Flesh deep orange, juicy, melting, rich, and very
good; freestone. Serrated leaves without glands, hardy, early, and
prolific; flowers small.

ELRUGE (English), M., F.— Ripens middle season (first week
in February), and is one of the finest nectarines. When the young
wood is annually shortened in, it bears good crops which ripen
well ; without this precaution, like almost all other nectarines, the
fruit is small, poor, and ripens imperfectly. Leaves with reiiiform
glands and flowers small. Fruit medium size, roundish oval ;
suture light, except at the top, where it is distinctly marked. Skin
pale green, deep violet in the sun, or blood -red with minute brownish
specks. Flesh pale green to the stone, which is free, of oval shape,
rough, and pale colour.

GOLDMINE, M.,F. — An excellent New Zealand seedling. Fruit
large : freestone ; the pit very small. Flf sh cream colour, tender,
juicy, melting, and delicious flavour. Colour bright bronzy red.

LARGE WHITE, M., F. — Commended wherever nectarines are
grown in California. A fine light- skinned variety. Leaves with
reniform glands ; flowers large. Fruit rather large, nearly round ;
skin white, with occasionally a slight tinge of red ; flesh white,
tender, very juicv with rich vinous flavour ; stone small and free.
Dessert, canning, and drying. Ripens first week in February.

STANWICK, L., F. — Originated in England from seed brought
from Syria. Ripens middle of February. Fruit large, roundish
oval ; skin pale greenish white, deep violet in the sun ; flesh white,
tender, juicy, and of good flavour. There is an improved strain of
this variety.

VICTORIA, L., F. — Fruit very large, pale green, of good
quality, and a heavy bearer. Ripens middle of February.

SELECT CHERRIES (Prunus cerasus).

Western Australia has failed so far to establish for cherry
culture the good fame she has earned in respect to most other
fruits. Were it not for the high prices offered for fresh local
cherries the trees would not have proved profitable; they
grow luxuriantly and blossom properly, but fail to set a crop,
and birds are great lovers of them. I would caution growers
in the warmer districts against planting them at all, whilst
tbose located in the cooler and higher districts from Kataiining
to Mt. Barker and the Lower Blackwood should endeavour to
find out which sorts suit the surrounding conditions best. -A
typical cherry country is a moist one possessed of well-drained
slopes covered with deep soil, and one which is not exposed
to V9ry great diurnal and nocturnal changes of the temperature.
In this latter respect the Western Australian climate may not
prove uniform enough for cherry culture, the difference between

228

day and night temperatures often showing variations of 30 to 40
deg. in the early spring when the cherry blossoms are out. A
climate rising at any time to 90 deg. F. whilst the cherry trees are
carrying their fruit is unsuitable for cherry culture. It is reason-
able to assume that some select or choice West Australian seedlings
may embody characters which will suit conditions prevailing here,
and thus prove suitable for our requirements. Cherries are the
first fruit to ripen after loquats. the season beginning early in
November in Western Australia. They are followed up by apricots
a few weeks afterwards.

The following are amongst the best Bigarreaux and Hearts : —

CALIFORNIA ADVANCE, E. — A seedling of Early Purple
Guigne, and not such a shy bearer ; one of the best early cherries -r
ripens last week in October ; dark purple, turning black.

WERDER'S EARLY BLACK, E.— A fine early variety ; ripens
middle of November ; fairly good bearer ; tree vigorous, spreading ;
fruit large, black, and of fine flavour.

CHAPMAN, E. (California). — A seedling of Black Tartarian, but
a better bearer, and much earlier; ripens after Early Purple Guigne.

BLACK EAGLE, E. — Medium size; deep purple or nearly black,
flesh deep purple, tender, juicy; ripens middle of November.

BIGARREATJ TwYFORD, E. — Fruit large and of fine quality •
pale yellow on the shaded side, red on the side next to the sun ; a
Victorian seedling, well spoken of ; succeeds well in most districts ;
ripens early in November.

CENTENNIAL, M. — A Calif ornian seedling of Bigarreau
Napoleon ; larger than its parent, more oblate in form, and marbled
and splashed with crimson on a pale yellow ground; very sweet,
mealy, and possessing good keeping and shipping qualities. Tree a,
vigorous grower and a prolific bearer. Ripens middle of November.

BIGARREAU NAPOLEON, M. (syn. Spotted Bigarreau). — A
magnificent cherry of the largest size, beautiful appearance and
rich flavour. Tree a vigorous grower, very hardy, and not subject
to gum ; a free bearer. Fruit pale yellow, becoming amber in the
shade, richly dotted, and spotted with deep red, and with a bright
red cheek ; flesh very firm, juicy, and sweet ; a good carrier.

ST. MARGARET, L. — -Very late. One of the best late ma.rketing
cherries grown, stands carrying well. Fruit very large, obtuse,
heart-shaped, uneven on its surface, and considerably flattened next
to the stalk on the side marked with the suture. Skin at first dark
red, changing to dark blackish purple. Flesh dark purple, adhering
firmly to the stone, firm, sweet, and briskly sub-acid.

FLORENCE, L. — Very late, same season as St. Margaret, end of
November. A most excellent cherry, originally brought from
Florence, in Italy, considerably resembles the Bigarreau, but ripens
a little later, and has the additional good quality of hanging a long

229

time on the tree. Tree of moderate size, and of a spreading habit
of growth. Fruit pale yellow, mottled with red on shaded sider
clear bright red mottled with deeper red on the side next to the sun.
Flesh amber colour, firm, rich, sweet, fine flavour, small stone.

MORELLOS.

MORELLO, L. — Fruit large, dark red, almost black if left to
hang for a long time. Flesh deep purplish red, tender, juicy, and
briskly acid. Tree of spreading habit, and great bearer. One of
the best for culinary purposes, or making " cherry brandy."

SELECT PLUMS AND PRUNES (Primus, sp.).

E., M., L., denote early, medium, late respectively ; K. cooking ;
D. dessert fruit.

The distinction as plums and prunes of species of the same
genus of plants is somewhat recent. They used to be called plums
by English-speaking people, just as in France they are all known as
prunes. In France, however, the fruit when dried and cured are
known as pruneau, and it is thus that in America and other
countries the word prune is specifically given to those plums which
will cure into a firm, meaty, dried fruit, from which the seed is not
removed.

In the descriptions of suitable varieties given below, prominence
has been given to those which are dried into prunes, as they also
happen to constitute excellent dessert fruit, and being meaty, sweet,
and firm, they pack and carry well.

Such varieties as the Robe de Sergent, Fellenberg or Italian
Prune, and Silver Prune, a seedling of Coe's Golden Drop, have been
left out, as they are shy and disappointing bearers, although they
are of excellent quality. In California they are now being as
rapidly replaced by more profitable sorts as they were extensively
planted a few years ago.

Plums have been classified into different families such as : —

1st. Primus domestica, native of Asia, and the parent of
European varieties such as damson, greengages, and
varieties commercially known as prunes.

2nd. Prunus cerasifera, of which the niyrobolan or cherry
plum is the type. These are natives of South-
Eastern Europe and South- Western Asia, and are
used mostly for stocks ; they are the parents of
Mariana and other varieties, which are either offshoots
of this species or hybrids.

3rd. Prunus triflora, or the Japanese type.

4th. Prunus simoni, or the apricot plum, a native of China.

230

DAMSON, E. — Cultivated
for cooking purposes. There
are several varieties of this
fruit all originating from
the native English plum.
Amongst the best is Critten-
den's Cluster, or Prolific.
Fruit larger than any of the
others, roundish oval, skin
black, and covered with a
thin bloom. Tree a heavy
bearer. Young shoots downy.

PRUNE D'AGEN, Fig. 1
(syn. French Prune, Prune
d'Ente), L. — Ripens end of
March. The most propa-
gated in the Valley of the
Lot in France and also in
California. Tree of moderate
growth. Young shoots dense,
smooth. Very productive.
Fruit medium size, oval,
slightly necked, suture small.
Skin violet purple, covered
with a thick bloom and
numerous small dots. Stalk
nearly an inch long, a little
curved, set in a small de-
pression. Flesh greenish-
yellow, juicy, sugary, rich
and delicious, slightly ad-
herent to the stone. Ripens
middle season. The best of
all prunes. When cured con-
tains 35 to 50 per cent, sugar.
When fresh 15 to 30 go to
the pound, and 45 to 75 to
the pound cured, with a
ratio between cured and fresh
fruit of 2-55 to 2-90.

SPLENDOR (Fig. 2.) — A
cross between the Prune
d'Agen, fertilised by Pond,
or Hungarian Plum. Tree
vigorous and uniform in
growth ; not so thick as the
Prune d'Agen, which it re-
sembles. Fruit freestone,
ripens two weeks earlier than
its parent, and much larger.
It is a clear, even red, and

231

turns quite black in curing. Highly spoken of for drying, shipping,
market, and as a dessert fruit. The following comparison between
the Splendor and the Prune d'Agen is by Mr. Gk Colley, of the
Cal. Univ. Exp. Station : —

Splendor. French.

Number per lb 15'75 19'20

Flesh, per cent 95'70 94'20

Pits ,, „ 4-30 5-80

Juice „ „ * 88-0 83-1

Pulp „ „ 12-0 16'9

Sugar, per cent, in juice ... ... 22'87 23'69

„ „ „ in flesh 20'13 1970

„ „ „ whole fruit 19'27 18'50

This shows that the fruit is closely comparable with the
French prune. The Splendor is greater in juice, and would
probably lose more in drying. The exact drying value of the prune
must be determined in practice. The acid in both prunes is
identical, and from this fact, and what is given above, the two
fruits belong to the same class in richness and flavour.

POND'S SEEDLING (syn. Hungarian Prune), Fig. 3, L.,K. — Late
English sort. Tree very vigorous and productive ; a beautiful red,
large, ovate fruit, slightly tapering to the stalk. Skin thick, red-
dish violet, with numerous brown dots, and covered with a thick
bloom. Flesh coarse, adhering to the stone. Branches smooth,
grayish. Sells well on appearance.

IMPERIAL EPINEUSE (Fig. 4.), M. — A strong grower, upright,
stocky growth, with an inclination to make lateral spurs, giving the
tree a thorny appearance. Wood darker in colour than Prune
d'Agen. Fruit very large, reddish purple, firm and sweet ; very
similar to Clairac Mammoth. Of this prune, 10 go to the
pound fresh, and 25 to the pound cured, with a ratio between cured
and fresh fruit of 2 -53.

REINE CLATJDE DE BAVAY, Fig. 5 (Belgium), L. — A most
exquisite late dessert plum of the greengage type, extensively planted
as a late market sort. Tree very vigorous, very productive. Branches
smooth. Fruit large, roundish, a little flattened ; greenish-yellow,
with splashes of green, thin bloom ; flesh yellow, juicy, sugary,
melting, rich, excellent, separates from the stone.

YELLOW MAGNUM BONUM, Fig. 6 (syn. Egg Plum, English),
L., K. — Popularon account of its large and splendid appearance, and
a slight acidity, which renders it admirably fitted for making showy
sweetmeats or preserves. When raised "in a fine warm situation,
and is fully matured, it is pretty well flavoured, otherwise it is
coarse. Branches smooth, long, a pretty good bearer, though apt,

232

in light soils, to drop from
the tree before becoming
matured. Fruit very large,
oval, narrow at ends, necked
at base, suture distinct ; stalk
one inch, not sunk, surrounded
by fleshy ring at insertion ;
light yellow, bloom thin,
white ; flesh firm, rather acid
until fully ripe, and then
sweet, adheres to the pointed
stone. Ripens in Febru-
ary.

WASHINGTON (Fig. 7),
M. — Although not equal to
the greengage and two or
three others in high flavour,
yet its great size, its beauty,
and the vigour and hardiness
of the tree, are qualities which
have brought it into notice
everywhere. Tree remark-
ably large, broad, and glossy
foliage; is a strong grower,
productive, and forms a hand-
some round head ; wood light,
brown, downy. Fruit very
large, roundish oval, suture
obscure, distinct at base ;
yellowish-green, faintly
marbled, often writh pale
red blush ; stalk half to
three-fourths inch ; slightly
downy, cavity wide, shallow ;
flesh rather firm, sweet, mild,
very rich, and luscious, free
from the pointed stone ;
shoots downy ; ripens end of
January .

TRAGEDY (Fig. 8), E.— The
earliest Californian prune.
Ripens towards the middle
of January. Tree a rapid
grower of symmetrical form.
Fruit large, oblong, dark
purple skin covered with
heavy blue bloorn ; flesh yel-
lowish-green, rich, and sweet,
being so as soon as it begins
to colour into ripeness.

233

PRTJNUS SIMONI (Apricot Plum^l, E. — A native of China; tree
small, thrifty and vigorous, bearing when quite voung. Fruit
hanging on the trees shining like apples of gold, becoming a rich
vermilion when fully ripe. Large, flattened, tomato-shaped, with
deep cavities at base and apex; brick red or dark cinnabar colour;
stem very short, flesh fine, apricot yellow, with peculiar aromatic
pineapple and faint banana flavours. Leaves large, long, oval,
elliptic, of dark shining green ; flowers small, white ; reaches its
perfection in hot, dry summer air and on good moist soil. Light
green branches of Simoni grow as vigorous and upright as the
Bartlett Pear, and are heavily clothed with unusually long, narrow,
light green leaves. Valuable only as an early plum; carries fairly
well.

GREENGAGE (syn. Grosse Heine Claude), M. (said to have been in-
troduced into England by the Gage family). — Universally admitted
to hold the first rank in flavour among all plums. Tree short-jointed
and vigorous ; of spreading and rather dwarfish habit. An abund-
ant and pretty regular bearer, though the fruit is a little liable to
crack upon the tree in wet seasons. Branches smooth ; buds with
large shoulders. It is said to be improved bv being grafted on the
apricot, and requires thinning to attain perfection. Ripens middle
season. Fruit round, rather small, suture faintly marked. Skin
green, or yellowish-green at full maturity, usually with reddish-
brown dots and network at base ; stalk half to three-fourths inch,
scarcely sunk. Flesh pale green, melting, juicy, exceedingly rich,
and flavour excellent, usually separates freely from the stone.

234

JAPANESE PLUMS.
(Prunus triflora.}

The names so com-
monly applied to
Japanese plums as
Botan, Satsuma, Hat-
taiikio, etc., really refer
to districts or to classes,
thus : Satsurna origi-
nates from the island of
that name; Hattankio
is called after " hatan,"
an almond, which this
large oval-pointed plum
resembles. Many
hybrids have been raised
and named in Cali-
fornia ; none of these
plums make a large tree
on their own stocks ;
they grow larger on
peach. The best of these,
in the order they ripen,
are :

RED JUNE (syn.
Shiro-Smomo) E., Fig.
1.— Ripens first. Tree of
spreading habit, foliage
dull, fruit deep crimson
all over while still firm ;
shaped much like a
small Kelsey, that is,
with very marked and
lengthened apex. A
sure cropper.

BOTAN OR ABUND-
ANCE, E.— -Glossy foli-
age and inclined to grow
upright. Fruit roundish
with very little point
and gets dull red on one
side. Ripens a week
after Red June is gone,
and gets soft very soon
after ripe. A strong
grower.

BURBANK, E., Fig.
2. — Tree, imported from
Japan, vigorous, with

235 ..

strong upright, shoots, and large, rather broad leaves ; comes into
bearing very early. Fruit almost globular, large, rich cherry red,
slightly mottled with yellow, and freely dotted with same tint.
Flesh, deep yellow, juicy, very sweet, and of fine, somewhat peculiar
but agreeable flavour ; pit very small. Very productive. Eipens
beginning of March.

WICKSON, L., Fig. 3. — A cross between Burbank and Kelsey.
A valuable market plum, its time of ripening being late when the
glut of peaches and other plums is over. Shape somewhat similar
to Kelsey, but more symmetrical. Colour cherry red to claret.
Flesh amber, pit small. Is picked before it colours up, and on
keeping develops an intense carmine.

KELSEY (syn. Hattankio), L., Fig. 4. — Tree upright in
growth, having a tendency to long slender branches, which should
be frequently pinched back ; leaves narrow, twigs brownish grey.
Very productive and apt to break down. Fruit large, from 1-| to
2^7 inches diameter, heart-shaped, with a distinct suture on one side
from stem to apex ; stem is short and set in a depression at the
large end ; colour, mixed yellow and purple, which vary in depth,
but rarely make a brilliant appearance, covered with a bloom ; flesh
yellow, very firm, and clings to the stone, which is rather small,
and nearly always partly surrounded by a cavity ; when fully ripe
the quality is very good. In California the tree resists drought
remarkably ; it is almost an evergreen, liable to injury in severe
climates ; comes into bearing as young as the peach ; requiring
same pruning, ripens late. Likes heavy, moist land ; when planted
in proximity with other sorts, such as Satsuma, the blossoms set
better. Ripens end of March. Likely to prove a profitable market
and shipping variety.

SATSUMA BLOOD (syn. Yone-momo), L. — Leaves more
lanceolate than those of Kelsey ; fruit averages about 2~ inches in
diameter, nearly round, and but slightly sutured on one side ;
colour dark red under a thick bloom ; dots rather conspicuous and
numerous; flesh dark purplish red (blood colour), firm, stone
very small and pointed. Ripens earlier than the Kelsey. Keeps
well, and will not spoil for weeks after it is ripe ; can be left
hanging on the tree for three or four weeks after it gets deep red.

236

CITRUS FRUITS.

Numerous species belong to the citrus family, but of these four
or five only have for us a commercial value, viz., the Orange, the
Mandarine, the Pomelo, the Lemon, and the Kumquat.

ORANGE (Citrus aurantium).

The most notable of these are arranged in the order in which
they ripen. The sorts we favour are smooth, thin-skinned, tender,
juicy fruit, that will sink in water, preferably the seedless
varieties.

The orange stands frost better than the lemon, and does not
succumb to a temperature of 3° or 4° C. (20° to 25° F. of frost) if
these low temperatures are not lengthy, and when the thawing is
gradual. It requires a mean summer temperature of 22° or 23° C.
(71° to 74° F.) to ripen.

THE NAVEL (syn. Bahia) stands prominently to the forefront
amongst our choicest oranges. Imported from Bahia, Brazil, into
the United States, it has been distributed to every part of the world
offering suitable climateric conditions to its successful cultivation.
The blossoms of navel oranges are double, having a secondary
blossom within and no pollen. When an occasional seed is found
in them it is the result of transported pollen.

Few citrus varieties sport more readily than does the Navel,
and we have now in cultivation a number of these oranges, which
differ materially from one another as regards appearance and time
of ripening. Amongst the most noted are : —

^AUSTRALIAN NAVEL. — The foliage resembles that of the
Washington Navel. The fruit varies in size, all sizes generally
being found on the same tree. A very shy bearer. Blooms pro-
fusely, but very few of the blossoms set ; often the trees are loaded
with fruit, and after having attained the size of marbles drop to the
ground, without any apparent cause ; fruit also has a tendency to
split at the navel, which is usually large and prominent, unlike that
of the Washington Navel, which is round and generally small.
Seedless. Flavour as good if not superior to that of the Washing-
ton Navel. The tree is a stronger grower.

WASHINGTON NAVEL. — The variety was, like all Navels,
introduced from Bahia, Brazil, into the United States, whence they
found their way to every part of the globe where climateric con-
ditions are suitable to orange culture. No market has ever yet been
glutted with well-grown oranges of this sort. The tree, although
hardy and vigorous, is of medium size, with dark-coloured leaves

237

and is armed with a few small thorns. A rapid grower, and an
early and abundant bearer ; requires a free, deep, well-drained loam,
and does not thrive on poor, sour, and badly-drained land. Fruit,
large, solid, and heavy ; skin, smooth and of very fine texture ; very
juicy, high flavour ; is generally seedless. Apart from the valuable
qualities enumerated, this variety is one of the earliest and best
tested of all the Travel oranges ; it is a good keeper, and well suited
for export.

OTHER NAVELS have of late been brought out, some of which
bid fair to outrival the Washington Navel for earliness. Amongst
these the following sub-varieties grown at the Pomona sub-station
of the University of California are worth trying : —

Thompson's Improved Navel said to possess a smoother and
thinner skin, and a higher colour than the Washington variety.
It is a good bearer, the tree a strong grower, but some say it does
not pack and carry as well as other Navels. Its thin skin militates
against its being planted in localities that are frequently subject to
severe frost.

Golden Nugget Navel and Golden Buckeye Navel are both sports
from the Washington Navel, but are as yet untried. They are
very early and thin skinned ; the second is said to possess a pine-
apple flavour ; the rind adheres so closely to the pericarp that the
division can be plainly seen through it after the fruit has been
picked a few days, giving it the appearance of a nutmeg melon.

The Navelencia is a recent creation of the originator of
Thompson's Improved, who claims that it is an equal production of
one half Valencia and the other half Thompson's Improved Navel
orange. The Navelencia tree is a more upright grower than the
original Washington Navel. It is much later than that orange,
although it will not hang and retain its good qualities as long as
the true Valencia.

BLOOD ORANGES. — Of these there are two varieties, "Ruby, "and
" Maltese Blood " (which must not be confused with the Australian
orange of that namej. " Ruby " is the earliest and a prolific bearer.
It is equally good, but more uneven in shape and size than the
Maltese Blood.

Maltese Blood (see Fig. 3). — The pulp is streaked and
mottled with red. It has few seeds. Tree thornless and of dwarf
habit, and may be planted closer than freer growing kinds ; hardier
than the Washington Navel, and the tree a more generous bearer.
The foliage is dark and glossy. Fruit small to medium, oval, of
high flavour ; a good keeper and carrier.

PARRAMATTA. — A well-known New South Wales variety of
•excellent quality. Tree large, very hardy and good regular bearer,

238

239

thorny. Fruit of large size. Hardier than St. Michael and Navel.
Several very good sub-varieties raised from seeds of this useful
orange.

SELECTA (syn. Siletta, Cluster Orange). — Bears its fruit in
bunches. A useful and profitable kind ; like the Parramatta, one
of the hardiest kinds for cool districts. Tree prolific and regular
bearer. Fruit of good size, juicy, and of excellent flavour ; round.
Skin medium thin, bright colour, and moderately smooth.

QUEEN. — An Australian variety, thriving well in the drier
localities. Fruit medium size to large, somewhat ovate. Skin
thin, smooth, rather light in colour ; often a ring at the calyx end.
Flesh juicy and of good flavour.

MEDITERRANEAN SWEET (Fig. 2).— Tree not very vigorous, of
dwarf habit, rather given to overbear ; thornless. Fruit medium to
large, round or slightly oval, skin thin and smooth. Pulp firm,
sweet ; few seeds. Ripens late ; a good keeping and carrying sort.

ST. MICHAEL'S. — Fruit of first-class quality when grown under
favourable conditions. Like the Navel, it is less hardy than some
other kinds, and requires sheltered situations, when it is very
prolific. Fruit, large, round, and somewhat flattened, solid ; pulp
fine and melting ; medium thin rind, few seeds. If circumstances
are not congenial it is a shy bearer, and the fruit is apt to lose its
high character, the rind getting much thicker in either cold or hot
locations.

PAPER RIND ST. MICHAEL. — Tree is of dwarf habit, medium,
thorny, a good bearer and hardy. Fruit small, round, very firm
and very juicy, and excellent; pale, thin skin, and being very uni-
form in size, packs well. Ripens late and keeps well on the trees
for a long time, as it does not drop at maturity. Very profitable
fruit to grow for local as well for export market.

CHERITON (syn. Gingin). — A West Australian seedling, grown
from seeds about 50 years ago by Mr. H. Brockman, in his orchard,
at " Cheriton," on the Gringin Brook, some fifty miles North of Perth.
Tree a very strong grower, erect, thorny, with good foliage. Fruit
large, roundish, and a little tapering towards the apex. Thirty
oranges, picked from different gardens, gave an average weight of
lloz. to 12oz., while a few weighed over lib. each. Skin medium thin
on fruit on the top of the tree, to thin on fruits on older bearing
branches at the base, peels off easily. Fleshy, few seeds, solid,
juicy, segments parting easily after peeling, sweet, hangs well.
Ripens from July to end of September.

JAFFA. — L-irge, oval fruit ; skin coarse, pulp rich and juicy,
almost seedless. Tree strong grower, with very large leaves on the
strong young shoots ; thornless. In Jaffa rainless summer, accom-
panied by heavy night dews, and winter without frost, are well
suited to the growth and development of the trees, which are watered
in the summer.

240

VALENCIA, LATE (Fig. 4) . — Tree a strong grower, does not begin
to bear as soon as most other budded sorts ; few thorns, dark
foliage; fruit medium size, roundish oval, tapering towards the
stem, skin smooth ; pulp acid till fully ripe, few seeds, solid, of good
quality. The fruit ripens in the early spring, and will hang a long
time. Commercially, it is placed next to the Navel.

THE SEVILLE or BITTER ORANGE. — The hardiest of all
varieties, enduring very hard frosts without injury. It has the largest
and most fragrant flowers ; the pulp, however, is bitter and acid, and
is valued chiefly for marmalade. Several types are grown, which
raised from seeds have somewhat varied ; fruit fairly large, about
three inches in diameter, and flattened at both ends ; skin rough and
thick, dark orange and bitter ; when boiled becomes transparent.
The pulp, when cooked with sugar, sets to a jelly. Tree a strong
grower, with large bright green leaves, long and pointed, with well-
developed wings, thorny, thrives on heavier soil better than do sweet
oranges.

SEEDLINGS. — Numerous seedlings exist, some of which exhibit
features which are worth propagating, but they often fail in some
of the standards required from a profitable commercial orange.

THE OONSHIA. — A Japanese orange, which is claimed to be one
of the hardiest oranges known, and to withstand severe frost. The
skin is of a good rich colour, and somewhat liable to a scurfy
appearance, which, however, is not a disease ; flesh of pleasant
flavour, and almost seedless.

MANDARINS (Citrus nobilis).

SCARLET MANDARIN, very profitable on account of its earlmes^
in bearing and in maturing its crop. Tree upright, spreading,
vigorous grower, above medium size, almost thornless ; fruit large,
flattened at both ends. Before ripening the rind is moderately
tight, but as the fruit ripens becomes puffy and assumes a reddish
orange colour ; it is easily detached from the pulp. When fully
ripe the segments surround a hollow core. Pulp dark oranger
sweet, of fine flavour; grows best in a semi-tropical climate.
A bad carrier, and requires careful picking and sweating before
shipping.

THORNY MANDARIN or TANGERINE. — One of the best-flavoured
of all mandarins. Tree a dense bush requiring severe thinning out
to bear large fruit ; thorny, except some sub- varieties which are
thornless. Fruit small to large, according to number of fruit,
vigour of trees, and soil and climate; roundish, flattened, stem fine
and firmly attached to fruit ; skins tight, thin, and smooth, pale
yellow. Pulp juicy and aromatic. This fruit becomes dry and
puffy if allowed to hang too long.

241

EMPEROR MANDARIN (syn. Canton). — Tree large, upright, strong,
and good bearer ; few thorns, leaf large, a heavy bearer. Fruit
not so handsome as the Scarlet, and varies somewhat in type ;
medium size to large, roundish, irregular, and flattened at the eye.
Skin yellow, brittle, tearing easily, and somewhat puffy when the
fruit is over-ripe. Called in China the Mandarin or Noble Orange.

THE BEAUTY OF GLEN RETREAT. — Origin obscure, although
the parent tree from which all the trees of that variety are derived
grows in the orchard of Mr. W. H. Parker of Glen Retreat, near
Brisbane. Tree of large size, vigorous, forming a dense head
unless kept pruned, thornless, possessing a distinct foliage. Bears
early and abundantly ; fruit large, solid ; skin thin, smooth, tough,
and tightly attached to the pulp, which contains practically no rag.
Pulp firm, juicy, sweet; few seeds. Fruit a good carrier.

PARKER'S SPECIAL. — The earliest of all mandarins. Trees
of dwarf habit, a good bearer ; fruit large, of excellent quality.
In appearance somewhat like a cross between a Scarlet and an
Emperor.

OTHER VARIETIES. — From India the Department of Agriculture
has introduced the famous Nagpur and Sylhet mandarin oranges,

Nagpur Orange

242

which promise to prove valuable additions to our stock of citrus fruit.
Other varieties are expected, such as the Sumtalah, which is sweet
when even green, and grows wild in the hot, humid part of India,
extending between the foot of the Himalayas and the Ganges.
The Keonla, which long after the oranges have been gathered,
hangs on the tree ; and the Mussembi, which it is said can be left
to hang on the tree for a whole year.

KUMQUAT (Citrus Japonica).

Are very hardy and prolific and bushy. Two varieties are
grown — a round and an oval-shaped fruit ; small, about the size of a
large gooseberry ; rind sweet and smooth, yellow, thick ; high
scented ; pulp acid ; many seeds. When quartered and boiled
with sugar makes excellent preserves ; steeped in spirits constitute
very good bitters. Apart from its economic value, the Kumquat
is well worth cultivation in gardens for its ornamental appearance.

THE POMELO (Citrus decumana),

Also called shaddock, and in the United States of America
grape fruit. Tree vigorous and resistant. Several varieties are
grown, weighing from lib. to 121bs. each. Some of the smaller
varieties, with a fairly thin rind and oblong, which are imported
from Singapore, are the best, The larger sorts with a thick,
spongy rind are much esteemed for making into preserves and for
candying. The pulp is regarded as very wholesome and refresh-
ing, and possessing valuable tonic properties. Large quantities are
exported from Jamaica to the United States, and its cultivation is
regarded as quite as profitable as that of the orange.

THE LEMON.

Does not withstand low temperatures as well as the Pomelo,
Mandarin, and the Sweet Orange. A temperature of 2° C.
(28'5° F. of frost) if at all prolonged and if the thawing is rapid,
will hurt it ; whereas oranges will withstand 3° C. (26 '5° F.). The
lemon will stand more prolonged drought than the orange. The
autumn-picked lemons cure and keep best, and may be stored until
the spring.

VILLA FRANCA (Europe, Fig. 1). — A summer-bearing lemon,
sets to fruit early. Tree almost thornless, branches spreading and
somewhat drooping, leaves long and pointed; foliage abundant to pro-
tect the fruit from the sun ; said to withstand a lower temperature than
other varieties. Fruit of medium size, considered to be one of the finest

243

of lemons grown. Fruit
oblong, slightly pointed
at the blossom end, rind
thin, without any trace
of bitterness even when
green ; acid strong, juicy ;
nearly seedless. Keeps
and ships well.

EUREKA (California).
— Fruit medium in size,
oval, and more oblong
than the Lisbon, sweet
rind, a very good keeper
and very popular. Skin
bright yellow, thin and
smooth ; very juicy and
briskly acid ; hardy and
prolific. The drawback
it has is that the leaves
are inclined to curl, scarce
foliage, fruit produced at
extremities of branches,
and liable to get sun-
burnt; but this is gejier-
ally avoided by letting
the branches hang low,
and prune as little as
possible. Tree almost
thornless.

LISBON (Portugal,
Fig. 2). — Tree a strong
grower, bears fruit all
through the tree, not
very early in coming
into bearing; prolific
bearer, and makes a
larger tree than other
varieties, for this reason
the trees of this variety
should be planted a good
distance apart and not
less than 24ft. from one
another; quite thorny,
but thorns decrease in size
as the tree grows older.
Fruit uniformly medium
size, fine grain, sweet rind, very juicy and briskly acid ; very few
seeds ; a good keeper ; can be picked at any time of the year. There

244

are several sub- varieties of the Lisbon, such as the " thornless " and
the " variegated," differing from the parent to the extent their names
imply. When allowed to ripen on the tree the rind thickens, and
the fruit is coarser.

SICILIAN (Fig. 3). — Rounder than the Lisbon, which it other-
wise resembles. Tree almost thornless and prolific ; an early bearer,
and a good market lemon.

FIGrS (Ficus Carica).

The fig as well as the grape vine thrives in Western Australia
where other fruit trees sometimes fail to be productive. In the
cooler districts they sometimes fail to mature their fruit, and are
better suited for the warmer localities. Moist, sandy loams are also
more congenial to the fig tree than are heavy clays. The fig itself,
which is generally spoken of as a fruit consisting of a mass of pulp
enclosed in a thin skin, is to the botanist an inflorescence, in which
the outer covering is a receptacle for the hundreds of microscopic
flowers inside. For all practical purposes, edible figs may be con-
sidered under three classes. (1), The Wild or Capri; (2), The
Self-sterile or Smyrna type; (3), The Self -fertile or Adriatic type.

THE WILD OR CAPRI. — The only value of this class of figs is to
serve as host for the minute wasp (Blastophaga grossorum} which
enters the self-sterile or Smyrna type of figs arid fertilises them. In
fact, it has been said that the Capri fig and the Smyrna fig stand in
the relations of male and female to each other. They both, how-
ever, possess male and female flowers, but these ripen at different
times, and therefore need external interference for their fertilisation.

This is provided by the minute wasp above referred to, and
which acts in this way : The fruit of the Capri fig, which as a fruit
is worthless, is like all figs really a hollow inflorescence. It
produces, three crops annually. The profichis first of all ; the
mammoni, which buds out when the profichis are ripe and the
third crop or second mammoni, which makes its appearance as the
first mammoni ripens.

These inflorescences are possesspd of male and female flowers,
both with a predominance of male or staminate flowers in the
profichis. On this account this crop is of more particular value to
the Smyrna or self-sterile class. Tlie succeeding second and third
crops or mammonis serve <>nly as a habitat for the fig wasps and
enable them to tide over the seasons.

The propagation of the fig wasp proceeds as follows : — The
female Blastophaga wasp forces its way through the ostolium or eye
into the fig and having done so lays one egg in each of a number
of the ovaries of the female flowers and dies within the fig. In
consequence of this puncture the ovary swells and forms a gall

245

with a wasp embryo inside instead of its own embryo. From the
eggs that are laid some produce wingless male and some winged
female wasps, the first issuing first ; these then gnaw their way into
the gall ovaries in which the femaJes lie, impregnate them, and die.
The fertilised winged females then gnaw wider the passage made by
the males, and either enter the following crop of Capri figs or
mammonis, or if Smyrna fig trees are close by they penetrate the
eye of these figs then in proper state of development. In issuing
from the Capri fig they brush past the staminate or male flowers
which surround the eye, and issue, out of the fig dusted with fig
pollen.

This pollen, in their endeavours to lay eggs on the ovaries of
the figs they penetrate, they scatter about and thus fertilise the female
flowers. Should they have entered a Capri fig or mammonis, they
puncture the ovaries and propagate their kind, whereas should fate
have taken them to a Smyrna fig they die, leaving no offspring.

In Smyrna fig plantations it is therefore important to also
plant a few Capri figs or to adopt the practice prevailing in the South
of Europe, which consists in attaching two Capri figs to strings
and hanging a few in each tree.

THE SMYRNA CLASS embraces all those figs which are not self
fertile and require external agency for the successful production of
their crop.

The varieties of figs dried and exported from Smyrna vary as
much as the varieties of grapes dried and exported from Malaga.
Most of them need the wild fig pollen and the agency of the
Blastopliaga grosser um wasp.

The Smyrna Fig of com-
merce proper stands out Queen
amongst them, almost as prom-
inently as does the Washington
Navel amongst Oranges.

Two distinct crops come out
in the season — the first coming
out in the Spring out of the
previous year's shoots ; and the
second growing on the new wood
just as the former is ripening.

Only a few of the first crop
mature, the bulk of them drop-
ping from the tree when quite
small. Like all immature first
crop figs, these, although of large

size, contain nothing but hollow seeds and lack flavour and su^-
stance. The ostiolum or eye is closed, and fertilisation cannot take
place.

246

The ADRIATIC or self-fertile class comprise all those figs which
need no external assistance to mature their fruit.

Most of them bear two crops, and some drop their first crop.
Only white, cream, and pink fleshed figs are dried ; black-skinned
have 110 commercial value for drying. Three to four pounds of
green fruit yield one pound of dried.

WHITE GENOA (syn. White Marseilles, White Naples). —
One of the most delicious figs in cultivation. Good for table, peels
off easily, and dries remark-
ably well. Fruit: above
medium, quite round, with a
short neck and well-marked
longitudinal ridges running
from the sialk to the apex.
Skin pale green. Eye open.
Flesh opaline, exceedingly
rich, juicy, and sugary.

WHITE ADRIATIC
(syn. Fico di Fragola or
Strawberry Fig). — One of the
finest grown trees, and a
strong growing and hardy
kind. Fruit : medium size,
rounded pyriform, with
medium neck. Skin greenish
in the shade, greenish-yellow
in the sun. Eye open, with
red iris ; pulp bright straw-
berry red, drying to a rather
pale yellow. Skin very thin,
and together with the pulp
forming a most delicious
sweetmeat when grown in
favourable places. white Adriatic.

BROWN TURKEY. --One of the earliest sorts. Tree very
prolific, hardy ; fruit large, oblong, pyriform; skin brownish red ; blue
bloom ; thick pulp ; sweet and good ; dark pink colour.

GftAPES (Vitis).
FOR DRYING.

In France the period of ripening of wine grapes has been
reckoned by Pulliat from the time of ripening of the Golden
Chasselas thus : —First period of maturity, to which belong all vines
which ripen their grapes five to six days before or after Golden
Chasselas. Second period of maturity, including all vines ripening
their grapes 12 to 14 days after Chasselas. Third period, including
those ripening their grapes 24 to 30 days after Chasselas. Fourth

247

period, including those ripening their grapes 36 to 40 days after
Chasselas. Fifth period, including those grapes which ripen later
than eight weeks after Chasselas.

WHITE MUSCAT OF ALEXANDRIA. — An oval white Muscat
grape. Season late ; will keep in good condition long after ripening.
Merits : medium to first class ; the most handsome and valu-
able table and drying grape in cultivation. Extensively cultivated
for raisins in Valencia and Denia, in Spain, and also in Southern
California and Australia. Vine : A short, rather straggling and
bushy grower, well adapted to short spur pruning, as it forms
rather a bush than a vine ; very free fruiting, but the bunches
sometimes set badly, except where local circumstances are favour-
able. Leaves of medium size, round, bright green above, light
green below, deeply lobed, somewhat wrinkled, commencing early to
decay, and becoming yellow round the edges. The leaf, stalks, or
pedicel and veins reddish ; young shoots a light green. Wood gray,
with darker spots, short jointed. The laterals produce a second,
and even, sometimes, a third crop. Fruit bunches very long, from
12 to 20 inches, loose, tapering, and often strongly shouldered ; a
somewhat shy setter. Berries very large, long ovate on stout stalks.
Skins rather thick, clear greenish yellow, or when highly ripened
pale amber, and sometimes with a flush of cinnamon where much
exposed. Flesh firm crackling, or fleshy, exceedingly sweet, rich,
and with a strong muscatel flavour.

Cultural Notes. — Although the vine is hardy and fruits freely
at an early age it is found to require a warm temperature and
drier atmosphere than most other varieties to set the berries
properly, and ripen the fruit thoroughly ; and on that account
rejected from general extensive cultivation, except where those
conditions prevail. Experience has proved it to be a safe vine to
grow in Western Australia from the latitude of the Murchison at
the North to that of the Murray and even beyond in favourable
locations. Affected by the oidium and anthracnose.

MUSCATEL GTORDO BLANCO. — So similar in many respects to
Muscat of Alexandria, that the one is sometimes confounded with
the other. A seedling of Muscat of Alexandria, much cultivated
in Spain ; the best type of raisin grape of Malaga. Fruit bunches,
a closer bunch than Muscat of Alexandria ; fruit sets better as a
rule ; berries rounder, a crease often found at the apex. Skin in-
clined to be a little darker in colour, and not nearly so green when
ripe. Flesh not quite so hard as Muscat of Alexandria. Thicker
and finer bloom than Muscat of Alexandria, which looses its bloom
very rapidly when you come to pack and dry them. Muscat of
Alexandria has to be dried a little more than 'Muscatel to bring it
into a keeping condition when in the same degree of ripeness.

HUASCO. — The Chili or Huasco raisin is said to be one of the finest
raisins in the world. They excel in sweetness and aroma, as well as
flavour ; their skins are thin and their seeds small. The colour is

248

different from sun-dried California or Spanish raisins, being
yellowish amber, with a fine and thin bluish bloom, indicating that
the have been dried in the shade, or a partial shade without
dipping in lye. The grape used for raisins is a variety of Muscat,
very similar to the Muscat of Alexandria, set their fruit better, and
do not suffer from coulure or shanking. Imported to Chili by
the Spanish conquerors, and it is supposed they grew the vines
from seeds brought from Spain, and selected the best of the seed-
lings. This grape was introduced from California by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, but so far it has not shown itself to be
superior to either the two varieties already described.

SULTANA (syn. Seedless Sultana, Sultanieh, Sultanina). — Vine:
growth strong, upright, with long climbing canes; bark rough, and
tearing in long strips. Wood : very long and strong canes, long-
jointed but not very thick nodes ; small buds ; laterals and tendrils
numerous ; wood not hard, red brown ; bunches carried from the
fifth, sixth, or seventh node. Leaves : large, not very deeply lobed,
strongly serrated, thin and fiat, bright green, smooth and shining
above, lighter green and smooth below, die yellow in autumn, long
leaf stalk. Bunches large and loose, from 9 to 12 inches
long, and 5 to 6 inches wide at the shoulders ; stalk long, green,
and not woody. Berries : small to medium, oval, skin green, thin
but tough, semi-transparent, becoming pale-yellowish as it ripens,
covered with light bloom, flesh tender, sweet, juicy, firm, and crack-
ling, of the consistency and flavour of the Sweetwater, and contains
no seeds.

Cultural Notes. — The defect of this vine is to be a poor bearer
unless pruned long ; and even the long pruning as generally practised
on other varieties does not yield the best results. A modification of
this is advisable in pruning the Sultana. A sufficiency of laterals
should be left on the long rods which are cut back about three feet
long. These laterals possess plump buds, and are well summered to
the very tip. Train the long rods bearing these laterals along the
central wire of a T-shaped trellis, and blind the buds at the joints
of rods, except the first two from the stem ; bend the laterals about
12 inches long in arcs ; they bear the crop. Wood for renewing is
supplied by encouraging the vigorous growth of one or two canes at
the base of the rods. For that purpose rub off or destroy all
barren shoots, and only leave on the fruitful laterals sufficient wood
to carry a crop commensurate with the strength of the vine. This
is done by pinching the shoots from these fruitful laterals back to
the eighth or ninth leaf and limiting the length of the rods to about
three feet only.

The Sultana does well in deep, fresh, alluvial soil with good
natural drainage. It matures its crop towards the end of the middle
season, and is a good packer as well as an excellent raisin grape.
Subject to oidium. The grapes begin to colour and sweeten several

249

Ivi'oiv the Muscat, but they become fully ripe later than this
variety. Suitable for districts with long summers and autumns.
If the dipping process is used in curing, the grapes must be very
ripe, else they will turn reddish and dark, and lose quality. At
the Wagga Wagga experimental orchard it was found impossible
to graft the Sultana, with any degree of success, .upon the
following sorts: — Gros Guillaume, Royal Ascot, Corinth Currant,
and Solonis. Sultanas grafted on 15 varieties of American
stock grew vigorously, and carry good crops of large compact
bunches.

THOMPSON'S SEEDLESS (syn. Lady Decoverley, Constanti-
nople). -Related to the seedless raisin grape, grown round Damascus.
Vine, an enormous bearer and grower ; bunches, large or very large.
Fruit : berries oval, as large as a Sultana. Skin, greenish-yellow,
thin. Flesh : seedless, good, but not strong flavour, and without
that acid which characterises the Sultana grape and raisin.

Cultural Note*. — When sun-dried and cured, these raisins are
bluish and dark like Muscats, but narrower and more tapering, and
only a quarter the sixe. Their sweetness and taste commend them
for cooking purposes, and the bearing quality of the vine will, no
doubt, make their growing profitable in all places where the seasons
are too short to thoroughly ripen the Sultana. Mr. Bioletti, of the
University of California, considers the variety identical with the
Sultana of Asia Minor.

BLACK CURRANT (syn. Zante). — A corruption of Corinth,
the Greek port from which most of these are shipped, the berries
resemble currants in size. The home of the Black Currant is the
Grecian Islands, as well as Morea, especially around Patras, Zante,
t Vplialonia. and Ithaca, all produce currants of the highest quality.
Vine : growth erect and climbing, moderately robust and very
fruitful. Fruit : Bunches from four to six or eight inches long ;
long, tapering, and cylindrical, with long, loose shoulders; stalks
slender. Berries, very small, about the size of small peas, round.
Skin, purplish red. *Flesh, juicy, sweet, pleasant, and without
seeds.

Cultural Notes. — The vines in Asia Minor are grown on low
bushes, and are pruned short ; the young branches require staking
in order to bear well ; the crop ripens in succession from the first
shoots, and the laterals, which also bear. For Australia, T head
trellissing, as shown on page 131, has been found to answer better.
The Currant grape, although generally seedless, sometimes produces
full-sized large berries with seeds, reverting to the grape as it were;
and where this tendency is very marked its cultivation has to be
abandoned.

WHITE CORINTH. — The bunch and berry resemble the Black
•Currant, but differ in not being black, and in lacking the peculiar

250

aroma and flavour alone possessed by the black and true currant.
The absence of pips in currant grapes is due to a malformation of
the floral organs.

TABLE GRAPES.

MADELEINE NOIR (syn. Early Black July). — A round black
grape. Season, first early. Merits : valuable only on account of
its earliness. Vine, free and vigorous in growth and prolific.
Bunches small and compact.

QUICK'S EARLY (South Australia, apparently Foster's seedling).
— Very early grape. Berries larger and with a thicker skin than
Shiraz. Ripens about Christmas time. Vines not vigorous
bearers, require long pruning.

EARLY MADELEINE (syn. Madeleine Augevine). — Vine a
vigorous grower, bursts into leaf and blossoms early, and for that
reason unsuitable for frosty localities. Suitable for either eating or
wine-making. Prune half -long or long. Leaf medium, deeply
lobed, somewhat woolly below. Bunches medium size, fairly
compact and not always well set; berries medium, oblong, greenish
white, turning to golden when ripe.

GREEN'S EARLY (S.A.). — Very early, Christmas. Small
bunches, berries closely set. Fruit : bunches rather long and loose,
and sometimes set badly as the flowers are delicate. Berries small
round. Skin, rather thick, deep purple, with a fine bloom. Flesh,
sweet and juicy, not rich, and of no particular character. Prune
with long spurs of four to six buds.

EARLY WHITE MALVASIA (syn. Jouanen, Luglieuga). — An oval
white Sweetwater grape. Season, first early (one of the earliest
grapes in cultivation). Merits: first-class as an early grape,
sensitive to frost. Vine : growth full and vigorous, although not
robust ; free fruiting. Fruit : bunches small, from six to eight inches,
loose or straggling; setting freely. Berries, small ovate. Skin
thin, very clear and transparent, greenish white, turning amber
and retaining a thin bloom. Flesh very tender and juicy, sweet,
rich, and pleasant. High trellising and long pruning.

CHASSELAS DE FONTAINEBLEAU (syn. Royal Muscadine). — A
round white grape, of the Sweetwater type. Season, early. Merits :
first-class as to quality and earliness ; it will also keep in good
condition long after becoming ripe; packs well. Vine: growth
free and vigorous, with a fine constitution, the young shoots,
slender but ripening well ; wood brown, long jointed, slender,
but ripening well; very fruitful. Leaves small, roundish, thinr
lobed, bright greeu end of shoots and young leaves, brownish green.
Leaves dying off early a pale yellow colour. Bunches medium-
sized and small, long, tapering, broadly shouldered and somewhat
loose ; compact and freely set. Berries medium, round, pale

251

greenish-yellow, becoming transparent when fully ripe, or, if
exposed to the bright sun, the one side becoming of a bright
cinnamon-russet, in which condition they are very much richer and
sweeter. Flesh firm, yet tender, crackling, juicy, sweet and
agreeable to the palate. When kept until they begin to shrivel
they are very rich.

Cultural Notes. — A standard early table grape ; makes fairly
good wine; ripens a fortnight before Black Hamburgh. Generally
pruned short.

CHASSELAS VIBERT. — A better bearer than the preceding.
Young shoots reddish and glossy. Bunches well set, berries green-
Good for eating and for wine-making.

CHASSELAS OF NEGREPONT. — Must be alloved to hang until
quite ripe, when it turns from a pale green to a bright red, changing
to violet. Possesses a fine appearance and a pleasant aroma, also
makes a clean, clear white wine. Ripens after Chasselas of Fon-
tainebleau.

MADRESFIELD COURT. — A black oval muscat grape. Fairly
early, excellent in quality and very handsome. Vine : moderately
strong grower ; wood with prominent dark brown buds, often
covered with a thin coating of down. Leaves medium sized, rugose,
deeply lobed, deep green, leaf stalk and ribs reddish. Leaves die
off crimson. Bunches large, long, and tapering, well set ; the
point often forked; shoulders small, stalk stout. Berries, large
oval ; skin tough, dark purple covered with large blue bloom ; flesh
thick, greenish, tender, and sweet. Said to be a cross between
Muscat of Alexandria and Black Morocco.

RED MUSCAT OF FRONTIQNAN (syn. Grizzly Frontignan, Mus-
catel-Constantia in W.A.). — A round red or tawny Muscat grape.
Season: mid season (3rd period). Merits: first-rate in quality,
but rather small ; makes a luscious wine. Vine : growth strong,
free and ripening freely; very fruitful. Wood: spreading shoots
of a brown red colour, thick but short interno<les, not very
prominent nodes. Leaves medium sized as broad as they are
long, three or five lobes, deeply toothed, very thin ; upper surface of
a fine grey colour and glabrous ; under surface of grey colour, with
a few stiff hairs covering the veins, which are slightlv prominent,
yellow and smooth, dying off yellow. Fruit : bunches medium
sized, rather long, somewhat cylindrical in shape, but occasionally
shouldered ; generally well set. Berries medium sized, round,
closely set. Skin thin, membranous, of a dull red or tawny colour
on the side most exposed, and paler on the shaded side, generally
covered with a thin bloom. Flesh very firm, with a very rich,
pleasant, and decided muscat flavour; when kept hanging on the
vine after being ripe, the fruit is very apt to shrivel, but is then
exceedingly rich and excellent. There is a white variety which
answers the same description.

252

Cultural Notes. — Extensively grown in the South of France and
in Australia, as well as at the Cape, where, blended with Tinto, it
makes the " Constantia" sweet wine. Imported from the Cape into-
Western Australia in the early days, and is generally known locally
under the name of " Constantia." The buds burst early and are
subject to spring frosts. Pruned either short or long, preferably
short for wine-making, as the juice of the grape is then richer and
its density heavier. A hot, strong, and well drained soil produces a
must of high quality. Somewhat subject to the attacks of oidium
and anthracnose.

BLACK HAMBURG (syn. Frankenthal) . — A roundish ovate black
grape which in some localities is very popular. In Western Aus-
tralia its cultivation superseded by better classes of early or late
grapes. Ripening in mid season it is not very profitable, somewhat
subject to oi'dium ; wine is sometimes made from it of indifferent
character and rather deficient in colour. Generally spur pruned.

KECHMIST ALT VIOLET. — Much like Black Hamburg, but
superior to this grape.

MUSCAT HAMBURGH (syn. Black Muscat of Alexandria;
Snow's Muscat Hamburgh). — An oval black muscat grape. Season :
mid-season ; must be picked as soon as ripe, as it does not keep
very long. Merits : first-class in quality and appearance. Vine :
growth fairly vigorous ; free fruiting. Leaves large, deeply lobed
and serrated, dying off yellow. Fruit : bunches large, loose-
shouldered, do not set very well, arid frequently containing a
number of half-developed berries. Berries large, oval, rather
smaller than those of White Muscat of Alexandria. Skin tough
but not thick, dark reddish purple, turning to black, with a fine
bloom. Flesh melting, very juicy, rich and sugary, with a fine
Muscat flavour.

Cultural Note*. — Has a tendency to conture or to shank in cool
districts, and for this reason sometimes grafted on roots of White-
Muscat of Alexandria or of Black Hamburgh.

MUSCAT OF ALEXANDRIA (see above).
MUSCATEL GORDO BLANCO (see above).
SULTANA (see above).

GRAND CENTENNIAL. — -A. sport of Waltham Cross raised in
Victoria. Vine very vigorous. Leaves large, wood strong. Bunches
large to very large, shouldered loose. Berries large, oval, greenish
yellow, with a tendency to cracking ; fleshy and crackling when
ripe ; few seeds ; very handsome. Succeeds well on deep, fresh
loam.

RED PRINCE. — A handsome, oval grape ; loose bunch ; a good
packer.

HJENAPOP (syn. Bouteille, a large panse). — Introduced from
Shiraz (Persia), a vigorous grower and productive bearer. Bunches

253

large and shouldered. Berries oval, fleshy ; skin amber colour,
tough ; prune short. Largely grown as a table grape in the vine--
yards of Constantia, on the foothill of Table Mountain, near Cape
Town. North of Cape Colony indifferent success has, at times, met
the efforts of the growers when grafting Hcenapop on Rupestris
stock, whilst most satisfactory results are obtained when Jacquez or
Riparia stocks are used.

RAISIN DBS DAMES (syn. Bicane, Panse jaune). — Does not set
well in poor soil ; requires long pruning. Bunches large, ringed,
conical, and loose. Berries very large, oval, of a yellow amber colour
when ripe ; flavour indifferent, very showy, and a good packer.

FLAME TOKAY. — Vigorous growth, heavy joints, and leaves
large, light yellowish-green in colour, lightly lobed, long
toothed, smooth on both sides. Bunches large, moderately compact,
shouldered, conico-cylindrical, thick peduncles. Berries large, longer
than wide, flattened at the ends, red, covered with lilac bloom :
green where too much shaded; fleshy and crisp; ripens late. A

254

very showy grape and a good packer ; quality, indifferent ; bears
well either short or long pruned, and does best on clayey soil. On
damp sandy soil fails to colour well.

ROSE or PERU. — Vine a strong grower, with dark brown, short-
jointed wood ; leaf deep green above, lighter in colour and downy
below. Bunches large shouldered, rather loose ; berries large,
round, purple turning to a darker colour, firm, and crackling ;
ripens late ; a handsome grape and productive vine. Pruned either
short or long.

CORNICHON PURPLE (syn. Pizutello). — Vine a vigorous and
erect grower ; thick, light brown, short- join ted wood ; leaves large,
fine lobed, dark green above, lighter and hairy below, coarsely
toothed, with thick, short petiole ; bunches very large, loose, on long
peduncles, and on this account easy to pack, even when the bunches
are very large. Berries large, long, and curved, darkly coloured and
spotted, thick skinned, firm, on long pedicels ; ripens late ; of
attractive appearance and a good packer. Pruned short.

CORNICHON BLANC (syn. Santa Paula, Testa di Vacca).— Very
similar to Purple Cornichon. Leaves not deeply cut, bright green,
and smooth on both sides ; skin thinner than the previous one,
and for that reason better for the table, but poorer packer ; very
often one single, large seed. Suitable for warm districts. Requires
long pruning, even though the canes may appear slender.

DORADILLO (syn. Jean Blanc). — A white Spanish grape, suit-
able as a late table grape and for making a light wine, and also
in Spain for lexia, or third-class raisins. Season late. Merits :
much valued for export and useful for making a light wine or
blending. Vine: growth — a hardy plant, erect grower, requiring
neither trellis nor stake. Fruit : bunches moderately loose ;
berries large ; skin white, slightly amber colour on sunny side,
thick. Flesh firm and sweet.

Cultural Notes. — Pruned short. Admirably suited for warm
districts, where, in a fertile soil, it will bear an enormous crop. Its
thick skin and firm flesh are qualities which fit it as a good packing
grape, preserving it from drying up, or being crushed out of shape.
Large quantities of this grape are shipped from Adelaide to Sydney,
long after the bulk of the N".S. Wales grapes have ripened, and
thus command a very good price.

TREBBIANO (syn. Ugni Blanc). — An oval white vinous grape.
Season late. Merits : second rate in quality, but valuable for its
handsome appearance and late-keeping properties. Vine : growth
strong and robust ; the young shoots being verv thick, almost gross,
but ripfiiing freely ; generally coated with down around the buds,
which are large and prominent. Leaves large, soft, and much
covered on the under surface with thick down ; deeply toothed, dying
oft' pale yellow. Fruit: bunches very large, broad shouldered and
thick stalks, compact, and always well set. Berries medium-sized

255

roundish-oval on stout foot-stalks. Skin thick, tough, and mem-
branous, somewhat adhering to the flesh, greenish white, changing
to pale amber when well ripened. Flesh firm and crackling, juicy,
sweet, and pleasant when highly ripened.

Cultured Notes. — Being a strong grower, this grape requires
much space to develop properly. Well adapted for the warmer
districts. Gives a good soft wine.

RED LOMBARDY (syn. Flame Tokay, Wantage). — A round,
red, or grizzly grape. Season late. Merits : second rate, but most
beautiful. Vine growth strong and vigorous. Leaves large, dark-
green, lightly lobed. Fruit bunches very large, shouldered, closely
set and handsome. Berries medium sized, roundish to oblong.
Skin pale-red or flame- coloured, covered with a fine lilac bloom.
Flesh moderately firm, sweet, not rich.

Cultural Notes. — A very showy grape, packs well, second rate
in quality. Requires room and heat.

GROS GUILLAUME (Danugue). — A vigorous grower, semi-
erect, carries its grapes some distance from the butt of the cane,
and bears heavily when pruned long. Canes long, straight, thick,
hard, with small pith, streaked. Buds burst a few days after
Golden Chasselas ; young leaves, round, green, hemmed with brown
red. Fruit ripens late in mid-season. Bunches very large, conical,
winged, regular in outline ; peduncle very strong ; berries • not too
closely set, very large, spherical, firm, skin thick, black violet in
colour, heavy bloom ; flesh firm, sweet, and pleasant. A Provence
variety, very productive, sets well, stands great heat and hot winds.
A vigorous grower, very suitable for high trellising.

GROS COLMAN (syn. Grosse Kolner, Dodrelabi of Caucasus).
A round, black vinous grape ; season late ; merits very handsome
and valuable for late winter and market purposes ; second-rate as
to quality. Vine: free- vigorous, the shoots stout, with large,
prominent buds ; very fruitful ; wood long, stout, not hard, with
abundant pith, long joints ; buds large, slightly downy. Leaves
large, broad, very downy, often presenting the appearance of
flagging, and very early in the season, assuming a rusty appearance
from which they change to a dull reddish hue, which is very orna-
mental. Fruit : bunches medium -sized, rather short and broad,
with usually one large shoulder, giving the bunch a one-sided
appearance, sets very freely ; stalk long, thin, but very tough
and strong. Berries very large, round, sometimes inclined to
oblate ; the style, point depressed. Skin thick though adhering to
the flesh, dark purple or black, covered with a thick bloom. Flesh
firm, coarse, and generally with an indifferent flavour, but when
highly ripened and commencing to shrivel, it is pleasant.

Cultural Noets. — A very strong-constitutioned vine, doing well
like the Alicante, in many localities, and also requires plenty of
heat to ripen to perfection. The enormous size of the berries and

256

weight of the bunches necessitates some care in thinning and not
over-cropping — an error of treatment which is soon apparent in the
wan-t of colour. Requires spur pruning. In damp soil, or when
highly manured with organic fertilisers, the berries split and become
mouldy.

ALMERIA (syn. Daria). — A Spanish variety of splendid
shipping qualities and largely exported from the ports of Almeria
and Malaga to London and New York. Vine vigorous ; leaves
medium size, and lightly lobed, smooth on both faces ; teeth obtuse
and alternately large and small. Bunches evenly set ; loose berries,
medium to large, long oval, flattened on the ends, hard and fleshy,
which prevents them from drying up ; strongly attached to the
stalklet or pedicel. If a single berry is pulled off the bunch the
pedicel breaks clean off from the main stalk and remains attached
to the grape, saving it from decay. Flavour indifferent. The vine
requires a warm locality and large development, with long pruning.
It is sent out from Spain, packed in cork dust or little chips of
cork of about £ inch in size. This prevents packing and does
not favour the growth of mould. This grape is successfully shipped
to England from Western Australia as well as from the Eastern
States.

CHOICE RED WINE GRAPES.

ARAMON (syn. Fontainebleau in W.A.). — Round, black, vinous
grape, popular in the South of France and Algeria, on account of
the heavy yield of common wine it produces. Season : mid-season,
or third period of grape ripening. Merits : second-rate, and fre-
quently only third-rate; produces a common red wine of quick
maturity; made also into a liy:ht white wine, which is either
sold as such, or distilled for brandy. Vine: — Stem strong and
very vigorous in rich soils ; spreading habit of growth, producing
wherever stopped a great mass of young shoots, which are remark-
ably brittle ; requires more trimming and stopping than any other
vine. Shoots of a light-red colour in summer ; greyish in winter.
Buds of a dirty-white colour ; much developed. Rods strong, short-
jointed. Leaves large ; not deeply indented ; upper side glossy, under
side covered with loose down ; petiolar sinus open ; dies off yellow.
Fruit bunches large and long, almost cylindrical, or slightly
shouldered with a brittle herbaceous stalk, which remains green
after the ripening of the grape ; very regularly but closely set.
Berries large, round. Foot-stalks thick. Skin of a dull, purplish-
black colour, with a thin bloom ; very thin, thus exposed to bursting
and rotting in damp soil. Flesh tender, juicy, with a very brisk,
rich or strong vinous flavour, when well ripened, and tolerably good
for table.

Cultural Notes. — A remarkably free fruiting vine wherever
grown, requiring a considerable amount of heat to ripen the fruit
thoroughly. On rich, deep, and free alluvial soil, and under irriga-
tion, over 3,000 gallons of must have been obtained per acre ; does not
do well in poor and cold soils. On account of the brittleness of the

257

stalk no knife is required to pick the crop, which is thus gathered
in less time. Conies into leaf early, and is, therefore, liable to
suffer from late frosts ; is subject to the o'idium ; pruned short ;
cultivated for quantity more than quality. The grape being juicy,
the must represents as much as 65 to 70 per cent, of its weight ;
whereas in the case of most other grapes, the ratio is 60 to 65 per
cent. only. In France, the wine made from the Aramon grape is
light in colour, and only contains 9 per cent, alcohol, and in the
plains the average yield is about 800 gallons ; whereas in Western
Australia the average yield is 400 gallons, and the alcoholic strength
11 per cent. The wine matures quickly, and is generally consumed
the year of its making.

ASPIRAN (syn. Verdal Spiran). — One of the choice varieties of
the South of France, where quantity more than quality is sought
for. Season medium (third period). Merits : second rate ; produces
better wine than Aramon, or Mataro. Vine : growth rather
vigorous ; shoots semi-erect, slender, with medium-sized joints of a
light-red colour; buds slightly downy. Leaves of medium size,
five-lobed, deeply indented ; teeth deep, uneven, which gives to the
leaf a feathery appearance; upper surface yellowish green and
smooth ; under surface with slight woolly down near the veins ;
petiolar sinus almost closed ; and leaves die with a red margin, also
the stalks. Fruit: bunches medium size, somewhat shouldered,
close set, cylindro-conical. Berries : medium size, slightly oval ;
skin rather thick, of a purplish-black colour, covered with bloom.
Flesh : very juicy, of a slight acid taste, making it a pleasant table
grape as well.

Cultural Notes. — Is pruned short and trained bush fashion.
Produces in warm localities a pleasant wine of fair keeping
qualities, but light colour ; a good bearer, producing from 200 to
400 gallons per acre. Comes into leaf medium early, but does not
suffer from spring frost. Grows best in a deep, free soil, pre-
ferably gravelly, and of a reddish colour. Not much subject to
fungoid diseases.

CABIGNANE (syn. Carignaii). — A useful grape for the drier and
hotter districts. Season medium (third period). Merits: combines
in a happy degree both quality and quantity wherever the circum-
stances are favourable. Vine : growth of stem thick and vigorous ;
an erect grower. Shoots : strong, thick, and hard, hence the name it
often goes by — Bois dur ; tips of shoots seldom ripen properly ; short-
jointed at the base, of a light-red colour, turning to brownish-red
in the autumn ; young shoots as they burst are downy and slightly
pink on under margin. Buds dark in colour, and rather large. Leaves
large, rough, and wrinkled ; five-lobed ; sinus deep ; upper surface
dark-green and smooth, under surface light-green and slightly
downy; leaves turn red in the 'autumn. Fruit: bunches large and
well-set, sub-divided into small bunches. Berries : medium size
and slightly oblong ; black, juicy, and rich.

Cultural Notes. — Prune short and train bush fashion. Very
subject to all sorts of fungoid diseases, therefore moist and damp

258

localities are unsuitable for its cultivation. Grapes ripen fairly
early, but the buds burst late, thus escaping spring frosts. Re-
quires a good deal of heat to bring it to maturity. Does best in
well-drained soils of good consistency. The wine is better on the
hills than on the plains, is generous, keeps well, spirituous,
possesses a rich dark colour, but is a little coarse and harsh.
Sometimes the wine is of a bluish colour when the grapes have been
allowed to get over-ripe.

CABERNET SATJVIGNON (syn. Petit Cabernet). — One of the
choicest red varieties of France, making the high-class Medoc wine.
Season: mid-season (third period). Merits: of the highest as to
quality, but giving a small crop. Vine: growth vigorous when
young, somewhat spreading, but on unsuitable soil grows weak with
age ; shoots of a dark-reddish mahogany colour, of medium thick-
ness, long joints ; buds medium size, downy. Leaves very
characteristic, medium sized, as long as they are broad ; five-lobed ;
the indentation or sinus deep, rounded, and overlapping towards
their extremities in such a way as to make the leaves appear as if
they were pierced with fine holes ; teeth sharp and uneven ; upper
surface of a dark-green colour, smooth and glossy, but uneven ;
under surface covered with close, short down. Fruit : bunches
medium size, conical, slightly shouldered, and rather loose, slender
peduncle. Berries, small, round, on along and slender foot- stalk,
which turns red as the grape ripens. Skin thick, hard, and black,
covered with a fine blue bloom when ripe, apt to fall off when over-
ripe. Flesh hard and juicy, with peculiar flavour, which is common
to the Cabernets.

Cultural Notes. — Requires long rod pruning ; rather subject to-
o'idium and antkracnose, and should therefore be grown on perfectly
well-drained soil. Soil best suited is a rich loamy soil mixed with
gravel. Does well also on ironstone gravel underlying a rich loam,
whether light or heavy, and not so well on limestone soil or on heavy
marl. Does better when grafted on a stronger stock, such as Mataro,,
or better still, on American phylloxera- proof stock. Suitable for
the cooler districts. It forms in the Bordeaux district of France
the foundation of the first growths of the world-renowned Chateau
Lafite, Chateau Margaux, Chateau Latour, etc., where it is blended
with Malbeck, Merlot, and Verdot. Blended with Malbeck and
Shiraz, and other good sorts, it makes a most suitable wine for either
the local or the export market. The wine, which possesses a deep
and brilliant ruby colour, is rather harsh at first, but mellows down
with each racking. Keeps very well, and is remarkable for its
bouquet. A good average yield would be 150 gallons to the acre.

CABERNET G-ROS (syn. Cabernet Franc, Carmenet). — This
variety differs but slightly from the Cabernet Sauvignoii, from which1
it is difficult to be distinguished. Season : a little earlier than
previous one (second period) . Merits : very nearly as good as
Cabernet Sauvignon. Vine : growth vigorous. Shoots : semi-erect,
of a paler colour, grey, yellowish-red. Leaves : medium ; similar to

fv

ti

Dolcetto grape.

259

C. Sauvignon, but coarser and less glossy ; holes not so well marked.
Fruit: bunches rather smaller than C. Sauvignon. Berries: larger
with thinner skin ; ripens a little earlier.

Cultural Notes. — Is not superior to the Cabernet in any respect,
and will not do in a limestone country. This is the variety recom-
mended where autumn rains are frequent, being hardy, and will stand
a lot of wet before rotting. The wine from this variety is, at first,
very astringent, but looses that rapidly, and is fit for bottling earlier
than that made from C. Sauvignon.

DOLCETTO (syn. Uva d'Acqui). — This grape does well on the
moist flats and valley lands of the South- West. It is widely culti-
vated on the higher valleys of the Piedrnontese Alps, notably at
Alba and Aqui, where a good commercial red wine is made from its
juice.

Vine, vigorous and fruitful. Wood : filbert colour, short- jointed.
Buds : large and whitish before bursting. Terminal shoots : the
young leaves are red, and covered with a light whitish down.
Leaves : medium size to large, broader than long, smooth and almost
glossy above, very slightly woolly below ; three or five lobes ; lines,
round and deep ; teeth pointed ; tendrils, leaf-stalks, and ribs,
reddish. Bunches : medium size, pyramidal, long- shouldered, well
set, with a long brown stalk. Berries : medium size, almost round,
bluish-black, covered with bloom, thin-skinned, juicy, and sweet;
often fall off the bunches when very ripe.

This grape ripens early, bears heavily, and makes a light sweet
wine, which matures fairly quickly, and is superior to that made
from the Mataro grape. Requires long pruning.

GRENACHE (syn. Roussillon, Alicante). — Grown extensively in
the south of France, and Spain. Season : mid to late season (third
period). Merits: combines quality with quantity; wine matures
quickly and loses its colour early, and for that purpose very suitable
for making a sweet wine of the port type. Vine : growth very
vigorous, semi-erect grower; shoots short-jointed and tapering with
swollen buds of a yellowish colour, and often unripe towards the
extremity ; young buds green and almost smooth, burst soon after
Aranion and a few days before Carignane ; leaves medium size,
smooth and glossy on both sides, slightly lobed, with sharp teeth
on the margin of a yellowish-green colour, turning yellow in the
autumn; petiolar sinus open. Fruit: bunches large, cylindrical,
irregular, small shoulder, woody stalk. Berries : medium size,
closely packed, slightly oval, not very dark, and of a reddish- blue
colour, thin-skinned, covered with bloom, and subject to rotting in
damp localities.

Cultural Notes. — Not very subject to oidum, but easily
attacked by anthracnose and mildew, or peronospora ; pruned short
and trained bush fashion. Heavy bearer, producing a wine that is
rather course at first, and not suitable for making wine of the claret
type, as it looses its colour quickly, assuming a tawny brown tint

260

very suitable for port ; very good for blending with some dark-
coloured wine. On rich flats gives an abundant yield of thinner
wine ; while on gravelly slopes produces a more full-bodied wine.

MALBECK (syn. Cot). — A choice red variety. Season: early
(second period). Merits: first-class, and enters with Cabernet in
the making of high-class clarets ; when fortified makes good port.
Vine : growth vigorous, half spreading ; shoots sharp pointed,
average thickness, brownish-fawn colour with red stripes ; large
buds, light-red to whitish violet. Leaves : of a pinkish white when
young, medium sized, three-lobed, circular ; upper surface bright
green, glossy, and rough ; under surface covered with flaky down ;
leaf-stalk, short and thick. Fruit : bunches large, branched, loose,
and somewhat pyramidal. Berries: rather large, roundish, with
long thick pedicel. Skin : thin and tough, dark-violet, covered with
bloom. Stems : red, especially the extremities, to which the berries
are attached. Sweet.

Cultural Notes. — Temperate districts are the best for its
cultivation, but is also grown in the warmer and drier districts.
Requires well- drained soil to set well, preferably rich loam or lime-
stone formations, where it generally gives best results. Pruned
with long rods. Suffers but slightly from the o'idium, but liable to
be attacked by anthracnose. Berries ripen a little before Cabernet,
but hang well. Makes a beautiful wine of the claret type, with rich
ruby colour ; rather astringent and bitterish when young, but sus-
ceptible of correction by blending. Comes into leaf rather early ;
and in frosty localities should not be planted in hollows. Unlike
most vines, has the peculiarity of bearing fruit on shoots growing off
the old wood if the normal fruit-bearing shoots are destroyed.

MERLOT. — Another choice claret grape, and a good bearer ;
suitable for cool localities. Vine : a strong grower ; slim, erect wood,
short- jointed, streaked, greyish-fawn in colour. Leaves : medium
sized ; five-lobed ; wider than long ; sinus open ; teeth sharp and
uneven ; smooth above, tomentose below ; dying off red. Bunches :
conical, elongated, shouldered. Berries : small to medium, round,
bluish-black, covered with bloom, juicy, sweet, and pleasant.
Ripens early (second period). Pruned either short or preferably
long. When grown in suitable localities, the wine is velvety and
ripens quickly ; but does not come up to Cabernet, with which it
blends well. Does best in cool and moist localities, where its leaves
are not scorched, and where the berries hang longer on the vines.
One of the best Australian clarets I have tasted was produced from
Merlot grapes grown at Bendigo, in Victoria. The vineyard has
since been found infested by the phylloxera, and on that account
destroyed.

MATARO (syn. Espar, Mourvedre, Lambruscat in N.S.W.).—
Largely cultivated in the south of France and in Spain, Italy, and
Algeria. Season: late (third period). Merits : a good blending red
wine, but without much character by itself. Vine : growth vigorous,
erect grower: short- jointed wood, of a reddish-brown colour when

261

ripe ; large buds. Leaves : medium size, five-lobed, rough and
coarse ; upper surface dark-green, under surface downy and whitish ;
leaf-stalk and veins dark reddish-brown ; lateral sinus not much
marked ; petiolar sinus open. Fruit : bunches medium, close,
cylindro-conical, small shoulders, hard, woody stalk. Berries -r
medium, round ; skin thick, black, covered with a thick blue bloom ;
juicy, and rather astringent.

Cultural Notes. — Wine of no special character. Comes into
leaf late. Eesists all sorts of fungoid diseases well. Pruned short,
and trained bush fashion. Heavy yielder ; very hardy ; grows in any
soil, but does especially well on drained limestones and in hot
localities.

MILLER'S BURGUNDY (syn. Pineau Meunier).— Similar to Pinot
noir, but differing in so far as the leaves are very downy both on the
upper as well as the under surface, which gives to the vine the
appearance of having been dusted with flour; hence its name.
Extensively grown in Champagne for making the sparkling wine.

MORRASTEL (syn. Burgundy [?] in W.A.). — A profitable red
wine grape. Season: mid -season (third period). Merits: combines
quality with quantity ; resists diseases well. Vine : strong,
upright, fruitful. Wood: thick, pretty hard, of a reddish colour ;
joints not very long ; nodes strong and swollen. Buds, hairy white.
Leaves : strong, light green, three to five lobes, not very indented ;
glabrous on upper surface, and somewhat cottony on underside ;
leaf-stalk and veins red ; dies yellow with red patches. Bunch :
large, winged, and conical ; berries close set, black, with blue bloom,
oblong, juicy.

Cultural Notes. — Very fruitful in soil well adapted to its
growth. Does remarkably well on hillsides, where it produces a
wine full of character, with a rich grenat colour, suitable for
blending-. It also does well in heavy or in loamy soil. The buds burst
late, and is therefore late affected by light frost ; the bunches set
very well ; resists well cryptogamic fungoid diseases. Does not
do so well in sandy land, where its yield is not so great. In damp
places the vine is liable to rot ac the crown, and shoots come up
again from the roots ; in rich soil it grows wood and leaves too
luxuriantly for fruit production. The lower buds being fruitful
and the growth erect, short pruning suits it best.

RED MUSCAT OF FRONTIGNAN (syn. Constantia, in W.A.). —
(See above.)

MOURISCO PRETO (syn. Tinto). — A port wine grape, rich in
sugar and low in acid and tannin. Matures early (preto), end of
the second period. Vine vigorous ; young shoots of a light colour ;
canes straggling, with internodes 3 to 4 inches long, and small,
flattened nodes ; colour of wood light-grey ; wood hard and with
little pith. Leaves: large, roundish, some five-lobed; lateral
sinuses slightly open, basal one widely open ; smooth on the surface ;
light bright green ; petiole or leaf-stalk thick, smooth, whitish-
green. Bunches : numerous, large, pyramidal, more or less branched ;

262

peduncle large, thick, rather soft, yellowish-green. Berries : large,
pretty uniform in size, flattened and umbilicate, dull black,
adhering strongly to the pedicel, which is long ; skin thick ; flesh
firm, sweet, pleasant. Yields in must about 55 per cent, of the
weight of its bunches. The must is unsuited for dry wines, but
when fermented produces a wine possessing the true port wine
type. At one time this vine was supposed to be phylloxera-proof,
but it is only proved to be partially so.

PINOT, BLACK (syn. Black Cluster, Burgundy [?] in Australia).
— Vine not very vigorous; requires stalking or trellising; wood
uniformly thin all along. Buds : covered with whitish down ; burst
early ; numerous tendrils. Leaves : medium size, almost round on
the bearing canes, more indented on suckers ; smooth on the surface,
slightly downy below. Bunches : small, often cylindrical, sometimes
shouldered, strongly attached to a short peduncle, which is woody
above the joint. Berries : small, spherical, and compressed ; skin
thick, tough, rich in colouring matter, black, with light bloom ;
flesh juicy; sweet. Leaves dropoff early. This variety is only
suitable for cool localities, ripens early. (First period.) A shy
bearer; average yield 150 gallons to the acre. Does better on
long pruning. In dry and hot districts the grapes ripen so quickly
and are so small that they soon dry up, thus reducing the yield
and the colour. Does well on limestone formation. Forms the
foundation of the choicest Burgundy wines and of champagne.

SHIRAZ (syn. Hermitage). — Grown extensively in the celebrated
Hermitage vineyards of France (Rhone Valley). Supposed to
have been imported from Persia. Season : mid-season (second
period). Merits: produces an excellent wine of good colour, body,
and keeping qualities, specially adapted for the natural conditions
met with in Australia, and should constitute the foundation of red
Australian wine, both for the local and the export market. Vine :
somewhat spreading, vigorous and fruitful. Wood : long-jointed,
strong, of a brown-grey colour in winter. Leaves : large, of a
light-green, somewhat undulating, glabrous on the upper surface
and with flaky down on the under surface, especially on veins, five-
lobed but not very deeply indented, teeth large and blunt. Fruit :
bunch elongated, cylindrical, sometimes rather loose, but in well-
selected vines closer in the bunch, winged, with a long slender yellow
stalk; berries medium sized, oval, black covered with bloom, thin
but tough skins, juicy.

Cultural Notes. — In good deep soil, and on slopes, the Shiraz
bears heavily and regularly. In light and shallow soil, subject to
drought, its fruitfulness decreases greatly, and must be kept up by
means of manures. Not very subject to fungoid and insect pests,
although it must be kept well sulphured. Yields better crop under
rod pruning and on account of its spreading habit of growth, and
in order to keep the grapes up the stem should not be too short.

VERDOT. — One of the "claret" grapes. Season, mid-season
(3rd period). Merit, first class, although not so much perfumed as

263

the Cabernet. Vine growth vigorous, spreading. Leaves medium -
sized, longer than broad, when young covered with a characteristic
silvery-white down ; when full grown three or five-lobed, teeth
uneven, sinus rather open and not very deep ; upper surface-
smooth, uneven, of a paler green than Cabernet, underside downy..
Fruit bunches small, shouldered. Berries round, small, dark purple,,
with several small green berries amongst the others ; thick skin,
large seeds.

Cultural Notes. — Pruned long, like Cabernet, Malbeck, etc.
Better bearer than Cabernet, and is often blended with it when
grown on the rich alluvial flats (palus) along the banks of the
Gironde River, near Bourdeaux. Wine possesses good colour,,
vigour, and very good keeping qualities. Subject to o'idium.

CHOICE WHITE WINE GRAPES. •
CHASSELAS. — (See above).
DORADILLO. — (See above).

FOLLE BLANCHE. — One of the Sauterne type of grapes, but
more widely cultivated in France for the distillation of brandy,
under the name of " cognac " and as a blending wine. It is pruned
short, vine a strong grower, canes short and thick, erect, reddish
with medium length internodes ; leaves, medium size ; fine lobedr
teeth short and obtuse, deep green, and shiny above, slightly
puckered, downy below ; bunch medium size, compact, conico-
cylindrical ; berries medium to large, spherical of a whitish -green or
yellow, according to soil and aspect ; skin tough ; ripens fairly early
(2nd period). It adapts itself to all kinds of rich soils, but sets
poorly where early frosts occur and also rots easily in wet autumns.

GOTJAIS (syn. Kleinberger) . — Vine a strong grower, bunches of
medium size, conical, compact, berries over medium size, round,,
very juicy, without special flavour, ripen late, skin thin, a heavy
bearer, long or short pruning ; gives a clean wine, without much
character, but fermenting easily ; suitable for blending or for
distillation.

MARSANNE (syn. White Shiraz). — Vine vigorous, cane strong
with long internodes, leaves large, wrinkled with deep lateral and
closed petiolar sinuses ; teeth short, wide, obtuse, glabrous above, a.
little downy below, bunches long, cylindrical shouldered, compact ;
berries round, white, with a mother-of-pearl shine, juicy. This
grape produces a good clean wine of the chablis type ; ripens late
(3rd period). Spur prune on permanent arms if trellised, otherwise
spur prune. When long pruned the berries are uneven and the
bunches sometimes dry up at the extremity.

MUSCAT or FRONTIGNAN (syn. White Constantia). — (See
above.)

PEDRO XIMENES. — A grape of the sherry type, rich in sugar and
low in acid. It is the principal wine-grape of Malaga and Grenada,
and Jerez. In conjunction with Palomino, it is used in the manu-

2G4

facture of dry sherries and occasionally with the Tintas for the
manufacture of red wines. Vine vigorous and productive. Slender,
short jointed wood. Leaves medium size, smooth, veins light
yellow. Bunches large, branching, loose but well filled. Berries
small to medium, somewhat oval, firm, fleshy, of a yellow-golden
colour. Ripening late. Requires a rich soil and short pruning.

PINEAU WHITE CHARDONNAY (syn. White Morillon). — Vine
more vigorous than most of the Pinots, with slender but vigorous
wood. Leaves medium size, yellowish -green, glabrous above,
slightly downy below ; teeth uneven. Bunches small, short, some-
what compact, conico-cylindrical. Berries small, spherical, light
green when ripe, and golden on the sunny side. Flesh firm, and of
more flavour than the true Pinot Blanc. Ripening early, a week or
two later than the Black Pinot. Adapts itself to all soils, but bears
better crops in well-drained deep loam. This grape enters to some
extent into the manufacture of the best champagne wine, and also
those famous white wines of Burgundy : Montrachet, Chablis,
and Pouilly. Another white pineau, under the name of Auxerrois,
produces in the dry districts of New South Wales and in Victoria
a fine sweet white wine.

RIESLING. — A choice white grape of which Hock is made on
the Rhine and in Moselle. Season, fairly early (2nd period).
Merits, one of the best varieties for cultivation. Vine growth,
stem slender ; shoots semi-erect, slender, rather long- jointed, hard
bark of a glossy gray colour, turning to silver-white in the autumn,
numerous laterals. Buds downy, grayish colour. Leaves, medium,
thick, three to five-lobed, wrinkled, rather deeply indented sinus,
teeth almost even ; upper surface smooth, dark green : under sur-
face downy, light green colour, veins thick and covered with short
stiff hair; petiolar sinus almost closed; leaves fall early in the
autumn. Fruit : bunches small, close set, cylindro-conical, with
short and thick pedicel. Berries small, round or somewhat oblate,
of a greenish colour, covered with bloom and with small black
specks. Very juicy and rich, with a peculiar aromatic flavour.

Cultural Notes. — Long pruning, comes into leaf late; gives
best results on granite or schistose formations ; fairly resistant to
o'idium, and not attacked by anthracnose. Yields fair crops.

SHEPHERD'S RIESLING (syn. Orleans Riesling, Gros Riesling) . —
A variety of the above, bears heavier crops, has larger berries, resists
wet better, but the wine not quite so good as that of the true
Riesling. Vine vigorous, leaves of medium size, longer than wide,
glabrous above, slightly downy below. Three to five lobes, the
upper sinuses deep, the lower scarcely marked. Bunches medium
size, somewhat compact, conico-cylindrical, slightly shouldered.
Berries larger than those of Riesling. Slightly ovoid, juicy, whitish-
yellow. Ripens second period a little after Riesling. This variety
is much grown throughout the Palatinate and the Rhingau, and
round Rudesheim. Does not require long pruning.

265

ROUSSANNE (syn. White Burgundy in Australia). — On the
Rhone it is blended with Marsaune for Chablis ; vine very vigorous.
Pruned short. Leaves large, lobed, somewhat downy. Bunches
medium size, cylindrical, shouldered. Berries medium size, some-
what close, globular, golden-yellow when i*ipe. (2nd period).

VERDELHO (syn. Gouveio, Madeira in Australia). — An oval-
shaped white grape, whi^-h makes an excellent white sweet wine
of the Madeira type. Season : mid-season. Merits : produces a
high-class wine, but the plant is very subject to o'idium. Vine :
growth moderately vigorous ; shoots slender, rather close- jointed,
of a reddish colour with dark streaks ; leaves medium, almost
entire, upper side da.rk- green, smooth, and rather shiny, under
surface slightly downy ; teeth even, short and blunt. Fruit :
bunches medium to small, long in shape and conical ; berries small
to medium, not very closely set in the bunch, oval, sometimes with-
out seeds : skin thin, yellow-green, does not burst readily in wet
weather.

Cultured Notes. — Prune long. Vine very subject to oi'dium,
and for that reason should not be planted in a moist district.
Another good variety is the Sercial grape; a round, white berry,
which makes a high-class Madeira wine.

PHYLLOXERA-RESISTANT VINES.

These vines, which grow wild in America, offered until recent
years but a casual botanical interest. The unintentional introduc-
tion of the Phylloxera insect from the New World some forty years
ago soon caused, wherever introduced, the death of all varieties of
European vines or Vitis Vinifera.

For a long time the methods adopted for combating the
deadly insect proved abortive, until a systematic study was under-
taken of the conditions under which the Phylloxera vastatrix, an
insect of American origin, lived on the American wild vines without
perceptibly affecting their constitution.

The conclusions drawn from these researches are that by a
slo\v process of natural selection numerous varieties of American
wild vines have perished under the bite of the Phylloxera louse, but
that several varieties have been able to withstand the attacks of
the insect, and while tolerating its presence on their roots, are
able to grow without being perceptibly inconvenienced. This much
having been found, vineyard proprietors who had hitherto been
fighting the Phylloxera by means of costly chemicals or of methods
involving considerable outlay of money and of labour, followed
headlono- the line of least resistance and planted for stock any-
thing known as an American vine; on these they grafted the choicer
European vines.

Experience, which is generally costly, showed that of the dozen
or more of known species of wild American vines, two only, the
Vitis Riparia and the Vitis Rupestris, embodied such qualities as
made them desirable Phvlloxera-resistant stocks. Fortunes were

266

spent and fortunes lost before this fact was established, so anxious
were the vineyard proprietors to speedily reconstitute their vineyards.

Then a Riparia and Rupestris craze set in, and it was argued
that as these vines were of a wild nature, and had not been modified
by cultivation and by the handiwork of man, their seeds would
prove a quick and ready way of propagating the vines. Disap-
pointment likewise followed ; a majority of the seedlings proved to
be different and inferior in the qualities sought for to the mother
plant.

Of Riparias and Rupestris, numerous varieties are known ; the
great majority of them are worthless as stocks for European vines.
Some take the graft badly ; others cannot thrive on the particular
soil it is intended to plant them ; the ground is either too dry or
wet, or too compact, or contains too much lime, etc.

It is thus necessary in selecting a resistant vine to know, in the
first instance, something about the depth, the moisture, and the
richness of the soil it is intended to plant ; and, secondly, which of
the best varieties as regards aptitude to take the graft and to with-
stand the attack of the insect is more likely to thrive under the
conditions disclosed by that preliminary inspection of the ground.

In Europe, where abundant summer showers maintain the soil
moist during the growing months, the shallow-rooted Riparias have
given widespread satisfaction. In California and in Australia, as
well also as in Algeria, where the summer months are dry and the
surface ground possesses comparatively little moisture, the deeper
rooted Rupestris yields better results.

One important factor, to a great extent, influences the efficacy
of all American resistant vines as a suitable stock for vines, and
that is : deep and thorough cultivation. On the vigour and the
strength of their roots will depend their power to counteract the
wasting effect of the sap-sucking insect, and of infusing life and
energy into the scion, and unless the ground be deeply stirred, the
roots will fail to grow with the same luxuriance they show in easily
penetrated soil; the standard of resistance will as a result be
lowered and the graft will fail to receive the amount of sap required
to produce and nourish a large crop.

By standard of resistance is meant that scale adopted by
viticulturists all the world over which determines the degree of
resistance the Phylloxera possessed by vines. In that table, 20
represents the maximum degree of absolute resistance, while 0
represents its minimum. Thus the resisting power of the best
Rupestris and Riparia is 19' 50 ; that of some of the hybrids, such as
Jacquez and Lenoir, 11 to 12 ; and that of Chasselas, Aramon,
Greiiache is 0, or absolutely nil.

The resistance expressed by the numbers 16 to 20 is sufficient
for all soils ; that expressed by 14 or 15 is sufficient, too, where deep,
free, moist, loams occur, where roots grow rapidly ; while all vines
possessing a degree of resistance under 13 should be discarded as
non-resistant stock.

267

The following table, drawn up by Viala, shows the resistance
of some of the best known vines : —

COMPARATIVE RESISTANCE TO PHYLLOXERA.

Cultivated Vines and Hybrids.

Gloire de Montpellier (Riparia) 18

Rupestris Martin ... ... 18

Rupestris Monticola ... ... 18

Rupestris Metallica ... ... 16

Solonis 14

Lenoir ... ... ... ... 12

Isabella . 5

Species (Wild Vines).
Vitis Rotundifolia (Scuppernong) 19
Vitis Rupestris (Rock or Sand

Grape) 18

Vitis Riparia (River Bank Grape) 18

Vitis Berlandieri 17

Vitis -ZEstivalis (Summer Grape) 16
Vitis Labrusca (Fox Grape) .. 5
Vitis Calif ornica ... ... ... 4

Vitis Vinifera (European Grape) 0

A readily visible external indication of the degree of resistance
to the attacks of the insect is afforded by nodosities and by
tuberosities on the roots. The ''nodosity" is a swelling on the
tender rootlets of the grape vine, which is caused by the bite of the
Phylloxera. All vines attacked by the Phylloxera show more or
less these nodosities, which are the result of local irritations.
When these nodosities, however, assume a more pronounced
appearance, such as deeply-seated cancers, they become " tuberosi-
ties," and the more numerous these tuberosities are on the roots of
a vine the less resistant it is found to be to the attacks of the
Phylloxera.

To sum up the value of the American resistant vines to use as
stock for grafting our European vines on, their degree of resistance is
due to the fact — 1st, that they are exceptionally luxuriant growers
and impart to scion or graft both vigour and strength ; 2nd, that
the Phylloxera insects do not increase so rapidly on their roots ;
3rd, that the swelling of diseased tissues caused by the bite of the
insects form at most only nodosities on the roots, and seldom
tuberosities or cankered ulcers, and that these swellings rapidly
heal and leave the affected part as healthy as ever, little or no
inconvenience being suffered by the vine.

Some five years ago our Department of Agriculture introduced
amongst a collection of valuable grapes some of the best American
resistant vines, a description of which is given below.

VITIS RUPESTRIS (the Rock or Sand Grape). — Of the two
leading species of resistant vines used to graft on, the Rupestris
offers all the characteristics which should make it a favourite in
Western Australia. In Europe, where the climate is moist in the
summer months, the Riparia is often preferred on account of the
readiness with which it takes the graft and the fact that it does not
sucker as does the Rupestris. With us, however, the circumstances
are not the same. The summer months are dry, and a deep-rooting
vine stands a better chance of getting a good hold of the ground
than does a shallow-rooted one.

For soils that are dry, sandy, or gravelly, the Rupestris is
therefore the vine to select. Should the ground be moist and

2G8

fertile it will of course thrive the better, although under these
circumstances the Riparia will excel it. Thus speaks Professor
Viala, a recognised authority on viticulture, on Rupestris : — " Among
the diverse forms of Rupestris, we recommend the following from
a strictly practical point of view as the most valuable in i-eplanting
vineyards : Rupestris Monticola (Du Lot or St. George), Rupestris
Martin, Rupestris Mission, and Rupestris G-anziii. These alone
should remain under culture. The others, though possessing a
certain undoubted value, are inferior, because they lack resistance
or all-round adaptability. The Rupestris Martin, on account of its
great resistance to the Phylloxera, should always be used in poor,
silicious, gravelly soils, with or without a considerable amount of
lime. The Rupestris St. George replaces actually the Leiioir and
Solonis in poor calcareous soils where formerly the Vialla, Lenoir,
etc., were used. The ungrafted Rupestris will frequently show an
alarming number of black spots on the leaves, so abundant in some
cases as to cause the dropping of a few of them. This is due to
the Melanose, a disease of the vine that never does any harm at all
and should alarm no one. As soon as the Rupestris is grafted this
will disappear from the vineyards, as it can scarcely live on the
Vitis Vinifera, but takes more kindly to the American vines."

