A HANDBOOK OF TROPICAL GARDENING AND PLANTING F. MACM1LLAN Main Lib. AGRIC, DEPT. A HANDBOOK OF TROPICAL GARDENING AND PLANTING A HANDBOOK OK TROPICAL GARDENING AND PLANTING WITH SPECIAL REFEREXCE TO CEYLOX H. F. MACMILLAN, F.L.S. •i (Superintendent* Roytil Hottinic (itirdens, Ceylon). AUTHOR OF " II.LrsTKATKD (illDK TO THK ROYAL KOTAXIC (iAKDEXS. I'KKADKXIYA." KTC. SECOXD EDITIOX ALL RIGHTS RKSKKVKI)^ H. W. CAVE & Co., AMEN CORNER. COLOMBO. MCMXIV. PRINTED BY H. \V. CAVK & CO COLOMBO. PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION The need for a practical work of this nature, especially adapted for the Tropics, has apparently been long felt, judging by the demand for information on the subjects treated in this hand- book. Of books on horticulture in temperate countries, there is no end, but they are generally of little guidance in tropical regions, where the conditions of climate, labour and methods of working are so different. A writer in the Ceylon Observer recently remarked: "How much more attractive and interesting our bun- galow gardens and compounds might be made if the right sort of information regarding their care were available. Too often they are tended only by the garden-cooly, who has no pretensions to any knowledge of gardening, and things which grow, do so more by luck than good management." The aim of the author has been, therefore, to supply as concisely as possible and in a manner to suit the practical man in the held or garden, the kind of information which is most generally sought for. not only on horticultural matters, but also on general planting or agricultural subjects. In practice there is no sharp line of distinction between Planting or tropical farming and Horticulture, and the main prin- ciples underlying both are the same. "Agriculture in the tropics," said SIR WILLIAM THISF.LTON DYER, "is essentially extended gardening; it has little relation to the agriculture of temperate countries, and its methods are those of horticulture." According to LIEBIG, "perfect agriculture is the foundation of all trade and industry, the foundation of the riches of state." "Scientific horti- culture," said DR. BAILEY, "joins hands with the plant biologists on the one hand, and with commerce on the other." Gardening or horticulture is obviously advancing in Ceylon, as in other tropical countries, and it is being recognised, slowly but surely, that it plays an important part in home adornment and comfort, as well as in rural improvement and sanitation. Nowadays 292624 VI many planters, mercantile and professional men, manifest a keen interest in their garden, and in some cases become experts in the cultivation of certain classes of plants which claim their special attention. Superintendents of estates or plantations in lonely districts admit that the presence of choice flowering plants or trees about their bungalow have an exhilarating influence, and when these are absent it is usually clue not so much to indifference on the part of the superintendent as to circumstances over which he has no control. In Rubber districts especially, the depressing effects of long interminable stretches of sombre-looking rubber trees is well-known, and recently several companies have shown a desire to have attractive flowering trees (as urged by the writer in a recent pamphlet) planted around the bungalows of their superintendents. For ladies, gardening has special attractions; the cultivation and arrangement of flowers is not only especially appropriate to them, but they are also frequently successful competitors with men in the art. I leave it in the hands of readers to judge of the merits of this work, if it has any. The general arrangement of the plants or crops, useful or ornamental, into sections according to the elevation and purpose for which they are especially suited, will, I trust, be appreciated. To facilitate reference and save the time of readers, considerable use has been made of tabular forms which contain only the most essential particulars. The planting products in Chapters XXII and XXIII are considered in accordance with their importance in Ceylon. Though a botanical arrangement has been avoided in preference to an economic or practical one, the botanical name and Natural Order or family of each plant or product mentioned throughout the book are invariably given. Most people nowadays know the meaning of plant affinity, and to these a knowledge of a plant's scientific name and family often conveys some idea as to its general character or utility. The common or vernacular names, when sufficiently popular or well- known, are given in English, Sinhalese, and Tamil, also in some cases in Hindustani and Malay. My thanks are due to several gentlemen as well as ladies who have kindly supplied me. with valuable suggestions and information. LADY BLAKK has favoured me \vith useful notes on various ornamental plants, and MRS. WESTLAND and other ladies have contributed recipes for jams, jellies, preserves, etc. I am especially indebted to MR. E. E. GREEX, F.E.S., F.Z.S., Government Ento- mologist, and MR. T. FETCH, B.A., B.SC., Government Mycologist, who obligingly furnished me with much of the information in the chapters on Insect Pests and Fungus Diseases respectively ; to DR. R. H. LOCK, M.A., SC.D., Assistant Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, for useful guidance; to MR. M. KELWAY BAMBER, M.R.A.C., F.I.C., etc., Government Chemist, who has read, and contributed to, the chapters on Soils and Manures; to MR. J. K. NOCK* Curator of Hakgala Gardens, for much information on Up-country fruits, vegetables, etc.; to MR. C. DRIEBERG, B.A., K.H.A.S., Secretary of the "Ceylon Agricultural Society" and Superintendent of School Gardens, who has written the Calendar for the Low-country and afforded assistance in other ways; and to the Hon. the Principal Collector of Customs, Colombo, who has courteously obliged me with statistics of exports. Finally I desire to acknowledge the constant courtesy of MESSRS. H. W. CAVE & Co., the printers, whose work I think speaks for itself. For the loan of several excellent half-tone and electro blocks, I have to thank The Agricultural Economist & H or ti cultural Review, The Gardener's Chronicle, The Ceylon Agricultural Society; also MESSRS. PLATE & Co., MESSRS. WALKER Soxs & Co., and MESSRS. BROWX & Co. My thanks are likewise due to MR. H. W. CAVE, M.A., MESSRS. F. SKEEX & Co., THE COLOMBO APOTHECARIES Coy. and MR. T. PETCH for permission to use certain photographs. With the exception of these, the photographs for all the illustrations have been taken by myself. Among useful works of reference which I have consulted, I would especially mention the following: — WATT'S Dictionary of Economic Products of India, CAMEROX'S revised edition of Firmi tiger's Manual of Gardening for India, WOODROW'S Gardening in India, XICHOLL'S Tropical Agriculture, MUKERJI'S Itufian Agriculture, HALDAXE'S Sub-tropical Cultivations and Climates, NICHOLSON'S Encyclopaedia of Gardening, WATSOX'S revised edition of Thompson's Gardeners' Assistant, FERGUSOX'S Ceylon Handbook and Directory, FREEMAX AXD CHAXDLER'S The World's Commercial Products, BAILEY'S Pruning Book, MAXWELL-LEFROY'S Indian Insect Pests, PEARSOX'S Book of Garden Pests, SORAUR'S Physiology of Plants, WILLIS' Agriculture in the Tropics, TRIMEX'S Flora of Ceylon and WRIGHT'S Hevea brasilicnsis. H. F. M. "Whose lamented death has since < centred. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION The rapid exhaustion of the first edition has given the author an opportunity of enlarging and fully revising the work, the book being now considerably increased in size. Some of the chapters have been entirely re-written and extended, and several new features have been added, among these being the following subjects: Use of explosives in agriculture, inter-crops and catch-crops, dry- farming, intensive or French gardening, sericulture, lac-culture, selections of trees, plants, etc., for cemeteries or memorial purposes, selection of Ceylon indigenous plants, poisonous plants, sacred trees, remarkable or curious seeds and fruits, insectivorous, fly-catching, and myrmecophilous plants. The illustrations also have been almost doubled in number. I have to express my indebtedness especially to MESSRS. JOHX PARKIN, M.A., N. C. ROLT, and C. DRIEBERG, B.A., for valuable assistance and suggestions; also to MESSRS. R. N. LYXE, Director of Agriculture, for kind encouragement; C. H. KXOWLES, B.SC., Superintendent of Agriculture, Fiji; GEO. BRYCE, B.SC.; and J. W. IRWIX, of Coorg, for a photograph of coffee cultivation. For the loan of some excellent blocks, I have to thank MESSRS. SUTTOX & Soxs, Reading; RYDER & Soxs, St. Albans; BROWX & Co. and WALKER & Soxs, LTD., Colombo. H. F. M. Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradcniya, May, 12th, 1914. TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION I. CHAPTER I-AIJKS I Climate, Soils, etc. - 1—15 II Plant-life, nutrition, etc. - 16 — 22 III Manures, natural and artificial - 23 — 36 IV Green-manuring, mulching, inter-cropping, etc. 37 — 42 V Soil operations : Tillage, drainage, rotation, etc. 43—50 VI Propagation ; Grafting, budding, plant breeding, etc. 51 — 73 VII Cultural operations: Planting, transplanting, shading, pruning, ring-barking, etc. 74 — 82 VIII Garden and estate tools and implements, labels, etc. 83 — % IX Laying out gardens: choice of site, preparation of ground, hedges, paths, borders, lawns, etc. 97 — 128 SECTION II. X Tropical fruits - 129—189 XI Sub-tropical or Temperate fruits 190—205 XII Tropical Vegetables or Food-products 206—233 XIII Sub-Tropical or Temperate Vegetables 234—256 XIV Spices, condiments, etc. • 257—289 SECTION III. XV Flowering and ornamental foliage trees - 290 — 316 XVI Selections of foliage and flowering shrubs, climbers, etc.. for low elevations 317—367 XVII Selections of pot-plants (Foliage and flowering). Palms, Bamboos, Orchids, Ferns, etc. 368—394 XVIII Selections for medium or high elevations: Ornamental foliage and flowering trees, shrubs, annuals, etc. 395 — 439 XIX Sand-binding plants, trees, etc.. suited to the sea-side 440—445 XX Shade trees for p.irks, field crops, Windbelts. Timber, etc. 446— 454 XXI Railway. Rest-house, and School Gardens: Memorial trees; Plants for Cemeteries, etc. - 455 — 168 SECTION IV. XXII Standard products of Ceylon, Tea, Coconuts, Rubber, Cocoa. Rice. Cardamoms, Tobacco, etc. 469-502 XXIII Minor Products of Ceylon: Arecanuts Annatto, Camphor, Cinchona, Citronella, Coca, Coffee, Cotton. Croton oil. Kola- nut, Areca-nut, Xux-vomica, Sugar-cane, etc. 503—525 CHAPTER PAGES XXIV Miscellaneous Economic Products of the Tropics: Edible products, Drugs, Oils, Dyes, Fibres, Guttahs, Lac and Sericulture 526—570 XXV Perfume-yielding plants; honey plants; Ornamental seeds; curious fruits and seed; poisons, insectivorous plants, etc. 571 — 583 XXVI Pasture, grazing, fodder plants, edible herbs and flowers; medicinal plants of Ceylon - 584 — 600 XXVII Garden and estate enemies and friends; weeds, etc. 601 — 61 1 XXVIII Insect pests, and termites; insecticides, fumigation, etc. 612 — 627 XXIX Fungus diseases, preventive measures, fungicides. Spraying, etc. 628—636 XXX Transport and packing of plants, seeds, bulbs, flowers, etc. Storing of seeds • 637—643 XXXI Useful references, measuring land, trees, timber, etc. Recipes for jams, jellies, etc. • 644 — 654 XXXII Calendars of work - - - 655- 662 ERRATA PAGE 118 for Casuarina equisitofolia read C. equisitifolia. 120 for Malpighia coccinea read Malpighia coccifera. 124 line 5, for Soil of potting plants read "Soils for pot plants." 215 line 12 from bottom, for Tamba-karawila read Tumba-karawila. 248 18 ,, ,, for Oca-quina read Oca-quira. 317 after Allamanda Schottii read A. violacea ; flowers rosy-purple ; height 5 to 7 ft. 325 line 2, for ilicifolio read ilicifolia. 359 for flabilefer read flabellifer. 378 for Alocasia Argyrea read A. argyrea. 389 Sceutellaria should be Scutellaria. 398 for Ailanthus read Ailantus. 399 for Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana read Cupressus funebris, and under the former read : A handsome pyramid-shaped small tree, with crowded fern-like leaves ; 4-6,000 ft. line 11 from bottom, for C. knightiana read Cupressus knightiana, and for C. in following leading lines read Cupressus. 404 for Philadelpus read Philadelphus. 405 line 11, for Wiganda read Wigandia. 421 for Lebelia read Lobelia. 431 for Tigrida read Tigridia. 435 for Clyclamen read Cyclamen. 537 after Asclepias curassavica read perennial, not perennia ,, ,, Brayera read N. O. Rosaceae. 547 line 6, for Agave rigida var. Sisalana read Agave Sisalana. 564 line 5, for Nectrandra read Nectandra. 572 under Lemon-grass read Cymbopogon, not Andropogon. A HANDBOOK OF TROPICAL GARDENING & PLANTING. CHAPTER I. CLIMATE AND SOILS Climate. — Climate is the principal factor which controls the growth of plants, and constitutes the conditions which render a country suitable for the abode of man and animals. One of the first questions the planter or gardener in the tropics has to consider is whether the climate is suitable for the cultivation he intends to take up. Climate mainly depends upon latitude and altitude ; it is usually hottest at the equator at sea-level, and coldest the furthest away from it and the highest above sea-level. It is also, however, materially affected by the distance fiom the sea, form and slope of the land surface, the nature of the soil and its vegetation, and other circumstances. The influence of altitude is specially notice- able in the tropics, the temperature becoming appreciably cooler as one ascends in the hills. Thus, while at Colombo it is hot and tropical, at Xuwara Eliya, 6,000 feet above the level of the sea, it is cool and temperate. For about every 300 feet of elevation there is a reduction of about one degree in the temperature, and it is estimated that for about every 270 feet elevation the effect on the temperature is equivalent to receding a degree from the equator. Thus, Kandy being about 1,500 feet above sea- level, its average shade temperature is about 5 degrees cooler than that of Colombo. At X u warn Eliva the difference is even more marked, so that if 2 CLIMATE Pidurutalagala, our highest mountain (8,296 ft.), were about 8,000 ft. higher still, it would probably be covered with perpetual snow. The cooler climate of the hills not only renders possible the cultivation of certain plants or crops which1 are indigenous to temperate regions, but also affords residents and visitors a very grateful substitute for the more bracing climate of a temperate country. The fiat northern and eastern portion of Ceylon are charac- terized by a dry arid climate, to which typical forms of thorny vegetation or scrub are indigenous. Here, however, certain crops may thrive under special methods of cultivation better than in the wet zone, being specially adapted (xerophytic) to the arid climate,, as for example the useful Palmyra palm, which in the dry zone luxuriates and forms a valuable product. In Ceylon there thus occur four distinct types of climatic zones, viz: — (1) the hot and moist zone, from sea-level to about 1,000 feet elevation with a well distributed rainfall of 70 to 120 or more inches, and a mean shade temperature of about 80° Fah.;; this is confined to the south-western part of the island ; (2) the hot and dry zone, formed by the flat country of the northern and eastern part of the island, with a rainfall confined to only a few months of the year ; (3) the intermediate zone, from 1 ,000 to 4,000 feet, with a rainfall of 80 to 130 or more inches; (4) the montane or cool zone, from about 4,000 feet to the highest altitude (8,296 feet), with an evenly distributed rainfall of 85 to 150 or more inches. In the months of January and February, cool night temperatures are usually experienced in the lowr-country ; thus at Colombo a night temperature of 65° F. and at Kandy of 50° F. have been recorded ; whilst at Nuwara Eliya a slight frost frequently occurs in the period named. Such a diversified climate allows of the successful cultivation of a large variety of plants or crops from different latitudes, and within a comparatively small area. Conse- quently there may be seen in Ceylon a considerable number of acclimatized plants from Brazil, Mexico, Pacific Islands, Malay, Tropical Africa, India, etc., luxuriating in the low-country ; whilst at the higher elevations many species from cooler regions, as. Europe, South Africa, Australia, Peru, etc., are perfectly at home, many having become naturalised. Seasons. — SIR EMERSON TENNANT said : The line is faint that divides the seasons in Ceylon. No period of the year is divested of its seed time and its harvest in some part of the Island, and the ripe fruit hangs on the same branches that are garlanded with CLIMATE 3 open buds." Tims there are^no seasons in Ceylon, in the sense the word is used in temperate countries. The uniform moist climate of the south-western districts is only varied by a period of comparatively short rainfall between January and March, known as the "dry season." No "cold season" occurs here as in India, though during the dry season named, as well as the hotter months (March to May), most people prefer to enjoy the more bracing air of the hills, which is then dry and crisp. So that the only variety in the climate is afforded by the two annually recurring monsoons, viz., the south-west monsoon, commencing at the end of May and lasting till October, and the north-cast monsoon, lasting from October to May. The rainfall of the former is more or less confined to the south-west of the Island, while the eastern side of the country receives its most copious rain from the north-east monsoon, chiefly in November and December, its driest seasons being from June to September. In the northern part of Ceylon, the rainy season is mostly confined to the three months of October to December, very little rain falling from April to September. The hottest period of the year, all over Ceylon, is from March to Mav. LOCAL INFLUENCES ON CLIMATE Forests. — These constitute one of the most important con- ditions affecting climate. The presence of forests prevents erosion of the soil, retards the evaporation of moisture, enables the soil to retain a large proportion of rain water, and tempers the atmosphere both by cool vapours from the soil and by preventing the sun's rays from reaching the earth. It is also claimed that forests cause precipitation of the clouds, resulting in more frequent showers and heavier rainfall than would otherwise be the case; but this is a disputed point. When the forest is cleared away, radiation from the land is increased, the soil is less retentive of moisture, and the air, as well as the soil, becomes drier and warmer. A similar effect takes place when swampy and marshy land is drained and brought into cultivation. The climate of islands and maritime districts is usually much more equable than that in the interior of continents, the atmosphere in the former being frequently loaded with clouds and vapours. Lakes, marshes and rivers have usually an unfavourable effect on climate, as they give rise to fogs, especially at night, which chill the ground and render the vicinity unhealthv. 4 CLIMATE Aspect. — This also has an important influence on climate, a. northern and an eastern aspect being, as a rule, cooler and moister than southerly and westerly ones; in a north verandah, for example,, plants which require a cool temperature thrive much better than in a verandah facing south. In a mountainous country, aspect is, of course, often affected by the lay of the land, and ridges, alter- nating with valleys or ravines, often cause an appreciable difference in the climate of places relatively near to each other. Similarly in a narrow valley, while one side, being partially shaded, may be cool and damp, the other side is warm and dry ; so that plant-life would, differ materially on either slope. Wind-breaks. — The climate may be considerably improved locally by the planting of shade and wind-break trees, for these- not only break the force of the winds, but also tend to lessen the excessive evaporation of moisture, and temper the sun's rays.. Exposed and windy situations have a different climate from?, sheltered places, although the soil, rainfall and aspect may be about the same, Wind-breaks may be said to be as essential to many- plantations as a break-water is to an open harbour Soil formation. — Climate is also affected by the nature of the soil. There is a greater radiation of heat from sandy than clay soils, so that districts with sandy soils invariably have the highest temperature. This largely accounts for the intense heat in parts, of Egypt, Bengal, Arabia, etc., during certain seasons of the year. Irrigation, it is admitted, has a marked beneficial effect on climate ; thus the enormous lake-like dams or reservoirs, like that at Assouan in Egypt for accumulating the Nile waters, and others, in India and Ceylon, must have an important influence in cooling; the surrounding atmosphere. CLIMATE Table showing Elevation, Average Rainfall, and Mean Temperature at the Principal Towns or Stations in Ceylon. STATION Eleva- tion in feet AVERAGE RAINFALL Mean Temperature, in Fahr. degrees Inches Days Colombo 20 87 174 81 Guile 48 92 200 80 Matara 15 71 117 80 approximate Hambantota 50 37 88 80 Batticaloa 26 59 101 80 Trincomalee 12 63 108 81 Jaffna 11 47 71 82 Mannar 12 38 65 82 Puttalam 27 47 81 81 Cfiilaw 10 55 90 81 approximate Xegombo 6 69 100 81 do Katnapura 84 151 213 79 Kegalle (Ambanpitiya 729 122 163 79 approximate about 3 miles west of K'galle) Kurunegala 381 81 155 80 Anuradhapura 295 54 102 80 Matale 1,208 84 164 76 approximate Badulla 2,225 75 122 73 Bandarawela 4.036 62 132 67 Randy 1 .654 81 191 76 Xawalapitiva 2,400 154 175 74 approximate Deltota 3,500 109 199 73 do Hatton 4,141 152 215 69 do Bogawantalawa 4.300 111 227 65 Agrapatana 5,200 87 196 60 approximate Xuwara Eliya -6.240 94 204 58 6 SOILS SOILS Soils are formed by the gradual decomposition or wearing away of rocks, under the influence of weather, glacial or volcanic action, assisted by the presence of plant-life. Variations of temper- ature have an important effect on the formation of soils, for rocks expand by heat and contract by cold. Thus in the hot tropical sunshine, the surfaces of the rocks expand and are again contracted by the cool air of the nights ; this causes them to crack, and par- ticles crumble off, thereby giving rise to a small but constant addi- tion to the soil. Plant- life also assists in the formation of soils in two ways, i.e., mechanically and chemically. The roots enter crevices of rocks, and by their gradual increase in bulk act like wedges in forcing the two sides apart ; the force thus exerted, even by the roots of very small plants, is considerable, being sometimes sufficient to break through concrete, or lift stone pavements. Roots have also, by means of their acid sap, a solvent action on rocks, and thus assist in their decomposition. Vegetation further contributes to the formation of soil by depositing dead leaves and stems on the surface in the form of humus, to the presence of which is usually due the black colour of garden soils. Other important factors in the formation of soils are rivers and streams, the sea, and, in some cases, wind. Rivers grind down rocks and stones, and carry particles of rock or gravel to the plains or valleys, depositing it in the form of mud, which is known as alluvial soil. Such deposits are usually rich in plant-food. The wind occasionally adds fertile matter to soils by carrying sand, dust, straw, leaves, etc., and depositing them in hollows. All soils may be classed as either (1) transported, when they are carried from a distance, as by any of the agencies named above ; or ( 2 ) sedentary, local, or indigenous when they remain where formed. To the latter belong by far the greater portion of Ceylon soils. In some cases the surface soil is transported, while the sub-soil is sedentary, or vice versa. Transported deposits, as alluvial soils, are, as stated above, usually characterized by greater fertility than those which are sedentary. CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL The five substances of which all soils may be said to be composed of are : sand, clay, lime, vegetable matter or humus, and stones. SOILS 7 Sand. — This is principally" composed of quart/, Hint, or silica. It imparts a loose porous consistency to the soil, assists the air and water in finding their way through the land, and aids the roots of plants in their efforts to penetrate in all directions. In agricul- tural and horticultural practices, sand is frequently added to the soil so as to render it porous and " sweet." Thus in potting com- posts, sand is usually a necessary constituent. Clay is composed of two chemical bodies, known as silica and alumina, in combination with water. When wet, it is sticky and plastic; but when burnt, as was formerly done in the culti- vation of stiff soils, it loses its plastic property and becomes brittle. Liming has also this effect on clay soil, depriving it of its sticky, binding nature. There are various kinds of clay, some white, from which china-ware is made ; others yellow, from which are made bricks, pots, chatties and other earthenware articles. Clay is colder, and retains much more moisture than sand. A certain proportion of clay is a highly desirable constituent in all soils, and no land can be efficiently and economically worked unless clay be present to an appreciable extent. Lime. — This usually occurs in soils combined with carbonic acid as a carbonate of lime in various forms, as chalk, lime-stone, and coral. It is present in large quantities in the shells of land- snails and some marine animals, besides coral. Ceylon soils generally are lacking in lime, which when present usually occurs in the form of dolomite. Humus or vegetable-mould is formed by decayed vegetable matter, such as leaves, roots, stems, etc., and exists to some extent in all cultivated soils as a dark brown substance. It often occurs abundantly on the surface of the ground in forests. Humus may be said to be the most important constituent of all soils for the planter or gardener. It has a great influence on the capacity of soils for retaining moisture, renders their cultivation easier, and encourages the activity of soil bacteria. Soils which are deficient in humus are liable to cake and become very hard in dry weather, and quickly lose their heat in cool weather. (See under Manures). Leaf-mould may be distinguished from humus as being composed almost entirely of decayed leaves ; it is a valuable ingredient in composts for pot-plants, tender seedlings, etc. Stones are simply particles of the original rock from which the soil was formed. If they do not exist in too great a number 8 SOILS (10X of small stones not being considered harmful) they serve a useful purpose in the soil, as they render it lighter in character, affording porosity and assisting in the retention of moisture. The stones are weathered by the atmosphere and other agencies, in the same way as the rocks from which the soil was made, so that their gradual wasting away adds material to the soil. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. Soils are classified in accordance with their physical or chemical composition, and are divided into classes, sub-classes, etc., according to the proportion of clay, sand, lime and humus they contain. The principal classes are: — Clay or argillaceous soils. — These contain over 50 per cent, of clay. They are heavy and dense, very retentive of water, are cold and difficult to work, and require to be well-drained in order to be properly cultivated. In periods of drought, plants on clay soils are apt to suffer, as the roots cannot penetrate into stiff clays, or obtain water from the subsoil. Though such soils may contain an abundance of mineral food for plants, it is often rendered unavailable by their stiff texture. This may, however, be corrected by the addition of sand, lime, or suitable manures, and by drainage. Clay soils of moderate texture have, nevertheless, very important advantages in the tropics, owing to their power of retaining soluble manures and moisture. . (See under Clay}. Loamy soils are composed of 30 to 50 per cent, of clay, under 5 pe>' cent. ( if any) of lime, and the remainder of sand and vegetable mould. Sandy loams contain from 20 to 30 per cent, of clay, and may be with or without lime. Loamy sands comprise 10 to 20 per cent, of clay ; lime may be present or absent. Sandy soils. — These contain not less than 70 per cent, of quartz sand ; they have little cohesion, are very porous, and contain little nourishment for plants. Such soils can be improved by the addition of clay, marl or chalk. Marly soils. — These contain from 5 to 20 per cent, of lime, and may partake of the characters of the first four classes, or of the eighth. Calcareous soils contain over 20 per cent, of lime, and may partake of the characters of a loamy soil with 30 to 50 per cent. SOILS y of cl.iy. or sandy soil with over 70 per cent, of sand. On the authority of MR. BAMBKK. the Government Chemist, neither marly nor calcareous soils occur in Ceylon. Gravelly soil is a term applied to the presence of a consider- able amount of gravel or stones in soils, without reference to their composition ; such soil may partake of the characters of the sandy, clayey, or calcareous classes. Vegetable mould. — This applies to soils which contain not less than 5 per cent, of humus or vegetable matter ; they may in their turn partake of the character of clayey, loamy, or sandy soils; or they may be composed almost entirely of vegetable matter, as. in the case of peat. Peat is a black soil formed by the decay of marsh plants and bog mosses, as Sphagnum. A black plastic peat-like soil occur* on mountain plains in Ceylon at elevations above 5,000 feeU usually forming a Hat barren area, but it in no way forms a substitute for peat. Peat bogs are not adapted for cultivation in their natural condition, although they are the favourite resort of certain plants. Rhododendrons and allied plants thrive best on well-drained peaty soils. To render peat-bogs fertile, the excess of water must be drained off, and lime and sand added. The effect of this treatment is to aerate the soil, destroying the inju- rious acids present, and preventing the stagnation of water. Surface soil and sub-soil. — These are convenient terms, the former to distinguish the top layer of soil, which is usually distinct by its darker colour (owing to the presence of humus) and looser texture than that underneath, i.e., the sub-soil. The latter, though usually more compact and of a lighter colour, varies considerably in character. It may consist mainly of sand, or of gravel or clay, or even resemble the surface-soil. The surface-soil varies in thickness according to locality and surrounding influences ; in forests and highly cultivated lands it is usually deep, but on steep hill-sides and in dry places it is shallow. Heavy and light soils.— Although sandy soils are heavier than clay ones, agriculturists and horticulturists call a clay soil "heavy," and a sandy soil "light." These terms, however, refer to the facility with which the soils are worked, and not to their relative weights. Cold or warm soils. — Clay soils retain much more mois- ture than sandv soils, and this causes a great difference in regard 1 0 SOILS to their temperature. The former are therefore sometimes spoken of as cold, and sandy soils as warm. As a certain amount of warmth in the soil is necessary for plant life, this indicates the importance of draining low-lying, cold, clayey land. Volcanic soils. — These are formed by the lava which has flowed over the surface of volcanoes, and subsequently become subject to the action of the atmosphere. Soils of volcanic origin, as those of certain islands, are usually very fertile. Such soils may practically be said not to exist in Ceylon. Submarine or coral soils are found in certain islands which, by volcanic or other agencies, have been lifted up above the sea. Chemical composition of soils. — All soils are composed of (1) vrganic and (2) inorganic elements. The former comprise oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon, which disappear as vapour or smoke wrhen an organised body, vegetable or animal, is burnt in the air. The first three are gases, and the last is a sub- stance, one form of which, charcoal, is familiar to every one. Besides these, there are two other substances, namely, sulphur and phosphorus which are sometimes called secondary organic elements, because they are frequently, but not always, found in organised bodies. The inorganic elements which are always to be found in combination with other elements in lands suitable for cultivation are potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and iron. With the exception of magnesium, calcium and iron, all these are essential constituents of plant-food. Examination of soils. — The following simple mechanical tests are given as a ready means of ascertaining approximately the condition of a given soil:-— Weigh out J Ib. of earth after it has been well dried, boil it for a short time in a pint of water, and then pour all into a glass vessel. Into this insert a piece of blue litmus paper ; if the paper turn to a red colour, it shows that acid humus is present in the soil, and that lime is necessary to counter- act the acidity. Then add more water, stir well, and pour off -carefully the muddy water into a large vessel, care being taken that none of the sand which settles to the bottom is lost ; stir up the sand with fresh water, which is again poured off into the larger vessel. This is to be done several times until the sand be- comes clean and free from mud. The contents of the larger vessel are to be allowed to remain for several hours until the fine mud settles to the bottom, when the clear water is to be carefully ^SOILS 1 T poured oft". The s:ind and the mud should then be dried and weighed separately, when, by comparing their bulk or weight, the proportion of sand and earthy matter in the soil can be ascertained. To discover the presence or absence of lime in a soil. — Besides the blue litmus paper test for lime, as described above, the presence of lime may be ascertained thus:— Take some 10 or 20 small samples from different parts of the ground, mix them well together, then place a small sample in a tumbler and pour on it a wine-glassful of muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. If the liquid tizz and bubble freely, the soil may be considered to contain a sufficiency of chalk ; but if it only effervesces feebly, it is safe to conclude that a dressing of lime is desirable. To ascertain proportion of humus in the soil. — Heat for an hour to a red-heat, a given quantity of thoroughly dry earth in an iron or clay vessel ; the soil rapidly blackens if much humns is present, and then turns red or yellowr, the vegetable matter being burnt off ; when cool, weigh the earth, and the loss in. weight will give the proportion of humus in the soil. The capacity of soils for holding moisture. — This power of soils is mainly dependent on the mechanical texture or porosity of the soil material. In a soil consisting of solid particles of fairly uniform size, the interspaces are about 40 per cent, of the volume, whether the particles are large or small ; but if the particles are a mixture of large and small (as gravel and sand), the volume of the interspaces is much diminished. On the other hand, if the par- ticles themselves are porous, as in the case of chalk, loam, and especially humus, the volume of the interspaces is much increased. It is this volume of the interspaces that determines the amount of water which a soil will hold when perfectly saturated, or the amount of air which it will contain when dry. The influence of humus on the capacity of a soil for holding moisture is remarkable. SCHUBLER found that after 72 hours exposure to moist air, humus had taken up nearly 2\ times as much water as clay, and 40 times more than sand, which, under the same circumstances, took up 16 times less than clay. A simple way of ascertaining the power of any soil to hold water is given thus: Fill a flower- pot nearly to the top with dry soil, and then weigh it ( the weight of the poU both wet and dry, must, of course, be known). Then gradually pour water on the soil until it begins to drop from the bottom. 12 SOILS As soon as the dropping has ceased, weigh the whole ; the differ- ence in weight will approximately show the proportion of water held by the soil. Capillary action of soils. — The power of soils for drawing up- water from the lower strata towards the surface is of the greatest importance from the cultivator's point of view. It is possessed in a greater or less degree by all soils, being greater in proportion as their pores are hner. Sand possesses this power to the least extent, and fine clay to the greatest; thus a clay soil is always wetter than sanely soil placed under the same influences. There is, however, a limit to the fineness cf particles which favours capillarity, and when this limit is passed, fineness is dis- advantageous, since the minute particles ot earth are then apt to •cohere together so closely that few, if any, spaces are left between them for the admission of water. Therefore too open a tilth is not desirable, especially for light soils ; hence the necessity for rolling such soils after ploughing and harrowing- From the sub- soil, moisture is gradually and steadily sucked up and transmitted to the upper cultivated surface. When the surface soil is left undis- turbed and becomes hard, much of its moisture passes off by eva- poration. One of the chief objects of tillage or good cultivation is to cut off the column conducting the underground water at a point below the actual surface of the soil, so that the supply of moisture shall be brought to the roots of the plants instead of escaping freely into the open air. A mulch or any dry covering that can be placed between the atmosphere and the soil also has the effect of checking the evaporation of moisture. When soil is nearly dust dry, nitrification ceases ; thus soil-stirring operations in dry weather not only preserve the soil moisture, but keep the nitrifying organisms employed. The process of soil capillarity may be illus- trated by taking a lump of loaf-sugar to represent the hard-caked soil. Hold one end of the lump so that it touches the surface of a cup of water, when instantly the whole lump is moistened ; then take about the same quantity of granulated sugar (equalling in height the thickness of the loaf sugar), and hold on a screen so that the lower surface of the sugar just touches the water ; in this it will be found that the water rises very slowly, and not until some of the sugar is dissolved will it reach the top. KING calculated that 6'24 tons of water a day evaporated from 1 acre unstirred .soil, while only 4'52 tons evaporated when the surface was raked or harrowed. W//..S 13 Fertility of soils.— The fertility of a soil depends, said LIKBIG. "on the bulk and composition of the previous crop residues, and the extent to which these have been subsequently destroyed." Evidently, therefore, the crop which leaves behind the largest amount of roots, foliage, etc., will best maintain or increase the organic capital of the soil. Fertility of soils has been summarised as being dependent on the following conditions, viz. (1) a •sufficiency of available plant-food; (2) a suitable texture or mechanical state of the soil; (3) absence of injurious compounds; <4) a healthy percolative subsoil ; (5) a suitable climate, season and aspect. The absence of any of these conditions will, to some extent, render a soil infertile. Needless to say, one of the most essential factors that control soil fertility is the amount of moisture present, for on this depends the healthy action of the nitri- fying bacteria. Agricultural chemists now distinguish between fertility analyses and complete analyses, the latter only indicating the amount of plant food present in the soil, whereas the former aims at showing the proportions available to the crop — a very different thing. Sterilisation of Soils. — An important fact in agricultural •science which has recently come to light is the beneficial effect of the sun's light and heat on the surface soil. Hitherto the long spells of hot dry weather which periodically occur in the tropics, and during which the soil becomes extremely hard and dry, has been generally deplored, and it has been commonly felt that if only one could cover a fallow area with some crop that would stand the drought, the ground, protected by it from the scorching sun, would lose less of its moisture and be more fertile later on. Recent experi- ments have shown, however, it is claimed, that sterilizing the ground by intense heat restores or enhances soil fertility, the conclusion arrived at being that such sterilization kills off the organisms which prey on the useful bacteria in the soil, allowing the latter to increase more rapidly. From this it is deducted that the fertility of the soil is largely increased, and at no expense to the cultivator, since most of the bacteria are engaged in the useful work of fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere into a form suitable for plant-life or in converting unsuitable compounds into the nitrates which plarts require. It is thus concluded that so far from the scorching sun's rays being inimical to the fertility of the soil, by killing off larger organism, and enabling bacteria to grow and increase, they add 14 SOILS appreciably to it, and that by forking up or ploughing the surface layers so as to maintain these in a loose state, their action would reach to a greater depth, and be therefore more pronounced. It will often be seen in the tropics that after a long period of drought the soil will show signs of extraordinary fertility. It has been , found in the case of soils which have become exhausted by inten- sive culture in glass-houses, that by heating these to a temperature of 140° Fah. fertility may be largely restored and all the eel- worms and other injurious insects present killed, the soil becoming again capable of producing healthy vigorous crops. Exhaustion of soils. — The term is based on money values rather than on scientific conceptions, and has no precise definition. Although no soil can be entirely exhausted, generally speaking it becomes so, as regards any particular crop, whenever the cost of cultivation comes to as much as the crop is worth. Thus the word "exhaustion" refers to the available character of the plant-food present in the soil. Most cultivated soils contain a store of plant- food which it would take many crops to exhaust ; but a large proportion of the elements of this food is present in such a form that plants are unable to make use of it. Thus an acre of land may contain many thousand pounds of phosphoric acid, potash, or nitrogen, and yet be in "poor condition;" while an application of a suitable fertiliser, supplying 50 pounds of readily available phosphate or nitrogen may greatly increase its productiveness. Theory of toxic substances in the soil. — According to recent theory, infertility in a soil, — i.e., inability to produce good crops, —may sometimes be traced, not necessarily to the absence of plant- food, but to the presence of compounds injurious to plant-growth. These compounds are attributed to decomposition products of plant- tissue, excretions from growing roots and germinating seeds, etc. Crops are thus supposed to form toxic substances in the soil which are deleterious to the crop following. The presence of excessive quantities of organic matter in the soil, as applied in the form of organic manures, is also considered capable of producing similar toxic effects, and the action of suitable artificial manures, proper rotation of crops, good drainage, etc., is to neutralise or destroy these. A special advantage of crop rotation is that, while the excreta of one kind of crop may not be harmful to another, different species assist, it is considered, in the destruction and removal of the excretions of others. ^SOILS 15 Ceylon soils, as a rule, are poor and shallow, and their character in general may be summed up thus : (1) Sea-coast, soils loose and gravelly or sandy, often with a large proportion of laterite ("cabook") ; these are usually of a deep reddish colour, and in some localities a deposit of white silvery sand occurs on the surface; in such soils, however, the Cinnamon, Coconut palm and certain other crops flourish, provided the rainfall is sufficient. (2} Inland, up to medium elevations in Southern and Central Provinces, soils of a reddish clay, often with a proportion of laterite, and containing but a small percentage of humus. (3) Up-Country, soils more of a loamy character, usually with a larger amount of humus; rich loamy soils occur only in certain limited areas. Black peaty clays occur in valleys or swamps at the higher elevations. (4) North Central Province, soil variable, in some places hard and poor; in others it is deep and black, free from stones and easily worked, as at the Maha-illuppalama Cotton Experiment Station, (5) Jaffna Peninsula, soil described generally as of a hard clayey nature. Method of Taking Samples of soil for Analysis. — After clear- ing the surface of the ground of leaves and twigs at any selected spot, dig a small square hole 18 in. to 2 ft. deep, remov- ing all the soil. Then cut a thin section from top to bottom of one side of the hole, and collect this in a clean basket or sack Repeat this operation in five or six other spots where the soil is uniform in appearance, and thoroughly mix the samples so obtained. From the mixture take sufficient soil to fill a box 6 in. by 4 in. by 4 in., and label the box with the name of the estate or garden. Where the soil varies considerably, separate samples should be taken in the above manner. Particulars as to elevation, rainfall, crop growing or to be grown, and previous manuring (if anv) should be sent with each sample. CHAPTER II. PLANT LIFE Most plants consist of shoot and root systems, the former ascending, seeking the light, bearing branches, leaves, flowers, and fruits ; the latter descending and avoiding the light. The part at which the twro diverge is popularly known as the " collar. 'r Some plants have one or more of these parts wanting, but it is unnecessary to consider these here. The roots (descending axis) hx the plant in the soil or substratum ; they absorb nutriment in a fluid state from the soil and in many cases act as reservoirs of food stored for the growth of a succeeding season, e.g., Yams, Carrot, Dahlia and other tuberous-rooted plants. To enable the roots to penetrate the soil without injury, their delicate tips are protected by root-caps. In most plants these are very minute, but in some they are large and plainly seen ; in the thick hanging, aerial roots of the Screw- pines (Pandanus) the root caps are very large, and can be pulled off by hand. Towards the ends of the roots root-hairs are produced ; these apply themselves to the particles of the soil, and by means of the acid fluid permeating their thin cell walls, they dissolve ingredients which they absorb and then use in the nourish- ment of the plant. The shoot or stem (ascending axis), generally arising above the surface of the ground, exposes the leaves and other appendages to the full influence of light and air, conducts the necessary mineral substances from the roots to the leaves, and also the food supply from the leaves to the roots. Stems are erect (as in trees), climbing, by hooked spines, tendrils, etc., (as in Calam is and Vines), twining (as in Ipomoea), creeping (as in Sweet-potato, Pepper, Vanilla, etc.), or underground (as in Ginger). Underground stems (known as rhizomes] superficially resemble roots, but can be distinguished by their possessing rudiments of shoots and leaves in the form of scales with buds in the axils. Ordinary stems are of two types, dicotyledon and monocotyledon. The former represent the majority PLAXT LIFE 17 of trees, shrubs and annual plants, in the stem or shoot of which there is a soft central cylinder of pith, surrounded completely by wood, and external to this by cortex and then bark. The bark or cortex is separated from the wood by the fibrous layer or bast, on the inner side of which is a thin, watery or viscid layer called the cambium or formative tissue. In plants of this type which exist for more than two years, new layers of wood and bark are succes- sively formed from the cambium. In the second type of sh-ii (monocotyledon), as occurs in palms, bamboos and grasses, the pith occupies the whole of the stem, the wood and bast being scattered throughout in strands (vascular bundle*), instead of being continuous and solid ; there is no separable bark, that being represented by a hard external layer called the rind ; in these the stem is hardest externally (whilst in the former type the hardest parts of the stem are internal), there is no cambium, and therefore the stem does not normallv increase in thickness. The leaves are usually composed of a thin layer of green tissue termed the mesophylL which contains the chlorophyll bodies or green colouring matter. This is held together by a framework of ribs commonly known as veins, or botanically as vascular bundles. Each surface is protected by a special layer of cells known as the epidermis. In the lower surface of ordinary leaves are microscopic openings, called stomala, leading into the substance of the leaf ; through these the inhalation and expulsion of air and moisture take place. In a few exceptions the leaves are placed edgewise towards the source of light, as those of Eucalyptus, Loranthus, etc., the stomata in these being equally distributed over both surfaces of the leaf ; in floating leaves, as in Water-lily, the stomata are on the upper surface. The functions of leaves may be compared to those of the stomach and lungs of animals. The roots, stems and leaves being concerned in the supply and elaboration of food, are called Organs of Xutrition, whilst the Mowers are the Organs of Reproduction, producing fruits and seeds. Flowers. — A typical Mower consists of four distinct series or circles of parts, the outer of which, composed of small green, leaf- like organs called sepals, forms the calyx ; the next inwards, a circle of brightly coloured and sometimes scented leaves, called petals, forms the corolla; when both sepals and petals are similar in appearance and colour, as in Lilies, they are known collectively as the perianth; this term is also sometimes used when one of the 18 PLANT LIFE circles is absent, as in the Croton flower. The third series, consisting as a rule of a few or many thin stalks, bearing swollen bodies at their tips, are the stamens or male organs ; the stalks are known as the filaments, and the swollen bodies as the anthers, which contain the pollen. The fourth and innermost circle consists of the pistil, the lower inflated part of which is the ovary, containing the ovules, which when fertilised become the seeds. At or near the apex of the pistil is the stigma, through which the pollen tubes penetrate to fertilise the ovules. The intervening part, when present, between stigma and ovary is called the style. Flowers are pollinated when the pollen from the anthers is transmitted, either naturally or artificially, to the stigma. The act of fertilisation is brought about by each of the pollen grains developing a tube which grows through the stigma down the style to one of the ovules, when its contents fuse with a special cell of the latter. The functions of the exterior circles, calyx and corolla, may be con- sidered as protective and attractive respectively ; while the stamens and ovary are essential for reproduction. These latter may be present in the same flower (hermaphrodite), or they may exist in separate flowers (unisexual}. Flowers which possesses stamens and not a pistil are called staminate or male flowers ; female or pistillate flowers are those in which the stamens are absent. Some plants bear both kinds of flower on the same individual and are called monoecious; others bear them on separate individuals, as the Date palm and Nutmeg tree, and are known as diwcious. Seeds. — Every perfect seed contains an embryo, which is the future plant in a rudimentary state. If the shell be taken off a bean seed, for example, the following parts can be easily distinguished. (1) two fleshy bodies placed face to face called cotyledons or seed- leaves, known also as "nursing leaves ;" (2) a minute projection at their base pointing upwards, called the plumule or future shoot ; (3) a longer projection, also at their base, but pointing downwards, called the radicle or future root. In germination the radicle grows downwards, the cotyledons separate, and the plumule develops upwards, the whole seedling living and increasing on the reserve food stored in the nursing leaves until the roots are functionally active, and the young parts and leaves above ground assume their green colour. In other seeds, as cereals, palms, grasses, etc., the embryo is very small, and is surrounded by a mass of tissue (endosperm) which may be either of a mealy consistency (as in Maize), oily (as in Hevea), or horny (as in palms). In these cases NUTRITION OF PLANTS 19 the endosperm, and not the cotyledons, provides the requisite nutrition for the young plant. NUTRITION OF PLANTS In the youngest stages of its life, as has been shown, the plant is supplied with nourishment from the food stored up in the seed for that purpose. By the time the roots and leaves have been formed, this supply becomes exhausted, and the plant must now obtain its food from the soil and the air. Through their delicate root-hairs the roots absorb from the soil various chemical salts in solution, which are transported upwards through the stem and distributed to the leaves. The acid sap of the root, together with the CO2 (carbon dioxide) gas, probably assists the moisture in dissolving the mineral matter in the soil. The leaves imbibe from the atmos- phere, through their stomata, fcarbon dioxide, the carbon of which enters into combination with the substances absorbed by the roots to form sugar and then starch, and also albumen matter. The process of forming starch by the agency of chlorophyll (the green colouring matter in the leaves and green parts of plants) is called assimilation or, to use the more modern term, photosynthesis. This can only take place under the influences of light and air, the latter supplying the CO2 and the former the energy by which the carbon is split from it. During sunlight the stomata of the leaves are continually giving off oxygen which has been separated from the CO' taken in. the carbon itself being retained by the leaf. In darkness no fixation of carbon can take place, as light is necessary for the splitting of the CO2, so no starch is formed and at the same time no oxygen is evolved. Consequently the process of respiration, which is always going on, becomes evident through the evolution of CO2 In sunlight this is masked as the CO'2 formed in the leaf by respiration is immediately concerned in assimilation. As the saline matter is carried up from the soil through the plant in extreme dilution, the excess of water thus absorbed has to be got rid of in the leaf. This passes out through the stomata in the form of water vapour and the process is known as transpiration. It is important therefore to distinguish clearly between the three processes of assimilation, respiration, and transpiration. Food of plants. — The main elements necessary in the food of plants may be said to be hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium and iron. 20 NUTRITION OF PLANTS The supply of the first three elements comes from the air and water, the remainder are taken up in the form of salts from the soil. Nitrogen is of the greatest importance, being an essential constituent of every organic body. It constitutes the chief bulk of. our atmosphere, but plants (other than Leguminous species) are unable to assimilate it in a free state, that is, unless it is first chemically combined with another element. Plants most probably absorb their nitrogen from the soil in the form of nitrate or ammonia compound. Besides nitrogen, the other elements likely to be deficient in the soil are phosphorous and potassium. These are often supplied in the form of phosphates and potash salts. Soil bacteria and Nitrification. — It is now known that the appropriation of nitrogen by plants is clue to the agency of bacteria, which exist in all fertile soils. It is considered that the presence of active bacteria in the- soil is as necessary to plants as the working of the yeast plant is to the brewer. These microscopic organisms, or ferments as they are called, perform the useful function of con- verting the nitrogenous organic matter in the soil into nitrates, or soluble plant-food. The process is accomplished by the action of two separate groups of bacteria, and is termed nitrification ; one group of these organisms convert ammonia into nitrites, and the other change nitrites into nitrates. Although both organisms are always present in fertile soils, the one cannot perform the work of the other. A favourable degree of warmth and moisture are essential to the active operations of these bacteria ; at low tem- peratures their work is retarded, and at a certain degree of cold- ness it practically ceases. Hence an open porous soil, assisted by good tillage and mulching, encourage their activity and thereby tend to promote oxidation of the organic matter in the soil. Nitrogen-collecting Bacteria. — It is well-known that on the roots of certain Leguminous plants there usually occur nodules or tubercles, which vary in size from that of a pin's head to a pea. These nodules contain a species of bacteria \vhich abstract and fix the free nitrogen of the air. The nitrogen thus becomes stored up in a combined form in the roots and stems of such Leguminous plants, and when the roots of these are left in the ground, or the whole crop dug in as green-manure, the soil is considerably enriched thereby with nitrogen. Only Leguminous plants (chiefiy those of the sub-tribe Papilionaceae) obtain their nitrogen in this way, all other plants, so far as is known at present, depending for their supply on nitrates formed by the soil bacteria from organic XUTRITIOX OF PLAXTS 21 substances in the soil. This property of Leguminous plants has long been recognised in agriculture, and Leguminous crops are therefore esteemed an important factor in the rotation of crops, and also in what is known as green-manuring." Nitro-bacterine, Nitragin, or Bacteria culture. — The nitrogen- gathering bacteria of Leguminosa; have in recent years been isolated, and cultures of them are placed on the market as a commercial product, in different forms known under the names of iiitrtigin, nitro-culture and nitro-baclcrine. Certain soils are said to be practically devoid of the right kind of bacteria, and unless some means of introducing the germs be resorted to they will not produce a healthy Leguminous crop. This deficiency is claimed to be met by applying artificial cultures of the necessary organisms, as those named, the principle of their use being much the same as that of mushroom spawn. Bacteria inoculation. — The means of applying these bacteria cultures is either by inoculating the seed, or the soil into which the latter is to be sown, with water containing the special variety of germ required for the crop. Inoculation of the soil deficient in bacteria was the first method suggested, portions of the soil so treated being afterwards transferred to the larger fields for the purpose of inoculating the latter. This method, however, involves certain disadvantages, viz., excessive cost of transport and labour, and the danger of introducing insect or fungoid pests and objection- able weeds. These difficulties are obviated, it is claimed, by inoculating the seeds, this being effected by thoroughly moistening the latter with a liquid solution of the culture, and then drying them in the shade. So far, however, opinions are divided as to the general merits of bacteria culture and inoculation. Water in its relation to plant-food. — Water is an essential factor in the life of a plant ; it enters very largely in its composition, enabling it to retain rigidity, and carries nutritive substances in solution through the plant's body. Water constitutes by far the greater bulk of fresh vegetable substances (at least 80 %), and also forms a large percentage of ordinary cultivated soils. The solution of mineral substances and gases, for absorption by the roots of plants as food, is dependent on the presence of water. When the amount of water at the root is deficient, the plant wilts, and unless a timely supply is restored to the roots the plant withers and dies. Water differs in several respects according as it is obtained from rain, ponds, streams, springs, or wells. Rain-water is free NUTRITION OF PLANTS from mineral matter, but usually contains a small percentage of ammonia which it obtains from the atmosphere ; it also contains carbon dioxide, so that it is able to dissolve carbonate of lime in the soil. Rain-water is thus said to be "soft," and is preferred for watering plants or crops. Spring or well-water usually contains varying quantities of carbonate of lime and other mineral matter, when it is said to be "hard" ; in some cases it also contains large quantities of iron oxides, and these form encrustations on bodies placed in the water ; this is often characteristic of well-water in the northern part of Ceylon, which consequently is injurious in that condition to plant or animal life. Such water should always be exposed for some time to the sun before use. Running- water also contains in the form of sediment different mineral substances varying in quantity according to the source of the water and the course through which it runs. Irrigation waters in their passage through the soil remove large quantities of nitrogen (in the form of nitrates) and other valuable ingredients from the soil. It has been established by experts that the quantity so removed is in some cases so great that if the water could be supplied to crops in sufficient quantity it would supply the place of manure. CHAPTER III. MANURES The use of manures is, briefly, to supply nutritive matter for •encouraging and sustaining plant-growth. They restore the ferr tility of an exhausted soil, and enrich a naturally poor soil. Any substance, therefore, added to the soil which has the power, either directly or indirectly, of increasing its fertility may be considered as a manure. It may contribute directly by supplying what is required, or indirectly by its chemical action on dormant sub- stances already present, but not in a suitable state for being absorbed by the plants. Manures, more especially farmyard or pen manures, may also improve the physical condition of the soil, rendering heavy clay land lighter and more porous, and sandy soils denser and more retentive of moisture. Growth in plants cannot take place without the main constituent parts of which they are composed being extracted from the earth. The continued pro- duction of crops, therefore, necessitates the withdrawal of an enormous supply of certain elements from the soil, and it is evident that if no means be taken to restore the substances thus removed, the soil becomes gradually "exhausted" (see under Soils). Accord- ing to LIEBIG, "the best fertiliser for any particular crop is that which contains the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, etc., which are removed from the soil by a typical good yield of the crop in question." The immediate effect of a manure depends, (1) on its solubility, and (2) on the suitability of the plant-food which it contains for the use of the crop or plant it is applied to. Suitable mixtures, made up according to the special need of different crops, usually afford most satisfaction. Manures may be divided into two classes, viz. — (1) Organic (or Xatnral) manures, as those composed of vegetable or animal substances ; and (2) Inorganic, or Artificial manures, which are of mineral origin. While most manures act directly by sup- plying the three chief elements of plant-food (nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid), certain kinds are of value chiefly on account of 24 MAXi'RES their properties of liberating the plant-food in the soil, or of cor- recting soil acidity, fixing ammonia, or destroying various pests. Such substances are known as Indirect fertilisers, and include lime, marl, gypsum, charcoal, etc. In applying "artificial" manures, it is well to remember that seldom should more than i Ib. to the square yard be applied at a time ; this is equal to over 1 ton to the acre, while 1 Ib. to the square yard is over 2 tons 3 cwt. to the acre. ORGANIC MANURES Farmyard, or natural manure. — By this is generally under- stood the manure produced by horses, cows, or other cattle kept on the estate or farm. The excrements of different animals possess special fertilising properties, but for ordinary purposes farmyard manures are best mixed together, both solid and liquid. The liquid portion should be soaked up by the litter, so that the latter may have moisture enough to allow of its decomposition, instead of being left to dry, when it is rendered almost useless. Farmyard manure deteriorates by violent heating, but partial decomposition by slight fermentation before adding to the soil is essential in order to render its constituents more soluble. It is even injurious if applied in a "fresh" state, affecting both crops and the nitrates of the soil. For improving the permanent fertility of soils, farmyard manure is the most important of all fertilisers. In addition to its manurial properties, it has valuable physical effects upon the texture and water-holding, powers of the soil, and in dry seasons these may count for more than fertilisers towards ensuring good crops. It restores humus in the soil, gives cohesion to sandy soils, rendering them more retentive of moisture and resistant to drought, and renders clay soils more porous and workable. It may be assumed that a ton of average well-rotted farmyard manure contains 10 to 12 Ib. of nitrogen, about the same of potash, and 4 to 6 Ib. of phosphates. Stable, or Horse manure. — This is called a " hot " manure because, owing to its loose texture, it easily undergoes decomposi- tion or fermentation, producing a high degree of heat. On this account it is very liable to lose more or less of its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. It is usually richer than cow manure, but more liable to loss on keeping. Goats' dung. — This is sometimes procurable in the neighbour- hood of cooly lines. It is a good manure, though its action seems MANURES to be comparatively slow. FIRMIXGKR, in JUrtfTa, stated : " I have often used it for a manure ; but^ietTas it seems to me. with any marked advantage. Sheep's dung, being similar, would probably give like results." Poultry dung. — The dung of fowls is somewhat similar to guano, though far le>s valuable than that material, weight for weight. The difference in quality is largely due to the fact that the food of fowls is very different from the tish diet of the sea-birds which produce guano. Fowl manure usually contains about 2 to 4 per cent, of nitrogen, while good Peruvian guano may contain as much as 20 per cent. Night-soil. — It has often been stated that there is no manure equal in fertilising value to night-soil. The late DR. BOXAVIA, of Lucknow, confirmed this opinion, and found that night-soil pro- duced special " richness of colour in Mowers, and vigour and succ- ulence in vegetables." On the Continent of Europe, night-soil is highly valued as a manure. Poudrette. — In some large European and American towns, night-soil is dried and made into a transportable form which is sold under the name of poudrette ; but as it is prepared by adding largely such materials as gypsum, ashes, earth, sawdust, etc.. the mixture is considered to form but a poor fertiliser. Blood meal. — This is usually considered an excellent manure, being rich in nitrogen (2 to 15 % ). FIRMIXGKR. however, in speak- ing of his experience of it in India, said : " I discovered no advantage whatever in the use of such a manure over that of decayed cowdung, while the unforeseen nuisances attending it determined me never to use it again." BAMBKR recommends it in Ceylon as a useful source of nitrogen. Owing to its concentrated form, it is easy of transport where long and difficult journeys are concerned. It may be applied to general crops at the rate of about 200 Ib. per acre. Fish guano. — Fish manures form very valuable fertilisers, containing as they do a high percentage of ammonia, combined with a fair proportion of phosphate. Their decomposition is very rapid, and the quantity applied to the land must be limited owing to their considerable strength. Such manures are more safely used if mixed in a compost of soil and refuse, so that their powerful fertilising properties can be more evenly distributed. In Ceylon, Hsh guano is used with good effect for coconuts and other culti- vations near the sea-coast, being applied at the rate of about 500 Ib. 26 MAXURES per acre ; it is also largely used in manure mixtures for Tea, on the growth of which it has a marked effect. It should not, how- ever, be applied to soils above any water supply, as by polluting the latter it has been known to be a cause of dysentery, etc. Bones. — Both for field and garden crops, for fruit and other trees, bones in some form or other are extensively employed as a manure. When used in merely a crushed state their decomposition is slow, consequently their fertilising properties are lasting ; reduced to a powder or meal, and applied as a manure, the results are observable in a much shorter time. The usual commercial forms in which bones are applied to the soil are : J inch bones, bone- meal, and bone-dust. Bones are considered to have the best effects on soils that are deficient in lime ; they are commonly used as a manure for rice-fields in Ceylon, and yield good results. Soils rich in decomposing organic matters, such as leaf-moulds, are greatly enhanced in fertility by an application of bone-meal. Guano. — This valuable manure, obtained principally from islands off the coast of Peru, and various other places on the coast of South America, is usually the excrement of sea-birds. It has been deposited there during the course of centuries and varies in quality, that found in the regions which are liable to heavy rainfall or shifting sands being of least value. The best guano is supposed to be that which comes from Chincha Islands, where the supply is said to have now become greatly diminished. The guanos of commerce may be classified under two heads : — (1) nitrogenous guano, of which the " Peruvian" is a type ; (2) Phosphatic guano, of which the u Bolivian " is an example, — the latter being inferior. The chief fertilising properties of guano having been ascertained by analysis, various artificial manures are nowr prepared as sub- stitutes for it. Sometimes sulphate of ammonia is added to nitrogenous guano, the mixture being then known as " Fortified Peruvian Guano." Guano should always be mixed with about six times its bulk of fine earth, loam or ashes ; the mixture may be applied at the rate of about 4 or 5 cwt. per acre, according to the nature of the crop. For pot-plants, guano may very advanta- geously be applied in solution with water, the proportion varying according to the size and variety of plant for which it is required. About 1 oz. to two gallons of water may generally be used with safety. Leaf-mould. — Leaves, when thoroughly decayed and reduced to a state of mould, form a sort of manure known as leaf-mould. MANURES This contains a considerable proportion of potash and nitrogen, and is a most valuable growing medium, either alone or mixed with other substances, being eminently suited to the growth of most plants. All fallen leaves and vegetable refuse in a garden should therefore be collected and thrown into a deep pit or trench, dug in some obscure corner in order to provide leaf-mould. In dry weather, water should be supplied to the pit, so as to give its contents a thorough soaking, thus hastening decomposition. Leaf- mould is particularly suited for the cultivation of pot-plants, especially palms, ferns, and such fine foliage plants as naturally grow under shade in the jungle. (See under Soils). Castor, Ground-nut, or Poonac-cake, etc. — These are the residue of castor-oil seeds, ground-nuts, coconuts, etc., after the oil has been extracted. They are esteemed as manures, being usually rapid in action, and are somewhat largely used on up-country estates in Ceylon. BAMBER states that castor-cake is " one of the most useful manures for Tea, and an excellent basis for other mixtures, the percentage of nitrogen in the best castor cake being about 6 % , though often only 5% in some grades." On all garden crops, and especially Roses, castor-cake is considered to have excellent results. Rape and cotton-seed cake are also valuable manures. Jadoo, or Jadoo-fibre. — This potting material, or " growing medium " as it is called, has been patented some years ago by COL. THOMPSON, in England. It has for its foundation peat-moss, which is of an exceedingly spongy and absorbing character, not unlike fine coconut fibre in appearance. This is said to be boiled, impregnated with nitrate of potash, bone-meal, gypsum, soot, etc., and then fermented. When the substance is ready for use it is almost free from any smell, and is a clean and light material to handle. It is especially adapted for such plants as are required for growing in -doors. As a propagating medium, especially for germinating seeds, it has been highly spoken of. It used to be imported by a firm in Colombo, but apparently the cost of trans- port has prevented it becoming popular in the tropics. Sea-weeds. — Along the Ceylon coasts, and particularly in the north, sea- weeds are frequently used as a manure, being applied in the fresh state, either for digging into the ground or for forming a mulch on the surface. The percentage of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid which sea-weeds contain is, however, considered small, so that their effect on soils is not a lasting one. 28 MAXURES Town-sweepings sometimes form a useful manure. Though iu some cases they consist largely of sand, in others they contain large quantities of organic matter. The refuse from the neighbour- hood of markets are especially useful as a manure, while scrapings from side-drains often contain a large amount of humus and other manurial substances ; their liability to contain troublesome weeds is, however, an objection to their use on field crops. Coir-dust. — This decomposes so slowly that it can hardly be said to be of much value as a fertiliser. It has, however, a bene- ficial mechanical effect on certain soils, especially such as are deficient in humus. It may with advantage be used to give " body" to potting soils, but it should always be well leached in the open air and rain before use. In the neighbourhood of Colombo and coast towns generally, this is largely employed for pot plants. Woollen refuse and shoddy. — These are waste materials from woollen and cloth mills, and are used in Europe to some extent in the manufacture of manures. It is said that they usually contain from 5 to 10 per cent, of nitrogen, and that their manurial effects extend over two or three years. The more finely divided the material the more readily it decomposes in the soil, and the more evenly it can be distributed. This form of manure is com- monly used in the cultivation of Hops in England. INORGANIC MANURES Lime. — Lime is a necessary element of the food of plants, enters into the composition of every form of vegetable life, and few soils that do not contain it in some form. But as a manure in itself, lime rarely needs to be added to the soil ; as an indirect fertilising agent, however, it is of the greatest importance. It being necessary for all organic or vegetable matter in the soil to undergo decomposition before the contained elements are rendered available for use as plant-food, lime in its hot or caustic condition is one of the most powerful agents for effecting such decomposi- tion. Thus an application of lime to "acid" or "sour" land, often has most beneficial results ; whilst its action on heavy or inert soils is an important aid to fertility, causing the soil to become friable, and thereby giving free access to air and water, which encourage the growth of soil bacteria. It is considered that any soil containing less than ^ per cent, of lime cannot be brought to a high state of fertility. Lime is valuable for pasture land, as well as for field and garden crops, whilst its effect as a preventive against fungoid diseases (e.g., club-root) and insects in the soil is MAXCRES 29 well-known. The quantity that should he applied varies according to the nature of the soil. In hot countries the soil requires less lime than in cool or temperate regions, owing partly to the more rapid rate of decomposition that naturally takes place in the former. In Ceylon, an application of 2 to 3 c\vt. per acre is usually con- sidered sufficient for Held crops, and this in the case of Tea is generally applied with buried primings. For garden purposes 6 to 8 oz. per square yard is a safe dressing. Clay soils require more lime than light loams or sands. In the case of land which contains but little humus, lime should only be applied in very small quan- tities, otherwise exhaustion of the soil will result. Ground that is frequently manured, as an old vegetable garden, will be much improved by small applications of lime, which act as a corrective of inertness resulting from liberal manuring. Except for such plants as Rhododendrons, for instance, to which it is really in- jurious, the application of lime to rich garden soils should be attended to every third year or so. It should be remembered that lime will not supply the place of organic manure, that it merely renders this available for the nourishment of plants, and that in some cases its application to the soil may even be injurious. An old maxim of farmers is that — Lime and lime without manure, Makes both farm and farmer poor. The exhaustive effect of continued liming of the soil, whilst adding insufficient organic matter to the latter, is also aptly put in the adage, — " Lime pays the father, but ruins the son." Coral lime, which is almost a pure carbonate of lime, is what is usually employed for manurial purposes in Ceylon. It is imported from India and the Maldive Islands in hard lumps, and is either ground to a fine state and sold as ground-coral, or burned in kilns, when it is supplied as burnt or quick-lime. Chalk acts both mechanically and chemically when applied to the soil. It renders soils which are light and incapable of holding sufficient moisture more compact and retentive, a quality which pre- vents the rain washing away the soluble substances necessary for the support of plant life. Chalk is a variety of carbonate of lime and, in addition to the latter, contains to a varying extent clay, sand, potash, soda, oxide of iron, phosphoric and sulphuric acids. Gypsum, or Sulphate of lime, is a combination of lime, sulphuric acid and water ; it belongs to the class of indirect nitinurcs, and exists to a large extent in ordinary superphosphates.. 30 MANURES Though opinions regarding its fertilising action are divided, its use is often attended with much success. It may be applied at the rate of 3 to 5 cwt. per acre or about 3 oz. per square yard, and is found to produce the best results when used in wet weather. It is considered best adapted to light sandy soils, though it is also sometimes successfully employed on heavy clays. Ashes. — Wood-ashes contain potash and soda, besides other inorganic elements of plant-food, and therefore form a valuable manure. They are suitable for applying by themselves, or for intermixing with dung or other manures. The charcoal which the ashes usually contain in small pieces has the important property of absorbing ammonia and other gases, and again giving them off for the nourishment of plants. Wood-ashes are on this account valuable as a deodoriser. Coal-ashes have useful manurial effects in some cases, especially on stiff clayey soils, owing to the sulphate of lime or gypsum they contain, and have been found to encourage the growth of leguminous vegetables. (See Peat, under Soils). Magnesia is essential to the growth of plants, it being always present in their ashes in variable proportions. Applied as a manure, it is considered that it may act directly by serving as food for the plant, or indirectly by uniting with insoluble mineral substances, and rendering these available as plant-food. "Japanese experts show that the ratio of lime to magnesia in soils has an important bearing on many, crops." '(BAMBER). Ammonia. — Ammonia is one of the most important compo- nents of manures, and one which has a powerful stimulating action on the growth of plants, usually producing a luxuriance of dark green foliage. It is formed by the decay of organic matter in the soil, and also in the air, and is the source from which plants derive their nitrogen. Ammonia is supplied to plants by the decomposi- tion of organic manures capable of forming it, or by the use of some of the salts of ammonia. Of the latter the most commonly employed is — Sulphate of ammonia. — For garden crops or pot-plants this may be dissolved in water (^ ounce to 1 gallon of water) and applied as a liquid manure, having in this way most beneficial effects on plant growth. BAMBER recommends it as u a very useful ingredient in mixtures, as it supplies soluble nitrogen in a most concentrated form ; the quantity so employed may be from 25 to 50 Ibs. or more per acre." This and other salts of ammonia are very powerful in their action, and need to be used with caution. MANURES 51 Nitrate of soda (Chili saltpetre). — Of nil the nitrogenous manures, nitrates are the most rapid in action, as the nitrogen they contain is actually in a condition in which the plant am take it up at once without change. Being readily soluble in water, it is easily washed out of the soil by rain or heavy artificial waterings ; it should therefore be applied rather in a dry season and when the plants are well-established and in active growth. Nitrate of soda is obtained from Chili, and is sometimes called Chili saltpetre. Owing to its high percentage of nitrogen (about 15#), it has very stimulating effects as a manure, and should be used in small dress- ings occasionally, rather than in one heavy application. It is readily assimilated by plants, and is considered especially suited for root and grain crops. For garden crops an application of about 1 Ib. per 40 square yards, or 1 cwt. per acre, applied as a surface dressing, is considered a sound practice. It is computed that 3 cwt. of nitrate of soda is equal in value as a fertiliser to 80 tons of farm-yard manure. Calcium nitrate is manufactured in Norway, and is obtained by extreme heat, achieved by means of the electric arc flame, under which atmospheric nitrogen is made to directly combine with oxygen. The chemical combination produces nitric acid gas. The compound is afterwards passed through water and lime, and finally a solid nitrate of lime (calcium nitrate) is obtained. Potash is found in large quantities in the ash of plants, and is a valuable constituent of manures. It is of special value to starch and sugar producing crops, as potatoes, beet, etc., as also to fruit crops, constituting as it does the principal ingredient in the ash of fruits. Potash is of special importance in the process of assimilation, in which starch is converted into sugar. It is rarely used as a manure by itself, being usually applied in conjunction with nitrogenous or phosphatic fertilisers. Soils which are sandy or gravelly, or have become exhausted from continuous cropping or from lack of manuring, stand most in need of this form of manure. The chief source of potash salts, of various grades, lies in the saline deposits at Strassfurth and other places in Germany. Nitrate of Potash (sometimes called Xilrc, or Stillpclrc) is a combination of potash and nitric acid. It is a powerful manure, containing both -nitrogen and potash, and is especially adapted for fruit production. The frequent use of this is, however, considered to have the effect -of exhausting soils of organic matter. It is recommended for forking in among Tea plants at the rate of about 100 Ib. per acre. 32 MANURES Sulphate of potash usually contains about. 50% of potash, and is considered to be the cheapest and best form of applying, potash to the soil. In orchards it may be applied at the rate of about 1 Ib. per tree, and to Tea plants about 1 12 Ib. per acre may be given, as with buried primings. Kainit. — A compound of sulphate of potash and magnesia, now much used as a potash manure. It is imported from Germany, and usually contains 12 to 14 per cent, of potash, and about 35 per cent, of common salt. Muriate of potash. — Also a product of German potash mines, said to contain about 50 to 60% of actual potash. Superphosphate. — This is perhaps the most important and universally used form of phosphatic manures. It is made by treat- ing rock-phosphates, bones, etc., with sulphuric acid, afterwards drying the product. As usually prepared, it should contain about 17% phosphoric acid soluble in water. A form known as "Con- centrated Superphosphate" is imported which contains about 44% soluble phosphoric acid. Basic slag, Basic cinder, or Thomas' phosphate is a by- product obtained in the manufacture of steel. Iron ores contain irregular quantities of phosphorus, and the object of the steel- maker is to get rid of all the phosphorus in the iron. To effect this the iron is melted in contact with limestone, which extracts the phos- phorus and forms a slag. This, when ground to a hue powder, forms what is known as basic slag, which may vary very consider- ably in quality, though usually it contains 30 % to 40 % phosphate. Basic slag has grown in favour as a form of manure in Ceylon, more especially for applying with buried Tea primings or green- manure ; in this way it may be applied at the rate of about 3 to 5 cwt. per acre. For fruit trees, roses, etc., it may be applied with good results at the rate of 4 to 6 ox. per square yard. Phosphate of lime. — All organic manures, and some kinds of chalk and marl, contain phosphate of lime. This is also found in nearly all plants, and, on account of its supplying phosphoric acid, constitutes a valuable addition to soils. Phosphatic manures are noted for stimulating plants into vigorous growth, thereby render- ing them better able to assimilate the potash contained in the soil. Chilinit is described as a new fertiliser, composed of the fertilising ingredients in the waste from sugar refineries. u Nitri- fying bacteria are cultivated in a portion of the molasses, which is MAXURES 33 then mixed with lime and sand, and gently dried at a low heat. The product usually contains 3 % to 4% nitrogen and 8 % to 9 % potash." Calcium Cyanamide, or Nitrolim. — A new nitrogenous fertiliser in the form of fine friable powder, which is prepared from the atmosphere by the aid of a powerful electric furnace, said to be now becoming a rcognised substitute in Europe for nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia. The process of manufacture is stated to be " by heating lime and coke to a temperature of 2,500 degrees centigrade in electric furnaces of the resistance type. Calcium carbide is thus produced ; the carbide is then heated in retorts, and at 1,100°C., atmospheric nitrogen is introduced and absorbed, the new compound being known as calcium cyanamide or nitrolim. This is usually guaranteed to contain 20 % nitrogen. It is said that nitrolim has sometimes an injurious effect on young plants and that, in order to obtain the best results, it should be mixed with nitrate of lime, in the proportion of 2 parts of the former to 1 part of the latter. Salt (Chloride of sodium). — Common Salt, which contains soda, chlorine, and other substances, has been used for manurial purposes from very early times, and in some countries is still so employed to some extent. Especially for such plants or crops as are indigenous to the sea-side, as Coconuts, Asparagus, Beetroot, etc., salt is considered by some to be very beneficial as a manure. Yet it is a disputed point whether it has any manurial value, direct or indirect, it being often asserted that it has none. The presence of sodium and chlorine in the ash of most plants is considered by some to be due to accident rather than necessity, the quantities present being very variable. Further, it is stated that even were salt a necessary plant-food, its presence in all soils is already sufficiently abundant to obviate any necessity for its application. It is, however, as an indirect fertiliser that the beneficial effect, if any, of salt chieHy lies. DR. AIKMAX, in his book on "Manures and Manuring" remarks that "the action of salt in decomposing the minerals containing lime, magnesia, potash, etc., is similar to the action of lime ; it acts upon the double silicates and liberates these necessary plant-foods, also on the phosphoric and silicic acids, which it sets free." As a preventive of rankness of growth, how- ever, the effect of salt is generally admitted. On the other hand it is thought that, having a great affinity for water, the application of salt is of benefit to crops by absorbing moisture from the sub-soil as 34 LIQUID MANURES well as from the air. Salt is often recommended and used as a manure for Coconuts in Ceylon. BAMBEK considers its application beneficial in some cases, and recommends it for Coconuts at the rate of 1 Ib. per tree. Whatever be the merits of salt as a manure, there seems to be much difficulty in regard to the proper amount to apply. When applied in excess its action is most deleterious, 20% in a soil being considered sufficient to render the latter barren. Thus it was customary in ancient times, after the conquest of a hostile town, to u strew salt on the enemy's fields, for the purpose of rendering them barren and unfertile." BAMBEK has found on analyses that the Ceylon rainfall yields from 28 to 112 Ib. of common salt per acre per annum, according to the amount of rainfall and the proximity to the sea. LIQUID MANURES Although this term is generally considered to imply the drainings of dung heaps, stables, etc., yet almost any manure may be applied to the soil in a liquid state. Manure of this description, though most beneficial to vegetable and other crops, should only be used when the plants are in a healthy state of growth. It can also be profitably applied to composts, so as to induce a more rapid fermentation of their organic matter. It is claimed that liquid manure has a great advantage over solid, being stronger, quicker of action, and capable of being more evenly diffused over the land.. Most of the highly concentrated artificial manures are doubtless best applied in solution, but this is not always practicable. Liquid manure may be made by adding a small portion of some concen- trated fertiliser to a can of water, and applied at once to the plants it is intended to stimulate. This is a ready and clean method of preparing it, but one which requires some caution in guarding; against the dose being too strong. All chemical manures intended for use when dissolved in water should be tried first in a weak solution, and the strength increased gradually if results warrant it. Liquid manures, as already stated, are most effectually employed when the plants are in an active state, yet in want of a stimulant for assisting the development of their crops, or for sustaining their growth. Soot or Soot-water.— Soot is seldom obtainable in the tropics,, except perhaps at some Up-country bungalows. In countries where it is available, it is considered a valuable manure, as well as an insecticide, being used either in a dry state mixed with other manurial substances, or dissolved in water, the latter COMPOSTS 35 form being generally preferable. Soot-water is made by placing the soot in a canvas bag, afong with a stone to sink it while dry, in a cask or tub of water: about i bushel of soot to 10 gallons of water is sufficiently strong. As the liquid is taken out, more water is added until the virtues of the soot are exhausted. It is claimed that the application of soot-water to the soil in which pot-plants grow increases the size and deepens the colour of flowers and foliage, and enhances the general vigour of the plants. On cold soils especially it is considered useful, as the dark colour of the soot favours the absorption of heat from the sun, and thus tends to the production of earlier crops. A ton of average chimney soot in England contains about 3 Ib. of nitrogen, 1 5 Ib. of potash, and 17 Ib. of phosphoric acid. Apart from its manurial properties, soot is said to materially assist in keeping down the larvae of destructive insects. Soap-suds. — "These," said DR. LIXDLEY, "have an undoubted value, because of their potash, irrespective of the organic matter they contain." For potted plants, an occasional application of soap- suds is considered very beneficial. FIRMIXGER, in India, said : "I scarcely know of a better and more effective insecticide. By syringing and washing the leaves of potted plants with soap-suds, I have preserved them from the attack of blight, mealy-bug, and other enemies of the gardener. Plants in a sickly condition have often been restored to health by merely washing their leaves with soap-suds. In fact if you wish to keep your plants in a luxuriant growth, wash and syringe them with soap-suds once or twice a week, especially those exposed to dust." PROFESSOR DUXSTAX points out that the above quotation from LIXDLEY refers to so/7-soap, since //) packing the soil by a " sub-soil packer " and heavy rolling. A sub-soil packer is an implement, the object of which is to press the soil under the surface, while the surface-soil is left in a loose condition. Supplementary to these operations are also measures which secure good intertillage, comparatively thin seeding and wider spacing, thus admitting of perfect development of the plants. In the case of grain crops, the seed should be moistened before sowing so as to assist germination, while planting should be followed by thoroughly pressing the soil round the plants. By observing these rules, good crops are now said to be obtained in parts of India where the annual rainfall is only about 1 5 inches. DRAINAGE Proper drainage, whether natural or artificial, is essential to all cultivated soils. The objects of drainage are, briefly, to enable the rain to become absorbed by the soil and pass through it ; to 50 DRAINAGE render the soil porous, though maintaining a sufficiency of moisture for plant-life ; to remove superfluous water and prevent stagnant water remaining in the soil. A porous soil contains small spaces between its particles, and these, when not occupied by water, are rillecl with air, which conduces to bacterial activity and nitrification and is essential to plant-growth. Some lands are naturally well- drained, which may be seen from the fact that when rain falls on them it percolates through without leaving the soil sodden or saturated. Soils which are not properly drained become impreg- nated with acids which are injurious to plant-life ; in such cases the soil is cold, and causes the roots to rot off from the ends, the plants under such conditions being sometimes referred to as suffering from "wet feet." A damp soil is always colder than a porous one, for the reason that water is colder than air. Surface drainage, i.e., open trenches or ditches at certain intervals, are essential on steep lands, so as to prevent or check the washing away of the surface soil by torrential rains. This system of drainage is extensively employed throughout the Tea-planting districts, and is indispensable to the preservation of the soil. The drains are usually about 2 to 3 ft. in depth, and vary in the distance apart according to the gradient and physical characteristics of the land. On very steep land such drains should not be more than 25 to 30 ft. apart, while on gentle slopes they may be as many yards distant. In gardens or ornamental grounds, however, open drains would be unsightly if not impracticable, and for that reason they should be covered, notwithstanding the extra cost thus incurred. In making a covered drain, drainage tiles or stones should be placed in the bottom of the trench, large spaces and crevices being left in the bottom, and Finishing with a layer of smaller pieces at the top. Brushwood, fibre, or straw may be placed over this, and the soil then filled in. (See Drains and Culverts}. CHAPTER VI. PROPAGATION Plants are propagated in various ways ; some which increase at a rapid rate by one method cannot be similarly raised by another, while in some cases all methods of propagation fail. The follow- ing are the principal modes of propagation in use :— Propagation by Seed. — This is the most natural mode of increase, and is the one by which the vast majority of plants naturally spread and produce their species, the off-spring being more or less true according as the flowers are disposed to become influenced by foreign pollen affecting their fertilisation. The production of seed may be said to be the aim of the life of every plant in a state of nature. Where exact counterparts of plants cannot be ensured by raising from seed, propagation by vegetative means, as by cuttings, buds, grafts, etc., may be resorted to. Selection and Saving of Seed. — In the raising of seed of most kinds, it is important that selected plants or trees should be set apart for the purpose and cultivated with special care, so as to encourage the production of perfect and well-nourished seed. The seed from each plant should be sown separately, each batch of seedlings transplanted into a separate plot, and the crop measured or weighed. In this way the parental plants are tested by their performance. It is, however, also advisable where practicable to select individual seeds. Inferior or unproductive plants should be eliminated, and imperfectly formed flowers or fruits removed where possible. Vigour may also be concentrated in the seed by thinning out the flowers or fruits, retaining only the best. This not only applies to annuals which may be grown for ornament or use, but also to fruit-trees, Tea, Coconuts, Cacao, Cotton, Rubber, or other products. It is of importance that seeds should be perfectly ripe before they are gathered, as otherwise their germination and the vitality of the seedling will be affected. Change of seed from one district to another has often a beneficial result, and the practice is generally approved by the best agriculturists and horticulturists. (See under Plant Breeding at end of Chapter). 