The Rupestris have a low, bushy growth, with young wood,
reddish brown. Tendrils discontinuous and leaves small, light

Bupestris Moiiticola.

269

green and shiny, wider than long, without lobes ; when young,
transparent and brilliant, of a russet red ; they are folded together
so as to form a gutter. The sinus of the petiole is open and
scarcely perceptible; it has well-marked, wide, obtuse teeth-
serration. Berries small, spherical, in small bunches. Boots long,
slender, and very hard, but exceptionally large and fleshy, as in the
Rupestris Monticola (Du Lot or St. George) ; grows very readily
from cuttings. Of the Rupestris there are two groups, classed
according as they have small or larger leaves. The second group is
the best.

RUPESTBJS MONTICOLA (syn. R. du Lot, St. George, Sijas)
is the stock vine, particularly suited to local conditions of soil and
climate in Western Australia. It has so far proved the best
adapted variety for the arid sands of the coastal districts and
the gravelly hills of the Darling Range. An erect grower, stands
drought admirably well, on account of its vigorous root system.
Unites readily with the European vines, suckers less than other
Rupestris.

Eupestris Martin.

RUPESTRIS MARTIN. — Introduced from Texas ; suitable for
cold clay formations ; does not stand drought or limestone forma-
tion so well as the above variety, but in every other respect is a
good stock ; growth vigorous and straggling, canes wavy ; leaves
heart-shaped, thick, dark green, gutter-shaped, wavy ; petiolary
sinus, V-shaped ; teeth rounded and large.

270

EUPESTRIS MISSION. — Very vigorous and spreading ; stands
drought well. Leaves small, gutter-shaped, with margins turned
in ; wood violet red at first, then dark and dull.

Eupestris Mission.

VITIS EIPARIA (River Bank Grape). — In Europe, where the
conditions of soil moisture and fertility are frequently met with, the
R. Riparia is generally a favourite, and where these conditions
occur it is of all the stock vines the best to use. It is distinguished
from other specie's by having very thin diaphragms at the nodes of
the stem, light green, shining, glabrous leaves, almost or quite
without hairiness beneath ; large stipules and very early flowering
habit.

One great advantage the Eiparia has over the Eupestris is that
it is more easily grafted when old than the Eupestris, and if the
stock is planted straight out instead of first grafting and sticking in
nursary rows, Eiparias stock will for that reason succeed more easily.
The large-leaved vigorous varieties only should be used and all
others discarded. Its only defect is that in the case of some sub-
varieties the stock is sometimes more slender in growth than the
vine it supports.

RIPARIA GLORY OF MONTPELLIER (syn. R. Portalis). — A
very vigorous variety, with spreading habit of growth. Wood long,
light hazelnut colour ; long joints with a small kink at the nodes ;
few laterals, light bloom ; young shoots bright purple. Leaves large,
roundish, dull, straight hair on the veins underneath. Petiolary
sinus open, U-shaped. Especially suited to deep alluvial soils, red
loamy, and rich, moist, sandy loamy. Does not do well in soils

271

containing a large amount of soft limestone, where it contracts
chlorosis. Takes the graft very readily.

Eiparia Glory of Montpellier.

RIPARIA GrLABRE GIANT. — One of the most vigorous of the
Biparias and capable of withstanding a certain proportion of

Riparia Glabre Giant.

272

limestone in the ground ; does well in dry, deep soils ; straggling
grower. Stem slight, canes long, with long joints, purple when
tender, turning to hazel nut with bloom ; wood very red with
numerous laterals. Leaves large, elongated, but not cordiforrn
(the sides almost parallel), shiny, petiolary sinus, V-shaped. The
fig, as illustrated, compared with the others is somewhat under-
size.

VITIS BERLANDIERI. — This variety, also introduced from
America, has proved the saviour of vinegrowers on the calcareous
soils of the Cognac districts of France, when hitherto every
Phylloxera resisting stock tried had succumbed to chlorosis.

THE SOLONIS. — Believed to be a cross between V. Riparia and
V. Rupestris and V. Candicans. To its first two parents it owes its
immunity from the attack of the Phylloxera, and to the last its
remarkable aptitude for thriving in wet and marshy soils, where
most other stocks would die. Well adapted for heavy, clayey, and
wet soils. From its last parent it derives a certain degree of sus-
ceptibleness to anthracnose or black spot, and must receive suitable
treatment for that disease. A most resisting stock for soils impreg-
nated with saline substances. The cuttings do not strike so easily
as those of V. Riparia.

PERSIMMONS OB KAKI (Diospyros Kaki).

This fruit is also called Japanese Persimmon, to differentiate
it from the American Persimmon (D. Virginiana) . It is a pulpy
fruit, with few and sometimes no seeds, and a yellow flesh, which in
some varieties is streaked with brown. On account of its tap-root
the tree requires deep soil, moist and rich. When not ripe enough
the fruit is harsh and flavourless ; but when soft and pulpy it is rich,
and much liked by many. The Japanese gather the fruit when just
ripe, and pack it into cases for a time, when it mellows down and
become eatable. The following varieties are described by Pro-
fessor H. E. Van Demaii, Pomologist to the U.S. Department of
Agriculture : —

TANE-NASHI. — Tane meaning seeds, and Nashi without; the
fruit being almost or entirely seedless. Excellent fruit either for
eating when ripe, for drying, or for making into preserves. Size
medium to large, about 3 inches in both diameters ; conical,
symmetrical in outline, not furrowed or ribbed ; stern cavity deep ;
skin smooth, reddish orange, with bloom ; flesh jelly-like, clear
orange yellow, not stringy or streaked.

HACHIYA. — Named after a county in the province of Miiio.
Fruit very large, often three or four inches in diameter, oblong-
conic, but tapers rather abruptly at the apex ; often quadrangular ;
dull orange in colour, with dark specks and faint reddish streaks

273

towards the apex. Flesh firm and solid, of a brownish yellow
colour, necked with dull red. Seeds long and slender. Kipens late.
Used for drying in Japan.

YEMON. — This word is the name of a badge that is worn on the
outside of clothing. One of the best ; of excellent flavour, and great
productiveness. Fruit large, rather flattened, with distinct and deep
furrows running into the deep cavity at the stem, and shallow ones
meeting at the opposite end, where a slight depression usually occurs ;
generally quadrangular. Bright orange red colour. Flesh unmixed
orange red, very soft ; can be eaten off the tree. Often seedless.
Flavour sweet when soft, but astringent when hard. Season early,
and does not require frost to ripen it.

DAI-DAI MARU (Fig. 1). — Fruit medium to large, about three
inches in diameter, round shape, with a little depression at the
base, and slight cavity at the apex ; surface smooth, free from dark
specks and cracks. Colour, pale orange ; flesh, orange red ; soft
when fully ripe ; seeds plump ; rich, sweet flavour.

YAMA-TSURU (Fig. 2). — The name means " wild crane." Small
to medium fruit, from If by 2 to 2 by 3 inches in diameter ; oblong,
pointed, one side larger than the other ; stem set on a slight eleva-
tion or cone, instead of a cavity, as with most kinds ; smooth
surface, little or no dark marks, bright red ; flesh, deep orange,
rarely any dark flecks, very sweet and good. Inclined to overbear.

Tsunu. — Very long and slender ; bright orange red, smooth
skin, with tendency to crack at point ; flesh orange, rather dry, few
seeds ; very astringent when unripe. A good keeper.

ZENGI. — Called after the name of a county in the province of
Shimuzuki. So small as to be of little value except for home use,
but its flavour is superior ; varies in shape from oblong to globular,
sometimes slight depression at apex ; dull red with yellowish cast,
generally marked with black cracks about the point ; flesh rather
stringy, dark, showing black dots and white fibres when cut trans-
versely, and light- coloured fibres with splashes of brown when
cut vertically ; quite seedy ; seldom astringent, even when hard.
Very early and prolific.

HYAKUME (Fig. 3). — Literally translated, "one hundred me*
the word me a unit of weight in Japan, and a hundred me being
about equal to one pound of our weight. Slightly conical in shape,
but depressed and somewhat furrowed at the point ; light orange in
colour, and not so dark as the other varieties ; near the apex a
number of marks like pin scratches ; flavour excellent ; tree a good
grower and an abundant bearer ; seeds, when present, about twice
as long as they are broad.

274

YEDDO-TCHI (Fig. 4) means "Yeddo's Best." — Medium size,
flattened ; regular in outline, with a slight depression at the point ;
bright red, being among the darkest varieties known ; flesh dark
brownish purple ; flavour rich and sweet ; seeds abundant and well
developed, and about like a Lima-bean in shape. Tree hardy, and
a good bearer.

275

THE OLIVE (Olea Ewopcea.)

One of the first trees introduced and planted in Western Aus-
tralia by the early settlers was the olive ; and the magnificent
specimens now seen at the older established places bear testimony
to its adaptability to the conditions prevailing here. The olive has,
however, never yet been extensively nor systematically cultivated here,
on account of the labour difficulty. The tree likes a deep free soil,
and, other things being equal, its productiveness and the size of the
fruit are greatly governed by the fertility of the soil and the
moistness of the climate.

The olive begins to bear when four to six years old. As in the
case of the peach, the fruit is either clingstone or freestone. When
ripening it turns from green to purple, reddish brown, bluish, or-
black, with or without bloom. Even when ripe the fruit is harsh
and bitter, with the exception of a few varieties such as the Piru,
bearing sweet fruits which may be eaten fresh from the tree. For
pickling, this bitterness has to be removed. In size olives differ
greatly, from the size of a small grape berry to that of a small plum.
In selecting varieties the choice should be directed by the purpose
in view — oil or pickles.

If for oil : productiveness, quality of the oil, even ripening of
the fruit upon the tree, and hardiness of the tree should guide one's
choice.

If for pickling : size of fruit, firmness of flesh when nearing
maturity, shape of fruit, quality of the pickled fruit, productiveness
and hardiness of the trees should be considered.

Amongst some of the best for oil are : —

VEBDALE (Fig. 1). — Ovoid-shaped, early ripening berry, a
little flattened at the base and elongated at the top ; of a green
brown colour when ripe ; not very prolific, but giving an oil of a
high quality. The tree makes relatively little wood, early and
constant bearer, carrying fruit low, enabling the harvesting to be
done at less cost. Can be planted 25 feet apart.

BLANQUET. — Small berries ; pulp bitter at first and gradually
turning sweeter ; a prolific variety on the Mediterranean seaside.
Handsome tree ; free grower. Plant 30 feet apart.

PICHOLINE (Fig. 2) . — A hardy, rapid-growing variety ; good
bearer; produces berries of medium size, ripening early, and yielding
about 16 per cent, of good oil, but not of a superior qualitj , better
adapted for pickling. Stands frost well.

BOTJQUETIER. — A favourite French oil producer. When
checked by judicious pruning will yield a large quantity of fruit.
Grows to a large tree. Plant 40 feet apart.

Amongst other good oil sorts are : Infrantojo, Frantojo (said
to do well on hills), Nevadillo Blanco, Mission (from California).

276

For pickling, the following are recommended: —

SEVILLANO, syn. Regalis, Pruneau de Catignan, VEspagnole (Fig.
3). — One of the largest olives grown, viz., If inches thick. This is the
variety exported from Spain as the Queen olive. Bound, ovate pit,
generally straight, square at the base, pointed at the apex ; a cling-
stone ; bluish- black when ripe. Picked for green pickling, and
yields a small quantity of a deep yellow oil. Tree small; fruit
ripens medium late.

OLIVES.

1. Verdale and kernel. 2. Picholine and kernel. 3. Ssvillauo and kernel. 4. Gordal
and kernel. 5. Peudoulier and kernel. 6. Manzauillo and kernel.

277

G-ORDAL, syn. Hispalensis, Olivo Real (Fig. 4). — Fruit differs
from the Sevillano in being less symmetrical, being larger on one
side than the other. Much esteemed for pickles, and also yields a
good oil. Tree very large and vigorous, with shiny branches, lance-
shaped leaves, dull green above and clear white below. Ripens
early ; stands cold well. Like Sevillano, requires deep, fertile soil ;
requires heavy pruning. Very widely grown in Spain.

ASCOLANO, or Olive of Ascoli. — Also a large size fruit, valuable
for green pickles, and, like most olives of that description, better
suited for warm districts.

PICHOLINB. — See above.

NEVADILLO BLANCO. — A Spanish variety. Fruit about 1 inch
long ; tree robust ; bears freely. Fruit yields good oil.

PENDOULIER, syn. Oblitza (Fig. 5). — Fruit large, oval. Tree a
good grower, and productive.

MANZANILLO (Fig. 6). — Large, 1 inch long; rounded oval.
Eipens early. Fruit much like the Sevillano ; grows on long stems.
Pulp rich. Readily loses its bitterness when pickled.

NUTS.

These fruit are true seeds only, and are not made up of fleshy
coverings or pericarp, such as plums, apples, etc. They constitute a
highly concentrated form of food, having less water than most fruit,
with a higher percentage of protein or albuminoids and of fat.

SPROUTING SEEDLINGS. — Nuts are generally sown in seed beds,
and subsequently grafted to the kind it is desired to grow.

The pits from natural fruit or seedlings are the most reliable
stocks ; they germinate easily, make more vigorous growth, and
produce longer lived trees.

The pits should not be allowed to dry after being taken from
their covering or from the fruit, and they should without delay be
put in sand or layered in the ground, to prevent the germ from
drying. If allowed to dry, the pits either die or remain dormant in
the ground for a year, and sprout the following season if left
undisturbed.

In the cultivated and highly improved fruit, the union of the
two halves or valves of the pits is often imperfect and " split." Such
nuts will not readily germinate, and are destroyed by moulds, and
rot. In natural seedlings they are more tenacious, and the kernel
better retains its vitality. When layering nuts or pits of stone fruit
a well-drained spot is chosen ; the place is marked with stakes or
enclosed within boards, the soil dug out, and a layer of the nuts or
stones from five to six inches thick laid down and covered with loose
earth. They are allowed to remain until early spring, when the

278

kernels are swollen and some commence to sprout. They are then
planted out in nursery rows and carefully cultivated, and when
strong enough the seedlings are either budded or grafted.

ALMOND (Prunus amygdalus).

The almonds are propagated by budding on seedling bitter
almond stocks or on peach stocks. The apricot is condemned as a
stock on account of its imperfect union with the scion.

Plant only varieties which are good annual croppers, hull
easily, and have a clean, thin, soft shell, with smooth, plump, single
kernels, in preference to those with double or triple nuts, which
commerce does not seek for. The newer California sorts are better
in this respect.

The fruitfulness, like in the case of some other sorts of fruit, is
much increased by planting intermingled varieties, abundance of
pollen being thus secured at the proper time.

An average of lOlbs. of hulled nuts per tree is a very good
crop, and 51bs. a good crop.

Gathering the nuts by hand is tedious work, and can only be
practised when the tree is small. The harvesting is generally put
off, when half the nuts have burst their hulls ; if the tree is then
shaken, the nuts are collected on a sheet of canvas. The hulls
having been either naturally or forcibly removed, the nuts are
placed in trays and dried in the sun. This hulling and shelling,
when done on a large scale, is done by machinery, a very small
percentage of the nuts being broken in the process. This work is
particularly well done on " stick-tights," when the hull and the
shell are closely stuck together. When dry, the iiu£s are bleached
by being lightly sprinkled with water and exposed to sulphurous
fames for a few minutes. The nuts are then graded ; the broken
and inferior ones are shelled and sold as kernels, the sound ones are
packed in sacks and marketed.

I.X.L. (Figs. 1, IA). — Tree a sturdy upright grower ; large
leaves and nuts, single kernels ; hulls easily, and does not require
bleaching ; shell soft and very suitable for the table ; good flavour ;
a good and regular bearer. One pound of these almonds contains
on an average 9oz. kernel and 7oz. shell.

LANGTJEDOC (Figs. 2, 2A). — A French almond, known to the
trade as soft shell ; nut large ; not a very regular bearer ; kernel
7foz., shell 8|oz. to the pound of nut.

NON PAREIL (Figs. 3, SA). — A weeping habit of growth;
smaller foliage than I.X.L. ; an abundant and regular bearer ; a
paper shell nut with almost invariably a single kernel of excellent
flavour. A large proportion of kernel to the pound of unshelled
nuts, viz., 12oz. kernel and 4oz. shell.

JORDAN (Figs. 4, 4A). — A corruption of the French " Jardin,"
meaning " garden " ; a standard variety.

279

NE-PLUS-ULTRA (Figs. 5, SA). — Like I.X.L. and Non Pareil
a Californian seedling. The three should be planted in close
proximity, to favour pollenation. Paper shell; nut large and long;
hulls freely ; single kernel, which is long and slender, resembling
the commercial Jordan. A heavy and regular bearer; lOoz. kernel,
60 z. shell to lib. of nuts.

ALMONDS.

IA, I.X.L. arid kernel ; 2, 2A, Languedoc and kernel ; 3, SA, Non Pareil and
kernel; 4, 4A, Jordan and kernel ; 5, SA, Ne-Plus-Ultra and kernel.

280

CHESTNUT (Castanea spj.

Several varieties are grown, of which the European species (0.
vesca), known as Spanish and Italian chestnut, are more widely
known. Another variety, the Japanese chestnut, is also gaining
favour. It is a dwarf tree, suited for hedges and copses rather
than for independent growth, but yields a nut which is larger than the
largest European chestnut, and bears in four or five years from
planting. The European chestnut reaches large dimensions, and,
being a quick grower, would do very well for avenues and shade
trees. They require planting widely apart, and do best on free,
moist, gravelly soil, beyond the reach of spring frosts.

Chestnut trees of majestic size grow with great luxuriance in
the rich valleys of the Darling Ranges about Jarrahdale, and also in
the southern districts about the Vasse. Although not widely
planted, they should thrive well in our cooler climates.

The trees are readily grown from seeds, of which the largest
and finest are selected. These are stratified in damp sand in the
autumn and the winter, and planted, with the sprout up, in nursery
lines, two to four inches deep, in the spring. At the end of the first
year they are lifted, the top root is cut off, and the trees either
planted out or reset, giving them more room.

Grafting by means of the ordinary cleft graft secures earlier
fruiting arid fruit of a known character.

The composition of chestnuts is starchy rather than oily, con-
taining 43 per cent, of starch, sugar, dextrin, etc., and about 6 per
cent, of oily substance.

Of the European sorts, best known are the Marron de Lyons
and the Marron Gombale, two French varieties. When left in their
spring husks they keep fresher, but they cannot very well be kept
after the spring following the picking.

EARTH NUT, Arachis liypogea.

These annual leguminous plants thrive to great perfection in
Western Australia. In Spain, Algeria, South America, and India
they constitute an important industry. The nuts are graded, sacked,
and sold in large quantities for eating, while an enormous amount
is crushed in mills, where the oil — of which the nut contains over
40 per cent. — is extracted, and the residue compressed and sold for
feeding stock.

The oil, which is largely used for lighting and for soap making,
is imported into Australia in large quantities.

The nuts are first crushed and cold pressed, yielding an almost
colourless oil, of pleasant taste and smell, which is used as an
adulterant of salad oil. The paste is then sprinkled with water
and pressed again, cold, the oil being used mostly for illumination.
The third oil is next extracted from the steamed paste, and is in
great demand for soap making, while the residual cake constitutes
excellent food for stock.

281

The climate best suited for the cultivation of earth nuts is one
free from frost for about five months. The soil should be free and
light, to permit the easy penetration of the flowering organs, which
curve downwards into the ground, where they enlarge and ripen.
A gravelly loam with a retentive clay subsoil suits it well. Lime
or marl, if not naturally present, must be added either with the
fertilisers used or independently ; without lime the nuts will not
develop properly a large proportion being empty shells, called " pops."

Pea Nu t or Earth Nut

282

Several kinds of earth nuts are grown — notably a white and a
red one. They present somewhat the appearance of a large kind of
clover. The white nut has a more spreading habit of growth than
the red, is said to be more prolific, and is later in coming to
maturity ; the red is earlier, and yields fewer imperfect pods or
" pops." The colour of the skin of the kernel differentiates these
two varieties.

The land is prepared by deep ploughing, and the distance
between the rows generally set at 3 feet apart. Selected kernels
are used for seeds. These are slightly cracked, and set along the
rows at intervals of two feet, two together, and covered about an
inch deep. It takes 30 to 501 bs. of earth nuts to plant an acre.
Weeds are kept down and the surface prevented from setting hard.
Cultivation ceases when the flowering organs have penetrated the
soil and when the vines have spread sufficiently to keep down the
weeds.

The crop should be harvested before the first frost. For that
purpose the tap-roots of the plants are cut deeply with the hoe, or,
if the field be large, a plough with the mould board removed and
with a " sword " or long-cutting flange welded to the point is run
down each side of the row. The plough is run deep enough to cut
the tap-root without disturbing the pods. Some dig the plant up
by the aid of a close-pronged fork, and the root portion, with the
pods adhering, is exposed to the sun to dry. When wilted, the earth
is shaken off the roots of the plants, which are loosely stacked
round a pole six or seven feet high, in small stacks which will not
heat. After a few weeks the nuts may be picked off the vines and
stored in a dry and well-aired place, prior to being screened and
sorted for marketing. Where the dry vines are not consumed by
stock they should be returned to the ground.

The green and unripe pods are less oily than the ripe ones,
and more easily digested; they are pleasant eating when roasted.

An average yield is about lOcwt. per acre, or about 50 bushels
weighing 25 to 301bs. according to the plumpness of the kernel.
The wholesale market value runs from 2Jd. to 3d. per Ib.

THE FILBERT AND COB-NUTS (Corylus Avellana).

These nuts are improved varieties of the common hazel nut of
the woods of Europe. These small nuts have not been sufficiently
grown yet in Western Australia to ascertain what measure of success
their cultivation promises. In California, which in so many respects
may be compared to Western Australia, their bearing has
not been satisfactory, except in the cooler and moister situations.
It would seem, therefore, that the localities best suited to the
filbert and cob-nut in this State, would be the moister and
cooler Southern districts. The soil must not be water-logged, but
moist. The plants may be set at distances 10 to 14 feet apart.
Propagation from nuts does not produce reliable varieties, and for
that reason layers made in the spring are preferred, shoots two or
three years old being simply notched with the knife, and pegged

283

into the soil two or three inches. When planted out the year after,
the base buds are removed, as is done in the case of the gooseberry,
so as to get a clean stem. They are not allowed to sucker, but are
grown in the form of low bushes, branching out about two feet from
the ground.

Filbert. Cob.

A distinction is made between the cob and the filbert. The
cob-nuts are rounder, and are not covered ; while the filberts (full
beards) are entirely covered with long husks.

THE WALNUT (Juglans regia).

This nut, incorrectly called " English walnut" and "Madeira
nut"; introduced from Persia. It forms a handsome spreading
tree, bearing crops of large and excellent nuts enclosed in a simple
husk. In the fertile Lower Blackwood and Warren districts of the
South- West, walnuts grow to great perfection, and its more extensive
cultivation deserves in this State more attention than it has
hitherto received. Fine young trees from the Warren nuts are
grown at the Forestry Department State Nursery at Drakes-
brook. The nuts are stratified, and when they begin to germinate
.are planted in nursery rows, where they are generally left for
three years before planting out. There they grow in size while
the roots also attain good development. When planting out, the
tap-root is severed with the spade and the stem cut back to four or
five feet, irrespective of branches. The trees should be planted about
40 feet apart on deep free loam. They begin to bear at the age of
six to eight years, and. continue bearing regular and increasing crops
of nuts for a great number of years after. When planting, soft-
shell, heavy nuts alone should be selected. As the plantation is so
wide apart, and as the land suitable for the walnut trees must be
deep and moist, it is found profitable for the first few years to grow
root and other crops between the rows, or to interplant smaller,
earlier fruiting trees, which, after a period of ten or twelve years,
can be removed to make room for the larger walnuts.

The same tree bears both staminate buds, which develop into
catkins, and pistillate ones, which are terminal, and produce the nuts.
These are gathered from the ground as they drop off the trees, or
the operation may be hastened by jarring the branches lightly.
After gathering, the nuts are exposed to the sun for a few days, until
the husks a.re dry enough to be torn off. The shells may be bleached

284

as are almonds, but this often injures the flavour of the kernel. An
average yield would be 401b. of nuts for a tree 10 years old, and
Icwt. for trees in full bearing.

Some of the best French varieties are : —

BIJOU. — Nuts of very large size ; an early and free bearer ; very
hard shell.

CHABERTE. — Small fruit ; hardy. Chiefly used for extracting oil.

SANTA BARBARA. — A California seedling from a French variety.
Soft shell ; bears early and annually ; not as strong a grower as other
walnuts ; its being so prolific retards its growth.

285

PRCEPARTURIANS (Fig. 1). — As its name implies, an early
bearer ; of dwarf habit.

FRANQUETTE (Fig. 2). — A large elongate nut of excellent
quality. Buds out late.

MAYETTE (Fig. 3). — Round nut, large, full-fleshed ; late in
budding out in the spring, and for that reason suitable for frosty

PARISIENNE (Fig. 4).^Nuts large, a little elongate, even
outline ; excellent quality. Tree blooms late.

SMALL FRUITS.

The cultivation of small fruits as a distinctive feature of horti-
cultural enterprise becomes more prominent every day. As large
holdings are cut up into smaller ones, and as settlement becomes
denser in close proximity to larger centres of population, a desire
is shown by many to utilise to its full capacity small patches
of moist and fertile land. For this purpose, small fruit and berry
culture should command the attention it deserves. A great choice
offers to the grower, as there is hardly a locality where, provided
care and attention be bestowed upon it, some kind of small fruit
bush cannot be grown.

BLACKBERRY (Rubus, Bramble)

Belongs to the same family and genus as the raspberry, it
includes the dewberry, which, however, is not superior to the
blackberry, and also the wineberry, and the Loganberry. The
fruit is a collective mass of drupes attached to a receptacle, which
falls off whole and does not separate as in the raspberry. The
berries are small, ovate, brown or black ; some are yellowish white.

All species of the Bramble family adapt themselves to a great
variety of soils and climate ; some, if overlooked, spread over the
land and become a pest ; cuttings strike root readily. The trailing
kinds require the support of a fence to keep them up, and have been
grown round orchards and paddocks ; they however harbour vermin
and birds. These berries are more suited to the cooler and
moister S.W. districts than to the drier inland ones. Among the
sorts which have done well in Australia are : Himalayas, Wilson's
Early, and Lawton's (New Rochelle).
«
CAPE GOOSEBERRY (Physalis peruviana).

Three species of this genus are cultivated for fruit, known under
the names Alkekenge or Cape G-ooseberry, Husk tomato, Strawberry
tomato, Winter or Ground cherry. The plant is a herb, belonging
to the Solanaceae ; its roots are fibrous and surface feeders ; by deep
manuring deeper root growth is encouraged. The fruit consists in a
berry, of the size of a cherry, enclosed in an enlarged and persistent

286

calyx which forms an envelope. They are sweet and pleasant, and
are considerably used for stewing or for preserves, and also for
eating.

The seeds are sown in the spring in seed beds, like tomatoes,
and then transplanted a month or two after and set 8x6 feet apart.
They are easily propagated from off-shoots in the autumn.

In the autumn cut right back, manure in the early spring,
and fresh growth will come up. Picking is a tedious and costly
process, the price paid being about If d. a lb.,a man pi eking about 401bs.
in one day. This is done when the calyx is seen to dry up ; the
fruit is also often allowed to fall on the ground and then picked up.

THE CURRANT (Ribes),

Like the Gooseberry, belongs to the natural order Grossulacese
and to the genus Ribes, of which two species, viz., JR. nigrum is the
parent of the Black Currant and jR. rubrum that of the Red and of
the White Currant. The currants are indigenous of Northern
Europe.

Low, deciduous shrubs, with smooth stems; leaves variable,
and not unlike a vine leaf in outlines ; more or less lobed ; flowers
small, yellow, crimson or white.

The English name Currant is derived from Corinth on account
of their resemblance with the Zante Grape, which was formerly
almost entirely imported from Corinth.

Propagation by cuttings when the wood is ripe is generally
resorted to. The buds, except the topmost two, which are above the
ground, are cut off before setting in order to check the suckering
habit of the plant. The soil must be heavy rather than light and
sandy, and must also be fertile and well manured, the plant being a
gross feeder.

The white varieties are the mildest flavoured, and, therefore,
better for eating when used fresh from the bush. The red are
preferable for jellies, etc., on account of their beautiful colour ;
many of them possess a musky taste. Currants may be planted
5ft. x 5ft. or 6ft. x 4ft. apart.

BLACK NAPLES. — One of the largest and best black currants ;
has a musky flavour. A vigorous grower, bears profusely after
a few years.

LEE'S PROLIFIC. — Very similar in quality to the Black Naples,
but the plants are more productive.

VERSAILLES. — Dark red, not so acid as the cherry, which it
resembles. Fruit of the largest size. Plant a coarse grower,
productive and excellent for marketing purposes.

WHITE DUTCH. — A. vigorous, upright grower; productive;
very large and sweet berries, yellowish white ; good for dessert.

287

GOOSEBERRIES (Ribes grossularia)

Low, deciduous shrubs, stems mostly thorny at the base of the
leaf-stalks ; in some the thorns are scattered. Fruit : one-celled
berry, produced in small clusters, smooth or prickly.

They are strongly acid fruits that come early in the season, and
in the cooler and high level localities should be grown largely for
family use. In such localities any good soil well cultivated and
manured will grow good crops of gooseberries. They respond well
to liberal applications of potash. In Europe this is one of the
popular berries, and small fruit-growers figure on obtaining greater
profit from the gooseberry crop than from any other shrub fruit.
They require annual pruning, mulching, and some attention.

The bushes may be set in rows 5ft. or 6ft. apart, with a space
of 4ft. between. Gooseberry culture has not, so far, attained the
importance in Australia which is devoted to it in England, mainly
on account of the thorny nature of the bushes. By dint of
persevering attention, however, some varieties of spineless
gooseberries have been obtained and established, the colours of
which range from rose to almost black.

Layering is a sure and quick method of propagating the
gooseberry ; suckers are rejected on account of the tendency to
produce more suckers ; cuttings from well-ripened, vigorous
growths are of all the methods of propagating this bush the method
most generally adopted; all buds and prickles are removed for a few
inches from the lower end.

The best method of harvesting the gooseberry is to pull the
berries from the bushes by stripping with a hard-gloved hand and
blowing off what leaves may have also come off when pulling.

CROWN BOB. — Bush drooping and abunda.nt bearer. Fruit
large and oblong ; skins thin, hairy, bright red, of good flavour,
and a first-rate variety.

LEVELLER. — Bush large, spreading, and luxuriant ; an excellent
bearer. Fruit long and well formed, tapering a little towards the
stalk, with a rather large nose. Skin smooth, dull greenish yellow,
one of the best of yellows.

LORDCREW (green).
ROARING LION (red).
WATERLOO (white).
* Of the thornless variety : —

BELLE DE MEATJX. — Vigorous, with trailing branches ; fruit
medium size, oval, dark red, thin skin, firm flesh.

EDOTJARD LEFORT. — Handsome fruit, glossy, vinous red, oblong,
firm flesh, good packer.

MADAME EDOUARD LEFORT. — Yery distinct variety, prolific,
fruit large, vinous red, firm flesh, very good.

SOUVENIR DE BILLARD. — Vigorous, prolific bearer, skin dark
rose or red ; flesh juicy and firm.

288

EASPBERRY (Eubus sp.).

Perennial shrub with biennial and, in a few species, perennial
woody stems. Seeds collected on a spongy, succulent receptacle,
becoming small drupes. In the raspberry the so-called fruit is a
collective mass of drupes, which readily parts from the dry recep-
tacle when ripe. Several species occur, and amongst others : —

THE EUROPEAN EASPBERRY (Rulus idceus), so called by the
Greeks from Mt. Ida, with woody erect, prickly stems, straight and
slender. Leaves, trifoliate; leaflets ovate, serrated; whitish tomen-
tose beneath, green above ; flowers, white ; fruit, red or yellowish
T/hite ; root perennial, creeping, producing numerous suckers, which
are utilised in their propagations.

THE PERENNIAL WILD EED EASPBERRY (JR. strigosus), to
which belongs the Cuthbert. It is propagated by suckers.

THE BLACK EASPBERRY (E. occidentalis). — Propagated by the
tips of the stems. The planting is done in rows at intervals of four
to six feet, according to the strength of growth of the varieties.

BELLE DE FONTENAY. — Very large, irregular, long-conical, deep
crimson, with a thin bloom ; separates freely from the core ;
moderately firm, rather acid but good. Provides a second crop in
autumn. It suckers freely; most of these should be removed as
soon as they appear to insure a good crop of fruit.

CUTHBERT. — Almost exclusively grows in Southern California,
having been found trustworthy as a grower and a free and constant
bearer. Canes strong, vigorous, upright, sometimes branching;
spine short, stout, purplish, rather numerous ; it suckers freely, too
much so for the benefit of the plant and fruit. Fruit medium to
large, scarlet crimson, roundish, obtuse, conical; grains rather small,
compact, separates freely from the stalk, and does not crumble when
picking ; flesh quite firm, juicy, sweet, sprightly. Ships well.

FILLBASKET (syn. Northumberland Fillbasket). — Large ;
obtuse, conical ; crimson ; grains large, with thin bloom ; firm,
sweet; not very juicy, but good; canes strong, with purplish spines;
leaves large, thick, not so deep green as some ; very productive.
One of the best of all raspberries for all purposes.

FRANCONIA. — A first class red raspberry. Large ; obtuse,
conical, dark purplish-red or crimson ; firm, with a rich, sprightly
flavour ; canes strong, branching ; spines purple, stout, scattering ;
leaves large, deep green, rather flat when fully developed ; about
two weeks earlier than Northumberland Fillbasket.

NEW EOCHELLE. — Also much grown in Southern California.
Plant hardy, upright, stocky grower, short jointed and much
branched, spines rather numerous, short, stiff, green and light red ;
very productive, firm, and bears carriage well, but lacks the bright
colour so attractive to the popular taste ; propagated by tips. Fruit
medium to large, roundish, brownish-red or dark maroon, with a
slight bloom, valuable for canning and all culinary purposes, as
well as for the table. Very early.

289

THE STRAWBERRY (Fragaria).

CLASSIFICATION OF THE STRAWBERRY. — The modern cultivated
strawberries are derived from four prototypes, two of European
and two of American sources. Those improved varieties are, how-
ever, widely different from their originators, but they, nevertheless,
retain certain characteristics which are essentially their own. By
means of hybridisation or pollenation, many of the choicest berries
have issued, and which combine some of the most prominent features
it is sought to develop.

FRAGARIA VESCA.— Alpine or Wild Wood
Strawberry, of which the " Queen of Four
Seasons" is one of the most prolific and best.
Seeds superficial, on the conical or hemis-
pherical fruiting receptacle (not sunk in a
cavity.) Flower stalks longer than the leaves,
erect, hairy, hairs closely pressed upward.
Fruit drooping, conical or globular. Leaves
thin, pale green, upper surface uneven.
Slightly wavy, unlike those larger straw-
berries ; the result of artificial cultivation.
Easily propagated from seeds ; very hardy ;
"bearing season protracted. One section of
this species is the Bush Alpine or Green
Strawberry (F. collina), whose only distinct
Queseenas°onFs?Ur character 'is in its fruit, which is greenish

brown when ripe.

FRAGARIA ELATIOR.— Hautbois strawberry, a native of Central
Europe. Larger, more erect, and are of longer appearance than the
Alpine, often shy bearers, and amongst other peculiarities, possess a
distinct musky flavour. " Belle Bordelaise" is one of this type.
Calyx reflexed, seeds superficial. Flower stalks longer than the
leaves, erect. Fruit round or oblate, usually drooping, but some-
times erect, possessing a musky flavour. Hairs on both leaf and
flowers. Stalks long, widely spreading, somewhat reflexed. Leaves
larger than F. vesca and more or less hairy, giving them a rough
appearance.

FRAGARIA VIRGINTANA. — The Virginian strawberry, and the
parent of the greater number of the improved strawberries in
cultivation. Seeds imbedded in the deeply-pitted receptacle. Fruit
roundish, ovoid to conical, highly perfumed. Flower stalk shorter
than the leaves, hairy. Hairs spreading, more or less erect. Leaves
obovate, wedge form, variable, coarsely serrate, usually dark green ;
upper surface smooth, often shining.

FRAGARIA CHILENSIS OR GRANDIFLORA. — The Chilian straw-
berry, also a native of America, from Oregon to Chili. Calyx erect,
slightly spreading, seeds set in a shallow depression. Flowers
larger than in other species. Fruit sweet, perfumed, firm. Flower
stalks shorter than the leaves. When first introduced it did not
find favour, as the blossoms are not self -fertile. This defect has
been got over by crossing with the Virginian strawberry.

290

BOTANICAL STRUCTURE. — The strawberry is described as a
genus of perennial herb, belonging to the general order Rosacese.
It has trifoliate leaves, flat or reflexed, creeping stolons or runners,
flowers white or yellow. The petals of the flowers are disposed
around the more or less enlarged receptacle of the flower stalk.
The strawberry is not a fruit in the true sense of the word, but an
exaggerated fleshy receptacle of the flower stalk, in which are
embedded a number of small hard seed-like bodies, which are the
true fruits. As the swollen fleshy receptacles grow in size and
mature they become coloured, juicy, and flavoured. In a strictly
botanical sense, therefore, the strawberries are neither berries nor
fruit any more than turnips or potatoes are roots.

Naturally the strawberry flower possesses stamens or male
organs and pistils or female organs. It is, therefore, perfect, as both
these organs are necessary for the production of fruit. This is so
in the wild state. Under the influence of cultivation, however, or
when transplanted amid surroundings which are foreign to its
primitive habitat, the strawberry, like a great many other plants,
may become subject to structural alterations which deeply modify
its sexuality.

The figures show two types of flowers : the " bi-sexual " or
self -fertile flowers and the " pistillate" or imperfect flower.

Both possess petals ; in the perfect or bi-sexual blossom, and
around the convex core which, when developed, constitutes the
strawberrv are two sets of organs, viz. : the
female organs or pistils (p) in the centre, and
around them the male organs or stamens (s).
In perfect blossoms, these stamens are equal in
length, or longer than the pistils, and they are
then able, when the anthers or seed- sacs which
surmount each of them, are ready to burst,
to shed the grains of pollen on the stigma or
receptive end of the pistil, a tubular organ
down which they travel to the ovaiy, where
pollenation or impregnation takes place.

The imperfect flowers on the other hand, or " Pistillate," only
possess the female organ (p), the stamens being either absent or
diminutive in size, or else reflexed. Such flower, to produce fruit,
must be fertilised by a flower possessing stamens. It follows in
practice that whenever pistillate varieties are
planted, it is necessary to intermix with them
bi-sexual or hermaphrodite varieties.

Such intermarriage must be made with dis-
cernment, and it is imperative that the sorts to be
mated should blossom concurrently, that is to say,
an early and a late blossoming variety, however
desirable in every other respect, should not be
planted closely adjacent ; the period of blossom-

Bi-sexual.

Pistillate.

291

ing of the polleniser or perfect flowering plant should, moreover, be
more protracted than that of the " pistillate," so as to fertilise all
the blossoms throughout the blossoming period.

It is convenient in that case that the sorts brought together,
instead of being intermixed haphazard, should be planted in alter-
nate rows. It is generally considered that one row of perfect or
bi-sexual strawberries is sufficient to three rows of "pistillate."
The pollen in that case is conveyed from blossom to blossom by the
agency of wind, insects, and notably bees, which in every well con-
ducted strawberry garden should receive every care and attention.

Although it is recommended that the amateur should do well
to entirely avoid pistillates, the commercial grower, on the other
hand, will find them as a rule, under proper treatment, more
prolific, hardier, and better packers than the majority of straw-
berries : ex Haverland.

Nor are all imperfect strawberries exclusively pistillated ;
amongst them, and especially in the Hautbois and the Chilian
strawberries, male organs only are found
on separate plants, as well as female
organs on others, and the former are
strictly " staminate." Either of the two
if left alone would be barren. Occa-
sionally even these species produce
perfect flowers, and it is'by propagating
such plants by runners that self-prolific
stock have been raised. When the
Chilian strawberries were first intro-
duced into Europe, they found little or
no favour, all the plants introduced
being found to possess female organs
only, and it was only after their cultural
peculiarities became better known that
they were reinstated and attained to the
exhalted position they now occupy in the
estimation of professional growers. Haverland.

Another peculiarity with regard to fsome of these varieties is
that the male plants are generally more numerous in runners than
the female, and grow to vigorous, healthy plants, which tempt the
growers ; their selection will, however, only lead to so many barren
plants being planted.

The conclusion growers should draw from these notes is that
although pistillate sorts are highly profitable, they should not be
planted alone, but other sorts with perfect flowering organs should
be planted amongst them.

Propagation. — Strawberries are propagated from seeds, runners,
and divisions of the roots. Propagation by seeds is only resorted
to for raising new varieties or crosses. The seeds may either be
washed out of the pulp crushed in water, or it may be preserved in
the dried pulp. They may be sown immediately or kept till next

292

spring. Germination takes place in a month or six weeks ; the
young plants are transplanted into rows 2 feet apart, and all
runners are kept off the first season. The second or third season,
when the seedlings bloom, they are carefully looked over and the
pistillate and the perfect plants are separated and replant-ed apart,
so that the runners may take root without intermingling with
others. The plants are shaded for a few days after removal to prevent
wilting. When fruiting, weed out all strawberries which do not'
come up to a high standard of excellence. Varieties may then be
produced which will be better adapted to local conditions.

Runners are the most common way of propagating strawberries.
To ensure their rooting, the surface of the soil should be kept loose
and open. Root division is seldom employed except with the Bush
Alpine Strawberries, which produce few or no runners. In the
early spring take up the stools and divide them, leaving only one
crown to the plant. If the old root is very long, cut off the lower end.

Soil and Location. — Strawberries adapt themselves to a wide
range of soil and location. To reach the top notch of perfection,
however, the peculiarities of the several sorts have to be studied
and satisfied. Too much sand or too much clay should be avoided.
Like the other small fruits, the strawberry needs a rich, well -drained,
and moist soil. In Western Australia the soil which, as yet, has
been found best adapted to the cultivation of the greater number of
varieties is the soil which, as on the slopes of the Darling Ranges
and the undulating country of the lower plain below, supports in its
natural state spear wood thickets and red gum with bracken.
Such a soil consists of a deep light loam, warm in colour, well
drained and generally moist, overlying a stiff er subsoil at a depth
of 18 to 24 inches ; of the various species of strawberries the
wild wood strawberry (F. vesca) and the Hautbois (F. elatior) do
well on light sandy loams. Calcareous soil of a drier nature suits
the Bush Alpine (F. collina), a section of F. vesca. A rich clayey
loam, moist, but well drained, is better suited to F. virginiana, and
most of the large fruit strawberries. A stiff heavy clay and soil
that is liable to become very dry in a short period is unsuitable,
and should be avoided ; on such soils once the growth of the plants
is checked the crop likewise suffers and is never again a
remunerative cne.

As a rule, even the same sorts are influenced by variations in
the soil and locations. Thus, all things being equal, a strawberry
will ripen earlier on a warm sunny slope in light loam than on
heavier and moister flats, where on the other hand, the crop, if
later, is generally a heavier one. The practical deduction to be
drawn from these facts is that the experienced growers are careful,
in order to lengthen the season, to place early sorts on a warm
sunny slope, on light loam, and the later sorts on heavy moist flats.
Some varieties besides, which show a healthy growth on high,
well-drained ground and slopes, are badly affected by leaf blight
when struck in damp hollow ground, and conversely, by moving
some of the choicer and more delicate varieties, too blighted to be

293

profitable, from low, damp ground up to more healthy locations,
they speedily become more fruitful and more resistant to blight.

Preparing the Soil. — Although the land need not be virgin
land, it is essential that the plot should be new ; that is to say, that
it should not have been under strawberry culture before, or for
many years previously. Strawberries, indeed, are gross feeders,
and abstract from the ground large quantities of fertilising elements,
the depletion of which makes the ground unsuitable for that crop
after a period of a few years. Old ground, besides, gets foul with
parasitic insects and fungi, which prey on the crop. The simplest
way of getting rid of such pests is by a system of starvation, which
is attained by refraining to plant strawberry after strawberry on
the same ground. The ground should be prepared in the spring
and laid fallow for the summer preceding planting. If only a small
plot, it can be broken up with the spade or the fork to a depth of
12 to 15 inches. If a larger field, two ploughs, one following in
the wake of the other with its mould board taken oif, should be
made to break up the land to a depth of at least 14 inches.

Several harrowings following this deep ploughing reduce the
ground to a state of fine tilth, sweetening it by favouring the
atmospheric action upon its mass. This clean cultivation also
frees the ground of a great many troublesome weeds and of such
destructive underground insects as the wire worms, the white grubs
of the cockchafer, and other insects that cause injury to the root
system of the plant. Besides, the deeper the ground is worked up
the better able it will be to absorb and retain moisture, and the
greater mass will there be through which the roots will penetrate
in search of food and moisture.

When the time of planting comes — about the end of March —
the requisite manure is spread over the ground, which is ploughed
again to a depth of 6 to 8 inches, and gathered into lands, narrow
if the spot is wet, broader if dry ; it is then harrowed, and if still
lumpy, lightly rolled down.

Manuring. — The strawberry is a gross feeder, and the more
liberal the grower is in feeding it, the more prolific it proves itself
to be. The crop is, moreover, a perennial one, that is to say, when
establishing a strawberry bed we must store, at the same time, into
the ground a stock of fertilisers which will supply all the require-
ments of the plants for at least three seasons. Nor must the food
be stinted to them, but it should be given in plenty and under an
easily assimilable form.

These fertilisers should not be buried too deep either, as the
strawberry feeds in 15 to 18 inches of soil. After the deep fallow-
ing, but before the light ploughing which precedes planting out,
the manure is placed on the ground.

If well-rotted stable manure is procurable, nothing is better ;
manure which is not tainted by sawdust litter, and which is procured
from stables where the animals are well fed, is the best. Thirty loads
to the acre is by no means an excessive dressing ; and as the compo-

294

fiition of that manure varies according to the class of animals kept,
their food, and the way it is secured, it is always advisable to
supplement its richness by a further dressing of such chemical
fertilisers as kainit or muriate of potash, and of superphosphate of
lime, in the proportions of 3 cwt. of kainit or 1 cwt. of muriate of
potash, and 2 cwt. of superphosphate. The stable manure is
evenly scattered first, and the chemical fertilisers broadcasted after-
wards, and the land ploughed to a depth of 6 to 7 inches.

The main objection of stable manure, however, is that it
generally conveys seeds of troublesome weeds ; its haulage is, more-
over, costly, and it is not, besides, always possible to get it in
sufficient quantity. For these reasons some growers prefer chemical
fertilisers at the rate of either, for fairly good land, 5cwts. to 7cwts.
Thomas' phosphate or superphosphate and same quantity kainit (or
one-third the amount of muriate of potash, containing 50 per cent,
of potash). For poor, hungry land, Scwts. to lOcwts. Thomas'
phosphate or super and kainit. The mixture is prepared on a floor,
or a tarpaulin, by first sifting through a wire screen with Jin.
meshes, and mixing thoroughly with shovels. One-half of this
amount applied broadcast is used when giving the last working to
land before planting, and the other half sown between the rows
during the first season. Just before planting a light dressing of
fcwt. of sulphate of ammonia or of nitrate of soda is given along
the rows, and also early the second spring, just as the plants are
moving from their dormant state, another similar application will
stimulate a vigorous growth and an abundant setting. Should an
abundance of unleashed wood ashes be procurable it would form an
ideal fertiliser, as it contains both potash and phosphate. A dress-
ing of 60 to 80 bushels to the acre broadcasted would be a liberal
one.

Transplanting. — After thorough cultivation and manuring, the
land should be made smooth by rolling, which also consolidates it,

The time for transplanting having arrived, the plants should be
got together. In our climate April will be found a good time ;
a small crop may then be expected in the spring. Strawberry
plants will strike at any time, provided the ground is moist and
warm, but autumn planting is found more profitable. If not planted
till the spring, all the fruit buds should be removed as they appear,
otherwise the plants become feeble and die. Should a large plot
be planted, it is advisable to commence with the early sorts and
proceed with the latter varieties.

The lines for horse cultivation should be at intervals of 3ft. or
4ft. ; for hand cultivation 2ft. will be found enough. In either case
the distance along the rows should be from 12in. to 18in. ; this the
grower will regulate as he becomes familiar with the habits of
growth of the varieties he plants. For horse cultivation the lines
must not only be well stretched, but the plants should all be set on
the same side of the line, so that as the implements run along the
rows the soil is stirred at an even distance from the plants ail along
the drill

295

The following are the number of plants to the acre at the
distances mentioned : —

2ft. x 1ft 21,780

2ft. x 1ft. Gin. ... 14,520

2ft. x 2ft.
3ft. x 1ft.

10,900
14,520

3ft. x 1ft. 6in.
4ft, x 1ft. ...
4ft. x 1ft. Sin.
4ft. x 1ft. 6in.

9,658
10,900
8,712
7,260

It is often the practice, however, to plant strawberries amongst the
trees in young orchards, and in that case ample room should be left
between the row nearest to the trees and the trees themselves — 4ft.
to 5ft. at least ; this would reduce the number of strawberry plants
to the acre very considerably. G-rowing strawberries in a young
orchard, under such conditions must be, if the plantation has been well
looked after, beneficial to the trees, as the ground is, after two
or three years, left in a high state of fertility and tilth, which cannot
but be conducive to the growth of the trees.

If the beginner has not raised his plants himself, he should
procure them from a careful grower, and he should be particularly
careful that the parent plants are strong, fruitful, free from leaf
blight and other pests ; plants affected by disease are dear at a gift..
The rooted runners of the previous year's growth having been lifted
and bunched up in convenient handfuls, it is important that their
roots are not exposed to the desiccating action of the sun and wind.
Some place them over the moist earth with a wet bag thrown over
them ; others, after trimming off the dead leaves and young runners
and shortening the roots one -third, place
them in buckets with an inch or so of water ;
they will then keep for a day or two. A
little quantity of lime or wood ashes in the
water would kill any possible slugs which
might have secreted themselves amongst the
roots of the young plants, and when planting
a garden free from such pests every care
should be taken against its introduction by
TOO Shallow. means of plants, manures, or packages.

This planting is done either by means of special tools or almost
as readily by using either a spade or a spading fork, but whatever
the method of setting is followed, it is important that the plants be-
set at the correct depth ; that is to say, not
too shallow nor too deep, as in the one case
they would perish from desiccation, and in
the other through suffocation in the earth ;
the right way of setting the young plants
is with the crown level with the ground,
the roots spread out, and never stuck in
gathered up in a bunch ; in any case, the
earth should be well set and pressed firmly
around the roots. Plants of even strength
alone should be planted together, or else
the fruit crops, which generally sets in the
second year after planting, is otherwise
uneven.

Correctly Set.

296

The illustrations from Bulletin No. 32 of the Georgia Experi-
ment Station show clearly how to do and how not to do the planting.
If the weather be too dry at the time of
planting it is better to suspend this work
until the ground is in a better condition.
Small plots, however, may be planted even
then, provided this is done in the evening
when the sun is low, and one pint or so of
water is given to each plant. The next day
break the crust to check evaporation, and if
the weather continues dry, water two or
three times the first week, then once a week

Too deep.

Cultivation. — Careful cultivation, following up careful selection
of plants, set into equally carefully prepared soil, is the third
element of success of a strawberry plantation. If possible, do not
let a single weed go to seed the first season, and the result will be
apparent on the crop the following year.

Hoeing should be done whenever a crust forms, a week or two
after planting; where horse cultivation is used the hoe should be
set shallow — a Planet Junior is excellent for that work— while for
a hand hoe, a thin steel tool with both narrow and wide blades, is
very convenient — so as not to disturb the young roots. Air and
moisture thus freely penetrate the ground, and weeds will be
checked. Hand hoeing alone should, however, be used on the
ground around the plants. About that time — the second or third
hoeing — a slight dressing of sulphate of ammonia or of nitrate of
soda, j of a cwt. or a little more, is used with advantage along the
rows ; this dressing will greatly stimulate the growth of the bushes,
which will then begin to show their energy by throwing out runners ;
these should be treated as weeds the first one or two hoeings, so as
to get the plant well established before making any new plants.
Cultivation should almost cease from blooming time until fruit is
harvested. Weeds and grass gain a foothold during that time; the
larger weeds are pulled up by the roots, the ground also sets hard
under the tread of the pickers and from that cause, as well as from
the gradual exhaustion of the soil by continuous cropping and also
owing to the spread of pests and parasites, a plot ceases to be very
profitable after three or four years. After the season's growth and
at the approach of the wet weather in winter, the last working is
given to the land ; growers in moist localities set their Planet Jr.
behind with left and right mould boards, which gather the soil from
the plants and make a ridge in the centre, leaving the plants
standing in rows of uiiploughed ground 9 or 10 inches wide. This
allows the water to run off, and, later on, when the ground is worked
afresh, these ridges are levelled down by the implements, and the
soil is made smooth and mellow.

Mulching. — Two or three months after autumn's planting, and
before blossoming, it is advisable to coat the ground with some sort
of mulching two inches thick. Clean straw or grass, rushes, pine

297

needles, or some other such like material may be used for the
purpose. Stable manure, owing to the ammonia it gives off, and
which rots the berries, or makes them too soft and tender to travel,
is not to be recommended ; it also conveys weeds and many insect
enemies. Nor is tan from tanneries, which favours the growth of
moulds in the ground, desirable material, as these moulds smother
and destroy the roots. Mulching, besides answering the purpose of
keeping the fruit free from grit and dirt, thereby adding to its market-
able value, also chokes weeds, maintains the surface of the ground
moist and porous, and adds a large amount of vegetable matter to
the soil when ploughed in. In horse cultivation, and where the
rows are well apart, it is better to mulch around the plants, leaving
the centre of the rows bare, which enables cultivation to proceed
whenever required. Any mulch that packs closely will do more
harm than good.

Pruning. — The pruning of strawberry plants is of the simplest.
First, when planting, as previously mentioned, all dead and
withered leaves are excised and the roots shortened to one-third of
their length ; then, at the time of the first two hoeings, all runners
are pulled off and all blossoms from autumn-planted strawberries
picked until the spring, while it is advisable to pick them all
through the first season from strawberries planted in the spring.
The necessity of cutting the first runners off is obvious, as, unless
this is done, the plants will be weakened and will not bear such a
heavy crop of berries. Advantage is thus taken of turning the
energies of the plant, always bent on reproducing itself, in two
directions, from throwing runners and making new plants into
producing fruit-buds in abundance, which eventually will mature
into a profitable crop. Once the plantation is well established,
runners are only permitted in such cases as are required for propa-
gating purposes.

Irrigation and Drainage. — Although it is admitted by all
experienced growers that irrigation lengthens the strawberry season,
and that a command of water in a dry spring is of great value and
often turns into a bountiful crop one which would otherwise have
been hopelessly shortened at a critical period of its growth, yet it is
also recognised that irrigation presents serious objections.

It is generally costly when undertaken on a large scale ; it
makes the ground boggy at the time when cultivation and picking
should be actively pursued, it causes a considerable amount of decay
of the berries. G-ood strawberry land, well cultivated, should not,
if the plants be mulched, need irrigation.

Deep underground drainage, likewise, with the object of
turning unsuitable ground into soil fit for strawberry culture,
generally involves growers in an expenditure of time and money
which is seldom compensated by an adequate increase of crop.
Better not attempt growing strawberries on dry, stiff, or marshy
ground than to attempt to remedy its natural defects by methods
involving any considerable cost.

298

POINTS OF A GOOD STRAWBERRY. — Mr. F. L. Jansen, in a
comprehensive paper on the strawberry, published in the Agri-
cultural Gazette of the Department of Agriculture, 1ST.S.W., thus
summarises the desiderata of a good strawberry : — " The qualities
essential to a first-class variety are : fruit large, of a regular, firm,
and nearly uniform size, to the end of the season ; texture fine,
flesh rich and firm, with a moderate amount of acid, and with an
aromatic flavour. A longitudinal cut should show no hollow space ;
the seeds should be deeply embedded, and the calyx set high, so as
to be easily detached. The plant should be hardy, vigorous, and
strong, with perfect flowers, i.e., self-fertilising, a prolific bearer,
with stalks of sufficient length to keep the fruit out of the dirt."

A FEW PROFITABLE STRAWBERRIES. — The number of varieties
of strawberries which, at one time or another, have found favour
with growers, is now very considerable. Most of. them have some
special points of merit which make it more or less desirable under
the particular prevailing conditions. Tt is only, however, by
experimentation, by selection, and by observation of what others
are doing elsewhere, under conditions somewhat similar to our own,
that we are mainly guided in deciding upon what varieties to grow.
The strawberries described in this paper have either proved
themselves profitable with us, or are highly recommended by
successful growers.

WOOD OR ALPINE STRAWBERRIES.

QUEEN OF FOUR SEASONS. — Illustrated above. Very early,
fruit oblong, dark red, highly perfumed, and most prolific ; one of
the best of this class, can be propagated from seeds ; being a
smaller kind, a distance of IS inches between the rows is sufficient,
where horse cultivation is not resorted to. Under high culture,
will produce a second crop in the autumn. This berry is illustrated
on p. 289.

HAUTBOIS STRAWBERRIES.

BELLE BORDELAISE. — Fruit large, roundish oval, dark purple,
flesh firm, white, sweet, and musky flavoured, ripens mid-season,
plants very vigorous and productive, answers to forcing.

PROLIFIC OR MUSK HAUTBOIS. — Very productive, fruit large,
dark purple, flesh firm, sweet, musky flavoured, plants strong and
productive.

CHILIAN STRAWBERRIES.

WILMOT'S SUPERB. — One of the few of this class now culti-
vated. Fruit large, showy, roundish or cockscomb shaped, of a
deep pink .colour, flesh firm, hollow cored, fairly good flavour,
ripens mid-season, plants strong and fair bearers.

WHITE CHILIAN (Yellow Chilian). — Large, showy, roundish
fruit, yellowish-white, with a pink tint on the sunny side, flesh
firm, and sweet, packs and carries well, plant hardy, strong, and
fairly productive.

299

The Chilian and Virginian Strawberries have got intermingled
to such an extent that there are now but very few pure varieties,
and most of those described below are the result of the cross
fertilisation of either of these.

HYBRIDS.

ARTHUR. — A splendid strawberry, a second edition of Mar-
guerite, being quite as large, but rather better coloured and much
firmer. Reported to burn badly in Queensland.

ATJRIE. — A Queensland straw-
berry grown by Mr. A. Court,
at Mooloolah, and valuable for its
extreme earliness, great produc-
tiveness, and robustness. It is
said to come in some two months
earlier than the Marguerite
Hautbois or any other straw-
berry. The first fruit are picked
early in June, and the crop sent
down to Sydney has sold at first
up to 6s. and 7s. a quart.

The fruit is large, uneven,
red in colour, glossy ; the foliage
healthy ; roots, long and abund-
ant, peiietrale the soil deeply,
and withstand drought well.

BRANDYWINE (H.). — Plant vigorous ; medium sized, dark green
leaf ; burns somewhat in very dry weather ; rather low habit.
Berry enormous, conical, regular, deep crimson ; ripens evenly ; flesh
firm ; quality good, though somewhat acid. An extremely hand-
some berry, very productive.

Aurie.

Brandy wine.

Captain.

300

CAPTAIN. — Early; fruit large, conical, inclining to cocks-
comb ; colour bright red, glossy ; flesh firm, good flavour. . Carries
well.

EDITH (Edith Christy). — Very early, and one of the most
popular strawberries for early market. An Australian seedling.
Fruit large, elongated, conical, bright crimson ;
flesh rather tender, white, tinged with salmon
colour ; pleasant sub-acid flavour. Plant
strong, very hardy, and a heavy bearer.
Adapts itself readily to a great variety of soils
and climate.

HAVERLAND (H.P.). — This variety has a
few stamens, but is practically pistillate. Amer-
ican origin, and, perhaps, more extensively
commended than any other variety. Growth
not so luxuriant as some others ; in Georgia,
reported to burn in dry weather. Leaf
medium sized, dark green, with long stems but
recumbent habit; sets very few runners, hence
adapted to hill culture. Berry very large,
long, conical, with yellow, sunken seeds,

attractive, and sells well; quality fair; productive, and an excellent
late market berry with Parker Earle for a mate. This berry is
illustrated on page 291.

HOFFMAN (H.). — A Southern
States berry, growth vigorous, resists
drought well, setting abundant run-
ners; leaf medium in size and colour;
habit medium. Berry medium, long,
conical, deep scarlet, ripens evenly ;
quality sprightly, but rather acid.
Productive early in season, and par-
ticularly valuable on the coast, «or on
sandv land.

MT. VERNON(H.). — A strong ex-
cellent, vigorous grower, with large
long-stemmed dark leaves, resisting
dry weather to perfection, and setting
an abundance of runners. A perfect
type so far as growth is concerned.
.Fruit medium, rounded, and abrupt
conical, a beautiful scarlet, and evenly
coloured ; quality very good, but berry

rather soft. Moderately productive, but an excellent pollenator for
late blooming pistillates.

301

1

Mai'guevite.

MARGUERITE. — Very early and
popular variety well tested in Aus-
tralia; fruit large, elongated conical, or
cockscomb shape, bright red, shining;
flesh white, tinged with pink ; core
hollow, lacking a high flavour; seeds
rather deeply sunk. Plant robust, very
prolific and bears for a long time ; a
better carrier than Edith.

MIKADO. — Mr. W. J. Palmer, Mo-
mohaki Horticultural Station, North
Island, N.Z. : Without exception the
best strawberry I have ever met, both
for cropping and flavour. The foliage
is healthy and free from disease. This
is a New Zealand raised seedling.

Noble.

NOBLE. — A valuable early
English variety. Plant hard}r, with
large leaves, prolific ; fruit large,
roundish conical, dark glossy red ;
flesh firm, solid, dark salmon colour ;
ripens early to in id- season, at the
same time as Paxton. Carries well.

PARKER EARLE (H.). — A tall,
vigorous grower, but burns badly,
making, however, a good recovery ;
sets practically no runners, and
hence only adapted to hill culture ;
leaf medium in size, and green in
colour. Berry medium, with dis-
tinct neck, long, bright crimson,
with a pronounced, rather unpleas-
ant, flavour ; ripens evenly. Productive and valuable both as a late
shipper and pollenator. Requires much moisture to perfect its
crop, and does best on heavy soils.

PINK'S PROLIFIC (H.). — A splendid late strawberry, does very
well in Queensland on low, rich scrub land, being quite free from
leaf blight.

SHARPLESS (H.). — A vigorous and
healthy, but straggling grower, standing
drought well and setting a sufficiency of
runners ; leaf large, rather deep green, and
fruit very large, irregular, and misshapen,
many possessing the "cockscomb" form
so characteristic of this variety as to be
generally termed the " Sharpless shape."
Yet the berries are very handsome, bright/^
scarlet, flesh pink, firm, sweet and good,
but with little individuality of flavour;
ripens unevenly and inclined to green tips.

Sliarpless.

302

Fairly productive, will never be discarded as a home berry though
not so well adapted to market purposes. Does well in heavy soil.

SIR JOSEPH PAXTON. — Early to medium, excellent, of English
origin. Colour dark glossy red. Flesh pale red, firm, and highly
flavoured. Plant strong and productive, will not suit every district,
but when it will succeed it is useful for all purposes, does well in a
light soil ; a good carrier.

Sir J. Paxton.
(Two-thirds size.)

Trollope's Victoria.
(Half size.)

TROLLOPE'S VICTORIA. — An excellent English variety, and very
popular in Australia. Fruit large, roundish, even outlines ; deep
bright red. Flesh pale red, tender, juicy. Plants vigorous and
prolific ; like Edith and Marguerite, adapts itself to varied con-
ditions but requires heavy loam to attain perfection, ripens after
these two varieties.

PASSION FRUITS (Passiflora).

The family of the Passion vine is largely represented in various
parts of the world. The most commonly grown species for the sake
of their fruit are the common Passion fruit, Passiflora edulis and
the Granadilla P. quadrangularis. The name of the genus is
derived from a fancied resemblance of the floral organs to the cross
and other emblems of the Saviour's crucifixion.

All the Passion vines are rapid growers, and for that reason
great exhausters of the soil, which should be liberally manured.
The common Passion fruit vine does well in almost any soil, but
better in deep, moist, rich loam, where it bears most abundantly for
a number of years. The seeds are hard, and do not germinate very
readily ; they may be sown in beds like tomatoes, and when the
plants are strong enough they are planted oat and trained on
trellises. They may be profitably grown on trellises like grape
vines. For that purpose four or five wire trellises, about 5ft. high,
are erected at distances 10ft. apart, the Passion vines being also
planted 10ft. in the rows. Unless the situation is well sheltered
from the wind, the young plants do best when protected by a wind-
break, made of a strip of hessian or bagging fastened to three
stakes, driven in a triangle, round the vines. As the young plant
grows, the young shoots are tied to the wires until the vine is well
established.

303

The flowers are produced upon the wood of the current year.
The old wood is best pruned off every few years, so as to encourage
fresh growth.

The fruit of the common Passion fruit, which is egg-shaped, is
picked when it turns chocolate colour. It contains a watery pulp
of a pleasing aromatic flavour, and with a delicate acid taste ; it
carries well. The best and most abundant crops of fruit are
produced from the second to the fourth year. On poor soil the
vines remain productive for a few years only, while on good soils, or
those that have been liberally manured and are fresh and moist,
good crops are produced for nine to ten years.

TEOPICAL FKUITS.

Of the several Australian States, two — Queensland and Western
Australia — possess natural conditions which permit of the profitable
cultivation of tropical crops and fruit. It is true that South
Australia also owns a Territory in the tropics, but its distance from
the populous markets of the more temperate latitudes will always
prove a formidable obstacle in the way of providing the southern
markets with productions of tropical latitudes. The cultivation of
the sugar cane has already proved highly remunerative in
Queensland, and other crops as well await development at the
hands of settlers in the warmer latitudes of both States.

Coffee, cocoa, cotton, and tea also grow with great luxuriance,
but at present would prove risky ventures, on account of the lack
of suitable labour to exploit them.

Tropical fruits stand differently. To the increasing number
of settlers on the sea board of tropical Western Australia they would
prove a blessing and a luxury, whereas the population at the South
could absorb large quantities of such of the delicious tropical fruits
which are capable of being raised at the Nor'-West and the
North. Among such crops are: —

ALLIGATOR or AVOCADO PEAR (Persea gratissima) .

Is a native of Mexico and Brazil, whence it was introduced
into the West Indies. The tree, which has somewhat the appear-
ance of the apple tree, is a fine spreading evergreen, with leaves
large, oblong, and smooth, and of a bright green colour. The tree
bears towards the extremity of the branches, the fruit being in
appearance not unlike large pears. They weigh up to 21bs. each.
They consist of a single large rugged seed wrapped up in a
membranous cover, inside a firm buttery flesh of a bright greenish
yellow colour, which contains about eight per cent, of greenish oil.
The skin, which changes from bright green to yellow green, is tough
and leathery, and when the fruit is ripe can be peeled clean off the
pulp, to which it firmly adheres until then. Very unpalatable
when green, it is deliciously melting, with a delicate fresh walnut
flavour, when ripe. In the tropics it is also sometimes eaten with
pepper and salt or with sugar and kirsh.

304

The Avocado Pear thrives as well beyond the tropics, and should
be an acquisition to the orchards from Sharks Bay northward. It is
easily grown from seeds or from young cuttings. It requires moist
soil, and is unsuited for droughty localities. When marketing it
should be picked before it becomes soft, and should be carefully
packed, when it ripens in a week or 10 days after gathering.

BANANA and PLANTAIN (Musa sp.)

Hitherto Western Australia has been drawing supplies of this
fruit from Fiji and Queensland. On account of the protracted time
required in shipping them, from the extreme East to the West coast
of Australia, the fruit we receive is of very indifferent quality. It
has to be picked before it is fully developed and when quite green,
and it therefore ripens in an artificial manner in the crates used by
the shippers. During the year 1902 over 17,000 crates of bananas
were imported, mostly from Queensland and from Fiji. These, at
an average value of 20s. to 24s., represent for our then population
of 212,000 people a considerable sum for this article of food alone.
Bananas are introduced in our market during the winter and spring
months when all fruits are scarce, and there is no reason to doubt
that considerably larger quantities would readily be consumed if
better fruit grown nearer our own market was obtainable, more
especially if sold at a lower price.

The Banana may be said to be one of the most useful produc-
tions of the vegetable world. Its fruit, either in the green or the
ripe state, is highly nutritious ; its stem yields a valuable fibre, and
it affords, in tropical climates, a protecting shade as well also as
material for thatching, mats and baskets, and an endless variety of
articles of everyday use.

Bananas are great exhausters of the soil. They require rich,
moist soil. As the eating varieties do not seed, nature provides them
with numerous suckers. In some places these suckers are grown at
intervals of about 12ft. to 15ft. in trenches 1ft. or more deep and
about 3ft. wide. Every now and again a good dressing of cow-dung
and a copious watering is given, and for that purpose the trench
system is very suitable. Where the soil is naturally very rich and
moist the trenches are dispensed with. Three or four stems are
left to each clump, and all the other suckers are cut off with a sharp
spade and either removed for planting or left to rot on the ground,
together with the chopped up stems which have just fruited. This
form of mulching keeps the ground cool and checks the growth of
the weeds.

The banana is essentially a hot climate plant. In some
sheltered and favoured parts of the more temperate zone it may be
made to grow and even fruit, but the plant never attains the
luxuriant growth, nor is it as fruitful as within the more congenial
tropical regions. Protection from the withering blasts of high
winds is essential, and if properly protected they can be grown
quite near to the sea coast in an atmosphere charged with salt.
The suckers used for planting should be about a couple of feet

305

long, and four or five months old. When smaller they are delicate ;
when longer they do not root so easily. As many fibrous roots as
possible should be secured when cutting them off the parent plant.
In a little over a year's time, in favourable localities, the first stem
flowers and bears a bunch of fruit, which takes four or five months
to develop. That first bunch is, as a rule, not so fine as that from
the second sucker and the few which succeed it. After a few years
the ground becomes impoverished, and needs stirring up and
manuring. Complete chemical fertilisers, at the rate of l|lbs. to
21bs. per clump, can be applied. Under favourable circumstances a
banana plantation remains profitable for seven or eight years.
Each adult stem bears one bunch, which consists of a long stalk
with fronds consisting of half-a-dozen to a dozen fruit symmetrically
arranged round it. The bunches, according to variety and size,
weigh from 10 to 601bs. each and over. All banana trees are good
bee plants.

As regards its food value, the banana is more nutritive than
the potato. It contains 27 per cent, of dry nutritive matter; the
potato gives 25. The 27 per cent, of dry matter are approximately
made up of 2 per cent, of nitrogenous matter and 22 per cent, of
saccharine substances, with small quantities of fibre and ash
constituents. Of the ash constituents, potash represents 50 per
cent, and phosphoric acid 15 per cent.

The plantain is gathered at different stages. When three-
fourth's grown it is rather milky and contains much starch. At
that stage, if boiled or roasted in ashes, it is almost as nourishing
as bread. Shortly after this stage, when full grown but still green,
it is not so starchy, but contains more sugar. In this state it is
eaten as an accompaniment to meat. Lastly, when quite ripe it
becomes sugary, and is then eaten either raw, roasted in ashes, or
in the form of fritters.

The banana is seldom eaten cooked in the unripe stage, but is
allowed to mature, when it is soft, full of sugar, melting, and is
possessed of a peculiar perfume.

The banana is not left on the plant until fully ripe, but is
out about a week or ten days before. If intended to be
shipped long distances the spike is cut even earlier, and the fruit
gradually becomes yellowish and more sugary. When transferred
to market it need be handled with the greatest care, as a bruise
that may not be apparent at the time will soon cause decay of the
delicate tissue of the fruit. They are packed in crates with open
slats, and should be stacked on deck in the open air.

The varieties of bananas cultivated in various countries
may be numbered by the score. Two groups are known, viz., the
edible and the fibre-producing sorts.

The edible bananas are often referred to as " Bananas " or as
" Plantains," and a good deal of confusion has in consequence

306

resulted. Perhaps the best distinction is to designate as " Plan-
tains " those varieties which are generally consumed cooked, and
" Bananas " the varieties which are eaten fresh and ripe. As a
rule the stem of the first is green, and that of the latter somewhat
mottled.

PLANTAINS (Musa parasidiaca) . — Long, large fruits. The
Dacca plantain is about nine inches long, the Madagascar plantain
as large as a man's forearm : whilst it is reported that in the
Philippines a couple of fruit of plantains are a load for a man. The
trees are 15ft. to 18ft. high. The fruit is cut before maturity, when
rich in starch, and cooked or allowed to ripen, and eaten when
sweet.

BRAHMIN E BANANA (M. Sapientum) is small. A native of
India ; its cultivation has spread all over the semi-tropical world.
The tree is tall, reaching 18ft. in height ; should be planted in well
sheltered and warm spots. The fruit, eaten when sweet and ripe,
is of the best.

CHINESE BANANA (M. Sinensis or Cavendishii) is a compara-
tive dwarf species and a squatter plant with large, long leaves, and
attaining a height of five or six feet. It produces excellent fruit,
stands high winds better than the preceding ;' is altogether more
hardy and stands a greater amount of cold weather. The tree bears
early most excellent fruit.

BREADFRUIT (Artocarpus incisa).

The botanical name is derived from the word artos, bread, and
carpus, a fruit, and the generic name incisa in contradistinction to the
genus integrifolia, or entire leaved, which applies to the Jack-fruit.

This plant is distinctly tropical, and requires for growing and
bearing a deep moist soil, well sheltered in a uniformly warm
climate. A handsome evergreen tree, 20 to 30 feet high, it has its
native habitat in the islands of the Pacific and the Malay Archipelago,
whence it has been introduced into Mauritius and Madagascar,
where it thrives well. Such glowing accounts were given of this
fruit by the early navigators, that steps were taken to introduce it
into the West Indies towards the end of the eighteenth century,
and the expedition, which was connected with the historical mutiny
of the " Bounty," first failed to achieve that end. A second
attempt was, however, made and again entrusted to Captain Bligh,
who succeeded, and the tree has since become quite common in the
West Indies.

The breadfruit together with the banana form a staple article
of food of the islanders of the Pacific. The average size of the
fruit varies from that of a child's head, and often weighs 301b. and
more. It is more or less round or oval in shape, and is carried on
the stem, and the main branches. Externally it is not unlike the
Jack-fruit, which is illustrated at page 312. The outer rind is
rough, and covered with diamond-shaped facets. The inside is a

Bullock's Heart (Anona reticulata.)

307

white fibrous pulp, becoming succulent at maturity, when it is rich
in starch. Eaten boiled or baked, it tastes of dough, with a
pleasant nutty flavour, and is very sustaining. Like the plants of
the same family, the breadfruit tree exudes, when freshly wounded,
a sticky latex which is as strong as bird-lime. The breadfruit
would, I dare say, thrive in the Kimberleys and the more tropical
regions of this State. It is propagated from root-cuttings, which
readily sprout, and from which shoots can be detached with a heel
attached. In tropical West Africa another tree belonging to the
same natural order exists. It is chiefly grown for the sake of its
seeds which, roasted or boiled, taste somewhat like chestnuts.

BULLOCK'S HEART (Anona reticulata.')

One of the " Custard Apples," constituting a fine evergreen
tree 30 to 35 feet high.

It grows readily from seed. The fruit is larger than a pear,
and its shape has won it its name ; in colour it is a brown chestnut.
The pulp inside is eaten with a spoon, and is much liked. In the
tropics the tree is vigorous and prolific. The fruit should be
picked when hard, and ripens a week or 10 days after gathering.

The illustration is from L' Agriculture pratique des pays Chauds.

CUSTARD APPLE, syn. CHERIMOYER (Anona cherimolicC) .

A native of Peru. The tree, which grows 10 to 12 feet
high, requires rich, moist soil, in a well sheltered place. The leaves
are oval, the flowers very fragrant and solitary, the fruit globular
or heart-shaped, three or four inches in diameter, greyish -green,
turning to brown when ripe. The flesh, in which some 30 or
40 hard brown seeds are embedded, is much relished, the fruit
being eaten when soft and yielding to the touch. For marketing it
needs gathering when hard, a week or so before eating.

Two other custard apples — the SOUR SOP (syn. Corossol), A.
muricata, and the SWEET SOP,» A. sguamosa — are trees of the same
family, which are grown in the tropics and valued for their fruit.

THE DATE PALM (Phoenix dactylifera).

As its name implies, the Date belongs to the Palm family, to
which also belong the cocoanut and other palms. Unlike these, it
throws, when young, offshoots or suckers (" djebars," in Arabic) at
the base of its stem. Later on, when the tree is in full bearing, it
ceases to throw suckers. The stem of the tree grows from a terminal
bud, and remains of the same diameter all through its existence. The
leaves, which are feather-shaped, measure 10 to 15 feet in length,
and are persistent. The tree is diceceous, its staminate (male) and
pistillate (female) flowers appearing on separate individuals. If
grown from seed, about half the number of resulting palms are
male, and about half female. In cultivation however, this number

308

is considerably reduced, and the staminate trees are cut off and a
small proportion only allowed to grow, viz., about one in fifty. With
the help of artificial pollination this number may even be reduced.
For that purpose a piece of the male flower is tied to the female
inflorescence of the pistillate tree at blossoming time. The repro-
duction of the date palm by seeds is not much favoured, and often
results in worthless trees ; and it is preferable to effect the
multiplication of the good varieties by means of suckers. These
transmit the sexes and the characteristics of the parent plants.

Failure in connection with the profitable cultivation of the date
palm is often due to the fact that some imagine that the tree is one
fitted for any hot, arid desert. Its likings have, however, been
fittingly summed up by an Arab proverb : " The date palm, the
queen of trees, must have her feet in running water and her head
in the burning sky."

It is a fact worth noting that a very dry atmosphere favours
the production of dates of high quality, and that the best dates are
grown in the hottest regions of Sahara, and remote from the cooling
and humid neighbourhood of the sea. In fact, heavy rain, followed
up by a few days of cloudy weather at the period of the ripening of
the fruit, at times spoil the date crop.

Permanency of moisture is needed more than any great volume
of water at any time. When this is available, even if the water is
alkaline, the hot winds of the desert do not injure it, and it will
thrive in a climate too hot for any other known fruit.

Suckers of good strengths and weighing 201bs. to 301bs. are
preferable, if sent a long journey. Large shipments have of late
years been sent from Northern Sahara by Mr. W. T. Swingle,
'Agricultural Explorer to the Department of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, from Biskra and the oasis around, a distance of 400 miles to
the south of Algiers, to Arizona and California. These consign-
ments consisted of suckers removed from the parent palms by means
of a sharp chisel and a mallet. They were simply packed in the
date palm fibre and wrapped in bags and slung on pack camels to the
nearest railway line, whence they were carried to Algiers, dipped in
water, and packed in wooden boxes, after having been wrapped in
moist moss or sphagmum, and shipped as ordinary cargo. This
method of packing proved vastly cheaper than the shipment in tubs
which had been followed by the French and British Governments
in shipping Algerian palms to South Australia. The suckers were
at times a long time growing, and some, after planting, remained for
12 months dormant ; but 93 per cent, eventually grew. Date
palm trees raised from seeds are six to eight years before they bear,
whereas from suckers they begin to fruit when five or six years old,
and come into full bearing when 10 or 12 years old, and continue
bearing from this stage, if well cared for, until they are 100 years
or more old. The average quantity of fruit borne annually amounts
to lOOlbs. to 2001bs. ; some trees yielding as much as 401bs. or
more.

309

The flowers of the date palm are white, and are carried on an
inflorescence not unlike the tail of a horse. If the flowers have been
pollinated, two of the three fruit produced from each flower fall,
leaving a single date. If, however, the flowers have not been
fertilised, all three dates generally remain attached, and continue to
grow, crowded and deformed. They are seedless ; never properly
mature ; and are of no value. The cultivator thus knows the
bunches which are not fertilised, and cuts them off. The fruit is at
first green, and gradually turns bright red or bright yellow. As
ripening proceeds, the yellow dates change to a clear amber colour,
and the bright red ones become reddish brown ; they become
translucent, and from astringent and unpleasant to the taste
become charged with sugar.

Several types of dates are known, one only being exported
— the soft dates. These contain as much as 60 per cent, of their
weight of sugar, and being, as it were, candied on the tree,
keep without trouble. Others are more syrupy, and do not dry
readily ; like the grapes which are cured into raisins, they are
either eaten fresh from the tree or they are dried.

A third type are almost dry, and, although not exported, are
consumed by the Arabs, for whom they constitute an important
article of food.

For our requirements in Western Australia, it is important
that we should secure early ripening sorts, which would not be
affected by the tropical summer rains.

Of these, one of the most important is the Rhars, which is
extensively cultivated both by the Arabs and the French colonists
of Algerian Sahara. It is a syrupy date of good quality, which is
packed in skins or boxes for shipment. This date palm grows
rapidly, and fruits when young.

The Tedalla is another variety which can be easily dried. It
is very large, sometimes three inches long, and ripens at the same
time as the Ehars. The tree is vigorous, and bears large crops of
fruit.

The Deglet Noor, or " date of the light," a later variety, is
better adapted for drying. The province of Biskra derives from
the sale of the djebars, or suckers, of this variety an increasing-
revenue ; the djebars of Deglet Noor selling for about five francs
each, whilst those from Rhars sell for three francs.

The Deglet Noor is cultivated throughout Western Sahara
wherever the season is long enough to enable it to mature. It is
a medium-sized date, amber-coloured, and translucent when ripe,
with a soft flesh of excellent flavour. These dates do not become
sticky, as most of the soft dates, and can be eaten without soiling
the fingers.

310

Other good varieties are cultivated in Egypt and along the
Persian G-ulf which present features of great value.

The gathering, curing, and packing is of the simplest. Varieties
of the Deglet Noor type become, when ripe, self-candied on the trees.
They are either picked singly from the bunch as they ripen, or else
the whole bunch, weighing 10 to 20 pounds and even more, is cut
off when the majority of the dates show signs of ripening, and hung
up for a few days in a dry and shady place. The best fruit is
picked and arranged in layers in neat light boxes holding from one
to ten pounds.

The syrupy sorts, such as the Rhars, are not so easily handled.
The Arabs hang up the bunches, and collect the sweet juice that
drains off, and which they call date honey, into jars ; the drier fruit
being subsequently packed tightly in boxes, skins, or straw bags,
and exported.

From the foregoing it will be seen that the cultivation of the
date palm is one particularly suited to the arid regions of Western
Australia, where the summer is hot and long, and where water —
even not of a particularly fresh description — is often obtainable at a
shallow depth.

A profitable market is within our reach in supplying the
requirements of Australia; but nothing but the best varieties should
be planted.

The Forestry Department has in several instances supplied
exploring expeditions with a quantity of dates, the seeds of which
have been sown at soaks in the interior where water is found at the
surface ; but sufficient is known of the date to doubt whether the
trees which have issued from these seeds will equal in merit some of
the varieties mentioned.

The local government of Algeria have 011 several occasions
generously assisted in procuring for other countries some of the
best dates grown within that province, and from that source con-
signments of suckers could well be drawn. It is important, should
such introduction be made, that these suckers be dipped into water
for a day on arrival, and then fumigated by means of hydrocyanic
acid gas, in order to destroy the date scales (Parlatoria victrix) , one
of the most troublesome pests of that useful tree.

THE G-TTAVA (Psidium).

One of the hardiest of all tropical fruits, its cultivation can,
in favourably situated places, be extended to semi-tropical regions ;
and in Western Australia it nourishes alongside the orange, the
apple, and the pear. In the cooler regions the Guava is easily kept
within bounds, whereas in the tropics birds and cattle freely dis-

311

tribute it over wide
areas ; while its easy
suckering habits under
the tropics cause it to
spread wherever it
grows. The tree is an
evergreen, varying in
size from that of a
shrub three or four
feet high to a tree of
12 to 15 feet. It grows
readily from seed, cut-
ting, or sucker. In size,
the fruit varies from
that of the tomato to
that of a duck's egg,
while species are even
larger. The internal
structure of the fruit
is somewhat like that
of the tomato. The
flavour is peculiar and
pronounced ; it is not
always liked at first,
but cooked or stewed
with sugar or into a jelly,
it is greatly relished
by everyone. The 'crop
ripens late in the winter,
although some varieties
bear fruit pretty well
all the year round.
The plant dislikes stag-
nant water, but grows
readily on sand and
clay alike, although
a light loam suits it
best.

The Guava Branch and Fruit.

THE LEMON G-TTAVA (P. Guayava) syn. P. pomiferum. — A
shrub or small tree, eight to sixteen feet high ; leaves, four to five
inches long by two inches wide, oval to oblong ; lanceolate, smooth
above, pubescent below, peduncles three to many -flowered ; fruit, two
to three inches in diameter, globose, yellow, aromatic, somewhat
astringent. Very good for jellies and preserves. There are several
varieties of this species, which differ slightly in form, size, and
colour. One variety is pear-shaped, the leaves are acute, peduncles
one-flowered, smooth skin, yellowish when ripe. This variety
supplies most of the guava jelly of the West Indies ; it is also
preserved and canned as are other fruits.

312

BRAZIL G-TJAVA (P. Araca). — A shrub four to six feet high,
growing in the West Indies, Guiana, Peru, and Brazil, where it is
found in dry, high-lying places. Leaves oblong, obtuse, soft to the
touch above, somewhat hairy below ; veins reticulate, somewhat
raised ; peduncles axillary, one to three-flowered. Fruit ovoid,
greenish yellow, flesh white, of excellent taste.

STRAWBERRY G-TTAVA (P. Clattleyanum) or PURPLE G-UAVA. —
A native of Brazil and Uruguay. One of the hardiest of the guavas,
thriving over a very wide range of latitudes. A shrub or small tree
of five to fifteen feet high. Branchlets smooth ; leaves smaller than
those of the former round" species, obovate, thick, and glossy;
peduncles solitary, axillary, opposite, one-flowered ; fruit almost
spherical, tapering at the eye, small, rarely exceeding 1| inches
in diameter, fine deep claret colour, with numerous brown dots 011 a
slightly roughened surface. Pulp fleshy, soft, and juicy, purplish
red next the skin, but white at the centre, with a strawberry-like
flavour, and free from the strong odour of P. Guayava.

Another species, the " Mexican G-uava," sometimes called
"Yellow Cattley Guava," is also cultivated, and has proved very
hardy. In flavour it is somewhat tart, and possesses little of the
peculiar guava smell.

THE JACK (Artocarpus integrifolia) .

Is closely allied to the Breadfruit trees, but is hardier, and a
larger tree. In size it reaches 30ft. to 40ft. and is a very quick
grower. The branches, which are numerous and spring all over the
trunk, carry a thick evergreen foliage which is much liked by
stock. For that reason, if planted for ornamental purposes, the
young tree should be protected by means of a tree- guard for the
first few years of its growth. The. Jack tree, which is a native of
India, is now naturalised over all the tropical world. Several
varieties are cultivated, and amongst others the " Honey Jack," and
the " Root- bearing Jack "— an esteemed variety which bears excel-
lent fruit on its superficial roots. The tree is easily grown from
seeds, which germinate readily and come to bearing at an early age —
three or four years after starting. The fruit is extremely heavy, and
is carried along the main limbs or the trunk. In weight it varies
from 51bs. to 501bs., and even more. Rough outside, it contains
when ripe a mass of sticky fibres around yellowish sweet envelopes
which surround the seeds. Both these sweet envelopes and the
seeds are edible. The pulp possesses a delicious flavour, which is
much liked once the objection to the peculiar penetrating smell
which characterises them has been overcome. This smell can to a
great extent be neutralised by throwing the sweet pulpy envelope
into a bowl containing some water and salt. The seeds, which many
prefer to the best chestnuts, may be eaten either boiled or roasted.
They are oblong in shape, and about 1| inches long.

The sometimes objectionable smell referred to is more per-
ceptible in over-ripe fruit, and is much lessened by burying the
fruit for a while.

Jack-fruit Tree (Artocarpus Integrifolia) .

313

In tropical countries a very sticky bird-lime is prepared from
the milky juice of the tree, which is extracted by wounding the
bark.

Very handsome cabinet work is made from the yellow satin-
like wood.

Either for ornament or usefulness, or both, the Jack-fruit
deserves a place in every tropical garden.

LITCHI (Nephelium Litchi),

A handsome evergreen tree, some 20 to 25 feet high, native of
Southern China. The best sorts are propagated by grafting, seed-
ling, or layering. Extensively cultivated in India, Ceylon, and in
the coastal lowlands of Mauritius, where the excellence of the fruit
has marked for it a prominent place amongst the best tropical fruits
grown. At the time of ripening the heavy clusters of crimson fruit
form a startling contrast with the dark glossy foliage. The fruit,
which is roundish conical, consists of a large, smooth, oval, brown
stone, covered by a pulpy arillus of a nearly transparent white, like
jelly ; sweet, with a delicate sub-acid flavour. The whole is encased
in a rough, crimson shell-like covering.

The sun-dried fruits are largely exported from Canton and
Hong Kong, and can be seen in Chinese greengrocers' shops of
Perth.

LONGAN (Nephelium longanum).

The tree is much like the litchi, but taller ; it is also hardier,
and can be raised true from seed. The fruit is not -so rough
externally as the litchi, and, like it, is contained in a shell-like
covering ; it is roundish in shape, with a round brown stone covered
by a pulpy arillus like the litchi, but not so palatable.

THE MANGO (Mangifera

The mango, all the world over, is classed amongst the best of
tropical fruits ; few rival and none excel it. The tree is a hand-
some, large- spreading evergreen, which grows from 10 to 30 feet in
height, and even more. It is a native of India, but is now widely
cultivated all over the tropics, and even in many subtropical
countries. The leaves are lanceolate, and the flowers in terminal
panicles. En size, shape, colour, flavouring, and quality of flesh
the fruit varies widely.

Its varieties range in weight from 2ozs. to 21bs. each. In
shape it is generally kidney-form, although some are roundish and
flattened and others elongated and curved. The colour of the skin
is generally green at first, although some are red or purple, and
they assume, when ripe, a yellowish colour. Other varieties are
mottled with various shades of red, while a few do not change
colour at all in ripening. Between the skin and the kidney-shaped
stone in the centre is the fleshy pulp, which is yellow, sweet, and
luscious. The "tar and turpentine" flavour which some

314

varieties are said to possess, is only applicable to inferior
varieties. The better kinds have little or no fibre, and if they
possess any trace of turpentine at all, it is not disparaging to the
deliciousness of the flavour.

The list of varieties of mangoes would be a lengthy one. Thej
Agri. -Horticultural Society of India publish a list of forty odd kinds,,
of which they sell grafts ; forty varieties or more are known in Java;
some thirty varieties or more are cultivated in Mauritius ; while a
great many are also known in the West Indies.

The mango does not reproduce true to name from seed, and,
as it does not readily take the cleft graft, it is generally propagated
by inarching. Grafted mangoes come into bearing in about five
years after planting out. Varieties highly praised are : The
Alphonso mango of India, the August mango of Mauritius, the
Strawberry, Carpenter, and a host of other good sorts which would
prove a great acquisition to our North and North- West provinces.

The mango is not only eaten when ripe, but large quantities
are used green for pickles, chutney, or served raw with salt, pepper,
and vinegar. The natives of India also use the leaves for its
medicinal virtues.

THE PAP AW (Carica papaya).

A native of Central America, it has now reached every corner
of the tropical world.

The tree, which is unisexual, consists of a soft- wooded trunk,
smooth and without branches, reaching 5 to 15 feet in height.
The male flowers are white and hang down in clusters, whereas the
female flowers are large, yellow, and carried at the base of the leaves
which are palmate, with long stalks, and carried at the top of the
tree.

The papaw tree is easily raised from seed, and, when strong
enough, may be planted out. The first year they require a certain
amount of protection in localities likely to be visited by frost. They
bear within a year, and, as they are not long lived, they should be-
replaced every three or four years. Mr. G. C. Eose, of Parkfield,
near Bunbury, states that they grew splendidly with him on the
banks of the Fitzroy, West Kimberley, till the white ants ate them
down.

The papaw bears heavily from the first year. The fruit has the
appearance of rock melons and is excellent eating.

An acrid sap pervades the whole tree, and possesses marked
digestive power for nitrogenous substances. In fact that property
has been availed of in medicine, and papaine, the active principle, is
used as a vegetable pepsin and as a vermifuge. In Mauritius,,
where the papaw grows to great perfection, this property is often
availed of to turn tender tough old roosters. They are simply
wrapped up in papaw leaves and hung for a few hours under a
papaw tree.