52 PROPAGATION Vitality of Seeds. — It may be assumed that most seeds germinate best if sown as soon as ripe. Although many seeds, if carefully stored, retain their vitality for many years (as palms), they decline appreciably in vigour with age, and the progeny of old seed is generally less robust than that from seed recently harvested. In the case of plants of the Gourd family, however, old seed is sometimes preferred, as this is considered to yield plants of a more fruitful and less leafy nature. Ceara rubber seeds, too, are generally supposed to germinate better when at least a year or two old (See under Testing Vitality of Seeds). Sowing Seed. — Seeds vary in size and character so much that no hard and fast rule can be laid down for sowing. Certain conditions are, however, essential in all cases. All seeds are best sown in line, light soil, easily permeable to the young roots as well as to the plumule. The surface soil should be made moderately firm and even ; this will ensure the seeds being sown at a uniform depth, and aid in maintaining a moist surface. The proper amount of soil for covering the seeds varies according to the size of the latter. A good general rule is to cover seeds to a depth equal to their smallest diameter. Large seeds should not be buried much below the surface, whilst small seeds may as a rule be covered one-tenth of an inch. Seeds sown in the field, plot, or nursery- bed require to be buried deeper than is necessary for germination, so as to protect them from vermin, etc., and to allow for wash by rains. Seeds which take long to germinate, as Nutmeg, Palms, etc., should be sown about an inch below the surface. In all cases of garden or field crops, the seeds should, whenever practicable, be sown in rows, never broadcast if avoidable. Sowing in rows economises seed, and enables the seedlings being better attended to in regard to weeding, thinning out, etc. Sowing at stake, which is sometimes adopted in the case of field crops, as Rubber, Tea, etc., consists in sowing the seeds in the position which the plants are to occupy when grown up ; thus holes are prepared in lines and filled in, the position being marked by placing the stake (already used for lining) in the centre ; one to three seeds are sown close to the stake, the weaker seedlings being afterwards removed as required. In sowing very small seeds, as those of some annuals and vegetables, one is very liable to sow too thickly. A good plan is to " bulk" very small seed by mixing with it finely sifted soil or saw- dust, as this enables the seed to be sown more thinly and evenly. When seedlings are large enough to handle they should be PROPAGATION 53 carefully thinned out or regulated, retaining the stronger ones and discarding the \ve:iker. Large seeds are in many cases affected in their germination by the position in which they are sown, although this is a matter not often taken into account by cultivators. MR. FETCH, the Ceylon Government Mycologist, has found that deformity in seedlings of Para-rubber is chiefly due to faulty position of the seed in germination, the shoot or plumule in consequence becoming entangled with the stalk of the seed-leaves (cotyledons). Out of 50 seeds which were sown horizontally with the inner or Hatter surface downwards (which is considered the proper position), 48 germinated normally, while from a similar number sown vertically with the micrcpyle uppermost, only 9 normal plants were obtained. In the case of Coconuts it is customary to sow the nuts on their side, with the stalk end slightly raised. Basket or Bamboo-plants. — For most trees or shrubs, an excellent plan is to sow the seed in plant-baskets or bamboo pots ; in some cases two or three seeds may be sown together, the weaker seedlings being afterwards removed, leaving only one in each basket or bamboo. This method of raising plants not only facilitates transport, but also enables the plants, with their roots in the soil intact, being planted out in almost any weather with comparative safety. In the case of Rubber, Tea, etc., the advantage of basket- plants over stumps or seedlings from nursery-beds is obvious, and is usually well worth the extra cost entailed. Where baskets are not obtainable, sections of bamboo will answer the purpose, but these, unlike the plant-baskets, must be removed from the plants when the latter are being planted out. This is easily accomplished thus: split the bamboo along two sides with a blow from a knife, lay the plant on its side and invert the two halves of bamboo ; this enables the latter to be easily removed when the plant is fixed in position and the soil is filled in around it. Germination of Seeds. — The seed may be divided into three parts, viz., the germ, the body, and the skin. The germ or life principle is the embryo, consisting of the miniature plant with the leaves and stem in an undeveloped state. The body or endosperm is the reserve food which nourishes the embryo in germination until the root is advanced enough to derive nutriment from the soil. The skin or shell of the seed is for the purpose of protection. The four conditions essential to successful germination are : (1) a certain amount of moisture, (2) a favourable degree of heat, (3) a continuous supply of fresh air, and (4) protection from 54 PROPAGATION strong light. In the absence of any of these conditions successful germination cannot take place. When the seed-coat or shell is hard and horny, it precludes air and moisture from the embryo, and thus prevents germination until it has sufficiently decayed. Certain seeds with extremely hard shells or endosperm take a long time to germinate, varying from 2 or 3 months, as in the case of the Nutmeg, to almost as many years, as with certain species of palms. In many cases, however, germination may be assisted by either tiling or rasping the horny shell, or subjecting them to repeated soakings in almost boiling water. The former method may be applied to seeds with a hard horny shell, as those of Ceara-rubber (Ma iii hoi Glaziovii), while the latter may be adopted in the case of seeds with a very hard endosperm, as Indian-shot (Canna), Wattles (Acacia), and other leguminous sorts. The "rasping" or "tiling" process is perhaps best carried out by holding the seed, when large enough to handle, for a few seconds against a revolving grind- stone. A cooly with a seed in each hand, while another cooly turns the handle, will thus soon get through a large number of seeds. A method, known as the "bush method," sometimes adopted for hard-shelled seeds, is to burn a small bundle of hay or ferns over the seed-pot or bed, afterwards watering the soil with a tine rose. Another way of facilitating the germination of very hard seeds, is to place them in a hot fermenting dung heap. Indian Shot (Canna)* Ceara Rubber seeds and others have been successfully started in this way. Soaking such seeds for about 5 minutes in a solution of sulphuric acid has been tried with good results in America. In hastening the germination of old or hard seeds, camphor dissolved in water has been found to have a marked effect. Experiments have also shown that treating seeds with chlorine water (2 drops chlorine to 60 CC. of water), and then placing them in the sun will accelerate germination. Another aid to germination is to water the seeds with a weak solution of formic acid (1 in 500), or with alkaline substances, as ammonia, soda, etc. Testing vitality of seeds. — A popular \vay of testing the vitality of seeds is to place them in water, when if they float they are presumed to be bad. This, however, is sometimes misleading, as some seeds when in their prime tioat, and sink when in a bad condition, or vice versa. Seeds will either sink or float according to their specific gravity. Those which sink when good are of doubtful character when they swim. A strong saline solution, made with common salt, is employed in Japan for testing rice and other seeds. In this case, as above, all seeds that float are rejected, PROPAGATION 55 and those that sink selected- for sowing. A practical test is to cut or break open a certain percentage of the seeds ; if in good con- dition the interior of the seed will present its natural and cheesy consistency. The surest test of vitality, however, is to sow a small representative quantity under the most favourable circumstances, as in specially prepared pots or beds under shelter. The proportion of seeds which thus germinate bears to the number sown, will afford proof of the quality of the seed. For testing very small seeds, they may be placed between wet blotting paper or damp cloth. It is a good plan when seeds are of doubtful quality to soak them in hot water previous to sowing ; very often this may add 20 to 30 per cent, to the number of seedlings which would otherwise be obtained. Acclimatized seed. — This term is applicable to seeds of any introduced and acclimatized plant, but in India it refers to European annuals and vegetables which thrive sufficiently well to produce good seed, capable of yielding satisfactory crops. In that country it has been found that in some cases such seeds give better results, at least for a time, than imported seeds. Though certain flowering annuals produce good seeds in the hill districts of Ceylon, no one, so far as I am aware, finds it worth while to save seed of European vegetables grown here. As a general rule, cultivation in the tropics has a deteriorating effect on the quality of all flowering plants and vegetables from temperate climates. Therefore imported seeds and fresh strains usually give the best results, and these are easily procured fresh from England or Australia. Seeds of Aquatic Plants (water-plants), such as Xcluinbiiiiii, Xymphirn, Victoria regia, etc., should be sown in pots submerged in shallow water. The pots should be raised on bricks, or such like supports, so as to bring them close to the water surface, thus securing greater warmth from the sun's rays than if placed deeper. Shallow still water is always the warmest. Fern Spores should be sown upon tine sandy loam in well drained pots or pans. The spores should be gathered before the spore-cases have burst, and be sown at once, the soil being well watered before the spores are scattered over the surface. The pans or pots should then be stood in saucers of water, and a pane of glass placed over the top until the spores have vegetated. Instead of separating the spores from their cases (sporangittws), fragments of matured fronds may be laid on the surface of the prepared soil, when the spores will fall out themselves. Neither covering of soil nor watering is required, it being sufficient to 56 PROPAGATION keep the vessel in which the pot is placed tilled with water, as described above. Orchid seed. — Experts in orchid-growing formerly sowed the seeds upon the surface of the material in which the orchid pi ints were growing, as owing to the presence of a symbiotic fungus it was supposed th'it the seed could only be grown in this way. Good results are, however, now generally obtained by sowing orchid seed on finely chopped moss or similar moist medium. Propagation by Cuttings. — With the exception of seeds, this is the commonest method of propagition and, as a rub, the most expeditious and satisfactory. Propagation by cuttings as compared with that by seed has special advantages. By the former tlvj peculiar- ities of the parent are reproduced as if the cutting were still a part of it, whereas by seed the special characters of the parent are often noc perpetuated. In the tropics, a very large proportion of plants may be readily propagated by cuttings, especially if these are inserted in suitable soil during the rainy weather ; some species, as the Dadap (Erylhrina lilhosperma), thus strike root so easily that if stems or branches are used as fence posts they will soon develop roots and sprout into leaf. In other cases, however, as with species characterized by hard wood or hollow stems, it is difficult, if not impossible, to induce cuttings to strike root. For successful propagation by cuttings, the following conditions are important, viz.: (1) firm and sufficiently ripened shoots from which the cuttings are taken ; (2) a suitable rooting medium composed of a light porous sandy soil, or fine sand only ; and (3) a higher tem- perature with closer atmosphere than that in which the plants grow when established. It is believed that most cuttings strike root more readily if inserted in the ground sloping- wise instead of erect, and in the East the natives invariably practise this when planting cuttings for the Cassava crop, or cuttings to form hedges. The explanation prob- ably is that the cuttings are thus more firmly fixed and that there is less evaporation of moisture from the portion underground. In preparing cuttings, the end of the shoot to be in the ground should be cut across with a clean slanting cut, just below a leaf-bud. The lower leaves should be cut off, leaving 3 to 4 eyes or buds to be under the soil when planted ; the upper leaves if of a large size may be reduced to half. As to what is the best size for the cutting, this depends upon the nature of the plant. In the case of soft- wooded species, it is necessary to take rather large cuttings with a certain amount of firm woodiness ; cuttings of young succulent PROPAGATIOX 57 growth are liable to decay, especially if planted in the open ground. All cuttings succeed better at one season than another, and in many cases the most suitable period can only be found out by experiment. Generally speaking, however, cuttings will strike best at the com- mencement of the active growing season. In taking cuttings of plants which are grown for their fruits or Mowers, the upper shoots should be chosen ; thus in the case of Pepper, Cubebs, etc., it is well known that cuttings which are taken from the uppermost shoots are more productive and yield earlier crops than those obtained from the lower shoots. Similarly with flowering plants, cuttings taken from the extremity will flower early and in a comparatively small state. Thus, plants raised by cuttings from the flowering shoots of the climber Camocnsia maxima, which usually takes several years to attain a flowering condition if raised from seed, have been found to blossom at Peradeniya in the nursery- bed when only about 16 inches high. Although an open nursery is suitable for propagation by cuttings of most kinds of plants, many of the choicer sorts require to be struck in sand, under glass or other artificial covering. In . glass-houses where artificial heat and moisture are under control, and bell-glasses for covering the cuttings are available, many kinds of plants may be raised by cuttings which would be impossible without these means. The bell-glass is of great advantage in preventing excessive evaporation and maintaining a warm and moist atmosphere around the cuttings. It is well known that cuttings will strike better when placed against a porous substance, as the inside of a flower-pot half full of sandy soil or sand only. This fact has lately been taken advantage of in establishing a low hard- wooded plant, Malpighia cocci f era, as an edging to the drives in Peradeniya Gardens. Edging tiles were first laid along the sides of the drives and paths, and the Malpighia cuttings, being inserted against these, struck root readily and formed an excellent dwarf edging not unlike Boxwood. A simple method of striking small cuttings is as follows : Fill a flower-pot half full of sand and soil ; insert cuttings of a length sufficient to reach, within a little, the rim of the pot ; sink the pot in the earth, and cover with a pane of glass. The glass should be turned each morning so as to dispose of the condensed moisture on the underneath side. Another excellent plan, practised in India, is thus described: — "Procure a large flower-pot, and at the bottom of it place large loose pieces of brick, just so high that a small flower-pot placed inside upon them may have its rim on the same level as the rim of the large pot. 58 PROPAGATION Fill in the space between the pots with perfectly dry sand or earth. Then till the inner pot with pure sand, and insert the cuttings. Take another pot just of a size that when inverted it may lit in on the earth between the rims of the large and small pots ; break out its bottom, and lay over it a piece of window glass. Water the cuttings as they require it with tepid water, allowing none to fall on the earth between the pots. When condensation of moisture takes place on the pane of glass, merely turn it over." Striking cuttings in water. — This method is sometimes practised with ornamental plants, and with but little trouble is usually successful. The points to be attended to as conducive to success are : (1) Cuttings to consist of the ends of young vigorous shoots ; (2) capacious opaque or shaded bottles ; (3) water to be changed often to avoid its becoming foul ; (4) the water to be re- placed with tepid water when changed ; (5) the cuttings to be sheltered from wind and direct sun. Aquatics and most plants which like moisture can be readily multiplied by means of cuttings kept in water or in a moist condition. Cuttings of Cacti. — Striking cuttings by drying them in the sun is effected in .the case of Cactus and similar succulent plants. Sections of these being taken and placed on dry sand will, when become partially shrivelled, produce roots. If placed in the soil in a freshly cut condition, they are liable to decay. Propagation by Layers. — A layer is a branch or shoot, part of which is introduced into the soil, and strikes root whilst Jed by the parent plant, with which, however, its communication is generally partially interrupted by a cut, slit, or ligature. When propagation by cuttings fails, layering may be resorted to, the latter, though a slower process, being often a more certain method. The operation is as follows : Select a branch of ripened wood of the plant to be layered that will bear being bent down to the earth without breaking ; cut the branch half through with a sharp knife just under one of the leaf-buds, towards its extremity, and then pass the knife upwards, so as to slit the branch about an inch or two up. The slit-piece, with the leaf bud at its extremity, called the " tongue," should be kept open by inserting a small pebble or piece of brick. Bend the branch down, and where the tongue falls remove the earth to the depth of 2 or 3 inches ; the tongue part of the branch is secured in that position by a forked peg, and then covered over with a mixture of fine sand and leaf-mould. This must be kept shaded and moist, to facilitate which an inverted flower-pot may be placed over the spot where the slit is. There PROPAGATION 59 are various modifications of this method, and these may be varied to suit individual plants or trees or local circumstances. When the branch to be layered is too rigid to bend down, it may be made to pass through a broken flower-pot or other receptacle, the latter being filled with leaf-mould and sand, and placed on a support. A simple and successful method is to pass the branch longitudinally through two half-round tiles, the space between these being filled with fine sandy soil, and the ends filled with moss to prevent the soil running out ; the tiles are then tied together, and the whole watered regularly. LAYERING : — (<») TONGl'KING : (/') Gootee layering. — This mode of propagation has been prac- tised in India and China from early times. It is adopted in the case of trees which are difficult to .raise by cuttings, or to which other methods of layering cannot be applied. The modus openindi- is as follows : Select a firm healthy branch with well-ripened wood ; immediately under a leaf- bud or node, take off a small ring of bark, about one inch wide ; or make a slanting deep cut upwards, placing a sm ill stone or a piece of stick in the groove to keep it slightly open. To this apply a ball of cluyey soil, holding it securely together with coir fibre, tow or moss, bandaging all firmly round the branch. A little above this hang an earthenware pot, and through the hole in the bottom of the latter draw from 60 PROPAGATION within a piece of thin rope ; a knot tied at the end of the rope should fit tightly against the hole of the vessel above. The rope, secured by its knotted end within the pot, is carried on at full stretch and coiled round the gootee. By this means the water, with which the vessel is kept supplied, oozes slowly out, trickles down the rope, and so distributes itself over the whole gootee. In ^ GOOTEIi GRAFTING. from three to four months, according to the plant in hand, young roots should be seen protruding through the gootee, when the branch may be cut from the parent tree, and planted where it is intended for it to remain. The operation should be carried out in the wet season, commencing when active growth in the tree begins. A modification of the "gootee" contrivance is a piece of thin tin plate, folded in the shape of a funnel, and fixed with clips round PROPAGATION 61 the branch. It is tilled with moss or soil, which is kept moist by a drip from a bottle of water - fixed above it, with the cork pierced so that the water can drip slowly on to the branch operated upon. Propagation by Suckers. — A sucker is a stem or shoot which springs from a subterranean portion of a plant or tree. Two kinds of suckers may be distinguished, namely root suckers, which arise from adventitious buds on the roots, and stein-suckers which spring from the base of the stem below the surface of the soil. The former can be severed from the parent plant and removed with roots attached. Bananas (Plantains) are a familiar example of this process of propagation. Stein suckers spring from the base of the stem, at or below the surface of the soil, and their growth is at the expense of the part of the plant above them. Plants which have been heavily pruned or pollarded, often produce stem-suckers freely. The latter when required for propagation may be encouraged to produce roots by partly severing them with a knife from the stem, and earthing them up with some good sandy mould, which should be kept moist. Stem-suckers are generally injurious to the plant producing them and, especially in ^the case of grafted or budded plants, should be cut away as fast as they appear, unless they spring from the scion and not from the stock. Pineapples are generally propagated by means of stem-suckers. Propagation by Leaves. — Many succulent plants, as Begonias, Gloxinia, Bryophyllum, etc., may be increased from leaves. The latter should be placed on a damp surface of a light sandy soil, and kept in position by being partly buried, or held down with small wooden pegs. Propagation by Eyes. — Many plants, especially those of a succulent nature, may be propagated readily by eyes or buds. The method is simply to take a plump shoot or stem on which there are buds not yet developed ; cut this in a slanting direction into short lengths, about 3 inch above and below the bud. The pieces, having at least one eye or bud upon each, are planted firmly in a pan or box of fine sand and soil, with which they should be just covered. The sand or soil should be kept moist and shaded, and the eyes may be further encouraged to start into growth by a sheet of glass being kept over the surface. Propagation by Roots. — Some plants may be readily in- creased by cuttings of the roots, these being inserted in a sandy mixture of soil, and kept damp and shaded. Aerial roots, developed from the upper limbs or branches of species of Ficus and other 62 PROPAGATION trees, may sometimes be used as a means of propagation. When these reach the ground they at once fix themselves in the soil, and in a short time form stout independent columns or trunks. The latter will afford support to the parent tree and thus prolong its life, or they may be severed, and thus become independent trees. Where "Gutta Rambong " (Ficus, elastica) is systematically culti- vated for rubber, these root-stems are regularly tapped for their latex. The method adopted in Peracleniya Gardens for enabling the aerial roots of Ficus trees to reach the ground and strike root is as follows : Long bamboo stems (preferably the Giant-bamboo) are split into two, the transverse divisions being cut out ; the two halves are placed together round the aerial root, or at least the portion of it nearest the ground. The bamboo sections are then tied together, the lower ends securely fixed in the ground, and the top filled in tightly with moss to prevent the ingress of rats or squirrels, which feed on the delicate young roots. Division of Root-stock. — By this method plants which grow in clumps, or have a fibrous or tuberous root-stock, as herbaceous perennials, are easily multiplied. "Division" consists in separating portions of the main plant, each portion bringing with it some of the roots ; if planted under suitable conditions either in pots or out in the field, these soon become established and form new clumps. To many plants of this nature the process of lifting, dividing and replanting each year is beneficial rather than otherwise, as if left undisturbed for a long period the soil becomes impoverished and the plant more or less exhausted. Orchids and herbaceous peren- nials are generally multiplied by division. Propagation by Bulbs, Corms, and Tubers. — Bulbs or tubers may appear on plants either underground, or on the stem or branches above the ground. In some Yams (Dioscorea) both underground and aerial tubers are found on the same plant. A bulb is composed of either modified leaves in the form of scales, as in Lilium, or of the thickened bases of ordinary leaves folded round each other, as in the onion and Crinum f'Tolobo," S). Bulbil is a term applied to a small bulb, but more generally to aerial buds when they assume the form of small bulbs, as in the case of some ferns, Sisal-hemp and allied plants. Sometimes such bulbils are produced in large numbers (e.g., Sisal-hemp), and take the place of seeds in the function of reproduction, the seeds themselves being habitually either abortive or infertile. These bulbils, if planted in a nursery bed, will in due course grow into large plants. A conn is a short, solid, conical tuber or a modified underground stem, from which PROPAGATION 63 roots spring chieHy from below, but also on the sides and upper portion ; buds also are scattered over the upper surface. Corms multiply usually by means of offsets. Caladiums and most other Aroids are propagated by planting either the whole corm, or only the " eyes " (buds) which are developed on the upper side of the latter. A tuber is a thickened rhizome or stem, bearing buds or node-like scars, examples of which are Yams, Sweet-potato and Artichoke. Propagation of these is effected simply by division. SHOWING AERIAL ROOTS OF FlCllS illtissilJlil BECOMING ROOTED IN THE GROUND AND FORMING INDEPENDENT STEMS. The Heshy subterranean growths of the Dahlia are not true tubers, but enlarged succulent roots, as they do not bear buds. Propagation by Runners and Rhizomes. — This natural mode of propagation is well seen in the strawberry plant and in some "running" grasses. A slender branch is sent off from the base of the stem ; it runs along the ground, and at its end produces a new plant. The branch withers and dies as soon as the new plant is rooted. Some plants also have creeping stems (rhizomes), which root along their under surface, and develop new plants from buds on the upper side. This is characteristic of the Ginger family and most grasses. 64 GRAFTING Grafting. — Grafting consists in placing together two cut sur- faces of one or of different plants in such a way as to cause them to unite and grow together. The plant on which the graft is inserted is called the stock, and the part inserted the scion. The action of the one on the other is often very marked, sometimes producing what are called "graft-hybrids." Some fruit-trees may grow freely on a certain stock but scarcely bear any fruit, whilst on another stock they produce abundant crops, though they may not grow so vigorously. The possibilities of grafting are of the greatest impor- tance in horticulture, more specially in fruit-growing industries, and through its medium trees, shrubs, etc., may be propagated when other reproductive means fail. Among its other advantages are : The good qualities of the scion are retained ; seedling fruit-trees are brought more quickly into bearing by being grafted on fruit- bearing stocks ; and in some cases the two sexes of dioecious plants may be brought together on one stock in order to ensure their reproduction by self-fertilization. In Ceylon, however, as in most tropical countries, grafting is seldom practised. Certain conditions are essential for the success of the operation. The scion and stock should have a natural affinity to each other, either as varieties, species, or genera of the same natural order ; also the natural vigour of the stock and scion should be somewhat similar. The operation should be carried out in the shade in moist, growing weather, and the parts protected from the sun until the union is complete. In all cases it is necessary to exclude the air from the graft by covering it with grafting- wax or clay, bound round with matting or fibre. A fundamental principle is the necessity of form- ing a direct communication between the layers of inner bark (cawbiuin) in both the scion and stock ; otherwise no union takes place, as the pithy or woody parts do not unite. There are various methods of grafting that may be practised, according to the size and variety of the subject which it is intended to propagate, and each method may be varied to some extent as may be desired. The following are the modes most generally employed : — Whip or tongue grafting. — This is one of the best methods and is extensively practised in cool countries. The stock is cut in a sloping direction, just above a node. The scion is then similarly cut through obliquely ; a thin tongue is cut in this in an upward direction, and a corresponding cut made in the stock ; the scion is fitted into the latter so that the inner barks of stock and scion come GRAFTIXG 65 CLEFT-GRAFTING. in contact with each other. The graft is then bound firmly to keep the parts in position, and covered with clay or grafting wax for excluding the air. Cleft grafting. — The stock is split open by a chisel, and the scion, being cut wedge- shaped, is ritted in the cleft, so that the inner barks may meet each other. This mode has obviously certain objections, and is chiefly adapted for plants with old stocks. Sadile-graftin*. — In this the stock and scion must be of nearly equal thickness, as the former is cut sloping on each side, like a wedge, and the latter is split up the centre and thinned so as to allow of it fitting accurately on top of the stock. This method is suited to shrubs and young-wooded plants. Wedge-grafting. — This is the same as the preceding plan, with the position of parts reversed. Crown or Rind-grafting is ap- plied to trees of considerable si/e. A scion, about 6 inches long, is select- ed ; the lower half is cut in a sloping direction, and the notch or shoulder formed in cutting it is made to fit on top of the stock. It is then inserted between the bark and wood. This can only be done at the com- mencement of the growing season, when the bark and wood easily separate. S ADDLE- GRAF f ING. CROWX OR RIXD- (iKAFTING. SIDE-GRAFT1XG Side-grafting consists in inserting scions into the branches or sides of the stock, without cutting away the head of the latter. It is useful for supplying, where deficient, a branch or stem to any part of a tree. The scion being splice-cut and thinned out, it is inserted under the bark, the union being bound up and covered with clay or wax. 66 BUDDING INARCHING. Veneer-grafting is chiefly used for propagating trees and evergreen shrubs. The scion is cut with an even splice-cut, about 1 in. long ; a corresponding quantity of bark is taken off the side of the stock ; both are then ritted to- gether, without a cleft or incision being made in the wood. Grafting by approach, or Inarching. — This is the best system of grafting known, and natural examples are frequently seen in trees growing together. It is specially suited to the tropics, and is successfully applied to Mangoes and other fruit trees. Nutmeg, Cacao, Coffee, etc., may also be propagated in this way. The scion in this case must be grown in a pot or bamboo, so as to be movable, or planted close to the stock. In the case of large trees which it is desired to increase in this wav, a temporary platform may be erected near the tree upon which the scion-plants are placed in pots ; the shoots of the tree may thus be easily bent down to reach the scions. The mode of pro- cedure for inarching is to remove a similar portion of the wood from both the parts intended for joining ; these must then be care- fully htted together and secured with tying material and a bandage. When the parts have united, dissever the scion from the parent plant below the bandage. The grafted plant must be kept in a shaded place until it has commenced active growth, and stock and scion have become thoroughly incorporated. Herbaceous-grafting is applicable for increasing plants of a herba- ceous nature while still growing. By its means the Melon has been grown suc- cessfully upon the Cucumber, the Tomato on the Potato, etc. The stock and scion being nearly similar in texture, the former is carefully split, and the scion prepared wedge-shaped and in- serted rather deeply, allowing the barks to coincide, as in all other methods. Tie with worsted, cover th - cut with grafting- wax, and shade from the sun. Budding.— This process, which is a species of grafting, con- sists of taking an " eye " or bud attached to a portion of the bark, and HKKBACKOrs-GKAFTlXG. BUDDIXG 67 inserting it in the stem or bnmch of another plant. A condition necessary to success is that the sap be in active circulation, so that the bark may detach itself readily when gently lifted from the wood. This is found to take place best where very marked seasons of growth or " Hushes " occur. In equatorial regions, \vh-re the A Bl'lJDINc; KNIFE. seasons are not so marked as in temperate countries, the operation of budding is not always successful. There are various forms of budding, each better adapted to particular circumstances, as Shield or T-budding, Flute or Tube-budding, and Annnhir or Ring-budding. The first-named form is the one chieHy practised for roses and fruit trees. The modus operandi is thus : Select a shoot well furnished with plump dormant buds from the plant desired to be increased ; cut off the leaves at half the length of the leaf-stalks. Remove a bud from the shoot by entering a knife i an inch below the bud, between the inner bark and the wood, sloping the knife outwards above the bud. The small portion of wood taken with the bud is carefully re- moved. In the bark of the young shoot in which the bud is to be insert- ed, make an incision in the. form of a " T." Raise the bark carefully, push the bud gently into the opening, bind it securely to exclude air, leav- ing only the point of the bud exposed. Dull cloudy weather and morning or evening are the best time for bud- cling, and the operation must be performed as quickly as possible, as both bark and bud are injured if ex- posed to the air for any length of time. Special knives are supplied for the purpose, and an instrument known as the " bud-transplanter " may also be employed. FIRMIXGER said : " In the upper Provinces of India budding is performed with great facility at two seasons of the year ; but, KKCTANCH'I.AK PATCH -Kt'DDlXCi OK MAN(K). BUD-GRAFTIXG for some reason I am unable to explain, I have not found such to be the case in the vicinity of Calcutta, where budding can so seldom be performed with success that it is rarely or never attempted, inarching being uniformly adopted instead." MR. FAWCETT, late Director of Botanic Gardens, Jamaica, recommends budding as a quick way of establishing a Mango orchard in that country. MR. HARRIS of Jamaica has been successful in budding Cacao, and found that the Criollo and Calabacillo thus "gained enormously in vigour and productiveness." Budding is applicable to various kinds of fruit trees. In the West Indies it is claimed to have been uso suc- cessfully applied to the Nutmeg trees, the grafting of which has not proved practicable, that the sexes of these may now be brought under the control of the cultivator." In regard to budding Mangoes, the secret of success is said to lie "in taking the buds from about the middle of the growing shoot where they are well developed, and yet not too tender, at a time just prior to a vigorous stage of growth in the tree to be budded. Bud-grafting. — In Queensland and the Southern United States, this form of budding has of late been adopted with success in the propagation of the Mango. It is considered to be much more rapid than "inarching" or "grafting by approach," and does not, like the latter, involve the erection of a structure laden with pots around the tree to be multiplied. As applied to the Mango, the mode of procedure is thus described : Seedlings 2 to 3 years old, with stems about an inch in thickness, are selected for stocks. A rect- angular piece of bark is removed from the stock, and in its place is inserted a piece similar in shape, with a bud in the centre, taken from the variety of Mango which it is desired to propagate. The bud-wood (i.e., the shoot from which the bud is taken) should be not less than 2 years old. Precision in fitting the bud- bark with the incision in the stock are important factors BUD-GRAFTING OF MANGO. for success. A small quantity XL'RSERIES 69 of grafting wax should be smeared over the edges of contact. and the bark then tied firmly with strands of bast, as shown at C in the accompanying figure. After this, the graft (excepting the bud) should be covered with strips of cloth clipped in melted paraffin wax, as a further preventive against the admission of air and moisture between the cut surfaces of stock and scion. If un- duly exposed to the sun, shade should be provided by means of strips of paper tied over the bud. After union of stock and scion has taken place (which should be effected in 2 or 3 weeks), the bandaging may be removed, and the stock pruned back. Grafting-clay is a composition for covering the graft to exclude air and moisture until a union of the stock and scion is effected. It consists of two parts clay and one of cow-dung. These ingredients should be beaten together and thoroughly mixed until of the consistency of fresh putty, sometime before being required. Grafting-wax. — This is employed in grafting small or delicate plants, where the use of clay is scarcely practicable, but may also be applied to large plunts if desired. It is of various forms, and may be purchased in boxes from seedsmen. To make grafting-wax, melt slowly together one part linseed oil or tallow, one of beeswax, and four of resin. For use, re-melt in a glue-pot, and when the wax is of consistency to work freely, apply with a small brush. Nurseries. — A necessary part of the equipment of a garden or estate is a nursery for the propagation of plants. The essential points of a good nursery are shelter from wind, a plentiful supply of water, light shade, and fine, loose, well-drained soil. On an estate, a sheltered valley with a stream running through, should be selected as the most suitable site for the purpose. The ground should be cleared of brushwood, rough stones, roots, etc., the soil trenched or deeply dug, and raised into beds of uniform level. The beds may be a few inches high and of any convenient size, but for facility of working they should not be wider than 3 or 4 ft., and an alley of 12 to 16 inches must be left between them. The surface soil must be brought to a fine tilth, and freed from stones, especially for seed-beds. Xo stable or farmyard manure should be mixed with the soil, unless it be in a thoroughly decomposed state ; alluvial or loamy soil, with some well decomposed leaf-mould and fine sand added, forms the best medium for germinating seeds as well as for striking cuttings, layering, etc. Temporary shade for beds must be afforded. This is easily provided by fixing forked 70 PLANT BREEDING sticks, about 2 ft. high, alongside the beds, light bamboos or other sticks being placed over these lengthwise and across, while cadjans or other material used for shade can be laid on the top and regu- lated or removed as required. Nursery-, or Propagating-sheds. — In the hill districts some protection from wind and raiii is usually indispensable. A service- able shelter may be afforded by erecting a half-span roof of thatch, either over the beds where formed, or in a sheltered corner specially set apart for propagating purposes. The roof should be about 3 ft. off the ground at the back, about 5 ft. in front, and facing the morning sun. Such structures- are also useful for the cultivation of such crops as Tomatoes, Cucumbers, Violets, etc.r which thrive best under protection. PLANT BREEDING The term plant-breeding is applied to the improvement of plants by producing new strains, whether for economic or ornamental purposes. Its effects are of equal importance to the planter, farmer or gardener, and upon it depends the prorit- able cultivation of many crops or races of plants. The great progress made in horticulture and agriculture during recent years is chiefly due to the patient efforts of the plant-breeder. Briefly stated, the process consists of crossing or hybridising selected species or varieties wrhich possess specially useful or desired characters, the method of procedure being to transfer the pollen or male element from the flower of the one plant to the pistil (respec- tive organ) of another. By this means, together with the aid of high cultivation and a process of careful selection of the best varieties, many entirely new races of plants have been evolved. Thus have originated most of the choicest flowers of the garden, and the most luscious and productive fruits and vegetables. Until comparatively recently, the possibility of producing a hybrid was considered to be confined to plants of different species belonging to one genus, it being generally believed to be impossible to produce a cross between different genera. Now/, however, we have bigeneric and multigene'ric hybrids, and new generic names have been created for them. Thus, there is the Citrange, a cross between a citron and an orange ; the Phnncoi, a hybrid between the plum and the apricot. Great advances have been made especially in the bigeneric hybridisation of orchids, so that we are now familiar with such bigeneric titles as Odontioda (a hybrid between MEXDELISM 71 Odontoglossum and Cocbliod i), Miltonioda (a hybrid between Miltonia and Cochlioda), Vnylslckeara (a multigeneric hybrid lvt\\veu Miltonia and Odontioda), Laelo-cattleya, and others. (See beginning of Ch'ipter, tinder Selection and suving of seed). MENDELISM The 1 iw of heredity known as Mendel's Law, discovered in the sixties of the last century by the ABBE GREGOR MENDEL, has now become almost a household word, and may be described as the basis of scientific plant-breeding. Until this law was demonstrated all breeding, or cross-breeding, was effected to a large extent in the dark, and although as a general rule the peculiarities of the present generation might reasonably be expected to reappear in the progeny, what would actually happen could only be guessed at beforehand. Often when crosses were attempted, although the greatest care was exercised, no apparently successful result was obtained, the progeny exactly resembling one parent only. MENDEL conceived, however, the idea that the puzzling results of cross- breeding must be governed by some settled law. He therefore set himself to work to find it out, and in order to do so started his experiments on the simplest lines he could conceive. He selected the various forms of the edible or garden pea on the following grounds : Firstly, the flowers of these are so constructed that from the outset their anthers and stigmas are protected from outside pollen (which, of course, would produce unwished for crosses) by being enveloped in the keel of the flower, and by opening this keel before the flower was fully grown, he could extract the unripe pollen-bearing anthers and insert instead the ripe pollen he desired to use, thus ensuring the desired cross. Secondly, these plants show definite and distinct characters, such as differently coloured flowers, and variously coloured and shaped peas, as well as pods. Finally, as they are annuals, a fresh generation could be obtained every year for the purpose of studying and tabulating results, and starting fresh experiments. From these experiments MENDEL discovered that the characters aforesaid fell definitely into two distinct cate- gories, viz., (a) dominant and (b) recessive. A dominant character is one which appears to the exclusion of the other in the immediate offspring of a cross, the character which fails to appear being recessive. The next discovery was that in a cross involving a dominant and a recessive character ; all the offspring resembled the dominant one, so that apparently the recessive parent had failed altogether 72 MENDELISM to act, even though it was this parent which bore the seed, for the same result occurred whichever was the seed bearer. This rirst family of "dominants" being self-fertilised, the next remarkable result was that from their seeds arose two kinds of plants, viz., dominants and recessives, like the grand-parents, but always in the proportion of three dominants to one recessive when the average of a large number was taken. Here then was an obvious law, and long series of crossings and intercross! ngs proved that the characters, "dominant" or "recessive," never intermingled absolutely, but only temporarily ; so that when another period of reproduction occurred they were capable of dissociation or segregation. "In the reproductive cells," says DR. R. H. LOCK, "the domi- nant and recessive characters separate completely only on being represented in each cell. Such cells occur in equal numbers. When the reproductive cells unite they do so at random, so that in the long run the combination DD, DR, RD, and RR are equally recessrve. DD is a pure dominant like the dominant parent, and will always breed true to this character unless again crossed ; the same applies to RR, DR and RD which are crosses like the original cross ; like it they are dominant in appearance, and their further behaviour is exactly the same. The apparent 3 to 1 ratio is thus explained. It is really a ratio of 1 : 2 : 1.— i.e., ID : 2 DR : 1 R. D and R breed true. DR makes up again like the original cross." In MENDEL'S experiments the same ratios of "dominant" and "recessive" came out in all cases where sufficiently distinct characters presented themselves; and, above all, the same "dominant" prevalence in the first family was found to assert itself. This, for the plant-breeder, was in itself an invaluable discovery, since with- out this knowledge it often took years to establish a really reliable strain. He now knows that, instead of rejecting his crosses as failures, he has in them probably precisely the cross he desires, and has only to cross them again to obtain it in the succeeding family. Furthermore, he now knows exactly how to proceed in order to obtain a pure and constant strain on systematic lines. To those who may desire to pursue experiments on Menclelian lines, it is advisable to point out that it is only by doing so to a fairly large extent that this ratio becomes clear on averaging the results. The principle underlying the predominance of the dominant characters over the recessive in the results obtained has been compared to that shown by mixing up a large number of black and white shots in a bowl, three black and one white, and employing a blind man MENDEL1SM 73 to pick out four at a time r the law of chance will then determine tint the groups of four will average out three blacks to one white. Those who desire further information on this interesting and important subject should refer to DR. R. H. LOCK'S Pamphlets on plant-breeding, or, for more advanced information, to his book entitled "Variation, Heredity and Evolution." CHAPTER VII. CULTURAL OPERATIONS PLANTING Planting, or the transference of plants, trees, shrubs, etc., from their pots or nursery beds to places in the open ground where they are intended to remain, may usually be done in the tropics at any time, except in the dry season (see under Climate), the most essential condition being that the soil be in a moist, though not excessively wet, state. In the low-country of Ceylon, planting operations may commence at the setting in of the monsoon rains, but should not as a rule be attempted during the months of January, February, and March. As regards the hill districts, however, certain delicate annuals and exotic plants are liable to suffer from excessive rain, and these should not be planted out until the burst of the Monsoons (June and October) has somewhat abated. Except perhaps in very wet weather, a good watering should invariably be given to plants when either planted out or transplanted from one place to another. As annual crops should be sown in drills, so all shrubs or trees that are cultivated as crops should be planted in rows, the plants in each row alternating with those in that next to it. Holing. — It is very important, especially in poor soils, that sufficiently large holes be made in the first place, for otherwise the plants are liable to languish and become stunted or irregular in growth. The proper size of the hole depends upon the nature of the tree to be planted and on the character of the soil. For moderate-sized shrubs, the holes should be about 2 ft. in diameter and about 20 inches deep ; while for fruit and other trees they should be proportionately larger. In any case it is well to dig large deep holes, and fill to the depth required by the particular plant in hand. The soil that is taken out should be mixed with some manure, or any well-decayed organic matter available, before rilling it in again. It is important that the soil should be pressed firmly about the roots of the plant when the latter is placed in PLAXTIXG 75 position. With most plants it is customary to till in the soil so that when quite settled it is slightly higher on the surface than the surrounding level ; this avoids the risk of stagnant water accumu- lating round the young plant. With coconuts, however, it is usual to only partially rill in the hole when pi inting the seedling, so that the crown of the latter is left about a foot below the level of the ground. Not only is the young plant thus afforded beneficial shelter, but its roots obtain a deep and firm hold of the soil, and the hole becomes filled up in course of time by the process of weeding and weathering. (See Use of Explosives, p. 46). Puddling roots. — An excellent practice, either in planting or transplanting, is to puddle the roots in mud immediately the plants are taken out of the ground. A mixture for puddling may be made simply by adding water to some earth, and stirring it until of the consistency of thick paint. If the soil be too porous for the purpose, it can be made adhesive by adding cowdung or clay. By dipping the roots in the mixture a coating adheres to them which has the effect of excluding the air, thus to an important extent keeping them moist. This method is especially beneficial in the case of plants which have to be carried over long journeys, or are unavoidably out of the ground for a considerable time ; while during a period of uncertain rainfall its adoption may be recommended for almost any class of plants. Transplanting. — It is often necessary in gardens, and even on estates, to transplant shrubby plants or small trees, either to more suitable places or for the purpose of filling vacancies or replacing weakly plants. In the case of large bushes or spreading trees, it is advisable to cut these well back first, so as to reduce their foliage or transpiring surface, thus balancing the latter with the check received at the roots. Having well-soaked the ground with water, dig a trench round and under the tree or shrub so as to leave a good ball of earth adhering to the roots. The ball with the roots must be kept intact, and if the soil be of a loose nature matting or sacking should be tied around it. By sliding in planks underneath, the tree or shrub may then be safely removed. This should be replanted exactly at the same depth as it was growing. After cutting off any injured portions of the roots, fill in the hole with good soil, pressing or ramming it firmly around the roots as you proceed. Finish by giving a thorough soaking of water, placing a layer of mulch on the surface ; fix supports round the tree to prevent its being moved about by wind, and shade well until new leaves have developed. 76 PLANTING Shading. — In the tropics it is absolutely necessary to protect young plants, on being first put out in the open ground, from the powerful rays of the sun, by means of some temporary shade. Even when well established, many plants are always liable to be injuri- ously affected by direct exposure to the sun during the hot dry season, and are greatly benefited by partial shade. For some quick-growing young crops, as Tobacco, Vegetables, etc., it is usually sufficient to shade them with any large leaves or fern fronds that may be at hand, these being fixed in the ground by their stalks and bent over the tender seedlings. Twigs or fern fronds which do not readily drop their leaves or leaflets when withered are the most suitable for the purpose. The pretty fern Gleichcnia is, for this reason, a most useful plant, its wiry persis- tent fronds being especially suited for inserting slanting- wise in the surface of nursery beds. For newly planted seedlings or other young plants, plaited palm leaves, especially those of the coconut (cadjans) afford excellent temporary shade, the leaves being loosely woven into a basket-like shape which is placed over the plant and held in position by means of 3 sticks fixed in the ground. Watering. — Though it is always best to plant in rainy weather, it is often impossible to follow the progress of the elements, and as moisture as well as shade is usually a necessary condition for newly planted plants, watering by artificial means must be adopted when the rain fails. (See Watering of Pot Plants). Tree-guards and supports. — In public grounds especially, pro- tection of some sort is, without exception, indispensable to young plants which are intended to form useful or ornamental trees. A fence of the "solid" or "male" bamboo forms a substantial protection for a time, but the most effectual and durable supports and barrier are iron tree-guards ; those in which the uprights are pointed at the top and bent outwards are preferable. In exposed or windy situations, it is often necessary to support plants indivi- dually, especially those with slender stems, by fastening them to firm stakes fixed in the ground. Such support should as a rule be provided at the time of planting, and care must be taken that the plant does not chafe against it, and that the tie is not left on too long. Planting Distances. — The proper distances for planting apart vary, of course, according to the nature of the plants or crop, and also to some extent according to local conditions of soil and climate. As a general rule every individual plant or tree should be afforded sufficient space to allow of its healthy and profitable PLAXTIXG 77 development. Such distances, in this work, are usually given under the different classes mentioned, except where a repetition of this is unnecessary or impracticable, in which case the necessary spacing may be inferred from the approximate size of the res- pective species at maturity. When marking out the land for planting, the rows should be at equal distances apart, but it is usually desirable that the distances between the rows be greater than that between the plants in the rows, thus facilitating working between the rows. The plan known as the quinciiin; shown in ALTERNATE OR QUINCUNX PLANTING figure, is the proper method of placing the plants in rows. In this, as will be seen, the plants in any row alternate with those in the row on either side, while they are also in straight lines in which- ever direction looked at. TABLE OF PLANTING DISTANCES The following table shows the number of plants to the acre at distances of one to thirty feet apart, and the area in square feet available for each plant :— Distance apart in feet 1 by 1 liby U 2 by 2 2iby 2i Area for each plant Number of Area for Distance each plant Xumber of in square plants to a part ii i in square plants to- feet. the acre. feet. feet. the acre* 1 43,560 3 by 3 9 4,840 2| 19,360 3i by 3i 12i 3,556 4 10,890 4 bv 4 16 2,722 6} 6,970 5 by 5 25 1.742 78 PRUXIXG Distance apart in feet. Area for each plant in square feet. Number of plants to the acre. Distance apart in feet. Area for each plant in square feet. X umber of plants to the acre. 6 by 6 36 1,210 16 by 16 256 170 6 by 7 42 1,037 17 by 17 289 150 7 by 7 49 889 18 by 18 324 134 8 by 8 64 680 19 by 19 361 120 9 by 9 81 537 20 by 20 400 108 10 by 10 100 435 22 by 22 484 90 12 by 12 144 302 24 by 24 576 75 13 by 13 169 257 26 by 26 676 64 14 by 14 196 222 28 by 28 784 55 15 by 15 225 193 30 by 30 900 48 For numbers not <^iven in the above table, take the square of the distance apart the trees are required to stand, in feet, into 43.560 ; the result is the number of plants required per acre. PRUNING There are various modes of pruning, each class of plants requiring more or less different treatment, but the principle under- lying all methods is the same. This may be briefly described as the concentration of vigour into certain parts of the plant by the cutting away of other portions, either of the stem, branches, roots, or leaves. The object in view may be the production of a larger yield or better quality of fruits or flowers, straight clean trunks (as in timber and rubber cultivation), twisted or bent stems (for furniture- making, etc.), wide spreading branches (for shade), or an abundance of young shoots and foliage, as in Tea cultivation. PRUNING KNIFE. By means of pruning, trees or bushes may be induced to assume a form which will not only add to their productiveness, but also facilitate the harvesting or plucking of the crop. The plants should be encouraged when young to form an evenly balanced head, with the branches radiating regularly from the centre. The more up- right and straight a shoot grows, the freer will be the circulation of its sap, and therefore, as a rule, the more active its vitality. The effect of pruning is analogous to that of manuring, and this fact is taken advantage of when hard priming is applied to bushes PRL'XIXG SKCATKUKS. OK PRfXIXi; SHKAKS. which become stunted or "sick." Pruning nviy also be resorted to in order to rid plants of certain fungus diseases or insect pests. In Ceylon, the pruning of fruit trees is seldom practised, with the exception of the Grape-wine in the Northern Province and, to a small extent, European fruit- trees in the hill districts. Although the absence of a res- ting period in the tropics affects the question of pruning, there can be no doubt that some modified form of it to suit local circumstances should be adopted in order to maintain the trees in a productive condition, and to obtain the best quality of crop. In India a similar effect to that of pruning is sometimes produced by the crude practice of either stripping oft the leaves, or sub- jecting the trees to a "good thrashing," as is done in the case of unfruitful Mango trees. The latter operation is effected by means of a long pliable bamboo, and although too crude to be recommended, yet its effect in retarding exuberant growth, and so tending to fruitfulness, is said to be sometimes conspicuous. Pruning of Shade or Flowering trees. —The object in regard to the pruning of these should be to obtain a form which, while developing the natural beauty of the tree, will tend to prolong its life and usefulness. The longest lived trees are those with a straight, erect and un- divided trunk ; therefore the production of such a form should be encouraged when the tree is young, by shortening back shoots or branches which rival the leader, and so direct the vigour of the tree to the centre. General Principles of Pruning. — The following principles are of general application, whether for large or small TKKK-PKl NKK. $0 PRUNING trees : — (1) For fruit trees, thin out branches so as to allow free access of light and air ; remove all dead wood, snags, superfluous suckers and shoots. (2) Always use a sharp knife or saw, and cut in such a way as to ensure quick healing. (3) When cutting back lateral branches, always cut at a fork. (4) In removing a large branch, saw it off roughly (cutting the under-side first, and then the upper a few inches further from the stem than the first cut) a foot from the trunk, and finally saw off and plane the surface of the stump left. (5) Smear coal-tar over the cut surface ; otherwise the action of sunheat may crack the wound, thereby allowing moisture to enter and enabling parasitic fungi to obtain a footing. (6) When cutting branches, especially large ones, avoid leaving stumps several inches long ; always cut a branch in a line and flush with the outside of the stem or branch from which it springs. (7) The cut should always be made in a slanting or upright direction, so as to throw off the rain. (8) In general, pruning should be performed when growth is least active. PKU XING-SAW. Thumb-nail Pruning. — A term applied to the nipping off of the terminal young bud, as done by the thumb-nail and forefinger, being a form of pruning conveniently applied to tender plants. At one time it was recommended for young Hevea rubber trees, being adopted when the trees were about 10 to 12 ft. high, the object being to induce a more rapid growth in girth of the stem and a branching top. This, however, is not now generally practised. Root Pruning. — This is sometimes employed in the cultivation of fruit trees, its object being to counteract a too luxuriant woody growth, which results in paucity of fruit. The usual method of carrying it out is to cut a trench round the tree at a suitable distance from the stem, and as deep as the roots ,go. All the roots as they are found are cleanly cut, and if a long tap-root 81 is suspected of entering the, sub-soil it should be searched for by careful undermining, and severed. In the North of Ceylon, where the climate is comparatively dry, the practice in regard to the Grape-vine is to remove the soil from around the base of the stem, and cut away some of the smaller roots. After exposure for a week or two the trench is filled in with manure, which is covered over with the soil previously removed. Similar treatment is applied in India to the Mango and other fruit-trees. "This," said FIRMIXGER, "though apparently opposed to theory, is in fact more efficacious in practice, and the trees treated thus bear prodigiously." In the cultivation of fruit generally, the object should be to encourage the growth of fibrous roots near the surface, and prevent the development of strong woody roots into the sub-soil. Cavities in Tree-trunks. — V e r y often when a tree has been long neglected, the trunk is seriously injured by cavities caused by the decay of dead or broken branches. It is not claimed that pruning can remove defects of this nature ; but it can, with proper appli- cation, arrest the progress of the evil. The edge of the cavity should be cut smooth and even, and all decomposed matter in the interior carefully removed. A coating of coal-tar should then be applied to the surface of the cavity, and the mouth plugged with a piece of well-seasoned hard wood, securely driven into place, the end of the plug being then carefully pared smooth and covered with coal-tar. To guard against the attacks of insects or fungi, it is sometimes advisable to nail a piece of zinc over the board, in such a way that the growth of the new wood may in time completely cover it. Bark-, or Hide-bound trees. — It is believed that in some -cases cortical or bark pressure becomes so great as to retard the growth of the tree, preventing the formation of the normal amount of new wood. In temperate climates this unhealthy condition is considered to be indicated by the natural shedding of the leaves BRAXCH-PRUXER. 82 PRUXIXG being impeded. The remedy adopted is to make longitudinal incisions in the bark, without removing any tissues. This is believed to relieve the bark pressure, being followed by a natural increase in thickness of the affected stem. Ring-barking, or Ringing. — These are terms applied to the removal of a strip of bark, varying in breadth from a few inches to as much as two feet, according to the size of the tree, from near the base of trees which it is desired to kill by starvation. It is commonly adopted in some countries for killing large or other trees which would be costly to cut down. To be quite successful it must be performed during the period of greatest cambial activity, i.e., when the sap is up, as it is popularly called, the bark being then most easily separated from the wood ; the excised bark must be cut sufficiently deep to expose the cambium, that is, the bast layer or inner bark must be removed, otherwise the operation will be ineffectual. The chief effect of this is to cut off the downward flow of sap and food material between the leaves and the roots. Where the trees are required for their timber, the process of killing by ring- barking is considered to improve the quality of the latter. A form of ringing is sometimes adopted to hasten the ripening of fruits, and, as a last resource, to render unfruitful trees productive. The principle is also employed in different methods of propagation, as a means of inducing the formation of a callus on cuttings or layers. Pollarding or coppicing is a necessary process in the culti- vation of certain tropical products, more particularly of Cinnamon and Cinchona. In effect it is also applied to Tea, Coffee, Camphor, etc., since it consists of cutting back the main stem and branches so as to keep the trees dwarf, and induce productive young growth. CHAPTER VIII. GARDEN ADORNMENTS, LABELS, IMPLEMENTS, ETC. Seats. — These are always an essential part of the equipment pf a garden, more especially in the tropics, and it is safe to say that much of the enjoyment of the garden depends upon them. Com- manding views, overlooking terraces, spots of special interest or attraction — these are the kind of positions where seats should be placed. In the low-country they are especially appreciated when placed under the shade of trees, arbours, etc. The ground under- neath the seat should be gravelled or paved, so as to avoid the discomforts of damp grass and probable intrusion of land-leeches. A SKKYICKABI.K GARDFX SKAT. ants, etc. The form of seat used may vary from a plain wooden bench to elaborate cast-iron designs. Rustic seats made of knotted branches, though sometimes much in favour, are usually most uncomfortable. The most satisfactorv and economical seats in 84 GARDEX ADORXMEXTS Peradeniya Gardens consist of wrought-iron ends, with narrow strips of wood forming the seat and back. All seats, with perhaps the exception of rustic ones, should be painted, and this requires to be done at least once a year. The most suitable colour, for the low-country at any rate, is light-grey. This does not become dis- coloured so rapidly as other tints, and in many cases it improves, rather than deteriorate, in colour by exposure to the weather. Both green and chocolate paints very quickly become dark and dirty- looking. Zinc or other good kind should always be used in preference to lead paints. Adornments. — Gardens in the tropics are as yet seldom embellished with such artificial adornments as statuary, beautiful vases, elaborate fountains, etc., as are met with in gardens of temperate countries. Yet other and simpler devices in the form A KANDYAN MEMORIAL (THWAITES*), PEKADENIYA GARDENS. of arbours, arches, and trellis-covered walks on which ornamental creepers or climbers may be trained, are often adopted, and with very pleasing effect. Any adornments used should, as far as possible, take a practical form and serve a useful purpose ; thus a fountain may be utilised for the growth of water plants, rearing rish, etc. ; vases should be adopted for the successful display of ornamental plants ; while pergolas may be made to provide cool shade as \vell as means for the effective display of ornamental climbers. Pergolas. — A pergola consists of an archway over a walk, usually formed of rough stems and branches of trees, or piers of GARDEX ADORXMEXTS 85 masonry, on which climbing roses or other suitable plants may ramble. Pergolas are especially agreeable in the tropics owing to the cool shade they afford ; but here the frame-work, to be durable, should be of iron (not wood) and covered with open wire-netting. A pergola which is much admired in Peradeniya Gardens com- prises a number of bolt-iron arches, these being covered with different species of Aristolochia ("Fly-catching" plants), Ipomoea, Bignonia, Congea, etc. A pergola should for preference be on level ground, and not curve or twist ; it may be of any length, but ought not to be less than 7 ft. wide or 7 ft. high. Arbours. — These may be of various designs to suit circum- stances. A simple and cheap form may be made of iron frame- work, fixed in the ground by means of sections of bamboo, which are buried in the earth and then rilled with concrete ; wire-netting is fastened over the iron frame-work, and on this showy climbing plants are trained. Arbours made of wood-work, with the sides formed of rustic and knotted branches, and the roof covered with shingles, are very appropriate for the hill districts. Some pretty examples of these may be seen in Hakgala Gardens and Nuwara- Eliya Park, in Ceylon. Visitors' shelters. — No public garden in the tropics should be without some structure that will provide shelter for visitors, and this should to some extent be made to combine ornament with utility. In Peradeniya Gardens, memorial structures, erected to the memory of past directors, serve the purpose of useful shelters to the public. Fountains are well adapted to gardens in the tropics, where, in the hot season especially, the spray or the rippling sound of water is particularly pleasant. The base of the fountain, while serving as a useful reservoir, may be turned to good effect by culti- vating various water-plants in it. Vases for out-door. — Very fair imitation of European vases are sometimes made in Ceylon of concrete, from given moulds. Good specimens of these may be seen in the Gordon Gardens, Colombo, where they are very ornamental, especially when rilled with well-grown and suitable plants. The Sinhalese potters make earthenware urns on elaborate hollow pedestals, which, though liked by some people, are very fragile, and only suited to a verand ih or other position under cover. 86 P07\S AND OTHER RECEPTACLES POTS AND OTHER RECEPTACLES Pots. — The Sinhalese potters can sometimes turn out very satisfactory pots to a given pattern, but those which they make on their own initiative are usually ungainly and unsatisfactory, being either too deep and perpendicular, bulging in the middle, or dis- proportionately narrow at the base. Good pots should become gradually narrower from the top towards the bottom. If the sides are perpendicular, the plant with its ball of earth cannot be turned out without breaking the pot. Generally speaking, pots of large sizes should not be so deep as they are wide at the top ; while, on the contrary, the depth of small-sized pots should equal or exceed their top width. A very common mistake in Ceylon gardens is to use pots unnecessarily large, for these are both obtrusive and unsuitable for the healthy growth of plants. Hanging Pots. — These may be made in quite a variety of forms. The perforated kind, in which Maiden-hair ferns, Sela- ginella, etc., may be successfully grown, is perhaps the most effective. Those made of concrete and studded with pebbles are not desirable, being very heavy and devoid of porosity. Very effective are the bottle-shaped earthenware urns, around which a layer of loamy soil is held in position by means of close wire-netting ; into this dainty ferns and suitable plants are dibbled, and these obtain a constant and regular supply of moisture by absorption through the urn, which is kept full of water. Bamboo-pots. — Sections of bamboo, which may be obtained of various sizes, with the transverse division left in one end and a hole punched through it for drainage, make very useful pots for certain purposes. They are extensively used in Peradeniya Gardens for propagating work, and (larger kinds) to some extent as receptacles for growing orchids. For the latter purpose they are cut into small sections, resembling shallow pans, several holes being made in the sides and bottom for aeration and drainage. Horizontal hanging bamboos, bamboo vases, etc.— Sections of the Giant-bamboo can be utilised in various ways for the purpose of growing ornamental plants, and also as " Mower- vases " in corners of drawing rooms, corridors, etc., on temporary occasions. Their chief fault is that they are not durable, as even under cover they soon split and decay, owing to their being kept in a constantly damp condition. As horizontal hanging "pots," single joints of any large bamboo can be used very effectively. For this purpose leave the division in each end intact, cut out one side to about one-third POTS A\I) OTHER RECEPTACLES 87 its diameter, and fasten a wire at each end for hanging by ; a few holes should be made in the intact (lower) side for drainage. Tubs. — Wooden tubs, either made for the purpose, or con- sisting of whisky or wine casks cut into two, make useful recep- tacles for growing large plants, as palms, etc. Such tubs should be painted green, and raised off the ground by means of bricks placed under ne:ith. An iron handle fixed to opposite sides of the tub will facilitate the removal of the latter when necessary. If made locally by a carpenter, a simple and effective form is a square tub, slightly narrowing towards the base, fastened together at the corners by means of a couple of clamps with pegs at both ends ; this can be taken to pieces or put together when desired, and when painted white, with the clamps in green, looks neat and ornamental- Tins and metal receptacles are often employed, and some- times successfully, for growing plants in, but their use cannot be generally recommended. Apart from their ungainly appearance, plants cannot be expected to thrive so well in these as in pots or receptacles made of a porous material. When, however, only tins are procurable and have to be used, a number of small holes should be driven into the bottom, and a quantity of potsherds or small pieces of brick placed over these for drainage. Seed-pans. — These are most useful in propagating work whether for seeds or cuttings. Those usually made in Ceylon are circular in shape, and about 3 inches in depth ; they vary in size, but should not exceed 12 inches in diameter, for if too large, they are less portable and are more liable to be broken. Seed boxes are especially useful in the hill districts, both for raising seedlings under some protection from the weather, and also for pricking them off afterwards before finally planting out. The boxes should not be more than about 3 inches deep, and should be provided with free drainage. Painted pots. — Not infrequently one sees in verandahs and at railway stations earthenware plant-pots painted in green or other striking colours. This is owing to a mistaken idea of artistic beauty, as well as to the oriental innate love of striking colours. The writer recalls a case where a well-meaning garden cooly painted all the pots in his charge a vivid pink ! It should be remembered that there is nothing unsightly or unbecoming about earthenware Hower-pots if kept neat and clean, and that their natural colour is the most pleasing one. Smearing them with paint destroys their porosity, which is an essential quality for the successful growth of plants. 88 PLANT LABELS PLANT LABELS The utility and interest derived from a garden, especially a public or botanic garden, must to a large extent be in proportion to the use made of neat, legible labels, bearing the names or other information of the plants, trees, shrubs, etc. One important fact must not, however, be lost sight of, i.e., labels should always be made as inconspicuous as possible, for otherwise they are apt to become offensive to the eye. Small plants should as far as practi- cable have small labels in proportion to their size, but the largest trees need not have unnecessarily large ones. The upkeep of labelling in tropical gardens is a matter of considerable difficulty, owing partly to the attacks of termites, which destroy most forms of dead wood, and partly to the liability of metal labels being stolen or becoming corroded. Various sorts and designs of labels have been resorted to, and the following are some of the principal kinds now used : — Wooden labels. — These are perhaps the most convenient form for ordinary purposes ; they may be of any size and shape, can easily be altered to suit requirements, and are neat while they last in good condition. Those which are intended to remain in the ground should be of the hardest wood. Deal- wood labels in the tropics are only suitable for very temporary purposes, as for seeds in pans or boxes under cover ; these being planed, should be rubbed over with white-lead paint, as they are then easier to write on, look best, and last longer. Large stout wooden labels, made of hard woods, as Pehimbiya (Filiciutn), She-oak (Casuarina), Iron-wood (Mesua], Palu (Miniusops), are extensively used at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Ceylon for trees, shrubs, etc. These are painted black, and the name printed in white zinc paint with a line brush ; the stem of the label is afterwards dipped in tar, and allowed to dry before being put out to the trees. An improvement on this form, recently adopted in Ceylon, is to stamp the name on the smoothed surface by means of steel dies, the impressions being then filled in with good white paint. Thus not only does the latter remain on much longer, but the impressions if properly made will last almost as long as the label. Bamboo-splint labels. — A splint of hard bamboo, with one end sharpened for fixing in the -ground, and the other flattened and planed, will make a cheap and serviceable label. When writing upon it, first rub some white paint on the planed surface, and use a soft lead pencil. PLAXT LABELS 89 Lead Labels. — This is perhaps the best permanent label for trees and shrubs, and is used exclusively for such at the Royal (i irdens. Kew. It consists of a piece of sheet-lead, about 3 inches long by 2 inches wide, with about i inch of one long side turned over to form a rim, below which 2 holes are pierced for suspending by wire. The letters composing the name of the plant, etc., are punched in with punch-type, the impressions being tilled with white lead or /inc. and the surface afterwards rubbed over with an oiled rag. Brick labels. — To obviate the destructive effects of termites, brick labels, made to a given mould, have for many years been largely used in the Botanic Gardens, Ceylon. The top has a slop- ing smooth surface, which is painted black, the name and other particulars being printed on in white-lead or zinc paint. Though this type of label is not durable, it is comparatively cheap and is also, of course, termite-proof. Zinc labels. — Narrow pieces of clear sheet zinc make excellent labels for pot-plants, orchids, hanging baskets, etc., and are exten- sively employed in the Ceylon Botanic Gardens. These are written on with an indelible ink, which can be obtained ready-made (See Indelible Ink, below). Sheet-iron labels. — Strips of sheet-iron painted black, with the name, etc., written on in white, are said to be often used for labels in India. The "Imperishable Stratford" labels. — These excellent labels are made in England to order, of almost any size and shape required and may include any name, description or notice as may be desired ; the names, etc., should be typed when sent to the manufacturer with the order. The "Stratford label" is cheap while satisfactory, and differs from the "Acme" in being made of white metal, with the raised letters in black. These labels are largely used for plants and trees in Botanic Gardens in India and Ceylon, and also throughout the West Indian Botanic Gardens. They may be kept in a legible condition by an occasional cleaning followed by a coat of paint over the raised type. In order to effect the latter, mix some paint to the consistency of printer's ink, spread this out on a smooth hard surface, pass a squeegee over the paint and then over the raised letters. The "Acme" labels. — These are made of stout zinc, with raised letters on black ground. They are supported on stiff wire stems, or have a pair of eyes for suspending by wire or nailing to a wall. 90 PLANT LABELS Ivorine label. — This label, which is a composition of thick parchment-like substance, of the appearance and consistency of ivory, is now largely used in Europe for labelling" pot-plants, especially orchids. It is of neat appearance, is said to be imperish- able and unbreakable, and it can be written upon by either pencil or pen, the writing being indelible, except when well rubbed with soap. Waterproof labels. — For the temporary labelling of plants, etc., as in packing them for transport, these labels are most service- able and convenient. They are made of Manila substances, with a parchment surface and are easily written upon with ink or pencil. Preservatives for wooden labels. — Wooden labels should always have the part that is to be fixed in the ground treated with some preservative before being put out. Various compounds of creosote, copper sulphate, carbolic acid, etc., are used for the purpose, all with more or less success. Dipping the labels in boiling tar, and then plunging them in sand, is adopted with satis- factory results in Ceylon. MR. W. NOCK, late Superintendent of Hakgala Gardens, found the following method an excellent one: Mix fine .coal-dust with linseed oil until of the consistency of thick paint ; boil the mixture, and while in a state of boiling dip into it the part of the label which goes in the ground. When the labels are dry, the operation should be repeated. Slightly charring, and afterwards tarring, the portion of the label to be in the ground has an excellent preservative effect. Indelible ink for zinc labels. — A solution of platinum bichloride (one tube of 15 grains 'to about l| fluid oz. of water) forms one of the best and most durable forms of writing fluids for zinc labels. It can be used either with a steel pen or a pointed piece of palm-leaf petiole. Special writing fluids may be obtained from nurserymen, but when neither these nor the platinum are procurable, a useful substitute may be made as follows : Take one part salamoniac, 1 part verdigris, and 10 parts water ; mix well together and keep in a glass-stoppered bottle ; shake before using. A strong solution of copper sulphate will also answer the purpose to some extent, but is less efficient. TOOLS AXI) IMPLEMENTS 91 GARDEXS AND ESTATE TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS Though the number of tools actually required for a garden or an estate in the tropics is not large, there are many which are not generally known and which would not only facilitate various operations in connection with garden or field work, but also prove a considerable saving of labour. The stock-in-trade of a garden coolie is often limited to a mammoty, watering-pot and a sickle, and it is only at the expense of time and labour that he gets over STUMP EXTRACTOR. the work with these. The quality of the work done, however, is not always as it should be. Of late years the number of useful and labour-saving implements for the farm and garden has been con- siderably augmented, more especially by inventions from America. Though many of these are obviously unsuited to the conditions of labour in the tropics, others are of easy application and effect a considerable saving of labour as well as of individual energy. Needless to remark, it is true economy to employ the best and most suitable tools. Though the following list includes many that are not necessary for a small garden, all are more or less indis- pensable in a large or public establishment, while most will also be found useful for estate work. 92 TOOLS AXD IMPLEMENTS Name, Approximate English & Vernacular Purpose for which generally used pn,°f fXaryin8 quality.) : Rs. Ala van go, or Crowbai Digging holes, levering, etc. 1 -50-4-50 Ant-extermi- nator Fumigating ant nests : very effectual 75-00 A ntipest, or Kn ap-sack sprayer Fine fluid spraying 60-00 Auger. "Awa- kara " S. Boring holes in tubs, boxes, etc. 1'30 2 50 Averruncator See Tree-pruner — Axe, "Poro- wa " S. "Ko- dali " T. - Felling or cutting trees, chopping wood, etc. 1-30-4-00 Basket, gar- den, hand - Gathering flowers, seeds or vegetables - 075- TOO Basket, man-; ure. " K o o -! day " S. - Carrying manure, soil, gravel, etc. It is carried on the head, and in the tropics usually takes the place of the wheel-barrow. G-25-0'35 Basket, trans- port (large)- Removing leaves, grass, light rubbish, etc. 075 Bill-hook, " Wak-pihi- va " S. "Vetu- Kathi" T- Lopping branches, 'etc. 1 -75-2-50 Branch- shears Excellent for cutting stout branches 6-00-8-00 Brooms, -1 "Eikel" S. - Sweeping paths, etc. - 0'10-0-15 Do., bass. "Rata-kossa" S. Cleaning concrete floors, etc. - l-65-2'00 Budding- knife - See under Knife Crowbar - See Alavango Dibber - Making holes for planting out seedlings, cuttings. etc. - 0'50 Disc-plough - See Plough Edging-iron- Indispensable for cutting turf-edges, as of paths, beds. etc. - - - - 2'00-3'00 Edging-she ars Flower-gath ering s c i s sors - For trimming grass-edges of paths or borders Fork, digging u Mulluwa " S. Do., weedingj Especially convenient for cutting flowers of thorny plants. Digging earth, turning manure, etc. Weeding and forking up surface soil 6 '00 -7 '00 3-00-3-50 2-00-3-00 0'60 S'=SINHALESE ; 7— TAMIL. TOOLS AX I) IMPLEMENTS 93 Name. English & Vernacular Purpose for which generally used Approximate price (varying according to quality). Fruit-picker, % Kekka " vS. Picking fruit (or flowers) from branches that are not easily accessible. G.irden en- gine - A \vater-barro\v with a force-pump and hose. Most useful for syringing, spraying, or water- ing plants over head. Gloves, prun- ing - Enabling spiny plants being pruned or handled with ease. Rs 100-200 - 150'00 Grind-stone - Indispensable for sharpening tools. Grubber, va- rious forms - A draught implement, with or without wheels, and furnished with several long broad teeth, used for cultivating or forking up the soil bet- ween crops. H a m m e r, "Mittiya" S. Miscellaneous Do., sledge - Breaking large stones, splitting logs, etc. Han d-c a r t, " Ath -ca ra- tha," S. - Serviceable for removing plants, soil, manure, etc. Hoe, Dutch or thrust - Weeding loose paths, beds, etc. Hoe, draw - Useful for weeding, earthing up crops etc. Do., grub - Digging, cutting trenches, etc. Do., roller - Suitable for weeding soft soil or gravelly walks Hone, or sharpening stone - Necessary for sharpening small tools Knife, b u d - ding;" Pehi- ya," S. - Budding plants. A small blade, with a white han- dle reduced to an edge at the end. Do., grass; sickle, or hook. "De- ketha" S. - Used for cutting grass, rice crops, etc., instead of scythes. - Do., pruning or grafting - Priming, grafting, etc. Ladder, step; "I n ny - magga" S. - Essential for reaching trees, tall shrubs, etc.; in- dispensable in a garden. Lawn - mower - See mowing-machine Lawn sprink-; ler - Useful for watering lawns, flower-beds, etc. Lawn -weed -I er or Daisy-' grubber -j Extracting deep-rooted weeds, as " Ltadi " 2'50 28'0() 12TO-3(VOO roo-2-oo 0'25 per Ib. 65'00-80'00 0-75 0-60 125 2-00 0'50- 150 3-00-4-00 0'75 3 '50 --4 '00 7-00-1200 7-00 T50 S=SIN'HALESE ; r=TAMIL. 94 TOOLS AXD IMPLEMENTS XTl t-»T _» Approximate .IN A 1X1 ft English & Vernacular Purpose for which generally used price (varying according to quality.) Mallet, or Rs. wooden hammer. Driving stakes into the ground, etc., also breaking up hard soil-clods. O'SO M a m m o t y "Udella" S. "Mamoty"?'. Kodaly, Hind Digging, weeding, &c. ; the most general imple- ment used by labouring coolies, with the blade at right angles to the handle. roo Mam moty- fork, "Poha- ra-mulluvva" S. Digging, grubbing, stacking manure, &c. 1 00 Mattock Cutting roots in digging » r trenching 2'00 Monkey -jack See stump Extractor. — Mowing- machine, chain gear - Mowing lawns ; indispensable in a large garden 90'00-150'QO Do., c o g - wheel geared Light and portable ; suitable for smiill garden. 18'00-30'00 M ea suring tape Measuring plots, timber, &c. 3-50-5-00 Nail extractor Useful for opening cases, extracting nails, &c. '4-50-7-00 Oil-can," Tel- kendiya" S. Necessary for oiling mowing-machines, &c. rso P e a v y, or " Cant-dogs." Levering large logs, stones, &c. 5-00 Tick (both ends point- (Loosening hard soil in trenching, picking ed); Pickaxe, f roads, &c. 1'60 "Pickasia" S. ; Planet Jr. cul- tivator An. excellent combination of tools, as drill, grub- ber, drill -harrow, surface scarifier, hoe, ridge, &c. 30-00 Pliers, wire- cutting Straining, cutting wires, £c. roo Plough; "Xa- gula " S. Ploughing paddy fields or other soft ground. 2-50-20-00 Plough, disc- or harrow Adapted for bullock draught, suited to open free soil. " 125'OQ " Porawa" S. See Axe — Posthole- digger Digging holes for fence posts or for plants. 6'50 Rain-gauge - Measuring rainfall 7'00 Rake, daisy - For cutting the flowers off dwarf -growing weeds, so as to prevent seed-production. 2'5() Rake, iron - Indispensable for smoothing the surface of seed- beds, paths, &c. O'45-l'OO Do., hay. (wooden or wire) Raking grass or leaves off lawns. 075-100 -S=Sl\'HALESE ; 7=TAMIL. TOOLS AX I) IMPLEMENTS . x Approximate Knglish'ifc Vernacular Purpose for which generally used price (varying according to quality.* Rs. Raffia. An excellent tying material, much u^ed in gardens in K u rope. 7d. per Ib. Reel, garden An iron reel with stout cord ; indispensable in making or maintaining straight or curved edges. - 175 RolL-r. gard- den Rolling and levelling paths, lawns, greens, etc. 35OO-60 00 Root-puller - Pulling out plants with long tap-roots from lawns. - T50 Saw. hand - Cutting branches, pruning, etc. I'SO Do., pruning A variety of saw with a short, narrow blade. - 1'50 Do., cross-cut Cutting logs, trees, etc. 1 50 Scrape. weed- ing Used by coolies for keeping down weeds among nr* Tea. etc. - Scvthe - Most serviceable for cutting long grass or corn. A small pattern can be worked successfully by coolies. - --- Scythe -stone Sharpening scythes by drawing it lightly along each side of blade alteinately. Secateurs, or p r u n i n g scissors Seed -sower, riddle-bow -; Shears, hed- ge-cutting - Do., spring or >heep Shovel, " I s - k o p a y -hen da " S. Sieve. " Pen- A powerful little instrument for use in one hand in pruning. Sowing seeds broad-cast Indispensable for maintaining neatly kept hedges, and useful for clipping bushes generally. Popular with coolies for trimming grass verges. - Removing gravel, earth -work. etc. Soil stirrer. or aerator - S p a n n e r . shifting Spirit-level - "Spade. " Is- kopay " S. - Sifting soil, etc. for potting composts. There are different sixes, from i to I inch mesh. A central fork with revolving arms set at different angles. Adjusting nuts, lawn-mowers, etc. Taking levels of plots, roads, buildings, etc. Mixing or turning soil, cutting turf, earth, etc. Small light spades only are suitable for coolie labour. . - - - Sprayer, Knapsack - See Ami pest. Stump extrac- tor, or Mon- key-jack An excellent implement for extracting tree-stumps or roots. - 0'25 650 080 150-300 350 3 '50- 7 50 200 2-00-300 3'50-6OO 8OO 500 300 1 75-300 15000 S=Sl\HAI.KSF : 7=T\MII.. 96 TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS Name, English & Vernacular S u 1 p hurator. or p o \v d e i sprayer Syringe, gar- den; " Va s - thi -k oodu- \va " S. Tree-pruner - Trowel, "Ku- da-skoppay " S. Verging she- ars Wateri.ng- can, " Watu- ra-kendiya" S. Do. rose Wedges , steel. "Koo- niya " S. Weeding fork, hand - Weeding fork and hoe combined - Do. hook Wrench Purpose for which generally used Distributing sulphur or tobacco powder on plants affected with mildew or insect pests. - Squirting or spraying water on plants, both for cleansing them and moistening the atmosphere ; also spraying with insecticides Pruning tall shrubs or trees. Planting out small plants. See Edging shears. In daily use for watering plants in pots, beds or borders ; 2-gallon capacity is a most convenient size. Forming a spray from a watering-can ; should consist of brass, with the perforated face re- movable by a screw. Splitting logs, etc. Stirring surface of beds or border Weeding. - Useful in weeding rocky soil See Spanner Approximate price (varying according to quality.) Rs. 8'00 6-00-1 6'00 7'50 0'40 3'50-8-QO 0'25-rOO 1-25 0'60 O'50-l-OO 0-25-0'SO 3'00-7'00 S=SlXHALESE ; 7— TAMIL. CHAPTER IX. LAYING OUT A GARDEN How to lay out a garden is often a more vexing problem than how to manage when accomplished. But it is well to remember that however much the success of a garden depends upon its original design and apportionment, the work of laying out may be said to be a progressive one, and can hardly ever be considered to have attained a finished state. It is in this fact that much of the charm of gardening lies, — the ever-varying opportunities of effect- ing changes and carrying out new ideas. In giving the following suggestions, it must be remembered that no hard and fast rules can be recommended for application in all cases, as so much depends upon local circumstances, the climate, lay of the land, supply of water, labour available, etc. Position. — A favourable position may be said to be the most valuable asset that a garden can possess. Yet much can be accom- plished, with properly directed effort and a due expenditure of money, in overcoming serious obstacles and physical advantages; thus a wilderness may sometimes be converted into a delightful garden or a most pleasurable resort. One of the first considerations should naturally be, how to transform and beautify present conditions with the least possible expenditure of time and labour. It should be remembered that it is often easier to beautify an ugly object than to remove it, and that immovable obstacles may sometimes be turned into ornaments. In commencing a garden, the mistake is sometimes made of cutting out all the existing vegetation, for- getting that this, although it may be "jungle," may not only have certain ornamental features, but will also furnish useful shade or shelter until at least other trees will have had time to grow up. Moreover, where virgin vegetation exists, a j^ood effect may be quickly obtained by isolating it in clumps, or separating shapely trees to form solitary specimens, levelling and turfing the ground between. Details can be attended to later, and a choicer variety of plants may gradually take the place of the less desirable ones. LAYIXG OUT A GARDEN 99 Water-supply. — This is an essential provision for every garden, and the laying out or arrangement of the grounds must to some ex- tent be modified in reference to it. In the low-country of Ceylon, the garden is usually supplied from a well ; up-country, a diverted stream or specially constructed channels generally meet require- ments. It is important that the source of supply should be placed where the water will have the readiest access or be easiest carried to all parts of the garden. If a well, it should be somewhat con- cealed from view by having shrubs or trees planted around. Preparation of the ground. — The ground must be thoroughly trenched and drained, the soil being turned over to a depth of 16 or 18 inches, and all large stones, roots or other obstructions removed. A certain amount of levelling will be necessary, it being important to obtain a uniform, even surface with a fine tilth. The texture and nutritive condition of the soil should, according to its needs, be improved by the addition of suitable manurial material. If the land be steep, it should, be formed into terraces, which lend themselves to a very pleasing effect. Designing. — When a clear conception is obtained of what is ac- tually desired, a sketch or diagram, however crude, should be made in order to materialise the minds' plan. The ground may thus be easily apportion- ed, and spaces allotted to the various pur- poses as may be required. This will not only save time and labour, but probably also confusion and disappointment later on. At the outset it is essential to distinguish between the front and back of the garden. The main features should first be marked out, starting with the drive or leading walk, followed by the secondary walks ; these as well as the borders, etc., may easily be traced on the ground by means of string and wooden pegs. Planting out. — In the low-country,the first attention must be to provide a certain amount of shade or screen where such do not al- ready exist ; while at the higher elevations it is equally important to furnish shelter against strong winds by means of wind-breaks in the form of trees supplemented, when necessary, by hedges and shrub- beries. The selection and planting of suitable plants to meet these requirements must, therefore, have the first consideration. GARDEN KEEL LAYIXG OUT A GARDEX 101 Walks and Paths. — These, it has been said, are a necessary evil in a garden ; yet in the tropics, as ladies especially will admit, they are very indispensable, owing to the presence of land-leeches, ants, etc., which infest the grass at different seasons. Though essen- tially for convenience, paths may, however, be made to contribute to the general effective appearance of a garden. But they should not be made for appearance alone, and only where actually required. Their width should depend upon the importance of their position, a breadth of 4 to 5 ft. being a good average size for a small garden. The main walks should be wide enough to allow of at least two or three persons walking comfortably abreast, and in the more exten- sive gardens or parks they may well be from 10 to 15 ft. in width. The Long Walk at Windsor Castle in England is about 50 feet wide and two miles long. In large or public gardens in the tropics, where walking is often an exer- tion, the principal walks should be about 12 feet wide, as in Pera- deniya Gardens, and be open to carriages and motor cirs. It is an invariable custom with the garden cooly in Ceylon to make the paths absurdly narrow and nu- merous, his object usually being to make a garden of paths, rather than of flower-beds, borders and lawn. In making paths, a good foundation and drainage are essential. Having removed the surface soil, place a layer of drainage material (stones, broken bricks, etc.) in the bottom ; cover this with coarse binding gravel, and roll or stamp thoroughly, watering well mean- time ; finish off with a layer of finer gravel firmly beaten down. It is often advisable in the tropics, owing to the heavy plumps of rain so frequently experienced, to make-a small parallel side-drain on either side of the path, below the level-'of the latter, leaving a strip of turf not less than 12 inches wide between the drain and the path ; small sloping channels should at intervals lead into the side-drains, so as to facilitate the escape of surface water during heavy rainfalls. Paths should not be of too steep a gradient, or thev will be liable A SERVICEABLE GARDEN ROLLER. 102 LAYING OUT A GARDEN to get washed away by heavy rains. This can be obviated on steep slopes by introducing graceful curves or flights of easy steps ; these will also render the path pleasanter to walk upon. To maintain the paths in a clean and even condition, free from weeds and hollows, is a matter of the first importance. The grass verges should always be cut evenly and straight, not notched at the edges, and this can best be done by edging shears. Weedy paths, with .ANOTHER VIEW IN FLOWER-GARDEN, PKRADKNIYA. crooked margins, give an unfavourable impression of their surround- ings, however well-kept these may be. Drains and Culverts. — Provision for the escape of waste or ex- cessive rain water must have early attention, for even the most absorb- ent and best drained soils are liable to be flooded, or, if on a slope, to serious slips or wash-away by the heavy showers character- istic of a tropical climate. Paths, roads, terraces, e+c., must FLOWER GAKDEX 103 therefore have ample surface drain- age~; good culverts, with a cemented and sloping foundation, should be made wher- ever the water is liable to accumulate. It is advisable to build at the higher end of each culvert a silt-pit ; this will not only collect the washed-away gravel, which may again be used on the paths or roads, but also prevent leaves and rubbish from entering and choking the culvert. Small surface channels, as inconspicuous as possible, should be made wherever a surface-wash is liable to occur, whether in the flower or vegetable-garden, or elsewhere. FLOWER GARDEN Background. — Though a special background is not always necessary, its presence as a rule does much to enhance the beauty of the flower-beds or lawn in the foreground. Thus a bank of mixed tall foliage and flowering shrubs serves EDGING SHEARS the purpose to advantage, the taller kinds of plants being placed at the back, and gradually smaller ones towards the front. In this way all the plants, when they have grown up to form a sloping bank, will be seen at once from the front. In the case of borders which are to be seen from both sides, the taller plants should of course, be planted towards the centre. SHEEP SHEARS. GENERALLY PREFKKKK1> BY COOLIES FOR Ct'TTIXO GRASS EIJGES. Bedding, Grouping, etc, — As a general rule, either flowering or foliage plants look most effective when massed separately in large beds or groups, or in rows, circles, or irregular patches as compo- nent parts of these. Frequently, however, the effect is more pleasing by mixed planting according to a definite colour arrange- ment, the beauty of many species being thus enhanced both by contrast and harmony with surrounding flowers or foliage. The beds or borders used should be of simple designs, like the lOf FLOWER GARDEX square, oval, circle, and rectangle. A large circular bed, formed of a sloping mass of harmonious colours, from centre to margin, is always a pleasing sight. Beds of elaborate designs, with many points and angles, should be avoided ; they involve much more labour than simpler forms, and it is impossible to rind plants which can be adapted to very small nooks and corners. An exception to this rule may, perhaps, be made in favour of the star-shaped bed, which, when space permits and suitable plants are available, can be made very effective. It should be remembered that the beauty of a garden does not consist in fantastic designs and serpen- tine wriggles. In order that the beds and borders may be maintained in a proper condition and be admired, they should not ANOTHER VIKNV FLO \VKR-C; A KDKX, PKUADKXIYA. be placed too closely together ; sufficient space must be left to enable the coolies to work them, and for spectators to walk com- fortably between them. The ground-work should, as far as possible be of lawn, which if well-kept will always afford the most beautiful setting. Plants of even mediocre quality will present an effective appearance when set in a well-kept green sward. If the grounds be large enough to admit of it, the grouping of the larger plants, as palms, shrubs, etc., in what is called the "natural style" has much to recommend it. In this the object is to group the plants harmoniously, according to their habit, colour of Mowers or leaves, forming FLOWER GARI)E\ 105 them into isolated clumps- to suit the contour of the ground. Keeping this idea in view, irregular clumps planted at the bends and curves of walks or drives may be made to present a pleasing effect. It should, of course, be remembered that violent contrasts of colour are at all times objection- able. In order to enhance the effect of either beds or borders, it is well as a rule to raise the soil well in the centre. Massing and isolating Clumps. As has already been said, many plants which are comparatively inconspicuous individually, may present a striking effect when planted in masses, whether they be "foliage" or "flowering" plants. Thus, a very ornamental display may be made by isolated clumps of a suitable combination of foliage plants, such as Palms, Heliconias, Cannas, variegated grasses, Caladiums, variegated Pine- apple, etc. These have also the recom- mendation that, when once planted, they do not require much attention or frequent renewals. Ribbon Borders. — Although plant- ing in lines or rings is as a rule, to be avoided, yet a ribbon border in which a suitable blending of colours is obtain- ed in this fashion, has a pleasing effect. This is all the more striking when carried out on a fairly long and broad stretch of border or even large bed; but, as already stated, it should be remembered that violent contrasts of colour, which are here liable to occur, should be avoided. Foliage plants for colour effect.— In a garden where a con- tinuous rather than a periodical display is aimed at, free use must be made of striking foliage plants. These may, in fact, be arranged so as to present by their striking colours an effect similar to flower- ing plants. It is to such foliage plants that much of the tine effect of the floral section in Peradeniya Gardens, Ceylon, is due. Flowering plants should, however, find a place when suitable kinds are obtainable, and it is well to remember that these make the most striking display when each kind is grown by itself, instead of A rSEFl'L TRIO. 106 FLOWER GARDEN mixed with others. Unfortunately, in the tropics the flowering period of many of the most showy plants is of so short a duration that they are not suited to situations where a continuous ornamental display is desired. In gardens at the higher elevations, however, a beautiful display of flowering annuals may be obtained through- out the dry season, while various bulbous plants and others present a showy appearance during the intervening period. Ferneries. — See under Ferns. AN EFFECTIVE GROUP OF FOLIAGE PLANTS. PKRADKNIYA GARDENS. Banks or Double-cuttings, which usually occur in a garden, may be so treated as to render them interesting in themselves, and to greatly enhance the beauty of their surroundings. Where suffi- ciently shaded, they may be occupied by a pleasing variety of ferns, small foliage and flower plants, which should be planted in pockets filled with rich humous soil. If the ground be much exposed, it may be either covered with smooth turf, or planted with showy forms of sun-loving creepers. An excellent example of a charming bank of the former type may be seen skirting the entrance drive to Hakgala Gardens, under the shade of Cupressus trees. FLOWER GARDEX 107 Ornamental Water — Water in almost any form adds greatly to the attractiveness of a garden, park or pleasure ground. It should he introduced, if practicable, when not already present, and advantage should be taken of the opportunity it affords of lending distinctive charms to the vicinity. As a rule an expanse of water is most suitable in a hollow, in imitation of nature, and should not A HANDSOME GROl I> OK FOLIAGE PLANTS. PERADENIYA GARDENS. COMPRISING Chrysalidocarpus palm. Hcliconia insignia. Arntido tioini.v (VARIEGATED GRASS) AND PFRPLE-LEAVED CAXNXS. be too close to the dwelling house. An island with an irregular outline and planted with suitable trees, shrubs, and perennials has a pleasing effect, so long as it does not look too artificial. The water margins should not be too thickly planted with trees or shrubs, and, in order to provide a mirror for the reflection of the banks, at least two-thirds of the water surface should be kept clear of foliage 108 LAWXS: MAK1XG AXD UPKEEP or other vegetative growth. Rippling streams or cascades in a garden have a charm all their own, and should be introduced when- ever possible. LAWNS: THEIR MAKING AND UPKEEP It has been wrell said that a lawn is to a garden what a background is to a picture. An expanse of smooth and green sward has a special and distinctive charm ; it enhances the beauty of surrounding objects, whether they be trees, shrubs, or flower-beds, and forms a most pleasing adornment to a bun- galow or dwelling house. In making a lawn, it is essential that the ground be first properly prepared, the surface being thoroughly dug or trenched and uniformly levelled, all stones, roots and similar obstacles being raked off. If the nature of the ground requires it, pro- vision must be made for drainage and for the escape of excessive rain-water, but if the ground be undulated, or the sub-soil of a gravelly nature, artificial drainage may not be necessary. If the soil be very poor, the turf is liable to become patchy in dry weather ; therefore a layer of good soil or compost should be laid on the surface. In order to ensure a uniform or level surface, pegs should be driven into the soil at the extreme points, and intermediate pegs at regular distances between these ; the desired level or gradient from peg to peg can best be obtained by means of a spirit-level and a long piece of wood having a straight edge. Turfing. — Laying turf by hand is the quickest and, for the low-country the most satisfactory method of forming a lawn, sowing seed being generally somewhat precarious. The turves should be obtained from close-grazed pasture land, and cut as nearly as possible of uniform thickness. This is best clone by a spade, or better still by the implement turf -cutter,* though for ordinary purposes a mammoty will answer the purpose, and this is the easiest tool for coolies to handle. The turf should be used IRON. * In England a horse-drawn turf-cutting machine is sometimes used, which, it is said, is capable of cutting at the rate of $ an acre of turf a day. LAirXS: MAKIXG AXD UPKEEP 109 fresh, and the soil worked in between them to fill up all interstices, finally sprinkling some fine soil on the surface and brushing it in. The turves being beaten down into position with a flat heavy piece of wood, the whole surface should be thoroughly rolled over and watered. Turf grafting. — In the case of a large area, or when turf or labour is scarce, economy of both may be effected by laying the turves, or portions of these, a foot or more apart, sinking them THE LAKE, PERADEXIYA GARDENS level with the surface. The intervening space may be sown with seed, or grass roots may be dibbled in, the whole surface being then watered and rolled. Other Methods. — Another economical and successful method of forming a lawn is, having brought the soil to a fine tilth and uni- form level, to obtain the best grass roots from a close-grazed pasture land (choosing wet weather for the purpose), and dibble these in the ground a few inches apart, afterwards rolling and water- ing the surface. A method which is said to be successfully adopted in Northern India is described thus : " Pull up a quantity of grass by the roots, chop it tolerably fine, mix it well in a compost of mud oJ LAU\\S: MAKIXG AXD UPKEEP 111 about the consistency of mortar, and spread this out thinly over the ground where the lawn is required." This, however, would not be suited to wet climates, where a single heavy shower might wash the preparation away. Lawns by Seed-Sowing. — Although lawn-making by sowing seed is not usually satisfactory in the low-country, at higher ele- vations, where certain English lawn-grasses will thrive, it is often MOWING LAWNS. PERADENIYA GARDENS. very successful, as may be seen in some gardens and greens at Nuwara Eliya, Ceylon. In the low-country, however, a uniform green sward can seldom be obtained by sowing seed, owing partly to the rapid growth of weeds, prevalence of bird and insect pests, and the liability of the seeds to being washed away by heavy rain, or exposed to severe drought. Whichever method is adopted, the margins of walks and flower beds should always be laid with a continuous belt of turf, even if it be but a foot in width. LAU'XS: MAKIXG AXD UPKEEP 113 Up-keep of Lawns. — The success of a lawn depends upon its proper up-keep ; it should as far as practicable be kept free of weeds, mowed at brief intervals with a mowing machine, and never allowed to produce seed-stalks or wear a neglected appearance. A heavy roller should be used frequently, but not when the ground is either very wet or unusually dry. A mower should not be employed until a firm green sward has been formed, the grass at first being cut by a scythe or sickle, so as to encourage the roots to spread. When lawns* become-impoverished, a top-dressing of a rich com- post, consisting of fine loamy soil and well-rotted manure should be A COG-WHEEL I;KAK MO\\I-;K given, this being raked well in, and the surface afterwards rolled and watered. The dressing should not be sufficient to completely hide the grass from view. An application of artificial manure may be given when needed, nitrate of soda (at the rate of about one Ib. per 40 square yard) being considered very good for the purpose. Other suitable stimulants are a mixture of 3 Ib. basic slag and 2 Ib. kainit per 40 square yard, or } Ib. sulphate of ammonia for the same area. Enemies of Lawns. — Xot the least formidable of these is the pernicious termite or white-ant, whose k' nests" should be looked for and destroyed at the earliest signs, either by digging them out, or pouring poison, or pumping poisonous fumes, down their crevices. The "ant-exterminator" (see under Insect Pests) is one of the best means yet discovered for destroying them. Certain LAWNS: MAKING AND UPKEEP 115 weeds are particularly partial to lawns, one of the worst being the "Elephant's foot" (Elephautopiis scaber). These should be dug up by a spud or "daisy fork ; " or the plants may be killed by dropping poison into their centre. Worm-casts in lawns are particularly objectionable. Yet their presence might be regarded as beneficial rather than otherwise, for worms are the means by which nature manures the grass and drains the surface ; moreover, their presence is a sign of good soil, as their food consists of decayed vegetable matter, which after being digested is ejected in the form well known as worm-castings. Watering the soil with Vaporite, or with a weak solution of ammonia or lime water, will cause the worms to come to the surface, when they should be collected and destroyed. Suitable grasses for lawns. — As to what constitutes the best grasses for lawns, much depends on climate and load conditions. CHAIX-GEAR I.AWX MOWER. The " Doob-grass" (Cy notion clactylon) is a favourite for dry regions, as on the plains of India, while the Love-grass or "Tutteri" (Chrysopogon aciculatns) forms excellent turf in the moist low- country, in spite of the objection to it when allowed to flower and seed, owing to its sharp hooked awns which adhere to and pene- trate one's clothes. The ordinary self-formed turf on the lawns in Peradeniya Gardens has been found to consist chiefly of the following : — Chrysopogon aciculatns ( " Love-grass " or " Tutteri " ), Ischaemum ciliare ("Rat-tana"), Seiaria glauca ("Kawulu"), Pnniaim sntigiiinale, Sporobuliis tiitiinier. and the clover-like Desmodiiim iriflorum (" Hin-undu-piyali"). Under the shade of trees the principal turf-grasses are Paspalum conjugatutn, Panicum trigonuni, Oplisnienus contposiius and Apluda aristata. The grass known locally as the "Barbadoes Sour grass," and in the Philippines as "Bitter grass" (Paspalum conjugate m), is an 116 HEDGES AND BOUNDARIES introduced species from the West Indies ; it has become completely naturalised in Ceylon, being specially adapted to shady situations, and when kept closely cut forms very fair turf. Certain English grasses will thrive at the higher elevations in well-prepared ground, and grass seed mixtures adapted for particular purposes may be obtained from seed-merchants in Europe or Australia. HEDGES AND BOUNDARIES For several reasons a garden in the tropics should be enc-losed by a hedge or fence, that is if exclusion of cattle and other vermin, shelter from wind, and privacy be considered essential. Well- kept hedges are ornamental as well as useful ; they form protective LAWX-SPKIXKLKR boundaries, shut off private quarters, divide portions when necess- ary (as the Kitchen-garden from the Flower-garden), or conceal unsightly parts. A large number of plants are adapted for forming hedges, and the suitability of each kind depends upon the purpose and locality for which it is required. For an effective hedge of coloured foliage, such plants as Acalypha, Croton, Panax, Pisonia, Cordyline, etc., either mixed or singly will supply all that can be desired ; whilst for a hedge of flowering plants, different varieties of Hibiscus, Ixora, Poinsettia, Thunbergia erecta, etc., make a striking display. In many cases a hedge may be formed by simply planting cuttings where they are required to grow. It is always advisable to give a hedge a good foundation, i.e., a trench dug deep and rilled in with good soil ; otherwise gaps or unevenness of growth are likely to occur. WThen a hedge has to answer the pur- pose of a barrier, a good plan is to run a few strands of barbed wire HEDGES AXD BOUNDARIES 117 along the centre ; or, if the .wire-fence is already in position, the hedge may he planted (or sown) by its side ; otherwise the fence may be beautified or concealed by growing some ornamental climbers over it. An excellent barrier hedge may be formed by means of some formidable prickly plant, as Yucca, Agave, etc. HEDGE-SHEARS Certain plants, as the "Madras-thorn," form the best hedge when started from seed sown in situ. In trimming a hedge, it should always be remembered to keep it narrower at the top than at the bottom, otherwise it becomes bare and leafless near the ground. 118 HEDGES AMD BOUNDARIES SELECTED HEDGE-PLANTS FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY. Name How propa- gated Remarks, approximate height, etc. Acacia sphacrocephala "Bull's horn Acacia." S Acalypha, different varieties. C Agave americana variegata. " American Aloe." S & Su. Ara Ha filicifolia. C A.—Giiilfoylci. C Banibusa naiia. " Dwarf Bamboo" Uiv. Brunfelsia, see Franciscea. Casna rinn eqnisitofolia . "She Oak" S Clerodendron acnlcatiitu. " Wild Coffee " S Croton(Codicenm), different varieties. ' C Duranta Plum/en. Duranta. C & S Ehretia b it xi folia. " Ceylon Boxwood" Do Eranthenuini iiiacnlatnin, and other varieties. C Euphorbia A ntiqiiornm. " Daluk " S. C E.—Tirucalli. " Milk-hedge. " " Nawahandi-" S. C Flaconrtin Raiuontcliii. " Uguressa." S Hcema toxyloti ca mpcchia uti in. Logwood. S Hibiscus rosa-sincnsis, varieties. " Shoe-flowers." C Jatropha Curcas. Physic-nut; " Rata-endaru " S. \ C Justicia gendanissa. C Malpighia glabra. " barbadoes Cherry." C & S Murraya exotica. (Limonia.) S Panax fruticosum, C Pithecolobium dulcc. " Madras thorn " S Pedilanthits tithymaloidcs, C Phylla n th us in yrtifolins. " Ceylon Myrtle." S & C Punica granatum. Pomegranate. Do. Tnphasia auraniiola. "Sweet Lime." S Slow-growing, 4-6 ft. Quick -growing. 10-15 ft., coloured foliage. Slow-growing, 5-6 ft., ornamental and barrier. Quick-growing, 6-8 ft., handsome fern-like foliage. Quick-growing, erect, variegated, serrated foliage. Slow-growing, 6-8 ft. Moderate grower ; height as desired. Rather slow grower, 5-8 feet. Do. do. do. Moderate grower, 8-15 feet. Slow-growing, 3-4 ft. or dwarf, suitable for edgings. Quick-growing, 6-8 ft., variegated and coloured foliage. Quick-growing, 8-15 ft.; barrier, juice poisonous. Quick-growing, 6-8 ft.; used as^ boundaries for paddy fields. Slow -growing, 6-8 ft., thorny, good barrier. Slow -growing, good barrier. Quick-growing, fine-flowering ; 8-10 ft. Quick-growing, 5-6 ft. Fairly quick grower, 3-4 ft., bushy Slow grower, 3-4 ft., or dwarf, suitable for edgings. Slow grower, 6-8 ft. Quick grower, 6-8 ft., handsome foliage. Moderately quick grower ; good- barrier, thorny ; 6-15 ft. Moderate grower, 3-4 ft. Slow grower, 5-6 ft., dense foliage Quick grower, 6-8 ft , Slow grower, 4-5 ft., good barrier S=seed : C.— cuttings Su~.suckers : Div.=di vision. HEDGES AND BOUNDARIES FOR UP-COUXTRY. 119 How propa- Remarks, approximate height, etc. rfated I Aculyplnt ntai'fiiiiata " Copper-leaf." is Fortnnci. Chinese Berberis. Caesalpinia scpiaria. Centrum fascicnlatnin. Colic fiti crnciata. Cryptonicria japonica. Japanese Cedar. Cnpirssns Lau'soniana. Cypress. Duranta Plniiiicri. Duranta. Fraud sea bicolor (Brniifclsia it ni flora). Frcncla rhomboidca. Conifer. Fnrcnva gigantea. Mauritius Hemp. Hab t'olliaii' nits elcgatis. Libonia flonbnnda. •Spinva pcrnviana. Tccoina capcnsis. ric.v enropca. Gorse : fur/e. C Quick grower. 5-6 ft., large orna- mental leaves. S Slow grower, 3-4 ft.. S Quick grower, 5-6 ft. S or C Fairly quick grower. 6 to 8 ft., fine-flowering. S I Slow-growing, very thorny S Slow grower. 6-10 ft. S Moderately quick grower. 6-12 ft. S or C Do. do. do. Do Slow grower, 4-6 ft. S Do. 6-8 ft. S or Su. Fairly quick grower. 6-8 ft. suited for boundary. S or C ; See Ccstnnn. C Slo\v grower, 2-4 ft., ornamental. S or C Rather slow grower. 4-6 ft., fine- flowering. Do Do. do. do. S \ Slow grower, good barrier : orna- mental, 5-6 ft. FOR THE DRY REGION. How Name propa- Remarks, approximate height, etc gated Agave american. Carissa Car and as. " Maha- 'karamba," S. " Perunkila " T. JDichrostachvs cincrca. " Andara " S. " Vidattal " T. Duranta Plnmicri. Duranta. Euphorbia A titiqnontiu. "Daluk"S. :E.—TirucalH. " Milk-hedge." Jaliopha Curcas. Physic-nut. Pandanns Zcyla nicns. " Akeyiya." S. Parkinsonia acnlcata. "Jerusalem Thorn." J'ithecolohiiini ,{nlcc. " Madras Thorn." Su. or S S S or C C SorSu. S See above. Shrub or small tree, thorny. Slow grower, 5-6 ft., thorny. See above. Quick-growing, 8-15 ft.; barrier, juice poisonous. Do. Do. Slender stems, 6-7 ft., boundaries of paddy fields. Quick grower, 5-6 ft., thorny, good barrier. See above. ; C=cuttin«s : Su=suckers : Div.=division. 120 HEDGES AXD BOUNDARIES PLANTS SUITABLE AS EDGINGS FOR PATHS, BORDERS, ETC. FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY. How Name propa- Remarks, approximate height etc. gated A Item anther a , several varieties. A inaryllis (Hippeastrnin), several varieties. A n tli eric n in HI last nun varicgatuni. Caladium Humboldtii (C. argyi'cii). C. — bicolor. Several other varieties. Carallnnia canipaniilata. Casnarina cqnisiti folia. Malpighia coccinea. Ophiopogon in termed ins. Ph alar is arnndinacea. S tape! ia grandi flora. Zcphyrctnthcs carinata. " Rose Amaryllis." Z. — tiibispntha. C 2 -1ft. Foliage bronze or greenish yellow ; quick-growing. Bulbs Large showy flowers ; 12 to 16 in. high. Div. 2-lft ; long, narrow, variegated leaves. Tu. 10 in. Small leaves, prettily varie- gated. Tu. 1 ft. Leaves pink and green. C ! Dwarf, leafless plant, with square stems. S i A tree, but can be kept low by pruning young. C or S Shrub, adapted for keeping low like boxwood. Div. Grass-like ; suited to shady places ; 1 ft. Div. Variegated grass, 6 in., likes shade. C | Small succulent plant. Tu. 8 to 10 in.; Fl's large, bright rose. Tu. Do.; flowers white. FOR UP-COUXTRY. Altertianthera, several varieties. Amaryllis (Hippeastnini). A nthericnm liliastnim Boxwood (Bnxns seinperrirens). Carallnnia cantpannlata. Cyrta n th us Mackenii. "African Bride." £c//£2/m'^A large handsome upright tree, with fine (""Feathery toBagernative Of tropical Asia and Africa. It is commonly 186 TROPICAL FRUITS cultivated throughout the warmer parts of India, Ceylon, and Malaya both for its shade and excellent timber, as well as for its fruit. The latter consists of a brownish pod, 3 to 4 inches long, containing a mass of sweetish acid brown pulp. These pods form the "Tamarinds" of commerce, which are used in European as well as in Native medicine. The pulp is pressed and preserved in large masses, being commonly sold in the kaddies or bazaars by weight. It is esteemed for flavouring various dishes, while tamarind-wine and other cooling beverages are prepared from it. In the north- ern part of Ceylon, it is made into a brine for preserving fish. The principal season for the fruit is from January to February. The tree thrives in moist as well as dry districts up to about 2,000 ft. elevation, and in the dry northern part of Ceylon is commonly planted as a shade-tree for road-sides. Several varieties are recog- nised in India. The tree is readily propagated by seed. Telfairea pedata (Cucurbitaceae). Telf aria-nuts ; " Mkwe- me." — A climber with a slender woody stem, reaching a height of 50 to 80 ft., native of Zanzibar and East Tropical Africa. The fruit attains a size of one to two feet or more in length, and eight or ten inches in thickness, containing a large number of flat nearly circular seeds, each about lj inches across. These latter are also eaten, either fresh or dried in the sun and roasted ; they are said to be very palatable, and to contain about 36 % of oil with a value equal to that of olive oil. Propagated by seed, which germinate within a week. Terminalia Catappa ( Combretaceae). Indian-almond; 44 Kotamba" S.; 44 Kottai " T. — A spreading tree, thirty to fifty feet high, with large leathery leaves, native of Malaya. The fruit is of the size of a plum, compressed on two sides, and contains a kernel which is much relished and used for dessert in India. FIRMINGER considered it to be " beyond comparison the most deli- cious nut of any kind the country affords." The tree is deciduous twice a year, and bears two crops of fruit annually before dropping its leaves, i.e., in June and November. It thrives up to about 2,000 ft. in moist as well as rather dry districts. Propagated by seed. Trapa bicornis (Onagraceae). Water Chestnut ; u Ikiliya " S. — An aquatic plant, common in the tanks of the dry region of Ceylon, also in Bengal, Malaya, and Tropical Africa, FIRMINGER stated : " Much cultivated in many parts of India for its nuts." It does not seem, however, to be in any way cultivated in Ceylon, though the " nuts " are commonly collected and eaten by the FRUIT CULTURE 187 Natives. The " nut " consists of the hard two-horned fruit, resembling a miniature bull's head, and is of a dark brown or some- times black colour. The interior is said to be agreeable to eat when fried. Triphasia aurantiola (Rutaceae). Chinese Lime. — A small spiny shrub, native of South China, but said to be naturalised in India. It is recommended in the West Indies as a stock for YOA-VAXGA. — Vangneria edtilis. budding oranges and limes upon. The small red, berry-like fruit can hardly be considered edible, though in China it is made into a preserve, the whole berry being used. It is also prepared in Manila in a similar manner and exported as *4 Lime-berries." Thrives at medium elevations, probably not grown in Ceylon outside Peradeniya Gardens. Propagated by seed. Vangueria edulis (Rubiaceze). Voa-vanga. — A small shrub- by, deciduous tree, native of Madagascar, producing a large number 188 TROPICAL FRUITS of smooth, round, green fruit, of the size of a small apple. This when ripe acquires a yellowish green tint, the sweetish acid juicy pulp suggesting the flavour of the " Velvet Tamarind " (Dialnun}^ The tree thrives and fruits at Peradeniya, and would appear to give promise of improvement by cultivation and selection. The coolies here display a keen partiality for the fruit when approaching ripeness. The large, shining, light-green leaves are said to be used in medicine in Madagascar. Suited to the moist low-country up to 2,000 ft. Propagated by seed or cuttings (See- illustration). Vitis vinifera (Ampelidae). Grapes, or Grape-vine. The Grape-vine is extensively cultivated in Southern Europe (its native home), Australia, South Africa, and Southern United States ; also in England and elsewhere in glass-houses (vineries), the finest dessert grapes being produced under the latter conditions. Tn the dry provinces of India, grapes of very fair quality are grown, both from exotic and indigenous sorts, while in the dry northern part of Ceylon certain varieties of grape have long been cultivated with some degree of success. Here the want of a winter's rest, which is so essential to the plant, is partially supplied by periodically baring the roots and exposing them to the sun. This operation is resort- ed to once a year, about the time of the principal pruning, in July. A practical experiment which was made a few years ago at Colombo, under the supervision of an expert viticulturist, proved conclu- sively the unsuitability of the uniformly steamy and hot climate here to the grape vine. Exhaustive efforts have also been made by MR. W. NOCK at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon (elevation about 5,000 ft.) in growing vines in a glass-house, which, however, ended in failure as regards the production of fruit. The essential con- ditions for the grape-vine are : a dry warm temperature when the fruit is setting and ripening, and a cold period for resting or 44 wintering." A wet climate is unsuitable, but moisture at the roots is essential, and this is best supplied by irrigation, which may be continued until the branches are commencing to ripen, when it should cease. In vineyards, the vines are usually planted in rows and grown on the bush system, being pruned back each year to a height of about four feet. In glass-houses and in the tropics they are, however, best grown as climbers, being provided with supports by means of horizontal wires or trellises, pillars, etc. In Jaffna,, the vines are usually trained over a pandal or trellis. FRUIT CULTURE 189 Propagation. The Grape-vine is readily piopagated by cuttings, which should he inserted slanting-wise in the soil, with only about two buds above the surface, and the earth well pressed upon them. Pinning ami Thinning. 'The usual pruning is carried out after the crop is over, all lateral shoots being pruned back once a year to within two or three buds of the main stem, and any unnecessary growth removed. In order to obtain fruit of the best quality, the berries should be thinned out by means of a pair of fine scissors and the bunches also reduced in number. Mil it it ring. The plant requires liberal treatment. A mixture of loamy soil and decomposed cattle manure suits it well. In Jafina, fish manure is considered the best fertiliser, though the Natives have also a strong belief in the value of salt as a manure for vines. As stimulants, artificial manures give excellent results. ]'tirictics. All the numerous varieties of the Grape-vine cultivated are considered to belong to Vitis vinifera. There are, however, nu- merous species of Vitis, many of them indigenous to Ceylon ; but none of the latter can be considered to produce edible fruit, except perhaps V. indica. The Black Hainbro, with dark purplish fruit and Muscat of Alexandria, with pale-green berries, are grown in the northern part of Ceylon. In addition to these the following varieties are said to give good results in Jamaica, viz ; Bar- barossa, Muscat Hamburg, and Gross Colinau. Yield. In Jaffna. Ceylon, two crops a year are obtained, the principal one in March, and the second in September. The fruit takes three to four months to ripen, from the time of flowering, the vines (which grow to a large size) each producing an annual crop of from 100 to 300 Ib. or more; this is sold at prices varying from 30 to 50 cents (=6d. to Sd.) per Ib. Zizyphus jujuba ( Rhamnaceae). Jujube; "Masan" S. ; 44 Ilantai " T. — A small, thorny, spreading tree, native of Ceylon, India, and Malaya. The fruit, which is borne in great profusion and is in season about October, is of the size of a large cherry, smooth and shiny, yellowish in colour, with a kernel in the centre ; it is rather acid in flavour, and in India is said to " afford a very nice dish when cooked with sugar." In Ceylon, however, the fruit is usually eaten only by children. The tree thrives up to about 3,000 ft., and is propagated by seed. Z.— vulgaris.— A small thorny tree, native of Syria and Levant, said to be 4i commonly grown about Calcutta and in most parts of India." The round fruit has a thin, pale-green smooth rind ; the fleshy substance between the kernel and the rind is of a pleasant flavour, crisp and refreshing, not unlike a juicy apple, but it has little to recommend it as a fruit. Propagated by seed. Suited to low elevations onlv. CHAPTER XL SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS SUITED TO HIGH OR INTERMEDIATE ELEVATIONS, WITH RAINFALL FROM 60 TO 80 INCHES OR MORE [S=SlXHALESE : 7=TAMIL] Aberia caffra (Bixaceae). Kei Apple. — A small thorny tree or tall shrub, native of the Cape and Natal. The fruit is of the form of a small apple and, when ripe, is made into a preserve ; in an unripe state it is used as a pickle. The tree has been established at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, since about 1880, but has only been known to fruit once. Anona Cherimolia (Anonaceae). Cherimoyer. — A small tree, native of S. America and the West Indies, introduced into Ceylon about 1880. The large, green, round or heart-shaped fruit is 3 to 5 inches in diameter, weighing from 2 to 4 lb., and has a pitted rind ; it somewhat resembles the Custard-apple, and is known in Covent Garden Market, London, under that name. The Cherimoyer has been described as one of the three finest fruits in the world, the other two rivals being the Mangosteen and Pine-apple. DR. LINDLEY, however, considered that " one good European Pear is worth all the Cherimoyers of Peru." The tree is now cultivated in many up-country gardens in Ceylon, especially in the Udapussellawa district, where it ripens fruit chiefly between October and December. In Madeira, the tree is systematically cultivated, being propagated by grafting. It may also be raised from seed, but the best varieties have almost seedless fruits. Cherimoyers are regularly imported from the Canary Islands into London, where they are often retailed at Is. to 2s. 6d. each. The white and somewhat granular pulp is similar to that of the Custard-apple, but much pleasanter to the taste than the latter. The tree is best suited to the hill districts, preferring a rather dry climate ; it is considered to thrive best on deep, rich soil in which lime is present. SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 191 Carica candamarcensis (Passifloraceae). Mountain Papavv. — A small semi-herbaceous tree with a crown of large coarse palmate leaves, native of Colombia and Eucador, similar to the Papaw of the low-country, but with fruit only a fraction the size of the latter. The tree has been introduced at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, in 1880, and is now commonly grown in hill gardens for the sake of its fruit, being often found in a semi-naturalised state about up-country bungalows. The ovoid -green fruit is characterized by longitudinal ridges, and is in season all the year round ; though CHERIMOYER, OK CHERIMOLIA. Anoiia Cticrinwlia. too acid to be used for dessert, it is very agreeable when stewed, and can also be made into jam and preserves. When ripe the fruit has a pleasant apple-like odour. Propagated by seed. Carya oliviformis (Juglandaceae). Pecan-, or Pican-nut. — A handsome tree with a straight trunk, reaching a height of about 70 feet, native of Texas, etc. The nuts are considered to be the most delicious of the Walnut kind, and form an important article of commerce in the Southern United States. The export of these nuts from Texas is said to value about £12,000 annually. There are several varieties in cultivation. The tree has not as yet been 192 FRUIT CULTURE established at Hakgala Gardens, nor apparently in Indian hill gardens, with the exception possibly of " one or two varieties under trail " at Saharanpur Botanic Gardens. It requires rather a dry and temperate or sub-tropical climate. Cassimoroa edulis (Aurantiaceae, Orange family). Mexican Apple, White Zapote, or Zapote Blanco. — A medium-sized tree of Mexico, characterized by large palmate leaves (divided into 5 leaflets), and greenish flowers borne in racemes. The fruit of the best varieties is edible, being of the size of a medium apple, and MOUNTAIN PAPAW. Carica Candamarcensis is considered by some to have an agreeable flavour. The seeds, which are comparatively large, are considered poisonous ; these as well as the bark and leaves are used medicinally in Mexico. The tree has been introduced to Peradeniya in 1899, but has not yet produced fruit here. Castanea chincnsis (Cupiliferae). Chinese Chestnut. — This tree, a native of China, yields a superior nut, but has not been found suited to the hill districts of Ceylon, and is reported to have similarly failed in India. The most likely conditions for it SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 193 in Ceylon are found in the drier climate of Uva, at 3,000 to 4,000 feet elevation. Plants could be obtained through the Yokohama Nursery Coy., Yokohama, Japan. C.— vesca. Spanish Chestnut. — A very handsome tree, lately introduced at Hakgala and certain other hill gardens in Ceylon. It is commonly grown on the hills of Northern India, where it produces in March and April its panicles of lavender-coloured blossom, the fruit following in May and June. I am not aware whether it has yet fruited in Ceylon. Cerasus vulgaris (Rosaceae). Cherry. — The Cherry tree grows freely at Nuwara Eliya, and flowers abundantly in January and February, but so far as I am aware has never produced fruit in Ceylon. CAMERON says (see FIRMIXGER'S Manual of Gardening in India) : " Every attempt to cultivate it in the Plains of India has hitherto proved an utter failure. It is, however, grown to perfection on the hills with a little care." There are some species of Cherry indigenous to Northern India which yields fruits suitable for making tarts. Propagated by budding, cuttings, or layers. Ceratonia siliqua (Leguminosae). Carobs, or Carob-bean ; Locust-bea-i ; St. John's Bread. — A small shrubby tree, native of South Europe, and extensively cultivated in the Mediterranean region for its sweet, sugary, flat pods ; the latter are about 6 inches long, nearly 1 inch wide, dark brown in colour, and form a considerable article of export in the countries named ; they are a valuable fattening and nutritious food for cattle, and are also eaten and relished by human beings. The tree is a slow grower, but is of great longevity, being considered to remain productive for over a hundred years, and may live for several years more. When in its prime, between 18 and 40 years old, it produces several hundredweight of pods in a season. Efforts have been made to establish the tree in Ceylon ; but, although specimens have for several years been growing at Anuradhapura, Hakgala Gardens, Albion Estate, etc., none have as yet borne fruit worth speaking of. The Carob-bean tree is frequently unisexual, so that trees raised from seed are often unproductive. The usual method of propagation is by cuttings. Citrus Aurantium (Rutaceae). Orange. — (See under Tropical Fruits). G. — Limonum. Lemon ; " Natran " S. ; " Kidanar-attankai " T. — This small-sized tree, native of Northern India, is extensively 194 FRUIT CULTURE cultivated in Southern Europe and elsewhere for its well-known fruit, which is usually oval in shape, and pale-yellow when ripe. The tree grows freely at medium and high elevations in Ceylon, but the fruit produced here is invaribly coarse and pithy, with a thick warty rind, and can seldom compare with the lemons of temperate countries. The variety " Lisbon Lemon," imported as grafted plants from Australia, has for a time grown and fruited well in some up-country gardens ; but after a few years, it becomes unproductive. Lemon fruits are very largely used for flavouring in confectionery, etc. The rind yields a valuable essential oil and citric acid ; for making candied lemon peel, it is also largely used. The Lemon and Orange require similar conditions of climate and soil. (See Oranges under Tropical Fruits). Propagation of the Lemon should be by budding, but plants are easily raised from seed (pips), or by layering. C.— medica Citron ; " Cidran " vS. — A small tree, much cultivated in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean region for its fruit. The latter grows to a large size, sometimes 10 to 12 (but usually only about 4 to 6) inches in diameter, being round or oval in shape. The thick rind is the part used, this being prepared in brine, preserved in sugar, and largely employed in confectionery, preserves, marmalade, etc. The fruit varies in size and shape according to varieties. The " Fingered Citron " resembles a man's hand, with the fingers bent up as with cramp. Citrons are not commonly cultivated in Ceylon, though good fruits may occasionally be met with in hill gardens. The leaves of Citron are distinguished from those of other species of Citrus by not having the petiole winged. Propagated by seed, budding, or layering. Cyphomandra betacea (Solanaceae). Tree Tomato ; "Vege- table Mercury" " Gas-Takkali " S. — An ever-green, semi-woody shrub, native of Peru and introduced into Ceylon through Hakgala Gardens, in 1882. It has become thoroughly established in many hill gardens, and is commonly grown about Nuwara Eliya for market. The egg-shaped and smooth-skinned fruit, produced in great abundance and in hanging clusters at the ends of the branches, is in season almost throughout the year, but chiefly from March to May. At first greenish purple, it changes in ripening to reddish yellow. Some varieties are of a deep purple colour when ripe. The sub-acid succulent fruits are refreshing and agreeable when eaten raw, but their chief use is for stewing ; they may also be made into jam or preserve. The tree is a quick grower, and SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 195 commences to bear fruit when about t\vo years old, remaining productive for several years. Thrives best on deep soil, and is propagated by seed (See illustration). Diospyros Kaki (Ebenaceae). Persimmon ; Date-plum. — A medium-sized, slow-growing tree with large handsome, ovate or TREE TOMATO. Cyplioiiiaiuini bctacca cordate leaves, native of China and Japan. The attractive, shining smooth fruit is usually of a bright orange-yellow when ripe, some- times pink or dark-purple. It is globular or pear-shaped, usually about 3 inches in diameter, though sometimes more. Each fruit 196 FRUIT CULTURE usually contains two almond-like seeds in the centre, but some varieties are seedless. When perfectly ripe, or even in a bletted condition, it has an agreeable flavour, being compared to an apricot with a suspicion of the medlar, or to an over-ripe apple. In a less ripened state it is, in its native country, made into a well- known preserve. Dried Kaki fruit is said to be equal to dried tigs. The tree thrives in the Riviera, whence excellent fruit are imported into London, and sold in Covent Garden market at fancy prices. It is also said to thrive and bear abundantly at Calcutta, Saharanpur, etc., but has not as yet become well-known in Ceylon. It was introduced at Hakgala Gardens in 1888, and occasionally produces fruit there. The Persimmon is usually dioecious, so that it is necessary to have a male tree in the neighbourhood of a pistillate tree to ensure the fertilisation of the flowers of the latter. FEIJOA, OR "PIXE-APPLE GUAVA." Fcijoa Sellowiaiia Feijoa Sellowiana (Myrtaceae). Feijoa-fruit, or "Pine-apple Guava." — A small bushy tree, 6 to 8 ft. high, native of South America, and recently introduced into cultivation. It is closely allied to the common Guava, and much resembles that plant in the character of its fruit. In California, it is considered a valuable addition to the fruits of that country, the flavour being described as " delicious, and not unlike that of the strawberry." The fruit is oval in shape, 2 to 3 inches in length, highly perfumed, and is in season in November. " It can be used either raw, stewed, crystallized, or made into jam or jelly." The seeds, by which the tree may be propagated, are very small. SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 197 Ficus Carica (I'rticaceae) : Fig. — A small spreading, deci- duous tree or large shrub, native of Turkey and the Mediterranean region, where it is extensively grown for its fruit. Fig trees grow moderately well and set fruit freely in hill gardens in Ceylon, but owing to the South-west monsoon rains setting in when the trees are in bearing, the fruit seldom ripens well ; in fine weather a few fruits occasionally ripen, but these are wanting in flavour. FIRMIXGER said : " In most parts of India, Fig trees are to be met with thriving vigorously and bearing fruit abundantly," but pre- sumably this refers to the plains, for CAMEROX says he has " not seen the Fig tree under cultivation in the hills in India." The Fig thrives in dry, arid places, requiring no shade and but little moisture, the essential conditions being good drainage, a rich porous soil, and a dry hot season for ripening the fruit. Thus in the drier parts of Uva, in Ceylon, Fig trees have been found to ripen fairly good crops. The trees should be sheltered from strong winds, and usually thrive best in an enclosed yard, with their roots confined to a limited space. In Greece, the average yield of a Fig orchard is said to be about 1,600 Ib. of fruit per acre. The " Smyrna Fig " is the best kind, but there are numerous other varieties in cultivation, as Golden- Fig, Purple-fig, White Adriatic, Black Ischia, etc. The two last named have been found the most approaching to success at Nuwara Eliya, according to Mr. COTTON. The Fig is easily propagated by cuttings, which travel well by post. The fertilisation of the minute flowers, which are enclosed in the hollow of the fruit, is dependent on an insect, the process being known as caprification. Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae). Strawberry. — A low herbaceous creeping perennial, producing "runners," by which the plant is readily increased. A species of Wild Strawberry (F. nilgerrensis) is indigenous to the hills of South India. Wild Strawberries are to be found occasionally in patches up-country, especially about Hakgala and Nuwara Eliya ; DR. TRIMEX considered that these were escapes from cultivation. Improved cultivated varieties have been introduced into Ceylon from time to time, which, in the dry season in up-country gardens, produce and ripen fruit of very fair quality, though somewhat lacking in flavour. The plants should be planted in rows about 18 inches apart, with 12 inches between the plants in the rows. The soil must be well-drained, rich and porous. Of the varieties tried at Hakgala Gardens, u Crescent Seedling " has so far afforded about the best results. 198 FRUIT CULTURE Juglans regia (Juglandaceae). Walnut. — The Walnut tree is commonly cultivated on the hills of Northern India, where it produces abundant crops. It is not, however, a success on the plains, nor on the hills of Southern India. It has been tried at Nuwara Eliya and Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, but so far with- out success. Morus indica (Urticaceae). Indian Mulberry. — A small quick-growing tree, native of Northern India, where it is commonly cultivated. The fruit resembles a small pepper-corn, cylindrical in shape, rather deficient in flavour, and quite inferior to the European mulberry. There are two sorts, the "white" and the " black," both being similar in taste. FIRMIXGER said : " the fruit, such as it is, ripens in February in Bengal, but it is fit for little but to be left to the birds." The Indian mulberry is now commonly grown in Ceylon at low and medium elevations, especially at School gardens, where its cultivation has been encouraged for the purpose of affording food by means of its leaves to the mulberry silk-worm. Easily propagated by cuttings. M. nigra. European mulberry. — This is a native of Persia, and has been introduced and established at Hakgala and some other up-country gardens. I am informed that it bears plentifully in the Haputale district (about 5,000 ft. alt.) in Ceylon, where the fruits are used for making tarts. Olea Europea (Oleaceas). Olive. — A small tree, native of North-western Asia, and naturalised in the Mediterranean region. It is extensively cultivated in Northern Africa, Southern Europe, California, etc., both for its fruit, which is so largely used in preserves and pickles, as well as for the extraction of the valuable olive oil. Plants have been introduced into Ceylon, and grown for many years without producing fruit worth speaking of, though an odd fruit may be produced occasionally without being noticed. MR. JAMES RYAN, of Talawakelle, picked a fruit from an olive tree in his garden in 1908. Olives have not been found suited to the hills in S. India, and even in the dry climate of Bangalore, trees 30 years old have remained unproductive. Olive cultivation has of late been introduced into Australia and South Africa, with prospects of success. In California, where it is now successfully established, the crop is said to yield an average of 600 gallons of olive oil per acre, the maximum return being as high as 2,000 gallons per acre. The tree is susceptible to either a very hot or very cold climate, and thrives best in light soil of a limestone SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 199 formation. There are numerous varieties in cultivation, differing in the lateness or earliness of the crop, and in the shape and size of the fruit ; the latter varies from round to ovate or oval, and from I to 1 inch in diameter. Propagated from seed, cuttings, layers, or suckers. PASSION FRUIT. Pass/flora ciiitlis. As Grown at Xuwara-Eliya, Ceylon. Passiflora edulis (Passifloraceae). Passion-fruit, *or Sweet- cup. — A perennial climber, native of Southern Brazil, introduced into Ceylon and commonly cultivated up-country for its fruit. As an escape from cultivation it may now often be met with 200 FRUIT CULTURE in a wild state at elevations of 3,000 to 5,000 feet. It bears in great abundance a perfectly smooth oval fruit, of the size of a hen's egg, purple when ripe. Two crops a year are some- times produced, the principal season being from May to July. The fruit contains in its hollow centre a quantity of fragrant sweet juicy pulp, inseparable from which are the small seeds ; this when emptied out of the shell, and beaten up in a glass with a pinch of bicarbonate of soda and sugar, forms a delicious drink. The fruit is sold locally at about Re. 1 (Is. 4J.) per CAPE GOOSEBERRY. PkySaltS hundred. Consignments of the fruit are occasionally exported from Australia and elsewhere to London, and these usually secure fancy prices, but the shrivelled appearance which the fruit assumes on ripening is against it for market purposes. The Passion-fruit may be cultivated successfully from 2,000 ft. upwards, and may either be allowed to grow over a fence or trellis-work, or climb over trees, etc. Rich humous soil and a moist shaded situation suit it best. Propagated by seed. (See illustration}. Persica vulgaris. Peach. (See under Prunus). Phyllanthus Emblica (Euphorbiaceas). " Nelli " S.— A small tree or shrub, with graceful feathery foliage, native of Ceylon, SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 201 India, Malaya, China, etc. It is commonly found wild in open patna land in Ceylon, up to 4,000 ft., bein;4 also sometimes grown in gardens for ornament. The round green fruits, of the size of marbles, with a comparatively large kernel, are made into a much-esteemed preserve (See under Useful Recipes). The fruit is collected from plants in the wild state when in season, chieHy from November to February, and sold at from 3 to 6 cts. per hundred. Propagated from seed. Suited to inter- mediate elevations. Phy sails Peruviana (Solanaceae). Cape Gooseberry ; Peruvian Cherry. — A low, straggling or creeping herbaceous perennial, native of Peru, naturalised at the Cape and to some extent in the hill districts of Ceylon. The fruit is of the size and form of a small cherry, and is concealed in the dry, leafy, persistent c ilyx. When quite ripe it is yellow and of an agreeable and refreshing flavour, being used for dessert or for making jam or preserves. In South Africa it is largely made into jam, which forms an article of export there. The plant is easily raised from seed, and will thrive in any ordinarily good soil, but is most productive on rich sandy soil. Sow in sheltered beds, and plant out seedlings about 18 inches from each other in rows 3 feet apart. Suited to elevations of 3,500 to 5,000 feet or higher. (See illustration). Pistacia vera (Anacardiaceap). Pistachio-nut. — A small tree, reaching about 30 feet in height, considered to be indigenous to Syria. It is extensively cultivated in Northern India, Florida, etc., for its delicious nut, which is eaten as a dessert or prepared and used in various ways. During the cold weather in India these nuts, being brought from Cabul by Afghan traders, are said to be obtainable in great abundance in the bazaars, so that "travellers often take them to be a product of the country." In the Ceylon boutiques, however, the nuts appear to be a V unknown commodity. The tree might thrive to some extent at moderate elevations in the drier parts of the Uva Province of Ceylon. Prunus Armeniaca (Rosaceae). Apricot. — The cultivation of this delicious fruit in Ceylon has so far been nowhere successful, nor does it seem to have been attended with much better results in India. In the latter country, however, the tree is said to ^row with vigour on the hills, where it is sometimes propagated by budding or grafting, which is done in April or May. 202 FRUIT CULTURE P.— domestica. Plum. — A small deciduous tree, whose native country is uncertain. In Ceylon, as in other parts of the Torrid Zone, the plum has not so far proved quite amenable to cultivation. Certain varieties have been found to produce fairly heavy crops about Nuwara Eliya, but the fruit seldom ripens, as the monsoon rains usually commence when it is approaching maturity. In India, however, on the hills and in the Northern Provinces, plums are said to be grown with a greater measure of success, the methods of cultivation there being much the same as those adopted for the Peach. The fruits produced, how- ever, are " hardly palatable, except when cooked or preserved;" for the latter purpose they are said to be excellent. CAMERON says: "Of many kinds tried at Bangalore, 'Kirk's Blue,' 'Greengage/ and 'Golden Drop' were the best." At Nuwara Eliya, MR. COTTON found "Red-heart" (a cooking variety), "Alucha," and "Greengage" to give the best results, while MR. KELLOW also considers the " Hedge-plum " a fairly satisfactory variety. P.— Bokharensis. Bokhara Plum. — A species of Plum indi- genous to Northern India. According to FIRMINGER, " quantities of the fruit in a dried state are annually brought down from Cabul. The tree grows vigorously in the Upper Provinces, and is very common in Gardens in the Punjab, where it bears abundantly." CAMERON adds that it is also successfully cultivated on the hills in India, the fruit being made into a good preserve, or stewed. P. Persica (= Persica vulgaris). Peach. — A small slender tree, supposed to be a native of China. At its best the Peach in the tropics is very different to the luscious, melting fruit it is in Europe and other temperate countries. Acclimatised varieties are, however, grown writh appreciable success in certain localities at elevations of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. In a rather dry climate, as in the district of Wilson Bungalow in Ceylon, moderately good fruits, at any rate for stewing and making jam, are obtained. Here peaches are regularly grown for market, the fruit being retailed at about Re. 1 per hundred. No systematic cultivation, however, is followed, the trees being propagated by cuttings, with but little regard for selection, manuring, etc. Peaches will not thrive at low elevations in Ceylon. At Bangalore, in South India, MR. CAMERON mentions an excellent variety called " Indore." The same authority also states: "It is a great point in the cultivation of the Peach tree to keep the roots SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 203 as little below the surface of the soil as possible. This is. sometimes effected by placing tiles underneath where the trees^ are planted." The tree may be propagated by sowing the stones (kernels) of the fruit, but preferably by cuttings, budding, or grafting. Seedling plants take three or four years to come into bearing. A good plan is to sow the seed, and bud or graft the best sorts on the seedlings when about a year old. Psidium Cattleyanum (Myrtacea;). China-guava ; Purple - guava ; Calcutta-guava. — A small shrubby ornamental tree, 20 to 25 feet high, with smooth, grey bark and small leathery, shining, obovate leaves, native of Tropical America. The date of its introduction into Ceylon is not recorded, but that of its first discovery is given as 1818. It has been grown at Peradeniya and Hakgala Gardens for upwards of thirty or forty years, and is now sometimes met with in up-country gardens. CAMEROX does not mention it for South India, which is remarkable considering its excellent qualities as a fruit-tree. The fruit is undoubtedly the most palatable of all Guavas, and deserves to be more widely known. It is of the size of a large Greengage, deep claret-coloured when ripe, with soft juicy, purplish red pulp, which has an agreeable flavour and has some resemblance to that of a strawberry. It is excellent for making tarts, jam and jelly, and may also be eaten as dessert. The tree thrives and bears fruit freely at elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 feet, producing two crops a year. With good cultivation, the size and quality of the fruit is considerably improved. Usually propagated by seed, but the best trees should be increased by layering or budding. Pyrus communis (Rosaceae). Pear. — Certain varieties of Pear grow and bear well in many parts of the tropics, at moderate elevations and on the hills, but the fruit produced is usually very hard and unlit to be eaten uncooked. In some hill gardens in Ceylon, a variety of cooking Pear has become well established, thriving with but scanty attention, and producing fairly heavy crops of large, coarse fruits, which can only be eaten when stewed. CAMERON states that : "In Simla and other hill stations in India, the Pear can be brought to great perfection under cultivation," and advises pruning the trees in February, just before they burst into leaf. In Ceylon, the trees are practically ever-green. Easily propagated by cuttings, layering, or grafting. 204 FRUIT CULTURE P — Malus. Apple. — The cultivation of the Apple in Ceylon, even at the highest elevations, has not so far met with success. On the hills in India, however, according to CAMERON, "apples can be cultivated to perfection." At Bangalore a number of varieties are generally grown, including such as Ribston Pippin, Worcester Per main, Peasgood's Nonsuch, Kentish Fill basket, Cox's Orange Pippin, etc. Of the varieties tried at Hakgala Gardens and Nuwara Eliya, Kentish Fillbaskct was found the most approaching to success. The climate, however, seems entirely unsuited to the tree. In India, apple trees are propagated by cuttings, layering, or grafting, and a rich sandy soil is considered to suit them best. They flower in February and March, and the fruit ripens in April and May. In January the roots are laid bare, and, after an interval of a fortnight, are again covered up with a mixture of cow-manure and good soil. Copious watering is given when the fruit is swelling. Rhodomyrtus tomentosus (Myrtaceae). "Hill-gooseberry;" *' Hill-guava." — A handsome shrub with small thick oval leaves, indigenous to the mountain region of Ceylon, South India, and Malaya. It produces a profusion of pale pink flowers, followed by small round berries of pale yellow colour ; from these a jelly is made, which in flavour somewhat resembles apple- jelly. Propagated from seed. Not suited to low elevations, but an acclimatised variety thrives at Peradeniya (1,500 ft.), where as an ornamental shrub it is much admired ; this does not, however, bear fruit here. Ribes grossularia (Saxifrageae). Gooseberry. —Plants of this have been imported both from England and Australia, and planted under the most favourable conditions in the Experiment Garden at Nuwara Eliya, as well as at Hakgala Gardens. They .grew for a time, but failed in each case to become properly established. The climate in India has apparently been found equally unsuitable for the plant. R. — nigrum. Black Currant. — The same remarks as above, under Gooseberry, may be applied. Rubus lasiocarpa (Rocaceae). Ceylon, or Wild-Raspberry. — A large, straggling bramble, remarkable for the white down with which the stems are entirely covered, indigenous to the hills of Ceylon, India and Java. The fruit much resembles the English Blackberry, and is, when well-grown, equal to it in flavour : its hoary wooly appearance is, however, against it. SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 205 In India it is frequently collected and made into delicious tarts, being also in great demand at Simla and other hill stations for making jam. In cultivation, the plant responds well to similar treatment as that usually given to the Raspberry and Bramble. A good rich soil should be afforded, and the old and barren shoots cut out. Propagated by suckers dug out during the rains. R.— rosaefolius. " Mauritius Raspberry." — A shrub con- sidered to have been introduced from Mauritius, and said to be commonly grown in gardens about Calcutta. The fruit, produced in February, is similar in appearance to the English Raspberry, but tilled with hard seeds, and, according to FIRMIXGER, having no better flavour than a bad blackberry. SIR JOSEPH HOOKER gives this as an indigenous species in India. R. — Idaeus. English Raspberry. — This has been tried at Hakgala and Nuwara Eliya Experiment Gardens, but found quite unsuited to the climate. The same remarks as under Gooseberry may be applied. R.— trivialis. American Dewberry. — I am not aware that this has been tried in Ceylon ; it has been reported to grow vigorously and bear fruit well at Saharanpur in India. Sechium edule. Cho-cho. — See under Sub-tropical Vegetables. Vaccinium meridionale (Vacciniaceae, Cranberry order). — The fruit is of the size of a Black-currant and is used in Jamaica for making tarts, jam and jelly, according to MR. W. HARRIS. Other species yield edible fruits, as the " Cowberry " (V. Vitis-idaea), and Whortleberry (V. myrtillus}. The Cranberry is produced by Oxycoccus palnstris and 0. niacrocarpus, the latter being a Canadian species. Vitis Vinifera. Grape Vine. See Tropical Fruits. CHAPTER XII. TROPICAL VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS SUITABLE FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY, FROM SEA-LEVEL TO ABOUT 3,000 FT., WITH ANNUAL RAINFALL NOT LESS THAN 35 INCHES [S=Sl.\HALKSE; 7^= Vegetables of one kind or another can, with some trouble, be .grown in all parts of the tropics where any other cultivation is possible. While certain European vegetables, as Beet-root, Celery, Parsnips, Cabbages, Globe-artichokes, etc., thrive to perfection in the cool moist climate at the higher elevations, many of these may also be grown at lower altitudes or even at sea-level, with some degree of success, if sown at suitable seasons and supplied with the proper amount of moisture and shade. Tropical vegetables are, of course, suited chiefly to low or intermediate elevations, and many of these are well worth cultivating. A deep alluvial soil, such as is found near river banks, is the best for vegetables generally. Where this does not exist, a con- dition approaching it may usually be obtained by the application of sand, humus and organic manure. A loose sandy soil is essen- tial for deep-rooting vegetables, as carrots, parsnips, etc. Frequent stirring of the soil, weeding, watering when necessary, and earthing up of crops are indispensable to the successful cultivation of vegetables generally. In the low-country, light shade, especially for European kinds, is usually beneficial if not indispensable. An application of suitable fertilisers (see Manures) usually amply pays for itself by resulting in larger yields, as well as in better quality of crop. Owing to the multiplicity of vernacular names, and in order to facilitate reference, the chapter devoted to Tropical or Low- -country Vegetables is divided into four sections, thus:— (1) Leguminosae (Beans, Grams, and Pulses). (2) Cucurbitaceae (Gourds, Pumpkins, Squashes, and Melons). (3) Root or tuberous Vegetables and Food crops. (4) Miscellaneous Vegetables and Food crops. VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 207 SECTION 1 :—LEGUMlNOS.E INCLUDING BEANS, GRAMS AND PULSES Cajanus indicus. Pigeon Pea ; Congo Bean ; Dhal or Dhol ; " Rata-tora" S.; "Thovaroy" or "Paripu" T. — A shrub 5 to 6 feet high, characterized by thin straight branches and small trifoliate leaves, native of India. It is commonly cultivated in most tropical countries, but more especially in India, where the dark grey seeds, oi the size of small peas, are almost a universal article of food. The dried split peas are largely imported into Ceylon, and much used in curries, vegetable soups, etc., being everywhere sold in the bazaars as ''Paripu." The plant resists drought well, and is recommended as a restorative crop in rotations. In India, it is grown either mixed with other crops, or planted alone in rows 4 to 5 feet apart. About 8 Ib. of seed is required to plant an acre, and the crop is ready for harvesting in six months from the time of sowing. Grown alone, the yield may be as high as 2,000 Ib. per acre, 500 Ib. per acre being an ordinary return. Xot commonly cultivated in Ceylon. Canavalia gladiata. Sword Bean ; "Awara" S.; "Awara- kai" T. — A robust woody perennial, climbing bean, bearing large. Hat, sword-shaped pods, fully 9 inches long and about l| in. wide. These when young and tender are sliced and boiled as a vegetable, being also used in pickles. According to FIRMINGER, k' it is con- sidered by some Europeans the nicest of native vegetables in India." *The plant requires strong and durable supports, such as a fence or a low spreading tree. Propagated by seeds. Cicer arietinum. Chick Pea; Bengal-gram; "Konda-kadala" S. — An annual, about 1 ft. high, much cultivated in India as a food crop. The small pea-like angular seeds are largely imported into Ceylon and sold in the bazaars, being used either fried, or boiled in curries, and are considered very nutritious. Roasted and ground, the}' are sometimes used as a substitute for coffee. Sow in drills about 2 feet apart. Cyamopsis psoralioides. Guar, or Cluster Bean; "Kota- ranga" S. or T. — A small bushy plant, recently introduced from India into Ceylon, and now becoming commonly cultivated in the low-country here chiefly through the medium of the School Gardens. The small, straight, hairy pods (about 3 inches long, and produced in clusters), are very popular as a vegetable in curries and other preparations, both the tender pods and ripe seed being 208 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS used. The plant is cultivated in India for fodder, as well as for green-manuring, and occurs in several varieties, these being dis- tinguished by white, black, and grey seeds. Dolichos bracteata. "El-dhambala" S. — A climbing bean, bearing purplish flowers and narrow, well-filled pods, about 3 inches long. The tender pods are boiled and eaten. Dolichos Lablab, var. " Ho-dhambala," or "Irivija" S. — A strong-growing climbing bean with purple flowers, and flat broad pods with warted margins ; the pods are 3 to 4 inches long, and when young and tender are boiled and eaten ; the matured seeds are not considered edible. The plant is often seen cultivated at cooly lines in the low-country of Ceylon. There are several varieties of this bean, the following being given by DR. ROXBURGH for India : — a. "albiflorum": Flowers white, rather small ; seeds not eaten. b. "rubiflorum": Flowers red. c. "purpurescens": Flowers large, purplish; seeds white. d. "purpureum": Stems and the large flowers purple; pods deep purple. "Sudu-dhambala" of Ceylon, with white flowers -and short, broad, 2-3 seeded pods, is probably the same as var. a. This is grown chiefly about cooly lines and Natives' houses, and the seeds as well as the pods are eaten. Dolichos biflorus. Madras gram; Horse gram; "Kollu" S and T. — A semi-erect annual, 2 to 3 ft. high, with small trifoliate leaves, bearing small curved pods 2 to 3 in. long. It is grown some- what extensively in India, both as a fodder and food crop, and also as a green manure crop for ploughing into the soil. It is specially suited to dry regions, and is said to have produced from 2,000 to 3,000 Ib. of green plant per acre in about 12 weeks, during which the rain did not amount to 1 in. The plant is also commonly grown in Ceylon in the dry low-country districts. Glycine hispida. Soya Bean. — An erect annual, varying in height according to variety and soil, usually from about 1^ to 2 ft., though sometimes reaching 3 or 4 feet or more. It is a native of China and Japan, where it has been cultivated for food from time immemorial. The short hairy pods contain 2 to 4 seeds each ; the latter are a nutritious food and a standard diet with the Chinese and Japanese. The pea-like smooth seeds (generally referred to as beans) vary from white to yellow and black. They are cooked and prepared for food in numerous ways, being either boiled, roasted, or ground into flour. They contain little or no starch, and are consequently used as a diet for diabetic patients. In America VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 209 and on the Continent, they are sometimes used as a substitute for, or adulterating, coffee. In India they are eaten in the form of "dhal." The famous Soya-sauce, said to be the basis of many popular sauces made in Europe, is made from these seeds. A useful domestic oil is also obtained from them, and the residual cake resulting from the expression of the oil forms a nutritious cattle-food. Recently a considerable demand has arisen, chiefly in England, for the seed for the purpose of supplying oil for soap making, etc. The present quotation for the seed in England is about £8 to 9 per ton in London. According to SIR GEORGE WATT, the Soya Bean is extensively cultivated in Eastern Bengal, Khasia Hills, Burma, etc. Yet I can rind no mention of it in either FIRMIXGER'S or WOODROW'S works on gardening in India. Culti- vation is very simple. A loose rich soil is preferable. Seeds may be sown thinly in rows about l| to 2 ft. apart, about 2 bushels of seed being required to sow an acre. The seed should germinate in four to five days, and the crop may be ready for picking in about six weeks to 2 months from the time of sowing. The yield of seed varies, according to soil, etc. 15 to 20 bushels* per acre is con- sidered a good average, while the amount of green fodder produced per acre may be about 6 to 10 tons. The plant has been successfully grown at Peradeniya, and might thrive at eleva- tions up to about 3,000 feet ; but it does not appear to be suited to tropical conditions, and seems especially adapted to the cotton and corn belt, thriving best on fertile loam or clay. It is a valuable soil renovator, and would seem to be adapted for green-manuring on loose sandy soils. There are several varieties, these varying in the colour of the seed ; the yellow-seeded variety is probably the best suited for the tropics. Ground Nuts. See under Miscellaneous Vegetables. Lens esculenta (= Ervum lens.) — Lentil; "Misurupur" T.— This valuable pulse has been cultivated and used as food from time immemorial, and Lentils are to this day an important article of food to the inhabitants of Egypt, Palestine, and the Mediter- ranean region. As a winter crop, the plant is grown all over India, especially in the Central Provinces and Madras. The land having been ploughed, the seed is sown broadcast, one maund (about 80 Ib.) of seed on an average being sown per acre. If sown in drills, half that quantity will suffice. The seed is eaten as "dhal," and considered the most nutritious of pulses. The dry leaves and * Say 1,600 Ib. to 2,000 Ib. 210 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS fodder are esteemed as a food for cattle, and the plants are a valuable green-manure. Lentils thrive on clay soils, but with irrigation may also be grown on light sandy ground. Mucuna nivea. (=Sticolobium pachylobium); u Wanduru-me," S. " Lyon Bean" of Philippines — A strong-growing perennial climbing bean, with stout pods about 3 inches long, and black oval seeds. It is suited to low and medium elevations, but is seldom cultivated in Ceylon. Here the seeds only appear to be eaten, but in India the fleshy tender pods, after the removal of the outer skin, are also eaten; these when dressed are, according to the late DR. ROXBURGH, "a most excellent vegetable for the table, the full grown beans being scarely inferior to the large garden-beans of Europe." Sow seeds thinly an}* time after the commencement of the rains. The plants require strong supports to climb upon. "Velvet Bean" is a name given to a variety of Mucuna nivea. distinguished from the above by having smaller and more numerous black, velvety pods, containing round mottled seeds. This came recently into prominence in the Southern United States as a forage and green-manure plant, the seeds also being eaten to some extent. Suited to low and medium elevations. Pachyrrhizus tuberosus. Yam Bean. — A strong-growing climbing bean, native of the West Indies, producing a large edible tuberous root, introduced at Peradeniya in 1887. The tuber is cooked and eaten as a yam ; the pods, which are about 8 inches long, are also edible when in a tender state. The plant is said to be commonly cultivated in its native country, but is as yet scarcely known in Ceylon. Cultivation same as for yams. Sow seeds thinly in rows 3 to 4 feet apart, and support the vines with stout sticks; otherwise plant against trees or a fence. There are two varieties of this plant, one bearing blue flowers, the other white ; the former is considered the better variety to cultivate. Phaseolus lunatus. Lima Bean ; Tonga Bean ; " Pothu- dhambala" S. " Pithanga " T. —The Lima-bean is held in high •estimation in America, its original home, but is not much appre- ciated in Ceylon, nor apparently in India. It is best suited to high elevations, and is sometimes seen in up-country native gardens here. The pods are short, flattish, and rather curved ; these are not generally considered edible, but the large flat seeds, which are mottled or white, when boiled are "exceedingly agree- able, having a mealy roast-chestnut-like flavour." The plants are of a robust habit and are distinguished by racemes of small white flowers and rather dense foliage. There are several varieties, some VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 211 with white and others with pink flowers ; the seeds also vary in colour from white to cream, pink, and purple. Sow in rows 3 to 4 feet apart, with about 6 inches between the seeds in the rows. Place sticks along both sides of the row for supporting the vines. Phaseolus Mungo (=P. Max); Green Gram ; Mung ; Mun-eta, 5; Pasi-pyru, T. — A small erect annual, about 16 in. high, with narrow, cylindrical, straight radiating pods, 2\ to 3 in. long (in clusters) and trifoliate leaves, the whole plant being hairy. It is a native of India, and has been cultivated there as a food crop from time immemorial, being still grown extensively in certain provinces and to some extent in the dry zone of Ceylon, either as a single product or as an inter-crop. The green pods are sometimes eaten as a vegetable, but it is the ripe pulse that is valued, this being cooked and used in various forms like dhal. The grain has a pleasant taste, and is regarded as a wholesome and nutritious food. The straw as well as the pulse is valued as a food for cattle and horses. The plant is suited to dry districts and thrives in the plains of India and up to 6,000 ft. elevation. When grown alone, under average conditions, a yield of 5 maunds (400 Ib.) of grain per acre may be obtained. Phaseolus Mungo, var. radiatus; Kalai. This variety, known in India as " Urd," differs from the above (Green gram) in having a longer stem and more trailing habit, also in the plant being more hairy, the seeds fewer, larger and usually dark brown in colour. The ripe pulse, according to SIR GEORGE WATT, is the most highly esteemed of all pulses in India and fetches the highest price. It is eaten in the form of dhal bread, boiled whole, or as spiced balls, and is the chief constituent of the wafer biscuits known in Bombay as " papad." The average amount of seed required to sow an acre is said to be 6 Ib., and the average return, when grown as a sole crop, is about 5 maunds or 400 Ib. Phaseolus vulgaris, var. — Climbing, or Runner Beans; Bonchi, S." Bonchi-kai " T. — This slender climbing bean is perhaps the most useful of all beans for the low-country and medium elevations. Though less proliric than the dwarf erect kinds, it remains longer productive than the latter, which is of importance when grown only for one's own table. With a few successional sowings it can be had in fruit almost throughout the year. The young tender pods are the parts used, these being usually cut up into thin strips, boiled, and served in different ways. Sow the seeds thinly in rows, in well-tilled and manured soil. The seedlings will be up in 212 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS from 4 to 6 days, and when a few inches high they should have the earth drawn up to them. Stakes should then be fixed in the ground along both sides of the rows for support to the vines. Both this and the following bean are among the best vegetables found in the tropics, and may be grown in a variety of climates. Phaseolus vulgaris, var. — Dwarf. French, or Kidney Bean. — See under Temperate or Sub-tropical Vegetables. Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. Winged Bean, Goa Bean,. Manila Bean, Princess Bean, " Dara-dhambala " S. — A strong- growing climbing bean, native of Malaya, with large pale blue flowers, bearing peculiar four-cornered pods. The latter are 6 to 8 inches long, and have a leafy fringe running along the length of each of their four corners. They are cooked when green, and usually much relished. In Burma the plant is largely cultivated for its fleshy tuberous roots, of which the yield is said to be from 1 J to 2 tons per acre. When grown for the roots, seeds are not allowed to ripen. Propagated by seeds, which may be sown in drills or where the plants are to remain. There are several varieties in cultivation, these being distinguished by length of pod, breadth of wings, and colour of seeds. Vigna sinensis. — Cow Pea ; Yard-long Bean; " Me-karal," " Diya-mekaral" or " Polon-me " S. — An annual climbing bean, bearing long narrow pliant, cordlike pods, which reach from lg to about 3 feet in length. These are used like French Beans, and the ripe seeds also are eaten. The plant is suited to low and medium elevations, and thrives in rather poor as well as rich soil. In Australia it is said to bear plentifully in seasons of drought. Vigna Calling, V. unguiculata, and V. sesquipedalis are considered to be only varieties of V. sinensis. SECTION 2 i—CUCURBITACE^E. GOURDS, PUMPKINS, SQUASHES AND MELONS. These comprise a group of climbing plants which yield excellent vegetables and sometimes dessert fruits. The plants are characterised by having unisexual flowers (the sexes in separate flowers), being in some cases dia'ceous (the sexes on separate plants). They are of rapid growth, and therefore require rich soil and abundant water at the root. As a rule, they yield larger and better fruits in a rather dry climate, under irrigation. Propagation is usually by seed, but in many cases it may be effected also by cuttings. VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 213 Benincasa cerifera. — Ash Pumpkin, or White Gourd ; " Alu- puhul"S; Puchini " or "Pusanikai" T. — A large handsome oval- shaped gourd, grown throughout the Eastern tropics, China, Japan, etc. The fruit is covered with a whitish waxen bloom (hence its popular names), and is used as a vegetable in curries, etc., also candied as a sweetmeat. The plant is an annual, with large angular leaves, and may often be seen growing over the roofs of Natives' houses. In India the fruit is said not to be so liable to be stolen as those of other gourds, owing to certain religious superstitions connected with it. Seed may be sown in the rainy season, and the vegetable should be lit for use about three months later. The plant will thrive in sheltered valleys up to about 3,000 or 4.000 feet. Citrullus vulgaris. Water-melon ; "Komadu" S. (See under Tropical Fruits.) Cucumis Melo. Melon; " Rata-komadu " or "Kekiri" S. (See under Tropical Fruits.) Cucumis sativus, var. Native Cucumber; "Pipingha" S.; " Pipingkai " T. — A thick cylindrical, smooth fruit, 10 to 15 inches long and about 3 to 4 inches in transverse diameter, usually with a brownish yellow thin skin when full-grown. The flowers are yellow, about 2 inches across. The fruit is either cooked and used as a vegetable or, peeled and sliced, in salads, being an excellent substitute for the English Cucumber, of which it is considered to be but a form. It is cultivated chiefly in the semi-dry districts for supplying the local markets and boutiques. Sow seed in ridges or mounds of rich soil. The vines may either be supported on trellis-work, or allowed to trail over the ground. Cucumis sativus, var. " Tee-ambara " S. — A variety similar to Pipingha, but with smaller fruits, these -varying in length from 6 to 8 inches, with a transverse diameter of about 2 inches. Flowers yellow, about 1 inch across. The fruit of this variety, being of a tougher texture than the preceding one, is only used in curries, not in salads. Cucurbita maxima. Pumpkin ; "Wataka" or "Rata-labu" S.— A large globular, bluntly-ribbed, brownish gourd, very commonly cultivated by the Natives in the low-country of Ceylon, especially in the rather dry districts of Kurunegala, Dumbara, etc. It is everywhere sold in the markets and boutiques, either whole or in sections, and though rather insipid is one of the best of " native " vegetables. During the detention of the Boer prisoners 214 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS of war in Ceylon a great demand for Pumpkins sprang up, and the cultivation of the vegetable proved very profitable for the time being. Seeds may be sown at any time during the rains. The plant is an annual, and may be allowed to run over the ground without supports. The fruits sometimes grow to an enormous size, instances being recorded of specimens having attained a weight of 300 to 400 Ib. The hardened shells are sometimes made into vessels and ornaments. There are several varieties, which vary more or less in form and colour of the fruit. Cucurbita Melo-pepo. Squash. — The name squash is given in America to numerous varieties of gourd which bear variously- shaped fruits, the latter ranging from oval to almost fiat or shell-like. Squashes are extensively grown in sub-tropical America, where they are much relished, but are not suited to a wet tropical climate- At Peradeniya, the plants have been found to grow well, but the fruits, such as did set, usually damped off early. In a drier district, however, they might succeed better. It is advisable to sow seeds in pots or pans, and transplant the seedlings, when large enough to handle, into mounds of well- prepared earth. The plants may be left to trail over the ground like Vegetable Marrow, but during wet weather a piece of flat stone or tile should be placed under each fruit to prevent it from rotting. Squashes are boiled green, like Vegetable Marrow, or mashed like Turnips, and served with milk, pepper and salt. When ripe, they are made into pies. In France they are sometimes gathered when of the size of an egg, boiled in salt and water, laid upon toast, and eaten as Asparagus. Cucurbita moschata. — " Polong-wrataka " S. — An oval or round gourd, with netted markings of pale green. Cultivation, etc., the same as for Pumpkin. Cucurbita Pepo. — Vegetable Marrow (See under Sub -tropical Vegetables}. Lagenaria vulgaris. Bottle Gourd ; " Diya-labu" S.; "Sorakai" T. — One of the most popular of native vegetables, largely cultivated in the semi-dry districts of Kurunegala, Dumbara, etc., \vhence the local markets are chiefly supplied. The fruit is from 16 to 24 inches long, variously shaped, some forms resembling a decanter or water bottle. The unripe fruits, when boiled, are a palatable but insipid vegetable. When ripe and seasoned the shell becomes very hard and durable, and in this state is commonly made into vessels used for carrying water, or for collecting palm toddy, etc. The I'EGETAHLES AX I) FOOD PRODUCTS 215 plant is an annual, with white flowers (about 2i inches across), and may be grown on the ground or supported on trellises, etc. Luffa acutangula. "Veta-kolu" or " Dara-vetakolu " S.; " Pekankai " or " Pey-pichukku " T. — A climbing gourd, bearing fruit 10 to 12 inches long, with several longitudinal angular ridges. DR. ROXBURGH said of this vegetable-fruit : " Peeled, boiled, and dressed with butter, pepper and salt, it is little inferior to green- peas." Too much reliance must not, however, be placed upon this statement. The plant is an annual and is grown somewhat largely in Cotta and Dumbara for supplying the markets of Colombo and Kandy respectively, the fruit being much used by the Natives, both in curries and as a vegetable. The plant is easily raised from seed, and does best on supports. Luffa aegyptiaca. Loofah; " Xiyan-vetakolu " S.\ "Pikku" or " Pichukku " T. — A large annual herbaceous climber with angular stems, indigenous to the low-country and commonly grown in native gardens. The fruit, which is cylindrical and from 8 to 12 inches long, is used when tender as a vegetable*. Propagated by seed or cuttings. Momordica Charantia. Carilla Fruit ; "Karawila" S.\ "Pakal" or " Pavakai " T. — A rather slender vine, bearing an oval warty fruit, 6 to 8 inches long, orange-yellow when ripe. The latter in a tender state is much relished by the natives as a curry vegetable ; it is also frequently pickled, being one of the most common ingredients in Indian pickles. There is a variety with white fruits, which render the plant very ornamental. Propagated by seed, which should be sown at the commencement of the rains. The plant may be allowed to trail on the ground, but is best on sup- ports, especially during the wet season. Momordica dioica. " Tamba-karawila " S. "Tumpai" or " Palupakkal" 7. — A small oblong, green, warty-looking gourd, about 2 to 3 inches long, commonly used and much esteemed by the Natives as a curry vegetable, and is often sold in the boutiques or bazaars. The tender shoots and leaves are also edible. The plant is indigenous to Ceylon, being common in the dry districts. It is not suited to elevations much above 2.000 feet. Propagated by cuttings or seeds during the rains. Sicania odorifera. Melocoton, or Casabanana. — A Mexican gourd bearing stout Cucumber-like fruits, from 10 to 15 inches long and about 3 inches in diameter. In the green and unripe state these afford an excellent vegetable, and in a ripe state are 216 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS suitable for preserves. When approaching maturity the fruit assumes a brownish or reddish tint, and possesses a pleasant fragrance. The plant is a rapid grower, and attains a height of about 50 feet. It thrives best and is most productive when grown in rich soil, fully exposed to the sun and allowed to ramble over an arbour or trellis. It is suited to a rather dry climate, though it has flourished and fruited in Peradeniya Gardens, where it was introduced a few years ago. Trichosanthes anguina. Snake-gourd; Club-gourd; "Patola,", S- "Podivilangu" or "Podalangai" T. — A quick-growing climb- ing gourd, bearing long cylindrical, green (sometimes greenish- white) fruits, which not unfrequently reach the length of five to six feet. In an unripe state these pod-like fruits are sliced and cooked in the manner of French beans, being also largely used as a curry vegetable in the low-country. Seeds are sown in the monsoons, either in rows in the open ground, or against low branch- ing trees or shrubs. It is customary to suspend a small stone to the end of each fruit whilst growing, so as to weight it down and induce it to grow straighter, and perhaps longer, than it would otherwise do (See illustration). Vegetable Marrow. See under Temperate and Snb-tropical Vegetables. SECTION 3: ROOT OR TUBEROUS VEGETABLES AND FOOD CROPS. Calathea allouya. (Scitaminae). "Topee Tamboo," or 4'Tokee Tambo;" "Lleren" (S. American names). — A perennial about 2 feet high, with large oval Canna-like leaves, native of tropical South America. The plant has been grown at Peradeniya since 1893, when it was introduced. It produces regularly a quantity of tubers which resemble small potatoes, but these as yet give no promise of becoming here the popular vegetable they are said to be in the plant's native country and in the West Indies, where it is recorded to have been cultivated for a long period, though not extensively. The tubers though edible are of a some- what gritty nature, and seem to require endless boiling to render them tender. To a novice they seem to have no flavour, but people who have acquired a taste for them pronounce them delicious. In the report of the Porto Rico Experiment Station for 1903, it is stated that this peculiar plant is highly prized by the Natives of the interior, being "sold in the streets of some of the large towns, the crisp nut-like tubers ranking with ground-nuts in 218 VEGETABLES A\JD FOOD PRODUCTS popularity." A loose rich soil suits the plants best. They may be planted at distances of about 2 feet, in rows 3 to 4 feet apart, and cultivated like any other vegetable. Propagation is effected by division of the plants or crowns; the root-tubers do not usually " LLEREN," OR "TOPEE-TAMBOO." Calathea allouya. months from the grow. A crop may be harvested in about ten time of planting (See illustration). Colocasia. — See Xanthosoma. Canna edulis. (Scitaminae). Queensland Arrowroot; Indian- shot; "Tous-les-mois;" "But-sarana" S; " Valay-sembu" T. — A herbaceous perennial, with large bronzy leaves, 3 to 5 ft. in VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 219 height, considered to have been originally introduced from the West Indies. It is commonly grown in native gardens, more es- pecially about Tamil ccoly lines, and the starchy purplish tuberous yrKKN'SLANI) AKRO\VKOOT. (_'=D. spicata. Inedible Ceylon yams: — "Uyala" S (= D. tomcntosa), " Panu-kondol " S (=D. sativd), and D. intermedia. Helianthus tuberosus. Jerusalem Artichoke ; " H a r t h a- wariya" S. (See under Sub-tropical or Temperate Vegetables), Ipomoea Batatas. (Convolvulaceae). Sweet Potato; "Batala," S; "Velkelengu" T. — A creeping or trailing perennial, bearing succulent tuberous roots, which are a tasty and nutritious article of food, being sometimes preferred by Europeans to the common or Irish Potato. The Sweet-potato is considered to have its native habitat distributed over the tropics generally. It is cultivated in all warm countries, and may be grown successfully in sheltered valleys up to about 4,000 feet in Ceylon, but does not usually thrive in the hills. Any moderately good soil will suit the plant, provided it is of a light sandy nature. The ground should be well dug, manured, and formed into ridges at distances of about 2 ft. ; along the centre of the ridges cuttings about 12 inches long are planted a fewr inches apart, and these readily strike root. During dry weather, the plants should be watered, or, when possible, the ground irrigated once a \veek. The crop is ready for harvesting about 3 to 4 months from the time of planting, the leaves turning yellow when the tubers are mature. A yield of about 4 or 5 tons of tubers per acre may be expected under favourable conditions. VARIETIES. The following are among the best varieties grown at Peradeniya : — "Boniato," "Sierra morena," "Boniato Amarillo," "Virginia," and " Nancimund." There are numerous varieties re- cognised in the West Indies and America, such as "Blue Belle," " Red Burbon," "White Gilkes," "Annie Vine," "Prince Henry," etc. Manihot utilissima (Euphorbiaceae). Tapioca ; " Cassava;" "Manyokka" S. — A shrubby perennial, 6 to 8 feet high, native originally of tropical South America, where its cultivation dates far back. It is supposed to have been first introduced into India and Ceylon by the Portuguese. There are two distinct kinds in cultiva- tion, known as the "Bitter" and "Sweet" Cassava (Manihot utilissima 1). cayt'Hih'iisis (Burkhill). 