The Papaw (Carica papaya).

315

PINEAPPLE (Ananas sativa).

A native of tropical America. This plant has been success-
fully grown in countries situate 28deg. North and South of the
line, wherever the conditions of moisture, shelter, and soil have
favoured its growth.

With us it is susceptible of growing in the open air in
proximity of the seaboard as far South as Champion Bay, provided
the annual rainfall be supplemented by judicious irrigation. Beyond
this limit its cultivation may be extended even farther South under
the protection of sheds, as is done in Florida, but under such
artificial conditions pineapple culture ceases to offer commercial
possibilities, and can only be attempted by amateurs.

Too rich soil does not suit the pineapple. It is intolerant of
wet and retentive soils with any considerable proportion of clay. A
deep free loam, permeable and fresh, with perfect drainage, and
which at no time becomes waterlogged, is the ideal soil for the pine-
apple. In Mauritius it is most successfully grown on friable
volcanic soil. In other countries it does well on sandy soils,
especially those of coraline formation, with a thin layer of vegetable
mould on the surface.

The pineapple is a biennial plant, not unlike a miniature aloe,
but the leaves are much thinner. Is seldom propagated from seeds,
unless new varieties are desired. Most good pineapples, besides, are
seedless, but seedling plants are generally very slow growers, and do
not bear for 10 years or so.

The crowns or the tufts of leaves at the top of the fruit are
sometimes grown, but they require two to five years to mature. For
that reason the extensive propagation of this fruit is effected by
means of slips and of suckers. The slips are produced from buds
on the fruit stalks under the fruit. They are smaller than the
suckers, but are more abundant. If it is intended to use them for
planting, all but two are rubbed off ; they are planted as quickly as
possible after they mature, which takes place when the stem under
the leaves turns brown. Slips fruit about 18 months after planting,
and produce fine fruit ; suckers, which spring from buds below the
soil, fruit about a year after planting. Two or three are generally
left on the plant, which they replace after fruiting.

The plants are set in lines at distances of 5ft. x 2ft., if a horse-
hoe is used, and 3ft. x 3ft. if manual labour is employed. The sets
or suckers should have their basal leaves trimmed, and the con-
tracted hard buds by which they are attached to the parent plant
partly cut off. They are firmly set into the ground to a depth of 3in.
to 4in. Fertilisers are worked into the ground between the rows.
The practice of broadcasting chemical fertilisers is injurious to the
leaves, as the salts of ammonia and of potash so used exert a caustic
effect. Weeds should be kept down. After some years, and unless
the suckers or rattoons are largely removed, the beds become almost
impenetrable. The period of usefulness of a plantation lasts from
five to eight years.

316

When the fruit is marketed to long distances, it is cut before it
is quite ripe, a portion of the stalk being left attached, or else the
fruit will bleed. The crown is also left intact, and should not be
trimmed, so as not to rob the fruit of its- decorative appearance.
The pines are packed in large crates, but it is advisable to provide
partitions in these crates, so as to separate fruit in lots of four to half
a dozen each.

The varieties grown are either spineless leaves or spiny leaves.
Of the spineless-leaved pineapple, the most commonly grown is —

THE SMOOTH-LEAVED CAYENNE (syn. Griant Kew).— Leaves long
and smooth, or with very few spines, broad, dark green ; flowers
purple; fruit very large, pyramidal, dark orange yellow; flesh pale
yellow, rich, highly-flavoured ; pips large, flat. Does not sucker so
freely as other varieties. A very handsome fruit, weighing 61bs. to
lOlbs. An autumn and winter growing variety. Largely grown in
the Azores for the purpose of supplying the English market during*
the winter and early spring months.

Of the spine-leaved kinds, some of the best are —

BLACK JAMAICA (syn. Black Spanish). — Leaves long and
narrow, dark green, almost a blue purple in the centre. The leaves
are hollow, not open and flattish. The leaves have little hooked
prickles ; not spines like the teeth of a saw, but set distinctly from
each other. Flowers purple ; fruit oval, somewhat pyramidal, dark
green at first, and fit to eat before it shows any yellow or red ; pips
middle-sized, prominent; flesh firm, yellow, rich, juicy, and highly
flavoured. \Yeight of fruit, from 41bs. to 51bs. Ripens in the
winter.

QUEEN. — Leaves very short, broad, of a bluish green, very
mealy ; spines strong, set widely apart ; flowers lilac ; fruit
cylindrical, of a rich deep yellow ; pips middle sized, prominent ;
flesh pale yellow, juicy, sweet, rich. Best in summer and autumn.

RIPLEY QUEEN. — Of these there are two varieties — green and
red. The Ripleys belong to the Queen varieties. Leaves green
with purplish longitudinal streaks running up the centre. As the
plant gets old and weak, the purple streaks become irregular, and
the green of the leaf yellow. The spines are numerous.

Other varieties cultivated are Abbaka, Black Antigua, Long,
Green, and Red Ceylon.

FRUIT-DRYING.

In the height of the fruit season, much which should never be
put on the market to compete with the higher-grade produce could
with profit be disposed of as dried fruit.

It is not meant to infer that a high-class dried fruit can be
manufactured out of an inferior sample, but rather that it may be
more profitable to convert such produce- into a- more readily saleable
article.

317

It may also happen that in the glutted market in the midst
of the season even first-class fruits cannot be sold at a profit,
and it then may be advantageous to hold them back and prepare
them into some other commercial form.

Drying affords a cheap-and-ready wa,y of converting into a
commercial commodity (which may be stored and disposed of to the
best advantage in due season) such quickly perishable products as
ripe fruits.

To those situated in remote localities beyond easy distance of
markets or of the highways leading thereto, drying also offers a
convenient way of utilising their bulky and perishable crops.

Observation, experience, and such education as is conveyed by
the mistakes of others have resulted in a variety of methods and
practices being adopted when drying different fruits. The principles
which underlie these methods are the same, but local convenience,
the cheapening of the handling, and the ultimate appearance and
commercial value of the products turned out have been the main
causes of such modifications as the treatment of each kind of fruit

RAISINS

is the name given grapes dried in the sun or by artificial evapora-
tion. During that process the berries loose about two thirds of their
weight, owing to the evaporation of the water they contain.

Three types of raisin s are manufactured, each type being further
sub-divided into grades, viz. : —

I. — CORINTH RAISINS.

Raisins dried from wine grapes. This industry is an important
one in parts of Greece, Turkey, and some of the Mediterranean
islands. The product is exported to France, Germany, and England
where it is turned into white wine, either consumed as such or
distilled into brandy.

These raisins are made from grapes picked when fully ripe.
They are or are not dipped in lye and when sufficiently dry after
exposure to the sun, they are run through the winnower to separate
the stalks from the berries and are packed in 1 and 2cwt. sacks or
in barrels. When opened, the contents of these sacks are so crushed
together that they form but one mass. This class of 'raisins sells
f.o.b. from 10s. to 18s. per cwt.

II. — PUDDING RAISINS OR LEXIAS.

The bulk of the raisins are of this class. The name Lexia
(L. Lixivium) they owe to the fact that unlike Table Raisins they
are dipped in a lye. The grapes used in the manufacture of these
raisins are the Muscatel Gordo Blanco, the Muscat of Alexandria,
the Seedless Sultana and the Currants.

Picking. — The grapes should never be picked for drying before
they are dead ripe.

318

The currant crop is ready for picking a fortnight before the
Muscats, and the same trays answer for drying both crops, so that
the advantage of growing them together is evident.

There are several ways of ascertaining whether the crop is
fully ripe : —

(i.) By the colour, which, in the case of the Muscatel G-ordo
Blanco, should be a bright amber, and also by the taste. (2.) By
the saccharometer, which gives more accurate indications, as a
bunch grown in the shade may be ripe and yet colourless. It is
reckoned that the juice of the grape should contain at least 25 per
cent, of grape sugar to produce a good raisin.

Pieces of stalks, dead leaves, and imperfectly ripe berries, which
would dry brown instead of a bright colour, are removed.

Dipping. — The ripe grapes are usually packed in osier baskets.
The baskets should not be piled on the top of each other, nor
should their contents be dumped on to the ground. They are
brought to the dipping tank and draining terrace where the grapes
are placed in galvanised iron baskets or sieves ; at least two such
baskets are required, which are lowered into the dip and filled
alternately. The lye tank may consist of any convenient open
boiler, such as a washing boiler, or even a 200 or 400 gallon square
iron tank cut in half and set in mortar over a fireplace.

The strength of the lye used varies. The stronger the lye the
shorter the time the fruit is dipped.

In Spain and the Mediterranean raisin-producing countries, the
lye used is made from the ashes which are got from the vine
prunings ; to these a proportion of powdered quicklime varying
from one-fifth to one-fourth is added, and the mixture passed
through a sieve. To this water is added in proportion shown by
practice; the. liquid is heated and preserved in air-tight vessels.

A more accurate method of preparing the lye consists in using
alkalies of known strength in solution in water. Thus, lib.
caustic potash or caustic soda to 15 gallons of water is often used,
although some make a stronger lye and only add to lib. of the
alkali 7 to 8 gallons of water, claiming that fruit quickly dipped
retains a brighter colour when dried.

The strength of the lye having been settled, the solution is
brought nearly to the boil, and all scum floating on the surface
is skimmed off. Some of the least ripe grapes are then dipped for
two or three seconds into the boiling liquid, and the result of the
dip ascertained a few minutes later. The object of dipping is to
make the drying process more active by dissolving or saponifying
the waxy covering which constitutes the bloom, and opening up the
pores on the skin, thereby allowing the quicker evaporation of the
juices of the fruit. If as a result of the test on these more tender
berries numerous small holes like pin-pricks show, the length of
the dipping is sufficient, whilst, on the other hand, should the skin

319

show cracks and slits, the time of immersion of the fruit in the lye
should be shortened, or the strength of the lye itself should be
reduced by means of a further addition of pure water.

The minimum time for dipping is two seconds, and the
maximum 18 seconds. Thickness of skin, stage of ripeness of
skin, abundance of waxy bloom, and strength of the lye all govern
the length of dipping, and this, as has been explained, can be
adjusted by means of personal tests.

Rinsing. — After dipping, the galvanised iron baskets are allowed
to drain for a minute or so, and are then plunged into clean, cold
water, and emptied on wooden trays to dry. Some do not rinse
the fruit, and claim that the colour is then brighter.

Sulphuring. — After dipping and before drying, the fruit is
often exposed to the bleaching action of sulphur fumes in order to
obtain a bright amber-coloured sample. Trade requires this colour,
and the process has little or nothing else to recommend it as the
fruit is often over- sulphured and is rendered acid, heavy to digest,
and much of the peculiar fruity aroma inherent to the fruit is more
or less destroyed.

The extent of the sulphuring cannot be determined by any hard
and fast rule, and must be adjusted by practice ; but it is necessary
that the several charges in the bleaching chamber should be
exposed to the same amount of sulphuring, otherwise an uneven
sample would result, and the value of the article would thereby be
greatly affected.

Small sulphuring chambers may consist of boxes in which the
trays are stacked while the operation is going on, or of a larger
chamber into which trollies laden with the fruit trays are wheeled
and taken out again to make room for a fresh load. A box slightly
larger than the trays, and which can be hermetically closed and
provided with doors of the full size of the front, constitutes a
simple sulphuring chamber ; on the sides cleats are nailed, upon
which the trays laden with fruit are rested tier upon tier. Some
push the bottom tray so that there is a little room at the back, whilst
the next tray is pushed a little farther, so that the interval should be
at the front, and so on until the last tray is put in. This arrange-
ment favours the even distribution of the sulphur fumes, which are
generated in a roaster set outside the box, with which it is in com-
munication by means of a flue. A simple hole dug into the ground,
and covered with an oil drum with a tin tube connecting it with the
sulphuring box, will answer. The sulphur is set alight, the fumes
allowed to enter the box, which has a hole at the top which can be
either left open or shut by means of a sliding damper. When the
fumes begin to issue from the box at the top, the damper is closed,
and the fruit is allowed to remain for a few minutes immersed in
the bleaching fumes. The trays should not be made of metal which
is readily attacked by the sulphur fumes and turned into noxious
sulphates. Highly bleached fruit is charged with sulphuric acid,

320

which checks digestion and causes headaches. Ten to fifteen minutes
is quite long enough. Sulphured fruit is prohibited from sale in
several European countries.

Drying. — This is effected either through direct exposure to the
rays of the sun, or where the sun's rays are not potent enough,
through the artificial heat of specially-constructed kilns.

At times the grapes are first half dried in the sun, and finished
off in the kiln.

In Western Australia, where a dry, sunny autumn may be
relied upon with a fair amount of certainty, grapes, apricots, prunes,
and such like fruit can be sun-dried without trouble, and without
entailing the extra cost of kiln drying.

Late-picked fruit, however, especially in the cooler districts of
the State, might, in particularly early rainy seasons, be damaged
when sun-dried ; but, as a rule, all fruit ripening not later than the
end of March may with safety be sun-dried.

Around Malaga and the other famous raisin-producing districts
of Spain, the raisins are exposed to dry on drying terraces, built on
a slope, facing the hot south. These terraces consist of brick- wall
quadrangles, filled in with earth, over which is spread several inches
of clean small gravel, on which the grapes are laid ; on these they
dry evenly, whereas if laid on the bare hard earth, one side is often
dry, whilst the other remains moist.

The drying ground is, however, cumbersome and antiquated,
and can with advantage be superseded by the drying tray. These
trays are made of diiferent sizes, but for the sake of convenient
handling, trays 36 inches long and 24 inches wide are to be
recommended.

They are either made of four 6in. matchboards, 3ft. long,
held together by nailing head pieces of 2|in. x lin. and 2ft. long at
each end, or instead of matchboards, on which in damp weather the
fruit mildews more than on lath trays, or of broad Oregon laths,
set close, side by side, and which allow a free circulation of air. On
the upper side a fin. rim is nailed all round the tray, and keeps the
fruit from slipping off when turning it.

Over these trays the fruit is placed and exposed to the sun.
When half dry they are turned. This is done by placing an empty
tray upside down over the first tray to be turned, and swinging the
lot over. The tray which had the fruit is then empty and ready for
use in turning over the next tray in the row, and so on until they
have all been turned over.

If grapes or other fruit get wet whilst drying, they turn dark-
brown, and are discoloured, and to prevent this, in case of rain or
heavy dew at night, the trays are piled over one another to a
height of three or four feet, and securely covered with a tarpaulin
or roofing iron. When thus stacked, the thickness of the end cross-

321

pieces prevents the fruit from getting crushed. After turning, the
drying will proceed more rapidly, and the raisins should be watched
to prevent them from becoming too dry.

When sufficiently dry the raisins are removed from the trays-
A ready method of ascertaining whether the berries are ready to be
removed is to pick up a few and roll them gently between the
finger and thumb. If a drop of liquid exudes at the stem end, the
raisins require further drying, but if jelly only shows, the raisins
are dry enough.

Stemming. — The next process consists in removing the stalks.
These will be brittle if the raisins are taken up towards the after-
noon, and will then break off easily. This can easily be done over
a j-in. sieve, which will also let through some of the rubbish.

Winnowing. — This done, and ^before the stalks get limp, the
loose berries are run through a winnowing machine, which separates
a greater portion of the stalks and grades them in sizes.

Winnowing Eaisin Machine.

Sweat Box. — The fruit must then be sweated for a fortnight or
so before being packed and put away. Sweating is an operation
which all dried fruit must undergo.

If the raisins on the trays are examined, some of them will be
found dry enough, while some may be too dry and some not
sufficiently cured. At this stage the sweat-box is found useful for
equalising the sample and making the stems tough and ready for
packing. The sweat-boxes are 8in. to 9in. deep and contain about
Icwt. of raisins. The boxes are only about two-thirds filled with

322

raisins, and they should be stirred about every now and again until
sufficiently dried. They may be used for carrying grapes from the
vineyard and other purposes.

In transferring the contents of the trays into the sweat-box, the
raisins are slid off in the same position as when they lay on the
tray ; to prevent the stems getting entangled, two sheets of
paper of the size of the box are put in at intervals, as the box is
being filled. The sorters have two or three sweat-boxes, and grade
the raisins into first, second, and third quality.

Packing. — When the sweat-boxes are full, they are put away,
one on the top of another, for ten to twelve days, to sweat, after
Tfhich they are taken to the packing room, which is provided with
tables, scales, presses, and neat boxes of different sizes, holding
51b., lOlb., 151b., and 201b., in layers of 51b. each.

They are then placed in proper boxes and pressed hard by
means of a lever or screw press, so as to set them well in a
mass, and exclude insects which prey
upon dried fruit.

SEEDLESS RAISINS

are the produce of the Currant vines,
the Sultana vines, or small and imper-
fectly developed Muscatel grapes, which
now and then are found on muscatel
bunches. When dried, these small
raisins are separated in the grader,
and sold as " seedless muscatels. "
For cooking purposes, seedless raisins
are in better demand than the seeded
lexias or pudding muscatels, and in
order to meet the demand for that class
of article, small and inexpensive raisin
seeders are sold for a few shillings,
which can be clamped to the corner of
the kitchen or pantry table and neatly
extract the seeds from the raisins.

TABLE BAISINS.

The drying of table raisins and currants is effected much after
the fashion of pudding raisins, with the difference that they do not
undergo the dipping process, which would spoil the appearance and
remove the bloom.

Great care should be taken in picking not to remove the bloom,
which would spoil the appearance of the raisin. For that reason
the bunch is handled by the stem, cut with a sharp knife, all im-
perfect berries, pieces of stalk, dead leaves removed, and then placed
upon either shallow baskets or directly upon the trays right side up,
i.e., the side showing less of the stem. In large vineyards there is

Raisin Seeder.

r

Kaisin drying in Australia and showing Eaisin Grader.

323

economy in placing the trays between the rows of vines and covering
them at once with grapes, whereas on a small vineyard it may be
convenient to take them all to the kiln or to the drying terrace.

The finest bunches having been carefully picked, as described,
they are simply put on wooden trays, made 2ft. wide and 3ft.
long. If too large, they are not so convenient to handle when filled.
Each tray receives from 201b. to 301b. of grapes, which should pro-
duce 61b. to lOlb. of raisins, after having been put out in the sun or
in the kiln to dry.

Upon the state of the weather, and the size and degree of ripe-
ness of the berries, will the time required for drying depend. Rapid
drying gives a hard and tough raisin, and should be avoided. At
the end of eight to 14 days, according to circumstances, the grapes
being about two-thirds dry, are turned, by placing an empty tray,
as already described, on the top of a full one, and turning them
over. After turning, the drying will proceed more rapidly, and
the raisins should be watched, to prevent them from becoming
too dry.

The packing of table raisins is of paramount importance, as
appearance considerably enhances the value. The flat boxes are
artistically got up, and carefully lined with lace paper. Nice clusters
of bunches of the same grade as the contents of the box are either
flattened between the fingers, or by passing through rollers and
placed at the bottom of the box, which is then filled with as many
grapes as it will hold, the lid is then placed on the top, and nailed
down after pressure has been applied. The box is then turned
upside down, and so labelled that what was the bottom now opens top.
Facing plates are also used for the same purpose. It consists of a
brass plate of the size of a box. In this -plate are rows of small
cup-like cavities, into each one of which a flattened raisin is set and
lightly pressed, and loose raisins are carefully filled in on the top.
After pressing, it is found that this top layer has retained its
arrangement and is regularly faced.

APRICOTS AND PEACHES

should be picked when fully ripe, but not overripe. The fruit
should not be so soft as to be mushy. The picking is often
done by sha.king the tree over spread canvas, but the better class
of fruit is picked by hand. The fruit should be cut clean round,
and the parts not torn apart. They are placed on the tray
cut side uppermost, and should be taken to the sulphur room
within an hour of being pitted. It is estimated that in properly
made sulphur rooms three to five pounds of sulphur per ton
of fruit are sufficient for bleaching. About three to four hours are
long enough to keep fruit in sulphur fumes ; when the skin, unlike
the pulp, is not bleached, the fruit curls up and looks small. About
three or four days of sun-drying will be sufficient. The fruit
should not be dried hard enough to rattle on the trays. The proper
stage is determined by handling the fruit, which should be soft and

324

pliable to the touch, but not sticky. After sweating, the fruit is
graded and packed. A layer of fruit, flattened between the fingers
or run through a clothes wringer, is placed at the bottom, cup-side
down, the box is well filled, and pressure is applied. When the
box is taken up and dressed, it is so done that, when opening, what
was the bottom becomes top.

Peaches are dried either peeled or unpeeled. A paring knife
is used for peeling, and the knife for pitting Clingstone peaches.

Knives for Pitting Clingstone Peaches and soft fruit.

The pit of Clingstone peaches is best removed with a knifey
known as the Tarlton knife, such as is represented in the accom-
panying figure. It consists of a strong blade, with a short
U-shaped blade set at the point. Unlike the spoon-shaped knife,
which can only be used on soft fruit, it answers for both soft
or firm fruit.

It takes 51bs. of apricots, 4 or 51bs. of dry fleshed peaches,
and 5 to 71bs. of more juicy peaches to lib. of dried fruit.

PRUNES AND PLUMS.

Plums are dried for stewing, they are cut open and pitted.
Prunes are dried with the stone. Being a fruit of firm texture and
not easily bruised, the labour of hand-picking is generally dispensed
with.

The fruit is allowed to hang until dead ripe and they fall from
the trees, when these are lightly shaken ; the last of the crop has to
be gathered by hand, and is generally used for a second quality.

They are graded before drying either in some home-made
grader, consisting of a long chute with three different sizes of wire
screen on it, or they run through some grading machine of which
several patterns are used. Unless properly graded, of the one size
for each tray, they dry unevenly, some being over-dried and others
not dried enough. They are then dipped, as explained above, for
20 to 30 seconds. Should the lye take off the skin, shorten the time of
dipping by a few seconds. The plate on the opposite page, showing
the drying trays and raisin grader, is reproduced from a bulletin
I published some years ago in the Agricultural Gazette of New South
Wales.

325

Sometimes dipping is dispensed with, and the fruit dried with
the bloom on ; the operation then takes longer.

Fruit Dipper.

An ingenious contrivance for dipping is shown in the illustra-
tion. The fruit is fed evenly to the machine, and after dipping is
carried over to an adjoining fresh- water tank, where it is rinsed
and delivered on to the trays without handling. They are then
exposed to the sun, when, according to the weather and location,
it takes seven to 14 days to dry. If kiln -dried the operation is
done in as many hours. The operation being done in three succes-
sive periods. The first two gradually dry the fruit, the last finishes
the work and puts the gloss on. ,

The first " cooking" is at a temperature of 113° F. to 122°
(45° C. to 50°.) After each cooking the prunes are simply rolled
over the trays without handling the fruit. When cold, the trays are
returned to the oven or evaporator and exposed to a temperature of
140° F. to 160° (60° C. to 71°), and in the third cooking to a
temperature of 176° F. to 194 (80° C. to 90°) or even slightly
higher.

Careful watching is required during the third heating to guard
against the puffing and burning of the fruit. Table prunes receive
the " glossing " by dipping the dried fruit in hot syrup or in
hot water with a small amount of glycerine added (lib. to 20
gallons). This hot dip also kills insect's eggs. After the fruit has
sufficiently dried from this dipping, it is packed in boxes or jars
and pressed. Three Ibs. of fresh prunes made one of dry. The
price is regulated according to size, which range from 40, 50, 60,
and up to 100 to the pound.

APPLES AND PEARS

should be more heavily sulphured than other fruit, and dried as
soon as pared and quartered. A better device is to cut the apples
into rings with an apple parer. This machine also takes out the
core, which boiled down with the skins makes a jelly. A light-
coloured article is preferred by the trade.

326

FIGS

are picked when quite ripe, and when they commence to shrivel
the stalk should be left 011 them. They do not dry very evenly,
and after exposure to the sun for six to ten days, during which
they are turned once, the dry ones are removed, and those not
yet ready, allowed to remain a little longer.

Black figs are not sulphured, whereas white ones are improved
in colour by bleaching. If too syrupy inside, and when the juice
oozes at the eye, as occurs with some varieties, the eye is slightly
raised for a day or two until the juice thickens. Figs should not
be dried too hard. After coming out of the sweating boxes, after
10 to 12 days and before packing, they are softened by dipping into
boiling brine or hot syrup. When sufficiently dry, those which
open on the top of the boxes are drawn between the fingers and
flattened. Pressure is applied to keep out insects and prevent the
fruit drying excessively. Three to four Ibs. of ripe figs yield one of -dry.

DRYING VEGETABLES.

If fruit drying is, under the influence of West Australian
autumnal climate, susceptible of being profitably carried out in the
sun, the use of evaporators utilising direct fire heat should in many
instances prove of great value to the market gardener. Tons of
vegetables at periods of* glut are hardly worth picking, packing, and
forwarding long distances from the gardens in moister coastal
districts to the distant inland, arid centres of population. In many
parts of the Eastern Goldfields fresh vegetables are never seen, and
an important field is yet open to our enterprising vegetable growers
in catering for those centres, and supplying them with vegetables
differing from the fresh article by being simply deprived of its
watery portions, which amounts, according to kinds, from three-
fourths to nine-tenths of the weight of the vegetables.

In the first instance, vegetables thus treated would not be
wasted, and represent to the grower a loss of so much invested
capital. They could be treated at any time of the year. The cost
of evaporating should be handsomely recouped by the very material
reduction in carting in railway freight ; a perishable article subject
to quick decay could be kept almost indefinitely, and be sent over
long journeys, when it could be used in small quantities at a time,
and as required, and preserve unimpaired to the very last its taste
and its succulent and refreshing properties. When required for use
it should only be washed, then soaked for 12 to 24 hours in four to
six times it weight of water, and then cooked as desired.

Of evaporators a great many patterns are made ; some
horizontal, others upright. The charge is fed from underneath and
the finished trays removed from the top.

The illustration shows one of the numerous designs of fruit
and vegetable evaporators. The principle which underlies their con-

327

struct! on is that the heat is made to circulate amongst the trays as
rapidly as possible, and finally escapes through a flue at the top
carrying off with it the watery constituents of the fruit or vegetables.

Fruit Evaporator.

Provision is made for opening the evaporator and inspecting the
progress of the drying. From the drier the goods are removed to a
moth-proof chamber, where they are left to sweat, and are finally
placed in suitable packages for marketing.

FRUIT CANDYING

is the process by means of which the juice is extracted fromjthe
fruit and replaced with sugar syrup, which, upon hardening, pre-
serves the fruit from decay, and at the same time retains the natural
shape of the fruit.

After the preliminary candying process has been effected, the
confectionery is ready to be either glace or crystallised. Glace
fruit is prepared by dipping the candied fruit in thick sugar syrup
and leaving it to dry and harden quickly in the open air. The
sugar thus forms a glaze on the fruit, which gives it its name. If
it is to be crystallised, the fruit, prepared as described below, is
dipped into the same kind of syrup and then removed and allowed
to dry slowly in a room at a heat of 90 to 100 deg. F., when the sugar
appears in small crystals on its surface.

The method of fruit candying is clearly outlined in one of the
U.S. Consul's Reports on —

CANDIED CITRON AND LEMON PEEL.

The industry is very well adapted to the Australian States,
where all the raw material required is raised and produced.

" Leghorn, in Italy. — The fruit and every ingredient and
article necessary to the preparation of the candied peel come from
abroad. The fruit of the best quality comes from Corsica ; Egypt

328

furnishes the sugar, Great Britain provides the fuel, Trieste and
distant provinces of Italy contribute a portion of the raw product
and wood for the boxes in which the peel is exported. The
province of Leghorn provides nothing but the labour necessary
for the manufacture.

" Nor is this industry, the Consular Report says, one which has
fallen into Livornese hands from any specially acquired local
handicraft or skill. It is mainly supported by the large drawback
granted by the Italian Government upon the duty paid on the chief
and dearest ingredient in the manufacture : sugar. The customs
tariff in force imposes a duty of 76'75 lire (lire = lOd.) upon 100
kilos (2 cwts.) of the sugar used ; but grants a drawback of 69-50
lire upon 100 kilos of the exported article. Without this large
measure of support the industry would immediately and wholly
collapse.

" The citrons are shipped to the factories in casks, and, when
the distance is not considerable, in sacks, but usually in hogsheads
filled with brine. In preparation for shipment in brine, the citrons
or lemons are cut in halves and salted — lOOlbs. of salt to the cask
— and the cask is then filled up with salt water. They are left in
soak for two or three weeks, when the casks are opened and the
citrons weighed ; 7701bs. of citrons are allowed to each cask ; sea
water and a little salt are added, and the cask is ready for expor-
tation. A small auger-hole in the bung allows the gas produced
in the cask to escape. Salted citrons and lemons sell for about
$10 to $12 a cask; when arrived at the factory they are removed
from their packing, and the pulp is separated from the rind. This
is done by women, who, seated round a large vessel, take out the
fruit, skilfully gouge out the inside with a few rapid motions of
the forefinger and thumb, and throwing this aside, place the rind
unbroken in a vessel alongside them.

" The next process consists in ridding the rind of the salt by
maceration in fresh cold water for two or three days, the water
being changed occasionally. Then the rinds are boiled for one to
two hours to soften them and prepare them to absorb the syrup,
and also to rid them completely of any trace of salt. At this stage
they become of a green colour.

" They are next put in a syrup for a slow absorption of sugar.
This occupies no less than eight days, as this absorption of sugar,
to be complete, must be slow and gradual. The syrup is at first
weak. To every kilogramme (21bs.) of fruit a syrup is added
made of lib. of sugar and one litre (quart) of water.

" The fruit has now passed into the saturating room, where,
on every side, are to be seen long rows of immense earthenware
vessels about 4ft. high and 2Jft. in extreme diameter, in outline
roughly resembling the famed Etruscan jar, but with a girth
altogether out of proportion to their height, and with very short
neck and large open mouth. All the vessels are filled to their
brims with citron, lemon, or orange peel in every stage of absorp-

329

tion, i.e., steeped in sugar syrup of, roughly speaking, eight different
degrees of strength. I have said before this is a process which
occupies almost always eight days ; and, as the syrup in each jar is
changed every day, we may divide the mass of vessels before us into
groups of eight. Take one group of this number, and we are able
to follow the fruit completely through this stage of its treatment.
With vessels of such great size and weight, holding at least half a
ton of fruit and syrup, it is clearly easier to deal with the syrup
than the fruit. To take the fruit out of one solution and to place
it in the next stronger, and so on throughout the series, would be a
toilsome process, and one, moreover, injurious to the fruit. In
eaoh of these jars, therefore, is fixed a wooden well, into which, a
simple hand-suction pump being introduced, the syrup is pumped
from each jar daily into the adjoining one.

"' How is the relative strength in each jar regulated?' is the
next question. 'The fruit itself does that,' is the foreman's
reply ; and this becomes clear from the following explanation :
Number your jars from 1 to 8 respectively ; and assume No. 1 to
be that which has just been filled with peel brought straight from
the boiler, in which it has been deprived of the last trace of saltr
and No. 8 to contain that which, having passed through every stage
of absorption but the last, is now steeped in the freshly -prepared
and therefore the strongest solution of syrup used in this stage.
' We prepare daily a syrup of the strength of 30deg., measured by
the "provino," a graduated test for measuring the density of the
syrup,' continued the foreman ; ' and that is poured upon the fruit
in jar No. 8. To-morrow the syrup from this jar, weakened by the
absorption from it, by the fruit* of a certain proportion of sugar,
will be pumped into jar No. 7, and so on daily through the series.
Thus, No. 1, containing the fruit itself, regulates the strength of
the syrup, as I said.' ' But if the syrup has lost all its strength
before the seventh day, on arrival *at No. 1 ? ' we ask. ' Care
must be taken to prevent that, by constant testing by the " provino ",'
is the reply, ' and, if that is found to be the case, a little stronger
syrup must be added to the jar.'

" A slight fermentation next takes place in most of the jars ;
but this, so far from being harmful, is regarded as necessary. Of
course, it must not be allowed to go too far. There is yet another
stage, and that, perhaps, the most important through which the
peel has to pass before it can be pronounced sufficiently saturated
with sugar. It is now boiled in a still stronger syrup, of a density
of 43deg., by the testing tube ; and this is done' in large copper
vessels over a slow coke fire — care being taken to prevent the peel
from adhering to the side of the vessel by gentle stirring with a long
paddle-shaped ladle. The second boilin'g will occupy about an hour.
Taken off the fire, the vessels are carried to a large wooden trough,
over which is spread a coarse, open wire netting. The contents are
poured over this, and the peel distributed over the surface of the
netting ; so that the syrup, now thickened to the consistency of

330

treacle, may drain off the surface of the peel into the trough below.
The peel has now taken up as much sugar as is necessary.

" Now comes the final process, the true candying of the cover-
ing of the surface of the peel with the layer of sugar crystals which
is seen upon candied fruits. To effect this a quantity of crystallised
sugar — in Leghorn the same quality is used as is employed in the
preparation of the syrup — is just dissolved in a little water; in this
the now dried peel, taken off the wire netting, is immersed. The
same copper vessels are used ; and the mixture is again boiled over
a slow fire. A short boiling will suffice for this, the last process,
for the little water will be quickly driven off, and the sugar upon
cooling will form its natural crystal over the surface of the fruit.
Poured off from these vessels, it is again dried upon the surface of
the wire netting, as before described. The candying is now com-
plete ; and the candied peel is ready for the packing room, to which
it is carried off in shallow baskets.

" In the packing-room may be seen hundreds of boxes of oval
shape, or, if I may so speak, of rectangular shape with rounded
corners, and of different sizes ; for each country prefers its boxes to
be of a particular weight, Hamburg taking the largest, of 15 and 30
kilos; the United States of America preferring smaller, of 10 and 12
kilos ; Britain taking the smallest, of five kilos, and one containing
about seven English pounds. The wood of which the tops and
bottoms of these boxes are made conies to us in thin planks from
Trieste ; and a skilful packing is generally done by women — the
boxes being lined with white paper. They are then packed in cases
of 100 kilos, 10 of the smaller American boxes filling a case. The
candied peel is now ready for export."

The proportion of sugar used in the candying process is 80
per cent. — i.e., SOlbs. sugar for lOOlbs. fruit. The wholesale prices
of the best candied fruit fluctuate considerably, from 6Jd. to 9d. per
lb., early in the autumn.

OTHER FRUITS

are candied pretty much after the same method, with this
exception, that they are not put in brine, the object of which is to
extract the bitterness peculiar to citrus fruits.

They are, however, carefully assorted in respect to size and
uniform degrees of ripeness, as different fruit require treatment
with syrups of different strength. The fat, fleshy fruits absorb the
sugar with greater difficulty than thinner and smaller fruit.

Apples are not generally candied.

Pears, pineapples, and quinces are pared, citrons are cut into
quarters and soaked in brine, and the " pits " of apricots, cherries,
and peaches are carefully removed.

Thus prepared, the fruit is "blanched" or immersed in boiling
water, which quickly penetrates the pulp, dissolving and diluting
the juice when the fruit is taken from the water and drained,

331

leaving only the solid portion of the pulp intact. Skill is required
for this process, as the pulp may be either overcooked or left too
dry, preventing the perfect absorption of the sugar afterwards and
causing subsequent fermentation.

After being thus scalded some fruits — apricots, for example —
are again assorted into two or three classes, according to the degree
of softness that has been produced as they take up the sugar
differently, the softer the fruit the stronger the syrup required for
its preservation.

For the same reason, each of the different varieties of fruit
requires a syrup of corresponding strength.

Pears, citrons, and pineapples, which remain hard and firm,
take best a syrup having a density of from 18deg. to 25deg.
Baume ; while apricots, plums, and figs are treated with syrup
which weighs 30deg. to 42deg. B.

The syrup penetrates the pulp and gradually withdraws and
replaces the remaining fruity juice, which, as it exudes and mingles
with the transparent liquid, produces a certain filmy or cloudy
appearance, which marks the commencement of fermentation.
When this occurs, the vessel is placed over the fire and heated to
212deg. F., which kills the germs of fermentation, the impurities
rising at the same time to the surface, when they can be removed
by skimming. This process takes five to six weeks, during which
time the heating is done two or three times. This done, the fruit
is taken out, washed in pure water to remove the flaky particles
that adhere, and is then submitted to the finishing " glace " or
" crystallise " processes, after which they will bear transportation to
any climate, and will keep firm and unchanged for years. It is
packed in light wooden or cardboard boxes, and may be shipped in
cases containing several hundred pounds each.

Such fruit sells wholesale for about Is. lb., the cost of fruit and
of the processing amounting to about lOd. lb.- The retail price is
2s. to 3s. per lb. It takes 1 to l|lbs. of sugar to lib. of fruit.

CANNING AND FRUIT-PULP.

This method of preserving edibles is modern in its industrial
application, and is another illustration of some of Pasteur's
researches and investigations regarding the cause of fermentation.

As demonstrated by Pasteur, fermentation is the result of
peculiar decomposition set up by micro-organisms of definite sorts.

In order to accomplish their work, these micro-organisms need,
in the first instance, proper food ; and, secondly, sufficient moisture ;
and, thirdly, warmth.

By the abstraction of moisture, as occurs during the process of
fruit drying or of dessication of meat, one of those essentials is
removed, fermentation or putrefaction cannot take place, and the

332

article of food is preserved against decomposition. On the other
hand, if warmth is needed for the satisfactory evolution and work-
ing of those inicro-organisms which cause fermentation or decom-
position, it may either be insufficient or too cold, and then they
remain inactive or dormant, or it may be in excess or too hot, and
in that case their life is suspended or destroyed.

On these principles are based the keeping of meat, milk, butter,
etc., by freezing, or of the sterilizing of wine, with a view to their
better keeping, which is effected by heating them up rapidly to 150°
F. (65° C.), and also rapidly cooling them to the normal tem-
perature. This process is known as "pasteurisation" after the
name of the scientist who first suggested it and proved its efficiency.

By an application of the same process, we find, in canning, a
cheap, ready, and practical way of destroying germs of decomposi-
tion from the articles of food we seek to preserve. How to success-
fully achieve that end without materially destroying the natural
flavour and appearance of the goods to be preserved, constitutes the
art of canning.

A little experience will in this matter bring proficiency to the
operator, and enable one to save much fruit that would otherwise be
lost.

The materials used for canning are much too numerous to
enumerate, but amongst the more commonly used are — fish, oysters,
meat, condensed milk, cream, asparagus, green peas, sweet corn,
tomatoes ; and amongst fruit — apricots, cherries, gooseberries,
grapes, nectarines, peaches, pears, plums, pineapples, quinces, guavas,
and many other fruits which endure stewing without injury to
flavour or to the form of the fruit.

Oranges, for instance, are not suitable for canning, on account
of the peculiar bitter flavour they develop on cooking ; while, on the
other hand, sour or cooking apples are also unsuitable, as they cook
into a pulp, and lose both their flavour and appearance on cooking.

Besides preservation of fruit by drying or by sterilising by the
application of heat, there is also a third way of preventing fer-
mentation, and that is by heavy additions of spirits or of sugar ;
but these are unsuited for the purpose we have in view, and are too
expensive.

All these are legitimate ways of preserving fruit almost
indefinitely. Another way, besides, exists which is not lawful nor
wholesome, and consists in the use of antiseptics which are
antagonistic to the development of ferments and other micro-
organisms, such as salicylic acid, etc. These substances are all
noxious poisons, which paralyse the digestion and injuriously
affect the health of the consumer.

HOUSEHOLD CANNING.

No detailed account will be given in this chapter of the process
of factory canning, as this constitutes an industry in it&elf, and

333

requires a certain outlay of capital which is suggestive of the fact
that whoever goes in extensively for it must previously have made
himself familiar with the modus operandi of the business.

In every household, however, it is not only quite possible but
very easy to preserve, in seasons of abundance, all the fruit likely to
be required during the off-season ; and for this purpose all the outfit
that is required merely consists of suitable jars or cans, and of the
ordinary cooking utensils. Soldered tin cans are not to be recom-
mended, as it may happen that the acid of the fruit will react on
the solder and generate a toxic soluble substance injurious to health.
Special canning glass jars, hermetically sealed, are, however, easily
obtainable at a reasonable rate, and last indefinitely, until broken.
One of the best is Mason's or " lightning" jars, which are made to
hold a pint, a quart, or two quarts of fruit.

The fruit for canning must be of suitable kind ; it must not be
under ripe, over-ripe, or bruised; it must be graded according to size.
Always keep the fruit in water, which cleanses it, prevents bruising,
and, when cut open, preserves the natural colour.

In order to execute the filling neatly, a tin funnel with a very
wide tube, slightly smaller than the diameter of the neck of the jar,
into which it fits easily, is found very convenient, but is not
indispensable.

Only the very best fruit is worth the trouble of canning ; and
all over-ripe, specked, or blemished fruit should be rejected or
turned into jam. The fruit should be canned as soon as possible
after gathering, and while still fresh, different fruit requiring
different preparation.

Pears, peaches, and apricots are halved for convenience in
cooking, although, whenever possible, a whole fruit will, as a rule, be
more attractive to the look. A better method than paring peaches
is to put a dozen or more at a time in a netting bag, and dip them
for a few seconds into a kettle of boiling, weak lye. The fur is by
this method easily rubbed off by wiping with a towel.

A little sugar having been added to the fruit and water, the
operation of cooking begins, and varies according to the sort of
fruit. The following table, taken from a paper by Mr. E. Shelton,
Instructor in Agriculture, Queensland, will prove useful : —

Pears (halved) ...
Peaches (halved)
Peaches (whole)
Apricots...
Quinces (sliced,)
Gooseberries
Plums
Cherries ...
Tomatoes

Time of Cooking.

20 minutes

8
15
15
15

8
10

5
20

Quantity of Sugar
to 1 Quart.

G ounces
4
4
4
10
8
8
6
None

334

The fruit having been picked, halved, and pared, as the case
may be, is neatly packed into the glass jars. The jars are then
filled with thin, clear syrup made of white sugar, in the proportions
given above, or, roughly speaking, by boiling one cup of sugar in
one quart of water; this will give sufficient syrup for two quart
jars. The syrup is used only to make the fruit palatable, and not
for its preserving effect.

Place the jar in a boiler of tepid water reaching to within an
inch of the top, and on a few nails or wooden rack with holes bored
through. Screw on the stoppers loosely without rubber ; cover the
kettle or boiler, and boil till the fruit is done. A lower degree than
212° F. is unreliable; but this boiling should not be unduly carried
on. Have some syrup ready on the stove for filling up the jars.
When done, remove the jar from the hot water, put it in a place
out of the reach of draughts of cold air, on a folded wet towel, so as
to completely fill the hollow in the bottom of the jar, and thus ward
against breakage ; fill to the top with the hot syrup, wipe off the
neck, put on the rubber, screw down the cover tightly ; invert each
can or jar, to make sure that there is no leakage and that no air can
get in.

If there is a leakage, remove the cover, refill with syrup, try
another rubber, and cover if still hot ; if cool, heat again as already
explained. Thus prepared, fruit will keep indefinitely. Glass jars
containing fruit should either be put away for keeping into a dark
room or be wrapped up in paper so as to exclude light, which has a
deleterious chemical effect on the fruit, causing it to turn dark in
colour.

CANNING IN FACTORY.

The following account of operations in one of the large
Calif ornian factories is taken from Pacific Rural Press: — "The
fruit is pared and cored, and then washed in large troughs of clean
water. Then each can is crowded full and marked with the grade
of the fruit to which it belongs. The cans up to this point have the
large circular opening in the top, through which they are filled.
They are then placed in rac£s holding several dozens, the racks
being mounted on cars which bring them to the right height for
convenient handling. They are then wheeled to the syrup tank and
filled with syrup, about 300 to 350 pounds of sugar being used to a
ton of peaches. The little caps to cover the circular openings, each
cap with a small hole in the centre, are next soldered on with an
apparatus by which a large number are handled in a minute. The
truck on which stands the rack is then passed 011 to a tank full of
boiling water, in which the rack, cans, and all are immersed. The
hole in the cap is so small that no water enters, and none of the
syrup comes out. Next, the rack full of cans is replaced on the
truck and passed on to the second solderers, who deftly deposit a
drop of solder on the hole in the cap. To make sure that no germs
of decomposition are left within, the cans are again immersed in
boiling water, and are then ready for packing, in which is included

335

the placing of the proper label and boxing. The cans are made by
machinery in the upper storey of the building, and come rolling
down in a steady stream during working hours along a railway
made for that purpose."

PULPING FRUIT.

Apart from fruit-canning, which needs to be done with a con-
siderable amount of neatness, and requires a certain skill to be suc-
cessfully carried out, a large number of the varieties of fruits cul-
tivated in our orchards are not adapted for the purpose of canning.

Pulping fruit does not present the same difficulties. The
principles of canning apply broadly 'to this method of utilising our
fruit, but the operations of pulping are, in the main, more within
the means of the majority of fruitgrowers than is fruit-canning
properly speaking.

For pulping, the fruit is picked in approximately the same
condition as for canning — firm and sweet, although the over-ripe
fruit may be used as well.

No sugar is required. The stone fruits are pitted and set to
cook in a copper boiler, or preferably in a steam- jacketed pan. The
object of this cooking is to kill all germs of decomposition, the
time required varying from 25 to 35 minutes. The whole mass is
kept continuously stirred to prevent caking and burning, which
would materially damage the quality of the pulp.

Immediately the pulp is cooked, the fire is drawn out or the
steam shut oft:, and the pulp is run or ladled into tins of recognised
size if for export.

These tins are cylindrical, 5| to 6 inches in diameter, and 10
inches deep ; they hold lOlbs. Fruit pulp is shipped from the
South of France and Italy in packages of that size, 10 tins going
to a case, which is reported to hold lOOlbs. net.

For home use or for other markets, instead of the lOlb. tin,
the large four-gallon tin, similar in shape and size with the
ordinary kerosene tin, is used. When filled it holds 451bs. of
pulp. This package should be made of a heavier gauge tin than
the kerosene tin, and thus guard against leakage caused by rough
handling during transit.

The filling of the tins is done in the case of small fruit through
a good- sized funnel set over a hole three inches in diameter punched
into the top. If apricots and suchlike are tinned, they are
ladled in.

To tomato pulp add a little salt to taste. If it is desired to
peel them, dip the tomatoes for half a minute in boiling water and
tear off the skin.

Some pulp settles down considerably when tinned. Should
this occur, the empty space should be filled with scalded pulp. A

336

small disc of tin, known as a stud, is then soldered over the hole,
with a small vent-hole left open. The tins are then treated like
canned fruit, and placed in a hot water bath until the temperature
right through the mass reaches over 180° F. (82° C.), so as to
make sure that all germs are destroyed. This done, a drop of
solder closes the vent-hole. If the operation has been successfully
done there is no air^ inside, and on cooling a vacuum is created,
which causes a contraction, shown by a compression of the sides
and ends. If, on the other hand, the mass has not been thoroughly
sterilised; or if germs have got access to it before soldering the
cover, fermentations will before long set in, which will be accom-
panied by evolutions of gases inside, and the ends as well as the
sides of the tin will bulge out.

Should this happen, the "blown" tins are placed once again
into the hot water bath, and the temperature of the whole mass
raised once more to 180° F.

Freshly-filled tins should be kept under observation for a
fortnight or so before being encased, and as a further precaution
the tins are often tested.

This is done by immersing them for a few minutes into hot
water. The air inside thus expands, and should the least hole
exist its presence will be revealed by a stream of small air bubbles.

It is thus seen that fruit pulp affords a simple and ready
means of storing until needed, all the out-of- season fruit we
require for jam-making, marketing the balance at a time
when the market is not glutted with the particular fruit thus
preserved.

One ton of apricots makes one ton of pulp, the water added
making up the weight of the pits removed.

For converting into jam, about fib. of sugar is added to
every pound of the pulp and the mass boiled for about 30 minutes.

JELLIES.

Fruit jellies constitute one of the most attractive and tasty
forms of utilising fruit ; they keep indefinitely. Apples, quinces,
plums, apricots, grapes, strawberries, guavas, Cape gooseberries and
a host of other fruit can thus be treated.

Pectic acid, su^ar and heat combined with fruit juice, cause the
mass to set in a jelly. For that reason fruits not quite over-ripe
are preferable, as they contain a larger amount of pectic acid, which,
on ripening, is gradually converted into pectin, whilst the fruit
becomes soft to the touch. When combined with sugar, and boiled
for a certain time and then cooled, fruit juices coagulate and set
into a jelly.

The amount of sugar required is approximately equal to that
of the fruit juice. In order to impart to the jelly a clearer fracture
lemon juice is at times added.

337

To make into jelly the fruit is boiled, peel, core, and all, until
quite soft, not too much water being used. It is then straine'd by
squeezing through a cloth or through a flannel bag. To each pint
of juice, add £ to lib. of brewer's crystals. After boiling briskly
for a q uarter of an hour to half an hour the liquid, placed on a plate,
will jellify. Another good test is to let a drop or two of the
boiled fruit juice into a tumbler of water, when, should it sink to
the bottom of the glass, it is ready for bottling. The jars should
be hot when filled to the edge ; all air bubbles are removed with
the back of a knife drawn across the surface.

After standing for a few days in a cool place, away from dust,
the jars are covered with paper that has been dipped in milk, or
white of egg, or in spirits of wine, and put away until required.

GATHERING AND MARKETING FRUIT.

As the fruit ripens it is picked, packed, and marketed. More
skill is required to effect these operations to the best advantage
than is at first imagined, and in this respect past experience is of
no mean value.

GATHERING

plays an important part in the keeping of fruit. Just when
and how to pick is an art which is acquired, but certain peculiarities,
when observed, will secure for the grower the reward of his labour.

The right stage at which fruit should be picked is in a
measure governed by the market it is destined for. The local
market is best supplied with fruit fully ripe, when it possesses in
its fullest measure all its succulence and attractive colouring.
For shipment to distant markets, and for long keeping, it is
imperative to pick fruit when ripe, but before it reaches the
period of full maturity. In such cases, quality and appearance
must give precedence to long-keeping property. There is no very
well-defined line showing ripeness from full maturity, and here
experience is needed ; that experience, however, is easily acquired.

If the fruit is picked too green it also often shrivels, lacks
flavour, and does not sell to advantage.

Apples are picked at different stages. Most large, early soft-
fleshed apples, such as Mr. Gladstone, Red Astrakan, Lord
Suffield, and others of the same class, should be gathered early
before they are fully ripe. They then travel much better. They
should be marketed as quickly as possible after picking. It is
surprising how soon early apples lose their freshness and,
therefore, their marketable values after being gathered. They
soon become mealy, disorganisation of their tissues sets in, and they
rot.

As regards mid-season apples, the state of the market should
influence the period of picking.

338

Late apples for home use or local market should be left as
long on the trees as possible. It is certainly a mistake to sell, with
mid-season fruit, apples which if kept a month or so longer would
sell much better.

For long-keeping apples for export, gather when the fruit is
full grown, and the pips turn dark brown or nearly black. They
will colour and mature during transit.

Pears require, in gathering, much the same treatment. Few
pears are at their best if allowed to ripen on the tree, they either
become dry or mushy at the core or develop hard stone cells or a
woody kernel. Early pears should always be gathered for market
before they become fully ripe, and should be marketed rather
under than over ripe. Mid-season pears may remain on the tree
a little longer, except the Bartlett or William's Bon Chretien,
which, picked when fully grown, but hard, ripens without
shrivelling. Late pears should be picked before they are fully ripe,
or else they become gritty. Kieffer's pears are picked two or
three weeks before they are fit to eat, if allowed to hang until
ripe, the core becomes a mass of woody lumps. Apples and
pears, when fit to be picked, snap clean off the fruiting spur upon
being lifted gently upwards. This avoids breaking off the
fruit spur to which they are attached, and upon which next
year's fruit would be produced. For packing, they should not be
allowed to remain on the trees until the surface has a greasy
appearance and feels greasy to the touch. When allowed to reach
this stage, they will not keep as well as those gathered earlier.

When picking peaches, it should be remembered that a fine
appearance always infers good flavour and other merits. Peaches
and apricots seldom colour well after they are picked, and picking is
one of the most difficult parts of the business of peach and
apricot culture. Most people can pick green pears and apricots and
knock them down to the ground, but it takes some experience to
judge, by a subtle feeling of the fruit when pressed between the
finger and the thumb, when it is ready to come off. After a little
practice the picker can generally tell by the colour of the fruit
whether it is fit to pick or not. When a large number of trees have
to be gone over it is advisable to pick a little too soon rather than
let the crop get ahead of you, as, when ripe, the wind often brings
them down by the bushel. It is sometimes two or three weeks
from the time the first apricots and peaches are fit to pick until
the last are ripe ; the trees should be gone over two or three times a
week. In some large orchards in America the pickers do not climb
up the trees, this process being considered slow, and resulting in
much green fruit being knocked off. In those orchards it is pre-
ferred to jar the tree when the dew is off and collect the ripe fruit,
which then does not pick up dirt. For that purpose the ground
underneath the trees is reduced to a fine tilth, so as to save
bruising the falling fruit. The jarring is done with a long
pole or bamboo with a hook fastened at the end, and the knack of
delivering the blow results in just that fruit which is of the proper

339

stage of ripeness being brought down. A similar process is used
when gathering prunes.

Plums may be picked almost green for distant shipment, as
they colour in transit. This is even more noticeable in the case of
the Japanese plums, which ripen and colour very well when stored
in a cool, dark place.

Cherries and plums, if allowed to hang too long, are severely
affected by the fruit-rot fungus. For the same reason they should
always be picked when dry, or else decay will soon consume them.
When picking cherries and plums the stem should be cut off with
the thumb nail, and the fruit itself should not be touched, lest the
delicate bloom be rubbed off.

Figs are picked when fully ripe ; they do not ripen after pick-
ing, and do not become sweeter than when cut from the tree. As
they do not ripen all at once, the trees must be gone over daily. A
ripe fig is soft to the touch and is generally wrinkled and hangs
downward. Some kinds, when ripe, show seams or cracks on their
jacket. For drying, they should be cut when they contain about
one-third of their weight of sugar ; for eating, they may be gathered
when they are sweet and palatable. They should on no account be
shaken off the trees, as bruised figs soon sour, and a few such would
spoil a whole box full. Pulling the figs from the tree will also
injure them. The proper method is to cut each ripe fruit clean off
the branch and carefully place it in boxes or trays. Those figs
which hang high up the tree, beyond easy reach, may be picked by
means of a readily-made appliance, consisting of a light pole with a
jam tin with sharp edges, nailed to its extremity. The edge of the
tin is pressed against the soft fruit stalk of the fig, which it cuts,
and then the fruit drops into the tin.

Grapes are best picked when fully ripe. If picked when just
coloured, but tart, they wont ripen 'further. The bloom always
shows when grapes ripen. Care should be taken, when picking the
bunch, to hold it by the stem, which is then snipped with shears.
Early, tender grapes, with soft skin will travel better if picked
before they are fully ripe. More fleshy grapes, on the other hand,
gain both as regards quality and appearance if allowed to hang
until sun-kissed and quite ripe.

Gooseberries may be marketed either green or ripe. It is con-
sidered less exhausting to the bush when the smaller fruits are
picked green and the finest ones allowed to ripen. Green goose-
berries are stripped from the branches quite rapidly. They may
then be run through the fanning mill to free them from leaves and
then packed for market.

Currants are allowed to colour, and are picked when they are ripe.

Strawberries are picked with their stalks when they have quite
coloured. A strawberry which has a green or white tip seldom
carries well if picked at that stage.

Blackberries and raspberries are not necessarily ripe when they
have coloured. They should be soft and free from acidity, when they

340

shake off the bushes readily and part from the stem on which they
grow.

Melons sometimes puzzle the inexperienced growers. Water
melons often sound hollow to percussion, and the stalk begins to
wither, although this is not an infallible sign. A crackling sound
is heard when pressing lightly on the melon. One of the best
symptoms, however, is the clearer colour of the rind, which at times
shows a faint tint of yellow. Musk and rock melons, when ripen-
ing, sometimes crack more or less up to the stem. On pulling they
should come clean off. Some of the larger varieties do not part so
readily from the stem, a.nd if pulled show a large hole in the rind ;
with those it is best, to cut the stem.

Of other fruit, bananas, tomatoes, and persimmons are picked
when just showing faint signs of approaching maturity, as they
ripen during transit, and may with safety be held back until ready
for use.

For the convenience of pickers, and for ensuring that fruit is
gathered expeditiously and without bruises, a few ingenious orchard
appliances are here illustrated.

A long and light orchard ladder is essential when prunning tall
trees and gathering fruit. Such a ladder can readily be made of

Fruit Ladder.

some fibrous kind of timber, such as stringy bark or Oregon pine.
The peaked top enables it to be run into the top of tall trees and
rested against a branch.

On page 117 is illustrated a clumsy four-footed step-ladder,
which is generally heavy and easily dislocated. An ordinary-hinged
step ladder with a flat top, where baskets may be placed, is very useful.

341

Some fruit often hangs at the top of long branches and out of
the reach of the pickers. One common way of
getting them down consists in dislodging them by
means of a long pole. It generally happens
that such fruit is knocked about and bruised beyond
recognition. In order to reach these outlying
fruits, various kinds of fruit-picking devices are
used, two of which are here illustrated.

This picker consists of a long pole armed at
the end with a V-shaped hook, which pulls the
fruit from the stalk ; a canvas hose
stretched round a hoop fastened
underneath the picker conveys
the fruit to the hand, one fruit
only being allowed to come down
the bag at a time.

The second design is another
ingenious one, which any tin-
smith can make. It should, for
the sake of lightness, be made
of tin- wire. In that case, the fruit
is delivered to the picker by taking
down the instrument.

V. Picker witli
delivery sack.

Wire Picker.

GrEADING.

It may be said that the farther the
market, the greater the need of bestowing
fruits the attention it deserves. The wants
in a manner understood and complied with
commercial fruit-growing, which generally
distances and necessitate numerous and at
must be known and studied.

orchard is away from
on picking and packing
of the local markets are
by most growers ; but
means shipping to long
times rough handling,

However carefully the fruit has been picked, it is essential, in
order to secure top market price, to grade it. This is best done by
hand, as most mechanical graders advertised are only suitable for
sorting out potatoes or second-class hard fruit, or for grading dried
fruit.

A definition of what constitutes first-class fruit will prove
instructive to growers. A perfect specimen is not necessarily
first-class fruit. First-class fruit as understood in the market
is a parcel of fruit of one variety, full grown, well-coloured,
without blemish due to insect or fungoid blight, carefully picked,
all of as near as possible one size, shape, degree of ripeness,
got up in neat and appropriate packages, showing no shrinkage,
and correctly labelled. Some growers sort out their fruit into
three or even four grades, such as " extras " or " selected,"
" fancy," and " first-class " and " culls." In that case the term
second-class or No. 2 is often substituted for the term " culls."

342

These names are preferred by some fruit dealers to the
numerical descriptions representing the quality of fruit, as although
No. 2 grade may, for all purposes, be almost as good as No. 1, yet
many object to appear dealing in any commodity which is not^first
class. On the other hand, those fancy names described above do not
convey any very clear and definite idea of the standard which directs
their classification, and what appears "extra" or "fancy" to one
dealer may not fill another dealer's ideal.

JC\ Strap /run
/\ \ faucet*

Home-made Fruit Grader.

Of fruit graders a number of types are found in the market,
but they are all constructed on the same principle, and the above
diagram illustrates an easily constructed home-made grader, which
finds favour in California. A strong oblong frame is constructed of
4x4 timber about 9ft. apart, well braced, with the uprights set
wide enough to allow the shoot to play between them. The shoot
(B) is about 12ft. long by 2ft. wide, and is provided with as many
screens as it is desired to have grades of fruit. These screens may
be made of galvanised iron with holes of the desired size punched
into them, and may be changed to suit the kind of fruit to be
graded. First comes the dirt screen, 3ft. x 2ft., then, say, the screen
of small fruit and culls, which is followed by a larger screen and a
larger one again, while the largest fruit may, if so desired, be
delivered into a box at the end of the shoot. The lower part under
the shoot contains the bins with sloping bottom so that the fruit
will slide easily.

343

The screens shown in the lower part of the illustration are for
apricots and plums ; larger holes would be required for larger
fruits.

The shoot is hung on the uprights with iron straps about one
foot long, in which holes are punched so that the pitch of the shoot
may be changed. A rocking motion can thus be imparted to the
shoot by means of a lever bolted to the under side of the frame.
This lever when pulled and released strikes a bumper provided
alongside, and gives to the rocking shoot a jar, which sends the
fruit along.

As the fruit is picked it is consigned to some receptacle until
it can be emptied into a case or taken to the packing shed. In

order to obviate the necessity of con-
tinuously going down the steps or of
stooping to let down the picked fruit,
that vessel must be within easy reach.
The following illustration is that of
the New Jersey peach basket, which is
in the shape of the inverted frustrum
of a cone. It is made of wood splints
and has a flat or a curved cover. These
baskets are held at about one's waist
by dropping them into a hoop which is
held upon the person by a strap over
the shoulder. The picker has thus the
use of both hands. When filled it is
left in the shade under the tree whence
it is removed by a cart to the packing
shed, when the contents are sorted, graded, and packed.

For most fruit an ordinary wicker basket with a handle is very
convenient. Some line the basket with bagging to deaden the fall
and avoid bruises.

Strawberries are best packed straight away into the small
wooden punnets, and when thus filled they may be placed without
further handling into strong crates.

PACKING.

Good fruit deserves good packing, and bad fruit will not sell
without it. Every orchardist should be well imbued of that fact,
and keep it well in mind. Anything that tends to give the buyer
the idea that extra care has been used in the packing will pay.

It is admitted on all hands that apart from detracting from
the look of the contents, and bringing for first-class fruit second-
class prices, the pernicious practice of using soiled, stained, second-
hand packages often proves to be the means of unconsciously
distributing destructive orchard pests.

The idea that second-hand cases are cheaper than new sawn
cases is, when all is considered, very questionable. They cost, it is
true, to purchase less than new cases, but the extra cost of freight,

Peacli Basket.

344

of cartage, time, and material used in repairs outbalance the
difference.

The lower price goods packed in second-hand cases invariably
fetch whenever compared with the same grade goods packed in new
cases is in itself sufficient to stamp this class of package as costly
to the grower, who often, moreover, is given cause to repent having
used them when new blights and pests carried as spores, eggs, or
larvae in the cracks and crevices of the timber, invade his garden.

Honesty in packing is a cardinal rule which should on no
occasion be departed from, and especially on a glutted market is
the grower made aware of it. The glaring fraud of topping inferior
fruit and rubbish with picked specimens is, as a rule, so noticeable
that it passes comprehension that some should still persist in it.

When packing it is permissible to double face the case, bottom
and top. A layer of fruit is carefully set at the bottom ; these, for
the sake of uniformity, show the same side. Over these fruit of the
same grade and type is used as a superstructure, and a top layer of
even fruit also facing the same way is set, when the cover is gently
pressed down and nailed. The case is then ready to be branded and
despatched.

It very frequently happens that in order to test the packing the
dealers open the cases sideways, or on the bottom end ; and even
often, when a large parcel comes under the hammer, one or two
cases, picked out at random, are tipped on the table exposed to
view, and stand as a sample of the whole lot.

For long-distance shipping, it stands to reason that nothing
but first-class fruit will pay for freight, packing, for shrinkage due
to natural causes, and other incidental changes.

HOW TO PACK.

In connection with this important question, the experience of
fruit-growers and of those engaged in the trade will be of value.

In America, where the art of packing has been brought up to
a high standard, the bulk of the apple and pear exporting trade is
done in kegs or barrels of standard size. These are double-faced,
bottom and top. This facing is done by selecting fruit of uniform
grade and placing them in concentric rows. About two tiers should
be faced, the rings of one tier breaking joints with those of
another. The stem end is turned towards the end of the barrel.

In filling, the barrel is lightly shaken every now and again to
settle the fruit firmly. When filled, the apples should stand half
an inch to an inch or so above the chine, and they are pressed down
gently by the cover, which is then nailed securely. If the package
is lined, and if the fruits are wrapped with paper, the spring of
the paper itself will take up the slack and will keep the fruit in
place.

For the fancy export trade, an improved if more costly system
of packing has been used with striking success. It consists of a

345

light but strongly- made box, into which fit tiers of light cardboard
trays, with compartments somewhat similar to those found in egg

Fancy fruit box with compartments.

•cases. Each pear, apple, or peach is fitted into one compartment,
where it is kept from contact with its neighbour ; so that if one
decays the adjoining fruit is not injuriously affected, as is the
case with a mere tissue paper wrapping.

The cardboard trays may be made to hold from two to four
dozen fruit, with two or three tiers in each box. This package is
necessarily very costly, but for the safe carrying of choice fruit to
distant markets it offers obvious advantages.

Regarding the packing of apples, the following methods
adopted by some Victorian and Tasmanian growers convey their
own lesson.

The long apples, such as Cleopatras and Pearmains, should be
packed in the case with the eye downwards, so that the side of the
fruit should show when the box is opened in the auction room, to
exhibit its nature and quality. The round fruits, such as Nonpareil,
should be packed with the eye towards the side of the box, so as to
show its best aspect.

For wrapping, take a piece of paper cut to size. The sheets
usually measuring 29iii. x 19iii., will cut from six to eight wrappers,
according to the size of the apple ; place it in the palm of the hand,
place the apple to be wrapped with its eye in the centre of the
paper, close the fingers slightly and twist the edges, enclosing the
stalk of the apple in the twist. Place each wrapped fruit singly
and firmly into the box. If there is a corner into which an ordinary
apple will not go, do not jam a small apple in it, as this will spoil
many fruit ; fill it with paper shavings. When the case is full,

346

put some paper shavings on top of the fruit, put the lid on, and
press gently with the knee and nail down. A well packed case can
be put on any of its sides without the fruit moving at all, although
the apples are not tightly jammed.

The Tasmanians — who after years of trial, attended with alter-
nate success and failure, have now firmly established a large and
growing export of apples — exercise the utmost care in handling the
cases. A few occasionally get somewhat jarred, but they are at
once put aside and re-sorted, for one damaged case put up to
auction at Covent G-arden often affects the sale of a large parcel.
It is not uncommon for one steamer to take on board ten to twelve
thousand cases which, one and all, are most gently handled. The
shippers have their representatives present to see that everything is
properly done. The cases of apples are lowered from the stacks
awaiting shipment on to trollies, then lifted on to the shoots, down
which they smoothly slide into the hold of the vessel. There the
men receive them (working under supervision), carefully stack
them, and thus the whole operation of shipping goes on expeditiously
and smoothly.

Peaches require even more delicate handling than do apples
and pears. The style of packing of the Michigan and Georgia
peach-growers is here illustrated.

Michigan Peach Basket.

This is much like the standard grape basket, the chief difference
being in the cover, which is made of slats nailed to a curved rim at
either end. This package varies somewhat in size, a favourite one
holding a peck.

Another form of peach package is the six-basket crate. In
shape it is much like the strawberry crate, and is made to hold two
tiers of three small wood veneer punnets. These punnets hold
about half a peck, so that the six-basket crate contains about three-
fourths of a bushel of fruit. Between the two rows of punnets is a
false partition made of thin board, to prevent the bruising of the
fruit in the lower tier. Larger crates to hold either three tiers of
punnets or two rows of four punnets each could also be made with

347

advantage. This form^ of packing is particularly suited for select
grades of fruit, and can also be utilised for packing choice plums,

Six-basket Crate.

apricots, persimmons, and early tomatoes. Unless the fruit is of
the very best quality, it cannot present an attractive appearance,
and this case at once becomes an unprofitable package, because all
the imperfections of the fruit can be seen at a glance ; instead of
the buyer being pleased with its appearance, he is repulsed. For
that reason, whenever a grade of fruit below " fancy " is marketed,
any other suitable package than a " carrier crate " would be more
profitable.

Apricots for marketing are carefully picked before they are

Box of Apricots.

thoroughly ripe, each fruit, if of special value, may be wrapped in
tissue paper and symmetrically packed in a shallow box.

348

^ Another illustration shows a safe way of packing choice
apricots in a light wood veneer basket.

Basket of Apricots.

All soft fruit, including those mentioned, as well also as figs,
should never be packed in more than two layers, and whenever the
fruit is of a particularly soft kind one layer only is advisable.

Grapes do not all carry or keep well. Those with a firm skin
and flesh are the most suitable for this purpose.

Amateur packers are apt to err in the direction of packingjtoo
loosely, they are afraid of setting them firmly for fear of spoiling
the bloom, whereas they go the right way to work to lose [the
whole of it. If the bunches will not bear a rough shake they are
sure to travel badly.

When packing grapes, several styles of boxes are used. Any of
those figured on the plate illustrating the fruit cases more
commonly used in Australia will do, and more particularly Nos.
1, 3, 4, and 5.

Their capacity is about a bushel, and they hold, according'to
the kind of grapes and the careful packing, from 28 to 361bs.rof
fruit.

The bunches of grapes having been snipped off the vines with
as little handling as possible, are carefully laid in baskets, and
taken to the packing shed. It is preferable to pick them in clear,
dry weather, and in the cool of the morning. When packing in
the large cases, which are first lined with clean white paper
commence by packing the bunches firmly and neatly together

349

stalks inside and point downwards. After packing a few layers,
rock the case sharply to cause the grapes to settle firmly, and
proceed in a like manner until the case is full. The last bunch or
bunches should fit in extra tight, the top layer having been carefully
laid on the surface, which should stand an inch or so above the
side of the case. The lining paper is then folded on top, the lid
laid flat, and pressure gently applied with the knee whilst the nails
are being driven. Any small empty corner or hollow can be with
advantage filled by means of a few berries snipped off by means of
the secateurs.

Nothing in the shape of packing should be placed on the top
or among the bunches for the local market.

For export, cork dust may be well sifted in between the
berries, to prevent their touching. The cork dust should be coarse,
as if too fine it spoils the appearance of the berries, and works out
of the case.

The grapes should not be over-ripe or sunburnt, but may be
exposed to the air for a little time to allow of the skin being
toughened a little before packing.

After the bunches have been spread out for a few hours, each
bunch is gone over, and any faulty berries are removed with a pair
of scissors.

Of the tough varieties, the berries of which adhere firmly to
the stalk, only the more open bunches are fit to pack for distant
markets.

The amount of cork dust required for packing grapes (a
bushel case) varies from 41bs. to 61bs., costing Is. to Is. 6d. Begin
with 61bs., and with practice reduce to 41bs.

Some of the tougher grapes, such as Almeria, Flame Tokay,
Emperor, when properly packed in granulated cork, will carry
without cool storage to distances of 12 to 14 days' travel from the
port of shipment, and open out in excellent condition.

With good carrying varieties of grapes, suitably packed, an
important trade with India, only nine to ten days from our shores,
lies within our reach.

From South Australia, Almeria (White Daria) grapes have
for several years been shipped to England, packed with cork dust
or jar rah shavings, both materials proving equally suitable for the
purpose.

For some time past, in America, the grape basket has been in-
troduced with marked favour. In shape it is similar to the Michigan
peach basket, illustrated above, one marked improvement consisting
in the substitution of a folding wire handle, instead of the stiff
wooden one. This permits of a number of these baskets being
packed in a crate. Two sizes are made, viz., five- pound and a ten-
pound basket. The ten-pound baskets usually hold only a trifle over
eight pounds of fruit, and the five-pound baskets a little over four

350

pounds. But as this is commonly understood, and the grapes are sold
by the basket and not by the pound, no one is greatly deceived.

The basket is made of thin
wood veneer, with a light wood
binding at top and bottom.
The light wooden cover is
fastened on with a special clasp.
Strawberries and other berries
until of late years were amongst
the most difficult of our garden
The Grape Basket. fruit to market. Since then a

fresh spurt has been given to their culture owing to more perfect

methods of picking and packing.

A few cardinal points must be observed in order to obtain full
value in the open market. The picking must be done with neat-
ness, thoroughness, and honesty. The berries should hardly be
touched with the hands, but the stalk nipped off between the finger
and nail.

As the berries are picked they are carefully dropped into small
wooden punnets holding either one pint or one quart ; these pun-
nets should not be filled too high, and it is permissible to place on
top some attractive berries. As the picking proceeds the fruit is
graded — early in the season into two grades, and later on, when
the full season comes, all inferior and damaged berries should go to
the jam cask. The packing, however, should be honestly done, and
all damaged, inferior, or unripe berries excluded from the packages
of first-class fruit. At this stage it should be the growers' business
to closely supervise the work of the pickers and promptly weed out
any showing careless, slovenly habits.

The punnets as well as the crates should not be left exposed to
the hot sun or the wind ; they are not lined with fancy paper or
packing of any sort, although a few leaves will add to the appear-
ance of the fruit. As these punnets are filled they are placed in
layers in crates ; when one layer is ready, a piece of cardboard or
some thin boards are placed over it, and another layer of punnets
set, and so on until the crate is filled, when the lid is fastened down
and the package is ready for conveying to considerable distances,
care being taken not to turn the crates upside down. The Sydney
and the Melbourne markets are in this way supplied, early in the
season, with Queensland strawberries. For long keeping and for
distant markets the berries should be picked before they are over-
ripe, and of course, the firm-fleshed varieties are for that purpose
more suitable than the more tender ones.

Foremost amongst these in the estimation of our growers is the
Paxton, with the Edith following, whilst the Marguerite and the
Noble however desirable in many other respects, often reach market
with a notable proportion of the berries bruised and crushed.

The crates used by our strawberry growers hold 401bs. to 501bs.
of strawberries. It is essential that they should be well ventilated.

351

They are also branded with the grower's name, and such brand
should be a guarantee of uniformity of the contents.

Punnets and Crates for packing soft berries.

For those who have only a few pounds of strawberries ready
for market, an ordinary half case with the centre board removed
affords a very useful packing case ; two rows of five punnets each
can be packed into these cases.

Oranges and lemons must undergo a preliminary process of
curing before they are packed and shipped to distant markets.

Whenever possible, citrus fruits should be picked in dry
weather, but this is not always practicable with us when they chiefly
ripen during the rainy winter months ; should they be wet, they
must be dried before packing.

When picking for
long storing, only
those fruit which are
free from blemishes
should be chosen ;
any thorn prick or
scaly fruit will have a
very poor chance of
keepin g. Some
pickers are even so

Lemon clipper.

352

careful that they keep their nails well trimmed. Each fruit is
individually clipped off the branch by means of specially constructed
lemon clippers with blunt blade tips and a spring like those on
secateurs ; a knife at times grazes the fruit and causes it to rot.

The fruit, when picked, is placed either in baskets or a waist
sack, and carefully transferred to the sweat boxes.

A fresh orange or lemon has a rind easily bruised, the oil cells
are then rigid and distended, and the slightest bruise or scratch
ruptures them.

The sorting having been done — usually in the orchard — the fruit
is placed in the sweat boxes, and left in the packing-house until the
rind slightly wilts and the surplus oils and moisture have evapor-
ated, making the peel tough and flexible. This takes two or three
days, or, in moist weather, even a week, after which the fruit can be
pressed into the boxes when it will not very perceptibly shrink.

The droplets of moisture found after a cool night on oranges
stacked in a heap are not due to " sweat," but to condensed vapour.
This moisture, which interferes with wrapping and packing, does
not condense in well ventilated storing houses.

SHELF g

^ ** PASSAGE

Ul
C3

35

s]
3]

J^ |

,ff,l

*

< C4 L.QFT --

<f PASSAGE

SHELF g

SHELF

Fruit Storage House.

The above diagrams show the ground plan and elevation of
a well devised storing house for keeping lemons over an extensive

353

period. The essential conditions of such a house are exclusion of
light, regulation of temperature, good ventilation under control, con-
venience of handling. Provided these requirements are borne in mind,
much less pretentious storing houses, readily constructed out of
material on the ground, may be made to answer the same purpose.
Any roomy shed, built with pug or pise walls, about one foot
thick, with ventilators at the top of the walls, will prove cheap and
convenient. The ceiling can be made of split logs with a layer of
pug on top, whilst an iron roof, with projections to save the walls,
would efficaciously keep out the weather. In order to keep such a
house cool, the doors could either be left open at night and closed
during the day, or a tunnel might be dug a couple of feet or so
under the ground, leading into the storehouse. Such a tunnel,
with a cowl or windsail on the outside end, would create a cool
draught which could be regulated at will inside the structure.

The sweat boxes should be kept off the floors so as to insure
the circulation of air around them. They are also better placed in
tiers over the shelves with ample room above for the occasional
examination of the fruit.

If the oranges or lemons have not been graded in the orchard
they are, when fit to pack, sorted into two grades, the " brights " and
the " russets," whilst all imperfect and damaged fruit is thrown out.
The brights are those smooth-skinned fruits without a blemish.
They are further graded into " fancy" and " brights," according to
size and appearance.

The russets may also be graded into two classes, the lighter
being called " golden russets." The " drops," " culls," and scaly
fruit are never shipped and are sold locally.

All fruit, after grading, are sized. For this purpose special
sizers are constructed, which are suitable where large quantities are
handled, this operation secures uniform packing.

When this period is reached, the fruit is wrapped in soft,
tough paper, as has already been described in speaking of the
methods of packing apples and pears for export. The final twist
given to the wrapper is done round the stem and affords a
protection against puncturing the fruit packed next in the case.
Japanese ricepaper or waxed paper cut in sizes 10 x 10 inches or 10
x 12 inches are the best for wrapping fruit.

Newspapers and printed papers should be tabooed for either
lining the case or wrapping the fruit, as the printer's ink is readily
absorbed by the fruit and spoils its flavour.

When packing, only fruits of one size are used for each case.
These are firmly set, but not so tight as to crush the fruit out of
shape. If a gap shows, it should be filled with white paper shavings
and no small fruit should be wedged in, as this will often spoil the
sale of the case.

Brand every case distinctly and neatly. The brand should
indicate the nature and, if possible, the number of the fruit and the

354

quality. In addition to this brand it is customary to have on the
case the brand of the shipper or of the grower. Such a brand
should be attractive as well as distinct and conspicuous, which will
prove a great convenience when shipping and handling stacks of

cases.

Lemons cured and handled as explained can with profit be
stored until such time as a brisker market will absorb them at an
enhanced price.

Thus, lemons which would sell when the market is glutted for,
say, 3s. a case, as happens when the bulk of the crop comes in
in May or June, may be kept until the return of the warm weather
in September and October, when the demand for them is more
active and when the market is bare of the imported Sicilians, which
only arrive in November. At that season good lemons are scarce,
and sell for 10s. to 12s. a case and even more. The profit which
the grower is susceptible of getting by curing and keeping his
good lemons may be estimated thus : From the time of keeping in
April and May until September or October, there is a natural
shrinkage of the fruit, which amounts to about one-third of the
bulk : three cases, as cut, produce two cases cured. In other words,
three cases at 3s. equal two cases at 4s. 6d. To this must be added
a certain percentage of loss during curing and long keeping,
which averages less than 10 per cent., or say 6d. per case, bringing
up to 5s., in September and October, the price of lemons which, in
May and June, would have sold for 3s., and thus showing a surplus
profit of 5s. to 7s. per case for the.extra care in cutting, curing, and
storing.

WHAT A FRUIT CASE SHOULD BE.

As packing-cases are at times scarce and difficult to procure in
the height of the fruit season, thoughtful growers should lay in a
stock some time beforehand.

Damp and light give a weather-stained look to the wood and
turns it yellow, and the stocks should for that reason be stacked in
a dark and dry place. The dryness of the wood is of great
importance, much loss being caused by the use of green timber for
cases that are used for export.

The cases should be made of light but tough wood, which does
not split when the slats are nailed together. The material should
be sufficiently strong to withstand a moderate amount of pressure,
such as that caused by heaping up cases on the top of one another
or by slinging them into and out of the ship's hold.

The cases should be lined with strong white paper, and after
packing they should be left, if possible, for a day or two if the fruit
is of a keeping class ; they will thus settle before the lid is nailed
down.

The temptation of fastening the lids with twice as many nails
as are'really necessary should be resisted, as forcing the Jids when

355

much nailed down frequently spoils them, and also some of the
-contents of the box.

Large readable labels showing the contents of the case may not
always save the packages from rough handling, but will do so
occasionally.

AUSTRALIAN FRUIT CASES.

Much confusion exists as regards the size and shape of fruit
cases in the various fruit-growing countries, and perhaps more so in
Australia, where, amongst others, the cases illustrated on the plate
are used. Although these cases are called " bushel " cases, their
contents vary somewhat from the Imperial bushel, which measures
2,218 cubic inches.

No. 1, called the " Half -Case" is used both for oranges and
lemons, chiefly in Victoria and New South Wales. The sides consist
of four — or, better, three — battens nailed down with intervals of
f to | inch between. Unless the fruit has been sweated and is
properly cured, these cases are apt to bruise them, and thus favour
decay. Outside measurement, 2,310 cubic inches ; inside measure-
ment, 1,856 cubic inches, or 362 cubic inches short of a bushel ;
number of cases to 1 ton, shipping measurement of 40 cubic feet,
25 cases ; weighs 8|lbs. when made of deal.

No. 2. The new Tasmanian and Victorian Apple Case. —
Battens broader and nailed down close together. Outside measure-
ment, 3,000 cubic inches ; inside measurement, 2,300 cubic inches ;
number of cases to 1 ton, ship measurement, 23 cases. These cases
only have four corners, and for that reason are easier to pack.
Weighs about lOlbs. when made of Oregon deal, and can be packed
crosswise, like bricks, without waste of space. The subdivisions
are 10 x 7| x 20in. and 10 x 3| x 20in., both with a central |in.
division.

No. 3. Tasmanian Apple Case. — Outside measurement, 3,064
cubic inches ; cubical contents, 2,457 cubic inches ; number of cases
to 1 ton, ship measurement, 22 cases ; weighs about 13f Ibs. made
of deal.

No. 4. South Australian Export Case, for apples and pears. —
Outside measurement, 2,757 cubic inches ; cubical contents, 2,208
cubic inches, or practically a bushel ; number of cases to 1 ton ship
measurement, 21 cases ; weighs 8f Ibs. made of deal.

No. 5. South Australian Apple and Orange Case. — Outside
measurement, 3,269 cubic inches ; cubical contents, 2,496 cubic
inches ; number of cases to 1 ton, ship measurement, 20 cases ;
weighs about lOlbs. made of Oregon. The figure shows at each end
on one side of this case two narrow cleats jin. thick, which prevent
the cases lying closely together when stacked, and thus promote
ventilation through the heap of cases.

356

No. 6. Sydney Dump, or local market case, for oranges and
passion fruit. — Outside measurement, 3,493 cubic inches ; cubical
contents, 2,864 cubic inches ; number of cases to 1 ton, ship
measurement, 20 cases. This case is also known as the " Grin Case."
It is strongly constructed, and is supplied with triangular battens
at each corner, and is also provided with a lid, fastened by means of
leather hinges. This case weighs about 13Jlbs. when made of
Oregon deal.

As the contents of the case vary, so do also the weights of the
several fruit. Apples, for instance, weigh, on an average 401bs. per
bushel of 2,218 cubic inches, and good keeping apples up to 421bs. ;
pears, peaches, nectarines, and apricots, 41bs. to 61bs. more, or 44 to
461bs. per Imperial bushel ; plums, 161bs. to 201bs. more, or 561b.
to 601bs.

These fruit cases are made of sawn deal ^in. thick, with end
boards and centre boards Jin. to fin. in thickness. They are
stronger than the thin cases hitherto used in America, and for that
reason stand handling better, and afford better protection to the
fruit when slung into the shipbold or out of it.

At the Intercolonial Fruitgrowers' Conference held in Brisbane
in June, 1897, an attempt was made to arrive at an understanding
concerning a uniform Australian fruit-case, and the case figured
No. 2 found favour. Mr. Peacock, of Tasmania, who designed it,
claims that by its use a saving of 6d. per case is effected in freight
charges, etc., over the whole style of flat packages. It is con-
structed of fin. stuff for the sides, tops, and bottoms, and Jin. for
the ends. No centre division is used. The main disadvantages of
this case are that it too closely resembles a kerosene case, and that
some growers might either inadvertently or, when short of the
proper packages, call into requisition such cases, and thus expose the
consumer to purchase fruit flavoured with kerosene. It is besides
too large for such fruit as pears shipped to long distances, when
the heating of the contents often spoil much fruit. Another disadvan-
tage is that the timber would require to be specially cut, as the
widths (7in. and 9in.) are not sizes usually stocked, and this would
for that reason preclude the use of board's from old cases or from
the waste from ordinary boarding found at saw mills. Such a case
is only suitable for shipping hard fruit.

Since then Mr. G. H. Grapes, of Wellington, New Zealand, at
a Conference of the Auckland Fruitgrowers' Union, urged the
claim of a bi-cubic shaped case. The ideal shaped package for
fruit is one of cubic form, the fruit being thus, whichever way the
package stands, always subject to the same pressure. Bearing this
principle in mind, Mr. Grapes suggests the use of "a case con-
sisting of two cubes, each 11 x 11 x 11 inches inside measurement,
with a total capacity of 2,662 cubic inches, the external dimensions
of which would be 12 x 12 x 24 inches, and would stack in any
manner exactly 20 to the shipping ton of 40 cubic feet ; such case
to be provided with a central division of J-inch, ends J-inch, and

357

sides of ^-inch timber or thinner. The subdivision of the same to
be 11 x 5f x 22| inches, capacity 1,331 cubic inches; and 11 x 2f
x 22 inches, capacity 665 cubic inches ; both with a central J-inch
division. In the full-sized case this bi-cubic form would minimise
heating and bruising of fruit consequent on one or more fruit
decaying, thereby loosening packing. Laid down in any way, the
bottom layer of apples or oranges would have to bear only 8 or 9
inches of fruit pressure, as against a possible 15 inches in Tas-
manian, and 17 inches in Calif ornian cases. Whichever side were

•^^

n

ron

"==t

x

ten

—

*****!

"•»•«,

14
te

ff»

X

>-

«^*

, — •-—*

~- •*

6

856

24 \ xl2| x 8
Cubic Content*

20 X 15 X 10
Contents 2,299^ Inches

x 14-i x 1% 11$ X 13£ X

Cubic Contents 2.457 Inches Cub<c Con ft n fs 2 . 86 3- Inches

The cas>es shown are drawn to scale from cases containing fruit imported from
the several Australian States.

358

opened would display a broad array of fruit, only one breadth of
stuff (11 inches) need be used, which would be cut from waste,
effecting a saving in quality of timber and in the time required in
manipulating lesser widths, also in nails and time consumed
driving; further, in time and material taken in making the three
.additional cases required to hold a ton of fruit according to Tas-
manian dimensions. If necessary 5|-inch wide timber could be
used in making both full and half size cases, the ends of the full-
sized cases being held together by metallic dowells."

Mr. Grapes also suggests turning the central division with the
grain of wood at right angles with the grain of the end pieces, thus
absolutely preventing the splitting of packages by rough handling
and spilling the contents.

The depth of the half-case (5| inches) closely approaches the
depth (5f inches) of the Calif ornian fresh peach, plum, and apricot
package, and their grape case of 5 inches in depth. The depth of
the quarter-case of 12| inches varies but ^ inch from the standard
Californian cherry box, with a depth of 3 inches, and would be
found very suitable for packing the more tender berries.

Whatever shape of package is used the cases should be clean,
and neatly branded at one end with the name of the fruit, the
grower's address, and the weight or the number of fruits the case
contains.

Experiments have been arranged by this Department to test
the value of shea-oak (Gasuarina) and other suitable local timber
for case-making, and it is hoped that the cost of fruit packages
to the growers may thus be reduced. Several of our most enter-
prising growers have already tested red gum and other timber, but
as a rule these cases have been found heavier than deal, more easily
split when driving nails, and it is not yet demonstrated whether
they will stand slinging and rough usage as does the softer and
more yielding deal.

RULES FOR EXHIBITIONS AND JUDGING.

In regard to exhibition and judging of fruit at our shows,
little or no method seems to direct either horticultural societies,
exhibitors, or judges. Chaos, confusion, and arbitrary choice govern
the whole arrangement and judging, and the public, instead of
deriving instruction from the display, go away in no way benefited
by the educational purpose of the show.

In order to bring method into the management of fruit shows,
and as a guide to the judges, I give here a set of rules culled from
the codes of three prominent American horticultural societies, viz.,

359

the American Pomological Society, the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society, and the Michigan Horticultural Society : —

For Exhibitors.

(i.) A plate of fruit, unless otherwise specified, must contain
five specimens, no more or less. Of those usually
designated " small fruits," the exhibit must be one
pint of each variety. Of crab-apples, apricots, and
plums, one dozen of each variety ; of dried fruits, one
quart of each separate variety or article. Jellies,
canned, pickled, and preserved fruits may be entered
and shown in glass vessels of such character and
capacity as are commonly employed for family or
market purposes.

(2.) Articles when entered, named, and arranged for exhi-
bition will henceforth be strictly under the control of
the officers in charge of the exhibition, and neither
exhibitors nor spectators will be permitted to handle
them, except by permission of the proper officer.

(3.) To insure examination by the proper committees, all
fruits must be correctly and distinctly labelled,
and placed upon the table before the exhibition
opens. Indefinite appellations such as "pippin,"
" sweeting," " greening," etc., will not be considered
as names.

Grapes grown on girdled vines cannot compete for a prize.

(4.) Entries may be made for exhibition without competition ;
and, if worthy, the awarding committee is expected to
notice them properly in its reports.

(5.) No article entered for. competition in one class will be
permitted to compete for a prize in any other ; the
same variety, however, but not the same specimens,
may compete for both special and regular prizes, or
for a prize in another class.

(6.) The exhibitor will receive from the secretary an entry
card, which must be placed with the exhibit, when
arranged for exhibitions, for the guidance of the
judges.

(7.) All articles placed upon the tables for exhibition must
remain in charge of the society till the close of the
exhibition, to be removed sooner only upon express
permission of the person or persons in charge.

360

(8.) Fruits or other articles to be given away to visitors, or
others, will be assigned a separate room, or tent, in
which they may be dispensed at the pleasure of the
exhibitor, who will not, however, be permitted to sell
and deliver articles therein, or to call attention to
them in a boisterous or disorderly manner.

For the Guidance of Judges.

(i.) In estimating the comparative values of exhibits, judges
are instructed to base such estimates strictly upon the
varieties in such collections which shall have been
correctly named by the exhibitor prior to the time
of judging.

(2.) In awarding prizes, judges should exclude any and all
unlabelled and incorrectly labelled specimens, as well
as duplicates, and consider : 1st. The value of the
varieties for the required purpose, as given in the
society's catalogue of fruits ; 2nd. The colour, size,
and evenness of the specimens ; 3rd. Their freedom
from the marks of insects and other blemishes ;
4th. The apparent carefulness in handling, and the
taste displayed in the arrangement of the exhibit.

(3.) In the case of fruits not named in the catalogue, for
dessert, judges should consider: 1st. Quality; 2nd.
beauty ; 3rd. Size. For culinary uses : 1st. flavour,
2nd. 'Texture ; 3rd. Size. For market : 1st. Pro-
ductiveness ; 2nd. Colour ; 3rd. Handling qualities ;
4th. Suitable, even size.

(4.) The society desires to encourage the planting of only
a sufficiently large variety of sorts for a desired
purpose and adapted to the natural conditions of the
district. Hence it is important that the committee,
in their reports, specify, in the order of their value,
for that particular locality, the varieties upon which
the determination o.f their awards is based.

(5.) Useful and valuable varieties only are expected to
influence awards, while indifferent sorts, even though
large, showy, and attractive, should not, for these
reasons above, be held to add to the value of an exhibit,
except, possibly, as a means of education.

(6.) Prizes will not be awarded when the articles are judged
unworthy.

SCALES OF POINTS FOR JUDGING FRUITS.

The following scales of points for use in the adjudication of
prizes for fruits at agricultural shows will serve as a guide for
judges. The score may slightly differ so as to give more or less

361

prominence to the special featmes for which any class qf fruit may
be grown in a particular locality : —

Pomaceous Fruits (Apples, Pears, Quinces) —

Points.

Adaptability 10

Period of maturity 10

Handling ... ... ... ... ... 5

Blemishes ... ... ... ... ... 10

Skin, evenness of surface, shape ... 10

Keeping qualities ... ... ... ... 15

Colour 10

• Eichness, flavour, and texture 10

Size 5

Core, with seeds ... ... ... ... 5

Cooking- qualities, if a kitchen variety . . 10

100

Stone Fruits —

Adaptability 10

Period of maturity ... ... ... 10

Handling ... ... ... ... ... 10

Blemishes 10

Skin, shape, and colour 10

Eichness, flavour, and texbure 10

Pit or seeds ... ... ... ... 5

Sweet or dessert ... ... ... ... 10

Acid or cooking ... ... ... ... 10

Carrying qualities ... ... ... 15

100

Tomatoes —

Vigour of plant ... ... ... ... 5

Earliness ... ... ... ... ... 10

Productiveness ... ... ... ... 15

Shape of fruit ... ... ... ... 15

Texture and solidity ... ... ... 15

Size 10

Colour of fruit 10

Flavour and seeds ... ... ... 10

Blemishes ... ... ... ... ... 10

100

Grapes —

Flavour and richness ... ... ... 10

Size of bunch ... ... ... ... 10

Form of bunch ... ... ... ... 5

Size and uniformity of berry ... ... 10

Skin and bloom ... ... ... ... 10

Colour 5

Firmness and texture ... ... ... 10

Seeds 10

Keeping qualities 10

Adherence to stem ... ... ... 5

Blemishes ... ... ... ... ... 15

100

362

Oranges (score adopted by the Califormaii State of Horti-
culture) —

Points.