224 VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS and M. Aifii respectively), and of these there are many varieties. All are characterised by the presence of prussic acid, some possessing it to a greater extent than others, and this not infrequently results fatally to persons eating the cassava carelessly prepared. The " Bitter " variety contains a greater percentage of the poison than the " Sweet," and as it exists chiefly in the outer portion of the root of the latter it is easily eliminated J The Cassava is cultivated in all tropical countries, either as food for man and stock, or for the manufacture of starch. It is extensively grown in Tropical America, the West Indies, and the Straits Settlements, and has been the chief article of diet of the aboriginal races of the former countries from time immemorial. In India and Ceylon its cultivation is rather limited and generally confined to native gardens, being grown chiefly for home consumption. The large tuberous roots are cooked and used as a vegetable, or made into cassava meal and bread. The tapioca of commerce is obtained by a process of grating and sifting of the tubers, the poisonous juice being removed by pressure, washing, and fire heat. Tapioca is largely exported from Brazil, and in recent years from the Straits Settlements, where the Chinese have advanced its cultivation. When the tubers are used as a vegetable, it is especially important that they be fresh. If kept for more than a few days after being taken from the ground they become dangerous to eat, and it is probable that many of the fatal cases from eating cassava are due to neglect of this precaution. It is said that the Natives of Guiana take red chillies steeped in rum as an antidote to cassava poisoning. Cassareep, a powerful antiseptic, capable of preserving meat, etc., is a by-product obtained by boiling down the poisonous juice of the u Bitter Cassava " ; it is used in the making of many celebrated sauces, and in the well-known " Pepper-pot " of the West Indies. **~~~ Cassava is an exhausting crop, and cannot usually be grown profitably for more than three successive years in the same ground. In the Straits, it has in many cases been grown as a catch crop in young rubber plantations. The plant resists drought well, thrives at all elevations up to about 2,000 feett and prefers an open sandy soil. It is propagated by cuttings of the stem, which are planted at a distance of about 16 inches in rows about 4 ft. apart. The tubers are ready for harvesting in 8 to 10 months from date of planting, some varieties taking 15 months or more to mature a crop ; a good crop is considered VEGETABLES AXI) FOOD PRODUCTS 225 to yield from 10 to 12 tons or more tubers per acre, a single plant often producing from 30 to 50 Ib. The yield of prepared tapioca varies from 1,600 to 2,600 Ib. per acre. Cassava is largely cultivated in the Philippines and Java for the production of starch, the yield of which is about 34%. There are numerous varieties of Cassava in cultivation, some 6 or 7 occurring in Ceylon, none of which appear to be distinguished by vernacular names. Maranta arundinacea, (Scitaminae). West Indian, or Ber- muda Arrowroot; "Araluk" or " Hulankiriya" S. — A small stem- less herbaceous plant, with large leaves, native of Tropical America. The name "arrow-root " is derived from the fact that the rhizomes were used by the Indians as an application to wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows. The plant is cultivated in most tropical countries for the sake of its white starchy underground tubers (rhizomes), which are either used as a vegetable, or (by a process of washing, grating and sifting) made into arrowroot. The arrowroot of commerce is obtained chiefly from the West Indies, notably Bermuda and St. Vincent, where the plant is systematically cultivated. Propagation is effected either by means of the tubers or by division of the crown, these being planted 5 or 6 in. deep in rows or furrows 3 ft. apart, with about 14 in. between the plants in the row. The commence- ment of the rainy season should be selected for planting. A light, loamy, well-drained soil is best, wet or clayey soil being unsuitable. The crop is an exhausting one, and the richer the soil the better. The plant will thrive from sea-level to about 3,000 feet in Ceylon. Shade is not essential, though in light and exposed soils it is bene- ficial. The flowers should be removed from the plants as they appear. The tubers are usually ready for harvesting in from 8 to 10 months from the time of planting, their mature condition being indicated by the leaves flagging and dying down. It is estimated that an acre will produce on an average about 5 tons of fresh tubers, which contain about 15 to 20 per cent, of dry starch, yielding a return of about 16 to 20 cwt. of prepared arrow- root per acre. Arrowroot fetches at present about 3. Gliricidia maculata. Lcgniniiiosae. "Madre " of South America. — A small, quick-growing, elegant tree, introduced from the West Indies about 1889. It bears long, arching, feathery and leafy branches, which in the dry weather drop nearly all their leaves and produce along the greater part of their length masses of pinkish-purple flowers, making the tree a striking object for a 296 FLOWERING TREES time. It thrives up to 2,500 feet, and may be seen .flourishing hi the Victoria Park and elsewhere about Colombo. Its quick growth and light feathery habit commend it as a shade tree for JACARAXDA MIMOS^EFOLIA. SHOWING I.KAVFS AND KI.UWKRS. crops and green-manuring. For the latter purpose it has also the merit of belonging to the nitrogen-collecting tribe of Leguminosae. The tree forms a good support for Vanilla vines. It is considered FLOWERING TREES 297 to have been first introduced into Ceylon by MR. C. DRIEBERG, when Superintendent of the former Agricultural School at Colombo. Jacaranda mimosaefolia. Rignoninceae. — A very elegant tree, both on account of its leaves and Mowers. It reaches a height of 40 to 50 feet, and bears at different seasons, but chiefly in the drier months, a profusion of blue bell-shaped flowers on the young shoots as well as on the older branches. The elegant bi-pinnate Mimosa-like leaves make the seedlings well worth growing as -small ornamental foliage plants in pots. Kleinhovia hospita. Stercnliaceae. — A large handsome Ma- layan tree, introduced into Ceylon about 1820. It bears large terminal panicles of pink or rose-coloured flowers, which appear -during July or August. Thrives in the moist low country. Lagerstroemia flos-reginae. Lylhniceae. " Pride of India," " Murutu " S. — A tree of about 50 to 60 feet in height, native of Ceylon, India, and Malaya. It is undoubtedly one of the most •strikingly showy of flowering trees, and from April to July or later bears from the ends of the branches huge panicles of large beauti- ful mauve or pink flowers. The older trees are deciduous for a short period during the dry weather. There are two or more varieties; a vaiiety which is common in Ceylon has lovely bright- pink flowers, and is exceedingly attractive. L.— tomentosa. A moderate-sized handsome tree, native of hot and moist parts of Burma, introduced at Peradeniya in 1891. It blossoms twice a year, in April and October, bearing large erect panicles of lovely bright flowers, produced from the end of every branch. A very ornamental tree when in blossom. Ligustrum Walkeri. Oleaceae. Ceylon Privet. — A small shrubby tree, with fine foliage, producing after the rains large clusters of creamy-white scented flowers. It is indigenous to the lower montane zone of Ceylon (3,000 to 5,000 feet), and is pro- pagated from seed. Lysidice rhodostegia. Lcgiiminosuc. — A large handsome tree, native of Southern China, introduced at Peradeniya in 1882. It thrives here and bears from December to February masses of pink or rose-coloured erect inflorescence, produced from the extremities of the branches. The persistent coloured calyces render the tree very showy for several weeks. Mesua ferrea. Gultifcme- "Iron-wood;" " Na-gaha " S, " Xaka " T — A moderate-sized, broad, conical, slow-growing tree, native of the hot and moist regions of Ceylon, India and Malaya. 298 FLOWERING TREES This handsome tree is much in favour for planting near Buddhist temples. It blossoms profusely in the month of April or May, the large white flowers, with their big bunch of yellow stamens, being delicately scented. The young leaves, which appear twice a year, are of an intense blood-red colour, passing through delicate shades of pink into the dark-green of the adult growth. Millingtonia hortensis. Bii>noniaceae. Indian Cork-Tree. — An erect tree with dark-green finely divided leaves, reaching a CEYLON IRON-WOOD. MCSIHI height of 59 feet or more; bears in November and June a profusion of long, pure-white fragrant flowers. The tree is a favourite in Indian gardens; thrives up to 2,003 feet in Ceylon. Oncoba spinosa. Bimceae. A small bushy tree of Arabia, with light -gieen, small ovate leaves. It bears during April, from the underside of the young branches, large, single, white flowers with yellow stamens; these are delicately scented and suggest in appearance large dog-roses. Introduced at Peracleniya in 1885, but has not as vet set fruit here. FLOWERING TREES 299 Peltophorum ferrugineum. Leguininosae. "lyavaki.'T. — Alarge, quick-growing, symmetrical tree, with a spreading top and fine graceful feathery foliage, indigenous to Ceylon and Malaya. The young leaves and shoots are covered with a brown velvet tomentum, from which the tree takes its specific name. The tree flowers twice a year at irregular seasons, some specimens being in blossom while others by its side are in ripe fruit. The flowers are rusty-yellow, sweet-scented, and borne in large erect panicles. TRIMEX, in his Floni of Ceylon, stated: " It is a magnificent sight when in full blossom." It is specially suited to dry districts, but also thrives to perfection in the moist region up to 1,800 feet. OXCOBA SPINOSA. Plumeria acutifolia. Apocyiuncae. — Temple Tree; Pagoda Tree; sometimes called " Frangi-pani; " "Awariya, " S. — A low spreading succulent tree or large shrub, originally introduced from Tropical America and now naturalised in Ceylon, India, etc. It is a familiar tree in the Eastern tropics, especially throughout the low-country of Ceylon, being often planted near Buddhist temples. The tree is almost or quite bare of leaves throughout the dry weather, when it bears large corymbs of white (with yellow centre) and highly-fragrant flowers. P. rubra. — (Red). — A tree similar to the latter, but of a less spreading habit, bearing bright crimson flowers. It is a native of 300 FLOWERING TREES Central America, and was first introduced at Peradeniya in 1900. Very showy, and remains in flowers for several months. Poinciana regia. Legutninosae. — Flamboyante; Flame Tree; Golden Mohur. A gorgeous tree when in full blossom, bearing immense panicles of scarlet or orange and yellow flowers, native of Madagascar, and introduced into Ceylon before 1841. It is a very striking object in and about Colombo during the months of March to May. The tree grows from 50 to 60 feet in height, and has handsome, fine, feathery leaves. Suited to moist as wrell as dry regions, especially near the sea. Posoqueria longiflora. Rubiaccae. — A moderate-sized quick- growing tree, with large deep-green leaves, native of Tropical America. It produces long, tubular, white and sweet-scented flowers, borne in pendulous clusters during May and September. Suited to moist districts up to 2,000 feet. Pterocarpus echinatus. Legutninosae. — A moderate-sized tree, native of the Philippines, introduced at Peradeniya in 1882; bears large racemes of pale-yellow flowers at the ends of the branches, during April or May. Very ornamental when in blossom. Suited to the low-country. Saraca declinata. Leguniinosae. — A small tree, native of Sumatra, introduced at Peradeniya in 1870. It forms a beautiful sight when bearing its huge heads of bright orange-yellow flowers, produced on the stems and older branches, during February and March. Thrives best in partial shade in the moist low-country. S. indica. (Indian); >k Diya-ratmal," or " Diya-ratambala," S. — A small, spreading tree, native of Ceylon and South India. On the stems and branches are produced, chiefly in the dry weather, large sessile clusters of sweet-scented flowers, which change from yellow to orange and red. The young leaves are in long pendulous clusters, as in Brownea and Amherstia. Thrives in shady situations, especially near water, in the wet or semi-dry districts below 1,500 feet. Schizolobium excelsiim. Leguininosae. — A very large, quick- growing tree, with fine bi-pinnate, feathery leaves, native of Brazil. Introduced in 1872 at Peradeniya, where it luxuriates, blossoming and producing fruits regularly. The flowers are borne in very large erect racemes, of a bright-yellow colour, during February or March, when the tree is quite bare of leaves. The flowers are at once followed by beautiful feathery young foliage. Thrives up to 1,500 feet in the moist region. f LOWERING TREES 301 Solanum macranthum. Solanaccae. "Potato-Tree." — A medium-sized, quick- growing and soft wooded tree of Brazil, reach- ing a height of 40 to 50 feet, first introduced into Ceylon in 1844. It is a handsome object when in full blossom, the large blue and white Bowers, with conspicuous yellow anthers, being produced at most seasons of the year, but more especially after the dry weather. The large prickly leaves also render the tree very ornamental. Thrives best in partially shaded situations, at elevations below 3,000 feet. This is the only species of the Potato order that grows into a tree form. Spathodea campanulata. Bignoniaccae. — A tall, erect tree from Western Tropical Africa, introduced into Ceylon in 1873, and now fairly commonly planted about Kandy and elsewhere as an ornamental shade-tree. Its large, bright orange-red, erect flowers, produced at the tips of the branches throughout the wet season, render it strikingly handsome and conspicuous at a dis- tance. The unexpanded flowers contain a quantity of water, hence it has been called the " Fountain-Tree." It thrives up to 1,500 feet. Stenocarpus sinuatus. Proteaceae. " Fire Tree," or "Tulip Tree" of Queensland. — See Flowering Trees for Up-country. Sterculia colorata. Sterculiaceae. " Malaiparutti," T. — A moderate-sized tree, reaching a height of 40 to 50 feet, indigenous to the dry region of Ceylon, but thrives also in moist districts. The brilliant orange-scarlet flowers, appearing in great profusion when the tree is leafless (February to March at Peradeniya), render the tree a conspicuous and handsome object. The Veddas (ab- originals of Ceylon) call the tree " Kenawila," and sing odes to it. Stereospermum xylocarpum. Bignoniaccae. — " Padri-tree" of India. — A large, spreading tree, with small pinnate leaves, native of South India, deciduous for a short period in the dry wreather. It bears for a week or two a profusion of white, bell-shaped flowers. Thrives up to 1,500 feet. Tabebuia spectabilis. Bignoniaceae. — A small tree of Vene- zuela and the West Indies, introduced at Peradeniya in 1881. For a short period, in March or April, when bare of leaves, the tree is an exceedingly beautiful sight, being literally covered with masses of bright-yellow flowers, which as they drop form a golden carpet on the ground. Thrives at Peradeniya (1,500 feet),, but as yet only rarely produces seed here. 302 ORNAMEXTAL FOLIAGE TREES ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES SELECTION SUITABLE FOR Low OR MEDIUM ELEVATIONS Agathis (Dammara) robusta. Coni ferae. Kauri Pine. — A tall, stately tree with a round top, native of Queensland, introduced in 1865? to Peradeniya, where some very fine specimens may now be seen. The tree bears cones occasionally here, but has not yet produced fertile seed. Thrives from 1,500 to 5,000 feet or higher. A. — Agathis robusta. KAURI PINE. K.— ARAUCARIA COOKII. Ailantus excelsa. Simarubaceae. " Tree of Heaven." — A large, handsome, quick-growing tree, with long pinnate leaves (3 to 4 feet long), native of India, etc. A striking species for landscape effect. Propagated by seed. Araucaria Bidwillii. Coniferae. Bunya-bunya Pine; "Monkey- puzzle." — A tall tree of Queensland, said to attain a height of ORXAMEXTAL FOLIAGE TREES 303 200 feet in its native country, introduced at Peradeniya in 1848. It bears branches down to near the ground; the small leaves are stiff and closely set, ending in a sharp point, hence the name 44 Monkey-puzzle." Thrives, but does not bear fruit, at Peradeniya. y X ^i* -: te'^ . BKEAUFKriT TREK. Artocarpns A.— Cookii.— A very tall conical tree, with short, slender, horizontal branches, native of New Caledonia, introduced at Peradeniya in 1865. Here it has so far reached a height of about 135 feet; but does not produce fertile seed. 304 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES A. — Cunningham!!. Moreton- Bay- Pine. — A tall handsome tree of Eastern Australia and New Guinea, established at Pera- deniya since 1848. It is distinguished from A. Cookii by its more spreading and horizontal branches and pyramidal shape. Not fruitful at Peradeniya. Artocarpus Canoni (=A, laciniatus). Urticaceae. — A medium- sized tree of the Society Islands. The large oblong leaves are of a striking purplish bronze colour, especially in the young state, on account of which small plants are sometimes cultivated for ornamental purposes in hot-houses. Introduced at Peradeniya in 1906. A. — incisa. Urticaceae. Bread-fruit; " Rata-del" -S. — A beauti- ful quick-growing tree, with very large, palmately-cut, shining leaves, native of Malaya and Pacific Islands. It grows to a height of 50 to 60 feet, and few trees present a more noble appearance. Propagated by suckers, rarely from seed. See under Tropical Fruits. A.— nobilis. Wild- Breadfruit; u Del" S. — A noble spreading tree, with wavy or crinkled, rigid, oval leaves, peculiar to the moist low-country of Ceylon. It is of rather slow growth, but usually attains a height of 40 to 60 feet, sometimes with an enormous trunk. Propagated by seed. Axinandra zeylanica. Lythraceae. " Kekiri-wara " 5. — An ornamental tree, about 30 feet high, with a straight trunk, bearing numerous short drooping branches almost to the base; the hand- some leaves are 7 to 10 inches long. Peculiar to the moist low- country forests of Ceylon. Barringtonia speciosa. Myrtaceae. " Mudilla " S. — A medium- sized, handsome spreading tree, with large leathery shining leaves, producing large white flowers; the latter consist chiefly of a bunch of numerous long white stamens, and are followed by a large quadrangular one-seeded fruit, which, owing to its thick fibrous covering, is an excellent example of floating fruits, being commonly found floating in lagoons, rivers, etc. The tree is indigenous to the sea-shore, and is often planted for ornament. Propagated by seed. Casuarina equisitifolia. Casuarineae. She-Oak; Beef -wood; " Kassa-gaha" S. — A lofty quick-growing tree, with fine cord-like branchlets instead of leaves, native of Northern Australia. It is specially adapted to the sea-coast, but also thrives inland up to about 2,000 feet elevation, flourishing in dry or wet region ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES 305 It has been largely planted in South India for fuel and for reclaiming sandy sea-shores, becoming in some places quite naturalised. The tree is of an ornamental character, especially when young, and is grown in temperate countries as a hot-house plant for decorative purposes. Propagated by seed. Carapa guianensis. Melincctic. Carapa, or Andiroba Tree. — A quick-growing tree, 60 to 80 feet high, with handsome pinnate CANNON-BALI, TKKE. CoiirOllpHil gl leaves, composed of eight to ten pairs of shining leaflets. Thrives at Peradeniya, and is suited to the low-country generally. Columbia javanica. Tiliaceae. A tall, stately tree, 80 to 100 feet high, with smooth bark and large oval tomentose leaves, native of Java; flourishes up to 1,500 feet elevation in the moist region. Blossoms in August and January, the flowers being small and dull-yellow. 306 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES Cyathocalyx zeylanicus. Anonaceat. " Kekala " or " Ipetta/'' S. — A tall, quick-growing tree, with a straight erect stem and Blender graceful branches, native of the moist low-country of Ceylon. Leaves 6 to 10 inches long; fruit large, 2\ to 3 inches long, ovoid in shape, yellow when ripe. Propagated by seed. Dillenia indica. Dilleniaceae. " Honclapara" or " Wampara," S. — A very handsome, moderate-sized, round headed, symmetrical MONUMENT ROAD, PERADENIYA GARDENS. tree, native of Ceylon, India and Malaya. It is characterized by large oblong, glabrous, serrate leaves, which are 10 to 12 inches long. Fruit very large, globular, 5 to 7 inches in diameter. See under Tropical Fruits. Dimorphandra Mora. Legiuiiinosac. " Mora-tree " of British- Guiana. — A large handsome tree, introduced to Peradeniya in; 1881. Noted for its excellent timber and immense seed. ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES 307 Duabanga moluccana. Lythraccae. — A handsome tree, attain- ing about 100 feet in height, with very long graceful, drooping, slender and brittle angular branches, bearing large shining leaves. It is a native of the Moluccas, and has been introduced in 1852 to Peradeniya, where it forms a striking object. Durio zibethinus. Malvaceae. Durian. — A noble tree of pyramidal symmetrical habit, attaining a height of 80 to 100 feet or more. (See under Tropical Fruits.} Enterolobium cyclocarpum. Legiuninosae. — A tall erect tree with handsome feathery foliage, native of Venezuela, introduced at Peradeniya in 1884. Bears curious circular twisted pods in the dry weather. Propagated by seed. Erythrina Parcelli. Leguininosae. — A small, soft, quick- growing tree with handsome variegated foliage, the leaves being marked by a creamy-yellow band running along the main veins and centre. Native of South Sea Islands. Propagated by cuttings; easy of cultivation, up to 3,000 feet. Eucalyptus alba. Myrtaceae. A large tall slender tree with smooth white bark and drooping foliage. One of the few Eucalypti which flourish in the low-country; it is .especially adapted to the semi-dry region, thriving and fruiting at Anuradha- pura. Ficus Benjamina. Urticaceae. "Java Fig" or "Java Willow. "- A very large spreading tree, with graceful feathery branches and small ovate leaves. It is indigenous to Malaya, and has been intro- duced at Peradeniya in 1861. F, — Canoni. See Artocarpus Canoni. F — Cunninghamii. Queensland Fig. A very graceful spread- ing tree, with long drooping branches and small oval leaves ; very effective for lawns or parks. F.— elastica. Rambong, or India-rubber tree. — A very large, handsome spreading quick-growing tree, attaining a height of over 100 feet, with large oval leathery shining leaves, native of Assam, Burma and Malaya, introduced into Ceylon about 1835. A very remarkable tree on account of its aerial buttressed roots. (See under Rubber.} F. — regia. A tall erect tree, with smooth white bark and large leaves, bearing a profusion of large fig-like fruits on the trunk and branches; native of Burma, Malaya, etc. 308 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES Filicium decipiens. Bnrscniceae. " Pehimbiya " S. — A medium-sized or large tree, of rather slow growth, with remark- ably handsome fern-like foliage, as its name implies. It is a native of Ceylon, and produces in April quantities of soft vegetative seed, which are of short vitality. Sometimes cultivated as an ornamental pot-plant. Kigelia pinnata. Bignoniaccac. " Sausage Tree." — A tall or moderate-sized spreading tree of Tropical Africa, bearing large pinnate leaves, and long-stalked panicles of Mowers. Its remarkable RAMBOXG, OK INDIA-RUBBER TREE. FlCllS oblong grey fruits are suspended by a strong cord-like stalk, hanging thus from the tree, dangling in the air, for several weeks; each fruit is 15 to 20 inches long by 3 to 4 inches in diameter. In Nubia, the tree is held sacred by the Negroes. Magnolia sphenocarpa. Magnoliaceae. Evergreen Magnolia. — A moderate-sized spreading tree, with very large shining, tapering leaves, the latter being 8 to 16 inches long; native of the Eastern Himalayas, thrives at medium elevations in Ceylon, having been long established at Peradeniya. ORXAMEXTAL FOLIAGE TREES 309 Mesua ferrea. Gnttifenv. Iron-wood Tree; " Na-gaha " S., " Xaka " T. — A moderate-sized much-branched tree of pyramidal shape and very handsome appearance, native of the moist low- country forests of Ceylon. The young leaves are of a deep crimson, passing through delicate shades of pink into the dark- green of the adult growth. The tree is a slow grower. (See under Flowering Trees). SAUSAGE TREE. Kigclid piuiltlttl. Myroxylon Balsamum. Lcgiiminosae. Balsam of Tolu. — A large handsome erect tree, of Tropical America, attaining a height of 70 to 100 feet, with small pinnate, dark-green leaves. Good for roadsides, timber, and fuel. Thrives in rather dry districts, as at Anuradhapura. The fruit, consisting of a lance-shaped one- seeded pod, is produced usually in June and December. Introduced into Ceylon in 1870. Ostodes zeylanica. Eiiphorbiaccac. " Wal-kekuna " or "Olupetta" S. — A very handsome tall tree with smooth bark and large numerous leaves, the latter being 6 to 12 inches long; 310 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES moist low-country, up to 1,000 feet. Flowers indigenous to the strongly scented. Palms. See under Palms. Pandanus furcatus. Pandanaceac. ScrewT-pine. — A large handsome species, 30 to 40 feet high, with long, prickly leaves, which are arranged on the stem in the remarkable form of a screw. SCREW PIXE. Pandanus fnrcatits. P. — Leram. Nicobar Islands Bread-fruit. — A striking species of Screw-pine, with the stem repeatedly forked, bearing immense heavy, green fruits ; introduced at Peradeniya in 1883. Pangium edule. BLvacene. "Kapayang" or Pangi (Malay).— A quick-growing, spreading tree with very large heart-shaped leaves, bearing large oval reddish-brown fruits, about 6 inches long ; native of Malaya, and introduced to Peradeniya in 1891. The fruit is considered poisonous, but edible when cooked. ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES 311 Parkia Roxburghii. Lcguminosoc. — A huge and remarkably handsome quick-growing tree, attaining a height of 120 feet or more, with a clear smooth trunk, and beautiful fine feathery pinnate leaves. It is indigenous to Malaya, Burma, etc.; has been introduced into and become well established in Ceylon, thriving in the moist low-country up to 2,000. feet. The tree flowers in CANDLE TREE. PtinuciititTii ccriferu. November to December, and bears fruit in February to March, producing clusters of long pods, which contain a quantity of white powdery farinaceous substance. Easily propagated by seed. Parmentiera cerifera. ttignoniacene. Candle Tree. — A small tree of Tropical America, writh small light-green leaves, suggesting those of the Birch. It bears very remarkable candle-like yellow fruits, produced on the stem and branches in great profusion 312 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES '- twice a year, during the drier months. These closely resemble the old-fashioned candles of shops. Propagated by seed. Pisonia morindifolia. Nyclaginciv. Lettuce Tree ; u Wata- banga Kola" 5. " Lechchai Kedda " or " Chandi " T. — A small tree with very striking pale-yellow foliage, much cultivated on the sea coast, to which it is specially adapted. Propagated by cut- tings. The leaves are edible, and cattle are fond £>f ihem. Pithecolobium (Inga) Saman. Lcginiiinosae. Rain tree; Quango ; Saman Tree ; " Peni-karal " S. — This large spreading, quick-growing tree is too common in Ceylon to need description, being commonly planted throughout the Island as a shade tree for public and private roads, etc. It was first introduced from South America into Ceylon, through Peradeniya, about 1850. The tree is easily propagated from seed, the season for which is usually from March to May. The brown pods are about 5 to 7 inches long and contain a quantity of sweet sugary pulp, which cattle relish, and are exported from South America as a cattle food. The small pinnate leaves have the habit of closing at night. The supposed property possessed by the tree of producing rain is mythical, and is probably derived from the excretion of moisture sometimes produced on the leaves by means of insects. Podocarpus cupressina. Conifcrae. — A small or medium-sized ornamental evergreen tree, with rine graceful feathery foliage, native of Malaya, introduced at Peradeniya in 1880. Pometia eximia. Sapindacene. " Gal-mora " or " Bulu-mora," S. — A handsome tree with a straight erect trunk and large spread- ing head, native of the moist low-country of Ceylon up to about 1,500 feet ; also indigenous to Malaya, etc. Grows to 80 or 100 feet in height. Seeds in July and August. Pterocarpus echinatus. A handsome foliage tree. (See under Beautiful Flowering Trees.} P.— indicus. Leguminosae. "Padouk.1' — A very handsome huge tree of Burma, with a spreading round head, long drooping branchlets, and small pinnate leaves; bears a profusion of yellowish, sweet-scented flowers in March or April, followed by circular button-like pods. Ravenala madagascariensis. Scitainineae. Travellers' Tree. —A unique and remarkable looking tree of Madagascar, introduced at Peradeniya before 1824. It thrives best in a hot and humid ORXAMEXTAL FOLIAGE TREES 313 climate, and attains a height of 30 to 40 feet, assuming approxi- mately the shape of a gigantic fan. The immense distichous leaves are 12 to 15 feet in length and, like the Banana tree of the TRAVELLERS' TREE. Raveuala madagascariensis. same family, are invariably torn into ribbons by the wind ; but this does not detract from their gracefulness. The name "Travel- lers' Tree " is on account of the capacity of the tree for storing 314 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES up water in the receptacles formed by the sheathing bases of the leaf-stalks, being thus supposed to be of service to travellers in deserts. The supposition, however, is rather discounted by the fact that the tree does not naturally grow in districts where water is scarce, and thrives only in regions where the rainfall is more or less abundant. Moreover, during the dry wreather the water collected in the leaf-bases referred to becomes putrid and infested THE PALM DRIVE, PEKADEXIYA GARDENS. with the larvae of mosquitoes and other insects. Propagated by seed or root-suckers. Schinus.— See Foliage Trees for Up-country. Sandoricum indicum. Meliaceae. " Santol." — A tall erect quick-growing tree, with handsome pinnate leaves, native of Malaya, introduced into Ceylon in 1852. (See Tropical Fruits). ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES 315 Schizolobium excelsum. Legiuninosae. — A large quick-grow- ing tree, with spreading branches and very graceful large feathery leaves, which are finely bi-pinnate. Thrives up to 1,500 feet, and flowers in the dry weather, bearing seed in June. (See under Beautiful Flowering Trees). Swietenia mahogani. Meliaceac. — The mahogany tree, noted for its superior wood, native of tropical Central America, and introduced into Ceylon about 1840. It thrives best in the drier •climate of the north of the Island, where it often produces seed. It is found to thrive in various parts of India, sometimes producing seed freely. The fine pinnate leaves and ever-green foliage render the tree worthy of growing for shade or ornament. Swietenia macrophylla — A handsome upright tree, also of Tropical America, distinguished from the latter species by its larger pinnate leaves ; it is also a more rapid grower than the ordinary Mahogany, and is suited to a moist climate, thriving up to 2,000 feet. The discovery of this species and its introduction to the East were due to an accident, chance seeds being received with others and sown at the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta ; the .seedlings, on being discovered, were watched and on reaching maturity were found to be a new species, which was named by KING as above. Terminalia belerica. Conibretacea \ " Bulu, " S. — A huge, handsome tree, with straight, often buttressed, trunk and long horizontal branches, native of the moist low country, also of India and Malaya ; often planted for use or ornament. T. — Catappa. Country or Indian Almond ; " Kotamba" S. — A medium-sized tree with large handsome shining leaves, native of Malaya, but now grown in most tropical countries. Its greatest disadvantage is that it sheds its leaves twice a year, causing a litter on the ground for a considerable time. (See under Tropical Fruits). Trevesia palmata. Araliaceae. — A small, sparsely branched tree, with expansive palmate or digitate leaves. The young leaves, in a radiating crown at the top, are of a striking dark crimson. Trichadenia zeylanica. Bixaceae. " Tolol " or " Titta-tolol, " S. — A large tree with very handsome foliage, the oblong or oval .leaves being 6 to 12 inches long, borne on long slender branches. Peculiar to the moist low-country of Ceylon. Vateria acuminata. Dipterocarpaceae. " Hal, " S. — A large .handsome tree, with spreading branches and a round head. Leaves 316 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES leathery and oblong, 6 to 10 inches long. Fruit large, pear- shaped. Peculiar to the moist low-country of Ceylon, up to 2,000 feet. Propagated by sowing the large one-seeded fruits. The bark is commonly used for retarding fermentation of palm-toddy. CHAPTER XVI. SELECTIONS OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS SUITABLE FOR LOW AND MEDIUM ELEVATIONS FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC. [ C.=cuttings. S.^- Div.=di vision]. Name and Native Country [ Hort.=Of garden origin J. Natural Order Colour of Flowers. How Propa- gated. Height in feet, etc. Acalypha Sanderi. Euphorbiaccac Rose-pink c 3—5 Fl's in long New Guinea tails. Acokanthera spectabilis. Apocynaccac White, scented ,, 6—8 Poisonous "Arrow poison." S. Africa Adhatoda cydoniaefolia. Bra/ Acainithnccac White & Purple SorC 5—6 Allamanda Schottii Brazil Apocynaceae Yellow 3 — \ Alstonia sericea. Java White 3 Aphelandra Facinator. Acanthaceae Scarlet 5- 6 Colombia A. tetragona. Colombia 6-7 Ardisia crenata. China Myrsincac White S 2—3 Handsome Asclepias curassavica. W. Indies Asystasia chelomoides. Ceylon and S. India Baccbaris rhexioides. Banisteria fulgens. W. Indies B. — laurifolia.=Stigma phyllon p^riplocaefol Barleria cristata alba. India. Malaya, etc.! B. — cristata bicolor. India. Malaya, etc. B. — cristata rosea. B. — Gibsoni. India B. — strigosa. India Baubinia Candida. India, etc. Beloperone nemorosa. Jamaica B — oblongata. Brazil Brunfelsia americana. Trop. America B. — uniflora. Brazil 6-7 Myrsineai' White S Handsome scarlet berries Asdepiadeae Orange SorC 4 Acanthaceac Reddish purple 1 ,. 4 Compost tac White 4 Miilpigliiaceac Yellow C 6 Acanthaceae White 4 » White & pink „• 4 Pink or rose C or S 4 lf Purple C 3—4 Pale-blue CorS 3 Leguixiitosae Acanthaccae White Pink S CorS 4—5 4—5 Rose-pink 4—5 Solanaceac Pale yellow M 5—7 Blut; & white M 4—6 Scented 318 FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC. Name and Native Country. [ Hort.=Of garden origin J. Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. How Propa- gated. Height'in feet, etc. Byrsonima ligustrifolia. Mn lp igh ia cca c Orange-red S 8—12 S. America Caesalpinia pulcherrima. Lcguniinostie n 5-6 W. Irjdies, etc Calliandra haematocephala. Pink tl 5-6 C. — Tweedii Brazi M t, M 5—6 Capparis zeylanica. Ceylon Capparidac White & red %j 6-7 Cassia alata. Tropics Legit itii/iostic Yellow 6—8 C. — auriculata. (| 6—8 Ceylon and India C. — corymbosa. S. America „ M }< 4—5 Cestrumfasciculatum. Mexico Solaiuiceae Purplish-red Soi-C 5—6 Chiococca racemosa Riibiaceae White 5—6 W. Indies Clavija ornata. S. America Myrsimic Orange-red S 8 — iSFl'sborneon stem. Clerodendron fragrans. Japan Vcrbenaceac White c 3—4 Fl's scented, double; large leaves, nat. in Ceylon. C. — inerme. Ceylon & India White, tippedrec CorS 3 C. — infortunatum. Ceylon, n White C 4—10 Fl's scented. India, Malaya, etc. C. — macrosiphon. Zanzibar M Snow-white M 3 C. — Minahasse. Celebes White CorS 6—8 C. — nutans. Assam, etc. 5—6 C. — paniculatum. Java M Scarlet C 5 — 6 Large termi- nal panicle. C. — serratum. M Blue v, 5—7 Large fl's. " Kenhenda," S C. — Siphonanthus. India ,, }J M 4 — 6 Naturalised in Ceylon. C.— squamatum. Japan M Scarlet n 6—8 Clitoria cajanaefolia. Leguminosae Pink M 4-5 Malaya & Trop. America Costus speciosus. Scitamincac White, yellow Div. 6—9 Ceylon, India, etc. centre Crossandra undulaefolia. Acanthaceae Orange-red SorC 1—2 Ceylon, India, etc. Crotalaria laburnifolia. Legnminosae Pnle-yellow S 2—4 " Yakberiya," S. Cystacanthus tu^gidus. Acanthaceae Spotted-purple CorS 5-6 Cochin China Daedalacanthus nervosus. Deep blue C 4—5 N. India Datura chlorantha, fl. pleno. Solanaceac Yellow CorS 6—8 Fl's double. D. — fastuosa. "Attana," S. n Bluish-white n 2-3 Ceylon, India, etc. D. — Stramonium. White S 2 / Naturalised Thorn Apple in D. — (Brugmansia) suaveolens. M White, scented CorS 0— 15J Ceylon. Trumpet Flower Dombeya Mastersii. Sierculiaceac Cream fj 5—6 Trop. Africa S.=Sinhalese FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC. 319 Name an:l Native Country. [ Hort.=Of garden origin J. Natural Order. . Colour of Flowers. 1..W Propa- gated. Height in feet, etc. D. — natalensis. S. Africa Sti.rcttliaccae Cream c 4-5 Duranta Plumien. Verbenaccae Blue CorS S. America D. — Plumieri alba. White n 8—15 Ecbolium Linneanum, Acanthaceae Light blue ,, 3 Cevlon. S. India, etc. Eranthemum cinnabarinum. M Terra-cotta C 5 Burma Erythrochiton brasiliensis. Rntaccae Bright red S 5 Brazil Euphorbia pulcherrima. Enphorbiaceae Scarlet-bracts c 8—10 (=Poinsettia). Mexico E. — heterophylla. Bracts pink at SorC 2—3 S. America base Francisia bicolor. See Brunfelsia bicolor. Galphimia glauca. Mexico Malpighiaccac Bright-vellow S 4—5 Gardenia florida. Rnbiaccae White C 4—6 " Cape Jasmine." China & Japan Goethia strictiflora. Brazil Malvaceae Orange-red o 6—7 Fl's borne on stem. Goldfussia rubescens. Acanthaceae Blue c 3—4 Gomphia decora. Brazil Ochnaceae Bright-yellow SorC 4-5 Hedychium angustifohum. Scitatnineae Bright-red Div. 4—5 Ceylon, Assam, etc. Heena macrostachya. Mclastomaceae White C 4—5 Mexico Helicteres Isora. "Liniya" S. Tiliaceae Brick red ,, 5—6 Ceylon. India, etc. Hibiscus mu'abilis, alba. Malvaceae White CorS 5—6 China Hibiscus mutabilis rosea. Pink C 5—6 H. — rosa-smensis. "Shoe- Scarlet M 8—15 flower " India H . — schizopetalus. n Orange-red ,, 8—10 Trop. Africa Holarrhena antidysenterica. Apocyuaceae White C 4—5 Fl's scented. " Conessi Bark". India, Malacca Holmskioldia sanguinea. Rnbiaccae Orange-red CorS 6—8 N. India Humboldtia laurifolia. Legutniiiosae White & Pink S 8—10 Fl's scented. " Galkaranda " S. Ceylon Hollow inter- nodes inhabited by ants Ixoracoccinea. Ceylon, India Rnbiaccae Scarlet CorS 4—5 . — Fraseri. Hort M Salmon-red C 4—5 -javanica. Java Orange , 5—6 . — macrothyrsa. Sumatra M Deep-red , 4—5 . — odorata. Madagascar M White & Pink , 6—8 .- Pilgrimi. Hort White , 6—8 . — rosea Khasia Rose coloured t 4—5 Jacobinia coccinea. Brazil Acanthaceae Scarlet CorS 5—6 J. — magnifica. Brazil n •» * 5-6 S.=Sinhalese 320 FLOWERIXG SHRUBS, ETC. Meinccylon nmbcUatum. KORA-KAHA. S.; PAXDIKAYA, T. Name and Native Country. [ Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Orde . Colour of Flowers. How Propa- Height in feet, etc. gated. Jacquinia ruscifolia. Myrsincae Bright-orange S 6—10 Mexico £ W. Indies Jasminum revolutum India J. — Sambac. Olcaccac Bright-yellow White CorS 4-5 4—5 Ceylon & India Jatropha panduraefolia. CubwEuphorbiaceae Scarlet ,. 3—4 J.— podagrica. Panama „ Orange-red 2—3 Jussiaea suffruticosa. Onngraceac Yellow S 2 3 Cevlon. etc. Justicia Betonica. " Sudu Acanthaccac Greenish-white C or S 3 4 puruk." vS. Ceylon, etc. J. — calycotricha. Bra/il ,, Yellow 2—3 Kopsia (ruticosa. Apocynaccac Pink C 1 6—8 Burma, Java, etc. Lagerstroemia indica. "Crepe Lythraccae Bright-pink C or S 6—10 Myrtle." China, India Lantana nivea. Vcrbcueiccac White S .-» ) Numerous Trop. America L. — trifolia \V. Indies ,, Orange-vellow CorS ^ , j varieties Malvaviscus arboreus. Malvaceae Scarlet 4—6 S. America Medinilla magnifica. Melnstoruaccae Rosy-pink C 5—6 Philippines M. — speciosa. Malaya M Crimson .. 5—8 S.=Sinhalese FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC. 321 A. — Mentation bipiuuatifiila. B. — Montanoa touicntosa Name and Native Country- [ Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. How Propa- gated. Height in feet, etc. M. — Teysmannii. Java Melastomaccae White c 5 Melastoma malabathncum. . Pink- CorS 4—6 " Maha-bovitiya " S. Ceylon, India Memecylon umbellatum. M Deep blue S 6-8 " Kora-kaha," Ceylon & S. India Montanoa bipinnatifida. Compost tac White C 8—12 Tree-daisy, Mexico M. — tomentosa. 8—12 Murraya exotica. Rutaceae Pure white S 8—12. Fl'sscented. " Etteriya" S. Ceylon, Eastern Tropics Mussaenda erythrophylla. Rnbiaccae Bright scarlet C 4—6 Trop. Africa Myrtus communis. Myrtaceae White CorS 6-8 Myrtle. S. Europe M. — tomentosus. Ceylon » Rose-pink *» 3—5 S.=Sinhalese 322 FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC. TREE DAISY. Moiituiwii bipiiumtifida Name and Native Country. [ Hort =--Of garden origin ]. Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. now | Propa- Height in feet. etc. gated. 1 Nerium Oleander. Apocynaccac Bright-red c 5—8 Oleander. Asia Minor N.-Oleander alba. White 4—6 Notonia grandiflora. India Cowpositac Yellow CorS 5—6 Ochna Kirkii. Ochnaccac Bright-red l( 3—4 E. Trop. Africa FLOWERING SHRCBS, ETC. 323 N'amc and Native Country [ Hort.=Of garden origin 3 Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. How Propa- gated. Height in feet. etc. Osbeckia aspera. Melastontaccae Pink S 4—5 " Bowitiya" S. Ceylon & India " -. - -~ ' • Oxyanthus natalensis Natal Rubiaceae White C 4—5 O.— tubiflorus. n »» 4 \V. Trop. Africa Palicourea gardenioidcs. „ ,, „ 5—6 Mexico Paulwilhelmia speciosa. Acanthaceae Blue 4 — 5 Trop. Africa Pavetta indica. " Pawalta." Rubiaceae White 3—4 S. Ceylon. India P. — lanceolata. S. Africa f M 4—6 P. — madagascariensis. Hort ,, Pink U-2 Pentas carnea. Trop. Africa n »» »» 2—3 Peristrophe speciosa. Acanthaceae Carmine purple »* 4 Himalaya Phlogocanthus thrysiflorus. Purple »»~ ' 4—6 India, Java Plumbago capensis. S. Africa Plumbagjnae Pale blue tt 2 — 4 P. rosea " Kat-nitul " S. Rose scarlet CorS 2—3 India P. zeylanica. " Ela-nitul " ,, White • 2—4 S. Ceylon, etc. See Plumeria acutifolia. "Temple Apocynaccae Creamy white j „ • 8—15] Beautiful Tree." Mexico r'* f Flowering P. — rubra. Trop. America „ Crimson C 8—15) Trees. Portlandia grandiflora. Rubiaceae White 8—12 \V. Indies •Quassia amara. Guiana Simambaceae Scarlet C or S 8—10 Randia maculata. Rubiaceae Purplish-white 1 ,, 6—10 Trop. Africa R. — macrantha. .. White C 4—6 Trop. Africa R. — Mussaenda. S. America n 4—6 Ravenia spectabilis. Ruiaceae Pink 3—4 S. America Reinwardtia tetragyna. India Liiicac Yellow JsorDiv. 2 — * R.— trigyna. India M 2—5 Rhodomyrtus tomentosus. Myrtaceae Bright pink C 4—5 Ceylon Rondeletia odorata Mexico Rubiaceae Pink- 4—5 Rondeletia speciosa. ff- Scarlet " 3 — I S.America Russellia juncea. Mexico Scroph it la riaceae t> 3 — 5 R. — sarmentosa. M Pink 4—5 Trop. America Salvia coccinea. Liibirttae Scarlet ,, 2 Cent. America •S. — coelestina. Mexico Lilac-blue 2 S. — larmacea. Texas . Blue u S. — splendens. Brazil Scarlet 3 Sanchezia longiflora. Acanthnccae Magenta 6—8 S. America Sophora violacea. Lcgiiitiniostit Violet-blue S 2—3 Ceylon S.=Sinhalese 324 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC. Xame and Native Country. [ Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. How Propa- gated. Height in feet, etc. Stemmadenia Bella. Mexico Apocyuaccac Pure-white C 4—6 Stifftia chrysantha. Brazil CoDipositac Yellow S 10-15 Strobilanthes ccloratus. Acanthaceac Purple C 4—5 E. Himalaya Stromanthe sanguinea. Brazil Scitaminae Crimson Div.orS 3 4 Strophanthus dichotomus. Apocyuaccac White & Purple C 5—6 India & Malaya Tabernaemontana coronaria. Pure-white M 3—4 India and Malaya; Tecoma Stans. W. Indies Bignoniaceae Yellow CorS 10—15 T. — velutina. Mexico ,, 8-12 Tephrosia grandiflora I Lcgiuninosac Red S 2 S. Africa Thespesiatomentosa. Mexico; Malvaceae Yellow C orS 4—5 Thevetia neriifolia. Apocyuaccac H C 10—15 Trop. America Thunbergia affinis. Acaiithaccac Violet 4—5 Trop. Africa T. — erecta. Trop. Africa Dark-blue M 4 — 5 Thyrsacanthus rutilans. ,, Crimson M 5—6. Fl's Colombia pendulous. Tithoniadiversifolia. Mexico Comfiositac Yellow S 5—6 Uroskinnera spectabilis. Scroph ulari acetic Showv mauve C 2—3 Cent. America Woodfordia floribunda. Lytliraccac Brick-red „ 5—6 Ceylon, India, etc. Wormia Burbidgei. Borneo DiUcuiaceae Yellow 8—10 Wrightia zeylanica " Suddu- Apocyiiaccac Snowy-white CorS 3-5 idda " S. Ceylon ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC. SUITABLE FOR Low AND MEDIUM ELEVATIONS. [C.=cuttings. S.=seeds. Div.=division]. Name and Native Country. [ Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. How Propagated. Height in ft. and descriptive notes. Abroma fastuosa. Trop. Asia Stet'culiaccac C or S 8 — 12; Large roundish Acalypha godseffiana. leaves New Guinea Eiiphorbiaccac C 3 — h L. white -margined A. — illustrus. C 6—8; L. large, blotched with copper & crimson A. — marginata. India n C 6 — 8; Margin of leaf pinkish. A.— obovata. Hort M C 5—8; L. inverted, oval- shaped A. — tricolor. Fiji Islands »» C 6 — 10; L. blotched with red & crimson A. — triumphans. C 6 — 8; L. large, crimson & green A. — willinckii. Hort M C 6 — 8; L. very large, green blotched with yellow S'.=Sinlialese ORXAMEXTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC. 325 Name and Native Country. [ Hort =Of garden origin ]. Natural Order. 1 How Propagated. Height in ft. and descriptive notes. A. — wilkesiana. Fiji Islands Enphorbiaccac C 5 — 6; L. twisted, copper- coloured. Alchornea ilicifolio. ,, C 8—10; Holly-like leaves. Australia Alpinia rafflesiana Scitamincac Div. 4—5; L. variegated. Amomum hemisphaericum. M S & Div. 6 — 8; Large handsome Java herbaceous leaves, rising from base. A. — magnincum. Mauritius M Div. 10 — 15; L. bronze tint, very handsome. Fl's in large pink heads on stalks 2 to 3 ft. high. Aralta filicifolia. Araliaceac c 8 — 10; L. large, pinnatifid, Pacific Islands yellow when young. A.— Guilfoylei. Pacific M c 8-10. Stemserect;L. edged & blotched with white. A. — maculata. Polynesia c 8—10. Stems & leaves of purplish hue with green spots. A. — triioba. C Leaves in 3 long lobes. Arundo Donax variegatum. Gramincae C 5 — 8 Ornamental varie- S. Europe gated grass. Bambusa. See Bamboos and Ornamental Grasses Beaucharnia recurvata. Liliaceac S 4—6 Draciena-like plant, Mexico stem swollen at base. Boehmeria pulchra. Hort Urticaccac C 5 — 6; L. velvety dark- green. Carludovica palmata. Peru Cydanthaceae S or Div. 5 — 7 Panama-hat Plant. Large handsome palm- like leaves. Chamaeranthemum Beyrichii Acanthaceae C 2 — 3; L. variegated, orna- variegatum. Brazil mental. Codiaeum, or Croton. Enphorbiaccac C [Highly ornamental Malaya, Polynesia, etc. 5— 8 j shrubswithvarious- ( Numerous varieties ). Uy coloured leaves. Cordyline (Dracaena) cannae- Liliaceac \ / Very elegant folia. Australia! J palm-like plants, C.— Duffii. Polynesia Portions ,- i ^ J usually erect and C. — Fraseri do of stem. ~ ~\ unbranched, C. — magnifies do " j many with highly C. — terminalis. Malaya, / \ coloured leaves. China, etc. Cycas circinalis. "Maclu" S. Cycadeae S or off- 6 — 12\ Handsome slow- Ceylon, India, etc. sets . growing plants, C. — Rumphii. Moluccas n ^ 6 — 8 > bearing a crown C. — siamensis. Cochin China ,j M 4 — 6 I of long pinnate (Several other species). / leaves. Cyclanthus cristatus. Cydanthaceae Div. (L. radical, long & plantain-like. C. — discolor. Columbia Stemless plants. Encephalartos Hildebrandti. Cycadeae S or off- {Slow-growing. Zanzibar sets. Cycas-like plants, with long pinnate, E.— horrid us. S. Africa n »• spiny leaves. S.=Sinhalese 326 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC. Name and Native Country. [ Hort.=Of garden origin ]. Natural Order. How Propagated. Height in ft. and descriptive notes. E. — villosus. Cycadeae S or off- 5 — 7. Long spiny leaves. (Several other species) sets Erythrina Parcellii. Hort Lcgnminosac c 6 — 10; L. variegated, creamy-white. Excaecaria bicolor. Java Enphorbiaccac c 4 — 6; L. small, purple beneath Goldfussia anisophylla. Acanthaceae C 3 — 4 Dense hush ; small Himalaya leaves. Graptophyllum hortense. n C 4 5; L. variegated, " Caricature Plant." ornamental. Trop. Asia Heliconia angustifolia. Brazil Scitamincac Div. 5 — 6; L. large, plantain- like. H. — aureo-striata. Solomon ,, M 4 — 5 ; L. large striated with Islands yellow. H. — brasiliensis. Lobster n Div. or S 5 — 6 Remarkable for large claw. Brazil bright-red fruit spikes. H. — brevispatha. S. America ,, " ,, 3 — !•; L. long and narrow. Fl's white with orange- red spathes. H. — insignis. ,, Div. 5- -7; L. bright bronze. long, narrow & wavy. H . — metallica. New Grenada 4— - 5; L. bronze, drooping. H. — pulverulenta. ,, Div. or S 4—5; L. with white S. America powdery substance beneath. H . — spectabilis. 4 6; L. bright bronze. Justicia grandiflora. Acantliaceae C 4 — 5 Handsome foliage Leea amabilis. Borneo A inpclidcae C plant. 4 — 6) L. pinnate, hand- L. — coccinea. Burma H C 4-5 j some ; veins marked Macrozamia Fraseri. Cycadeae S 4 — 6\ Handsome fern-like W. Australia plants, with long M. — Moorei. Queensland n S 4 -6 f feathery graceful M. — plumosa. Queensland S 2— 4/ leaves. Miconiaflammea. S.America Melastomaceae c 4—5} Handsome plants. Uvith large rugose M. — Hookeriana. Peru H c 1 - 1 1 4 — oj leaves. Muehlenbeckia platyclada. Poly^onaceac c 4 — 6 Curious straggling Solomon Islands shrub, with flattened branches and stems for leaves. Myriocarpa longipes. Ui'ticaceae c 8—10; L. large oval, Costa Rica & Mexico rugose & hispid. Fl's in long pendulous threads. Nandina domestica. Bci'bci'idcae Div. or S 4 — 6; L. small, bi-pinnate. China & Japan tinted red. Palms, see under Palms Panax fruticosum. Araliaccae C 4 — 6 Quick-growing ; Trop. Asiaj handsome feathery foliage. Pandanus Sanderiana. Paudanaceae Offsets 4 — 6 ) Handsome varie- P. — variegatus. Java " H 6 — 8 j gated leaves. 328 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC. Name and Native Country. [ Hort.=Of garden origin ]. Natural Order. How Propagated. Height in ft. and descriptive notes. Pedilanthus tithymaloides. Enphorbiaceac c 4 — 6. Erect succulent S. America shrub. Phyllanthus myrtifolius. n S 5—6 Small myrtle-like leaves Pisonia alba. " Lettuce \yctagi ncae C ; 10—20; L. pale yellow. Tree." India & Malaya Ravenala madagascariensis. Scitamincac Sor Div. 10—20; See Ornamental "Travellers' Tree." Foliage Trees. Madagascar! Rudgea macrophylla. Brazil Rnbiaccae C or S 5—6; L. large, obovate. Fl's. cream, in dense heads. Sanchezia nobilis. Eucador Acanthaccae c - , (L. large, with white S — glaucophylla. 'n C 'u ^ bands. Sesbania aegyptiaca. Trop. Legnminosae . S or C 6 — 8 L. finely bi-pinnate Sophora tomentosa ." Mudu- ,, S 4 — 5 Whole plant wooly- murunga.'' S. Ceylon, etc. white. Tococa imperialis. Peru T.- -latifolia. Brazil Melastomaceac M c ( Large elliptic, c 4— 6 \ satiny leaves, very (handsome. Thunbergia Kirkii. Africa Acanthaccae C 3 ft. Ornamental foliage; square stems. Vernonia macrophylla. Braz . Compositac S 6 — 8 Large ovate leaves. I ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS SUITABLE FOR Low AND MEDIUM ELEVATIONS. [ C.=cuttings; S,=seed ; Tu.=tubers ]. Name and Native Country. [Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. How Propa- gated. Descriptive Remarks. Acridocarpus natalitius. Malpighiaceae Bright Yellow C L. leathery, oblong Natal or obovate. Adenocalymna nitidum. Bigiiouiaccae Yellow c L. trifoliate, ten- Brazil drilled. Allamanda cathartica. Apocynaceae ,, c " Willow-leaved Allamanda." Trop. | Quick-gi owing America I and free flower- A. — Hendersonii. M • ,, c ing climbers. Brazil A.— Wardleana Hort n M c Antigonon insigne. Polygalaccac Rose-pink c /Elegant climbers. Columbia of moderate A. — leptopus. Mexico M Pink CorS •< growth, suited A. — leptopus albiflora. ,, White C for arbours, ve- \ randahs, etc. Arauja grandiflora. Apocynaccae |f C Fl's tubular, scen- Brazil ted. Aristolochia elegans. A ristolocli iaceae Reddish-purple S [Fl's saucer-shaped, Brazil ) very elegant. .S.=Sinhalese ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS 329 ARISFOLOCHIA PERGOLA, PERADBNIYA GARDENS. Name and Native Country. [ Hort.=Of garden origin ]. Natural Order, Colour of Flowers. How Propa- gated. Descriptive Remarks. 1"Flv-catcher."Fl's A. — gigas, var. Sturtevantii.1 Aristolochiaceac Rich-brown, C. very large, of Guatemala) spotted fensive odour. A. — hians. Venezuela M Spotted-purple S. Fl's 2-lobed. A. — labiosa. Brazil ,, Purplegreen.etc. C.orS. Large broad lip. A. -— ridicula. „ Greenish -brown S. Fl's 2-horned. A. — ringens. „ ,, Purplish-green C. L. round.light-green Fl's small, throat A. — saccata. Himalaya M Purplish-red C. yellow. L. large, hairv. Asparagus falcatus. Liliaccae Creamy-white S orTu (Fl's in large pani- "Hatawariya" S. Ceylon cles, sweet scen- A. — racemosus. Ceylon M - ted. Beaumontia grandiflora Apocynaceac White C. Strong grower. Fl's "Nepal Trumpet-flower." large, tubular. India .S.=Sinhalese 330 ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS ia magnified . STRONG GK( WIXG CLIMBER ; FLOWERS BRIGHT MAGENTA. Name and Native Country- N- t i ,, , ' , [Hort.=Of garden origin] Natural Order. Colour ot Mowers. Propa- Descriptive Remarks. gated. I B. — unguis-cati. Tropical! America Bignonia venusta. "Tanga poo" T. Brazil Bougainvillea glabra. Brazil B. — glabra. var. Sanderiana B. — spfdabilis, var. laterita. Bra/ili Bignonia magnifica. 1 Bigiioiiiaccnc I Magenta C. | [Vigorous grower, i| very showy, fre- ( quent bloomer. Bright-yellow S. or C. Fl's profuse, very handsome. Bright-orange C. j Fl's in dry weather; very elegant. Xyctagincac Bright-purple C or S'Large plant, fl's very showy. C Dwarf variety. Brick-red C Straggling shrub, • verv handsome. T.=Tamil ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CUMBERS 331 GIANT FLY-CATCH KK. Aristoljchia (iigas vni: Stnrtevaniii Name and Native Country. [Hort.=Ot garden origin]. Camoensia maxima. Trop. Afrija Cereus triangularis. "Xight-Ho\vering Cac- tus." W. Indies Clerodendron Thompsonae. Prop. A triai C. — speciosum. Hort Clitoria ternatea. " Kataroluwel," S (Also a \vhite-Ho\\vred variety) Congea tomen'osa. Burma How Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. Propa- Descriptive Remarks- I ; sated. Legumitusae White & yellow C or S Fl's very large, scented. Cactactac White C Epiphyte. Fl's large, tubular. Vcrbcnaceac White & scarlet C Lovely plant, small growth. Scarlet C Very ornamental. LegnmimoMt \ Blue S Pretty, hut not a free bloomer. Vcrbcnaceac \ Delicate pink C Fl's in large sprays. lasting several weeks. >.=Sinhalese 332 ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS JUNGLE ROPES. Aiiodciidrum pajiicnlatnui. Xame and Native Country. [Hort.=Of garden origin] Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. How Propa- gated. Descriptive Remarks. Cryptostegia grandiflora. Asclepiadeac Pink C. Climbing shrub. Trop. Africa showy. Dipladenia amabilis. Hort D. -flava. New Grenada D. — splendens. Brazil Apocynaccac Rosy -crimson Yellow Rose c c c ( Very showy climb- ers, not yet well 1 established in V Ceylon. Glonosa Rothschildiana. Liliaceac Crimson & Tu /Beautiful herbace- G. — superba. " Niyangala," S. Ceylon, Trop. Asia and Africa ti yellow Orange & yellow •> 1 ous twiners. (First named has very large G. — virescens. Trop. Africa Greenish-red Hoya carnosa. Asclepiadeac Pink C Thrives on tree- " Wax Flower." Trop. trunks ; medium Asia. elevations best. Ipo.Tioea carnea. Convohulaccac Light pink c Straggling shrub, Trop. America fl's large. S.=3inhaksc ORXAMEXTAL FLOWERIXG CLIMBERS 333 SNAKE-LIKE CLIMBER. Banhiiiia aiigitiiia. Conge a iomcntosa. Woody climber ; flowers in large loose sprays, delicate pink. 334 ORXAMEXTAL FLOWERING LUMBERS Gloriosa RoihschihUeina. A beautiful herbaceous climber, with rich crimson flowers ; superior to Gloriosa snpcrba or "Xiyangala. Name and Native Country. [ Hort=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. Colour of Flowers How Propa- gated. Descriptive remarks. Ipomoea Briggsii. W. Indies Coni'olvtilaceac Crimson c Very showv, free bloomer. 1. — Learii. Trop. America „ Purplish blue C or S Beautiful plant. quick-grower. 1. — palmata. Trop. Africa ,, Purple S Leaves small, palm- ately divided. l.-^Quamoclit. Tropics Scarlet S Annual; fine pinnate leaves. I. — tuberosa. "Spanish M Yellow S orTu Very handsome. Arbour Vine." W. Indies Jacquemontia violacea. Blue C or S Annual; free bloom- Mexico, etc. er. Jasminum flexile. Ceylon Olcaceae White C Scented; trifoliate. J. — pubescens. India, Burma Pure white C Very fragrant. ORXAMEXTAL FLOIVERIXG. CUMBERS 335 Odoniadenia spccioMi. Woody climber ; flowers large, bell-shaped, salmon-yellow, fragrant and showy. N'liine and Xative Country- [Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. Colour of Flowers- How Propa- gated- Descriptive remarks. J. — revolutum. "Saban- Olt'ilCCae Yellow c Climbing shrub. pitcha," S. India J. — sambac. " Arabian ,, White ,, Fl's strongly scent- Jasmine." Ceylon, India ed. Lonicera Hildebrandiana. Capri foliaceae Yellow M The largest-flowered Burma Honey-suckle. M icrosphyra longistyla. Riihitict'tit' Cream Climbing shrub. W. Trop. Africa long tubular fl's. X iravellia zeylanica. Rannncnlaccae Dingy white ! Thrives best on tree Cevlon, India, etc. trunks. NyctocalosThomsoni. Assam Bignoniaccae White ., Beautiful plant Odo.ntadenia speciosa. Apocyiiiiiitit- Salmon-yellow L Fl's fragrant and S. America Showy S.==Sinhalese 336 ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS Petrcea vohibilis. Woody climber ; flowers in pendulous racemes, bright heliotrope and violet — a lovely plant. Name and Native Country. [Hort.=Of garden origin]. Oxera pulchella. New Caledonia Passiflora coerulea. P.— jenmani. Guiana P. — laurifolia. Trop. America P.- — racemosa. Brazil P. — violacea. Pergularia odoratissima ' Tonkin Creeper" China & Sumatra Pelroea volubilis. Trop. America Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. How Propa- gated. Descriptive Remarks. Vcrbcuaccae Greenish-white C A handsome plant Passifloraccac Bluish purple C Leaves 3-5 lobed Creamy-white . C Very distinct H Red & violet , j C See Foliage Climbers ii Scarlet L. glaucous beneath Pale-lilac C A beautiful species Asclepiadeae Greenish-white S or C Fl's fragrant. Fruit - •>»£. .large and winged Vcrbcuaccae Blue & violet C A lovely plant 338 ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS 1 lumber gia grandifloni. A quick-growing immense climber ; flowers large, pale blue or mauve. Name and Native Country. [Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. How Prop- agated. Descriptive Remarks. Porana paniculata. "Bridal Convolvulaceae Creamy-white C Large plant, hand- Bouquet." India, Java some when in fl. P. — volubilis. " Horse-tail () Greenish-white C Vigorous grower ; Creeper." Malaya fl's in large loose . v panicles Quisqualis indica. Combretoccnc Orange-red C Flowers in dry "Rangoon Creeper." weather, very showy S. India, Malaya Raphlstemma pu'.chellum. Asclcpitidcac White C L. heart-shaped. Assam. Burma Rhodochiton volubile. Scroph ulai'iaceae Bright-red C 8 to 10 ft. in height Mexico Rose. "Marechal Niel" — See Roses ORXAMEXTAL FLOWERING CUMBERS How Xatural Order. Colour of Flowers. Prop- Descriptive Remarks. agated. Roupellia grata. A "Cream Fruit." \V. Trop. Africa Schubert ia =Arauja Senecio hederasfolia. C '(>////»< /<•/>/. Achimenes, different P. S or Tu 1 ft. Tuberous plants, free-Hower- varieties ing and showv. Ageratum, several varieties A. C or S 1 — U ft. Fl's blue." Alternanthera, green and P. C £ — 1 ft. Useful for edging and bron/e var's pattern work. Amaran'.us tricolor, several A. S 2 — 4 ft. Showy coloured leaves. var's Ananas variegata. P. Su. U— 2ft. Variegated leaves Variegated Pine-apple Angelonia salicaraefolia. P. C 2 ft. Fl's bluish -purple, scented. Arundo Donax variefcatus. P. Div. 6 — 8ft. Handsome variegated grass; does best in light sandv soil. S.=Sinhalese 344 SHOWY ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS A.= Annual Name. P.==PYnl. SM.=Shrub How Propagated. Descriptive Kemarks. Aster, China. A S 2 — 1 ft. Numerous shades of pink Numerous var's red, white, etc. A. — eminens. P Div. I— U ft. Fl's pale blue. Balsam, numerous var's A S 2 — 1 ft. Different shades, very showy. Bartonia a urea. A li ft. Handsome yellow fl's. ciegonia, Fibrous-rooted. P C 1 — 2-j ft. Showy il's, pink shades. several var's Browallia grandiflora. P S 2—1 ft. Fl's dark blue. Caladium Humboldtii. P Tu. 6 — 8 in. L. variegated white. Ex- Numer's other sp. & varV Calendula officinalis. A S cellent for edging, designs, etc. 1 — U ft. Fl's orange-yellow. Candytuft. " White Spiral." A I ft. Fl's pure white, in large heads. Canna, numerous varieties P Tu. * Div. 2 — 4 ft. Various shades of (See under Tn heron: orange yellow, red and pink. PI nuts) Some var's with purple or bronxe foliage. Celosia. "Cock's Comb" A S I — 1 fl. Fl's in large heads, crimson, scarlet, etc. Chrysanthemum, Chinese P Div. & C. 1 — 2 ft. Fl's white, brown, or yellow. Chrysanthemum, annual; A S 1 — 2 ft. Various colours. nu nerous var's. Coleus, several var's P C 1 2 — 2 ft. L. beautifully coloured. Coreopsis gra; diflora. A S 1 ft. Fl's yellow. C. — tinctoria. A 1 ft. Fl's crimson, etc. Cosmos bipmnatus. A 2 — 3 ft. Fl's pink or yellow. C. — sulphureus. A ,, 2 — 3 ft. Fl's orange-yellow. Dahlia, "Caaus;" "Double" P Tubers 2 — 4 ft. Purple, scarlet, yellow. and " Single " var's. etc. Dianthus chinensis. Indian A S 1 ft. Fl's white, pink, scarlet. &c., Pink. Single and Double very showy. var's Euphorbia pulcherrima. Slib. C 4—10 ft. Large brilliant scarlet Poinsettia fl's (bracts), Miitable for grouping. Cut back after flowering. Exacum zeylanicum. " Bin- A S < 1—1 £ ft. Beautiful violet-blue fl's. dara" S. Gomphrena globosa. " Globe A 1 ft. Free flowering; fl's purple. Amaranth" in round heads. Gynandropsis speciosa. A 2 — 3 ft. Handsome pink fl's. Helianthus annuus, several A 2 — 3 ft. Very showy yellow fl's. var's. Hippeastrum, several var's. P Bulbs t — 1 i ft. Fl's large, scarlet. white, etc. Very showy. Honckenya ficifolia. Trop. A slib. S or C 3 — 5 ft. L. bronze; fl's coppery Africa. red. Impatiens Sultani. "Sultan's P C or S 1 — H ft. Showy scarlet or pink lower" fl's. Marigold, African. (Tngetes A S lj —2 ft. Fl's lemon-yellow, etc. c recta) M.— French. (T.—patnla) A 1 ft. Fl's orange, crimson, etc. Nasturtium. See Tropa'olnm S.=Sinhalese SHOWY ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS 345 Gynandropsis speciosa. "SPIDER FLOWER." FLOWERS PALE PINK. t4.=Annual. /».= P'r'nl. ?/ifc.=Shruh. n ( )\v Propagated. Descriptive Remarks. Nicotiana, numerous var's J. o 2 — 3 ft. Fl's white, pink, etc. Verv showy. Pentas carnea P. c 2 ft. Delicate pink. Petunia, numerous var's J.or P. S or C 1 — lift. Large showy white, purple, or pink fl's. Phlox Crummondii. A. S 1 ft. Beautiful free-fl o w e r i n g Numerous var's plants; fl's different colours. P. — suffruticosa. Perennial l\ Div. li— 2 ft. Phlox Phrynium variegatum. P. Tu.orDiv. 2 ft. Handsome variegated large leaves. Plumbago capensis. Slih. C 3 ft. Fl's beautiful delicate blue. Poinsettia. See Euphorbia Portulaca, Several var's A. S f 3 in. Brilliant shades of pink. ( yellow, etc. Ruellia formosa P. S 2 ft. Fl's large, bright pink. R. — macrantha P. S 2 ft. Ro>y purple. R. — tuberosa P. S or C 14 ft. Fl's blue. Salvia tarinacea P. C or S U ft. Fl's pale-blue. S.— "Scarlet Queen" P. or Shb. S or C 2—3 ft. Fl's bright-scarlet. Several other species and var's SHOID' AXXCALS AXO PKREXXIALS 347 TOREXIA FOUKXIEKI. Flowers dark-blue and white. Annual Xame How l.'fscriptive Remarks. Sedum sexangular°. "Stone Crop." Smningia speciosa. Wild Gloxinia! Siphocampylus Humboldtii Toitnia Bailloni. T. — Fournieri Tropaeolum, dwarf and climbing var's Turnera elegans Uroskinnera spectabilis Verbena venosa. Several var's Vinca rosea alba V. oculata-rubra Zinnia linearis. Z. — " Fireball." X u in e r- ous var's P. A. A. A. P. Shh. P. P. P. A. A. C Tu. C S S S rr C or C C or 3 in. 1 ft. •1- ft. 4 ft. Fl's oran Suitable for edging and rockery. Fl's large, mauve, bell- shaped. Likes shade and rich soil. Fl's scarlet. Fl's yellow. Fl's dark-blue and white. e and yellow ; require dry shady place. 1 £ — 2 ft. Fl's creamy white, closing in sun: free bloomer. 2 — 3 ft. Fl's mauve, very showy. 1 ft. Fl's pinkish-purple, very showy. 2 It. Fl's pure white. 2 ft. Fl's white with pink centre. 1 ft. Fl's orange-yellow. 1 — 2 ft. Free-flowering, scarlet. pink, yellow, etc. 348 BULBOUS OR TUBEROUS PLANTS ORNAMENTAL BULBOUS OR TUBEROUS PLANTS SUITABLE FOR GROWING IN POTS OR SHADY BORDERS UP TO 3,000 OR 4,000 FEET. Propagated by bulbs, tubers, or division, and in some cases also by seed. [ 's. Sinhalese ; 7'.=Tamil ]. Name and Xative Countrv. [Hort.=Of garden origin]. Xatnral Order. Colours-lowers | Height, &c. Achimenes grandiflora. Gesneraceae Crimson 1 1 ft. ") Very showy, Mexico for beds or A. — magnifica. n Scarlet 2 ft. J pots Ne\v Grenada. Numerous varieties i Alocasia. See Foliage Pot Plants Amaryllis, " Mrs Garfield." Anuirylliticac White & scarlet 1-2 ft. Very hand- Hort. some Amaryllis reticulatum. n Scarlet 10 in. L. with white Brazil or pale centre Amorp'i ophallus Aroiiieae Lurid-purple 2 ft. Fl'r large, campanulatus. very foetid " Kidaran " .S. India >. and Ceylon A. — Titanum. Sumatra n Dark-purple 10 ft. Fl'r 5 ft. high and 3 ft. across Arisaema speciosa. " Wal- ,, Greenish-purple 2 ft. kidaran " S. India and Ceylon Belamcanda (Pardanthus) Iridcac Orange, spotted- U ft. c'ninensis. brown " China Leopard Lily" Caladium bicolor. A roidciic Leaves pink and 1-U ft. Very showy green C— Humboldtii. H Leaves variega- 8 to 12 in. Very (=C. argyrea) Bra/.il ted-white effective C. — "Madam d'Hambourg." Crimson leaves 12 — 15 in. Very Hort. Numerous other showy varieties Callipsyche aurantiaca. Amaryllideae Orange 2 ft. S America C. — eucrosioides. Mexico] ,, Scarlet 2i ft. Canna, Orchid-flowered: Variety "Austria" Scitamineae Lemon-yellow 3 ft. Leaves green. "Australia" „ Bright red >5 " "Britannia" n Orange-yellow ,, M "Kronos" Yellow & orange M •' "H. Wendlaucl" Sea let & yellow M M "Africa" Orange -red 2\ ft. Leaves bron/e "Pluto" Deep-red ,, ,, "Rhea" Red " HULBOUS OR Tl'liEROrs PLAXTS 349 Name and Native Country. [Hort.-=Of garden origin]. Natural Older- Colour of Flowers, etc. Height, etc. C— Gladiolus-flowered:— Variety "Circe" Scitamincat Salmon-pink 3 ft. Leaves green. " Ehemanni " M Crimson ., "George King" M Cerise •• "Janus" „ Yellow ,, " M'dme Cro/y" n Scarlet, edged " with yellow Chirita Moor;ii. Cevlon Gcsneraccac Mauve-violet 2 ft. Very showy Crinum asiaticum. Amaryttidcac White 2 ft. Flowers "Tolabo" S. Trop. Asia scented. C. -augustum. Mauritius M Fink & White 1 ft. C. — defixum. India White 2ft. C. — erubescent. Tiop. White tK: purple 2 ft. America. C. — Moorei. S. Africa. Rose U »"t. C. -Powelli. Hurt Reddish 3—4 ft. C. — specio«issimum. Pure white 2 ft. C. — zeylanicum. Cevlon M White 2 ft. Dracontium gigas. Xicaragua Aroideae Brownish-red 8-10 ft. Drimiopsis Kirkii. Zanzibar Ltliaceac Whitish 1 0 in. Leaves spotted brown. Eucharis grandiflora. Amaryllideae Pure white 1 2 ft. Eucharis Lily. Colombia Eucharis Sanderi. Colombia White 1 ft. Eurycles amboinensis. 1 — H ft. Malaya, etc. E. — Cunninghamii. .. M 1 ft. Australia G°snera cardinally Brazil Gesneraccac Scarlet lift. G. — Hookeri. Colombia M M 11-2 ft. G. — magnified. Braxil A< Purple 1 — H ft. Glories* Rothschildiana. Liliaccac Crimson 5-7 ft. G.— superba. "Niyangala" ,, Orange -yellow 4—6 ft. Herbace- S. Trop. Asia ous climber Gloxinia maculata. Gesticraceae Bluish -purple 1 ft. Fl's large. S America bell-shaped Godwinia, See Di'ticotitiiini Griffima hyacinthina. Amaryllideae Blue 1 ft. Verv showv Haemanthus Lindeni. Rosy-scarlet lift. Congo H. — multiflorus. Xumerous M Scarlet 1ft. other species. Trop. Africa Hippeastrum (Amaryllis) Bright red lift. Fl's large equestre. H. — solandriflora. Pure white H ft. Fl's in 2s or 3s Xumerous garden var's H ymenocallis amoena. <( 1 ft. Fl's delicate Trop. America H.— ovata. \\'. Indies tt " White 1 ft. H. — tenuiflora. S. America 1 ft. And many others Isoloma (Tydaea) amabilis. Gcsneraccae Dark-rose 1—2 ft. Xe\v Grenada Kaempferia Roscoeana. Scitamineac Bright-pink 1 ft. Showy Ceylon, India, etc. - 350 BULBOUS OR TUBEROUS PLAXTS A BANK OF " ROSE AMARYLLIS." (Zephyranthes carinata), in Peradeniya Gardens. Flowers bright pink, very showy. Name and Native Country. [Hort =Of garden origin]. Xaturai Order. Colour of Flowers, etc. Height, etc. K. — rotunda. Ceylon, India and Malaya K. — speciosa. S. Africa Low. a grandiflora. Malaya L. — longiflora. Perak Pancratium (Hymenocailis) caribaeum. W. Indies P. — z -ylanicum. " Wal-lunu " -S. Ceylon Polianthes tuberosa. Tuberose. Mexico Sinningia (Gloxinia) specio-a. "Wild Gloxinia." Bra/: I Sprekelia formosissima. Guatemala. Tacca cristata. Trop. Asia and Africa Tulba^hia violacea. S.Africa Tydaea. See Isoloui.a Zephyranthes aurea. Peru Z. — carinata. "Rose Amaryllis." Z. — tubispatha. West Indies Scitijiiu H<.\ic Red & white 1 ft. Amaryllidcae Violet-purple White White & purple White 1 it. 2 ft. 2ft. 2 ft.>| ,, ;, -I Fl's delicate Gcsncraccae Bluish-purple 2—3 ft. Fl's very fragrant 1 ft. Showy Amaryllideae Bright crimson 1 ft. Taccaccac Brownish- 14—2 ft. purple JJliaccac Purplish-violet 1 ft. Amaryllidcae Bright-yellow 10 in. Bright-pink 10 in. Large ti's, very showy. White 8— 10 in. S.=S:nh;ilesu WATER PLAXTS 351 ORNAMENTAL WATER PLANTS SUITED FOR THE LOW-COUXTRY. I hose in bracket*, though not aquatics, are adapted for growing in water; if in tubs or pots partly submerged. [ C.=cuttings; S.=secd ; Tu.=tuhers; Div.=division. Botanical and Common Name. Natural Order. Descriptive notes. Propagated. Acorus Calamus. " Sweet Aroitlctic I-iv. L. 3—4 ft. high, erect. Flag." " Wadakaha " S. Aponogeton monostachyum. Naiadeac L. floating; fl's pale blue " Koddi J. or white. * /Small floating plants Azolia pinnata. Rhizocarpeae with pinnate leaves, I forming a pretty sheet v of light green. {Carludovica palmata.) L'ydiiiitlitu'CiH' Div. or S Large, palm-like leaves, 6-8 f*. high. Ceratopteris thalictroides. Filict'tn- Div. Fronds pinnate, edible \Vater Fern or spores when tender, 1-^—2 ft. (Chrysalidocarpus lutescens.) Palnictic S or div. Handsome, i nshy feathery palm. (Cyclanthus cristata.) L'ydiiiitliiiieac Div. Stemless plan ^, large leaves, 6—8 ft. long. (Cyperus alternifolius.) Cypcraccac i Leaves diverging in ( whorls, 2—3 ft. " Umbrella grass." (C. — Papyrus.) Papyrus j Large handsome brush- ( like leaves, 8-10 ft. high. Eichhornia (Pontederia) Pontcderiaceae Floating plants, 1 ft. high; Crassipes. "Water- beautiful blue or lilac hyacinth." S. .America flowers. Euryale ferox. \ytnphiiciiccnc S Large floating leaves with upright spines. Hedychium coronarium. Scitciininccte Div. Fl's white, scented. H. -gardnerianum. .. Fl's yellow. Lasia spinosa. "Kohilla" .S. Aroitlt'tic Div. or S Leaves spinous, pinnatifid. Limnanthemum indicum. Gcutiaunccac Floating heart-shaped "Water Snow-flake." leaves. Fl's white. Limnochans Humboldtii. Alisnitictiie L. oval, floating. Fl's " \Vater Poppy." bright yellow. L. — Plumierii. Div. L. erect, pale green. Fl's smaller, yellow. Xelun " S. 1 ed or white, scented. S.=Sinhalese ; T. Tamil]. 352 U'ATER PLAXTS NympKdeaceat Botanical and Common Name, i Natural Order. Nipa fruticans. "Nipa," or Water Palm. Ceylon & Malaya] Nymphaea Lotus. Water Lily. "Olu" S. N. stellata. "Manel" S. Ouvirandra fenestralis. Lattice-leaf plant. Madagascar. Oxystelma esculentum. " Kulap-palai" T. Pistia Stratiotes. Wafer Lettuce Pontederia crassipes. "Water Hyacinth." See EicliJioniia (Rhapis flabelliformis). Sagittaria sagittifolia. "Arrow-head."! (Schizocasia [= Alocasia] Portei). Susum anthelminticum. " Induru," S. Typha angustifolia. Bull-rush Victoria regia. Giant Water-lily See illustration Aselepiadeac A roidcac Pontederiaceac Palmac Alismaccae Aroideae Flagellariaceae Typhaceae Nymphceaceae How Propagated. Til. or S Tubers S or C Div. S or div. Div. S Descriptive notes. Feathery-leaved palm. 8— 10" ft. high, found in lagoons near the sea. Large floating leaves. Fl's pale pink to bright rose. Fl's whitish-violet to light- blue. Curious lace-like floating leaves. Beautiful twiner w i cream and pink fl's. Floating stemless plant. tb Floating plants, 1 ft. high; beautiful blue or lilac fl's. Cane-palm. 5 — 6 ft. high. Large sagittate leaves. {Very large, hastate, red- dish eaves, with prick- ly leaf stalks. Long floating shoots, with large erect, handsome panicles. Erect ribbon-like leaves. 4—6 ft. high. L. floating, circular, 6 — & ft. in. diam. with a raised margin; fl's 'arge, cream or pink, strongly scented. A remarkable plant. SELECTED SUCCULENT OR CACTUS PLANTS This class of plants is not generally suited to a humid climate, the great majority of them being indigenous to dry regions, as Mexico and South Africa. Those marked t flourish in a wet climate and up to 5,000 ft. elevation. [Su.=suckers; C.=cuttings; S.=seeds; Tu=tubersl Name and Native Country [Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order How Propagated. Descriptive notes. t Agave americana variegata. Ainarvllidcac Su. or S \ Stemless plants with Hort A. — densiflora. Mexico | large succulent pointed > leaves, the latter often A. — heteracantha. ,, I spiny at the margin. Texas, &c. / JA. — Morrisii. Jamaica " •i L. rather spathulate. S.=Sinhalese : 7\=Tamil 354 SUCCULENT OR CACTUS PLANTS Name and Native Country. [ Hort.=Of garden origin ]. Natural Order. How Propagated. Descriptive notes. A. — rigida. Sisulana, Antaryllidcac Su. or bul- isal Hemp, which see. S. America bils Numerous other species JAloe saponaria. S. Africa Liliacctie 'Small plants, usually with Numerous other species a short stem, bearing a rosette of succulent. ^ spotted grey leaves. tBromelia Pinguin. ttromcliaccac Offsets j— 8 ft. Stemless plants, W. Indies with long spiny leaves. +Caralluma campanulata. Asclepiaileae C )warf leafless plant, with Ceylon and India square stems. + Cereus grandiflorus. Cactaccac C Creeper, reaching the tops " Night-flowering Cactus," of tall trees. Fl's large, W. Indies white. C. — jamacaru. Brazi „ Jrfsets or C". Stout single stem, u n- branched, 4 — 5 angled. JC. — peruvianus. " Torch M C 20—30 ft. Large, branch- Thistle," S. America ing, tree-like plant. JC. — serpentinus. Mexico ,, C Creeper, with thin hairy stems. Dyckia altissima. Brazil Itroiticlidcciic Offsets L ft. Leaves narrow, wiry and recurving. Echinocactus, numerous CtJCttlCCilC ,, Small unbranching, ovoid species. Mexico or globose, succulent plants. Echinopsis (Cereus) n ,, Erect unbranching plant multiplex. Brazil with numerous spine- covered angles. t E Diphyllum truncatum. C Small shrub, with hand- Brazil some rose-coloured fl's. Furcraea gigantea. Trop. AiHcii'\'lli(h'iic Su. or bul 8—10 ft. See Mauritius America bils. Hemp. Gasteria trigona. Salm-Dyck Liliaceac Offsets. ( \ ft. Leaves very thick, Aloe. S. Africa distichously arranged. G. — verrucosa. S, Africa M ( Suitable for pots. Haworthia attenuata. " ,, Small Aloe-like plants, S. Africa leaves in a rosette. Numerous other species. + Kalanchoe laciniata. Crassnlaceae C I ft. "Life-plant." L. Trop. Africa deeply cut. tLomatophyllum borbonicum IMiacccic S 3 ft. Bears long spiny fleshy Bourbon leaves on a short stem. Mammillaria glauca. Mexico Ccictaceae Offsets /Dwarf plants, composed M.— megacantha. Mexico Jf of close tubercles, each M.— nobilis. Mexico •j of which is terminated Numerous other species. I bv a bunch of hairy Nopalea coccinellifera. C ^ spines. !4— 5 ft. A branching Mexico leaf-less shrub, flat oval spiny tubercles. Opuntia Dillenii. S. America C /4— 5 ft. Branching leaf- Prickly Peai less shrubs, with large O.— grandis. Mexico C \ circular or oval tuber- cles, clothed with tufts O. robusta. Mexico M C \ of hair like spines. PIXXATE OR FEATHER-LEAVED PALMS 355 Name and Native Cnuntiy. v^t,,™! rirri«»r [Hort.=0l garden origin]. How Propagated. Descriptive notes- + Pedilanthus tiihymaloidfs. Enphorbiiiccac C 3 — \ ft Erect shrub. S. Americ; ^Phyllocactus amabilis. Hort. Cuctiiceac + P. — crenatus. Honduras. C C /Small shrubs, with flatten- ed leaf-like branches; P. — grand is. M C I flowers showy, bright + P. — speciosissima. Hort. .. C \ pink, etc. Numerous other species and hvhrids. iRhipsalis Cassytha. Trop. Asia •• Cor S /Epiphytic leafless plant, cylindrical pendulous stems. The only Asiatic V cactus. R.— pachyptera. Trop. C Large flattened leaf-like America branches. Stapelia grandiflora. S. Africa Asclcpiadeuc C Small leafless plant. Vitis quadrangularis. Ainpclidi'iic C& Tu. Climber, with square suc- Trop. Asia, etc. culent stems. PINNATE OR FEATHER-LEAVED PALMS. Those marked t are best suited to elevations above 3.000 feet. Acanthophoenix crinita. Mauritius and Bourbon Acanthoriza aculeata. Cent. America Acrocomia sclerocarpa. " Macaw Palm.'" Trop. America 1 Actinorrhytis calapparia. Malaya Archontophoenix Alexandrae. Queensland A. — Cunninghamii. (=Scaforthia clcgniis) \ Queensland Areca Catechu. " Arecanut." Trop. Asia A.— concinna. Ceylon A. — triandra. Assam & Burma Arenga obtusifolia. Java & Sumatra A.— saccharifera. " Gomuti." or " Sugar Palm." Malaya A. — Wightii. Malabar Astrocaryum rostratum. Bra/il Attalea Cohune. "Cohune Palm," Honduras A. — excelsa. Brazil Bactris major. Colombia Bentinckia Condapana. Travancore %, VIEW IX FEKXERY, HAKC.ALA GAKDEXS, CEYLON. Showing tree-ferns, chierly Alsophila criiu'ta. in foreground. 378 FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS FERNS SUITED FOR UP-COUNTRY (3,000 TO 6,000 FT.) : — *Adiantum capillus-veneris. Maiden- hair Fern A. — cuneatum. A. — Fergusoni. A. — gracillimum. Finest-leaved Maiden-hair Fern *CheiIanthus farinosa. *Diacalpe aspidioides. *Davallia bullata. *D. — majuscula. *Lomaria Patersoni and L. Gibba. * Nephrodium flaccida. *N— Walkerae. *Angiopteris evecta. *Aspidium aculeatutn. *A. — anomalum. Asplenium bulbiferum. *A. — tenuifolium. *Blechnum orientale. * Nephrodium zeylanica. *Nephrolepis cordifolia. *Osmunda Javanica. *Polypodmm rufescens. *Pteris incisa. P.- -Victoriae. *Stenoloma chinensis. Parslev Fern. TREE FERNS : — *Alsophila crinita. Wooly -Tree-Fern *A.— glabra. *Amphicosmea. See Hcmitelia. Cyathea dealbata. Silver Tree-Fern *Cyathea Hookeri. *C.- — sinuata. Dicksonia antartica. *Hemitelia Walkerae. ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS SUITED ALSO FOR SHADED BORDERS UP TO 2,000 OR 3,000 FT. [C=cuttings; S=seed ; Div.=division ; Su.=suckers ; Tu.— tubers]. Name and Native Country. [Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order, Acalypha godseffiana. New Euphorbiaccac Guinea Aechmea fulgens. Guiana Brotiieliaccnc A. — mexicana. Mexico ,, A. — Skinneri. Guatemala ,, A.— Weilbachii. Braxil Aglaonema costatum. Perak A. — Haenkii. Philippines A. — Marantifolium. Malaya A. — pictum. Malaya A. — versicolor. Alloplectus Lynchii. Colombia Alocasia Argyrea. Hah ? Aroideae Gcsncraccac Aroideae A. — cuprea. Borneo A. — Johnstoni See Cyrtospcrniii A. — Lindeni. Papua A. — longiloba. Malaya How Propagated. Height and descriptive notes. C. 2—3 ft. Leaves margined with white. Offsets 1 ft. \ „, , 2 I Stemless plants T! " [• with stiff sheathing ;: !f ;: J leaves- Div. 6 in. \ Herbaceous C 2 ft. plants with C. or Div. 2 .. - fleshly variega- l- 2 ft. ted or blotched .1 ft. / leaves. C 1A ft. L. bronze-coloured. Tu.orOff- 2 ft. L. with grey bands, sets. 1 — 2 ft. L. coppery green. 2 ft. 6— -10 ft. L. very large, deeply cut lobes. Stem 5 to 6 ft., erect. * Indigenous to Ceylon. FOLIAGE POT-PLAXTS 379 AXTHUKIUM WAROCQUEANUM. Nairn- and Native Countr CSSSlSSiSS »•»-.. 0,der. „„,££,„, I H.i.h.Hndde.cnp.iv A. — macrorhiza v_riegata. Ceylon, etc A — princeps. Malaya A.— sanderiana. Philippines A. — violacea. A. — zebrina. Manila Anoectochilus setaceus "Wana-raja ' S. Ceylon. Several other species. Ananas sativus variegatus. Variegated Pine-apple; Orcltith'itc Hroutcliticcitt Div. or C [5ft. L. large, broad, blotch- ed with white. 2 ft. 2 ft. Margins and veins marked with prominent silver bands; sinuate. 2 ft. L. metallic blue. 3 ft. L. sagittate, dark- green bands It. Velvety green leaves, with golden veins. Tubers. Offsets. li ft. L. variegated pinkish- white. S.=Sinhalese ANTHURIUM VEITCH11. FOLIAGE POT-PLAXTS 381 Name and Native Country. [Hort.— Of garden origin]. Natural Order. How Propagated Height and descriptive notes. Anihurium andreinum. A roidcac C. or Off- 3 — 5 ft. Large, satiny, verv Colombi; s :ts. handso.ne leaves. A -bogotense. Colombia „ „ 2 ft. L. curiously 3 — lobed. A. — crassinervium. ,, 3 --4 ft L. radical, obovate. upright. A. — cristallinum. Pen t< 2—3 ft. L. large, white si 1 verv veins. A — digitatum. Pen M 2 -3 ft. A — Fitzeri. M L. large. 4 to 5 ft. long, simi- lar to A. warocqueanum. A -Harrisii. Bra/il ., 2ft. A. — longifolium. Brazil M .. lift. A — macrjlobum. Hort M M 3ft. A. -pandulifolium. Brazil ,. L. 5—8 ft. long by 6—8 in. broad. A. — radiatum. Mexicc ti 3 ft. L. radially digitate. A.-Veitchii. ,, ,. 2£ ft. long, L. furrowed Colorabh transversely. A. — Warocqueanum. ,. Leaves 2—3 ft. long. Colombia Aralia Balfourii. Horl A — elegantissima. Polynesia A. — filicifolia. A raliaccac C V_3 \ Quick-growing ( plants with hand- A.— triloba. - , " (some deeplv cut ^ »' •« 1 t A.— Veitchii. \ew Caledonir 2 ^ ) leaves. Arundinacea suberecta. GraniincrtC' Di\. 1— H ft. Small bamboo- like plant with drooping folia :e. Asarum geophyllum. Chin; A ristolocliiiiceac M 5 ft. L. round, variegated Aspidistra lurida variegata. Liliaccac 1£ ft. Large variegated Japai radical, erect leaves. B°gonia albo-picta. Brazi Rcgoniaccac C U ft. L. spotted white. B. --gogoensis. Sumatn 1 ft. L. peltate. B. -grandis. ., 1—2 ft. L. velvety, with pale spots. B. — Haageana. Brazi ., 3ft. B.— heracleifolia Mexicc %) lift. B. — metallica. Mexicc ,, 3 ft. L. bronzy purple. B. -purpurea. ,, ,, 2 ft. L. deep bronzy purple. B. —President de Bourenilles ,. ,. U— 2 ft. "L. deep bronzy Horl purple. B -rex. M ,, 1 ft. L. beautifully marked- Numerous varietie.' — sceptrum. Brazil ,, M 2 — 3 ft. L. spotted grev. B. — tomentosa. Brazil ,, ,, U— 2ft. L. tomentose. See Flowering Plants for Potf Bertolonia marmorata. Brazil Mcltistoniiict'iic M 6 — 10 in. Beautiful shade- loving plants. with deli- cate velvety leaves. -superba. Madagascar M 1 ft. Bilbergia rosea. Trop. Bromcliaceae S. or off- 2—3 ft.\ Epiphytic plants Americ? sets. I with long convol- B.— sanderiana. Brazil tl M H ft. >ute leaves; purple I or bronze, blotch- B.— speciosa. ,. | - U ft. / ed with grey. AXTHl'Rir.M PANDUMFULIUM. FOLIAGE POT-PLAXTS 383 Name and Native Country. [Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. Pro£™ted Height and descriptive notes. Bowenia spectabilis. Cycndeae Su. or S 2 — 3 ft. Large, bipinnate, Queensland fern-like leaves. Caladium. See Bnlhons and Tuberous Plants *Calathea arrecta. Eucador Scitiiim'ncac Div. 3 ft. L. velvety bronze. C. — grandifolia. Brazil H M 2 ft. L. large, round. C. — Leitzii. Hra/il lift. Erect habit; 1. small. C. — Lindeniana. Peru u 2 — 3 ft. L. beautifully mark- ed on both sides. C. — sanderiana. Braxil M M 1 ft. L. lined with pink. C. — Makoyana. Trop. M M i ft. L. with curious roun- America ded blotches. C. — medeo-picta. Bra/il „ n lift. C.— Veitchii Bolivia H n 2—3 ft. L. blotched, purple beneath. C. — Veitchiana. Bra/il »1 M 1 ft. L. variegated, purple beneath. C. — zebrina. " Zebra 2—3 ft. L. velvety, banded Plant," Bra/il dark and light green. Caraguata andreana. Colombia C. — musaica. Colombia C. — Zahnii. Chiriqui Bromcliaccac Su. & div. 2 tt- "I Stiff convolute I £. > leaves, prettily ' j marked. Carludovica palmata. Cyclanthaccae Su. or S 4—6 ft.\ Panama-hat Plant 1 Palm like stem- S. America j less plants. C. — Plumerii. S. America 4—6 ft.) Centradenia rosea. Mexico Mdastomaceae C or div. j 1 ft. Pinkish leaves. Chamaeranthemum argen- Acanthaceae C li— 2 ft. L. variegated. teum. Xew Britain C.— pictum. Bra/il lift. Clinogyne grandis. Malaya Scitamincac Div. 3— 4ft. Conocephalus suaveolens. Urticaceac C 4— 6ft. Malaya Cordyline australis. Liliaccac Su. or C. 10ft. \Palm-like plants; Xew Zealanc 1 1. green, crimson C. — indivisa. Xew Zealand 10 ft. > or purple. C. — terminalis. Xumerous ,, H 5 — 8 ft. 1 L. purple an d varieties / crimson. Costus afer. Sierra Leone Scitamincac Div. 3 — \ ft. Fl's white. C. -elegans. Costa Ric; 2 ft. L. velvety with dark bands. C. — igneus. See Flour riii^ n Jf Plants for Pots C. musaicus. n M li — 2 ft. L. small, narrow, Trop. America margined with grey. C. — pictus. Mexic< n n 4 — 6 ft. L. satiny green. glaucous beneath. Cryptanthus Beuckeri. Brazi Bromcliaccac Su 8 in. L. stiff, in rosette. C. — zebrinus. Bra/i ~ M 8 in. Transverse bands of dark green. C.— zonatus. Bra/i 6—8 in. Curculigo recurvata. Amaryllidcac Div. or S 3 ft. Palm-like plant. Trop. Ash "leaves close up at night. 384 FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS ANTHURIUM CRISTALLINUM. Silver-leaved Anthurium. Name and Native Country. [ Hort =Of garden origin ]. Natural Order. How Propagated Height and descriptive notes. C. — recurvata variegata. Amai'vllideae Div. or S 3 ft. Variegated form of Curmeria. See above. Cycas circinalis. " Madu" S. Cycadaccac Offsets 01- 3—12 ft. Palm-like plants Ceylon and India! S with large feathery leaves. C. — revoluta. China j 3—4 ft. Cyclanthus cristatus. Cyclct 11 tliaccac Div. 5 — 6 ft. Large radical Colombia leaves. Cyperus alternifolius. " Umbrella Plant," Madagascar C. — allernifolius variegatus. Cypcraccac 1 Quick -growing r plants ; feathery 2-2* ftJ leaves" Hort N.=Sinhalese FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS 385 X;ime airl Native Country. [Hort.=-Of garden origin]. C. — Papyrus. Papyrus Grass. Palestine, etc. Cyrtosperma Johnstonii. Solomon Islands Dichorisandra mosaica. Peru D. — undata. D. — thyrsiflora. D.— vittata. Peru Bra/il Hort Dieff?nbachia Bowmanni. D. — eburnea. Natural Order. D.- -Jenmani. D — Leopoldii. Brazi Brit. Guian:ij S. Americ; D. — .-nagnifica. Venezueh D — Memoria-Cortii. Horl D. — pica. Brazi D. — spl-ndens. Colombia DorsUnia argentata. Brazil Dracaena Go^seffiana, XV. Trop. Africa D. — Goldieana. ,, D. — Sanderiana. \V. Trop. Africa D.— Victoria. XX'. Trop. Africa Drac^ntium (Godwinia). See R.ilbous and Tub- erous Plants. Elatostema lineolatum majus Ceylon Episcia cupreata. Nicaragua E. — ( Centrosolenia ) tessellata. Peruj Eranthemum atropurpureum. Polynesia! E. — eldo'ado. Polynesia E. — tricolor. E.— versicolor ,, Fittonia a^gyroneura. Peru F. — gigantea. Eucador F. — verschaffeltii. Brazil Garnotia Fergusonii var fastigiata. Gymnostachyum zeylanicum. Ceylon Aroideae Com nidi iiaccac How Propagated Div. Div. or C C or Su Height and descriptive notes. 6 — 8 ft. Requires much moisture, and thrives best in a swamp. 4—8 ft. L. large, arrow- shaped, veined with rosy red, stalks mottled, spiny 6 in. L. with mosaic-like white lines. 6 in. L. undulated, striped with grey. See Flowering Plants for Pots. 6 in. L. purplish green ; grey stripes. 2—3 ft. } Urticaccae Liliaccac Div. of Stem or S Dumb-canes. Handsome quick- growing fleshy herbaceous T plants, with I leaves variously blotched or variegated. 1 ft. L. with central silvery band. 3—4 ft. Shrub with varie- gated leaves. 6 ft. L. with yellow bands. 1 — U ft. L. slender, streak- ed with white. 2 — 4 ft. L. broad, recurved, white with green stripe in centre. Urticaccae Gcsiicraceae Acanthaccac Gram i ncac Acauthaceac Div C 1 ft. Herb, with leaves much cut. Bronze-coloured leaves. U ft. ) U ft. j I Shrubs with variegated v and coloured leaves 4—8 ft. high. 6 in. L. white-veined. 1-2 ft. )L. oval, purplish 8 in. j with pink veins. 1£ ft.; graceful, slender bushy grass. 8 in. L. oval, pink veins. 386 FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS Name and Native Country. LHort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. How Propagated. Height and descriptive notes. Heliconia aureo-striata Scitamineae Div. 4—6 ft. PI an tain -like New Britain plants. H.~ illustris Hort ,, ,, 4—6 ft. L. with yellow veins. H. -spectabilis. H n 4 — 6 ft. L. large, bronze. Trop. America Hoffmannia discolor. Mexico Rnbiaceae Q ift. L. bronze, satiny green H. — (Higginsia) M lj — 2ft. Leaves variegated. Ghiesbreghtii. Mexico tender, lanceolate. Hoffmannia (Higginsia) (1 M 1-2 ft. L. deep bronze refulgens. S. America Homalomena picturata. A roideac Div. 1 ft.-. Colombia Ornamental H. — rubescens. India M ?i 2 ft. ," variegated leaves H.— Wallisi. Colombia HftJ Jacaranda (ilicifolia. Panama Bigtwniaceae S or C 2 — 6 ft. Ornamental fern- like foliage Kaemperia Gilbertii. Burma Scitamineae Div. •i ft. Leaves banded with white Kalanchoe flammea. Crassulaccae C 1 ft. L. succulent, deeply "Life Plant." Somaliland cut Karatas fulgens. Brazil Bromcliaccae Offsets 1 ft. \ Sheathing leaves. K. — Innocentii striata. Hort H n 1 ft. ^growing in the form K. — spectabilis. Brazil M 1 ft. j of a bird's nest Ledenbergia roseo-aenea. Phytolaccaceac C 1—2 ft. L. coppery-green. Central America violet underneath Leea amabilis var. splendens. Ampclideae ,, 3 — 4 ft. L. bronzy-green. white central band Ludovia crenifolia. Brazil Cyclanthaccae Div. 3 -4 ft. Palm-like plant Macrozamia Fraseri. Australia M. — Moorei Cycadeae Offsets or S. 3—5 ft."} (;racefui fern- 3_5 ft. 5 like plants Maranta imperial is M. — insignis Scitamineae Div. iTJ3 ^ \ Stemless plants M. — makoyana M . — M assan gean urn " ,, 1 with large, f |-J beautifully > marked leaves: M. — polita " " j £- these close up M. — s ngoreana. Hort M. — tigrina " » l^ft / centre at night Nephthytis picturata. Congo A roideac n lg ft. L. large, handsomely marked with dark satiny bands Ophiopogon intermedium. Ceylon, India, etc. O. — japonicus Japan O. — japonicus variegatus. Haenwdoraceac H ,, 1 ft> } Grass-like leaves ; j ,, Especially suited for 1 ft' J snac^ecl situations Japan Oxalis bupleurifolia. Brazil Geraniaceae C 1— H ft. Leaf-like petioles Panax crispum. Brazil Araliaceae M 2 — 3 ft. L. pinnate P. — elegans. Australia M 2—3 ft. L. pinnate P. — rmiltifidum. 1 ft. L. like parsley Pandanus Sanderi. Pandanaceae Offsets 3—6 ft. Handsome varie- gated leaves FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS 387 Name and Native Country. [ Hort.«=O» garden origin J. Natural Order. How Propagated. Height and descriptive notes. Pandanus Veitchii. Polyne- Pandanaceac Offsets 2—3 ft. Like P. sanderi, sia but less hardy. Panicum plicatum. Trop. Graniineae Div. 2 ft. A grass with long Asia, &c. furrowed broad leaves. Pandanophyllum (Mapania) Cyperaceac ,, Grass-like plant. Wendlandii Peliosanthes Teta. India. Haeniodoraceae Div. 1 ft. Stemless;!. plicate or S Pellionia daveauana. I 'rticaccac C i— 1 ft. \ Creeper Cochin China. [• L. variegated, P. — pulchra. Cochin China. M h ft. j oval, fleshv. Peperomia argyreia. Piperaceae Div. 1ft. X S. America or C Succulent P.— Fraseri. " M 10 in. > variegated P. — magnified. Hort H 1 ft. I oval leaves P. — Saundersii. Brazil M 10 in. / Phalaris arundinacea Graniineae M 10 in. See Bamboos and vanegatus. Grasses Philodendron andreanum. A roideae C 3 — 5 ft. Large beautiful Colombia velvety leaves P. — gloriosum. ,, 2—3 ft. L. large, cordate, white veins and pink margins. P. — Mamei. Eucador ,. „ 2—3 ft. L. variegated, large, cordate P.-Selloum. Bra/il M (1 2 — 3 ft. L. handsomely cut Phrynium variegatum. Scitamincae Div. 2 ft. L. handsomely varie- Variegated Arrowroot or Tu. gated Phyllanthus nivosus. Enpliorbiaceae C 2 ft. L. mottled with white Polynesia Phyllotaenium (Xanthosoma) A roideae Div. 1£ ft. L. large, handsome, Lindeni. Colombia sagittate, with white veins Pothos. See Ornamental Climbers for Pots. Rhoeo discolor. Central Coniinelinaceae C 1 ft. Leaves with purple America edges, also underneath Ruellia colorata. Moluccas Acanthaccae •i ft. L. copper-coloured S.tnsevieria cylindrica. Haeniodoraceae Div. or 3—4 ft. L. cylindrical. Trop. Africa leaf-C erect S. — guineensis. Trop. Africa M 3 ft. ") L. flat, s w o r d- S. — zeylanica. Ceylon, t1 3 ft. j shaped. India, etc. Schismatoglottis decora A roideae Div. 5 ft. L, lanceolate, hand- Borneo somely variegated. S. neoguineensis. n 1 ft. L. large, oval, blotch- NY\v Guinea ed with grey. S— picta. Java M 1 ft. L. dark-green. 2 grey bands. S. — siamensis. Siam .» -, 1 ft. L. lanceolate, spotted Schizocasia (Alocasia) Portei. 5 — 8 ft. L. large, pinnati- Xew Guinea fid, sagittate. Stangeria paradoxa. Xatal Cycadcae Offsets 3 ft. Handsome fern-like plant. 388 FLOWERING POT-PLANTS Name and Native Country. [ Hort.=Of garden origin ]. Natural Order. How Propagated/ Height and descriptive notes. Stenandrium Lindeni. Brazil! Steudnera colocasiaefolia. Martaban S. — discolor. India Acantliaceae Aroideae C Div. Acanthaccac C Aroideae Div. Bromcliciccac Offsets Strobilanthes dyerianus. Burma Syngonium podophyllun albo-i lineatum.i Tillandsia pulchella. Brazil Bromcli T. — splendens. Guiana, Tradescantia fuscata. Brazil' Coninieli naccac I T. — reginae. Hort ., Zamioculcas Loddigesii. Arodicac Trop. Africa Zebrina pendula. Mexico Comnieliiiaccae Zeuxme regia. " Iru-raja" S. Ceylonj Zingiber D'arceyi. "Variegated Ginger"! C or Div. C Div. C 1 ft. Variegated leaves. 2 ft. Leaves peltate, oval 2 ft. L. peltate, blotched with purple beneath 1 — 2 ft. Crimson velvety leaves: requires shade 8 in. Leaves pinnate, varie- gated. I ft. Epiphytes ; ornamen- tal- coloured leaves. I ft. L. with transverse violet bands. •i ft. L. clothed with dark red hairs. I ft. L. mottled white with violet centre. Pinnate leaves, 2 — 3 ft. long Small herbaceous creeper with ornamental varie- gated foliage. Tubers j ft. L. dark green, with white line down centre. 2 ft. L. radical, variegated. FLOWERING POT-PLANTS SUITABLE FOR SHADED SITUATIONS UP TO 2,000 OR 3,000 FT. [ C.=cuttings; S.— -seeds; Div.=division; Su.=suckers]. N'anie and Native Country [Hort.— Of garden origin] Natural Order. Acalypha sanderiana. Papua Enphorbiacd Achimenes. See Bnlbonsand Tuberous Plants' /Echmea fulens. Guiana Bi'oincliaccae Gesueraccae Aroideae . — paniculigera. W. Indies • PE.. — spectabilis. Guatemala W /Eschynanthus Hildebrandii. Burma Amydrium humile. Borneo; Anthurium Archduke Joseph. Hort! A. — carneum. Hort' A. — chelseiense. Hort A. — desmetianum. Hort How Propagated Div. Offsets or S Height, Colour of Flowers, etc. 4 — 5 ft. Fl's in long crim- son pendant tails. 2| ft. Deep rich red. 1 — 2 ft. Rose-coloured. 24 ft. 2 ft. Scarlet, tipped with- black. 1 ft. White. 2 ft. Bright rose. Light rose colour. li ft. Crimson. 2 ft. Carmine-scarlet. S.-=Sinhalese FLOWER1XG POT-PLAXTS 389 N'anie and Native Country. [Hort.=Of garden origin]. A. — ferrierense. A.— scherzerianum. Gi Numerous varieties and hybrids Aphelandra nitens. Colombia Centropogon lucyanus. Hort Clerodendron macrosiphon. Zanzibar Cochliostema jacobianum Eucador Costus igneus. Bra/il Cyanotis barbata. Nepal C. — kewensis. Travancore Dalechampia roezliana. Mexico Dichorisandra thyrsiflora. Bra/il Euadenia eminens. W Trop. Africa Oriffinia hyacinthina. Bra/il Impatiens flaccida var. Ceylon I. — mirabilis. Malaya I. — repens. "Gal-demata " Ceylon I — sultani. /an/ibar Isoloma. See Bulbous dud Tuberous Plants Karatas Innocentii. Bra/il K. — spectabilis Musa coccinea. " Flowering Banana." China Nematanthus longipes. Bra/il Pitcairnea alta. W. Indies P.— coerulea. Chili. P. — corallina. Colombia P. — muscosa. Bra/il Saintpaulia ionantha "African Violet," Central Africa Sceutellaria mociniana. Mexico S. — violacea. Ceylon, etc. Siphocampylus elegans. New Grenada S. — tovariensis. Vene/uelaj Spathiphyllum candidum. Colombia \r\ in]. Natural Order. How Propagated. Height, Colour of Flowers, etc. Hort Aroideae Offsets 2 ft. Bright-red. or S •• 44 I fc. Spathe large, scarlet, :mala or crimson, etc. s and Spadix spiral Acnnthacciie C Catnpannlaceae Vcrhcimcciic Coiiiiiit'liiiiiccac Div. Scita mi neat' Com melt naceac Div. or C Euphorbiaccae C Commelinaceae Capparideae Amarylliileae Div. cae \ C. or S C. or S Bromeliaceae Offsets .. Scitmnincae Su. Gesneraceae C Bromeliaceae Div. or Su. Gesneraceae Labi at hiopogon intermedius. Haemodoraceac H P 1 ft. Grass-like leaves; (L.c.) moist shady places. Fl's dingy white. Osbeckia buxifolia. (U.c.) Melastomaceae S 4—6 ft.; fl's rich inauve O. — rubicunda. (U.c.) ,, S 4 — 6 ft.; fl's brilliant purp- lish crimson. Oxystelma esculentum Asclepiadcac H P Semi-aquatic ; fl's veined " Kulap-palai," T. (Dry with pink. region) Palms, See Ceylon Palms Pavetta indica. (U.c.) Rnhuuttit S 4 — 6 ft.; fl's white, profuse. Phyllanthus myrtifolius. Eitplwrbinceae S 6 — 8 ft. ; small myrtle-like a Ceylon Myrtle. (L.c.» leaves ; fl's purplish red. Plumbago zeylanica. " Ela- Plnmbagineae S 2—3 ft. ; fl's white netul." (L.c.) Rhaphidophora decursiva. Aronlcnc Cr 30—40 ft. Large spread- "Dada-kehel." (I.e.) ing, deeply cut leaves. L.c.=Low-country generally. U.c.=Up-country I. e.=Intermediate elevation. T.=Taniil 394 CEYLON PLANTS Xame. Natural Order. i See heading Ericaceae T Coiivolvulaceae Cl. Rhododendron arboreum. Rivea ornata. " Muchuddai," T. (Dry region) Sansevieria zeylanica. " Niyanda." (L.c. & dry region) Sophora foment osa. " Mudu- LcgHtnitiosae murunga." (L.c.) S. — violacea. (L.c.)i ,, Stachytarpheta mutabilis. " Balu-nakutu." (L.c. and dry region) Strobilanthes helicoides. (U.c.) S. ^Hookerii. (U.c.) Haemodoraccae H. P. S Verbenacfae H. P. Acaiithaccae S. — pulcherrimus. (U.c.) Tephrosia maxima. (Dry region) Thespesia Lampas. (Dry region) Torenia asiatica. " Kotala- wel." (U.c.) Vaccinium Leschenaulhi. "Boralu,"S. (U.c.)1 Woodfordia floribunda. "Malitta." (I.e.) Wrightia zeylanica. " Sudu-idda." (L.c.) Lcgnmhiosae ', H. P. Malvaceae S Scrophnlari- Cr aceae Vacciniaceae S or T Lylhraccac S Apocynaceae S Remarks. Large showy fl's; Ap.-July. On rocks in dry districts; fl's white, scented. 2 — 3 ft. Sword-shaped variegated succulent leaves. 8 — 10 ft. Foliage grey tomentose. 3 ft. Fl's violet. 2—3 ft. ; fl's pink. 3—5 ft. Fl's violet with white tube ; very showy. 2—4 ft. ; fl's pure white, with purple veins. 3 — 6 ft. Fl's pale pink and violet. 1—2 ft. Fl's bright pale- pink. 6—8 ft. ; fl's bright yellow, crimson centre Fl's dark purple, tube pale yellow. 8—12 ft.; fl's bright dark pink; Feb., Mar. & Sept. 6—8 ft. ; fl's orange red. 3 — 6 ft.; fl's waxy, pure white. L.c.=Low-CDUtitry generally. U.c.=Up-country. I.e.=Intermediate elevation. S=Sinhalese, 2— Tamil. CHAPTER XVIII. SELECTIONS OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS, TREES, ETC., SUITABLE FOR UP-COUNTRY. ORXAMEXTAL FLOU'ERIXG TREES:- [S.=Sinhalese ; r.=Tamil]. Acacia dealbata. (Leguininosae). "Silver Wattle." — A small Australian tree with finely cut leaves, distinguished from other species of the same genus by the silvery-white under-side of the leaves. Very ornamental when in flower, viz., during February to March and July to August, with its large heads of yellow fragrant blossom. An objection to the tree, however, is its habit of sending up numerous suckers, which are difficult to eradicate. Commonly grown at hill stations in India and Ceylon. Propagated by seed or suckers. A. — Baileyana. — A beautiful flowering and foliage tree of New South Wales, characterized by slender shoots and bluish-green leaves, not unlike A. dealbata. It bears very long sprays of rich yellow flowers, and is grown in France commercially for the sake of the latter. The tree is grown on Fairtield Estate, Lindula, and elsewhere in Ceylon. A. cultiformis. (Knife-formed, in reference to the form of the phyllodes). "Knife-leaved Acacia." — A small tree or large shrub, with pale yellow flowers, produced in the dry weather twice a year, and small oblong glaucous phyllodes which end in a small sharp prickle. The tree is also ornamental on account of its foliage. A.— decurrens. (Running down, in allusion to the union of the leaves with the stem). Common, or Black Wattle. A large Australian tree, well-established at Hakgala and elsewhere up- country ; yields a valuable tanning bark and useful timber. It is a quick-grower, reaching a height of 40 to 50 feet in a few years, and its fragrant yellow flowers, produced in the dry months, render it an ornamental tree. The seeds are small, 1,790 weighing only an ounce. 396 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUXTRY A.— longifolia. (Long-leaved). "Sydney Golden Wattle."— A small spreading tree, very ornamental when in blossom, viz., during February to March, and July to August, the flowers being pale-yellow. A.— -pycnantha. (Dense-flowered). "Golden Wattle" or "Broad-leaved Wattle." — A medium-sized tree, with undivided leaves (phyllodes), native of Southern Australia. Very ornamental during the dry season, when it bears masses of yellow blossom. It has flowered in Hakgala Gardens when only two or three years old. For tanning purposes, its bark ranks as one of the most valuable of Wattle-barks. Callistemon lanceolata. (Myrtaceae). Bottle-brush Tree. — A small tree with stiff, narrow leaves, native of Australia. It blossoms all the year round, but chiefly after the rains, when its scarlet flowers, crowded on spikes of the old wood in the form of a brush, are very attractive. Propagated by seed, which are very minute and should be sown in pots. Calophyllum Walkeri. (G 1 1 It i ferae). "Kina," S.— This is the familiar mountain "Kina" of Ceylon, a large handsome tree with stiff coriaceous leaves, bearing from January to April a profusion of pinkish-white, sweet-scented flowers. It is of slow growth, and is propagated by seed. Elaeocarpus glandulifera. (Tiliaceae). — A medium-sized tree, very handsome when in blossom, being then literally covered with racemes of creamy-white flowers. Eucalyptus ficifolia. (Myrtaceae}. Scarlet-flowering Gum Tree. — A small tree, native of South- West Australia, perhaps the most showy of the Eucalyptus family. VON MUELLER mentions it as worthy of cultivation for the sake of its magnificent trusses of crimson flowers, irrespective of its claims as a shade or avenue tree." Hymenosporum flavum. (Pillosporaceae). — A small tree of Eastern Australia, introduced about 1882 into Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, where it is now well established. It bears during the dry weather a profusion of small pale-yellow flowers. Propagated by seed. Meliosma Arnottiana. (Sab/aceae). — A moderate-sized tree, indigenous to the montane zone of Ceylon; it bears a profusion of creamy-white flowers in April, being deciduous in January. DK. TRIMEN said of it : "A great ornament to the montane forests when covered with its sheets of cream-coloured blossoms." ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING TREES 397 Pittosporum undulatum. (I'lllos'poi 'tn t'tie). "Victorian Laurel." — A small Australian tree, introduced and established at Hakgala Gardens, bearing in March or April a profusion of fragrant cream-coloured flowers. STKNOCAR1TS SINTATl'S. FI.OxVKKS ScAKI.KT. Rhododendron arboreum. (Ericaceae). "Maha-ratmal" S. — A small tree, 15 to 30 feet high, common in a wild state in the montane zone of Ceylon above 5,000 feet. Very conspicuous when bearing its large dark-crimson or pink flowers, from April to July. 398 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY Stenocarpus sinuatus. (Proteaceae). "Fire Tree" or "Tulip Tree" of Queensland. — An erect tree, 40 to 50 feet high, very showy when bearing its large clusters of scarlet flowers. It has been established in Peradeniya Gardens since 1883, also at Hakgala Gardens. Flowers during the dry weather, but has not yet set fruit in Ceylon. Suited to elevations of 1,500 to 4,000 feet. Sterculia acerifolia. (Sterculiaccae). "Flame Tree. " — A moderate-sized tree with large shining, angular leaves, native of Southern Australia, introduced into Ceylon in 1882. In cool shade, it grows and flowers at comparatively low elevations, but is more suited to the higher altitudes, thriving up to 5,500 feet in Ceylon. It produces in May and June, when bare of leaves, large masses of brilliant red blossom. Propagated by cuttings, or by seed when procurable. ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES. Acacia decurrens. (Leguminosae). Black or Tan Wattle. — A handsome tree, 40 to 60 feet high, native chiefly of Eastern Australia ; thrives between 4,000 and 6,000 feet on poor land, but grows best in rich soil. The tree has of late become popular at the higher elevations in Ceylon for planting amongst Tea for the purpose of green- manuring or windbreaks ; it affords excellent fuel. (See Up-country Flowering trees.) A.— Melanoxylon. Blackwood Tree, or "Leafless Acacia."— A large handsome tree, native of Southern Australia, characterized by usually having phyllodes only for leaves, rarely bearing pinnate leaves except in the young state. It furnishes a handsome and excellent timber, "one of the best in Victoria for railway carriages, etc." The late MR. J. K. NOCK stated: "Wood splits well for shingles ; the tree is a greedy feeder, roots spreading a consider- able distance, being consequently injurious to any plants growing near it." Acrocarpus fraxinifolius. (Lcguuiiiwsae). A medium-sized tree with feathery foliage which is of a beautiful crimson tint \vhen young, usually about February. Introduced from India into Hakgala Gardens about 1890. Agathis (Dammara) robusta. See Foliage Trees for Low and Medium elevations. Ailanthus glandulosus. (Simarubaceae). — A very handsome tree, 50 to 60 ft. high, with long pinnate leaves. Araucaria Bidwillii. (Coniferae). "Monkey Puzzle." — A large stately tree with flat scale-like, stiff, pointed leaves ; grows to a ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES 399 great height in its native country. Thrives at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon. See Foliage Trees for Low elevations. A. Cookii. See Foliage Trees for Low elevations. A. Cunningham!!. Moreton-Bay Pine. — A tall, erect tree of Eastern Australia, etc., with short, rather slender, branches. Very graceful. A.— excelsa. Norfolk Island Pine. — A beautiful symmetrical tree, with regular tiers of short horizontal spreading branches, attaining to a great height; grown in Europe as an ornamental pot-plant in hot-houses. Thrives at Hakgala. See Foliage Trees for Line elevations. Bucklandia populnifolia. (Hanianielidcae). — A handsome tree, with large leathery, glossy leaves, native of the Himalayas. Thrives at Hakgala Gardens. Castanospermum australe. (Legiiininosae). Moreton Bay Chestnut. — A moderate-sized tree with handsome pinnate leaves, native of Queensland. Casuarina torulosa. (Casitarineae). She-Oak, or Beef-wood. — A handsome leafless tree, with cord-like branchlets representing leaves. Of several species, this is one of the most suited to the higher elevations. Cedrela Toona. (Meliaceae). Red Cedar, Indian Mahogany. — A very handsome tree on account of its long graceful, pinnate leaves, which when young are of a crimson tint. It grows to a height of 40 to 50 feet, and yields fine timber, which is of commercial importance. Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana. (Coniferae). "Funeral" or "Weeping" Cypress. — An elegant tree with graceful drooping branchlets; a favourite for planting in cemeteries. C — Knightiana. — A very elegant tall tree, with drooping feathery branchlets. distinguished by a glaucous hue. It is a native of Mexico, and has become thoroughly established at the higher elevations in Ceylon. C. — Lawsoniana. — See Chamaecyparis. C.— macrocarpa. "Monterey Cypress." — A large, handsome, quick-growing tree, similar to C. Knightiana, but distinguished from it by its more vertical and pointed branches, also darker hue. C. pyramidalis. — A tall tree with somewhat erect whippy branches, considered to be a variety of the following species. 400 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY C. — sempervirens. Common Cypress. — A pyramid-shaped tree, with horizontal branches and feathery drooping foliage, native of South Europe, where it grows to a great height. It is especially ornamental in a young state. Thrives up-country. Elaeocarpus glandulifera. — A medium-sized tree with striking foliage. See Flowering Trees for Up-country. Eucalyptus citriodora. (Myrtaceae). Lemon-scented Gum- tree. — A handsome slender tree with a smooth white bark, native of Queensland. Its leaves have an agreeable lemon-scented odour E. globulus. Blue Gum-tree. A large tree, commonly grown up-country for fuel and windbelts. Very handsome on account of the glaucous-blue colour of the young leaves. Thrives best between 4,000 and 6,000 feet. Propagated by seed. Ficus macrophylla. (Urticacea). Moreton Bay Fig. — A Queens- land tree, with Urge leathery leaves; thrives in sheltered situations up to 6,000 ft. Frenela (Callitris) rhomboidea. ( C o n ife r a e ) . — A n elegant Cypress-like tree, native of Australia, introduced and acclimatised at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, where it bears seeds freely. Very ornamental for lawns, etc. Gordonia anomalum, (Ternstromiaceae). — A medium-sized handsome foliage tree, indigenous to the hill forests of Ceylon. DR. TRIMEN stated: "Very rare: I fear that extensive clearings have exterminated this fine species in most places.'' Grevillea robusta. (Proleaceae). Silky Oak. — A medium-sized tree, introduced into Ceylon from Australia in 1856, and extensively planted up-country amongst Tea for shade, as wrell as for fuel and wind-breaks. The pretty, fern-like leaves are silvery white beneath and render the tree very ornamental. The tree does not thrive well under 1,000 feet. Propagated by seed. Juniperus Bermudiana. (Coni ferae], Bermuda Cedar. — A medium-sized tree, with leaves of two forms. It thrives at eleva- tions of 4,000 to 6,000 ft., and attains a height of 30 to 40 ft. at Hakgala Gardens. Melaleuca leucadendron. (Myrtaceae}. "Tea Tree" of Australia. — A large tree, with graceful foliage and curious nbrous- scaly bark, which may be pulled off in large sheets. Pinus canariensis. (Conifer ae). Canary Island Pine. An excellent pine for high elevations in the tropics and for sub-tropical regions. In its native home, the Canary Islands, it grows from sea-level to 9,000 ft. altitude. It is being extensively planted in ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES 401 S. Africa, and is preferred to all other pines in Chili. The wood is remarkably durable, and the stumps send out new shoots when cut down. P.— insignis. Monterey Pine. — A California!] pine-tree, thrives best at elevations of 4,000 to 6,000 ft. It was first intro- duced at Peradeniya in 1868. P.— longifolia. — An Indian pine-tree, remarkable for its long, slender, pendulous leaves, which are 12 to 14 inches in length. Established at Hakgala Gardens. P.— Montezumoe. — A large handsome pine-tree of Japan, with long spreading branches, introduced at Hakgala Gardens about 1880, and now well-established there. Leaves very long, in bunches of nine. Rhodoleia Champion!. (N. O. Hamamelideae). — A medium- sized spreading tree, with glaucous-grey foliage and bright-red flowers. It is a native of Hong-Kong, and has become quite established in Hakgala Gardens. Schinus molle. (Anacardiaceae). Pepper Tree. — A small spreading handsome tree with fine pinnate leaves, native of tem- perate South America. It is best adapted to medium elevations in the tropics and to sub-tropical climates. It is one of the most beautiful of ornamental shade trees, and the foliage when cut may be used for decorative purposes. Propagated from seed or cuttings. S.— terebinthifolius, native of Brazil, is similar to the above and a useful ornamental tree. Introduced to Peradeniya in 1884. Syncarpia laurifolia. (Myrtaceac). Turpentine-tree of Queens- land.— A tall handsome quick-growing tree, of an erect symmetrical habit. Yields excellent timber. Established at Hakgala Gardens, where it bears seed. Tristania conferta (Myrtaceae). Queensland Box- wood. — A very handsome tree, with smooth shiny pointed leaves, suited to the higher elevations. It attains a great height, is suitable for avenues, and yields excellent timber. ELOWERING SHRUBS AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS SUITED FOR UP-COUXTRY. [C.=cuttin8s: S.=sced; Div.=di vision; Su.=suckers; L.=layers]. Name. Natural Order. Colour of Flou-t- rs. How Propa- gated. Height in feet, etc. Abelia chinensis A — grandiflora A.— rupestris Cnprifoliaccac Pink- White Pinkish-white C 5—6 402 FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC. Name. Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. How Propa- gated. Height in feet, etc. Abutilon, "Boule de Niege" Malvaceae White C 4—5 A — "Golden Fleece." Yellow t 5—6 Numerous species & var's. Allamanda Schottii Apocynaceae n C or S 3-5 Aloe Hanburyana. Liliaceae Coral-red S. or l-ll Numerous other species Su. Althaea rosea. Hollyhock Malvaceae Rose-pink, etc. Div. cS: 3—5 S Azalia, different varieties Ericaceae Red, Pink, White L 2—5 Begonia fuchsioides Begoniaceae Crimson C 2-3 Belopsrone oblongata Acanthaceae Bright-pink 4—5 Bellis perennis. Daisy Compositae White or Pink Div. Berberis cristata. Barberry Berberidae Yellow C 3 -4 B.— Fortunei 3—4 B.— leschenaultii Yellow C or S 10—20 Brugmansia, see Datura Brunfelsia uniflora Solanaceae Blue & white C 4—5 (= Franciscea bicolor) Calliandra Guildingii Mimosae Pink C or S 5—8 Callistemon brachyandrus Myrtaccac Yellow M 5—6 C. — lanceolatus Crimson 5—6 Camellia, numerous Ternsti'omiaceae White, pink, etc. Layers 8—15 varieties Campanula longifolia Cn infra nu laceae Blue C or S 2—3 C. — medium. " Canter- Blue & white bury Bells" Cestrum aurantiaca Solanaceae Yellow 5—6 C. — elegans Crimson H Choisya ternata. "Mexican Rntaceae White C 4-5 Orange" Chrysanthemum pinnatifidum Compositae White C or S 2£ — 3 C. — sinensis Numerous n White, pink. ,, varieties crimson, yellow. Cotoneaster Simmondsii Rosaceae Red berries 1—4 Cuphea jorullensis Lythraceae Yellow c'or 7 Div. C. — platycentra. " Cigar M Red C Div. i— U Flower " or S Cyphomandra fragrans Solanaceae Bluish-white C or S 10—12 Datura coccinea. Thorn- Scarlet C 4—6 apple D. — chlorantha fl. pleno Yellow 6 — 8 ) D. — Knightii. " Trumpet White 8— J2f Dounjen"s Flower" Delphinium hybridum Rannncnlaccac Blue Div. 3—4 or S Digitalis canariensis Scrophulari- Yellow S or 2—3 aceae Div. D. — purpurea. Foxglove ^ Purple Duranta Ellisii. " Duranta" Verbenaceae White C or S 8—12 D. — Plumieri Pale-blue 8—10 Eupatorium riparia E. — Weinmanianum Compositae Red Whitish C 5—6 6 — 8 scented Euphorbia splendens Euphorbiaceac Rose-scarlet 3—4 Franciscea bicolor, see — Brnnfelsia SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY 403 DELl'HIN'IUM HYBKIDUM (SUTTOX's) FLOWERS BRIGHT BLUE. Name Natural Order. \ How Colour of Flowers. Propa- 1 gated. Height in feet, etc. Fuchsia arborescens. " Tree Fuchsia" r . — corymbosa Oiiagracfue Lilac Scarlet CorS 8--12 6-8 404 FWWERIXG SHRrBS. ETC. How Height in feet, etc Name. Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. Propa- gated. Genista canariensis. Legnnrinoseae Yellow C or S 3-4 Cape broom. Habrothamnus, see Cr.s itntni — — Heliotropium. Heliotrope, Boragineae Blue shades C 3- 4 "Cherry Pie." Different varieties Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Shoe- Malvaceae Scarlet „ 8-12 flower. Numerous var's Shades of red, 6— 1 2 white, vellow. H. — syriacus. M Bluish-purple 4- 6 Hydrangea hortensis. Saxifragaccae Blue, white or U— 3 Hydrange pink Hypericum canariensis Hypericineae Yellow S or C 5—6 H. — mysorense M 8—10 Impatiens elongata Geraniaceae Bright rose-pink C 7 I. — Hookeriana White, veined V 4 with red I.— Walkeri fj Scarlet Div. 2- 3 Jasminum pubescens. Oleaceae White C 6—8 J.- -revolutum J. — Sambac Kniphofia aloides. Liliaccae Yellow White Scarlet " 5—6 i 4 (=Tritoma uvaria) Torch Lily or Red-hot-poker Laurustinus, see Vibuniiin — — — Libonia floribunda Acanthaceae Orange-yellow C 2 4 Lobelia cardinalis. Cninpaintliiccfic Scarlet C or S ^—4 "Cardinal Flower." Magnolia fuscata. Magiwliaceae Cream 8-10 Fl 's strong! v " Madanakam Poo " T scented M.— grandiflora n White Lavers 10—15 Montanoa bipinnatifida. Composltae c 8—12 "Tree Daisy." Moraea iridioides Irideae Blue & white Div. or 2 S Musa coccinea. "Flower- Scitamincac Scarlet Su. or 5—6 ing Banana. "j S Nandina domestica. i Her be rid cue Pinkish C 3—4 Nierembergia gracilis. ,, White & Yellow C or S 2—3 "Cup Flower." Notelaea liquestiina Oleaceae Pinkish C or i H Su. Philadelpus coronatius. Saxifragaccae Creamy-white C 6 7 Mock orange Phlomis floccosa Labi ate ac Yellow ,, 2 Pleroma macranthum Mclastoiuaccac Violet-blue CorS 6—10 Plumbago capensis Plumbagincac Light-blue C or 3-4 div. Polygonum chinense Polygonaccac Creamy-white C 5 — 7 Reinwardtia trigyna Linaccac Yellow ,, 3—4 R. — tetragyna M 3—4 Rhododendron, numerous Ericaceae Pink, crimson, S 3 6 species and varieties white, etc. R. — arboreum. (< Crimson 15—30 Ceylon Rhododendron 7'.=-Tainil Name. Spiraea media S. — peruviana Stevia Eupatoria Streptocarpus, numerous spp. and var's. .Streptosolen Jamesoni. Flame Hower Strobilanthes gossypinus. (See Folingf PI tints) Tecoma capensis T. — Smithiana T.— Stans "Free Daisy," See MOII tii nod Viburnum tinus. "Laurustinus." Wiganda Vigieri Vittadenia triloba. Australian Caisv ECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY 405 How Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. Propa- Height in feet, etc. gated. Rosaceae White C or 4-5 div %t 5—6 Coiiif>osiliit' Dingy white C 5 — 7 (n-siiiTtui'tii' Lilac, mauve S i white, etc. SolniuitTdf Orange-yellow CorS 4—5 Aciintliiicciii- Lilac or Blue C 4-5 Bigitoniticeiic Scarlet -1—6 ,, Orange red t. 0—8 :i Yellow SorC 10-20 Caprifoliaceae White C 5—7 Fl' s scented. Hytlrofihyl- Dark-blue Cor 8 10 Inccae Su. Coniposftac White C 4-1 1 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS SUITED FOR UP-COUXTRY [C.=cuttings: S.=.seed ; Div.=Division ; Su.=suckers ]. Name. Abutilon Thompsonii Acalypha marginata Acanthus ilicifolius A. — mollis Agapanthus vanegatus Agave amencana vanegata. Xumerous species & var's. Aloysia (Lippia) citnodora. "Sweet-scented Verbena. "j American Aloe, see Agnrc Anthericum liliastrum >% St. Bruno's Lily" Bambusa aurea B.^Fortunei variegata B. — nana. See Bnniboos t' Oniiiiiicnttil (ii'tissi's, Bay Laurel, see Luiirns Beaucarnea longifolia. Mexico) Begonia, fibrous-rooted. Xumerous spp. & var's Natural Order. ILih'iiccac Enpliorhiuccnt Aciinthaceac Amaryllideae How Propagated. Height in feet, etc. C 3 — 4 Variegated leaves. 4—5 Div. or S 3 Holly-like leaves. 3- -4 Div. 1 — 1.J Su. or bul- bils C Div. S C or div. 6—10 2 3 1 Variegated foliage 10—15 Yellow stems. 1 Variegated foliage. 8 6 — 8 Large swollen base. 3-4 406 FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC. Name. Natural Order. How Propagated. Height in feet, etc. J-6 8—10 S or C 1 Silvery foliage C 1 — H Berberis Fortunei variegata Bcrberiilac C 4 — 5 Bocconia frutescens. "John Papavaraceae C or S 8 — 12 Crow Bush"! Buxus sempervirens. Enpliorbiaceac C Boxwood Cerasus Lauro-cerasus. Rosact'dC Laurel Cherry Cineraria maritima. "Cotton Compositac Lavender," see Santoliiui Dielytra (Dicentra) spectabilis Fnnwriaceac Lyre Flowei Doryanthes palmerii. Spear Amaryllideac Su. or S 6 — 8 Lily Echeveria metalica. "Oyster Crassnlaceae Div. or 3 in \ Small succulent Plant" Su. losette-like plants. E. — secunda ,, ,, 3 ., ) Suited for Furcraea gigantea. Amaryllideac Bulbils or 6 — 8 Mauritius Hemp. Su. See Succulent Plants Iresine Herbstii Auiarantaceae C 2 — 3 I. — Lindeni ,, ., H — - Laurus nobilis. Bav Laurel Lanrdccac 6 — 8 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUXTRY 407 Name. Natural Order. How Propagated. Height in feet, etc. Libertia, see Bulbous Plants, etc. _ SPri/ed for the Leucadendron argentium. Protcaccac C or S silvery white "Silver-leaf" of S. Africa leaves Melianthus major. Supiudaceae C or div. 3—4 " Honey Shrub " Musa coccinea " Flowering" or Scitanrineac Su. or S. 5—6 Chinese Banana Musa Ensete. Abyssinian n S 8—9 Banana Myrtus communis. Mvrtle Myrtaccac C S 10 Nolina, see Bancartica — — — Periwinkle, see Vinca — — — Phormium tenax. New Lilificcac Div. 5 — 6 L. variegated, sword- Zealand Flax shaped. Podocarpus macrophylla. Conift'rac S or C 6—8 Prunus lusitanica. Portugal Rosaccae C 6—12 Laurel] Santolina chamaecyparisus. Coinpositae C or div. 1 Pale-grey foliage. Cotton Lavender strongly scented. Strobilanthes gossypmus. Acaiithaccac C A — 5 Fol. grev tomentose. Vinca minor. Variegated Apocynaceac C 1 Periwinkle ORNAMENTAL CLIMBERS AND CREEPERS SUITABLE FOR UP-COUXTKY [C.=cuttings: S=seed; L.— layers]. Name and Native Country [Hort.=Of garden origin] Natural Order. Colour of Fl's.. etc. How Propa- gated. Position suited for. Abronia umbellata (Annual) Nyctagincue Lilac or pink C Hanging-pots California Allamanda Hendersoni. Apocynaceac Yellow, large ,, Trees, fence, etc. Brit. Guiana Ampelopsis Veitchii. Ampdidcac Leaves bronze ,, Walls or pillars ' Virginian Creeper." Japan Begonia fuchsioides. Bcgonincciic Scarlet M Pillar, verandah, etc. New Grenada Bignonia capreolata. Bignoiiiaceae Pink & vellow f, ) N. America \ Arbours & arches B. — venusta. M Orange-yellow ,, I "Tanga-poo," T. Bomarea carderi. Columbia Amarvllidcnc Bright pink and M Pillars, etc. white Bougamvillea spectabilis. Nycttigiiiciic Purple »? Trees, banks, etc. S. America Cassia viminea. W. Indies Le&uminosae Yellow M Trees, pillars, etc. Clematis. several spp. Ranuiicnlaccac White, violet. S Walls, arbours, etc. and varieties blue. etc. r.==Tamil 408 ORXAMENTAL CLIMBERS, ETC. Name and Native Country. [Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. Colour of Fl's., etc. How Propa- gated. Position suited for. Cobaea scandens. Mexico Pole in o niacea c Greenish purple S&C Tall trees, fences, etc. Convolvulus, different var's. Couvolvnlaceae Various S Fences, arbours, etc. Crotalaria semperflorens. Legiiniinosae Yellow S or C Rockeries, etc. Ceylon, etc. Dumasia villosa. Nepaul M Pillars & arbours .Ficus pumila (=F. repens.) . Urticaccae Small ornamen- C Creeper on walls Ceylon, etc. tal foliage Fuchsia radicans. Brazil Onagraceae Scarlet Pillars, banks, etc. Hardenbergia monophylla. Legiuninosae Blue C or S Hanging pots, etc. Australia Hedera Helix. Ivy. Britain Uni belli ferae Handsome C Creeper on walls foliage Hibbertia dentata. Australia Dilleniaceae Yellow L. entire, oval Trees or trellises Hoyacarnosa. Wax Flower. Asclepiadeac Pale-pink ti Jasminum pubescens Oleaceae White ,„ Sheltered pillars, White Jasmine trellis-work, etc. Ipomoea rubro coerulea Convolvnlaccae Blue, pale centre . Mexico Lathyrus latiflorus. Legiuninosae Pink, etc. S or C Fences, walls, etc. Perennial Pea. Britain Lonicera caprifolia. Caprifolinceae Yellowish C ) European Honeysuckle • Tree-trunks, L. — Japonica. Japanese ,, Red & white arbours, etc. Honeysuckle Lophosperma scandens Scropli lilariaceae Pink- S \ Mandevilla suaveolens. Apocynaceae White, scented C or S Buenos Ayres Maurandya Barcklayana. Scropli it la ri acetic Violet- purple - Trellis work, etc. Mexico M.— erubescens. Mexico n Rose-pink n Mina lobata. (= Ipoinoea Convolvnlaceac Orange- S or C Dwarf slow- versicolor) Mexico yellow, etc. growing climber Nasturtium, see Tropcicolnm — — Passiflora edulis. Passion- Passifioi ace nc White S Fences, trees, etc. flower. W. Indies Rhynchosperma cyanosperma Legiuninosae Bright -red Rockeries, etc. or white Roses, see article on Roses Rosace a e Various C or L Fences, arbours, etc. Rubus (Bramble), ,, Striking foliage C or S Trees, fences, etc. several species Ruscus (Semele) androgynus. Liliacene Handsome C Tall trees Canary Islands foliage (not true leaves ) Schmidia (Thunbergia) Acantliaceae Pink & yellow Arbours, arches, etc. bicolor Senecio scandens. S. Africa Composite White M Fences, walls, or pillars Smilax argyraea. Bolivia Liliaceae \ Variegated 1 Trees, etc. S. — ornata i foliage Solandra grandiflora. Jamaica Solaiiaceae White Large trees Solanum jasminoides. ,, Fences, arbours, S. America; arches, etc. 1 ROSES 409 Name and Native Country [Hort.=Of garden origin]. Natural Order. How Colour of Fl's.. etc. Propa- gated- Pusitinn suited for. Tacsonia mollissima. Quito Passifloraceac Pink C T. — quitensis. Peru i S & C T. — van Volxemii. M Scarlet Pillars, New Grenada arbours, etc. Tecoma jasminoides. Bfgttoniaceae Waxy-pink & C Queensland white Thunbergia fragrans. Acanthaceac Pure-white S & C Hanging pots. Ceylon, etc. rockeries, etc. Tropaeolum canariensis Geraniaceae Bright-yellow S 1 T. — majus. Nasturtium. ., Orange-yellow CorS [Trellis-work, Peru pillars, etc. Also double varieties L 1 T. — Lobbianum. Columbia Scarlet S or Tu. Vinca minor. Periwinkle Apocynaccac Blue C ) Europe 1 Rockeries and V. — variegata. ,, Variegated foli- hanging pots. age 1 • Wistaria sinensis. Japan I*cgnminosac Blue or purple ,, Verandah walls and pillars ROSES One of the most satisfactory features of horticulture in the tropics is the fact that Roses — the "Queen of Mowers" — can, with careful attention and selection of suitable varieties, be grown with a wonderful degree of success, not only in the hills, but also at all elevations down to sea-level. In the tropics, roses can usually be had in blossom all the year round, and in up-country gardens the size and quality of the blooms is frequently such as would compare well with those produced in temperate countries. Unfortunately, however, in equatorial regions, especially at low elevations, roses usually lack not only size and form of bloom, but also much of the delightful fragrance which is so characteristic of these flowers in cooler climes. The following hints may be considered as preliminaries to -success in growing roses : Choose a site with full exposure to the sun, shade from trees or houses being detrimental to the plants ; protection from wind is necessary in the hills. A medium loamy soil with a clay sub-soil is best, while light sandy soils are the least suitable. Perfect drainage at the roots is essential. A liberal •quantity of manure (preferably cow-manure in a well-decomposed state) should be worked into the soil, and the plants may be plant- ed about 4 ft. apart each way in rows. If the land be flat, the soil 410 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY should be raised into beds or borders, so as to ensure good drainage. A mulching of stable manure, renewed at intervals, should cover the whole surface and sides of the beds ; this will protect the latter from the sun and retain moisture in the soil. Young plants should be chosen for planting out in preference to old ones. Any flower buds that may appear early should be removed, as the plants should not be allowed to bear blooms until at least 3 to 4 months after planting. In dry weather, the plants must be liberally watered. Manuring. — Dung, when applied, should always be in a well- decomposed state ; otherwise grubs and termites will come in its wake. As a further precaution against these, a sprinkling of unslaked lime should be added to the manure before being forked into the soil. Castor cake forms an excellent manure for the growth of the plants, wrhile phosphate fertilisers are considered important for the function of blooming. An expert grower recom- mends basic slag at the rate of i to 1 Ib. per plant, either alone, or incorporated with the dung when replenishing the beds. An application of liquid manure once or twice a week is most beneficial . Pruning Roses. — As a general rule Tea, Noisette, and Bourbons, which are the only kinds suited to the low-country, do not need much pruning beyond the removal of worn out or dead wood. Branches that have made vigorous growth and have finished flowering should be cut back, otherwise the plants will assume a ragged and straggling appearance. The Hybrid Perpetual varie- ties are, however, generally benefited by a hard pruning, and this. is best carried out, in the hill districts at any rate, towards the end of October; thus the new growth which follows should afford a display of bloom during the " hot season " months in the hills, viz., February to May. Propagation. — This is invariably effected in the tropics by cuttings or layering, as plants on their own roots are the most adapted to the climate. Cuttings may be put down at any season, and they strike best in a soil consisting mainly of fine sand with an admixture of charcoal. It is customary to make the cuttings with a heel when possible, and it is best to insert them in the ground sloping-wise. They should be shaded and kept moist until new growth is visible. Layering is adopted in the case of varieties, which do not propagate easily by cuttings, e.g. " Marechal Niel," and is successfully effected at Peradeniya all the year round. The layered shoot is pegged down into a bamboo- joint rilled with fine ROSES 411 sandy soil, the new plant being thus easily removed when it has developed roots and become independent of the stock. Roses in pots or tubs. — In the low-country and hot dry region, Roses generally do better in pots or wooden tubs than in an open border, owing to the unsuitable conditions of soil or climate. The former method enables the requirements of the plants to be better attended to, for the tubs can be rilled with only the best soil and provided with efficient drainage, while the plants, being movable, may be afforded the most suitable spot in regard to light and shelter. Diseases. — Roses are, on the whole, comparatively free from diseases in the tropics, mildew and " black spot," both fungus diseases, being perhaps the most prevalent. For the former, an occasional sprinkling of flowers of sulphur is a simple and effective remedy, and for the latter, which Mr. N. C. ROLT considers the worst enemy of the rose in Ceylon, formaldehyde diluted to a strength of 1/8 per cent, i.e., 1 tablespoonful to a gallon of soft water, has been found to be an excellent preventive. Importing Roses. — When new plants or varieties are required, they should when practicable be obtained from a reliable rirm at home, such as MESSRS. CANT & Soxs of The Old Rose Nurseries, Colchester, England. The plants being packed dry when in a dormant state, they take up but little space and can be transmitted in small packages by post. Though a good firm can be relied upon for sending the best varieties, it is well to remember that only roses on their own roots are adapted to the tropics, also that standard roses are not suitable. Small rooted cuttings travel well when their roots are in a ball of adhesive earth and surrounded by moss and waterproof paper; the stems, however, must have plenty of air, or will rot in transit. When imported plants arrive, especially if the weather be dry, they should be grown in bamboo-pots in the shade for a few weeks before being planted out. VARIETIES The success of rose cultivation in the tropics very largely depends on the kinds or varieties chosen. This is more especially true of the plains or low-country, where, as a rule, only "Teas," " Noisettes" and " Bourbons" will thrive. "Hybrid Perpetuals" may be considered generally as unsuited to elevations below 2,500 ft., and even in the hills may. with few exceptions, be superseded bv the excellent H vbrid-Tea varieties now available. 412 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY DESCRIPTIVE LIST [FOR ELEVATIONS BELOW 2,500 FT. : THOSE MARKED t ARE ALSO SUITED FOR UP-COUNTRY]. TEA-SCEX tAdam. — Rose and salmon, large blooms t Beautelnconstante. — Carmine yellow Catherine Mermet. — Light-flesh, ex- quisite in form t Devoniensis. — Creamy white, blush- centre t Enchantress. -Creamy white, free bloomer t Etoile de Lyon. — Sulphur-yellow. (Dry districts, up to 5,000 ft.) t Homer. — Blush-rose and salmon tHon. Edith Gifford. -Flesh colour, white scented Jean Ducher. — Yellow, salmon La Boule d'or. — Golden-yellow Lady Roberts. — Pink apricot, orange edges TED ROSES:— j Madame Camille.— Salmon-pink ,, de Watteville. — Salmon-rose t ,. Lambard.— -Sal m on-rose, free bloomer t Maman Cochet. — Light pink, shad- ed salmon-yellow t Maman Cochet. — White variety Mrs. B. R. Cant. — Very vigorous, full, globular blooms; "always in bloom, also good for a fence'' t Marie van Houtte. — Creamy yellow, edged pink t Niphetos. Pure white Peace. — Creamy white. "Makes a splendid bush, always in flower" I Rolt) President. Salmon-rose, large t Safrano. — Coppery yellow HYBRID T Admiral Dewey. — Light blush t Betty. — Exquisite, very large. Coppery-ro>e, shaded golden yellow T Captain Christy. — Cleur flesh, dark centre Caroline Testout. — Salmon-pink Clara Watson. — Salmon and pink Clio.— White Eearlute. — Scarlet-red, almost single; "one of the best bedders" Gloire de Lyonnaise. — Lemon-yellow t Grace Darling.— Large, full, rich pink tj. B. Clark.— Rich scarlet, shaded dark crimson TEAS:— t Killarney. — Pale pink La France.— Silvery peach. (Dry districts up to 2.000 ft.) t Laurette Carle. — Brilliant velvety ca. mine. "Splendid rose any- where up-country. (Rolt) Madame Abel Chatenay. — " Queen of decoratives." Salmon-pink t Richmond. — Pure rich scarlet. Free bloomer Viscountess Folkestone. — White, tinted with pale salmon, very large. Warrior. — Blood red, good for massing XOISETTES:— T Aimee Vibert.— Pure white t Boule de Niege.— Pure white T Caroline Kuster.- Bright orange- yellow Celine Forestier. — Rich sulphur — yellow Cloth of Gold.— Yellow, pale margin t Lamarque Jeaune.- Golden-yellow, large blooms L'ideal. — Yellow or coppery-red 7 Reve d'Or. — Deep-yellow, some- times coppery yellow tWilliam Allan Richardson.— Orange-yellow or creamy-white Apolline. — Light pink. Empress Eugenie. — Rosy-blush, pie edges Madame Plantier. — Pure white BOURBON:— tMrs. Paul.— Blush white t Souvenir de la Malmaison. (•-=" Hun- dred-petal " rose). — Flesh colour Victor Emmanuel. — Purplish maroon shade ROSES HYBRID PERPETUAL ROSES:— (FOR ELEVATIONS ABOVE 2.500 FT). Abel Grand. — Rosy-blush Charles Lefebre. — Crimson Baron Rothschild. — Brilliant crimson Baroness Rothschild. —Clear rose- Beauty of Wai1 ham. — Rosy-crimson Ben Cant. — Bright crimson Black Prince. — Dark-crimson, shaded with black Captain Hay ward. — Carmine-red Duke of Edinburgh.— Bright scarlet- crimson Dupuy Jamain. — Bright cerise Frau Karl Druschki. — Pure white. very large blooms Her Majesty. — Satiny rose, large Hugh Dickson.— Brilliant crimson John Hopper. — Bright rose Jules Margottin. Bright-carmine Lord Raglan. — Scarlet crimson Madame Eugene Verdier. — Deep pink Victor Verdier.— Bri gh t cherry-red Maharajah. — Deep cnmson, single flowers Margaret Dickson. •- \V h i t e. r o s e centre Marie Baumann. — Bright carmine Mrs. John Laing. — Soft-pink Paule Neron. — Deep rose Prince Camille de Rohan. — Deep velvety crimson-maroon Senateur Vaisse.- -Scarlet Victor Hugo. -Bright crimson Xavier Olibo. -Verv dark-red, velvetv Mix'. X. C. ROLT, an experienced rose-grower in Ceylon, says: "The Hybrid Perpetuals are hardly worth growing now. so many splendid Hybrid Teas are on the market, these flowering almost all the year, which cannot be- said of the former." CLIMBING ROSES SUITABLE FOR TRAINING OX ARCHES. FENCES. PERGOLAS, PILLARS, ETC. THOSE MARKED t ARE SUITED FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY. t Aimee Vibert.— White Ard's Rover. — Crimson, good bloom- er Blush Rambler. — Crimson t Celine Forestier. — Rich sulphur- yellow t Devoniensis (Climbing). — Cream y- white or carmine Duchesse d'Anersloedt. — Yellow Felicite Perpetue. — Creamy white T Gloire de Dijon. — Orange-yellow, shaded salmon t Gruss an Teplitz.— Bright crimson. Suitable as a pillar rose Lamarque Jeaune. — Golden yellow Lamarque White. — Blooms white t Marechal Niel. — B e a u t i f u 1 deep yellow f Niphetos (Climbing).- Pure white Papa Gontier. — R o s e pink, f r e e grower Papillon. — White w i t h c o p p e r y shading. Splendid pillar Rose Reine Marie Henriette. — -Cherry red. first rate for the Hills Noella Nabounand. — Crimson Reve d'or. — Deep yellow The Garland. — Blush white t William Allen Richardson. Orange- Yellow SHOWY ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS CHIEFLY SUITED FOR UP-COUNTRY. Name. Natural Order. Height in ft. (or inches.) Colour of Flowers, etc. Acroclinium roseum. " Everlasting" Flowers Ageratum mexicanum Alonsoa Warscewiczii. Several var's ] -2 Rose, pink, and white var' I — U Blue Scrophulariitceac 14 — 2 Orange-red, etc. SHOWY ANNUALS AXD BIENNIALS 415 NIGELLA "MISS JKKYLL." Name. Natural Order- Height in ft. (or inches). Colour of Flowers, etc. Alternanthera amoena. Amarantaccae 6— 10 in. Leaves hron/e-green J "Joy Weed." Several varieties Alyssum minimum. Cruci ferae 6 in. White, scented Sweet Alyssum Amaranthus caudatus. ! Amarautaccac l£ — 2 Bright-red, pendulous "Love-lies-bleeding." tails A.— tricolor. Several Brilliant-red foliage varieties Ammobium alatum. Compositae U-2 White "Winged Everlasting." Anagallis grandiflora. Primnlaceac 8— 10 in. Blue, light-blue and white Pimpernell Antirrhinum ma jus. Scrophttlari acetic 1 Shades of crimson Large and dwarf var's. SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY 417 Xanie. Natural Order. Height in ft. (or inches). Colour of Flowers, etc. Arctotis grandis. Compositae 14-2 Bluish-white Argemone grandiflora Paparcraccac 2 White A. — Hunnemannii w 2 Yellow Asperula azurea. Woodruff Rttbiaccac 1 Light-blue, scented Aster, China. \ Numerous varieties, as "German," "Victoria," > Compositae 6 — 15 in. White, pink, lilac, etc. "Mignon." "Crown," "Quilled." etc. / Athanasia annua. • „ 1 Yellow ''Everlasting." Balsam (Impatiens). Gcsncraccae 8— 12 in. White, pink, rose-red, etc. numerous varieties Bartonia aurea GcntiatlOCeae 1 Golden yellow, large fl's. Brachycome iberidifolia. Compositae 1 Blue and white var's. Swan River Daisy Browallia grandiflora Solauaceae 1-2 Dark blue, large fl's. Cacalia (Emilia) coccinea Compositae H-2 Scarlet ; erect stems Calandrinia grandiflora Porhilaceac 1 Pink, rose, yellow, etc. Rock Purslane Calceolaria hybrida. ScropJi it la riaceat 8— 10 in. Bright-yellow Slipper Wort Calendula officinalis. Compositae i-H Orange, yellow-striped, Pot Marigold pale-lemon, etc. Several varieties C. — pluvialis. »» I— li White and purple Cape Marigold Calliopsis, see Coreopsis. — — Callichroa (Layia) platyglossa Compositae i Yellow Callirhoe digitata. Malvaceae 1 | Bright magenta. "Poppy Mallow." Callistephus chinensis. — — See A'stcr Candytuft, several varieties; Cnicifcrac i-H White, crimson, etc. Centaurea cyanus. Compositae 14 Rich-blue, lilac, pink, etc Corn-flower C. — moschata. Sweet Sultan 2 Purple. Centranthus macrosiphon. Valcrianaccae H Rosy purple Chelone ( Pentstemon)barbata Scroph it la riaceac 24 Scarlet. Chrysanthemum coronarium. Compositae H White yellow-eyed, etc. C. — carinatum ,, H Tricolor varieties. C. — leucanthemura, f| U-2 Large, white, yellow eye. "Ox-eye," or Shasta Daisy C. — segatum. - M H Yellow, several varieties. Yellow corn-flower Clarkia elegans. C— pulchella. Onagraccae U 14 i Pale rose, pink, etc. Clintonia (Downingia) elegans Cainpaiiiilact'ac i-U White, purple, etc. C. — pulchella. M Blue Collinsia bicolor. Scrap li 11 la riaceac li Purple and white Convolvulus. — — — See Ornamental Clim- bers for Up-country Coreopsis (Calliopsis) bicolor Compositae 1—2 Yellow and brown or crimson. SHOU'Y AXXL'ALS AXD IUEXXIALS 419 CLARKIA PL'LCHELI.A. Name. Natural Order. Height in ft. (or inches). Colour of Flowers, etc. •C. — Drummondii Loiiipositac Cosmos bipinnatus. C. — sulphureus. Cuphea miniata. Lvthi'ticctic Datura Stramonium. SoluiiiicciU' 1-2 2—3 1~1"' Bright-yellow Fink, white, etc. Yellow. Scarlet, tipped with Yellow . White Delphinium cardiopelalum. Ranniicnlaccae Larkspur. Numerous varieties Dianthus bar at us. Ctll' Sweet William ] — 2 Different shades of blue, purple, etc. £ — 1 Pink and white SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUXTRY 421 Name. Natural Order. Height in ft (or inches). Colour of Flowers, etc. D. — chinensis. Chinese or Indian Pink. Caryo- Several single and phvllaccae 1 White, crimson, etc. double var's. Erysimum Perowskianum. Crudferae 1 Orange and yellow Eschscholtzia californica. Papavaraccac 1-U Orange-yellow Californian Poppy. Gaillardia picta. " Blanket Compositac 1—2 Yellow and crimson. flower." Gamolepis tagetes. M 9 in. Briglit-vellow, single fl's. •GaiKa grandiflora. Onagraceae 2 White Gilia tricolor. Polcnioiiincenc 8 in. Large, lavender or white purple-eyed. G. — muhicaulis. H 1 Blue Godetia Whitneyi. Oiiagraccae 1 Rich-crimson, etc ; h"s Numerous varieties. large. Gypsophila elegans. Caryophyllaceat H Feathery, lilac. Hehanthus annuus. Sun- Compositac. U-4 Yellow, dark-eye. Sho\\y. flower. Numerous tall and dwarf varieties. Helichrysum. Lverlastings »• • ' 1|^-2| Yellow, white-orange, etc. Ipomoea rubro-coerulea Convolvnlaccac 8—16 Various shades ; large " Morning Glory." handsome fl's. Ipomopsis (Gilia) elegans Polcmoniaceae 6-8 Tubular crimson fl's; feathery leaves. Jacobaea elegans, see Senecio — — — Kaulfu.sia (Charieis) amel- Compositac 1-U1 Blue, crimson and violet ; loides. daisy-like fl's. Larkspur, see Delphinium — — — Lathyrus. see Sweet Pea. — — — Layia, see Callichroa. — — Leptosiphon (Gilia) roseus. Polcmoniaccae 8—10 in. Rose-pink. Leptogyne calliopsidea Compositac U Lemon-yellow, like Mar- guerites. Linaria cymbalaria. Several Sci'oplinlnnacctu 6—12 in. Lilac, yellow, orange, var's. crimson, etc. Linum grandiflorum rubrum. Linac U Scarlet, blue, etc. Several var's. Lebelia erinus. Numerous Campannlaccae 1 Shades of blue, crimson, var's. purple and white. Lupinus polyphyllus. Lupin. Lcgnmiiiosae h-2 Orange, yellow, blue, etc. Several var's. Malope grandiflora Malvaceae U-2 Crimson, white-striped, etc. Marigold, African. Tagetes Compositac ,, Lemon-yellow, orange, etc. erecta. M.— French. Tagetes patula. 11 i-1 Orange-yellow, and crim- " Sarnie- poo " T.\ son var's. Malcolm ia mari'ima. See — — Virginian Stock Matthiola annua. see Stocks — Mesembryanthemum tricolor. Ficoideae i— l Different shades pink. etc. Fig Marigold Mignonette (Reseda odorata) Resedaccac i— H Greenish-white or yellow, Numerous varieties very fragrant. T=Tamil SHO\rY AXXUALS AVI) BIENNIALS 423 AKC10TIS GKAND1S. Name. M imulus macu'osus. Scrophiilariaccat 8— 10 in. " Monkey Flower" Mirabilis Jalapa. "Marvel- \ychigiiutc 1 — 1 £ of -Peru" Myosotis. Forget-me-not BoragtHaceatf 8 — 10 in. , "Royal Blue" and other var's Nasturtium (see Ornamental Climbers Nemesia strumosa. Scroplinl HAST A DAISY. Clt rysti iitliciuit 111 leucantkcmum. Aspidistra lurida variegata.- Hardy stemless plant, with large hand- some green and white-striped leaves. Azalea indica.— Small shrubs, bearing a profusion of large showy pink, white, or yellow Howers. Numerous varieties. Begonia, fibrous-rooted.— Numerous varieties, showy flowers and foliage. B. tuberous-rooted.— Very large, brilliant yellow or scarlet flowers. B. — rex. -About 10 to 12 inches high. Foliage large, very ornamental. Numerous varieties Calathea. — A herbaceous steirkss genus, with large showy leaves. Propagated b\ division. DTELYTKA SPECTABILIS. " LYKK FLOWER." SPIKAEA (HOTEIA) JAPOXICA. SELECT10XS FOR UP-COUXTRY 435 Chrysanthemum, Japanese.— One of the most beautiful genera of flowering plants. Numerous varieties. Cineraria. — A genus of showy flowering plants, hearing large heads of blue or purplish flowers : cultivated as annuals. Coleus. — Annuals with beautifully marked, soft velvety leaves, easily propagated bv cuttings. CINKKAKIA STKLLATA. Clyclamen.— Small tuberous plants, bearing very pretty delicate pink, vrimson, or white flowers ; suited onlv for growing under cover at the higher elevations. Dracaena (Cordyline). -Handsome palm-like plants, with bronze, crimson, or green leaves. Numerous varieties. Propagated by suckers or portions of the stem. Epiphyllum. — Succulent plant*, bearing very showy, bright pink or •crimson flowers. SELECTED POT-PLAXTS 437 Ferns. — See article on Fcrns. Francoa ramosa. — An ornamental creeping plant, suitable for hanging pots ; Propagated by division or cuttings. Freesia. — A Cape genus of small tuberous plants producing a profusion of creamy-white, scented flowers. There are several, species and varieties. BKOXVAJ.LIA Sl'KCIOSA. KLOXVKKS BRIGHT BU'K. They require a cool atmosphere and protection from the rains, and are best groxvn under cover. Fuchsia. — A very ornamental gem of small floxvering shrubs ; numerous varieties. Propagated by cuttings. Genista. — Small free-floxvering shrubs, xvith yelloxv blossoms. 438 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY Geranium. — A universal favourite. Numerous varieties ; Hovvers of many shades, showy and scented. With care they thrive for a time at low and medium elevations, but require frequent pruning. They are much improved by a weekly application of a fertiliser, given in solution with water. G. — , Zonal or Tri-color. — Leaves beautifully marked, horse-shoe shaped, fragrant. GLOXINIA, "SUTTON'S GIANT." G. — , Ivy-leaved. — Showy and free-flowering, suitable for training on pillars, trellises, etc Gesnera. — A genus of numerous species of small choice herbaceous plants, generally tuberous-rooted. G. — Douglasii and G. — magnifica are especially attractive. Gloxinia. — An extensive genus of tuberous-rooted small plants, exceed- in glv showy when in bloom. SELECTED POT-PLANTS 439 Impatiens. — A showy genus -of herbaceous flowering plants. Among the best are /. Holstii, I. Stiltnni, and l.faacicnlata. Pelargonium. — A class allied to Geraniums, with scented, curly or cut leaves and showy flowers. Pelargonium is the botanical name for Geranium. Petunia. — A very showy genus of flowering annuals, blooming freely and continuously. Single, double, and fringed varieties. Primula chinensis.— Small annual flowering plants, of which there are numerous varieties. P. — obconica. Small perennial plants, flowering in the winter season. Spiroea (Hoteia) japonica. A popular plant for pot-culture; flowers creamy white, in large panicles. Streptocarpus.— A perennial herb with prostrate leaves, bearing scapes of large bluish or lilac flowers. Several species and hybrids. Violets. (Viola odorata). — Several single and double-flowered varieties; can be grown successfully in sheltered borders or in pots. Among the best are : \cnpolitan (double fl's ;) pale lavender, very sweet-scented ; Czar (large, single, blue fl's) ; Compte Braszn (large double, white fl's). CHAPTER XIX. PLANTS SPECIALLY SUITED FOR THE DRY REGION, SEA COAST, AND SANDY SITUATIONS. ORXAMEXTAL AXD USEFUL TREES FOR THE DRY REGIOX :— [.S.=Sinhalese ; 7\=Tamil]. Acacia leucophlcea. " Maha-andara " S.. " Velvel " T. A large tree with spreading branches, and bright pale-yellow flowers. Heart-wood hard and durable. Adansonia digitata. Baobab Tree. A medium-sized tree, native of Central Africa, famous for the great age and enormous size of trunk to which it attains. It has become well established and bears fruit in the dry Northern part of Ceylon, where it has been long ago introduced by Arab traders. Adenanthera pavonina. Bead Tree ; " Madatiya " S. See under Shade Trees. Azadirachta indica. Margosa. >% Kohomba " S. A tall straight tree with long spreading branches. Flowers white, sweet-scented. Bauhinia tomentosa. " Petan " or "Kaha-petan" S., " Tiruvatti " T. A. small tree or large shrub, with slender branches and yellow Hovvers. Heart- wood hard, dark-red, very tough. Berrya ammonilla. " Hal-milla " S., Chavandalai " T. A large erect handsome tree; valuable timber. See Important Timbers of the Tropics. Caesalpinia coriaria. Divi-divi. A spreading, medium-sized tree, with fine feathery leaves, producing greenish-white, sweet-scented flowers. See Tan n in Products. Cassia Fistula. " Indian Laburnum," " Ehela, " S. \ gec Benntiful Flower- C. — marginata. " Ratu-wa " S., " Vakai " T. > ing Trees for low C.— multijuga. (South American Tree.) J elevations. Eucalyptus alba. A tall slim tree with pale grey bark ; one of the few species of Eucalypti suited to the dry region. Holoptelea integrifolia. " Indian Elm," " Goda-kirilla " >»'.. " Velayil " T. A tree 50 to 60 ft. high, with handsome drooping branches ; good timber. Millingtonia hortensis. Cork Tree. See lieuiitiful FIou'erin.i< Trees for low elevations. Mischodon zeylanicus. " Tammana," .S., Tampani " T. A tree 30 to 40 ft. high, with long lanceolate leaves; young foliage bright pink. Excellent timber. PL AXIS FOR SEA-COAST AX I) DRY REGIOX 441 Murraya exotica, var buxifolia. " Rtteriya " S. A small graceful tree : flowers pure white and sweet-scented. Persea (Alseodaphne) semecarpifolia. " Wewarani " *>., " Kanai," or " Vavaranai " T. A large much-branched tree, common to the dry region. One of Ceylon's best timber*. Pithecolobium (Inga) Saman. Rain tree ; " Peni-karal " S. See under Shade 'frees. Thrives in a fairly dry district if planted in good deep soil. Poinciana regia. Flamboyante. See under FUncer/ug Trees for loiv elevations. Polyahhia longifolia. " Maia-illupai " T. A large handsome erect tree, much planted as an avenue tree in North Ceylon and S. India. Spathodea campanulata. See Hean ////// Floiceriiig Tre-'s. Tamarindus indicus. Tamarind ; " Siyambala '* S. A large handsome tree adapted for roadsides. Excellent timber. Thespesis populnea. Tulip Tree ; " Suriya " S.. See under Shade Trees Vitex altissima. " Milla " or Sapu-milla " S\ " Kadamanakku " T. A very large tree, with a dense head and somewhat drooping branches. V.— Leucoxylon. " Xebedda.'' S. " Kaddu-nochchi " T. A large tree \vith spreading head, common in dry region, especially near tanks. Wood hard, dark-grey, valuable timber. SHADE TREKS. — See Chapter on Slunk Trees. FLOWERING SHRUBS. Allamanda Schottii. Flowers \ellow Barleria cristata. Pink and white Caesalpinia pulcherrima. " Peacock flower." Bright yellow or scarlet •Gardenia florida. FJ's white, scented Ixora coccinea " Katambala " S. Flowers scarlet Ixora rosea. Flowers pink Jasmmum pubeseens. Fl's white, scented Lagerstroemii indica. Bright purple fl's Pavetta inchica. Fl's white Randia dumctorum. " Kukuruman " S. Fl's white Reinwardtia tetragyna Yellow fl's. Thunbergia erecta. Blue or white fl's Turnera ulmifolia. Fl's white ORNAMENTAL CLIMBERS : — Allamanda Hendersonii. Fl's large white Antigonon leptopus. Fl's lovely pink. Bignonia unguis. Fl's yellow Bougainvillea spectabilis. Bright pur- plish-crimson Ipomoea Briggsii. Fl's bright-crimson Ipomoea tuberosa. Fl's yellow Porana volubilis. " Bridal Bouquet " Fl's creamy-white Quisqualis indica. "Rangoon Creeper"- Fl's orange-red Thunbergia lauriiolia =T. grandiflora Fl's. large blue FOR THE SEA-COAST. ORNAMENTAL TREES : — [S=Sced ; O=cuttings ; Su--^suckers. ] Name. Natural Order. How Propa- gated, Height and descriptive notes. Artocarpus incisa. Bread-fruit Bamngtonia speciosa Mudilla" S. I 'rlicaceac Myrtaceae Su. S 40—50 ft. A beautiful foliage tree. About 50 ft. : handsome large leaves. S=Sinhalese ; r=Tamil. 442 PLAXTS FOR SEA-COAST Name. Carallia integerrima. " Devvata " S. Casuarma equisitifolia. Beef-tree : " Kassa " S. Cerbera borbonica. " Mudu-kaduru " -S. Cocos nucifera. Coconut Palm Eucalyptus alba. 1 White Gum-tree E. — citriodra. Lemon- scented Gum-tree Gliricidia maculata. 14 Madre" Morinda citrifolia. '"Ahu" S. Ochrosia borbonica. "Mudu-kaduru." .S. Peltophorum ferrugineum. "Iva-vakai " T. Pisonia morindifolia. Lettuce Tree; " Letchicotta " T. Pithecolombium dulce. " Madras Thorn " P. — Saman. Rain Tree ; " Peni-karal " S. Plumeria acutifolia. Temple-Tree P. — rubra. Crimson, Temple-Tree Poinciana regia. Flamboy.mte Polyalthia longifoli*. " VJara-illupai " T. Pterocarpus indicus. Padouk Spathodea campanulata. Thespesia populnea. Tulip Tree ; "Suriva" .S. Natural Order. How Propa- gated. Height and descriptive notes. Rltizoplioraeetie S 50—60 ft. C dsiuiri i/tie 50 80 ft. Ornamental. Apocynaceac ,. About 25 ft. Fl's white. Pti/ntiie 60—80 ft. Myrhiceae 50 — 60 ft. Sino th, white bark. 40—50 ft. Slender hand- some tree. Legiitninosae S or C About 30ft. See Hcnuli- fnl Flincen'iig Tree. Ritbiiieene S 25—30 ft. Large leaves Apoeyinieeriaria. Divi-divi — See Tannin Products. Diospyros Embryopteris. " Timbiri " T. A moderate-sized evergreen tree with spreading branches. Eucalyptus alba. White Gum-tree. A tall slender tree with smooth grey biirk, native of N. Australia; thrives and bears seed at Anuradhapura, Ce3rlon. E. — citriodora. Lemon-scented Gum-tree. A handsome slender tree, with smooth bark. Mischodon zeylanicus. " Tammanu " S. "Tampanai"?'. A much-branched tree, 30 to 40 feet high, suited to dry region. Myristica laurifolia. "Wild Nutmeg" "Malaboda" S. " Palmanikam " 7\ A large tree with wide spreading branches and large leaves; thrives in rather dry as well as moist region. Peltophorum ferrugineum. "Iva-vakai," T. A moderate-sized or large much- branched, handsome tree, indigenous to dry region of Ceylon. See Beautiful Flowering Trees. SHADE AND WIND-BELT TREES, ETC. 455 Pithecolobium (Inga) Saman. "Saman;" "Rain-tree," "Peni-karal," vS. See Shade Trees for Moist Lmv-coitntry. Poinciana regia. Flamboyante. See under Beautiful Flou'ering Trees. Polyalthia longifolia. "Mara-illupai" T. A handsome evergreen tree, suitable for avenues and road sides. Pterocarpus marsupium. "Gammalu" S. (See above). Suited to moderately dry region. Swietenia macrophylla. Large-leaved Mahogany. A large handsome tree, suited to dry districts. Tamarindus indica. Tamarind; "Siyambala" S. "Puli" T. A large handsome tree, adapted to a dry as well as moist region. Thespesia populnea. Tulip Tree; "Suriya" S. "Kavarachu" T. A small much- branched spreading tree, with ovate pointed leaves, Indigenous to the dry region of Ceylon near the sea, often planted as an avenue or shade tree. See Important Timbers of the Tropics. FOR PARKS, PASTURE LANDS, AVENUES, ETC.:— Same as above. SHADE TREES SUITED FOR MEDIUM ELEVATIONS. (2,000 to 5000 ft; Rainfall 70 to 140 inches). FOR ROAD-SIDES, PASTURE LAND, AND OPEN SPACES:— Acacia melanoxylon. Black wood. A large tree, furnishing excellent timber. Acacia pycnantha. Golden-wattle. 30 to 40 ft high; good timber, valuable tannin bark. Albizzia momccana. Sau Tree; "Ruta-mara" S. A large quick-growing tree; thrives from 1,000 to 3,500 ft. Thin feathery foliage. A.— stipulata. "Kabal-mara" S. (See above). Castanospermum australe. Moreton Bay Chestnut. A medium-sized tree, thrives from 1,000 to 3,000 ft. Cedrela serrata. Red Toon \ ^ _, Quick-growing handsome trees; good timber C— Toona. Toon-tree; In- \ v_ _ , ™ ° and shade. Thrive up to 6,000 ft. dian Mahogany. / Cullenia excelsa. "Wild Dtirian." A symmetrical, spreading, evergreen tree; thrives up to 3,000 ft. Grevillea robusta. Silky Oak. (See above). A useful and ornamental tree with fine feathery foliage, excellent for shade, wind-belts and fuel; also affords serviceable timber. Pterocarpus marsupium. "Gammalu" S. Thrives up to 3,000 ft. (See above). Schinus molle. "Pepper Tree." A handsome, spreading, small tree with pinnate leaves. See Ornamental Foliage Trees for Up-country. FOR TIMBER, WIND-BELTS AND FUEL :— (See also Important Timbers of the Tropics. Acacia pycnantha. (See above) Cedrela serrata. See above. Albizzia moluccana. „ I Cedrela Toona. Eucalyptus Leucoxylon, Iron-bark Tree, A large Australian tree, affording very hard, durable, and strong timber, used by cartwrights and ship-builders. 454 SHADE AND WIND-BELT TREES, ETC. E. — marginata. Jarrah. — An Australian tree, yielding valuable, durable timber, resistant to termites and other insects; largely used for sleepers, street- paving, jetty-building, &c, E. — robusta. Iron-bark. An upright tall tree, with rough brown bark, much planted for timber and fuel reserves at elevation of 3,000 to 5000 ft. in Ceylon. Grevillea robusta. Silky Oak. (See above). Michelia Champaca. " Sapu " S. — A large quick-growing tree; good timber and fuel: thrives up to 2,000 ft. FOR FIELD CROPS, TEA, ETC : — (See also Shade Trees suited for crops in Low-country), Acacia dealbata. Silver- wattle. See Ornamental Flowering Trees. A. — molissima = (A. ducurrens). Black or Tan-wattle. A large Australian Tree, commonly grown at the higher elevations in Ceylon. (See Tun Barks.) Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, A handsome quick-growing Leguminous tree. Albizzia moluccana. ( See above ) \ A.— stipulata ( ) ,- Thrive up to about 4,000 ft. in Ceylon. Erythrina lithosperma ( ,, ) ) Cedrela serrata. Red Toon. ( See above ) \ ~ .„ , ^.,. ~ , f x \ Thrive from 2,000 to 0,000 it. Grevillea robusta. Silky Oak ( ,, ) ) TREES SUITED FOR WIND-BELTS, TIMBER, AND FUEL. FOR ELEVATIONS ABOVE 4,000 FT. Acacia decurrens. Black or Tan-wattle. (See above). A. — melanoxylon. blackwood. A large tree, furnishing excellent timber (See Ornamental Foliage Trees)- Also several other species of Acacia. Calophyllum Walkerii. "Kina" vS. A large tree, with a thick straight trunk and a round head; common at the higher elevations in moist region. Good wind-belt tree. Peculiar to Ceylon. Cedrela serrata. Red Toon. See above; also Ornamental Foliage Trees. Cupressus Knightiana. Conifer. \ Large, quick-growing, handsome trees, useful 1- for timber, fuel and wind belts. See Orna- C — macrocarpa. ,, ) mental Foliage Trees for Up-country. Eucalyptus Leucoxylon. Iron-bark Tree. See above. E. — marginata. Jarrah. A large tree of Western Australia, affording one of the most durable timbers known (See above). Also several other species of Eucalyptus. Frenela rhomboidea. A moderate-sized, handsome, coniferous tree, good for timber, fuel, &c. Grevillea robusta. Silky Oak. — See above. Michelia nilagirica. "Wal-sapu" S. A moderate -sized shrubby tree, with a round head, common in moist forests above 4,000 ft. One of the best of indigenous mountain timbers in Ceylon. Schinus molle. "Pepper Tree." A handsome, spreading, small tree, with fine feathery foliage. See Ornamental Foliage Trees for Up-country CHAPTER XXI. RAILWAY, SCHOOL, AND RE5THOUSE GARDENS. [For fuller information, see special Chapters on different subjects]. The vicinity of Railway Stations, Schools and Resthouses affords in many cases excellent opportunities of establishing attrac- tive and useful little gardens, often in isolated or sparsley cultivated districts, and are thus capable of serving as object lessons to the peasantry, in addition to their primary purpose of ornament or utility. Through their agency useful and ornamental plants may be intro- duced and established in remote districts, and thsy may be the means of demonstrating the kinds of plants most adapted to the particular climate and soil of their locality. The most cheerless and bleak situations may be made attractive and interesting by establishing and maintaining neat little gardens suitable to the surroundings, and the effect of these also in rendering a vicinity salubrious and agreeable can hardly be over-estimated. Laying out and Planting. — The outline of the garden being decided upon, the boundary should be planted with suitable trees for the purpose of providing shade or shelter. These should be planted closer than they are intended to remain when grown up, allowance being thus made for thinning out as the trees approach maturity. Deciduous trees should not, as a rule, be planted for shade, as they are likely to drop their leaves when shade is most required. In planning the garden, it may help to make one's idea clear by first sketching on paper the general contour of the ground and the outline of the scheme it is proposed to follow, afterwards marking off the space with string and pegs. The plan to be carried out should, of course, depend on the area, whilst the labour avail- able for carrying on the work and maintaining the garden in a proper condition must also be considered. Therefore, never make a garden larger than you can manage to maintain in good condi- tion. A small garden well kept is obviously preferable to a larger one which always presents an untidy or neglected appearance. Persons in charge of Resthouses and Railway gardens in Ceylon RAILWAY, SCHOOL, AND RESTHOUSE GARDENS 457 frequently make the mistake of thinking that a great number of miniature beds and borders, sometimes but a few inches in width and of fantastic outline, constitute an attractive garden. Such geometrical figures are neither ornamental nor practical, being unsuitable for the growth of most ornamental plants, and too small and intricate to allow of their being maintained in a proper con- dition. These should, therefore, be discouraged. Simple beds of moderate dimensions, either oblong, round, or oval in shape, and borders of suitable width and natural curves are much more preferable. Borders are, as a rule, best confined to the outskirts of the garden, where they should be planted with tall shrubs so as to form a striking background for the smaller plants and beds in front. Flower-beds may be dotted about the lawn and by the sides of paths, but care should be taken to leave the centre of the garden as open as possible. Where only a narrow strip of ground is available, as at some railway stations, no elaborate design should be attempted ; a bold border consisting of mixed ornamental shrubs for a background, finishing with smaller plants in front, being in such cases the most practical and effective arrangement. The ideal small garden should present a striking background of tall shrubs and shady riowering-trees, with beds of gradually smaller plants in the foreground, the latter being set in a smooth level lawn, with plenty of space between them. This will present the best effect when looked at from the front, as from the railway carriages. Paths. — These should always be wide enough for two persons to walk comfortably abreast, and may be either straight or grace- fully curved. It must be remembered that they are meant for convenience rather than ornament ; therefore avoid having any more than are necessary. Cleanly kept paths, of uniform width and with neatly trimmed edges, add greatly to the general effect of a garden. Hedges. — It is essential at the outset to guard against vermin and wandering cattle, and also in some places against deer, por- cupines, etc., so that protection by means of a wall, a paling of old sleepers, or a good barbed-wire fence is usually indispensable. When such is employed, it should be concealed and beautified by showy climbers, or by a neat hedge of ornamental shrubs. A live fence or hedge of some formidable prickly plant may in itself, in some cases, afford an efficient barrier when well established. RAILWAY, SCHOOL, AND RESTHOUSE GARDENS 459 Climbers.— Ornamental climbers can be used with charming effect over bamboo or iron arches, twined round tree trunks or trained in festoons between pillars. They may also serve useful purposes in screening off an unsightly outhouse or shading an exposed verandah. Climbers, however, may be injurious to buil- dings if allowed to grow unchecked over the roof, and 'Should therefore be kept within bounds. Lawns — The beds or borders should be so arranged as to leave plenty of working space between them, and this should, whenever feasible, be laid in turf so as to afford all the lawn possible. The latter forms the best setting, and if well kept will not only increase the ornamental effect of the plants, but will in itself always present a very attractive and pleasing appearance. A lawn is easily produced, and when made entails less labour in up- keep than the same area laid out in fanciful strips of paths and borders. The ground should first be dug up and uniformly levelled ; the surface may then be covered with turf, or, if this is scarce, roots of grass may be dibbled in at three or four inches apart, and the surface afterwards rolled. Seed of any good local turf grass, as " Tutteri," if sown and covered with a sprinkling of soil will soon form a green sward. Wet weather should, of course, be chosen for any work of this nature. When th^ turf is well established the grass should be kept short, which may easily be done by an edged bamboo splint, if a small lawn mower is not available. Upkeep. -However well a garden may be laid out and planted, its usefulness and attractiveness will depend upon how the grounds and general surroundings are looked after. As a rule it may be accepted that the condition of a garden invariably reflects the extent of personal interest of its owner or the person in charge. Keeping the grass short and the turf uniformly level, the paths clean- weeded with neatly cut edges, hedges neatly trimmed, weed- ing, forking, and mulching the soil — these are operations which should never be neglected, and go far to make a perfect garden. Propagation. — Simple propagation, as by cuttings, division of roots or bulbs, etc., may easily be carried out in small gardens, as at Railway stations, Resthouses, Schools, etc. Too often valuable plants are allowed to run out of stock, and the Government Gardens are expected to replace them when required. All that is necessary is a bed of loose rich soil in a shady corner. This should be dug to about 2 feet deep, so as to afford good drainage and encourage the retention of moisture in the soil in drv weather. Remove anv RAILWAY, SCHOOL, AND RESTHOUSE GARDENS 461 coarse stones, roots, etc., and place on the surface a layer of fine soil, to which should be added some leaf-mould and fine river-sand. Very little attention is required beyond shading and watering the beds when necessary. The advantages of this practice are obvious, for not only are the plants thus ready at hand when required for planting out or for filling vacancies, but the supply of special kinds- suitable for definite purposes or locality can be relied upon. SELECTED FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE PLANTS, ANNUALS, CLIMBERS, ETC. SUITABLE FOR GARDENS FROM SEA- LEVEL TO 6,000 FT. ELEVATION. See also Selections for Low-and Up-country. FLOWERING AND FOI.IAGK PLANTS, 5 it. TO 8 ft. HIGH : — Lagerstroemia indica. Flowers pink Tabernam^>ntana coronaria. Flowers pure-white Croton. Different varieties. Orna- meiital foliage Palms. Different varieties. Hand- some graceful foliage Acalypha. Different varieties; large coloured leaves. Pisonia alba. (Lettuce-tree). Green- ish-yellow foliage Arundo Donax. Large variegated grass Hibiscus. Different varieties. Showv flowers <\momum magnificum. Ornamental leaves, showy flowers Poinsettia pulcherrima. Showy scarlet flowers Heliconia aureo-striata. Large orna- mental plantain-like leaves Panax fruticosum. Ornamental feathery leaves Cordyline. (Dracaena). Ornamental, purple, crimson, or bronze leaves Aralia filicilolia. Ornamental feathery leaves Mussasnda erythrophylla. Showy scarlet flowers Gardenia florida. White, scented flowers Kopsia fruticosa. Fink and white flowers Plumeria rubra. Red Temple-tree. Crimson flowers LOW PLANTS SUITABLE FOR BEDS, FRONT ROWS. OR EDGING: — Cannas. Numerous varieties. Flowers yellow, scarlet, pink, etc. Leaves large, green or bronze Vinca rosea Pink or white flowers Coleus. Different varieties. Orna- mental foliage Caladiunr.s. Different varieties. Ornamental foliage Alternanthera. Several varieties. Dwarf plants, useful for edging Coreopsis. Yellow flowers Ageratum. Blue flowers Angelonia Bluish-purple flowers Cosmos. Pink and white flowers Ananas variegata. Ornamental foliage Turncra elegans. Creamy white flowers, closing in afternoon Gynandropsis. Large pink blossom Torenia Fournieri. Small plant, vio- let-blue and white flowers Chrysanthemum. Perennial. White- flowered varieties the best. Gomphrena globosa. Purple flowers Phrynium variegatum. Ornamental variegated foliage SaKia farinacea Blue flowers Pentas carnea. Pink flowers Ruellia colorata. Purple leaves, perennial, creeping Salvia. Scarlet flowers Petunia. Showy purple or white flowers Cuphea jorullensis. Flowers orange- yellow Marigolc's. Flowers showy, yellow, orange, etc. 462 FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE PLANTS CLIMBERS:— Solanum Wendlandii. Blue flowers * Allamanda Hendersonii. Large yellow ** flowers Bignonia magnifica. Beautiful magenta flowers «E B. — unguis. Bright yellow flowers §Cissus discolor. Pretty, satiny colour- w ed leaves ^ Antigonon leptopus. Pink flowers i Clerodendron Thomsonae. Beautiful white and scarlet flowers Y Petraea volubilis. Beautiful blue and violet flowers Congea tomentosa. Showy pink flowers in large sprays CLIMBERS. Ipomosa Briggsii. Dark crimson flowers Bignonia venusta. Tang a-p o o . Flowers orange-yellow Solanum seaforthianum. Blue flowers FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE SHRUBS. A Pavetta indica. Flowers white Russeilia juncea. Flowers scarlet Sanchezia nobilis. Ornamental varie- ^ gated leaves **" Strobilanthes coloratus. Flowers dark O purple 10 Montanoa bipinnatifida. Tree-daisy. ri Flowers white Graptophyllum hortense. "Caricature Plant." Variegated foliage Tecoma Stans. Yellow flowers Beloperone oblongata. Pink flowers FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE SHRUBS. Duranta Plumieri. Pale blue flowers Plumbago capensis. Pretty blue flowers Berberis cristata. Yellow flowers Pleroma macranthum. Large violet flowers Bocconia frutescens. Large ornamen- tal leaves Iresine Herbstii. Ornamental varie- gated foliage Musa coccinea. Flowering-banana; scarlet flowers Streptosolen Jamesoni. Showy orange- red flowers Brunfelsia uniflora. Bluish-white flowers Hedychium coronarium. Flowers white, scented SHOWY FLOWERING ANNUALS.— Acroclinium. Everlastings, pink and white Asters. Balsams. Browallia. Celosia, or Cock's Comb Chrysanthemums (Annual). Clarkia. Pink flowers Candytuft. White or purple Cosmos, Pink and white Dianthus. Indian pink Exacum macranthum. Larkspur. Linaria. Linum. Mignonette. Nemesia Six to eight inches high. Nicotiana. Different varieties Petunia. Single Phlox Drummondii. Poppies Portulaca. " Sun plant ;" dwarf Salpiglossus. Schizanthus. Verbena. Zinnia BULBOUS AND TUBEROUS PLANTS. Agapanthus umbellatus. Lovely blue flowers Ixia pendula. Orange-yellow Hippeastrum. Different varieties; large showy flowers- Dahlias. Purple, yellow, scarlet, etc. Tritonia aurea. Orange-yellow Cyrtanthus. ("African Bride"). White or pink, scented. Cannas. Yellow, scarlet, etc. Heliotrope. Blue flowers Roses. Different varieties. Hydrangea Flowers blue or white Vinca (Periwinkle). Blue or white TREES FOR MEMORIAL PURPOSES. 463 FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE SHRUBS. Datura fastuosa. Flowers large, white Cestrum (Habrothamnus) elegans. Bears bright crimson berries Libonia floribunda. Orange-red flowers Fuchsia arborescens. Showy lilac flowers Spiraea peruviana. Creamy white flowers POT-, BORDER-PLANTS, ETC. Cineraria. Blue, white, scarlet, etc. Chrysanthemums, perennial; white, yellow, etc. Violets. Blue, violet, purple, white Daisies. White, scarlet, etc. Geraniums. Scarlet, pink, white, etc. Santolina ("Cotton Lavender"). White cottony foliage, scented Pansies. Different colours Sweet Pea. Various shades. ORNAMENTAL CLIMBERS: Cobaea scandens. Large plant; flowers purplish white Mandevillea suaveolens. Chili J ismine. Flowers large, pure white Schmidia (Thunbergia) bicolor. Flowers vellow and brown Solanumjasminoides. Fl's. white, showy Tacsonia. Different var's. Fl's. showy Tropaeolum (Nasturtium). Flowers yellow, etc. Wistaria sinensis. Flowers beautiful pale-purple TREES SUITABLE FOR MEMORIAL PURPOSES [For descriptions, see chapters on Beautiful Flowering and Foliage Trees] For the moist Low-country : FINE FLOWERING TREES:- Amherstia nobilis Brownea grandiceps macrophylla Cassia grandis „ multijuga „ nodosa Couroupita guianensis. Cannon- ball Tree Jacaranda mimosaefolia Lagerstrcemia Flos-reginae. Pride-of-India; " Murutu." Peltophorum ferrugineum Plumeriaacutifolia. Temple tree rubra. Red „ Poinciana regia. Flamboyante Schizolobium excelsum Spathodea campanulata FOR THE DRY REGION:— Cassia Fistula. "Ehela;" "In- dian Laburnum" Plumeria acutifolia. Temple Tree P. — rubra. Temple Tree, crim- son-flowered. Polyalthia longifolia Tamarindus indica. Tamarind Thespesia populnea. Tulip Tree HANDSOME FOLIAGE TREES:— Agathis robusta Araucaria Bidwillii Artocarpus incisa. Bread-fruit Canarium commune. Java al- mond Enterolobium cyclocarpum Ficus Benjaminii. "Java wil- low " Filicium decipiens. "Pehimbiya" Mesua ferrea. Ceylon Iron- wood Tree Myroxylon toluiferum. Balsam- of-Tolu Parkia Roxburghii Pometia eximia Podocarpus cupressinus Pterocarpus indicus Schizolobium excelsum Swietenia macrophylla. Large- leaved Mahogany UP COUNTRY:— Araucaria Bidwillii Cupressus, different species and other Coniferae Eucalyptus, different species Frenela rhomboidea Grevillea robusta Stenocarpus sinuatus Syncarpia laurifolia 464 TREES AND PLANTS FOR CEMETERIES SUITABLE PLANTS FOR CEMETERIES FOR DESCRIPTIONS, SEE SPECIAL CHAPTERS ON FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE PLANTS. ETC. Dwarf or slow-growing plants, which are either evergreens or produce white flowers, are the kinds usually desired for planting on or around graves. The following are selected species for the purpose : — FOR LOW ELEVATIONS TREES, ETC:— Casuarina equisitifolia Cupressus funebris. "Weeping Cypress" Cycads (Ceylon " Madu ") Palms: Chrysalidocarpus. Areca, Caryota, etc. Plumeria acutifolia. "Temple tree" Thuja orientalis. "Arbor Vitae" FLOWERING SHRUBS WITH WHITE OR BLUE FLOWERS: — Brunfelsia americana; flowers cream B. — uniflora ; flowers white and blue Clerodendron macrosiphon ; flowers white and pink Heeria macrostachva; flowers cream Plumbago capensis; white and blue- flowered varieties Tabernaemontana coronaria ; Flowers pure white Vinca alba. Fl's white Wrightia /eylaniea; flowers pure white DWARF OR EDGING PLANTS:— Alternanthera; dwarf plants for edging, etc. Amaryllis; white-flowered varieties Caladium argyrites; small variegated white and green leaves Coleus; handsome velvety variously- coloured foliage Eucharis lily; pure white flowers Eurycles; white flowers Ophiopogon; creamy white flowers Pancratium zeylanicum; pure white flowers Phalaris arundinacea; small variegated grass Sal via farinaceae: pale blue flowers Tuberoses; creamy-white flowers. see i; ted Vinca alba; white flowers Zephyranthes; white flowers (tuber) FOR UP-COUNTRY:- Alternantheras; dwarf foliage plants suited for edging, etc. Amaryllis Belladona, Belladona lily; pink flowers Carnations; flowers white, crimson, etc. Coleus; handsome foliage; (see above) Crinum Moorei; white fl's (tuber) Cyrtanthus Mackenii; white flowers Eurycles; white flowers (tuber) Hydrangea; white or pale blue flowers Pancratium; white flowers (tuber) Santolina; Cotton Lavender, pale grey scented foliage Sweet-william; white and pink flowers Tuberose; white fl's; see above Vinca major; Periwinkle; creeper, flowers pale blue Zephyranthes; white flowers (tuber) Also various white-flowering annuals, etc. AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SHOWS 465 AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SHOWS HINTS ON FORWARDING AND ARRANGING EXHIBITS <£; Procure in good time a catalogue or schedule of the forth- coming -Show; go carefully through the various classes, when possibly some of the prizes offered will suggest themselves as within your scope. 1. — If time permits, sow or plant crops of vegetables, Mowers, etc., to allow them to grow and mature in time for the Show; the period required in each case will depend on the nature of the crop, as well as on local conditions of climate or soil. 2. — If in due course you are satisfied that the result of your efforts will make at least a creditable exhibit, write to the Secretary of the Show, intimating the articles which you wish to exhibit, and state the space you require for them. 3. — In selecting exhibits, adhere to the rules laid down in the catalogue, especially in regard to number or quantity required; disregard of these particulars may disqualify an exhibitor. 4. — Show-rules usually state that exhibits which have not been grown by the exhibitor or his employer for at least two months before the exhibition will be disqualified. This does not neces- sarily apply to flowers for table decorations. 5. — In transporting delicate fruits, such as oranges, mangoes, mangosteens, sapodilla. tomatoes, etc., they should be packed in shavings, sawdust, or some soft material to prevent them from being bruised. Smaller fruits, such as uguressa, kon, straw- berries, etc., may be packed in layers with their own leaves; whilst large kinds, such as plantains, pineapples, durians, jak, etc., should be packed with dry straw or shavings, in crates or well-ventilated boxes. 6. — Plants should be sent in crates, and the stems, leaves or flowers securely tied and held in position. Support the stems, of flowering annuals in pots. Avoid obtrusive pots, stakes, or ties. See that, before despatch, the pots or tubs are well wrapped in straw or shavings, and bound round so as to prevent the soil from being shaken or tipped out. 7. — Wash root-crops carefully before sending to a Show, and cut off all unnecessary roots. 466 AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SHOWS 8. — Remember that quality counts for more than quantity — that vegetables, fruits and other edible products should be in a reasonably lit state for consumption when exhibited, it being impossible to properly judge under-ripe or over-mature articles. Therefore do not send fruit in an unripe or over-ripe state. 9. — The impression your exhibit makes on the judges is largely dependent on the manner it is arranged. Do not stage small articles in large and unsightly receptacles, such as cadjan baskets, with their contents usually hidden at the bottom. See that potsr tubs or other receptacles containing plants are properly washed. 10. — Fruits, vegetables, herbs, etc., should be shown in shallow basket-trays or plates of uniform sizes. Fruits, especially small kinds, are rendered more effective by having a few of their own leaves arranged neatly around them. Parsley, or similar foliage, as Panax, affords an excellent material for decorating and displaying exhibits to best advantage. 11. — Cut-flowers should have their stalks placed in water immediately after cutting ; these will keep longer if, when being trimmed, their stalks are cut under the water instead of in the air. 12. — Overcrowding of exhibits, especially as regards plants and flowers, should particularly be avoided, for exhibits of first-rate quality often fail to make an impression by a disregard of this rule. 13. — The value of an exhibit will be much enhanced if a label is fixed to it giving the name under which it is commonly known also, if possible, the scientific name; this will secure points in the judging and add interest to the Show; it is one of the most impor- tant considerations at floral exhibitions in England, and applies particularly to such exhibits as Roses. 14. — Flowers which naturally grow in clusters, as Verbena, Phlox, Schizanthus, etc., are best shown in bunches; while blooms of a large size as Dahlia, Hibiscus, etc., are seen to best advantage when displayed singly. 15. — Though bottles or tins, if of uniform size and securely held in position, may answer the purpose of displaying cut-flowers at an exhibition, the proper thing to use so as to show the flowers to the best effect as well as to facilitate arrangement, is an exhibition box. This may be made of any light wood, on the principle of a writing desk, and painted green. The size may vary according to requirements, but for all practical purposes the AGRl-HORTICrUTRAL SHOW'S 467 following are suitable dimensions: 3 ft. 9 in. long, H ft. broad, 7 inches high at the back, and 5 inches in front. The cover is 6 inches in depth at the back, and 8 in front, being li inches longer and wider than the box, and having a narrow beading within the four sides, half an inch from the bottom of the lid, which overlaps the box, leaving ample room for the blooms. 16. — Lids of wooden cases should be screwed, not nailed down, or, better still, hinged and if necessary locked with a padlock. Packages should be addressed clearly and ful$, and marked URGENT; when closed, the top should be marked THIS SIDE UP, and FRAGILE when containing glass or breakables. 17. — Fruits which have an objectionable odour, such as Durian and Jak, especially when cut open for judging, should not be placed among the more attractive exhibits, but confined to an isolated corner or shed. JUDGING AT SHOWS GENERAL RULES FOR SOCIETIES AND JUDGES I. — To be an efficient judge, one should possess a practical knowledge of all the classes he or she has to judge, not only as they appear at the Show or on the market, but also preferably through their cultivation. II. — It is usually advisable to appoint three judges to form a quorum, as this will enable a casting vote being given in cases of close contest. III. — The system of judging by points, i.e., awarding a certain number of marks out of a possible maximum to different points or qualities of the exhibit, should be adopted where there is close competition. IV. — The judging should always be done as punctually as possi- ble and, needless to say, before the public are admitted to the Show. Frequently the judges have too much to do in the allotted time, which must result in their work being unduly hurried, or its being delayed until it has to be carried on in the presence of the public. V. — The judges should be provided with ruled sheets of paper, on the left-hand side of which are written or printed the exhibits and prizes, with sufficient space allowed opposite these for the names of winners and anv necessarv remarks. 468 AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SHOWS VI. — The executive committee should make a point of seeing; that the exhibits are arranged as nearly as possible in the order in which they are given in the Show catalogue. VII. — Societies should avoid offering prizes for classes which are not in season at the date of the Show, as this will limit the prizes which would be available for other classes, or bring forward inferior specimens, if any. VIII. — The prize cards and rosettes should be of a uniform size and colour,%ccording to their respective value, for all classes in the Show. Thus the first-prize cards should be red, the second- prize blue and the third or " highly commended" lavender or yellow^ SECTION 4. CHAPTER XXII STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLON. [S=SlXHALESE ; 7— TAMIL] Cacao or Cocoa ; Chocolate Tree ; Chocolath-gas, S. ; Coco niaram. T. (Theobroma Cacao. Sterculiaceae). — A small tree, 20 to 25 ft. high, with large oblong leaves, native of tropical America, and cultivated extensively in its native home as well as in the West Indies, Ceylon, and West Tropical Africa. The tree bears a great number of small pinkish or yellowish flowers in bunches on the stem and branches, followed by the fruit ; the latter is a large warty or furrowed (sometimes pointed) pod, 6 to 9 inches long, red, yellow, or grey when ripe. Each pod contains from twenty-five to forty large seeds, closely packed in a column in the hollow centre and surrounded by a mucilaginous substance. Cocoa or chocolate is prepared by roasting the seeds, which are afterwards ground between hot cylinders to a paste (for chocolate), or mixed with sugar, starch, etc., for cocoa. "Cocoa butter" or "oil of theo- broma" is obtained from the seeds by expression; this is of special value in medicine, etc., and is used extensively. Climate, Cultivation^ and Harvesting. — The Cacao tree has a long tap-root, and requires deep and well-drained soil. It thrives best in a warm moist climate at elevations of 500 to 1,500 ft., but also yields good crops in a moderately dry climate, provided the annual rainfall is not below 60 inches. It is susceptible to exposure to the sun or strong winds, and must be afforded protection by means of suitable shade trees (such as species of Erythrina), planted 60 to 70 feet apart. Propagation is by seed (occasionally by bud- grafting), which must be sown fresh, preferably in plant-baskets. The seeds germinate in about three weeks, and the seedlings. which first grow at a rapid pace, are ready for planting out in three to four months from the time of sowing. The distance for planting apart should, under average conditions, be about 12 by 12 ft., though on good flat land it may be as much as 15 by 15 ft., while 470 CACAO on poor steep soil 10 by 10 ft. will be sufficient. In the West Indies, catch crops, such as Bananas, Tapioca, etc., are usually grown between the rows for the hrst year or two, both for the purpose of yielding an interim return and affording temporary AMELOXADO CACAO TREE. shade to the young Cacao plants. Clean weeding is essential ; very little pruning is necessary beyond removing superfluous suckers and dead or barren branches. Excessive pruning or thinning out is injurious, and exposes the fruits to the attacks of the insect 472 STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX Helopeltis. The pods must be cut oft, not pulled or torn ; they are collected into heaps, then cut or broken open (shelling), the seeds (also known as "beans" or "nibs") being afterwards carried to the curing house, where they are heaped to undergo fermentation for about rive or six clays, the heaps being turned every other clay. In Ceylon, but not always in other countries, the seeds are then well washed to get rid of the mucilage surrounding them, then dried either in the sun on barbecues, or under a movable roof. The drying process occupies from three to six days, according to the weather. Colouring the beans with clay, brick-dust, etc., is often practised in the West Indies and Venezuela in order to give them a fancy but fictitious appearance and polish; for this purpose annatto dye also is sometimes PRUNING HOOK. used. Polishing the seeds is generally essential for the sake of good appearance in the trade, and this is usually accomplished by rubbing them with the hands, or sometimes by "dancing" among them with bare feet, as is done in the West Indies. Yield. — The first crop is obtained in the fourth or fifth year from planting, but the trees will not be in full bearing until ten or twelve years old. Two crops a year are produced, the principal one (in Ceylon) from October to December, and the other from April to June. In a plantation, however, a few fruits will usually be found throughout the year. The yield should not be less than from 6 to 7 cwt. of cured beans per acre, though about 9 cwt. per acre is sometimes obtained.* An average crop of fifty pods per tree is considered good, but certain trees under very favourable circumstances may bear as many as 400 to 500 pods. " Forastero" pods contain on an average 32 to 35 seeds each. Fifteen average pods may be expected to give 1 Ib. of made cocoa. The Cacao tree was introduced into Ceylon about 1819, but its systematic cultivation was not undertaken till about 1878, when the first export of 10 cwt. (from 300 acres) was recorded. The present area under the product in Ceylon is estimated at approximately 28,000 acres, with an export of about 70,000 cwt. valued at over £200.000 ; the market price at present ranges from 60s. to 90s per cwt. according to quality and demand. The Gold Coast now shows the largest export of cacao of any country. *An average of 9i cwt. for 800 acres has been obtained on Kondesalle Estate, Ceylon, in 1909, 474 CACAO VARIETIES. — There are numerous more or less distinct varieties, which may be divided into two or at most three groups, vi/., "Forastero" (= foreign> "Criollo" (=native), and "Calabacillo" (—small calabash); the last named DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF CACAO FRUIT. Xos. 1 to 5 — pods from 1 to 7 weeks old. 6 to 8 —Longitudinal and transverse sections of pods. though long regarded as a form of Forastero, is now considered a distinct type. The typical Forastero has a thick and deeply furrowed bottle-necked pod, and is of a red or yellow shade ; the seeds, which are large and numerous, are some- what rounded, and purplish in section ; the tree is a vigorous grower and TYPES OF CACAO FRUITS. Xos. 1. 2. & 3— Nicaragua Criollo. Xo. 5-Anielonado. No. 4— Theohroma pentagona. .. 6— Criollo or Caracas- Xos. 7. tf and 9 — Forastero. 476 STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX usually a prolific bearer. Some of the best varieties of Forastero are "' Cundeamar," "Amelonado," "Verdilico," and '"Cayenne." The "Criollo" type(knovvn in Ceylon as "Caracas" or "Old Ceylon Red"), which is apparently identical with the "Nicaragua," is distinguishable by its smaller, thin-shelled and red pods, with globular seeds which are usually white inside. The "Calabacillo" has usually a small and roundish pod with a smooth skin ; beans flat, dark-purple inside. The "Criollo" variety generally commands the highest price, but the tree is of a delicate nature and liable to disease, as compared with the Forastero type. Theobroma pentagona, or ''Alligator Cacao," is a distinct species, introduced at Peradeniya from Trinidad in 1895. The pods are small and have rive prominent ridges ; the seeds are very large, but few, and white in section. It is highly spoken of in Trinidad, but at Peradeniya the tree is a very scanty bearer. T. angustifolia. — "Monkey Cacao." A remarkable species introduced at Peradeniya in 1895, and fruited for the first time here in 1909. It bears large, hairy, brown and furrowed pods ; the seeds are of no commercial value. Cardamoms. — See Spices. Cinnamon. — See Spices. Coconut Palm; " Pol," S. ; "Tennai" or Thenga, T. (Cocos nucifera). — To the inhabitants of Ceylon, where it is estimated there are some 900,000 acres under the product, and of other tropical countries where the coconut palm flourishes, this is one of the most important trees of the vegetable kingdom. Though extensively grown in most tropical regions, the original or indi- genous home of the palm is unknown. It thrives best in a moist hot climate, especially near the sea, but will also succeed to a considerable distance inland where the climate is sufficiently hot and moist. In Ceylon, it is cultivated and gives good returns up to 1,600 ft. above sea level. Coconut cultivation, together with the preparation of its different products for market, forms a large industry in Ceylon. These include the following, of which very large quantities are exported, viz., copra (the dried inner portion (endocarp) of the nut broken in half, from which oil is obtained), coconut-oil, desiccated coconut (used in confectionery and cooking, and commanding a price of 22 to 25 cents per Ib. locally), coir- fibre from the husks, and whole nuts to the extent of nearly 20 million a year. The local uses of the nut, leaves, stem and flowers for cookery and domestic purposes are innumerable, and in some cases almost sufficient to supply the total requirements of the poorer Natives. cocoxrr 477 Copni is usually dried in the sun or in specially constructed low houses or kilns, over the smoke and heat caused by smouldering tires made with the husks and shells. Forced hot air-driers are now used for the purpose, the copra shells being placed on movable trays; it is claimed that the copra is thus dried in 15 hours. The annual export of copra from Ceylon amounts to some 800,000 cwt., which usually fetches, according to quality and demand, from about £18to £26 per ton, or Rs. 70 to Rs. 85* per candy ; and of desiccated coconut about 14,000 tons. From 1,200 to 1,400 nuts usually go to a COCONUT PALMS (CoCOS Illtcifcm), IX CEYLON. candy of copra, and 4 candies make a ton. The extraction of the sweet juice from the base of the flowering spathe, obtained by inci- sion and tapping, constitutes a large local industry. This juice un- fermented, known as toddy, forms a pleasant sweet beverage ; fermented and then distilled, it yields arrack — an alcoholic liquor consumed by the poorer as well as by many of the better classes. The best and healthiest trees are selected for the purpose of toddy drawing. Tapping for toddy may continue from 5 to 9 months, according to the climate, and the yield of the liquid may be from 100 to 180 gallons per tree in that period. The extraction of toddy * The ruling price in Ceylon at present is Rs. 106 <£ 28) per ton, which is a record. August, 1913. Coconut plantation, in the Low-country, Ceylon, showing method of using the husks for manuring, or rather for retaining moisture near the roots. The longitudinal dark slits on the two trees in foreground (right and left side) are old' scars caused by the Coconut bleeding-disease. STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYWX 479 means of course the sacrifice of the nut crop. According to the Ceylon Customs returns, desiccated coconut is exported from the Island annually to the extent of over 4 million pounds (valued at some £-524,400), and poonac (residue of copra after expression of oil in local mills) of about a quarter million cwt. The latter is largely used as a nutritious cattle-food. The palm likes moist alluvial or deep loamy soil, and flourishes especially on the sandy sea-coast, as well as on the hanks of rivers. It is propagated by the nuts, which are sown in the husk in a nursery bed, being usually laid on their side and almost covered with fine soil. These germinate in about 3 months, and in six to ten months the seedlings are ready for planting out. The holes in which they are to be planted should be not less than 3 ft. deep by 3 ft. wide, and allowed to remain open for some time previous to planting. When the plants are put in, the holes should only be partially filled, leaving the crown of the plant, when planted, about a foot below the surface of the ground ; in course of time through the process of cultivation and weathering, the hole becomes filled up, and the tree is thus ensured a firm hold of the ground. The holes should be 25 or 27 ft. apart each way, according to soil, thus allowing 60 or 70 trees to the acre. A crop may be obtained in the 7th or 8th year from planting ; the trees are in full bearing at the age of 12 or 15 years, and continue productive until about 70 to 80 years old. They yield all the year round, and an aggregate annual return of 60 to 70 nuts per tree, or about 3,000 nuts to the acre, is considered a good yield. In the Straits, Sumatra, etc., a somewhat higher yield is usually obtained, the trees here being generally more prolific than in Ceylon, and come into bearing rather earlier. The trees attain a height of 70 to 80 ft., with an unbranched, wavy < never straight ) stein. They are easily climbed by the Natives who, throwing their feet in a loop of cloth or fibre, pressed against the stem, are thus afforded a foot-hold. In Ceylon and South India the ripe nuts are picked by hand, but in some countries they are allowed to fall on the ground as they ripen, and then gathered, VARIETIES. — A great number of varieties are in cultivation, these varying chiefly in the size, shape and number of nuts produced, also in thickness of the husk and of the interior, height of tree. etc. Some of the more distinct varieties are known by different local names. The King Coconut is a distinct variety, said to have Originated in Ceylon; it bears a yellow oval fruit, which is distinguished bv its sweet juice, and is esteemed for culinary purposes, but is STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLON 481 of little value for copra. The Dwarf Coconut bears fruit when only two or three feet high, and the nuts are small in proportion. Needle Coconut is a distinct variety with a large triangular fruit, the nut having a sharp point at one end ; it is cultivated in the Xicobar Islands. Maldivc Coconut is characterized by a small, almost spherical iruit ; while the Edible-husked Coconut is furnished with a husk which, when tender, is fleshy and of a sweetish acid taste. Rice ; Goyan, S. (Oryza saliva. Gramineae). — Rice is the staple food of the native population of tropical Asia, where the plant is indigenous, and has been extensively cultivated from time immemorial. Its cultivation has in recent times spread to other tropical and sub-tropical countries, as the warmer parts of South RICE HARVEST IN CEYLOX, Men and women cutting the crop with sickles. America, West Indies, etc. The Rice plant is an annual grass, growing, according to variety and soil, from 2 ft; to 4 ft. in height, and its grain is considered to furnish the human race with a larger proportion of food than any other plant of the vegetable kingdom. The area under rice cultivation in Burma is estimated at 137 million acres, the export of the grain amounting to nearly 15 million pounds sterling. There are numerous varieties, which come under two main types, (1) common or aquatic rice, and (2) hill rice. The former kind requires marshy or irrigated land and a hot climate (up to about 3,000 ft., in valleys), while the latter may be grown on dry land, and thrives up to about 4,000 ft. For the aquatic rice, a sandy loam, overlying a clayey subsoil (to prevent the water 482 STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLON draining away) is essential. Manuring is beneficial, sometimes indispensable, crushed bones or bone-dust, at the rate of about 200 Ib. per acre, being among the most suitable forms of fertiliser. In India green-manuring is much practised for improving the soil. When water cannot be turned on to the land from streams or rivers, it has to be raised by mechanical means (often very primitive) from wells, etc., and in dry provinces, as in Egypt, India and parts of Ceylon, immense tanks or artificial lakes are constructed as reser- voirs, the overflow from which supplies large tracts of irrigable land. In Ceylon, sloping or steep land is often rendered irrigable THRESHING RICE IN CEYLON. This is effected by buffaloes being made to walk in a circle, the rice being thrown under their feet to be trampled on. The operation is usually carried out in the cool of the night, and the animals are sometimes blind- folded to avert giddiness. and suitable for rice cultivation by means of an elaborate system of terracing (see under Irrigation). Here in preparing the land for sowing, water is first turned on to soften the soil, which is then either ploughed, roughly dug by mamoties, or merely puddled by trampling teams of bulls or buffaloes. Before sowing, the seed is usually soaked for 24 hours, then covered with banana leaves or sacks and left for 6 days for initial germination to set in. In Ceylon, it is generally sown broadcast in the field, at the rate of about 2 bushels per acre. Transplanted rice, however, yields much greater returns, and only about a quarter the amount of grain is required to plant an acre; in this case the seedlings are transplanted to the fields when STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLON 483 7 to 8 inches high (or in 4 to 5 weeks from sowing), at distances of 6 to 8 inches apart, allowing 2 to 3 plants to the hole. In sowing, the ploughed muddy soil is first levelled with fiat boards ; the grain is then broadcasted, and when the latter has sprouted well the water is gradually turned on the field. The fields are kept flooded until the flowers appear, when the supply of water is reduced. When the grain is well formed, the water is turned off so as to hasten ripening and facilitate harvesting. Harvesting takes place in 3 to 7 months (according to variety) from the time of sowing, the shorter the period the smaller the crop as a rule. Two crops a year may be obtained in Ceylon, in the wet region: <1) the " Maha" crop (the principal one), sown in July or August iind harvested in January or February ; and (2) the " Yala" crop, sown in April and May and reaped in August and September. When the grain turns yellow, the crop is cut down with a sickle, tied in sheaves, and dried in the sun. Threshing in Eastern •countries is often, if not usually, done by the trampling of bulls or buffaloes, these being tied in teams and made to walk in a circle, the rice being thrown under their feet. The grain is afterwards winnowed in the wind, then stored ; hulling is done in wooden mortars, as required for consumption. The yield of rice varies •considerably according to variety and mode of cultivation. The .average return in Ceylon is about 25 to 35 bushels per acre, or about 15-fold. With good cultivation, however, 25 to 30-fold is easily •obtained. Two bushels of paddy when hulled gives only about one bushel of clean rice. The whole production of rice in Ceylon, which is entirely in the hands of the Natives, is about 4i million bushels per annum, against an import of about 8 million bushels •(valued at over 50 million rupees) from India and Burma. VARIETIES. — The Varieties of rice are almost innumerable, there being about 200 in Ceylon alone. These are distinguished chiefly by size, form and colour of grain, height of plant, also the period required to yield a crop. The latter is an important character, some varieties producing a crop in •60 days, while others take 6 or 7 months. The medium between these is usually preferred, as the earliest yielding varieties give but comparatively poor crops. The following are some of the principal varieties grown in Ceylon : — Name of Variety. LjJS* Time of harvesting. Name of Variety. ; Time of Sowing. Time of harvesting. Ma-vi (seven months' paddy): — "Kalukuru- mavi " " Muthusamba " " Sudu-mavi " July Feb. Hatili (six months' paddy):— " Gangala " " Kalu-hatali " "Sudu-hatali " August Feb. 484 RUBBER Name of Variety. Time of Sowing. Time of harvesting. Xame of Variety. Time of Sowing. Time of harvesting. Hondarawala " Sudu-hinati " Nov. & Feb. & (Five months' May Aug.. paddy) : — El-vior Hill paddy " Girisa" August Jan. (seven months' " Kalu-kumara" paddy) :- "Rat-el" July Feb. "Kiri-narun" • " Suwand-el Bala-vi (foul- Pol-el (six months August Jan. and months' paddy): — paddy): — Feb.. " Kiri-kurumba" Nov. & Mar. & Batukiri-el May Sept. (five months' Dec. £ " Sittarakali " Nov. & Mar. & paddy) : — Jan. May Sept. Kalu-el (four " Pana-mora " months' paddy):- — July Nov. Hinati (three Mada-el (three months' paddy): — months' paddy) :- August ,, " Kalu-hinati " j Feb. & Aug. RUBBER (PLANTATION) Rubber is obtained from certain trees, climbers, or shrubs, being extracted in the form of white milk or latex by means of incisions or pricks made in the bark (cortex). The supposition that latex is a waste product is doubtless incorrect, for it is main- tained on good grounds that it is associated with certain functions,, as the storage of food, water, and prevention of insect attacks, etc, Tapping. The latex flows for a brief time from the said incisions or pricks, being collected in small tins or coconut shells, brought to the factory in enamelled buckets, and strained. In tapping, specially constructed knives or pricking instruments are employed for the purpose. These are sometimes used alternately, but generally the former are most in favour, for they enable the thinnest shaving being pared off the cut surface at each tapping. Pricking instruments are at present generally in disfavour, owing to their liability to injure the cambium and induce woody knobs on the tapping area. Different systems of tapping are employed, some being better adapted than others to certain species and to- trees of different ages; but nearly all are on the principle of what are known as the "herring-bone" or "half-herringbone" (some- times referred to as the "half-spiral") systems. Taking Heveav the most important rubber tree, the tapping methods employed at present vary as experience may bring one or another into favour, A method in general vogue is to mark the circumference of the RUBBER 485 •stem, up to about 5 feet from the base vertically, into quarters; one quarter at a time or alternate quarters on reverse sides, may be operated on simultaneously. This area is marked off with 1 to 3 (now usually 2) wide V's cut about a foot apart vertically, and joined by a vertical central channel. For young trees with a small 2 3 4 SOME TAPPING KNIVES IN USE. 1 . Pask's " Universal " Knife 2. Miller's Knife 3. Sculfer Knife 4. The Lanka Knife 5. The Scorpion Knife circumference, the system of cutting a single large V or Y at 12 to 18 inches from the base of the stem has found favour, this being followed by a second V or Y cut on the reverse side, when the stem is large enough. A thin shaving (not less than 20 to the inch) is taken off the lower side of each cut every alternate day or so 486 RUBBER until the intervening space of bark becomes too narrow or ex- hausted of latex, when the operation may be repeated on a fresh quarter of the stem. The tapping. may thus be extended over almost the whole year. Each following year the opposite or adjacent quarter may be operated upon, the whole area thus occu- pying from 4 to 6 years, by which tirne the renewed bark on the first 2 3 TAPPING KNIVES. 