Size 10

Form ... ... ... ... ... 5

Colour 15

Peel 10

Weight 10

Fibre ... 8

Grain 4

Seed 8

Taste 30

100

Size : Large, 3|in. diameter ; medium, 2f in. diameter ; small,
2f in. diameter ; Tangerines, etc., 2Jin. diameter. Three-
eighths inch excess of standard allowed (without
discount) to "medium" and " small" fruit; Jin. ditto, to
" large " ; one unit discount for each deficiency in any size.

Form : Standard. — Round, oval, ovate, pyriform.

Discounts for lack of symmetry and for form
blemishes. Navel marks not to be discounted, except
when of abnormal size or of bad form.

Colour: Subdivisions.— Bloom, 2'; of peel, 10; of flesh, 3.

Standard. — Bloom to be perceptible and to be dis-
counted according to degree of deficiency, or of injury
thereto ; peel to be rich, deep orange colour, in natural
condition, and to be discounted according to degree of
deviation therefrom one or more points. Rust, scale,
and smut to be discounted 5 to 10 points, and fruit that
gives visible evidence of having been cleaned of the
same to be subject to equal penalty. Also peel that
has been rubbed or ''polished," giving gloss at expense
of breaking or pressing the oil-cells, to suffer some dis-
count. Flesh to be rich, clear, and uniform in any of
the shades common to fine fruit.

(Omit consideration of "flesh colour" until after
concluding " peel.")

Peel : Subdivisions. — Finish, 3 ; protective quality, 7.

Standards. — Of finish, smoothness, and uniformity
of surface, and pleasant touch ; protective quality, firm
and elastic texture ; abundant, compact, and unbroken
oil-cells ; and \ to ^in. thickness.

Discount, 1 point for first ^\iu. above maximum
or below minimum, and 2 points for second ditto, pro-
vided that for too long-picked and fully "cured"
oranges the minimum shall be lowered to -^in. ; and
that to fresh-picked and to slightly " cured " "large"
fruit the maximum shall be raised to Jin. Breaking

363

of oil-cells, abrasions of peel, and drying of same, to be
subject to 1 to 10 discounts, according to degree.

(Here consider "colours of flesh.")

Weight: Standard. — Specific gravity, 1 (equal to that of
water), with buoyancy of foz. allowed to "large" fruit,
|oz. ditto to " medium," and joz. to " small," all without
discount. One point to be discounted for first \oz. of
buoyancy in excess of allowance, and thereafter 2 points
for each additional Joz.

Note. — Buoyancy may be easily determined by
clasping apothecaries' weight to fruit with light rubber
elastics, and then placing in water.

Fibre : Standards. — Septa, delicate and translucent ; maxi-
mum diameter of core, ^in. in " large " fruit, and |in.
in others.

Grain : Standards. — Fineness, firmness, compactness.

Seed : Standard. — Absence of discount, 1 point for each of
first 3 seeds ; ditto thereafter, \ point for each
additional.

Each rudiment considered as a seed if any growth
has been developed ; otherwise allowed without dis-
count.

Taste : Subdivisions. — Sweetness, 10 ; citrous quality, 10 ;
aroma, 10. Standards. — Clearness and definability of
elements ; sweetness, rich, delicate, rather than heavy ;
citrous quality pronounced ; aroma, pervasive and
agreeable.

Deficiency or absence to be cause for discounts
against any element, and excess to be like cause against
sweetness, and against acid in citrous quality.

Staleness and flavours of age or of decay to be
discounted from the aggregate of points in this direction.

Lemons —

Points.

Size 7

Form 3

Colour ... ... ... ... ... 10

Peel '. ... 10

Weight 10

Fibre 8

Grain... ... ... ... ... ... 4

Seed 8

Taste 40

Size : Standards. — Large, 2f in. diameter ; medium, 2f in.
diameter; small, IJin. diameter.

Large fruit to be discounted 1 point for each Jin.
in excess ; smaller to be discounted 1 point for If in., and
4 points for l|in.

364

Form : Standard. — Oblong, with allowance of well-formed
points at stem and tip. Symmetry required.

Colour : Standard. — Bright, clear lemon. Discounts
according to degree of green splashes, dashes of bronze,
or deep shades, or for sunburn. .Rust, scale, and smut,
with fruit that gives evidence of having been cleaned of
the same, to be discounted 5 to 10 points. Rubbing or
' dusting, if heavy enough to press oil from the cells, to
be causes for discount.

Peel : Subdivisions. — Finish, 3 ; protective quality, 7.

Standards. — For protective quality to be strong,
elastic, and reasonably firm texture ; abundant, compact,
and unbroken oil cells, and thickness of -^ to ^gin.
To be discounted 2 points for first -^-in. below
minimum, and 5 points for the second ditto ; and
1 point for first -gVin. above maximum, and 2 for each
succeeding ditto. Fresh picked lemons not allowed.

Weight: Standard. — Specific gravity (equal to that of
water), with buoyancy of Joz. allowed to "large"
lemons, and Joz. to " medium and small," all without
discount. One point to be discounted for first ^oz.
excess of allowance, and 2 for each Joz. thereafter.

Fibre. — Septa, delicate and translucent ; core not to exceed
T3gin. in "large," and |in. in "medium " and " small "
fruit.

Grain: Standard. — Fineness, firmness, compactness. To
be water-coloured, shading to blue rather than to grey.

Seed : Standards. — Absence of — 1 point to be discounted for
each of first three seeds, and \ point thereafter for each
additional.

Rudiments to be considered as seed if any growth
has been developed, otherwise allowed without discount.

Taste : Subdivisions. — Acidity, 20 ; aroina, 10 ; absence of
bitterness, 10.

In interstate competitions the standard of acidity
shall be the highest per cent, of strength of acid found
in any fruits determined by chemical test. In other com-
petitions such tests may be applied as committees or
competitors may require.

Aroma shall be full and of clear quality.

Bitterness to be determined by slicing the fruit
(including peel) thin, covering with hot water, and cooling
slowly ; to stand 24 hours when practicable. (No sugar
to be used.) Should a trace of bitterness appear to the
taste, discount 1 point ; should this be fairly defined,
discount 2 points ; if pronounced, discount 5 points ;
and if strong, 10 points.

365

Although I have given these rules in full, it is evident that
close adherence to them would, at ordinary shows, be impracticable,
and would involve an amount of time and consideration altogether
out of reason. In case of a close finish however, the judges will
find it advisable to follow these rules more closely, whilst even for a
cursory examination, such as necessarily takes place a few moments
before the opening of the exhibitions, these rules will enable the
judging to be done with more method than is too often brought to
bear in comparing exhibits one with another.

THE OVERSEA FRUIT TRADE.

Western Australia, on account of its particularly suitable
climate and its singularly favourable geographical position, and the
heavy planting which has taken place of late years, will, in the
near future, enter the fruit exporting trade with every prospect
of securing in the European markets a footing which will act as a
further incentive to fruit-growing.

Both Albany and Fremantle, the last ports of call of fruit-
trading steamers, and of the mail steamers, are four days nearer the
large European markets than is South Australia, six days nearer
than Victoria, and eight or nine days nearer than either New South
Wales or Tasmania.

Apart from the immense advantage of quicker delivery, that of
a better position in the hold of the steamer does, if past experience
is a criterion, always militate in favour of the last shipped fruit.

Then, a glance at the sale prices of apples shipped from the
Eastern States have every year shown on an average an advantage
of at least one shilling a case on apples shipped from Melbourne
over those shipped from Hobart, and likewise of over a shilling a
case on apples shipped at Adelaide over those placed on board at
Melbourne.

It must be remembered that West Australian apples, in addition
to the fact that apples from the Eastern States are on the water
from four to nine lays longer, are besides favoured to the extent of
securing the best position in the ship's hold. The bottom layers
naturally suffer the most so far as ventilation is concerned, and
Sydney, Hobart, Melbourne, and Adelaide exporters are con-
sequently forced to accept position in the order of the port of call.

PACKING FRUIT FOR LONG SHIPMENT.

Ever since the exploitation of the large oversea market has
been suggested as an outlet for the surplus fruit crop of America
or of the antipodes, shippers have been busily engaged experimenting
with new and effective packing materials. Some interesting experi-
ments from* which striking deductions can be drawn are worth
recording.

" The Gazette Agricole (France) gives the report of interesting
experiments made to test the value of various methods used to

366

ensure the preservation of fruit before it is sent into towns. The
following is the result of these trials : — 1. Fruits wrapped in tissue-
paper kept perfectly to the end of the trial ; they ripened steadily ;
the fruits continued excellent in flavour and appearance. 2. In wood-
wool, a new product consisting of fine shavings, very long and
narrow, from Fir or Poplar, the pears and apples were well pre-
served, but inferior to those of the preceding lot. 3* In barley-
straw the fruit had neither spots nor a disagreeable scent, but it had
lost its freshness, and maturity was more advanced than in lots 1
and 2. 4. Pears and apples kept in hay had a pronounced flavour
of it ; they became spotty and rotten. 5. Sawdust yielded very bad
results ; the fruits were spotted, withered, smelt of the wood, and
were, in fact, unsaleable. 6. In fine wheat-straw the pears kept fairly
well ; the apples on the contrary, withered ; all were mouldy in
taste. 7. In dry leaves apples kept fairly well, but withered a
little ; pears became very spotted and withered. 8. Fruits left on
a fruit-room shelf were in moderately good condition ; but, placed
in a warm room, this lot suffered most from decay. 9. Specimens
packed in sand were perfectly preserved, but ripened less than under
any of the other conditions ; this is the best method where fruits
have to be kept for long ; before burying them in the sand it is
advisable to wrap them in tissue-paper."

Under the title of " A New Packing Material " the Gardener's
Chronicle mentions an interesting experiment which took place some
three years ago, in the matter of packing fruits in Victoria for ship-
ment to England : —

" As is pretty generally known, apples and pears are now
brought from the Cape of Good Hope and from the Australian
colonies in boxes holding a bushel, which are stored on board ship
in cool chambers. These chambers, or refrigerators, have been
supplied by the steamship companies at a considerable outlay of
money. The fruits are merely wrapped in tissue, and placed in the
boxes.

" Under this system, apples have for the most part come very
successfully ; but pears have been less satisfactory. Occasionally
there have been pears from the Antipodes that have reached this
country in a sound condition, but numerous consignments have
proved to be of little value, and the commission agent is never able
to speak of such fruits or to gauge their value until they have been
unpacked. The freight per bushel from Victoria to London for
apples and pears so stored on board ship in cool chambers is 3s. 9d.

" Such are the circumstances of the present system, and the
amount of freight paid for passage.

" And now for the experiment, for intelligence of which we are
indebted to Mr. J. B. Thomas, well-known fruit salesman in Covent
Garden, to whom the fruits which have been the subjects of experi-
ment were addressed.

" Instead of packing the apples wrapped in tissue only, in the
case of several bushels that have recently arrived in London by the

367

s.s. Wakood, a quantity of abestos or a preparation of this sub-
stance has been used. The fruits were wrapped in tissue as
formerly, and afterwards embedded in the asbestos, each fruit
being perfectly surrounded by this substance. Upon unpacking
the case, the asbestos appeared to be caked, but it was easily broken
up, and then appeared almost like flour. We should suppose,
therefore, that the fruits would be air-tight under such conditions,
and this will account for the fact that as we saw them they were
perfectly sound, and in excellent condition, although five months
had elapsed since they were packed in the boxes. The apples were
grown by J. R. Warren, Mount Alexander Orchard, Harcourt, and
Mr. J . M. Ely, Rosehill Gardens, Harcourt, both large Victorian
fruit growers. They were packed and brought to this country
under the direction of Mr. George Pontin, Church House, Yapton,
Sussex. The apples .were gathered and packed previous to May 5
last, but owing to some objection, we believe on the part of the
steamship companies, there was a delay of two months or more
before shipment, and even then they travelled by the Cape route.
The companies, naturally perhaps, object to the introduction of a
new system of packing fruits that may render unnecessary the cool
chambers that have cost so much money to provide. But such
objections will, no doubt, be overcome, and if a syndicate be formed,
as is now proposed, the system will be given a conclusive trial. The
new system, should it answer to expectations, will possess several
advantages. The fruit may then be stored in the hold of the ship,
and the freight per bushel-case will be (5d. instead of 3s. 9d. ; but
as the packing material will displace a quantity of the fruits in each
package, it may be well for present purposes to describe the future
freight of the fruit as Is. per bushel. It must be remembered also
that the asbestos is a valuable material in England, and it will be
sold here to as much advantage as will the apples. The result will
be that the asbestos and fruit would be brought to England for less
money than is now paid for the fruits alone. The apples will travel
.as well or better, and it is thought they may be preserved after
arrival here for weeks if necessary, providing that the cases be not
opened in the meantime. And beyond the other considerations, it
is hoped also that Victorian pears by this system may be placed on
the English market without much risk of loss by decay."

Under the name of the " Sutherland Process of Packing," a
good deal was said a couple of years ago. The process is an
adaptation of principles of packing which experience had
demonstrated as favourable for the long keeping of fruit.

It consists of wrapping each fruit — excepting grapes — in
tissue paper, and packing them carefully in a case lined with a bag
of tough-waxed paper, with folding flaps on the top. After the
fruits are securely packed, these flaps are folded over and sealed by
means of a hot iron run along the folded edges. An air-tight bag
is thus secured, over which the head of the box is nailed down. In
this way, the precipitated moisture from outside, which is condensed
into droplets in the cool chambers, does not come into contact with

368

the fruit, which is stored at a temperature two or three degrees above
freezing point. Although the chemical processes which go on during
maturation are checked at these temperatures, yet decomposition is
not stayed to the same extent, and the gases and germs and injurious
juices which come out of any fruit which happen to decay inside
that air-tight bag are thus brought into closer contact with the
contents of the box.

COLD STORAGE FOB FRUIT

Constitutes at the present time one of the safest and cheapest
methods of dealing with fruit at times of glut of the market. It is
often, with fruit and other perishable products, either a feast or a
famine, but with more precise knowledge regarding methods of
picking and packing, and also of cold storage, which private as well
as public commercial enterprise has placed within the reach of all,
it is now practicable to withhold fruit from the market when it is
most abundant and when prices are low, and offer it for sale with
profit when it becomes scarce.

The profits, however, are not so large as they would appear to
some, and there are risks to face and costs to incur in holding a
crop over. The fruit, for instance, must possess keeping qualities;
some are of such a kind that nothing will prevent speedy deteriora-
tion. Most summer apples, it is well known, will soon, however
carefully handled, go mealy and rot ; most grapes are bad keepers ;
strawberries will, under no circumstances, keep more than a couple
of days or so. Moreover, the fruit may, on account of bad
cultivation, rough handling, or attacks by insect pests and blights,
fail to keep well, although the variety itself is known to possess
good keeping qualities. To risks and losses due to the causes just
enumerated must be added cost of handling, re-sorting, and
re-packing, also, rent of cold storage room, which all tend to greatly
reduce the profits to the grower or the dealer.

The conditions required for preserving fruit in cold storage are
pure, dry, cold air, and the following table, issued by the Kansas
Experimental Station, shows the temperatures which, for certain
products, give the best results : —

Product. Temp. F.

Apples, summer ...

38-42

Apples, winter ...

32-35

Pears

33-38

Quinces ...

33-35

Peaches or Plums

36-40

Grapes

38-40

Berries, Cherries

40

Lemons and Oranges

40

Water Melons ...

40

Musk Melons

40

Tomatoes ...

38-40

Cucumbers

38-40

Celery

.

35

Onions

34-40

Potatoes . . .

36-40

Asparagus or Cabbage

34-35

Package. Keeping period.

boxes

2 to 4 months

do.

5 to 8

do.

2 to 4

do.

3 to 4

crates

2 to 4

boxes

2 to 8

punnets . .
boxes

1 to 3
8 to 12

3 to 6

2 to 3

crates

2 to 4

do.

1 to 3

369

For juicy summer fruit the value of cold storage is not so much
for keeping them for any length of time as for tiding them over a
glutted market. Such fruit, as strawberries and raspberries, should
not be kept over a day or two. Grapes do not retain their flavour,
bloom, or appearance if kept longer than a week or two. Of pears,
some will keep well ; others, such as the Bartlett, may be put in
early in the autumn, and stowed away in such a manner as will
allow the cold air to circulate freely around them, and should be
sold as soon as the market is relieved. There is then a good
demand for them. Late peaches, firm and sweet, may be stored
with profit. Apples, of all fruit, keep best, and moreover, improve
by keeping in cold storage, but with whatever fruit is stored,
success will depend on the kind, condition when gathered, care in
handling, packing, method of storing, as well as the temperature
at which it is kept.

Two other conditions influence the keeping quality of fruit to a
larger extent than most people imagine. One is the quality and
amount of fertilising nutriment the tree draws from the earth
during the period of its growth, and the other its freedom from
attacks of parasites, the sort of blight affecting it, and its state of
health generally.

How TO COOL AND THAW FRTJIT.

Fruit for export in cool chambers must not be placed hot and
fresh from the fields into the cool chamber. Thorough " sweating "
must precede, then sorting, wrapping in oiled paper, and placed in
non- ventilated, insulated chambers, the temperature of which is
slowly lowered to 35° to 40° F. This temperature must be
uniformly maintained during the whole period of storage. Neglect
of this condition caused, in the initial days of fruit transportation
to distant markets, considerable damage and loss.

On arrival at its destination, it is essential to the good keeping
of that fruit that almost as much thought and time be given to its
return to a normal temperature as was done when cooling it. This
warming up should be slow, gradual, and carried out in a dry
atmosphere. To lack of proper attention to these details is
chargeable a good many of the failures in fruit shipment.

SHIPMENT CHARGES.

Hitherto shipping fruit from the Australian States to the
London market has not proved a uniformly remunerative enter-
prise. Apart from the heavy packing, shipping, and handling
charges which are known beforehand, heavy losses have been sus-
tained through circumstances which may be only guessed, but
which nevertheless remain without reasonable explanation.

Out of a shipment of 50 cases of carefully selected, graded,
and packed fruit, for instance, 40 or so would sell at a remunerative
price, whilst the remaining 10 would on opening show signs of
decav, and would be sold at considerable loss. It is fortunate,

370

however, that competition in the fruit- carry ing trade has caused
the shipping companies to pay closer attention to details which
safeguard the interests of their customers, and every season shows
less waste in the fruit cargoes shipped to the European markets.

Some notes culled from reports from London agents or from
shippers' notes will give an idea of the cost of shipping fruit from
the Eastern States and of the risks attached :—

Says a London correspondent : " Oranges from Sydney, per
Oceana, in June, had suffered severely from rains just prior to
picking, and had been packed wet. Result, one-third consignment
had to be classed second, third, and fourth grade, according as
they contained 10 per cent, of unsaleable fruit, 15 per cent, and 20
to 25 per cent, of * waste ' (each grade worth Is. 3d. to Is. 6d. per
grade per box). Under such circumstances it is wonderful that so
large a percentage of fruit arrived sound. Oranges ought to be
cut off the trees, and be allowed to dry for fully three days before
being boxed up for shipment ; and it is also essential to their well-
being on the voyage that they should be stowed so as to get a
maximum of ventilation, in order to get rid of the gases which they
throw off in such profusion."

" Oranges for London as Ordinary Cargo. — Mr. Charles Pitt, of
Payneham, has kindly shown us (says the Garden and Field)
account sales of several small shipments of oranges, packed in
ordinary cases, and sent by the Lund's Line of steamers as ordinary
cargo. The expenses on 50 cases were : — Cases, wrapping, and
cartage, Is. 3d. a case ; freight, wharfages, insurance, and other
Adelaide charges, 2s. 7|d. ; and London charges, Is. 2|d. ; or a
total of 5s. Id. per case. The fruit arrived in splendid condition at
the beginning of September, and was sold by Messrs. John Osborne
and Co., of Covent Garden Market, London, at a price which netted
3s. a case above the price the same fruit would have realised in
Adelaide. We gather from the advices that the market was limited
at the prices obtained. They were shipped through Messrs. Geo.
Wills and Co., of Grenfell Street."

" Shipments of Oranges and Lemons. — The South Australian
department's shipments for 1889-1900 of 200 cases realised a
gross average of 14s. 2d. a case, prices ranging from 1 s. to 20s.
per case. The average charges amounted to 4s. 8d. per case, making
a net return of about 9s. 6d. per case."

Shipment of Apples. — The following account of sales and
charges on a consignment of 50 cases of apples from Victoria gives an
idea of the transaction on a particularly successful consignment : —

" The fruit was shipped through Melbourne agents recom-
mended to me, says the shipper, by Mr. T. Lang of Harcourt, and
from them I received on the 23rd May full credit for the net
proceeds, less 12s. 6d., which is my Melbourne agent's charge for
50 cases at 3d. per case. For this 3d. my agents do everything.
All I have to do is to despatch the fruit and send them advice of
truck number. Every shipment is complete in itself, and wiped

371

out by a cheque the day after the London mail comes in. If I
want any money advanced to me against value of freight or for
freight, my agents advance and only charge me at the rate of 2| per
cent, on what I get, not on gross proceeds. Out of curiosity I took
a trip to Port Melbourne to watch one of the shipments go aboard,
and I came away quite satisfied that my agents' 3d. per case was
well earned and my interests well looked after. What more does
a grower want ? And yet some of us sell fruit to speculators for
shipment to London instead of shipping and collaring the profit
themselves. I am sure these speculators do not buy our fruit for
love of us, or ship it for pastime."

Account sales of f50 cases fruit, steamer " Britannia," sold by
W. Dennis and Sons, Covent Garden Market, London, by order and
for account of Mr. H. Winklemann, Campbell's Creek : —

£ s. d.

H. Winkelmann, 18, Dumelow Seedlings,

16s. 6d 14 17 0

H. Winkelmann, D, 1, Dumelow Seed-
lings, wet 6s. 9d. 0 6 9

H. Winklemann, J, 18, Jonathan, 15s. ... 13 10 0

H. Winklemann, C, 1 0, Cleopatras, 20s. ... 10 0 0

H. Winklemann, R, 3, Reinette de Canada,

13s. 1 19 0

<£40 12 9
or at the rate of 16s. 3d. per case.

Charges.

£ s. d.

Railway carriage and case, Is. 3d. ... 3 2 6
Freight and disbursements, 50 cases

3s. 9d 976

Dock dues and conveyance to market,
toll, porterage, and sale expenses,
warehousing and fire insurance, 6£d. 171
Marine insurance, ^d. ... ... ... 0 2 1

Commission and guarantee, 5 per cent. 207

.£15 19 9

£25 0 3

or 10s. per case net.

The following shows —

Cost on a 50-Case Consignment of Lemons and
Oranges from Sydney or Melbourne to Fremantle.

s. d.

Freight 1 6

Wharfage 0

Inspection 0 4

Repacking ... ... ... ... ... 0 2

Carting and rail to Perth and Fremantle,

agency fee ... ... ... ... ... 0 3

Loss, average, 10 to 15 per cent.

Or total cost, about 2s. 9d. per half -case.

372

Cost of importing Double Cases (25 to 30 dozen)
from Italy, on Consignments of at least 50 cases.

s. d.
Freight and transhipping — Messina to Fre-

mantle ... ... ... ... ... 49

Wharfage 0 1£

Repacking ... ... ... ... ... 0 4£

Cartage, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 0 3

Inspection ... ... ... ... ... 1 0

6 6

Duty, 10 per cent.
Average loss, 15 per cent.
Total cost of case, about 10s.

Prices of Australian Apples and Pears in London.

The following list gives the average prices for the last five
years realised for the leading varieties of Australian apples which
have arrived in London in good condition. The figures are taken
from official figures supplied by the Victorian Government : —

s. d. s. d.

Cleopatra " 12 0 to 18 6

Dunn's Seedling 12 6 „ 18 0

Jonathan ... 11 6 „ 18 6

Esopus Spitzenberg 12 0 „ 16 6

Newtown Pippin 13 0 „ 15 0

Five Crown Pippin 10 0 „ 17 0

Cox's Orange Pippin ... ... . . 12 0 „ 15 0

Dumelow's Seedling ... ... . . 11 6 „ 14 0

Hoover 11 0 „ 14 0

Annie Elizabeth 11 0 „ 14 0

Rome Beauty 10 6 „ 13 6

Scarlet Pearmain ... 12 0 „ 14 0

Scarlet Nonpareil... 10 0 „ 11 6

Bismark 10 0 „ 13 6

Stone Pippin 10 0 „ 14 0

Eymer ... 12 0 „ 14 6

Ben Davis 11 0 „ 13 0

Alfriston ' 11 0 „ 14 6

King of Pippins 10 0 „ 13 6

R. du Canada and other good varieties 8 6 „ 11 0

Pears have not been shipped as extensively as have apples
from the Eastern States of Australia, nor have the shipments been
so successful. Several lots, however, have reached London in good
condition, and those (unlike many others which were stowed indis-
criminately among apples, and where the ventilation was not so good)
were stowed near the air trunks at the sides of the chamber, where
the temperature was cooler. It is therefore suggested that
pears be stowed away by themselves, in a separate chamber, supplied
with good ventilation, and where the temperature can be maintained
at 2° or 3° lower. They should also be packed, as far as possible,
in single layers in shallow boxes, which can then be placed three

373

together, and held in this way by cleats nailed on the sides. Some
consignments thus treated sold at very good prices, as shown below,
considering that each tray or shallow box would not contain half
an ordinary case of fruit : —

s. d.

306 trays Vicar of Winkfield

6 Beurre Bose

2 Beurre d'Anjou ...

7 Autumn Bergamot
21 Beurre Clairgeau
55 Chaumontel

1 Beurre Capianmont

1 Glon Morceau

7 3

20 0

12 6

14 0

10 0

9 3

9 9

14 0

Shipment Charges on Wine. — Western Australia has not yet
entered the field as a wine exporter ; the local market has hitherto
absorbed the local production. That we must at no distant date
look in some measure to export for the marketing of our wines is
however evident.

The wine export trade is every year reaching greater develop-
ment in the Eastern States. There the owner has the alternative
of selling to agents of London firms f.o.b. at the port of shipment,
or of shipping on their own account.

The following information, supplied by Mr. A. J. Perkins, Gov-
ernment Yiticulturist, South Australia, gives, on the cost of handling
and marketing a large parcel of wine shipped from Adelaide, an
idea of the charges which may reasonably be expected to be incurred.

" The shipment comprised 120 hhds., or 6,880 gals., of a
common rather full-bodied red wine, which reached London on the
24th November, 1897. It was stored at the Government Wine
Depot, and was sold in three different parcels, at the following
periods : — First lot, in December, 1897 ; second lot, in February,
1898 ; third lot, in April, 1898. The total amount for charges for
storage, treatment, sale, etc., incurred in London amounted to
<£50 19s. 2d., or about Ifd. per gal. ; for freight, insurance, Port
Adelaide expenses, etc., about <£149 17s. lOd. were incurred, or about
5jd. per gal. ; the value of the casks may be represented at 4|d.
per gal. ; and carriage to Port Adelaide at about l|d. per gal.
(this last figure will, of course, vary with the distance of the cellars
of the shipper to the Port). The total expenditure involved may
be scheduled as follows : —

s. d.

London charges ... ... ... ... ... 0 If per gallon

Freight and Port Adelaide charges, net ... 0 5£ „

Value of casks 0 4£ „

Carriage to Port Adelaide ... ... ... 0 1£ »

Total expenses ... 11 per gallon shipped.

374

" The wine in question was by no means up to the standard of
quality of our better wines, and yet it realised in. London about
2s. 9d. to 2s. lOd. per gallon, leaving at the cellar door a net return
of from Is. 8d. to Is. 9d. per gallon."

Producers have, besides getting bed-rock value f.o.b. at port of
shipment from London buyers, been subjected in the past to some-
what arbitrary treatment, the price offered being, according to the
prevailing practice, subject to modification should the wine reach
London in condition that the buyer considers unsatisfactoiy.
The seller has, besides, in many cases to make good in London the
ullage of the casks, the shrinkage amounting to about one gallon
per hogshead. Such a system of dealing will, no doubt, in course of
time be brought more into line with the generally accepted rules of
everyday business transactions. Under present practice the seller
has no proportionate share into any extra profit derived by the
buyer on any particularly successful shipment, whereas, on the
other hand, should the quality of the wine not come up to a
loosely defined standard of which the buyer is the sole arbiter, the
seller is liable for any resulting loss.

WINE MAKING.

Vintage commences with us late in January in the earlier
districts, and continues until sometime in April in those localities
situated in the cooler Southern districts, or at a higher altitude on
the Darling Ranges.

Before describing the process whereby the sweet juice of the
grape is transformed into wine, a few words about the vessels,
machinery, and appliances used in wine making will not be out of
place.

A FERMENTING SHED

is, in the first instance, provided for the manufacture of wine. Such
a structure need not be a costly one, but it is desirable that it be
roomy, high, and well aerated. Plenty of room must be provided
for the crushing machine, presses, fermenting vats, pumps, sieves,
tubs, and other necessary appliances.

During the process of fermentation there is a rise of tem-
perature which may be prejudicial to the successful fermentation of
the wine, and to the alcoholic strength of the newly made wine.
For that reason a shed which can be well aerated, and which at
night can be left open to the cool breezes so as to counteract the
rise of temperature, is preferable to the old-fashioned, costly fer-
menting houses made of thick walls, with little ventilation.

A capacious galvanised iron shed about 30 feet wide, and,
according to the amount of grapes to be handled, from 40 to 60 feet

375

long, with sides 10 feet high to the wall plates, and a gable afford-
ing another few feet in the centre will answer the purpose ad-
mirably.

In this all the machinery and fermenting vessels can be com-
fortably lodged.

One more condition must not be overlooked : the fermenting
shed must be one apart from the maturing cellars, lest the germs of
fermentation which, during wine making, float about in abundance
in the air, get access to and disturb the wine of previous years.

As a good deal of water is used about the fermenting shed,
both before and during wine making, the surroundings should be
so drained that there is no accumulation of dirty liquids, which
would foul the air. The building should not be damp, as moulds
are not only injurious to casks and other wooden vessels, but also
cause the wine to become tainted during future keeping.

CASKS AND VATS.

Two classes of materials are more commonJy used in the con-
struction of these vessels, viz., wood and bricks and cement.

Timber for Wine Casks and Vats.

The wood best suited for coopering work is the oak, which,
in that capacity, stands without rival. Of oaks some are more
suitable than others. The best variety is a sub- variety of Quercus
robur, or European oak, viz., Quercus pedunculata, or Slavonian
oak, from the forests of Croatia, Hungary, and Russia, where
its grows on the alluvial flats flooded by the Danube. The
soil of these flats is exceptionally suitable for the growth of the oak
tree, which, for the purposes of shipbuilding, cabinet and joiners'
work, and for coopering, must embody special features. This oak
supplies these requirements, which are: equal proportions and
dimensions and qualities, show the compactness, uniformity, and
elasticity of the fibres, and the absence of knots and borer holes.
Apart from these physical properties, it also contains a fair propor-
tion of tannin and a special sugar called " quercite," which has on
the wine a very beneficial effect, causing it to clear readily, and
imparting to it a peculiar but faint fragrance, without at the same
time adding to it an excess of extracted matter, which is to be
found in chestnut and other timber.

Amongst other kinds of oaks used by coopers are also the
Burgundy oak, the Dantzig or Mem el oak, and the American oak.
The latter, which is useful for providing those wider boards through
which manholes are cut out in the larger sized casks, is less compact
than the Slavonian or Dalmatian oak, and it also at first imparts a
somewhat bitterish taste to the wine.

Besides the oak, other timbers, such as the chestnut, the
acacia, and the redwood of California (Sequoia), supply wood
suitable for staves.

376

Amongst Australian woods, the mountain ash (Eucalyptus
sieberiana) of Gippsland and New South Wales, from the
mountains of South-Eastern Australia, supplies an excellent wood
for fermenting vats or for large casks. It splits freely and
smoothly, and is easy to work. For small casks, with thin staves,
th s timber does not do so well, being rather soft and porous. This
timber has for a long time been used by Mr. P. E. Fallon, of Albury
Vineyard, in his cellar, as well as for casks sent to his bottling
works in Sydney.

For vats, either for fermenting or when headed up, for storing-
wine, the two leading West Australian timbers, karri (E. diversi-
color) and jarrah (E. marginata), are much used in South Aus-
tralia as well as in Western Australia. Of the two, karri is more
elastic. Their worst features are their tendency to warp, and their
heavy density. It is said that if felled towards the end of summer,
jarrah will be less given to warp. The first grows in the fertile
and humid valleys in the neighbourhood of Cape Leeuwin, the
second on the ironstone ranges of the coastal region of the State.

Amongst other timbers which have been used in Australia for
coopering work are : The silver wattle of South-East Australia
and Tasmania (Acacia dealbata), well spoken of by Mr. J. D.
Lankester, of Ettamogah, Albury. The silky oak (Grevillea
robusta), which gives an elastic and durable wood, valued
particularly for staves of casks. Mr. Th. Hardy, of South
Australia, reports having placed shavings of this wood in light
wines for several months without affecting their taste or colour in
any way.

The white beech (Gmelina Leickhardtii) of East Australia,
which supplies a wood of shining paleness, not liable to rend. Mr.
John Wyndham, of Dalwood, Hunter River, spoke well of this
wood, which shrinks but little. Mr. E. Wyndham, of Buckalla,
Inverell, considers it suitable for large storing casks, but its soft-
ness unfits it for the smaller casks in which wine is sent to
market.

Theblackwood (Acacia Melanoxylon) of South-East Australia,
is also used for casks, but requires previous seasoning and long
soaking. The wood bends readily under steam, and does not warp
and twist.

The Tasmanian myrtle : a close-grained timber, taking a good
surface. This timber has been used for shipping wine by some of
the large Rutherglen vinegrowers, who say that it does not impart
any foreign flavour to the wine.

The kauri pine (Dammara Australis) of the North Island of
New Zealand, supplies an excellent straight-grained timber,
excellent for vats, and sometimes used for heads of strong casks,
but requires thorough seasoning to extract the resinous extracts,
which give a mawkish taste to the wine stored in them.

377

Size of Casks.

The size of casks used for shipping wine differs according to
the different producing countries, thus : —

Extreme size. Contents.

Port wine pipe ...... 58in. x 34in. ... 113 gallons

„ hogshead . . . 37in. x 30in. ... 56£ gallons

Sherry butt ...... 50in. x 35in. ... 108 gallons

hogshead ...... 38in. x 28in. . . . 54| gallons

Marsala pipe ...... 65in. x 32in. ... 91 gallons

„ hogshead ... ... 41in. x 25in. . . . 45£ gallons

Brandy pipe ... ... 52in. x 34in. ... 104 gallons

hogshead ...... 40in. x 28in. ... 57i gallons

Bum puncheon ...... 42in. x 36in. ... 91 gallons

Claret hogshead ...... 36in. x 34in. ... 50 gallons

The larger storage casks somewhat vary in shape and size,
but for the guidance of those about to enlarge their cellars or build
new ones, I give here the extreme sizes of some useful casks made
from Memel oak : —

Thickness of

Capacity. Wood. Dimensions.

head. staves.

300 gallons ... l£in. x l^in. ... 5ft. lOin. x 4ft. 9in.

500 „ ... Hin. x l^in. ... 5ft. lOin. x 5ft. 6in.

750 „ ... 2in. x 2in. ... 5ft. lOin. x 6ft.

1000 „ ... 2^in. x 2in. ... 5ft. lOin. x 7ft. 2in.

Besides these casks, known as " round " casks, it is often found
expedient to store wine in " oval " casks, which economises storage
room. The dimensions of these vessels are as follow : —

750 gallons .,. 2in. x 2in. ... 5ft. lOin. x 5ft. 6in. x 6ft. 9in.
1000 „ ... 2iin. x 2in. ... 5ft. lOin. x 5ft. 9in. x 8ft. 6in,

Theoretically, the square casks, viz., the casks with the diameter
at the bulge equivalent to the length of the cask, is the strongest, as
if too high, as is the case in oval casks, the greater pressure some-
times causes wine to leak at the cross groove.

Gauging Casks.

is the process of mensuration for finding the quantity of liquid any
vessel is capable of holding, and also for finding its actual contents
when partly full.

Several methods are used which, in practice, are found
sufficiently correct.

RULE. — To find the capacity of a cask in gallons : Add T7^ (if
the difference is very small add § instead of *7), the difference of
the head and bung diameter to the head diameter ; multiply the
square of the sum bV the length (all in inches) ; multiply the
product for U.S. gallons by "0034, for Imperial gallons by '0028.

378

Gauging a, Cask.

Example : The inside dimensions of a cask being — length;
40in., bung diameter 30in., head diameter 21 in., find its capacity in
U.S. and also in Imperial gallons : —

[21 + (30 - 21 x -7) ]2 x 40 27'3 2 = 745-29
745-29 x 40 x -0034 = lOlf U.S. gallons.
745-29 x 40 x '0028 = 84£ Imperial gallons.

. Another method which gives results practically correct is by
means of the diagonal gauge rod. It offers the advantage of doing
away with calculations. These measuring rods are square rules
four feet to five feet long. They are divided into Imperial
gallons and fractions.

It is diagonally inserted through
the bunghole into the cask as shown
in A.B., and a reading of the number
of gallons is taken, just under the
bung stave. Next take a reading in
the opposite direction, to check the
first reading. Should the two tally
the contents are known at once, but
should there be a difference between
the two readings, an average is-
struck. A proper gallon-measuring
gauge is not always handy, and in
that case an ordinary rod, showing
linear inches, may be substituted for it. The cask being carefully
measured as above from the lower surface of the bunghole stave to
the lower junction of head and bilge stave. The rule in that case
is :— Cube the contents, and multiply by -00226 for gallons.

Example : A cask measured as above shows 25 inches ; find
the contents in gallons : —

25s X -00226 = 15625 X '00226 = 35'4 gallons.

When the volume of small casks of wine is required, it is
often found easier to find its contents by weighing than by
measuring. A gallon of wine is known to weigh lOlbs., so that the
gross weight of the cask from which the weight of the empty cask
is deducted will give, when divided by 10, the number of gallons of
wine. Thus, say, the cask weighs, when full, 5851bs., and empty,
701bs., the difference divided by 10 gives 5H gallons.

To SEASON CASKS.

A " woody " taste very often taints what would otherwise have
been a good wine. It is too often surmised that because a cask has
just left the hands of the cooper, and is made of new wood, it is fit-
to receive wine straight away. Casks are at times injudiciously
ordered at the last moment from the cooper, and the consequence is
that they are too often botched for want of time, or made of green
timber should the supply of seasoned oak happen to run short ; or
again, the picking of the grapes is, on account of non-delivery of

379

sufficient caskage at the right time, delayed beyond the time they
should have been gathered.

The casks at last arrive, and it may be on the faith of a state-
ment from the cooper that the timber has been seasoned and the
casks steamed, they are filled straight away ; as a matter of fact,
the staves are still full of sappy and resinous matters, easily
extracted by the alc6hol in the wine, which will, unless removed,
impart to the first wine with which they come in contact an un-
pleasant and woody taste.

Several methods are used for seasoning the timber : —

(i.) Fill the cask or the vat, as the case may be, with water
— hot preferably — in which is dissolved lOlbs. of
common salt for every 100 gallons capacity, and
let it stand for a day or two ; then run the water out
and rinse the cask well with pure water.

(2.) Another method, which is even better, consists in filling
the vessel with water — either cold or tepid — and
adding a handful of washing soda or of potash for
every 50 gallons capacity. Let stand for several
days ; run out the liquid, which will have extracted a
brown colour from the wood. Fill with clean water,
let stand for a day or so, then run it out. If the
water is quite colourless, let the cask drain. For
every 100 gallons capacity, make hot one gallon of a
sound wine, pour into it and bung lightly, and
roll the cask about for a day or so to give time to the
spirit to penetrate the pores of the new wood ; then
drain out all the wine and fill with sulphurous fumes,
drive the bung or the plug in, and the cask is then
ready for use. Rectified spirit can be used instead of
hot wine, but care must then be taken that no burn-
ing sulphur match is used for sulphuring, as the
sudden expansion of the alcoholic vapour would cause
an explosion.

If the vessel is too large to conveniently fill with water, use a
more concentrated solution, and wash the sides every now and
again by using a broom ; this will extract much colour and resinous
matter from the wood.

To season new oak casks for export, pour into them a bucket
of hot water, with a handful of washing soda, and turn about for
four days; then run this out and wash twice with fresh water;
then pour some good sound lye into them and sulphur heavily, and
after two days wash again and sulphur, and the cask is ready to
receive the most delicate wine.

CLEAN CASKS.

It may be said that wine-making commences at the moment
the ripe grapes reach the cellar and the berries are crushed and

380

separated from their stalks. Preparatory to vintage, and before
the first bunch of grapes is picked, the wine-grower should have all
his casks thoroughly overhauled, examined, rinsed out, brushed, and
sulphured.

Amongst the several diseases that affect wine, mouldiness and
acetification can, in almost every instance, be traced back to dirty
and tainted casks, and acetification, lactic • fermentation, or the
mannitic disease, ropiness, etc., to defective fermentation. In every
case of disease of wine, it may be said prevention is easy, and cure
very of ten beyond practicable reach.

For that reason it is absolutely necessary to secure the utmost
cleanliness of all vessels — grape- mill, press, hose and pumps — used
for handling the juice of the grape at the various stages of wine-
making.

Casks and tubs may be deeply tainted with the most trouble-
some germs of maladies of wine and at the same time appear clean
on the surface.

A mere scrubbing with a hard brush and water will often clean
a cask temporarily, but the meshwork of mycelial threads of
moulds, which are in reality its growing roots, and which have
penetrated more or less deeply into the pores of the wood, have
not by that simple method of scrubbing been destroyed, and a few
days after such a superficial cleaning the mould will creep out of
the wood as bad as ever before.

When breaking some old cask down, we often notice on the
inside of the staves some hollow blisters caused during the process
of bending the staves ; behind these lurk the germs of lactic or
acetic fermentation as well as that of other diseases destructive to
wine, and the best way of getting at them is by using steam. That
part of the cask immediately around the bung hole should receive
more particular attention, as it is often overlooked. It is from this
spot that the acetic germs generally start invading the cask.

DISCOLOURING CASKS.

Large red wine casks which cannot be filled with water are not
easily discoloured. Even frequent washings are not sufficient for
penetrating the crust which covers the staves. Such casks should
be thoroughly scraped inside. If possible, they should be filled
with water, to which is added two or three quarts of sulphuric acid
per 1,000 gallons, -and left in soak for a week or so. Whenever
practicable it is advisable to turn steam into the cask and then wash
thoroughly. It is advisable, when acidulated water is used, to
grease the taps and other metallic parts which might be corroded
by the acid.

How TO DISINFECT CASKS.

1st. — Steam is the best mould and germ destroyer that can be
used. It penetrates deep into the pores and cracks of the wood,
effectively destroying all living organisms ; it also leads to the

381

detection of any flaw or crack in defective vessels, and soon causes
the shrunken staves to swell and any leakage to stop in what may
be otherwise sound casks.

Steaming Cask.

2nd. Chlorine Gas. — For casks, for every 100 gallons capacity
pour into the vessel 162 grammes (2ozs.) of chloride of sodium
(common salt), or of chloride of lime, dissolved in a gallon of
boiling water ; to this add a small quantity of sulphuric acid, drive
in the bung and let the chemical reaction set in inside the cask.
Under the influence of the sulphuric acid, chlorine fumes are dis-
engaged from the chloride and effect a complete disinfection. This
chlorine gas, however, should be got rid of before putting any wine
into the cask, on account of its strong irritating action on the
tissues of the digestive organs, and also of its pronounced bleaching
action, which would decolourise the wine. The method, although
very efficacious, needs to be applied with a certain amount of care.

The addition to the common salt of one ounce or so of
powered black oxide of manganese causes a more ready evolution of
the chlorine gas at a lower temperature, and is for that reason an
advantage. The chlorine gas combines with the hydrogen of the
water and liberates the oxygen, which is then said to be nascent,
and in that state combines with the vegetable tissues of any
mould which may be present, and causes their destruction.

382

3rd. — Another method, which also answers well and is applic-
able to tubs and open vats, consists in carefully washing, scrubbing,
and whitewashing inside with a lime wash made of two pounds of
quicklime to every 100 gallons capacity of the vessel, just sufficient
water being added to reduce it to the constituency of thin paint,
viz., about two gallons. The lime wash is left to stand and dry for
a few days, and is then washed off. A small quantity of sulphuric
acid added to the water will help in dissolving the lime inside the
casks where the brush cannot reach.

4th. — The following method, too, I have often advised, and
whenever it has been practised no taint has spoilt the wine through
bad caskage, viz. : — The empty cask, if a large one, has its door
removed, a man gets in, and a couple of bucketsful of water are
thrown into it ; with a straw broom the inside is scoured all round
and the dirty water swept out into a tub left purposely standing
below the manhole to collect it.

If there are indications that the cask is sour or mouldy, a
gallon or two of a solution of sulphuric acid one part, in water
twelve to fifteen parts, is carefully poured into the cask — the acid
being poured into the water, and not the water on to the acid, which
would cause splashings — and with the long-handled broom the
cellarman, using every precaution not to get splashed by the acid,
rinses every part of the inside of the cask. This acid solution,
although dirty looking after once using, may still be utilised for
washing more casks, and for that purpose it is carefully syphoned
out into a small keg or a wooden bucket. This syphoning must
only be done by one who knows how to do it without getting any of
the liquid into his mouth, as this would result in severe burning and
much harm being done to the teeth. For this reason I would caution
any raw hand at that kind of work against using the acid at all,
and applying instead some simpler, if not as efficacious, method of
disinfecting the casks. This is followed by a couple of bucketsful
of hot water in which a few handfuls of washing soda (one pound
per gallon of water) are thrown, for a 500-gallon cask, or a little
more for a 1,000-gallon vessel. With the aid of a hard brush — some
very serviceable hard brushes for scrubbing casks, made of steel
wires and coarse fibres, will be found useful — both heads, as well as
the interior of the casks all round, are thoroughly scrubbed. By
the time the scrubbing is done the water looks very dirty and of a
washy coffee colour, especially if the cask has previously contained
red wine. This dark wash is, in its turn, swept out of the cask,
and two fresh bucketsful of hot water and soda are thrown in,
the operation of scrubbing being repeated. This wash having been
swept out, the cask is well rinsed with clean water, then allowed to
drain and dry. The next day a piece of sulphur rag is burnt in it,
the door replaced and screwed well home, and the plug driven in.
Care should be taken to save the hands] from contact with the
caustic soda or acid washes recommended.

383

STJLPHTJEING CASKS.

Sulphuring should be repeated every two months or so if the
cask is left empty. Should the cask be wet at the time of sulphur-
ing, hydrogen sulphide would be produced, which would impart to
the wine an abominable smell of rotten eggs.

The object of sulphuring casks, as all those who have any
experience of cellar work know, is to consume all air out of them and
thereby check the appearance of the germs of acetic fermentation
and other diseases of the wine which are dependent on the oxygen in
the air for life.

SLACK CASKS.

When overhauling empty casks stored away in a hot, dry shed,
sometime before vintage, they are generally slack from being empty
for a long time ; the staves have shrunk, and the hoops have either
fallen off or will do so unless the casks are carefully handled.

When casks thus get slack, the sulphur fumes they contained
escape and dissipate into the air, and moulds not infrequently
penetrate, and grow in patches inside as well as between the staves.
Such casks should be treated as explained when dealing with
mouldy casks.

The hoops of these slack casks must be driven before the casks
are cleaned. This must be done cautiously, or else when the cask is
filled with wine the expansion of these shrunken staves and the head
of the cask will be such as to buckle and warp, or the strain on the
hoops is so considerable that they occasionally snap and much wine
is lost before the contents can be saved. For this purpose drive the
hoops lightly to prevent the cask falling to pieces, put a bucket of
hot water into it ; this hot water will often run out of the vessel in
a short time ; repeat the operation, and the leaks will soon take up.
It is only occasionally that the hoops have to be driven hard.

FLAGGING.

Flagging. — Sugar matting is often used ; it is first moistened
to make it limp and prevent breaking, and is then split into two
faces before using. The flagging is done with the help of a flagging
iron, by means of which the end of the staves at the head are
pressed apart. For that purpose, the two top hoops are taken off,
and the third hoop may have to be loosened, just enough to save the
head falling through. It is a good plan to mark with a pencil or
with chalk the leaky spots.

For a longitudinal flag, press out one stave and insert the split
flag lengthways, double it if the fissure is large, and let the lower end
of the flagging material come out where a hoop will cover it.

For a circular flag, around the rim of the head piece, put in the
moistened flagging material stave at a time, using for so doing the
flagging iron and also a blunt hard wood wedge.

384

For a leak between head and chime, the flagging material is
carefully inserted into the groove of the stave.

CRACKED STAVES.

Kepeated use of the cask often damages one or more of the
staves or the bung hole. If the bung hole is slightly splintered but
not quite unsound, carefully drive down a bung, and treat like a
cracked stave. For that purpose, first work a little white lead
into the crack, then place a piece of brown paper over it, and cover
the brown paper with a piece of sheet lead cut the required size.
Instead of white of lead, a paste made by boiling a little linseed is
used, and this is covered as described. The sheet lead is tacked
round, all creases being carefully hammered out, commencing at one
end and proceeding to the other, as the tacking is done. The tacks
of course should not be too large.

KEEPING WOODEN VATS IN GOOD ORDER.

During the period which elapses from vintage to vintage
wooden tubs and vats are idle and shrink, although whitewashed,
and this must give trouble when vintage comes on again.

Some wine-makers fill them with water which keeps them
together, but the water often rots and taints the wood — unless
made into brine or permanganate of potash. A method which finds
favour with some is to first well dry the tubs and vats, after
thorough cleansing, and then paint them over with melted paraifin
wax, which is then burnt in with a plumber's lamp, starting from
the lower part of the vertical walls. This fills the pores of the
wood and prevents shrinking, and at the same time gives an even
and uniform coat. If the tin containing the molten paraifin be
placed in a bucket of hot water, the substance will keep fluid
longer.

BRICK AND CEMENT VATS.

Of late years wooden vats have been discarded in the more
modern fermenting sheds in favour of cement vats, which offer
marked advantages. Their initial cost is from one-third to one- half
that of the wooden vessels ; they occupy less room in the fer-
menting shed and thus constitute a great economy of roof superfices ;
they are easier to keep sound and sweet, and are less likely to
taint wine, while they do not shrink, rot, or burn.

Vats, rectangular in shape, with an inside dimension of 5ft. x
5ft. x 4ft., and the angles rounded, would have a capacity of a little
over 600 gallons, and would in practice ferment 500 gallons of wine.
Another convenient size is 6ft. x 6ft. x 3ft. 6 inches, giving a capacity
of 787 gallons.

A good deal of care is required in their construction, and in
this respect I will quote the experience of some who have largely
used these vats.

385

In Victoria a number of fermenting vats have of late years
been constructed with much success. Bricks and cement are the
only material required, no lime being used for setting the bricks.

No very substantial foundation is required ; the top soil on the
floor of the fermenting shed is simply scooped out with the spade ;
a 9-inch brick wall is built all round the space to be covered with
the cement vats, and if resting on clay, which expands and shrinks
very perceptibly according as it gets wet or dry, it is advisable to
spread a layer of clean dry sand, two or three inches thick, within that
space and ram it well down. The surface having been made smooth,
spread the cement, set the bricks and grout with liquid cement.
The mortar is made of cement one part and sand two parts.

Both sand and cement must be sifted, and the mortar must be
very liquid. Over this foundation build up a single-brick-
thick work — 4f inches — to the height required. Round off the
angles and corners inside, and have the floor sloping from every
direction into one corner.

Two types of Cement Tanks.

This favours the drainage of the liquids, which can be bailed
out with the dipper, and dried with a sponge. Before the cement is
quite set it is found advisable to blow dry cement and rub it in so
as to give a smooth polish to the surface. The top of the walls is
also capped with cement.

At intervals, on the top of the walls, small brackets are pro-
vided, which help in making fast the false head which keeps the
marc or skins and seeds submerged. Instead of having the
bottom slope converging to one point inside into a cup or
pit, a two-inch brass tap is sometimes inserted into the wall, flush
with the lowest corner, and the liquid can be run out, with-
out pumping or syphoning, which the other alternative would!
necessitate. In that case a small cement gutter with a gradual
fall towards an underground tank, whence it is pumped out, is
provided along the line of vats. Although this appears to be a
convenient method of emptying the vats, yet some object to it on
the ground that there may be a danger of the taps getting knocked
out and causing a leakage, or of the underground tank requiring
frequent and careful cleansing, thus involving extra work.

386

The quality of the cement used is not immaterial. Of these
there are two kinds — the " quick-setting" and the " slow-setting "
cement. The former are generally natural cements, containing
variable proportions of lime ; whereas the slow-setting cements are
generally artificially manufactured with definite proportions of lime,
which varies from 58 to 63 per cent., and are burnt without excess.
It is said that this regularity of composition, and the way they are
manufactured, insures their more lasting properties. Slow-setting
cements containing less lime than some of the quick-setting ones,
all the lime is taken up by the clay and transformed into aluminate
of calcium, and no free lime is left uncombined, which would, in
contact with wine, rob it of some of its natural acids and cause it to
go flat.

When cement vats are used for storing wine, a top is constructed
to them in the shape of a vault, and a manhole made of cast-iron,
with a tight-fitting door, is set in the structure. It is also some-
times advisable to line the inside with china or glass tiles. The
St. Gobain Company, near Paris, manufactures for this purpose
glass tiles 4 to 6 mm. in thickness and 24 cent, by 24 cent. The
side which is against the cement is striated, to better hold to the
cement, whilst the other side is smooth. For the floor, larger and
thicker tiles are used. These tiles are set in soft cement mortar,
and care should be taken not to allow any air to remain between
the cement and the tile, which should be soaked in water before
using.

Apart from these brick and cement vats, some are constructed
of a combination of iron and cement, and are extensively used in
Algeria. They are known as sidero-cement vats, and consist of a
framework of iron' rods, either rectangular or cylindrical, as desired.
On this iron lattice-work, which has the shape of the vat, cement
mortar is plastered, and the desired polish is given to the surface.

These vats are much thinner than the brick ones, whilst their
cohesion is much greater, for although cement can stand a con-
siderable crushing strain, it lacks in cohesion, or in other words, its
tensile strain is not so great.

In Algeria, where these sidero-cement vats are in great favour,
the cost is set down as ranging between 2s. 6d. to 3s. 4d. per hec-
tolitre (22 gallons) for small vats, and less for larger ones.

The combination of the iron and the cement, instead of being
an element of weakness, considerably adds to the strength and
durability of the vats. Both these substances expand or contract
at the same rate, and therefore no dislocation ensues, whilst, on the
other hand, the close fitting cement covering effectually preserves
the iron from rusting.

When these cement vats are made, and dry, they are first filled
with water, and, although they may sweat a little first, this soon stops.

It is necessary before using these vats to also wash them with
some solution which will dissolve and neutralise the traces of lime
which may be left close to the surface.

387

For that purpose the inside walls are washed with a weak acid
solution, such as a 10 per cent, solution of tartaric acid, applied
twice in 24 hours before using the vat. A protective coating of
tartrate of lime, insoluble in wine, is thus formed.

Another wash, much used in the South of France, is one of
silicate of potash. A first application of a solution of 25 per cent,
of this substance is applied with a brush, and after two or three
days, when quite dry, the walls of the vat are washed with fresh
water; when dry, the inside of the vats again receive a second
coating of a 50 per cent, solution of silicate of potash, and are left to
dry for a few days, when the vats are again thoroughly washed
with water. A coating of silicate of lime, which is unattackable by
wine, then lines the vat.

As an improvement on the brick and cement vats already
described, it would, I believe, tend to strengthen the structure and
prevent possible cracks to run a thin band of hoop iron between
each course of bricks.

CRUSHER AND STEMMER.

As the grapes are carted to the fermenting shed, they are
transferred from the boxes or the barrels in which they were placed
at the vineyard into the crusher. In the old days of wine-making

Stemmer and Crusher.

388

this was done either with bare feet or with the feet shod with
specially constructed boots or wooden sandals. Since then great-
progress has been achieved in the direction of reducing the grapes
into a pulp by modern machinery makers.

The following illustrations show two types of an excellent
stemmer and crusher, of French make,. which have been copied with
more or less success by both American and Australian makers. As
regards efficiency, workmanship, and durability, they are, however,
superior to many I have seen at work.

No. 1 of Mabille crushers and stemmer s, which is the smallest
model made, can be worked with ease by one man, and put
through about two tons of grapes within the hour. These grape-
crushers can also be provided with a pulley for working the machine

389

by steam, if required. The cost is |«£18 at the factory. To this
must be added cost of packing, railway and shipping- freight to
Fremantle, and duty, which would amount to another £12 or so.

Several devices are used for conveying the grapes from the
dray to the crusher, which it is often found convenient to have at

such a height above the ground that
the crushed grapes will run by gravi-
tation along a chute into the ferment-
ing vats. The simplest, but most
costly in the first instance, is an
elevated roadway, which will take
the cart up to the level of the grape
mill. A less expensive way is to have
a grape elevator, which consists of a
piece of belting about 10 inches wide,
with tin buckets or scoops fastened
at intervals of a foot or so, and
running inside a wooden box at an
angle of 45C to 60° to the height of the
grape mill-hopper, where each bucket
empties its contents. With such an
arrangement, a small portable steam
engine, which works both elevator
and crusher as well, is very con-
venient. Such a steam engine is
also very useful for steaming casks
and pumping wine.

Another mechanical method for
lifting the grape pulp and convey-

Grape Must Pump. mg ft juto the fermenting vats is

a specially constructed must pump

constructed by Victor Coq, of Aix, near Marseilles. This pump
is unchokable, and pumps over 2,000 gallons of must and skin
per hour. It is easilly cleaned, and takes but little space.

WINE PRESSES.

Conjointly with the grape crusher, one or two wine presses are
required for wine-making. A great variety of designs are found
to effect the mechanical separation of the juicy from the solid
parts of the grapes. The simplest, probably, is the long beam or
lever press which presses continuously.

It can be made cheaply out of materials about the place by
any handy man who understands how to handle tools. Its chief
drawbacks are that it is somewhat slow, and it is certainly cumber-
some.

I have seen at work for several years the press here illustrated ,
and am able to testify as to the good work it performs. The com-

390

poundjever shown in the picture is not indispensable, although it
considerably adds to the efficiency of the machine. To bring this
compound lever into play, the end of the rope, which is tied to the
pin on the upright stand, is run through a pulley and made

Continuous Home-made Wine Press.

fast to the nose of the beam, which to its own weight has then
added that of the lever above. When the beam is intended to
be thrown out of work, the piece of chain hanging down from the
smaller end of the compound press is hooked on to the nose of
the beam, the rope is let loose, and the heavier end of the com-
pound lever is gently pulled down by the rope fastened to it.

The Screw Press, an illustration of which is here given, has
become a general favourite, on account of its powerful leverage, the
rapidity of its work, the simplicity of its mechanism, and the ease
with which it is operated.

Leaks may show in the wooden tray after our long dry
summers, and a couple of weeks or so before vintage they should
be stopped. This is often secured by pouring hot water for two or
three days over bagging spread over the woodwork. Should the
leak, however, persist, and cracks have formed in the wood, it may
be necessary to pack the joints with oakum or cotton, rammed in
tight and dry. As to crevices, they are better filled with a putty
compound of melted resin with a little tallow and fine ashes,

391

which is applied hot. This cement will stop leaks in presses and
casks which may have proved refractory to other means.

The cost of a No. 4 Mabille press as illustrated below, with a
6ft. x 6ft. cage, is <£25, to which must be added for packing,

Screw Press.

railway and shipping freight to Fremantle, duty, and other charges
another sum of about

TRANSPORTING OF GRAPES TO VINERIES.

The common mode on many vineyards has been to haul grapes
in boxes, or in old leaky casks reeking with mould, from vineyard
to cellar, by which process, if carted over very rough roads, much
of the best juice is lost, while the grapes get tainted with germs of

392

diseases, which means a reduction to the producer and a loss in
quality to the wine maker.

A simpler and more effective method is, according to the size
of the dray, the state of the road, and the horse power available, to
have one or two oval vats or tanks constructed, to hold about one
ton of grapes each. These are hauled to the vineyard, the grapes
from the picking boxes or buckets emptied into them, clothes to
prevent the dust from getting in spread over the grapes, e and the
grapes, when arrived at the cellar, are thrown on the elevator with
large shovels or forks, while all the juice is left at the bottom of
the vats, and emptied into the fermenting vats. The method is
clean, and saves every drop of juice ; it also saves weight, as one or
two tanks thus constructed will not weigh as much as a number of
casks or boxes. There is, moreover, economy in space ; and it is
cheaper, the vessels are easily cleaned, and always perfectly sweet.

WINE FERMENTATION.

Wine fermentation is the process during which grape must,
which is the fresh juice of the grapes as it runs from the press, is
transformed into wine.

This process is governed by many outside influences, which it
behoves the wine maker to watch and direct.

Grape must contains not only all the soluble parts of the
grape, but, depending upon the amount of care exercised in its
preparation, it contains, as well, other substances which get into it
by accident, such as the impurities adhering to the outside of the
skin, some of the grape pulp, parts of the skins and seeds.

It is well to know something about these component parts of
grape must, and a look at the following section of a grape berry
will convey some amount of information about its structure.

The nourishing sap flows into the grape berry through
the peduncle from the plant, and there, mainly owing to the
influences of sun and light, these materials are gradually trans-
formed into various bodies.

The vessels which convey these nourishing fluids converge at
the peduncle after diffusing through the body of the berry, leaving,
wherever they reach, the requisite amount of material. From
this other fibrous vessels branch out, which convey nourishment to
the skin.

393

From the peduncle, two small threadlike vessels proceed to the
seeds a (1 and 2), and, as the grape berry ripens, assume a rusty
violet colouration.

Section of a Grape Berry.

Around the pips (a) is the zone (6), which contains very little
sugar, and mostly viscous albuminous substances, free acids, and
cream of tartar.

The layer c contains mostly water, sugar, and small quantities
of acids and albuminoid matters.

Section d is richer in sugar and more fleshy, and contains
gummy substances, which, during the process of maturation, are
transformed into sugar ; a small amount of acids and albuminoid
substances are also met with there.

Layer e, which underlines the pellicle, contains the colouring
matter, also tannic acid, and some aromatic substances which
impart a peculiar flavour to certain grapes, such as the Muscats,
Eiesling, Cabernet, Isabella, and other American grapes. These
natural aromas are quite distinct from those others which constitute
the bouquet of matured wines, and which are the result of chemical
reactions between the acids and the alcohol in the wine. The
colouring matter, or onocyanine, although generally lining the skin
of grapes, is occasionally found in the pulp of some varieties.
There are two distinct sorts — a yellow and a blue one — which, when
in contact with the acids in the wine, turn red.

As grapes ripen, there is a gradual migration of the sugar from
the centre towards the circumference, where it accumulates under
the skin. This explains why, when pressing grapes which are dead
ripe, the juices which run out first are not so sweet as those which
flow when greater and more prolonged pressure has been applied.

394

The following table gives the composition of fresh grape must
and of the resulting fermented wine : —

Must.

Wine.

Water

A Ibuminoid matters

10

73-86

Glucose (chiefly dextrose) 12-24

Gum

Vegetable mucus

Colouring matters (traces

only)

Tannin (traces)
Malic acid (in bad seasons)

Patassium hydrogen tar-
trate

Calcium tartrate
Other salts of

matters
Mineral matters

organic

Water

Residues of albuminoid

matters

f Glucose chiefly laevulose
| Alcohol ...... ...

j Glycerine ... ... .:'.

1 Succinic acid

Acetic acid
^Ethers
Gum

Colouring matters

Tannin

Malic acid (in bad seasons)
f Tartaric acid
j Potassium hydrogen tar-
1 trate

I^Calcium tartrate
Other salts of organic

matter
Mineral matters

6-14
O'o-l-o

Total dry

residue

1065-1107
14-27

Sp.gr

Total residue

.. -991--996

INGREDIENTS OF MUST.
It is thus seen that grape must is a complex liquid.

Water stands foremost at the head of the list as regards
quantity. In must of average composition it enters for about three-
quarters to eight-tenths of its weight. It acts as a vehicle of the
other constituents of must, diluting them to the required degree,
and bringing them all intimately together.

Sugar, for instance, produces alcohol in fermenting, but in
order to ferment it must be considerably diluted, as, if too much
concentrated, it acts on the reverse as an anti-ferment, as is illustrated
in the case of fruits preserved in syrup. No liquid will ferment that
contains more than half its weight of sugar.

Sugar. — Next to water, sugar is the ingredient found in largest
proportions in the grape mash. It enters for about one-fifth to a
quarter of its weight, and sometimes more, running up in dry
seasons, and in over-ripe grapes, to nearly a third of the weight of
the must.

That sugar is of a peculiar kind called "glucose," and consists
of a mixture, in about equal proportions, of grape and fruit-sugar,
known to chemists under the names of " dextrose " and " laevulose."

395

The chief characteristic of glucose, or uncrystallisable sugar,
compared with cane sugar, or " saccharose/' is that the former can
ferment, whereas cane-sugar, in order to ferment, has previously to
be turned into glucose.

Another characteristic is that while cane-sugar can be turned
into glucose, this latter form of sugar has never yet been changed
into crystallisable sugar. The inventor of a process that would
achieve this would be worth more than all the mines of this country
put together.

During the process of fermentation, " dextrose " is the first to be
acted upon by the yeast ; and if the wine is badly fermented, and
remains sweetish, it is "Isevulose," which is found to have remained
unchanged.

During the process of fermentation the constituents of glucose,
properly diluted, are split up into substances differing from it, both
in their physical and in their chemical properties, the products of
fermentation being carbonic acid gas and alcohol, besides other
bodies such as glycerine and succinic acid, which occur in small
quantities, and which varv in some measure with the temperature
in the vat during fermentation ; the glycerine giving mellowness
to the wine, while the succinic acid gives it that peculiar taste known
as "vinosity."

Acids. — Besides these two important ingredients, viz., wrater and
sugar, the must of the grape contains small proportions of acids,
such as tartaric acid, which occurs to a large extent in the veget-
able kingdom ; malic acid, or the acid found in apples ; and tannic
acid or " tannin" ; and cream of tartar, which is an acid salt.

The presence of these natural acids in must is most important.
A due proportion ensures a sound fermentation, being beneficial to
the healthy growth of the pure wine yeast, and injurious to that of
germs of maladies. Good fermentation ensures good keeping
qualities. Acids also fix the colour of wines, which otherwise
would by degrees be cast in the lees. Too much acidity, however,
makes the wine tart and raw ; too little makes it mawkish, and causes
it to get flat.

The right amount of acidity in must varies according to the
class of wine. Its measure is sometimes expressed as equal in
strength to sulphuric acid, and sometimes to tartaric acid, and as
authors seem to use these two standards indiscriminately, it is
useful to bear the following rule in mind :—

To convert sulphuric acid into tartaric acid, x 1'53.
To convert tartaric acid into sulphuric acid, +O65.

Thus, must producing the best claret contains acids equivalent
to 4 to 6 pro mille. of sulphuric acid, or 6 to 9 pro mille. of tartaric
acid.

396

Heavy sweet wines are made of grape must showing an acidity
of 3 to 4 pro mille. expressed as sulphuric acid, or 4*6 to 6 as tartaric
acid.

Brandies of the best kind are geiierally^made of wines rather
high in natural acidity, and manufactured from must going 6 to 9
pro mille. as sulphuric acid, or 9'2 to 13*8 as tartaric acid.

Should the acidity fail to come up to the standard desirable
for the class of wine to be manufactured, it is not only permissible
but advisable to supplement the difference by : —

1st. An adequate addition of pure crystals of tartaric acid.

For this purpose every 1 per mille. may be calculated as lib.
per 100 gallons of must. Thus, if a shiraz or a malbec shows 5 per
cent, of must acidity, calculated as tartaric acid, it is desirable, to
bring that must up to 7 per cent., to add 21bs. of tartaric acid
crystals for every 100 gallons.

For that purpose it is best to sprinkle the acid crystals over
the grapes as they come out of the crusher.

The tartaric acid then combines with the potash salts in the
must, and, after it has directed its influence in a beneficial manner
during the course of fermentation, it settles down as tartar.

Some wine makers prefer, when it is found necessary to raise
the degree of acidity of a must, to use a mixture in equal parts of
cream of tartar and of tartaric acid. The resulting wine is less
astringent and raw.

The addition of tartaric acid to made wine fails, it is obvious,
to have a beneficial influence on the fermentation, and imparts to
the wine a raw and acerb taste.

Other means besides the use of tartaric acid are followed by
some wine makers in order to bring their grape must up to the
desired standard of acidity, and that is, —

Lack of acidity can also be corrected by :

2nd. By an admixture of second crop grapes.
3rd. By early picking.

One more word on the question of acidity in relation to must
and wine, and that is, that authors generally, when treating of the
acidity in made wine, refer to it in terms of sulphuric acid. The
rule given above will enable anyone to alter it to tartaric acid, if so
desired.

Without the acids, wine would be a mere mixture of spirits
and water, of a dull leaden colour, without any flavour or bouquet,
and almost tasteless to the palate. The presence of natural acids in
wine gives it, on the other hand, a brilliant and sparkling appear-
ance, owing to their action on the colouring ma.tter in wine ; besides,
by combining with the alcohol, they create those penetrating and
delicate ethers which have very appropriately been called the

397

" bouquet" of the wine ; finally, as they gently stimulate the very
sensitive expansion of the nervous bundles that line the roof of the
palate, they freshen up the mouth and prepare it to appreciate all
the good, bad, or indifferent qualities of the wine.

If deficient acidity is often the case in warm, countries, it may
happen that, on account of accidental loss of foliage or other reason,
grapes fail to mature properly, and that the must they yield is poor
in sugar and too high in acids. In such a case the remedy which
yields the best result is to mix in the fermenting vat some dead-
ripe grapes with the acid ones. This method is preferable to that
which consists in neutralising part of the acidity of the liquid.

Saline substances are also found in musts, as potassium salts,
under various states of combinations, and chiefly among these is
acid tartrate of potash. That salt, commonly known as " argol "
or " tartar," adds to the acidity of the must and of new wine. It is
less soluble than tartaric acid in water, and its solubility decreases,
while the percentage of alcohol goes on increasing. It precipitates
in large quantities in the lees after fermentation, and after the first
drawing off it deposits slowly, under the form of crystals, on the
inside of the casks.

It often happens that young wines, possessing a raw and
unpleasant acid taste, improve considerably on maturing, and lose
that excess of acidity which is due to the tartar.

Although that salt precipitates gradually in a liquid which
contains alcohol, that precipitation is further accelerated under the
influence of a cool temperature ; hence the practice of maturing
wine completely fermented, especially light wines, with a low
percentage of alcohol, and with a marked degree of natural acidity,
in cool, underground cellars. The French have a characteristic
word for depicting that gradual process of precipitation of the
tartar and tne lees. They call it depouiller, which means to eject,
or excrete the dregs.

Colouring matters and essential oils, such as produce the
"aroma" in wines, are other ingredients of the must. Both are
contained in cells which line the inner surface of the skin, and their
extraction is made more active and more complete under the
influence of heat and the production of alcohol during the course
of active fermentation.

Temperature chiefly influences the solubility of the colouring
matter ; alcohol does so to a much lesser extent. This explains
why those wines which have been subjected to a fairly high
temperature during the process of fermentation are deeper in colour
than those fermented at a cooler temperature. If moderate
temperature helps in dissolving the colouring matter of grapes,
it causes it, if carried on to a higher degree, to undergo an
alteration which brings about its precipitation.

An instance of this is afforded by wines which, during the
process of sterilisation by means of heat-process, known by

398

pasteurisation, has been over-heated. That point is reached at
about 70° C. (158° P.), and for that reason it is desirable not to go
much above 65° C. (149° P.).

Each variety of grape has a special pigment of its own, par-
ticular to itself.

Albuminoids or nitrogenous substances, resembling the white
of an egg, also occur in minute quantities, viz., '1 to '4 per cent., and
are important, as entering largely into the making up of the tissues
of the wine. To a certain extent, therefore, they are essential to
fermentation, but when constituting a surplus their presence in
wine is highly undesirable, and even dangerous, as they are very
unstable bodies, easily decomposed, causing many of the accidents
and diseases which occur in wines.

Certain grapes, such as the Riesling, various white grapes,
and also Muscats, often contain a surplus of these albuminoid
bodies, and, especially so, grapes that mature very quickly, as in
hot climates ; and this is the case generally with grapes grown in
Australia.

Such surplus albuminoid substances should be removed by all
possible means, in order to insure the safe keeping of wines ; and in
a subsequent paragraph I shall mention the object of aeration in
this respect.

Another means we have of ridding white wine must of any
surplus albuminoid matters is to let it stand still for a day or two,
and then draw the clear liquid from over the muddy and viscuous
deposit just as the first indications of fermentation become notice-
able. In order to better effect this end in warm climates, where
fermentation starts very shortly after the grapes are crushed, the
liquid is treated with sulphurous acid fumes. Thus the must is
impregnated with the fumes of burning sulphur, or liquid sul-
phurous acid in small quantities is poured into it, or such salts a&
sulphite of potassium is added to it. The advantage of these last-
named methods over the first consist in the greater precision which
can be obtained in the matter of the dose used, and in the greater
convenience as well.

WHEN TO PICK GTBAPES.

In old-established districts experience has shown when it is
best to pick the grapes ; and at such places it is seldom that the
date of vintage alters more than a week or so from the customary
epoch for picking the different kinds of grapes grown.

In other parts the vine- growers will have to depend, to a greater
extent, on other indications for determining the time when to begin
picking. These indications, although empirical, are sufficiently
reliable.

They are afforded by the appearance of the bunch itself. The
stalk becomes woody, and loses its tender green look ; the berry is

399

.sweeter when pulled off the bunch, and parts easily from the bunch
or bundle of sap vessels which bring nourishment ; and the skin
becomes leathery.

More reliable ways, however, which any vine-grower can readily
use, are obtained by physical or by chemical tests.

The physical test is obtained by means of a light instrument
capable of floating into the liquid, and called a " densimeter," which
gives, on a graduated spindle which projects out of it, specific
gravity readings, or such readings which convey to the mind of
those who use them the information they require. Thus, the
instrument is called a " saccharometer " by wine-makers and sugar
manufacturers, "lactometers" by dairymen, "hydrometer" or
'" alcohoineter " by distillers, and so on.

The principle on which saccharometers are constructed is that
the smaller the proportion of sugar, the deeper the instrument will
sink. This method is not always exact, for the reason that grape
must is not only a simple solution of sugar and water, but contains
minute quantities of other substances as well, which cause slight
errors — errors, however, which in practice may well be overlooked.

In Australia, confusion reigns supreme in the returns furnished
by wine-makers as regards the strength of the must from grapes
grown in different localities. Some will give the specific gravity ;
others, degrees Baumc ; others, again, percentages of sugar ; while
s#me will mention so many degrees according to Hicks' hydrometer,
Keene's (also called Hunter Kiver) saccharometer, and a few will
quote the brewer's saccharometer.

It is easily understood that the work of collating returns
recorded according to so many different systems becomes very
complicated, not to say impossible ; and it would be highly desirable
that all the Australian wine-growers should, as it is done in France,
Italy, and the wine-producing countries of either Europe or
America, settle on a definite scale for the purpose of expressing the
richness of their must in sugar. For that purpose, either the
specific gravity of the liquid or the reading of the Baume hydro-
meter are used.

These hydrometers are made either of metal or, preferably, of
glass, and consist of a long, slender spindle, surmounting a larger
tube of blown glass, to which is soldered at the lower end a glass
bulb, containing, as ballast, either mercury or small shot, for the
purpose of maintaining the instrument in an erect position in the
liquid. The lighter the liquid, the deeper the instrument sinks ; and
the heavier the liquid, the more of the spindle appears above the
surface of the liquid.

Within the glass spindle is a scale, which varies with the make
of the instrument. Some are so graduated that the operator can
read at a glance either the specific gravity, the percentage of sugar,
-degrees Baumc, degrees Brix, according to the special purpose for
which the instrument has been constructed.

400

I shall rapidly explain the three scales most in use for the
determination of saccharine liquids.

1st. The Specific Gravity Scale. — The best known is Gray
Lussac's centesimal densimeter, on which 1,000 represent the depth to
which the instrument would sink in pure water at the temperature
of 15 degrees C. (59 degrees F.). According to the law formulated
above, the divisions above 1,000 indicate densities lower than that
of water, as, for instance, oil, spirits, etc.; while the divisions lower
than the 1,000 of the scale represent the specific gravity of liquids
heavier than water, and also the weight in grammes of one litre of
the liquid tested : thus 1,080 means that the liquid is to pure water
as 1,080 is to 1,000, or, in other words, that one litre of the liquid
weighs 1,080 grammes, as compared with the same capacity of pure
water, which weighs one kilogramme — in other words, 1,000
grammes.

In most saccharometers the 1,000 is placed at the top of the
scale ; as the liquids weighed get heavier than water, more of the
spindle appears above the surface of the liquid.

If great accuracy is required, it is necessary to make a slight
correction when the specific gravity is taken at temperatures below
15 degrees C., or above that degree of temperature, thus :—

If the temperature is —

10 degrees C

., take off '6 from the reading

11

•5

„

12

•4

j}

13

•3

J5

14

•2

„

15

o-

Js

16

add -1

„

17

•3

»

18

•5

a

19

•7

,,

2O

•Q

6U „

»

99

21

1*1

J?

22

„ 1-3

„

23

„ 1;6

„

24

1-8

„

25

2-

„

26

2-3

J?

27

« 2-6

„

28

„ 2-8

}>

29

3-1

)}

30

3'4

}f

2nd. The Baume Scale, which is determined by marking as
- degree the point on the spindle of the hydrometer to which it sinks
when floating in pure water, and as 15 degrees the point to which it

401

sinks in a solution of 15 parts by weight of salt in 85 parts of water.
The interval between these points is divided into 15 equal parts,
and the scale is continued to any number of degrees beyond.

This scale is also very much in use in many branches of indus-
try. It does not give the density by direct reading, but the density
can be ascertained either by reference to tables, or by means of the
following formula, in which n represents the degrees Baume,
as read on the scale, and D the specific gravity required :
D = J£±_. Thus, 10 degrees Baume equals tlg^, or 1,075 specific
gravity. The graduation of the Baume hydrometer is somewhat
arbitrary, and its use has only been maintained in practice by wine-
makers owing to the fact that, by a curious coincidence, the degrees
Baume, in an unferrnented must, also approximate^ indicate — as
may be ascertained by referring to the subjoined table — the per-
centage of absolute alcohol by weight it will have after being sub-
jected to a complete fermentation. Thus, a must measuring 11
degrees Baume will give a wine which will contain very nearly 11
degrees of absolute alcohol.

When these instruments are constructed for testing the
strength of saccharine liquids, the - degree is, for reasons previously
given, placed at the top of the scale.

3rd. The Scale of Brix, or Sailing, as it is also called, is mostly
used by "sugar makers. It gives the per cent, of sugar present in
any given solution. For example, a solution marking 14 degrees
Brix contains 14 per cent, of sugar, etc.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY, Equivalents of the Brix and Baume Scales, and
Alcoholic Strength after Fermentation.

Specific
Gravity.

Baume.

Brix, or per
cent, of sugar
in must.

Absolute
alcohol per
cent, by
weight in
wine.

Absolute
alcohol per
cent, by
volume.

Percentage
of proof
spirit.

i-ooo

o-o

0'

002

•5

004

•5

r

006

1-5

008

1*0

2-

010

2-5

012

3'

014

2-0

3-5

016

4'

018

4-5

020

...

5-

022

3-0

5-5

024

6-

026

6-5

...

028

4-0

7-

...

402

SPECIFIC GRAVITY, Equivalents of the Brix and Baume Scales, and
Alcoholic Strength after Fermentation — continued.

Specific
Gravity.

Bauine.

Brix, or per
cent, of sugar
in must.

Absolute
alcohol per
cent, by
weight in
wine.

Absolute
alcohol per
cent, by
volume.

Percentage
of proof
spirit.

030

7-5

032

...

8-

034

8-5

„

036

5-0

9-

...

038

9-5

...

040

10-

4-5

10-

042

10-5

4-8

10-5

044

6-0

11-

5-1

11-1

046

11-5

5-4

...

11-9

048

12-

5'7

12-5

050

7-0

12-5

6-0

7-48

13-1

053

13-

6-5

8-10 14-2

055

135

6-8

8-48 14-8

057

14-

7'2

8-96

15-7

059

8:0

14-5

7'5

9-33

16-4

061

15-

7'8

9-70 17-0

063

15'5

8-1

10-00 17'7

066

9-0

16-

8-6

10-66 18-8

068

16-5

8-9

11-00 19-4

070

17-

9'2

11-40 20-0

072

17-5

9-5

11-79 20-7

074

10-0

18:

9-8

12-10 21-3

076

18-5

10-1

12'50 21-9

078

19-

10-5

13-00 23-0

081

19-5

10-9

13-25 23-6

082

11-0

20-

11-2

13-60 24-3

085

20-5

11-5

13-95 24-9

088

21-

12-0

14-84 26-0

090

12-0

21-5

12-3

15-20 26-6

092

22-

12-6

15-44 27-3

094

22-5

12.9

15.90 27-9

097

23-

13-4

16-30 28-9

099

13-0

23-5

13-8

16-85 29-8

101

24-

14-

17-26

30-2

103

24-5

14'3

17-47

31-0

106

...

25'

14-6

17-85

317

108

14-0

25-5

14-8

18-06

32-1

110

26-

15-2

18-60

32-6

113

26-5

15-4

18-80 33-3

115

15-0

27-

15-6

19-05 33-8

1-118

27-5

16-0

19'68 34-5

120

28-

j

123

...

28-5

125

16-0

29-

127

...

29-5

130

30-

132

30-5

• 134

MO

31-

_

137

...

31-5

...

139

...

32-

...

403

SPECIFIC GRAVITY, Equivalents of the Brix and Baume Scales, and
Alcoholic Strength after Fermentation — continued.

Specific
Gravity.

Baume.

Brix, or per
cent, of sugar
in must.

Absolute
alcohol per
cent, by
weight in
wine.

Absolute
alcohol per
cent, by
volume.

Percent
of proof
spirit.

142

325

144

18-0

33-

...

...

147

...

33-5

...

...

349

...

34-

...

...

...

152

19-0

34-5

...

...

...

154

35'

157

...

35-5

159

36-

162

20-0

36-5

...

164

...

37-

...

167

37-5

...

169

38-

...

172

21-0

38-5

...

...

...

174

%

39-

...

...

177

39-5

179

22:0

40-

...

182

40-5

...

185

41-

187

!.'. 41-5

•

190

23-0 42-

...

t

-

192

42-5

...

...

...

195

43-

...

...

198

43-5

2(30

24-0

44-

...

N.B. — Must, having a specific gravity under 1,100, or 13deg. Baume,
will ferment completely and produce a dry wine, unless the temperature
in the vat has been allowed to rise too high, in which case the fermenta-
tion may get " stuck," although there may be more sugar unfermented
in the wine.

Must, with a specific gravity ranging from 1,100 to 1,115 (13deg. to 15deg.
Baume), will have a greater difficulty to ferment dry, as the specific gravity
runs higher ; and very often the fermentation will stop before all the sugar
has been converted into alcohol.

The best French wines, made from the choicest varieties of grapes, are
produced from musts having a density ranging from 1,059 (8deg. B.),
and 1,115 (15deg. B.). Thus, musts producing the Medoc wines measure,
on an average, 1,066, or 9deg. B. ; musts, from the Khine, about the same ;
must, in the Champagne district, 1,074, or lOdeg. B. ; in Burgundy, 1,090, or
12deg. B. ; and in the Roussillon district, in the south of France, 1,108, or
14deg. Baume.

Musts, with a specific gravity higher than 1,116 (15deg. B.), yield either
wine suitable for blending with a lighter one — they have the disadvantage
of introducing with them an excess of unfermented sugar, which often pro-
duces troublesome secondary fermentations — or else they are only suited
for making into liqueur wines.

404

-m

A CONVENIENT SACCHAROMETER

would be one like Keene's (sometimes called Hunter Eiver
saccharometer, from the locality where it was mostly used at first) .
The idea was taken from Dr. Guyot's glucometer,
which shows, on a tricolour scale, the specific
gravity of the must, the percentage of sugar
corresponding to that specific gravity, and the
amount of alcohol which would result if the liquid
was thoroughly fermented.

It consists of an ordinary hydrometer, about 12
inches long. The scale is divided into three
longitudinal columns, giving — 1st, the specific
gravity; 2nd, the degrees Baume, corresponding
to the degree of density ; and 3rd, the per cent,
of sugar, corresponding to each one of these
degrees. The intervals between the divisions
should be pretty wide, so that the wine-maker can
see at a glance what is the specific gravity of the
must, how much per cent, of sugar the must con-
tains, and, by interpreting the degrees Baume into
the number of degrees of absolute alcohol, what
will be the strength of the wine which will be
made from that must, after thorough fermentation.

This saccharometer, unlike most others, is
graduated for musts at a temperature of 80
degrees F. (26-5 degrees C.), instead of 60 degrees
F. (15 degrees C.), which is the temperature
adopted for all standard hydrometers. I am not
in a position, however, to vouchsafe its complete
accuracy, as those I have tested and compared with
standard hydrometers have shown readings differ-
ing enough to mislead as to the true specific
gravity and richness in sugar of the must. It
would be highly desirable that some careful maker
should construct an accurate saccharometer, based
on the same plan, for the use of wine-makers.

Keene's saccharometer registers specific gravities
of fluids varying from 950 to 1,400 degrees — this
latter reading representing a solution containing
about 80 per cent, of sugar, and weighing 43

Saccharometer. ^ " , T i j • ^

degrees Baume. I would, instead, propose an
instrument having a spindle of the same length, with graduations
ranging from 1,000 to 1,200 degrees, which represent 44 per cent,
sugar, or 24 degrees Baume — a scale which will be found to meet
every requirement of the wine-maker, whilst the degrees, being
wider apart, will be easier to read.

All these observations, duly recorded in a register, will supply
valuable information respecting the character of the must of grapes
grown from different varieties, on different soils, in different dis-

405

tricts, and will permit of interesting comparisons being drawn with
the must of previous years.

Chemical Test. — As already seen, the empirical as well as the
physical means we have of ascertaining the richness of grape must
is in practice found sufficiently correct, although not absolutely so.
It is to laboratory tests we must rely for an exact determination of
the contents of a must in either sugar or acids, and as these tests
are not readily made by the majority of wine makers, I refrain from
referring to them at any length.

WINE, PEE, TON OF GRAPES.

The amount of wine yielded by a ton of grapes varies according
to a number of circumstances, chiefly the kind of grapes, the kind
of season, the locality, the climatic conditions, and also the time of
gathering.

Tf a broad average be taken, several of the grapes more
extensively grown will yield as follows : —

Cabernet 100 to 115 gallons

Morastel 110 „ 120

Shiraz ... 120 „ 135

Mataro 130 „ 140

Doradillo 140 „ 160

In France an average of about 70 per cent, is obtained, whereas
in Australia, which, on the whole, is warmer and drier, the same
grapes yield 60 to 65 per cent, of wine ; or, in other words, lOOlbs.
of crushed grapes yield about six gallons of wine.

SHOULD G-RAPES BE STALKED.

The question is often asked — should grapes be stalked before
fermentation ? Experience with us, as well as wherever wine is
made from the choicer varieties of grapes, distinctly gives an
affirmative answer. A chemical examination of the stalk show that
there is little or nothing in it which enters into the composition of
wine. The only soluble substances it possesses — viz., tannin,
albuminoid substances, organic acid, and salts — already occur in
abundance in the grape must. Wines fermented with husks and
stalks added are harsher than wines fermented without stalks ;
they also often show an earthy taste, and are not so clean to the
palate. These disadvantages are serious enough in themselves, but
there are other reasons why wines — red wines are here inferred —
should not be fermented on their stalks, such as the economy of
space in fermenting, stalked grapes occupying one- third less space
inside the vats ; the greater similarity between wine running freely
from the vats and press wine, which when stalks are present are
invariably much harsher ; another reason is that wine from stalked
grapes mature quicker and can be marketed sooner than would
otherwise be the case.

406

Stalking, moreover, is effected by a mechanical tearing and
tossing about of the grape, which result in a thorough aeration of
the must, an operation which ensures a more active and healthy
fermentation, and reacts favourably on the quality of the wine.

In the manufacture of white wine the same objections dis-
appear, as white wines should not be fermented on either skins or
stalks.

For the easier pressing of the sweet juice out of the glutinous
pulp, however, the admixture of stalks are of great assistance, as
they prevent the solidification of the soft pulp.

In that case, the stalking part of the machine should be
thrown out of gear and the whole bunch, stalk and all, mangled
between the rollers of the grape mill. If the type of machine does
not permit of that, the pulp and the stalks should either be mixed
together in the cage of the press, or else they should be superposed
in alternate layers, as the stalks will prevent the solidification of
the glutinous mass and keep it porous and open, thereby favouring
the escape of the juice when the pressure is applied.

White wines fermented apart from skins and stalks are lighter
in colour ; it is true that the wine is at times slow in clearing, on
account of a deficiency of tannin which the pips and the stalks
failed to impart to it ; by pressing the stalks with the pulp this
deficiency is in some measure corrected.

AERATION. — The operation of running the grapes through the
stemmer and crusher, it has been noticed, results in a better aeration
of the must, as the bunches of grapes are vigorously tossed about
during that process, with the result that the skins burst, and, after
passing through the rollers, the berries are reduced to a state of a
pulp.

Pasteur has demonstrated that one of the main factors in the
maturing of the wine is the oxygen, which is readily taken up by
its constituents and by them held in a state of loose chemical
combination, from which it is readily given up as required. A
phenomenon of a similar nature occurs in the case of the grape
juice ; under the influence of warmth and the oxygen absorbed by
the liquid, the process of maturation of the grape is consummated
inside the vat, and the must is thereby enriched by the full amount
of fermentable grape sugar it is capable of acquiring.

Although the must absorbs much air during the operation of
crushing, it is often considered advisable to further aerate it previous
to setting it to ferment.

The influence of aeration in quickening the starting of fermen-
tation is now well understood by the wine makers of the old world,
and various designs, as well as special appliances, are employed in
carrying out that process, both in the making of red and of white

407

Among1 the advantages which result from the aeration of the
must, or mash of grapes, before it is turned into wine, the following
may be mentioned : —

(i.) The cooling down of hot must obtained from grapes
picked during the hottest hours of the day.

(2.) A greater regularity in the progress of fermentation.

(3.) Its earlier completion, hence less exposure to the air, and
therefore less risk of contamination by injurious
microbes which float in the air.

(4.) The quicker clearing of the young wine. Aeration or
oxidation causing the precipitation into the lees of
some of those rapidly-decomposing white-of-egg-like
or albuminoid matters in the must, which afford a
favourite food for dangerous microbes.

As an instance of this, I may just mention that in the Depart-
ment of Meurthe, in the North-West of France, where the grapes
contain much albuminoid matter, aeration is carried on systemati-
cally as one of the processes of wine-making. For this purpose the
must is thoroughly stirred by means of shovels, till the air is well
incorporated through its mass, and such wine, which is known as
mn de pelle (shovel -made wine), by reason of its superior quality,
sells for 20 per cent, more money than wines made from similar
must, but according to the ordinary methods of verification. The
cost of this very simple but laborious operation is reckoned at
barely Id. more per gallon. With the modern mechanical appliances,
this cost is considerably reduced, whilst the resulting advantages
are decidedly important. Of late years a machine constructed on
the principle of a cream- separator, and known as the aero-crushing
grape mill, has been introduced, which effects this work with great
thoroughness. Such a machine, I have no doubt, should prove a
great success in hot countries, where the grapes mature very
quickly, and more especially on rich alluvial land, the percentage of
these nitrogenous matters increases very much, and it is of great
importance that any of the surplus of it, beyond what is necessary for
the use of the yeast fungi, should be removed. Some grapes are
exceeding rich in these bodies, notably the riesling and the
muscats.