1. Farrier Knife. 2. Barrydo Knife. 3. Baniber's Ceara Pricker. quarter should be ready for re-tapping. It is essential to prevent the incision from penetrating the cambium (see under Plant Life), otherwise a knotted condition of the stem will be produced, which will render tapping difficult, and if the cambium be much injured the life of the tree will be affected. Coagulation. — The latex coagulates on exposure to the air, and that of some species coagulates much more rapidly than RUBBER 487 others. The process is, however, usually accelerated by adding a few drops of acetic* or other acid, the rubber particles thus quickly forming a Moating mass; heating the latex also hastens coagulation. The soft wet rubber is then separated from the re- maining liquid (which is discarded), thoroughly washed by means of water with machine rollers, and then made up into the usual commercial forms, as crepe (Nos. 1 and 2), blanket-crepe, sheet, block, or lace. Until lately it was commonly made into biscuits, but this form is now too laborious to cope with the quantity turned out. Smoked sheet usually commands the highest price at present. Smoking is considered to have a preserving effect on all forms of rubber, and is applied, in the case of wild rubber, by exposing the latex on rollers over the smoke of palm kernels, the roll increasing in layers as fresh latex is poured on, while one man keeps twisting the roll round. Various estates have adopted different methods for treating the latex or rubber with smoke, but smoke-curing on plantations is at present in a transition or experiment stage. Drying and Packing. Ordinarily about two months are required for the rubber to become quite dry and ready for packing for export, but with hot-air dryers and light airy drying sheds as are now used drying may be completed in a few days. In packing rubber, it should be laid perfectly flat, not bent or twisted. No packing material should be used with it, and the cases should be planed smooth on the inside. RUBBER-PRODUCING TREES, SHRUBS, CLIMBERS, ETC. Hevea (Para) Rubber. (Hevea brasiliensis. Euphorbiaceae). — A quick growing, tall, erect tree, native of South America, introduced into tropical Asia in 1876, through the Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew, being first established at, and later distributed by, the Botanic Gardens of Ceylon and Singapore. About the year 1898 the cultivation of this and other rubber-producing trees received a great impetus, and has since made rapid strides in Ceylon, Malaya and most other tropical countries. Whereas in 1900 the export of rubber from Ceylon was 8,223 lb., of £859 in value, in 1913 it had increased to over 12,300 tons valued at about £4,084,600. The area under Hevea rubber at present in Ceylon is estimated approximately at 240,000 acres, and in Malaya at about 430,000 acres. Hevea, the most important of all rubber-producing * PARKIN* found from experiments that \°lo glacial acetic acid to pure latex was sufficient for coagulation, but a somewhat larger percentage is usually allowed by planters. 488 RUBBER species, thrives in any moderately good soil from sea-level to about 2,000 feet elevation, provided the rainfall is evenly distributed and not under 70 inches a year, with a minimum temperature of 60° to 70° Fah. The trees should be planted out (preferably as stumps or basket plants) at distances, in the first place, of not less than about 20 by 15 feet apart, say 140 trees to the acre; this will en- able the plantation being thinned out later, on the merit of individual trees and irrespective of lines, to distances of about 20 by 25 feet YUI:NG PLANTATION OF HEVEA RUBBER IN CEYLON. apart, leaving finally 90 to 100 trees to the acre, according to the soil and c.imate ; this is considered preferable to planting out at wide distances in the first place. Excessively close planting results in exclusion of light and air when the trees attain maturity, and therefore in slow and unsatisfactory renewal of bark over the tapping area. With good growth, the trees become tappable in fron 5 to 6 years, or when the stems have attained a girth of about 18 to 20 inches at 3 feet from the ground. (See Tapping.} The average One of the first Hevea. trees introduced into Ceylon, in Hene- ratgoda Gardens. Aged 39 years; yielded 375 Ib. dry rubber in 3i years, 1909 — 1912 inclusive, and is still in bearing (1914); the tapping has been done by paring and confined each year to one- quarter the circumference of the stem. RUBBER 489 annual yield of dried rubber may then be approximately i Ib. per tree, increasing to 2 or 3 Ib. per tree at 8 to 10 years old, and to an average of 4 to 6 Ib. per tree when these are 12 to 14 years old. A return of 150 Ib. of dried rubber per acre, from trees 6 years old, and 400 to 500 Ib. at ten years old are considered good average yields, though in many cases a much larger crop is obtained. Ten trees on Culloden Estate, in Ceylon, about twenty-two years old gave an average yield of 18 Ib. of dried rubber each in 1909, the range being from 13 to 25 Ib. per tree. The trees increase in circum- ference of stem at an average rate of 3 to 4 inches per annum, and bear seed when 5 to 6 years old, producing from 2 to 3 thousand seeds at that age, to about 40 or 50 thousand when 18 years old (See below). The usual cost of bringing Hevea rubber into bearing, exclusive of cost of land, varies from about £,20 to £30 per acre, according to the nature of the land and locality, while the cost of collecting and shipping the rubber ranges at present from IQd. to Is. Sd. or more per Ib. The price of rubber fluctuates considerably; that of Fine Hard Para rose from about 3s. 6d. to 9s. 4d. during 1909, reached 12s. 6d. in April 1910, with Plantation smoked sheet at 12s. Wd. per Ib. Fine Hard Para is still the stand- ard grade, but plantation rubber commands a higher pricet and is now largely employed in the manufacture of tyres as well as for the finer uses. The seeds (see foregoing remarks) are large and oily, about 110 weighing a pound ; they are of short vitality, and germinate in about 10 to 12 days when fresh ; for transmission by post, 500 seeds \vith packing weigh about 9 Ib. Ceara Rubber. (Manihot Glaziovii. Euphorbiaceae). — A small, rather spreading, quick-growing tree, 25 to 40 feet high, native of South America, introduced into Ceylon in 1877. By 1883 as many as 977 acres were reported to be under this tree in Ceylon, but, owing to difficulties of tapping the cultivation fell into neglect for a number of years. Lately, however, with a greater demand for rubber and with better methods of tapping, the trees yield a satisfactory return, and the rubber is second in quality only to that of Hevea. The tree is suited to a dryer climate and higher elevation than the latter, but unfortunately no perfect method of tapping it appears to have been yet devised. In Hawaii, where Ceara rubber is largely planted, the climate being unsuited to Hevea, the bark is stripped off perpendicularly in sections 6 in. t At the time of writing, this has suffered a seveie dro\ the -verage London price being about 2s. !Large Afncan lianes. L. — owanensis. Congo or Sierra-Leone Rubber. L. — Petersiana. East African Rubber. L.— ugandensis. Nandi Rubber. A vine found in B. E. Africa, at elevations of 6,000 to 7,000 ft. Tapping is effected by shaving off slices of bark, the latex being coagulated by smearing salt water on the surface, also by chewing. Leuconotis elastica. (Apocynaccae). Borneo. Mascarenhasia elastica. (Apocynaccac). " Hazondrano." A tree 50 to 60 ft. high, with slender branches, native of Madagascar and East Africa; introduced at Peradeniya in 1902. The trunk usually branches low down ; leaves opposite, coriaceous. Adapted to swampy ground. Parameria glandulifera. (Apocynaccac). Talaing milk-creeper. A Malayan liane. Plumeria acutifolia and P. rubra. (Apocynaceae). Respectively white -and red- flowered Temple-trees, both indigenous to tropical America. They yield a quantity of white latex which, though resinous, is used in Mexico for the extraction of rubber. See Flowering Trees. Sapiun Jenmani. (Euphorbiaccac). Large trees yielding the "Carthagena rubber" of Colombia and " Tonckpong Rubber" of British Guiana. S. — Thomsoni. Virgen Rubber ; also a native of Colombia. Tabernamontana Crassa. (Apocyuaceac). Medium-sized tree, native of Central Africa. Ureceola elastica, (Apocynaccac). A climber of Burma. Willughbeia firma. (Apocynaccac). Borneo rubber. A large liane of Borneo, etc. Tea; Thay-gas, S.; Tey-ile, T. — The tea of commerce consists of the cured young leaves and tender tips of shrubs belonging, according to SIR GEO. WATT, to either of two distinct varieties or races of Camellia Tliea, — viz., Camellia Thea variety Viridis and C. T. variety Bohea. To variety Viridis, a native of North-eastern India, is considered to be traceable the races " Assam Indigenous " and "Manipur," as well as many other cultivated varieties widely planted in India, Ceylon, and Java. The China Tea (variety Bohea) is distinguished by its squat straggling habit and compara- tively thick leaves ; it is the Tea plant chiefly grown in South China, and is cultivated on some of the higher estates in Ceylon, being hardier than, but not so productive as, the Indian kinds named. The " Assam Hybrid " is considered to be a natural hybrid between the "Assam" and "China" teas. Left to itself, the Assam Tea is an erect tree, 30 to 40 feet high, but in cultiva- tion it is " topped " early and kept as a bush, not being allowed to grow higher than about 4 ft. Tea has been cultivated from time immemorial in China and Japan. Its cultivation in Ceylon on a commercial scale may be said to date from 1867, although the 498 TEA earliest record of its introduction to the Botanic Gardens goes as far back as 1839 for Assam Tea, and to 1824 for China Tea. Tea is now extensively grown in Southern India, Bengal, Assam, Java and Ceylon. In the latter country it is the principal planting product ; here the export rose from 23 Ib. in 1873 to about 192 million Ib. in 1913, and about 400,000 acres are now under the product. China is considered to be the largest tea-producing country, though the bulk of its production is consumed locally. In recent years, tea has been successfully cultivated in Natal and Nyasaland. The tea plant, more especially the Assam Tea, is adaptable to a wide range of temperature and various conditions of soils, provided the rainfall is not less than about 70 inches and is evenly distributed ; in Ceylon it thrives from sea-level to over 6,000 ft. It will not, however, flourish in a dry climate, especially at low elevations. The soil must be well drained and should contain a certain amount of humus : when the latter is deficient it should be supplied by means of green-manuring, as by inter- planting quick-growing leguminous trees or shrubs which can be loppjd frequently, the twigs and leaves being left on the ground to form a mulch, or preferably dug in. Manuring periodically by artificial or cattle manure is necessary in order to maintain the crop in a remunerative condition. Tea seed is usually sold by the maund (80 Ib.). A maund may contain 2,000 or more seeds, ac- cording to the jat (the better the jat the heavier the seed), and this should give about 15,000 plants. " Planted at 4 by 4 ft. apart, a maund of seed should be sufficient for 3j acres; at 5 by 4 ft., 4? acres; and at 5 by 5 ft., 5i acres." (RUTHERFORD'S Note-book). Propagation is entirely by seed, which may be sown in raised nursery beds, at distances of 4 inches apart each way, the beds being shaded by fern fronds or Grevillea leaves fixed in the ground slanting-wise. It is best, however, to raise plants in small plant- baskets or bamboo joints. In about ten months from the time of sowing, the seedlings should be ready for planting out in the field. Holes being made in lines, the plants are set out at distances of about 4 ft. by 4 ft. or 5 by 4 ft. apart, being shaded, and watered when necessary, until well established. About eighteen months after planting, the plants are " topped " (i.e. cut back to 12 or 15 inches from the ground) so as to induce a spreading bush. The first crop of leaf is obtained in the third year in the low-country, it being a year or so later at higher elevations. At low elevations plucking takes place about every ten days, and TEA 499 at the higher altitudes once a fortnight or three weeks, ac- cording to elevation. When the bushes stop flushing, they are pruned back severely, this being necessary at intervals of about fifteen to eighteen months in the low-country, or of three to four years up-country. When in full bearing at seven or eight years old, the crop of made tea may, according to elevation, soil, and degree of cultivation, be from about 400 Ib. to over 1,000* Ib. or more per acre ; 600 Ib. is considered a good average yield. The tea plant lives to a great age. The oldest tea in cultivation in Ceylon is over fifty years of age, and shows no lack of vigour. Plucking, which is usually done by women or boys, consists in nipping off by hand the tender end leaves with the bud and shoot ; taking two leaves and end bud constitutes fine plucking and affords a good quality tea, while three or four leaves and a bud forms coarse plucking and yields tea of a lower quality. Pluckers will pluck from 20 to over 80 Ib. of green leaf a day, according to the condition of the field and the activity of the workers. The leaf being brought to the factory, it is withered on tiers of hessian screens in drying sheds, through which hot air is driven; it is then rolled by means of rolling machines (during which the process of fermentation takes place), being followed by firing, in drying machines, and finally sifted. By the latter process the tea is simultaneously graded into such qualities as "souchong," "pekoe souchong," "orange pekoe," "broken orange pekoe (the best quality)," and " dust." It is then packed into lead-lined square cases or chests of uniform sizes for export. A full-size chest contains 80 to 100 Ib.; a i chest, 40 to 50 Ib. Black or ordinary tea has been exported from Ceylon in 1913 to the extent of nearly 186J million Ib., valued at over £5,852,600. Green Tea. — This is made by subjecting the green leaf at once to a process of steaming in a revolving cylinder, and afterwards by rolling, drying, etc., the process of withering and rolling being omitted. China teas are usually made on this principle. There is a certain demand for green teas in some countries, notably the United States, and Ceylon now manufactures and exports a considerable quantity to meet this demand. In 1912 the exportt of green tea was over 8,093,000 Ib., valued at £ 23,550. Brick Tea. — A cheap and coarse tea, made in China and used largely in Tibet, being boiled with salt, butter, etc. Brick or tablet-tea is made in two forms, one of which consists practically "On Mariawatte Estate, Gampola. Ceylon, a field of over 100 acres has given an average per acre of 1,357 Ib. for seventeen years. tBeing somewhat less in 1913 500 TOBACCO of twigs and leaves of tea, pressed with some glutinous substance, and dried in moulds; the other kind is essentially the liner sif tings and dust of ordinary tea compressed into slabs; this latter is consumed chiefly in Russia. Leppet or Leptet Tea. — A form of tea prepared only in Burma and the Shan States, where it is used as a vegetable rather than a beverage. It consists of tea leaves preserved on the principle of a silo, these being afterwards eaten mixed with garlic, salt, oil and other ingredients. Soluble Tea. A process has in recent years been invented by MR. KELWAY BAMBER, the Ceylon Government Chemist, by which the essence of tea is extracted and rendered available in a concentrated soluble fine powder form, known as soluble tea. Arabian Tea. } Ayapana Tea. > See Chapter XXIV. Paraguay Tea, or Mate. J Tobacco; Dhoom-kola, S; Poyile, 7. — The dried cured leaves of Nice liana Tabaccum and N. rustica (or varieties of these), both of South American origin, may be said to constitute the tobacco of commerce. The cultivated tobacco plant is an erect annual, 4 to 6 ft. or more in height, bearing large lanceolate alternate leaves, and characterized by viscous glandular hairs. The principal tobacco-growing countries are Cuba, Sumatra, South America, Philippines, Borneo, India, Turkey, and South Africa. Tobacco- growing forms a local industry in the North of Ceylon, the produce being largely used for chewing with betel and for making inferior cheroots, being also exported to a limited extent to South India. Nearly 4 4 million pounds have been exported from Ceylon in 1913. The best soil for tobacco is considered to be alluvial or light sandy loam, rich in potash, lime and humus ; clayey or calcareous soil is unsuitable. A hot humid climate favours the growth and the development of the special properties of the plant, but a dry season must be relied upon for harvesting. Tobacco is a very exhausting. crop, so that manuring is essential. Cattle or other organic manure when obtainable is considered by some to be the best, at least for certain forms of manufacture, while for other forms it is said to be injurious. The crop is an annual one, the plants being raised from seed* (which is small and should be sown under cover), and planted out in the field at intervals of about 2 ft. in rows, the latter being 4 ft. apart. The young tender plants must be shaded * 1 oz. contains about 875,000 seeds. TOBACCO 501 with small branches or fern-fronds (and watered if the weather be dry) until well established, after which no shade is required. In live to six weeks from planting, the flower buds will appear at the top of the plants ; these as well as any side-buds must be nipped off, the operation being known as suckcring or disbudding. Such buds must be repeatedly removed as they appear, so as to divert the vigour of the plant to the leaves. Harvesting. About six weeks later, or three months from the germination of the seed, the leaves should be ripe for TOBACCO FIELD IX JAFFXA, CEYLOX. cutting, this being indicated by their turning a yellowish green, with the appearance of brown spots and the edges and tips curling downwards. Cutting should not be done when rain is on the plant, nor when the sun is at its hottest. There are several methods of harvesting. In some cases the whole plant is cut within 3 or 4 inches of the ground, in others the leaves are cut separately as they ripen, from the bottom upwards, which is obviously the more rational method. Withering. — The leaves being carried to the drying shed, they are first spread on the floor to wilt, then tied in bundles of 502 TOBACCO 25 to 30 and strung on poles to dry gradually. Drying or withering takes about 3 weeks, and may be decided by the softness of the mid-rib of the leaf. The process renders the leaves soft and pliable, and prevents their being broken when handled. Fermenting or Curing, a most important process, follows, and upon this depends the proper development of the peculiar narcotic principle of tobacco. When sufficiently dry, the leaves (which are sorted according to quality into hands, usually of about 14 leaves each) are placed in heaps on a concrete or wooden floor to ferment, being laid out in double rows with all the tips towards the centre and overlapping. The heaps are then pressed do\vn by weights and turned over at intervals to equalize, and prevent excessive, fermentation. Complete curing takes from 8 to 12 weeks, after which the leaves will have acquired the qualities of tobacco. Grading the leaves is a very important matter, and is dependent upon their size, colour, aroma, texture, etc., the chief object being to obtain grades of as uniform a character as possi- ble. There are a number of distinct types of tobacco leaf recog- nised by experts, each of which is adapted to definite trade requirements. It is said that even the crop from the same field can sometimes be sorted by an expert into as many as seventy different grades. The various well-recognised forms are, however, usually associated with variations in soil and climatic conditions under which the crop is grown, and also with different methods of production. Thus certain districts are known to possess certain qualities which adapt them to definite purposes. Yield — Each plant should yield about 8 marketable leaves on an average. In India and Ceylon a good average field gives 30 to 40 maunds of cured leaf per acre, and the price usually obtained varies from about Rs. 5 per maund upwards. A maund (80 Ib.) equals about 1 ,000 leaves. CHAPTER XXIII MINOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON [S=SIXHALESE: T=TAMIL] Annatto or Arnatto. (BLva Orellcinci. Bixaceae). A large, quick-growing shrub or small tree, native of tropical America, thriving in Ceylon from sea-level to 2,000 feet in the moist region. It bears at the ends of the branches clusters of brown or dark crimson capsular fruits (covered with fleshy spines), which contain a number of small seeds. The bright crimson covering of the latter affords the annatto dye of commerce. The fruits are collected when nearly ripe, and as the shells dry they open and disperse the seeds, which are then either made into annatto "paste," or dried with their covering when they are marketed as annatto " seed." Formerly the paste form was preferred by manufacturers, but the demand for this has now much declined in favour of the dried seed. The amount of annatto seed imported into England is said to be from 75 to 100 tons a year; the price fluctuates from about 2id to 5d per lb., according to quality and demand. Small plantations of Annatto have been made in Ceylon, chiefly in the Matale district, and at one time a considerable quantity of the seed was exported; now, however, very little is exported, but the seed is sometimes used locally for dyeing. The export of Annatto seed from Ceylon in 1909 was 263 cwt., valued at £307; but the Customs give no figures for 1912. The tree is readily propagated from seed, and a crop may be obtained from the third or fourth year. Two varieties of the tree occur in Ceylon, these differing chiefly in the shape and colour of the fruit, which in one case is oblong and pointed, and in the other rather circular. Areca-nut, or Betel-nut; " Puwak." S; " Pak-ku," T; " Pan " \_Hind.~\\ (Areca Catechu. Palmae). A tall, slender, erect palm, 40 to 50 feet high, with a thin cylindrical straight stem, native of Malaya, but naturalised in Ceylon. It is extensively cultivated throughout tropical Asia for its "nuts " (seeds), which in the husk are usually of the size and form of a hen's egg, being yellow or orange-yellow when 504 MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON ripe. The brown conical nut (seed) is commonly used throughout Ceylon, India, Malaya, &c., as a masticatory. In preparing the latter, a few thin slices of the nut are taken, to which is added a dash of lime-paste, some tobacco-leaf, cardamom or other spice; all is then made up in a pellet with the leaf of the betel-vine (see under Betel). Large quantities of arecanuts are thus consumed annually throughout Asia. Arecanuts are also commonly used for destroy- ing wrorms in dogs, in the preparation of dentifrices, and for ARECANUT PALMS. At'CCCl Catccllll . SHOWING COOLIES CLIMBING FOR THE " XUTS." tanning. The local consumption of the nut is very large, and a con- siderable quantity is exported, chietiy to South India. The quantity now exported from the Island is about 7,480 tons a year, valued at about £185,560. Arecanuts are sold in London at 18s to 22s per c\vt. Very large quantities are produced in South India, Sumatra, Malaya, etc. In Ceylon, the arecanut palm thrives in the moist low-country up to 3,000 ft., and requires but little care in cultivation when well established. It takes six to seven years to come into bearing, and MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CKYLO\' 505 cit maturity an average yield of 250 to 350 "nuts" per year may be obtained from each tree. The trees continue productive for 20 to 30 years, but may live unproductive for many years longer. At 5 by 5 ft. apart, 1,742 may be planted to an acre, the crop from which, estimated at an average of 29 cents per tree, should be worth about Rs. 340 (say j£23). The area under Arecanuts in Ceylon is estimated to be equivalent to about 70,000 acres. The palm is frequently planted in Ceylon as boundary lines, for which it is well adapted. BETEL-VIXE CULTIVATION IX CEYLOX. Betel-leaf; Bulath-vel, S.; Veth-thile, T. (Piper Belle. Pipe- raceme). — A perennial evergreen climber or creeper, with large heart-shaped leaves, indigenous to Ceylon, India and Malaya, cultivated throughout tropical Asia for the sake of the leaves. The latter are universally used in the East for chewing, in a green state, in the masticatory commonly known as " betel," the other constituents of which are a dash of lime and a few slices of arecanut (see above). The leaves have a sharp pungent taste, and when chewed are considered to have sustaining properties. SIR EMERSON TENNENT expressed the opinion that the habit of MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON 507 betel-chewing is "advantageous to a people of whose ordinary food Hesh forms no part, and that it is at once the antacid, the tonic, and the carminative which they require." The plants require a rich humus moist soil and a partially shaded situation. They are readily propagated by cuttings, which are planted against poles, trellises or tree trunks for supports. In Bengal and Northern India, the plant is cultivated in low sheds or "betel houses." I ARIETIES. — In addition to the ordinary type, the following varieties are known in Ceylon: " Rata bulath-vel " or " Siribo bulath ; " " Xaga walli-bulath " (with variegated leaves), and %v Getatodu bulath." Camphor; Kapuru-gas, S. (Cinnaniomiun Camphora. Laura- ceae). — A moderate sized much-branched tree, native of Formosa, Southern China and Japan, yielding by distillation of the wood, twigs, leaves or roots the camphor of commerce. Camphor is used largely in the manufacture of celluloid, xylonite, smokeless gun-powder, and in the preparation of disinfectants and medi- cines. The world's supply at present (approximately 5,180 tons) comes almost entirely from Formosa. The tree, however, is commonly cultivated in Japan and S. China. Grown for seed, it takes 20 years to become fruitful. The season for the seed is in November. In recent years, Camphor cultivation was intro- duced into Ceylon, South India, California and Hawaii. The Camphor tree, however, has been established at Peradeniya since 1852. In 1893, experiments were begun at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, in the systematic cultivation of the product, plants being raised from seed imported from Japan for distribution to the planters. The tree, though naturally a sub-tropical one, is adapted to a wide range of climate and soils. In Ceylon it has been found to grow well under varying conditions of climate, as at Galle, Anuradhapura, and Peradeniya; but the most uniform and vigorous growth occurs at the higher elevations, as at Hakgala, on fairly good and well-drained soil. Some Camphor plantations have been successfully established in Ceylon in recent years at elevations of from 3,000 to 5.000 feet, but the slump in the price of the product has rendered the cultivation unprofitable. Here also the tree is sometimes planted as a wind-belt, for which it is well adapted. About 1.000 acres were estimated to be under Camphor in -Ceylon in 1908, the export for that year being nearly 15 cwt., valued at Rs. 3.075. In cultivation, the trees have to be coppiced to a height of about 4 to 5 feet, in order to obtain successive clippings; there- fore they may be planted at distances of about 6 ft. apart each way, giving about 1,210 trees per acre; in the third or fourth year they 508 MINOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON are fit for clipping, the shoots being cut with a knife or hedgeshears. The clippings on distillation usually give a yield of 1 % to 1'50^ of pure camphor, in addition to about 30 per cent, of camphor oil. The bushes may be clipped three or four times a year. MR. W. NOCK estimated that an average of 14 Ib. of clippings a year may be obtained from each tree at Hakgala Gardens, which should give at least 170 Ib. of camphor per acre. In Formosa the annual yield is estimated at 120 Ib. per acre; while in the United States a yield of 200 Ib. is said to be ordinarily obtained. BAMBER estimated 170 to 200 Ib. to be about the average yield in Ceylon, being obtained from 20,000 Ib. of fresh loppings, in 3 to 4 clippings a year. Fair average camphor commanded £20 per cwt. in 1907; to-day (1913) it fetches only about £7 to £8 per cwt. Left to itself, the tree grows to a height of 9 to 12 feet in five years, attaining in time a height of at least 30 to 40 feet. It is best propagated from seed, which take about 3 months to germinate, and have often a low percentage of germination; if sown quite fresh, howrever, about 2,000 plants may be obtained from a pound of good seed. The tree may also be raised by root-cuttings, but branch-cuttings are difficult to strike root. Seedling plants should be large enough in 8 months for planting out. Distillation. — The camphor is obtained by steam distillation of the clippings, wood, or roots, and the process is briefly described thus:— The vapour is condensed in a box, divided into compartments and placed upside down, in water in a larger, shallower box. The sides of the inverted box extend above the bottom, and water is constantly allowed to run on to this box, keeping it cool and renewing the layer of water in the larger, shallower box which acts as a seal. A third box is inverted over the first, and is made in a similar way to condense any vapour that may escape; in both cases holes are made in opposite corners of the partitions in the boxes in order to cause the vapours to travel by a circuitous route. The crude camphor and oil are skimmed from the surface of the water or scraped from the sides of the condenser; separation of the two products is effected as far as possible by pressure. Synthetic Camphor.— A compound prepared from oil of turpentine, the introduction of which has probably contributed to the considerable drop in the price of natural camphor within recent years, viz., from £20 to about £7 per cwt., as already referred to. Borneo or Sumatra Camphor (Dryobalanops aromatica. Dip- terocarpeae). — A large tree, yielding a variety of camphor, or a camphor-like resin, which is obtained from the trunk and forms an MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX 509 important article of commerce in China and Japan, but is not imported into Europe. It is said to be preferred by the Chinese to the ordinary camphor. Nagai Camphor (Bhunea bahamifcra. Compositor). — A peren- nial shrubby plant, native of Borneo. The leaves when bruised smell strongly of camphor, and are used medicinally by the Natives. Cassava. See Tropical Vegetables and Food Products. Cinchona, Peruvian or Quinine Bark. — Quinine and the allied alkaloids, cinchonine. cinchonidine and qitinidine, consist of the active principle of the bark of several species of Cinchona, — small upright trees, 25 to 40 feet high, all natives of the mountains of Bolivia, Peru and other parts of South America. The principal species affording the valuable bark are Cinchona Succirubra (Red-bark), C. offtcinalis (Crown bark), C. Calisaya (Yellow- bark), and C. Ledgeriana (Ledger's-bark) ; the last named is considered the richest in quinine, and is the one chiefly grown in the Government Cinchona plantation in Bengal. To these may be added several superior hybrids. The valuable curative effect of quinine in malarial fevers were first made known in 1638, when the drug was administered to the Countess of Cinchon, wife of the then Viceroy of Peru, after whom the plant was named. Cinchona was introduced at Peradeniya in 1861, but not until about 1870 were the Ceylon Planters induced to take up its cultivation, the Government first establishing nurseries of Cinchona at Hakgala Gardens, and issuing plants free of charge. The area under Cinchona, however, rose from 500 acres in 1872 to 64,000 acres in 1883, the export of bark at its maximum extent (1887) being nearly 16,000,000 Ib. The result was great over-production and consequently a fall in the price of the commercial drug from 15s. to Is. 3d. per oz. — an immense boon to the public, though a disaster to many planters. At the present time the area under Cinchona in Ceylon is only about the equivalent of 190 acres; the export of the bark in 1912 was 111,918 Ib. valued at £299. Cinchona cultivation is still carried on profitably in Java, now the chief producing country, where quinine sulphate is locally manu- factured ; also on plantations at Mungpoo and elsewhere in India, which are worked by Government for the benefit of the peasants, to whom the article is supplied in small pice packets. The plant thrives best in a rich humous soil with a porous subsoil, preferring a cool mountainous climate (4,000 to 6,000 ft.), with a moderate rainfall and shelter from strong winds. 510 MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON i C. succirubra is, however, an exception, and thrives best between 2,000 and 4,000 ft. The plants may be propagated by cuttings, layering, or from seed, the latter method being usually adopted. The seed is very minute, and should be sown thinly in boxes or on raised nursery beds under cover, finely sifted soil being sprinkled over the surface and the whole carefully watered with a fine rose. In about three weeks the seedlings will be up, and when 2 inches high these should be transplanted to a well-prepared nursery plot so as to harden them off, the shade being reduced gradually ; when 8 to 9 inches high, they may be planted out in their permanent places. The proper distances for planting vary according to the variety grown and locality. Close planting (4 ft. by 4 ft.) at first, and gradually thinning out later until only half the number of original trees are left, is considered preferable to the wide planting formerly adopted, viz., 12 by 12 ft. The uprooted trees afford a return, the bark being stripped from their stem and roots. Root- bark is considered the most valuable. To obtain the bark from the standing trees, four different methods are employed : (I) lopping, by which the branches are lopped, and the bark removed from these in longitudinal strips ; (2) coppicing, the trees being cut down to the ground when about 6 years old, and the stems barked ; this induces the production of upright shoots, which in turn are cut down and barked ; (3) shaving the stem by means of a spoke-shave, care being taken not to reach the cambium ; only two sides of a tree are shaved at once ; (4) mossing, — the bark of trees seven or eight years old is removed in alternate strips 1^ in. wride, the stem being protected by a covering of moss tied on ; thus in about two years the renewed bark, which is richer in quinine than the first bark, is again ready for removal. The peeled bark is dried gradually in the sun, and exported in bales, the various forms being kept separate, as "root-bark," "flat- bark," "quill-bark," and "shavings." 600 Ib. of dry bark per acre a year, or 2 Ib. per tree (at seven years old), is considered a good average yield. Citronella-Grass ; Pangiri-mana, S. Cymbopogon (Andropogon) Nardus. A large coarse grass, 3 to 4 ft. high, cultivated in Ceylon (and of late years in Java) for its essential oil, which is obtained from the leaves by distillation. The grass grows in any ordinary soil, and thrives best in a hot and moist climate. It flourishes up to 2,000 ft. elevation, but its cultivation in Ceylon is confined to the sea-coast in the South-west part of the island, where approximately MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX 511 30,000 acres are under the product. The grass is readily propa- gated by root division (seed being rarely produced), and may be planted about 2 by 3 ft. apart, in rows. Permanent shade is unnecessary, and the mode of cultivation is very simple, weeding being the chief requirement. It is recommended to replant the grass about every live years. The clumps are ready for cutting in about eight months from time of planting. Two cuttings a year may be obtained, and about 40 Ib. of marketable oil per acre is estimated to be an average annual yield. The oil has a strong aromatic odour, and is exported for use in scented soaps, perfumery, etc. ; it is also an excellent preventive against mosquitoes and leech bites. Owing, however, to overproduction and the fall in the price of the oil (the present price being about Is. per Ib.), this industry has considerably declined in recent years. The export of oil from Ceylon in 1912 was about 1^ million pounds, valued at £"79,500. \'ARIETIES. — In Ceylon there are two varieties cultivated, " Maha-pangiri " or " Winter's Grass" and " Lenabatu-pangiri ; " the former, with broader leaves, is considered to give the larger yield and better quality of oil. A distinct variety with broad drooping leaves, introduced by BAMBER from Java, is known at Pera- deniya as "Java Mahapangiri." Lemon Grass; "Seyra," S. (Cymbopogon (Atuiropogon) citratus). A grass resembling the former kind, cultivated for the production of Lemon-grass oil. The latter commands a higher price than Citronella oil, but the demand for it is limited. The plant may be grown successfully up to about 2,000 ft., and has given an annual yield of 20 Ib. refined oil per acre at the Peradeniya Experiment Station (1,600 ft.). Propagation is by division of mature clumps, and general cultivation is the same as for Citronella grass. The oil is used for scenting fine soaps, blending scents, and for similar purposes. The yield varies with soil and climate; but usually, with two crops a year, the return per acre is considered to amount to about 5,000 bundles (each 6 in. diameter), capable of yielding at least 100 quarts of oil. Refined lemon-grass oil sells in Europe for at least 6d. per oz. As a quart contains forty fluid ounces, the product of an acre should thus realize a value of £100. VARIETIES, Etc. — C. flexuosus, known as Malabar or Cochin grass, fur- nishes the Lemon-grass oil of Malabar, supposed to be superior to C. citratus. See Oils. Coca, or Cocaine-plant. (Erythroxylon Coca. Linaceae). — A small shrub, 6 to 8 feet high, indigenous to Peru and Bolivia, being found at elevations of 4,000 to 6,000 ft., introduced into Ceylon in 1870. It is extensively cultivated in its native habitat, where the 512 MIXOR PRODL'LTS OF CEYWX dried leaves (from which cocaine is obtained) are exported to the extent of about 800 to 900 tons a year, chiefly to Germany and the United States. The plant thrives best at elevations of 1,000 to 3,000 ft. in Ceylon, where small areas have been successfully estab- lished, the dried leaves being regularly exported. The best condi- tions for cultivation are a rainfall not under 70 inches, good friable soil (preferably that of virgin forest), and land of a gentle slope. Good natural drainage is important, and shade is essential until the plants are well established, but not afterwards. The seed must be sown fresh, preferably under cover and in baskets, the seedlings COCA, OR COCAINE PLANT ( EiytJlt'O.VVloU IN CEYLON. being afterwards planted out at distances of about 4 by 4 ft. apart. In South America, a method sometimes adopted in the raising of seedlings is to throw the seed when fresh in a heap, thus setting up fermentation and inducing germination ; in other cases they are sown in rows in situ, the ground being then covered with grass- litter or leaves, the seedlings being afterwards thinned out as desired. The first picking of leaves may be obtained at about 18 months from the time of planting, or at 2| years from seed. Several pluckings are made in the year, the mature leaves only MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX 513 being selected as far as practicable. These are best dried in the shade, so as to retain their green colour as much as possible. Sun-dried leaves are considered to contain less cocaine. The dried leaves are best packed for export in zinc-lined air-tight cases, as any moisture or sweating is injurious to them. On some plantations, however, the bushes are clipped with shears, and the dried twigs with leaves made up in pressed bales for export. A return of about 1,200 to 2,000 Ib. of dried leaf per acre per annum may be obtained. The chief use of the plant is for the extraction of cocaine from the leaves. In its native home the leaves are very largely used as a masticatory, being chewed with a little unslaked lime ; the imme- diate effect is said to be a " gentle excitement, with sensations of high enjoyment, lessening the desire for food, and enabling the chewer to undergo an enormous amount of fatigue." The leaves are also sometimes infused as tea, the infusion being taken as a drink. Since the restrictions on opium consumption in India, large quantities of cocaine are frequently smuggled into that country for use as a substitute for opium. The value of the dried leaves, though said to be largely judged by appearance, depends upon the amount of alkaloid they contain. DR. DE JOXG estimated that in Java 1.125 Ib. of dry leaf yields about 7 Ib. of alkaloid ( =1*5 per cent.), from which 13^ Ib. pure cocaine can be obtained. The price ob- tained for the leaf fluctuates considerably. In Colombo it varies from about 30 to 45 cts. per Ib. ( =say 5 9, 140. There is a steady demand for the product which has considerably advanced in price during the last few years, and now stands at about 6d. to 9d. per Ib. according to grade. The tree is readily propagated from seed or cuttings, and thrives from sea-bvel up to about 2,000 feet. It attains a height of about 30 to 50 feet or more, and may be planted about 18 feet apart each way. Planted along roadsides or as wind-belts, the trees may be used as supports for Pepper vines. Yield. The trees begin to yield about the fifth year from planting, and may be expected to yield 3 to 4 Ib. of lint when 6 to 7 years old, increasing later to 7 to 8 Ib. A good tree at maturity should produce 1,000 to 1,500 fruits a year. On an average 100 fruits should contain about a pound of clean fibre. The weight of the seed in a pod is about double that of the fibre. Red Cotton-Tree, " Katu-imbul" (Bombax malabaricnm. Malva- ceae). A very large handsome tree, 80 to over 100 ft. high, com- mon in the low-country of Ceylon, South India, etc. It is quite deciduous for 3 or 4 months in the year (usually January to April), the large scarlet fleshy flowers quickly following the shedding of leaves, and the fruit is ripe in April. The woody pods, like those of the Kapok, contain a quantity of white silky lint which, though less valuable, is sometimes used for mixing with Kapok cotton. (See Beautiful Flowering and Foliage Trees). Croton-Oil ; " Jayapala," S. — This powerful purgative, used in medicine, is extracted from the seed of Croton Tiglittin (Euphorbi- aceae), a small tree or large shrub, native of India. The cultivation 'Ceylon Customs Report. 520 MINOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON of the plant has been undertaken in Ceylon a few years ago, when the seeds were sold in London for 70s. to 80s. per cwt., but a large shipment speedily reduced the price, and the cultivation soon declined. The product is, however, still cultivated here to some extent, the export of the seed in 1912 being given as 785 cwt., valued at £ 2,197. The present price of the seed in Colombo varies from Rs. 22 per cwt. upwards, according to quality and demand. Kitul Palm ; Toddy Palm. (Caryota urens). — A very handsome palm, indigenous to Ceylon, with large spreading bipinnate leaves. From the young flower raceme is obtained, by means of tapping, a copious flow of sweet sap, which upon boiling yields a quantity of sugar or jaggery. In a fermented state it is distilled to produce arrack. Each flower raceme is said to continue to yield for 1^ to 4 months, producing on average from a half to 2 gallons toddy a day, or a single tree an annual yield of about 180 gallons. Kola-nut; "Bissy" or " Gooroo nuts." (Cola acuminata. Sterculiaceae). A small tree, 30 to 40 feet high, indigenous to West Tropical Africa, cultivated for its large white or pink seeds, which become reddish brown when dried. It bears warty oblong pods, 4 to 6 inches long, which contain from four to ten or more seeds. The latter are highly prized as a masticatory in tropical Africa on account of their stimulating and sustaining properties, due to the presence of the alkaloid caffeine (also found in coffee), and to a small extent of theobromine (active principle of cacao). The dried nuts (seeds) are imported into Europe, etc., and used in medicine as well as for the manufacture of kola wine and other beverages. As a vegetable product, the Kola-nut ranks next in importance to the Oil-palm (Elaeis) in West Tropical Africa. The tree was introduced into Ceylon in 1879, and has become estab- lished in the moist low-country up to about 1,600 feet, being cultivated to a small extent as a minor product in conjunction with1 tea; the seeds are simply dried and exported. Kola-nuts occur under two different species, viz., Cola acuminata and C. vera. The seeds of the former possess four cotyledons, and those of the latter (supposed to be the more valuable) only two. The tree is propagated from seed, which must be sown per- fectly fresh ; it bears fruit when six or seven years old, producing two crops a year, equivalent of 500 to 800 pods, or about 50 to 120 Ib. of seeds per tree. In cultivation, the trees should be planted about 18 feet apart each way. The product is prepared for the market by merely drying in the sun. In 1890, kola-nuts were MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX 521 worth 2s. 9 usual return is said to be NEW ZEALAND HEMP. PlwrUlilllll teililX. from 600 to 850 Ib. of dry fibre per acre from the fourth year, or roughly 1 Ib. per tree. With good cultivation the yield could, however, be increased to about 1,700 Ib. per acre. The price of the fibre fluctuates somewhat from £25 to £35 per ton in London. Mauritius Hemp; Green Aloe. (Purer aea giganten. Ama- ryllideae). — A large succulent stemless perennial, indigenous to Tropical America, bearing immense succulent leaves, 5 to 8 feet MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 545 or more in length. It has been introduced into Ceylon before 1824, and has become naturalised along the railway-line up-country, where it was first planted to form a boundary. It has become equally common in parts of India, where, however, as in Ceylon, no commercial use is made of the fibre. The yield of the latter is said to be only about 2 % to 3 % as against 3 to 4i % in Sisal Hemp. The plant is similar in appearance, as well as in cultural requirements, to the latter, but is distinguished from it by the leaves being spiny along the margins towards the base. New Zealand Flax. (Phonninin tcnax. Liliaceae). — A hand- some perennial bushy, stemless plant of New Zealand, having long sword-shaped leaves, which are either green or margined and streaked with white; the latter form is of an ornamental appear- ance and often grown for ornament. The leaves, rising from the base, measure from 5 to 7 feet in length, and give upwards of 15 # of their green weight in cleaned fibre; the latter is of a silky lustre, nearly white in colour, '"with a breaking strain higher than that of hemp or flax;" it is used for ropes, binder twine, and cordage. It is estimated that an annual yield of 12 to 15 tons of green leaves per acre may be obtained, furnishing from li to 2 tons of clean fibre, which is said to be worth from £20 to £25 per ton. The plant grows freely at the higher elevations in the tropics, and has become quite acclimatized at Hakgala Gardens and neighbourhood; it is readily propagated by division of the root- stock or from seed. Panama-hat Plant; Toquilla "Palm." (Carlttdovcia pahuata. Cyclanthaceae). — A stemless palm-like plant with large palmate leaves, similar to those of a fan-palm, with stalks 5 to 6 ft. long, groxving naturally in clumps. The flowers, followed by the seed, are produced in cones borne on stalks rising from the base, from 1 ft. to li ft. high. It is a native of Tropical America, and is ex- tensively cultivated in parts of Eucador, Colombia, etc., for the sake of the leaves from which the well-known Panama hats are made. The plant is fully developed at about two to three years old, and the same clump lives for many years in the same ground. The young leaves are taken every month just as they begin to unfold, the stalk being cut some distance below the leaf to facilitate handling. Each leaf is torn into plaits about 3 inch wide (the outer plaits being rejected), and finally into shreds by means of an in- strument consisting of a piece of wood in which needles are pro- perly arranged. These shreds, constituting the "straw," are then 546 FIBRES submerged in boiling water for some time, being afterwards bleached by sulphuring, then dried first in the shade and sub- sequently in the sun. At the present time the "straw" sells in its native country at from ^ to f of a dollar (say, 2s. to 2s. 9d.) per Ib , the price having advanced considerably in recent years owing to the increased popularity of Panama hats in Europe. Some of the higher grade hats, being valued for fineness of fibre and ex- cellent workmanship, commands as high as £5 each, some even fetching much higher prices. The Carludovica plant has been introduced into Peradeniya Gardens in 1866. It grows luxuriantly in a moderately moist, loose loamy soil, and prefers light shade, but the latter is not essential. A hot humid climate is indispens- able. Jippi-jappa Hats, which are similar to the Panama article, are made from the leaves of Carludovica Jnuiaicensis, a plant which closely resembles the preceding species. Piassava Fibre or African Bass. — The fibre obtained by retting, and then beating, from the stems of the fronds of Raphia vinifera forms a valuable product in Liberia and other parts of W. tropical Africa, where the palm is indigenous. The fibre, which is used chiefly in making brushes, brooms, sweeping machines, etc., is usually valued at about £18 to £20 per ton in England. Over 3,000 tons are exported annually from Liberia alone. Ramie; Rhea-fibre or China-Grass. (Boehmeria nivea. Urti- caceae). — A perennial shrub of the Nettle family, 5 to 6 ft. high, with large heart-shaped leaves which are greyish-white beneath, indigenous to tropical and sub-tropical Asia. From the inner bark of the stems is obtained the rhea fibre of commerce, one of the most valuable of textile fibres; it is pure white, of a silky lustre, and is used in the manufacture of the finest linen, in- candescent gas mantles, etc. The plant is easily grown, thrives best in a loamy, alluvial or humous soil up to 2,000 or 3,000 ft., and requires either a moist climate or irrigated land. No shade is necessary once the plants are established. These are readily propagated by division of the root-stock or by cuttings; they may also be raised from seed, which is very small. The soil being dug or ploughed to a depth of 7 or 8 inches, the plants may be planted about 2 by 3^ ft. apart, in rows. A small crop of stems may be obtained in eight to ten months from the time of planting, and afterwards a yield of 3 or 4 cuttings a year. The production of straight clean unbranching stems is essential, as these furnish the best fibre. MISCELLANEOUS ECOXOM1C PRODUCTS 547 About 30 tons of stems is an estimated annual yield per acre. One ton of stems produces about 1501b. of prepared fibre, which is usually valued at £-25 to £30 per ton in Europe, according to quality. The difficulty of obtaining suitable machinery for degumming and decorticating the fibre has long been an obstacle to the industry, but this is said to be now almost overcome. It is stated that a good field will not require replanting for five to six years, the plants being kept within proper limits by chopping the sides of the rows occasionally. The crop is an exhausting one; therefore manuring is essential, and all refuse and mulch should be returned to the soil. Sisal Hemp interplanted with Cotton, Maha-illuppallama Experiment Station, Ceylon. VARIETIES. — B. uivea, var tcnacissitna has smaller leaves (green under- neath), and is suited to higher elevations than the above. B. pnlchra has large handsome dark velvety-looking leaves, and is worth growing for ornament. Sisal Hemp. (Agave rigida, var. Sisalana. Amaryllideae) — A perennial stemless plant of the Amaryllis order, indigenous to Mexico and introduced into Ceylon in 1890. The plant furnishes a valuable fibre, known as Sisal-hemp, from its leaves ; is extensively cultivated in parts of South America, Hawaii, German East Africa and, to a smaller extent, in parts 548 FIBRES of India and elsewhere. It bears long, thick, succulent leaves, 4 to 6 ft. long, usually smooth-edged and with a terminal spine. The plant flowers at about its seventh or eighth year ; in order to preserve the quality of the fibre, the pole or flowering scape should be cut at 4 ft. from the ground, all suckers being also removed. Each pole if allowed to grow will bear from 2,000 to 3,000 bulbils. The plant is suited to a dry or wet climate, and is considered to thrive best on a limestone formation. It flourishes, however, on almost any soil that is well drained, as may be seen from its progress in Peradeniya Gardens. Propagation f SISAL HEMP IX FIJI. is by bulbils (produced by the flowering pole) or suckers, and on average soils the plants may be planted out at about 8 by 8 ft. apart. The first cutting of leaves takes place in the third or fourth year from planting ; under favourable conditions this will average from 20 to 22 mature leaves per plant a year,, yielding from 3 to 4^ per cent, clean fibre. Subsequent cuttings may be made at intervals of about six months, until an average of about 160 to 180 leaves in all have been obtained from each plant ; this will occupy a period of about eight years from the time of planting, and is estimated to afford a total crop of about 10i Ib. of prepared ribre per plant, or about 7,000 Ib. per acre. MISCELLANEOUS ECOXOMIC PRODUCTS 549- The yield, however, is variously estimated. SIK DANIEL MORRIS' estimate is 60 Ib. of fibre from 1,000 leaves, thirty-three leaves per plant, 650 plants to the acre ; total yield, 1,200 Ib. fibre per acre per annum. It has been found in Java that a return which falls below 650 Ib. per acre is not remunerative under cultivation. SACK OK BARK-CLOTH TREE. AntitlriS illHOXUl. Showing (left) suit of bark cloth and (right side) sheet of same. The price of the fibre Huctuates from about £-25 to £-30 per ton, according to quality. Sunn (or San) Hemp; " Hana," S. (Crotalaria jiincen. Leguminosae), — An erect annual, 4 to 5 ft. high, with bright yellow Howers, indigenous to tropical Asia generally and commonly occurring in the dry region of Ceylon. It is cultivated practically all over India, and to a small extent also in the 550 FIBRES north or north-western districts of Ceylon, for the sake of the strong and useful fibre obtained from the stems by retting. It is also sometimes cultivated as a green fodder plant for cattle, as well as for green-manuring. In cultivation, seeds are sown thickly, either broadcast or in drills — generally broadcast if for fibre; the quantity of seed sown per acre varies greatly, from 12 to 80 Ib. per acre. The plant is invariably grown as a catch-crop, not mixed with other products. In India the crop is sown with the beginning of the rains, and occupies the ground usually for four or five years, being cut when the plants blossom. In harvesting, the plants are usually pulled up by the roots, though sometimes cut close to the ground, and left on the field for a few days to wither ; they are then stripped of the leaves and tied in bundles of about a hundred stalks. The bundles are dried for two or three weeks, then placed in pools (preferably of still shallow water) and weighted down with stones or wood logs ; they are thus left for five or six days to ret. The fibre is afterwards stripped off, washed, bleached, and plaited into tails. A good average yield is considered to afford about 640 Ib. (or 80 maunds) of clean fibre per acre. The price of the fibre varies greatly in India according to quality, from about Rs. 1 1 to Rs. 18 per cwt. The best grade is said to come from Bombay, and is about 4 ft. long. In London the fibre is said to be worth about £16 per ton. The chief use of the fibre in India is for making coarse canvas, cordage, and fishing nets. With cultivation, the plant may be grown on almost any soil, but a light rich soil is considered to suit it best, a clayey or inundated land being the least suitable. OTHER IMPORTANT FIBRE AND TEXTILE PLANTS OF THE TROPICS. [See also Chapters XXII & XXII I]. Those marked * are common or indigenous in Ceylon. Bo-anica. or Common Name. Natural Order in Italics. Purpose for which principally used. Abroma augusta \Sterculiaccae. Perennial shrub of Ind. & Java *Allaeanthus zeylanicus. \Urticaceae. A spreading Cordage. Ropes, etc. "Alandu" S. tree, peculiar to Ceylon *Ananas sativum. Pineapple fibre Bromeliacciic. See Tropi- Textile fabrics. cal Prints [.S.=-Sinhaltse] MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 551 Botanical and Common Name. Descriptive notes. Natural Order in Italics. Purpose for which principally used. * Anodendron paniculatum. .-1 pocynaceae. H uge Ropes. "Gerandi-dul," S climber of Cey.. Ind., and Malaya Anona reticulata. Anonaceae. Small tree Fine lace-like Bullock's heart ; "Anoda." S of Trop. America fibre; wrappers, etc. " Antiaris innoxia Urticaceae. Large tree Bark-cloth. "Rid": Sack Tree of Ceylon it Moluccas Arenga saccharifera. Large palm of Malaya Ropes, brushes, etc. Gomuti-fibre ; Sugar Palm Asclepias curassavica. Asctepiadeae. V\'est Cordage. Ja naica Ipecacuanha Indian shrub. Attalea funifera. Coquilla Nut; Handsome Brazilian palm Bass brooms, etc. Piassaba, or Dass-fibre Bauhinia racemosa. "Mavila," S Leguminasae. Small Ropes and cordage. tree; Cey., Ind., Malaya Borassus flabellifer. Palmae. See "Minor Brooms, ropes, etc. Palmyra-fibre Products of Cey." Broussonetia papyrifera. Urticaceae. Quick- Tapa cloth, etc. Paper Mulberry growing tree of Burma and China *Calotropis gigantea. "Wara," S. Asclcpiadcae, Common Ropes and cordage. "Mac'ar-fibre.' shrub of Cey., India and Malaya Cannabis saliva. Indian Hemp ; Urticaceae. Annual Paper, textiles, etc. ; Ganja. or Bhang shrub of Central A>ia also an important narcotic drug. *Caryota urens. "Kittil." S. Handsome bi-pinnate Brushes & brooms. palm; Coy., Bengal, etc. *Cocos nucifera. Coconut Palm. See "Standard products Ropes, brooms, etc. of Ceylon." Cryptostegia grandiflora. Asclcpiadeac. Woody ,. climber of India and Trop. Africa *Debregeasia velutina. Urticaceae • Small tree "Gas-dul,"S; " Wild Khea." of Cey., India & Java *Grewia microcos. ' Keliya." S. Tiliaceae. Shrub; Cey.. Ropes. India & Malaya 'Gyrinops Walla. Thymelacaccac. A small Ropes ai.d cordage. '• Walla-patta," S. tree, peculiar to Ceylon *Helictere$ Isora. "Liniva," S. Stcrculiaceae. Shrub of Cordage. Cey.. Ind. & Java Hibiscus cannabinus. Malvaceae. Shrub with Fishing nets, paper. Deccan or Bombay Hemp. prickly stem; India etc. ; largely culti- vated in Java. H. — elatus. Cuba-bast ; Malvaceae. Small bushv Cordage and mats Mountain Mahoe. tree of West Indies H.— tiliaceu*. "Beli-patta," S. \Ialvaccae. Large shrub. Honckenya ficifolia. "Bolo-bolo." Tiliaceae. Annual shrub Cordage and mats ; of trop. Africa i r o n z e-c o 1 o u r e d eaves, ornamental. Lagetta lintearia. Thymelaeaceae - Small ^ace-like inner fibre Lace-bark Tree. tree of West Indies *Lasiosiphon eriocephalus. riiymclaeaccae. A bushy 4Saya,"S. "Chaya." T. Opuntia coccinellifera and C Tuna. Cochineal Cactus. Pterocarpus santalinus. "Red- sanders." Semecarpus Anacardium. Marking-nut. al, 2 to 3 ft. high India. A larg; tree Heart-wcod ; yellow dye- Cried flowers ; red and yellow dve. Central America. jWood ; a yellow dye. A large tree See Oldenlandia India, etc. Tall shrub. Mexico Central India. Flowers ; a red dve. used in cookery, etc. Coccid. Cochineal Cactus. Flowers yield a yellow dye. large shrub used in India for dyeing cotton cloth, etc. Cey. & India. I Pinkish-purple dye obtain- Small annual; sea led from root; once a coast, dry region, C e y 1 o n Government monopoly. JA bug (Coccus Cacti) which feeds on the plant in enor- mous numbers. Heart-wood affords a red tree brown dye, used for dyeing woollen cloths. India, Malaya, etc. (Juice of nut mixed with A moderate-sized quicklime is used for mark- tree, ing linen, etc. Mexico ilndia. A small GUTTA-PERCHA AND BALATA Gutta-percha. — A substance similar to rubber, being a product of a certain group of trees (of the N. O. Sapotoceae) which are chiefly indigenous to the Malay Archipelago, and obtained in the MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 563 form of latex by a method of tapping or ringing the bark. Felling the trees and ringing the bark is the usual method resorted to; consequently the trees have become scarce. In recent years, how- ever, this depletion is reported to have been somewhat obviated by planting up the trees in forests and reserves. It is computed that an average yield of 1 6 Ib. of gutta per tree may be obtained from trees in the wild state. Unlike rubber, gutta softens or melts in moderate heat. Its principal use is for insulating cable wires, etc., but it is also largely employed for making soles for boots and shoes. The following are the principal gutta-yielding trees: — Palciquini (Dtchopsis) Gutta, known as "Taban Gutta," or "Taban Merah;" P. Maingayi ("Gutta-Tabban Simpoo"); P. pisluhita ("Gutta-Taban Puteh"); P. obovata and P. Treubh. P. gnintiis (" Kiri-hembiliya," 5.), is indigenous to the moist low- country forests of Ceylon. Payena Lcerii, introduced to Ceylon in 1880, and now established at Peradeniya and Heneratgoda Gardens, yields the Gutta Sundete, while "Gutta Singgarip" is obtained from the climber or liane known as Willitghbeia firma. Balata is a product analagous to gutta-percha, obtained chieHy from Minnisops globosa or "Bully-tree," belonging to the same family as Palaqitiiun and found chiefly in Venezuela and British and Dutch Guiana, whence the article is exported. In the Guianas, the balata is sun-dried into sheets, while in Venezuela the latex is boiled and made into block balata, which commands about 6% Pehimbiya," S. Burseraceae Harp illia cupanioides. " Na-imbul," S.\ Sapindaceae Mangifera indica. Mango. Anacardiaceae Pithecolobium Saman. Inga-saman, Guango, or Rain-tree. Leguminosae Rhus vernicifera. Japan lac. Anacardiaceae Exudation produced by tanning the stem. Schleichera trijuga. Kon, S. Kusmnb, Ind. Sapindaceae Zizyphus jujuba. " Mason," S. " Ber," Ind\ Rhamnaceae RETURNS. — It is estimated that under average conditions a yield of 4 to 6 Ib. of stick lac per tree may be obtained. 88 Ib. "stick'' will afford i cvvt. "seed lack." Seed or granular lac, produced on Pithecolobium Saman in India, has been recently valued by PROFESSOR DUNSTAX, Director of the Imperial Institute, at 55s. to 60s. per cvvt. "Ordinary" shellac is usually quoted in London at 45s. to 50s. per cwt., and "good soluble" or "fair spot" at 60s. to 70s. SERICULTURE As is well known, the production of silk is due to the "worms" (caterpillars) of certain moths, which in some countries, as in China, parts of Southern Europe and Northern Asia, are cultivated, or rather bred, in enormous numbers in order to produce their cocoons, which furnish the silk of commerce. The worms are reared in light airy sheds, on tiers of trays, and fed by the leaves of certain plants which they eat voraciously. There are several species of silk-producing worms, the principal being the Mulberry silk- worm (Bombyx Mori] which feeds chiefly on the Mulberry leaves ; the Eri worm (Attacns ricini), which feeds on the Castor- oil plant; and the Tussar worm (A ntheraea Pernyi), which feeds chiefly on the Oak. The worm of the Atlas moth (Atlacus atlas), which is common in Ceylon, also produces a good second-rate silk and is omnivorous as regards its food. The Mulberry kind is the most important and is the one grown so extensively in Europe ; the Eri is much in favour in India, while the Tussar is produced chiefly in China. The mulberry silk-worm yields the best quality silk, and its mode of existence, like that of other silk-worms, is briefly as follows. The moth lays its eggs, often to the number of 500 or more, on a leaf or twig, to which they adhere by means 568 SERICULTURE of a gummy substance. These are placed on trays in light airy sheds to hatch out. The caterpillars resulting, at first blackish or obscure, become a paler tint in about 10 days, finally becoming yellow when about 4 weeks old and ready to spin. SPINNING. Before commencing to spin the caterpillars fast for 36 hours, void all their excrements, become soft and flaccid and seek a suitable spot for the construction of their cocoons. Two or three days are occupied in the operation of spinning the latter, and the thread of a single cocoon is sometimes 900 yards in length. The process of spinning is effected by passing the thread through two small holes (spinerets) in the head of the worm, which by a combined movement of the mouth and front legs unites the filament into one, binding it closely together by a gummy liquid. The cocoon finished, the worm then undergoes metamorphoses, that is, it changes into the chrysalis or pupa state. In about two or three weeks the moth, under natural conditions, emerges by forcing its way through the cocoon. The males appear first, then the females, the former being comparatively active in their movements ; they proceed at once to pair, and both live but a few days, the females meantime laying their eggs and thus completing the life cycle. Under the artificial conditions of seri- culture, however, the moth is not permitted to emerge from the cocoon, as in doing so the latter is seriously damaged, both by the act of piercing and by the dirt and stain left behind. Therefore in order to obviate this the pupae are destroyed by heating the cocoons in an oven or by crushing. The indispensable conditions for successful sericulture are cheap labour and a plentiful supply of suitable food for the worms. In Italy and other silk-producing countries it is essentially a cottage industry, carried on mainly by women. Efforts have been made from time to time to establish sericulture as an industry in Ceylon, it being considered an occupation peculiarly adapted to the peasants. The question of culture has in itself proved suc- cessful, and as a result of experiments excellent commercial samples of both the mulberry and eri cocoons have been produced. But hitherto the people have not shown much enthusiasm in the new venture. The chief obstacle in the way is probably the fact that the destruction of the chrysalis in the cocoon, by whatever means, constitutes an offence against the Buddhist religion. To obviate this there are two alternatives : (1) to allow the mulberry moth to mature and emerge from the cocoon, and dispose of MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 569 the hitter as silk "waste," an inferior grade ; (2) to cultivate the eri worm whose cocoon, though an inferior silk, with only a limited Indian market, is not of the reelable kind and therefore does not necessarily involve the destruction of the pupa or chrysalis. Though the product in either case could not compete with the properly treated mulberry cocoons of other countries, yet it is thought that this might be compensated for by obtaining a large outturn, which might be effected by selecting and rearing multivoltine strains; this latter factor is especially in favour of sericulture in a tropical country, the silk-worm in Europe being always univoltine, i.e., producing but one crop annually, the worms undergoing metamorphoses once a year only. Both the mulberry and castor-oil plants Hourish in Ceylon at various elevations, the latter having become naturalised and is often found in a wild state, especially in the neighbourhood of villages. The castor-oil plant is readily propagated by seed, and the mulberry by cuttings. MR. C. DRIEBERG, Secretary to the Ceylon Agricultural Society, who has done much to foster the new industry, writes: — "The Ceylon Agricultural Society is endeavouring to establish the silk industry in Ceylon by every available means — distributing silk- worm eggs, leaflets of instruc- tions, seeds of the castor-oil plant and cuttings of mulberry. At Peradeniya, a demonstration silk farm has been started by the Society which has recently been given over to the Salvation Army to work, in view of the facilities which that body possesses for reaching the people. Work on the farm is progressing satis- factorily, and excellent samples of silk of the Eri, " Mysore," and a hybrid " Mysore-Bengal" worm have been reeled. At the farm, instruction in silk culture is given to teachers and others, and it is hoped ultimately to push the industry through Government Vernacular Schools. It is hoped that ultimately silk-culture will be taken up as a home industry in the villages. According to CAPTAIN JORGEXSOX, Manager of the Salvation Army Silk Farm at Peradeniya, if the eri cocoon is obtained white and free from stain and dirt, it will command a satisfactory price in the European markets. "In order," he writes, "to produce the desired article, our plan is to cut open the cocoon on the fifth day before the chrysalis removes its outer skin, which often causes a stain. Each cocoon is cut open with a pair of scissors, and the chrysalis thrown out to the fowls. It is a simple operation, and can be done by children. This plan, however, may 570 SERICULTURE offend the prejudice of some. One of the great advantages of the Eri cocoon is that one can allow the moth to escape without the necessity for destroying the chrysalis ; where the above plan causes offence, the chrysalis may be allowed to escape. The stained cocoon will, however, fetch a lower price. What merchants, in Europe object to is not so much the stain as the dirt which always attaches to such cocoons. In some markets the merchants, usually deduct 5 per cent, for dirt in estimating the value of the cocoons. One reason why the white cocoons are preferred by the manufacturers is that they are more easily dyed. The brown cocoons, however, generally realize a good price. In order to- secure the whiteness of the cocoons, the best plan is to place the worms in layers of crumpled newspapers in a basket for spinning their cocoons. We have found this very effective. We bale the cocoons according to their quality. Those that are white and quite clean go in one class, those that are partially clean go. in another, while those of bad colour go in a third." CHAPTER XXV 1. PERFUME-YIELDING PLANTS 2. HONEY PLANTS 3. ORNAMENTAL SEEDS 4. CURIOUS FRUITS 5. POISONOUS PLANTS 6. INSECTIVOROUS AND FLY CATCHING PLANTS 7. MYRMECOPHILOUS PLANTS PERFUME-YIELDING PLANTS:— The extraction of perfume from Howers affords an important industry in some countries, notably in France, where roses, orange blossoms, jasmine, violets, tuberoses, etc., are used by the ton for the purpose. The two principal methods of scent extraction adopted by perfume manufacturers are distillation and maceration or enfleurage, and flowers which are adapted for treatment by either of these methods may be unsuited to the other. The following notes apply to such perfume-yielding plants as may be suitable for cultivation in Ceylon or in similar tropical countries : — Roses.— Cultivated for their scent, about 5,000 rose plants may be planted per acre. After the second year an acre may produce about 6 cwt. of rose petals in the year, these yielding by distillation about 70 ounces of attar of roses, valued at £,20 to £30 per Ib. Bergamot (Citrus bergatniu. Rutaceae). — A kind of bitter orange yielding a valuable perfume from the rind, known as "bergamot." 1,000 fruits will yield about 30 oz. of oil, which when pure is worth from £1 10s. to £2 per Ib. The tree requires much the same treatment as the sweet orange, and in plantations is generally planted about 12 feet apart each way. Another variety of bitter orange called the " Bigardeer" is valued for its flowers, a kilogramme of which yields, on an average, 2 grammes of essence, which is worth, according to quality, from £,10 to £18 per Ib. Cedrat (Citrus medica. Rutaceae). — A highly scented oil obtained from the rind of the citron, worth about 18s. or more 572 PERFUME-YIELDING PLANTS per Ib. It is not much used for scenting soaps, being too costly for that purpose, but enters largely into the composition of handkerchief perfumes. Frangipanni. The odour of the white, cream, or crimson waxy flowers of the Temple Tree (Plumeria spp) closely resembles the perfume frangipanni, and it is considered that it would pay to extract the scent by distillation, or by the usual method of maceration in liquid fat, etc. The Temple-tree is com- mon at low elevations in Ceylon, especially near Buddhist temples, and is easily propagated by cuttings. Geranium (Pelargonium capita turn. Geraniaceae) — This plant, which may easily be grown up-country, is cultivated extensively in Northern Africa and Southern Europe for the sake of the delightful rose-smelling oil obtained from the strongly scented leaves and stems by distillation. This oil is worth about 4s. per oz. In plantations 3,000 to 4,000 plants are allowed to the acre; one planting lasts four years, and three cuttings of leaves and shoots are obtained from the plants in one season. Jasmine. (Jasinitiuin spp. Oleaceae). — The perfume or otto obtained from Jasmine flowers by absorption on clarified fat is said to be one of the most prized by perfumers, on account of its sweet and delicate odour and the impossibility of imitating it, and is said to be worth about £9 per fluid ounce. In France, about 8,000 Jasmine plants go to the acre ; this number yield about 5 cwt of blossoms, which in turn will perfume li cwt. of fat valued at about 12s. per Ib. Lemon-grass; Verbena-oil (Andropogon citratus. Graminae). — The oil obtained by distillation from the leaves of Lemon-grass is generally employed in the perfuming of scented soaps, also in adulterating u otto of roses" and true "verbena oil." It is sold in London at about 6d. per ounce. Patchouili. (Pogostemon Patchouli, Labiateae). — A small her- baceous plant, about 2 feet high, native of Sylhet, Penang, and Malacca. By distillation of the leaves and young tops a volatile oil is obtained, and from this " Essence-of-Patchouli " is prepared. Patchouli perfume is highly popular in India as well as in Europe, and is much used in the preparation of other perfumes. With care, the plant will grow at medium elevations in Ceylon, though probably not sufficiently well to be profitable. In England, Patchouli leaves are said to be sold at 9d. to Is. 3d. per Ib., and the pure oil at from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 9d. per ounce. PERFUME-YIELDING PLAXTS 573 Priprioca. (Mespilodaphene (Ocoica) preliosa). — A Brazilian tree, found in the forests of Amazonia. "The leaves when bruised give off an agreeable perfume, recalling clove, cinnamon and bergamot at the same time." Considered to be of possible value in perfumery and soap-making. Tonka, Tonkin, or Tonga Bean, Known in Venezuela as " Serrapia " (Diptcryx odornla. Leguminosai). — A large tree, native of Tropical America, introduced to Peradeniya in 1881. The fruit is an oblong, fibrous pod, containing one almond-shaped black seed. The seeds are fragrant, possessing the odour of new-mown hay, and are used by perfumers for bouquets, as well as in the preparation of sachet powders. They are also employed in scenting soap, snuff, etc., and a "tincture of tonka" is some- times used by pastry cooks and confectioners as a substitute for vanilla. The seeds when dried are subjected to a crystallisation process, being soaked in rum for 24 hours and then slowly dried, when they become covered with white crystals. Tonka beans fluctuate greatly in price, according to supply and demand. According to the Chemist and Druggist the price has varied from 20s. to 7s. per Ib. in less than 12 months. At the time of writing, it is quoted at 7s. per Ib. Tuberose (Poliaiithes tuber osa. Liliaceae). A tuberous her- baceous plant, much cultivated in the South of France for the extraction of perfume from its powerfully scented flowers. The plant grows and flowers freely at medium and high elevations, in Ceylon. Ylang-ylang, or Ilang-ilang; " Wana-Sapti " S. (Canangn Oifortitn. Anonaceae). — A large, quick-growing tree, 60 to 80 feet high, native of the Philippines, Java, etc. The large greenish- yellow flowers are strongly scented, and yield by distillation the popular scent " ylang-ylang " or "Hang-Hang." A full-grown tree may be considered to yield 100 Ib. to 120 Ib. of fresh flowers during its flowering season. From 150 to 200 Ib. of flowers produce about 1 Ib. of the essence, the collection and distillation of which is said to form an important minor industry in the Philippines. Here it is estimated that an acre planted with 150 trees may give 3,250 Ib. of flowers, yielding about 16 Ib. of essence. The main supply, however, is from uncultivated trees. The Natives collect and sell the flowers from these for 2il. per Ib. The annual export of ylang-ilang oil from the Philippines is now valued at about £20.000. 574 HOXEY PLANTS In addition to the foregoing, the following are also noted for the fragrance of their Mowers or leaves : TREES : Caesalpinia coriaria. "Divi-divi." Murraya exotica. " Etteriya" S. Cassia nodosa Myristica. Horsfieldii Citrus Decumana. Pumelo. Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis. "Sepalika," S. Fagraea fragrans. " Tembusu " or or " Night-flowering Jasmine." "Tembusi" (Malay.) Ptercorpus marsupium. Mesua ferrea. Ceylon " Iron-wood ;" Haematoxylon campechianum. "Na-gaha" S. Michelia Champaca. Champac ; " Sapu" S. Logwood. Tabernaemontana coronaria. Wax- flower. T. — dichotoma. " Divi-kaduru." SHRUBS: Brunfelsia bicolor • Lippia citriodora. " Lemon -scented Oardenia florida Verbena." Hibiscus Abelmoschus. Musk Mallow. Michelia fuscata. " Mathanakama." T. Seeds yield musk-like odour, Ocimum basilicum. Sweet Basil. used in perfumery. Worth O. — sanctum. " Maduru-tala " S. Is, to Is. 6d. per Ib. Stemmadenia bella. Jasminum Sambac Talauma mutabilis. Lawsonia alba. Mignonette Tree. Wrightia zeylanica. " Sudu-idda" S. CLIMBERS : Artobotrys zeylanicus. "Petika-wel," S. Asparagus falcatus. " Hathawariya," S. A.— racemosus. Camoensia maxima. Jasminum flexile. Lonicera Hilderbrandtii. Giant Honev- Odontadenia speciosa Pergularia odoratissima. Stephanotis floribunda. suckle. HONEY PLANTS Bees have their likes and dislikes in regard to the flowers they visit for extracting honey from, and the quality of the honey produced by them largely depends on the kind of flowers which they frequent. Persons who have taken up bee-keeping in Ceylon or other tropical countries must have sometimes experienced a difficulty in providing a sufficient supply of suitable flowering plants or trees for their bees ; to these the following list of trees or shrubs especially suited for the purpose may be a guidance. MR. C. DRIEBERG, who has given the subject much attention, states that Ceylon bees seem to travel great distances in search of honey-flowers, apparently preferring trees to shrubs and smaller plants. In the West Indies, " Logwood " honey is considered to be about the best, though the flowers of the Pigeon Pea {u Rata-tora ") and Lime-tree (Citrus) are also considered to yield honey of excellent quality. ORNAMENTAL SEEDS 575 SELECTED HONEY-FLOWERS OR BEE PLANTS [T=-Tree : Cl=Climber : S=Shrub : H. P.=Herbaceous Perennial : A=Annual], Name. Acacia dealbata. Silver-wattle Antigonon Leptopus, & other species. Bassia longifolia. " Mi." S. Caesalpinia coriaria. " Divi-divi " Cajanus indicus. Pigeon Pea ; ••Rat.i-tora" S. Canarium commune. Java almond. Caryota urens. Kitul or Toddy Palm". Horse cassia. Cassia grandis. Cassia nodosa. Ci:rus Limetta. " Lime," also various other species of Citrus. Cocos nucifera. Coconut Palm. Durio zibethinus. Durian Tree Elaeocarpus serratus. Wild olive Glycosmis pentaphylla. Guizotea olifera. Grevillea robusta Silky Oak. Humboldtia laurifolia. Ipomoea carnea See above. Cl T T S T T T T S or T T T T S A T S Cl Name. Kleinhovia hospita. Lantana. Several species Logwood (Haematoxylon). Mangifera indica. Mango Michel ia Champaca. Sapu Mignonette (Reseda odorata). Murray a exotica Nasturtium (Tropaeolum.) Pometia exima. Porana volubilis Portulaca oleraceae Ptercorpus indicus. Rhus glabra. Sarcocephalus esculentus Schleichera trijuga Strobi!anthes, various species. Terminalia Belerica. " Bulu." S. Turnera elegans. See above. T S T T T A S or T A. Cl. T Cl A T T Cl. S. T T H. P. ORNAMENTAL SEEDS In the tropics there is found a large number of curious or ornamental seeds suitable for making articles of ornament or utility, as beads, necklaces, rosaries, mats, buttons, etc. It is note- worthy that the majority of such seeds are furnished by the natural orders of Leguminosae and Palmae, although many are produced also by the orders Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae and Scitamineae. Boring the seeds for necklaces, etc., may be done by rixing the seed firmly and using a fine drill, or by passing a red-hot needle through it. No attempt should be made to soften the seed by soaking in water, which will result in loss of brilliancy in colour, if not in the swelling and splitting of the seed. The following are some of the more striking of such seeds : — Abrus precatorius. "Crab's eyes." Seeds scarlet with a black spot; used for rosaries, necklaces, goldsmiths' weights, etc. Adenanthera pavonina. "Bead Tree." Seeds bright scarlet, used for necklaces, etc., also for jewellers' and apothecaries' weights. A— bicolor. Seeds smaller than the latter, half-black and half-red, very orna- mental. Caesalpinia Eonduc. Nicker seeds. "Kumburu-wel," S. Large ash-grey, polished and very hard, round or oval. 576 ORNAMENTAL SEEDS Canna indica. " Indian Shot," Seeds black, round or oval, of the size of small peas, very hard. Cocculus macrocarpus. " Atta-tithavel." By depriving the kidney -shaped fruit of its outer covering (epicarp) the remarkable annular endocarp is ex- posed. Coix Lac'iryma— Jobi. "Job's Tears." Very hard, grey, polished seeds; used for rosaries, bead-work, etc. Corypha umbraculifera. Talipot Palm. Seeds round, of the size of marbles. hard and grey, used for buttons and ornaments. Elaeocarpus Ganitrus. — The round warty brown fruits, when dry, used as heads for hat pins ; when fresh it is covered by a bright blue skin. Entada scandens. Elephant Creeper." Remarkable large flat brown seeds. Erythrina corallodendron. Coral-bean Tree. Seeds scarlet, with a black spot; strung as beads in chaplets. Hevea brasiliensis. Para rubber Tree. The large roundish mottled and blotch- ed seeds make excellent beads for hat-pins, Manihot Glaziovii. Ceara rubber Tree. Oblong flattened hard seed, mottled grey and brown. Melroxylon Sagu. Sago Palm. Round or cone-like reddish fruits, with a rind formed of hard polished small scales. Mucuna atropurpurea. Punnakalichi, T. Large roundish and compressed seed. grey mottled with brownish black. Mucuna pruriens. " Horse-eye Bean; " Cowhage or Cowitch. The large oval seed resembles the eye of a horse. Pods of this and above species covered with brown irritant bristles. Oroxylon indicum. "Totilla" S. Seeds with curious membranous, flat circular wing. Ormosia dasycarpa. "Necklace Tree." Seeds large, oval or roundish, bright scarlet, blotched with black or brown. Very popular for making but- tons, necklaces and ornaments. O. — coccinea. Seeds similar to the preceding species, but smaller. Poincania regia. Flamboyante. Seeds hard, oblong, and mottled grey. Phyllanthus cyanosperma. Seeds rather small, wedge-shaped, bright shiny deep-blue. Phytelephas macrocarpa. Ivory-nut Palm. The large hard white ivory-like seeds are used as a substitute for ivory, being employed in the manu- facture of buttons, etc. Exported from S. America. (See under Vegetable Ivory.} Raphia ruffia. Raffia Palm. Round or conical large, brown polished scaly fruits, suitable as heads for hat pins. Rhyncosperma cyanosperma. Violet-black seeds, used as ornaments by hill people in India. Sapindus saponaria. " Soap Berry." Round black seeds, often strung as beads or rosaries, sometimes used as buttons. Thevetia neriifolia. "Lucky-beans," or "Lucky-seeds." In the West Indies the hard oblong seeds are mounted and used as pendants and charms. CURIOUS FRUITS 577 REMARKABLE OR CURIOUS FRUITS Barringtonia speciosa. " Mudilla." (Myrtaccac). A large, curious 4-angled cube- like fruit. See Flowering Trees. Cassia Fistula. Pudding Pipe, " Eh-ela." (Legit iiiiuosiie). Long cylindrical brown pods, up to 3 feet in length. See Flowering Trees. Castanospermum australe. Morelon Bay Chestnut. (Legnminosae). Stout brown pods, 5 to 7 inches long, with hard shells and large brown oval seeds. Citrus Decumana. Pumelo. ( Rntaceae ). Large globular succulent fruits- yellowish or bright orange-yellow. See Fruit Trees. Couroupita guianensis. Cannon Ball. (Myrtaceae). Large round brown fruits of the size of a man's head. See Flou'ering Trees. Crescentia Cujele. Tree Calabash. (Bignoniaceae). Very quaint large smooth- shelled fruit, oval in shape. The hard shell is polished and used for orna- ments. C. — plectrantha. Tree Calabash (Bignoniaccae) Fruit as above, but round-shaped. Cucurbita maxima. Pumpkin; Wataka. S. (Cnrcnrbitnccae). A climbing or creep- ing gourd, bearing immense round smooth fruits, which are generally flattened at both ends; the seasoned and polished shells last for many years. Dillenia indica. " Honda-para " S. (Dilleninceae). Large greenish succulent fruits. See Fruit Trees. Lodoicea sechellarum. Double-Coconut; Coco-de-mer; "Mudu-pol," S. (Palnuic). Immense hard-shelled nuts, usually 2-(sometimes 3-) lobed. Peculiar to Seychelles. Introduced at Peradeniya in 1850. Entada scandens. Elephant Creeper; " Pus-well " S. (Legnminosae). An im- mense jungle climber, bearing enormous flat pods. 4 to 5 ft. long by 3-4. in. broad. Forests of moist low-country. See. p. 576. Hura crepitans. Sandbox Fruit. (Eitplwrbiaceae). Curious round hard fruit, flattened at both ends and divided into numerous rounded sections each containing one seed; dehisces explosively with a loud report. Hydnocarpus octandra. (Bi\aceae). Round, jet black, velvety, pendulous fruits of the size of oranges. Jumping Beans. The maggot of a moth (L'arpocapsa sal titans}, which is hatched inside the small half-round capsule of certain Euphorbiaceous trees of Mexico, whence the " bean " is exported as a curiosity. Warmth renders the maggot active, when the beans begin to roll or jump about. Kigelia pinnata. Sausage Fruit. (Bignoniaceac}. Stout pod-like fruits, 14 inches or more in length by 3 in. in diameter, suspended by long thin cords 4 to 6 ft. in length; produced by a spreading medium-si/ed tree. Lagenaria vulgaris. Bottle Gourd. (Cncnrbitaceae). Variously shaped large gourds, often bottle-or club-shaped, 1 to 2 ft. or more in length. Lecythis Ollaria. Monkey Pot. (Lccythidaccac). A large hard woody brown fruit, furnished with a close-fitting lid at the top. Martynia diandra. Snake's Head; Tiger's-claw; Naka-tali, T.(Pedaliaccae). Hard woody oblong fruits with 2 strong curved spines, native of Mexico, natur- alised in Cevlon. 578 POISONOUS PLAXTS Ochroma lagopus. Down Tree. (Malvaceae). Curious brown, erect fruit, which when dehisced resembles a brush of soft greyish down. Ochrosia acuminata. (Apocynaceae). Bright red, oval fleshy fruits, H to 2 in. long. Ornamental but poisonous. Oroxylum indicum. "Totilla." (Bignoiiiaccnc). Immense, slightly curved pods, resembling cricket bats at a distance. Pandanus Leram. Nicobar Breadfruit. (Pandanaceae). Huge fleshy fruits borne at base of leaves; orange yellow when ripe. Pangium edule. Pangi. (Mai.) (Bixaccae). A large Malayan tree with broad leaves. The large rusty-brown woody fruits are of the size of small coco- nuts, said to be poisonous until boiled and macerated in water, when they become edible. Parmentiera cereifera. ( Rignoniaceae ). Remarkable candle-like pale yellow fruits, borne on stem and branches. See Ornamental Foliage Trees. Sterculia Balanghas. " Nawa " S. (Stercnliaceae). Large yellow shell-like fruit; when dehisced it exposes black shiny seeds which hang from the margins like teeth. Tabernaemontana dichotoma. Forbidden Fruit ; Eve's Apple; "Divi-kaduru," S. (Apocynaceae). A small tree of Ceylon and S. India, with pale grey bark, common at low elevations. The curious pendulous fruit is half- round, with a clean-cut depression along one side, which has suggested the popular names, being supposed to resemble a partly eaten fruit. Some even imagine they see in it Eve's teeth marks ! POISONOUS PLANTS Certain families of plants are characterized generally by distinct poisonous characters, while others, as the Cruciferae, are remarkably free from any poisonous traces. To the former belong Aroideae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynacere, Asclepiadeae, Urticaceae, Solanaceae, Umbelliferae, LoganiacecC, and others. Some of these, however, as Solanaceae and Umbelliferae, also furnish wholesome food products. Any plant which possesses a milky juice should be treated with caution until more is known about it. In former times, and even till this day in certain uncivilised countries, persons sus- pected of witchcraft or crime were made to swallow portions of certain poisonous plants, or confess the alleged offence; if the persons died from the effects they were considered to be guilty, while if they vomited the poison they were held to be innocent. The following are well-known ordeal poisons. HISTORICAL OR ORDEAL POISONS Hippomane mancinella; Manchineal Tree. (Enphorbiacecv). A celebrated poison tree of tropical S. America; it is also indigenous to some W. Indian islands. Erythrophloeum guineense; " Sassy Bark " (Legnminoscv). A well-known poi- sonous tree of Sierra Leone. GEXERAL POISOXOUS PLANTS 579 Antiaris toxicaria; Upas Tree. (Urticaceac) The celebrated poisonous tree of Java, at one time supposed to give off poisonous fumes fatal to animal life. The milky latex contains a virulent poison. Physostigma veneno^um. (Lcgiiniiiiosac). A large twining climber whose large oval dark-brown seeds are the famous ordeal-beans of Old Calabar. Ccrbcra Tanghin ( Apocynaccac). A small tree with a milky juice, whose fruits are the ordeal poison of Madagascar. GENERAL POISONOUS PLANTS Acokanthera spectabilis. Arrow-poison. (Apocynaccac). Root and wood used by Natives in Africa for poisoning arrows. Alyxia zcylanica. " Walkaduru " or " Wasakaduru," S. (Apocynaceac). A shrub found in semi-dry regions; the milky juice is poisonous. Cerbera Odalam. " Gonkaduru," S. (Apocynaccac). A small tree with acrid milky juice and white scented flowers; common in low-country, chiefly near the sea. The seeds are an irritant poison. Datura fastuosa. ' Attana " S. (Solanaceae). Small shrub, with large leaves and large white or purple trumpet-shaped flowers; fruit round, with numerous prickles, poisonous. Datura suaveolens. Trumpet flower; " Rata-attana." S. (Solanaceae). A shrub with large white or purple flowers, native of Mexico. The round green prickly fruits are a well-known poison. Dieffenbachia, many spp. & varieties (Aroidcac). Herbaceous branchless succu- lent plants, bearing a crown of large variegated leaves, commonly cultivated for ornament. The juice is highly acrid and poisonous; the slightest contact of a portion of it with the tongue will cause the latter to swell. making speech almost impossible for some time. Euphorbia antiquorum. " Daluk." S. \Enpliorbiaccac). A spreading leafless tree. 15-30 ft. high, found in rocky places in the low-country; branches 3-winged. very spiny. The acrid milky juice is poisonous. Euphorbia tortilis. "Sinuk"S. (Eiipltorhiaccac). A small leafless tree, found in similar places to Daluk; milky juice acrid and poisonous. Excaecaria Agallocha. " Tala-kiriya," S. Blinding Tree. (Etiphorbiaceae). Small tree with extremely acrid milky juice, common on the coast of Ceylon and other Eastern countries. Girardinia heterophylla. Elephant or Nilgiri Nettle; "Gas-kahambiliya," S. (Urticaceac). A tall herb, covered with stinging poisonous hairs; found in forests of montane zone. Gloriosa superba. " Xiyangala." S. " Ventonti," S. (Liliticcac). A herbaceous climber with whorled leaves whose tips end in a spiral tendril; the large fleshy tubers are poisonous. Hydnocarpus venenata. " Makulu." S. (Bi.\accac). A medium-sized tree with smooth bark, common in low-country; fruits poisonous, used for poison- ing fish. Isotoma longiflora. (L'ainpannlacfac). An annual weed with white flowers, introduced from Jamaica; has an acrid poisonous milky juice, which has been considered to be the cause of deaths amongst ponies on the Delft Island, North of Ceylon. 580 FLY-CATCHING AND ALLIED PLANTS Laportea crenulata. Fever-or Devil-nettle; " Maussa," S. (Urticaccac). A large shrub with large oval leaves; whole plant clothed with minute stinging hairs, which sting severely, the distressing effects often remaining for many days. Lobelia nicotianaefolia. " Wild Tobacco;" Rasni, S. (Campannlaceue). A large herbaceous perennial, 4 to 10 ft. high, with large oblong leaves, found in open ground at 4,000 to 7,000 ft. The leaves and seeds are acrid and poisonous. Mirabilis Jalapa. Jalap Plant; Marvel-of-Peru; Four o'clock Flower; Hand- rikka. S. (Nyctagineae). An annual, 2 ft. high, with white or pink flowers. Roots and seeds poisonous. Modecca pal ma la. " Hondala " or " Potu-hondala," S. (Passifloraceae). Small perennial climber with large shiny leaves, common in moist low country; the round scarlet fruit, of the size of an orange, is poisonous and has been known to cause death. Nerium oleander. Oleander; " Arali " or " Araliya," S. £ T. (Apocynaceae) Shrub or small tree, with milky juice and large showy pink or white flowers. The roots are poisonous. Ochrosia borbonica. '* Mudu-kaduru." S. (ApocyiMCeac). Small tree with greenish white flowers, common near the sea-coast; the bright red fruit is con- sidered poisonous. Piunbago zeylanica. " Elu-nitul," S. (Pln'mbtigincac). A perennial herb, with long succulent roots, which are acrid and pungent, being sometimes used for illegal purposes. Sapium indicum. " Kiri-makulu." S. (Euphorbiaceac), Small tree with smooth white bark and willow-like leaves; the acrid milky juice is very poisonous Solanum verbacifolium. " Hekarilla," S. (Solanaceae). Large shrub, covered with a dense yellowish-grey tomentum; moist region up to 6,000 ft. Fruit poisonous. Streblus asper. " Geta-netul." S; "Pirasu," S. (Urticaccae). A shrub or small. tree, with scabrous leaves, common in the low-country. The yellow fruit is edible, but the bark is an irritant poison. Strychnos Nux-vomica. Nux-vomica; " Goda-kaduru," S. (Logatiiaceae). A fairly large tree, common in the forests of the dry region; the seeds are the source of strychnine and are powerfully poisonous Yucca gloriosa. Adam's Needle. (Liliaccae). A semi-woody branchless plant, 6 to 8 ft. high, with long, rigid, sharply pointed leaves; the roots are poisonous. INSECTIVOROUS, FLY-CATCHING AND ALLIED PLANTS Aldrovanda vesiculosa. Water fly-trap. (Droseraceae). A rootless swimming water-plant of S. Europe, remarkable for the inflated extremities of the sensitive leaves, which act as floats and for capturing small water animals, which the plant digests. Aristolochia, many species. " Fly catching Plants.'' (Aristolochiaceae). A re- markable family of plants (mostly climbers), with variously shaped flowers, which in some species are very large; most have an offensive odour, which attracts flies. In most species the flowers are adapted to FLY-CATCHING AXD ALLIED PLANTS 581 entrap the latter which, once inside, are unable to escape owing to the bend in the middle of the flower tube and the numerous hairs which all point inward. The Hies are usually essential to the pollination of the flowers, and once this is effected the hairs collapse and thus often enable the flies to escape unharmed. Cephalotus follicularis. Pitcher Plant of Australia (Ccpkalotaceae). A remark- able marsh plant of YV. Australia, bearing two kinds of leaves, one form being transformed into pitchers, which capture insects much in the same way as Nepenthes. Darlingtonia. several species. California!! Pitcher-plant (Sarracftiiaccae). A remarkable genus of perennial herbs found inhabiting marshy places in California. The leaf-petioles, as in Sarracenia, are formed into long pitchers, with the divided lamina or blade at the top. Dionoea muscipula. Venus's Fly-trap. (Droscraci'nc). A small remarkable marsh plant of the S. United States. The spathulate leaves are furnished with peculiar bristles along the margin; they are extremely irritable and when touched by an insect close immediately and imprison the intruders; these are killed and the plant absorbs the product of their decay. The leaves will close also if touched by any solid substance. Dischidia Rafflesiana. Leaf Pitcher Plant (Asdepidcac). A climbing plant with two kinds of leaves, indigenous to Malay and Tropical Australia; the leaves are formed into closed pockets 3 to 5 in. long, with a small aperture at one end. into which an adventitious root from the stem is usually developed. Drosera, many species. Sundew. (Droscraccac). A genus of small swamp plants found in most countries. Three species are indigenous to the montane zone of Ceylon. Leaves thickly set with glandular hairs, which are slightly irritable, being tipped with a minute drop of viscid fluid. By means of the latter, insects are caught, when the surrounding hairs combine to imprison them. Drosophyllum lusitanicum. Sundew. (Drosei'ticcat'). A striking plant with simi- lar characters as the above, inhabiting the sandy hills of Portugal. Nepenthes. Several species. Pitcher Plant. " Bandura-wel," S. (Xepenthaccae) A genus of semi-climbing plants inhabiting moist swampy places in the tropics, mostly in Borneo, Sumatra, etc. X. tlistillatoria is indigenous to Ceylon. A prolongation of the midrib is modified into curious pitcher- like structures, with a lid at the top. These pitchers are in some species or varieties as much as 8 to 10 in. long; they usually contain a quantity of water, in which often a number of dead or dying insects are found, the product of their decay being assimilated by the plant. Pinguicula vulgaris. Butterwort. (Lentibulariaccac) A bog plant indigenous to the British Isles, furnished with radical leaves of a sensitive character, incurved at the margins ; stimulated by the presence of proteid bodies, they close over, when the sessile glands secrete a ferment and digest their prey Sarracenia, several species: Side-saddle Flower. (Sarraceniaccae). Marsh plants of North America, the leaf petioles of which are modified into re- markable erect, often brightly coloured, pitchers, surmounted by a lid 582 MYRMECOPHILOUS PLANTS formed by the small lamina. These pitchers usually contain water, in which flies and other insects are drowned. Utricularia, several species. Bladderwort. (Lentibttlariaceae). Water or bog plants without roots, found in swamps of most countries. The leaves are furnished with small bladders, which have a trap-door entrance and capture small crustacean and other animals. MYRMECOPHILOUS PLANTS [i.e., plants with special cavities or other adaptations for attracting and protecting ants for mutual benefit.] Acacia Hindsii. ( Lcgmuiiiosae ). Indigenous to Trop. Central America. The hollow formidable spines are generally inhabited by ants. Acacia sphaerocephala. (Legirniiiwsat). Bull's Horn Acacia. Similar to above. Cecropia peltata. (Urticaceac). Trumpet Tree. Hollow stems often inhabited by ants, also used by Natives for musical instruments. Coccoloba, several species. (Polygouaccac). S. America and the West Indies' Hollow stems usually occupied by ants. Cuviera, several species. W. Trop. Africa. Hollow swellings on stems. Duroia hirsuta. S. America. Hollow stems, with entrances into which colonies of ants gain admission. Humboldtia laurifolia. (Legit niinosae). A shrub indigenous to Ceylon and S. India, with hollow internodes generally inhabited by ants. Hydnophytum montanum, and other spp. (Rttbiaceae) Epiphytic plants, native of Malaya, etc. remarkable for their swollen woody base, which is hollow and provides a home for ants. Muehlenbeckia platyclada. (Polygon-accae). A scrambling shrub or climber, with hollow internodes indigenous to the Solomon Islands. Myrmecodia Beccari and other spp. (Rnbiaccac). Epiphytic plants, indigenous to Malaya, with a hollow tuberous base. Triplaris surinamensis. (Poly 'gon :accac\ A tree of Surinam, with large hollow stems which harbour ants. SACRED TREES OF INDIA, CEYLON, ETC. The worship of certain plants or trees, supposed to possess supernatural qualities, was at one time practised in many parts of the world, and the custom has still survived among certain races in tropical countries. This is more especially the case in India, where numerous trees or plants are held more or less sacred or in high esteem for temple offerings. The following are some of the principal species thus employed : Ficus religiosa. Bo-tree; Peepul ; Aswatha, S. (Urticaceae). The most sacred tree of India and Ceylon, being venerated by Hindus, Buddhists and other races. Devout Buddhists will not injure the smallest seedling or branch of this tree. The specimen at Anuradhapura, Ceylon, is probably the oldest historical tree in the world, having been brought from India in B. C. 288. SACRED TREES 583 Butea frondosa. Palas or Parasu. (Lcguiniiiosac). A beautiful tree, especially sacred to Brahmin races in India. Melia Azedarach. Xeem or Nim Tree ; Persian Lilac ; Bead Tree. (Mt'liucctte). Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis. Sepala or Sepalika ; " Night-flowering jasmine." (Oletict'tic). A small tree of Central India; the flowers are much used in Hindu worship and as votive offerings. Plumeria acutifolia. Temple Tree. (Apocynaccae). A small tree, commonly planted near Buddhist temples in Ceylon, the highly-scented flowers being greatly esteemed as temple offerings. Ocimum sanctum. Sacred Basil : Tulsi. (Liibiatnc). A herbaceous perennial. 2 to 3 ft. high. This is the most sacred plant in the Hindu religion, and is consequently found near every- Hindu house throughout India. Stereospermum xylocarpum. " Padri Tree" of India. Sterculia colorata. Malaiparutti, T. (Sterculiaceat). A handsome flowering tree, indigenous to the dry region (Eastern Province) of Ceylon. The aboriginals (Veddas) sing odes to it. Prosopis spicigera. Sami Tree. (Leguminosae). A small tree sacred to the Hindus generally all over India. Kigelia pinnata. Sausage Tree. (Btgnoninccae). A large spreading tree with large curious gourd-like fruits, indigenous to tropical Africa, in parts of which it is held sacred by the Natives. See p. 577, etc. Nandina domestica. " Sacred Bamboo " of China. (Berberidaccae). An erect shrub with unbranching stems, bearing tufts of small pinnate leaves at the top, producing large panicles of creamy flowers, followed by red berries ; native of S. China, and much esteemed in that country for use at temples. Nelumbium speciosum. Egyptian Lotus ; Olu, S. (Xynipliiicnccac). A handsome water-plant with large round leaves, and very large pink or white flowers borne on erect stalks 2 to 3 ft. above the water. It has been held sacred by the Egyptians from time immemorial, and is also venerated in parts of India, China, etc. CHAPTER XXVI. 1. PASTURE, GRAZING, AND FODDER PLANTS 2. MEDICINAL PLANTS OF CEYLON 3. EDIBLE HERBS USED IN CEYLON PASTURE, GRAZIXG, ETC. [S.— SINHALESE; 7'.=TAMiL3. A striking feature of agriculture in the tropics is the scarcity of pasture, natural or artificial, for grazing stock. Here we iind the natural herbage characteristic of cooler climes replaced by jungle or scrub ; a large portion of the natural grasses grow coarse and wiry ; what should be herbs are shrubs, and weeds soon over-run cleared areas unless frequently eradicated. A contributing factor to the scarcity of pasture is the fact that our cultivated crops are mainly perennial trees or shrubs, not annuals as in temperate countries, so that it is impracticable to adopt any system of crop rotation, which ordinarily includes forage and grazing crops. Added to these circumstances, there is often either insufficient or excessive rainfall, or soil which is of a hard impervious nature and lacking in humus, the latter being one of the most essential ingredients in good pasture land. It must, however, be admitted that the absence of conditions which naturally conduce to good pasturage can to some extent be overcome, and circumstances demand that the best efforts be made to that end. Cattle are especially indispensable to the peasants, either for dairy or draught purposes, yet it is surprising how little is attempted to provide for their proper sustenance. The average native owner of cattle (and few who are not) seldom makes any attempt to provide pasture for them, and they are constantly allowed to roam and pick up what they can. A few head of cattle, properly nourished, should be regarded as a useful asset to every estate, whether in the low-country or at the higher elevations. In addition to their dairy produce, cattle furnish excellent natural manure. Some planters maintain that, for most crops, this is the best of all manures, and in the days of coffee cultivation in Ceylon PASTURE AND FODDER PLAXTS 585 many kept a herd of cattle on the estate mainly for the sake of manure, as is still done on in my coftee estates in South India. Good pasture land, too, may often bring in an appreciable return in grazing fees. Further, the average butcher's meat in the tropics is capable of much improvement by more attention being given to fattening cattle — a matter which at present receives but little consideration. Formation of Pastures. — Low-lying Hats or ravines, where the soil is of a moist sandy or alluvial nature, usually constitutes the best land for pasture purposes or for growing fodder grasses. The soil should be well-tilled by trenching or ploughing to a depth of 15 in. or more, removing the roughest stones, roots or other obstacles, and leaving a tolerably smooth surface. The latter should be gone over with a roller, so as to break the clods and secure a firm and even surface A certain amount of shade is beneficial, both for the growth ot the grass and for affording shelter to cattle from the sun. Therefore, existing trees should be left at suitable distances apart or, where these are wanting, good shade trees should be planted. Pastures may be formed by sowing seed or by planting roots or cuttings of suitable grasses at a few inches apart. When the former method is adopted, a good seed mixture, including a proportion of herbaceous leguminous or clover-like plants, should be procured, the seed being sown broad- cast and afterwards raked or harrowed into the soil. A suitable mixture has the effect of keeping down weeds in addition to furnishing the best pasturage. Most perennial grasses are easily propagated by division of the roots, which, if planted out in wet weather at distances of 6 to 8 inches apart, should cover the ground in a short space of time. Upkeep of Pastures.— For the subsequent maintenance of the pasturage, care must be taken to keep down coarse weeds or woody growths which are liable to appear. An occasional surface dressing with a fertilizer is most beneficial and well repays the cost and trouble. Irrigation above all things, especially in dry seasons, may be said to be the secret of success in the upkeep of green pastures. In Australia, America, South Africa, etc., irrigation not only increases the yield, but also improves greatly the feeding qualities of pasture or fodder. Pasture among Tree Products. — The growing of pastures bet- ween certain perennial or tree crops, as on coconut plantations, is sometimes practicable, and at the same time beneficial to the main 586 SELECTED FODDER GRASSES crop. A well-tilled condition of the soil between the trees aids the retention of moisture, while the light filtering shade afforded by the trees favours the production of tender herbage. Pasture and Fodder Plants in Ravines, Patanas, Compounds, etc. — On estates there are often ravines, strips of private roadsides, unopened forests or jungle, etc., which, though regarded as waste ground, might be utilized for the growth of pasture or forage plants. Unopened forests or jungle in many cases need only have the tangle of undergrowth removed to afford the necessary con- ditions for good pasturage. Patanas and chena land might also be reclaimed in many places and utilized for pasturing, while native compounds or so-called gardens could be much improved by clearing away the useless undergrowth and encouraging the growth of fodder or herbage under the shade of coconuts, jak trees, etc., — a factor which should also conduce to the improvement of local sanitation and the reduction of malaria. Under the seapage of tanks or reservoirs there are often considerable areas which might well be utilized for grazing purposes or for growing green fodder, the moisture and nature of the soil in such localities being usually well adapted to this purpose. Fallow Rice Fields and Conservation of Fodder. After reap- ing a harvest of rice, the goiya (Sinhalese farmer) usually leaves his fields bare for a considerable period, in some cases abandoning them for several years. If these were re-irrigated and planted under intercrops of leguminous plants, the latter would not only provide feed for cattle during the dry season, but would also have the effect of renovating the soil. In some countries it is customary to make provision for seasons of scarcity by converting surplus grass or fodder into hay or ensilage. Ensilage has the advantage of conserving forage plants in their green nourishing state, and keeps good for several years. The method of procedure is simple, a pit (called a silo) sufficient to hold from 25 to 50 tons or more of green forage being excavated, and the earth so removed placed on top of the mass so as to act as a covering and a weight at the same time. SELECTED FODDER GRASSES The suitability of grasses for fodder purposes depends in many cases on the extent of care bestowed on their cultivation. It is well known that the same kinds of grasses do not succeed equally well in all localities, and that certain species are more suited to some districts than others. English grasses, it may be said, are seldom, if ever, a success in the tropics, and even at the SELECTED FODDER GRASSES 587 higher elevations they invariably become, in course of time, replaced by local species. The most important fodder grasses grown in Ceylon are the " Guinea grass" (Pnnicum maxim /////) and "Mauritius-grass" (P. bnrbinodc) in the low-country, and the "Golden Crown-grass" (Panicuin dilataium] up-country. The following selections are given alphabetically : — Andropogon (Sorghum) halepensis. Johnson-grass or Cuba- grass. A tall handsome perennial with creeping rhizomes, common all over India. It is esteemed for green fodder and for hay, and is largely grown in Field of " Mauritius "- or " Water "-Grass ( Puniciini barbinodc or P. iiniticiiin), on Experiment Station, Peradeniya, Ceylon. India. Southern United States, and Australia. In India the seed is collected and eaten by the poorer classes. A nth 1st iria austral is (= A. imberbis). The "Kangaroo-grass" of Australia, common also in Ceylon. India, and East Africa. It is a perennial, growing about 3 ft. in height, and in Eastern Australia is regarded as perhaps the most useful of the indigenous grasses. Stock of all kind are fond of it. In East Africa also it is considered excellent for green forage and for making hay. Anthistiria Cymbaria. " Karawata manu," S. An abundant grass in the patanas of upper Dimbula. FKKWSON states : " Often cut and dried for fodder 588 SELECTED FODDER GRASSES for cattle, being perhaps the best substitute for hay of all the grasses found in Ceylon." Astrelba pectinata. " Mitchell Grass." A perennial. 2 to 3 ft. high, native of Queensland, highly esteemed as a fodder grass. Cymbopogon (Andropogon) pertusus. A common grass in Ceylon, from the sea-coast up to about 2,000 feet elevation ; excellent for fodder either in a green or dry state, and cattle are very fond of it. Cynodon Dactylon ; " Doob " or " Doub-grass;" "Bahama-grass;" "Bermuda- grass;" Arugam-pillu, T. A prostrate perennial species, found in all tropical countries, especially in the drier regions. It resists extreme drought, and GUINEA GKASS OX K1VHR HANK, PERADEXIYA. is an important grass for covering bare barren land in dry districts or near the sea. Excellent for fodder or hay ; in British Guiana it gave a crop, on ex- periment, of 22 tons green fodder per acre, in 12 monthly mowings. Easily propagated by cuttings or seed. Specially suited to dry districts. Forms a good sward, and in India, Egypt, etc., is a favourite lawn grass. Eragrostis abyssinica. Known as Teff, Jtheff, or Thaff. An Abys- sinian grass, cultivated for its grain as well as for fodder. It is highly spoken of as a grass for dry regions. Euchlaena (Reana) luxurians. Teosinte. A tall annual grass from Guatemala, and one of the most prolific of fodder plants. Under favourable SELECTED FODDER GRASSES 589 conditions it grows from 10 to 15 "feet in height and yields very large crops. At Madras, under irrigation, a single crop gave a yield of about 20 tons per acre ; the crop for the year may be 50 to 80 tons. Cattle and horses are very fond of it. Ischaemum ciliare. " Rat-tana," S; " Nandu-kanni," 7\ A common perennial grass, found at all elevations in Ceylon. At one time commonly grown under the shade of coconuts near Colombo and brought into town as a fodder for cattle. Ischaemum muticum. A common grass in damp situations near Colombo, large quantities of it. according to FERGUSON, "being collected by the grass-women for horse food in Colombo." In the jungle, where it obtains support, it is a tall grass and grows to several feet in height. Ischaemum timorense ( Spodiopogon obliquivalvis). A slender Draggling grass, common in the low-country, usually inhabiting damp and shady places ; an excellent plant for green fodder. MR. JOWITT has pointed out that this grass is remarkable for its aerial roots, which become embedded in gelatinous matter during the monsoon rains. Panicum Burmanni. Pagister grass, or Scotch grass of the West Indies. — It is found chiefly in wet land, and so prolific is it that a single acre is recorded to be " sufficient to maintain five horses for a whole year." Panicum Crus-galli. Ccckspur-grass, " Wel-marukku," S. An annual grass, of which there are several varieties, 1£ to 3 ft. high, found in the low- country of Ceylon and throughout the tropics. An excellent fodder, especially esteemed in Queensland. WATT describes one variety of this in India as the quickest growing of all the millets, being harvested in some localities within six weeks of being sown. Panicum maximum. Guinea grass, " Rata-tana," S. This well-known species constitutes one of the best fodder grasses of the tropics. In Ceylon it holds first place as regards the low country. It has been introduced here from tropical Africa, and thrives best on deep alluvial moist soil, flourishing from sea- level to about 3,000 feet or higher. Near Colombo, it may be seen thriving on almost pure sand, sometimes reaching a height of 4 to 6 feet. Under good cul- tivation it can be cut four or five times a year, each cutting capable of yielding, it has been estimated, 20 tons or more per acre. Seldom produces seed here, but is readily propagated by division. Panicum barbinode ( =P. muticum). This is known by various names, as Mauritius-, Para-, Water-, and Buffalo-grass, also " Diya-tanakDla," S. It is a somewhat coarse, vigorous plant, thriving and spreading rapidly in damp places, often taking complete possession of the soil. It has rather succulent stems and leaves, with the nodes distinctly hairy, and roots readily at the joints ; the latter are said to grow after passing through animals. In Ceylon, where it is naturalised at the lower elevations, it may be considered as ranking next in im- portance to the Guinea-grass, whilst it is also much grown in other tropical countries, as the West Indies, Florida, Mauritius, and Bengal. It is a native of tropical America, and was introduced to the Eastern tropics about 1850. Panicum repens. " Et-tora," S. A widely distributed grass, common in Ceylon from sea-level to 6,000 feet elevation, and thriving equally well in dry sandy soil as in marshes. On some estates it is a common weed, albeit an ex- cellent fodder for cattle, and large quantities of it used to be brought into Colombo for this purpose. 590 SELECTED FODDER GRASSES Panicum spectabile. " African Wonder Grass;" " Capim-de-Angola." A valuable fodder plant, long established in Brazil and other parts of tropical America, supposed to have been first introduced from the west coast of Africa. It is distinguished by long broad leaves, softly bearded nodes, and grows 5 to 6 feet in height. Readily propagated by division ; prefers moist situations and spreads rapidly when once established. Paspalum dilatatum, known as the Hairy -flowered Paspalum, Golden- crown, etc. A useful perennial grass, indigenous to South America, introduced into Australia some years ago and into India and Ceylon about 1900; much re- lished by cattle. Suited only to the higher elevations, say, 3,000 to 6,000 feet. Flourishes in any good soil, and is estimated to yield 10 tons or more of green forage per acre. Excellent for binding railway banks and for similar purposes. It has a tendency to grow in clumps, attains a height of from 18 to 24 inches, and is easily propagated by roots, cuttings, or seed. Setaria imberbris. A tall grass of East Africa, where it is considered a good forage plant. Setaria verticillata. A perennial grass found in abundance in some of the hot and dry districts of Ceylon ; also in East Africa, where it is con- sidered a good forage plant when young. The grass is remarkable for its power of resisting severe droughts. Sorghum vulgare (=Audt'opogon sorghum). Guinea-corn, the Indian or Great millet. A tall handsome grass, extensively cultivated in India and other tropical countries, chiefly for its grain. Some varieties are specially grown for green forage, being cut when two-thirds grown. There are several varieties, some producing in four cuttings from 20 to 30 tons per acre. Sporobolus indicus. A perennial grass, 2 to 3 feet high, common throughout Ceylon and other tropical countries. Grows luxuriantly on thin soil, and in the young state affords good forage. Stenotaphrum complanatum. A semi-creeping leafy grass, 1 to U ft. high, with smooth glabrous leaves. Thrives best on moist banks or under the partial shade of trees. Tricholaena rosea. Natal red-top Grass. An elegant perennial grass, H to 2 ft. high, with pinkish flowering panicles, introduced from Natal, where it is much valued for fodder as well as for pasture. Thrives at medium and high elevations. Zea Mays. Maize ; Indian-corn ; " Bada-iringu," S. This quick-grow- ing crop, though usually cultivated for its grain, is sometimes used for green forage, being cut when about two-thirds grown. It is a most productive crop, a well-cultivated patch being known to produce about 60 tons of green fodder per acre. OTHER FODDER PLANTS For feeding, dairying, or fattening purposes it is desirable to vary the grass diet of cattle by mixing with it other nourishing herbage in suitable combination. The following plants, though FODDER PLAXTS 591 unsuitable for close grazing, may be found useful for this purpose : — Alyssicarpus vaginalis. "Aswenna," S. A leguminous straggling perennial, common in the low-country, more especially in the dry region. Much relished by cattle. Amarantus gangeticus. "Sudu-tampala," S; Chirukirai, T. A suc- culent plant, 2 to 3 feet high, common in the low-country and throughout the tropics, often cultivated in native gardens as a curry vegetable. Chou Moellier, Chou de Burghley, or Cabbage Broccoli. Consider- ed to be a cross between the Cabbage and Broccoli ; attains a height of 4 to 6 ft. It possesses to some extent the characteristics of both these, and may be used either as a vegetable or as feed for stock. It is more specially as a fodder plant that it is cultivated, the leaves being broken off from the stem from time to time ; but it is also sometimes grown as a vegetable. MR. DKIEBERG informs me that it has become a popular vegetable in some school-gardens in the low- country, growing to a height of 6 ft. or more. Commelina benghalensis. " Diya-meneriya," S. A slender succulent herb with creeping stems and bright blue flowers, common at low elevations in Ceylon and elsewhere in the tropics. Cattle eat it with relish. Desmodium gyrans. " Chanchala," S. ; also called the " Telegraph plant " ( from the rotary motion of the two lateral leaflets, resembling sema- phores ). An i rect leguminous perennial, about 2 ft. high, indigenous to the moist low-country up to about 3,000 feet. Glycine hispida. Soya-bean. In sub-tropical countries, where this annual thrives and grows to several feet in height, it furnishes valuable fodder either in the green or dry state. See Tropical Vegetables. Hedysarum coronarium. Soola, or Sulla-cl./0r/ry"- chns mangiferae). »1 f fested fruits. Scale-bug (Lecaninm Foliage Emulsion spray. wangiferae). Orange, Limes, Lemons, etc. Scale, or Sooty-mould bug (Lecaninm viridc) | (Mytilaspis citricola. and \ Pulvinaria psidii). f Foliage Emulsion spray. 626 COMMON INSECT PESTS OF CEYLON VEGETABLES :— Host Plant. Name of Insect. Parts attacked. *Brief remedies or preventive measures. Tomatoes Gall-worm (Hdtrodere Root Vapor ite, which see. radicicola). Bandakka ( Hibiscus csculentns) { Leaf -roller j (Sylcpta multilinealis). Foliage Lead arsenate. /Fly-maggot (Agromyza Stem and Sprinkle vaporite on Beans (Phase- 1 7 i * i' \ phascoli). < Sucking-bugs (Coptosonia foliage ground about the plants. 01 US ) cribarinm and Foliage Hand-pick. \ Rcptortus fuse us). {Stem-borer (Lend nodes Young Cut off. and destroy in- Brinjal orbonalis}. shoots fested shoots. (Sol a 11 1 mi) Sucking-bug (Urcntins M Syringe with emulsion cell in us). {Caterpillar (PI it Ml a Foliage \ Cabbages ( Rmssica niaculipeiinis}. ,, (Croccdolomia > Hand-pick. family) binotalis}. j Black-grub (Agrotis segctis) ,, Hand-pick; sprinkle vapor- ite about the plants. ISuckmg-buj (Lcptoglossiis Vaporite or lead arsenate. niembranaccus) Gourds, Pumpkins, fi^ Leaf-beetle (Several spe- cies of Chrysomclidae}. " Arsenic spray. etc. Fruit-fly (Dticns Fruit Hand-pick. Collect and ferrngincus). destroy infested fruits. Potato Bulb-borer Tuber Vaporite. (Dorylns orientalis). ORNAMENTAL PLANTS:— Host Plant. Name of Insect- Parts attacked. *Brief remedies or preventive measures. Amaryllis Caterpillar (Polytchi Foliage Lead arsenate. gloriosae). ( Scale-bug ( Aster oleca ilium Stem Syringe with emulsion. Bamboos bambusae). ( Aphis (Orcgma bambusae} Stem /Caterpillar Foliage \ Cycas (Cyan iris puspa). j ,, (Catachrysops Young j~Lead arsenate. pandava}. foliage ) Dahlia Bulb-borer (Dorylus Tuber Vaporite. orientalis). / Flea-beetle (Hypnophylla Foliage Lead arsenate. Ferns 1 flavipennis). j Scale-bug (Lecanium Foliage Syringe with vermisap hemisphacricu m). (1 Ib. to 40 gal. water) or other emulsion. COMMON IX SECT PESTS OF CEYLON 627 Host Plants Name of Insect. Hibiscus Ipomoea. different spp. Jasminuin pubescens Palm in pots Pergularia (Perennial climber) Portlandia (Shrub) Roses Sal via, Thun- bergia and other A can - tliaccac plants. (Lc\l-ro\\er (Sylcpta iiinltiliiictilis). Parts attacked Foliage Flower Flower-beetle (Mylahris Pusfalaris). Hairy-caterpillar Foliage (Ettchromia poly me na) Bud-borer (Hcnilccasis Flower buds duplifascialis) IFringed-bug (Ccrataphis Foliage lantaiiiae). Caterpillar (Elyninias ,, fraterna). Scale-bug (Lccauinni „ hetiiispJiacriciun). Sole-bug (Lfcatiium ,, cattdatitm). 0 Brief remedies or preventive measures. Caterpillar (Caprinia „ conchylalis)\ le-bug (Aspidiotus Stem and a n ran tii). foliage , (Iccrya aegyptiaea).. ,, Rose-beetle, several Fl's and species, young foliage Lantana-bug (Orthczia Foliage and insignis). stems. Lead arsenate. Destroy infested flower buds. Syringe with emulsion. Hand-pick, or lead arsen- ate. v Syringe with an emul- j sion. The old brown scales are dead, but re- main adhered to the surface and shelter numerous eggs under- neath. "Paris Green." or arsenate. Syringe with emulsion. [Hand-pick. Sprinkle I vaporite about bushes. Emulsion spray. CHAPTER XXIX. FUNGUS AND OTHER DISEASES OF PLANTS Fungi differ from plants possessing green leaves in not being able to obtain their food from the soil; they can only derive nourishment from the bodies of plants or animals, either living or dead. Those fungi that live on dead vegetable matter, as humus, decaying wood, roots, etc., are called saprophytes; these do not injure living plants, unless they alter their mode of obtaining nutri- tion, as they sometimes dQ, and become parasitic. Fungi which grow on living plants are known as parasites; the greater number of these are very minute, and are only visible to the naked eye when present in great numbers. All parasites cause disease, important or not, according to the extent to which they occur and the harm they do to plants or crops. Preventing the spread of diseases. — The methods available for combating diseases are more or less regulated by the life history of the fungi concerned, and may be grouped under the following heads: (1) by destroying the plant tissues that contain the vegetative forms or the reproductive spores of the fungus; (2) by spraying with a fungicide to prevent the germination of spores deposited on leaves, stems, or fruits; (3) by avoiding conditions that are known to be favourable to the spread of the disease; (4) by raising disease-resistant varieties; (5) by prohibiting the impor- tation or transport of plants or seeds from diseased -infected coun- tries or localities. Destroying plant tissues. — The most certain means of eradi- cating a disease is to burn the affected plants, or cut and burn the diseased portions of these. When the latter course is adopted, the cut surfaces of the living plant should always be painted with tar or other substance that will prevent the germination of fresh spores which may fall on them. When burning is not practicable, .as through excessive moisture, the diseased parts should be buried -with lime. Lime not only hastens decay, but also prevents local souring of the soil by the addition of large quantities of decaying DISEASES OF PLANTS 629 matter, and thereby discourage conditions which predispose plants to disease. Thus the burial with lime of all diseased cacao pods, as well as the husks of healthy pods, left after the beans have been extracted, has been found to have an important effect in preventing the spread of the pod-disease of Cacao. Conditions favourable to infection. — In damp, warm weather and in shady situations, spores of fungi stand the best chance of germination. Conditions of the soil which are unfavourable to plants, as defective drainage, etc., are sometimes conducive to the rapid spread of a root disease. Crowding together plants of the same kind also favours the spread of disease, or an epidemic or extensive wave of disease can only occur where large numbers of the same kind of plant are growing in close proximity, as in the exclusive cultivation of single crops. Wounds a cause of disease.— A large number of fungi can bring about infection of their host-plants only through wounds or breaks in the bark. Canker is generally formed by a wound parasite, and in order to avoid conditions likely to bring about infection by it, careful attention should be given to the operations of pruning, fruit-picking, etc., as well as the tarring of all wounds. Isolation of affected areas. — The spread of a root disease may sometimes be effectually arrested by means of cutting a trench round the affected area, the progress of the mycelium through the soil being thus confined to certain limits. This prevents healthy plants being attacked, and enables the affected areas to be cleared and treated with large quantities of lime. Effects of rotation of crops. — A fungus disease may often be starved out by rotation of crops. This, however, is only possible in the case of annual or temporary crops, like root products, etc. In the case of permanent crops, as Cacao, Tea, Rubber, etc., when a tree has died from a root disease, the diseased roots should be carefully extracted from the ground and destroyed, the soil being opened up and treated with lime, the cavity being allowed to remain open for some time before the vacancy is supplied. Disease-resisting varieties. — Some varieties or species of plants are more or less immune from disease, while others, culti- vated under the same conditions, are specially susceptible to it. Therefore varieties which are the least susceptible, consistent with other desirable qualities, should be selected for cultivation. The raising or selection of disease-resisting varieties is now recognised 630 USEFUL FUNGICIDES as a matter of considerable importance in horticulture and agri- culture. Good cultivation a preventive of disease. — The remarks ap- plied in the case of insect pests with regard to the importance of maintaining a vigorous condition of the plants or crops grown, are equally applicable in the case of fungus diseases, for plants in vigorous growth are often capable of combating the parasitic effects of a disease, while those of a weaker constitution succumb to it. Therefore, good cultivation, as secured by proper draining, manuring, careful priming, etc., should be considered an effective measure towards the suppression of a fungus disease. Importation of plants from infected areas. — This has often re- sulted in the introduction of new diseases, and many countries have now formulated laws to prevent such an occurrence. The importation or transference of seeds or plants from countries or localities affected with fungus diseases should, therefore, be allowed only where quarantine measures for disinfection are adopted. USEFUL FUNGICIDES Bordeaux Mixture. — This is one of the most useful and effective fungicides for application to plants attacked with mildew or other fungus disease. There are various formulas for making it, all of somewhat varying degrees of strength. The following proportions represent a standard formula and may be recom- mended for general use in the tropics : Copper sulphate ( 98 per cent.) 5 Ib. ; lime (freshly burnt) 5 Ib. ; acid water to make up to 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulphate in a small quantity of water, using a wooden tub for the purpose, slake the lime to a paste, mix it with the remaining water and pour into the copper solution. Treacle is sometimes added to render the mixture more adhesive. When being applied, the mixture should be kept thoroughly stirred. Sulphur. — This is used for the destruction of mildews, whose mycelium is superficial and forms a whitish down on the surface of living leaves, fruit, etc. It is applied as a powder in the familiar form known as " flowers of sulphur," preferably when the affected leaves are damp. Various appliances are in use for blowing the powder on to the leaves, such as sulphur-sprayer, sulphur-bellows, etc. Quicklime is sometimes added to the sulphur, but it should not exceed one third of the whole. USEFUL FUNGICIDES 631 Occasionally sulphur is mixed with water, the solution being applied by a syringe. In glass-houses, sulphur-paste is sometimes painted on the hot water pipes to create sulphurous fumes. Ammoniacal copper fungicide. — This is a useful fungicide, which has properties similar to those of Bordeaux mixture. It is prepared as follows : — Copper Milphate (98 pei cent) 1£ uz. Ammonia solutio i (strongest) 12 fl. ox.. Carbonate of soda (98 per cent.) 1| oz. Water to make 12 gallons Dissolve the copper sulphate and soda separately, each in half a gallon of water, pour the soda into the copper solution and stir well. When the precipitate has settled, pour off the clear liquid ; give the precipitate a second washing, and when again settled pour off the supernatant clear liquid. Then introduce sufficient liquid ammonia to the precipitated copper carbonate to dissolve it, care being taken not to use any unnecessary excess of ammonia. To this add water to make up to 10 gallons, when the liquid is ready for use. This preparation is specially recommended for surface moulds and for the Rose mildew. Potassium sulphide. — This powerful and useful fungicide must be kept in well-corked bottles or air-tight vessels, as it rapidly decomposes when exposed to the air. Care must be taken to adjust the strength of the solution to the nature and hardiness of the plants under treatment ; a quarter of an ounce to one gallon of water will generally answer for slight attacks, and from 4 oz. to 6 oz. in 10 gallons of water is considered strong enough to suit all requirements. Potassium permanganate. (Permanganate of potash). — A simple but effectual fungicide may be prepared by dissolving about 30 to 40 grains of permanganate of potash in a gallon of water. The solution resembles Condy's fluid, being of a pale claret colour, and may be used for herbaceous and bulbous plants with good effect. Condy's Fluid, Jeye's Fluid, etc. — These are useful fungi- cides, and are sometimes employed for sterilising soil, the latter being allowed to remain a week after treatment before anything is planted or sown. The proportions should be about 1 oz. of the fluid to 1 gallon of water. Corrosive sublimate. — For disinfecting seed, preserving books, dried specimens of plants, etc., nothing is better than a solution of corrosive sublimate. This is a powerful poison and kills bacteria, fungus spores and similar organisms by contact. 632 COMMON DISEASES OF PLANTS It may be used in a water solution, at a strength of about 1 oz. to 6 gallons of water. For books, specimens, etc., the following proportions are recommended : corrosive sublimate i oz., carbolic acid i oz., methylated spirits 1 pint ; apply with a soft brush. SOME COMMON DISEASES OF PLANTS Club-root or Slime Fungus. — This disastrous fungus disease attacks the roots of all plants of the Cabbage family (see under Cabbage), and does a great deal of damage in up-country gardens, rendering them in many cases unprofitable for cultivation ; it produces large nodules on the roots and, the leaves becoming yellowish, the plants suddenly die. The disease spreads readily by means of spores carried on implements or with plants trans- ferred from an infected area, and once established it is impossible to eradicate it, except by giving up the cultivation of Cruciferous plants for two or three years. Fresh unslaked lime, applied at the rate of 75 bushels to the acre, or about 15 Ib. to 100 sq. feet, will, however, check the disease considerably for a time. Rotation of crops also minimises its effects. Sooty Mould. — Orange trees and other members of the Citrus family are peculiarly liable to this fungus disease, which forms a black crust on the foliage, sometimes covering the entire leaf, and occasionally blackening the fruits also. It is, however, a super- ficial growth and does not penetrate the tissues of the plant. Its presence is due to scale-insects (species of Lecaniiini), which must be got rid off in order to effectually dispose of the mould. Spray- ing with petroleum emulsion or a resin wash, followed by syringing with clean water, is the best remedy. The scale-bug (Lccanium hemisphcericum) is a very common pest on ferns and other pot-plants, while Lecanium viride or green-bug is often trouble- some on oranges, coffee plants, etc. Gumming, or Gummosis. — This condition, which sometimes occurs on fruit trees, especially on Oranges and other Citrus trees, is usually induced by badly drained soils or external injury, as through improper pruning. Experts are not, however, agreed upon the actual cause of the disease, which has been attributed to fungi or bacteria: but it is a common result of injury to the cam- bium. The best way of preventing its occurrence consists in affording the trees proper cultivation, and preventing as far as possible any rupture of the bark. A remedy that sometimes proves COMMON DISEASES OF PLANTS 633 effectual is cutting out the affected part, and tarring the area or covering it with cow-dung and clay. An application of Bordeaux- paste (2 Ib. copper sulphate, 2 Ib. unslaked lime in i gallon water), applied by a brush, is also recommended. Damping-off disease. — The common malady known as "damping-off " is due to a fungus (Pythium), which affects young and small tender plants, especially seedlings from thickly sown seed. It usually attacks the plants at a joint just above the ground level and, the tissues becoming destroyed, the plants fall over from that point. Excessive dampness, absence of light or ventilation, and imperfect drainage are conditions which are conducive to the disease. Dry-rot fungus. — The disease known as "dry rot" (Merulius lacrynians) frequently attacks timber in bungalows or other buildings in the tropics. Soaking or spraying the wood with a solution of formalin or other fungicide, at intervals of a few days, is said to be the best preventive. Chlorosis in Plants. — The disease called Chlorosis, which means pallor or "green sickness," is not caused by a fungus or insect pest, but by a deficiency of iron in the food of the plant. It is noticeable by the foliage or other actively growing part assuming a blanched appearance, the usual green colouring matter (chlorophyll) being lacking; for without iron no chlorophyll can be formed. It is not a serious or very common disease, and can usually be cured by adding a weak solution of iron salt to the soil. Fasciation (from "fasciculus," a little bundle). — The primary cause of the phenomenon known as fasciation which affects many families of plants, is largely a matter of conjecture. It may occur in the stem (as often seen in young Hevea stems), as a flat- tened growth instead of the normal cylindrical stem; or in the flowers, as in the Cockscomb and often in Roses; or in the fruit, as frequently in Pine-apples. Some genera are more liable to it than others, and in some cases it is hereditary, as in the Cockscomb (Cclosia cristata). Fasciation is believed to be usually the result of either of two causes, viz: (1) local injury to the plant whether caused mechanically or by insects (gall mites being a frequent cause), and (2) excessive nourishment (hypertrophy), i.e. overfeeding of certain parts of the plant, which disturbs the equilibrium of growth. 634 COMMON DISEASES OF PLANTS IN CEYLON TABULAR LIST OF COMMON FUNGUS DISEASES OF PLANTS IN CEYLON, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO CROPS ATTACKED Host plant. Albizzia Bean, Broad and French Bread-fruit Cabbage Cacao Camphor Castilloa Castor-oil Plant Citrus family Cinnamon Clove Coconut Coffee Colocasia Cotton Crotalaria Dioscorea Guava Hevea Mango Mulberry Nutmeg Pea Peeper Strawberry Name of disease and fungus. Root-disease (Ustnlina z junta}. Rust ( Uromyccs fabae). Pliytoplitliora sp. Club-root (Plastnodiopliora brassicae). /Canker (? Nectn'a stn'atospora). ! Brown root-disease. 1 Pliytoplitliora sp. \Diplodia cacaoicolu. j Brown Root-disease. { Rosdlinia botliriua. Collar-rot (F lisa ri inn sp). Rust (Mdampsorclla ricini). (Scab (Cladosporiiim sp). -J Ustnliua sonata. (Black rust (Mcliola sp). Ccphalcnros parasitica (Algae). Grey Blight (Pcstalozzia palniannn). Wi'ches* Broom (Exobasidhnn cinita- uionii). J Ponies sitbstygins. { Red Spot (Ccplialcni'os parasitica). /Grey Blight (Pcstalozzia palniannn). I Stem Bleeding-dissase (Thidai'iopsis paradoxa) Foiucs liicidns. Bud-rot (Bacterial). Coffee-leaf disease (Hcniilcia vastntrix). Sderocvstis corciuioidcs. Rust (If redo gossypii). ( Leaf-disease (Pai'odit'Ha pcrisporioidcs). I Pink-disease (Coi'Hciuni j avail icuni). Rust (Aecidiniii dioscorcac). Glocosporitt m psidii. { Foiucs scinitostiis. j Spliacrostilbc rcpcns. \ Brown Root disease. i Pink disease (Corticinm jaranicnm). Die-back (Glocosporinni albontbi'itin). Botryodiplodia dasticac. \ Canker. ! Leaf-spot (HdniiiitJiospot'inni liei'ca). J Fruit-rot (Glocosporiuni niatigae). } Root-disease (Ponies lucid us). Rust (Urcdo moricola). Thread Blight (Marasntins rotalis). Leaf-spot (Ascodivta pisi). Wilt. Leaf spot (SpJiaerdla fragartae). Parts attacked. Root Leaf Fruit Root Stem Root Pod Stem Root Stem Leaf Leaf and fruit Root Leaf and fruit Leaf Stem Leaf Stem Root Apex Leaf Stem Leaf Stem Leaf and stem Fruit Root Stem Leaf Fruit Leaf and stem Leaf Root Leaf KXAPSACK AUTOMATIC SPRAYING MACHINE. SULPHUR OK KINK LIQUID SPRAYKR. 636 SPRA YING Host plant. Name of disease and fungus. Parts attacked. Tea Tobacco Tomato Vine f Grey Blight (Pcstalozzia palniarnni). j Brown Blight (Collctotrichnm caniclliac}. \ White-spot (Ccrcospora tlicac) j Horse-hair Blight (Marasmiiis rota I is). I Massaria t lie i col a. •{ Brown Root-disease (Hynicnochactc noxia). Root-disease (Ustnlina zonata). Poria hypolatcritia. Diplodia sp. Pink-disease (Corticinin javauicnm). L Roscllinia bothrina. (Mildew (Oid in in sp). •j Wilt (F lisa rin m sp). ( Mosaic-disease. f Pimply Rot (PJiytoplitliora sp) } Bacterial-wilt. Mildew (Oidinm tnckcri). Leaf Stem and leaf Stem Root Branches Root Leaf Root Leaf Fruit Stem Leif SPRAYING The object of spraying is to distribute a poisonous fluid in a finely divided form over plants, either for the purpose of ridding them of injurious insects, or for checking the spread of fungus disease. It is carried out by means of hand-pump sprayers, knapsack sprayers, or with compressed air and spraying machines of various designs. Where only a limited number of plants are treated, a garden syringe will answer the purpose. In the case of fungus diseases, it should be remembered that spraying is essentially a preventive, which, to be successful, should be applied at the first signs of the disease. Spraying operations are generally best carried out when the foliage is in a moist condition. Emulsions containing kerosene in any form should be used in cloudy weather only, or after sunset. Dangers of spraying. — As all insecticides and fungicides are necessarily of a poisonous character, discretion must be used in applying them over fruits or vegetables that will be consumed for food. As the fruits ripen, the spray-fluid should be further diluted, withholding it altogether when it is judged to be desirable to do so. On quick-maturing vegetables or salads, as Lettuce, etc., which are eaten in an uncooked state, it is obviously unsafe to apply any poisonous sprays. Fruit trees should not be sprayed when in blossom, as apart from any possible danger of the poison lodging in the ovary it may seriously affect the setting of the fruit. CHAPTER XXX. TRANSPORT OF PLANTS, SEEDS, FLOWERS, SPECIMENS, ETC.; STORING OF SEEDS The conveyance of plants or seeds over long journeys, or from one country to another, is a question which not unfrequently confronts one in the tropics, and upon it may depend the beginning or development of a new planting industry. In cases where seeds are not procurable, or are of a particularly perishable nature, recourse must be had to plants to meet requirements. Unquestion- ably the best means so far invented for transmitting plants over long journeys, especially by sea, is in wardian cases, by the aid of which the exchange of live plants between widely separated countries has been greatly facilitated. Thus the introduction of Rubber, Cacao, and other useful plants from the Western to the Eastern tropics, and others vice versa, is due largely to the excellent wardian cases (and equally perfect packing) which for many years past have been sent out from the great emporium, Kew Gardens, London. A wardian case consists of a large box, with two sloping glazed sides which meet at the top to form a ridge, the two ends being carried up like a "V" inverted, thus A The sides are movable, and the glass panes fitted in grooves with putty, being protected on the outside with narrow thin strips of wood, nailed on about an inch apart. A small circular hole, covered by a piece of perforated zinc or other metal, is made in each end near the top for ventilation, and over each of these (inside) is nailed a small box, which is open at the top, so as to catch any sea spray that may get in. Therefore a wardian case when travelling, is nearly airtight, so that very little evaporation or change of air can take place within. The bottom of the case is tilled with soil, in which the plants are packed closely together ; these are held in position by narrow strips of wood placed transversely, which are firmly secured in position by means of a longitudinal strip of wood placed along on both ends of the latter, being nailed to either side of the case inside. Wardian cases may 638 TRANSPORTING PLANTS, SEEDS, ETC. be made of any size to suit large or small plants. They have been of the greatest service at Peradeniya in despatching Cacao, Rubber and other plants to different parts of the tropics, more especially when seeds are either unobtainable or are of too perish- able a nature to withstand a long journey. When transporting Cacao and other seedling plants in wardian cases, the best way of establishing them so as to stand the journey is to sow the seed in the case, a sufficient depth of good light soil being placed in the bottom for this purpose, so that the seedlings may grow en route. When the seedlings are well above ground, thin bamboo twigs may WAKDIAX CASES WITH PLANTS READY FOR TRANSPORT FROM CEYLON TO SOUTH AMERICA. be placed, across the case, between them over the soil, these being held down by longitudinal strips of wood as explained. The case is then ready for despatch, a liberal watering being given to the contents before the sides are closed down. PLANT-CASES IN TRANSIT The success of any method of packing plants will largely depend upon the position assigned to these on board-ship. Obviously they must have access to light and air, but must be PLANT-CASES IX TRAXS/T 639 under shade or cover ; they should not be placed on the lower main deck if on a long voyage, as they would thus be liable to be injured or killed by the sea spray or breakers. The best part of a ship for plants is, as a rule, the upper or boat-deck, but not too near the engines. Plants in an active state of growth will be benefited by an occasional watering, if this can be given by an intelligent hand. Much also depends on the season. Tropical or hot- house plants can only be transported safely over long journeys during the summer months ; while deciduous plants, or those of temperate countries, travel best when in a dormant state, as in the autumn or spring. Wardian cases. — The following are brief instructions for the guidance of persons sending wardian cases of plants from the tropics. The cases should bs kept on deck, under awning and away from the engines ; direct exposure to the sun, especially if the cases are closed, will injure the plants. A wardian case is easily opened by unscrewing one or both of the glass sides. In tropical seas during fine weather, one of the glazed sides may with advantage be left partly or fully open during the day. The plants may be lightly watered or sprinkled with fresh tepid water at least once in three days. In cool latitudes less watering is required, and the cases should then be protected at night with tarpaulins or additional covering. PACKING AND TRANSPORTING SEEDS In regard to imported seeds of annuals, \egetables, etc., of temperate countries, it has been found that, provided the seed is properly dried, the best way of transporting them is in airtight tins. Seedsmen who make a speciality of sending such seeds on long journeys pack them in hermetically sealed tins, in a dry atmosphere, so that the seeds are not affected by heat and sweat on the voyage. No packing material of a preserving kind is thus required. A similar method will suit certain tropical seeds ; but these are often of a fleshy non-driable character, naturally unadapted to a dormant period, and require to be packed with a dry (or very slightly moist) absorbent material ; the tins or boxes containing them should not be hermetically sealed, as otherwise fermentation will set in and destroy the seed. Thus, seeds of Para rubber (Hei'ca brasiliensis) which are normally of short vitality, packed in ordinary biscuit tins, with a mixture of dry powdered charcoal and fine soil or coir-dust, have been transported over journeys of six to eight weeks, and at destination gave germinative 640 PACKING AND TRANSPORTING SEEDS results of seventy to eighty per cent. Seeds which are surrounded by a mucilaginous substance should have the latter washed off, then be rapidly dried in the sun, after which they should be packed with a dry preservative material as described above, and despatched without delay. To this class of seed belong Castilloa, species of Garcinia, Nephelium, etc. The writer has found in the case of such as these that if the seeds, while moist and after being washed, are mixed with dry charcoal powder, the latter upon drying forms an effective preservative coating around them. DR. VAN HALL, late Director of Agriculture for the Dutch West Indies, states that he had success in sending Cacao pods in paraffin wax to Java, a voyage of over six weeks, and describes his method thus : "The pods were first thoroughly washed with a tooth-brush and soapy water, then placed in 70% alcohol for a minute, and afterwards in a 5 % solution of corrosive sublimate for a few minutes, so as to kill the germs on the surface. A piece of string being then attached to the stalk end of the pocl, the latter was dipped in the liquid paraffin (70%)\ it was taken out imme- diately and hung carefully by the string so as not to break the thin coating of the wax. When cold, each pod was again dipped in the paraffin, making the coating more secure. The fruits were then packed in fine sawdust and despatched." Cacao seeds, when shelled, rapidly lose their germinating power, but for journeys not exceeding a fortnight pods may be transported in open crates ; the fruits being placed vertically in layers of a dozen each, and separated and held in position by thin strips of wood or bamboo, a convenient-sized crate would hold four dozen pods. Seeds of a very perishable nature should be packed only in small quantities, and in such tin boxes as do not effectually prevent the escape of moisture. If transmitted by post, stout canvas should be used as an outside covering, or if sent as steamer- freight they should be placed in wooden cases. Coir-dust when leached and intermixed with a proportion of powdered charcoal forms an excellent packing material for many short-lived seeds, such as those of Para rubber. Burnt rice and saw-dust are also used with good results. As a rule, any such packing material should have only the slightest trace of moisture left in it. On the other hand, seeds of certain water-plants, as Victoria regia, are best transported in small tubes or vials filled with water ; these being made water-tight with wax may easily be packed with straw PACKING AND TRANSPORTING SEEDS 641 or shavings in a section of bamboo, and despatched by post. Palm seeds and most fruit tree seeds are best packed with slightly moistened sphagnum moss, in tins, or well-wrapped in oil-paper. Cuttings or Scions may often be safely sent by post if prepared and packed in the following manner. They should be approxi- mately 9 to 10 in. long and furnished with about 3 or more eyes (buds) ; they must not be too slender, never under the size of a lead pencil in thickness, but preferably a little larger than this in the case of soft-wooded kinds. See that each cutting, etc., is not affected with any insect-pest or fungus disease. About 3 cuttings may be placed together and wrapped in slightly moistened sphagnum moss and surrounded with oil-paper ; these may be placed in bundles in a close-fitting tin tube and despatched. In the absence of sphagnum, a slightly damped wrapper of lint or cotton will answer the purpose. Closing up of the ends of the cuttings with sealing-wax to prevent the evaporation of moisture, or fixing the ends in a potato or other tuber, are both useful methods in an emergency, but not to be preferred to the mode described above. Transport of bulbs or tubers. — These are always best trans- ported when the plants are in a dormant or resting state. In the tropics, however, this is not usually practicable, as the plants may be said to be seldom in that condition. In this case the bulbs or tubers should be gradually dried until all the leaves have thoroughly withered, when they should be cut away. The bulbs may then be packed in dry sawdust or coir-dust for export. Small quantities may thus be placed in ordinary biscuit boxes, and sent by Parcels Post. If packed in a larger box for shipment, it is well to bore a few ventilation holes in the sides of the box. SENDING FLOWERS BY TOST, ETC. The flowers should preferably be cut with a sharp knife, not broken off ; cutting with scissors is apt to squeeze and close the tubes of certain flower-stalks, thereby preventing the absorption of moisture when placed in water. Flowers should be cut in the early morning, when they are full of moisture ; do not sprinkle water on them, and if wet shake them gently. In packing, the box should be lined with glazed paper, moss or fresh leaves ; no cotton-wool or other absorbent substance should be used as a packing, the best material for the purpose being fresh leaves or fern fronds. The flowers should be packed quite closely, for they will shake down, and if loose the jolting will bruise them ; they 642 STORING OF SEEDS are best not tied in bunches, except in the case of small flowers, as violets. A tin box, rather shallow, or, if deep, provided with movable trays, is the best receptacle for sending flowers long dis- tances either by rail or post, but a card- board box may answer if strong enough. SENDING SPECIMENS BY POST OR RAIL Parcels should always contain the name of the sender. It is important that specimens of plants or fungi for identification, plants attacked by disease, economic products, etc., should arrive in as fresh a condition. as possible. They should be packed in a closely-fitting tin or wooden box, without air holes, both to keep them fresh and to prevent the escape of dangerous insects or fungus spores. Plants for simple identification may be packed flat. Ample material should be sent to allow of full examination, and when flowers or fruit are available these should accompany the specimen. In most cases it is impossible to determine the identity of a specimen with certainty unless accompanied by flowers or fruit. Full notes of the locality from which the specimen comes, with elevation, should be given. DESPATCHING INSECT PESTS, ETC. Small insects may be enclosed and despatched in empty match boxes, if on short journeys only. A few pieces of crumpled soft paper should be included in the box to prevent damage by shaking during transit. Larger insects, or such as are likely to eat their way through a match box, should be packed either in tin or wooden boxes. Loose pieces of wood or earth should not be put in a box with insects, as, by rattling about during transport, they would be liable to injure the specimens. It is unnecessary to punch holes in the box for ventilation. The address and postage stamp should be on a separate label to be attached to the box or package, and the sender's name should always be written on the label. STORING OF SEEDS Except for convenience, it is perhaps never advisable to keep seeds for a long time,* as most, if not all, seeds germinate best when fresh, provided they are perfectly matured. All seeds may be divided into dryable and non-dryable classes. To the latter belong a large proportion of seeds of tropical species, and these 0 Seeds of Ceara Rubber are often kept for about two years before sowing, as they are considered to germinate best at about that age. STORIXG OF SEEDS 643 are best sown as soon as possible after they are ripe. Their vitality may, however, be usually prolonged for a limited period by placing them in a dry porous mixture, such as charcoal, burnt paddy husk, coir-dust, sawdust, finely sifted dry soil, etc. Small dryable seeds, having been thoroughly dried, are best kept in stoppered bottles or air-tight tins, which afford protection from weevils and other destructive insects, as well as from the baneful effects of damp and mould. Imported seeds, especially those of annuals and vegetables, which are not sown immediately after arrival, should always be stored away in air-tight tins or stoppered jars, and kept in a cool place until required ; otherwise they will soon become useless. Where this is impracticable, as in the case of paddy and other grains, naphthalene is an excellent preventive against weevils and other insects. CHAPTER XXXI. 1. RECIPES FOR MAKING JAMS, PRESERVES, ETC. 2. USEFUL REFERENCES 3. WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINAGE RECIPES:— Billing Jam. — Prick the fruit well over with a fork ; let it soak in a basin of water for a night. Then squeeze the fruit slightly to get rid of some of the acid juice, throw away the liquid, and boil the fruit with its weight of sugar until it is of the proper consistency. See preserves, etc. Cape Gooseberry or Tippari jam. Wash the fruit and put in a pan with sugar, allowing a cupful of sugar to every cupful of fruit ; add a tea- cupful of cold water and boil till done. See jellies. Melon Jam : To every 18 Ib. of fruit allow 12 Ib. of sugar, 6 Ib. lemons, i Ib. bruised ginger tied in a muslin bag. Peel fruit over night and cut into small blocks ; put into a large basin (after weighing), and sprinkle over a little of the sugar. Next morning put into the preserving pan with the remainder of the sugar, and while it is boiling pare the lemons and squeeze out the juice, which strain and add to the melon. Put the lemon rinds on to boil in plenty of water, and when they are soft cut into strips with a sharp knife and add to above. Boil for four hours, and remove the ginger bag. The jam should be transparent and of a golden brown colour. Papaw jam : Choose fruit three-quarters ripe ; remove all skin and seeds ; chop up the fruit into small pieces. Weigh, add equal weight of sugar, also some green ginger (cut into small slices), 2 o/. of the latter being sufficient for 6 Ib. of fruit. Cover up the fruit and sugar, and let the latter melt during the night. Boil up next morning until done. Passion-fruit jam : Have two basins ready ; cut the fruit in halves, scoop out all the juice and seeds into one basin, putting the shells in the other ; cover the latter with cold water and a very little salt, and leave in water for twelve hours ; then boil in the same water for three-quarter of an hour, scoop out the inside of the shells, throwing away the outside skins and the water they were boiled in. Squeeze out the juice from the seeds. Mix all together and boil for half an hour. Allow 1 Ib. sugar to 1^ Ib. fruit. Peach jam : Pare and stone the fruit, after which weigh it, allowing 10 Ib. of sugar to every 12 Ib. of fruit. Put the fruit in a preserving pan and barely cover with water ; allow this to cook slowly for U hours, at the end of which time add the sugar, and cook for an hour longer. Pine-apple jam : Peel the pine-apples and chop them up ( not taking cores); weigh the fruit, and allow 1£ Ib. sugar to 1 Ib. fruit ; boil until of the desired consistency. A piece of cinnamon added will improve the flavour. JELLIES 645 Orange marmalade. — Ingredients : 1 Ib. orange, 3 pints water, 3 Ib. sugar. Mode : Halve and quarter the oranges, take out core and seeds, then slice very thinly and let stand in water for 24 hours ; boil in that water until marmalade is as clear as amber. When it has boiled for twenty minutes, add the sugar and let boiling continue till it jellies. JELLIES :— Cape Gooseberry or Tippari jelly : Boil and strain the fruit, put the juice on tire to simmer; skim it and add sugar in the proportion of three or four parts to one part juice ( or to taste ), and cook till it jellies. See also under jams. Guava jelly: After thoroughly washing the fruit, put in an ena- melled saucepan with sufficient water just to cover it ; boil until all the fruit is broken, then strain ; to one breakfast cupful of juice add the same quantity of sugar or slightly more ( say 6 cupfuls juice to 6£ of sugar ), and boil very slow- ly. A little lime-juice may be added after the sugar is put in. Lovi-lovi jelly : Boil the fruits thoroughly and take off the scum as it comes up. Then strain, and boil with refined sugar (two to one) till it forms a jelly. Nutmeg jelly : Take 3 Ib. nutmeg skins and 4 Ib. sugar. Peel the skins and put into water for 12 hours; then take them out and place in enough-water just to cover them and boil until quite mashed : strain off the juice, add the sugar, and boil slowly till it jellies. Another recipe : Put the rinds of ripe nutmegs into a preserving pan, with just enough water to cover them ; boil until the fruit is almost a pulp or very soft ; then strain through a flannel jelly bag. To every pint of juice add 1 Ib. sugar, and boil until jelly is formed. Rozelle jelly : Place the roxelle sepals in a basin and barely cover with water ; let them soak all night, and in the morning slightly squeeze them : put the whole (sepals and water) into a preserving pan and boil until quite soft and pulpy. Then let the juice drip slowly through a jelly bag. Allow 1 Ib. sugar to 1 pint juice; boil all slowly for 15 or 20 minutes, or until a jelly is formed. PRESERVES, FRUIT SALADS, ETC:— Billing preserve : Prick the fruits with a fork and put them in water for a few hours ; then squeeze out the fruits, wash them with hot water and dry with a clean towel. Sugar ( in the proportion of H Ib. to 1 Ib. fruit ) should be boiled separately and refined as for nelli preserve; add the fruits to the sugar and boil till the latter comes to a thick syrup. See Jams. Camaranga preserve : Cut off the ends and sharp ridges of the fruit ; prick with a fork and put in cold water for a few hours. Squeeze out and pass through hot water before putting the fruits in the sugar syrup, and boil as other preserves. Proportion of sugar, two parts to one of fruit. Cashew-nut toffee : Take 2 Ib. sugar, 150 cashew-nuts (skin these like almonds, in hot water), and chop up with a knife or mincing machine. Make a syrup first of the sugar with 2 tumblers of water, then add nuts and cook till it crystalizes; put on to a buttered plate, and when set cut into squares or dia- mond shapes. 646 PRESERVES Mango preserve: Take fruits which are three-quarter ripe, peel off skin, cut into slices, discarding the seed. Prick the fruit with a silver fork, and soak in cold water for a few hours. Prepare sugar (1 or 1£ Ib. to 1 Ib. fruit) as for nelli, and boil till the fruit is cooked. Nelli preserve : Prick fruits when half-ripe, wash and prick all over with a silver fork. Squeeze the juice out by hand, and soak in cold water for about 12 hours ; put the fruits in boiling water for a little while, and again squeeze out the juice. Add sugar in the proportion of 2 Ib. to 1 Ib. of fruits ; boil sugar separately, then add the fruits and boil till all becomes a thick syrup. Pine-apple preserve: Slice the fruit, prick it or chop in pieces, but do not squeeze out the juice. Then boil with refined sugar (one to one) as for nelli; add a small piece of cinnamon and a few cloves to flavour. Pumpkin toffee: This is made like cashew-nut toffee, allowing 1 Ib. sugar for 1 Ib. of pumpkin, grated like coconut; add | Ib. of flour and, when it is inclined to crystalize, a table-spoonful of butter. When set, cut into squares. Mango chutney: Take 1 Ib. unripe mangoes, 1 Ib. Demerara sugar, £ Ib. sultanas, 2 oz. almonds, 2 oz. garlic, 2 oz dried ginger, 2 or 3 oz. dry chillies, and salt to taste. Peel the mango, slice from the seed and cut into small pieces, chop the sultanas and almonds; grind the garlic, ginger and chillies on a curry stone. Mix all with half-bottle of malt vinegar and boil for twenty minutes, stirring all the time. Devilled Bananas : Melt 1 table-spoonful of butter, add £ tea-spoonful of chopped red chillies, 2 tea-spoonfuls chopped pickles, 1 tea-spoonful Worces- ter sauce, and i tea-spoonful of salt. Add four bananas cut in four equal parts. Cook five minutes. Banana Sauce: Ingredients: j pint water, ^ Ib. sugar, 3 bananas pulped, 3 table-spoonfuls lemon juice, 2 eggs, and a pinch of salt. Boil sugar and water ten minutes. Mix remaining ingredients, and pour hot syrup on to them. Beat well, and serve hot. Banana compote: Ingredients: Sound ripe bananas, f pint white syrup, £ liqueur-glassful maraschino, chopped almonds, and a few grapes. Peel the bananas, remove the white fibres in core or centre, plunge the fruit into boiling water for two seconds. Drain at once and transfer the fruit into boiling syrup, kept ready for the purpose in a saucepan or basin. Cover with a plate and leave to cool, then add the liqueur. Take out the bananas, dish up in a pyramid garnished with large grapes (which have been cut in halves and had the stones removed). Pour the syrup over and serve. Fruit Salad : Peel and clean with a silver knife any fruit available, as pine-apple, mangoes, plantains, oranges, papaws. etc. Slice the fruit, cut into neat squares, and place in a glass dish. Sprinkle with castor sugar; mix wel/ and. if liked, add one pint of hock or sherry. Fresh whipped cream, Russell's tinned cream mixed with sugar and vanilla, or a good custard, should be served with this salad, which improves by being kept in a cool place. ( " Hausfrau " in Ceylon Observer). Vegetable curry : Take 3 carrots, 3 turnips, 3 potatoes, I onion, 2 table- spoonfuls curry powder, 1 apple and some boiled rice. Scrape the carrots and cut in slices ; peel the turnips, potatoes, onions and apple, cut in slices, and SWEET-POTATO RECIPES 647 fry in dripping until a nice brown ; put all in a d.ep pie dish ; mix the curry powder with a \ pint of stock and pour over the vegetables; cover the dish with a plate, and simmer in the oven for one hour. SWEET-POTATO RECIPES :— "Biscuit" — Mash thoroughly four medium-sized cold, boiled potatoes, after removing the skin; stir in 4 table-spoonfuls of flour with a piece of butter the size of a small egg, and add milk to make the consistency of biscuit dough. Roll, cut, place in a well-greased pan, and bake in an oven with moderate heat. "Waffles." — Add to two heaping table-spoonfuls of boiled potatoes, rubbed through a cullender, a table-spoonful of melted butter, a table-spoonful of sugar, a pint of milk, four table-spoonfuls of flour, one egg well-beaten, a little salt, two tea-spoonfuls of baking powder. Grease the irons thoroughly, fill, and bake brown. Serve with a sauce of half tea-cupful of honey beaten with a tea-cupful of cream. " Pudding." — Remove the skins of and mash finely six potatoes ; beat with yelks of four eggs a tea-cupful of white sugar and four level tea-spoonfuls of butter. Beat the whites of two eggs as for icing, add grated rind and juice of a small lemon, a little salt, and two tea-cupfuls of cream; stir, then add to other mixture. Put into a buttered dish, and bake an hour and a half. Beat whites of eggs with three table-spoonfuls of sugar, pour over the top. and brown. USEFUL REFERENCES :- [S.=SIXHALESE; 7'.=TAMIL]. To make Charcoal. Cut the wood in lengths of 2 to 3 feet, and split the stout pieces 2 or 3 inches in thickness. Heap these into a wide pit, com- mencing by making a square chimney in the centre wit'i sticks about 15 inches long laid across each other; pile the wood around this, one piece upon another, laid as closely as possible. Cover the whole with turf or adhesive earth, except the top of the chimney; start the fire in the chimney at the base with dry kind- ling. Carefully stop all outbursts of smoke with soil, and close or open the draught holes (left at the base) according as the fire burns. When the fire is completely extinguished allow the mass to gradually cool. Woods for making Charcoal. The following are some of the best charcoal-making woods in Ceylon: — Acrotiychia laurifolia ("Ankenda" S. ), Aiienantheni pavonina (" Madatiya" S.), Artocarons uobilis ("Del" S.), Bassia longifolia ("Me"S.), Caryota nrens (" Kitul " S.), Croton laccifcrnm (" Keppi- tiya" S. ), Doona zeylanica ("Dun" S. ), Hcmicyclia scpiaria ( " Vira " S; " Viyarai " 7'.), Trcma orientalis ("Gedumba" S. or "Charcoal-tree"), \Vcndlan- dia notiiniiina (" Rawan-idella" S.) Measuring the Height of Trees. Take a staff six feet long, pointed for pressing into the ground. To the centre of the staff fix with screws a piece of board twelve inches wide and exactly square. Fix to this a diagonal strip of straight lath. A plumb line is attached to the board of staff to enable the per- pendicular being obtained; this is indispensable. In measuring a tree the staff is placed at a distance from it, so that with the plumb exactly perpendicular the diagonal lath points to the top of the tree, the person taking the "sight" resting on one knee or reclining to bring the eye to the lower end of the lath. 648 USEFUL REFERENCES The sight line is then extended to the ground by means of a string. From the point where this touches the ground (C in the figure) to the centre of the trunk will represent the actual height of the tree; that is, the horizontal line A C is equal to the vertical A B. If the tree were blown or cut down its top would follow the course showed by the curve line and rest at C. Another method. Make two lines on the ground exactly three feet apart. On one of the lines drive a stake in the ground so that the top of the stake will be exactly three feet from the ground; when the shadow of the stake will have reached the other line, the shadow cast by the tree will be precisely the length of the height of the tree, and by measuring the length of the shadow at that moment you will obtain the exact height of the tree. The measurements should be taken on level ground. If the tree is leaning, incline the stake at as nearly the same angle as possible at which the tree inclines. A C MEASURING THE HEIGHT OF TREES 110 yds. long and 44 yds. wide 88' „ „ 55 „ 69i „ „ 70 „ Measuring land. The following lengths multiplied by the correspond- ing breadths equal an acre : — 988 yds. long and 5 yds. wide. 484 „ „ 10 „ 220 „ , 22 „ 121 „ „ 40 „ A yard is a good long stride, and few men step a yard in their natural stride. To measure Timber. Take the girth in inches in the middle, divide it by 4, and square the result, which gives the mean sectional area of the trunk ; multiply the product by the length of the tree in feet, divide by 144 and the quotient is the contents in cubic feet. Where there is bark, an allowance must be made for this. The usual allowance varying from £ inch to li inch to every foot of quarter girth ; thus, the total quarter girth being 24 inches, and the bark being thick, a deduction of 5 inches or 3 inches would be necessary, the quarter USEFUL REFERENCES 649 girth being taken at 21 or 22 indies. The height of standing trees may be judged by using a 20-foot rod. and the girth by taking a girth-strap 12 feet in length and about f inch wide, on which every fourth inch is numbered from one to thirty-six. Thus a tree having a circumference of 120 inches would read 30 inches on the strap. Weight or measurement of Straw or Hay Stacks. To measure an oblong stack, multiply the length in feet by the width below the eaves, and the product by the height from the ground to the eaves. For the top, multiply the length in feet by the width at the eaves, and the product by half the length to the ridge. A cubic foot of hay weighs approximately from 7 Ib. to 9 Ib. For general purposes the weight of a stack may be ascertained by actually measur- ing the cubic contents of the truss, and calculating from this the weight of a cubic foot. Stacks of straw are estimated at from 18 to 20 cubic yards to a ton. To estimate Grain crops per acre. Frame together four light sticks, measuring exactly a foot square inside, and with this in one hand walk into the field and select a spot of fair average yield ; lower the square frame over as many heads as it will enclose, shell out carefully the heads thus enclosed, and weigh the grain. To make the result more reliable, make ten or twenty similar calculations, and estimate by the mean of the whole number of results. Approximate cost per acre of bringing crops to maturity in Ceylon. — Coconuts, £25 up to 6th year ; Tea, £30 to £35 up to 4th year ; Cocoa, £25 to £30 up to 5th year ; Rubber. £30 up to 6th year- These figures include the necessary factory or store, but not the cost of land. From £5 to £10 more per acre may be allowed, under average conditions, for the Straits Settlements and F.M.S. Road-making and Concreting.— A cube of broken metal is 18 feet long at base, 5 feet broad, 2£ feet high in centre and 14 feet long along top ridge. It contains 60 bushels of metal which, when spread, is sufficient for metalling about 500 sq. feet of road surface. Usual cost at quarry, about Rs. 8. Concrete metal is 50% finer (= road metal broken in half); cost per cube at quarry. Rs. 12 50. The usual charge for concreting, 4 inches thick, varies from 25 cts. per sq. foot according to locality. Average day's work per cooly : Holing 18 in. x 12 in. (as for Tea) ... 100 to 120 Planting (Tea) ... 200 to 250 Drains 18 in. x 15 in. ... ... 50 to 60 ft. Pruning { Tea ) ... 180 to 300 trees Tea-box woods. The following Ceylon woods are among the most suitable for making tea-chests. Katu-imbul ( Bonibn.v nuiliibiin'cum); Mango < Miiugifcni indica): Hal (Vatcria ticiintinntn): Katuboda (Cnllcnia cxcclsa); Kekuna (Canariitm zcylanicntn); Ruk-attana (Alstonnt scholaris); Malaboda or Wild-nutmeg (MyristUM lanrifolia), Telambu (Stercttlia foctida). Moss on Lawns.— The best way to get rid of moss on lawns is first to afford efficient drainage, and afterwards enrich the soil. The moss should be eradicated by scarifying the surface with an iron-toothed rake in order to detach it. afterwards raking it off. When this has been done, top-dress the lawn with a rich compost of good soil, decayed manure and wood ashes. Use two parts of soil and one part each of the other ingredients, passing them through a fine 650 USEFUL REFERENCES screen, and applying at the rate of one cartload to every forty square rods. Should the soil be of a dry nature, add 7 Ib of bone-meal to each square rod. If moist, use a similar amount of basic slag. Once a year apply £ Ib. of nitrate of soda to each square rod in the case of dry soils, and a similar quantity of sulphate of ammonia in that of a moist one. Where the grass is very thin, sow a mixture of grass seeds. Rainfall. — Th-; depth of rainfall in inches multiplied by 3,630 equals number of cubic feet per square acre ; multiplied by 22,623, equals number of gallons per square acre. Thus: — Inches. Cubic feet per acre. Gallons per acre. Tons per acre 3,630 = 22,635 = lOl'l 7,260 = 42,270 -•= 202'2 10,890 = 67,905 = 303'3 18,150 = 113,174 = 505'5 Material for (and cost of) Cart wheels. The most generally used woods in Ceylon for making cart wheels are " Hal-milla " ( Bcrrya ammonilla ), " Suriya " (Thcspesia popnlnca) and " Ratu-wa " (Cassia marginata). The usual quantity of two ordinary cart wheels of 4i feet diameter are: 12 pieces for rims @ 50 cents each ; 24 spokes @ 18 cents, two hubs @ Rs. 3, total for two wheels Rs. 16'32. Iron tyres and bushes, about Rs. 10 extra. To this must be added the cost of labour (carpentry), viz., about Rs. 14, in all say Rs. 40. To revive flowers, Rinse the stalks in fresh water and put into warm salt-water, to which has been added a few drops of sulphate of ammonia. As. each flower is ready to be placed in the vase of fresh water, snipp off a small portion of the stalk with a sharp pair of scissors. To keep a spray of arranged flowers fresh, place them on damp cotton-wool under a basin. This keeps the air away, and preserves their freshness. It is specially recommended for maiden-hair fern. To prepare Skeleton leaves. Mix about one drachm chloride of lime with one pint water, adding sufficient acetic acid to liberate the chlorine. Steep the leaves in this until they are whitened ( about 10 minutes should suffice ), taking care not to leave them in too long. Then put them into clean water and float them out on pieces of paper. Lastly remove the fronds from the paper before they are quite dry, and place them in a book or press. They look best when mounted on black velvet or paper. To preserve fern fronds. Reject very young fronds, as they will lose their colour in drying. Place the selected fronds between several sheets of blotting paper, and pass over a moderately heated flat iron for several min- utes. Use only, however, will determine how long to continue the ironing, as ferns vary in the thickness of their fronds. Then place separately in a book, and lay aside for a day or two previous to mounting. To do this, smear the sheet of paper over with liquid gum, lay the reverse side of the frond on the gummed surface, press gently, remove, and place carefully on the paper where you intend it to remain. Finally pass over a piece of blotting paper to remove creases. To drive away sparrows from bungalows, etc.— Smear a few thin twigs with any sticky substance, as bird-lime, seccotine, or the resinous USEFUL REFEREXCES 651 gum from jak-fruit ; place these af intervals where the sparrows collect, and they will soon disappear. To make Bird lime. Boil •} pint linseed oil, and while boiling add a lump of resin about the size of a hen's egg. Add two tea-spoonfuls of treacle and stir frequently while cooling. A simple fly-trap. Pour some water into a finger-bowl, or other wide-mouthed vessel, till the surface of the liquid is about an inch from the brim. Add a small quantity of oil (coconut or castor) to make a superficial film. In the centre of a piece of card-board, sufficiently large to cover the vessel, cut a small hole about i inch in diameter. Smear some condensed milk or honey on one side of the card- board round the central nperture, and place the card- board over the vessel so that the smeared side is below. The flies will creep into the enclosed space and meet with an oily grave. A tap on the card will at once precipitate all those resting on its under surface. The oil-film is necessary, as flies are not easily wetted by water alone, from which they often succeed in saving themselves. Book preservative. I have found the following an excellent preser- vative for books, as well as a preventive against insects and moulds, which are so destructive to books in the tropics: Dissolve Canada balsam in turpentine, say 2 oz. of the former to 4 oz. of the latter, so as to make a weak solution; paint this over the covers or bindings of the books, and let them stand a few hours to dry. Another recipe. Paint the books lightly over both outside and inside the cover (and especially along the backs, where paste has been used), with the following mixture, using a soft brush for the purpose: 1 oz. corrosive sublimate; 1 oz. carbolic acid; 2 pints methylated spirit. No harm will be done to the books, and after the mixture has dried they may be handled with perfect safety. USEFUL FERTILISING MIXTURES. No. 1 Nitro- gen. Phos. Acid. Potash. Approximate proportion of plant food. 450 Ib. Groundnut Cake lo/o _ 250 ,. Fish Guano 8% S% — Nitrogen 61 1 150 „ Steamed Bone-dust 3% 22^> — - Phos. acid 53t 100 „ Sulphate of Potash — — 50% Potash 67': 50 „ Nitrate of Potash 10% ~ 35% .000 Ib. Cost F.O.R. Colombo, Rs. 154 per ton. 200 Ib. 150 ., 100 „ Nitrolim Basic Slag Sulphate of Potash 1S% 2Qo/0 50% Nitrogen Phos. acid Potash 450 Ib. Cost F.O.R . Colombo, Rs . 146 per ton 36-0 30'0 50-0 652 DRY GRAINS Quantity : For small plants or shrubs, 2 oz. of each mixture. „ large shrubs or medium trees, 1 Ib. of each mixture. „ „ trees or palms, 3 to 4 Ib. „ „ Either of these mixtures may be applied annually, or they can be alter- nated with advantage, or if necessary mixed just before application and applied in one dressing. Apply the manure in a shallow channel round the base of the trees or plants, at a certain distance from the stem, varying from a few inches in the case of small plants to 2-4 ft. in the cas- of medium or large sized trees or palms; fork well into the ground, or cover with a spi inkling of soil; if the weather be dry or the plants are under cover, water the ground afterwards through a rose. DRY GRAINS CULTIVATED IN CEYLON Andropogon Sorghum. Indian millet; Karal Irungu, S; Arise- cholum, T. Coix Lachryma-jobi. Job's tears. A robust grass with broad leaves, 3-5 ft. high, common in Ceylon and cultivated in some hill parts of India for its grain. Eleusine coracana. Kurakkan, S ; Nacheri, T. A stout grass with crowded spikelets and round seed, extensively cultivated for its grain in Ceylon and throughout India. Panicum Crus-galli, var. frumentaceum. Mondy, T; Wal-maruk- ku, S. Annual, 1-3 ft. high; grain consumed by the poorer classes. Panicum miliare. " Heen-meneri," S; Chamai, T. Annual, with tufted stems, 1-2 ft. high, cultivated in Ceylon, India, etc. Panicum miliaceum. Millet; Meneri, or Wal-meneri, S; Karattasamy or Pani-Chami, T. Annual, 2-4 ft. high, stout tufted stems. Cultivated in Ceylon and all warm countries. Pas pal um scrobiculatum. Amu or Karal-amu, S; Waraku, T. Peren- nial, 2-3 ft. high, leafy from the base; several varieties cultivated for grain. Pennisetum typhoideum. Bulrush millet; Pull-paddy; Polu, S; Kumba or Kani-pun-pillu, T. Annual 3-6 ft. high, cultivated in warm regions. Setaria glauca. Kawalu, S. Stems 1-2 ft. high, spikes reddish brown. Common all over Ceylon. Setaria italica. Italian millet; Tana-Thani or Tanakal, S ; Tinai or Tinai-Chamai, T. Cultivated in India and Ceylon and considered one of the most delicious of dry grains. Zea Mays. Maize, Indian corn; Bada Irungu, S; Muttu Cholam, 7". See under Vegetables. PLANTS OR TREES SUITED TO SWAMPY SITUATIONS FOR LOW ELEVATIONS : Anacardium occidentale. Cashew-nut Fodder grasses, which see Barringtonia speciosa. Mudilla, .S Hevea brasiliensis. Para rubber Boehmeria nivea. Khea or Ramie- Heritiera littoralis. Etuna, S. r , , • , "re Ni fruticans. Water Coconut Carludovica palmata. Panamahat _. \ .. . plant Ochrosia borbonica. Mudu-kaduru, S. Cerbera Odollam. Gon-kaduru, S. Saccharum arundinaceum. Rambuk, S. Cyperus Papyrus. Papyrus-grass Scaevola Koenigii. Taccada, S. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES FOR UP-COUNTRY : 653 Acacia dealbata. Silver-wattle Eucalyptus globulus. Blue-gum E. — Leucoxylon. Iron-bark E. — marginata. Jarrah and other species Fatsia papyrifera. Rice-paper plant Fodder grasses, which see Hedychium coronarium. Klam.il, S. Recommended for paper-making H. — flavescens. ,, ,, Phormium tenax. New-Zealand hemp (3). SOME WEIGHTS AND MEASURES CEYLON : 1 Manawa = i nelli or 2 chundus 1 Nelli = } kuruni or laha 1 Kuruni = j Bera ( drum ) 1 Bera = i pela ( bushel ) 1 Pela = 1 bushel 1 Amuna = 4 bushels 1 Hundua = i sarua (measure) 32 Measures — 1 bushel 1 Sarua = g kartua 1 Kartua = | bushel I Thulama = 26| rathals ( pounds ) 1 Thukku = 56 rathals 1 Parama = 20 thulam or 5 cwt. 1 Candy = 560 Ib. or 5 cwt. 4 Candies = 1 ton WEIGHTS USED BY SINHA- LESE APOTHECARIES : 1 Thala-eta ( gingelly seed ) = £ Amu-eta 1 Amu-eta = £ Vee-eta (paddy) 1 Vee-eta = £ Madatiya-eta ( Adcnanthera pavoiiiiui ) I Madatiya-eta = 1/20 kalanda 1 Kalanda = 1/12 palama 1 Palama = y rathala ( pound ) INDIA: 1 Tola = 180 grains 1 Seer = 14 o/.. 1 Maund = 80 Ib. 1 Lac = 100,000 1 Crore = 1,000,000 1 Bigha (Nepali)=90 x 90 yds. 1 „ (Brit. Indian)=40x40 yds. 3 „ (Nepali)=about 5 acres. MALAY : 1 Tahil = ^ ox. 1 Kati = £ Ib. 1 Picul ( 100 katties ) = 133llb- 1 Picul (Java) = 136 Ib. 1 Koyan = 5,333 £ Ib DUTCH : 1 Bau ( botiw ) = 1 j acres 1 Picul (Java) = 136 Ib. FRANCE. GERMANY, ETC. : 1 Millimetre = '039 inches 75 Millimetres = 1 in. (about) 1 Centimetre = "393 inches 30'5 Centimetres = 12 inches 1 Metre = 1 yard 3 inches — 1 Kilometre = 1,093 yds. 1 ft. 10 in. 1 Litre = If pints 1 Kilogram = 2\ Ib. (nearly) 10 Kilograms = 22 Ib Of oz. 50} Kilograms = 1 cwt. 1 Hectare = 2£ acres *-—-•' - 1 Orlong = 1 sV acres 1 Estrada =150 Para trees LOCAL AND FOREIGN MONEY ARGENTINE : 1 Peso (paper )= 100 centi- simos or Is. 9«f. 1 Peso (gold) = 100 centi- simos or 3s. \\\d. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY : 1 Krone = 100 heller or 10ursop, custard- apple, bullock's-heart, papaw, and nutmeg (second crop). Principal flowers: Vanda spathulata, Spathodea. 662 CALENDAR FOR LOW-COUXTRY November. — Weather usually wet and fairly cool. All general planting work should be completed this month. Pruning or thinning out of shrubs, trees, etc., should now be attended to. Sow peas, beans, beet and other vegetables. Yams are now ripe and should be lifted and stored in sand, in a cool shed. Attend to pollinating Vanilla flowers, now in season. Prune roses that have finished flowering. See to drainage and soil requirements of pot plants. Principal fruits in season : Bullock's-heart, pine-apple, soursop. Flowers : Aristolochia (several spp.), Palicourea, Acalypaya sanderina, etc. December. — Generally a moderately wet month, with fairly strong, winds. Support all tender plants and young trees in exposed situations, fixing a stout stick in the ground close to the plant, and tying the latter to it. Afford shade to such plants as require it. Collect seeds of flowering plants, annuals, etc., and store when dry in stoppered jars. Collect fallen leaves, and place them in a pit or trench to form leaf-mould. Principal fruits in season : Custard-apple, wood-apple, Dillenia indica, and Elaeocarpus edulis. Flowers: Wagatea spicata, Naiavelia zeylanica, Pachira insignis, Wonnia Burbidgei Humboldtia laurifolia, Alstonia macrophylla, etc. THE END FUINTKD BY H. W. CAVE & CO., CQLOMUO. INDEX A PAGE A PACK Abaca fibre, see Manila-hemp Achimenes 343, 348, 433 Abelia 401 Achras 133.558 Aberia caffra 190 Achyranthes 594. 598 — Gardner! 132 Acokanthera 317,579 Abronia 407 Acorus 351, 594, 614 Abroma augusta 550 Acridocarpus 328 — lastuosa 324 Acrocarpus - 39, 398. 454 Abrus precatorius - 575. 594 Acroclinium 413,416 Abutilon asiaticun. - 391,594 Acrocomia 355 — esculentum - 600 Acrostichum 598 — , selection of - 402 Actinella 494. 495 - Thomson} 405 Actinorrhytis 355 Acacia arabica - 559 Adam's needle, Agave or Yucca — Baileyana 395 Adansonia 440 — , Bull's horn - 118 Adenanthera pavonina, 39. 440,451 - Catechu 554 575 -• cultifrons 395 — bicolor 575 — dealbata - 395. 454, 553, 575 Adenocalymna - 328 — decurrens, 39, 395, 398, 454, 553, Adhatoda cydoniaefolia 317 563 — vasica 40. 594 — Hindsii 583 Adiantum 376 — leucophloea - 440 — weed 609 - longifolia 396 Adornments, garden 84 — Melanoxylon, 398, 453, 454, 553. Aechmea 378, 388 563 Aegle Marmelos 134.594 — molissima 454. 553. 563 Aerides cylindricum 373 — pycnantha - 396. 453 — lineare 373 — sphaerocephala - 118.582 — odoratum 371 Acaju, see Cashew-nut Aerva 594, 598 Acalypha varieties 118 Aeschynanthus - 388, 391 — godseffiana - 324. 378 Aeschynomene aspera 552 — illustris 324 — indica 38 — indica 594,598 Afzelia 565 — m trginata 1 19, 324, 405 Agapanthus 405, 427 Acalypha obovata 324 Agati (Sesbania) 231 — Sanderi 317 Agathis 302 — Sanderiana - 343, 388 Agave americana 518, 352. 405 — tricolor 324 — Sisalana 547. 548 — triumphans - 324 — , selection ot - 352 Willinckii 324 Ageratum 343,413 — \Vilkesiana - 325 — weed 609 Acanthophippium 373 Aglaonema 378 Acanthophcenix 355 Ailantus 302, 398 Acanthorixa 355 Akee - 145 Acanthus 405 Akmella, see Spilatithes Acclimatised seed 55 Ala (Yam or tuber) Ala (Dioscorea) - 220 Ala-beth, Gvnura pseudo-China Alanga 230 Albizzia Lebbek 452 — , disease of - 634 - moluccana - 39, 451 453, 454 — stipulata 451 --, pests of 623 Albuca 427 Alchornea 325 Aldrovanda - 580 Aleurites 540 Alfalfa, see Medicago Algaroba Bean - 184 Allaeanthus - - • 550 Allamanda cathartica - 328 - Hendersonii, 328, 407, 441, 443 - Schottii 317, 402, 441 - violacea 3 1 7 - Wardleana - 328 Alligator-apple, Anona pallnstris — pear, Perse a gratissiina Alliuin Alhnania Alloplectus Allspice — , Carolina — , lemon-scented — , Japan Almond, ground — , Java — , Country or Indian - 186, Alocasia, edible — macrorhi/a variegata - 379, — , selection of - - 378 — Aloe, American, (Fnrcroea) 118, — Hanburvana — saponana — vera - 594, Alonsoa Aloysia (Lippia) Alpinia reftlesiana — nutans Alseodaphne (Persea) - 441, Alsophila Alstonia macrophylla — scholaris — sericea Alstromeria Alternanthera - 343, 415, 594, Althea Alu-puhul see Bcnincasa Alyssi carpus Alyssum, sweet Alyxia - 391, Amarantus caudatus — gangeticus — oleraceus 427 598 378 259 261 261 261 220 146 315 227 391 380 544 402 354 609 413 405 325 391 564 378 495 495 317 427 598 402 38 415 579 415 598 228 Amarantus polygonoides - — spinosa - 599, — tricolor Amaryllis, Belladona — "Mrs. Garfield" - 120, — , pest of — reticulatum - — , Rose Amba, see Mango Ambarella Amherstia Ammobium Amomum hemisphaericum — magnificum - — Melegueta Amoora Amorphophallus Ampelopsis Amphicosmea Amu Amydrium Anacardium - - 134, Amectochilus - - 375, Anagallis Ananas sativus - - 135, — sativus variegatus 343, Anasie, Pine-apple Anchovy Pear - Andira Andiroba Tree - Andropogon, see Cynibopogon — halapensis Angeleen Tree, Andira iiieniiis Angelonia Angraecum Angostura bark, Cnsparia Aniseed Annatto — , pests of Annuals for low elevations — for Up-country 41 3, 657, — , when to import - 657, Anoda Anodendron - 332, 495, Anona cherimolia — muricata - 137, — , pest of — reticulata — squamosa A n then cum Anthistiria Antholyza Anthurium andreanum — bogotense — crystal linum - — digitatum — Fitzeri — Harrisii 137, 139, 120,405, - 381 PAC1E 598 609 415 429 348 626 348 120 185 291 415 325 325 272 540 348 407 378 652 388 540 379 415 550 379 135 167 564 305 587 343 371 282 503 623 343 660 660 137 551 190 138 625 551 138 429 364 429 381 381 384 381 381 381 Ill Anthurium longifolium — macrolohum - — pandulifolium radiatus — . flowering, selection of- — . foliage, selection of Vcitchii — \Varrocqueanum Antiaris innoxia- --toxicaria Antigoiion insigne — guatamalensis — Lcptopus - L alba Antirrhinum Ants Ant-exterminator Aphelandra Fascinator — niu-ns — tetragona Apoii'-gelum - AppK — . Alligator. Anona patustr is — . Bell Apple Custard - — . Ek-phant, Fcrouin 381. 381 381 382 381 388 381 381 - 380, 38 1 - 549. 55 1 579 328 443 328,441.575 328 415 - 619—622 - 619,620 317 389 317 - 351. 599 204 179 138 190 . M.ilay. (Eugenia) 161 . Mexican 192 — . Otaheite 185 — . Star, Chrysophylltim - , Sugar, (Anona) 138 — , Thorn, Datura Apricot 201 Aracacha 234 Arachis 38, 228. 540 Aralia Balfourii - 381 — coi data 255 ek-gantissima 381 — rilkifolia - 325. 381,442 — Guiifoylei 1 1 8, 325 — maculata 325 — papyrifera 552 — quinquilolia - 533 - triloba 325, 381 — Yeitchii 381 Araluk 225 Araucaria Bidwillii 302. 398 — Cookii 303 — Cunninghamii 304, 399 — excelsa 399 Arauja 328 Arbours 85 Arbour- vine. Imponiiv tnbcrosa Arbor- vit.'t-. Thuja orieutalis Archontophoenix 355 Arctotis - 417,423 Ardisia crenata - - 317 Ardisia Missionis 391 Areca Catechu. 355, 360. 503, 504, 554, 594, 655 — concinna, - - 355, 360 - -nut. see Arcca Catechu — triandra 355 Amiga - 355,531,540.551 Argania 540 Argemone 417 Argyreia • 339, 444 599 Arisaema 348 Aristoea 429 Aristolochia - 580 — elegans 328 — gigas, var. Sturtevantii 329, 331 — hians 329 — labiosa 329 — leuconeura - 339 — ridicula 329 — ringens 329 — saccata 329 — trilobata 339 Arnatto, see Annatto Arracacia 234 Arrow-head. Sagittan'a Arrow-poison - - 317, 579 Arrow -root, Queensland - 218 — , West Indian or Bermuda 225 Artemisia 609 Arthropodium - 429 Artichoke. Chinese, 235 — , Globe 235 — , Jerusalem - 235 Artillery Plant (Pilca), a small green moss-like plant Artobotrys 574 Artocarpus Canoni 304 — incisa 139, 304, 441 — integrifolia 141 452, 562, 564 — laciniatus=A. Canoni — nobilis 142. 143. 304 Arum-lily (Richaniia), 431 Arundina - 373 Arundinacea - 381 Arundinaria - 366 Arundo 325, 343, 364, 442, 554 Asarum 381 Asclepias 317,537,551 Ashes 30 Asparagus, edible 236 — falcatus - 329, 574, 595. 599 — plumosus - 339 — racemosus - - 329. 574 - Sprengeri 339 Asperula 417 Aspidistra 433 Asplenium 599 Assimilation - 19 IV Aster, annual, - - 344,417 — , China (Callistcphns) 344,417 — eminens, - 344 Astrocaryum - 355 Asystasia 317 Athanasia 417 Atriplex 593 Attalea 355,551,558 Attana, Datura fastnosa Averrhoa Bilimbing 143 — Carambola, - 143 Avocado Pear (Pcrsca) • 180, 181 Avvara 207 Axinandra 304 Axadirachta. 40, 440, 452, 540, 595 Azalea - 402, 433 Azolla - - 351 B PAGE Baccharis Bachelor's button, Goniphrcua 317 Bacteria, Soil Bactris Bada-iringu Baeli, see Bael-fruit Bael-fruit Balata Balsam — of Copaiba - of Peru — of Tolu Bambarra Ground-nut Bamboo, dwarf Bamboos, selection — pests of Bambusa aurea — Fortune! — Madake globosa 20,21 355 233 563 344,417 559 559 309, 451 232 118 366 626 366, 405 405 366 — nana 118 — nigra 366 — Siamensis - 366 — vulgaris 366 Banana - 174—176 — , Abyssinian, Mnsa Eusetc — , Chinese flowering - 176 - flowers, edible 600 — , recipes for - 647 Bandakka . - 230 — , pest of 626 Banisteria 317 Banks or double-cuttings - 106 Baobab Tree, Adansonia digttata Barbadoes cherry, Malpigltia glabra Barbecue, an open area, usually con- creted, in front of estate store or factory for sun-drying crops Barberry (Berberis) Bark Bark-bound trees Barleria cristati alba — c. bicolor — c. rosea — Gibsoni — involucrata - — mysorensis - — Prionitis — strigosa Barringtonia, Bartonia Basella Basic slag Basil Basket plants 391 17 81 317,441 317 317 317 391 391 391 317 304, 441, 445, 577 - 344.417 228 32 - 283, 574 53 Bass, African, Raphia viuifera Bassia latifolia - 540, 600 - longifolia - 540, 575, 600 Bast, Cuba 551 — , Raffia 552 Batala (Sweet Potato) - 222 Batticaloa Orchid, Saccolabinni giittatunt Bauhinia 292 — anguina 333 -Candida 317 - diphylla 339 — purpurea 292 — racemosa - 551 — tomentosa - - 292, 440 — triandra - 292 Bay Laurel, see La urns Bay -tree 261 Bead-tree Adeuautliera pavoniua Bean, Algaroba 184 --, Bengal. Mucurta pruricus — , Barbuda, Phaseolns luitatus Tar. — , broad 237 — , cashaw 184 — , climbing or runner - 211 — , cluster 207 — , Congo 207 — , Goa 212 — , Guar 207 — , Haricot, Phaseolus lunatus var. — , Horse, Canavalia ensiformis — , Kidney or French - 237 — , disease of 634 — ., pests of 626 — , Lima 210 — , Lyon 210 — , Manila 212 - , Princess - 212 — , Sacred, of Egypt, Nelumbiutn spcctosii in — , Sova - - 208 H I'.UiK Bean, sword - 207 — , Tongo 210 — , velvet 210 — , winged 212 — yam 210 -. yard-long - 212 Beaucharnea - - 325,405 Beaumontia - 329 Bedding 103 Bee-or Honey-plants 574 beef-wood, Casuarina spp. Beet-root 238 Begonia, fibrous-rooted - 344, 405 — , fuchsioides - 402, 407, 433 -.Rex 381,433,436 — , selection - - 381 — tuberous-rooted - 429, 433 Belamcanda - - 348, 429 Belladona Lily - - 429 Bellis - 402 Beloperone nemerosa - 317 — oblongata - - 317, 402 Bengal Quince, see Bael -fruit Benincasa 213 Bentinckia 355 Benzoin tree, Styrax Benzoin Berberis aristata 391 — cristata 402 — Fortunei - - 402 — variegata 406 — leschenaultii - 402 Bergamot 571 Bermuda grass, Cynodon Dnctvlon Berrya - 440, 564 Berseem 592 Bertholletia - 144 Bertolonia 381 Betel-leaf Piper Belle 504, 655, 656 — nut Palm, Areca Catechu Bhang. Cannabis sativa Biao-nut. Alen rites triloba Bidens - 609 Bigha or beega - 653 Bignonia argyreo-violescens 339 — capreolata - • 407 - magnifica - 330 — unguis-cati - 330.441.444 venusta - 330. 407 Bilbergia 381 Billing or Biling 143 Billion 563 Bird-of- Paradise Flower, Streiitzia angnsta Bird-lime - 651 Birds, destructive 604 — . insectivorous or beneficial 604 Birds' nests, edible 299 — Fern, Aspleniinn nidus B Bismarckia 360 Bissy-nuts, see Kola-nuts Bitter grass, Pnspalnni coiijiifrttniii - wood, Picraena cvcelsa Bixa 503 Black-currant — wattle - 553, 563 — wood Tree - - 553, 563 Bladder- wort, see rtricnlaria Blechnum 376 Bleekrodea 495 Blighia 145 Blimbing 143 Blinding tree, see Excaecurin Blue-gum, Eucalyptus globnlns Blumea - 509, 609 Bocconia 406 Boehmeria nivea - 546, 652 — . pest of 624 — tenacissima - 547 — pulchra 325. 547 Boerhaavia - - 599 Bo-gaha, Fiats religiosa Boga-medelloa - 39,40 Bois Immortelle, Erythrina iiinbrosa Bolo-bolo, Honckcniya fici folia Bomarea 407 Bombax - 519, 600 Bonchi (Beans) - 211 Book preservatives 651 Borage 283 Borassus - 359,360,522.551 Bordeaux mixture 630 Borders, ribbon 105 Borecole 238 Bo-tree, Ficns religiosa Bottle-brush, Callistenioii lanceolata Bottle-gourd - 214 Bougainvillea glabra - 330. 441 — g. Sanderiana 330 — spectabilis var. laterita - 330. 407 Bowenia 383 Bowstring-hemp 542 Boxwood - 120.406 — , Queensland, Tristan in confer ta — , Ceylon. Ehrctia bit v/ folia Brachycome - 417 Brahea 360 Brassica (Cabbage family) 238—240 - Juncea (Mustard) - 540—595 Brayera 537 Brazil Cherry - ;61 Bra/.illetto wood 563 Bra/.il-nut 144 Bread-fruit 139 — . disease of - - 634 — , African, Trcculia africaua — . Xicobar - - 310, 327 VI B Bread- Fruit, Wild 142, 143, 304 Bridal bouquet, Porana paiiicnlata Brinjal - 231, 655 — , pests of 626 Broccoli 238 Bromelia 354 Broom -corn - 542 — . Butcher's, Rnscus aculcatns — . Spanish, Spariium junceum Broussonetia - 551 Browallia 344, 417, 437 Brownea 292 Browse plants - 593 Brucea, or " Kaputu-gedi " 595 Brugmansia - 318 Brunfelsia americana - 118,317 — uniflora - 317,402 Brussels-sprouts 239 Buchanania - 145 Bucklandia 399 Budding 66 Buddleia 339 Bud-grafting - 68 Bulbophyllum 373 Bulbous plants for low elevations 348 — for Up-country 427 Bulbs, transport of 641 BullocVs Heart - 137 Bull's horn Acacia 582 Bulrush 352 Bully tree 133,563 Bulu - - 315,451 Bunya-bunya pine 302 Burmannia 391 Burning bush, Embothrinm cocci- nca, or Streptosolen Jamcsonii Butea - - 293, 583 But-sarana (Caiina ednlis) 218 Butterfly orchid, Oncidium papilio Butter-nut 149, 150 — , Soldier's, Avocado-pear — tree, see Shea Butter — of India, Bassia la'titoliti — wort, Pinguicula Butyrospermum 539 Buxus 406 Bvrsonima - - 318 Cabbage 239 — , disease of - 634 — , pests of 626 — . Shantung 240 Cabinet woods, selected - 564 Cacalia -, 417 C:icao or Cocoa - - 469—476 -, diseases of - - 634 Cacao, pes'.s of - — seeds Cactus plants — , night-flowering Caesalpinia Bonduc PAGE 623 640 352 331 575, 595 — coriaria - 440, 553, 574. 575 — pulcherrima - - 318, 443 Caesalpinia Sappan 523 — sepiaria 119 Cadjans; dried plaited leaves of Coconut palm Caffein; active principle of coffee, kola-nut, etc. Cajanus 38, 207, 575 Caju 134 Caladium argyrea - 120, 348 — bicolor 120 -- Humboldtii 120, 344, 348 — varieties 348 Calamander-wood 563 Calamus - 16, 355 — •, Ceylon species 361 Calandrinia - 417 Calanthe 373 Calathea allouya 216 — , selection - - 383, 433 Calceolaria 417 Calendars of work for different dis- tricts - 655—662 Calendula - 344,417 Calla, Richard ia Calliandra Guildingii 402 — haematocephala 318 - Tweedii 318 Cnllichroa 417 Caligonum 600 Calliopsis, see Coreopsis Callistemon brachyandrus 402 - lanceolata - " - 396, 402 Callistephus, China Aster Callitris, see Frcnela Callypsiche - 348 Calophylluvn inophyllum - 540 - Walkeri 396, 454, 595 Calophanes - 391 Calotropis 40,444,551,595 Calycanthus - 261 Calyptrocalyx - 355 Calyx Cambium 17 Camellia 402 - Thea 496 Camoensia - 331,574 Campanula 402 Camph >r - 506—509 — . diseases of - 634 - , pests of 623 Cam-wood - 563 Canaigre - 555 Cananga 573 Canarium commune 146, 450. 575 — strictum 559 — x.eylanicum - - 540. 559 Canary creeper, Tropticolinii cnim- riensis Canavalia 38, 207, 444 Candellila-wax - 555 Candle-nut, Alcn rites triloba Candle tree - 311*578 Candytuft 344. 414, 417 Caneila Bark, Canclla nlbn Canna 344 — edulis 218 — indica 576 — . selection of - 348 Canna his - 551,595 Cannon-hall Tree, see Conwnpitn Cansa, L\i nimbi's sntivn Cape-weed. Cryptostemma Capparis - 318,391 Capsicum - 229, 267 Caraguata 383 Carallia 442 Caralluma - 120.354 Car a pa 305 Caraway 283 Cardamine 609 Cardamoms - - 257. 261 — , wild or Ceylon 268 — . pests of 623 Carduus 610 Caricature-plant, Graptophyttum Jwrtense Cardiospermum - 340, 595 Cai doon 240 Carey.i. 554 Carex 364 Carica candamarcensis - 191,192 — Papaya. 146 Carilla fruit - 215 Carissa 119,149,442 Carludovica Jamaicensis 546 - palmata 325, 327, 350, 383, 545 — Plumerii • 283 Carnauba wax-palm 555 Carnations - 657—659 Carnivorous plants 580 Caroh-hean - 193 Carpodinus - •- 495 Carrion-flower. A inorphopluillns spp. & Aristolochiii spf>. Carrots 240 Carthamus - 562 Cart-wheels, materials for 650 Carum 536 Carva 191 VJ PA(JK Caryocar 149. 150 Caryota, selection 355 — urens, 362, 520. 551. 575, 595 Casahanana - 215 Cascara sagracla, see Rliamnns Cascaril la-bark. Croton Cashaw. see Prosopis Cashew -nut - 134.540 Cassava 222, 655, 656 Cassia alata - 3 18 — angustifolia - 536 — auriculata, 318, 392, 445, 554, 595 — , Chinese - 266 — corymbosa - 318 - Fistula, 293, 440, 532. 577, 595 — grandis - 294, 575 — javanica (=C. mnrginata), 294 — marginata - 294, 440 — mimosoides - 38, 609 — multijuga - 294. 440 — nodosa 294. 574. 575 — obovata 536 — occidental - - 392,599 — siamea 452. 564 — tomentosa - 599 -Tora - 599 — viminea 407 Cassia-bark - 266 Cassimoroa - 192 Castania 192 Castanospermum 399, 453. 577 Castilloa 491 — . disease of - 634 — , pests of 623 Castor-oil plant - 537, 597 — , disease of - 634 — , pests of 623 Casuarina equisitifolia, 118, 304, 441, 452 — torulosa 399 Catch -crops - 41 Catha 526 Catoblastus 355 Cats, civet and palm 601 Cattle trespass - 602 Cattleya, selection 371 Cauliflower - 241 Ce'ira rubber - 576 Cecropia 582 Cedar. Bermuda or pencil, Jiiuipt'nis Beniiiidititm — , Japanese, Crvptomcria Jnponicii Cedrat 571 Cedrela serrata - - 453. 454 - Toona 399, 453. 564 Ceiba 518 Celastrus 595 Celeriac .- .- 241 Yin Celery 241 Ceibsia - 344. 599 Cenftteries, selections for- 464 Centalirea - 417,424 Centradenia - 383 Ccntranthus - 417 Centropogon - 389 Century plant, Agave Cephaelus, see Psyclwtria Cephalotus 581 Cerasus - 193, 406 Ceratonia 193 Ceratopteris - - 351, 599 Cerbera borbonica 442 — Odalam 579 - Tanghin - 579 Cereus 331 — , selection of - 354 Ceriops 555 Ceroxylon - 355,556 Cestrum aurantiaca 402 — elegans 402 — fasciculatum - 119,318 Ceylon Gooseberry, Aberia Ganinei Ceylon plants - 391 — 394 Chamaecyparis - 399 Chamaedorea - 355 Chamaeranthemum - 325, 3S3 Chamaerops - 360 Champak. Michdia chain paca Charcoal, how to make - 647 — Tree, Trciua oi'ientalis — , woods for - 647 Chaya-root, see Oldeulandia Chayote (Cho-cho) Sccliiiini Cheilanthus - 376 Chelone 417 Chena cultivation 47 Chenopodium - 609 Cherimoyer - 190 — , pest of 625 Cheronjee 145 Cherry, Bra/il 161 — , English 193 — , Peruvian 201 Chervil 283 Chestnut, Chinese 192 Chestnut, Spanish 193 — . Tahiti 167 — , water 186 Chick Pea 207 Chickle gum - - 133, 558 Chicku 133 Chickrassia - 563 Chillies 229, 267, 655, 656 Chillie-pepper (Capsicum), 267 Chimonanthus - 261 China-grass. Boclnucria uivca China-grass, root, Gymtra t>seiulo-Cliinn Chinese lime - 187 Chiococca 318 Chittagong-wood 563 Chirita - 349, 392 Chives 283 Chlorophora • 562 Chlorosis 633 Chlorophyll - 19 Chloroxylon - 564 Cho-cho 242 Chocolate tree, see Cacao Choisya 402 Cholum (Guinea-corn), - 232, 233 Chou-Moellier - 591 Chrysalidocarpus 355 Chrysanthemum, annual - 344, 417 — , Chinese - 344. 402 — , Japanese - 435 — leucanthemum 433 Chrysobalanus - 150 Chrysoglossum - 373 Chrysophyllum Cainito - 150 — monopyrenum 151 Chrysopo^on - 592 Chutney 646 Chysis 371 Cicer - 38, 207 Cidran (Citron) 194 Cigar-flower, Cn plica platycentra. Cinchona 506 Cineraria 406, 435, 659 Cinnamomum Camphora - 506 — 508 - Cassia 266 — zeylanicum - - 267, 540 Cinnamon • 257, 267 — , diseases of - 634 — , pests of 623 Cirrhopetalum - 373 Cissampelos - 595 Cissus - 340, 390 Citron 194 Citronella-grass 510 — , pests of 623 Citrullus 151 Citrus acida 155 — aurantium 151 --, diseases of - 634 -- Decumana 154. 574, 577 - Limetta - 155, 575 — Limoiuim 193 — medica 194 — nobilis 154 Civet-cat 601 Clarkia 414,417,419 Clary 283 Clausena 1 56 Clavija 318 IX Clearing seeds, Strvcliuos potntornm Cleisostoma - " 373 Clematis 407 Clerodenclron aculeatum - 118 - fragrans - 318 — innerme • 318, 443 Clerodendron infortunatum 318 — macrosiphon - - 318,389 — Minahasse - 318 - nutans - 318, 443 — paniculatum - 318 — serratum - - 318,392 — siphonanthus - 318,443 — speciosum - 331 - squamatum - 318 - Thomsonae - - 331,444 Climate 1 — , local influences on 3 — in Ceylon - - 655, 662 Climbers, ornamental-leaved 339 — , flowering - 328 — for pots 390 — for Up-country 407 Climbing plants 16 Clinogyne 387 Clintonia 413 Clitandra - 495 Clitoria cajanaefolia 318 -ternatea - 331,392 Clove 257, 269, 270 — , Brazil 271 — , diseases of - 634 — , Madagascar - 271 - oil 541 — , wild - - 261 Clover, Egyptian 592 Club-root 632 Cobaea 408 Coca, or Cocaine plant - 511 Cocculus 576 Cochin goraka - 166 Cochineal Cactus 562 Cochliostema - 389 Cochlospermum 294 Cocoa - - 469—476 Coco-de-mer, see Lodoicca Cocoes 226 Coccoloba 582 Coconut, double, see Lodoiccn -palm 476—481,540 — , diseases of - 634 — , pests, of - - 615, 624 — , water-, Xipti ft nt leans Coco-plum 150 Cocos nucifera - 362—476, 481 540, 551,575, 595 — , selection - - 355 Codiaeum (Croton) - 118.325 Coelogyne asperata — Dayana — odoratissima - Coffee (Coffca) - — . Arabian — , Congo — , disease of — , Hybrid — , Liberian — , Mocha - -, Maragogipe - — . pests of — , robusta I'ACE - 370, 371 371 373 - 513—517 513 516 - 514. 634 517 516 517 516 624 516 — , Sierra Leone or Upland 516 — , Wild, Clerodendron uctileatinn Coffin-Tree - 563 Cohune-nut, Attalea cohnuc Coir-dust for potting - 28.125 Coix Lachryma - - 576, 652 Coia - 520 Coleus 344, 435, 595 Colletia 119 Collinsia 417 Commelina • - 591,599 Colocasia 227 — , disease of - 634 Colombo Agent, Pothos anren Columbia 305 Col vi I lea 294 Combretum . • . 537 Composts & mixtures - 35 Concreting 649 Condiments - - 282—288 Conessi bark, Holarrhcna Con gay am grass 593 Congea - 331,333 Conocephalus - 383 Conservatories - 121 Convolvulus - 408 Cookia - 156 Copaifera - 599, 564 Copal. Indian, Vateria imlicii — resin, Hymcimcn verrncosu Copernicia 555 Copper-leaf, see Acalyphn Coppicing 82 Coquil la-nut - 558 Coquito-palm. Jnbaca spec tti hi I is Coral-bean 576 Corchorus 542 Cordyline (Dracaena) australis 383 — cannaefolia - 325 - Duffii 325 — Fraseri 325 -- indivisa 383 — magnifica - 325 — terminalis - 325, 383 Coreopsis - 344.417 C PAGE G PAGE Coriander 284 Crotalaria striata 38 Cork-wood, Ochrotna lagopus -- Walked 392 Cork-tree, Indian 298 Croton, see Codiacuiu Corn, Indian, Zea Mays — aromaticum - 566 Corn-flower, Ccntaurea Cvanns — lacciferum 567 Corolla 17 - oil 519, 595 Coro/o-nut, Phytclephas macrocarpa - Tiglium 519, 595 Corvpha - 362, 552, 558, 576 — , pests of 624 Cosmos - 344,419 Crows 603 Costus afer 383 Cryptomeria .119 — elegans 383 Cryptostegia - 332 , 444, 495 - igneus - 383, 389 Cryptanthus 383 — musaicus - 383 Cryptostemma - 610 — pictus 383 Cuba- bast, Hibiscus clntns — speciosus - 318,392,599 Cubebs 532 Cortex 1 7 Cucumber, English 243 Cotoneaster - 402 — , native 213 Cotton 5 1 7 - Tree 143 — , disease of - 634 Cucumis maxima 213 — , pests of 624 — sativus 156 . 213, 243 — Tree, red (Hombax) - 519 Curcubita maxima 577 — , silk- 519 — Melo-pepo - 214 — lavender 120, 406, 407 Curcubita moschata 214 Cottonia 375 — vulgaris 214 Cotyledons 18 Culleriia 453 Couch-grass, Halopynun •mncroua- Culverts 102 t u in Cummin 284 Couroupita - 295, 577 Cupania 145 Co wage or Cowitch, Mncnna Cuphea 402, 417 pniricns Cupressus funebris (see En -atta) 464 Cow-plant, Gymuema Icctifcrum — Knightiana - 399, 454 - Tree. Brosiiiium galactodendron — Lawsoniana - 1 19, 399 — pea, Vignci un&uiculata — macrocarpa - 399, 454 Crab's-eyes, Abrns precatoi'ius — pyramidalis - ,, 399 Crataeva 595 — sempervirens 400 Crattock. Ficns gloiuerata; used as a Curculigo 383 384. 392 shade tree for coffee in S. India Curcuma 278. 595 Creepers 342 Curious fruits 577 Crepe Myrtle, Lagerstroemia indica Curly-greens 238 Crescentia 577 Curmeria, see Hoiuhiiuciid Cress, Garden - 243 Curry-leaf (Murray a] 286 — , Indian 243 — , recipe for 646 — , water - 243, 610 Cus-cus grass 541 Crinum asiaticum - 349, 429 Custard-apple - 138 — augustum - 349 — , pest of 625 — giganteum - 429 Cutch, Acacia Catechu - Mooreii 429 Cuviera 582 — Powelli 349 Cyamopsis 207 — , selection of - 349 Cyanotis 389, 392 — speciosissimum 349 Cyathea 378 — /eylanicum - 349 Cycas 325, 383, 392 530, 599 Crops, cost per acre 649 — , pests of 626 Crossandra - 318, 392 Cyathocalyx 306 Crotalaria 38 Cyclamen 435 — , diseases of - 634 Cydonia, see Photiiiia — juncea 549 Cyclanthus 325 — laburnifolia - 318 Cymbidium bicolor 373 — semperflorens 408 — ensifolium 373 XI n PACK 372 511.541 541 510,541 541 235. 240 115 392 156 364. 384 220 351, 364. 385 595. 608, 609 194 402 392 351 Cymbidium Lowianum Cymbopogon citratus — irjuricatus — nardus — schoenanthus Cynara Cynodon Cynoglossum Cynometra Cyperus alternilolius — esculentus - Papyrus - rotundus - Cvphomandra betacea — tragrans Cyphostigma Cypress, Funeral or weeping, Citpn'ssns fnnebris — , Monterey, Cnpressns macrocarpa Cvrtanthus " - - 120,429 Cyrtosperma - 385 Cyrtostachys - - 355, 385 Cystacanthus - 318 Cytisus - 593 Dadap. Ervthriua lithosperma Daedalacaiithus - 318, 392 Daemia 595 Daesikai, Lime-fruit Daffodil orchid. Ipsca spccioxii Dahlia - 16. 344. 429. 656 — , pest of 626 Dalbergia 564 Daisy 402 . Australian - 405 — . Ox eye. Annual Chrysanthemum . Shasta 433 Dalechampia - 389 Daluk, Euphorbia niiiiijiionini Dambala, see Phascolus Dammara 302 Damping-off disease 633 Dara-dambala, Psophocarpus 212 Dara-veta-kolu. Liiffa - 215 Darlingtonia - 581 Date-palm - 151.181 . wild - - 531 -plum - 195 Dattock 563 Datura chlorantha - 318.402 cocci nea - 402 fastuosa - 318.392.579.596 Knightii 402 Stramonium - 318.419.610 suave. >lens - 3 IS. 443. 57«> Davallia - - 376 Davidsonia • -. • 157 Day's work for coolies 649 Debregeasia - 551 Deer 601 Dehi 155 Del, artocnrpns nobilis — , Kata-, A. incisa Delphinium - 402,403,417 Delun, Pnnica t*nunitnni Dendrobium aureum 373 cruminatum - 373 - Macarthize - 573 — macrostachyum 373 -, selection - 372 Dendrocalamus giganteus, 365, 367 — Hamiltonii - 367 — strictus - 367 Desmodium Wightii 38 — gyrans 591 — triflorum - - 592 Desmoncus - 355 Detarium - 563 Devil-nettle. Luportca crcinilatd Dewberry, American - 205 Dhal or dhol. Cnjauns iudiais Dambala, see Dolichos Dhaincha. Scsbauia acnlcata Dhol or dhal, Cajanns iudiais Diacalpe 378 Dialium 157 Dianella 392 Diauthus barbatus - 418,419 — Heddewiggii 418 — chinensis - - 344.421 Dicentra, see Diclytni Dichopsis Dichorisandra mosaica thyrsi flora — undata - vittata Dichrostachys - Dicksonia Dicotyledon Dictyosperma - Didymocarpus - Didymochlaena Didymosperma Dieffenbachia - Dielytra Digit tlis Dill Dillenia Dimorphandra. - Dioncea Dioscorea argyrea — , diseases of - - -. edible -- multicolor 563 385 385, 389, 390 385 385 119 378 16 355 392 376 356 579 434 402 2S4 577 564 581 394 630 209 302 - 376, - 355. - 385, - 406, 157.306. - 306. Xll Dioscorea, varieties of - . 221 Diospyros discolor 157 — Ebenum 564 — Embryopteris - 452, 554 - Kaki 195 — melanoxylon 564 — quaesita 563 Dipladenia 332 Diplothemium - 355 Dipterocarpus - 541 Dipteryx 573 Dischidia 581 Diseases of plants - 628 — 636 Divi-divi. Caesalpinia cor i aria Divi-kaduru, Tabernainoutana dichotoma Diwol 162 Diya-labu 214 Diya-bambara, see Cucumis Dodan, see Orange Dolichos for green manure 38 — as a vegetable 208 — , varieties of - 208 Dombeya Mastersii 318 — natalensis - 319 Doob-, or doub-grass - 115,588 Dooka or Duku, see Lansiinn Domba, Calophyllum Iiiopliyllnni Doona 559 Dorstenia 385 Doryanthes • 406 Doum-palm 360 Dove-orchid, Dendrobium cnuneuatnni Down-tree, Ochroma lagopus Dracaena - 385, 435 Dracontium - - 349, 385 Drainage 49 Drains and culverts 102 Drawing-room plants - 126 Dregia 599 Drimiopsis 349 Drimys 282 Drosera 581 Drosophyllum - 581 Drugs 532 Drumsticks 230 Dry-farming - 49 Drymophlaeus - - 355 Dryobalanops - 508 Dry region, plants suited for 440 rot disease - 633 Duabanga 307 Duku, see Lansium 168 Dumasia 408 Dumb-cane, Dieffenbachia Duranta Ellisii - 402 Duranta Plumieri 118, 119, 319 Durian - 158, 307 — , wild, Ciillenia excel sa Durio - 158, 307 Duroia 582 Dyckia 354 Dye-plants 560 Dyera 495 Dypsis 355 Ebony, Diospyros Ebciintn Ebony, hastard, Diospyros Gardner! — , Indian, D. Melanoxylon — , amaica, Brya Ebenus — , Malabar. Diospyros Melanoxylon — , Mountain, Banliinia triandra Ecbolium 319 Ecdysanthera - 495 Echeveria - 120,406 Echinocactus - 354 Echinopsis 354 Echites 340 Eclipta 596 Economic products, Miscellaneous 526 Eddoes (Colocasia) 226 Edging plants - 120 Edible herbs - 598 Eel worms - 125, 615 Egyptian Clover, see Berseeni Egg-plant 231 Eh-ela, Cassia Fistula Ehretia buxifolia 118 Eichhornea - 351,610 Elzeis 355, 538, 540 Eloeocarpus edulis 160 — Ganitrus - 576 — glandulifera - - 396, 400 — serratus - 160,575 Elatostema 385 Elephants, destructive - 603 Elephantopus - - 115,609 Elephant-apple - 162 — ear, Argyreia speciosa — , Actinodaphne speciosa — creeper, Entada scaudens — foot, Elepliantopns scaber — grass, Saccharum arnudinaceum Eleusine 652 Elevation, influence of on climate 1 — of towns etc. in Ceylon 5 Elk 601 Elk's horn fern, Platycerimn Elm, Indian - 440 Embelia 596 Embothrium coccinea, " Burning-bush " Xlll B Emilia - 5% Embrella or ambarella. see Spomiias Encephalartos - - 325, 326 Endaru, see Ricinns Endive 244 Endosperm 18 Enemies of gardens and estates 601 Ensal - 261 Enterolobium - 307 Entada - 576, 577 Epidendrum - 362 Epidermis 17 Epiphyllum - - 354. 435 Epipremnum Episcea Eranthemum cinnabarinum — muculatum - — , selection of - Eria bicolor Erigeron Eriodendron Ervum Eryngium Erysimum Erythea Erythrina corallodendron — irdica — lithosperma - — Parcelli — umbrosa — velutina Erythrochiton • Erythrophloeum Erythroxylon Escholt/ia Et-pera (Persea) Euadenia Eucalyptus alba citriodora ficifolia — globulus - Leucoxylon • - marginata — -oil — robusta Eucharis Euchlaena Encomia Eugenia caryophyllata — Jambos — Javanica — malaccensis - Micheli Eulophia Eupatorium , selection of. 343 385 319 118 385 373 609.610 518 209 609 421 360 576 39 40.451,454 - 307, 326 451 - 451 319 578 - 511.596 - 420,421 180 389 307. 440. 442. 452 400. 442, 452 396 - 400. 541 453. 454. 564 - 454. 564 541 454. 564 349 - 364, 588 495 541 452 161 161 161 373. 375 526 161. PAGK Euphorbia heterophylla - 319 — pulcherrima - - 319,344 -f splendens - •-- 402 Tirucalli - 118,119 •- tortilis 579 — rhipsaloides - 495 Euryale 351 Eurycles 349 Eusideroxylon - 563 Euterpe 355 Eve's apple, Tabeniaemonlana dichotoma Evolvulus • 596 Exacuin - 344. 392 Excaecaria - 326 579 Exhorrhi/a • 355 Explosives, use of in tilling, 45 Fagraea 574 Fallowing • 45 Fasciation 633 Fatsia 552 Feijoa 196 Fennel 285 Fennel-flower - - 425 Fern-like plants 376 Ferns, cultivation of 375 — . pests of 626 — , pressing - - 650 — , selection for Low-country 376 — . Up-country - 378 — . Tree 378 Feronia - 162, 596 Fertilisation - 18 Fertilisers - 28—36, 651 — . mixtures of - 651 Fever nettle, Luporteti crcnnhitu - 542,552 307. 343, 582, 402 Euphorbia antiquorum,! 18 — 1 19. 579 — antisiphyllitica 585 Fibre plants Ficus Benjamina — Carica Cunninghamii — elastica — macrophylla - pumila — regia — religiosa - Yogelii Fig — . Smyrna, insect pollination of, Filicium decipiens, 308. 392. 450. 452. Fire-tree. Steuocarpits siuinitiis. Fit-weed. ErvnRiitm. Fittonia Flacourtia cataphracta. — inermis 307 197 307 493 400 408 307 596 495 197 605 564 385 163 164 XIV Flaniboyante, Poinciana rcgia. Flame-tree, Eucalyptus ficifolia. — , Sterculia aceri folia. — flower, Streptosolen Jamcsoni. Flax, New Zealand, 544, 545 Flower-garden - - 97. 120 Flowering trees for low-country 290 — up-country 395 — climbers for low-country, 328 — shrubs for low-country 317 — upcountry ' - 401—405 Flowers, how to revive - 650 — , component parts of, 17 — , edible 600 — , sending by post 641 -- seeds, directions for sowing 657—660 Fly-catching plants 580 Flying-foxes - 603 Fly-trap 651 — — , water, Aldrovauda — , Venus, Dioiiaea muscipnla Fodder plants - - 586, 593 Foliage climbers 339 - plants - 324, 378 — shrubs for low-country 324 — trees for low-country - 302, 451 — trees for up-country - 398, 454 Food of plants - 19 Forbidden-fruit - - 154, 578 Forests, influence of on climate 3 Forget-me-not, Myosotis F'orsteronia - 495 Fountains 85 Fox-tail Orchid, Saccolabiutn gut tn turn Fragrant flowers 574 Fragaria 197 Frames, propagating 123 Francisea 119,319,402 Francoa 437 Frangi-pani - 572 Freesia - - 429, 437 French gardening 128 Frenela 1 19, 400. 454 Frogs and toads 606 Frost in Ceylon - 657 — 660 Fruit cultivation 129 Fruits, curious - 577 — for low or medium elevations 129 — , pests of 625 — , tropical, selection of - 131 — subtropical or temperate 190 — salads 645 - -, season of - 656, 660 Fuchsia 437 - arborescens - 403 — corymbosa 403 Fuchsia radicans 408 Fuel & Windbelts, trees for 453—454 Fumigating - 622 Funeral Cypress, Cnpresstis funebris Fungicides 630 Fungus diseases - 628 — 636 — in Ceylon 634 Funtumia - 493, 494 — , pests of 624 Furcraea 119,354,406,544 Furze 119 Fustic, Chlorophora tinctoria 562 Galinsoga 609 Gaillardia - 420, 421 Gall-nuts, Terminalia CJiebnla Gal-mora 312 Galphimia 319 Gal-siyambala (Veli-et Tamarind] 157 Gambier 553 Gamboge Tree, Garcinia morella Gammiris 275 Gammalu 564 Gamolepis 421 Ganja, Cannabts saliva Garandilla (Granadilla) - 180, 231 Garandi-kidaran (Tacca) - 226 Garcinia Cambogia - 164, 596 — echinocarpa - 541 — Mangostana - 164 — morella 559 — Xanthochymus 166 Garden adornments 84 — designing - 97 — 117, 455 — , laying out of - 97, 455 Gardenia 319, 441, 574 Garlic 285 Garnotia 385 Gasteria 354 Gaura 421 Geitonoplesium - 340- Genista - 404, 437 Geodorum 37S Geonoma 355 Geranium 438, 572, 659- — grass, Cytubopogon Schoenanthus Germination of seeds - 55> Gesnera - 349,438. Gigantochloa • 367 Gilia 421 Gingelly oil - 538 Ginep 172' Ginger 271.598 — , variegated 388- Ginseng 533 Girardinia - - 579» XV ^ PAGE Gladiolus 429 Gleichenia 376 Gliricidia 295, 442, 451 Gloriosa Rothschildiana. 332, 334. 349 - superba 332. 349, 390. 392, 579 — virescens 332 Glossocarya - 392 Gloxinia - 349. 438 — . wild - 350, 659 Glycine 38, 208, 591 Glycosmis 575 Gnaphalium - 609 Goat-weed, Ageratum coiivzoides Gobba 230 Godetia 421 Godwinia 349 Goethia 319 Golden-feather - - 120,425 — fern - - 375, 376 — wattle, Accncia Pycnantha Goldfussia - 319,326 Gomphia 319 Gomphrena - 344 Gomuti pal ui. Amiga saccharifera Gooseberry. Cape 201 — . Ceylon 132 — . English 204 — . Hill 204 — Otaheite or Star 183 Gootee layering - 59. 60 Goraka. Cochin - 166 — , Ceylon 164, 596 — Jambo 161 Gordonia 400 Gorze 1 19 Gossypium 541 Gourd, Bottle - - 214. 577 — , Snake 216 — . White - 213 Gourds, pests of 626 — . seasons of - 657 Gowara-grass, A ndropogon zeylaiiiitts Grafting 64 — clay 69 - wax 69 Grains-of-Paradise 272 — crops, measuring 649 — . dry, in Ceylon 652. 655, 656 Gram, Bengal - 207 (iram. Green - 211 — . Horse 208 — . Madras 208 Grammatophyllum - 369, 372 Granadilla - 180, 231 Grape-fruit - 154 Grape vine - 79, 188 -. varieties of - - 189 Graptophyllum - Grasses for lawns — , ornamental - — , pasture or fodder Grazing Green-heart — bug — houses — manuring 326 115 364 - 58-1—593 584 564 - 625,632 121 37 — , selected plants for 38—40 Grevillea, 400. 451. 453, 454. 564, 575 Grewia 551 Grias 167 Grimnia - 349, 389 Ground-nut - - 228,540 — . pests of 624 — , Bambarra or Madagascar 232 Grouping 103 Gru-gru palm, Acrocomia sclcrocarpa Guaicum - - 559, 564 Guano Guango, Pithecolobinm Saman Guar-bean 207 Guava 183 — . disease of - - 634 — , "Calcutta," Purple," or "China." 703 — . Hill - 204 — , varieties of - 184 Guinea-corn - - 232, 590 — grains 272 — grass, PiitticHin maximum Guizotia - - 541.575 Gum-arabic, Acacia arabica Gumming or gummosis - 632 Gums, resins. &c. 555 Gunny-fibre (Jute) 542 Gu'.ta or gutta-percha •= 562 Gymnogramme - 375 376 Gymnostichyum - 385, 392 Gynandropsis 344, 345, 596. 599 Gyneri im 367 Gynocardia 541 Gynura 596 Gypsophila 421 Gypsum 29 Gyrinops 551 H 375 Habenaria Habrothamnus, see Centrum Haemanthus - - 349 Heamatoxylon - 118,561,574 Hal - - 315.560 Hal-milla, Berrya atnmonilla Halopyrum 609 Hana. Crotalaria jniiccii XVI H Hancornia Hardenbergia - Hares Harpullia Haworthia Hedera Hedges & boundaries — , selected plants for PAGE 495 408 601 564 354 408 - 116—120 - 118—119 Hedychium a ngusti folium 319 — coronarium - 351 — gardnerianum 351 Hedyotis - - 392,562 Hedysarum - 591 Hedyscepe 356 Hecria 319 Height of trees, measuring 647 Helianthus - 235,344,421,539 Helichrysum - 421 Heliconia •• 326, 386 Helicteres - 319, 551 Heliotrope 404 Hemerocallis - • - 429 Hemidesmus - - 536, 596 Hemitelia - 378 Hemp, Bombay, Hibiscus catmabinus , Bowstring - 542 — , Indian, Cantiabis sativa — , Manila - 543 — , Mauritius - - 543, 544 — , New Zealand - 544, 545 — , Sisal 547 — , Sunn or San - 549 Henna, see Lawsonia Herb of Grace, see Rue Herbs edible - 598 — , pot or seasoning - 282 — 289 Hermaphrodite 18 Herminiera - 552 Herpestis - 596 Heterospathe - 356 Hevea - 487, 576 — , diseases of - - 634 — , pests of 624 -seeds - 489,639 Hibbertia 408 Hibiscus abelmoschus - 574 — alatus 551 — angulosus var. grandi flora 392 --- cannabinus - - 551 — esculentus - - 230 — furcatus 599 — micranthus - - 596 — mutabilis - 319 — , pests of - 626, 627 — rosa-sinensis 118, 319, 404, 562 — Sabdariffa - -167,600 — schizopetalus - 319 — syriacus - - 404 H PAGE Hibiscus tiliaceus 351 Hide-bound Trees 81 Higginsia - 386 Hippeastrum - 344, 349, 429 Hippomane - - 578 Hoffmannia - - 386 Hog-plum, see Spoiidias Holarrhena - - 319 Holing - 74, 649 Holmskioldia - 319 Holoptelea 440 Holy-ghost orchid, Pcn'stcria data Homalomena - 386 Honckenya - - 344. 551 Hondapara - 157. 306 Honeysuckle - - 408 Honey-berry - - 1 72 Honey- or Bee-plants - 574 Honolulu creeper, see Aiitigoiion Horehound 285 Horse-eye bean - 576 - radish 285 — tree, see Moringa — tail creeper. Parana Howea 356 Hoya - 332, 390, -108 Humboldtia - 319, 392, 575, 582 Humus 7, 9, 11, 26 Hura - 577 Hyacinth-orchid, Satyrinni tiepalcnse Hydnocarpus - - 577, 579 Hydnophytum - 582 Hydrangea 404 Hydriastele 356 Hydrilla 609 Hydrocotyle - - 596, 599 Hygrophila - 596 Hymenaea 559 Hymenocallis - 349 Hymenosporum 396 Hyophorbe 356 Hy peri cum • 392. 404 Hyphaene 360 Hyssop - 286 Icaco - 150 Ikilia - 186 Ilang-ilang 573 Ilex - - 526.528 Illicium 278 Illipi. Bassia lat if alia Iluk, Imperata anindinacca Imantophyllum 429 Imbul-gaha, Eriodendron — , katu, Bombax Impatiens acaulis 392 XV11 I PAGE ' PAGE Impatitns cuspidata bipartita 392 Iron-wood tree, Cevlon, - elongata - - 393. 404 297, 309, 564, 574 - fasciculata - 439 Iron-bark 453, 454, 564 flaccida - 389. 393. 599 Irrigation - - . 48 - Holstii - 439 — , its influence on climate, 4 - Hookeriana - - 393, 404 Ismene 429 mirabilis - - 389 Isolepis - - 364 - repens - 389. 393 Isoloma 349, 389. 429 - Sultani 344, 389, 439 Isonandra 541 - Walker i - 393. 404 Isotoma 579 Iinperata - 608. 609 Ivy. Hcdcra Hcli.\ Imphee, Andropof^on Sordini ni Ivorv-nut - - 557, 558 Implements - - 91 Ixia" - 429,436 Inarching 66 Ixora coccinea - 319.393441,596 India- rubber - - 307, 308 — Fraseri 319 Indian-corn - - 233. 590 -- javanica 319 - Shot— 54. 218, 576 — jucunda 393 — Liquorice, Ahnts prccatorins — macrothyrsa - 319 Indigo 560 — odorata 319 Indigofera - 39, 560 - Pilgrimii - 319 Inga laurina - 451 — rosea - - 319, 441 - Saman 312, 441, 442. 451. 453. 591 lya-vaki (Peltophumm) 299. 451, 452 Inguru - - 271 Innala 226 J Ink for labels - 90 Inocarpus 167 Jacaranda filicifolia 386 Insecticides - 615 — mimosiefolia - - 297 Insectivorous plants 580 Jacobiea, see Senecio. Insect pests - - 612,659 Jacobinia coccinea 319 — . remedial measures for 613 — magnifica - 319 Insects, tabular list of - 623 Jacquemontia - - 334 — , carnivorous or beneficial 605 Jacquinia - 320 — , specimens, how to send 642 Jadoo, or Jadoo fibre 27 — , pollinating - 605 Jaggery, palm-sugar obtained from Intensive gardening 128 Palmvra, Coconut. Carvota, etc. Intercrops 41 Jak 14K562. 564 Ipecacuanha - - 533, 534 Jalap, ipoiiioea Pnrga. — , wild or Jamaica - 537. 551 Jamaica sorrel - 167 Ipomoea aquatica - 230, 599 Jambo. "Veli"-." Pini "-, " Wax-." - Batatas 222 etc. 161 — biloba 444 — , pest of 625 - Bona-nox - - 230, 393 Jambola, Citrus Dcciunana. Briggsii 334, 441, 444 Jambu or Jambo, Eugenia Jam bos. -carnea - 332.444 Jams, recipes for - 644 - Learii 334 Japana-ala (Jaffna yam). - palmata - 334,393 Japanese medlar. Pliotiiiia jiiponica. — Purga 537 Jarrah - 564 — , pest of 627 Jasmine. Arabian, Jtisininiini Stiinhtic Quamoclit - 334 — , Cape. Gardenia florida. — rubro-coerulea - 408,421 — , night-flowering - 562, 574 — sinuata - 340 Jasminum flexile - 334, 574 — tuberosa - 334.441 — , pest of 627 - Turpethum - 596 - pubescens 334. 404. 408. 441 — vitifolia 444 - revolutum - 320. 335. 404 Ipomopsis 421 - Sambac - 320, 335. 404. 574 Ipsea 373 Jatropha Curcas 118, 119, 541 Iresine 406 — panduraefolia 320 Iris - 429.432 — podagrica - 320 XX Lycoris Lvsidice 431 297 M Macadam ia 168 Macassar-oil - 541 Macaw-palm, Acrocoiuia sclerocarpa. Mace 273 Macherium - 564 Macrosphyra - 335 Macro/amia - 326 — , selection - 386 Madar-fibre, see Calotropis. Madder, Indian, see Oldenlandia. Madol 541 Madras Thorn, Pithecolobinm dulce. - 118 —119 Mad re Gliricidia macnlata. Madu, Cycas circinalis. Magnolia fuscata 404 — grandiflora 404 — sphaenocarpa 308 Maha-karamba - 1 49 Mahoe, Mountain, Hibiscus clutits. Mahogany 564 — , African 564 — , Australian 564 — , Bastard 564 — , Honduras 315 — , Indian 564 — , pest of 624 — , Swamp 564 Mahvva tree, Bassia latifolia. Maiden-hair Fern, Adiautitiu. Maize 233, 590 Makanje, Triphasia. Malay-apple (Eugenia) 161 Malcomia 421 Malope 421 Malpighia coccifera 57, 120 -glabra 118 Malu-miris 229 Malvaviscus 320 Mammea 169 Mammee-apple - 169 Mamme-sapota (Luc n ma] - 168 Mammillaria 354 Mamoncillo 172 Mana, pangiri 511 Manchineal Tree 578 Mandevilla 408 Manettia 390 Mangifera 169 Mango, cultivation, etc. 169 — , diseases of 634 — , pests of 625 -, selection of - 171, 172 M Mangosteen 164- Mangrove 555 Mangus 164 Manicaria 354 Manick-vvattie weed, Oxnlis riolacea. Manihot Aipi 224 — dichotoma 490= — Glaziovii - 54. 489, 576 - heptaphylla - 491 — piauhyensis - 491 — utilissima - - 222, 655 Manioc or manyoka - 222. 655 Manures — , inorganic - 28 — -, organic 24 — , liquid 34 Manuring, green 37 Manyoka or manioc 222 Mapania, see Pandanophyllum Maranta arundinacea 225 — , selection - 386 Marcgravia 390* Margosa, Azadiradita indica Marica • , 431 Marigold, African 344, 421, 422" — , French 344, 421 — , pot 286- Marjorum, pot - 287 — , sweet 286 Marking- nut, Scniccarpns Anacardinnr Marmalade -fruit 168 Marsilea - 351, 599- Martinezia 356, 358 Martynia 577 Marvel-of-Peru, Mirabilis Jalapa Masan (Zizyphus jiijnba), 189* Mascarenhasia - 496 Massoia 27> Mastic, Pistacia Lciitiscus Mate - - 526, 528 Mathiola 421 Maurandya 408 Mauritius grass - - 587, 589* Maximilliana 358 Mealies, see Maize Measuring grain crops per acre, 649* - heights of trees - 647, 648 - land - 648, 653 — timber 648 Medicago 591 Medicinal plants 532 — — of Ceylon 594 Medinilla magnifica 320 — speciosa 320* - Teysmannii - 321 Medlar, Japanese 18> Mee or mi, Bassia Ion gi foil a XXI M Me-karal 212 Melaleuca 400, 541 Melastoma 321,393 Melia Azedarach 583 — dubia 452 Melianthus 407 Meliosma 396 Melicocca 172 Melocoton 215 Melloca (Ulluciis), 248 Melon, musk-, 156 — , water-, 151 Memecylon 320,321, 393 Memorial trees, selection for, 463 Mendelism 71 Mentha 287, 535 Menthol 535 Mesembryanthemum 421 Mesophyll 17 Mesquit-bean 184.594 Mesua 297, 309, 452. 564, 574 Metal for road or Concreting 649 Metroxylon Kumphii 358 — Sagu 358, 528, 529, 576 Mi or Mee, Bassia loiigifolia. Michel ia Champaca 452, 454, 574 — fuscata 574 — nilagirica 454 Miconia 326 Mignonette - 421,575 — , Tree-, Lawsonia alba — , wild, Gnaphaliiun innlticanlc Mikania 594,610 Milk hedge (Euphorbia Tirncalli), 118 Mi Ha 564 Millet (Pa n /c n in iniliaccnin), 652 — , Bulrush 652 — , Great or Turkish 232 — . Indian, Andropogon Sorghum — , Italian (Sctaria italica), 652 Millets 652 Millingtonia 298,440 Mimosa argentea 340 -pudica 445.610 Mimulus 423 Mimusops Bojeri 173 — Elengi 596 — globosa 563 — hexandra 555. 564 Mina lobata 408 Mint 287 Mirabilis 423. 580 Miraculous Berry. Sittero.vvloii Miris 267 — , Gas-, 267 Mischodon - 440. 452 M Mistletoe. Ceylon. RhipsalisCassytha Mixtures, fertilizing 35,651 Mock orange 404 Modecea 580. 596 Momordica 215 Moneys, local & foreign - 653 Monkey-nut 228 — flower, Mimnlns macnlosa — pot, see Lfcythis — puzzle, Arancaria Bi thrill ii Monocharia 351.599 Monocotyledon 16 Monodora 275 Monsoons 3, 656 — 662 Monstera 173.343 Montanoa bipinnatifida 321.404 — tomentosa 321 Montbretia 431 Moon-flower (Iponw.a Rona-nox] 230 Moorva-or Murva -fibre 552 Moraea 404. 431 Mora tree 306, 564 Morinda 442 Moringa 230, 285, 597 Morning Glory, Iponwca, annual var's Morus 198 Mosquitoes, preventives against 615 Mosquito-wood - 564 Mountain Mahoe 564 Mucuna 39, 210. 576 — utilis 210,591 Mudilla (Barriiigfonia), 304 Muehlenbeckia 326, 582 Mulberry 198 — , disease of 634 — . pest of 624 — paper 551 Mulching 12 Mundulea 393 Mun-eta (Phaseolus Mungo) 211 Munronia Murraya exotica 1 18. 321 . 441 , 574 — koenigii 286 Murunga (Moringa) 230 Murutu (Lagerstroemia) Murva or Moorva fibre 552 Musa Cavendishii 176 -coccinea - 389,404 - Ensete 407 — sapientum 1/4—176, 597 - textilis 543, 552 Mushroom Musk-melon 156 Mussaenda 321 Mustard 287,595 — tree. Salt-adorn per ska 423 XX11 M JVlyrialepes Myriocarpa Myriophyllum Myristica fragrans — Horsfieldii — laurifolia Myrmecodia Myrmecophilous plants Myrobolans, Tcnninalia Myroxylon Balsamum — Pereirae — toluiferum Myrtle — , Ceylon Myrtus communis — tomentosa N PAGE 358 326 351 273 574 452 582 582 belcricn 309 559 451, 452 - 321, 407 118, 321 - 321, 407 321 Na-gaha, Mcstia f err en Nam-nam 1 56 Nandina 326, 404, 583 Naran-kai (orange) 151 Naravelia 335 Naseberry 133 Nasturtium ofticinale 243, 599, 610 — (Tropaeolum) 243, 344, 409, 427, 575 Natran 1 93 Necklace tree, Ormosia Nectandra 564 Nedun 564 Neem tree, Melia Azedarach Negro peach 1 85 Nella-kadala, see Ground-nuts Nelli, Phyllanthns Emblica Nelumbium 351, 583, 597, 599 Nelun, see Nelituibiiini Nematanthus 389 Nematodes 615 Nemesia - 423, 424 Nemophila 423 Nepenthes 340, 393, 581 Xephelium ohryseum 176 — lappaceum 176 — Litchi 177 — mutabile 176 Nephrodium - 376, 378 Ncphrospermum 358 Nephthytis 386 Nerine 431 Nerium 322. 443, 580 Nettle, Devil or Fever, Laportea crenulata Nettle, elephant, or Nilgiri, Girardinia heteroplivlla. Nicker seeds, Caesalpitn'a Ronduc. Nicotiana, flowering 345, 425 N Nicotiana, Tabaccum 500 Nidi-kumba, Sensitive-plant Nierembergia 404, 425 Nigella, 415,425 Night-shade, Malabar 228 Nile Pith tree 552 Nim or Neemiree,Azadirachta indica Nipa 352, 358, 364 Nitragin 21 Nitrate of Soda - 31 — of potash 31 Nitrates 20 Nitrification 20 Nitrites 20 Nitro-bacterine - 21 Nitrogin - 19, 20, 36 Nitrolim 33 Niviti 228 Niyangala, Gloriosa snperba. Niyan-vetakolu - 215 Nolana 425 Nolina, see Beaiicaruea. Nopalea 354, 562 Notelaea 404 Notonia 322 Nurseries 69 Nursing leaves - 18 Nut, Brazil 144 — , ground, see Arachis — , monkey-, ,, — , Para = Brazil-nut — . pecan 191 — , pili, Canarium edule - 146 — , Pistachio - 201 — , Queensland 168 — , sapucaia 168 — , souari 149, 150 — , tiger 220 Nut-grass, Cypcrns rotundas. Nutmeg 273 — , disease of 634 — . pest of 624 — , Calabash or Jamaica 274, 275 — , Wild 275 Nutrition of plants 19 Nux-vomica 521, 580, 597 Nyctanthes 562, 574, 583 Nyctocalos 335 Nycterinia 425 Nymphcea 55, 352, 599 Oak, Ceylon 564 — , Patana, Cany a arborea. — , She, Casuarinia spp. — , Silky-, Grcvillea robust a. Oca-quina or Oca-quira 248 XX111 Ochlandra Ochna Ochroma Ochrosia Ocimum Odina Odontadenia Oeiiothera Oil of Ben (Moringa) — . Cajuput — Candle-nut — . Chaulmugra - — , Citronella — , Cotton — . Geranium 367 322 578 442. 578, 580 574, 583, 597 559 335,574 425 231 541 540 541 510, 541 541 54 — , Gingelly, Sesammii indicum. — , Ginger-grass 54 — , Groundnut - 540 — Lemon grass 510, 541 — , Macassar 541 — . Margosa 540 — , Niger or Rantil 541 — . Olive 198, 541 - Palm (Elacis) 538, 540 — , Rusa or palmarosa 541 — , Sunflower 569 — , Verbena, Cvmbopogon citratns - yielding plants 510, 519. 537—541 Oils, essential or volatile; obtained by distillation, as distinguished from fixed oils obtained by pres- sure or boiling. Oka 225 Okra 230 Ola; tender leaves of palmyra and talipot palms, used for writing upon by an iron stylus. Oldenlandia 562 Oldfieldia 564 Olea 198. 541 Oleander, see Xerinni Oleander Olive 198 — . wild, or Ceylon 160, 575 Olu, Nympkoca Lotus — , LimiiaiithcwHM Oncidium luridum 372 — papilio 372 Oncoba 298 Oncosperma fasciculatum, 358. 364 — filamentosum 358 Onion 248 — . Egyptian 249 — , potato 249 — , small 249. 655 — , Welsh 249 Ophioglossum - 376 Ophiopogon intermedius, 120.386. 393 Ophiopogon japonicus — j. variegatus Opium Oplismenus Opuntia coccinellifera — Dillenii — , selection of Orange, cultivation of — , mock — , pests of — , sweet — , varieties of Oranin Orbignya Orchella weed - Orchids, cultivation of — , Cevlon 386 386 535 364 562 354. 594. 610 354 152 404 625 151 153 358 358 522 368 373 Orchid. Batticaloa, Saccolabium gnttatiun — , Butterfly, Oncidium papilio — . Daffodil, Ipsea speciosa — , Fox-tail, Saccolabium git flat it in — , Giant 369 — . Lily-of-the-Valley, Eria bicolor. — . Pigeon or Dove. Dendrobium criniicnattini — , - — , See Habeiian'a — -. Primrose, Deiid robin in anrenni. — , Scorpion or Spider. Arachnanthe. Ordeal poisons 578 Oreodoxa 357. 358 Organs of nutrition 1 7 — reproduction 17 Ormosia 576 Ornamental plants - 317 — U9 — , pests of 626 — seeds 575 Ornithogalum 431 Oroxylon 576. 578, 597 Osbeckia aspera 323 — buxifolia 393 — rubicunda 393 Osmunda 378 Ostodes 309 Otaheite apple (Spondias). 185 — gooseberry 1 83 Oudo or udo 255 Ouviranda 352 Ovary 18 Oxalis corniculatus 610 — crenata 225 — bupleurifolia 386 — corniculata 599 — violacea f -^ 225. .610 Oxera 336 Oxyanthus 323 Oxystelma 352, 393. 597 Oxvtenanthera - . 367 XXIV 13 PAGE Oyster-plant 252 Pachyrrhizus 210 Packing plants, seeds, etc. 637—640 Paddy - 480—484, 655, 656 — , pests of 625 — , Hill, Oryza latifolia — , Swamp, 0 sativa Padouk, Ptcrocarpns indicns Padri tree, see Stereospenmtm Pagoda tree (Plumeria) 299 Pakal, Monwrdica Charantia Palaquim 563 Palay rubber. Cryptostcgia Palicourea 323 Pallu, Mini n sops hexniidra Palms, Ceylon - 360 — , fan-leaved - 360 — , pinnate 355 — , pests of 627 Palm beetles 615 Palmyra palm 522, 655, 656 Panama-hat plant 325, 327, 545 Panax crispum - 386 — elegans 386 - fruticosum 1 18, 326, 443 — multifidum 386 — quinquefolia - 533 Pancratium 350 Pandanus iurcatus 310 - Leram 310,327,578 — odoratissimus 443, 445, 599 ~ Sanderi 326, 386 — utilis 552 — variegatus 326 — Veitchii 387 — zeylanicus - . 119 Pandanophyllum 387 Pangi, Pangi urn cdnle Pangiri, Lena-batu 511 — , maha 511 Pangium 310,578 Panicum 588, 592, 593 — curtissii 610 — muticum 587.589 — plicatum 364, 387 — pulchrum 364 Pansy 425 Papaine 147 Papaver 425, 535 Papavv, Papeta or Papaya 146 — , Mountain 191, 192 Paper Mulberry 551 Papeta, see Papaw Papyrus 351 Pardanthus (Belamcanda) 348. 429 311, 496 144 624 576 207 451 119 311,578 287 378 249 234 493, 494 Parameria Para-nut Para-rubber, see Hevea — , pests of — , seeds Paripu (Cajanus) Parkia Roxburghii Parkinsonia aculeata Parmentiera Parsley — fern (Stenoloma) Parsnips — , Peruvian Parthenium Pasali, see Basella. Paslia, see Mountain Papaw. Paspalum conjtigatinn 1 15, 593 — dilatatum 590 — spectabile 590 Passiflora coerulea 336 — edulis 199, 408 — Jenmani 336 -laurifolia 121.178,336.340 — quadrangularis 180,231 — racemosa 336 - trifasciata 341 — violacea 336 Passion-fruit 199 Pasture, making and upkeep 584 — , plants for 592 Patchouli 541,572 Paths 101 Patola 216 Paullinia 341 Paulwilhelmia - 323 Pavetta 323, 393, 441, 443 Peach 202 — , negro 185 Peacock-flower, Poinciana pnlcherrimn. Pear 203 — , Anchovy 167 — , Avocado or alligator 180 Pea-nut, see Ground-nut Pea, perennial, Latliynts Ititifionis. — , pigeon 207 Peas 250 — , disease of 634 — , chick, or Bengal-gram 207 — , cow 212 Peat 9, 15 Pecan-nut 19 !_ Pedilanthus Pavonis 555 - tithymaloides 1 18, 328, 355 Pehimbiya, Filicinnt decipicns. Pelargonium 439, 572, 659 Peliosanthes 387 Pellionia 343,387 XXV Yeltophorum ferrugineum 209. 442, 451. 452 — Linnae 563 Pencil cedar. Juni perns Bcnnndiana Penni-dhodan 151 — koinadu 151 Pennisetum 364 Pentas 323. 345 Pepol 146 Peperomia 387 Pepeta or pepol 146 Pepper. Ashantee 278 — . black 257. 275 — . Cayenne 277 — , disease of 634 — . Jamaica 259 — . Japan 278 . Long 277 — . Melegueta — mint 535 . Negro 278 - . pests of 624 — pot of West Indies 224 - Tree. Schiiius mollc. Pei a 183 Perennials for low elevations 343 up-country 401, 405 Perfume-yielding plants - 571 Pergolas 84 Pergularia 336, 574 — . pest of 627 Perianth 17 Pericopsis 564 Peristeria 372 Peri strophe 323 Periwinkle, Madagascar, Vinca rosca Persea gratissima 180 — semecarpifolia 441.564 Persimmon 195 Peruvian-bark, see Cinchona Pests, animal 601 —.insect 612-627 Petals 17 Petraea 336 Petunia 345. 425, 439 Phaedranassa 431 Phaceha 425 Phaius bicolor - 373 - - luridus 373 — . selection 372 Phalaenopsis 372 Phalaris 120, 387 Phaseolus 39, 189 - lunatus 210 - Mungo 21 1 - . pests of 626 — vulgaris 211,237 Philadelphia 404 PAttH Philodendron andreanum 343, 387 — carderi 391 — erubescens 343 gloriosum 387 Mamei 387 — Selloum 387 — squamiferum 343. 390 Philydrium 425 Phloem or bast - 17 Phlogocanthus - 323 Phlomis 404 Phlox Phoenicophorium Phoenix dactyl if era - selection of - — . Ceylon species — sylvestris Pholidocarpus - Pholidota Phormium Phosphate of lime 345. 422, 425 360 181 358 364 531 358 373 407. 544. 545 32 — , Thomas', see Basic slag Phosphorous 19, 20 Phosphoric-acid 36 Photinia 183 Photosynthesis - 19 Phrynium 345, 387 Phyllanthus cyanospermum 576 — distichus 183 — Emblica 200, 555, 597 — myrtifolius 118, 328. 393 — nivosus 387 Phyllocactus 355 Phyllotaenium - 387 Physalis 201 Physic-nut, Jtitroplui Curcaa Physostigma 579 Phytelephas - 358. 576 Phytolacca 610 Piasaba-fibre, Attalca fnniffra Piassava (Raphia) 546 Picraena 536, 618 Pigeon orchid, Dcndrobiiun crnnit'iiiilnni — pea, Cajuniis indicia. Pig. wild 602 Pila, Tcphrosia Pili-nut, (C a nar iu in cdnlc], 146 Pillakai (Jak) 141 Pilocarpus Pimenta acris 261 — citrifolia 261 — officinal is 259, 261 — oil 261 Pimento 259 Pimpinella 282 Pinanga 385 Pine-apple 135 XXVI Pine-apple, variegated 343 Pine, Bunya-bunya 304 — , Canary Island 400 — . Moreton Bay 304, 399 — , Norfolk Island 399 — , Kauri 302 Pinguicula 581 Pink, sea-or water- Pinus canariensis 400 — insignis 401 — longifolia 401 - Montezumoe - - 401 Piper Betle - Clusii - Cubeba — nigrum Pipingha Pisonia Pistacia Pistachio-nut Pistia Pistil Pitcairnea Pitcher plants Pith plants — tree Pithecolobium dulce, — Saman, 504—505, 597 278 532 275 213 312—328,442 201,559 201 352 18 389 581 552 552 117, 118, 119 442 312,441, 442, 451,453. 591 Pitti-kekiri 156 Pittosporum 397 Plantain 174—176, 597 Planting distances, table of 77 — operations 74 — , cost per acre 649 Plant-breeding - 70 - life 16 -sheds 121 Plants, nutrition-of 19 Platycerium 376 Platystemon 425 Plectocomia 358 Plectranthus 226, 597 Pleroma 404 Ploughs 94 Ploughing 44 Plum 202 — , Bokhara 202 Plumbago capensis 323. 345, 404 -rosea 323,597 — zeylanica 323, 393, 580, 597 Plumeria acutifolia 299, 323, 442, 496, 572 583 - rubra 299, 323, 442, 496 Plumule 18 Podalangai, Tricosaiitlies Podocarpus alata Podocarpus cupressina 312 — macrophylla - 407 Pogostemon 541,572 Poinciana 300, 442, 453, 576 Poinsettia, Euphorbia pnlcherrima Pois-doux, Inga laurina Poisonous plants 578- Poisons, ordeal - 578- Polianthes 350, 573- Pollarding 82 Pollen 18- Polyalthia 441,442 Polygonum 592 — chinense 404 — punctatum 610 — tomentosum - 610 Polypodium 376, 599 Pomegranate, Pntiica granatnui Pometia 312,451,575 Pongamia 39, 597 Pontederia, see Eichhornea Poppy, flowering 425 — , opium 535 Porana paniculata 338 — volubilis 338, 441 , 444, 575 Porcupines 601 Portlandia 325 — , pest of 627 Portulaca 345, 425, 599, 610- Posoqueria 300 Potash 31 Potassium 19, 20- Potato 250, 657, 659 - — , pest of 626 — creeper, Giant, Solatium We i id- land ii Potato, sweet 222 — tree, Solanum macranthum Pothos argenteus 343, 391 — aurea 345 Pot-plants, cultivation of 123, 368, 660 — for low elevations- 378, 388 — , flowering 388- — , foliage - 378- — , for up-country 431, 657 — 660 — , soils for 124- — , watering of 126, 660- Pots, tubs, etc. - 86 Potting plants - 123—125,657—660 Poudrette 25 Preserves recipes for 645 Prestoea 358 Prickly-pear, see Opmitia Pride-of-India - 297 Primrose, evening, Ocuoihcni — orchid, Deiidrobiinn atirciuu Primula 439 Priproca 573 XXVI 1 Pritchardia 360 Privet, Ceylon - 297 Products, minor (Ceylon) 503 — , standard ( „ ) 469 Propagating frames 123 — sheds 76 Propagation 51 — 70 — by bulbs, tubers, etc. 62 — „ cuttings 56 — 58 - ., eyes 61 - „ gootee 59—60 — .. layers - 58 — ,. leaves - 61 - .. roots 61 — „ seed 51 — 56 - „ suckers 61 Prosopis dulcis - 184 - julifera 184 •- pubescens 184,594 — spicigera 184, 583 Pruning 78—82 — , root 80 — . thumb-nail - 80 Primus 201,407 Psidium cattleyanum 203 — Guineense - 184 -Guyava 183 Psophocarpus 212 Psoralea 39 Psycotria - 533, 534 Pteris aquilina - 611 Pterocarpus echinatus 300 -indicus 312,442,451.564,575 — longiflora 300 — marsupium 452, 453, 559, 564. 574 — santalimus 562 Ptychandra 358 Ptychococcus - 358 Ptychoraphis 360 Ptychosperma 360 Pudding-pipe. Cassia Fistula. Pulassan (Xephelium) 176 Purslane, Portnlaca olcraccn. Pusani-kai, Benincasa. Pumelo 1 54 Pumpkin 213, 577 — , ash 213 Punica granatum 1 18, 184, 597 Punnai-nuts, Calophylliun liiophylliun Purple-heart 564 Pu\vak. Arcca Catechu. Pyrethrum 120.425 Pyrus 203 Queensland-nut Quisqualis 168 338,441, 444 Quillaja Quassia 541 323.536,618 R Radish 252 Railway gardens 455 — — , selections for - 461 — *63 Rainfall averages in Ceylon 5 — , Ceylon - 656—662 — , equivalents of 650 Rain tree, Pithecolobinm Saman. Rambong rubber 307, 308 Rambutan 1 76 Ramie-fibre, Bochmcria nivea. Ramsita, Anoua reticulata. Randia dumetorum 441,597 — macrantha 323 — maculata 323 — Mussaenda 323 Radicle 18 Rangoon creeper, Qnisqnalis Raphia Hookeri 360 — ruffia • 360. 552. 559, 576 — vinifera 546 Raphidophora - - 343, 393 Kaphionacme - 493, 494 Raphistemma - 338 Raspberry 205 — , Mauritius 205 — , Ceylon 204 Rata-bakmi 185 Rata-bilincha (Hibiscus) - 167 Rata-del 139 Rata-goraka 166 Rata-kaju 228 Rata-karapincha 156 Rata-kekuna (Canarium) - 146 Rata-lawulu 150 Rata-mi Rata-nelli 183 Rata-tora, Cajanus iuiliitis Rata-uguressa - 1 63 Rat-snakes 606 Rats 601 Ratu-\va, Cassia niarginatn Ravenala 312, 327, 328 Ravenia Reana 588 Recipes - 644—647 Red-sanders, Pterocarpus santalintis Red-wood, Indian 564 References, useful 647 Reinwardtia 323, 404, 441 Rcnanthera 372 Reseda Resins, gums, etc. 555 Respiration 19 XXV111 Resthouse gardens - 455 — 463 — , selections for - 461 — 463 Rhamnus 537 Rhapis - 352, 360 Rhea, Boelnneria uivea — , Wild, Debregcasia vclnthia Rhipsalis 355 Rhizomes 63 Rhizophora 555 Rhodanthe 425 Rhodochiton 338 Rhododendron - 394, 397, 404 Rhodomyrtus 323 Rhodoleia 401 Rhoea 387 Rhopaloblaste 360 Rhubarb Rhus glabra 575 — succedana - 559 Rhynchosperma - 408, 576 Ribbon borders 105 Ribes - 204 Rice - - 480—484 — , pests of 625 Rice-paper plant 552 Richardia 431 Ricinus 40, 537, 597 Rind - 17 Ring-barking, or ringing - 82 Rivea - 394, 599, 600 Road-making - 649 Roccella 522 Rondeletia 323 Root-crops, 47, 216—233, 234—255 Roots, aerial - 16, 63 — , functions of 16 Root-stock 64 Roscheria 360 Rose amaryllis, Zephyranthes carinata Rose-apple 161 Rosemary 287 Rosewood 564 — , Indian 564 Roses, cultivation of, 409-41 1-657-660 — in perfumery 571 •*-, pests of 627 — , selection of - - 412 — 413 — , varieties 401 Rotation of crops 46, 629 Roupellia 339 Rozelle 167, 600 Rubber, Castilloa or Panama 491 -, Ceara 489 — , coagulation of 486 — , Ecanda 493 — , Guayule 493 — , Jequie 490 PAUK Rubber, Lagos - 493 — , Manicoba — , miscellaneous sorts - 494—496 — , Para 487 — , Rambong or Assam 493 — , tapping of - - 484—487 Rubus 204, 408 Rudgea 328 Rue 288 Ruellia colorata 387 — formosa 345 — macrantha - 345 — ringens 593 — tuberosa 345 Rumex Acetosa 254 — hymenocephala 555 Riiscus 408 Russelia juncea 323 — sarmentosa - - 323 S Sabal Saccharum Saccolabium guttatum — ochraceum — roseum — Wightianum Sacred Bamboo, see Nandina — trees Sack Tree, Antiaris innoxia Safflower, CartJiamus tinctorius Sage Sagittaria Sago, Ceylon - palm 528, 529 Saintpaulia Sal, Shorca robusta. Salacia Salads, fruit Salpiglossus Salsafy or salsify Salt-bush, see Atriplcx. Salt as a manure Salvia coceinea - — coelestina — farinacea • — , pest of — splendens — , "Scarlet Queen," Sami tree, Prosopis spicigera Samphire Sanchezia glaucophylla — longiflora — nobilis Sandlevvood, Sautnlinn album Sandbox Tree, see Hnra Sand-binding plants 323 360 597 375 373 373 373 582 288 352 530 576 389 341 645 425 252 33 323 323 345 627 323 345 288 328 323 328 444 XXIX Sandpaper \caf=Ficns asperrima &• Strt'blns tispcra Sandoricum 185,314 Sandy situations, plants suited for 440—445 Sansevieria cylindrica 387 — guineensis 387, 552 — Koxburghiana 552 — zeylanica 387, 394, 542 Santalum 541,564 Santol. see Sandoricnm Santolina 120,407 Sapindus 541,576 Sapium 494, 496 — indicum 580 — sebiferum 556 Sapodilla plum - 133,558 Saponaria 425 Sapota or Sapote 168 Sappan-wood 523 Sapucaia nut 168 Saraca declinata 300 — indica 300 Sarcocephalus 185.575 Sarcochilus 373 Sarracenia 581 Sarsaparilla 536 — , Indian 536, 596 Satimvood 564 Sausage-tree, Kigclia pinnnta Savory, summer 288 — , winter 288 Sayra (Lemon-grass), 286,511,572 Scabiosa 425 Scaevola 443, 444, 552 Scale -bug 625, 626, 627, 632 Scarlet-runner - 238 Scent plants, selection of - 574 Scheela 360 Schinus 401,453,454 Schismatoglottis 387 Schizanthus - - 416.425 Schizocasia - 352. 387 Schizolobium - 300,315 Schleichera 541,564,575 Schmidia 408 School gardens 455 — , selections for 461 Schubertia, see Aratija Scindapsus 343 Scion - 64, 641 Scorpion-orchid, Arachiianthe spp _ Scorzonera 253 Screw-pine, Pandanus spp Scutellaria 389 Sea-coast, plants specially suited for, 441 Sea-kale •-- -' 253 Sea-pink, Spinifex squarrosus Sea-weed, edible 229 — — manure - 27 Seaforthia elegans 355 Sealing-wax palm, see CyrtiKtnclrys Seasoning herbs - 282—289 Seasons 2, 656 — 662 Seats, garden - - 83 Sebestens, Cordia myxa Sechium - - 242 Sedum - 347, 425 Seed, acclimatised 55 — boxes 87 — , foreign, when to import, 658, 659 — , germination of - 53 — , ornamental & curious 575 — , packing & transporting 639 — pans 87 — , physiology of 1 8 — , selection and saving of 51 — , sowing - - 657 — 660 — , storing of - 642 — , testing vitality of 54 Selaginella 376 Semaphore or Telegraph plant, Dcsmodimn gyrans Semecarpus 562 Semcle, see Rnscus Sending specimens by post 642 Senecio elegans 425 — hederaefolia - 339 Senna 536 Sensitive plant, Mimosa pttdica Sepalika, see Nyctantlies Sepals 17 Serenoa 360 Sericulture 567 Sesamum - 538. 597 Sesbania aculeata 552 — aegyptiaca 328 — grandiflora - -321,600 Seyra, see Lemon grass Shade trees 446 — for field crops - 449, 451 - — low-country 450 — parks, etc., 451 — — semi-dry region 452 — medium elevations 453 — — up-country 454 Shading plant-sheds, etc., 121, 123 — plants 75, 76 Shaddock 154 Shallots 253 Shasta-daisy 433 Shea-butter - 539 She- oak, Cayitirina spp Sheds, plant 70, 121 Shelters for visitors 85 xxx s Shoe-flower, see Hibiscus Shola pith, Aeschynomene aspera Shorea 564 Shows, Agri-horticultural 465 — , judging at 467 Shrubs, flowering, for low eleva- tions 317 — , foliage — do 324 — , flowering for Up-country 401 — , foliage, — do. — 405 Sicania 215 Sida - 551,611 Side-saddle flower, Sarraceuia Silene - 425, 432 Silk-cotton Tree 518 Silky-oak, Grwillea robnsta Silver-leaf, Lencadendron argcntinin — fern, Gymnogramme — wattle, Acacia dealbata Sinningia - 347, 350 Sinuk, Euphorbia tortilis. Siphocamphylus 347, 389 Sisal hemp 547 . Siyambala 185 Skeleton leaves, preparation of 650 Slime-fungus 632 Smilax argyraea 341, 391, 408 — officinalis 536 — ornata 408 Snake's head, see Martyuia. Snake-gourd 216,217 Snakes, rat 606 Snake-weed, Polygonum pitiictatttin. — wood, Ophioxylon serpentinum. Soap-Jaark 541 — berry 541, 576 — suds as a manure 35 — wort, Saponaria. Soils, analysis of 15 — , capillary action of 12 — , Ceylon 15 — , classification of 8 — , constituents of 6 — , effects on climate 4 — , examination of 10 — , exhaustion of 14 — fertility of 13 — for pot plants 124 — , sterilisation of 13 — , toxic effects of plants on 14 Soil operations - 43 Solandra 408 Solanum commersoni - 253 — indicum 597, 599, 610 — jasminoides - 408 — macranthum 301 — Melongena 231 — nigrum 599 S PAGE Solanum tuberosum 250 — verbacifolium 580 - Wendlandii - 337, 339 — xanthocarpum 597, 599 Soldier's butter. Sonchus 610 Soola, or sulla, see Hedvsanim. Soot 36 Sooty-mould 632 Sophora tomentosa 328, 394, 443 - violacea 323, 394 Sorakai, Lagenaria. Sorghum, Sugar 531 — saccharatum 531 — halapense 611 - vulgare 232, 542, 590 Sorindeia 185 Sorrel, English - 254 — , Jamaica 167 Souari-nut 149, 150 Sour-grass, Paniciiin coiijitgiitnin. Soursop 137 Sowing seeds, directions for 51—56, 657—660 Sow-thistle, Sonchns spp. Soya-bean 208, 591 Soymida 564 Spanish-bayonet, Yucca. — broom, Spartinin, — , lime 172 — nectarine 150 — needle, Bidens pilosa. Sparaxis 431 Sparrows 604,651 Spartium 425 Spathiphyllum - • 389,390 Spathodea 301,442 Spear-grass, Andropogon coiitortns. Specimens, how to send - 642 Sphagnum 369. 641 Sphenogyne 425 Spices - 257-289 Spider flower, see Gyiiandropsis. Spider orchid, Arachnanthe. Spilanthes 597 Spinach, Ceylon 228 — , English 254 — , New Zealand 254 Spinifex 444 Spiraea japoncia 434, 439 — media 405 — peruviana 1 19, 405 Spironema 390 Spondias 185 Sporangium 55 Spores, fern 55 Spraying 636 Sprayers - 635, 636 XXXI Sprekclia 350,431 Squash 214 Squirrels 601 Stacks, weight and measurement 649 Stachys 235 Stachytarpheta - 394 Stag's horn moss, Lycopodinm spp. Stamens - 18 Standard products of Ceylon 469 Stangeria "- 387 Stanhopea - 372 Stapelia - 120,355 Star-anise - 278 -apple 150 — gooseberry 1 83 Statice 427 Station gardens - - 455 — 463 Stemmadenia - 324, 574 Stems, different kinds of - 16 Stenandrium 388 Stenocarpus 301, 397, 398 Stenoloma 378 Stephanotis 339. 391 , 574 Stercuiia acerifolia 398 — Balanghas - 552, 578 — colorata 301,583 Stereospermum - 301,583 Steudnera - 388 Stevensonia 360 Stevia 405 Sticolobium - 210,591 Stifftia 324 Stigmaphyllon - - 317,339 Stocks - 427,659 Stomata 1 7 Stonecrop, see Sctliiw Strawberry 197,657,660 — , disease of - 634 Streblus 580 Strelit/ia 390 Streptocarpus 405,439 Streptosolen 405 Strobilanthes coloratus - 324, 388 --gossypinus 405,406,407 — helicoides - - 394 - Hookerii 394 — pulcherrimus 394 Stromanthe - 324 Strophanthus 324 Strychnos Xux-vomica 521. 580, 597 — potatorum 598 Stump extractor- 91 . 95 Style 18 Succulent plants 325 Sudu duru (Cuminum) 284 Sugar-cane • 523, 597 — palm of India 531 — — of Java - 53 1 Sugar sorghum - 531 Sulphate of ammonia 30 — potash 32 Sundew. Droscra spp. 581 Sunflower 427, 539 Sun-hemp, Crotalaria juncca Suriya. TJiespesui popnlnca Susum 352 Swampy land, plants suited for 652 Sweet-cup 199 — flag. Acorns Calamus - peas 426, 427, 658 - -potato 222 — , recipes for 647 — sop 138 — sultan, see Ccntanrca — william 418, 419, 427 Swietenia macrophylla • 315, 453 — Mahogani 315. 564 Sword-bean 207 Syncarpia 401 Synecanthus 360 Synedrella 610 Syngonium 388 Sj-ringing 127 Syzygium, see Eugenia. Tabebuia 301 Tabernaemontana coronaria, 324. 574 — Crassa 496 — dichotoma 574, 578 Tacca 226, 350, 390 Tacsonia 409 Tagasaste, Cytisns proli ferns Tastes 611 Tahiti Chestnut 167 Tainia 373 Takkali 254 Tala-tel 538 Talauma 574 Talipot-palm 362, 552, 558, 576 Tallow Tree 556 Tamarind 185, 441, 564, 598 — velvet 157 Tamarindus, 39, 40, 185, 441. 453, 564 Tanga-poo, Bignoiiia vennsta Tannias 226 Tannin plants 553 Tapioca 222 Taroes 226 Tarragon 288 Tea 496—500, 528 — , Arabian 526 — , Ayapana - 526. 527 — boxes, woods for 649' XXX11 Tea, brick 499 — , Ceylon, Eloeodendrou glancum — , diseases of 636 — , green 499 — , Leppet 500 — , Matara, Cassia anrictilata — , Paraguay - 526, 528 — -,-pests of 625 — , soluble 500 — tree, see Melalcuca — , wild, Eurya acnminata Teak, Tectona grandis — , African, see Oldfieldia — , pest of 625 Tecoma capensis 119,405 — jasminoides - 409 — Smithiana 405 — Stans - 324, 405 — velutina 324 Tectona 564 Tee-ambara 213 Teff or jtheff 588 Telegraph plant, Desmodium gy raits Telfairea 186 Tembusu or Tembusi, Fagrtea fragrans Temperature, averages in Ceylon, 5 Temple Tree, Plumeria Teosinte, see Enchlaena Tephrosia Candida 39 — grandiflora - 324 Tephrosia maxima 394 — purpurea • 445, 598 Terminalia belerica 315, 451, 598 — Catappa - 186, 315 — Chebula - 555, 598 Termites - 619—621 Terra japonica - 553 Teysmannia 360 Thalassia 41 Thampala 228 Theine, active principle of tea Theobroma Cacao 469 — angustifolia - 476 — pentagona - 476 Theobromine, active principle of cacao Thespesia Lampas 394 - populnea, 41 , 441, 442, 453, 564 — tomentosa 324 Thevetia - 324, 576 Thieves 604 Thistle, Canadian, Cardum. — , Sow, Sonchns spp. Thorn apple, Datura Stramonium. Threshing rice - 482 Thrinax 360 Thunbergia affinis 324 Thunbergia bicolor 408 — erecta 324, 441 — fragrans 409 — grandiflora - 338, 339, 441 — — alba - 339 — Kirkii 328 — laurifolia=T. grandiflora — , pest of 627 Thyme 288 Thymol 536 Thyrsacanthus - 324 Thyrsanolaena - 367 Tibbatu, Sola mini indicum. Tiger's claw, Martvnia diandra. Tiger-lily, Tigridia. — nuts 220 Tillage 43—45 Tillandsia, 388, 390 Timber trees 452 Timbers, selected - 563 — 564 Timbiri, Diospyros Embryopteris. Tinospora 598 Tithonia 324 Tobacco - 500—502, 655, 656 — , diseases of 636 — juice 618 — , pest of 625 — smoke 618 — , wild, Lobelia nicotianaefolia. Tococa 328 Toddy palm, Caryota urens. Tolol 315 Tomato 254 — , diseases of - 636 — , pest of 626 — , Tree- 194 Tonga creeper - 343 Tonka-bean 573 Tonkin-rubber tree 495 Tools and implements 91 — 96 Toon, Cedrela Toon a. Toothache Plant, Spilautltes A cm ell a. Toothbrush Tree, Streblus aspera. Topee-tamboo 216 Toquilla palm 545 Torch-lily, see Kniphofia. Torenia asiatica 394 - Bailloni 347, 427 — Fournieri 347, 427 Totilla, Oroxylon indicum. Tous-les-mois - 218 Trachelium - 427 Trachycarpus 360, 552 Trachymene 427 Tradescantia 388 Transpiration 19 Transplanting 75 xxxiii Transport of plants, seeds, etc., 637, 643 Trapa 186 Traveller's Tree 312,327 Tree calabash 577 Tree-daisy 321,322 — guards & supports 76 -melon 146 - Mignonette - 393, 560 of Heaven 302 — tomato 194 Trees, flowering, for low elevations, 290 — , up-country 395 — , street-planting, 290 Trevesia 3 1 5 Trichadenia 315,598 Tricholaena 364, 590 Trichosanthes 216, 598 Tridex 610 Tri folium 39.592 Trincomalie-wt od, Bcrrya Ainnioiiilla Triphasia 187 Triplaris 582 Tristania 401 Tristillateia 339, 444 Tritoma, see Kuiphofia Tritonia 431 Triumfetta 552 Tropaeolum, 347, 409, 427, 575 Trumpet-flower, Datura suaveoletis — , Nepaul, Beattnwtitia — tree, Cccropia peltata Tuberose • 350, 573 Tuberous plants for low elevations 348 — , for Up-country - 427 Tubers 62, 641 Tubs for plants 86 Tulbaghia 350 Tulip-tree, Thcspesia popnlnea — of Queensland, Stenocarpus — — , Australian, Harpnllia Tumba-karawila 215 Turfing 108 Turf-grafting 109 Turmeric 278 Turnera elegans 346, 347, 575 — ulmifolia 441 Turnip 255 Turpentine Tree 401,559 Tutteri, Chrysopogon aciculatns Tydaea 349 Typha 352 Typhonium 599 Udo or Oudo 255 Ugures-a, Kata, - 163 Ullucus 248 Ulex 119 Umbrella-grass - 351 — -tree, Acacia planifrous Uncaria 553 Unisexual 18 Upas tree, Antiaris toxicana Urceola 496 Urena 552 Uroskinnera - 324, 347 Useful references - 647—653 Utricularia 582 Vaccinium Vallota Vanda coerulea - — Hookeriana - — Roxburghii - — spathulata — teres — tricolor Vandzon Vangueria Vanilla Vanillon - 205, 394 431 372 372 372,375 372.375 372 372 232 187 257, 279, 282 282 Vani, Caesalpinia coriaria Vaporite 115,619 Vascular-bundles 17 Vases 85 Vateria 315, 560 Vatica 560 Vegetable-ivory - 557, 558 — marrow 256 — mercury, Cyphoniandra betacca — tallow, Sapiiun scbifernin — waxes 555 Vegetables, tropical 206 — , sub-tropical or temperate 234 — , pests of 626 — , seasons of - 656,657 — , when to sow - 657 — 660 Veitchia 360 Vel-ala 220 Velvet-apple 157 — bean 591 — tamarind 157 Veralu 160 Verandah gardening 125, 126 Verbena 347, 427, 659 — oil, Cynibopogon citratns — , sweet-scented, Lippia citriodora Vernonia - 328, 598 Verschaffeltia 360 Veta-kolu - - 215 XXXI V Viburnum 405 Victoria 55, 352 — , seeds of 640 Vigna 212 Vila or villati - 162 Villebrunea 552 Vine, grape, Vitis via if era 188 Viola 427 Violets 439 Vinca 347, 407, 409, 443 Virginian creeper 407 Vitex 441,564 — Negundo 598 Vitis incisa 341 — quadrangularia 355 — vinifera 188 — , disease of 634 — voinerriana - 341 Vittadenia 405,611 Voa-vanga 187 Voandzeia 232 Vriesia (Tillandsia rccnrvifolia), 563 W Wa, Cassia siamca 452, 564 Wagatea 339 Wal-kekuna 309 Wal-lunu, Pancratium zcvlaniciini Walks and paths 101 Wallichia 360 Walnut 198 Wal-sapu, Michdia nilagirica Wambotu 231 Warn pee 156 WaJia-sapu Cananga odorata Wanduru-me 210 Wara, Calotropis gigantea Wardian cases - - 637, 639 Water in relation to plant food 21 — chestnut 186 — cress - 243, 610 — fern, Ccratopteris — grass, Panicnm mnticnm — hyacinth - 351, 610 — lemon 178 — lettuce, Pistia Stratiotes — lily, Nymphcea — , giant, Victoria regia — melon (Citrnlliis vulgaris 151 — . ornamental - 107 — palm 352 — pink, Spinifex squarrosns - plants 351 — Poppy, Limnocharis Humboldtii — snow-flake 351 — supply 99 Watering 76 W Watering pot-plants 126 Watsonia 431 \Vattabanga-kola 312 Wattakka 213 — , polong 214 Wattle-bark - 553 Wattles (Acacia) 553 Wax-flower, Hoya Wax, Japan, Rhns succedana — palms - 355, 356 — , vegetable 555 Weeding 606 Weed-killers 608 Weeds 606 — of Ceylon 609 — , water- 609 Weights and measures 653 Wela, see Gynandropsis Wesak-mal, Deiidrobinm Macarthiac We-warani - 441, 564 White-ants - 619—621 White-weed, Ageratiun conyzoidcs Whitlavia 427 Wigandia 405 Willughbcia 494, 496, 563 Wind-breaks 4 — , selection for - 453 — 454 Winter's Bark - 282 — grass 51 1 Winter-cherry, Physalis Alkckcugi Wire worms 615 Wistaria 409 Withania 598 Wood-apple 162 Woodfordia - 324, 394 Woods for tea-chests 649 Woolly-pyrol, Phaseohis Mm/go Work, day's, per cooly 649 Wormia 324 Worms 125 Worm-casts - 115 Wrightia 324, 394, 443, 574 Xanthium Xanthosoma Xanthoxylon Xeranthemum - Xerophytic plants Xylopia 611 226 278 427 T 278 Yams (Dioscorea), 16,220,655, 656, 662 Yautias 226 Yerba-de-Mate - 526, 528 XXXV Ylang-ylang Yucca Zalacca Zamioculcas Zapote Zea Zebra-plant, Cnlatlica zcbritin. PAGE Z PACK 573 Zebrina 388 443 580 Zephyranthes aurea 350 — Candida 431 — carinata 120, 350,431 — tubispatha 120, 350,431 Zeuxine - 375, 388 360 Zingiber D'arceyi 388 388 — officinale - 271,598 133,558 Zinnia - 347,427 233, 590 Zizyphus jujuba 189 riiiti. — vulgaris 189 Station, Post and Telegraph : Kalutara South, .} mile. Telegraphic Address : Constantine, Kalutara, Ceylon. Code used, A.B C. 5th Edition. H. D. Constantine & Sons Export Merchants and Dealers in Tropical Seeds and Plants. Tea Rubber Coconut Coconut Oil Copra Cinnamon Cocoa Paddy Tobacco and all Commercial Products Different Varieties of Tea Seeds Rubber Seeds Seed Paddy Seed Coconuts Cocoa Seeds Green Manure Seeds Rubber Plants Coconut Plants By reason of our increasing business we can afford to offer our Services to stand equal to any House for Economy, Quality, and Honest Value. Specially Packed to any parts of the World. William & Richard Florists, Seedsmen, and Plant Merchants "Alexandra Gardens/' Horton Place, Colombo, Ceylon. Tropical Seeds and Plants of all kinds Supplied at short notice Hevea Stumps shipped at short notice to all parts of the World at moderate rates guaranteed to deliver sound 15%. Seeds and Plants of Flower, Vegetable, Fruits, Foliage, Ornamental, Shade, Timber, Green Manuring Trees, &c., &c. Always in Stock. Apply for our Various Circulars — and Descriptive Catalogue. - Telegraphic Address : — "BOUQUET, Colombo." Code Used, A.B.C. 4th &- 5th Editions. I F. H. SEARL R. F. SEARL W. D. SEARL F. H. SEARL, Jr. Cable A d dress "MYOSOTIS" A.B.C. Code 5th Edn. Established 1868 General Manager F. W. ROSS. Searl &- Sons Nurserymen, Seedsmen, Florists & Bulb Growers, NURSERIES BOTANY-ASHFIELD CROYDON-EXETER N.S.W. 86 King Street, Sydney, N.S.W., Australia. Thos, Cook & Son, Managers of Tours and Excursions. Forwarding Agents, Bankers, etc. Victoria Arcade, COLOMBO. Thos. Cook & Son have at all their offices a trained and competent staff, conversant through the experience of years, with all the details of Travel through India, Burma, and Ceylon, and they respectfully invite all visitors to Ceylon to call at their offices and make arrangements for their Indian Tours. Railway Tickets issued over all Railways of India, Burma, and Ceylon and throughout the World. Steamship Tickets issued on all Lines around India and throughout the world. Packages of every description slored and shipped as Cargo to all parts of the world, at lowest rates. Passengers' Baggage shipped on steamers at lowest rates. Letters of Credit and Circular Notes issued and cashed. SEED PLANTS FORWARDED TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. . . j4LL KINDS OF . . COFFEE. VIGNA. LITCHl, PALMS, TEA. GROUND NUTS. RAMOOTANS. FERNS. COCOA. RUBBER. CINNAMON, GREVILLEA. ALBIZZIA. LOQUAT, ORANGE. CYC ADS. ORCHIDS. CARDAMOM. &c.. &c.. LIME. LILLIES PEPPER. CINCHONA. COCA. COLA. CLOVE. NUTMEG. COTTON of Fruit Tree* MANGO. DURIAN, MANGOSTEEN. SAPODILLA. LEMON. Custard Apple. ALMOND. JAMBOS. PAPAYA. GRAN ADI LLA. CROTONS. HIBISCUS. ANTHURIUMS. MARANTAS, &c.. &c. CROTOLARIA. Avocado Pear. &c , &c.. 'PRfCF LIST ON /JPPflCATinN J. P. 1 1 ~R~P A TT A "M" Nurseryman and i±3±l A±l A1V1, Seed Merchant, MUTWAL, COLOMBO, CEYLON. SOLE AGENTS FOR Marshall Sons & Co., Ltd., & Francis Shaw & Go. The Largest Makers of Tea and Rubber Machinery in the World Tea and Rubber Factories Built and Completely Equipped . wit h . . Modern . . Machinery WRITE FOR FULL CATALOGUE COLOMBO: Walker Sons & Co., Ltd.: KANDY. From E.S.Townsend,Esq.,B.A. Personal Assistant to the Raja of Kalakankar, Kal- akankar, U.P. " I have used seeds from all parts of the world, and unhesitatingly declare that I have found Messrs. Sutton & Sons' seeds the best. I have never known them fail to germinate. The Raja's garden at Kal- akankar is now in first- class condition, better than it has ever been du- ring the last 50 years, and Sutton's seeds are now almost exclusively used." SUTTON'S SEEDS IN USE THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. 412 GOLD, SILVER & other MEDALS, etc., have been awarded to Suiton's Seeds. SUTTON'S VE6ETABLE SEEDS, SUTTON'S FLOWER SEEDS, specially packed for the Tropics by a process which insures their being in good condition when required for use. Sutton & Sons, ™™NS READING, ENGLAND. SEEDS and > - - * PLANTS. Hevea Brasiliensi». CULLODEN ESTATE, Kalutara District, CEYLON. Seed carefully selected and specially packed for export. For quotations, Apply Manager, Culloden Estate> Neboda, Ceylon. ^\\i;iraiiiuiiii:iiiiiii»iiiiiiiiiiiraiiiij'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.iiiiiii!iiiiii» The London & Colombo Forwarding Agency The Foreign Parcels Express. Goods, Packages, and Luggage received from abroad or rail, cleared from Customs, and delivered in Ceylon or shipped to any part of the World. Agencies and Correspondents in almost every important Port. E, B, Creasy & Co., 12, Bail lie Street, Colombo. Estate Requisites of every Description. Japan Momi Tea Chests Tea Lead Hoop Iron Nails Solder Hessians Tools Cement Water Tubes Fuel Tanks Olsina Water Paint Jeyes1 Disinfectants. Correspondence on every subject invited. %niiiiiiiiiiiiiii«iwiWHfl:niiiiii^ To Rubber Planters The India Rubber Journal. Edited by HERBERT WRIGHT, Assoc. R.G.S., F.L.S. Published Weekly. Subscription for the Colonies: 16s per annum post free and prepaid. "The India Rubber Journal" is the only technical organ of the rubber industry pub- lished in Great Britain. It numbers amongst its contributors the leading experts in all branches of the rubber industry. Planters who desire to keep themselves posted on the Rubber industry at home should subscribe to the journal. Specimen copy will be sent on application PUBLISHERS : MAGLAREN & SONS, LTD., i 37 & 38, Shoe Lane, London, E.G. Large dark leaf Manipuri Jat from cultivated seed oearers over twenty years old. Care- fully packed in lead- lined cases .with charcoal for export. Price on . . application to The Manager, Kanapediwattie, Ulapane, Ceylon. PLATE, LTD., THE LEADING FIRM IN CEYLON FOR Studio Portraiture, Out-door Photography, Enlargements. Views of Ceylon and India Developing and Printing for Amateurs. Kodaks and all Kodak Goods, Picture Frames, Albums, Illustrated Post Cards, Souvenir Books, and All Photographic Materials PLATE, Ltd., COLOM BO ( Colpetty I and NUWARA ELIYA. CANT'S World=renowned C HAM P ION ROSES Direct from the Original Firm. Established 1765. THE FINEST STOCK OF ROSES IN THE KINGDOM Exported to all parts Full Descriptive Catalogue free on Application Benjamin R. Cant & Sons, THE OLD ROSE GARDENS, Colchester, ENGLAND. Attention is Directed TO THE SUPERIOR QUALITY OF OUR Agricultural Tools and Implements, Cultivators, Specially Designed to Suit Local Requirements Only the best and most Reliable Stocked. Satisfaction in every Detail — fully Guaranteed New Illustrated Catalogue With Prices and full Particulars sent Post free on Application to BROWN & Co., limited, General Merchants, Engineers — and Ironmongers. — Office &• Showrooms: CHATHAM St., FORT, COLOMBO. Branches: HATTON and NAWALAPIT1YA. Freudenbergs' Manures Agents : Potash Syndicate MILLERS, KANDY, . . IS . . THE MOST CONVENIENT CENTRE FOR Up-country Planters' supplies of Bush's — Latex-coagulating powder— Acetic Acid Formaline Muslin (for straining latex.) You get the special advantage of Whole- sale Rates for these lines. Our prompt handling of Estate Orders, has won — for us an enviable reputation. MILLERS, KANDY. Tested West Australian Vege- table and Flower Seeds. From MESSRS. DAWSOX & HARRISON, PERTH. These Seeds, grown in the semi-tropical climate of Western Australia, are most suitable for cultivation in Ceylon. Used in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Pera- deniya, where the seeds gave satisfaction. Price list POST FREE on application. Aid to successful cultivation, Canary Guano. Price. -/66 cents and Rs. 1/11 per tin. Gardo a non-poisonous insecticide. Price per 1 gallon drum, Rs. 10/- Full directions with each preparation. Tropical Seeds & Plants Economical and Industrial Seeds, Rubber Seeds and Stumps, Tea, Coffee, Indigo, Cotton and Jute Seeds ; Medicinal Plants and Seeds ; Fruit Trees and Grafts from Choicest Stocks ; Ornamental and Flowering Shrubs, Palms, Ferns and ORCHIDS; Flower and Vegetable Seeds. Catalogues Free on Application. Robert Seth & Co., Feronia Nursery, 62-5, Beadon St., CALCUTTA (India). Telegraphic Address:—" Flora, Calcutta." Barnard & Co., Hindustan Nursery, CALCUTTA, INDIA. Cable Address :— "BARNARDCO," Calcutta. Largest Exporters of Tropical Seeds and Plants in the East. PLANTS and Seeds grown and nursed exclusively for shipping to ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.— Large scientific and Up-to-date Packing Establishments for the Exportation of Tropical Plants and Seeds. TROPICAL FRUIT TREES : Very large and healthy stock of Grafted Mango and Lichee Trees, Limes, Lemons, Guavas, Sapotas, Mangosteens, Pumeloes, Durian, Bananas, Betel Nuts, Coconuts. &c. ORCHIDS : The finest, largest and up-to-date complete collection of Tropical Species in the World. UNRIVALLED COLLECTION of Crotons. Dracaenas, Hib- iscus, Palms. Ferns, Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, Water Lilies, &c. SEEDS of Every Description for Culture in the Tropics. Largest Catalogue of Tropical Seeds and Plants for Export Free! The Tropical Agriculturist [ Journal of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 1 PUBLISHED MONTHLY. Subscription, Ceylon : Rs. 10 per annum Subscription Foreign : £ti, Rs. 15, or 85 per annum post free. Obtainable from The Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society, Peradeniya; the Publishers Messrs. H. W. CAVE & Co., Chatham Street, Colombo, or Messrs. Maclaren & Sons, Ltd., ( Ceylon Department ) 37 & 38, Shoe Lane, LONDON, E.G., ALSO FROM BATAVIA G. KOLFF & Co., MADRAS HIGOINBOTHAMS, LTD. CALCUTTA THACKEU SPINK&CO.. PAPUA \V KITTEN BROS, LTD., JAPAN MARUZEN-KAHUSHIKI POKT MORESBY. KAISHA, 11-16 NIHON- PKNANG PKITCHARD & Co., H ASH i, TOKT.TAM- SAMARANG G.C.T. YANDOHP&CO., CHOME, JAPAN. SINGAPORE KELLY &WALSH, LTD., KUALA LAM PUH CHAS. GREMKU & j SURABAYA G.C.T. VAV DORP & Co., SON. I SYDNEY GORDON & GOTCH. ADVERTISEMENTS IN THE "T. A." Per Line Is. or 75 Cents. SINGLE INSERTIONS. £ s. d. ONE PAGE Rs. 30*00 200 HALF „ „ 17*00 I 2 6 Q'RT. „ „ 8*50 0 12 6 TWELVE INSERTIONS. £ s. d. Net per insertion. ONE PAGE Rs. 22*50 I 10 o HALF „ „ 13*50 o 17 6 Q'RT. „ „ 8*00 o 10 6 „ „ £ PAGE „ 5*00 066 „ Special Positions are Charged from 25% to 75 # Extra. INSERTION OR CIRCULATION OF LEAFLETS, &c. LEAVES of coloured paper are inserted, if supplied, for £2 per leaf per month or £18 per year, per page, 2 leaves for £2 I OS. per month or £24 per year. Full particulars re Advertisements on application to Messrs. Maclaren & Sons, Ltd., 37 & 38, Shoe Lane, London, E.G. or to the '•SECRETARY, C. A. S., " PERADENIYA. Aerial Ropeway. Top Terminal. By Eastern Produce and Estates Company, Limited, Colombo. Completed Since 1909. Marrattenne Hopewell Hapugastenne Halgolla Catteratenne Pambagama Lunugalla Hemingford Moneragalla Harmony Cannavarella Mariesland Poonagalla Ingoya Bottom Terminal. Rough Estimates Free. Do You Know? What plays the most important part in the making of a beautiful garden which is joy and a pleasure to' you and your family? It is the QUALITY of the seeds you sow. No matter how good your soil, how clever your malee, if you use cheap, inferior seeds, you are bound to be disappointed with the results. Why not try our " QUALIYU " seeds the next time you are buying your seeds. Our thirty years' experience and organisa- tion is at your service. Our large illustrated catalogue is yours for the asking. It is sent post free to any one —any where. Write for it NOW before you forget it. PESTONJEE P. POCHA A SONS, Seed and Bulb Merchants, POONA. Bombay Press, India. The Colombo Apothecaries •» Company, Limited. Suppliers of Estate and Dispensary Drugs, and Medical Equipment. 1 1 • Quotation and Price List on Application. • | The Colombo Apothecaries Company, Limited. - ^ O fe a tf fe o VH - 1 I CO CO O — $ 4-> •0 0 ~™* S r; 6 cO "3 -2P "3 CD J _JQ CO CO CO "S ^ CO ^ 1 J 5 •g o Q o OH U u w o z td 4 •? 1 • -Q* c ^tf * -JC O 1 fl U o 0 U) . c 0) 1 "bo 0 -1 1 H ,g ' w Z E 13 lit ^ ^ « s ^ § I s * en LIPTON LTD., = COLOMBO. = Tea, Rubber, and Coffee Planters. Importers of the following Estate requisites which are supplied to Estates at lowest market rates : — Momi Packages, Venalders, (patent packages), sizes 24 x 22 x 22 and 24 x 20 x 20, Quirk Barton's best English Tea Lead, Nails, Hoop Iron, Solder, Block Tin, etc., etc. Sole Agents for Dahootea Tea Seed, the most popular Assam Seed imported — over 1 ,000 maunds sold last year — 70% guaranteed sound on arrival in Colombo, which is always considerably exceeded. For Quotations apply to: — LIPTON LTD., = COLOMBO. - P. 0. Box, 86. Telephone No. 328. Telegraphic Address, UPTONS, Colombo. (0 O u JS1 ' 7 i I •5 a x e « CB U O g o o (0 o z E. g « c g I » s z Id Q. £ s i .« « £ 0 CB e -^"^ • "« Z e ^ B o ••^H 0 m 0 03 (0 ^a u GARDEN REQUISITES SHANKS "BRITISHER" LAWN MOWER SEND FOR OUR PRICE LIST OF LAWN MOWERS ALL OUR GOODS ARE TESTED BEFORE SENDING THEM TO CUSTOMERS WALKER & GREIG, Ltd., LINDULA, DIGKOYA, HAPUTALE, BADULJ.A Colombo Commercial Co., LIMITED. FERTILISERS r . . FOR . . . ALL CROPS WORKS . AT . Hunupitiya Station Special Notice to the Rubber Planting World Para, Castilloa, Ceara, Funtumia (True), Manihot Dichotoma, Piauhyensis, Heptaphylla (New Varieties of Manicoba), Mimusops globosa (Balata), Landolphia Kirki. &c. - Seeds, Plants and Stumps forwarded to all parts of the World. Tea. Manipuri Indigenous Dark Leaf approved Jats. 1913 crop sold to Mexico. South India. Java. &c. Orders being booked for 1914 crop and onwards. Tea Seeds for Mexico.— London, 2nd September, 1910: — " On receipt of this letter please carefully prepare 10 ruaunds picked seed Thea Viridis at £ per maund, 10 maunds Thea Assamica at £ -per maund." Para Seeds and Stumps.— Orders being booked for 1914 session and onwards ; stumps ready for shipment in closed cases and in Wardian cases. Wardian Cases of Para Stumps. — On shipping 75,000 recently the following wire order has been received : — •' Duplicate last order Wardian Stumps": also 25.000 Para seed by Parcel Post and 225,000 by freight have been forwarded to the same address. For Dutch Guiana. — The Director of an Agricultural Depart- ment writes: — ''The Agricultural Department has ordered in all 560,000 Para seeds." Thf India Rubber Journal quotes from the •' Tropenpflanzer," touching one of our Para stump shipments: — "The writer saw 100,000 of these stumps which had just been planted out, none were dead, and many were putting out new roots. The Ceylon consignors. J. P. William & Bros., Henaratgoda. guarantee a mortality not exceeding 25 per cent., and the Manager of the Upola Company estimated the loss on this batch at 2 per cent only. This is decided- ly the best method of transporting Heveas." Sample Para Stumps, forwarded by sample pest to intending purchasers in all countries. Post free. PARA STUMPS IN CLOSED CASES. Demerara. — Secretary of Agricultural Estates Ltd., of British Guiana, writes: — ''The enclosed copy of our letter of even date to your London Agents will show you that they have advised us by telegraph of the shipping arrangements in regard to the order for seventy thousand (70,000) stumps placed with you through our London representatives. We shall most likely require something like 20,000 seeds." The cost of Para stumps in closed cases is about half when compared with Wardian cases. Philippine Islands. — Manager of an extension Rubber Planta- tion in ordering 75,000 Para stumps' writes : " Your first consign- ment of Para seed were a great success." Glasgow. — Secretaries of a Rubber Estates Co., Ltd.. of Mexico, writes: — We have pleasure in informing you that our Directors are satisfied with the result obtained from the ten thousand Hevea seeds got from you last year, and they desire this year to plant another thirty-thousand seeds." Trinidad. — A Planter writes : — "I duly received the 50,000 Hevea seeds. I am about forming a syndicate of the planters to order 250,000 Hevea seeds.11 Mango Grafts. — Over 75 varieties, including twice-bearing and all the year round bearing. Litchi Grafts. — 12 varieties, including seedless. Sapodilla Grafts all the year round. Seeds and Plants of numerous Commercial Products, sup- plied, including Tea, Celebrated Caravonica, Mamara, Baing and S pence Cotton, Arabian Liberian Hybrid Coffee, Coffee Robusta, Coffee Congensis var Chaloti, proved to be absolutely resisting Hemileia Vestatrix, Soya Bean, Green Samarow extremely early and prolific, Giant Yellow Santa Margarita of enormous growth, beans very large extremely prolific, Cocoa, Kola, Sisal, and other Fibres, &c. For Green Manuring— Crotolaria Striata, Vigna, Albizzia Moluccana, Passiflora Foetida, Cassia Mimosoides, Tephrosia Candida, Tephrosia Purpurea Seeds. Six Descriptive Catalogues with Circulars and Special Offers post free to Foreign Countries. Separate Price List for Ceylon. "SOUTH AFRICA," the great authority on South African affairs, says: — uAn interesting Catalogue reaches us from the East. It is issued by WILLIAM BROTHERS, Tropical Seed Merchants of Hena- ratgoda, Ceylon, and schedules all the useful and beautiful plants which will thrive in tropical and semi-tropical regions. We recom- mend the great Powers and Concessionaries under them to go to William Bros. Awarded Gold, Silver, Commemorative, and other Medals, Diplomas, Merits, and Certificates at various International Exhibitions, including St. Louis, 1904. Awarded Bronze Medal with Diploma for Para and Castilloa Rubbers at St. Louis Exhibition, 1904. Agents in London:— MESSRS. P. W. WOOLEY & Co., 90, Lower Thames Street. Agents in Colombo, Ceylon :— Messrs. E. B. CREASY & Co. No Sole Agents Anywhere. J. P. WILLIAM <& BROTHERS, Tropical Seeds and Plants Merchant*. HENARATGODA, CEYLON. Telegraphic Address: WILLIAM, HENARATGODA, CEYLON. .Lieber's, A. I, and A. B. C. Codes (4th and 5th Editions) used. Also Private Codes. The First Newspaper independent of Government, ever pub- lished in Ceylon, having been commenced in February, 1834. The " Ceylon Observer." COMMERCIAL ADVERTISER and AGRICULTURAL RECORD. The Oldest and Largest Paper in the Colony. THE CEYLON OBSERVER is the only Ceylon paper which has continuously supplied its readers with European news by Telegraph since the Indian Cable was first laid. Devotes special attention to Political and Planting matters, while giving all the Local and General news of the day. Specially written articles on interesting topics are supplied by correspondents in different parts of the world, in addition to the London. Political. Ladies Social. Commercial, and General News Letters. Supplements with summary for home. Report of Commercial. Produce Market. Exports and other Statistical Intelligence. Full Report of all important public meetings in the Island. Special Tea news and Rubber news by cable. Subscription in advance Rs. 32 ( without postage ) ; Rs. 36 (with local postage or to India, > per annum, including all Extras. Price of single copies— 10 cents each. THE Weekly "Ceylon Observer." (OVERLAND EDITION.) A GENERAL SUMMARY of the daily Ceylon Observer published weekly •**• on the day upon which the Overland Mail is despatched and contains an Epitome of Occurrences in Ceylon. A special feature of the Weekly Ceylon Observer is the veiy full and complete Commercial Intelligence given, enabling Proprietors, Investors. Brokers, and Dealers at home to ascertain the condition and prospects of Ceylon Produce and Estate Crops. Planters in India, Burma. Malay Peninsula, Straits Settlements. Java etc.. would find this paper of great aid as matters of importance to tropical planters and information regarding agriculture is a special feature Extracts and Reviews from the world's agricultural press add much to the value of the Weekly Ceylon Observer, and New Products ai-e always fully treated. A large portion of the paper is each week devoted to -rubber" news. An F. M. S. Agricultural expert tells us he finds the paper most useful to him. SUBSCRIPTION RATES. Ceylon Currency. CREDIT. ADVANCK. ( Inclusive of Postage. ) To the United Kingdom, Australian Colonies, Rs. Cts. Rs. Cts. South Africa, West Indies. America, China. Japan, Straits, Mauritius, Aden, &c. ... 24 00 20 00 To India (by dak) ... . 20 00 16 uO With Local Postage ... ... 20 00 16 00 Without Postage ... 18 00 14 00 "CEYLON OBSERVER" OFFICE, No. 19, Baillie St., Colombo, Ceylon, and 52, Gracechurch St., London, E. C. PRINTING BINDING RULING ENGRA VI NG i Send for QUOTATIONS before Placing Your Orders, To Manager, "CEYLON OBSERVER." ESTATE WORK A SPECIALITY. Books for Planters. Hevea Brasilienses ... By Herbert Wright All about Coconuts ... By John Ferguson Coffee Planter's Manual ... „ „ $ Cotton Cultivation ... By W. S. de Silva The Fertilisation of Tea ... By A. Cowie, M.A., B. Sc. $ Theobroma Cacao or Cocoa ... By Herbert Wright Books on Tamil and Sinhalese for Planters. Send for Our Latest Catalogue of Publications, Sent Post Free on Application. A. M. &J. FERGUSON, No. 19, Baillie St., Colombo ( The Yokohama Nursery Co., Ltd. 21-35, NAK4MURA, YOKOHAMA, JAPAN. BRANCH OFFICES: New York- 31 , Barclay Street. London Craven House, Kingsway, W. C. The L-irgest Exporters, & Grower? of Lily Bulbs, Fern Balls, Fancy Designs, Porcelain Pots, Cycas Revoluta, Bamboos, Peonies, Iris, Rare Dwarf Plants, Seed*, Trees, Shrubs, Stone - Lanterns, &c., &c. Descriptive Catalogue sent on application. The BOOK of CEYLON Being a Guide to its Railway System and an Account of its varied Attractions for the Visitor and Tourist HY HENRY W. GAVE M.A. (Oxon.), F.R.G.S. MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, AUTHOR OP' ' (JOLDEN TIPS." "THE RUINED CITIES OF CEYLON," "COLOMBO AND THE KELANI VALLEY." "KANDY AND PERADEXIYA." "NUWARA ELIYA AND ADAM'S PEAK " ILLUSTRATED FROM PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR In Sections.- Section I. Containing Colombo, the South -West Coast, and the Kelani Valley. Rupees 3. Section II. Kandy and the Highlands, including Nuwara Eliya, Bandara- wela and Badulla. Rupees 4*50. Section HI. The Northern Provinces, including Anuradhapura, Jaffna. Trincomali. the Pearl Fishery, and Ramcseram. Rupees 3. The whole work in one volume, Rupees 9. H. W. GAVE & Co., Colombo, Ceylon. Ransomes Sims & Jefferies, Ltd. WorBd-Famed Lawn Mowers Supplied to Leading CBubs throughout the World Recognized as the best made. Gear Driven Light Roller The • • Light Roller Lawn Mower is specially suit- able for S n ill Gardens; the rollers at the back cut narrow borders and extreme edges of lawns. They have smooth double rollers. Single gearing steel cutting knives (not divided) fitted with single screw adjustment. "Lion" Lawn Mower Lawn Mowers (Ransomes Sims & Jeff cries) Best and most reliable on the market. Thousandssold ; satisfaction guaranteed Length of cut 13 15 inch. Rs. 27-90 31-50 R. S. & J. This famed English firm recommend these as the strongest simplest and best Light Roller Machines ever brought out. Length of cut, 14 inch. Rs. 99-OO Garden Tools at Gargills Superior Quality. Garden Trowel Blued and Bright, Beech Handle. Rs. 1"25. Garden Spade, 9 by 5 n£ by ; Rs. 1'58 2'OO sixes 12 by 7 2'7O each. Garden Weeding Fork Cts. 68 each. Gardeu Sets, Ladies' or Gentlemen's Spade, Fork, Rake, Hoe. Rs. 5*85 Garden Syringe 19 by i£ with Rose and .let. Rs. 3-85 Lowest Prices. Watering Cans, best quality galvanized with Copper Front Rose ith Copper Front Rose Size 2. 3 gallons. Rs. 2*95 ;"i.i 3'6O each. Galvanized Iron Buckets ri vetted sides. Very strong. diameter 12. 14 inch. Rs. 9'5O Rs.lSdoxcu. Garden Rake, Wrought Iron. 8 Teeth Cts. 4O each. 10 .. ,, 5O „ 12 „ 65 „ H .. ,, 8O 1« Re. 1'OQ Above prices are for Gash or Monthly Account. CARGILLS LIMITED, COLOMBO. For Seeds and Plants You cannot do better than place your orders — either for local delivery or export — with me. I have every facility to supply the very best, and my name is a password for reliability and high class quality. My nursery stock is the largest and best kept in the East, strong well grown plants can be supplied promptly, and at rates to suit you. Write for lists of Tropical products, Green manures and shade trees, Fruit, vegetable & flower seeds and plants; they are sure to interest you. A. Van Starrex, r«ns. Estate Seeds Specialist, Crystal Hill Estate, Matale Ceylon. ! Telegraphic Address: — Starrex, Matale. a To Ensure Success and good prices for your Rubber use Bush's Coagulating Powder This preparation acts simultaneously as a Coagulating and Bleaching medium. Its addition to rubber latex produces ready coagulation and at the same time renders the Rubber very light in colour without affecting its texture or physical properties, and it is claimed that there are no objectionable effects, as is some- times asserted by rubber experts regarding the use of acetic acid. Price: Rs. 38'75 per one cwt. cash. 9*75 per 38 Ibs. Sample on application to MILLER & Co., Colombo & Kandy, Sole Agents for Ceylon. Journal D'Agriculture Tropicale fonde par J. VILBOUCHEVITCH 164, RUE JtANNE D'ARC PROIONGEE - PARIS (Xllh'i Abonnements partant du ler Janvier { Recommande, » ^ Le JOURNAL D'AGRICULTURE TROPJCALE, mensuel. illustre. soccupe de t,,utes les ques- tion d'actualite qui peuvent interesser les agriculteurs des pays chauds. II donne tons les mois une quin/.aine d'artic'es ine'dits et une revue complete des publi- cations nouvelles (trois pages de petit-texte). La partie comnierciale. tres developpee, est intelligible pour tout le nv>nde et toujours interessante. Xombreux collaborateurs dans les Colonies francaise«, anglaises et hollandaises. ainsi qu'en Australia et dans les deux Ameriques. Articles inedits sur les cultures potageres et les fruiis, dans chaque numero. Collaboration speciale sur les insectes nuisibles. Sir D. Morris, Co««taai«ln,piri,l de rAgri- j () rll* culture rdes Antil esanglaiscs. a la Barbade: notre C0nahoi-ateur commercial- ...I The Journal d Agriculture Tropicale ' is \ write for no one so steadily as you, for I the Leading French publication de- | like your paper, you seem to be genuinely voted to agriculture in the tropics." interested in tropical matters."- ler septem- " Indian Planting and Gardening." Calcutta.! bre 1904 1901: " Planters with a know'edge of R°Val Botanic Gardens Annals, Ceylon, the French language, desiring of having Decembre 1901 : " ....The "J. d'A. T." aims a world-wide view of agricultural and ?1 ft'!1^ t?rl?pf Practl^al information, economic affairs, shou.d read the Journal | ^iffi^ ^SC" 'inVtituS 'in all d' Agriculture Tropicale." parts of the world." — NUMERO SPECIMEN GRATIS SUR DEMANDE. BOOKS TO BUY. Coco- Nuts: The Consols of the East, by H. HAMEL SMITH (Editor of "Tropical Life") and F. A. G. PAPE, F.R.G.S., &c., with Foreword by Sir W. H. LEVER, Bt. 500 pp., many illustrations. The first edifion is completely exhausted but a Second and Enlarged edition is now ready. In this, the new Foreword by Sir W. H. LEVER, constitutes the most important pronouncement yet made on coconut planting and finance. Price IDs. net. Us. post free. The Fermentation of Cacao (also comparative notes on Tea, Coffee, Tobacco, &c.) Edited by H. HAMEL SMITH. Foreword by Sir GEORGE WATT, C.I.E., &c., for- merly Reporter on Economic Products to the Government of India. Over 400 pp., 35 illustrations. Price, 10s. net. I Is. post free. "I have read every word of your book on ' THE FERMENTATION OF CACAO,' " writes Sir GEORGE WATT in the Foreword, "with absorbing interest, and must congratulate you on being able to bring out a book that will become a classic on the subject it deals with so ably. You have brought together the opinions of several experts of scientific eminence and practical experience, and these must be drawn upon by all subsequent investigators." The Future of Cacao Planting. With 2 Illustrations and Contributions by leading Planters in West Indies, West Africa, &c. Foreword by Sir DANIEL MORRIS, K.C.M.G., formerly Imperial Commissioner for Agriculture in the West Indies. Price is. 2d., post free. Notes on Soil and Plant Sanitation on Cacao and Rubber Estates. With separate complete sections on Ceara, Castilloa, and Funtumia Rubber, and Rubber Tapping. By H. HAMEL SMITH. Foreword by Prof. WYNDHAM DUNSTAN, C.M.G., &c., Dir. Imperial Institute. Over 100 illustrations, nearly 700 pp. Price, IOs. net. Us post free. •* Tropical Life," the leading authority on the cultivation, preparation and sale of tropical produce, and the opening up and development of the Tropics generally. Subscription, 10s. per year post free, or Life subscription, £5. Send orders, accompanied by remittance, to : — "Tropical Life" Publishing Department, 83-91, GREAT TITCHFIELD STREET, OXFORD STREET, LONDON, W.