Aeration is more especially suitable to white wine. One of its
actions on must is to bring about the precipitation of the colouring
matter. A ready method of securing it is by means of a pump,
through which a current of air is injected into' the liquid. A rose
is attached at the end of the delivery pipe. This is done for 10 to
12 minutes, but must not be overdone, so as not to impart to the
wine a yellowish colour. With a little practice, the exact time when
aeration should cease is soon known. If every five minutes a little
must is run through some filter paper, the pumping is stopped
directly the liquid ceases to show a rosy tint. A brownish-looking
precipitate is collected on the filter. Subsidising is necessary after
aeration. One disadvantage of aeration is that it promotes the

408

trouble called casse, or causes the colour of the wine to " break."
Two cassea are known, the "brown" and the ''blue." Sulphur
fumes are used as a preventative or a colour restorer. Used as a
preventive, it gives better results. Six grammes of sulphur per
100 gallons after aeration and before fermentation, six grammes
when first drawing off, and six grammes when racking for the first
time, will prove efficacious against this trouble.

VATTING is the name given to that period during which the
must is in contact with the husks. As a rule, short fermentations
result in delicate wine, with good keeping qualities ; long fermenta-
tions producing harsh wines, heavy in colour, and not so easy to
keep.

Whenever possible the vatting of the grape pulp should be
done by gravitation ; time and labour is saved, and the work is
done with greater cleanliness.

The filling of the vat should be done during the day, and
not spread over two or three days.

It is immaterial whether only one or several kinds of grapes
are mixed together in the va.t, provided that they be all of one type
and are meant for making one class of wine. Each sort is, however,
generally fermented apart from the other, and the resulting wine is
blended afterwards if required.

The vats should not be filled to more than four-fifths of their
capacity, as much swelling of the mass occurs during fermentation,
and if the rise of the liquid occurred during night time loss of wine
would result. By keeping the level of .the fermenting must below
the edge of the vat, excess of air is to a great extent screened off by
a layer of carbonic acid gas ; whilst being about three times as
heavy as air, covers the fermenting liquid and prevents oxidation
and acetification of the cap or floating husks.

Questions are often asked : Should the fermentation be con-
ducted in open or in closed vessels ? Should the skins or caps be
kept immersed or left to float during fermentation ? In both cases,
more especially in hot countries, both theory and practice strongly
favour open vats and submerged heads. There takes place during
fermentation a chemical reaction which results in the splitting up
of grape sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. This reaction, which
is set up by living organisms or yeast, is accompanied by much
evolutions of heat, and the richer the liquid is in sugar, the warmer
the temperature, within limits, which we will consider presently,
the greater that evolution of heat becomes.

Unless some means exist of dissipating that heat generated
during fermentation, its accumulation would reach a point which
would soon endanger the life of the active agent of fermentation.
Fortunately, two natural outlets exist for the dissemination of that
generated heat : 1st, radiation from the surface and through the
sides of the fermenting vessels ; 2nd, by the free escape of the
carbonic acid gas, which rises to the surface in warm bubbles which
burst and allow it to escape.

409

Closed vats, such as are used in the Medoc and other districts
where the must is light, the temperature cooler, and the wine-
makers most conservative in their methods, would in hotter
climates, where the grapes are richer in sugar, prove an element of
danger, for the reason that the confined hot carbonic acid gas,
prevented from escaping freely from the fermenting mass, would
greatly tend to raise its temperature beyond the limits desirable.

The following method of handling the crushed grapes ready
for fermentation into wine I have seen attended with the best
results and commend to the attention of wine-growers : —

The grape pulp is
conveyed in the ordi-
nary way provided in
each individual cellar,
from the grape mill
to the fermenting vat,
which can well be an
open one and should
not be too deep, but
rather shallow, and in
this hot climate, not too
capacious, viz., from 400
to 600 gallons prefer-
ably.

Grape Vat.

During this opera-
tion of filling up, a
straight tap about one inch diameter, driven in the plug hole at the
base of the vat, is left open so that as fast as the liquid must and
pulp fall from the grape crusher the liquid portion runs out into
tubs provided under the tap for its reception. Reference to the above
illustration will show a simple and an effective method, I have found,
of allowing the liquid to drain through the solid pulp. It consists
of an inverted gutter with a V-shape section, made of two lengths
of six inch boards a little shorter than the diameter of the base of
the vat. This gutter, with the edge uppermost, is made fast by
driving a wedge between the end further from the tap and the side
of the vat, and is notched at the bottom so as to let the liquid run
freely.

When the vat is about half full of freshly-crushed grapes, a
light and movable false head or grating is made secure above them.
The liquid must collected in the tubs is then restored to the vat,
and allowed to rise some six to nine inches above the perforated
false head.

Being left to itself, the fresh must suffers in a short time a
remarkable change. Originally clear, it soon shows signs of
clouding up ; small air bubbles begin to form and ascend, and
finally cause a decided foaming. The grape must ferments.

This stage can with advantage be precipitated by adding a
" starter " to the crushed grape, previous to covering it up with the

410

false head. This consists in a few buckets of foaming and ferment-
ing must from an adjoining vat. Under the combined influence of
the congenial temperature of the fermenting house and of this
freshly-crushed, well-aerated mass, the newly added ferments, soon
take hold of the contents of the vat, and within a few hours
fermentation is in full swing.

The alternative method is to allow the spongy cap to float and
to push it down twice a day, a process which when much wine is
being made entails a great expenditure of labour and of time, and
is open to serious objections, as the cap at times gets sour and
carries with it in the body of the liquid germs of diseases.

A. modification to the method thus described is illustrated in
the following woodcuts. It has been used with great success by
Coste-Floret. Here, instead of a perforated false head, there are
two vertical gratings (A. D.) which separate the vat into three
compartments. The crushed grapes are dumped into the
central one, and the juice running from the mass fills the space on

either side of the central com-
partment. The customary ad-
dition of levure or leaven having
been added, fermentation soon
sets in inside the vat. When
the temperature reaches 85 to 88
deg. Fahr. pumping is started,
the must being pumped from,,
say, the left side of the vat back
into the right compartment.
This arrangement, which meets
all the advantages sought for

with the horizontal immersed
false head, saves the trouble of
removing that head after each
fermentation for the purpose of
removing the skins or marc.

To sum up this improved
method of wine-making, it is
seen that the period of fermenta-
tion is made as short as possible ;
the temperature is not allowed
to rise beyond 92deg. to 93deg.
F. Acetic and lactic ferments
have less chance of tainting the
wine. Earthy tastes, often due
to prolonged maceration of the
marc in the wine, disappear ; the
colour of the wine is deeper ;
the process of fermentation being
more rapid, fewer vats will answer
for vintaging a given quantity of

Grape Vat, section and plan.

411

grapes as compared with the present system of fermenting ; this
means less capital invested in fermenting vessels ; and most
important of all, a better type of wine will be turned out, which
will possess better keeping qualities, and when marketed command
a better price.

SEPARATING MUST FROM THE SKIN.

The above methods answer when red wine is made ; white wine
is made differently.

The clear must from freshly-crushed grapes, either red — sorts
with coloured juice are not suitable for this purpose — or white, is
collected from a large vat into which crushed grapes are directed as
they come from the grape mill. The tap of that vat is left open to
allow the free escape of the liquid must which drains from the pulp
mass. This liquid must filtering through the skins runs out clear
and limpid, and can either be made to ferment straight away with-
out further clearing, or may be treated as will be presently explained.
One third or so of the liquid can be thus collected ; the balance is
pressed out, subsided as described, and fermented.

In the case of Aramon and such-like grapes an excellent red
wine can be made with what is left of must in the skins, but the
fermenting must is drawn after a couple of days only.

CLEARING OF FRESH-DRAWN MUST.

The liquor collected either straight from the vat or from the
press having been pumped into a vat, it is allowed to rest for 24
hours in order to get rid of much of the solid matters it holds in
suspension. If desired it may be aerated, as previously explained,
or treated with sulphur ; the use of the one does not preclude that of
the other treatment. Unless the liquid was subjected to the influence
of sulphur fumes it would not rest and fermentation would soon
set in.

One easy method of sulphuring this must consists in burning
under a barrel with the head taken off 5 grammes (75 grains) of
sulphur for every 22 gallons (25 grammes, or Joz., per 100 gallons)
of must treated.

That inverted cask is slightly raised by means of a wedge, to
admit the air necessary for the combustion of sulphur. The suction
hose of a pump is fastened to the bung hole of that inverted tub,
and when the large vat is about one-third full of fresh white must
the pump is brought into play and the sulphurous fumes injected
into its mass by means of the hose of the pump which is made to
plunge into the liquid. This checks fermentation.

It is known that the sulphuring is being satisfactorily done
when, whilst the pump is at work, there is no smell of sulphur fumes
perceptible when standing close to the cask.

Twenty -four hours after sulphuring, which, if well carried out,
checks fermentation from setting in early, the clear must is drawn
off into the fermenting vats or casks, and the viscous product which

412

has subsided during the period of rest of the must is sent to the
still-house, where it ferments.

By this method most of the undesirable microbes present in
grape must are carried down in the sediment and removed from the
clear liquid, in which remain a number of yeast germs, which are
more resistant to the action of sulphur fumes, and soon take charge
of the fermentation, which then proceeds slowly and evenly, and
without further trouble.

YEASTS AND FERMENTS.

With clean casks and good must from suitable grapes^why is
it that under the present method of wine-making in Australia there
is such a variety of wine being made ? Why does the wine some-
times turn good, indifferent, and]generally, too often unfortunately,
goes bad ?

Although the raw material is apparently the same, ,:it often
happens that the wine of one vintage differs in quality and character
from that of the next vintage.

These questions lead jto the consideration of then causes and
conditions which influence wine fermentation.

Saccharomyces cerevisix, or yeast of beer (highly magnified).

To the quality of the grapes and the location they are grown in,
is there not another factor which influences the quality of the wine ?
The researches of Pasteur and others have demonstrated that to
these must be added the variety and purity of the yeast or leaven.

413

To promote the production of a sound, palatable wine, to avoid
the evils of stuck vats, of lactic, mousey, or of acetic wine, it is
necessary to know the causes favourable to the production of these
conditions in order to nurse and favour them, or to check and avoid
them as the case may be.

Although wine is the result of the fermentation of the juice of
the grape, it is only when acted upon by microscopic living organisms
which have received the name of " yeasts," that the transformation
of the sweet juice of the fruit into wine is accomplished.

In every sweet fruit nature has placed some kind of ferment
capable of converting its juice into a fermented liquor. In grapes
these ferments, known in France as " levures," in England as
"yeast," are known to botanists all the world over — for yeast is a
plant — by the name of Saccharomyces.

Thus, of the ferment of beer, known as 8. cerevisise, there are
several sub- varieties, some of which, like the ferments of " low
fermentation,!' are bred by the brewers of lager beer and maintained
at a low temperature of 45 to 54deg. F. (7-12° C.), and others, the
ferments of " high fermentation," are to be found in those brew-
eries where the type is more that of Bass's beer or Guinness' s stout.
These thrive best at temperatures ranging from 65 to 85deg. F.
(18-30° C).

They consist of a series of cells, more or less oval in shape, the
long diameter of which is about '001 min. (1 litre=1000 min. which
nearly equals 1 yard, so that 1 min. = T?Vo~ yards).

Saccharomyces ellipi,oideus, yeast of wine (highly magnified).

Each cell is composed of a fragment of protoplasma, surrounded
by an envelope of cellulose. These cells multiply very rapidly in
several ways. 1st. By sprouting or budding; new cells showing
like dots on the margin of older ones and growing gradually until

414

they constitute fresh cells. 2nd. By fissure, when the conditions
are not so favourable. If a drop of fermenting beer is watched
under the microscope, small granular bodies or nuclei are seen
inside the yeast cell ; by degrees this pinches in and splits up into
two to four cells. Within these mother cells are the spores or their
kernels, which are endowed with greater resisting power.

The ferments of wine proper, S. ellipsoideus, also comprise
several families. Their optima temperature, i.e., that at which they
are in the full possession of all their energy, ranges also from 70 to
90deg. F. (22-32° C.) Below that temperature they are sluggish
and languid, above the higher one they are, after having passed
through a feverish period, left sickly and weakened. They[ are
elliptical in shape, and reproduce by sprouting.

Saccharomyces pastorianus, ferment of secondary fermentation of wine
(greatly magnified.)

There is also to be found in wine the 8. pastoriam^, which
compares with the elliptical yeast somewhat after the manner the
wild bee does with the high bred and industrious ligurian bee ;
even more, the S. pastorianus is more injurious than useful to wine,
and until the ermenting wine reaches 75deg. F. (24° C.) there is
always the danger of the elliptical yeast not being able to overcome
that particular mild yeast.

In the spring when sweetish wines begin to work, it is this
yeast which is found mostly in the wine ; it likes a cool temperature,

415

but the quality of the spirit it turns out cannot be compared with
that elaborated by the elliptical yeast.

S. or Carpozyma apiculatum.

There are other kinds of yeast, such as S. apiculatus Tor
Carpozyma apiculatum ; which is neither good nor bad. This
particular one is met with on tart and unripe fruit ; it has no great
capacity for work. Although it generally starts fermentation it is of
a very tender nature ; and the apiculate yeast gives way to the
elliptical yeast when there is 2 to 3 per cent, of alcohol in the wine,
or when the temperature rises above 75deg. F. (24deg. C.)

It consists of pear-shaped cells. Amongst the other ferments
which can be found in greater or in lesser quantity floating in new
wine, the quality of which they tend to depreciate, are two kinds of
micro-organisms, one the mycoderma vini, or." wine flowers," which,
feeding on alcohol, robs the wine of its strength, and the second and
more dangerous mycoderma aceti, which is the bacterium of vinegar.
Both of these thrive at a fairly high temperature ranging from 80
to lOOdeg.

Besides these, again, there are the bacteria of lactic or of
mannitic fermentation, which are galvanised into life when the
temperature in the vat or in the wine reaches lOOdeg. F. and over.
There are also pseudo yeasts (torulse) and moulds, which not only
waste sugar in the must and thus lower the strength of wine, but,
what is much more serious, leave in the wine products they have
eliminated which greatly lowers its quality.

STARTING FERMENTATION.

Now that we are acquainted with ferments and the conditions
which are favourable or injurious to them, it will be readily under-

416

stood that it is an advantage to start the fermentation as soon as
ever the grapes are crushed and vatted, as the less the wine is
exposed to the air the better are its chances of escaping contamina-
tion by the injurious bacteria of diseases which are always lurking
in the cellar until a chance is offered to them to invade the wine and
taint it. For that reason it is a good practice to start, a few days
before vintage proper, a small fermentation under the most favour-
able conditions possible. For that purpose some sound and ripe
grapes are picked whilst cool, in the morning, crushed, and set
fermenting in a clean tub, in which a temperature ranging between
75 and 90deg. is carefully maintained.

This first fermentation will take longer to start than will other-
wise be the case, as the appliances for wine-making have not then
been leavened, and the spores or germs of the yeast, which during
vintage float about in abundance in the atmosphere of the cellar,
are still scarce at this early stage of wine-making.

When the fermentation has well set in, vintage is begun, and as
the first vat is being filled a bucketful or two of that ferment is
thrown into it, wifch the result that a fermentation of the right sort
speedily sets in.

The subsequent vats are also leavened from those already in
full fermentation, and thus the process is continued all through the
vintage. This must be done at the right moment, as reference to
the paragraphs dealing with the various kinds of ferments show
that at the start the apiculate yeasts predominate, and at the end
the mycoderma vini, or " flower of wine," and the bacteria of acetic
acid and of lactic fermentations, as well as other undesirable micro-
organisms which are not uncommon in the wine. During the height
of the fermentation, on the other hand, the elliptical yeast, or true
wine yeast, has a good hold of the fermenting mass, and is then in a
healthy and thriving condition.

In the course of his researches on beer, Pasteur demonstrated
that several kinds of fermentation cannot proceed simultaneously
and with an equal intensity in a suitable liquid, and that the most
energetic always masters and overpowers the others. The point to
bear in mind is, therefore, to surround the particular kind of
fermentation one strives to achieve with the conditions most favour-
able to its completion.

INFLUENCE OP TEMPERATURE DURING FERMENTATION.

Fermentation is the result of combustion. That combustion,
as we have seen, is initiated whenever the yeast fungi have access
to the sweet juice of the grape.

According to the researches of scientists, and in the first
instance to Berthelot, 180 grammes of grape sugar, in being trans-

417

formed into alcohol and carbonic acid gas, generate 71 calories, or
enough heat to raise the temperature of a must containing 20 per
cent, sugar and fermenting completely to 128deg. Fahr., provided
all the heat were accumulated in the fermenting vessel without loss.

This fact, demonstrated by theory, does not, however, occur in
practice. Several sources of leakage tend to reduce that temper-
ature, such as the radiation of heat through the staves or sides of
the vat, the evaporation which takes place from the surface of the
liquid, the bursting on the surface of the hot bubbles of the
carbonic acid gas, which escapes through the air. Were it not for
these sources of diffusion of heat generated,, the yeast would soon
be paralysed or killed, and the vat would get " stuck."

What that amount of heat is, at any given moment, within the
mass in fermentation, can thus be expressed in the terms of a
mathematical equation : —

The temperature of the fermenting mass is equal to that of
the grapes at the time of crushing, plus that due to the heat
evolved during the fermentation, less that lost by radiation and
evaporation.

It is a matter of common observation that, unless checked, the
temperature of a 600 or 700- gallon vat in Australia rises from
20 to 25° F. during fermentation. In other words, grapes crushed
at 65° F. will rise in the vat, if the temperature be unchecked, to
80~ or 85° F., whereas the same grapes vatted at a temperature of
75° F. will rise to about 95° or 100° F. As that temperature is
decidedly injurious to the yeast of wine fermentation (saccharomyces
ellipsoideus) , and on the other hand is favourable to bacterial life,
or the life of those microbes which are the cause of disease in wine,
it is obvious that, where no artificial means are at hand to control
the excess of temperature, the grapes should be vatted when cool
only.

It is therefore essential, whilst the grapes are fermenting, to
ascertain, by means of frequent testings with the thermometer,
what the temperature is inside the vat.

The elliptic yeast does its best work between the temperatures
of 75° and 90° F. Below 75° the 8. pastorianus or the 8. apiculalus,
which, at best, are but very poor kinds of ferments, thrive
best ; above 95° the ferments of acetic acid and of lactic acid play
an active part, the conversion of sugar into alcohol ceases through
the death of the yeast of wine fermentation, and the vat gets
" stuck," with a proportion of unfermented wine still left in it.
During the course of a sickly fermentation, not only does the work
done by sickly yeast plants fall short, both as regards quality and
quantity, with what healthy yeast plants would do, but the same
circumstances which have brought about that unsatisfactory state
of things, i.e., excess of heat, being favourable to bacterial life, it

418

follows that the wine suffers in bouquet and aroma as well as in
delicacy and purity, and is tainted by the deleterious products of
undesirable and injurious bacteria, becoming fiery and heady, and
suffering greatly in character.

These bacteria, feeding on what sugar is left unfermented, and
also on the spirit or on the tartar of the wine, cause lactic or
mannitic, acetic, tartaric, and butyric fermentations, which form
products giving sweet-sour or milk-sour acid and mousy tastes, all
defects developed by keeping the wine, causing it to become flat,
turbid, and difficult to clear.

REVIVAL OF FERMENTATION.

It sometimes happens that, in spite of all care and precaution,
some vats get " stuck " before fermentation is completed. In such
cases the remedy must be applied at once, and the wine-maker has
the choice between several means of attaining that end.

One of the simplest is to draw the wine from the hot vat and
fill smaller casks or vessels in which it will soon cool, with the
result that the ferments will revive and show a tendency to accom-
plish their work. When this is noticed, the wine is restored to the
vat, and a small addition of must in full fermentation added at the
same time will soon help to restore matters.

The surest way of restoring fermentation in a " stuck " vat, or
of preventing the temperature rising too high, is, however, to use a
refrigerator or wine-cooler.

REFRIGERATORS, also called " attemperators," are mechanical
devices for the purpose of cooling liquids, whether it be milk, as in
a dairy, mash in a brewery, or must in a winery.

Several types are in use for that purpose, those which have met
with greater favour being :—

Metallic fermenting vats, enamelled inside, so as to protect the
metal against the corrosive action of the acids in the wine. These
vats are covered externally with coarse canvas, of the texture of
cheese-cloth, which is kept constantly wet. They may be placed in
a draught to increase evaporation, and thereby reduce the temperature.
These vats have not become very popular, for the reason that they
are somewhat high in price, and the cost of substituting wooden
vats for them would be rather heavy. They were, for the first time,
in Algeria.

Metal spiral coils, plunged in the fermenting must, and through
which cold water is passed, have hitherto been much used in
breweries as well as wineries. It consists of a horizontal circular
coil to suit the shape of the vat, and made of tinned copper pipes one-
sixteenth of an inch thick and one inch to one and a-quarter inch
outside diameter, with supporting stays and suspending rods, by
which it may be hung in the vat at any desired depth. The pipes are

419

fitted with unions for connecting india-rubber hose for the supply of
cooling water. When required to be removed, after fermentation,
for cleaning purposes, it is readily hoisted by pulley blocks out of
the vat. The pipes are set at a distance of about four inches apart,
so as to allow of rapid and thorough cleaning.

Tubular Attemperator.

Amongst other advantages, this attemperator is easy to con-
struct, fairly cheap, and can be fitted up anywhere, being simply hung
on a beam over the top of any vat. It is, by means of the pulley
blocks and a counterpoise hitched on at the other end of the chain,
set at any depth in the fermenting wine. A good depth, I have
found, is about six inches below the surface, as it is well known that
fermentation, and hence development of heat, is more active at the
top of the vat than at the bottom. The liquid on being cooled has,
besides, a tendency to sink, and thus maintains amongst the lower,
layers of the fermenting must a moderate degree of temperature.

420

For the purpose of working the attemperator, an abundant
supply of cool water is necessary, and this can be pumped to a tank
placed at a higher level than the attemperator itself, from a well,
an underground tank, or even a cool stream. By means of a tap
fitted on the supplying overhead tank the now of the cooling water
can be regulated so as to maintain the suitable degree of tempera-
ture in the vat.

In practice, three to four square inches of surface piping are
allowed per gallon of liquor to be cooled. This would be, with water,
at from 65 deg. to 70 deg. F^ Supposing an attemperator is
required for an 800 gallon vat. Such a vat would not receive more
than about 600 gallons of grape must. One lineal foot of copper
pipe one inch outside diameter would represent 36 square inches
of cooling surface, reckoning that the circle bears to the diameter
the proportion of three to one. This would be sufficient for cooling
nine to 10 gallons of liquid; for 100 gallons we would require 10
feet, and for 600 gallons a coil of 60 feet of one-inch piping.

Supposing a pipe of one and a-quarter inch outside diameter is
used, one lineal foot of such piping would maintain 14 gallons of
must at a temperature below 90 deg. F., with water, say, at 68 deg.
F.; and a coil made of a 43 feet pipe would control the temperature
of 600 gallons of grape must. The cost of such attemperators,
with all fittings complete and ready for use, would amount to
about <£8.

This metallic spiral coil is only used in reducing the tempera-
ture in white wine vats, where the juice has been expressed from
the skins ; or in red wine vats provided with a false head, for the
purpose of submerging the cap.

The consumption of water, which varies with the degree of
temperature of the must, that of the water itself, and the volume of
must to be cooled with this apparatus, amounts to about an
equivalent volume of wine to be cooled.

Muntz and Rousseaux tubular refrigerator. — This cooling
apparatus, which is constructed by the well-known firm of still
manufacturers, Deroy fils aine, of Paris, is, as it stands, one of the
most improved wine-coolers constructed. It has been used with
much success in the large wineries of Algeria and of the south of
France ; but its disadvantage, from the less ambitious Australian
wine-grower's point of view, is its cost.

In the matter of wine refrigeration several factors influence the
cost of the operations, viz., the cost of labour for pumping the wine
and the water, the interest, and wear and tear of the apparatus.
While the first item does not fluctuate very much, the second
decreases as the volume of wine handled increases, and an apparatus,
by means of which large volumes of wine could be treated at a

421

nominal cost in a large winery, would prove a burden on a smaller
stock of wine.

The illustration shows the apparatus, which consists'of one to
two or more batteries of thin copper tubes, well tinned, varying in
length from six to 12 feet, and one and a-half inches in diameter.
These two columns (1 and 2) are connected by means of a tube (3),
which runs from the topmost tube of the first column to the bottom.

s£=s=:fe;~uii:

Muntz and Eousseaux tubular refrigerator.

tube of the other. The wine thus is forced upwards by means of a
pump, and, entering at 7, runs at the top of the second column
through the outlet (8) back into the vat. Cool water from the
tank (4) is allowed to drip by means of two rows of holes in the
bottom, corresponding to the two columns, over which it spreads in
thin layers, and, exposed to the air and in contact with the metal
warmed by the ascending wine, evaporates and helps to cool

422

the hot wine. Under the apparatus is a metal box (5), which
catches the warm water, from which it is pumped back into the
water tank, or allowed to run to waste through 6, if water is abun-
dant. «

Each column of tubes has a tap (13) which allows for empty-
ing the wine. An air- tap (11), at the top of the first column,
facilitates the escape of carbonic acid gas, which is disengaged
when fermenting must is being treated. The apparatus is mounted
on two pairs of wheels, and can be moved about. A continuous com-
munication between the sets of tubes is provided by means of the
bronze castings, which can be removed by unbolting the bronze
plates (10) pressing over rubber washers, this allows the interior of
the tubes to be readily cleaned. At 8 is shown a thermometer,
indicating the temperature of the cooled wine when leaving the
apparatus. The total length of tubes through which the wine
passes, in two columns of 19 tubes each, is about 500 feet.
The amount of water required for cooling the wine when working
this apparatus is, on an average, about equal to that of the wine to
be cooled, unless very cool water is used. A good deal of energy is
exerted in forcing the wine through this cooler, which is better
suited to large wineries, where abundance of water and motor power
are available.

Calif ornian Refrigerator. — In a bulletin recently published by
the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of California,

Californian Kefrigerator.

423

Mr. A. P. Hayne describes and illustrates a wine-cooler of ingenious
design, which should prove of great service to wine-makers in hot
countries. In its construction and working, drip, spray, and blast
are happily brought into play together, with the result that a con-
siderable reduction in the temperature is obtained at the expense of
a small volume of water. The apparatus consists of the cooler
proper, made of two batteries or columns of thin copper tubes,
somewhat flattened, as shown in the illustration. These tubes,
which are five and a-half inches wide by one and a-half inches, run
continuously, as in the case of the Muntz and Rousseaux apparatus,
and are held by bronze castings fastened by thumb screws over
rubber washers, for the convenience of cleaning. In order to secure
the best utilisation of the spray, and as little waste of it as possible,
the two sets are placed as near together as practicably possible ; and
experiment has demonstrated that, for this purpose, they should be
set one inch apart in the inverted V (A) position at an angle of
about 30 degrees.

The wine enters A, rises in the tubes, and from C overflows
and is carried to the bottom of the second set, which faces the
blower; there it ascends, and from B it is best carried to a storage
tank at a greater elevation than the fermenting vat, to which it is
returned by gravity when a sufficient amount of it has been cooled,
thus avoiding any waste of energy by pumping the same wine twice
through the cooler. Underneath the cooler is a water-box, for
collecting the drip from the tabes. This cooler frame is connected
with the blower by means of a pyramidal canvas sleeve, about five
feet long, which prevents loss of blast and spray. In order to

Blower.

prevent the unequal distribution of the blast, which would be-
stronger at the circumference than in the middle, a cylindrical sleeve
three and a-half feet long is interposed between it and the blower.

424

At the junction of the cylindrical and pyramidal sleeves are three
Vermorel nozzles placed in front of the blower. From these come
a spray of water directed towards the cooler ; over this spray plays
the strong current of air generated by the blower, which, creating
an active evaporation, reduces the temperature of the watery mist
considerably by the time it comes into contact with the tubes of the
cooler.

The blower itself, of which the figure represents the model
used in the Calif ornian experiments of this apparatus, is one of
fwo types constructed by the Garden City Fan Co., of Chicago.
They are " double" 18-inch and " double " 24-inch blowers ; both
require about one-half horse power to run them at a rate of 1,000
and 900 revolutions per minute respectively. The first will pass
3,000 cubic feet and the second 5,000 cubic feet of air through per
minute. Their prices are 40 dol. and 50 dol. each. In larger wine
cellars they could conveniently be worked by means of a two or
two and a-half H.P. motor, which costs little, and can do all the
blowing, pumping and crushing work in the cellar at a trifling
expense ; once the motor is set going, the attendant can attend to
other work.

This refrigerator is not patented, and is made by Messrs.
Toulouse Delorieux, 622 Commercial Street, San Francisco, Cal. It
is made in different sizes : For 75ft. tubing, 125 dol. ; for 100ft.
tubing, 150 dol. ; for 150ft. tubing, 200 dol.

Refrigeration by Ice. — The use of attemperators or heat coolers
have, under many hot climates, been used with most satisfactory
results. Several designs have been contrived for that purpose, but
they all entail a high initial cost, as well also as the necessity for a
large supply of cool water, which has, in the first instance, to be
secured, and subsequently has to be pumped up before it can be
utilised.

The experiments I have conducted during the vintage 1900 in
order to control the vinous fermentation were, however, so success-
ful without the use of costly attemperators, or of large quantities
.of cool water, that in the circumstances which offer for those wine-
makers not far distant from Perth, I fail to see why costly
:attemperators, requiring a continuous use of cool water should not
be discarded. From the Government Refrigerating Works I
obtained a supply of ice sufficient for controlling the temperature
in the fermenting vats under conditions which generally prevail at
vintage time in our cellars. For that purpose, I arranged with
some of our largest wine-makers to conduct a set of experiments
which have turned out as successfully as I anticipated. The
experiments were conducted at three of the largest fermenting sheds
on the Swan, to which ice could, with little loss in transit, be
promptly conveyed, viz., at " Houghton," at " St. Leonards," and
.at -" Santa Rosa."

425

The following fermenting chart illustrates the progress of fer-
mentation under circumstances which I shall briefly explain :—

Cfc

vK

«..F

V I VA
«O

>*»0*OV> «».«*.*«%«> VV« «•<»«>«* **^*»*V»^I0^*^<A<

,,^T§5§5^5SJ§;S^lliSJi!Sf$55

IM* i!^^s^$S3!!!ss;s?-

*Ttl

w

&

In order to further assist the yeast germs, the grape must,
subjected to the cooling effect of the ice, received an addition of
2oz. to 3oz. of tartaric acid for every 100 gallons. No. 1 diagram
illustrates the course of fermentation in a vatting of Malbec
previous to the date when ice was used at all. Such defective fer-

426

mentations are more the rule than the exception at many of our
vineyards. The temperature in three days rose up to 97 degrees, a
degree of heat which is prej udicial to a healthy fermentation. Con-
currently with this rapid rise of the temperature, the attenuation of the
must, or, in other words, the conversion of the grape sugar into alcohol,
was speedily completed, although the must originally contained as
much as 23'5 per cent, of sugar. It was sheer luck that fermenta-
tion was completed without the vat getting " stuck" before all the
sugar had been converted into alcohol. Such wine, although sound
now, must have been robbed of much of its delicacy and of those
wine ethers which produce the much-prized " bouquet."

No. 3 represents a fermentation of two tons five cwt. of Shiraz
grapes. The timely use of ice here averted a disastrous fermenta-
tion. In two and a-half days the temperature jumped from 77 deg.
F. to 99 deg. F., when 851bs. of ice were placed in the coolers on
the 17th of February in the morning, and the temperature was in a
few hours brought down to 88 deg. F. It is well to explain that
the optimum, or the most suitable degree of temperature for the
yeast germs of vinous fermentation, ranges between 80 deg. to
90 deg. F. Below 80 deg. fermentation is sluggish, and the yeast
germs work slowly ; above 90 deg. F. fermentation becomes for a
time tumultuous, until as the heat increases and gets nearer
100 deg., when the yeast germs by degrees become paralysed and
soon die, unless prompt relief is brought to them and the degree
of heat reduced. When that higher temperature is reached,
latent germs of diseases, such as the mannitic ferment, which pro-
duces sour — sweet wine, as well as other germs of maladies of wine,
take possession of the fermenting mass, and in a short period spoil
the wine.

In the instance under review the dangerous zoneof temperature
was soon reached and as quickly reduced, and although the ferment-
ing mass was only subjected for a very few hours to a temperature
ranging over 95 deg., the evil effect soon became apparent, and had
not ice been timely applied, over 200 gallons of wine would have
been irremediably lost. On the fifth day, the new wine was drawn
into clean, cool casks, and still contained as much as 3*5 per cent, of
grape sugar. Owing to the timely application of the ice, fermenta-
tion shortly afterwards started again, and the wine is now dry and
sound.

No. 2 chart illustrates a healthy fermentation, and with proper
care, the resulting wine should exhibit all the qualities which are
prized in good wines.

The grapes are the choicest sorts used in wine-making, and
are such as produce the celebrated Medoc and Hermitage wines of
France. They were picked before they became over-ripe. A small
quantity of tartaric acid was added to the must to further help the
yeast plants in converting the grape sugar in the must into whole-
some alcohol in the wine.

The fermentation lasted six days, and the temperature was
maintained below 90 degrees F. The cap, made of skins and seeds,

427

was kept submerged in the vat by means of a false head, and was
not, as is often done, poked down three or four times a day into the
liquid below. The result is a wine which is completely fermented :
that is to say, a wine which does not contain any appreciable
amount of grape sugar left. It is, moreover, lighter in colour than
wines fermented at a high temperature, and which had a floating
cap repeatedly pushed down into it. It is not so harsh to the
palate, and does not contain any excessive proportion of extracted
matters. It has, moreover, cleared in the cask, and already looks
less turbid and more forward than wine from other vattings
fermented at a higher temperature and without the cooling assist-
ance of ice.

The ice used was valued at 5s. the 2cwt. block, and if taken in
larger quantities where provision is made for its safe storing, it
could be supplied at a smaller cost. With railway freight added,
it cost about 3s. a cwt. The amount of ice used varied from 301bs.
to 851bs. per vatting of 200 to 350 gallons of must in fermentation.
A liberal' computation would be half a cwt. per vatting of 250
gallons of must, or less than one-twelfth of Id. per gallon of wine
made. The ice was sawn into blocks which would fit into empty
kerosene tins. These tins were provided with a wire handle, for
convenience of handling, and weighted with bricks on top of the
ice, so that they sink to two-thirds of their height into the ferment-
ing mass, and rest over the perforated false head which keeps the
cap down.

The ice melts more or less quickly, according to the degree of
heat in the must, and as the upper layer of the liquid in the vat is
cooled, the hotter layer underneath should be run into a tub by
opening the cock at the bottom of the vat, and either pumped or
bucketed back on to the top of the fermenting liquid. This
equalises the temperature all through the mass, and allows
fermentation to proceed without hindrance.

Considering the success which has attended these experiments,
and the mere nominal cost at per gallon of wine made, the Depart-
ment of Agriculture does, on application, assist those wine-makers
who are not too far from a railway station by supplying them,
during the period of vintage, from the Government Eefrigerating
Works, and at a price which covers cost of making, the necessary
amount of ice for the purpose of controlling the temperature during
fermentation.

The ice is forwarded by rail, wrapped in bagging, and wine-
makers should make arrangements for taking prompt delivery at
their nearest railway station, and conveying the ice to their cellars
with least possible delay. On taking" delivery, the block of ice
could be wrapped up in a blanket and transferred on arrival to an
ice chest. Such a chest can readily be constructed by anyone who
can use tools. It really consists of two boxes, viz., a smaller one
inside a larger, with a 4 to 5 inch interval between their sides. In
that interval cork grit, which can be procured from wholesale

428

importing druggists or from cork merchants, is packed ; failing cork
grit, sawdust can be used for the purpose of acting as an insulating
material. The inner box should be tin-lined, and should have a
small pipe drain at the bottom to take the melted ice away. A
double lid completes the construction of this ice-storing receptacle.

WHEN TO COMMENCE COOLING is a question of great moment.
The fermenting must should never be allowed to reach lOOdeg. F.,
as in that case the yeast suffers such harm that it does not always
recover, and, in spite of all the maker's efforts, the wine may become
permanently injured. If in a small vat, the heat is not likely to
rise to danger point, but in a large vat it is advisable, if the must is
still rich in sugar, to commence cooling when the thermometer
marks Sldeg. to 32deg. C., i.e., 88deg. to 90deg. F., below that it
would be waste of energy, and above it might prove sailing rather
closely to danger point.

WHEN TO DRAW THE WINE. — The first fermentation in a wine
cellar is generally more protracted than the subsequent ones, for
reasons that have already been referred to, the appliances for wine-
making having not yet been en leavened by the yeast of wine
fermentation. After this first fermentation, however, under con-
ditions prevailing at vintage time in the Australian climate, the
march of fermentation is greatly accelerated, and in about three to
six days the wine is fit to draw off the vat.

Sometimes fermentation runs wildly for two or three days and
then stops short. In that case there is often sugar left unfer-
mented in the must, and the cause as well as the remedy has been
indicated in this chapter. After four or five days, however, the
wine is pretty well ready to draw off ; this is ^ndicated by the
saccharometer, which sinks to zero or thereabouts ; better guides
still are the taste and the eye. The wine should be fairly dry to the
taste, i.e., should have lost most or all its sugar. It should be
somewhat rough to the tongue, indicating that it has extracted from
the pips, as well as from the skins, a sufficient amount of tannin to
ensure its sounder keeping and its easier clearing. To the eye it
should, if a red wine, be of a dark ruby or of a somewhat deep
colour. If a white wine, it should have as little colour as possible,
beyond that which maybe imparted to it by the debris of yeast cells
and other impurities, which, after settling to the bottom of the cask,
will soon leave it clear and transparent above.

LIQTJOBOUS WINES.

The methods already touched upon apply to white wines and
to red wines which are fermented dry, i.e., in which all th^ sugar is
allowed to be transformed into spirit and carbonic acid.

Liquorous wines, of which Port wine, Madeira, Sauterne. and
Sweet Muscats are types well known in commerce, and are made
somewhat differently. Some of their natural sugar is preserved in
the wine, and fermentation is checked before it is completed.

429

To effect this, several methods are used. One of the most
common is to allow the grapes to hang on the vines until they are
dead ripe. The higher the state of maturity of grapes, the richer
they are in sugar, whilst the acidity is neutralised by the migration
of alkaline sap from the wood and leaves into the fruit. Also,
ethers are formed, which impart to the various sorts of grapes an
aroma peculiar to themselves. This explains why sweet wines
made from grapes which have been allowed to become dead ripe
have more individual character than sweet wines made from the
same grapes at an earlier period of maturity. In some localities, viz.,
Tokay and Sauterne, which produce the most delicate sweet wines,
the berries are allowed to even partially rot. A fungus known as
Botrytis cinerea develops on the skin of the berries, and so modifies
the juice as to give it a very delicate flavour.

Whether white or red sweet wine is made, it is allowed to
ferment for 24 hours in a large vat, and is then run out into well
sulphured smaller casks, and the skins are pressed. As much
sugar is still left in these, they are either put into another red wine
vat to ferment, or a little water is added, and the resulting
fermented mash is distilled. In the smaller casks, if necessary, a
sufficient quantity of well rectified spirit of wine is added, to raise
the alcoholic strength of the wine to 15 or 16 per cent, of absolute
alcohol by weight, which is equivalent to 18 to 20 by volume, or to
32 to 34 proof spirit. It is better not to add this spirit all at
once, but to bring the wine up to its full strength when the
saccharometer marks, according to the lesser or greater degree of
sweetness it is desired to give to the wine, 2° to 4° Baume, which
would leave in the wine 3J to 7 per cent, of unfermented sugar.

REARING OF YOUNG WINES.

When the freshly fermented wine is drawn from the vat into
the casks, a crackling sound, which is caused by a slow fermenta-
tion, keeps on for some little time, and as carbonic acid gas is being
given off all the while, the casks should not be plugged tightly, lest
they should burst. A good plan is to place over the bung-hole a
small flat sand-bag, a few inches square, which, while not interfer-
ing with the escaping of the gas, keeps dust, germs and the trouble-
some minute fermentation flies dropping into the cask.

To the same effect, specially constructed bungs are sometimes
used.

The carbonic acid gas under tension from inside the cask forces
its way out through the perforated plug which fits tightly into the
bung-hole, and, overcoming the pressure of small layers of water,
into which an inverted glass bell stands, escapes outside, whereas
the external air and all the impurities it carries in suspension,
cannot get access to the wine in the cask.

Such plugs, although useful, are not indispensable to the safe
keeping of well fermented young wines.

430

Whatever means of keeping impurities from tainting the wine
are used, as soon as this has settled — two or three weeks after fer-
mentation— it is drawn from over the lees into (1st racking)
clean, sulphured casks (about 2 grammes = 30 grains of sulphur
burnt for every 22 gallons, or 7 grammes = 105 grains per 100
gallons capacity).

Showing Hydraulic Plug for wine casks.

The wine must be made to absorb the, sulphur, either by
spreading it by means of a rose or by pumping the sulphur fumes
into it.

A few days after this racking the wine clears readily, and it is
left for two or three months in well-filled and closed casks.

The filling of what is called the ullage should be done at
least every fortnight, preferably every week, so as to absolutely
exclude the air from the cask. Neglect of this precaution will cause
the wine to become tainted with the moulds of flowers of wine and
of acetic acid.

Towards the end of winter the young wine is again racked
(2nd racking) in a similar way.

Again, a 3rd racking as spring comes round.

Racking is best done when the weather is clear and the
barometer high, which with us in Western Australia generally
occurs when the cool breezes are from the South- West.

If the white wine does not clear readily after the first racking,
J to f oz. of tannin per 100 gallons are added ; if it still remains
cloudy and turbid a light fining with 6 to 8 grammes of isinglass, or
some other good fining, per 100 gallons will clear it.

A fourth racking should take place before the subsequent
vintage. At that time this young wine will have lost most of the
carbonic acid it held in solution ; it will be bright and clear and
will rid itself of the harsh and raw taste of new wine.

431

After keeping for another year or two in clean casks, kept well
filled and racked twice the second year and once the third year, it
will be wholesome to drink and fit to bottle.

How TO RACK WINE.

This operation, which has for its object the removal of the
clearer wine from over its sediment at the bottom of the cask
and its transference to clean casks provided for its reception, is
accomplished in a variety of ways, governed by local practice and by
the nature of the appliances at hand.

The more generally used methods are : —

(i.) The drawing of the wine direct from one cask to another by
means of a hose or syphon.

(2.) The transferring from one cask to another by means of pails or
buckets.

(3,) The drawing by means of a pump.

The first of these methods is largely practised in the Bordeaux
district and in Burgundy, and answers very well for transferring
the more delicate wines quickly from one hogshead to another
without exposing them too much to the action of the air. It must
be remembered that these hogsheads are piled up in tiers one above
the other. A hose connects the tap-hole of one hogshead to the
other,- and the wine from the full cask passes on to the empty one,
if they are at the same height, till the level in each hogshead
balances. By means of a pump fixed to the bung-hole of the first
hogshead air is then forced into the cask, and extra pressure
causing the wine to rise into the second cask until the contents of
one have been transferred to the other. When the hogsheads of the
second tier are decanted into the hogsheads of the lower one no
air-pump is required, and the wine flows down by gravitation. The
whistling noise of air getting into the hose tells that one of the
hogsheads is almost empty ; the hose is then disconnected, the cask
gently tilted, and what clear wine remains in it is collected into a
wooden pail, frequent samples being taken in a glass to show
exactly the moment the slightest cloudiness is detected, when the
racking must be stopped.

The second method of transferring from one cask to another
by means of pails and other small vessels is still much used in some
districts, and notably at Macon, in France, and in small private
cellars. This method, however, is not advisable, except for young
and full-bodied and heavy wines, as it favours too much exposure
to air.

The method of racking by means of a pump is much preferable,
being the more rapid and involving the employment of less hand
labour. It is much used, especially in the more modern and best
equipped cellars of the South of France, where wine is generally,
like in Australia, stored in large-sized casks. In most cases an
India-rubber hose with brass-fitting is screwed on any of the casks,

432

and the wine sucked through and forced to any of the others by
means of a hand or of a steam pump. This method is often
adopted for the reason that the wine is thus less exposed to the
action of the air.

When pumping new wine it is advisable to first drain it into a
tub, whence it is pumped whenever required. By this means the
wine is better exposed to the ripening and mellowing action of the

Wine Pump.

Various modifications are, however, devised to suit the
requirements of each particular case, but it is essential that pipes,
hose, and pumps should be kept thoroughly clean and sweet by
running water through them after they have been used. The
suction hose should be steel-ribbed to prevent it from collapsing
under the force of the suction. As to pumps, some very good
models are now in use, the best being made of gun metal or of
copper, and although they cost a little more in the first instance,
they last much longer, and are not susceptible of being attacked by
the acids in the wine.

A syphon is also much used in the process of decanting clear
wine from one cask into another. A little practice will make any-

433

one skillful in using it. One essential is, that the receiving vessel
should be on a lower level than the filled vessel in order to get the
syphon to work at all, and this, it is found, is not in every case
possible.

After a blend between two or more wines has been made, it often
turns cloudy for a while ere the constituents of each sample incor-
porate thoroughly with one another, and it is advisable to proceed
soon after to fresh racking.

Occasionally a sort of mishap occurs to wine after the racking,
and this is known as cassage des vins, or in other words the colour
is said to " break." Thus, red wines are noticed to turn violet and
assume a leaden colour, although the taste is not modified. White
wines ar.e affected as well, and assume a bluish or a blackish tinge
of colour. This phenomenon is simply due to the oxidation of
certain matters, in some wine produced from imperfectly matured
grapes, which are affected by the air. After a little while that
cloudiness disappears, and the healthy colour of the wine is restored
back to it. Sulphur, as has been previously mentioned on page 408,
offers an easy means of preventing that accident. In some cases,
however, this discolouration persists, unless a small dose of tartaric
acid is added. The acid, acting on the colouring matter, keeps it in
solution ; the dose used varies generally about one gramme per litre,
or about 60 grains per gallon.

LEES, HOW TO PRESERVE THEM.

After racking there is left in the bilge a varying quantity of
lees and of wine, which constitute a sort of mud, containing as much
as 80 per cent, of wine and 20 per cent, of dry sediments. That
wine, after fining, filtering, and sulphuring, can be put on the
market, instead of being, as is often done, sold for a ridiculously
small price or transformed into a harsh and very inferior brandy.
As for the solid residuum it can be stored and sold for extracting
tartaric acid and cream of tartar. According to analysis, lees
obtained from claret wines contain on an average —

Bitartrate of Potash 18 per cent.

Tartrate of Lime . . ... ... 7 „

25

worth 6d. a Ib. Fifty gallons of wine will deposit at least one
gallon of lees, four-fifths of which will be wine at 2s. 6d. a gallon —
2s.; one-fifth solid sediment at 6d. — Is.; or on a yield of 200 gallons
to the acre a saving of 4s. per acre might be effected, while on a
yield of 600 gallons a surplus of 12s. will be secured.

The separation of lees is very simple. The muddy wine is
either poured into a canvas filter previously steeped for a few days
in soda or potash lie, and afterwards into lees with tartaric acid
added, and then washed. This will rid it of its peculiar taste. The
liquid wine is placed into a well- sulphured cask, or else the thick

434

lees are poured into casks — one for red and one for white lees. After
a few days subsidence, the liquid wine on top is syphoned off, and
the residuum placed into canvas bags and allowed to drain. That
residuum is then dried in the sun or in a kiln, and presents the
appearance of minute crystals, which can be kept until such time as
it is sold. The value is directed by the percentage of the bitartrate,
from which tartaric acid and cream of tartar are extracted.

How TO TASTE WINE.

Before venturing to give an opinion, the experienced taster looks
at and thoroughly examines the wine, making note of its condition
or degree of brightness. If bright and brilliant the wine has
been well clarified and rid of the germs which might impair its
quality. If cloudy and dull it is a sign that it has not been com-
pletely purged of its impurities, and unless carefully handled might
generate symptoms of diseases.

He then considers the colour, the foam, if sparkling wine the
degree of effervescence. The colour should be a natural one, and
not one of those composite shades made up of the blending of two
or more natural colours. If red the colour should be ruby or
garnet; yellowish red, rusty or opalescent wines designate a
decrepit wine, or one in a more or less advanced stage of disease.

Having satisfied the eye he proceeds to investigate the nature
and degree of the aroma and bouquet. This he gets by gently
agitating the half-filled glass, or twirling it and smelling the wine
carefully, sometimes by placing the hands round the glass so as to
warm it gently ; the more delicate and volatile odours of the wine
are given off and detected.

Then comes the crucial part of the examination— that of tasting
proper.

As expressed by Dr. Guyot, epicure and high authority on wine
as well, the mouth, which is the seat of tasting, is capable of detect-
ing impressions of complex kinds. In this it is assisted by the
tongue, the gums, the palate and the inner part of the cheeks ; the
flavours, moreover, detected by the tip are of a different nature from
those which affect the base of the tongue. In order to differentiate
between these different savours, the taster takes into his mouth a
sip of the wine, and keeps it for a moment in the anterior part of
his mouth, where the sense of taste receives its first impression.
Then, with the tip of the tongue, he spreads the wine out into a
sort of film against the roof of the anterior part of the palate, sub-
divides and breaks it up, as it were, in order to increase the surface
of contact with the delicate nervous expansion that lines the
membrane of that part of the mouth. There sweet, saltish, acid
and astringent impressions are received, and he perceives whether
the wine is dry or sweet, acid and tart to excess or satisfaction, too
styptic or poor in tannin. The sensation registered in that part of
the mouth also indicates whether these three elements are har-

435

moniously blended, or whether there is excess or deficiency of either
one or two of them.

This having been done, the wine is allowed, by slowly raising
the head, to pass to the posterior part of the mouth, and a little
inhalation of air is at the same time taken in. This may cause the
tyro to choke, by diverting some of the wine into the wind passage,
but he will soon get over this difficulty. By the time it reaches that
part of the mouth, the wine has been gently warmed and mixed
with air, it gives off savours different to those perceived in the
anterior part of the mouth. Here the strength or the weakness of
the wine in spirit or its vinosity will be noticed ; also any specially
pleasant or unpleasant characteristics of the wine as the earthy
taste, bitterness, mawkish, mouldy, woody, or corky tastes. The
tester, having satisfied himself as to the presence or absence of these
tastes, may, if he chooses to further carry on the degustation, then
let a few drops of wine pass down his throat, when he will detect
the si've, which is distinct from the "flavour" in this much that it
is affected by both the taste and the sense of smell, in passing down
the base of the tongue and the posterior part of the palate, and in
coming into contact with the mucous membrane that lines the
pharynx, a distinct ethereal savour ascends to the palate as well as
to the internal nasal ducts. This sensation, according to the wine,
is more or less short and evanescent.

Besides these sensorial impressions made by the wine on the
organ of light, smell, and taste, there is a physiological one as well,
quite independent of these, and which affect the digestive organs,
the locoinotory muscles, the heart and the head, and we often hear
the uninitiated declare that they know little or nothing about wine,
but they can tell next morning whether it is good or not. The
sensation is too well known to be described in these notes, but
nevertheless the physiological after effect is certainly of value in
discriminating between good and bad wine.

The wine taster can't afford to indulge in luxuries of all sorts
before proceeding to taste wine. The best time to pass judgment
on wine is in the cool of the morning, when the body has been
freshened up by the night's rest. Salt meat, pickles and condiments
should be very sparingly used by wine tasters, and they should
above all things refrain from indulging in strong spirituous liquors.
Some pretend they can taste better just after smoking, but the
experience of most tasters is that tobacco just before sampling wine
almost absolutely 'destroys the senses of the smell and the taste.

A taster can't do more than a limited number of samplings
in the forenoon's work, and whenever his palate is clogged, a dry,
small piece of unsweetened biscuit and mild cheese are good to clear
the palate. Sometimes an olive, when not cured in strong brine,
may be chewed and rejected, but a mouthful of cool, clear water
is above all things the best for cleansing the mouth should the
palate become clogged during tasting.

436

SOME TECHNICAL TERMS IN WINE-TASTING.

There exists amongst wine-growers, merchants, tasters, and
connoisseurs, like in every art and science, a language of their own,
which serves to express the qualities or the defects of wines, and
which is composed of terms somewhat technical, some of which will
be better understood when explained.

QUALITIES AND DEFECTS WHICH AFFECT THE SIGHT.

First, says Professor G-. Grazzi-Soneini, notice the Foam which
forms on the surface of the glass, small beads which burst more or
less rapidly.

FOAM. — An agglomeration of gaseous bubbles, which float
and move about on the surface of freshly poured-out
wine, and adheres in a ring round the edge of the glass
or floats in patches in the centre of the glass.

Persistant Foam is the reverse of evanescent foam, and is
the characteristic of a wine of low alcoholic strength, kept
at a low temperature ; it may also be a sign that the
wine wants racking, or it may be due to the fact that
there is a secondary fermentation either of a healthy or
an unhealthy nature that is taking place. It may, when
it forms a nail on the surface of the wine be a symptom
of what the French call the Maladie de la Tourne.

Sharp Pungent Foam. — It may go on briskly, and in that case
when drunk has a smarting or prickling effect on the
palate.

Foaming. — Formed by an accumulation of gas bubbles which

forms on the surface, especially wine bottled too young,

or in which there was a small amount of sugar left.
Sparkling is an evanescent foam, the bubbles of which burst

and are as quickly renewed, forming sort of pearls on

the surface, as occurs in champagne.
White Foam. — Generally associated with matured or old red

wine, but in some localities occurs in young wine.
Hose Foam.- — Accompanies matured wine, but occasionally

pale young wines.
Bed Ruby Foam indicates full-bodied young wines deep in

colour.
Bluish. — In wines poor in acid, as in some blending wines,

containing only 3 to 4 p. 1,000 of acidity.

The LIMPIDITY of the wine is next observed : —

Clear. — A transparent wine, without cloudiness. There are

in clearness, degrees of comparison which can be noted.
Bright, Brilliant — as when the degree of clearness is such as

to be perfect. This may be the result of fining, filtering

or standing still for a long time in a cool and an even

temperature.

437

Cloudy, Dull. — The reverse of clear. Wines freshly racked
often turn a little cloudy for a while, owing to the
oxidation of some of the albuminoid matters they
contain, more especially wine from fleshy grapes grown
on rich flats, also in wines poor in acid, -and which have
not completely fermented.

Turbid, Thick. — When the particles in suspension are so
numerous and big as to be easily seen and make the
wine opaque. Either a perfectly new wine or wine
bottled too so6n, and that has left a muddy deposit on
the side of the bottle — sometimes the result of putrid
fermentation. In the case of an old wine bottled too
soon, raise the bottles carefully and in the same position
they have been lying ; remove the cork without any jerk,
preferably with a screw corkscrew, and draw the clear
wine carefully into a decanter or a clear bottle, or else,
with a small glass syphon, made for the purpose,
separate the clear from the murky wine. Unless the
precautions are taken, the wine will, after two or three
glasses have been poured out, be quite turbid and very
unprepossessing in appearance.

Opalescent, Iridescent. — Is generally an indication of unsound-
ness, and not infrequently due to the disease called in
France la pousse, in which a tartaric fermentation takes
place, the colour is precipitated and a flocculent
growth of microscopic, rod-like baccili float about the
mass of the wine, which assumes a sickly brick colour,
and breaks up the rays of light as they penetrate the
the wine, causing that irridescence.

As regards COLOUR, a wine is either : —

Colourless, discolourised.— When it has almost the appear-
ance of pure water. This is obtained by very carefully
handling white grapes, or sometimes by running the new
wine over animal charcoal, although this is very seldom
done except for special purposes.

Straw-coloured. — A very common and pleasant colour.

Yellow. — Often the sign of a wine poor in alcohol, tartar,
and may be tannin or acid, in that case the iron com-
pounds in the wine are, when acted upon by the oxygen
of the air, turned into yellowish-brown compounds. In
the case of disease it can be prevented by the addition
of alcohol and tartaric acid.

Golden Yelloiu. — Very often observed.

Greenish. — Characteristic of certain varieties of grapes.

Pinkish Yellow or Russetty Yelloiv. — Often due to imperfectly
cleansed wine-casks and vessels.

438

Rose-coloured.— White wines made from red grapes, without
much care, or stored in red casks improperly decolourised.

Broivn-yellow, which the French call oeil de perdrix (part-
ridge-eye), is a sickly, dull, dark-yellow. Either due to
a malady of the wine caused by a mycoderni — in that
case raise the alcoholic strength, add ten or twelve grains
of tannin to the hogshead of wine, let it rest for a day
or two and fine with isinglass — or sometimes caused by
the presence of an excess of iron in the white wines, or
found in wine made from grapes poor in tartaric and
other natural acids, or from partially decayed grapes.

Dirty-dull. — A diseased, badly made, or badly kept wine.

Light-red. — The French clairet, has been either made from
unsuitable grapes or often is the result of the addition
of water.

Ruby. — As represented in the well-known Bordeaux or claret
wines.

Purple is a ruby wine with a ti/it of violet in it.

Garnet-red. — Represented in the fuller bodied wines as in

Burgundies. These wines are long-keeping, and show a

tendency to acquire an orange tint.
Orange, Yellowish-red, Rusty. — G-enerally denotes a decrepit

wine.
Dark Coloured wines have an excess of colouring matter ;

generally harsh and indigestible.

SMELL and TASTE combined detect : —

Aroma is due to the essential oils which are contained in
small glands that line the inner surface of the berries.
They are common to both the grapes and the wine, and
may be of a pleasant or an unpleasant nature, viz.,
Muscat, Eiesling, or the foxy flavour and smell of the
Isabella and other American grapes.

Bouquet is due to the reaction of the acids in the wine on the
alcohol, and the production of volatile ethers which are
better noticed in the older wines, especially those bottled
for some time.

Seve is neither Bouquet or Aroma, and is present in the
finer wines ; it is experienced and can hardly be described,
and consists in a fragrant savour which rises to the
nasal ducts during the act of swallowing a good wine.
Aroma and Bouquet are detected before tasting, whereas
seve is noticed after drinking the wine.

The sense of TASTE proper, and more especially the tongue,
distinguish : —

Flavour. — Unlike the Aroma, the Bouquet, or the seve,
the flavours are detected without the assistance of the

439

sense of smell. They are either pleasant or unpleasant,
according to the nature of the flavours and their degree
of intensity.

Neutral Flavour is characterised by neither aroma nor any
special taste, and such wines, which are generally the
produce of heavy bearing vines, are mostly suitable for
blending purposes.

Insipid, Flat. — A wine without vinosity and liveliness. Wine
left long in open bottles and decanters, or a wine that
has been too energetically fined, often turns flat. They
are in that state more subject to contract disease.

Vinous, Vinosity is that sensation of warmth characteristic
of the alcoholic flavour.

Weak wine is not a light wine. It is a wine of low alcoholic
strength, or when its alcoholic contents are not in
proportion to its other chief constituents. Such wine
is more or less insipid, and its taste is short and of
no long duration in the mouth. It is generally of diffi-
cult keeping unless fortified.

Light wine is often a dry wine of good quality, with its
various components well balanced and harmonious, but
lacking in quantity. It is as a rule somewhat deficient
in colour, body, alcohol, acids; and bouquet.

Soft, Mild, -is a wine that does not affect the palate by its
harshness and astringency. It is characteristic of a
wine that is neither sweet nor dry nor too alcoholic.

Alcoholic. — A wine with a high propordon of spirits to its
other constituents, such as a fortified wine, or a wine
made with over-ripe grapes ; compared with the flavour
detected by the mouth, the aftertaste is of short
duration.

Generous. — A wine with a good proportion of alcohol as well
as of its other constituents, which imparts a feeling of
warmth and strength -giving — a good tonic wine.

Lively. — Which makes a quick impression on the palate,
generally a wine with an adequate proportion of acids
and alcohol.

Full- Round. — What the French call Eto/e. A robust,
harmonious wine, which gives the impression of solidity
and good constitution — a tonic wine — a quality pos-
sessed by Australian wines made from good sorts of
grapes and well fermented.

Body. — A wine of good vinosity and rich in extractive
matter. Generally sticks to the glass like beads.

440

Heady. — Generally a young wine still saturated with car-
bonic acid, and having a good proportion of newly-
fermented raw and somewhat fiery alcohol, which has
not yet had time to refine. Should be drunk of with
moderation.

Heavy. — A wine surcharged with extractive matter and low
in alcohol, and which is hard to digest.

Glean. — A sound wine, which has no earthy, mouldy, or casky
taste, or any taste foreign to the wine itself.

Harmonious. — A quality of wine whose constituent elements
are well balanced and blended together.

Delicate. — A soft, pleasant, harmonious wine, generally
delicate.

Mute. — A partially fermented wine, with a sweet and muci-
laginous taste, which has been stilled by means of
concentration or by means of alcohol, or of sulphur
fumes, or other chemicals. Too much sulphur some-
times generates hydrogen sulphide, which reminds one
of rotten eggs, or leads to the formation of sulphates,
which impart to the wine bad flavours.

Fruity. — A wine which still retains a proportion of grape
sugar.

Sweet. — Of which there are several degrees, extending from
" fruity " to " sickly sweet."

Sweetish. — Wines in which the fermentation has suddenly got
" stuck " before being completed turn sweetish. This
is due to the formation of manna sugar, resulting from
the decomposition of the mucilaginous or albuminoid
matters in the wine by alcohol, owing to the agency of
a bacillus, and under the influence of a high temperature.
The trouble is known as that of " mannitic " disease.

New or Young Wine. — A wine freshly made ; generally from
one to twelve months old ; a wine that is still rough and
has not been purged of its impurities, and has not yet
developed those finer qualities that will distinguish it
as a mature wine.

Mature Wine. — A wine which has undergone the refining
changes due to oxidization and warmth, and has cleared
itself of its lees, and is ready to be drunk or to be
bottled.

Decrepid Wine. — An aged wine that is losing some of its
qualities through long keeping, or rapid and excessive
changes of the temperature.

Tart. — Due to the presence of an excess of tartaric acid.
Age modifies this defect.

Dry. — Not sweet, i.e., containing no grape sugar.

441

Astringent. — Where the tarmin predominates.

Rough, harsh. — A wine astringent to excess ; diminishes
with time.

Bitterish. — A densely coloured wine, rich in tannin, like the
malbec wine. Generally disappears after the first rack-
ings and a fining.

Earthy Taste is detected in the posterior part of the tongue;
it is either due to the soil, the manures used, or the
weeds infesting the vineyard, and is located chiefly in
the skins. Prolonged maceration of the skins in the
fermenting must, develops it. Prompt fermentation
and separation of the skins from the wine, rackings and
maturing reduces it.

Cooked Taste, as of caramel. Due either to the boiling down
of the must, or by an over-ripening of the grapes in very
hot weather.

Mousey Taste. — A disagreeable odour and flavour suggestive
of mice ; generally due to unclean and mouldy casks.
Beating with pure olive oil and pasteurisation will
partly correct it and stop its progress.

Sulphur Smell. — Due to excess of sulphurous acid used turn-
ing sometimes into hydrogen sulphide, and smells of
rotten eggs. Racking at frequent intervals will reduce
the taint. When used excessively sulphur fumes destroy
the colour and impart to the wine a displeasing taste.
In time sulphurous acid changes to sulphuric and then
into sulphate of potassium.

Artificial Odours. — Added to the wine to impart to it a cer-
tain fictitious bouquet, generally not successfully. Have
not the fragrance of true bouquet and seve.

Wood or Cork Taste. — G-iven to wine by new, ullaged, or by
mouldy casks. Olive oil, lemons, or refermentatioii
with a small quantity of fresh grapes will sometimes
reduce it.

Taste of the Stems or Stalks. — Due to prolonged maceration
of the stems or stalks in the wine. Generally a harsh,
bitterish wine.

Taste of Lees. — Want of racking by allowing the wine to
stand long on the lees, produces a bitterish taste of
decay. Common defect of many otherwise very good
Australian wines.

Mouldy Taste. — Caused by bad casks or mouldy grapes; beat
with olive oil and rack in clean, sound casks.

Sour, Pricked. — A wine with an undue proportion of acetic
acid. Generally retains its colour and limpidity,
Characterised by the odour and taste of acetic acid,
which is chiefly perceived at the base of the tongue. It

442

is easy to prevent the development of the micro-organism
which causes it, by due attention in the vat and the
cask ; but once a wine is pricked it should, says Dr.
Guyot, "be sent to the vinegar factory, and never
attempt to use it as wine." The remedies proposed are
only palliatives, but are not radical cures. Pasteur-
isation will stop it, but won't remove the acetic; acid in
the wine. "Even after its neutralisation by means of
alkaline substances the wine will still have an odour
of acetic acid, accompanied besides by a bitter taste
which lingers in the throat."

Milk-sour, Lactic Acid. — A sickly rancid, sour-sweet taste,
caused by lactic fermentation, which takes place in wine
that has fermented at too high a temperature. A milk-
sour wine loses some of its fluidity, and its colour
becomes dull. Pasteurising will check the disease, but
it is almost impossible to take^away the defect of milk-
sourness.

JEROPIGA.

During vintage a stock of grape syrup is generally laid by for
the purpose of sweetening any port wine lacking in fruitiness. For
that purpose, crush dead ripe grapes and press out the juice,
evaporate on a slow fire in a copper boiler, heating to a simmer to
prevent the formation of caramel and keeping the surface well
skimmed. When the bulk is reduced to half its volume, add more
grape juice, and continue simmering until syrupy, with a specific
gravity of 20-22 or 25° B., then fortify by means of quarter its bulk
of grape spirits.

PlQUETTE FOR DISTILLATION.

What to do with the pressed marc or cake, made up of the
skins from the fermenting vats : Some cart it away and scatter it
on the ground to be ploughed in as manure ; at times it is turned
to better advantage and concerted into pork, and manure after pass-
ing through the pig, yet still more can be extracted from the freshly
fermented skins, and some spirits of wine may be saved without
materially, if at all, impairing its usefulness as feed for stock.
In Europe one ton of 2,2001bs. of grapes will generally yield
l,3001bs. of new wine and 7001bs. of marc or skins. From this
another 20 to 30 gallons of wine could be extracted, provided that
the cost of doing so did not exceed the value of the surplus wine.

Two methods have hitherto been practised for the purpose
aforesaid, viz. : — 1st. Placing the skins soaked with wine in the
boiler of the still and distilling the alcoholic vapours direct from
that spongy mass. 2nd. Soaking those skins in water and distilling
the wash.

Both methods are unsatisfactory. They are either slow, yield
impure spirit, or they are wasteful.

443

The first _ method mentioned, which consists of charging the
copper with the skins and stalks, yields an impure, fiery spirit,
highly impregnated with fusel oil, and unless the produce of dis-
tillation is passed through again, it is quite unfit for the purpose of
fortifying wine.

The second method only extracts one-half of the wine contained
in the fermented skins, and is therefore wasteful to a high degree.
That method consists in throwing the pressed skins into a vat ;
pouring water over them ; allowing them to steep in that water for
a few days, then drawing off the resulting liquid, and either dis-
tilling it straight off or storing it in casks for future use. It is easy
to understand, when that method is followed, the added water
and the wine present in the skins mix together in such a way
that they soon constitute a homogeneous liquid. When this is
drawn, a portion of that wash still remains in the skins. The addi-
tion of fresh water would simply further dilute that residue, and a
proportion of the alcohol it is sought to recover would yet be left
in the residue. A bulky dilute wash is thus obtained, which is
costly to distil, and which, being open to the invasion of such germs
as are responsible for acetic and for lactic fermentation, soon
become unsuitable for any purpose whatsoever.

The method which was last year suggested to our still owners
to follow was somewhat different. The compressed cake left after
pressing was broken up and shovelled into a series of empty
barrels or vats, with their heads removed, and supplied with a tap
at the bottom. The skins constituting that cake were evenly
broken up between the fingers and spread uniformly into each cask,
so as to make as uniform and as solid a mass as possible, and a
small quantity of water, say, one quart at a time, was poured over
that mass, and at short and uniform intervals cf, say, five minutes,
from a can supplied with a rose.

The result of this watering is that the water gradually works
its way downward, and as gradually displaces the wine left in
the pressed skins, substituting itself, to a. great extent, for that
wine, which is driven down before it. At the bottom of the cask
the vinous liquid soon begins to trickle, and is received into
appropriate vessels. After a time the liquid thus streaming out
of the vat becomes more dilute, and such liquid is collected apart
and used for watering a fresh vat like the first, charged with
fermented skins.

This method can be used with advantage by anyone and at
any time. An improvement on it I now purpose to explain ; it
presents even greater advantages.

By this means the manipulation of the skins are reduced ; these
are more thoroughly exhausted of the wine they contain, and a
more uniformly strong piquette results.

The appliances required need not be costly, and can be pro-
vided at any fermenting shed.

444

The illustrations used for explaining the method of con-
ducting the operation are taken from " L. Rougier " in the Progres
Agricole et Viticole.

Fief. 1.— Apparatus for extracting piquette from fermented skins.

The apparatus consists of four disused barrels of even size,
with their heads taken off, and connected together by means of
either tin or indiarubber tubes. These barrels are provided with a

Fig. 2. — Sectional plan of the barrels.

445

perforated false bottom (Fig. 2, X Y) resting on two battens about
two inches high. Each barrel is bored with three 1| to l^in. holes,
viz. (Figs. 1, 2, and 3), A at the bottom, B and C at the same level
at the top. These holes are so bored that when the barrels are
connected for use they stand as shown on Fig. 3 by the letters
A, B, and C in each of the four numbered barrels.

The connection is so arranged that the top end, B, of one
barrel leads to the lower end, A, of the next barrel, right round the
battery. The tubes, of course, must be fitted into their respective
holes in such a manner that the liquid will not run out. Each
vessel is supplied with an outlet tube, C. A few tapering corks to
block any one or other tube B or C, and thus direct the flow of the
liquid, and small movable sieve caps which are placed over the
openings B and C, when running to guard against pips and skins
entering the tubes and blocking them, together with a small tin
funnel. which can fit any of the tubes at D when water runs into
them, complete the fittings of the apparatus. The operation of
washing the skins is conducted as follows : —

Fig. 3. — Horizontal Section of the Four Barrels.

The tubes having been set, each barrel is filled with a portion
of the compressed cake from the press up to the level of the outlets
B and C. Whilst filling, the lumps are well broken between the
fingers, and the stuff is packed evenly and solidly into the vessels.
This done, the overflow C from casks Nos. I., II., and III. are
corked, as well also as tube B of No. IV. Water is then slowly run
into the funnel down the tube A at D between IV. and I. The
water gradually rises from the bottom of No. I., permeating the
skins whilst so doing. When it reaches the level of B, water is cut
off and is allowed to stand for a quarter of an hour or so. More
water is then run down the tube A, already mentioned. This fresh
supply lifts up, as it were, the water already in vat No. I., and

446

transfers it down the tube B A, Fig. 2, into No. II., which, when
filled up to the lev^l of its tube B, is likewise allowed to stand for
a quarter of an hour or so. The same process is repeated until
Nos. III. and IV. are filled with water. After an interval of
quarter of an hour, more water still is run down into No. I., and
this fresh addition drives an equivalent amount out of No. IV., by
the overflow C into some empty cask provided for receiving it. In
this manner, a clear piquette, almost as strong as the wine itself, is
obtained. By this time the skins in No. I. are fairly exhausted of
wine. That vat is then emptied and charged again with fresh
skins from, the press. Overflow C of No. IV. is then corked, and
that of the freshly filled No. I. opened. Tube B is, on the other
hand, between IV. and I., opened, and the cork is replaced by a
sieve cap, whilst tube B is shut off between I. and II. The funnel
D is moved to the descending tube between I. and II., and another
dose of water run down No. II., whilst/an equivalent amount is
collected from No. I. By a similar method the exhausted skins in
No. II. are replaced by fresh skins from the press. Outlet C of
No. II. is corked, and that of No. III. is open, and tube B between

III. and IV. is blocked. The same process is continued when No.

IV. becomes the last vessel the piquette runs through. In this
way, once the battery is in full running order, water is each time
poured into the nearly exhausted vat, and the vinous liquid col-
lected from the vat which has been last charged with fresh skins.
The vessel with the exhausted skins is then emptied and recharged;
the connection is established between this and the preceding one,
and stopped between it and the succeeding one.

The piquette thus extracted keeps fairly well, and when dis-
tilled at the wine-maker's leisure, yields a purer and less injurious
spirit than would be the case were the skins distilled straight in the
dry state.

BRANDY DISTILLATION.

The success of the distillation of grape spirits for making into
brandy depends chiefly on the class of grapes grown and the
suitability of the soil and climate. Good, sound wine is necessary
for making good brandy ; and as the relation of the raw material
to the manufactured spirit bears a fairly constant ratio, it follows
that those sorts of grapes yielding heavy crops of a grape which has
not, like the muscats, a pronounced aroma of their own, are the
most suitable for the purpose.

Genuine brandy, even of ordinary grade, and newly distilled,
it is a well-known fact, cannot be purchased either at Cognac,
Bordeaux, or Marseilles, the three centres of the brandy trade, for
less than 5s 6d. a gallon, while the superior grades are quoted at a
higher price, and yet at the present time so-called " brandy " can be
purchased in bond at Fremantle for less than 5s. a gallon.

447

The extensive manufacture of pure Australian brandy, at a
reasonable price, has of late done much in Victoria and South
Australia to limit the importation of adulterated spirits and check
illicit distillations.

The manufacture of Australian brandy is, however, susceptible
of vast improvements, and although it is mostly made of " pricked "
or unmarketable wine, bought for the purpose at a greatly reduced
price, still, by means of careful distillation and proper maturing,
three or four of the leading brandy manufacturing firms of the
Eastern States have lifted it up, in the face of unreasonable
prejudice, to the level of the best brands of French brandy. The
trade is a rapidly increasing and profitable one, and the Army
Commissariat, recognising its merit, now puts it on a par on its
tender list with the best brands of French Cognac placed on the
market.

RELATION OF RAW MATERIAL TO MANUFACTURED BRANDY.

The production of brandy at per acre of grape vines varies with
two or three factors, which it is well to bear in mind in making an
estimate of the cost of manufacturing the brandy. These factors
affect mainly the cost of the raw material used for distillation.

The same kind of grapes will yield differently when grown in a
dry, arid locality, or in a moister one. The class of soil will also
affect the crops. Varieties of grapes also differ very widely as
regards quantity of grapes, quality of wine, and its suitability for
the purpose of brandy making.

The coastal zone of the South-Western District of Western
Australia possesses a climate admirably adapted for the production
of fine crops of healthy grapes. One does not meet here with either
extremes in the ranges of production. A good average yearly crop
of grapes can be reckoned upon with certainty, the yield being neither
very low, as is often the case in very dry localities, nor very high,
as is the case on the rich bottom lands of the South of France.

Where heavy-bearing varieties of vines are extensively grown,
the result is apparent in the quality of the must pressed out of the
grapes. It is neither excessively heavy with sugar, and for that
reason difficult to ferment, nor is it watery and tart. The wine
resulting from it is, when carefully made and handled, good of
quality, keeps well, and neither excessively spirituous and heavy,
nor thin, of poor body, and of bad keeping quality.

In the following list I give, with the kind of grapes more
extensively used in Western Australia, the amounts, in gallons, of
wine made from what is considered a yield above and below the
average : —

Class A comprises grapes producing small crops of wine of
special quality, which are used for blending with wines made from
grapes named under Classes B and C.

448

Class B are good, all-round grape vines, much in favour and
extensively cultivated.

Class C represents vines of heavy yield, generally planted for
blending with wines from grapes in Classes A and B. These
grapes by themselves make the best wines for the manufacture of
brandy, and are for that purpose much grown in France, Algeria,
and California.

Class A.

Cabernet 100 to 200 gallons

Pinot 100 to 200 „

Riesling 150 to 250 „

Class B.

Verdelho
Pedro Ximenes
Shephard's Riesling
Shiraz ...

... 200 to 250 gallons
... 200 to 350 „
... 200 to 350
... 200 to 350 „

Malbeck
Morastel
Br. Muscat, of Fronti^

... 200 to 350
... 200 to 350 „
jnan ... 200 to 350

Class C.

Mataro 300 to 400 gallons

Aramon 350 to 600 „

Trebbiano (Curror's) 350 to 600

FoUe Blanche 350 to 600

Doradillo 350 to 600

In the coastal districts grapes named in Classes A and B give
a must containing 18'5 to 24 per cent, sugar, which, after fermen-
tation, produces a wine containing 12'5 to 17 per cent, alcohol by
vol. (10 to 14 per cent, by weight, or 22 to 30 per cent, proof
spirit) .

Class C grapes give a must containing from 17 to 22 per cent,
sugar, producing a wine with from ll'o to 15'5 per cent, alcohol by
vol. (9*2 to 12'5 per cent, by weight, or 20 to 27 per cent, proof
spirit) .

Theoretically speaking, of wine from Classes A and B, six to
eight gallons will make one gallon of absolutely pure grape spirit ;
but these are not used for that purpose.

Of Class C, eight to 10 gallons will make one gallon of pure
grape spirit.

During the process of skilful distillation, however, there are
impure alcohols, unfit for consumption, which are separated from
the bulk of the spirit, and discarded ; and when these waste products
ate accounted for, the average of grape brandy reduced to proof
strength — the strength of the good brandy of commerce — it is con-
sidered that it takes four gallons of the stronger wines, and five
gallons of the lighter, to produce one gallon of proof-strength
brandy.

449

In the Eastern Australian States brandy is, to a very great
extent, made of " pricked" or "off" wine, i.e., wine rendered un-
marketable owing to a taint of, very often, either acetic or lactic
acid, or of moulds, which make it " mousy." As the acids
named have been produced at the expense of some of the alcohol
in the wine, it follows that, for brandy making, such wine is
impoverished of its alcohol proportionately to its degree of acidity ;
aiid of such wine seven to eight gallons are required to make one
gallon of proof brandy.

The following table gives the maximum amount of the raw
material required to make one gallon of proof brandy: —

5 gallons of sound wine.

8 gallons of sour wine.

8 gallons of grape pomace from the fermenting vat, plus
four gallons of water.

8 gallons of lees or of piquette.
16 gallons of wash.
16 gallons of pressed skins and eight gallons of water.

COST OF PRODUCTION OF THE RAW MATERIAL.

By " raw material," with reference to brandy making, I mean
sound wine especially prepared for the purpose, and also the refuse
of the fermenting house and of the wine cellar, which would, unless
utilised for that purpose, be to a great extent wasted. I will
assume, in order to arrive at an approximate estimate of the cost of
the production of white wine for the purpose of making brandy,
that a large stretch of the second-class land of this State, such as is
met with, say, in the region of the Swan, the Murray, or the
Ferguson and Preston rivers, and consisting of light loam overlying
a subsoil of gravelly, ochre-coloured, stiffish loam, or of limestone
formation, with abundance of fresh water at a depth of from 10 to
30 feet from the surface, and with a good and reliable rainfall of 28
to 30 inches.

That kind of country is often under stunted jarrah or red gum
trees, with occasional patches of blue or flooded gums, stinkwood,
wattle, banksia, and sheaoak (Casuarina), or under tuart gums and
blackboys and banksia. Numerous small vineyards have been very
successfully established upon that latter kind of country, and present
a healthy and thriving appearance, bearing well and producing a wine
clean and free from the peculiar " earthy taste " sometimes notice-
able in wine made from vines grown on rich alluvial bottom lands.
In arriving at the following estimate, the high cost of labour and
horse feed at present ruling have been taken as a basis for working
out the cost. I also assume that provision has been made the
previous year for striking vine cuttings in a nursery, as,, in this
climate, rooted vines give far more satisfactory results than vine
cuttings when a vineyard is planted. Attention to this detail would
cheapen the cost of rooted vines by £2 an acre, or =£200 for a
100-acre vineyard.

450

FIRST TEAR.

Cost per acre.

€ s. d.

Grubbing and clearing ... ... ... 600

Fencing 0 15 0

Ploughing and harrowing ... ... ... 150

Plotting and digging holes 1 10 0

Planting 100

Cost of rooted vines and fertilisers ... 1 10 0

Baiting for grubs 0 10 0

Scarifying and hoeing ... ... ... 1100

13 10 0

Interest, at seven per cent., on capital ... 018 6

8 6 per acre.

Or, for 100-acre vineyard, ,£1,442.

. SECOND YEAR.

£ s. d.

Pruning 060

Two ploughings ... ... ... ... 100

Hoeing 0 15 0

Replacing misses 0 15 0

Scarifying 0 15 0

Sulphuring and baiting ... ... ... 100

Interest, at seven per cent., on capital ... 1 3 0

14 0 per acre.

Or, for 100-acre vineyard, ,£570.

THIRD YEAR.

£ s. d.

Pruning, tying, and picking cuttings ... 100

Two ploughings ... ... ... ... 100

Hoeing » 0 15 0

Replacing misses ... ... ... ... 080

Scarifying 0 15 0

Sulphuring and baiting ... ... ... 100

Interest on capital at seven per cent. ... 1 12 0

.£6 10 0 per acre.

Or, for 100-acre vineyard, ,£650.

£ s. d.
Approximate total cost, at per acre, for three

years 26 10 0

Total cost, at per 100 acres, for three years 2,650 0 0

To this should be added cost of water conservation, cottages for
men, tools, implements, carts, horses, and also cost of land and cost
of supervision.

At the termination of the third year there would be in hand a
crop which, after deducting the cost of picking, would be an asset
against the upkeep of the vineyard for the fourth season.

About that time it would be advisable, in order to maintain the
fertility of the land and the fruitfulness of the vineyard, to spend

451

every three years, on alternate blocks, about £1 worth of chemical
fertilisers, or, say, an expenditure at an annual rate of 7s. per acre.

FOURTH YEAR AND AFTER.

From the time of pruning to vintage, inclusive, the cost, when
the vineyard is in full bearing, would be: —

£ s. d.

Pruning, tying, picking, and removing cuttings 1 10 0

Two ploughings ... ... ... ... ... 100

Hoeing round vines and scarifying ... ... 2 0 0

Sulphuring and manuring ... ... ... 150

Picking1 four tons grapes and carting to cellar 2 10 0

Interest on capital at seven per cent. ... ... 2 10 0

£10 15 0

Or, on a 100-acre vineyard, ,£1,075, bringing the cost price of the
grapes up to £2 16s. per ton.

This does not include interest or sinking fund on purchase
cost of the land and plant and on cost of supervision.

Cost of Manufacturing Wine from produce of 100 Acres of Grapes —

Class C.

One ton of grapes gives from 125 to 135 gallons of must,
allowing a shrinkage of from 25 to 35 gallons to represent waste,
evaporation, lees removed, racking, etc., up to the time when the
wine is distilled — a very liberal allowance. We see that one ton of
grapes yields at least 100 gallons of marketable wine ; or one acre,
yielding four tons of grapes — planted with Class C grapes — will
produce 400 gallons of wine; and 100 acres, 40,000 gallons.

In a well-equipped wine cellar, the cost of crushing, pressing,
fermenting, caskage, racking, and housing for one year is
well within 4d. a gallon ; for one acre, at 400 gallons, this amounts
to £6 13s. 4d., and 100 acres, at 40,000 gallons, equals £666 10s.

Total^Cost at per Gallon per Acre, and per 100 Acres\of good,
sound Wine for Brandy making.

From the above data we see that the cultivation of one acre of
vineyard, producing four tons of grapes, delivered at the cellar, will
amount to £10 15s. The manufacture of same into 400 gallons of
wine amounts to £6 13s. 4d., or a total of £17 8s. 4d.; or, for 100
acres, £1,770, which makes the cost of the wine, at per gallon,

Of course, it should be borne in mind this only applies to vine-
yards planted with vines yielding large crops of grapes.

COST OF BRANDY MANUFACTURE.

I have not considered the amount of capital required for pro-
viding cellarage accommodation and distillation plant for manufac-
turing the wine from a 100-acre vineyard into brandy. The amount

452

at per acre will decrease as the area under cultivation increases ; but
after going very carefully into the matter, I estimate that the
initial capital required in the case under cultivation will be within
Is. for each gallon, or =£20 per acre ; or, for 100 acres, about <£2,000,
with a material decrease for every additional 100 acres.

Victorian and South Australian distillers estimate the cost of
distillation at If d. per gallon ; in France it is somewhat less when
handling large quantities of wine. It is safe to reckon it at 2d. per
gallon. From this we see that brandyjjosts : —

s. d.
Five gallons of wine, at 10£d ....... 4 4£

Cost of distillation, at 2d. per gallon ... 02

We thus see, by grouping these figures together, that — One
gallon of pure grape brandy would cost to produce, say, 4s. 6d. ;
one acre of brandy grape vines would produce 80 gallons of brandy,
costing 4s. 6d. a gallon, equalling =£18, or for 100 acres =£1,800.

UTILISATION OF EEPUSE.

The wine from a four- ton crop to the acre, of grapes of the heavy -
bearing class under consideration, it is thus seen, will yield 80
gallons of proof brandy, but there is still left, besides this, a
quantity of grape spirit in the pomace or the compressed cake,
constituted by the skins and stalks from the fermenting vat, which
can easily be extracted at the following approximate cost : —

I have stated above that it is reckoned that it takes to produce
one gallon of proof brandy —

8 gallons of fresh grape pomace and 4 gallons of water.
16 gallons of wash.
16 gallons of compressed cake and 8 gallons of water.

8 gallons of lees or piquette.

One ton of grapes will yield about 1 30 gallons of grape juice
(about l,6001bs.), leaving about 6001bs. of stalks and of pressed
skins. 6001bs. of fresh grape pomace represents, roughly speaking,
60 gallons, which, after fermentation, would yield, theoretically,
seven and a-half gallons of proof brandy, but, after allowing for
the elimination of the undesirable alcohols and fusel oil, would
practically yield three to four gallons of pure proof brandy, or at
the rate of about 15 gallons of brandy for one ton of fresh grape
pomace, the produce of a four-ton crop of one acre of grapes. Thus
a four-ton crop of grapes would yield : —

400 gallons of sound wine, producing 80 gallons of brandy.
One ton, or over, fresh pomace ... 15 „ „ „

T £~*

Lees

Total amount of brandy from

four tons of grapes ... 97 gallons of brandy.

453

These figures show that, without reckoning the interest and
sinking fund on purchase of land, and cost of management, 100
acres of productive vineyard land in the locality referred to would
yield, at a cost of a little over =£1,800, 9,700 gallons of pure grape
brandy, worth at least 6s. a gallon, equal to =£2,900; or, after
making a very liberal allowance for interest and sinking fund on
capital cost of land and plant, supervision, and cost of production,
the net profit on such a venture can safely be put down at =£500 to
£600 per 100 acres.

A CONVENIENT STILL.

Of stills, there are as many different patterns as there are
makers ; and good points are to be found in many. The following
type I have for many years been familiar with, and found them
simple to work, compact, cheap, light for moving about, and easy
to clean. ^

Brandy Still.

Description of parts : — 1, copper ; 2, overflow of the hydraulic gutter ; 3, head (with handles
when exceeding 200 litres capacity) ; 4, collar ; 5, screw stopper ; 6, conduct pipe ; 7,
worm; 8, refrigerator : 9, funnel ; 10, degree regulating cock; 11, supplementary over-
flow ; 12, refrigerator clearing cock ; 13, outlet of the worm ; 14, sheet iron furnace ; 15,
wooden stand ithe stand is not a part of the apparatus) ; 16, the rectifying lens ; and 17
is the connecting pipe between the goose-neck and the cover of the boiler, for cutting
out the rectifying lens when a distillate of a lower degree is to be obtained.

They permit of the production of a high-proof spirit from a
simple distillation at a great saving of time, fuel, and supervision.

454

The lens is outwardly covered with cloth (such as packing
cloth), which is kept constantly wet during the entire operation by
the dripping of water which comes from refrigerator through the
cock 10' and into the collar 4'.

The result is that the outer vaporisation going on takes away a
certain quantity of the heat in the interior at the expense of the
aqueous vapours therein which become disengaged from the alcoholic
vapours. The aqueous vapours become condensed, and fall back
into the copper, taking along with thena all the empyreumatic oils,
whilst the lighter and more purified alcoholic vapours pass into the
worm, where they become condensed into liquid and received at the
outlet 13.

A higher or lower degree can be obtained by more or less damp-
ing the cloth. The lens can be withdrawn, if desirable, when
distilling rich alcoholic juices or matter ; in this case it is replaced
by the junction pipe 17, which is of the same height, and fits into
the head and the conduct pipe.

Tilting Still.

1. copper ; 2, overflow of the hydraulic gutter ; 3, head ; 4, collar ; 5, screw stopper ; 6,
conduct pipe ; 7, worm ; 8, refrigerator ; 9, funnel ; 10, degree regulating cock ; 11, over-
flow ; 12, clearing tap ; 13, testing pipe at the outlet of worm ; 14, furnace in sheet
iron ; 15, stand for the refrigerator ; 16, draw-off cock ; 17, trunnion ; 18, tilting lever.

In this still the copper swings on two trunnions, and cannot
dismount. Apart from these stills, which have a boiler capacity of
25 to 250 gallons, the same makers turn out brandy stills with wine
heaters, continuous stills and rectifying apparatus of novel design
and great merit.

In the Cognac district of France, where these and other similar
stills are greatly used, the wine is distilled as soon as fermentation

455

is done. The brandy is brought to the required strength either in
one or two distillations ; those wines possessing little bouquet being
generally only distilled once, whilst the more-highly perfumed ones
are distilled in two operations ; the first, in order to produce
singlings or faints, a weak, milky spirit, which is diluted down to
the strength of wine and redistilled to get a brandy of the required
strength and degree of purity.

The faints are generally all run into the same vessel, and when
they are redistilled those lighter ethers which come over at the
beginning of the operation are run into one vessel, which also
receives the heavier empyreumatic oils (fusel oil), which, under the
influence of greater heat, distil over at the end. Thus the head
and the tail spirits, which are only suitable for the manufacture of
varnish, are separated from the purer and more wholesome brandy,
which is collected during the middle of the distillation.

By means of a further and carefully-conducted distillation, an
additional quantity of good brandy can be separated from the head
and tail spirits.

AMATEUR WINE BOTTLING.

Bottled and cased wine for the market is of ten" costly, the con-
sumer having to pay besides bottles, corks, capsules, labels, and
cases, the cost of the labour entailed by these operations. Wine
bought in wood, on the other hand, often proves more costly still to
those who, through want of experience, neglect or fail to observe,
when handling it, ordinary precaution for its safe-keeping.

Wine in bulk and bought in cask is also cheaper than smaller
quantities sold by the case. The wine-maker or the wine merchant
generally allow the full amount for casks returned in good order, so
that by buying his wine in bulk and seeing to the bottling himself,
the consumer can stock his cellar with good sound wine at a small
cost. Instead of paying Is. 6d. or 2s. a bottle, or even more, he can
lay down a stock of wine at a cost of Is. a bottle, or little over.

A few notes on the question of the home-bottling of wine will
enable a great many who begrudge the higher price to procure
sound wine at a small cost and bottle and keep it until required for
use. Instead of deteriorating, such wine keeps on improving when
thus put away.

SELECTING WINE is the most important step of all, and in
every instance it is advisable to sample the wine and ascertain
whether it suits ones taste or requirements or not. It is always
advisable to buy from a maker or merchant who understands his
business, and it is cheaper to buy for a shilling more a gallon a
wine which has been properly fermented and matured than a young
wine, which may cost less, but cannot be as wholesome. Young
wines are still surcharged with carbonic acid gas, with cream of

456

tartar, with dead cells of yeast and of other ferments, and with an
excess of colouring matter, which make its use unpalatable as well
as unwholesome. Such wines produce dizziness, headaches; they
check digestion, and, worst of all, when taken in excess, they lead to
kidney troubles. Some constitutions can stand them better than
others. When buying for immediate /consumption, ask for a wine
at least two or three years old, whether it is a wine of the claret,
burgundy, chablis, port, or sherry type you require.

BE READY FOB BOTTLING. — The cask having reached the cellar,
place it on a small stand, at a height of 15 to 18 inches from the
ground. Collect bottles or buy them. For home use, it is immaterial
what shape or colour the bottles are. French claret bottles are
expensive, but brandy or whisky bottles answer just as well, or
even beer bottles. The bottles are easily cleaned. It of ten happens
that they have a cork inside ; this is easily removed by using a
special cork drawer made of wires armed with a spike or hook at
the end, and costing Is. or thereabouts. The bottles are placed in
soak in water containing a small handful of washing soda for each
gallon ; they are then cleaned of stains and crust by using small
shot or coarse sand and water. It is important that no shot be left
in the bottle, as the action of the acid in wine on the shot would
result in the wine containing in solution salts of lead, which are
highly poisonous. When cleaned, the bottles are rinsed in fresh
water and placed in cases, in baskets, or on crates to drain.

CORKS are also required ; these vary in texture and in shape.
If a powerful corking machine is available, a larger cork is prefer-
able ; if not, tapered corks should be procured ; they cost from 3s.
to 4s. per gross. Beer corks, which are cheaper, are unsuitable ;
they are too porous, and not lasting enough.

A SYPHON is
much more prefer-
able than taps for
drawing the wine
from the cask and
running it into
the bottles. The
best syphon is a
flexible piece of
indiarubber tub-
ing at out fin.
inside diameter.
Gas piping ans-
wers the purpose
very well ; two
yards, costing
Is. 6d. a yard, are
sufficient.

Bottling by Syphon.

457

A CORKING MACHINE is very convenient. A good substitute
is a hand-corking tube, made of boxwood, and costing only 2s. 6d.,
and a cork-driver, made of a piece of board cut into shape as shown
in the illustration.

Cork driver.

Hand-corkiiig Tube.

MODUS OPERANDI. — It is supposed that the wine is bright and
in good condition for bottling. If it is turbid and dull looking,
write for information, or seek the advice of someone who knows
how to handle wine. The cask has been allowed to rest, on the
stand, bung on top, for a week or so, and any sediment that may
have been in it has settled into the bilge of the cask. Remove the
wooden shive f>y hitting the top stave,, in whi-oh the bung hole is
bored, *on each side, alternatively. This will start the shive, which
will then be easily removed. If too tightly driven, a wood chisel
and a hammer will soon remove it, but the circular bung hole must
not be damaged by the chisel, as this will make it difficult to bung
it down again when used another time.

The clean bottles have all been arranged around the cask.
The operator, after having run water in the india-rubber tubing to
cleanse it, places one piece into the cask through the bung hole, as
shown in the illustration, until he feels that the syphon touches the
bottom of the cask. He then stands alongside the cask, holds the
tube between the thumb and the forefinger, about the same height
as the top of the cask, sucks only once, and promptly lowers his
end of the tube. If the suction has been properly applied no wine
will be spilled, and it will run out at once. Half a glassful is
collected, and if not clear and bright it is run into a jug until the
clear wine comes out.

The thumb and forefinger compress the end of the tube, which
is now placed just inside the neck of the bottle ; the pressure is
relaxed, and when the wine rises to the middle of the neck of the
bottle the rubber tube is pressed again, another bottle is filled, and
so on until all the bottles are filled.

458

Six bottles will be necessary for every gallon of wine in the
cask. If the syphoning has been well done there will not be more
than a quart of wine left in the cask. Do not use a tap ; wine is
almost sure to be spilled unless it is cleverly fixed on, and it,
moreover, damages the head of the cask.

Method of Bottling.

CORKING. — Put the corks in a bucket of warm water; this will
soften them and make it easier to drive them. If tapered corks are
used, they are simply fitted in the neck of the filled bottles and they
are then driven in with the driver. If the corks are not tapered
each one in turn is put in the chamber of the hand-corking tube,
which is then placed on the neck of the bottle, and the pusher is
then driven down by means of the driver or a wooden mallet.

It is advisable that the bottles be well filled, but plenty of
room should be left for the cork, or else the bottle might burst.

459

DEFECTS A.ND DISEASES OF WINE.

Wine, like milk, is susceptible of attack and deterioration from
a number of causes. It may be defective or it may be diseased,
or, as it often happens, it is both defective and diseased at the same
time. The defects are either natural or acquired.

Natural defects are those inherent to the commoner and
inferior kinds of grapes; to the soil itself, -the manures used, to
insufficient ripeness, or to the bad manipulation during the process
of making.

Acquired defects or diseases result from carelessness and
tainted casks and vessels. These defects only manifest themselves
after fermentation. They constitute the diseases of wines as is
generally understood, and each individual one is produced by the
presence and the work within the wine of numberless microbes, each
kind easily identified from the other by its shape and other charac-
teristics which accompany its growth.

I will rapidly review the more common defects and diseases
met with in wines.

Earthy taste. — Often inherent to the soil where the grapes
were grown. Clayey soils are in this respect more susceptible of
imparting an earthy taste to wines than do light loams, which pro-
duce wines said to be "clean" to the taste. This defect can be
aggravated by long fermentation, especially when the stalks have
not been sufficiently separated. Long intervals between rackings
also add to it, and for that reason it is advisable to draw the clear
wine from over its lees more frequently than would otherwise be
done. Occasional light fixings after racking, followed up by
another racking, will be found helpful.

Greenness. — This defect is caused by an undue proportion of
tartaric acid and malic acid in wet seasons, when the grapes have
not matured properly. A strong attack of a fungoid disease,
bringing about a loss of the leaves of vines, will favour the same
defect. Blending in the vat with a proportion of dead ripe and
healthy grapes is the best means of correcting this defect.

Harshness, caused by excess of tannin. This constituent of
wine, which is essential to its good keeping, is generally more
perceptible in young wines. Time mellows it down, and it is
gradually transformed into gallic acid. Beware of iron coining into
contact with such wine, as the chemical reaction which follows
would produce ink. If the harshness is excessive, heavy finings by
means of gelatine, 3 to 3| ounces per 100 gallons, will precipitate
and remove a portion of the tannin. As such a fining would also
remove some of the colouring matter, wines already light in colour
should be treated in some other way ; for such wine, blending with
light, mellow wines, low in tannin, will correct the defect.

Stalky Taste and Bitterness. — This defect is due to another
cause altogether to that which produces the disease of " bitterness,"

460

described further on. Some grapes, like malbec, yield a wine
showing this defect in a more pronounce^ manner than others.
These grapes treat as indicted under the heading " Earthy taste."

Heated taste is noticeable in wines which have been fermented
at too high a temperature.

Low alcoholic strength, the produce of grapes having a must of
very low specific gravity and poor in sugar. Blending with a
stronger wine or light fortification will correct this defect.

Deficient colour can be remedied by blending with a dark-
coloured wine.

Dull-coloured Wines. — Wines thus affected have a kind of
leaden colour, and, in the case of red wine, may even appear black.
Several causes bring about this trouble, viz. : — Aeration of wine
containing iron, low acidity or excess in tannin of such wines, the
action on wine of new casks improperly seasoned, the fermenting of
grapes rotting from exposure to wet weather, the fermenting of over-
ripe grapes grown in particularly rich ground, the action of cold on
wines. Such wines require energetic treatment to bring back their
brilliancy and their normal colour.

The following treatment has been found satisfactory : —Add to
the wine quarter of a pound of common salt per 100 gallons ; fine
with fresh blood, with clots removed, half pint to every 100 gallons ;
this blood mix with a little wine and pour into the wine; by
means of the pump, inject air into the cask by continuous pumping
for an hour or two ; this will cause all the particles of substance in
the wine likely to blacken to do so ; after this, with the fining rod,
stir the wine up thoroughly, so as to cause the blood to thoroughly
mix with the wine ; then let it rest ; the fining will coagulate and
settle down into the cask, drawing along in its meshes every
particle of impurity which caused the dull colour ; rack after a
few days. It is sometimes desirable to run the wine through a
filter, not exposed to the action of the air. An addition of two to
three ounces of citric acid per 100 gallons of the wine is advisable.

Putrid Decomposition. — This defect is rare in Western Aus-
tralia, where the wines are rich in spirit and in tannin, two elements
which impart to the wine vigour and tone. Blending, fortification,
and a small addition of tannin remedy this defect to a certain
extent.

Casky Taste. — Wine run in old casks, left unused for a long
time, do sometimes contract an unpleasant, casky taste, which often
spoils their sale. The use of pure olive oil, well beaten into the
wine, and allowed to float over through the bunghole, has long been
recommended ; some have also advised the use of powdered
mustard, in doses of 4 to 6 ounces per 100 gallons, to be thoroughly
stirred into the wine, which is then allowed to rest for 24 hours.
Others have had good results from spent coffee (Hlb.), Florence oris
powder (loz. per 100 gallons), to be well stirred into the wine, which
rack after four or five davs.

461

DISEASE OF WINES.

The above defects, unlike the diseases mentioned here, are
amenable to treatment which does not aim at destroying or thwart-
ing the destructive micro-organisms, which are the primary cause of
the diseases in wines.

Our knowledge of these micro-organisms we owe in the first
instance to Pasteur, who at the same time suggested the remedy
best calculated to protect the wine against their destructive action.
That remedy, in honour of its discoverer, has been called Pasteuri-
sation, and it is carried out in apparatus called Pasteuriser, of
which the two illustrations are given below.

21

Perrier-Deroy's Pasteuriser.

The heat generator is composed of — (i.) A tubular boiler with
a fire grate inside, heating the water jacket. (2.) A worm tube
immersed in the water, passing into the central collecting cylinder,
surrounded by warm water. ( 3 ..) A fire grate surmounted by straight
tubes communicating with the funnel.

The refrigerator consists of a cylindrical tank containing the
worm, one end of which communicates with the heat generator, the
other end serving for the exit of the wine.

The cold wine enters the machine by the tube (7), and, passing
through a delivery controlling-tap, reaches the bottom of the
refrigerator, fills the annulary space, forming a kind of worm
parallel to the first worm. It then reaches the heat generator

462

(calefactor) through the horizontal tube J^L 3), then descends into
the worm of the calefactor, rises through the collecting cylinder (9),
intermixing thoroughly, and from there reaches the worm of the
refrigerator through the tube (10), where it becomes cooled by
contact with the cool wine surrounding the tube.

Thermometers (6) and (11) record the temperature of the water
jacket, and that of the wine coming out of the calefactor and out
of the refrigerator.

Before starting, the steam generator is filled with water through
the plug (2). When the level of the water reaches the overflow
tap (3), the plug (2) is closed and the fire lighted.

Directly the thermometer (6) records 80° C. (176° F.) the top
is opened to allow air to escape, and the wine is introduced through
the delivery controlling tap (7). When the wine has filled the
worm collector and steam generator, it reaches the top, which is
closed, and the flow of the liquid, as well as the fire, are regulated
in such a way that the thermometer continuously records the
required temperature for pasteurisation.

When the operation is finished the fire is put out, and all the
parts of the machine are emptied by taps fixed for that purpose.

Perrier-Deroy's Pasteuriser.

This apparatus is very simply worked and can be confided into
the hands of anyone. Heating takes place rapidly and regularly

463

without fear of alcoholic loss, and with a considerable economy of
fuel. All the various parts of the apparatus are made to separate
so as to facilitate its taking to pieces, which is indispensable for
work subject to be frequently put aside and sometimes for a certain
length of time.

The second illustration shows another type of the same
pasteuriser, constructed by the same makers.

Another method, more efficacious and less objectionable, is to
make a free use of sulphur fumes.

Instead of sulphur fumes, some chemical substances, such as
sulphites, holding sulphur in a loose state of combination, may be
substituted with advantage. For instance, sulphite of soda or bisul-
phite of potash, at the rate of one to two ounces per 100 gallons,
simply dropped into the wine, which after a day or so may be stirred
a bit and allowed to rest, generally remove in four or five days the
objectionable casky taste, whilst neither the colour, the taste, nor
the smell remain affected either by the defect or the remedy
employed.

It consists in destroying by heat the micro-organisms in the
liquid. These micro-organisms, like those we have already con-
sidered when dealing with ferments, are made of living albumen
(protoplasma), encased in a covering of cellulose. Like the yeast
of fermentation, they are also provided with spores, which are germs
of reproduction more resistant than the protoplasma itself.
Heat, when raised to 75° C. (167° F.), coagulates the living
albumen, and if that temperature be maintained for a longer period,
kills the spores as well.

The acidity, strength, or alkalinity of the liquid these germs
are immersed in also influences the degree of heat required to
destroy these living germs. Thus, in fresh grape must before
fermentation, a temperature of 75° to 85° destroys all the organisms
present.

In the resulting wine, after fermentation, however, a tempera-
ture of 60° C. (140° F.) will achieve the same result; here the
action of heat being strengthened by the presence in the wine of
both the acids and alcohol.

In a substance like milk, on the other hand, which is at the
same time alkaline and fatty, the temperature has to be raised to
about 110° C. or even higher to sterilise the liquid.

The diseases of wine being caused by living germs or bacteria,
which can only be seen with the help of a powerful microscope
magnifying 600 to 900 times, it is natural to classify them into
groups suggested by the characteristic behaviour of these bacteria
themselves.

The mere presence of these bacteria into the wine does not in
itself cause that wine to be undrinkable or unwholesome, but it is
the accumulation into it of noxious matters produced by the
bacteria, as well as the suppression by these of matters essential to

464

the character of the wine by feeding on them, which cause the
deterioration of the wine.

The micro-organisms, which are the active agents of diseases
of wine, have been divided by Pasteur in two classes : —

(i.) Those which take the oxygen they need for their
respiration from the air itself, called " aerobic "
ferments.

(2.) Those which take their oxygen from substances rich
in oxygen, and not from the air itself — " anaerobic "
ferments.

To the first group belong the diseases which cause Acetic
fermentation, Flowers of wine, and the disease the French call
Casse, or the breaking of the wine.

To the second belong Mannitic or Lactic fermentation, Bitter,
Grease, and Pousse, or Tourne.

The yeast germs are " anaerobic," in so far as they obtain their
oxygen from the sugar they feed upon, although an occasional
infusion of oxygen from outside, as occurs when the must is aerated,
adds fresh life in them. In this much they behave like " anaerobic"
ferments.

The above classification, although not absolutely correct, is
however accepted by scientists as being in the main correct.

Flowers of Wine are not in themselves very injurious to wines.
They are often seen like a white greasy film floating on the surface in
casks containing light wines, which have not been kept scrupulously
clean.

They are when thus seen, an agglomeration of microscopic
fungi, very pretty when seen under the microscope, known by

botanists under the
name of Saccharomyces
orMycodermavini. The
cells are elliptic in
shape, and multiply by
germination or bud-
ding. They are always
found on the surface,
as they require air for
their existence, whilst
they consume the alco-
hol of the wine, turning
it into carbonic acid
gas and water. They
also destroy the alde-
hydes and ethers of the
wine which contribute
to form the bouquet.

By weakening the
wine of its spirit, they
pave the way to the

Flowers of Wine (Mycoderma vini), 700

~T

465

invasion of that other more dangerous mycoderm which causes
acetification. Unlike the latter, they never sink into the wine.
When the flowers of wine are allowed to thrive unchecked they
impart to the wine an unpleasant mouldy taste.

They are easy to keep out if casks are continuously maintained
full, in order to exclude air. Where a thin light veil caused by
this fungus occurs, a good plan for getting rid of it is to insert into
the bunghole to a depth of a few inches a tin tube, the upper end of
which closes with the thumb ; that tube will penetrate the floating
layer without carrying any of it downwards and without disturbing
the wine. Fit a funnel at the upper end of the tube and pour
sufficient strong wine into the cask to fill the ullage. The veil of
microbes will float to the surface, and by pouring more wine will
run out through the bunghole. The ullage should be frequently
filled.

If the wine has
already contracted a
mouldy taste, it
should be racked into
a sulphured cask
after the fungus has
been removed -as ex-
plained. Add half
a gallon of strong
spirit or a few
gallons of a stronger
wine, per 100 gal-
lons, fine and rack
again.

Acetification is one
of the most common
diseases of wine,
and also one of the
most troublesome.
Like the flowers of
^^^ wine, it consumes

the alcohol of wine

when exposed to air. Under these circumstances it transforms the
alcohol into acetic acid and water, as is shown by the following
chemical equation : —

Mycoderma or Diplococcus aceti 700
1

Alcohol. Oxygen.

C2H60 + 02 =

Acetic Acid.

r ~*7 >

C2H402

The disease generally only attacks wine that has been neglected
and left in ullaged casks. It shows as a film, wrinkled and velvety
on the surface. After a time masses of viscous matter in the wine
surround that film and cause some portion of it to sink. When

466

looked at under a high-power microscope the gerrns show as oblong
cells disposed rod fashion. These cells multiply very rapidly by a
process of segmentation, or pinching in the centre. The disease is
easier to guard against than to counteract. As the alteration starts
from the surface it is sometimes possible when the trouble has just
started to draw off the lower portion of the wine still sound in the
cask, and separate it from the altered wine at the top.

If the wine is not very much pricked it may to some extent be
corrected by using per quarter-cask :

lp carbonate of lime (powdered marble), or preferably, carbonate of
magnesia, 2 to 4 oz.

Neutral tartrate of potash (1 gramme) 15 grains.
Spirit of wine, 1 quart.

Shake and stir well, and after a couple of days fine with
gelatine or isinglass, and if necessary add a little tannin. When
clear, rack in heavily -sulphured and clean cask, which must always
be kept quite full.

Another method consists in mixing per 100 gals, of the slightly
pricked wine, 2 to 4 oz. of neutral tartrate of potash, which is
dissolved in a little warm water, then stirred into the cask, which is
next fined and racked.

Other methods are used for correcting sour wines, but as they
result in leaving into it substances which would injuriously affect
the consumer, they are rightly considered illegitimate, and are not
used in respectable cellars. Sour wine can more profitably be
turned into vinegar and sold as such than faked up into unwhole-
some drugs.

When the wine is lightly pricked, however, it may, with
advantage, be pasteurised, and then blended with a heavy wine low
in acids.

Casse. — This disease has been referred to when treating of the
manufacture of white wine (p. 408). Of casse or break there are
two kinds, the "blue" and the " brown." The "blue" casse is
characterised by the separation of the blue colouring matter of the
grape juice, of which two others exist, viz., the red and the yellow.
This particular kind of " break " can be stopped, or, better, pre-
vented, by the addition of tartaric acid to the must in doses at the
rate of 8oz. to Hlbs. per 100 gallons. The "brown" break is
caused by an oxidising diastase, which produces a kind of black
matter called " oxydare " by feeding on the albuminoid matters in
the wine.

As this trouble is caused by an organised ferment, nothing
short of its suppression will bring about a cure. This is effected by
means of pasteurisation or sterilisation by heat or by the use of
sulphurous acid.

467

Red wines thus affected appear sound whilst in the casks,
when air does not get at it, but without warning and almost sud
denly, when drawn or bottled, it turns black and shows a brownish
deposit.

The taste and chemical constituents of the wine are not very
perceptibly altered, but the wines become unsightly. When looked
at through clear glass, either the white or red wine shows a scud,
and from brilliant and limpid when fresh drawn from the cask it
becomes dull, shows an irridescence on the surface, and the colour-
ing matter gradually oxidising throws a brown coloured sediment.
The wine sometimes has a leathery smell, and has a slightly acidu-
late and bitterish taste.

The oxidising diastase feeding on the albuminoid substances in
the wine is more commonly met with in wines produced from grapes
grown on rich alluvial soils. Tannin, which coagulates albumen, is
generally deficient in such wines, and a slight addition of this sub-
stance is often attended with good results. Sulphur, however, is in
every case beneficial, and may be used at the rate of 6 to 30
grammes of sulphurous acid per 100 gallons, or its equivalent, three
to 15 grammes, of sulphur (Joz. to foz.), or 12 to 60 grammes (Joz.
to 2ozs.) of bisulphite of potash.

Amongst the diseases caused by anaerobic microbes —

Mannitic Fermentation is one of the most troublesome in hot
climates. The cause of the disease are short, motionless, rod-like
microbes, which congregate in groups and are often found asso-
ciated with germs of other diseases. Two requirements are neces-
sary for its development — the presence of unfermented sugar in the
wine, and a higher temperature than is suitable for the yeast
ferment, viz., 35°-40° C. (95°-104° F.). The disease generally starts
in the fermenting vat whenever the temperature is allowed to go
up too high.

As a result of the presence of this microbe in large numbers,
the unfermented sugar is transformed into another kind of sugar,
called mannite, and into lactic acid, the result being a sour-sweet
wine.

The remedies are low temperature fermentation, or early for-
tification with spirits of wine, or pasteurisation,

The cream of tartar is not decomposed in inannitic wine, as is
the case in wines affected with the tourne disease.

Tourne (Turning) and "Pousse" (Pushing) Diseases. — These
diseases attack any kind of wine of low alcoholic strength. In

468

The Pousse Ferment, 1000

1

appearance they are very much alike, and show like very minute

filaments, grouped together in mucous bundles.
The Pousse microbes

attack the tartaric acid

of the wine, which it

transforms into acetic

and propionic acids,

whilst in the Tourne

the tartaric acid is

turned into carbonic

and lactic acids. The

diseased wine tastes

flat, its colour is

precipitated. In the

Pousse gases are gene-

rated, which, should

the cask be tightly

bunged, may cause

the head to bulge out.

The carbonic acid

bubbles appear on the

surface as fine per-

sistent bubbles. Under the microscope the ferment of the Tourne

shows in the form of long batonnets or rods, without movement.

The remedy prescribed is to add cream of tartar to the wine and

pasteurise it or fortify it up to 14 to 15 per cent, of alcohol (30-32

per cent, proof).

Ropiness, also called " grease disease," is peculiar to white wines,

deficient in tannin. Such wines are turbid in look, flat, and viscous

in appearance. The ac-
tive agent of the disease
is a microbe which, at
first sight, is not unlike
the micodenna aceti. It
is, however, encased in a
sheath of viscous mat-
ter which gives to wine
an oily appearance.
White wines light in
alcohol — under 12 per
cent or 26 per cent.
proof — and produced
from grapes grown on
rich alluvial flats, or
more or less decom-
posed and rich in albu-
minoid matters, are
more susceptible to the

disease. The remedy is

the elimination of these
albuminoid matters,

Grease or Ropy Ferment, 700

~

469

which can be effected by an addition of tannin varying from
one-eighth to one-sixth ounce per 100 gallons ; aeration and stirring
violently to break up the viscosity of the microbes, slight fortifica-
tion to bring the strength of the wine to 12 per cent, or more.
Pasteurisation will cure the disease in one act. In either case
fining and racking is indicated.

Bitterness is caused by a small, threadlike microbe which, when

dying, is encased in the colouring matter

Bitterness Ferment.

of red wines at the
beginning of the sick-
ness. The wine de-
velops a peculiar dis-
agreeable smell, at the
same time loses the
freshness of its colour
and appears more
brown. The taste also
becomes uneven, flat,
sweetish, and is trans-
formed into a bitter
taste by degrees. Fol-
lowing the progress of
the sickness the colour-
ing matter is entirely
lost, and the wine in
the end becomes un-
drinkable.

Not only in the cask,
but in the bottle, may
the wine become bitter.

Several means have been suggested to cure it —

(i.) Allow a new fermentation with fresh must ; this means
only spoiling good must.

(2.) Racking in strongly sulphured casks checks the progress
of the disease.

(3.) Pasteurising checks it, but, unless carefully done, often
spoils the original taste of wine.

(4.) Fortifying up to 12 per cent. (26 per cent, proof), and a
little addition of tartaric acid, will hide the bitter
taste. If the disease has gone too far, it is not by
any means possible to overcome the bitter taste.

The use of oxidising substances, such as permanganate of
potash, in very slight doses, after previous fortification up to about
14 per cent., gives very rapid result. Aeration is also good. After
t his, blending with wines of deep colour, and rich in tannin, will
restore to the wine its desired equilibrium.

470

UNFEJftMENTED GEAPE-JUICE.

Inquiries are often made concerning the proper method of
making " unfermented wine." Such an article is, it appears, in
demand for sacramental purposes, and a ready sale also exists for
using it as a cooling drink.

" Unfermented wine " is, it is only fair to state at the outset,
only a snare and a delusion. The word "wine" implies alcoholic
fermentation, and so soon as any kind of fruit juice has its sugar
transformed into alcohol, through the agency of the living agents
of fermentation, it becomes a " wine."

A glance at an analysis of freshly- pressed grape-must will
satisfy anyone that no spirit nor glycerine — both residues of
alcoholic fermentation — are present. The analysis will also indicate
the presence of nourishing and wholesome constituents, which are
combined and grouped in a form which is at the same time
palatable and wholesome.

The following table shows the several ingredients of fresh
grape-j uice previous to fermentation : —

Water 80 to 85 parts

Grape sugar (dextrose and Isevulose) ... 15 „ 28 „

Free acids (tartaric, tannic) ... ... O'l „ 1 „

Salts of organic acids (tartrates, malates,

citrates of potassium, calcium, etc.) ... 0*4 „ 0'8 „
Salts of mineral acids, sulphates, nitrates,
phosphates, silicates of potassium, cal-
cium, magnesium, iron ... ... ... 0'3 „ 0*5 „

Albuminoid matters ... ... ... ... O3 „ 1 „

Any unfermented wine, therefore, showing substances not
mentioned in this analysis must have been tampered with and
ceases to be pure grape -juice.

WHY GRAPE-JUICE FERMENTS.

Side by side with the grape-juice, nature has placed active
living agents which, when they gain access to that juice, break up
and disorganise its several compounds into substances widely
different in nature, composition and properties. These living
agents are of microscopic size, and although more numerous on the
waxy bloom which covers the skin of the fruit, they also float about
in the air we breathe, and are present on the surface of all manner
of possible vessels and appliances which may be used during the
handling of the grape or other juices. These micro-organisms
belong to numerous species, and are classified as moulds, yeasts,
and bacteria. They differ as regards their shape, their habits, and
the resulting produce of their activities. Besides these living agents
of decomposition of the juices of fruit, there are present viscous,
albuminoid substances which cause a certain amount of turbidity in
the liquid and make it unattractive to the sight.

Those two factors, viz., micro-organisms and viscous albuminoid
substance, are the two elements which the unfermented grape- juice

471

preserver has to contend with, and in order to purge the liquid of
them two ways present themselves — one chemical and one physical.
The chemical methods consist in paralysing the microscopic cells of
the agents of fermentation by means of antiseptic substances. This
method is prohibited wherever a Pure Food Act is enforced, and
moreover, on hygienic grounds it is strongly to be deprecated, for
the reason that such toxic substances which silence and paralyse
the living cells of organisms in the sweet juice, on the other hand
also happen to injuriously affect those other micro-organisms which
accompany and foster digestion. Their use is to be deprecated, and
should be prohibited by law.

The physical methods are, on the other hand, safe, and yield
results which are quite satisfactory. These are purely mechanical,
such as filtering, or both mechanical and biological, such as those
methods in which heat, cold, or electricity play the leading part.
Of these, heat is, up to the present, both the cheapest and the most
reliable.

The germs figured in the chapter on " Ferments and on Diseases
of Wine " consist of translucent gelatinous cells which at even a
moderate temperature coagulate and perish. The temperature at
which these micro-organisms perish is called " the death point" of
these microbes. This point is several degrees lower in slightly acid
liquids, such as grape or other fruit-juice, than it is in neutral liquids.
Time is also a factor which in a measure influences this death
point. For instance, a micro-organism which would only perish if
heated for half an hour at, say, 60deg. C. (140deg. F.) would probably
survive the treatment if the period of heating was only a quarter of
an hour. Then again, micro-organisms occur in two states : an active
or growing state, consisting of a fragment of protoplasma, encased in
a cellulose covering, and a resting or spore state, the spores being
minute nuclei embedded into the body of the micro-organism and
endowed with greater resistant properties. This being so, a degree
of heat which would coagulate and kill the micro-organism in its
gellified or growing state would probably only cause passing dis-
comfort to the more hardened resting spores. As a rule, it requires
about 5deg. C. (9deg. F.) additional above the death point of the
growing micro-organism to kill the same organism in its resting
state. In practice it is found that grape-must is sterilised by
heating up to 65deg. to 75deg. C. (149deg. to 167deg. F.). It is
essential not to raise the temperature too high, so as not to
affect the delicacy of taste or colour of the liquid operated upon,
and for that purpose it is essential not to exceed 85deg. C.
(185deg. F.).

Whilst it is known that germs of fermentation and of other
decomposition organic liquids are destroyed at a comparatively low
temperature when immersed in a liquid, these same germs, when
desiccated, can tolerate a much higher temperature with impunity.
It is important to bear in mind this fact when bottling the sterilised
liquid, as any germs which may be resting on the dry neck of the

472

bottle or on the cork would escape destruction, and would later on
start a fresh growth and spoil the liquid. In order to guard
against this, both bottles and corks must be boiled just before
using. This is done for at least half an hour, and when handling
care should be taken not to touch the bottles with the hands high
up the neck lest some germs present on the hands should be
conveyed to the mouth of the bottles and thence into the liquid.

PLANT BEQUIRED.

On a fairly large scale a plant proportionate with the output of
unfermented juice would be required. Such a plant would include
a steam boiler, a steriliser, or Pasteuriser, to sterilise the juice ; a
niter press, to separate the clear juice from the viscous pulpy tissue
floating in it ; a hot- water dip, such as are used at canning works,
for sterilising the bottles. On a smaller scale a less elaborate plant
can be made to answer. An open copper for heating the must
and boiling both bottles and corks, a filter, and a bottle steriliser
may be made to answer the desired purpose.

portable Bottle pasteuriser.

MODUS OPERAND:.

The grapes having been crushed, the juice is run into a vat,
where it is allowed to deposit its slime. In hot weather, ice or an
attemperator may be used to cool it down and prevent it ferment-
ing for a few hours. From this settling vat the partly clarified must

473

is taken to the open copper and heated up to 85° C. (185° F.) for
half-an-hour, and skimmed and then run through a cooler into fresh
settling receptacles, properly sterilised. ' Steamed casks, closed by
means of sterilised bungs, will do. Here much of the albuminoid and
viscous matters in the|must, which will have been coagulated during

the first heating process, are deposited. This renders the operation of
filtering much easier. After this the must may be filtered and run
into sterilised bottles, which are then securely corked with well-
sterilised corks. These bottles are set to stand in a hot water

474

trough, and the temperature gradually brought up to 80° C. (175° F.)r
at which temperature they are maintained for quarter of an hour.
A thermometer placed in one of the bottles indicates the exact degree
of heat. It is essential, in order to sterilise the must, that that tem-
perature be reached ; whilst, on the other hand, it is essential that
it be not surpassed, as a higher degree of heat at the final heating
would coagulate a fresh lot of albuminoid matter, which would
cause their precipitation and make the liquid turbid.

It is advisable to secure the corks by means of strings during
this second sterilisation, in order to prevent them being blown up.
When this is done the contents of the bottles will keep for almost
an indefinite period, unless some threads of moulds penetrate the
corks and contaminate the liquid. To guard against this, it is a
good practice to dip the neck of the filled bottles into a 2 per cent,
solution of sulphate of copper (3ozs. to 4ozs. blue stone in Igal.
water), and when dry either cover with bottling wax or a capsule.
Should signs of turbidity show after a few days, repeat the sterilising
process a third time.

Grape-juice thus prepared will, with the exception of a few
tinted juice grapes, be white or amber colour, and be possessed with
the particular aroma of the grape used in its manufacture.

When filled, lay the bottles in rows on the side, and note any
which may be leaking at the cork. These put by for more
immediate use ; the others are slightly dipped at the neck in
bottling wax, which may be bought at cork merchants' or at whole-
sale druggists' for a few pence per Ib. Different colours, such as
red, green, blue, or white, may be used for different wines. Care
should be used, in melting, to keep the wax continually stirred, to
prevent it burning and assuming the appearance of a gritty deposit.

Grape juice thus bottled may be kept sound for years. It will
greatly improve by keeping a few months before it is used.

475

INFERTILE GKAPE VINES.

the vines have set their fruit, any that are sterile or
fail to carry a crop commensurate with their vigour more forcibly
attract attention.

This non -setting is the result of a variety of causes, and an
understanding of what these causes
may be enables one to alter conditions
which bring them about and so apply
the remedy. .By setting of the fruit
is understood the proper fertilisation
of the ovary. This occurs in the
spring of the year, and wherever grape
vines are grown under artificial condi-
tions of shelter, etc., it proves an
anxious time to all cultivators of the
vine.

In Western Australia, where the
open air climatic conditions in the
spring are in every respect favourable
to the proper fertilisation of the
ovaries, grapes set without trouble
and with great perfection. Yet
individual exceptions are occasionally
met with, which are subject to the
following conditions : —

I. Climatic conditions which
cause non -setting.

II. Structural or constitutional

FIG. 1.— Bunch of grapes showing

complete non-setting. delects.

In the first instance it is important to understand how the
grape vine blossoms set.

FIG. 2.— Normal buds
before fertilisation.

FIG. 3. — Normal flowers
after fertilisation.

476

Reference to the figs., some of which are taken from A.
Bonnet's " Selection as applied to the Vine " illustrate the different
possible occurrences.

Figs. 4, 5, and 6 illustrate, on a magnified scale, the structure
of a normal grape vine flower and show the bud, then the peculiar

4 5 6

FIG. 4, — A grape vine floral bud.

FIG. 5. — Same showing the petals of the corolla detached from the base and
united above, pressing the anthers against the pistil.

FIG, 6. — Same with the corolla removed, and showing the anthers ready for
excision.— (FOEX.)

way the petals unfold from the base of the calyx. This dislodge-
ment of the cap causes a jerk which scatters the pollen in the
anther sacs on the stamens (Fig. 6). This pollen comes into
contact with the stigma of the pistil which carries it to the ovary.

Free setting varieties have the stamens erect, forming a cluster
round the inflated tip or stigma, a position which is found
advantageous to the proper fertilisation of the ovary. These vines,
which constitute the majority, are perfect hermaphrodites.

FIG. 7. — Annular incision at A.

FiG.7A.— Vine shoot
pinched back.

477

Climatic conditions, it must be evident to all who have any
experience of Western Australian climate, are here in every way
favourable to the free setting of the grape vine blossoms. Even
the muscat of Alexandria, that queen of all grapes, which is
discarded in the Eastern States on account of its defective
setting, fruits here to perfection. In the coastal districts, especially
from the Murray Estuary as a Southern limit to the Murchison at
the North, a badly set bunch is more the exception than the rule.
The climatic conditions which are unfavourable to the free setting
of grapes are in the main sudden and excessive changes in the
temperature ; persistent rain or drying land winds at the period the
blossoms are opening.

When vines fail to set properly on that account, either pinching
back of the fruitful shoots or ringbarking under the joint from
which issues the bunch will, if practised a few days before the
blossoming, cause it to set better. (See figures 7 and 7 A.)

Constitutional defects very often cause bad setting.

The following figs, show at a glance in what respect some
flowers show malformation : —

FIG. 8.— (a.) Perfect flower.

( b.) Eeflexed stamens.
( c.) Staminate flower.

Whenever the stamens fall away from the pistil and are
deflexed the act of pollination cannot very well take place and the
bunch sets badly.

It sometimes happens that the pistil is altogether absent, and
as this organ contains at its base the ovaries or germ of the future
fruit, that absence means permanent sterility.

FIGS. 9 and 10.— Sterile flowers opening rose-like.

478

Other flowers are sterile owing to the peculiar way they
expand. Instead of the petals unfolding from the base as shown
in Fig. 5, they open rose-like from the top, and when they thus
open, there is no jerk and no scattering of pollen, and consequently
bad setting ; or it happens that the stamens remain stuck to the
petals and are shorter than the pistil, and are not able to reach up
to the gummy secretion on the stigma.

The various floral organs, moreover, undergo at times modifica-
tions which prove obstacles to their fertilisation. Thus whole

bunches are seen to turn into
tendrils ; or, owing to a thickening
of any one of the floral organs, the
flower assumes the appearance of
being double. Such flowers are
always sterile.

All these structural defects
are hereditary and liable to be
transmitted through cuttings, hence
the importance of eliminating such
vines from a vineyard by grafting
on them scions from fertile vines,
and also the advisability of reject-
ing any cutting from them for the
purpose of planting. Other con-
stitutional causes as well influence
the bearing of vines and lead to
imperfect setting.

The bunches are loose and
contain berries of various sizes
with numerous blanks between. A
lowering of the vitality of the
plant consequent upon attacks of
oidium, or other fuugous diseases,
predisposes vines to this form of
bad setting.

This accident may also be
caused by a sudden drop in the tein-
perature, by continuous rain at
blossoming time, or by hot blasts
of drying wind. Although a f < w

berries which set properly grow to their full size, numerous small
ones never grow very large, and are devoid of seeds. They ripen
and are as sweet as the others. The Black Morocco grape is
particularly subject to this form of bad setting or shanking. The
explanation given of this peculiarity is that for one or other of
the causes mentioned above, a few flowers only set and the others
are blighted. A number of the more backward blossoms which
generally fail to set when the first blossoms have turned into
fruit then open and form fruit. These, however, located on the

FIG. 11.— Double flowers.

479

same bunch alongside others which are
growing rapidly, are checked, remain
small and seedless.

Amongst the remedies suggested to
counteract the effects of bad setting
are : — Selection of cuttings from fertile
vines, pinching back of shoots, ring-
barking, sulphuring at blossoming time,
and grafting on the sterile plants.

The shape of the leaves often furnish
an indication regarding the fruitfulness
of vines. In every vineyard may be noticed
plants, often very vigorous, growing
leaves which are comparatively more
deeply indented than others on vines of
the same variety. These plants are
generally less fruitful than the others ;
they carry smaller and fewer bunches, or
are not fruitful at all. They are known
as "wild" vines by the growers. Being
particularly luxuriant, cuttings are at
times selected from these plants which,
however, almost invariably transmit
to the vines issuing from them the
same characteristics of sterility and of
excessively vigorous growth which were
exhibited in the parent.

C-X

FIG. 12.— Bunch badly
set.— (FoEX.)

FIG. 13. — Leaf of Aramon from fruitful arm.

480

The same characteristics are of cen seen on leaves growing on a
sterile water shoot or sucker issuing from a vine stump.

FIG. 14.— Aramon leaf from a sterile sucker on the same vine.

From what we know, therefore, of the fertility of particular
vines, or particular parts of grape vines, it is evident that selection
enables us to eliminate from a vineyard all unproductive stock by
means of grafting, or avoid reproducing undesirable features shown
in the parent vine.

INSECT ANT) FUNGOID PESTS.
TREATMENT ATSTD REMEDIES.

Until of late years little or no attention was paid to the damage
caused by insect and fungoid pests to cultivated crops.

In the old days of farming and fruitgrowing pests were
regarded in the light of an unavoidable calamity, and a visitation
of Providence ; their nature was shrouded in mystery, or they were
either entirely unknown in some parts of the world, or else were
often met with, under a mild form, in' certain localities ; a great
many, by transplantation to surroundings somewhat dissimilar to
those by which they were influenced in their original habitat, have
subsequently developed more pronounced and distinct characteristics,
and have consequently forced themselves to the notice of cultivators.

• 481

These so-called new pests, either insects or fungi, are as ancient
as the world, and although they are greatly influenced by their im-
mediate surroundings, by the food at their disposal, the climate in
which they live, by the enemies they have to contend with, and by
many other circumstances of various nature, they nevertheless spring
from parent individuals in every respect like themselves. The
devastating phylloxera, for instance, or the woolly aphis of our
days did not originate as spontaneously from the roots of the vine
or of the apple tree, but are the decendants, in a direct line, of a
long list of ancestry of lice of these respective tribes. In a similar
manner, the rust of cereals or the oidium of the vine have no more
budded from the wheat plant or the grape vine than potatoes are
transformations of the soil, but have simply grown from seedlike
germs produced by preceding pests of the same kind.

Every season, almost, we hear of the appearance of new pests,
and it is more than likely that, for a great number of years to come,
the list, already formidable, of the sorts of insects and fungi that
invade and prey on our crops will gradually be made longer still,
by the addition of more unwelcome enemies.

Various factors combine to bring about this undesirable state
of things.

In the first instance, we have seen that new conditions of life
may develop propensities of a distinctive nature ; or, again, the
partial extermination of some parasites of these pests, either owing
to unfavourable surroundings or the use of insecticides, by break-
ing the balance of nature, may insure the preponderance, to an
alarming degree, of certain species of pests. By the constant and
more rapid interchange, on the other hand, of plants, fruits, seeds,
and cuttings of all sorts of ornamental, economic, or useful plants,
from all parts of the world, many of the parasites of plants have
been widely disseminated, without, in a great many instances, their
own particular parasites having been brought with them ; and thus
the appearance of hitherto unknown pests is accounted for in
countries until then free from them.

For, as it is so concisely expressed in Dean Swift's oft quoted
couplet —

The little fleas that do us tease
Have other fleas that bite "em ;
And these, in turn, have other fleas,
And so on ad infinitum.

To ward against the importation of noxious pests, the Govern-
ment of Western Australia, profiting by the errors and the
experience of older fruit-growing countries, have passed a Fruit
Pest Act, reproduced, as an appendix, in this Handbook, and
which provides for the disinfection, on landing, of plants and fruits,
for the purpose of checking any possible importation from abroad
of pests inimical to fruit trees and vines.

Amateur gardeners, as well as professionals, who concern them-
selves about the well being of their plants, have continuously to

482

contend with two classes of pests which injure their crop. The
first of these are noxious insects ; the second, parasitic fungi.

Insects vary greatly in their shape, size, and colour, but on
broad lines they all possess, when seen in their full-grown, stage,
certain features which differentiate them from other animals. They
possess three pairs of legs, attached to a body divided into three
definite portions — a head, a thorax, and an abdomen.

Some of them — indeed, the majority — undergo during their
development well-marked transformation or stages : 1st, the egg ;
2nd, the larva or caterpillar ; 3rd, the pupa or chrysalis ; 4th, the
adult or imago stage. Moths and butterflies, amongst others,
belong to this class. In two or, may be, three periods of their
transformation they take no food, and are fixtures ; during these
periods they do no actual harm. Thus, butterflies and moths are
inert in the egg as well as the pupa stages ; and some of them, such
as the codlin moth for instance, do not feed. Yet it is during
these periods of rest and transformation that it is often easier to
attack them. These insects undergo what is called complete trans-
formation, in contradistinction of others which undergo incomplete
transformation. This second class, such as grasshoppers and
locusts, have eggs which, in hatching, give forth young insects which
only differ from the full-grown ones in size and in possessing no
wings. Instead of changing from larva to pupa, they proceed, by
a series of moulting or casting off their skin, to the mature stage,
and become imago. During these successive moultings they are
known as " nymphs."

Again, some insects lay eggs, and are "oviparous"; while others
bring forth their young alive, and are "viviparous." The majority
of them, however, proceed from the egg, whether that egg is
deposited and cemented to the plant by means of a viscous secretion
or whether they give birth to young ones. In the latter case the
female insect generally carries the egg internally until the hatching
period arrives.

So much for the life history of insects, considered broadly. A
number of varieties depart from the pattern laid down in several
minor details which cannot be touched upon in this paper, although
a clear understanding of these particularities is of great assistance
in combating pests. They often constitute the weak point of the
armour it is meant to penetrate, and serve as a guide in directing
the attack against them.

Almost as important as an undertaking of the life history of
pests is a knowledge of the manner they attack plants when taking
their food.

In that respect noxious pests may be considered, irrespective of
their classification, names, shape, or colour, into two general types :
biting or chewing insects and sap-sucking insects. The former are
often leaf-eaters or bark-nibblers, or, again, wood and fruit borers.
They are provided with jaws by which they can gnaw the surface
of the food-plant, and chew it.

483

The latter feed on the juices of the inner tissues of the host-
plant. They are armed with a pointed tube-like beak, which they
thrust into the tissues of their host-plant, and suck out the sap.

Of the biting or food-chewing insects, some are : —

(i.) Root-eaters ; such as the white worm of the cockchafer ;

the larvae of the cicadae.
(2.) Others, bark-nibblers ; as certain kind of beetles and of

weevils.
(3.) Some are leaf -eaters ; as slugs, caterpillars, saw-flies'

larvae, the carpenter bee.
(4.) Others injure the bud, the blossom, or the fruit; as the

strawberry weevil, the codlin moth.

Of the sucking insects, in a like manner, some are : —

(i.) Root-sucking insects; as the woolly aphis and phylloxera

of the vine.
(2.) Others, ordinary bark-sucking insects; as the mealy

bugs.

(3.) Some leaf and bud or fruit-sucking insects ; as the
rose and the orange aphis, the red and other scales,
and plant bugs.

When fighting against biting insects, their food plant is best
coated with substances which will act as internal poisons ; whereas,
when directing the attack against sap-sucking insects, the treatment
must be such as hurts and kills by direct contact ; they are external
irritants, and act from the outside, either closing the breathing pores
or killing by irritation of the skin.

To the first category belong the various combinations of
arsenic, and chief amongst them " Paris green," a chemical com-
bination of arsenic and copper. When unadulterated it contains
55 to 60 per cent, of arsenic. It is almost insoluble in water. It is
applied either — 1st, dry in a state of impalpable powder, mixed in
the proportion of loz! of Paris green with 21bs. flour, slaked lime,
road-dust, or ashes ; 2nd, or in a liquid mixture in the proportion
of loz. in 10 gallons of water. It should not be used in con junction
with any acid substance which would dissolve the arsenic it contains
and make it caustic, but, on the contrary, it is always a good
plan to add to it a handful of lime, which has the property of
turning insoluble any trace of caustic arsenic it contains. Being a
heavy substance, it quickly settles to the- bottom of the pumping
tackle, and requires agitating.

Other combinations of arsenic, such as London purple and
arsenic and soda solution, are also used ; but genuine and unadul-
terated Paris green is the best. A little glue or flour paste may be
added, to cause it to adhere better, especially to plants with glossy

Hellebore, unlike the arsenites, which are mineral poisons,
is a vegetable poison, and is less dangerous. It is a powder made of

484

the roots of the white hellebore, and kills both by contact and by
being eaten. Very effective when fresh, it loses its strength by
standing. In doses loz. to three gallons of water it is much used
against the pear slug and leaf-eating worms.

Pyrethrum, or Insectibane, is also a poison, and is effective
when fresh, but loses strength when exposed to the air. It is made
from the powdered flowers of plants of the genus Pyrethrum. That
light-brown powder is dusted over the plants or sprayed, in the pro-
portion of Pyrethrum one tablespoonful, boiling water two gallons.
It kills by contact, and should be applied as long as the insects
persist. Burnt over hot coals in the conservatories and greenhouses,
it rids plants of aphis and other insect pests. Pyrethum are easily
cultivated, make pretty borders, and a supply of fresh flowers could,
without trouble, be raised in every garden.

Kerosene, in the form of an emulsion with soapsuds, or
mechanically mixed with water in the form of a misty spray, in the
proportion of one of kerosene and four of water, will kill nearly all
insects, and not injure the foliage.

Resin Compound is known to be very effective against scale
insects. One of the best formulas is : caustic soda, one pound ;
resin, five pounds ; water, 25 gallons. Two ounces of Paris green
may be added to this when used.

Sal Ammoniac (chloride of ammonia) at the rate of f to loz.
per gallon of water, is a cheap and efficacious spray against red
scale.

Tobacco is one of the safest and most valuable insecticides,
and may be applied in several ways ; either as a fine dry powder
against slugs and aphis, or as a decoction of three to four gallons
of water to one pound of tobacco ; or in fumes, when burnt in the
greenhouse. •

Carbolic Acid, especially in its crude state, is a valuable
insecticide as an emulsion made by mixing one quart soft soap, or
about one pound of hard soap dissolved in two gallons of boiling
water, and then adding one pound crude carbolic acid ; and, applied
with a cloth or a brush, it is efficacious in preventing the attack of
tree borers. It must not, in that state, be applied to the foliage.

Bi- Sulphide of Carbon, a very volatile fluid, the fumes of
which are destructive to all animal life, is used for killing insects
underground ; this is done when the plant is dormant, by boring a
hole into the ground and pouring in a little carbon bi-sulphide and
kerosene mixed. It is highly inflammable.

Coal Tar is excellent to drive insects away, or entrap them.

Hot Water, at a temperature of about 125 deg. F., is very
efficacious for killing plant lice. Amongst other substances which
are used against insects must also be mentioned lime and gas lime,
quassia chips, kainit, fir-tree oil, sulphate of copper.

485

Natural Checks. — Although economic entomologists have
already tested many valuable insecticides, and so compounded them
that they kill insects but leave plants uninjured, yet there is, in
keeping noxious insects in check, even more efficacious allies than
the spray pump and the insecticidal mixtures.

All insects, injurious or beneficial, have many natural enemies
of their own to contend with. Some are of a higher order in the
scale of animal classification, such as lizards, frogs, and other
reptiles ; birds, moles, etc. Others, more numerous, belong to the
insect world itself.

Amongst these, some which attack noxious insect pests from
the outside, and either devour them or suck their vital juices, are
called predaceous insects, e.g. ladybirds, spiders, soldier bug, black
ground beetle.

Others, called parasitic insects, differ from the predaceous
ones, in so far as they live inside the bodies of their victims, and
ultimately kill them. Amongst these parasitic insects the more
numerous are ichneumon wasps, which entomologists classify
amongst the hynienopterous, or four- wing flies. Another class of
flies, with only two wings, and for that reason known as dipterous
insects, contribute largely to the ranks of insect parasites.

But even these parasites are frequently subject to the attack of
still smaller parasites, which prove as fatal to them as they did to
their insect hosts. The first of these parasites are, for that reason,
known as primary parasites, to differentiate them from the second,
called secondary parasites. When introducing parasites into an
orchard or a garden, therefore, it is of the greatest importance that
we should have a clear idea whether we are introducing an ally
which will prove beneficial, or whether we will add to the list of
our pest enemies another insect which will prove mischievous.
Such a work is better left in the hands of experienced people, and
may prove a dangerous tool in those of the tyro gardener.

Besides insect parasites, injurious insects are also attacked \yy
even more minuscule foes. These are germs of contagious diseases,
which, at times, stop an insect plague with remarkable suddenness.

These germs are of two orders : some bacterial and inward,
e.g. green potato and tomato caterpillars ; others, superficial, cover
their victims with silklike threads, and belong; to the mould family,
e.g. the African locust fungus — the housefly fungus.

GARDEN AND ORCHARD CROPS— THEIR PESTS AND

REMEDIES.

In a tabular form, I have grouped those insect and fungoid
pests which attack our orchard and garden crops. A few words
concerning the more prominent amongst these pests will follow.

486

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490

REMEDIES FOR GARDEN AND ORCHARD CROPS PESTS.
No. 1.— BORDEAUX MIXTURE (Full Strength for Winter Spraying).

Sulphate of Copper (bluestone) ... ...• 4lbs.

Quicklime (to be freely slaked) ... ... 4lbs.

Water ... 22gals.

(a.) Dissolve the bluestone in 10 gallons of water by placing it in a
sack suspended in the water and moving the sack about, when the sulphate
will quickly dissolve, (b.) Make a whitewash with the lime, strain to
separate the grit, and bring the milk of lime to 10 gallons. Mix a and b,
and make up to 22 gallons. Use only wooden or earthenware vessels.
When the foliage is out, use the half strength mixture by diluting in double
the volume of water. To determine if the mixture is safe to use on tender
foliage, insert a new nail or the blade of a penknife for at least half a
minute ; if copper is deposited on the steel, lime must be added.

No. 2. — BORDEAUX MIXTURE (Modified).
The same with 41b. molasses added.

No. 3.

The same as Nos. 1 or 2, with 44 gallons water. Half strength for
tender foliage.

No. 4. — AMMONIO-CARBONATE OP COPPER.

Copper Carbonate ... ... ... ... loz,

Ammonia sufficient to dissolve the'Copper (about 1 pt.)
Water lOgals.

For the last spraying. Does not stain fruit.

No. 5. — SULPHATE or IRON WASH.

Sulphate of Iron ( Copperas) ... ... ... olbs .

Sulphuric Acid... ... ... ... ... £pt.

Warm Water Igal.

Pour the sulphuric acid over the copperas, and then add the water.
No metallic vessel should be used. Apply with a swab after pruning, or
better still, just before the buds open. A 10 to 12 per cent, solution of
sulphuric acid (six to seven quarts of acid in 25 gallons water) is at times
used as a substitute.

No. 6. — LIME, SULPHUR, AND SALT WASH.
(A winter spray for deciduous trees only).

Quicklime ... ... ... ... ... 81bs.

Sulphur... ... ... ... ... ... 4lbs.

Salt 31bs.

Water 12 to SOgals.

Boil till the sulphur is quite dissolved, one hour or so, 2lbs. quick-
lime, freshly slaked, 41bs. sulphur, ground to a powder if necessary, and five
gallons water. It will turn amber colour. Then slake the remaining Gibs,
lime in a cask, and add the salt previously dissolved in water. When dis-
solved, add to the lime and sulphur, and boil half-an-hour longer. Add
enough water to make 12 gallons, stirring all the time. Strain through
a cheesecloth sack. Apply lukewarm in winter, and be careful of hands.
In Western Australia, where the lime contains a large amount of sand, use
lOlbs. quicklime.

No. 7 — TOBACCO DECOCTION.

Home Grown Tobacco, Leaf and Stem or

Tobacco Waste lib.

Water 6gals.

Soft Soap lib.

491

Steep the tobacco in the soap in water, strain, and use in two applica-
tions at three or four days' interval.

No. 8 — QUASSIA CHIPS AND WHALE OIL SOAP.

Quassia Chips ... ... ... ... lib.

Water Igal.

Whale Oil Soap ilb.

Boil the quassia chips and water for half-an-hour ; then stir in the
whale oil soap. When using dilute with 10 gallons of water.

No. 9. — SULPHUR AND LIME PAINT.
Boil for half an hour —

Sulphur lib.

Quicklime 21bs.

Water 3gals.

and thicken to consistency of paint, with fine clay or with flour, and brush
over stems and limbs after pruning.

No. 10. — KEROSENE EMULSION.

Kerosene ... ... ... ... ... 2gals.

Soap ... ... ilb.

Boil the soap in one gallon of water. When boiling remove to another
vessel, add the kerosene and churn violently for 10 minutes, or pour with a
fall from one bucket into another until the whole forms a creamy mass
which thickens on cooling. Will keep. When used, to one part of the
emulsion add eight to ten parts of water, according to season. The time
required to effect a complete enralsion will depend on the violence of the
churning and the temperature of the mixture.

No. 11.
Same, with loz. Paris Green to every 12 to 15 gallons of the emulsion.

No. 12.
No. 1 with loz. Paris Green to every 12 gallons of the mixture.

No. 13.

Paris Green ... ... ... ... ... 4oz.

Water SOgals.

or loz. to 12 gallons. ,The addition of a little lime will neutralise the caustic
property of the arsenic. A little glue or flour will ensure its adhesion to the
leaves. To mix well, first make into a thin paste with a little water.

No. 14. — RESIN AND SODA WASH.

Resin (pounded) ... ... ... ... 51bs.

Caustic Soda (70 per cent.) lib.

or,

Washing Soda 31bs.

Fish Oil Ipt.

Water, to make... ... ... ... ... 25gals.

Boil ingredients, with enough water to cover, for 1 to 2 hours, adding
water slowly if there is a tendency to boil over. The compound will assume
the colour of black coffee. Ascertain that mixture will assimilate with water
by occasionally pouring a small quantity of mixture into water. If not
boiled sufficiently will form a ropy mass in bottom of vessel. Dilute with
warm water, stirring all the time to one-third, the first bulk (8 gallons),

492

making a stock mixture to be diluted to the full amount when used. This
mixture can be used twice or three times as strong on deciduous trees when
dormant.

No. 15. — LIVER or SULPHUR.

Potassium Sulphide ... ... ... ^oz. to loz.

Warm Water Igal.

No. 16.— BAIT.

Bran lOlbs.

Paris Green ... ... ... ... ... 4oz.

Molasses ... ... ... ... ... 4lbs.

Worked with water to the consistency of stiff dough into balls, and laid
at the foot of the plants for cut worms and grasshoppers.

Fresh leaves of vegetables, sprinkled with Paris green and water, laid
about also make a good bait.

No. 17. — CARBON BI-SULPHIDE.

Apply with Vermorel's Injector ; dose, 10 to 20 grammes to the square
yard, or close up to where white ants or phylloxera are.

Bi-sulpMde of Carbon ... ... ... 1 part.

Kerosene ... ... ... ... ... 1 to 2 parts.

No. 18. — HYDRO-CYANIC GAS.
For every 100 cubic feet of space to be fumigated —

Potassium Cyanide, 98 per cent. ... ... l^oz.

Sulphuric Acid ... ... ... ... 2£oz.

Water ... ' 3oz.

To generate the gas pour the acid slowly into the water in a deep cup
or earthenware vessel, add the cyanide to it, and retire quickly, taking care
not to inhale the fumes, which are highly poisonous. Fumigate 45 minutes
to one hour. This is the stronger winter treatment for deciduous trees when
the leaves are off. For summer treatment and for evergreens use half the
quantity of chemicals. Cyanide of Potassium is a deadly poison.

No. 19.— TAR WATER.

Boiling Water 2gals.

Coal Tar ... ., lib.

Add tar, drop by drop, to boiling water, and stir violently. If the tar
is added in bulk it will not mix. When dissolved, make up to 100 gallons
with water. Spray under as well as upper surface of leaves.

No. 20.— WHALE OIL SOAP.

One pound to two to four gallons water for scale insects ; lib. to four to
six gallons for mealy bugs, aphides, red spider, etc. Good's No. 3 potash
soap, one of the best, made of fish oil, and not more than 25 to 28 per cent,
water.

SPRAYING PUMPS.

Previously to the appearance of mildew in the European vine-
yards, the only spraying pumps known were somewhat after the
fashion of .those toy scent-atomizers used by hairdressers, and
were almost entirely used in conservatories, for spraying rare and
exotic ^ plants. Since then, however, the necessity of dressing vines

493

with mixtures containing copper salts, and other insecticides, has
]ed to the more general use of specially designed pumps that

Barrow Spray Puinp.

distribute the liquid with greater rapidity and under the form of
minute globules in a fine spray.

Garden Syringe — the simplest Spray Pump.

How it should be made and points to consider. — An authority
on the matter thus expresses himself: — Price and weight must be
considered. A cheap pump, that will handle clogging and corrosive
mixtures all the time, and be simple enough to stand the rough
using of farm and orchard hands, who know little more about
spraying than to work the pump handle, is not very easy to get.
All parts of component spray pumps must be of the very best and
suitable description — hose, nozzle, means of controlling the supply
from pumps, elevating the nozzle, etc.

Iron is unfit material for spraying pumps, sulphate of copper
destroying the nice adjustment of the working parts. So far, brass
has given most satisfaction, and all working parts and all valves in
contact with the spraying material should be of that or other non-
corrosive material. Soft brass, composed of copper and zinc, should be
avoided, as it is corroded by ammonia. Leather valves soon become
hard and unyielding. All parts should be strong and easily
reached for repairs, replacement, or cleaning.

As nearly as possible, all power expended ought to be applied
in forcing the material, in hand work especially. Some pumps,
intended to be mounted on a barrel, are so constructed as to make
the whole apparatus top-heavy and liable to accidents. It often

494

happens that too much suction is also required to bring the liquid
into the cylinder, whereas nearly all the work of the piston ought
to be expended in forcing it. The cylinder is best at the bottom of

Nixon's Climax Pump on Barrel and on Tripod.

the barrel, immersed in the liquid, where there is little or no suction
until the barrel is nearly empty, the liquid itself doing the office of
packing, instead of rubber, candle-wicking, leather, etc.

The automatic stirring apparatus should be so perfect that the
last spray that leaves the nozzle is as strong and no stronger than
the first. Paddles worked by motion of the handles, causing up
and down currents, involve less loss of power than when a portion
of the liquid returns from the pump to the barrel.

Keep trash, leaves, and sticks out of the barrel by means of a
lid. The supply pipe leading from the pump should be provided
with a quick-acting valve, so as not to cause loss of spray when
not in use, and for facilitating the removal of any clogging of
nozzles set without loss of time, waste of material, and deluging the
workmen.

The hose should be strong, J-inch inside. A smaller diameter
would cause too much friction, a larger one would make the hose
very heavy when full of material. It is a source of annoyance that
universal gauge threads a*re not used by all makers, as in the case
of microscopes.

Mechanical ingenuity has devised appliances for the even
distribution of impalpable powders as well as for the spraying of
liquids ; amongst these is the machine here illustrated.

A strong blast of air is created by moving the lever which
carries the powder through a piece of indiarubber piping, termin-

495

uted by a tin tube, 3ft. in length or more, and having at its end a
flattened circular piece
of tin. The blast, after
impact on the piece of
tin, spreads out in a
fan -like shape, and dis-
tributes the sulphur or
powder evenly in the
form of a cloud. The
machine, which costs 30
francs in France, is
easily kept in working
order, all that is re-
quired is, besides empty-
ing the reservoir after
using, an occasional
oiling of such parts of
the lever where friction
occurs.

This sulphurer dis-
tributes fungicide or
insecticide powders
more evenly and in a
finer state than the
ordinary bellows.

To produce a similar effect, less powder is distributed ov.er a
given area, thus effecting a great economy.

The powder is applied with more force, and has a better chance
of adhering to all the leaves, while the working is easier than in
the case of ordinary bellows.

Simpler and cheaper powder casters are also illustrated, and
-consist in the old fashioned but efficacious sulphur bellows, the
construction of which is shown in the following diagrams.

The " Corouette " portable Sprayer.

Sulphur Bellows.

496

VermoreVs Injector for Carbon Bi-sulphide. — Among the
numerous insecticides proposed and experimented upon for destroy-
ing the phylloxera and other ground pests, carbon bi-sulphide has
been found the most reliable as well as the most efficacious. It is a
colourless liquid, heavier than water (1*271 at 15 deg. C.), very
volatile (boils at 48 deg. C.=102 deg. F.), and catches fire very
rapidly. "Workmen using it should, for this reason, carefully refrain
from smoking, and avoid carrying matches.

Considerable difficulty was experienced at the beginning in the
application of the insecticide round the roots, and in properly

regulating its dose, until specially
designed forcing pumps came into
use, one of the best of which is here
shown.

The forcing-pump considered,
so far, the best for the purpose of
injecting the insecticide liquid into
the soil is the one here described,
and is manufactured by VermoreL
Its price in France is about 55
francs

It consists of a copper reser-
voir, R, holding about a quart of the
liquid, which is introduced through
the opening, F, closed by means of a
screw plug. The piston Y Y, sur-
mounted by the knob, N, works in
the pump, A, and is fitted at its
extremity with a cup-shaped leather
cap, B. A spring, M, drives the
piston upwards each time it has
been pressed down in injecting the
liquid. Underneath the piston, two
small openings, I), place the reser-
voir ^n communication with the
chamber, T. On pressing the piston
down, the bi-sulphide of carbon is
driven into the tube, E, and by push-
ing a plug, J, fills up the chamber,
G, whence it is forced out of the
steel needle, I, through the opening
K, into the soil.

In order to regulate the dose of
bi-sulphide of carbon at each injec-
tion, one or more rings, Z, are strung
on the piston rod. The pump is so
graduated that each time the piston
is pressed down, 10 grammes (154
vermorai's injector. grains, or ^oz.) is injected into the

497

ground. In other words, supposing one injection is made in every
square yard : 4,840 square yards multiplied by 10 grammes equals
48'4 kilogrammes, or 95'51b., are injected per acre. With one ring
added, 9 grammes are injected, or ^ less ; with two rings 8
grammes only are injected ; and so on, each additional ring added
decreasing the dose by T^.

The apparatus having received a charge of bi- sulphide of
carbon, is easily thrust into the ground by pressing on the handles,
S, and the spur P. The knob, JS , is then pressed down, and a
dose of the liquid injected into the ground. On removing the
needle the operator stops the hole left in the soil with his heel,
and the volatile insecticide, being thus imprisoned in the soil,
diffuses through it, penetrates every cleft and rent, and reaches
the enemy, which it soon suffocates. The eggs, however, are not
destroyed, and a fresh application after hatching, and within a
fortnight, has to be made to entirely rid the ground of the pest.

According to the degree of intensity of the invasion, one or
two injections per square yard are made, or, in other words, the
knob of the piston is pressed down two or three times.

Between the lines the steel needle is thrust in full length into
the ground, viz., 8 to 10 inches, but nearer to the stocks half that
depth is sufficient.

Bi-sulphide of carbon is used with best advantage in porous
soils, whilst on heavy clays, or in shallow soils with a clay subsoil,
at a depth of 10 to 12 inches, its application is not attended with
the best results, as the insecticide cannot permeate through the
mass of the ground, and by being brought into direct contact with
the roots proves injurious to the plant.

HOW AND WHEN TO SPRAY.

Credit is due for much of the information contained in this
chapter to the contributions of Dr. N. A. Cobb, the Pathologist of
the Department of Agriculture, Sydney, and published in the
Agricultural Gazette of N.S.W.

Mature plants wear an armour of dead cells. These repre-
sent the outside skin or cuticle which lines the upper and under
surface of the leaves, and afford protection to the more tender cells
which underlie them.

When observed under a microscope they are not unlike a thin
parchment or small scales of bark. Owing to their presence,
wind, rain, sun, or dust have no action on the more delicate
internal living cells, which would soon be destroyed by handling
or exposure were it not for this natural jacket which covers
them. This jacket or covering is not, however, absolutely con-
tinuous, and small microscopic breathing-pores or stomata occur
at intervals on the surface.

Let us suppose such a leaf to be attacked by a fungus para-
site. If thin shavings of such a diseased leaf were cut bv means

498

of a specially made microscopic razor called a " microtome," and
one of these thin slices was put under a microscope, we would see
a section of the leaf showing on the outer edges one row of scales
of the cuticle, disposed somewhat like bricks or tiles, and in the
centre a mass of more tender living tissue, disposed somewhat like
a close-grained sponge, and through which the sap circulates.

Now in the case of a diseased leaf, we see permeating- the
living tissue a meshwork of filaments which are the roots of
the fungus, and are called mycelial threads, then, emerging
through the breathing pores of the plant, slender thread-like stems
showing on the surface of the leaf, and on each of these thread-like
stems little branches carrying small sacks full of spores or of seeds
of the fungus.

Thus we see that a parasitic fungus robs the plant, through
its mycelial threads, of the sap and the food which is pumped up
by the plant from its roots to the extremity of its branches for the
nourishment of its foliage and its fruit. In order to understand
the usefulness of spraying with fungicides, we must not lose sight
of these facts. The internal cells of the leaf are so delicate that
the application to them of a poisonous substance, even though in a
very diluted form, would prove injurious. But those internal cells
are covered over and protected by the outside layer of thick-walled
impermeable cells just mentioned, which would be able to bear the
effect of the poison in a stronger form. Of course, it will be under-
stood that a very strong poison would affect these outside cells also,
but there is a certain strength of the poison, slightly stronger than
would be injurious to delicate cells, that can be applied to them
with impunity. It so happens that the cells of fungi are as a
rule very delicate, and highly susceptible to the destructive
influence of poisons in solution ; and, often, such solutions as would
not be injurious to the outside thick-walled cells of leaves are
quite fatal to fungus cells.

Tender leaves as a rule are, for reasons detailed in the fore-
going paragraph, less resistant than older leaves of the same plants ;
and, again, some sort of trees, such as the peach or the nectarine,
having a thinner and more delicate cuticle than the apple
or the pear, are sometimes injured by the application of poisonous
liquids that would not hurt the more resistant plants.

Again, the facts brought to light here explain why, in a great
many cases, several sprayings are necessary for eradicating disease.
The application of a remedy will often only destroy that part of the
fungus parasite which shows outside, but fresh shoots will soon be
pushed out by the mycelial threads which permeate the more
delicate internal tissues of the leaf, and soon carry a fresh crop of
spores or fungus seeds, unless by timely treatment the parasite is
again destroyed.

Many fruit-growers and farmers, however, who have no
conception of these facts, are not satisfied unless a remedy costing

499

next to nothing is offered to them, which will in one application
destroy the enemy for ever. The mode of attack of the parasite,
explained above, will explain how unreasonable such an expecta-
tion is ; as a remedy that would effect this end at one stroke
would probably, at the same time, destroy the tissues of the leaves.

" The application of fungicides does not effect a cure," says
Dr. Cobb, " it only prevents the fungus from fruiting and germin-
ating. That part of the fungus inside the leaf can be killed only
by killing the leaf itself."

Many fungicides and insecticides either consist of particles of
solid matter in the form of powder as sulphur, or in suspension in
water as Paris green, or partly in suspension and partly in solu-
tion as carbonate of copper in Bordeaux mixture. After a plant
has been sprayed with one of these substances, therefore, it may be
considered as being covered with an armour of solid poisonous sub-
stance, which will destroy by contact any fungus shoot that shows
on the leaf, or prevents its germination.

All armours, however, have their weak points, and the armour
in which we thus dress our plants is no exception. Let us examine,,
says Dr. Cobb, into the weak points of our system of spraying, and
see whether they are capable of being remedied. It requires no very
lengthened experience in spraying to learn that different crops
receive a spray in very different ways. The leaves of some crops may
wet easily, but to one crop of this sort there are many that do not
do so. Often the spray will be seen to collect immediately
in drops, in spite of its fineness when applied. This is due to the
waxy covering with which many kinds of leaves and fruits are
furnished. When the microscopic liquid particles, of which the
fungicide is composed, come into contact with the bloom of the
leaf, they refuse to adhere if the spraying is carried on too long,
or they adhere so slightly that the attraction which adjacent
particles have for each other comes into play, and causes them to
roll up into drops of visible size (Fig. B).

The illustration shows two patches of wheat- leaves sprayed
with the fungicide known as ammonio-carbonate of copper --that
is, carbonate of copper dissolved in dilute ammonia. After a plant
has been sprayed with this solution, the diluted ammonia evapor-
ates and leaves the carbonate of copper in the shape of an exceed-
ingly fine powder. Consequently, when we examine the surface
of the sprayed plant with a microscope, we instantly notice this
deposit distributed in patches, as shown in the adjacent illustration.
Each patch of deposit is a dried-up droplet of the spray ; about
twenty such patches are shown in one illustration. Between the
patches is seen that part of the wheat-leaf which was not hit by
the spray. As long as the patches of poison remain they consti-
tute a protection against the infection by means of spores, which
may fall upon a sprayed leaf. A spore falling upon the poison
will be killed as soon as it attempts to germinate. Even should it

500

fall upon a portion of the leaf where there is no poison, growth may
yet be prevented, as will be readily understood by examining the
illustration, where the germination of spores c, d, e, and / has been
checked, because their sprouts have run against the poison.

II »«•

- A. Fig. B.

In the above illustration a careful drawing is given of two
different sprayings. In one case the leaf was sprayed for nine
consecutive seconds ; in the other case, also for nine seconds, but at
three different times of three seconds each, the leaf having dried
between times. The results are very different. Where the spray
was applied nine seconds continuously the drops have melted into
one another, and left wide, unprotected blanks amongst them (B).
It is evident, therefore, that Fig. A represents a more efficient
method of spraying than B, not because more poison has been
applied, but because it is in a finer state of subdivision. It will be
seen at once that if the spores a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h had fallen on A
instead of B their chance of growing would have been much
diminished. As it was, all but two spores were killed, These two
(a and b), having alighted in the midst of large areas free from
poison, were able to grow to their full extent.

FACTS WORTH KNOWING.

The moral of this teaching is, therefore, never spray until the
drops of the poisonous liquid drip down from the foliage ; but
spray rapidly, coining back on your steps spraying again rapidly,
and again once more, allowing time for the liquid to evaporate in
the interval. No more liquid will be used in spraying the area of
ground to be protected by this method, whilst the time employed in
spraying will be practically the same in each case, while the result
will be widely different.

Two or three sprayings, at a fortnight's interval, are better than
only one, and one spraying better than none. Spraying early in the
season is much more efficacious than later.

Trees will sometimes be injured by being sprayed on a very
hot and windy day : the best time to spray is either on a dull day,

501

early in the morning, or, better still, towards the evening. If
necessary, spray at any time except at blossoming time, and within
three or four weeks of the fruit being sufficiently ripe for gathering.

Arsenical and copper mixtures are poisonous, and operators
should therefore be particularly careful that the spray does not
accidentally get carried over to themselves or their assistants.
Other sprays are not poisonous, but offensive ; and those using them
will instinctively keep clear of them.

Whenever the spray pump has been used, and before it is put
away for use next day or on a future occasion, it should be emptied,
and scrupulously cleaned by running fresh water through it. The
suction and delivery hose are unscrewed and drained. After dry-
ing the pump as far as possible, it should be carefully oiled, with
neatsfoot oil preferably; kerosene oil is not so good; while vegetable
oil is least to be recommended. A spray pump or a sulphurer well
looked after will last for many years, and do the work most effi-
ciently.

Never keep copper mixtures and solution standing in iron tanks,
as it corrodes the iron, but use copper or wooden vessels.

Kerosene, carbon bi-sulphide, and mineral oils will perish india-
rubber.

Keep the Paris green locked up, as it is poisonous ; the same
caution will apply to the other chemicals, generally speaking.

Be ready and begin early.

PLANT FUMIGATION.

The fumigation of trees by means of hydrocyanic acid gas is
fast becoming more popular.

The success of the operation and its safety to the operators
depend on the methods in which this fumigation is carried out.
As very little is known about these methods by fruit growers, a few
directions will prove useful, together with more detailed information
regarding the process of fumigation and the making and handling
of the gas-tight tents.

WHAT AND WHEN TO FUMIGATE.

Fumigation by means of hydrocyanic or prussie acid gas is
successfully used in the treatment of insect pests ; it has little effect
on blights of fungoid origin. Insects which can be more readily
attacked are scales, red spider, mites, and aphides. Trees and
plants can be fumigated at any season of the year. In the
winter time deciduous trees can, without injury, be fumigated
at any time of the day ; they can also, when dormant, stand heavier
doses of gas, as well as a longer period under the tent. Citrus trees
require more careful treatment, and should only be fumigated on
dull mornings or afternoons, or in the evening by moonlight.

502

In the summer, when the trees are of active growth, they should
only be fumigated late in the afternoon or at night.

Sketches of Bell Tents.

The above sketches of Bell tents Nos. 0, 1, 2, and 3, show dimen-
sions for cutting widths and tops. One inch is the width allowed
for all seams. All measurements are given in feet and inches. No. 0
covers trees 4| feet diameter by 5 feet high ; No. 1 covers trees
6| feet diameter by 7 feet high ; No. 2 covers trees 8 feet diameter

503

by 11 feet high ; No. 3 covers trees 104 feet diameter by 12 feet
high. This diagram is taken from Mr. A. Benson's paper in the
Queensland Agricultural Journal.

CAUTION TO OPERATORS.

Those using the process of fumigation for the treatment of scaly
trees should bear in mind that they are handling, probably, the most
insiduous and deadly of poisons.

The gas inhaled in a close chamber produces sudden death ;
when largely diluted with air it is harmless. Thousands of thou-
sands of trees are now-a-days fumigated every year, and accidents
are rare. With proper precautions there is no danger whatever.

Unless handling small tents covering trees 5ft. or 6ft. high,
not less than two men should operate.

Not only is the hydrocyanic acid gas highly poisonous, but the
ingredients or chemicals used in its production are also dangerous
poisons. These ingredients are : 1° potassium-cyanide, of which a
piece of the size of a grain of wheat would prove fatal to an adult
or an animal ; 2° sulphuric acid or oil of vitrol, which is eminently
corrosive, and every precaution should be taken to guard against
its spurting 011 the face, hands, or clothes.

When operating, hold your breath when dropping the cyanide
into the acid, and also when removing the tent and uncovering the
tree. See that the tents are always gas tight. Should the acid
accidentally spurt on your hands or face, wash at once in water.

Do not handle a clean tree after having examined a diseased
one, without previously washing your hands, as the eggs and larvae
of some of the scales are so small that they are easily carried from
one tree to another by the growers themselves, or their men. I have
often seen people crush scale insects on branches of trees, between
their fingers, and then go to the adjoining tree and carelessly handle
it and examine it for scales. Trees infested with the San Jose and
the more dangerous sorts of scales should not be handled unless it
is found necessary to do so.

FUMIGATING OUTFIT

consists of gas-tight tents made of light, strong canvas, cut
and sewn together in a bell shape, and painted with raw linseed
oil. A little turpentine added to the oil will cause it to dry quicker.
When painting, spread the tent well by hanging it to theVafters of
a shed or the branches of a tree, and leave it to dry thus spread out,
lest the tissue of the canvas should heat and rot.' Calico is rather
a light material for the manufacture of tents ; it wears badly, and
requires constant patching up. Eight-ounce duck or ordinary blue
or brown drilling, sewed carefully, are good materials. It is advisable
to have rings at the sides and top of the tent, bo ease it over trees
by means of a light pole with a fork at the end. A light ^-inch
gas piping hoop, rung through rings at the base of the bell-shaped

504

tent, is found convenient for covering and uncovering trees, and for
keeping the tent stretched out. At the base of the tent, and below
the ring, a gas-tight flange or canvas collar, about a foot wide, is
provided, and rests on the ground. After the tent has been charged,
this canvas collar is slightly banked up all round with earth, to
prevent the gas escaping.

Before fumigating, inspect the tents. No hole, however small,
should be allowed to go unpatched.

Trees too large to be covered with a tent may be fumigated
under a large gas-tight canvas sheet.

Also provide yourself with :

1st. A common earthenware basin, 6 to 9 inches wide, accord-
ing to size of tent or tree. 2nd. Scales for weighing
the cyanide of potassium. 3rd. A graduated glass for
measuring the fluid ounces of sulphuric acid and of
water. 4th. If a gas-piping ring is not provided to
keep the tent spread out at the base, have an 18ft.
light pole, with rope and pulley, to hoist the larger
tents over the tree. 5th. Sufficient number of loz.
packets of cyanide of potassium, 98 per cent, purity,
which must be kept in an air-tight jar. 6th. Sulphuric
acid in a bottle with a glass stopper. 7th. Water.

HOW TO BECKON CUBIC CAPACITY.

Consider the covered tree as a cylinder. To calculate its
contents, multiply half the width by itself, then by the height;
then multiply by 3, or, to be more accurate, by 3f . Thus a tree
eight feet wide by eight high would be 4x4x8x3 = 384 cubic
feet, or say 400 cubic feet. Cyanide of potassium, HOZ. per 100
cubic feet, would be 6ozs., half as much again, or 9ozs. of sulphuric
acid, with half as much again of water as acid, or 13^ozs., making
a total of 28Jozs., or 7ozs. of the combined chemicals for every
100 cubic feet.

DOSES AND TIME.

Cyanide of potassium, 98 per cent, purity, loz. per 100 cubic
feet.

Sulphuric acid of commerce, 1| fluid oz. per 100 cubic feet.
Water, 2| fluid oz. per 100 cubic feet.

NOTE. — If fumigating in the winter for the more resistant
scales, and particularly San Jose scale, the doses might be increased
to : Cyanide of potassium, 1| oz.; sulphuric acid, 2^ fluid oz.; and
water, 3| fluid oz. per 100 cubic feet.

505

The tree having been covered, one operator lifts the bottom of
the tent : the other, after having poured in the earthenware bowl the
quantity of water and acid (N.B. —Pour the acid slowly into the
water to prevent spurting), crawls underneath and places that bowl
under the tent, close to the trunk of the tree, but not touching it.
Then at arm's length he breaks the paper cover of the cyanide of
potassium and drops the number of packets required into the bowl
holding his breath meanwhile and crawling back ; the tent is then
let down, earth heaped up on the circular canvas collar, and the tent
allowed to remain on the tree 45 to 60 minutes. Much of the poor
work sometimes done is to be attributed to insufficient time.

N.B. — The mere fact of covering a tree in full growth by means
of an air-tight tent, \\ hile the sun is up and the plant breathing, for
an hour or two, is enough to choke it and cause it to drop its
foliage, therefore be careful to only fumigate, if in the growing
months, in the cool of the evening or early in the morning. If the
tree is dripping wet or is covered with beads of dew injury to the
foliage might result.

When the time is over, the operator and his assistant uncover
the tree by lifting the tent up, holding their breath while so doing,
when another tree can be covered and treated without pausing.

Should a battery of half a dozen tents be in use, a considerable
number of trees can be fumigated at once and without waste of
time.

Bury the residue left in the bowl after fumigation.

NURSERY STOCK AND FUMIGATION.

Every nurseryman now finds a fumigatorium as necessary a
part of his equipment as seeds, buds, and grafts.

The young trees should be subjected to fumigation before being
distributed far and wide, as hydrocyanic gas is the only satisfactory
and inexpensive method known at present for the destruction of
such persistent pests as the San Jose scale, whilst, when properly
handled, it has no injurious effect on the stock. The fumigating
chambers may be made of any convenient size or material, the
essential point being that it shall be capable of being closed abso-
lutely air tight, and provided with a flue-pipe in the roof, which
can be opened or closed to allow of the escape of the gas after
fumigation. The flue should be provided with a box containing
caustic potash or soda to destroy the gas. The door of the chamber
is provided with a shutter or sliding panel at the lower portion.

The trees having been placed on the floor of the fumigatorium,
the cyanide of potassium, water, and sulphuric acid are brought
together as explained above. At the end of an hour the shutters

506

in the flue and in the door are opened, and the draught produced
causes the gas to escape. After 10 to 15 minutes the door may be
opened, but no one should be allowed into the chamber for another
space of 10 minutes.

With ordinary care, no accident need be apprehended.

FUMIGATING GRANARIES.

The same method of ridding granaries, flour mills, and barns
of weevils, moths, and other troublesome insect pests, without re-
moving the grain stored in the buildings, can be carried out
wherever the building can be made gas-tight. If the fumigation is
done under the conditions already detailed, the seeds will retain
their vitality almost unimpaired, if dry when subjected to the
fumes.

FUNGUS DISEASES.
APPLES, PEAES, AND QUINCES.

BITTER PIT. — Apples apparently sound soon develop, on keep-
ing, unsightly spots, which make them unmarketable. This is, next
to black spot or apple scab, the worst
fungus disease of the apple.

The disease shows sunken brown
spots, as if the fruit had been trodden 011
with nailed boots. When the apple is
cut there are, below the spots, pieces of
brown spongy tissue, bitterish to the
taste, sometimes extending to the core.
Dr. Cobb, D. Me Alpine, Masset, the
mycologist at the Royal Gardens, Kew,
and other vegetable pathologists, have
seen no evidence that would prove the Bitter Pit.

disease to be caused by a fungus. Some

authorities say it is probably caused by a niicrococcus, but the
disease is not contagious. There is no effective remedy, except to
avoid soils liable to this disease in localities where it is trouble-
some. Nurserymen should be very careful against using scions
from diseased trees. Cleopatra, Rymer, Esopus, Spitzenberg, and
Scarlet Nonpareil, amongst the better sorts, are most liable to this
disease. Me Alpine expresses the opinion that it is caused* by
defective nutrition, and that nitrogenous manures aggravate it, and
suggests correcting this tendency by a more liberal use of potash
and of lime, especially gypsum. In Western Australia as well as
other countries where bitter pit is troublesome, trees badly affected
in damp localities on the plains hardly ever show the disease on

507

well drained soils and on the gravelly slopes of the Darling Ranges.
Pick and burn all diseased fruit.

BITTER ROT OR RIPE ROT (Glteosporium versicolour, Berk.). —
Attacks ripe apples, pears, grapes, and peaches. Appears about
the time the fruit begins to ripen; the first symptoms are small
circular brown spots, which rapidly enlarge and assume various
shades of brown, in concentric rings. After four or five days
small pustules appear on the brown spots. These burst when the
spot has become a little larger, and give exit to a light salmon-
coloured mass composed of the spores of the disease. This goes
on the diseased spots, throwing up ring after ring of pustules
until the whole apple, within a fortnight, becomes rotten.

The disease is often noticed in the storeroom ; it does not
attack all varieties of apples with equal virulence ; many of the
culls in packed fruit are due to this fungus.

Remedies. — Carefully pick up and destroy every rotten fruit
in the orchard ; do not throw diseased fruit into the pig-sty, but
burn it. Prevention is the only practical way of combating this
disease ; drain the land if necessary, spray in winter with strong
winter spray. Spray the fruit until late in the season with
ammoniacal carbonate of copper, eau celeste, or with potassium
sulphide Qoz. to gallon of water).

BLACK SPOT OR SCAB (Fusicladium dendriticum, Eckl.).

APPLE OR PEAR, BLIGHT OR SCAB (Fusicladium dendriticum >
Eckl.).— A common disease in moist climates. " The losses sustained

from its attacks (says Dr. Cobb)
vary from 10 to 90 per cent, of the
crop." For about a month after the
fruit sets, the scab plays great havoc
in orchards where it is abundant.
It is easily recognised. Dark velvety
green patches turning to brown or
blackish scab-like spots appear on
the leaves and fruit, arresting growth
and causing the parts to become dis-
torted.

Closely allied to the fungus which
causes pear-scab. (F. pyrinum).

Some affected trees blossom most
profusely, and hardly ever set their
fruit, or else, if these set and grow,
thev often split and crack.

Pear Scab (F. pyrinum).

508

Remedies. — Preventive remedies are the best. Destroy affected
leaves and worthless fruit by fire or otherwise. Spray affected
trees with Bordeaux mixture or ammonio-carbonate of copper, late
in the winter, after pruning. Again, at half -strength, while the
leaves are appearing and as the blossoms begin to unfold from the
buds, and again as the blossoms fall, and fourthly , when the fruit is the
size of marbles. At that time loz. of Paris green in 12 gallons of
the Bordeaux mixture will hold the codlin moth in check where this
troublesome insect has established itself. It is important that the
early sprayings should be made as directed. In bad cases an extra
spraying is given a few weeks after the one given whilst the
blossoms are falling. Do not neglect the trees during an " off "
year because there is little fruit, the spores, living and thriving on
branches and leaves as well, will cause great loss the following
season.

The following illustration tells graphically the result
spraying pear trees to protect them from scab disease : — .

of

Pear Trees affected with Scab, Sprayed and Unsprayed (U.S.A. Year JBoofc)

509

Apple Scab ( Fusicladium dendriticum, Eckl.).

BROWN ROT OF FRUIT (Manilla fructigena, Pers.). — Attacks
apples, plums, cherries, peaches, almonds, and other kinds of
orcha.rd fruit. It is caused by a fungus which produces its spores
in chains, and hence called Monilia fructigena.

Although more frequently observed on the fruit, it 'occurs also
on the young shoots, leaves, and even the flowers.

On the leaves in the spring, it shows as thin, velvety, olive-
brown patches, consisting of barrel-shaped spores, originating from
mycelium present in the tissues of the leaf.

At maturity the spores are carried by rain, wind, insects, birds,
•and on the surface of healthy fruit. On these the disease first

510

shows as brownish scattered patches on the skin. The fruit attacked
does not readily rot, but dries up and remains in a mummified con-
dition through the winter, either on the ground or on the tree.
From these, innumerable blackish sclerotic, bearing in the spring a
crop of spores, renew the infection.

Brown Kot (Monilia fructigena, Pers.).

This disease is, in places, the worst the plum-growers have to
deal with.

The remedy consists in picking, removing, and burning all
these mummified fruit. Spray thoroughly before the buds burst.
Suppress bark and skin-nibbling insects in the spring. Spray with
Bordeaux mixture when the fruit is forming.

CANKER is first caused by a bruise or a laceration of the bark
of the branch, and the invasion of the wound by a fungus (Nectria
and other fungi), which prevents a healthy healing up of the
damaged tissues. The claws of climbing animals, the bite of gnaw-
ing insects, and other causes bring about this trouble.

Remedies. — Remove the cause of canker. If the bark is never
wounded, canker will never appear. Prune the diseased branches,
and burn the cankered parts. Lime, sulphur, and salt wash.

Canker can also be cured by paring off the bruised, ulcerated
wounds, and then covering the diseased part with a paste made of
clay mixed with hydrochloric acid. Painting the affected part with
the acid used by tinsmiths under the name of " spirits of salts "
is also a simple and efficacious remedy, the acid destroying the

511

fungus of the canker without damaging the tree. Handle the acid
carefully, as, if splashed on the clothes, it will burn holes in
them.

MOULDY CORE. — A diseased condition brought about by the
presence of common mould in the core of certain varieties of apples,
generally by the fungus of brown rot, the infection starting from
the centre instead of from the circumference. Outwardly such
apples appear quite sound, but on cutting them in halves the core
is found to be in a mouldy or half rotten state. Sooner or later the
whole apple becomes rotten, the rot working from the centre out-
ward. The mould gains entrance to the core of the apple through
the eye; those varieties with an open blossom end being more
subject to the disease. Those varieties of apples with large open
pip-holes (concludes Dr. Cobb) are not likely to prove good
keepers.

CRINKLE, OR PIG FACE. — An obscure disease of the apple.
Mr. Me Alpine says of this disease : — " Besides the recognised Bitter
Pit, which causes small brown depressions on the surface, another
appearance was noticed, particularly in Rome Beauty and Five
Crown Pippin. The skin is apparently quite sound, but a little
darker towards the eye end, and, if cut across, brown, dead tissue is
found immediately beneath the skin, or between the skin and the core.
There may be actual cavities in the decaying flesh ; and the diseased
patches do not taste bitter. Although many varieties not subject to
Bitter Pit exhibit the Crinkle disease, it is probably likewise due to
disordered nutrition. The upper end of the apple ripens first, and if,
from any cause, a proper supply of nourishment fails to reach it,
there would be decay and ultimate death of the cells. I have given
the common name of ' Crinkle ' to this disorder, because the upper
surface of the fruit is thrown into rough folds, giving it, usually, an
uneven and crinkled appearance."

POWDERY MILDEW OF THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE (Podo-
sphcura Kunzei, Lev.), sometimes called " fire blight." Very destruc-
tive to nursery stock. Attacks the apple, peach, quince, cherry,
and other plants belonging to the Rosaceas. It attacks mostly
the young leaves, spreading over both surfaces, and showing like
white felt. Spray with Bordeaux mixture or with liver of sul-
phur (potassium sulphide) solution. In summer time, sulphur
the trees. Cleopatra and Stone Pippin appear to be especially
liable.

TWIG BLIGHT. — Small, stunted rosettes of leaves grow in
the spring on the previous year's wood, and fail to grow into
healthy shoots. Later, in the early summer, strong shoots spring
up from the base of the limbs instead of from the extremity. No
pustules are noticeable on the leaves, which have an unhealthy
appearance. This serious trouble, which is still under observa-
tion, has been found associated with two causes, either independ-
ently or concurrently.

512

The one a bacterium
(Bacillus amylovorus, Burr.),
which, in the old cases of
blight, winters over in the
blighted parts. From these
diseased parts a watery exu-
dation at times takes place in
the spring, which is visited
by insects, and by them
transmitted to the opening
blossoms or to the sap vessels
of the tree. Once within the
tissues of the host, the
microbe may spread indefi-
nitely.

Another cause, producing
a similar appearance, has
been traced to the presence
in the ground of a mould
which grows on the surface
roots and spreads over them
web fashion, thwarting their
growth, with the results de-
scribed.

In the first instance,
spraying early, to keep off
inoculating insects, confines
the trouble to a few trees
only, and may also disinfect
the infested exudation. All
blighted parts should be
carefully cut off below the
lowest manifestation, and
burnt each autumn. A
good precaution is to disin-
fect the knife, after cutting-
through a diseased spot, by
dipping in carbolic acid.

Cultivate thoroughly and
fertilise liberally, to help the
trees to throw off the
disease.

In the second instance,
the ground should be deep-
ly ploughed, thoroughly
drained, and liberally limed and manured, so as to encourage
the growth of the roots in healthy surroundings. (See Pear
Blight.)

Powdery Mildew of the Apple.

513

WATER CORE. — Easily known by the watery or waxy appear-
ance of either the whole or part of an apple. The apple is quite
sound to outward appearance. More prevalent in moist seasons,
especially in early sorts. Winter varieties are comparatively free
from it. Stone Pippin and Five Crown Pippin are somewhat
subject to it.

PEAR BLIGHT, or FIRE BLIGHT (see Twig Blight, p. 511). — A
bacterial disease which attacks apples, pears, quinces, and other
trees. It works in the tissues between the bark and the growing
wood, only during the growing season.

Some varieties of pears, like the Duchess and Kieffer's Hybrid,
resist the disease better than others, such as Bartlett and Clapp's
Favourite.

The blight microbe is greatly influenced by climatic conditions ;
warm and moist weather, with frequent showers, favouring it.
These conditions are prevalent in the month or two following
blossoming time. Dry, cool, and sunny weather hinders it, while
very dry weather checks it ; and it remains dormant during the
winter. The line of demarkation between healthy and diseased
wood is then often quite marked.

In the spring, when sap pressure runs through the tree, the
blighted parts are recognised by the moist and fresh appearance of
the bark, as contrasted with the old and dry bark of the previous
summer. The gum exudes from various points, and runs down the
tree in long lines, when bees and other insects which are attracted
by it carry the microbes to the blossoms, where they gain an easy
entrance into the healthy tissues under the bark. These blossoms
soon wither and die. Tender twigs are often inoculated by nibbling
insects, and show signs of the blight.

Some observers contend that because the microbe flourishes
best in tender tissues, anything which tends to luxuriant growth of
the tree, such as pruning, manuring, cultivating, are to be depre-
cated ; and they advise leaving it to the trees to fight their own
battles. If this be the correct treatment, it appears to me that it is
time, labour, and money wasted to grow apples, pears, and quinces in
those places where the disease is prevalent, as stunted, hungry trees
are even less profitable than blighted ones.

Little is known as yet concerning the best means of combating
this bacterial disease ; and the subject is worth experimenting with.
Until the results of well planned out experiments have proved
the contrary, I would recommend deep and good cultivation, and
fertilising with gypsum, potassic and phosphatic fertilisers, efficient
deep drainage, carefully cutting off all diseased branches and twigs,
and burning them in the winter, care being taken to cut into
healthy wood and to disinfect the secretion on the knife after going
over a diseased tree. Lastly — and I believe that much good can
then be done in checking the spread of the fire blight— spraying the
diseased trees at frequent intervals with an antiseptic solution in

514

the spring, during that period when the infected sap oozes through
the bark, and is taken up and carried about by foraging insects.

Amongst the sprays which are likely to be attended with good
results, I would recommend a two per thousand solution of corrosive
sublimate, or a weak carbolic acid solution.

As a vehicle for these powerful disinfectants, a decoction of
eucalyptus (blue gum leaves) would probably be found helpful.
The leaves should be bruised when freshly gathered, and soaked in
tepid water — lib. of leaves to 1 gallon of water — then, with the
addition of the substances mentioned above, the decoction should be
sprayed on the trees. It is sticky, and adheres quickly. All
insects will abandon any foliage where this spray is used.

LOQTJAT.

BLACK SPOT (Fusidadium eriobotrijal. — To commercial inter-
change with the Eastern States we owe another disease of our

Black Spot of the Loquat (Fusicladiiim eriobotryal).

515

orchard trees. The loquat, until lately, was, almost without excep-
tion, raised from seeds from locally grown fruit, and the plants were
healthy.

Whether the disease was introduced by imported fruit or on
nursery stock, it is not easy to determine.

This blight is caused by a fungus closely allied to that which
produces the scab diseases of apples and pears, and its botanical
name is Fusidadium eriobotryal.

Diseased loquats were first submitted for identification to this
Department in 1898. It has since been spreading, and this year it
is reported to have done serious damage to the loquat crop in a
number of gardens.

The fruit is attacked, when half grown, by brownish black spots,
which soon extend, stop the further development of the fruit, and
disfigure its appearance. After a time brown spots show on the
leaves, and assume a darker colour. The fleshy part of the fruit
becomes dessicated, and the skin seems to cling to the stones. A
large proportion of the crop may, in a short space of time, be
rendered absolute!}7 unsaleable.

REMEDY. — Is the disease beyond control? Experiments in
that direction have not yet proclaimed that fact ; on the contrary,
judging by analogy, and knowing how readily the Fusidadium
fungus, or scab of the apple and the pear, and also of the vine, yield
to treatment, there is e^ery reason to augur that the black spot of
the loquat likewise will be amenable to treatment.

That treatment must be protective, and cannot be curative, as
the fruit once spotted can never be freed of the blemish.

Spraying with Bordeaux mixture soon after blosoming, when
the petals have fallen, and the fruit has just formed, should be found
an effective protection. This treatment should be renewed when
the fruit is half grown, in the winter, when the weather is likely to
remain fine for some time. If necessary, a third spraying, a fortnight
after, would copperplate the tree against an attack of the fungus.

Collect and burn all diseased fruit, and sweep and burn the
leaves as they fall from the tree.

I shall endeavour next year to test the value of Bordeaux
mixture, as well as other fungicides, in dealing with this blight.
Considering the wetness of the season, when the disease appears, I
would favour the Bordeaux mixture modified by addition of molasses,
to ensure a better adherence to the trees.

516

STONE FRUIT.

Almonds, apricots, peaches, and nectarines, as well as plums
and cherries, are attacked by fungus diseases, which, if not in
every instance identical, are sufficiently closely related to be
described under one heading, and are amenable to similar treat-
ment.

CURL LEAF (Exoaseus deformans, Eckl.). — Sometimes simply
called the "curl," owing to the leaves becoming distorted and
crumpled, early in the season. After a time a delicate whitish
bloom, caused by the spores of the fungus, show on the surface.
The young shoots are also at times swollen and distorted by the
fungus.

When the attack is bad, the trees at times lose their leaves
before midsummer, and later on a fresh lot of healthy leaves grow ;
but in the meanwhile much damage has been done to the trees.

Some varieties, such as the Flat China, the Elberta, and Eoyal
G-eorge peaches, are more subject to this disease.

Those branches which are worse affected by the curl fungus
are seldom fruitful, and should be cut back and burned. The
mycelium hibernates in the bark, pith, and medullary rays of the
branches and twigs, so that it reappears each year. Massee has
demonstrated that the mycelium does not travel backwards from
the point of infection, but forwards — in other words, it follows the
new growth. (For treatment, see table, p. 486.)

An allied disease of the plum, called " Pocket Plums " or
" Bladder Plums," is caused by the fungus Exoaseus pruni, Eckl.,
and should be treated in a like manner.

BROWN ROT. — This disease is described above. It is caused
by a mould or fungus, called Monilia fructigena, which attacks
various parts of the plant, leaves, blossoms, twigs, and fruit.

GUMMING, SOUR SAP, OR DIE BACK. — There are many diseases
characterised by a gummy outflow from the diseased parts or from
their neighbourhood. Amongst plants exhibiting this are trees like
the mulberry, olive, vine, fig, and vegetables like potatoes, turnips,
beetroot, and many others. As yet, however, no investigations
have been carried out carefully enough to give satisfactory
explanations of them. It is, however, probable (says Tubeiif) that
they are primarily due to errors in cultivation, while the bacteria
which are always found associated with them are of secondary
importance as disease-producers.

G-umosis or Sour Sap, which are results rather than causes,
may probably be traced to an abnormal condition of the soil.
Sour Sap, when the roots die first, may be due to too much water ;
and when the tops die first, to the sudden lowering of the
temperature. A checked sap circulation from the stock to the

517

scion may also bring about the trouble. Improperly fed trees, or
trees supplied with indigestible (unassimilable) food, are less apt
to withstand the attack, and succumb.

The trouble shows in a variety of ways. The young spring
shoots suddenly collapse and wither. In that case, cut hard back
before the poisonous sap can travel back to the healthy parts. In
other instances, the foliage and twigs seem all right, but the fruits,
when the size of a walnut, stop growing, turn brown, and show a
gummy exudation on dark-coloured patches. A microscopic
examination discloses the presence of numerous fungi, often of the
Macrosporium tribe. A liberal dressing of 51bs. to lOlbs. of super-
phosphate of lime in the winter often saves trees predisposed to
gumming.

A somewhat similar disease, supposed, however, to be of
bacterial origin, at times attacks young apricot trees, when two to
four years old. It is recognised by the leaves or part of the tree
turning yellow and falling off. The limbs from which the leaves
fall, when cut through, shows a black heart.

Prune these limbs back as far as they show the black heart,
and also shorten the limbs that are not diseased. Disinfect the
knife after it has come into contact with the diseased sap.

LEAF RUST (Uromyces Amygdale, Cook, and Puccinia pruni
spinosce, Pers.). — Very prevalent in damp localities (late in the
summer) on peach trees, and also the almond, nectarine, apricot,
and plum.

The leaves are picked with yellow spots on the upper surface
of the leaf ; these yellow spots are often surrounded with a purplish
ring, and they have on the other side of the leaf brown spots of
fungoid growth. The leaf tissue attacked by these spots become
eaten away into holes, and the leaf falls, beginning from the butt
end of the branches, and the wood does not ripen as it should do,
thereby enfeebling the tree.

Remedies. — Collect and burn all affected leaves to destroy the
summer spores, which remain inert during the winter only to infect
the next year's growth. Spray early in the season with Bordeaux
Mixture, half strength, or other fungicides.

LEAF SCALD (Entomosporium Maculatum, Lev.) attacks the
leaves of apples, pears, quinces, peaches, cherries, etc. (says Massee).
These fall early in the season, and in bad attacks leave the trees
defoliated. A second growth of leaves follows, and at times these
suffer in the same way. As a consequence, the trees are much
weakened.

Small red spots appear on the upper surface of leaves when
still young; these increase in size and become brown, having one or
more minute black spots slightly above the general surface. If the
spots are numerous, the leaves become brown, shrivel, and fall off.
If the leaf is older, with rigid tissues, it retains its shape, but falls
to the ground.

518

On the branches the spots are at first reddish, becoming slightly
sunken with a central elevation and blackish in colour in the
coalesce, sometimes encircling the branch, in which case the portion
above the diseased area dies.

The fruit of pears is sometimes spotted by the disease.
Bordeaux Mixture keeps the blight in check.

SCAB.

PEACH FRECKLE causes dark spots on the skin of maturing
fruit, which present a freckled look. These spots are the result of
the attack of fungi, and amongst them the Cladosporium carpophihcm .
Its filaments do not enter the peach, but draw their nourishment
through the skin. It is said that the disease hastens decay, and
that affected fruit will not stand long keeping. An early applica-
tion of Bordeaux Mixture stops its progress. Potassium sulphide,
half ounce to the gallon, is also recommended.

Scab and Peach Freckle.

ROOT KNOT often shows on peaohes, plums, etc. It is
•caused by a fungus called slime mould, related to the one which
causes the finger and toe disease of beetroot, carrots, etc.

Pare out the excrescences and wash with an antiseptic lotion.
If it is a young tree and is badly affected, replace by a healthy one.

SHOT HOLE DISEASE (Phyllosticta circumcissa) attacks the
leaves of apricots, almond, peach, nectarine, and other stone fruit
trees. Appears as spots upon the leaves in summer, and these spots
assume definite outlines, and often fall out, leaving holes like shot-
holes. The leaves fall early, preventing the fruit from maturing.
These are also attacked, and at times disfigured.

519

The accompanying figure illustrates the effect produced by the
tieatmtnt.

Shot Hole on Apricot. The healthy growth took place since spraying.

Remedies. — Burn leaves as soon as they fall. Bordeaux Mix-
ture, half strength, or aminoiiiacal carbonate of copper applied
several times during the season, beginning as soon as the leaves
appear.

•

CITROUS TREES.

Trees of this species are subject to a number of diseases, the
most serious of which are —

GUMMING, COLLAR ROT, MALDI GOMA. — A serious contagious
disease of stone fruit and citrous trees, (pp. 511-516, under twig
blight and gumming of stone fruit.) It seems to be a cracking in
the bark and an exudation of the gum, which runs down the tree
and affects the bark underneath. Abrasion of the bark with the
hoe, plough, and other field implements, deep planting, defective

520

irrigation, and water standing round the trunk favour the disease ;
also sun scorch and late cold weather, which hurts the shoots.

The disease is an obscure and serious one, and has not yet
been thoroughly investigated. Supposed to be produced by a
microscopic fungus (the coryneum Beijirinchi) which develops in the
vegetal cells and change into gum the cells which constitute the
pith, as well as those of the medullary rays, and sometimes also the
woody tissue. In mild cases, recovery has followed the cutting out
of the bark and gouging out the dark decayed wood underneath
with a half -moon chisel until the sound wood is reached, which is then
coated over with shellac paint or some other protective cover, pre-
ferably an antiseptic one, such as carbolic acid solution. Burn
all diseased bark. Affected trees are profuse bearers for a season or
two, and then generally die out. If a spot where the gum is oozing
out is cut out in diseased trees, a dark channel is seen under-
neath, extending generally from the root to the top of the tree,
following fibro vascular bundles of wood tissue ; this wood is some-
times dry (and so hard that no sap could flow through its vessels) or
rotten and decayed. In the majority of cases the best plan is to root
up and burn the tree.

iMELANOSE must not be confused with the disease called Rust
or Madri. The numerous small madder-brown spots characteristic
of the disease have (says Dr. Cobb) a tendency to group themselves
in curved lines, which run together and form larger patches. Both
Madri (caused by a mite) and Melanose at times occur together on
the same orange. The leaves are attacked as well as the fruit.

Remedies. — As soon as the new crop has set, begin spraying
with Bordeaux Mixture of weak strength, and keep on spraying, if
necessary, every fortnight until the fruit is half grown. The addi-
tion of a little soap will cause the spray to wet the citrus leaves
better. Paint the trunk and limbs with a thin whitewash, or with
full strength Bordeaux Mixture. Apply to the ground under each
tree one pound of sulphate of iron in 25 gallons of water; also give
to the ground a dressing of three to four pounds of bonedust and
the same amount of kainit per tree, and avoid dry blood or organic
nitrogen fertilisers. Make sure that drainage is good.

BLACK SPOT OF CITRUS FRUIT (Phoma citricarpa, McAlp.) —
This disease, known also as anthracnose of citrus fruit, is on the
list of prohibited diseases, and fruit showing signs "of them are
destroyed at the ports of entry.

For the information of growers, and also of the officers in charge
of the disinfection sheds at the ports of entry, I reproduce a plate
from Mr. D. McAlpine's Monograph of Fungus Diseases of Citrus
Trees in Australia, together with a summary of the description
which accompanies it.

The disease, it is stated, has not been met with in Victoria,
but it is quite common on oranges, mandarines, and lemons sold in
Melbourne and suburbs, and imported from Sydney.

521

The fruit is affected by spots, round and sunken and of a
dark brown colour ; at first, whitish or greyish towards the centre.
These are pustules which allow the escape of spores,.which may be

\

Black Spot on Citrus Fruits.

522

wafted by the wind, or carried by hands, clothing, insects, animals
•or empty cases. Thus is the disease rapidly and widely spread.

It bears some resemblance to another black disease of citrus
fruit called " Melanose," and also to a disease known in Italy as
" La Nebbia," which is, however, caused by a different fungus.

The effects of the disease 011 the fruit is that, besides being
unsightly and rendered almost unsaleable, they soon become rotten
and fall a ready prey to " Blue Mould," etc., so that all such should
be rigidly excluded from shipments to distant markets.

The fungus is found on still green fruit, and spreads most
rapidly when the fruit ripens.

TREATMENT. — The skins of diseased fruits should be burnt, in
order to prevent the spores reaching fresh-growing fruits. The
•cases containing diseased fruit should be disinfected by steaming
or by dipping in boiling water for a few minutes. Spray the trees
with Bordeaux Mixture as soon as the fruit sets, and again every
few weeks up to within a month of the time of picking the fruit.

SOOTY MOULD OR BLACK SMUT. — Fumagine follows the attacks
of aphides and of scale insects, forming a sooty black membrane,
which feeds on the sweet fluids (honeydew) secreted by these
insects, and which falls on the leaves, branches, and fruits of the
last plant they live upon.

The growth of the trees affected is retarded in consequence of
light and the respiration of the plant being interfered with. The
insects further injure the plant by sucking the nutritious juices
from the cells, and blooming and fruiting are, in consequence,
checked or suppressed, and the market value of the fruit lowered.

Remedies. — Spray two or three times at intervals of one or two
weeks in the winter, and after the fruit crop has been picked, with
kerosene emulsion or resin and soda ; wash or fumigate with hydro-
cyanic acid gas.

Better still, collect and procure parasites and predaceous insects
on the aphis and the scales, which are the primary cause of the
sooty mould . When parasites are present, spraying or fumigation will
do more harm than good, and will tend, by destroying the beneficial
insects, to intensify the trouble.

ROTTING OF CITRUS FRUIT. — Considerable loss is at times ex-
perienced during transportation or storage of citrus fruit. The
cause is due to one of the blue moulds — Penicillium digitatum.
This fungus grows on the fruit from a spore, which germinates
and penetrates the tissues in the form of white threads, and
feeds on the juices ; after a time they show outward as a white

523

mould which, when it fructifies, appears like bluish-green dust.
The disease occurs more in the fruit store than in the orchard.
Sulphur fumigation minimises its spread. It mostly attacks
bruised fruit.

STRAWBERRY LEAF-BLIGHT OR SUN-BURN (Sphserella fragarice,
Tul.) — " This is the only serious disease of the strawberry plant

Strawberry Leaf Bliglit (Splicerella fragarice, Tul.)

now known in Australia," says Dr. Cobb. It is very widespread,
and does a great deal of damage, causing a loss of from nve'^to
ninety per cent, of the crop.

524

Small purple or red spots appearing on the leaves. They
eventually become larger and browner, making the leaf appear
blotched. The growth of the young berries is also checked, leaving
them juiceless, shrivelled, and green, and not larger than peas.

Remedies. — In mild cases, destroy all affected leaves ; this will
prevent the disease spreading. In bad cases mow the bed close,
rake up the leaves immediately and burn them ; or the bed may be
covered with dry litter and then burnt off. The strawberry plant
will soon throw up clean leaves if the weather is propitious. Spray
with Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of copper, at
intervals of two or three weeks, beginning as soon as the fruit is
picked, or preferably, early in the season and before blossoming.

G-RAPE VINE.

GTRAPE ANTHRACNOSE OR BLACK SPOT (Sphacelomaampelinum,
De Barry — Gloeosporium ampelinum, Sacc.) — Two distinct forms of

Black Spot occur in Australia.
Anthracnose, however, is the more
common as well as the more trouble-
some of the two. It is easily
recognised, when the spots reach
a certain size, by the centre becoming
white, owing to the fructification of
the fungus which causes the disease.
On account of its appearance, the
disease has been known as " bird's-
eye rot." The favourable conditions
necessary to its spread are warmth
and moisture, either in the form of
damp weather or heavy dews, accom-
panied by skies so cloudy as to
prevent quick evaporation in the
mornings. Hence it is preferable,
in establishing a vineyard, to plant
those varieties much affected by
Anthracnose on slopes exposed to

Anthracnose or Black Spot. the morning SUn.

The winter treatment is by far the most efficacious in the case
of Black Spot, and the varieties most subject to it should be
particularly attended to, viz., Carignane, G-renache, (Eillade,
Clairette (syn. Blanquette), Aramon, Blue Portuguese, Black Ham-
burgh, and many white table-grapes ; the Muscats ; and amongst
the American grapes, V. Eupestris and V. Eiparia.

Remedies. — Sulphate of iron wash after pruning. Burn the
trimmings after pruning. After the leaves open, use sulphur, lime,
and powdered green copperas. Should the disease persist in spite of
the winter treatment, it is recommended to dust the vines two or

525

three times, at a week's interval, with cement and sulphur mixed ill
equal proportions.

Cancerous Anthracnose of the Vine.

P ourridie, or Mouldy Root of the Vine.

MOULDY ROOT (POUBRIDIE). — This disease is named from the
French word pourrir, to rot. I have noticed it in a few vineyards
on badly-drained ground, at Corowa, Tamworth, and on the Rich-
mond River in New South Wales, and at Jarrahdale in this State.
It is difficult to eradicate. In this disease the roots are covered
with a white mould which causes them to rot, the consequence
being, first, a falling off in the yield per acre, and, finally, the death

526

of the vine. The symptoms of the disease are those of general signs
of weakness and debility. The canes grow thinner and thinner, the
leaves smaller, and, after a while, the trunk assumes a " cabbage-
head " shape, and can be easily pulled out ; the roots being rotten,
brownish, and spongy. The roots of the vines affected by this
parasite show, between the bark and the wood, patches of felted
mouldy threads. Around the trunk, in damp soil, a growth of
white cottony threads is seen, which spreads through the soil, follow-
ing the roots and extending like a stain of oil.

Remedies. — Modify the conditions of the soil by draining and
liming, to sweeten it and make it more healthy.

When the disease is just showing, pulling out the attacked
plants, collecting roots and all, and burning them, to prevent the
diffusion of these spores (seeds of mould), is advisable. Manuring
the vines to stimulate their growth helps them to get over the
weakening effect of the mould.

I have seen good results attend the application in winter-
time, on the main roots and round the stock of the vine, laid bare
for the purpose, of a mixture of kerosene oil stirred in a white-
wash or a solution of sulphate of iron.

DOWNY MILDEW (Peronospora viticola, De Barry). — Appears
in small frost-like patches on the under surface of the leaves,
finally causing yellowish discolouration on the upper surface.
Berries are also affected, remaining small and hard and turning
brown.

Remedies. — Two or three applications of Bordeaux mixture.

This disease does not exist in Australia, but causes consider-
able damage in American and European vineyards.

OIDIUM TUCKERII (Powdery mildew). — One of the most pre-
valent diseases wherever the grape vine is extensively cultivated.

Vine Steins Showing Stains of Oidium.

Before a remedy for this disease had been found, it swept out
of existence the vineyards of Madeira. Some twenty to thirty years
ago a number of small vineyards in Western Australia were rooted

527

•out or allowed to run wild on account of this disease, which, at the
time, was little understood.

Although one of the most troublesome of the grape vine
diseases, it is at the same time one of the easiest to subdue, pro-
vided that the treatment be carried out with care.

Like all powdery mildews, the parts attacked are covered over
by the web-like threads of the mildew fungus. It only attacks
those organs when green. It at first appears as a dirty white
powdery film, possessing a characteristic mouldy smell. It leaves

Oidium of the Vine.

stains on the wood. Should it appear early, the flowers will fail to
.set; then the more tender leaves will be covered with patches of
microscopic threads, which will stop their growth and cause them to
shrivel up and dry. The berries are most severely attacked. The
effect of the parasite on the skin is to tighten it and cause it to
loose its elasticity, so that the berries either dry up or burst open.
The ripening does not progress satisfactorily, and, when fermented,
the juice produces a nasty wine with a mouldy taste or flavour, and
one which does not keep well.

Varieties most attacked by oidium, and cultivated in Australia,
are: — Albilio, Cariguane, the Cabernets, Chasselas, Black Ham-
burgh, Gouais, the Muscats, (OEillade, Pedro Ximenes, Eiesling),
Roussanne (White Hermitage), Shiraz' (Black Hermitage), Tokay
(Green Hungary), Trebbiano (Ugni Blauc), Yerdeilho, and a great
many table grapes.

Varieties not much attacked. — Aramon, Dolcetto, Grenache
(Eoussillon), Mataro (Mourvedre), Marsanne (White Shiraz), the
Pinots (Burgundy), Sauvignon, Morrastel, Aspiran.

Varieties least attacked. — Malbec, Catawba, and Isabella, two
varieties of an American vine (F. Ldbrusca), and, in fact, most
American vines.

528

Sulphur is the readiest cure for oidium. The finer the sulphur
the better, and for that reason " precipitated " sulphur is supposed
to have greater virtues than either "ground" or "sublimed"
sulphur.

Moist, warm, and damp weather favours the growth of the
fungus, and at the same time checks the formation of sulphur
fumes. Great heat, such as occurs in the summer, kills the blight.
It is best to sulphur in the morning, when the leaves are still damp
with dew, and before the high winds begin to blow. The months of
November and December are, with us, the most suitable for sulphur-
ing, and in later districts it is even practised in January.

Sulphuring, to be efficacious, must be used as a preventive
remedy. If it is delayed until the formation of the fruits of the
fungus (perithicia) it does not act so readily, as the seeds of the
blight plant (ascospores) are then more resistant than are the grow-
ing mycelial threads of the fungus.

The sulphuring is best done with the aid of specially made
sulphur bellows. Some simply put the crushed sulphur into a sugar
bag and shake it over each vine, but this method is wasteful of the
sulphur, and does not distribute it so effectively as do the bellows.

In persistent cases, and in districts favourable for the growth
of the fungus, as many as four sulphurings are given, but generally
two or three will be found sufficient.

The quantity of sulphur per acre varies, according to the state
of fineness of the powder ; the sulphur distributor used ; the season,
and the prevalence of the disease, from 151bs. to 601bs. of sulphur
per acre.

When oidium is severe, and in case of emergency, the following
formula will be found to answer well : —

Water ... ... ... 22 gallons.

Soft Soap lib.

Liver of Sulphur ... . . , lib.

This treatment is not meant to replace sulphur, but to check
oidium. on grapes. The liver of sulphur acts promptly by contact,
whereas sulphur acts by emitting sulphur fumes, which may be
checked by unfavourable weather. There are times when sulphur
does not act as it should, because it is washed away by showers of
rain, or because the temperature is too low for a sufficient emission
of sulphurous acid gas. In such cases try liver of sulphur. Do
not increase the dose, as liver of sulphur is corrosive, and soft soap
may impart a nasty taste to the grapes.

CROWN GALL of the grape (called " Broussin " in France) shows
like large cancerous growths at the crown of the vine. A knock with
the hoe or the plough, the bite of insects, sunscald, or a variety of
causes will produce these unsightly growths. The treatment should
be somewhat similar to that of cancer of the apple.

529

Remove the growth, trim the wound, and wash the place with
an antiseptic wash, or paint it with some acid solution.

Crown Gall or JBroussin.

;< "^TJ SQUIRT BERRY ( Phoma tuberculata, McAlp.). — This disease is
at times troublesome, especially amongst the Muscats. The fruit is
the part attacked ; it is at first ashy grey or slaty blue in Jcolour,
dotted and speckled with numerous small pustules, for a long time
covered by the outer skin or epidermis. When gently pressed
between the finger and thumb the berry squirts out its contents.
Towards the end of the season the berries dry partially, but are
always pliable.

No experiments relating to preventive means have been tried.
I have noticed, however, that vines trained alongside a fowl yard
were much more severly attacked than others growing a short
distance away. Manuring with potassic and phosphatic fertilisers
as well as liming seems to lend to the vines greater power of
resistance.

530

TOMATOES.

BLACK ROT (Macrosporium

Black Rot of the Tomato (Macrosporium tomato,) The
rot seen at a the blossom end. The lowest tomato
not yet attacked. — (Agricultural Gazette, New South
Wales).

Tomato, Cooke). — The rotting
of the nearly grown,
or ripe tomato. Dull
dark green spots of a
velvety appearance show
at first. These slowly
enlarge, and the tomato
rots entirely. The
fungus is a wound para-
site, gaining entrance
into the ripening fruit
through minute cracks.
It feeds 011 the tissues
under the skin, thus
causing a little sinking
below the surface of
the healthy part of the
fruit. Green stable
manure is said to favour
the disease, causing the
fruit to crack. Bor-
deaux mixture keeps
the disease in check.

RIPE ROT (Glo3osporiumfructigenum, Berk). — Commonly known
as Ripe Rot, and often destructive to ripe apples, pears, peaches,
and grapes. Concentric mark-
ings with no velvety appearance,
as in the case of Black Rot,
distinguish this disease, the
skin remaining for some time
glossy, though discoloured ; the
attacked area is flattened. When
the pustules break out the spores
give to the surface a granular
appearance.

Preventive. — The small
cherry and plum tomato are not
attacked. Training the vine on
stakes or trellis, so as to give

the fruit plenty of light and air, is usually useful, as the Black Rot
is more active in a damp atmosphere and near the ground. Burn
diseased fruit and vines. Drain if necessary. Never use seeds
from diseased tomatoes. Alternate crops.

Eipe Rot (Glceosporiumfruciiyenum, Berk).
Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales.

531

Remedy. — Spray the young vines with Bordeaux mixture or
sulphide of potassium, and then periodically every few weeks —
especially the young fruit.

LEAF RUST (Cladosporiumfulvum,Cooke). — This disease spreads
with great rapidity. It is caused by a fungus which forms rusty
brown patches on the under-side of the leaves. These patches con-
sist of closely packed clusters of coloured coniodophores. As these
patches spread the leaf becomes yellow and wilted, the margins
curl, and the leaves shrivel and die. Bad drainage and moist situa-
tions favour the growth of the fungus, which requires plenty of
moisture. Trellising, by lifting up the plants into a drier atmos-
phere, lessens the liability of attack. Spraying with Bordeaux
mixture or with sulphide of potassium (liver of sulphur) will hold
the disease in check.

TOMATO WILT. — This trouble is caused by two different agents,
viz., a fungus (Fusarium lycopersici, saccJ] and a bacillus (^Bacillus
Solanacearum). The symptoms of both diseases are much alike.
The first, which is known in the Channel Islands as the " sleeping
disease," at times causes great damage. This disease is indicated by
the drooping of the leaves, followed by that of the plant, hence the
name given to it. If the plants are only attacked when the fruits
are green, these ripen and there is nothing in their appearance to
show that they are in any way infected. The fungus gains access
to the plant through the rootlets and gradually extends to the tap
root and lower portion of the stem. When it gets this far, a brown
discolouration of the vascular bundles takes place, and the plant
droops or "sleeps." Shortly after this stage, says Prosser, the
portion of stem just above ground is more or less covered with a
very delicate white mould which consists of fruiting branches or
conidiophores, which bear conidia at the tips. These conidia fall to
the ground and there germinate, producing a mycelium, which
attacks the rootlets of tomatoes, potatoes, egg fruit, and plants of
that family, owing to the mode of attack. Spraying with fungicides
is of little use. Rotation of crops minimises the trouble, liming of
the soil is recommended, and above all, seeds from fruit ripening on
diseased plants should not be used.

The Bacterial disease of the Solanaceae is very similar to the
previous one. The foliage first wilts, then the plant collapses —
wilts and dies without sign of disease upon it. As the germs are
in the circulation and not outside, no external treatment is of any
avail. A section of a diseased branch discloses a brown discoloura-
tion of the woody cylinder, and from the vessels ooze out yellowish
drops carrying the bacteria.

The disease is propagated by inoculation, generally by nibbling
insects, whereas in the previous disease the fungus cannot be
inoculated 011 the stem or the leaves, and only enters the plant
through the rootlets. In the case of the bacterial disease, spray
with Paris green to check leaf eating and leaf -puncturing insects.

532

Eoot up and burn all infected plants ; do not plant solanaceous
plants in quick rotation on the same ground.

Quite lately Delacroix has described an organism connected
with the disease in question, to which the name B. solannicola is
given. The organism is believed to be present in the soil, from
which it spreads to the plants, and unfavourable meteorological
conditions are said to aggravate the infection. Associated with it
is a soil fungus, Rhizoctonia solani, which is an active parasite of
the potato and the tomato plants.

DESCRIPTION OF INSECTS.
INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL.

Of the numerous insects which attack fruit trees and crops in
Western Australia, a few are described in this chapter.

For easier reference, they are given in the alphabetical order of
their popular names.

ANTS.

Of these there are two main groups ; the Red and the White
Ants. The first belong to the fornica family ; the second are not
ants but are popularly termites.

The first category of ants burrow in the ground forming
" ant-hills " on lawns and paths. A tablespoonful of bisulphide of
carbon injected into the ground, or mixed with kerosene and
poured into holes six inches deep and a foot apart, and immediately
filled up. Operate in the evening when all the ants are in. When
the ants cannot be found, place a sponge found with sweetened
water in their track and dip it every now and again into hot water.
Another successful ant-destroyer is a mixture of flour, sugar, and
arsenic, made up to the consistency of putty with water. Pieces
of the mixture are placed about the nests of the ants. A great
number of dead ants will be found in the vicinity of the poison.
After a few days what is left of the ants generally move away to
fresh quarters.

WHITE ANTS

never work in the open daylight, but make tunnels of clay on
the surface of any dry vegetable matter which they may attack.
They do not attack growing vegetation, although they do eat the
heartwood of living trees if they can get access to it without eating
through the living wood. The following is recommended : —

A mixture of loz. of Paris green with 31bs. of seconds flour
and 3oz. of sugar, with a little water to make a stiff dough,
will poison the termites. This dough should be placed in holes
near to the stems of the attacked plants and covered with a shingle
or any flat substance to exclude the light, but allowing room for

533

the insects to get at the dough ; they eat it, die, and are eaten by
their fellows, who also are poisoned and die.

In Jamaica the following paint is recommended : —

White Lime (slaked) ... ... 6 quarts

Kerosene ... ... ... ... i pint

Turpentine 1 wine glass

Soft Soap 5 Ibs.

Cow-dung 3 quarts

Water 16 quarts

Mix thoroughly and apply freely with a paint or whitewash
brush to trunks of trees or stems of plants requiring protection.
The mixture adheres to the trunks and branches of the trees for a
long time, but when it peels off the bark beneath is clean and free
from pests.

In South Australia it is noticed that white ants are trouble-
some in sandy and limestone soils, occasionally destroying vines
and showing particular liking for the Sultana vine. Mr. F. A.
Marlatt also records them as doing damage to potatoes growing in
rich soil or where there is a considerable quantity of decaying
vegetable matter.

APHIS PLANT AND BARK LICE

are among the most numerous, both as regards species and
individuals, of all known insects, and the destruction caused by
them is commensurate with their numbers. There is scarcely a
plant that is not attacked by them, and some plants like the grape,
peach, apple, cherry, orange, and cabbage, etc., have aphis peculiar
to them.

They are all small, soft-bodied insects, with a body more or less
pear-shaped, the winged forms having two pairs of delicate trans-
parent wings. The majority of plant lice are aerial in their habits,
but some varieties also assume a subterranean form, and these are
among the most destructive and widespread, the phylloxera and
woolly aphis being the best known.

Their methods of reproduction are most unique and peculiar
to themselves, and the different forms they assume — some winged
and others wingless, some laying eggs, others bringing forth young
alive and often without the intervention of the male, which in some
forms has never been recognised, and make them at once interesting
and puzzling to the naturalist and entomologist.

In many varieties a sweet substance is produced, called honey-
dew, which is exuded through two tubes situated on the back near
the posterior part of the insect, which can readily be seen with the
naked eye. This is the substance, when produced in large quantities,

534

that drips upon the leaves and branches of infested plants. This
honeydew is devoured by bees, wasps, and ants. It is commonly
believed that ants destroy plant lice, but the contrary is the fact.
Ants treat and regard plant lice as milch cows. Ants have been
observed to approach a plant louse, place its antennae on its back,.

%^^¥-'«^?>cPp • //
-K. .-//V-." ;^';1>; .1

^bSstz^^^fSj' /- '/-^

A > ^Wfe^fc^r -'-

Plant louse in act of feeding.
(After Lugger.)

stroking it gently, when the louse will give forth its honeydew,.
which the ant will immediately drink up. The ants take good care
of the lice, and will transport them to new pastures when old ones
fail, thus aiding greatly in their distribution.

Plant lice obtain their sustenance by sucking the juices of
plants, by inserting their proboscis in woody plants, in the tender
terminal growths, peduncles of roses, etc., and in the succulent parts
of plants and roots. While the amount taken by an individual is
almost infinitesimal, their immense numbers often cause most serious
injury to the plant they infest, and sometimes its destruction.

535

CABBAGE APHIS (Aphise brassicse, Linn.).

There are several modes of dealing with this pest, and among
them the best are to spray with Nos. 7, 8, 10, 14, 15, 19, or 20.
•(See pp. 490-492.)

Cabbage Apis (Aphis brassicee), 1, winged female; 2, winged male ; 2, showing
hole in back made by 3, Ichneumon fly.

Two species of ladybirds— Leis conform.is and Coccinella
punctata — which prey upon this apis have been introduced into
State, as well as two species of Ichneumon flies.

m-
the

Aphis-feeding Ladybird (Coccinella sep-
tempunctaia) . a, adult beetle ; b, larva ;
c, pupa. All enlarged (after Berlese).

WOOLLY APHIS (Schizoneura lanigera).

This species, in addition to secreting a honey dew, secretes a
bluish white flocculent, cottony substance, which oftentimes almost
completely conceals them, appearing to be tufts of cotton attached
to leaves and twigs. This pest has been distributed to every apple-
growing country, but its place of origin is not yet known. It is,
however, one of the most annoying pests with which the apple-

536

growers have to contend against. They can be seen infesting the
branches and trunk of a tree, in which they form pits, the bark

Wooll

lly Aphis (ScTiizoneura lanige
, 5, roots; c, louse (Marlatt).

gera),

Woolly A phis, on Apple Tree branch.

537

apparently ceasing to grow at the point attacked, but which swells
into a ridge about the cluster of aphides. Those that appear above
ground can be controlled without much trouble, but the form which
appears on the roots and produces gall-like swellings is much more
difficult to extirpate. The injury to the tree is caused by the
sucking of the sap, which deprives it of nourishment, and by
poisoning of the plants, shown by the galls on the roots. The
damage is particularly serious in the case of young trees and
nursery stock.

Among the many remedies used for the destruction of the
woolly aphis are Nos. 6, 14, or 20 (see pp. 490-492). A fortnight
after Nos. 10 or 14. The use of blight-proof stock, and No. 9 have
been proved the best.

Natural Enemies — The woolly aphis has very few known natural
enemies. The larvae of some species of laced-winged flies
(Chrysopidee} have often been noticed feeding upon this pest, and
the ladybird (Leis conformis) has been known to rid whole orchards
of it.

BLACK APHIS OF THE PEACH (Aphis persica niger).

This aphis has proven very destructive to the peach trees of
this State, and as it exists in .two forms, aerial and subterranean,
similar to the woolly aphis, its control is subject to all the per-
plexities of the latter aphis. It
attacks the leaves when they are
pushing in the spring, and it
multiplies so rapidly that it fre-
quently kills young trees and
seriously damages large branches
on older trees.

When trees are badly attacked
by this aphis the leaves are
yellowish, more or less curled, and
spotted with fungus.

Remedies. — In winter dress the
soil around the stems of trees
with gas lime, kainit, fresh manure,
or No. 15. In spring spray with
Nos. 7, 8, 14, 18, or 20 (see pp.
490-492).

Natural Enemies. — The larvae
of several species of ' ladybirds
feed upon the peach aphis, as do
also the larvae of various species
of Syrphus flies. True parasites of this aphis have as yet not
been discovered, for the reason that the country to which the
aphis is indigenous has never been found.

New growth of peach infested with
black peach aphis.

538

PLUM AND CHEERY APHIS (Myzus cerasi).

This aphis closely resembles the peach aphis in general colouring
and shape. It appears as soon as the leaves of the trees on which

it feeds expand and multiplies very
rapidly, being hatched from eggs
deposited on the branches during
the previous fall. They are not so
abundant in midsummer, but
become numerous again in the
autumn, when the sexes appear
and deposit their eggs at the base
of the buds and cracks of the
bark, where they remain during
the winter, and hatch the follow-
ing spring. They secrete a large
amount of honey dew, which at-
tracts numerous flies and ants.

Remedies. — Use Nos. 7, 8, 9,.
14, 15, 19, or 20 (see pp. 490-492).

ORANGE APHIS (Siphonophora
citrifodli, Ashm).

This insect attacks the young
wood of the orange in the spring,
a Showing aphis on flower stem of cab- covering the trees so thickly that

. b The winged louse (natural size), thev appear Quite black. ^
e same enlarged; colours, greenish - J • J F . -1

c Th

yellow, d Wingless female.

of insect,
black.

Colour
brownish to shiny

Remedies.— Use Nos. 7, 8, 14, or 20.

Natural Enemies. — This species, as well as the plum and cherry
aphis, have many natural enemies, which aid greatly in keeping
them in check. In fact, were it not for these natural checks to aid
man in preventing the destruction of his plants, all his efforts would
prove unavailing. Among the most active in this warfare are the
parasitic flies, which are mostly very small and with four
transparent wings. They lay a single egg on a louse, which hatches
and produces a maggot in the interior of the .host, and which feeds
on the juice of the louse until it cha.nges to a pupa, from which it
emerges through a small hole cut in the body of the louse. A close
inspection of a family of plant lice will disclose many with this hole
in them. A parasitised louse may be told, even before its death,
by the swollen abdomen, which will distinguish it from its 11011-
parasitised mates.

One of the most numerous of the predaceous insects is the •
Syrphus or flower flies, which may be seen hovering around

539
i

flowers, remaining . for a short time stationary in the air. They
bear some resemblance to some species of wasps, with broad yellow

Syrphus fly.

Syrphus fly larvae suck-
ing out the vital fluids
of an aphis.

Syrphus fly larvae in the act of sucking out an aphis.

bands across the abdomen. The fly in its matured state is of no

economic importance. The
larvae, however, are very
destructive to plant lice.
The parent fly lays a single
egg among a family of lice,
which hatches in a few days,
and immediately commences
its work of destruction. It-
seizes a louse, and holding
it aloft while it kicks and
struggles, sucks the juice

from its body, and then casts the empty skin away. These maggots

are blind and have no distinct feet, but they have no trouble in

finding a louse by extending the segments of their body, which

enables them to

nearly double their

length, and to

strike here and

there until they

find their prey.

Laced-winged fly, eggs,
and larvae.

Laced-winged fly.

Some species of
ladybirds are also
important factors
in the destruction
of plant lice, both

as adults and larvae ; but as they consume the entire louse, they can-
not compare with the larvae of the Syrphus flies in the speedy
disposal of aphis. A Syrphus fly larvae will dispose of five to seven
lice while the ladybird larvae is consuming one.

540

THE BEE-MOTH (Galleria mellonella, L.).

The honey-bee has several insect enemies which prey upon it
or its "products. The most troublesome of these, as far as the bee-
keeper is concerned, is the insect figured here in its different stages ,

The Bee-moth : a, caterpillar ; f>, cocoon ; c, pupa ; d, a femalemoth with
expanded wings ; e, a male moth at rest;

which is too well known to bee-keepers to require more than a brief
description. At a is shown one of the full-grown caterpillars or
11 grubs " natural size. They are very active, dirty white, fat
caterpillars, when full-grown, about an inch in length, which some-
times occur in large numbers in neglected hives, and eat long
galleries through the comb, feeding on the wax and the bee-bread
in the cells, and also, according to Dr. Riley, destroying any young
bees that come in their way. The eggs are very small, oval,
glistening white at first, but turning pink before hatching ; they
are pushed by the mother moth into any crack or crevice in or
about the hive, by means of a long tube-like ovipositor. As soon
as the young caterpillars hatch, they begin to spin as a protection
a silken tube in which they live during their whole larval life, and
which is enlarged and extended as they progress. When full-
grown, they leave these tubes and creep into any crevice or corner,
generally near the bottom of the hive, where they spin a tough
cocoon b of white silk mixed with pellets of black excrement. The
pupa c may be found inside thecocoon. The perfect insect is figured
natural size at d, a female with the wings expanded, and e, a
male at rest.

There are normally two broods in the season, the first appear-
ing in May and the second, usually much more numerous, in
August. In infested comb brought into a heated office for study,
the moths appeared at the end of March and through April well
into May.

The moths are of various tints of dusky gray and differ a
good deal, some being much lighter than others, and some specimens
of both sexes being of a more ruddy brown. They are very
inconspicuous when at rest, and in colour resemble very closely old
weathered wood, a resemblance which is heightened by many dark
spots on the wings. The peculiar shape of the wings, as is shown
in the figure above, will easily enable any one to identify this insect.
The moths are about three-quarters of an inch long, and when at

541

rest the wings are folded so as to leave a narrow, flat space at the
top and then slope downwards abruptly ; when disturbed, they run
with great rapidity and slip quickly beneath any available shelter.
They fly with ease and enter beehives about dusk in order to lay their
eggs.

The indications of the presence of the Bee-moth grub in a hiv,e
are well known to most bee-keepers. If the little black pellets of
excrement like small grains of gunpowder mixed with bee-bread or
broken cappings are at any time noticed on the bottom board
around the entrance, the hive should be at once carefully examined,
and steps taken to remove any caterpillars that may be found. If
attended to promptly while the grubs are few in number, this is an
easy matter ; but, if they are neglected and allowed to increase, as
they will very rapidly in the spring, much destruction will be
wrought in a surprisingly short time.

When a grub is detected, it should be picked out with a knife
or other sharp instrument (a pair of tine but stiff tweezers will be
very convenient) and crushed. There will of course be some injury
to the comb, but this the bees will soon repair. When the grubs
occur only in small numbers, the bees will, as a rule, if the colony
be of proper strength, keep them down themselves.

DESTRUCTIVE CABBAGE MOTHS.

The larvae of two kinds of moths are, says Mr. Lea, late
Entomologist to the Department of Agriculture, very destructive
to the cabbage and turnip. These are the cabbage or diamond -
back moth (Plutella cruciferarum) and the stinking-head moth
(Evergestis rimosalis). Articles or notes upon both these moths
have several times appeared in the JOURNAL.

PLTJTELLA CRTJCIFERUM (Zell).

The larvae of this little moth (which is common all over the
world) are very destructive to the cabbage, cauliflower, and turnip.
The leaves have small holes eaten in them, and these holes are
frequently so numerous that more than half the leaf is devoured ;
with cabbages, the inner leaves are seldom attacked, though larvae
may occasionally be seen in the heart itself, the damage is usually
to the outer leaves ; with cauliflower every leaf is attacked and
the crown is frequently covered with excrement and web, becomes
of a brown colour, and is totally unfit for market ; hundreds of
larvae and pupae may be seen on one plant. The larva is pale green
in colour, and, on being touched, jerks itself about and drops down,
usually by a fine silken thread ; when about to pupate it spins a
loose, silken cocoon generally close to the mid-rib, the cocoon is so
slight that the pupa can always be seen through it. The moth is
a small slaty-grey insect with diamond- shaped white marks along
the middle of the folded wings; it is readily attracted to light. All

542

over Australia the larvae are very severely parasitised by a small
Ichneumon, and so numerous are specimens of this insect that it is
doubtful if 20 per cent, of Plutella larvae ever become moths. The
larva of the parasite is a small legless maggot which, when full-
fed, constructs a small cocoon within that of the larva it has
destroyed. The larvae of Plutella have numerous other enemies,
aftiongst which may be mentioned two species of Syrphus flies, two
Chalcids, and several predaceous bugs.

During the past eighteen months two additional species of
parasites have been introduced into this State.

Remedy. — Spray with Nos. 11, 13, or 19, or sprinkle with Paris
green, loz., in flour or lime, 51bs.

Another species of moth which is likely (Evergestis rimosalis),
the larvae of which does much damage to cabbage and cauliflower
and also turnips, is also found in this State. The moth is a pretty
yellow, with the front wings irregularly spotted and striped
with chocolate and paler yellow markings. No parasites have
been bred from the larvae.

Remedy. — Spray with Paris green, loz. in flour or lime 51bs., or
spray with Nos. 11, 13, or 19.

CINNERARIA FLY (Phytomyzo, nigricornis) .

The larvae of the Cinneraria Fly is a leaf miner, and is very
common in this State early in the Spring. Its chief food plants
are the turnip, cinneraria, chrysanthemum, marguerite, sunflower,
and sugar beet, sow thistle, etc., etc.

Remedy. — Pick and burn all infested leaves. Parasites destroy
more than eighty per cent, of the pupa of this fly.

CASE-MOTHS OR BAG-WORMS.

Fruitgrowers are familiar with the little inverted cone-shaped
cases which are to be found hanging to the branches and twigs of
their trees. There are two kinds which attack apple and pear trees,
and the cases should be pulled of and destroyed, as the caterpillars
contained in them are responsible for many of the disfiguring marks
to be found both on fruit and leaves. They are night workers, and
remain suspended by a silken thread during the day. The cases
are beautifully constructed out of the little bits of wood and leaves
fastened together by a strongly woven silken material secreted by
the insect. In some places they are most abundant.

Remedy. — Hand pick and burn.

A DESTRUCTIVE COCKCHAFER (Anoplosthetus Opalinus Brulle) ,

Cockchafers are large beetles, belonging to a family known as
Scardbaeidse or Lamellicornes. Mr. Lea, in writing on this insect,

543

sayS . — <« Nearly all the members are destructive in their larval stages,
when they feed upon roots, decaying wood, or actually bore through
solid timber; a number (to which belong the sacred beetles of
Egypt) are useful from their habits of burying the excreta of
animals, and so directly fertilising the soil. In England, I believe,

544

it is only beetles belonging to the sub-families MelolontMdes and
Cetonudcs that are known as cockchafers, but in Australia any large
lamellicorn is spoken of as such : members of the sub-family
Eutelides (to which Anoplostethus belongs) being commonly spoken
of as cockchafers. In Europe and America a number of species
have been recorded as extremely destructive during certain years.
In France and elsewhere, large areas of grass and cereals have been
entirely destroyed by having the roots eaten, the grass withering up
and blowing away, so that fields were left entirely bare. Whenf ull
grown, the cockchafers feed upon leaves and petals of flowers, and
occasionally do serious harm from the great numbers in which they
occur, and their occasionally migratory habits. The species now
treated on is one which is found only in this State, and is
extremely common during late spring and summer, nevertheless,
unless specially looked for, it is seldom seen as it only flies at night,
remaining concealed during the day underground or on the shady
side of a leaf; on a sultry night a specimen may be sometimes taken
at a lamp or other light. During November and December, at
dusk, I have seen swarms of these insects flying around lemons,
pear, peach, and other fruit trees ; on examining these trees after-
wards, large numbers of leaves were noticed to have been partly
eaten.

The larvae feed upon the tender roots and the larger roots of
fruit trees, vines, etc., and their presence is often unsuspected, the
damage, if noticed, being put down to poorness of soil, want of
water, or other cause. They probably pass a couple of years under-
ground before changing to pupae, which state may last for but a
short period, but probably for several months.

The beetle is about an inch in length and rather bulky, and it
is of a beautiful opalescent green, rendered still more beautiful by
placing the insect in water or spirits ; its shape, as also that of the
larva and pupa, has been well shown by Mr. Fuller in the accom-
panying wood block. The larva has the usual shape of a lamelli-
corn, and, with other species, may often be noticed whilst ploughing
or digging is being carried on : numbers may often be noticed under
logs in damp situations. The pupa is enclosed in a brittle, sandy
cocoon, differing in this respect from that of the wood-eating
species, which are usually hard and formed of triturated wood and
excrement.

The larvae (at least so far as my observations extend) appear
to be free from internal parasites ; they are, however, attacked by a
small semi-transparent mite, sometimes in considerable numbers.
The winged beetles frequently contain the maggot of a fly belonging
to the Tachinidfe, which, when fully developed, is about the size of
the common blow-fly. At an early date it is intended to give an
illustration of this species, as internal parasites of fully grown
beetles are excessively rare, only two instances of such have ever
come under my observation. On the under surface of the beetles
small ticks belonging to the Ixodidde may occasionally be seen, and

545

at the bases of the wings a few small red gamasid mites have been
noticed. It is to birds that we are especially indebted for keeping
this and similar insects in check and preventing their undue
multiplication. Poultry are especially fond of them. Our native
insectivorous birds are well worthy of protection.

THE CODLIN MOTH.

The following article appeared in the Journal of October,
1901 : — " There are still people who believe or state that the codlin
moth is, and has, for a long time, existed in Western Australia.
Others declare that the statement is malicious, and has at different
times been spread by people interested in seeing removed the ban
under which the moth and its hosts (the apple, the pear, and the
quince) laboured until lately. Whether the first are correct in their
assertion, or the second in the motives they cast on their assailants,
the fact remains that, even to this date (October, 1901), no authentic
case of a codlin moth having been captured in a West Australian
orchard has yet been recorded ; and, so far as we know, the statement
that the insect has been observed in fruit grown in this State is not
founded on facts. As the question of the possible introduction of
this pest has now become a topic of conversation which is warmly
taken up by orchardists all over the State, I have caref ullv gone
through the published experiences of well-known observers, both in
the Eastern States and in America, and have sifted from the mass
of information thus gathered much that may be of use in impart-
ing to apple growers a knowledge of the- habits and the peculiarities
of the codlin moth. One of the latest exhaustive reports on this
orchard pest is contributed by Mr. A. M. Lea, once Entomologist
to this Department, and now Government Entomologist of
Tasmania. Apple culture is recognised as a national industry in
Tasmania, and Mr. Lea has devoted himself with all the earnest-
ness that the question demands in dealing with his subject. From
that report I shall cull much of the up-to-date information concern-
ing the habits of the codlin moth in Australia. Just as in the
course of a few years the oidiuin of the vine swept vine-growing
out of existence in Madeira, and then threatened the vineyards of
the world ; just, also, as the dreaded phylloxera for a time devastated
the vineyards of France, so the codlin moth has of late inflicted
incalculable loss to Australian orchardists. As patient and
laborious observation has thrown light on the mysterious spread
of the two scourges of the vine growers, and led to their being kept
in check, so it is not unreasonable to predict that a better under-
standing of the habits and behaviour of the codlin moth may some
day lead lo methods which will check its spread. Since light has
been thrown on the habits of the codlin moth, it becomes more
apparent that instead of raising barriers against its dissemination
over the Australian fruit-growing areas, our fruit and produce
marketing methods have offered every facility for its distribution,
even to the most isolated and the most distant orchards.

546

Description.

The Codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella, Linn). It is so called
because in Europe it mostly attacks the early culinary or "coddling"
varieties.

o Piece of an apple, showing the work of the larva, b Point
of entrance of the larva, d Pupa, e Larva or caterpillar.
/, g Imago or moth, h Head of larva, enlarged, i Cocoon.

The moth itself is
about half an inch in
length,when at rest, and
measures about three-
quarters of an inch
across the expanded
wings. The fore wings
are grey, crossed with
wavy brown lines, and
are ornamented with
patches of metallic
bronze scales near the
margin. The hind
wings are light brown.
The male is supplied
with a dark narrow
space on the lower
surface of the front
wings, and a narrower
stripe on the upper
surface of the hind
wings. These dark

spaces, says Lea, are due to hairs, and are absent in the females.

The egg is white, scale-like, and flat. Smaller than the head of
a pin, it is not easily seen on the fruit until the young grub has
left it, when it soon after falls or is blown off.

The larva, or grub, on hatching, is one-sixteenth of an inch in
length, and, when full grown, ten times as large, or five-eighths of
an inch. It is of a fleshy pink colour, and is covered with a few
stiff hairs. The male, says Lea, can be distinguished from the
female by the presence of a small dark space in the centre of the
body, that can be seen through the skin. The grub of the light
brown, or false codlin moth (Cacsecia), is chiefly differentiated by its
dirty green colour, besides being considerably thinner.

The pupa, or chrysalis, is brown, and about half an inch in
length ; when empty, it is a very pale brown.

The cocoon is made of white silk, and is joined to, and more or
less concealed by, the bark or bandage, wherever it is placed ; it is
never loosely placed, and frequently the grub eats a small hollow
space for its reception. I have often seen these cocoons between
the nailed end of the battens, and the end or centre board of fruit
cases, in places where one could hardly insert the blade of a knife,
the grub having practically eaten for itself a hollow chamber, where
it spins its cocoon.

547

Introduction and Distribution.

The codlin moth is as widely distributed as the apple itself. It
is a native of Europe, where, owing to the fact that it is there kept
in check by climatic conditions, or by natural enemies, it is not so
mischievous as it has proved to be either in America or in Australia.
It was introduced into the United States, from Europe, soon after
the first settlements were founded. In 1874, or a little over a
hundred years ago, it appeared in California, and is supposed to
have been brought in old fruit boxes. It appears to have been
introduced into Australia from California, and was first recorded
from Tasmania forty years ago, in 1861. During that time it has
ruined many a fruit grower, and now levies a most galling tax on
most apple growers in the Eastern States of Australia, as well as
New Zealand and Tasmania.

This pest does not attack apples exclusively, but it is also
found, although not so commonly, in pears and quinces. When
driven to it, the moth also turns its attention to hard-flesh plums,
peaches and apricots. It has been seen (but very rarely) on the
cherry and walnut. Although reported in the tomato, the grubs
have in every instance proved to be the well-known pests of that
fruit, the Heliothis armigera, or Mamestra composite,, whose grubs
are much larger than that of the codlin moth.

In Bulletin 142, Cornell University Experiment Station, on
the Codlin Moth, 1898, by M. V. Slingerland, the following estima-
tion of the amount of damage done by the moth occurs : — " Con-
servative estimates put the annual loss from its ravages, in all
countries where it is noticeably destructive and but little is done
to check it, at from 25 to 75 per cent, of the crop of apples.
Where modern methods of combating the insect are practised this
percentage is often reduced one-half or more."

The same author estimates that the loss due to the codlin
moth was : —

1887— State of Illinois, 2,375,000 dollars (£475,000), or one-half
the value of the average apple crop.

1892— Nebraska lost 2,000,000 dollars of apples (£400,000).
1198— New York County, 3,000,000 dollars (£600,000).

Lea, in 1900, estimated the loss annually caused in Tasmania
by the codlin moth at £30,000, "this, however, is probably far
below the mark."

"A loss in an orchard of 50 per cent, is by no means
uncommon, and I have myself (says Mr. Lea) seen an orchard near
Launceston every apple in which was struck, and many of which
contained two, three, or four grubs. From an orchard near Hobart
as many as 11,000 infested apples have been picked to the acre."
At five apples per pound this would give 2,2001bs., and at 401bs.
of apples to the case, 55 cases of grubby apples per acre.

Western Australia, as already stated, is not yet known to be
infested with the codlin moth ; and this is entirely due to its com-

548

parative isolation, and to the wise legislation introduced twelve
years ago, and prior to the introduction of Responsible Government.
The measure, an Order-in-Council, under date 7th March, 1889,
absolutely prohibited the importation of apples, pears, and quinces
on any point of the West Australian coast south of Champion Bay
and the port of G-eraldton. The late Bureau of Agriculture has often
been given credit, or has been abused, for this wise piece of
legislation, but it is seen that the Order-in-Council was enacted
some five years before the Bureau was constituted.

On the 5th of July, 1901, another Order-in-Council revoked
this order, and since then the prohibition of apples, pears, and
quinces has been removed.

Life History in Australia.

Apple trees blossom in Australia from the last week in Sep-
tember to the end of October, and a week or two after the opening
of the petals the first codlin moths issue from the pupae or chrysalis,
and the males and females mate. The proportion of these is fairly
balanced. From observations made, the female lays 80 odd eggs.
The mother moth flies about at dusk, or even earlier in the day if
the weather is cloudy, and lays one egg on each apple (if more than
one grub is found in the fruit then the eggs have been laid by
different moths) ; that egg is more frequently deposited about the
eye, but it is sometimes seen on the stalk, or even on leaves.

The eggs are sometimes infertile, especially in cool, foggy
localities, where the parent moths either fail to mate, or on account
of the egg not having sufficient warmth to hatch. The first theory
is the more likely under Australian conditions. During the egg-
depositing period the moths are said to fly long distances in search
of a suitable place to lay their eggs, and are often carried in the
direction of the prevailing wind.

The eggs hatch in from seven to ten days, and the young grubs
grope about nibbling at the fruit, generally about the eye, where they
have their first few meals. Shortly after, they strike the apple and
effect an entrance into the fruit, generally in the eye, but at times
from the side or at the place where two apples touch, or where a
leaf is resting on the fruit. Once the fruit is struck the younij
grub goes on tunnelling towards the core of the fruit, coming back
to the entrance to void its castings, and afterwards leaving them in
the tunnel. It soon reaches the pips, one or more of which it eats,
and then, in about a month's time, when full fed, it carves a tunnel
out for itself, generally on the side of the fruit, but sometimes,
although rarely, along the same channel it cut when entering into the
apple. This channel is not always visible from outside, but when
the apple is cut into often becomes noticeable.

When full fed it either comes down with the fruit, which drops
prematurely, or it lets itself down by means of a silky thread, and
it then proceeds to seek shelter. This it finds, in most cases, under

549

loose bark on the trunk or the main limbs of the tree itself or on
adjoining trees, or on fencing posts, under heaps of rubbish, among
empty cases, potato bags, or other packages, in the cracks of
adjoining buildings, in piles of rubbish, or under dry clods ; it has
even been seen in the tails and manes of badly groomed horses.
Once secreted, it spins for itself a protecting cocoon, and after a
time, varying from a few days to as many weeks or even months,
it metamorphoses itself into a pupa or chrysalis, when it remains in
that state for 10 to 20 days, after which it emerges into a perfect
insect.

It is thus seen that when the circumstances lend themselves to
its uninterrupted evolution during the warmer months, the codlin
moth takes 40 to 50 days to pass through its metamorphosis ; it often
takes much longer. Lea, and with him other careful observers,
state that the full-grown grub or lava is, on the other hand, often
weeks operating its transformation. It often lies in a semi-comatose
state, curled up within its web, all through the autumn and the
winter, before it changes into a pupa or chrysalis.

The theory of multiple broods through the summer months is
now fading away under the light of modern observation. A certain
proportion do metamorphose into moths again during the season,
but the majority of grubs pass the winter without changing to
pupae. Lea and others affirm that in most cases only one brood
is hatched during the season.

Just as the grubs or larvae do not pupate all at once, so
during the apple season all the moths do not come out at the same
time. Those in the gullies, says Lea, will come out later than
those in the open, and those on the sunny side of a tree before those
on the shaded side.

This irregularity has led many people to think that the moth
was double brooded in Tasmania and other Australian States. The
test of complete absence of empty chrysalis cases (not cocoons) in
the bandages during January and February is, in Mr. Lea's opinion,
conclusive evidence that in Tasmania there is but one brood to deal
with.

Outward Signs of Wormy Fruit.

1 . A careful examination of a wormy apple often shows, in the
locality of the calyx, or the eye, a minute puncture surrounded with
the castings of the young grub, more or less entangled in silky web.
In some apples this is more apparent than in others.

2. Frequently, when the apples are growing, a brownish,
gummy substance may be seen oozing from the eye ; and this
substance invariably denotes the presence of a grub.

3. When the hole is made in the side, this gummy substance
is very seldom seen, and the hole is generally covered with web, to
which small particles of excrement adhere. After the grub has left,
the hole is generally left partly uncovered, and the excrement

550

(which is frequently matted together with web) rapidly turns
mouldy, but it appears never to turn mouldy when the grub itself
is present.

4. Wormy fruits often colour and show signs of ripening a fort-
night or more before healthy ones, and they will frequently drop.
Soon after they strike ground, and often within a day or so, the
concussion will urge the grub to come out.

5. When the grub has made its exit a noticeable hole is seen
on the fruit.

How to Fight the Codlin Moth.

1. The first essential of a successful attack against the codlin
moth — and, for the matter of that, against all manner of plagues,
blights, and pests — is concerted action.

2. Where an outbreak first takes place in a clean country or
district, the readiest and most reliable way of stamping it out is the
starving out method. This, when carried out in an energetic
manner, is unquestionably the best means of coping with an out-
break. Thus Mr. T. H. A. Thabart, then Chief Inspector under the
Codlin Moth Act in Tasmania, in his annual report published 10 years
ago : — " I still hold the opinion (which is that expressed by practical
orchardists, and some whose very livelihood is dependent on the
success of the fruit industry) that the picking of the whole of the
fruit from orchards where infection has been present during the
preceding season must be adopted if any permanent good is desired.
It daily becomes more patent that eradication will not be complete
from simply picking a portion of infected fruit, leaving a large per-
centage unpicked, in which the grub is developed and allowed to
escape."

3. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Never
use second-hand fruit cases.

4. The life-history sketch of the moth indicates that each
female moth is good for 80 eggs or more, half of which are females.
It thus becomes apparent that every worm, or every moth, destroyed
at the beginning of the season is worth a great number later.
Every effort should, then, be directed towards their destruction in
the early spring. With this end in view, all apple sheds or storerooms
should be thoroughly disinfected by means of hydrocyanic acid gas,
sulphur fumes, or hot steam. Every apple storeroom should be
made secure against escape of the moth ; for this purpose wire
screenings should be placed over the inner doors and windows,
which should fit well.

5. The apple orchard should be free from rubbish heaps. Wire
fences are less subject to harbouring the grubs than wooden ones.
The ground should be kept well cultivated and clean, and the older
trees should have the loose bark scraped.

551

6. In badly infested districts in Tasmania, which, by the by,,
has grappled with the codlin moth question with more thoroughness
than have yet the other Australian States, "it has been found
necessary to so prune the trees as to allow the pickers to see into
any part of them ; also, to keep the trees low, as it is, of course,
much more difficult to go over high than low trees."

7. All windfalls in infested localities should be gathered as fast
as they come down, as unless this is done the wormy apples will,
after the concussion they have received, be soon deserted by the
grub. This should be more particularly attended to in January,
February, and March.

8. Night light traps, with a lantern hung over a tin tray con-
taining some sticky substance have been recommended, but the
great majority of observers now admit that the codlin moth is not
attracted by light, and that when a few odd ones are thus caught
the event is more of the nature of an accident.

9. Traps with fresh apple juice sweetened with sugar or honey
have been tried in South Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania
with more or less success. Lea used such traps in February and
March, and, " so far as the codlin moth was concerned, they were
total failures." Possibly, says he, if used in December and January
they would have been more successful.

10. Arsenical sprayings is, of all the weapons used against
this pest, one of the most deadly. It aims at depositing on the
surface of the young apple, pear, or quince — and in such a position
where it is likely to be picked up by the young grub soon after it
hatches — a bait which will prove fatal. A better understanding of
the habit of the codlin larvae enables us to better encompass its
destruction.

Observation has taught that the mother moth lays one egg on
each apple. Should the egg be a fertile one, and should it escape
detection by natural enemies, it soon hatches ; the young grub then
instinctively crawls towards the calyx or eye of the fruit, and there
has its first feed or two. It also nibbles here and there at the outer
surface of the fruit, and after having had a few feeds proceeds to
bore into it. It is whilst thus feeding that it picks up the poison.
That poison, it is seen, must therefore lie where it is most accessible,
and this is done in this way : After the petals drop, and as the
fruit develops, the sepals which are disposed around the eye, and
which, when accompanied by the corolla, are uniformly expanded
and spreading, soon assume various shapes, covering more or less
the tube which constitutes the calyx cavity. It is before these
sepals close that cavity that the spraying should be done, and the
most propitious time for this operation is about a week after the
setting of the fruit. When this is done a certain amount of the
poison is imprisoned within the calyx, where we know that most
codlin grubs generally have their first meal. Should, however, the

552

spraying be delayed, the poison will not be deposited within the
calyx cavity with the same certainty, and fewer codlin grubs will
have a chance of picking it up. Should rain supervene after the
spraying, it is advisable to spray again in order to get at the later
hatched grubs, as all moths do not emerge from their chrysalis
stage all at once, but come out from October right on till the middle
of summer.

Slingerland, commenting on the results of spraying with
arsenites, reports that at least 70 per cent, of the loss commonly
suffered by the fruit-grower from the ravages of the codlin moth
could be prevented by thoroughly applying the Paris green once or
twice in the spring, indeed, "thousands of practical fruit-growers,
who have thoroughly tried it, are unanimous in their testimony
that from 50 to 90 per cent., in some cases, of the fruit that would
otherwise be ruined by the insect, can be saved at a comparatively
slight expense." Any of the several arsenical poisons may be used,
viz., Paris green, London purple, white arsenic, arseuite of lead,
etc. Of these Paris green is the best, when unadulterated, and in
the hands of the average fruit-grower, that which is the safest to
use.

London purple is variable in its composition and liable to burn
foliage. Arsenite of lead is well spoken of by a few. Of all the
arsenites, however, Kedzie's solution, named after the Director of
the Michigan (U.S.A.) Agricultural College and Experiment
Station, is the most reliable, and it does not, moreover, burn the
foliage of the trees, and is very cheap in price. It is thus prepared :

White arsenic ... ... ... ... ... ... 2lbs.

Sal soda (washing soda) ... ... ... ... 4 „

Water ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 gallons.

Boil for 15 minutes. Put into a glass jar, label " poison," and
lock up. When required for spraying slake 2ibs. of quicklime,
which stir in 40 gallons of water, adding one pint of the mixture
from the glass jar. It is claimed it is easily prepared and is always
ready for use, without deteriorating ; it does not hurt the foliage as
does arsenic ; it leaves a whitish colouring on the foliage, showing
how evenly the spraying has been distributed, and is cheaper than
Paris green.

A good deal of the unsatisfactory results which have attended
the use of Paris green are the result of the adulteration of that
chemical. The following test will prove its purity:— Boil one
gramme (or 10 to 20 grains) of Paris green, with dilute hydrochloric
acid ; if pure, it should dissolve completely. If there is a residue,
wash well over a paper filter, ignite, weigh and test for barium
sulphate, a common form of adulterant. In another part of this
issue further tests are given for detecting1 adulteration of Paris
green, and to this I must refer inquirers.

11. Bandages, when well applied and carefully attended to,
are better than any of the patent traps yet tried. Next to spraying,

553

the greatest number of grubs can be destroyed by its use, and from
40 per cent, to 50 per cent, of codlin larvae are said to have thus been
entrapped. The bandages are made of wide bands of Hessian,
about 12 inches wide, and long enough to encircle the stem of the
tree. The piece of stuff is folded in the middle and fastened tightly
round the tree by means of twine.

"According to the regulations at present in force in Tasmania,
the bandages should be placed on the trees in November, and
finally taken off not later than the following July." They should
be removed every eight or ten days and boiled — this boiling also
destroys a great many eggs of red spiders — and then replaced.
This is preferable and more reliable than an eye inspection of the
bands, whereby a certain number of grubs are generally allowed to
escape unnoticed. On going over the trees, when the bandages are
removed, a pointed probe should be used to search out all grubs
which may have secreted themselves under pieces of bark, or eaten
for themselves a hiding-place into the bark, broken branches, forks
of the limbs, or old scars — as they prefer such places to the bands.
Two bands, one over the other, are sometimes used, as some of the
grubs, at times, crawl over the first in search of a hiding-place
more to their liking. " For a considerable number of trees
examined," says Lea, "I found that where the trees had been
properly bandaged, four grubs would be found in the bandages to
one in the bark beneath them ; doubtless in the rougher- barked
trees many of the grubs never came as far as the bandages, and, in
many instances, more grubs will be found in the bark than in the
bands, especially if these cross an old saw-scar." These bands
answer a good purpose, but some growers successfully supplement
them by placing among the lower limbs and on the ground around the
trees, other traps, made of sandwiching a piece of sacking between
two shingles, and joining these together with a nail. These traps
are easily made and laid, and as easily gathered up and inspected.

Although bands answer a good purpose, they must be applied
to other kinds of trees, and even to fencing posts around the apple,
pear and quince trees, to do all the good which may be expected
from them.

Mr. G-eorge Compere, who has done valuable work in Australia
and China for the State Board of Horticulture of California, and
who is now attached to this Department, mentions another easy
way of gathering and destroying the codlin grub in California.
Long straw is lightly scattered about the trees in the summer, and
then raked up into small heaps and set fire to.

Natural Enemies and Parasites.

' 12. Probably the greatest distributor of the codlin moth is the
fruit-grower himself, and the compulsory spraying and bandaging
in force in Tasmania meet with many opponents, says Lea.

x 554

'" Firstly, from those people who object to being compelled to
do anything ; secondly, from those who think it useless ; thirdly,
from those who, on account of their orchard being lightly infested,
think it is too expensive to bandage and spray hundreds, or perhaps
thousands, of trees to catch a few grubs." That class of people will
always be found in any community, and therefore it is to natural
enemies and to internal parasites of the codlin grub that we must
look to in order to minimise the tax it levies on infested orchards.
It is a fact worth noticing that, in those countries where the apple
tree found its birth place, there nature has wisely provided natural
enemies, whose functions in life is to keep in check those insects
which prey on the fruit. In America, in Australia, and in South
Africa, where apples, although introduced, nourish as well, if not
better than on the continent of Europe, the codlin moth was also
introduced, but many of its natural enemies and parasites must have
accidentally been left behind. The balance of nature has in
consequence been disturbed, and the moth has been having it
pretty well all its own way. Artificial means, such as fumigation,
spraying, bandages, and quarantine laws have, no doubt, done good
work, but gradually and surely the pest is spreading, and is getting
more troublesome. In Devonshire, in Herefordshire, in Normandy
and other localities famed for their apples all the world over, no
fumigating, no spraying, no bandaging are practised, and yet there
apple-growing continues to be a remunerative and a national
industry. It is to these localities that the American, the South
African, and the Australian apple- growers will have to look for
help, in the shape of codlin parasites.

The Americans are now well impressed with this fact, and they
are already out in the field collecting these parasites and enlisting
them in their warfare against the moth.

What these natural enemies are is a question of considerable
moment for the apple-growers, and a list is here given, many names
of which are taken from Mr. A. M. Lea's report.

Birds. — Hens in an infested orchard pick up a great number
of codlin grubs and tear them out of their cocoons ; in fact they can
easily be trained to follow those engaged in lifting the bandages,
and are found to be of great assistance. In America, woodpeckers
and robins unceasingly seek after these worms during the winter
months. In Tasmania, goldfinches, crows, starlings, and sparrows
eat enormous numbers of the grubs, the last two, however, in other
ways prove themselves destructive birds. In Germany and other
parts of Europe the torn-tits do good work.

Mammals. — Mice and rats and bats devour many of these
insects.

Insect enemies are numerous ; of these the internal parasites
are amongst the most useful. They include three from Europe,

555

Campoplex memorum, Pachymerus vulnerator, and Phygadenon brevis,
Hair worms (Gordius} have been seen in grubs in the United
States of America and Europe. From the United States a small
wasp (Trichogramma pretiosa) is parasitic on the eggs. An
Ichneumon (Macrocentrus delicatus), and any (Hypostenavariabilis),
are parasitic on the grubs when in the fruit ; another Hymenop-
terous insect (Goniozus) is an external parasite, an Ichneumon
(Pimpla annulipes) destroys the pupae. In California, a wasp
(Sphecius Nevadensis) " frequents pear trees, and is described as
pulling the grubs out of the fruit with its fore foot," says
SlingerJand. After the grubs have left the fruit more enemies beset
them. In America three soldier beetles (Chauliognatus Pennsyl-
vanicus, C. marginata, and Telepfiorus bilineatus} feed on grubs and
pupae as well also on a Neuropterous insect (JRhapidia), and other
beetles destroy pupae, viz., Trogosita laticollis and T: corticalis.
In Tasmania and Australia two common soldier beetles (Telephorus
pulcliellus and T. ruficollis) eat grubs ; the spotted ladybird
(Leis conformis) devours young grubs and even pull these from
the fruit when it is just starting boring; ground beetles, and
among them (Gnathaphanus pulcher), one which occurs on
the mainland ; bugs of the genera Reduvius and Pentatoma
destroy grubs sometimes even before these have left the fruit ;
even the much despised earwigs eat numbers of the grubs,
and then afterwards will turn their attention to their excrements,
and to the apple itself ; spiders and centipedes eat the grubs, and
the former the moths as well. Although a long list is here given
of natural enemies of the codlin moth, nevertheless the fact remains
that many more must exist, and also that they have proved them-
selves to be inadequate in their isolated efforts in appreciably
keeping down the codlin moth. How far their introduction from
distant parts and their concentration in codlin moth-infested
localities will prove effectual in combating that dreaded pest
is a problem which awaits solution at the hands of economic
entomologists."

Since the above account of the codlin moth was written by Mr.
Despeissis, it is with regret that we have to record the fact that this
pest has made its appearance in this State. However, we can also
record the fact that we have discovered the home of its true parasite,
which will be introduced at an early date.

CUT WORMS

These are the larvae or grubs of moths (says Mr. Lea) belonging
to the family Noctuidce, and they are especially destructive during
the night, in the day remaining concealed just under the surface of
the ground, or under logs, rubbish, etc. There are numerous kinds
in this State, some of which are peculiar to it, and others are almost
world-wide in their distribution. The accompanying illustration
(by Mr. Claude Fuller) shows one of the most common and
destructive species, in its various stages. The larvae, as evening

• 556

approaches, remove themselves from the soil aiid crawl up the
nearest plant, eating small pieces of bark as they proceed ; they eat
parts of the buds, and cause distorted growth, or perhaps entirely
destroy the young shoot; leaves are also attacked, but the grubs
appear to prefer the soft young bark and buds. Mr. M. H. Jacoby,
of Mundaririg, in a letter referring to this insect, says: — "It is
doing considerable damage to white grapes in this district, especially

muscatels, by eating and cutting off the berries just after setting.
I thought at first that the shower of berries lying on the ground
was caused by abortive setting, but upon examination after dark
found the grub feeding upon the young bunch. In many cases they
have cut portions of the bunches right oil'." Besides the vine this
insect attacks the apple, quince, peach, and many other fruit grasses
and wild plants ; sometimes a plant is entirely denuded of its leaves,
or left with a few stalks and fragments of leaves. " A tree or vine is
occasionally practically ring-barked from the numerous patches that
have been eaten.

The larvae is thick and fleshy, and larger near the head than
towards the tail. On being touched it curls itself up and feigns
death ; after a short period it straightens itself, and moves along
by contracting the high segments and elongating the front ones, the
motion being somewhat jerky. It is of a dirty sandy brown colour,
with a feeble stripe running along the back, and two still more feeble
ones at the sides ; the head is shining, the under- surface is of a dirty
grey colour, and paler than above. There are five pairs of prolegs
placed on the apical segments ; the breathing holes (or spiracles) at
the sides are small, black and distinct. The body is almost without
hairs, a few short ones being situate near the anus and on the sides.
The excrement is black. In captivity the larvae will frequently
devour one another, even when supplied with an abundance of food.
The pupae are pale brown in colour, with a small spine at the end ;
they are usually to be found in the situation as the larvae, and are
usually (but not always) enclosed in a small silken cocoon, which
is generally densely covered with sand and easily broken ; around
the wall of the residence on Rottnest Island, I noticed that cocoons

557

of this species were clustered in lumps of from five to 20 ; they
broke to pieces almost at a touch and the enclosed pupae fell out.
The moth itself measures about an inch across the expanded wings,
the front ones are pale brown in colour, and mottled with darker
brown and grey, the hind wings are almost white, with brown
shadings towards the edges, the ribs (or veins) are brown, and the
outer fringe of hairs is white. The egg is small, clustered on the
bark, sometimes they are laid in rows, or occasionally scattered
here and there.

There are several parasites that destroy the larvae, the most
plentiful being a moderately large Chalcid wasp, there are also two
species of Ichneumon, and several flies.

Remedy. — Use No. 16.

CUT WORMS. — Various species of Agrotis are related genera :
soft brown or gray worms of various kinds ; feed upon the roots,
crown, or tops of plants. Some come out at night and eat. They
curl up when disturbed. Most of them feed upon grass when
young, becoming about half grown by winter time, hibernating in
the soil, and coming forth in the spring in search of food. They
pupate late in the spring, and three or four weeks later emerge as
moths. Some species have several broods in the season.

Remedies. — Bait poison, No. 16. Caution : Great care must
be taken that fowls and stock do not get at the bait.

THE GRAIN MOTH (Gelechia cerealella, Linn.).

This pest is very destructive to stored wheat and corn, especi-
ally to the former. It eats out the interior of the grain, leaving
nothing but the empty hull. A single grain furnishes sufiicient

food for a larva from
the time it issues
from the egg until it
becomes fully grown.
It assumes the pupa
form within the grain
or hull. The per-
fect moth has the
head of a dull ochre
colour, the fore wings
pale shining ochre,
with greyish or
brownish streak at
the base of each wing,
the hind wings are
also greyish ochre.

Angouinois Grain Moth (Qelechia cerealella). •
o. larva; b. pupa; c.moth; e. egg; /.kernel of corn
•opened showing larva feeding : Ti. anal segment of pupa all
enlarged except /. (After Eiley) .

Remedy. — Fumigate store room with No. 18.

558

Parasites. — Two species of Ichneumon flies have been intro-
duced into this State from Spain. From two quarts of infested
wheat only one moth was bred, the balance were all destroyed in
the pupa stage by the parasites.

Ear of Corn showing work of
Angoumois Grain Moth. (Riley.)

559

THE G-RAIN WEEVILS.

" All the various species of insects that attack stored grain are
indiscriminately called weevils, or simply 'weevil,' but the only true
grain weevils are the granary weevil and rice weevil.

" These two insects resemble each other in structure as well
as in habit. They are small, flattened, brown snout-beetles of
the family Calandridse. Neither is more than a sixth of an inch in
length, but their rate of development is so rapid that they do an
almost incalculable amount of injury in a short period of time.
Their heads are prolonged into a long snout or proboscis, at the end
of which are the mandibles ; their antennae are elbowed and are
attached to the proboscis.

THE G-RANARY WEEVIL (Calandra granaria, Linn.)
" The granary weevil has been known as an enemy to stored
grain since the earliest times. Having become domesticated ages
ago, it has long since lost the use of its wings, and is strictly an
indoor species.

" The mature weevil measures from an eighth to a sixth of an
inch, is uniform shining chestnut brown in colour, and has the
thorax sparsely and longitudinally punctured as indicated, much
enlarged, as (a).

" The larva is legless, considerably shorter than the adult,
white in colour, very robust, fleshy, and of the form shown in the
illustration (&). The pupa, illustrated at (c), is also white, clear
and transparent, exhibiting the general characters of the future
beetle.

"The female
punctures the grain
with her snout and
then inserts an egg,
from which is hatched
a larva that devours
the mealy interior of
the grain.

"The caterpillars
form cylindrical silken
tubes in which they
feed, and it is in great
part their habit of web
spinning that renders
them so injurious
where they obtain a
foothold. Upon at-
taining full growth
the caterpillar leaves
its original silken
domicile and forms a
new web, which be-
comes a cocoon, in

Granary Weevil (Calandra gran ana, Linn.), (a.) Adult

beetle ; (b.) larva; (c.) pupa; (d.) Calandraoryza,

beetle enlarged. (After^Riley,)

560

which to undergo its transformations to pupa, and to imago. It is
while searching for a proper place for transformation that the
insect is most troublesome. The infested flour becomes felted
together and lumpy, the machinery becomes clogged, necessitating
frequent and prolonged stoppage, and resulting in a short time in
the loss of thousands of dollars, in large establishments.

'* Although the larva prefers flour or meal, it will attack grain
when the former are not available, and it flourishes also on bran,
prepared cereal foods, including buckwheat grits and crackers. In
California it lives in the nests of a wild bumble bee, and in the
hives of the honey bee.

" In Europe it has been observed that the insect is able to com-
plete its life cycle in two months, but from experiments recently
conducted at Washington it has been demonstrated that, under the
most favourable conditions— i.e.; in the warmest weather — the life
cycle may be passed in thirty. eight days. In its outdoor life there
are probably not more than two or three broods in the year, but
in well-heated mills or other buildings, six or more generations may
be produced.

" This insect is rapidly becoming distributed throughout the
civilised world, but as yet its range is limited. From the reports
of its alarming destructiveness in Great Britain and Canada, it
would readily be inferred that this moth is peculiarly qualified for
an indoor existence in much colder climates than most other grain
insects.

" When a mill is found to be infested, the entire building should
be fumigated, and in case a whole district becomes overrun the
greatest care must be observed not to spread the infestation. Unin-
fested mills should be tightly closed at night, and every bushel of
grain, every bag or sack brought into the mill, subjected to a
quarantine process, by being disinfected either by heat or bisulphide
of carbon." (Farmer's Bulletin, No. 45, U.S.A., Department of
Agriculture.)

HAWK MOTHS.

The larvae of several species of sphinx moths/eed on the leaves of
grape vine. Some of these moths are very handsome, and with wings
expanded will measure from two to four inches across, and are a-
brownish grey colour, with brown variegations, with brown and
pink spots. The moths deposit their eggs on the under surface
of the leaves ; after hatching, the larvae feeds on the leaves, and
grow rapidly until they obtain their full growth, when those of some
species will measure three or four inches in length. They vary in
colour, generally green, with golden yellow or reddish spots and
stripes, and usually with a horn on the hind end of the body.
When fully grown they descend, some entering the earth, and some
creep beneath some leaves or other rubbish where they undergo their
transformation.

561

Remedy: Spray with No. 13. Hand picking is the most
successful.

a Sphinx moth with wings expanded. f> Pupa or chrysalis. c Young caterpillar.
d Full-grown caterpillar in act of feeding.

PEAR AND CHERRY SLUG (Selandria cerasi).
Description and Life History.

This is a small black saw-fly, measuring about a third of an
inch in length, with two pairs of transparent wings, short antennae,
and short thick-set body, which is furnished in the females with a
fine saw-like appendage (from which this group of wasps take
their popular name) with which it cuts a slit in the leaf and
deposits from a dozen to eighteen eggs beneath the epidermis. In
a few days the small, legless, olive-green, slug-like grubs emerge, and
commence to feed upon the upper surface of the leaf, which they

562

soon destroy ; when fully grown they measure half -an-inch in
length, and have a rounded oval head and thorax, with the body
much more slender, and cover themselves with a dark olive secretion
that gives them a very slimy slug-like appearance.

They pupate in the soil beneath the tree when full grown,
forming a stout chrysalid, the perfect saw-flies emerging in about
six weeks' time.

This is a pest introduced from America, where it does a great
deal of damage to pear, cherry, and other foliage in its larval state.
It is also regarded as a very serious pest in Victoria, but in this
State does not do very much damage, and is easily destroyed.

It is very partial to the hawthorn, and when hawthorn hedges
exist it spreads rapidly. — (From Agricultural Gazette of New
South Wales ; by Froggatt).

Remedy. — Wait till slugs appear, and then use Nos. 11, 12,
or 13 (see pp. 490-492).

Dusting the foliage with lime is one of the cheapest and best
remedies, as the lime sticks to the slimy coat of the grubs and soon
destroys them.

Where they are found to be very destructive to the foliage it
would be advisable to disturb the soil round the trunk of the trees,
or treat them with lime, so as to destroy the cocoons in the ground.

PEAR LEAF BLISTER MITE (Phytophus pyri, Scheuton).

!c~ j This remarkable little mite is hardly visible to the naked eye,
butj the galls it produces on the under surface of the leaves are
generally rounded, measuring under one-eighth
of an inch in diameter, but where the foliage is
badly infected, coalescing and forming a bigger
blotch. These galls always have an opening
about the centre on the under side, so that the
mites can escape on to the buds before the
leaves fall. This is a very curious, elongated,
cylindrical creature, with only two pairs of legs,
head tapering in front, and transparent in
colour. Opinions vary as to the amount of
damage that this mite does to the trees they
infest, but there is no doubt that they render
the leaves very unsightly, and by causing them
to fall before their time, denude the tree so
that the sun will affect it, and when the galls
are abundant the crop of fruit will be reduced.
— (From Agricultural Gazette of New South
Wales ; by Froggatt) .

Remedy. — Clean cultivation. In winter, dress
limbs with No. 6; later on, 15 (see pp. 490-
492), or powdered sulphur. Two or three

Pear Leaf Mite (Phytopus

dressings during spring and early summer.

563

POTATO MOTH (Lita Solanella, Boisd).

Mr. A. M. Lea, writing of this pest in the Agricultural Journal,
August, 1895, says that this is perhaps the worst insect pest the
potato-growers have to contend against, and says, where in numbers, it
will not infrequently destroy almost the entire crop, its tunnels filled

with excrement
going through the
tubers in all direc-
tions and rendering
thjem unfit for
human consump-
tion ; it also attacks
and does very con-
siderable damage
to the leaves of
tobacco, and is oc-
casionally seen in
tomatoes.

Seed potatoes
often suffer very

^fif^^^^iV^'^^ S6Verety' the Iarv33

~^3^M^44^

^MC£

Poiato Moth (Lita Salanella).

bore their way into
the eyes and
entirely destroy
their germinating
power. It is not
only that the tubers

are attacked, the larvae preferring the leaves to the tubers, as where the
tubers have been accidently exposed had been seldom found to be
attacked, whilst the leaves were swarming with the larvae. When
the tops die off or are cut down by frosts, however, a change takes
place, as the larvae desert the leaves in large numbers and wander
about the fields, entering any tubers they may come across, even
entering frostbitten ones. In captivity they will even attack fresh
leaves in preference to the tubers.

When depositing her eggs on growing plants the moth usually
places them close together on the inner side of a leaf, close to the main
or one of the- smaller ribs ; the larvae on hatching immediately eats
its way into the leaf, hollowing it out in patches, and leaving only
the skins of the leaf, which then presents a patchy appearance ;
the larvae will often leave one part of a leaf to go to another, and
it is in eating their way in that numbers may be poisoned.

The larvae is a small, pale, dirty-green catterpillar, with a
brown head, and when full grown is about half an inch in length.
The pupa or chrysalis is pale-brown in colour, and is enclosed in a
small silken cocoon, which is nearly always covered with dirt. The
moth itself is a small grey insect (the front wings darker than the
hind ones) a little more than half an inch across the expanded wings.
Remedies. — Sprinkle with Nos. 11 or 13. Store under ground
if possible. Three oz. in 10 gallons of water.

564

The most important are preventive measures in dealing with
this potato pest. See that the seed is free from grub or eggs.
Always destroy all grubs in infested potatoes, and burn all haulms
as soon as possible after the crop is dug. Never leave " wormy
potatoes " lying about.

THE RED MITE (Bryobia pratensis, Garman).
Description and Life History.

From April to early summer a reddish tint will be frequently
noticed upon the bark of both apple and pear trees, but chiefly the
latter ; sometimes, when the trees are badly infested, even the stakes
are thickly covered. Upon examination with a lens, it will be found
that this is caused by countless numbers of tiny, round, crimson
eggs, clustered together in every curve or irregularity in the bark.

Later on, when the buds burst out into leaf, these little
creatures hatch, leaving an empty white shell behind, attack the
leaves from the underside, sucking up the juice of the tree, and
causing them to become mottled and fall off prematurely.

This inite is about twice the size of the " red spider," of a
bright red colour, with four pairs of legs, the front pair much
longer than the hind ones.

Heavy rains seem to destroy great numbers, and though this
pest is so common and numerous in many orchards in some parts of
the State, it does not seem to make much headway or do much damage
in this country, yet in some parts of America it is looked upon as
very destructive to fruit trees.

Remedy. — Clean cultivation. In winter, dress limbs with No.
6 ; later on, 15 or powdered sulphur. Two or three dressings during
spring and early summer.

RED SPIDER (tetranychus or telarius).

It is a misnomer to call this insect a spider, as in reality it is a
mite and possesses only six legs at first. The colour which it
assumes seems to depend greatly on the sort of food it is living on.
It has been called a spider simply from the
webs which it spins over the trunks and
branches and under the leaves, giving a
glassy appearance to the surface. They are
able to move quickly over this web. Some-
times they are to be found in masses, a quarter
of an inch thick, on the underside of the
leaves. They are almost omnivorous, and
attack not merely hops, but apples, almonds,
and vegetables of all sorts. The eggs are
attached to the webs, and can easily be
detached by brushing with a hard brush.
Let it be borne in mind that as the mites
congregate on the underside of the leaves,
spraying is always difficult and more or less

Fig. 2.— Bryobia Mite (Bryolia pratensis).—a Female from above, b Same from
below, c and d Claws, e Proboscis and Palpi from below. / Proboscis, g Palpus.
7i, i, j Scales from the body, fc, I Serrate hairs of leg. m Spine of last ioint of leg.
(Marlatt, Bull. 4, N.S., Div, Ent., p. 51.)

585

unsatisfactory ; if, therefore, they can be attacked before the leaves
burst, and while the eggs are clustered on the trunk and in the
crevices of the bark, there will be a much better chance of destroy-
ing them. I find the red spider on apples, pears, plums, apricots,
hops, beans of all sorts, roses, and some other garden flowers.
The eggs are sometimes quite reddish, while at other times I have
noticed that they were colourless. The so-called spiders are very
small, not much bigger than a large f ullstop.

In some countries this so-called red spider does a great amount
of damage to lemon and almond trees, but in this country it has
seldom, if ever, caused any serious damage to fruit trees, it being
destroyed by the little ladybird (Symnus vagans) .

Treatment. — The same as for red mite.

ETJTHERGLEN BUG (Nysius vinitor, Bergroth).
Description and Life History.

Mr. Froggatt, in writing on this pest in the New South Wales
Agricultural Gazette, says : — " Small plant bugs, which every few
seasons appear in great numbers among the weeds and rubbish in
the fields, and when fully developed attack
the fruit, pricking it with their sharp tubular
mouths, and causing the fruit to become
spotted, and finally fall to the ground. These
bugs are small gray creatures, about 1J lines
in length when full grown, of a general
grayish brown colour; the eyes large and
rounded ; the forehead rather pointed ; and
the antennae long, composed of four joints,
the basal one short and thick ; the thorax is
narrow behind the eyes, but broader at the
base of the wings; the legs long and slender,
with the tarsi rather black ; the wings are
semi-transparent, with a few dark lines show-

rinitor). m^ wjien c}osecl.

"They are very active little creatures, running to shelter when
disturbed on the ground, and if upon the tree, flying off as soon as
it is touched, so that they are not easily destroyed. Very little is
known about their earlier stages, but the eggs are said to be
deposited about the trunks of the trees, close to the ground. This
bug is said, besides damaging this and other fruit, to do consider-
able damage to tomato and potato fields by destroying the foliage,
but the entomologist could never find conclusive proof that this
was the case.

" Treatment. — In the Liverpool district several orchardists
minimise this pest, tc a great extent, by going round early in the
morning and shaking each branch over a large shallow dish con-
taining a little kerosene and water, into which they fall and are

566

smothered. This, however, would not be practicable in a large
orchard badly infested.

" Spraying with tobacco wash (see pp. 490-492) has also been
found to be effective.

" Remedy. — Spray with Quibbel's liquid disinfectant — Joz. in
one gallon of water."

SCALE BUGS.

These belong to the family Coccidse, and include the mealy
bugs. The scale bugs or bark lice in this family include some of
the most serious pests with which the horticulturist has to deal.
Scarcely any kind of fruit is free from their attacks. The ease with
which these insects or their eggs can be transported long distances
while yet alive, on fruit or living plants, has caused many species
that infest cultivated plants to become world-wide in distribution,
and some have found their way into this State, and it is only those
that have that will be dealt with in this book.

In general outward appearance the female insects present very
variable forms. They may be either naked or covered over with
some kind of a shield, which may be fibrous, or waxy, or cottony ;
or they may have simply a thin, powdery meal scattered over them.
The covered insects are, of course, stationary, although in some
cases, before reaching their full development, they move about,
carrying their covers with them. The naked insect may be either
stationary or active.

They attach themselves either to the bark or the stem of a
plant or to the leaves. In the latter case they are seldom found on
the upper side, but on turning the leaf over the under surface is
frequently found covered thickly with them.

In many cases they exude, in the form of minute globules, a
whitish, thick, gummy secretion, answering probably to the
" honey dew " of the Aphididse. This secretion drops from them to
the plant, and from it grows a black fungus (Fumago salicina),
which soon gives an unsightly appearance to the plant. This
fungus or " smut" is an almost invariable indication that a plant is
attacked by insects, and may, indeed, give a useful warning to
growers. It is not, however, produced in appreciable quantities by
all species.

Some species lay eggs, while others bring forth their young
alive. Some species are covered with a hard shell, and others with
a soft. So that an intelligent appreciation of the life history and
habits of these scale insects is necessary to enable any one to select
and apply, with any probability of success, a remedy.

There is one point in connection with the handling of these
scale insects that may as well be mentioned at the outset, and that
is, that up to the present time there is no known remedy by which
these scale can be exterminated from any orchard after having once
become well established. The most that can be accomplished is to

567

check their spread, and keep the trees in a clean and healthy condi-
tion. More than this has never been accomplished in any country.

It is easy enough to kill an insect when you can reach it, in
most cases ; but the problem is not only to kill individual insects,
but to kill all that may be upon any one plant or in an orchard, and,
at the same time, to prevent their eggs from hatching and new
broods coming forth. Many of those who profess to know all
about destroying scale, and especially if they belong to that class
which prides itself upon being "practical men/' being generally
quite ignorant of the habits and life history of insects, and are
satisfied when they have tried some . remedy which seems to have
killed most of the adult insects, not dreaming that they have left
the eggs unharmed and ready to send forth a fresh swarm. There
is another obstacle which often prevents success in destroying
" scale." This is the difficulty of making sure of the effects of any
remedy.

A plan which has answered well in one place Avill fail in
another, and this not only as regards different countries, but even
in the same district or neighbouring gardens, or even adjacent trees
in the same orchard or garden. Orchardists must be prepared to
find the very same remedy which has cleared their neighbours' trees
fail for their own ; and the writer has often noticed trees in one and
the same orchard, treated exactly in a similar manner, where
the insects on one tree would be practically all killed, while on
another scarcely any found injured.

It is from want of knowledge of this, and like points, that
persons who have tried various remedies recommended to them have
complained of failure, and condemned both the remedy and their
adviser, when, in fact, neither are at fault.

Whatever damage is caused by these scale insects is effected
by the sucking of the juices of the plant through the rostrum of
the insect. It will be seen from this that an application of any
fluid to the tree externally, with the object of poisoning the insects
in their feeding, would be useless, as they draw their food from
beneath the surface. If the treatment of these pests are properly
carried out, with the remedies recommended in this book, they will
greatly check the spread of the pests, and keep the plants in a
healthy condition.

BROWN GRAPE SCALE (Lecanium cymbiform, Sign.).

This scale was first observed in this State about two years ago,
infesting the grape vines in the vicinity of Perth. The adult
female, in colour, is light brownish, and not unlike Lecanium
Jiesperidum in shape, but is very much larger. Like other species
of Lecanium that produce only one generation a year, their develop-
ment is slow. The larvae, when first hatched, are a pale yellow in
colour, and at once locate upon the leaves, their development being

568

slo\\ until they take up their position upon the young cane or stem
of the plant, where they remain throughout the winter, and in fact
the balance of their lives ; upon the ascent of the sap, in the spring,
they grow rapidly. They appear to prefer the young canes, and are
often to be noticed clustering and encircling a cane for several feet.
This scale has also been known to attack pear, peach, plum, and
mulberry trees, but this only on trees that stood in close proximity
to infested grape vines.

This scale, while new to this country, has been known to occur
in Europe for inore than a century, and was described by Signoret
as occurring on grape vines in France.

Remedies. — In winter, use No. 10, 14, or 19 (see pp. 490-492).

Natural Enemies. — During the past few months, two parasites
which keep this scale in complete subjection in Europe, have been
introduced into this State. These, it is hoped, will in future keep
this pest in check here as they do in France. These parasites have,
as vet, not been described or named.

BLACK SCALE (Lecaninm olese, Bernard).

A dark brown or blackish scale, which infests all varieties of
citrus trees, and nearly all deciduous varieties, and many plants,

shrubs, vines, etc., and is more
generally found in the orchards and
gardens of this State than any
other species of Cocciase. The
presence of this species can be
readily detected by the appearance
on the branches, foliage, and fruit
of a black smut, known as Fumago
salicina. This smut or fungus is-
caused by the honeydew exuded
by the female scale.

The best treatment for this scale
is fumigation with No. 18. Spray-
ing with No. 10, 14, or 19 is
excellent to check their spread, and
keeping the plants in a cleany
healthy condition. The application
of these remedies should not be
made, however, while the scale are
in the adult stage, as it will have
little or no effect upon them, but
should be done while they are yet
in their larval stage.

Natural Enemies. — During the
past year three species of parasite&

Black Scale (Lecanium
oleoe).

569

were introduced successfully into this State, and have now become
-established : Dilophogaster caMfornica, Hemencyotus crawii,

Black Scale Parasite (Dilophorjaster californica).
Male and female. Upper, male.

and Myiocneme comperei. The first two mentioned are parasites
upon the eggs; while the last mentioned is upon the scale itself.

The best and most
effectual parasite of it
has not as yet been
established in this
State, this is Scute -
Iwta cyanea. This hg s
kept the black scale in
subjection in Europe
for more than acentuiy
past, and it is to le
hoped that during the
coming season it will
be established in this

Black S^ale Para.site (Scutefl-'s/a cyama).

State also.

570

BROWN OR SOFT SCALE (Lecanium hesperidum).

This scale differs from the black scale; it is much smaller,,
flatter, and has not the strong ribs so distinctive of that species.
Its food plants are about the same as those of the black, and the
results of its attacks upon plants are similar to that of the black
scale. It succumbs much more readily to treatment than does the
black scale, its covering not being so hard, and also being
" viviparous."

Remedies.— Nos. 18, 10, 14, or 19 (see pp. 490-492).

Natural Enemies. — Two species of parasites, yet unnamed, have
been successfully established in this State.

SAN JOSE SCALE (Aspidiotus perniciosus).

This is, no doubt, the most destructive scale insect which
attacks the deciduous trees ; it appears to be most destructive to

t

571

apple, pear, and peach. This scale is not striking in appearance,
.and would easily escape notice in an orchard. When once intro-

Female of the San Jose Scale.

<duced into an orchard its spread is very rapid, and if not checked
will soon'cause the death of the plants attacked. It attacks stem,

Young larva of the San Jose
Scale. (Enlarged.)

San Jose Scale.

A The male scale. c The half-grown
female scales. B In badly infested case.
D Showing peculiar red band which it
produces on fruit audbranches. (After
Fuller.)

572

leaves, branches, and fruit; but only in severe cases is it to be*
noticed upon the leaves. A peculiar feature of this scale is the
reddish discolouration around the margin of each female. This
encircling ring of reddish discolouration is very noticeable on fruits,
especially pears. Fruits severely attacked become distorted, rough,
and pitted, sometimes cracking, and becoming unmarketable. The
cambium layer of young twigs, where the scales are located, is.
usually stained deep red or purplish, and when the scale is only
scatteringly present the distinctive purplish ring surrounding each
scale is almost as noticeable on young twigs as on the fruit, and is
of the greatest service in facilitating the inspection of trees which
have been exposed to contagion. The young scale might easily
elude the most careful inspection, but the striking reddish
discolouration makes them comparatively conspicuous objects.

This, like all the armoured Coccidse, pass their life under the
protection of the waxy scale, except during a few hours while active
in the larval stage, and an equally brief existence of the males in
their winged stage.

The long period during which the females are continually
producing young, during the summer months, has an important
bearing on the question of remedies employed in its destruction.

Description. — The scale of the female is circular, and in colour,
blackish gray, excepting the exuviae in the centre, which is of a
deep straw colour; sometimes it has a reddish hue; it measures
from one to one and a-quarter lines in diameter. The scale of the
males is oval in outline, and nearly black with the exuviae between
the centre and anterior margin of the scale, but is much darker in
colour, and more obscure, than that of the females.

Aplielinus fucipennis—Tlne Parasite which holds the San Jose Scale in check in California

Remedies. — In winter, three applications at frequent intervals*
if necessary, using Nos. 6, 10, 14, or 20 (see pp. 490-492) ; or the
hydrocyanic gas treatment, No. 18.

Orange leaf infested with Red Scale (Aspidiotus aurantii}.

573

Natural Enemies. — In California this scale is now held in
complete subjection by a small chalcid fly (Aphelinus fucipennis).
At horticultural conventions held in that State, 10 or 12 years ago,
the question of dealing with the San Jose scale was one of their
most serious problems, but now it is seldom or ever referred, to at
such conventions.

» RED SCALE (Aspidiotus aurantii, Mask).

This is the most serious scale insect which the citrus fruit-
growers of this State have to contend against. It has a very wide
range of food plants, and attacks all varieties of citrus fruits, and is
often noticed attacking the quince, guava, pear, fig, loquat,
mulberry, castor bean, and rose, as well as many other garden
plants and shrubs. Leaves, fruit, and branches are attacked ; and

it occurs at times so thick
upon the fruit of orange
and lemon that its mar-
ket value is destroyed.
This scale belongs to the
"armoured" ones.

Bed Scale Parasite. (Enlarged.)

Description. — The
colour of the female,
when scale is formed,
is light or primrose
yellow, but as it reaches
maturity it becomes a
brownish yellow. The
formation of the body is such that under the scale, when examined
with a lens, its appearance is that of a broken ring, but when
ovipositing, the posterior end of the abdomen extends beyond the
circular line of the body. The colour of the natural insect is shown
through the nearly trans-
parent scale from which it
derives its common name —
Red Scale.

Remedies. — Use, during
the summer months, Nos.
10, 14, 20, or fumigate with
No. 18 (see pp. 490-492.
The latter has given the best
results.

Natural Enemies. — Cali-
fornia made a long and
continuous search for the
parasite of this scale, but
it was not discovered until
1900, when it was found in
China, and from there sent
to California, where they
were liberated in an orange
grove well infested with red

Orange infested with Eed Scale.

574

scale, and, notwithstanding that the owner of the grove promised
the officers of the State Board of Horticulture that he would not
spray or fumigate the trees in order to give the little parasite a
chance to become established, this promise the owner kept, so far as
the spraying or fumigation, but turned to and cut out the trees and
burned them, with no explanation to offer for his action, only that
he had not promised not to burn the trees.

During a recent visit of the writer to China, only a few
scattering specimens of the red scale was to be found ; these were
sent to this State and from them a few specimens of the parasite
were bred and liberated, but if it should happen that these few
were all females or all males, then no results may be looked for.

Greedy Scale.

Aspidiotus rapak : a, female scale from above; b, same from below; c, mass of scale as
appearing on bark; d, male scale; e, male scale on twig ; /, female scabs on twigs; e and
f, natural size; c, considerably enlarged; o, b, d, greatly enlarged.— Year Book, U.S.A.
Dep. of Agri., 1894.

Gr REEDY SCALE — (Aspidiotus rapax, Comstock).

This scale is found to attack a large variety of fruit trees,
plants, and shrubs, and is often noticed infesting the pear, peach,
plum, apple, and apricot trees. Notwithstanding that this scale is
usually found thickly covering the whole stem or branches of its
food plants, it seldom causes any serious damage.

The scale of the female is nearly circular, or slightly oval,
yellowish in colour when it covers a living, matured insect, but is

575

generally a light gray. The full grown specimens measure nearly
one line in diameter, and its form is more convex than the other
species of aspidiotus referred to in these pages.

Remedies. — In winter use Nos. 10, 14, 20, or fumigate with
No. 18 (see pp. 490-492).

Natural Enemies. — While yet no true parasite of the greedy
scale has been discovered, yet there are a number of predaceous
ladybirds in this State which feed upon it, and accomplish a great
deal in reducing their numbers.

MTJSSEL SCALE (Mytilaspis pomorum, Bouche).

This scale insect is a serious pest of the apple trees in various
parts of the world ; it also infests the pear and other fruit trees,
but it displays a partiality for the apple.

Mussel Scale of the Apple (Mytilaspis pomorum, Bouche).

Mytilaspis pomorum: a and b. females enlarged; c, natural size; d, male

enlarged ; e, natural size. After Dr. L. O. Howard.

This species can be readily distinguished from the other species
of scale insects that infest apple trees and mentioned in this else-

576

where in these pages. The scale of the female is long and narrow,
and, more or less curved, and widened at the posterior end, and

Mytilaspis porno rum : a, adult male ; b, foot of same ; c, young larva ;
d, antenna of same ; e, adult female taken from scale ; a, c, e, greatly en-
larged ; b, d, still more enlarged. (Year Book, U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture 1894) .J|

measures from one to one and a quarter lines in length. Colour,
dark yellowish-brown. The scale of the male is smaller than that
of the female, and nearly straight. It is not so dark in colour, and
has a mottled appearance.

Remedies. — In winter months use Nos. 6, 10, 14, 20, or
fumigate with No. 18 (see pp. 490-422).

Aspidiotus ressi, Maskell.

This scale has no common name by which it is known, and
very little attention is ever given to it, as it is seldom noticed upon
any fruit trees (olive excepted), but may be found in most any
garden or park in and around Perth, where it attacks many varieties
of shrubs and other garden plants, and is very common on the
oleander trees. Some writers claim that this is an indigenous species
to Australia, but such is not the case.

Remedies. — Use Nos. 10, 14, 20, or fumigate with No. 18 (see
pp. 490-492).

Parlatoria zizyphi, Lucas.

There is no common name by which this scale insect is known
by, and it has only very recently been discovered in this State, but

577

the trees upon which it was found were at once destroyed by
burning them, so it may be hoped that the State is again free from
this scale. In Italy, it is one of the most serious pests of the
citrus trees, and causes a great amount of damage. It had also at
one time been a serious pest of the citrus trees of the Hawaiian
Islands, but on the introduction of the Australian lady-bird (Orcus
chalybeus) to those islands, it soon became. a harmless form, and is
no longer noticed there.

Remedy.— Fumigate with No. 18. Spraying against this scale
has been of no use in Italy.

RMzococcus araucariae, Maskell.

This coccus is a very common pest of the Norfolk Island pine
(Araucaria excelsior'), and two years ago some trees in one of the
gardens in Perth were found very badly infested with it ; but the
introduction of the lady-bird (Cryptoleamus montrouzieri) from the
Eastern States, has rid the trees of this scale.

WHITE COTTONY CUSHION SCALE (Icerya purchasi, Maskell).

Scattered specimens of this scale insect are often met with in
this State. It has a very wide range of food plants, and has been
a very serious pest in other parts of the world. In Australia, it
has never been known to do any damage, being held in complete
subjection by the little lady-bird (Novius cardinalis) , and an
internal parasite (Lestophonus iceryae). This scale is indigenous
to Australia.

White Cottony Cushion Scale (Icerya purchasi, Maskell).
Icerya purchasi — a, scale enlarged, showing larva of Novius at
work: b, pupa of Novius ; c, Novius; d. scale natural size.
(After C. L. Marlatt).

Remedy. — The destruction of this scale should be left to its
parasites.

578

MEALY BUG (Dactylopius adonidum, Linnaeus).

[jiving upon various green-house plants, and often noticed
on orange trees, ic is very troublesome at times to indoor plants.
The female, a small scale-like insect, more
or less covered with a whitish, mealy
powder, measures from one line and a
quarter to a line and a half in length ; is
of a whitish or yellowish colour, with a
brown band on the middle of the back,
and is covered with a mealy powder,
which is excreted through the pores
situated on the various parts of the body.
In addition to this there is a woolly
border around the edge of the body,
which is longest at the hind end of the
body.

Remedy. — See below.

DESTRUCTIVE MEALY BUG (Dactylopius
destructor, Comstock) .

This, like D. adonidum, is found in-
festing green-house plants. It is a very
destructive species to sugar cane in some
parts of the world. Scattered specimens
are frequently met with in gardens in
and around Perth. The female is a small
yellowish bug, thinly covered with a
mealy powder, nearly two lines in length.

Remedy. — See below.

Eitl^^^S^

Long Thread Mealy Bug.
Greatly enlarged.

LONG THREAD MEALY BUG (Dactylopius longifilis, Comstock).

In general appearance the female of this species does not differ
much from D. destructor, only a little longer, and has four long

Male of Dactylopius longifilis.
a. With wings folded. t. One wing expanded.

SXwan +1 ir a-nlavcrorl f "Rav-laoa ^

579

white threads at the posterior end of the body ; is found on green-
house and garden plants.

Remedy.— See below.

ORANGE MEALY BUG (Dactylopius citri).

The female of this species is not unlike that of D. adonidum
in appearance, but has not the brown band on the middle of the

back, but becomes completely
enveloped in a white mealy
exudation. This, like the other
species of mealy bugs, forms no
external scale covering, the
whitish mealy powder taking
its place.

This mealy bug, like most
other species of mealy bugs,
has a very wide range of food
plants, and is a very serious
pest of the lemon and orange
trees, attacking both plant and
fruit. In Italy, at the present
time, it is one of the most serious
pests with which the citrus
fruit-growers have to contend
against, and causes a great

Dactylopius citri. Female enlarged. (After amo U lit of damage to the orange

crop in some districts of that

country. This pest has become well established in this State, but
its spread has been arrested by the introduction of the ladybird
(Cryptoleamus montrou-
zieri) and another un-
named form from Spain.

From the fact that
these mealy bugs have no
external scale covering,
and being soft bodied,
would lead one to believe
that they could be easily
destroyed, but such is not
the case, as they have
proven to successfully re-
sist the deathly effects of
the hydrocyanic gas fumes. A

Remedies. — Spray with n Front

Nos. 7, 10, 14, or 15 (see
pp. 490-492). In the open it is not likely that any spraying in the
future will be necessary, but will in case of plants growing indoors,
for when the ladybirds are liberated indoors, they will at once fly to

Dactylopins citri.

back view. (After Berlese.)

580

the light and try to make their escape, and are often exhausted and
perish before they become reconciled to their confinement.

0

Dactylopius citri.

a, an egg; b, larvae; c, first; d, second stage of male; e,
male ; f, dorsal view of female ; all greatly enlarged.
(After Berlese.)

THRIPS.

The members of this order have four wings; these are similar
in form, long, narrow, membranous, not folded, with but few or no
veins, and only rarely with cross veins ; they are fringed with long
hairs, and are laid horizontally along the back when at rest. The
metamorphosis is incomplete. The mouth parts are probably used
chiefly for sucking ; they are intermediate in form between those of
the sucking and those of the biting insects.

There are various species in this State, and some are very
destructive to onion tops. Onions attacked by thrips will soon
have a whitish appearance, and the onions themselves will often
become stunted in growth. They also attack orange and lemon
trees, feeding on both the upper and lower surface of the leaves,
and giving to them a very whitish appearance. They are extremely
lively, leaping or taking flight with great agility. Some species
eat other insects, but the most live upon vegetation.

Remedy. — Clean cultivation. For onions spray with No. 15, and
destroy all tops as soon as crop is harvested. On fruit trees spray
with Nos. 10 or 14 (see pp. 490-492). In the case of onions there are
two obstacles to overcome ; the very young thrips work very largely

581

down about the base of the leaves. Owing to the peculiar growth
of the plant, it is very difficult to reach them. One pound of whale
oil soap, dissolved in 12 gallons of water, is also very effectual in

Cluster of oranges infested with Dactylopius citri.

destroying thrips. While in Spain the writer noticed the larvse
of a Syrphus fly feeding upon thrips infesting pear tree.

WIRE WORMS.

There are many species that feed upon the roots of various
plants, and at times do considerable damage. These so-called
worms are slim, and brown in colour. They are the larvae of what
are known as click beetles.

Remedy. — Use No. 16 Bait.

FRUIT FLY (Ceratitis capitata). — This is beyond question
one of the most serious orchard pests which has yet found its way
into this State. Other pests with which we have to deal can, to a
certain extent, be destroyed by the use of artificial remedies. It is
different with the fruit fly. This is owing to the nature of its attack-
ing the fruit. Depositing their eggs, as they do, beneath the surface
of the fruit, places them at once beyond the reach of sprays and fumes,

582

and leaves only one course by which they can be checked, and this
consists of carefully picking all fruit suspected of containing the
maggots and destroying it by boiling or burning the fruit,
There is scarcely any variety of fruit which this fly does not attack.

Fruit Fly (Ceratitis capitata).

a, maggot; b, holes where maggots have escaped; Fig. 1, male fly; A, same (natural
size) , viewed from above ; Fig. 2, female fly, viewed from side; B, same, natural
size ; Fig. 3, wing of fly ; 4, antenna ; 5, clubbed appendage from head of male ;
6, terminal segments of female's abdomen, showing the ovipositor; 7, halter ;
8, pupa, or chrysalis; c, same, natural size ; 9, larva, or maggot ; d, same, natural
size ; 10 and 11, hooked mandibles of larvse. (After Fuller.)

Life History. — The female fly lays the eggs in the fruit after
piercing the fruit with her ovipositor ; the eggs soon hatch, and the
maggots grow very rapidly, eating their way to the core of the fruit,
and when they have attained their full growth they leave the fruit
and enter the soil to pupate. In warm weather they only remain
in the pupa stage for about ten days, coining out as flies and imme-
diately begin the work of destruction again. Its chief aim in life
seems to be the destruction of every fruit that it meets with.

588

Natural Enemies. — Up to the present time the home of this fly-
has not been discovered, consequentially its true parasite is not
known.

PLAGUE LOCUSTS.

Plague Locusts. — Every rural resident is, perhaps, familiar with
the appearance of grasshoppers. But there are many kinds of
these insects, representing at least two distinct families. The
family Acridid&, or Locust, include those grasshoppers in which
the antennae are shorter than the body, and in which the ovipositor
of the female is short, and made up of four separate plates. It is
to these insects that the term locust is properly applied. The
locusts of which we read in the Bible, and in other books published
in olden times in Europe, are members of this family. It is
unfortunate that there are some writers who apply the term locust
to the cicada, an insect which belongs to another order, and not to
the locust.

The term " plague locust" has been applied to many species of
locust, both in this and other countries. This would lead some to
believe that there is only one species which becomes a plague,
where, as a matter of fact, there has from time to time, both in
Australia and other countries, been many species which have
become so numerous that they are plagues of the worst type, from
a farmer's standpoint.

In this State
there are several
species of locusts
which cause con-
siderable damage
to both crops and
pasture but the
one which the
term plague has
been applied to is
Pachytilis Aus-
tralis, Br.

However, it-
makes very little
difference to the
average farmer
what species it is

Female locust in the act of laying eggs. (After Biley.)

that causes the destruction of his crops ; what the farmer wants to
know is how best to handle them, and prevent the destruction of
his crop. To accomplish this, many experiments have been carried
out in various countries.

Locusts lay their eggs in oval masses, and cover them with a
tough substance. Some species lay their eggs in the ground.
The female makes a hole in the ground with her ovipositor ; and the
operation is a very interesting one to watch. The female will press

584

the tip of her abdomen into the soil, and at the same time working
the plates at the apex in such a manner that she will gradually bore
a circular hole from one to one and a-half inches in depth, according
to species, and about a quarter of an inch in diameter. Some species
will lay their eggs in old logs or stumps ; then, after the eggs are
laid, the whole is covered up with a plug of gummy substance.
There is but one generation a year, and in most cases the winter is
passed in the egg state.

The most damage is caused by the grasshoppers while yet in
the hopper stage, before maturity or winged stage.

The question of dealing with the locust swarms is a- very
perplexing one. Whenever locust swarms make their appearance
it is generally found that they will extend over many thousand
square miles of country at the same time ; and all methods employed
in their destruction up to the present time have only been partially
successful. A few years ago it was expected that the application
of the African locust fungus would successfully destroy these locust
swarms, but this, too, has proved a failure. In the United States of
America there are some sections where they use what are termed
hopperdozers in locust infested districts. These are made of iron
or tin, in the form of flat trays, containing kerosene or tar, and are
either pulled or pushed along against the wind, and the hoppers, in
trying to get out of the way, will jump in or are blown in and
killed, and millions are thus destroyed in a very short time. The
poisoned bran mash has also proved a very successful remedy in
reducing the number of hoppers. This consists of mixing lib. of
arsenic, lib. of sugar, 61bs. of bran, water added to make a mash.
Mix the dry bran and arsenic in a tub ; dissolve the sugar in suffi-
cient water to make the mixture into a mash. A teaspoonful of
the bait will kill locusts eating it a week after it has been laid out,
but though its action is slow it is sure, and kills them in a few
hours. The sugar is added to make the arsenic adhere to the flakes
of bran.

Natural Enemies. — It was expected last year to secure from
New South Wales some of the tachma fly parasites which are to be
found in that State; but owing to the dry condition of the country
at the time, no locusts were to be found. This parasite is itself, in
turn, heavily parasitised by an ichneumon fly. There can be no
doubt but that if we could introduce the tachina fly into this State,
and leave the ichneumon or secondary one behind, they would do
more to check the locust swarins than all the artificial methods
which we could apply. While in China, the writer found that there
is a parasite in that country which destroys the eggs of the locust ;
and it is the egg parasite that will accomplish the most in holding
these hoppers in subjection, as they destroy the locust before they
have reproduced themselves.

To give the readers an idea of how locusts may be transplanted
from one country to another, it will be interesting to relate what the
writer was told, on a recent voyage from Naples to Fremantie, by

585

the Chief Engineer of the Orita, which was to the effect that about
15 years ago, during a trip from Liverpool to Sydney, while coming

Antennae of Masicera
pachytyli.

Tachina Fly (Masicera pachytyli, Sk.).

A, Parasite of plague Loc'ast in New South. Wales. (Greatly
enlarged.; Al, Same, natural size.

through the Suez Canal, a plague of locusts were encountered,
and thousands of the hoppers flew on board the ship. Some of
these remained on the boat during the whole voyage. There was
nothing to prevent their flying ashore while the ship would lie at
ports of call.

Parasite Maggot escaping from a
Locust .

Magnified and life-sized
Maggot of Locust Parasite.

USEFUL PREDACEOUS INSECTS.

While there are a great number of destructive insects m this
State, there are also a large number of beneficial ones. In fact,

Coccinella transversalis, Fabr.

Leis conformis, Boisd.

586

were it not for the beneficial forms, there would be very little, if
any, vegetation left growing in this or any other Australian State,
as there are thousands of indigenous species of insects which are
held in complete subjection by other insects, and are unnoticed.
It is only when an insect becomes a pest that any attention is
given it, and it will be found that all pests are imported forms.

Orcus Australasia, Boisd.

Ch'domenes quadripustulniu*, Muls.

It often happens that imported forms are subject to the attacks of
indigenous forms, which accomplish a great deal in checking their
spread, and the illustrations here shown, with one exception (Leis
conformis}, are indigenous species, and should be protected.

Leis conformis, Boisd.

Rhizobius debilis, Blkb.

Australasias (lai'va).

These useful insects are themselves, in turn, attacked by
parasites and predaceous ones, so that they do not accomplish as
much in checking the spread of imported pests as they would
otherwise do.

BlastopTiaga qrossorum. — It has been well demonstrated that
without the aid of these little insects we cannot successfully produce
the Smyrna fig of commerce.

Any one cutting open a fig when it has attained about one-
third its size, will see the flowers in full development, but unlike
those of most fruit trees, they make no outward appearance, but
are concealed within the fig on its internal surface. They are male
and female — the former situated near the orifice, the latter in that

587

part of the concavity next the stalk — the flowers being concealed
within the button-like fruit, consequently there is not the same
opportunity for pollenation to take place with the aid of bees, wind,
or birds, as is the case with most other fruits, and Nature, having

Male Blaatophaga (enlarged).

Female Blastophaga (enlarged).

left nothing unfinished, created and commissioned these little insects,
which are now known as Blastophagas, to perform the mission of
caprification. The method by which this is accomplished is to plant
the wild Capri fig, amongst the cultivated ones ; the insects infest the
wild sort, which it leaves to attack the domestic one, entering to the
interior of the fruit by the orifice. This is a very ancient practice.
It was mentioned by the earliest Greek writers on natural history,
and some state that it was first used in the Islands of the Archi-
pelago. Some writers also doubt its utility ; but the fact remains
that the cultivation of the Smyrna fig has proven a failure without
the presence of the Blastophaga.

MUSEUM PEST (THE BUFFALO BEETLE).

The Buffalo Beetle has become a very troublesome pest in
houses and museums, doing great damage to carpets andj woollen
articles, and are very destructive to dry insects in collections.

Buffalo Beetle (Anthremus muscorum).

a, larva (destructive stage) ; b, pupa within larval skin ; c, pupa d, beetle. All
much magnified. (From thirty-third annual report Entomologica
Society of Ontario.)

588

Remedy. — Where it is noticed in carpets, they should be at once
taken up and beaten thoroughly out of doors, the floors mopped
with scalding soap water. A great deal of the damage to woollen
articles which is attributed to the common cloth moth is the work
of this beetle.

Appendix.

THE INSECT PESTS AMENDMENT ACT, 1898.

AN ACT to prevent the introduction into Western Australia of
Diseases affecting Orchards and Gardens, and to provide for
the eradication of such Diseases, and to prevent the spread
thereof.

[Assented to, 28th October, 1898.]

BE it enacted by the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the
advice and consent of the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly of
Western Australia, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the
authority of the same, as follows : —

Short Title.

1. This Act may be cited for all purposes as the Insect Pests Amend-
ment Act, 1898.

Interpretation.

2. In this Act, if not inconsistent with the context, —

" Disease " means any insect, fungus, or parasite found on or attack-
ing fruit or plants ;

" Fruit " means the product of any plant, and includes the peel, skin,
or shell of such product, and also the seeds of such plant, whether
such fruit is or is not attached to such plant ;

" Infected " means infected with disease;

" Infected package " includes every case or other package in which
any diseased plant or fruit is or has been contained, or with
which any such plant or fruit has come in contact ;

" Minister " means the Minister presiding over the Department of
Agriculture, or any member of the Executive Council, being a
responsible Minister of the Crown, who for the time is acting for
him;

" Occupier," in the case of any orchard or land which is unoccupied,
or whose actual occupier is unknown or cannot be found, includes
the owner ;

"Orchard" means auy land used for the purpose of growing or
cultivating plants, and extends to and includes garden, nursery,
vinery, vineyard, and hothouse ;

"Plant" means any tree, flower, shrub, vegetable, or other vegeta-
tion.

589

Power of Governor to do certain things.

3. The Governor may, from time to time, by Proclamation, do any of
the following acts : —

(i.) Eevoke, either wholly or partially, any Proclamation which is in
force at the time of the coming into operation of this Act, and
which was issued for any purpose for which a Proclamation or
Order in Council may be issued under this Act ;

(2.) Prohibit, either absolutely or except in accordance with regula-
tions under this Act, the introduction into Western Australia,
either generally or from any specified colony, country, port, or
place, of any plant, fruit, fungus, parasite, insect, or anything
which, in his opinion, is likely to introduce any disease into
Western Australia;

(3.) Prohibit, either absolutely or except in accordance with regula-
tions under this Act, the bringing into any specified portion of
Western Australia, from any other portion or specified portion
of Western Australia, of any specified plant, fruit, fungus,
parasite, insect, or other thing which, in his opinion, is diseased
or likely to spread disease ;

(4.) Appoint any specified ports to be the only ports of entry for
plants or fruit, or for any specified plant or fruit ;

(5.) Appoint quarantine grounds where plants or fruit, and the
packages containing the same or with which the same may
have come in contact, may be detained for the purpose of being
inspected, disinfected, destroyed, or otherwise disposed of ;

(6.) Eevoke any Proclamation made under this Act.

Appointment of officers.

4. (i.) The Governor may, from time to time, appoint such inspectors
and other officers, with such powers and functions as he deems necessary in
order to carry out the provisions of this Act.

(2.) All inspectors and other officers appointed under the Acts herein-
after repealed shall be deemed to have been appointed under this Act.

Eradication of diseases in orchards.

5. Every occupier of any orchard shall at all times do whatever is
necessary in order to eradicate such disease from such orchard, and prevent
the spread thereof.

Notice of disease appearing to be given.

Q. Every occupier of any orchard in which any disease appears shall,
withia twenty-four hours after first discovering or becoming aware of its
presence, give written notice thereof to the Secretary for Agriculture, at
Perth.

Declaration of " infected places."

7. If at any time it appears to an inspector or other authorised officer
that any disease exists, or has, within the preceding three months, existed,
in any orchard, or amongst the plants there growing, and that in order to
eradicate or prevent the spread of such disease such orchard should be
declared to be infected, he shall notify the fact to the occupier of such
orchard, and also to the Secretary for Agriculture, who shall notify the
same to the Minister, whereupon the following provisions shall apply : —

(i.) The Minister may, by notice published in the Gazette, declare
that such orchard, together with such area of land contiguous
to or surrounding the same as he thinks expedient, is an
infected place within the meaning of this Act.

590

(2.) Such notice shall describe, with reasonable particularity, the
situation and area of the orchard and other land to which such
notice relates.

(3.) From the date of the gazetting of such notice and until the
revocation thereof, such orchard and other land shall be deemed
to be an infected place, from which no plants or fruit shall be
removed, except under the direction of an inspector or other
authorised officer, and within which the occupier shall do all
such things as are deemed necessary in order to eradicate or
prevent the spread of the disease.

(4.) Any such notice may be revoked by the Minister by notice in the
Gazette,

Power to inspect orchards, trees, etc.

8. (i.) Any inspector or authorised officer may at any time enter into
any conveyance or upon any orchard, land, or premises, or on board any
vessel, for the purpose of inspecting any plants or fruit, or the packages
containing the same, or with which the same may have come in contact, and
shall have all such powers and authorities (including power to dig up plants,
open packages, and otherwise) as he deems necessary for enabling him to
enforce the provisions of this Act.

(2.) If such inspector or other officer declares any such plants, fruit, or
packages to be diseased or infected with disease, he shall give notice thereof
to the owner or person in charge thereof, who shall forthwith take such
measures and do such acts as are necessary, or as the inspector or other
officer deems necessary, in order to eradicate or prevent the spread of the
disease.

(3.) If such owner or person fails or neglects so to do to the satisfaction
of the inspector or other officer, such inspector or other officer may do the
same at the expense in all things of sitch owner or person, who, nevertheless,
shall not thereby be released from his other liabilities under this Act.

(4.) In the exercise of the powers conferred upon him by this section
the inspector or other officer may remove, treat, disinfect, destroy, or other-
wise dispose of any such plants, fruit, or packages in such manner as he
thinks fit.

Seizure of prohibited plants, etc.

9. (i.) Any plant, fruit, fungus, parasite, insect, or other thing which is
in any way introduced or attempted to be introduced into Western Aus-
tralia in contravention of any Proclamation under this Act may, together
with any package containing the same or with which the same may have
come in contact, be seized by any inspector or other authorised officer, or
any officer of Customs, and be disinfected, destroyed, or otherwise disposed
of as such inspector or officer deems fit, at the expense of the owner or
person in charge thereof.

(2.) It shall be the duty of all officers of Customs to assist in carrying
out the provisions of this section and preventing the introduction into
Western Australia of anything in contravention of any such Proclamation,
and for that purpose they may, in respect of anything so introduced or
attempted to be introduced, exercise all the powers conferred by " The
Customs Laws Consolidation Act, ] 892," in respect to uncustomed or pro-
hibited goods.

Employment of Assistants.

10. Any inspector or other authorised officer may employ such
assistants as he deems necessary in carrying out the provisions of this Act,.
and may pay them such remuneration as the Minister deems reasonable.

591

Payment of expenses incurred.

11. The owner, occupier, or other person through whose neglect, omis-
sion, or other default, or by reason of the infection of whose orchard, plants,
fruits, or packages, the expenses of such employment have been incurred,
shall repay the same to the inspector on demand ; and, in default of payment,
such expenses may be recovered as a debt due to the Crown.

Use offeree in case of resistance.

12. For the purpose of making an entry or removal, or otherwise per-
forming his duties under this Act, any inspector or other authorised officer
or assistant may, in case of resistance, use all necessary force.

Persons obstructing officers.

13. Every person commits an offence against this Act who directly or
indirectly obstructs, hinders, or interrupts, or threatens or assaults, or uses
improper or abusive language to any inspector or other authorised officer or
assistant whilst in the performance of his duty under this Act.

Provided that no proceedings for the recovery of any penalty for such
offence, nor the payment thereof, shall be a bar to any action at law by any
.such inspector or other authorised officer or assistant ; but every such action
may be commenced and proceeded with as if this Act had not been passed,
any rule of law to the contrary notwithstanding.

Officers not to be trespassers.

14. No inspector or other authorised officer or assistant shall be deemed
to be a trespasser by reason of any entry or removal under this Act, or be
liable for any damage occasioned in carrying out the provisions of this Act.

Notices to be given in writing.

15. Any notice to be given to any person by any inspector or other
authorised officer or assistant in the performance of his duties under this
Act must be given in writing, either by delivering the same to such person,
or by leaving the same at or posting the same addressed to him at his usual
or last known place of abode or business in Western Australia, or. if he is
unknown or cannot be found in Western Australia, then by affixing such
notice in a conspicuous place on the land to which such notice relates.

Persons not entitled to compensation.

16. No person shall be entitled to any compensation whatsoever in
respect of anything done by any inspector or other authorised officer or
assistant in the discharge of his duties under this Act, or in respect of any
measure taken in order to eradicate or prevent the spread of disease or
carry out the provisions of this Act, or in respect of any loss or injury that
may directly or indirectly result therefrom.

Offences.

17. Every person commits an offence against this Act who, directly or
indirectly, by himself, his servant, or agent, —

(i.) Sells, or offers or exposes for sale, any plant, fruit, or package
which is diseased or infected, or (except under the direction of
an inspector or other authorised officer) brings or suffers the
same to be brought upon, or removes or suffers the same to be
removed from his premises ; or

(2.) Sells, or offers or exposes for sale, any plant, fruit or thing which
has been introduced into Western Australia in breach of any
Proclamation under this Act, or (except under the direction of
any inspector or other authorised officer) brings or suffers the
same to be brought upon, or removes, or suffers the same to be
removed from his premises ; or

592

(3.) Does or attempts to do any other act in breach of this Act, or of
any Proclamation, Order in Council, or Regulation under this
Act; or

(4.) Fails or neglects to faithfully observe and perform any duty or
obligation imposed on him by this Act or by any Proclama-
tion, Order in Council, or Regulation under this Act.

Penalty.

18. Every person who commits an offence against this Act is liable to
a penalty not exceeding One hundred pounds.

Recovery of penalties.

19. All penalties under this Act shall be recovered in a summary way
re a Stipendiary Magistrate alone, and upon prosecution by an inspector,
•me person authorised by him, or by the Minister in that behalf.

Proof of knowledge.

20. Whenever in any such prosecution knowledge must be shown, such
knowledge shall be presumed, unless and until the contrary is proved, and
the defendant satisfies the Court that the want of knowledge was reasonable
and was in no way imputable to negligence on the part of himself, his servant ,
or agent.

Penalties, etc., to form part of Consolidated Revenue Fund.

21. All penalties and other moneys ' recovered or received under this
Act shall be paid into the Public Account, and form part of the Consolidated
Fund.

Payment of expenses incurred.

22. All expenses incurred in the administration of this Act shall be
paid out of moneys to be appropriated by Parliament for that ptirpose.

Actions against officers to be commenced within two months of cause.

23. (i.) No action shall be brought against any inspector or other
authorised officer or assistant acting in execution of this Act for anything
done in pursuance hereof or under the authority hereof unless such action
is commenced within two months after the cause of action arose, nor unless,
at least one month before the action is commenced, notice in writing of
intention to commence the same, and of the cause thereof, and of the damage
claimed, is given to the defendant.

(2.) The defendant in any such action may give this Act and any
special matter in evidence.

Regulations.

24. The Governor by Order in Council gazetted, may from time to time
make such Regulations as he deems necessary for any part of the purposes
following, that is to say : —

(i.) Prescribing the manner in which diseased plants or fruit and
infected packages shall be treated, cleansed, destroyed, or other-
wise disposed of.

(2.) Providing for the registration of all orchards, vineyards, and
nurseries.

(3.) Prescribing the matter in respect whereof fees shall be payable
under this Act, fixing the amount of such fees, and the mode
of the payment and the recovery thereof.

593

(4-) And generally for any other purpose for which regulations are
contemplated by this Act, or which he deems necessary in order
to give full effect to this Act.

Repeal of 44 Viet., No. 5, and 58 Viet., No. 32.

25. The Destructive Insects and Substances Act, 1880, and the Insect
Pests Act, 1894, are hereby repealed :

Provided that all Proclamations and Orders in Council made thereunder
and in force at the time of the coming into operation of this Act shall be
deemed to have been made under this Act, and shall continue in force until
revoked under this Act.

Appeals,

26. Any person feeling aggrieved by any order or conviction under this
Act shall be entitled to appeal therefrom to the Court of General or Quarter
Sessions or to the Supreme Court in the manner and form and in the terms
respectively which are prescribed by the law in force for the time being with
reference to appeals.

In the name and on behalf of the Queen I hereby assent to this
Act.

ALEX. C. ON SLOW, Governor's Deputy.

594

INDEX.

A.

PAGE

Acacia for Shelter 45

Account Sales of Fruit in London 371

Acetification in Wine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 465

Acme Harrow ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 83

Agricultural Development, L. Lindley Cowen ... ... ... ... 4

Alcoholic, low strength in Wine ... ... ... ... ... ... 460

Alligator or Avocado Pear ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 303

Alluvium Soil 20

Almond Pruning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 154

Tree for Shelter 46

Almonds Selected ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 278

„ „ LX.L .. 278

„ „ Jordan 278

„ „ Languedoc 278

„ „ Ne-plus-ultra 279

„ „ Nonpareil ... ... ... ... ... ... 278

Ammonio-Carbonate of Copper ... ... ... ... ... ... 490

Anoplosthetus Opalinus BruUe ... ... ... ... ... ... 542

Anthracnose or Black Spot on Grapes ... ... ... ... ... 524

Ants 532

Aphelinusfucipennis... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 572

Aphis 533

„ Black, on the Peach 537

„ brassicx ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 535

„ Cabbage 535

„ -eating Ladybird ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 535

„ of the Plum and Cherry ... ... ... ... ... ... 538

„ of the Orange ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 538

„ persica niger ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 537

„ Woolly * 535

Apple Blight or Scale 507

„ Bitter Pit of 506

„ Canker 510

„ Custard or Cherimoyer ... ... ... ... ... ... 307

„ Drying- 325

„ Gathering 337

„ Stock 93

Apples, Pruning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 145

Select 206

Adam's Pearmain ... ... ... ... ... ... 212

Ben Davis 210

Bismark ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 212

Blenheim Orange ... ... ... ... ... ... 213

Cellini 210

Cleopatra 212

Cox's Orange Pippin ... ... ... ... ... 212

Dunn's Seedling 214

Early Margaret .... 208

Emperor Alexander ... ... ... ... ... 208

595

Apples, Select Esopus Spitzenburg ... ... ... ... ... 13

„ „ Five Crowned Pippin ... ... ... ... ... 212

„ „ Gravenstein ... ... ... ... ... ... 208

Irish Peach 208

Jonathan 210

LordSuffield 208

Maiden's Blush 213

Mr. Gladstone 208

Nickajack 213

Northern Spy 214

Prince Alfred 213

Eed Astrachan ... ... ... ... ... ... 208

Eeinette de Canada ... ... ... ... ... 210

Eibston Pippin 210

Eokewood 214

Eome Beauty 213

Eymer 214

Scarlet Nonpareil 213

Shockley 214

Springdale 214

Stone Pippin 215

Strawberry Pippin ... ... ... ... ... 214

Strumer Pippin ... ... ... ... ... ... 215

Trivett's Seedling 210

Yellow Bellflower 212

Shipment of 370

Apricots, Box of 347

Drying 323

Pruning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 156

Select 222

Alsace * • 223

Blenheim 222

Hemskerk 223

Mansfield Seedling 223

Moorpark ..'. 223

Mrs. Hart 223

Newcastle Early 222

Oulin's Early Peach 222

Pale Superb 223

Eoman 223

Eoyal 222

Warwick 223

Stocks for 95

Artesian Water ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 13

Ashes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 187

Ashes of Plants, Mineral Constituents of ... ... ... ... 177

Aspect modifies Climate 15

Aspidiotus aurantii ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 573

„ perniciosus ... ... ... ... .. ... ... 570

„ rapax ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 574

ressi 576

Australian Fruit Cases ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 355

B.

Bacillus Solanacearum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 531

Bait 492

Bag Worms ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 542

Bamboo Eeecl for Shelter . 46

596

Banana and Plantain . . ... ... ... ... ... ... 304

Bark Lice ... 533

Barrow Spray Pumps 493

Basket, Grape : 350

Beagle Bay Mission ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Bee- Moth 540

Beer Ferments 413

Bellows, Sulphur 495

Bench-grafting, Tools for ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 89

Beneficial Insects 535,537,538,542,555,558,568,

569, 572, 573, 577, 584: 585

Aphis-feeding Ladybirds ... ... ... ... 535

Black Scale Parasites 569

Blastophaga grossorum ... ... ... ... 586

Chilom,enes quadripu-tulatus ... ... ... 586

Coccinella transvei salis ... ... ... ... 585

Codlin Moth Parasites ... ... ... ... 554

Ladybirds 585,586

Leis Conformis ... ... ... ... ... ... 585

Orcus Australasias ... ... ... ... ... 586

Parasite of San Jose Scale 572

Red Scale Parasite ... ... ... ... ... 573

Rhizobius debilis ... ... ... ... ... 586

Syrphus Fly 538

TachinaFly 585

Bitter Orange for Shelter 47

Bitter-pit 63

„ of the Apple 506

„ Rot or Ripe Rot 507

Bitterness in Wine 469

Blackberry ... 285

„ Gathering 339

„ and Raspberry, Pruning of ... 165

Black Aphis of the Peach 537

„ Rot of the Tomato 530

Scale 568

„ „ Parasites ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 569

Spot of Citrus Fruit 520

„ or Scab 507

„ „ or Anthracnose of the Grape 524

„ Smut or Sooty Mould ... ... ... ... ... ... 522

Blasting Ground for Planting ... ... . . ... ... ... 70

Blastophaga grossorum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 586

Blight or Scale of Apple 507

„ on Pear, or Fire Blight : 513

Blister Mite of Pear Leaf 562

Board for Planting 69

Bordeaux Mixture ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 490

Mixture (modified) 490

Botanical Structure of the Strawberry 289

Bottle Pasteuriser (portable) ' 473

Bottling Wine (amateur) ... ... ... ... ... ...4 ... 455

Box, Fancy Fruit .' ... 345

., of Apricots ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... 347

Br achy chit on Populneus for Shelter ... ... ... .«.. ... 47

Brandy Distillation 446

A Convenient Still 453

„ „ Cost of Manufacture ... ... ... ... 451

„ „ Cost of Production of the Raw Material ... ... 449

„ Relation of Raw Material to Manufactured Brandy 447

Tilting Still 454

597

Brandy Distillation, Utilisation of Kef use 452

Breadfruit 306

Brick and Cement Vats 384

Broussirt ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 528

Brown Grape Scale ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 567

„ Eot of Fruit 509

„ or Soft Scale 570

Bryobia pratensis . . , ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 564

Bud, Forcing the Ill

Budding 106

How to do 109

the Fig 112

Material 108

Vines 64

the Vine - 112

Buds and Shoots, Incision to Control Growth ... ... ... ... 141

Buffalo Beetle ... ' 587

Bug, Rutherglen 564

„ Mealy Destructive 578

Bugs, Scale 566

Bullock's Heart Fruit ... 307

Burning off ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35

Cabbage Aphis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 535

Moths 541

Calandra granaria ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 559

Calendar for Spraying, etc. ... ... ... ... ... ... 486

Calif ornian Refrigerator for Wine ... ... ... ... , . . 422

Camphor Tree for Shelter 48

Candying Citron and Lemon Peel ... ... ... ... ... 327

Fruit 327

Canker on the Apple 510

Canning in Factory ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 334

„ Fruit, Household 332

„ and Fruit Pulp 331

Capacity of a Cask in Gallons 377

Cape Gooseberry 285

Capri Fig ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 244

Caprification of Fig ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 244

Carbon Bi-Sulphide 492

Carob Tree for Shelter 46

Carpocapsa pomonella ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 546

Case-Moths 542

Cask, Capacity of in Gallons 377

Casks and Vats 375

Discolouring 380

Gauging 377

How to Disinfect ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 380

to Season 378

Size of 377

Slack 383

Casky taste in Wine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 460

Casse in Wine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 466

Cement Vats, Brick and 384

Ceratitis Capitata ... ... ... ... ... ... 581

Checks, Natural, on Insect Pests (see Beneficial Insects).

Cherimoyer or Custard Apple ... ... ... ... ... ... 307

Cherries, Gathering ... 339

598

Cherries, Select 227

„ „ Bigarreau Napoleon 228

Twyford 228

„ Black Eagle 228

„ „ California Advance 228

„ „ Centennial 228

„ Chapman 228

„ Florence 228

„ Morello ... 229

„ St. Margaret 228

„ Werder's Early Black 228

CherryStock 96-

„ and Pear Slug 561

„ and Plum Aphis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 538

,, .Pruning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 157

Chestnut 280

„ and Walnut, Pruning of ' 159

Chilomenes quadripustulatus ... ... ... ... ... ... 586

Chocolate Soil 17

Cinneraria Fly ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 542

Citron and Lemon Peel for candying ... ... ... 327

Citrus Fruits, Melanose on ... ... ... ... ... ... 520'

„ „ Black spot on ... ... ... ... ... ... 520

Selected 236.

Eottingof 522

Citrus Trees, Collar Eot on 519

„ „ Diseases of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 519'

„ „ Gumming in ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 519

„ MaldiGomaon 519

„ Pruning of 162.

Stock 96

Cladosporium fulvum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 531

Clearing, How to do it and How not to do it ... ... ... ... 30

„ and Eingbarking Land ... ... ... ... ... ... 22

„ Specification for ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31

Cleft Grafting 99

Cob Nut 282

Coccinella septempunctata ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 535

„ transversalis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 585-

Cockchafer, Destructive ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 542

CodlinMoth 545

„ „ Parasites ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 554

Cold Storage for Fruit 368

Collar Eot, Maldi Goma, Gumming ... ... ... ... ... 519

Cooling Wine, When to commence ... ... ... ... ... 428

Corking 458

Cottony Cushion Scale 577

Cowen, L. Lindley, and Agricultural Development 4

Cracked Staves 384

Crate, Six-basket 347

Crates for Strawberries, etc. ... ... ... ... ... ... 350

Crinkle or Pig Face 511

Crown Gall of the Grape 528

„ Grafting 103

Crusher and Stemmer ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 387

Cultivation conserves Moisture ... ... ... ... ... ... 74

„ Favours Deep Eooting

„ Implements of... ... ... ... ... ... ... 76

Harness for 84

„ Summer... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 73

Cultivator or Scarifier ... ... ... ... 79

599

OurlLeaf 516

Currant, The 286

•Currants and Gooseberry, Pruning cf ... ... ... ... ... 165

Gathering 339

Selected 249

Black Naples 286

Lee's Prolific 286

Versailles 286

White Dutch 286

Custard Apple or Cherimoyer ... ... ... ... ... ... 307

CutWorms 555

Cutaway Harrow ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 83

€ypress Tree for Shelter 47

D.

Djictylopius adonidum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 578

citri 579

„ destructor ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 578

„ longifilis . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 578

Date Palm, The 307

Defects and Diseases of Wine (see Wine, Diseases, and Defects of).

Destructive Cockchafer ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 542

Mealy Bug 578

Diagonal Planting 58

Die-back, Gumming, or Sour Sap 516

Digging Plough ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 78

Dilophogaster Calif ornica ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 569

Disbudding 170

Diseases of Citrus Trees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 519

„ of Grape Vines (see Grape Vines, Diseases of).

and Defects of Wines (see Wine, Diseases, and Defects of).

„ of Loquats ... 514

Distillation, Piquette for 442

Discolouring Casks ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 380

Disinfect Casks, How to 380

Downy Mildew on the Grape ... ... ... ... ... ... 526

Drag Harrow 84

Dragon-blood Tree for Shelter 48

Drainage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40

„ and Irrigation for Strawberries ... ... ... ... 297

Dry Air, Value of in connection with Fruit Growing ... ... ... 9

Drying Fruit (see Fruit Drying).

„ „ Evaporator ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 327

„ Grapes 246

„ Vegetables 326

E.

Earthnut 280

Earthy Taste in Wine 459

Enemies of Insect Pests (see Beneficial Insects).

Equilateral Planting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 58

F.

Factory, Canning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 334

Fencing 51

600

Fencing, Gates for 54

„ Opossum-proof 53

„ Stretching- Wire-netting 53

Timber for 52

,, Wire for ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55

Ferment of Beer 413

Ferments of Wine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 414

„ Yeasts and ... 432

Fermentation Chart ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 425

„ Mannitic ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 467

Eevivalof 418

Starting 415

„ Temperature during 416

Fermenting Shed ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 374

Fertilisers, Different Sources of 180

and Fruit Crops, The Effect of 190

Value of 188

Fertilising Matter removed by Fruits 178

Fig Caprification ... ... ... ... ... ... 244

„ Budding the 112

„ Drying 326

„ Grafting 104

„ Pruning of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 159

„ Tree for Shelter 48

„ Wasp ... ' 586

Figs, Selected ' 244

Wild or Capri 244

Smyrna 245

Adriatic 246

White Genoa 246

White Adriatic 246

„ Brown Turkey ... ... ... ... ... 246

Gathering ... 399

Filbert and Cob ... 282

„ Pruning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 158

Fire or Pear Blight 513

Flagging 383

Flowers of Wine 464

Fly, Tachina 585

Freckle of the Peach ... 518

Fruit, Account Sales of in London ... ... ... ... ... 371

„ Candying 327

Citron and Lemon Peel 327

Other Fruits 330

„ Canning, Household 332

„ Case, What one should be ... ... ... ... ... ... 354

„ Cases, Australian ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 355

South Australian Apple and Orange Case . . . 355

Export Case 355

Tasmanian Apple Case 355

New Tasmanian and Victorian Apple Case... 355

the Half-Case 355

Sydney Dump ... ... ... ... ... 356

„ Choose Varieties according to Climate ... ... ... ... 14

„ Citrus 236

„ Cold Storage for 368

Fruit-drying ... ... ... ..". ... ... ... ... ... 316

„ Apples and Pears ... ... ... ... ... ... 325

„ Apricots and Peaches ... ... ... . . ... 323

„ „ Pitting Knives 324

Corinth Raisins 317

601

Fruit-drying, Evaporator for 327

Fruit Dipper 325

Figs 326

„ Prunes and Plums 324

„ Pudding Eaisins or Lexias... ... .*. ... ... 317

Raisins • 317

Dipping 318

Drying 320

Packing 322

Picking 317

Seedless 322

Stemming ... ... ... ... ... ... 321

SweatBox 321

Sulphuring 319

Rinsing 3.19

Table 322

Winnowing ... ... ... ... ... 321

Fruit Evaporator 327

„ Fancy Box for 345

„ Fly * 581

„ Fertilising Matter removed by 1 78

„ Fungus Diseases of (see Fungus Diseases).

„ Land of Western Australia ... ... ... ... ... 5

„ „ Temperature ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7

„ Light 8

„ Rainfall 10

Ladder ' 340

Grow to " 204

Grading 341

Grader, Home-made ... ... ... ... ... ... 342

Gathering and Marketing ... ... ... ... ... ... 337

How to Cool and Thaw 369

Judging 358

Packing 343

Pulping 335

Pulp, Canning and ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 331

Soft, How to Pack 348

Stone, Diseases of 516

Storehouse for ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 352

Summer Pruning and Thinning ... ... ... ... ...169,172

Trade, The Oversea 365

Trees, Labels for ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 73

„ Pedigreed ... 206

„ Systems of Training and Shaping ... ... ... 134

Wrapping 345

Fruits, Small 285

Tropical 303

Fruitfuln ess of Spurs and Wood 144

Fruitgrowing, Soil in relation to ... ... ... ... ... 15

Fumigation, Caution to Operators ... ... ... ... ... 503

„ Doses and Time ... ... ... ... ... ... 504

Fumigating Outfit 503

„ Granaries ... ' ... ... ... ... ... ... 506

,, Nursery Stock and ... ... ... ... ... /.. 505

Plant 501

What and When to Fumigate ... 501

Fungoid Pests, Insect and... ... ... ... ... ... 480 to 588

Fungus Diseases ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 506

„ „ Anthracnose or Black Spot on Grapes ... ... 524

„ Apple or Pear Blight or Scab 507

Bitter Pit of the Apple 506

602

Fungus Diseases, Bitter Eot or Bipe Eot ... ... ... ... 507

Black Rot on Tomatoes 530

„ Spot of Citrus Fruit ... 520

„ „ „ Spot or Scab 507

„ „ Brown Rot of Fruit 509

„ „ Canker on the Apple ... ... ... ... ... 510

Collar Rot on Citrus Trees 519

Crinkle or Pig Face 511

„ „ Crown Gall of the Grape 528

Curl Leaf 516

„ „ Downy Mildew on the Grape 526

„ „ Gumming, Collar Rot, Maldi Goma 519

„ „ „ Sour Sap, or Die Back 516

Leaf Rust 517

„ „ of the Tomato 531

„ Scald 517

„ „ Melanose ... ... ... ... ... ... 520

Mouldy Core 511

„ „ „ Root of Grape Vines 525

„ „ Oidium Tuckerii on the Grape ... ... ... 526

Peach Freckle ... 518

Pear Blight or Fire Blight 513

„ „ Powdery Mildew ... ... ... ... ... 511

„ „ „ " „ on the Grape 526

„ ., Ripe Rot of the Tomato 530

Root Knot 518

„ . „ Rotting of Citrus Fruit ... 522

Shot Hole Disease 518

Sooty Mould or Black Smut 522

Squirt Berry of the Vine 529

„ „ Strawberry Leaf Blight or Sunburn 523

Tomato Wilt 531

Twig Blight 511

Water Core 513

Fusarium lycopersici sacc ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 531

G.

Galleria melonella ... ... ... ... ••• ••• *•• ••• 540

Garden and Orchard Pests ... 485

„ Remedies for 490

•" „ „ Treatment for 486

„ Syringe 493

Gate for Fence

Gathering and Marketing Fruit

Fruit

Apples 337

„ Blackberries

„ Cherries ...

Currants... ... ... »• ••- ••• ••• ••• 339

" Figs 339

Grapes 339

Gooseberries

Melons

Peaches

Pears ... ... ... ••« ••• ••• ••• ••• 338

Plums

Raspberries

Strawberries 339

603

Gauging Casks 377

Gelechia cerealella ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 557

Gloeosporium ampelinum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 524

,, fructigenum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 530

Gold, Its Discovery and Effects on Agriculture... ... ... ... 3

Gooseberry and Currants, Pruning of 165

„ Cape 285

Gooseberries, Picking or Gathering ... ... ... ... ... 339

Selected 287

Belle de Meaux 287

Crown Bob 287

„ Edouard Lefort 287

Leveller 287

Lord Crew 287

„ Madame Edouard Lefort ... ... ... 287

Roaring Lion 287

„ Souvenir de Billard ... ... ... ... 287

Waterloo 287

Grading Fruit 341

Grader, A Home-made Fruit ... ... ... ... ... ... 342

Grafting 86

„ Objects of 86

„ Bench, Tools for 89

„ Tools and Materials ... ... ... ... ... ... 87

„ Wax and other Coverings ... ... ... ... ... 90

„ Affinity of Stock and Scion ... ... ... ... ... 91

„ Methods of 97

„ Inarching 97

„ Whip 97

Root 98

„ Cleft 99

„ under the Bark 103

„ Crown 103

„ the Fig and Walnut 104

„ the Olive 104

Side 106

after Care of 106

Grain Moth 557

Granary Weevil ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 559

Grape, Anthracnose or Black Spot on 524

Basket 350

Berry, Section of a ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 393

Juice, Unfermented ... ... ... ... ... ... 470

Why it Ferments 470

Must, Fresh, Composition of 394

Vat 409

Vine Stocks for 96

Grapes for Drying 246

„ Gathering 339

„ How to Pack 348

„ Judging 361

„ for Red Wine 256

for White Wine 263

should be Stalked 405

for Table 250

When to Pick 395

Selected 247

„ Almeria ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 256

„ Aramon ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 256

Aspiran 257

Black Currant ... 249

604

Grapes, Selected, Black Hamburgh ... 252

„ „ Cabernet S a vignon ... ... ... ... ... 258

Gros ... 258

„ „ Carignane 257

„ „ Chasselas de Fontainebleau 250

„ „ „ de Nigrepont 251

Vibert 250

„ „ Cornichon Purple ... ... ... ... ... 254

„ „ „ Blanc ... 254

Dolcetto 259

„ „ Doradillo 254

„ ,, Early Madeleine 250

„ „ „ White Malvasia 250

„ „ Flame Torkay 253

Folle Blanche : ... 263

„ „ Gouais ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 263

„ „ Grand Sentennial ... ... ... ... ... 252

Green's Early 250

Grenache 259

Gros Guillaume ... ... ... ... ... 255

„ Colman ... ... ... ... ... ... 255

Hsenapop ... ... ... ... ... ... 252

Huasco ... ... ... ... ..- ... ... 247

Kechmist Ali Violet 252

Madeleine ISToir ... ... ... ... ... ... 250

Madresfield Court 251

Malbeck 260

Marsanne 263

Mataro 260

Merlot 260

Miller's Burgundy 261

Morrastel 261

Mourisco Preto ... ... ... ... ... ... 261

Muscatel Gordo Blanco ... ... ... ... 247

Muscat Hamburgh ... , . . ... ... ... 252

Pedro Ximenes .... 263

Pineau White Chardonnay 264

Pinot, Black 262

Quick's Early 250

Eaisin des Dames 253

Eed Lombardy 255

„ Muscat of Frontignan ... ... .. ... 251

„ Prince 252

Eiesling ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 264

Eose of Peru 254

Eousanne ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 265

Sheperd's Eiesling ... ... ... ... ... 264

Shiraz 262

Sultana ... 248

Thompson's Seedless 249

Trebbiano 254

Verdeiho ... 265

Verdot 262

„ White Corinth 249

„ „ White Muscat of Alexandria 247

Grape Vines, Diseases of 524

Anthracnose or Black Spot 524

Brown Scale ... ... ... ... ••• 567

Crown Gall 528

Downy Mildew 526

Mouldy Eoot 525

605

Grape Vines, Diseases of, Oidium Tuckerii ... ... ... ... 526

„ „ Powdery Mildew 526

,. „ Squirt Berry 529

Infertile ... 475

„ Phylloxera Resistant ... ... ... ... ... 265

Planting 64

Stocks for 96

Greedy Scale 574

Green Manuring ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 187

Greenness in Wine ... ... ... . ... ... ... ... 459

Gauva,the 310

Gumming, Collar Rot, and Maldi Goma ... ... ... ... ... 519

„ of Citrus Trees , 519

Sour Sap or Die Back 516

Gypsum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 187

H.

Half Case : 355

Harrow, the Acme ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 83

Cutaway 83

Drag 84

„ Spading ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 81

Spring Tooth 80

Harshness in Wine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 459

Hawk Moths • 560

Heated Taste in Wine 460

Hemencyotus crawii ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 569

Hexagonal Planting... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 58

Hide-bound Trees and Swellings, Reduction of 140

Horse-Hoe 81

Household Canning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 332

How and When to Spray ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 497

Hydro-Cyanic Gas 492

I.

Icerya purchasi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 577

Inarching ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 97

Infertile Grape Vines 475

Ingredients of Must ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 394

Injector for Carbon Bi-Sulphide 496

Insecticides ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 483

Bi-Sulphide of Carbon :.. 484

Carbolic Acid 484

Coal Tar 484

Hellebore 483

Hot Water 484

Kerosene ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 484

Pyrethrum 484

Resin Compound 484

Sal Ammoniac ... ... ... . , . ... ... ... 484

Tobacco 484

Insect and Fungoid Pests ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 480

Ihsect Pests 532

Ants 532

,, Aphis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 533

Bag Worm or Case Moth 542

Bark Lice 533

„ Bee Moth 540

606

Insect Pests, Black Aphis of the Peach ... ... ... ... 537

„ „ Scale .... 568

„ Brown Grape Scale ... ... ... ... ... 567

„ „ or Soft Scale 570

Buffalo Beetle 587

„ Cabbage Aphis 535

„ „ Moths ... ... ... ... ... ... 541

„ Case Moths or Bag Worms ... ... ... ... 542

„ Cherry and Plum Aphis 538

„ „ andPearSlug 561

„ Cinneraria Fly ... ... ... ... ... ... 542

„ Codlin Moth 545

„ Cut Worms ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 555

„ Destructive Cockchafer ... ... ... ... ... 542

Mealy Bug ... 578

Fruit Fly 581

„ Grain Moth 557

„ Granary Weevil ... ... ... ... ... ... 559

„ Greedy Scale ... ... ... ... ... ... 574

„ Hawk Moths 560

„ Long Thread Mealy Bug ... ... ... ... ... 578

Mealy Bug 578

„ Mussel Scale 575

„ Natural Checks 485

„ Orange Aphis ... ... ... ... ... ... 538

Mealy Bug 579

Pear and Cherry Slug 561

„ Leaf Blister Mite 562

„ Plague Locusts 583

„ Plum and Cherry Aphis 538

Potato Moth 563

Eed Mite 564

„ „ Scale 573

„ „ Spider ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 564

Rutherglen Bug 564

„ San Jose Scale 570

Scale Bugs 566

Thrips 580

„ White Cottony Cushion Scale 577

„ Wire Worms 581

„ Woolly Aphis 535

„ Natural Enemies (see Beneficial Insects).

Iron, Sulphate of, Wash 490

Ironstone Gravel Soil 16

Irrigation, Advantages of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 194

„ Amount of Water required ... ... ... ... ... 202

„ Drainage for Strawberries ... ... ... ... ... 297

Evils of 194

„ Factors which influence 197

Method of 198

„ Root Management ... ... ... ... ... ... 193

„ Spread of Water from Deep Furrows 200

„ Water Measurement ... ... ... ... ... ... 196

Waters fit for . 196

J.

Jack Fruit, the 312

Japanese Plums (see Plums, Japanese).

Jellies .. ... 336

607

Jeropiga 442

Judging and Exhibitions, Rules for ... ... ... ... ... 358

Fruits, Scale of Points for 360

„ Grapes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 361

„ Lemons ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 363

„ Oranges ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 362

„ Pornaceous Fruits ... ... . . ... ... • • • • • • 361

Stone Fruits

Tomatoes . ... ... ... ... ... 361

K.

Kaki or Persimmons ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 272

Kerosene Emulsion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 491

Kumquat 242

L.

Labels for Fruit Trees 73

Lady-birds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...585-586

„ Aphis-eating ... ... ..* ... ... ... ... 535

Land Leveller 77

Laying out the Ground ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56

Leaf Blight on Strawberry 523

„ Rust 517

„ Rust of the Tomato 531

„ Scald , 517

Lecanium Cyiribiform ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 567

„ hesperidum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 570

olese 568

Lees, How to Preserve ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 433

Leis Conformis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 585

Lemon Clipper ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 351

Peel, Candying 327

Lemons, Judging ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 363

Selected 242

Eureka 243

Lisbon 243

Sicilian 244

Villa Franca 242

Shipment of ... 370

Lice Bark & 533

Light, its Influence on Agriculture 8

Lime 185

„ and Sulphur Paint 491

,. Sulphur, and Salt Wash 490

Liquorous Wines ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 428

Lita Solanella 563

Litchi 313

Liver of Sulphur Wash 492

Locusts, Plague ... ' 583

Long Thread Mealy Bug 578

Longan, the 313

Loquat, Diseases of 514

„ Pruning of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 159

Select 221

Tree for Shelter 48

608

M.

Macadamia Terminalia for Shelter ... ... ... ... . . 48

Macrosporium Tomato ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 530

Magnolia Tree for Shelter ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 48

Maldi Goma, Collar Rot, Gumming ... ... ... ... ... 519

Mandarins, Selected ... 240

Emperor Mandarin ... ... .. ... 241

Other varieties .. ... ... ... ... 241

Parker's Special ... ... ... ... ... 241

Scarlet Mandarin ... ... ... ... ... 240

The Beauty of Glen Retreat 241

Thorny Mandarin of Tangerine ... ... ... 240

Mango,the 313

Mannitic Fermentation in Wine ... ... ... ... ... ... 467

Manui'es and Manuring ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 176

Manuring, Experiment for yourselves ... ... ... ... ... 192

Green 187

„ Strawberries 293

Manure, When and How to ... ... ... ... ... ... 191

Map of Orchard ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 73

Marketing Fruit, Gathering and ... ... ... ... ... ... 337

Masicera pachytyli ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 585

Mealy Bug 578

Destructive 578

„ Long Thread 578

„ Orange 579

Melanose ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 520

Melons, Picking, or Gathering ... ... ... ... » ... ... 340

Metal Spiral Coils for Fermentation ... ' ... 420

Metallic Fermenting Vats 420

Mite, Pear Leaf Blister 562

„ Red 564

Moths, Case, or Bug Worms ... ... ... ... ... ... 542

Bee 540

„ Cabbage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 541

„ Codlin 545

Grain 557

„ Hawk 560

Potato... 563

Mouldy Core 511

Mouldy Root of Grape Vine 525

Mulberry Tree for Shelter 48

Mulching, Effects of 85

„ of Strawberries 296

Muntz and Rousseaux Tubular Refrigerator 421

Mussel Scale 575

Must, Ingredients of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 394

„ Pump 389

Red Wine from 411

„ Separating from the Skin ... ... ... ... ... ... 411

Myrobalan Plum Tree for Shelter 49

Mytilaspis pomorum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 575

Myzus cerasi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 538

N.

Natural Enemies of Insect Pests (see Beneficial Insects).

Nectarine, Pruning of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 150

Nectarines, Select 226

609

Nectarines, Select, Elruge 227

Goldmine 227

Hunt's Tawny 227

Irrewarra ... ... ... ... ... ... 226

Lage White 227

Lord Napier 226

Stanwick 227

Victoria 227

Stock for 95

Nixon's Climax Pump ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 494

North-West and North of Western Australia ... ... ... ... 5

Nursery Stock and Fumigation ... ... ... ... ... ... 505

„ Trees, Examination of ... ... ... ... ... ... 70

Vines in 68

Nuts .. 277

Almond .."." 278

Chestnut 280

Earthnut 280

Filbert and Cob 282

Sprouting Seedlings ... ... ... . ... ... 277

Walnut 283

Nysiusvinitor 565

0.

Oidium Tuckerii on the Grape ... 526

Olive Grafting ... 104

„ Pruning of ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... 161

Olives, Selected 275

Ascolano ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 277

Blanquet '. 275

Bouquetier ... ... ... ... ... ... 275

Gordal : 277

Manzanillo ... ... ... ... ... ... 277

Nevadillo Blanco ... ... ... ... ... ... 277

Pendoulier ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 277

Picholeiie 275

Sevillano 276

Verdale 275

Opossum-proof Fence ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 53

Orange Aphis 538

Bitter, for Shelter 47

Oranges for London as an ordinary cargo ... ... ... .., 370

„ Judging 362

Mealy Bug 579

Shipment of 370

Stocks for 96

Selected 236

Australian Navel ... ... ... ... ... 236

Cheriton ... ... ... ... "... ... 239

Golden Nugget Navel 237

Golden Buckeye Navel 237

Jaffa 239

Maltese Blood 237

Mediterranean Sweet 239

Navel 236

Paper Eind St. Michael ... 239

Parramatta ... ... ... ... ... ... 237

Queen ... 239

610

Oranges, Selected Ruby ... ... ... ... ,., ... ... 237

„ Seedlings ... ... ... ... ... ... 240

„ Selecta 239

St. Michael's ... 239

„ The Navelencia ... ... ... ... ... 237

„ The Oonshia 240

„ The Seville or Bitter Orange 240

„ „ Thompson's Improved Navel 237

„ „ Valencia Late ... ... ... ... ... ... 240

» >. Washington Navel ... ... ... ... ... 236

Orchard and Garden Pests 485

„ „ „ Remedies for ... ... ... ... 490

„ ,. „ Treatment for ... ... ... ... 486

„ Plantings, Map of ... ... ... ... ... ... 73

Orcus Australasias ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 586

Osage Orange Tree for Shelter 49

P.

Pack, How to 344

Packing Fruit 343

„ Fruit, Shipment Charges ... 369

Papaw, The 314

Parasites (see Beneficial Insects).

Parlatoria zizyphi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 576

Passion Fruits 302

„ Vine, Pruning of 164

Pasteuriser for Wine 461

Pea Nuts 280

Peach Basket 343

„ Black Aphis of the 537

„ Freckle 518

Peaches, Drying 323

Gathering 338

How to Pick 346

„ Pruning of 150

Stock for 95

Select 224

„ „ Alexander... ... ... ... ... ... ... 224

„ „ Amsden ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 224

Brigg's Early Eed May 224

Comet ' 225

Crawford's Early 225

Early Eivers 224

Elberta 225

Flat China 224

Foster 224

Kale's Early 224

High's Early Canada 224

Jones' Early Eed 224

Lady Palmerston ... ... ... ... ... 225

Lovell 225

Mountain Eose 225

Muir 225

McKevitt's Cling 226

Phillips' Cling 226

Eoyal George ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 225

Salway ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 225

Shanghai 225

611

Pear, Alligator or Avocado ... ... ... ... ... ... 303

„ Blight or Fire Blight 513

Scab ... 507

„ and Cherry Slug 561

„ Leaf Blister Mite 562

„ Pruning of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 145

„ Self Sterile 64

„ Stock 94

Pears, Drying 325

„ Gathering 338

„ Select 215

Bartlett 216

Beurre de Capiaumont 218

Beurre Glair geau 218

Broompark ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 218

Citron des Carmes ... ... ... ... ... ... 215

Clapp's Favourite ... ... ... ... ... ... 215

Fertility 216

Gansel's Bergamotte 218

Howell 216

Josephine de Malines ... ... ... ... ... 220

Kieffer's Hybrid 216

„ „ Le Lectier ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 216

LeConte 216

„ „ L'lnconnue 220

„ „ Louise Bonne de Jersey 216

„ „ Souvenir du Congres 215

„ „ Vicar of Winkfield 218

„ „ Winter Nelis 220

Pedigreed Fruit Trees 206

Pepper Tree for Shelter 49

Peronospora viticola ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 526

Persimmons or Kaki, Selected 272

„ Pruning of 164

„ Selected 272

Dai-Dai Maru ... ... ... ... ... 273

Hachiya ... ... ... ... ... ... 272

Hyakume 273

Tane-Nashi 272

Tsuru 273

Yama-Tsuru 273

Yeddo-Tchi 274

Yemon 273

Zengi 273

Pests, Garden and Orchard 485

„ Insect (see Insect Pests).

Phoma tuberculata ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 529

Phytomyza nigricornis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 542

Phytophus pyri ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 562

Pig-face or Crinkle 551

Pinching 169

Pineapples, Selected 315

„ „ Black Jamaica 316

Queen 316

» „ Eipley Queen 316

„ „ Smooth-leaved Cayenne 316

Pitting Knives for Fruit 324

Piquette, Aparatus for Extracting 444

„ for Distillation 442

Privet for Shelter 50

Plague, Locusts 583

612

Plantain and Banana 304

Plant A shes, Mineral constituents of 177

„ Breeding 204

„ Food, What is 176

„ Fumigation 501

Planting ... ... ... ... ... ... 63

„ Preparation of Land for 35

Diagonal ... ' ... 58

„ Equilateral ... ... ... 58

„ Hexagonal ... ... ... ... ... : ; . ... ... 50

„ Square ... ... ... ... ... 56

„ Quincunx ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... 60

„ Septuple 58

„ Distance Apart 60

Vines 64

Trees 69

„ Board 69

„ Blasting Ground, for ... ... . . ... ... ... 70

Best Time for ... ... 71

„ Proper Method of 71

„ How to Manure, When 72

Cut Hard Back After 73

„ Draw Map of Orchard 73

Plough, Digging ;.. ... 78

Plums, Japanese 234

Botan or Abundance ... ... ... ... .. 234

Burbank ... 234

Kelsey 235

Eed June 234

Satsuma, Blood ... ... 235

Wickson 235

and Prunes, Selected ... 229

Damson 230

Greengage 233

„ „ Imperial Epineuse 231

„ „ Pond's Seedling 231

„ „ Prune d' Agen 230

„ „ Prunus Simoni ... ... ... ... 233

Reine Claude de Bavay 231

Splendor 230

Tragedy 232

Washington ... 232

Yellow Magnum Bonum 231

and Cherry Aphis 538

„ Drying 324

„ Gathering 339

„ Pruning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 154

Stockfor 95

Plutella cruciferarum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 541

Packing Fruit for Long Shipment ' .:. .: 365

Pollination 205

Pomegranate Tree for Shelter 49

Pomelo, The 242

Pome Trees 206

Potato Moth ... . 563

Pouriddie or Mouldy Eoot of the Vine ... ... ... ... ... 525

Powdery Mildew ... 5L1

„ „ on the Grape 526

Preparation of Land fer Planting (see Planting)

Preclaceous Insects, Useful ... ... ... ... ... ... 585

Presses, Wine 389

613

Propagation of Strawberries 291

Prune Drying 324

„ Pruning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 154

Pruning " ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 114

Outfit 114

Cutting to a Bud 117

The Best Time for 118

Fruit Trees 133

„ First Pruning 137

„ Second „ " .: 138

„ Third „ ... • 139

„ Fourth „ 139

Root 145

The Almond 154

The Apricot 156

Apples and Pears ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 145

The Blackberry 165

The Cherry ..: ... 157

The Chestnut 159

Citrus Trees 162

The Fig 159

The Filbert 158

Gooseberries and Currants ... ... ... ... ... 165

The Olive 161

The Loquat 159

The Passion Vine 164

The Pear 145

The Persimmon ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 164

The Peach and the Nectarine 150

Plums and Prunes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 154

The Quince 150

The Easpberry and Blackberry ... ... ... ... ... 165

Stone Fruits 150

The Strawberry 167

of Strawberry ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 297

Summer, and Thinning Fruit ... ... ... ... ... 169

The Tomato 168

Vines 119

„ at Time of Transplanting ... ... ... ... 119

Systems of 121

Young Vines ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 121

Vines in W. A., How to 122

The Walnut and Chestnut ... 159

for Wood and for Fruit ... 120

Pulp, Fruit, Canning and ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 331

Pulping Fruit 335

Pumps, Spraying ... ... ... .'.. ... ... ... ... 492

„ Nixon's Climax ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 494

Putrid Decomposition in Wine ... 460

Q.

Qiiassia Chips and Whale Oil Soap 491

Quince Pruning ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 159

„ Tree for Shelter ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50

Quinces, Select ... ...• ... ... ... ... ... ... 220

Quincunx Planting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50

614

E.

Eainfall and Water Supply 10

Eaisins (see Fruit Drying).

Raspberry and Blackberry, Pruning of ... ... ... ... ... 165

„ „ Picking or Gathering ... ... ... 339

Selected 288

„ Belle de Fontenay ... ... ... ... ... 288

„ Black Easpberry 288

Cuthbert 288

„ European Easpberry ... ... ... ... 288

Fillbasket 288

„ Franconia ... ... ... ... ... ... 288

New Eochelle 288

Perennial Wild Eed Easpberry 288

Eearing Young Vines ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 429

Eed Mite 564

„ Scale 573

„ „ Parasites 573

„ Spider 564

„ Wine from Must 411

Eef rigeration of Wine by Ice ... ... ... ... ... ... 424

Eefrigerators for Wine 420

Eesin and Soda Wash 491

RhizoUus debilis 586

Rhizococcus araucarise ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 577

Eipe Eot or Bitter Eot 507

„ „ of the Tomato 530

Eingbarking and Clearing Land ... ... ... ... ... ... 22

Eoot Grafting 98

„ Knot 518

„ Pruning ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 145

Eopiness in Wine 468

Eot, Black, of the Tomato 530

Eotting of Citrus Fruit 522

Eutherglen Bug 564

S.

Saccharo meter, A Convenient ... ... ... ... ... ... 404

Salt Patches 18

San Jose Seals 570

„ „ „ Parasite of 572

Sandy Soils 20

Scab or Blight of Apple or Pear ... 507

Scale, Aspidiotus ressi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 576

„ Apple or Pear ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 507

„ Black 568

„ Brown Grape *. 567

„ Brown or Soft 570

„ Bugs 566

„ Cottony Cushion 577

„ Greedy 574

„ Mussel • 575

„ Parlatoria zizyphi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 576

„ Eed ... 573

„ San Jose 570

Scarifier or Cultivator 79

Schizoneura lanigera . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 535

615

Screw Press, The 391

Scutellista cyanea 569

Season Casks, To , 378

Section of a Grape Berry 393

Selandria cerasi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 561

Selecting Trees for Planting 70

Septuple Planting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 58

Shelter Trees 45

„ „ Acacia 45

„ Almond 46

„ „ Bamboo ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46

„ Bitter Orange ... ... ... ... ... ... 47

„ Brachy chiton populneus ... ... ... ... ... 47

„ Camphor ... 48

„ Carob 46

„ Cypress 47

„ Dragon-blood ... ... ... ... ... ... 48

» Fig 48

„ Loquat 48

„ Magnolia 48

„ „ Macadamia Terminalia ... ... ... ... ... 48

„ Mulberry ... 48

„ „ Myrobolan Plum ... ... ... ... ... ... 49

„ „ Osage Orange .. ... ... ... ... ... 49

„ Pepper 49

„ „ Pomegranate ... .., ... ... ... ... 49

„ Privet 50

„ „ Quince 50

„ Tagasaste 50

„ „ Tree Tobacco 50

„ Thornless Prickly Pear 50

„ Willows 51

Shipment of Apples 370

„ Charges on Wine 372

„ of Oranges and Lemons... ... ... ... ... ... 370

Shoots and Buds, Incision to Control the Growth 141

Shot Hole Fungus 518

Side Grafts 106

Siphonophora citrifcelli ... ... ... ... ... .-.. ... 538

Size of Casks 377

Slack Casks 383

Slug, Pear and Cherry 561

Soaks Abound on the Country 13

Soft or Brown Scale 570

Soil Amendments or Improvers ... ... ... ... ... ... 185

„ and its Constituents, Weight of One Acre of 178

Our 15

In Eelation to Fruitgrowing ... ... ... ... ... 15

Ironstone Gravel ... ... .. ... ... ... 16

Chocolate 17

Forest Alluvium 20

Salt Patches 18

Sandy Soils 20

Character of Influences, Fruit and Wine 36

Sooty Mould or Black Smut 522

Sour Sap, Gumming, or Die Back 516

South Australian Apple and Orange Case 355

South- West Division of West Australia 6

Spading Harrow ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... gi

Specific Gravity Scale ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 400

Spider, Ked ... ... ... ... ... ... 554

616

Sphaceloma ampelinum ... ... ... ... ... 524

Spray, How and When to ... ... ... ... ... 497

Spraying 492

Barrow Spray Pump ... ... ... ... 493

Calendar . 486

The " Coronette " Sprayer 495

Facts Worth Knowing ... ... ... ... 500

Garden Syringe ... ... ... ... ... 493

How and When to Spray . . . L- 497

Nixon's Climax Pump ... ... ... 494

Pumps 492

Sulphur Bellows 495

Spring Tooth Harrow ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 80

Spurs and Wood, Fruitf ulness of ... ... ... ... ... ... 144

Square Planting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56

Squirt Berry of the Vine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 529

Stalky Taste and Bitterness in Wine 459

Still, A Convenient 453

„ Tilting 454

Stock and Scion, Affiinity of 91

Stocks for Fruit Trees 93

„ Apple 93

Pear 94

Plum 95

„ Peach 95

„ Nectarine " 95

„ Apricot 95

„ Cherry 96

„ Orange 96

„ Citrus 96

GrapeVine 96

„ Vines 96

Stone Fruit, Diseases of (see " Insect and Fungus Diseases ")
„ „ Pruning (see "Pruning")

„ Fruits 222

„ „ Judging 361

Storage House for Fruit ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 352

Cold for Fruit 368

Strawberries, A few Profitable 298

„ Crates for 350

„ Drainage and Irrigation for ... ... ... ... 297

„ Transplanting ... ... ... ... ... ... 294

Botanical Structure 289

Classification of 289

Crates 350

Cultivation of

„ Gathering or Picking ... ... ... ... ... 339

„ Irrigation and Drainage ... ... ... ... ... 297

Leaf Blight or Sunburn of

„ Manuring ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 293

Mulching of 296

Points of Good 298

„ Preparing the Soil for

„ Propagation of ... ... ... ... ... ••• 291

Pruning of ... .. ... ... ... ••• ••• 167

„ 8 297

Soil and Location 292

Sulphate of Iron Wash

Sulphur and Lime Paint ... ... ... ... ... 491

Bellows 495

Lime and Salt Wash 490

617

Sulphuring Casks „. 383

Must 411

Summer Cultivation 73

Pruning 109

Syringe, Garden 493

Syrphus Fly , 538

T.

TachinaFly ... 585

Tagasaste for Shelter ... , 50

Tar Water 492

Tasmanian Apple Case ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 355

Tasting Wine 436

Taste Wine, How to 434

Telarius or Tetranychus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 564

Temperature during Fermentation ... ... ... ... ... 416

„ its Influence on Agriculture ... ... ... ... 7

Terms, Technical, in Wine- tasting 436

Tetraychus or Telarius ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 564

Thinning of Fruit and Summer Pruning ... ... ... ... 169

Thornless Prickly Pear for Shelter ... ... ... ... ... 50

Thrips 580

Timber for Fencing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52

Wine Casks and Vats 375

Tobacco Decoction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 480

„ Tree for Shelter 50

Tomatoes, Diseases of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 530

Black Eot 530

„ Leaf Bust 531

Ripe Eot 530

Wilt 531

Judging 361

„ Pruning of 168

Wilt 531

Transporting of Grapes to Vineries 391

Tree, Tobacco, for Shelter 50

Trees from Nursery, Treatment on Arrival ... ... ... ... 70

„ Examined for Pests ... ... ... ... 70

Labels for ... ... . ... ... ... ... ... ... 73

Pedigreed Fruit 206

Planting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 69

Renovating Old ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 142

Selecting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 70

for Shelter (see Shelter Trees).

Split Limbs ... ... ... ... ... 143

Tropical Fruits ... ... ... 303

»• » Alligator or Avocado Pear 303

»» „ Banana and Plantain 304

,, „ Breadfruit 306

„ „ Bullock's Heart 307

» » Custard Apple or Cherimoyer ... ... ... ... 307

„ „ Date Palm 307

» Guava ;;. 310

*» Jack 312

„ Litchi 313

» « Longan 313

„ Mango 313

Papaw 314

» » Pineapple ... ... ... ... ... 315

618

Tuckerii Oidium on the Grape 526

Turne and Pousse Diseases in Wine ... ... 467

Twig Blight 511

TJ.

Unfermented Grape Juice .. 470

,, „ Plant Required 472

Useful Predaceous Insects (see Beneficial Insects).

V.

Vats, Brick and Cement ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 334

„ Casks and ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 375

Vatting 408

Vegetables, Drying ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 326

Vermorel's Injector for Carbon Bi-sulphide ... ... ... ... 496

Victorian Apple Case 355

Vine Buds, Structure of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 121

Vines, Budding the ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 112

„ Late Budding 64

„ Cuttings of 65

„ Defoliation of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 172

Garden Trellises 130

„ Keep Varieties separate 65

„ Mixed Pruning ... 128

„ in Nursery ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 68

Planting 64

„ Pruning 119

„ „ Permanent Rods and Spurs ... ... ... ... 126

„ Eooted 67

„ „ more reliable than Cuttings 68

Single Eye Cuttings 66

„ Stocks for 96

T-head Trellises for Currants 131

Topping off ... 172

Training, Methods of ... ... ... ... ... ... 123

Trellising and Staking 132

in W.A., How to Prune - 122

Volume of Small Casks 378

W.

Walnut, The 283

„ and Chestnut, Pruning of 159

Grafting 104

Water, Artesian 13

„ Core 513

„ Measurement for Irrigation ... ... ... ... ... 196

„ Supply and Rainfall .10

Weevil, Grain , 559

West Australian Fruit Land ... ... ...... ... ... 5

Western Australia Eclipses the other States ... ... ... ... 4

Whale Oil Soap 492

White Cottony Cushion Scale 577

Whip Grafting 97

Whitewash, Washington ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55

White Wine and Aeration ... ... ... ... 407

619

Whip Grafting ... ... < •'• 97

Willow Tree for Shelter 51

Wine Bottling, Amateur 455

„ Defects and Diseases of • 459

„ Acetification 465

„ Bitterness 469

„ Casky Taste 460

„ Casse 466

„ Colour, Deficient 460

„ Dull-coloured Wines 460

„ Earthy Taste 459

„ Flowers of Wine 464

„ Greenness ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 459

„ Harshness ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 459

„ Heated Taste 460

„ Low Alcoholic Strength • 460

„ Mannitic Fermentation 467

„ Pasteuriser ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 461

„ Putrid Decomposition .. ... ... ... ... ... 460

„ Eopiness ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 468

„ Stalky Taste and Bitterness 459

,, Sulphites instead of Sulphur Fumes ... ... ... ... 614

„ Turne and Pousse Diseases ... ... ... ... ... 467

„ Fermentation... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 392

„ Ferments of 414

,, Making —

Aeration ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 407

Amateur Wine Bottling ... ... ... ... ... ... 455

Apparatus for Extracting Piquette ... ... ... ... ... 444

Blower 423

Bottle Pasteuriser , 473

Brick and Cement Vats 384

Calif ornian Refrigerator ... ... ... ... ... ... 422

Capacity of Casks in Gallons ... ... ... ... 377

Casks, How to Disinfect 380

„ and Vats 375

To Clean Casks 379

Clearing of Fresh-drawn Must 411

Cooling, Mien to Commence 428

Convenient Saccharometer ... ... ... ... ... ... 404

Corking Machine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 457

Cracked Staves 384

Crusher and Stemmer 387

Defects and Diseases of Wine (see Wine, Diseases of).

Discolouring Casks ... 380

Fermentation Chart 425

in Open or in Closed Vessels 408

Revival of 418

Starting 415

„ Temperature during 416

Fermenting Shed ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 374

Flagging 383

Gauging Casks ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 377

Grape Must Pump 389

Grape Vat 409

Home-made Wine Press ... ... ... ... ... ... 390

How to Rack Wine 431

How to Taste Wine 434

Hydraulic Plug for Wine Casks 430

Influence of Temperature during Fermentation ... ... ... 416

Ingredients of Must ... 394

620

Jerdpiga ...

Keeping Wooden Vats in Good Order
Lees, How to Preserve them ...
Liquorous Wines

Muntz and Rousseaux Tubular Refrigerator

Perrier-Deroy's Pasteuriser ...
Piquette for Distillation
Rearing of Young Wines
Refrigeration by Ice ...
Revival of Fermentation
Screw Press
To Season Casks

Section of a Grape Berry ... ... ...

Section and Plan of Grape Vat
Separating Must from the Skin

Should Grapes be Stalked .„*

Size of Casks

Slack Casks

Starting Fermentation
Sulphuring Casks
Sulphuring Must

Technical Terms Used in Wine Tasting

Transporting of Grapes to Vineries ...

Tubular Attemporator...

Two Types of Cement Vats ...

Unfermented Grape Juice ... ... ... ^ ...

Vatting ...

When to Commence Cooling ...

When to Draw the Wine

Why Grape Juice Ferments ...
When to Pick Grapes ...
Wine Fermentation

Making ... ... ... ... ...

per Ton of Grapes

Presses
Pumps

per Ton of Grapes

Tasting 434

Yeasts and Ferments ...
Wine Presses ...

„ Tasting

„ Technical Terms in

Wines, Liquorous

Wire for Fencing
„ Netting, How to Stretch
„ Picker ...
„ Worms ...
Wooden Vats, Keeping in Good Order ...

Woolly Aphis

Worms, Bag or Case Moths

Cut

Wrapping Fruit

Y.

Yeasts and Ferments 412

By Authority: WM. ALFRED WATSON, Government Printer, Perth.

f^^ * iS7JtSi-====^

VC 61809

5

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY