HANOBOOK OF

_ VERTEBRATE DISSECTION

PART il.
HOW TO OISSECT A BIRD.

H. NEWELL MARTIN

AND

W. A. MOALE

MACHILLAN AND co.

HANDBOOK

OF

IERTEBRATE DISSECTION.

{ BY
H. NEWELL MARTIN, D.Sc., M.D., M.A.,
PROFESSOR IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY,

AND

WILLIAM A. MOALE, M.D.

PAR® IT.

HOW 70 DISSECT A BIRD.

\%
ae
or" ST
NEW YORK:

MACMILLAN ANT) CO.
1883.

CopyYRIGHT, 1883,
BY

H. NEWELL MARTIN.

TrRow’s
PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING Company
201 to 213 Hast Twelfth Street
NEW YORK

PREPAC E

Tue object of the Handbook of Vertebrate Dissection
was stated so fully in the Preface to Part I., that it is
unnecessary to go over the same ground again. To
prevent disappointment it may, however, be well to
state that our intention is not to enable a student to
determine species, but to give the young morphologist
practical directions assisting him to learn for himself
what a fish, an amphibian, a reptile, a bird, and a
mammal are, when considered from an anatomical
point of view and contrasted with one another. Spe-
cific and generic characters are therefore hardly
touched upon. The collector who desires to find out
the name of any given bird, must seek the diagnostic
characters of the various species elsewhere ; so far as
American birds are concerned, this classificatory work
has been so well done by Coues in his Key that it
would be presumptuous to attempt to improve it.
What we have sought is to give such directions as will
enable the student who follows them to have a good
knowledge of the anatomical characters of the Birds

iv PREFACE.

as a group of vertebrates, paying little heed to the
minor differences which exist between different birds.
Accordingly, many points of structure not particularly
avian have been treated with much less detail than
those which are; the bird’s skeleton is so very charac-
teristic that it has been treated in considerable detail,
while, on the other hand, only such muscles have been
described as present peculiar characters in all or mos
birds ; and so throughout.

It is due to Dr. Moale to state that almost the whole
work of preparing this volume and seeing it through
the press has fallen upon him. He is therefore en-
titled to far the greater proportion of any gratitude
toward us which may be felt by those who, we trust,
will find the book useful.

H. NEWELL MARTIN.
BALTIMORE, October, 1882,

CON TENTS.

ZOOLOGICAL POSITION O* THE DOMESTIC PIGEON,

ANATOMY OF THE DOMESTIC PIGEON, . _

INDEX, ; ; , ; ‘ ° :

« 89
> 93
. 169

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES.

FIG. 1 represents the roof of the skull; Fic. 2, its base;
FIG. 3, the skull as seen from the left side; and Fic. 4, the
inner side of the left half; Fic. 5 is a diagram showing the
relative position of the bones of the skull; Fic. 6 represents
the bones of the leg and foot as viewed from the inner side,

The references in the figures of the skull are as follows: 1,
the lachrymal; 2, the palatine; 3, the pteregoid ; 4, the quad-
rate; 5, the maxilla; 6, the jugal; 7, the quadrato-jugal; 8,
the premaxilla; 9, the nasal; 10, the ethmoid; 11, the inter-
orbital septum; 12, the frontal; 13, the squamosal; 14, the
parietal ; 15, the periotic capsule; 16, the basi-sphenoid ; 17,
the ali-sphenoid ; 18, the supra-occipital ; 19, the exoccipital ;
20, the basi-occipital ; 21, the foramen magnum ; 22, the oc-
cipital condyle; 23, the external auditory meatus; 24, the
rostrum of the basi-sphenoid; 25, exit of optic nerves; 26,
opening of Eustachian tubes; 27, pituitary fossa; 28, the
carotid foramen; 29, exit of the seventh nerve ; 30, foramen
for the ninth, tenth, and eleventh nerves; 31, exoccipital fora-
men for the twelfth nerve; 32, foramen for the eighth nerve.

The references in FIG. 6 are as follows: 1, the fibula; 2,
the cnemial process of the tibia; 3, the proximal segment of
the tarsus anchylosed to the distal extremity of the tibia; 4, the
distal segment of the tarsus anchylosed to the proximal extremi-
ties of the united metatarsal bones; 5, the metatarsal bone of
the hallux; 6 and 7, the distal extremities of the second and
third metatarsals ; 8, the phalanges.

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ZOOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE DOMESTIC
PIGEON.

SUBKINGDOM, Vertebrata.— Division, Sauropsida,—Ctass,
Aves.—Orber, Carinatz.—Susorper, Schizognathe.,
—Famity, Peristeromorphe.— Genus, Columba.—
Specigs, liviaa—VARIETy, domestica.

Characters of the Sauropsida.*
1. Almost always an epidermic skeleton, in the form
of scales or feathers. 3

2. The vertebral centra are ossified, but have no ter-
minal epiphyses.

3. The skull has a completely ossified occipital seg-
ment and a large basi-sphenoid. There is no separate
para-sphenoid in the adult. The proOtic is always ossi-
fied, and either remains distinct from the opisthotic and
epiotic during life, or unites with them only after they
have anchylosed with adjacent bones.

4. There is always a single convex occipital condyle,
into which the ossified ex-occipitals and basi-occipital
‘enter in various proportions. _

5. A mandible is always present, and each ramus con-
sists of an articular ossification and several membrane-
bones. The articular is connected with the rest of the
skull by an ossified quadrate.

* The characters given are taken, with slight modification, from Huxley.
I

gO ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

6. The apparent ankle-joint lies between the proxi-
mal and distal divisions of the tarsus.

7. The alimentary canal terminates in a cloaca.

8. The heart is trilocular or quadrilocular; some of
the blood-corpuscles are red, oval, and nucleated.

9. The aortic arches may be two or more ; when only
one persists in the adult it is on the right side.

10. Respiration is never performed by branchiz ; and
after birth always by lungs, in which the bronchi do not
branch dichotomously.

ll. A thoracic diaphragm may exist, but never forms
a complete partition between the thoracic and abdomi-
nal viscera.

12. The cerebral hemispheres are never united by a
corpus callosum.

18. The reproductive organs open into the cloaca,
The oviduct is a Fallopian tube with a posterior uter-
ine dilatation.

14, There are no mammary glands.

15. All are oviparous or ovo-viviparous.

16. The Wolffian bodies are replaced functionally by
permanent kidneys.

1]. The embryo has an amnion and a large respira-

tory allantois ; and develops at the expense of a large
- mass of food stored up in the egg.

Characters of Aves, as distinguished from Reptilia, which
with them constitute the division Sauropsida.
1. The exoskeleton consists mainly of feathers.’ Os-
sifications of the dermis are rare, and never take the
form of bony plates.

CHARACTERS OF AVES. O!I

. 2. In all recent birds, the centra of the cervical ver-
tebrz, at least, have subcylindrical articular faces. If,
as in some birds, the faces of the centra of the other ver-
tebrz are spheroidal, they are opisthoccelus, which is
the rarest arrangement among reptiles.

3. The proper sacral vertebrz of birds—that is to say,
those between, or through, the arches of which the roots
of the sacral plexus pass—have no expanded ribs abut-
ting on the ilia.

A. The sternum has no costiferous median backward
prolongation, all the ribs being attached to its sides.
The cartilaginous sternum is replaced, in the adult, by
membrane-bone, and ossifies from two to five, or more,
centres.

_ §. When an interclavicle exists, it is confluent with
the clavicles.

6. The manus possesses not more than three digits,
and not more than the two radial digits have claws.

7. The ilia are greatly prolonged in front of the ace-
tabulum, the inner wall of which is membranous, The
pubes and ischia are directed backward, more or less
parallel with one another, and the ischia never meet in
a ventral symphysis. ;

8. The astragalus sends up a process on to the front
of the tibia, and early anchyloses with the latter bone.
In this character, Birds differ from all existing Reptiles.
The foot contains not more than four digits. The first
metatarsal is, almost always, free, shorter than the rest,
and incomplete above. The other three are anchylosed
together, and with the distal tarsal bone, to forma tarso-
metatarsus.

9. Only one aortic arch, the right, is present. Only

g2 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

one arterial trunk, the pulmonic, is given off from the
right ventricle. The arterial and venous currents com-
municate only through the capillaries.

10. The blood is hot. There are three semi-lunar
valves at the origin of the aortic and pulmonary
trunks. In all existing birds the extremities of the
chief pulmonary passages terminate in air-sacs.

ll. The corpora bigemina are thrown down to the
sides and base of the brain.

Characters of the Schizognathe.

1. The metacarpals are anchylosed together. The
tail is considerably shorter than the body.

2. The sternum is provided with a keel.

8. The vomer is narrow behind ; the pterygoids and.
palatines articulating largely with the basi-sphenoidal
rostrum.

4. The maxillo-palatines free.
5. The vomer, when present, pointed in front.

THE ANATOMY OF THE DOMESTIC PIGEON

(Columba livia, var. domestica).

1. General External Appearance.*

a. Note the general spindle form of the head and
trunk of the bird, tapering gently to each end,
and enabling it to cleave the air in flying,
while diminishing the drag behind due to
rarefaction of the atmosphere.

6. Note the main divisions of the body ; head,
neck, trunk, and limbs; the peculiar modifi-
cation of the fore limbs to form zzgs.

c. The feathers covering most of the body ; their
absence on eyelids, beak, and the lower parts
of the legs.

2. On the Head, study —

a. The conical é2//, which varies much in length
in different specimens ; the mouth-opening lies
between the upper and lower divisions (mandt-
bles of ornithology) of the bill.

6. Each so-called mandible is hard and horny
at its tip, but becomes softer near the angle
of the gape.

_¢. Posteriorly the upper mandible presents two

* The different regions of the bird’s body have been mapped out very
minutely by ornithologists and given special names. For these consult
Coues, Key to North American Birds.

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

soft, skinny swellings, beneath each of which
is the narrow, elongated opening of a nostril.

@. Note that the tip of the upper mandible over-
laps the lower ; the bill, therefore, belongs to
the type called epfignuathous.

e. Holding the head firmly between the thumb
and finger of one hand, with the other seize
the upper mandible and note that it possesses
some mobility ; thus differing from the rigidly
fixed upper jaw of a mammal.

jf. The circular eye, with its bright orange 77¢s.
The upper and lower eye/zds tolerably opaque ;
the translucent, zzctitating membrane attached
at the inner corner of the exposed part of the
eye, but capable of being drawn back so as to
completely cover it.

g. The external auditory meatus may be found be-
hind and below the eye on pushing aside some
peculiar feathers which cover it. These
feathers have loose vanes, and so, while cover-
ing and protecting the ear, oppose but little
obstacle to the passage of sound-waves.

3. Spread out the Wings. Note—
a. Their great size, due mainly to the stiff
feathers which form most of their expanse.
6. The concavity of the spread-out wing below,
and the slight,convexity of its upper surface.
c. The main divisions of the limb, apart from the
feathers, into arm, forearm, and manus.

4. On the Hind Limbs, note—
a. The thigh, crus, and foot. The latter consists
of an elongated, unfeathered ¢arso-metatarsus,

STRUCTURE OF A FEATHER. 95

to which are articulated four digits (forming
the pes of ornithology, though in comparative
anatomy, the tarso-metatarsus is properly a
part of the ges); one of the toes is turned
backward, three forward.

The curved, pointed c/aws on the ends of the
digits.

The red, rectangular, horny scales (scutel/e) on
the anterior aspect of the tarso-metatarsus and
the upper sides of the toes,

5. The Structure of a Typical Feather.—The horny

covering of the bill, the beak, the scutellz, and the
claws constitute, with the feathers, the epidermic exo-
"skeleton of the bird. The feathers being characteris-
tically avian, must be studied in more detail.

6. Pluck one of the large feathers from the wing.

Note—
a.

It possesses a main stem or scapus composed
of quite different proximal and distal por—
tions.

The proximal part (quill or calamus) is cylin-
drical, translucent, and hollow. Its proximal
end, normally embedded in a follicle of the
skin, contains a soft, reddish, vascular pulp, and
presents a terminal opening (¢zfertor umbilt-
cus). The distal portion of the calamus con-
tains a number of dry scales.

The remaining part of the scapus, called the
rachis, is somewhat rectangular in cross sec-
tion, and tapers distally-to a point. It is

96

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

whitish in color, opaque, and filled with a dry
soft pith.

Where rachis joins calamus there will be found
on the under side of the feather a depression
in the scapus, fringed by slender, feathery fila-
ments, and presenting within it a small aper-
ture (superior umbilicus), which leads into the
cavity of the calamus.

Attached to two opposite sides of the rachis
are the vanes, or vexillae, the flat, expanded por-
tions of the feather. In some feathers ame
two vanes are of approximately equal size; in
others they are very unequal. Each vane will
be found to be made up of a large number of -
separate portions, which, however, cohere
pretty firmly, and make the whole vane a con-
tinuous resisting membrane.

The primary constituents of the vane are the
barbs (barbe). Each barb is a flattish, triangu-
lar plate, with its surfaces turned toward
the barbs which precede and succeed it, and
its base attached to the rachis. The barbs are
not set on vertically to the long axis of the
rachis, but obliquely, with their free ends slop-
ing toward the tip of the feather.

Examine a portion of the vane with an objec-
tive magnifying about thirty diameters. From
each side of each barb a number of thin plates,
the darbules, will be seen to arise, and cross
obliquely the barbules of the neighboring
barbs. |

Isolate a barb and examine with the same
magnifying power as above. The-barbules on

VARIETIES OF FEATHERS. 97

its proximal side (that nearer the calamus)
will be seen to be closely packed, and to end
in slender filaments (Jardicels). The barbules
on its distal side are looser and end in larger
filaments, which bear fine processes and knobs.
Normally these knobbed threads lie over and
hook upon the proximal barbules of the suc-
ceeding barb, and so bind the whole into a
coherent membrane adapted to oppose a firm
resistance to the air. ?

7. Varieties of Feathers.

a.

Such a feather as that just described is known
as a penna, or, as such feathers determine the
general form of the birds, as a contour feather.
Lying beneath the contour feathers are down
feathers (plumule), not very abundant on the
pigeon. Each has a short, weak scapus, with
long, soft barbs, whose barbules do not inter-
lock so as to form acompact vane. The whole,
therefore, forms a little, downy tuft.

Pluck one side of the belly of the bird ; among
the other feathers will be found a number of
jilo-plume, or hair feathers. They possess a
slender stem, not clearly marked off into cala-
mus and rachis, and a few barbs near the
distal end, not interlocked so as to form a
firm vane.

The semi-plume@ may be found in great numbers
about the under surface of the body. Their
scapus is like that of a penna, but the vane is
loose and downy, its barbules not being inter-
locked.

I*

98

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

8. The Arrangement of the Feathers,

a.

Certain parts of the body (eyelids, bill, tarso-
metatarsus and pes) are obviously unfeathered.
Closer examination shows, further, that many
parts of the body which are overlapped by
feathers really give origin to none. To ob-
serve the tracts of the skin (fteryle) from
which feathers arise, and those (afterza) which
give origin to no feathers, it is mecessary:
either to clip closely with scissors the plumage
(technically, fzlJosis) of an adult pigeon, or,
better still, to obtain and examine a young
pigeon (squab) after its feathers have ap-
peared, but before it is able to fly. On either
specimen it may be readily observed that
the feathers, particularly the contour feathers,
are borne only on limited tracts ; and that the
feather-bearing tracts (pteryle@) are separated
by bare spaces.*

9. The Wing Feathers.

a,

Pluck one wing of your pigeon, and make out
the divisions and bones (12, g; 40-45) of the
fore limb. Then on the other side note the
insertion, size, number, and arrangement of
the following special groups of feathers. .

The rvemiges, to which the wing mainly owes
its extent and form. They are pennz ar-
ranged along the posterior margin of manus
and forearm, and fall into two groups, the f77-
martes and secondaries.

* For the technical names of the different pteryle consult Coues, Key _

to North American Birds, p. 5.

ARRANGEMENT OF FEATHERS. 99

The primaries are ten in number and are in-
serted upon the manus.

The secondaries are thirteen in number and
arise from the antebrachium.

The wing coverts (tectrices ale) are the feathers
which overlap the bases of the remiges; ac-
cording as they lie on the upper or under side
of the wing they are known as the upper or
lower coverts (lectrices supertores or tnferiores).
The upper wing coverts are divided into prz-
martes, which spring from the manus, and second-
aries, which mostly arise from the forearm.
The secondaries are arranged in three over-
lapping rows, known respectively as_ the
greater, median, and lesser coverts. The greater
coverts are the longest and overlap the second-
ary remiges; the median are the next row,
not very well marked in the pigeon ; the lesser
coverts include all the remaining secondary
upper coverts.

The lower wing coverts are arranged much
like the upper, but as they all pretty closely
resemble one another, they are not described
in separate groups.

The alula, or the bastard quills, is the name
given to a distinct tuft of feathers which
spring from the thumb or pollex.

10. The Tail Feathers.

ad.

Answering to the remiges of the wing are
twelve large, stiff feathers, forming the main
expanse of the tail; they are called the rec-
trices. If the tail is spread out it will be seen

100

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

that these feathers are so arranged that the
median pair lie above or dorsal to all the rest,
and each of the remaining feathers overlaps
the feather on its outer side, and is overlapped
by that on its inner side.

The Zaz coverts are penne which overlap and
underlie the rectrices ; they naturally fall into
two groups—the upper and lower tail coverts
respectively.

ll. Finish plucking the pigeon. Note on the skin the
elevations where the feathers were pulled out, each
presenting a minute aperture which leads into the fol-
licle in which a feather was inserted. Between the re-
gions of the skin (pteryle) presenting these elevations
will be seen smoother tracts (the apteria) devoid of

them.

12, On the plucked bird, note—

a.

The head, tapering in front to the bill, and
rounded behind ; on it the opening of the ex-
ternal auditory meatus.

The long and flexible neck, of sufficient length
to allow the beak to reach the uropygial gland
(12, ¢) on the rump.

At the base of the neck, on its ventral aspect,
the swelling due to the crof, which nearly
always contains some hard grains.

The somewhat ovoid trunk, ending posteriorly
in an enlargement, the wropygium, on which
the tail feathers were inserted.

On the dorsal surface of the uropygium, in
the middle line, is a conical elevation, on

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS. IO!

-which the duct of the uropygial gland opens.

On compressing the elevation a drop of oil
can be squeezed out of the gland.

On the ventral side of the uropygium, at its
proximal end, note the cloacal aperture; a
transverse opening, with puckered, elevated
margins.

Note the main divisions of the fore limb:
brachium, antebrachium, and manus. In the
manus observe the short, separate, pointed
pollex (thumb). The two other digits of the
hand (second and third) may be felt through
the skin and other soft parts which cover
them.

Note on the hind limb its main divisions:
femur, crus, and pes; the latter made up of
the tarso-metatarsus and the pes of ornithology.

13. Opening the mouth, note—

a.

The two horizontal, fleshy plates, with den-
ticulated edges, meeting one another in the
middle line, and forming most of the roof of
the mouth.

Separating these plates, examine the nasal
cavity above them.

Note that this cavity is not subdivided into
two nostril chambers, as the rostrum of the
sphenoid, which, covered by mucous mem-
brane, projects on its roof, does not reach its
floor.

Where the palatal membranes diverge behind,
the nose communicates with the pharynx by a
single posterior nostril.

102 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

e. The horny, hastate tongue, only attached by a
small part of its under surface.

f. Open the bill widely and draw the tongue for-
ward with forceps; behind it will be seen, on the
ventral aspect of the pharynx, the slit-like
opening of the larynx (aditus laryngis).

g. Beyond the laryngeal opening note the trans-
verse fold of membrane with a denticulated
edge projecting from the floor of the pharynx,
and the similar larger membrane hanging
down from its roof.

14. The Bony and Cartilaginous Skeleton—For the
satisfactory study of the skeleton the student should
have beside him for reference a prepared articulated
specimen, and should himself disarticulate and examine
another specimen. For this purpose boil the pigeon
thoroughly, and then carefully pick the bones clean.

15. On the articulated specimen note the general ar-
rangement of the skeleton ; its spinal column and skull,
ribs and huge sternum ; limb arches and limbs.

16. The Skull.—Before proceeding to clean the skull,
note on the prepared specimen the position of various
slender, bony plates and bars belonging to it. Take
great care not to injure these while removing the soft -
parts. If possible leave also the membranous part of
the interorbital septum.

17. Observe the general form of the cranium, with
its curved roof, flatter base, rounded posterior, and
pointed anterior end. On holding the skull up to the

THE SKULL. 103

light, the large air-cells in many of its bones may be
seen. Make outline drawings of it as seen from above,
below, behind, and laterally.

18. In adults very many bones of the skull are in-
separably anchylosed together and their lines of union
not visible. The structure of the skull is therefore
much facilitated by having that of a squab (in which
the anchylosis is less complete) to compare with-the
skull of the adult.

19. Remove the lower jaw, and on the base of the skull
note— .

a. In front the long, narrow interspace between
the palatine processes of the maxillz (21, e).

6. Further back are the slender palatines (21, d),
with a larger opening, the posterior naris, be-
tween them. .

¢. Dorsal to the palate bones and between them
is the conical pointed rostrum of the basi-sphe-
noid (21, p).

d. The pterygoids diverge from the posterior ex-
tremities of the palatines and articulate at
their outer ends with—

é. The guadrates, projecting ventrally and for-
ward and bearing the articular facets for the
mandible.

jf. Behind the quadrate and rather on the side
than the base of the skull the opening of the
external auditory meatus ; on its floor may be
seen several apertures, the most anterior and
largest being the commencement of the Zus-
tachian canal, and a smaller one immediately

104

ANATOMY OF A BIRD,

behind it, the opening of the canal through
which the columella auris passes (158, 7) on its
way to the fenestra ovalis. The other open-
ings communicate with the air-cells of the side
and base of the skull.

The columella may be seen zz s¢tu if the skull
has been carefully cleaned.

In the median line behind is the foramen mag-
num, and immediately in front of it the szngle
occipital condyle.

Just behind the junction of its rostrum with
the basi-sphenoid, in the median line, note the
common opening of the Eustachian tubes.

Near the lower margin of the posterior part of
the orbito-temporal fossa the foramen ovale for
the fifth nerve (140) may be seen, situated about
the inferior margin of the alisphenoid (21, @).
On the median side of the lower margin of the
external auditory meatus the foramen, through
which the ninth, tenth, and eleventh (145, a;
146) nerves pass out.

In front of this foramen is an opening in
which may be found the foramen for the
seventh nerve, and also, larger than this and
anterior to it, the aperture of the carotid
canal.

The foramen for the twelfth is immediately
external to the occipital condyle.

20. Note on the skull viewed laterally—

The large orbito-temporal fossa, the floor of
which is almost entirely wanting.
The dony bar, composed of jugal and quadrato-

Tg ea a

THE SKULL. 105

jugal beneath it, extending from the distal end
of the quadrate (19, ¢) to the maxilla.

Anterior to the orbito-temporal fossa the tri-
angular dachrymo-nasal opening.

On the upper outer surface of the beak the
elongated opening of the anterior nares.

The interorbital septum partly membranous in
its central portion.

Observe that the upper portion of the poster-
ior orbital wall is membranous, leaving an open-
ing in the macerated skeleton, which leads into
the cranial cavity.

Note that the beak is united to the skull only
through the medium of the nasal bones,

21. Boil the skull again and remove the bones in the
following order as they become loose. Each bone
should be sketched into the outline drawings, already
prepared (17), as it is removed, so as to show as clearly
as possible its various relations.

a,

At the anterior end of the orbit the /achrymal
bone, which, viewed from its orbital surface, is
flattened, concave from above downward, and
has somewhat the shape of an elongated S.
Remove this, and note the process which pro-
jects forward from the upper half of its outer
border, partially closing in the /achrymo-nasal
space seen between the nasal and maxillary
bones, and helping to bound the nasal cavity
externally.

On the base of the*skull the long, slender
palatines, articulating, by the anterior two-
thirds of their upper surface, with the maxillary

106

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

processes of the premaxillz. Posteriorly they
are considerably enlarged, and movably articu-
lated internally with the rostrum of the basi-
sphenoid on which they slide; also by their
posterior extremities with the pterygoids.

Note the’ pterygotds, a pair of short, bony
bars articulating movably with the palatines

and rostrum of the basi-sphenoid, and thence |

directed outward and backward to articulate
with the inner side of the inner condyloid pro-
cesses of the quadrate bones. ‘About the
middle of their posterior borders the ptery-
goids articulate with a pair of processes from
the basi-spheneids.

The guadrate is irregular, being constricted
in the middle; it expands above and below
into a double articular extremity. Its upper
end articulates movably with the squamosal,
alisphenoid, and exoccipital. Its lower end ar-
ticulates with the mandible, quadrato-jugal,
and pteregoid. .

The maxilla consists of two portions: a pos-
terior, slender and rod-like, united by a
squamous suture to the jugal and quadrato-
jugal, and an anterior, meeting the former at
an obtuse angle, flattened and grooved above
to be applied to the inferior surface of the
maxillary process of the premaxilla ; it sends
inward and downward a palate process, which
does not, however, meet its fellow of the op-
posite side in the middle line, an interval be-
ing left between them.

The jugal forms part of the middle of the

7

THE SKULL. 107

suborbital bony bar, and is joined in front
to the maxilla, behind to the quadrato-jugal.
It isa mere scale of bone.

The guadrato-jugal constitutes the posterior
portion of the same bar, and is united in front
to the jugal ; behind it articulates with a facet
upon the outer aspect of the more external of
the two divisions of the distal end of the
quadrate.

The premaxilla is large, and forms, with its
fellow of the opposite side, the greater portion
of the bone of the beak. It is composed of
three parts united at the tip of the upper man- ,
dible; these parts are the maxzllary and pa/a-
tine processes (the latter small), uniting respect-
ively with the maxillary and palatine bones
by squamous sutures; and the ascending or
nasal process which articulates on its inner side
with its fellow, and externally with a process
from the nasal bone of the same side.

The zasa/s meet along the median line. Pos-
teriorly they are expanded and flattened, and
lie on the ethmoid ; anteriorly they are forked,
the inner division meeting the ascending pro-
cess of the premaxilla, and the outer articu-
lating with the maxilla, near its angle.

The ethmoid is a perpendicular plate of bone
much expanded above where it underlies the
nasals; it has projecting from its sides a
pair of lateral masses which represent the
prefrontals. The ethmoid forms the septum
between the nasal cavities behind, and also
part of the inter-orbital septum. It articu-

108

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

lates above with the frontals and nasals, below
with the rostrum of the basi-sphenoid, and
externally with the lachrymals. Behind it is
continuous with the inter-orbital septum, the
posterior porton of which probably represents
the presphenotd.

After removing the ethmoid note the rod of
cartilage which lies beneath its lower margin
in the groove on the upper surface of the ros-
trum of the basi-sphenoid ; this is the zaso-
ethmoital cartilage, which is continuous in front
with the cartilaginous inter-nasal septum, and
behind through a canal in the anterior vertical
portion of the basi-sphenoid, with a plate of
cartilage which overlies the surface of the sella
turcica (21, J).

The frontals, not separable in the adult, form
the roof of the orbits, and behind, where they
are expanded, cover in the anterior portion
of the brain-case. They send’downward large
processes which form part of the posterior
orbital walls. In front they articulate with
the nasals, ethmoid, and lachrymals; behind
with the parietals ; externally with the squa-
mosals, and internally with each other. Their
orbital processes anchylose with the alisphe-
noids and squamosals.

The sguamosal is a thin, flat bone on the side
of the cranium, just behind the orbit. It
articulates with below and overlaps the peri-
otic capsule, behind it overlaps the parietal,
and above and behind articulates with and
partly overlaps the frontal. Anteriorly it is

THE SKULL, 109

joined to the outer edge of the alisphenoid,
and has articulated to its lower angle the
quadrate.

The parzetals are a pair of almost square bones,
meeting along the middle line of the roof of
the skull, and covering in the greater part of
the brain cavity. They articulate anteriorly
with the temporals, externally with the squa-
mosals, and posteriorly with the supra and ex-
occipitals. Along the median line they are ©
united to one another. In old specimens they
are so firmly anchylosed to surrounding bones
that they cannot be detached.

The periotic capsule, composed of the prodtic,
epiotic, and opisthotic, is seen on the inside
of the cranial cavity, its parts being insepa-
rably fused with each other and with the basi-
sphenoid and occipital segment of the skull.
The dast-sphenoid, lying in the base of the skull
in the median line, is massive in front, where
it rises to form the sella turcica, a concavity
bounded posteriorly by a ridge representing
the posterior clinoid processes. Posteriorly the
inner surface of the bone is hollowed to re-
ceive the medulla oblongata ; anteriorly it has,
projecting from it, a long rostrum, which partly
divides the nasal cavity anteriorly, there being
no vomer in the pigeon. On the ventral sur-
face, where the rostrum joins the body of the
bone, concealed by a pointed process, is the
common opening of the Eustachian tubes. The
basi-sphenoid articulates posteriorly with the
basi-occipital ; externally with the periotic cap-

I1I0 ANATOMY OF A BIRD,

sule, squamosal, and parietal ; anteriorly with
the alisphenoids. The rostrum movably ar-
ticulates with the palatines and pterygoids,
and meets the ethmoid and inter-orbital sep-
tum above.

g. Springing from the anterior elevated portion
of the basi-sphenoid on either side of the seHa
turcica are the alsphenoids, which constitute
the greater part of the posterior orbital walls.
Above they articulate with the parietals, ex-
ternally with the squamo$als.

ry. The supra-occipital forms the upper boundary
of the foramen magnum, and articulates in
front with the parietals and periotic capsules,
externally with the exoccipitals and the peri-
otic capsules.

s. The exoccipitals articulate with the supra-occi-
pital above and with the basi-occipitals below,
and are in close relation with the periotic cap-
sules. They form the lateral boundaries of the
foramen magnum and enter into the occipital
condyle. ;

Zz The édast-occipital articulates with the basi-
sphenoid in front and completes, posteriorly,
the floor of the skull. It forms the inferior
boundary of the foramen magnum, enters into
the occipital condyle, and unites with the ex-
occipitals externally. The elements of the oc-
cipital segment are very early anchylosed.

22. Make with a fine jeweller’s saw a median, longi-
tudinal dorso-ventral section of another skull, and on its
inner side note—

h.

THE SKULL, IIIf

The dasi-occipital behind, divided in the median
line.
External to the basi-occipital, the exoccipztal,

having in it the foramen for the twelfth (Ayfo-

glossa/) nerve (131, &).

Further out, between the exoccipital and peri-
otic capsule, the foramen, through which passes
the ninth, tenth, and eleventh nerves (131, /).
Above this, in what may be called the petrous
portion of the periotic capsule, the foramen for
the eighth nerve (meatus auditorius internus)
(131, 2), and anterior to it the foramen for the
seventh nerve (131, g).

Above and anterior to the latter, situated on
the ridge which separates the fossa for the me-
dulla from that for the optic lobes, is a cavity
which receives the Gasserian ganglion (131, /).
In the basilar portion of the basi-sphenoid a
small foramen, which is the commencement. of
the canal by which the sixth nerve passes
through the floor of the skull to reach the
orbit.

On the side of the skull, behind, may be seen
the whole of'the posterior vertical, semi-circular
canal and parts of the anterior vertical and ex-
ternal horizontal canals.

Above the excavation which lodges the optic
lobe, note the great fossa in which is placed
the cerebral hemisphere.

Behind the periotic capsule, and covered in by
the supra-occipital, the fossa for the cerebellum is
marked by transverse ridges corresponding to
the sulci of the cerebellum.

II2 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

j. Anteriorly may be seen the zasal cavity bounded
internally by the perpendicular plate of the
ethmoid.

23. The Mandible-—The lower jaw is a V-shaped
bone, composed on either side of a dody and ramus,
the former compressed laterally until it is reduced
to a thin, vertical plate, presenting in its middle a
cartilaginous interspace (except in old specimens),
which is a portion of Meckel’s cartilage The ramus
is expanded laterally, and on its upper surface has a
double articular cavity, into which the condyles of the
quadrate fit when the mandible is in place. Beneath
the articular surface the ramus is continued downward
into a process which is also directed outward.

24, Boil the bone carefully for some time, and then,
seizing the body between the thumb and forefinger of
the left hand, with the thumb and forefinger of the
right twist the ramus inward, working it from side to
side gently, and it will be found to separate along the
upper margin of the cartilaginous interspace and along
a line which curves outward toward the outer part of
the ramus. Now remove—

a. The outer portion of the proximal segment,
which is flattened vertically, enlarged and
curved outward at its posterior end, and -has>
its anterior extremity reduced toa thin lamella,
which fits between two other thin plates of
bone projecting from the dentary (24, @).
This is the surangulare.

6. Beneath the exposed portion of Meckel’s car-

THE 1VOID. - “BRS

tilage, applied to the inner side of the mandi-
ble, is a thin plate of bone, the sp/enial.

c. Between the lower border of the surangulare,
on the outside, and the splenial, on the inside,
is a small, flattened bone, becoming rounded
posteriorly ; this forms part of the inferior
border of the lower jaw, and is the os angu-
lare.

d. Meckel’s cartilage will now be seen to terminate
posteriorly in an ossified mass, which carries
the articular surface of the mandible, and con-
stitutes the os articu/lare.

e. The portion of body now remaining is the den-
Zary, which unites with the corresponding bone
of the other side at the symphysis.

25. The Hyoid is composed of a Jody vertically flat-
tened in front and tapering to a point behind ; articu-
lated to it, at the junction of its anterior and middle
thirds, is a pair of long, slender horns, which lie parallel
to the posterior border of the mandible, beyond which
they extend to curl upward around the back of the
neck. Some distance behind their middle they are
marked bya joint The body of the hyoid is contin-
ued forward into the tongue.

26. The Cervical Vertebre are fourteen in number.
T° ne, say the seventh, for more special study. On
it note—

a. The centrum and neural arcn; the former is
much elongated antero-posteriorly, flattish
ventrally and on the sides, and somewhat con-

stricted about the middle.
=

114

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

The anterior end of the centrum is saddle-
shaped, being convex dorso-ventrally and con-
cave from side to side. Its posterior end has
a similar surface, but coneave dorso-ventrally
and convex from side to side.

From the anterior part of the centrum on
each side arises a process perforated at its
base. Through the discontinuous tube formed
by these processes of successive vertebrz pass

the cervical sympathetic nerve (149), and the -

vertebral vein, and artery (74; 88, a). Project-
ing posteriorly and somewhat outward from the
process is a slender spicule. The whole process
probably represents a rudimentary rib anchy-
losed to the vertebra by its capitular and tuber-
cular processes.

From the inner margin of the process projects
mesially and somewhat ventrally a small, bony
plate, which, with its fellow, partially covers
over a groove on the anterior half of the body
of the vertebra in which the carotid arteries
(76) normally lie.

The prezygapophyses spring from the junction of
centrum and neural arch. Their articular sur-
faces are directed ‘dorsally and mesially.

The zeural arch is emarginated in front, and
especially behind ; hence between succeeding
vertebrze diamond-shaped apertures are left
which lead into the neural canal.

A pair of long postzygapophyses are borne by
the neural arch. They are directed posteriorly
and outward, and bear articular facets, which
look ventrally and outward. Fit a few verte-

SS ee) ee

THE CERVICAL VERTEBRA. 115

bree together, and see how their articulating
surfaces meet.

27. Most of the cervical vertebrz resemble that just
studied ; some few, however, require special notice :

a.

The Atlas is a small, ring-like bone, presenting,
toward its ventral portion, two cup-like articu-
lar sockets, an anterior and posterior. In the
natural position of the parts of the skeleton
the occipital condyle fits into one of these and
the odontoid process of. the axis (27, 4) into
the other. _These sockets are only separated
by a thin membrane, and their dorsal boun-
dary is formed by the ¢ransverse ligament which
crosses the ring of the atlas and separates the
neural canal from them. A pair of small
postzygapophyses spring from the neural arch.
The Axis, or second cervical vertebra, has a small
centrum, much confpressed laterally and pos-
teriorly produced ventrally so as to form a
large median process. Attached to it in front
is the peg-like odontotd process. The neural
arch is not emarginated posteriorly, and is
surmounted by a spinous process. At the junc-
tion of the centrum and neural arch, in front
and behind, is situated a pair of articular
processes (zygapophyses) ; the anterior are very
small. Ventral to them lie two grooves for
the passage of vessels going to the brain,
which here enter the spinal canal.

The third, fourth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and
fourteenth cervical vertebre have distinct spines
projecting from their centra in the median

116 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

ventral line. The thirteenth and fourfeenth
carry well-developed ribs, which, however, do
not unite with the sternum or sternal ribs ;
the rib of the fourteenth sends backward from
the lower third of its posterior border a large
process. The twelfth, thirteenth, and four-
teenth have well-marked dorsal spinous pro-
cesses.

28. The Dorsal Vertebre are five in number and are
firmly anchylosed together to form a single mass.
Their centra are much compressed laterally, and those
of the first three prolonged ventrally to form large
spines. The neural arches are surmounted by a high
ridge composed of the coalesced spinous processes.
On each side the centra have articular facets for the
heads of the ribs, and springing from the sides of the
neural arches are seen the ¢ubercular processes, against
which the angles of the ribs abut, almost united to
form a plate overlying the proximal portion of the ribs
on each side.

29. The Lumbar Vertebre, three in number, present
broad, massive centra; they have well-marked trans-
verse processes which are united to the ilia (47) on
either side. The centra are firmly anchylosed with each
other and with the dorsal and sacral vertebrze. They
present dorsally a well-developed spine, which is con-
tinuous with the similar spine of the last dorsal ver-
tebra.

30. The Sacral Vertebre, four in number, strongly
resemble the lumbar; the fourth is furnished with

THE RIBS. 117

transverse processes, remarkable for their great length,
which unite’with the ilia. The first three have only
processes corresponding to the tubercular transverse
processes of the dorsal vertebra, and similar to those
of the caudal vertebre.

81. The Caudal Vertebre, twelve in number, may be
divided into six fixed and six movable.

a. The fixed, anchylosed to the sacrum and to
one another, have horizontal, broad, transverse
processes united to the ilia and to each other,
which may be readily distinguished as the por-
tions of bone between them are thin and trans-
lucent. Running along the dorsal surface of
their neural arches is a rounded elevation,
which is a continuation of that in the dorsal
and sacral region, and formed by the spinous
processes of the coalesced vertebre.

6. Following the fixed are five movable caudal
vertebre, having large spinous and transverse
processes.

¢. Articulated to the end of the caudal region is
a ploughshare-shaped bone ( pygostyle), formed
by the coalescence of a number of vertebra,
which supports the uropygium.

82. The Ribs are seven on each side ; two belong to
the cervical region and have been described (27, c).
The remainder belong to the dorsal region and are
each composed of two parts, a dorsal and a ventral,
called respectively vertebral and sternal ribs.

a. The vertebral rib is a broad lamella, ossified
throughout, and having at its dorsal end a

118

“ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

process (tuberculum) articulating with the trans-
verse process of the corresponding vertebra.
On the ventral surface of its dorsal end isa
vertical ridge, becoming free and rounded op-
posite the tuberculum, and passing downward
and inward to form the cafztulum which artic-
ulates with the vertebral centrum.

From the posterior margins of the four anter-
ior pairs of vertebral ribs, large processes pro-
ject upward and backward (wncinate processes).

The sternal ribs, with which the vertebral ribs
articulate at their outer ends, are also thin
and flattened, the four first being articulated
to the outer margin of the sternum (33, 4), near
its anterior end. The fifth is shorter than the
fourth, and at its sternal end anchylosed to it,
having no direct connection with the sternum.

33. The Sternum is remarkable for its great size.

a.

Anteriorly it presents two long, deeply
grooved, articular surfaces for the inner ends
of the coracoids (35), and between and dorsal
to them a process (vostrum) which is bifur-
cated.

The lateral borders are for some distance al-
most parallel, but converge somewhat pos-
teriorly. On them are seen, just behind their
anterior angles, the articular surfaces for the
sternal ribs (32, ¢), followed by a large process
(middle xiphoid process) pointing backward and
outward. Behind this is a deep notch (/on-
tanelle) filled by membrane in the recent state
and succeeded by a second more slender pro-

bAPi aes

THE SHOULDER GIRDLE. 119

cess (external xiphoid process) which fuses at its
distal end with a thin bar of bone, form-
ing part of the posterior border of the ster-
num ; the two surround a second smaller, tri-
angular fontanelle.

c. The posterior borders of the bone form a more
obtuse angle than the anterior and are largely
formed by the bony bars on each side just
mentioned.

d. Projecting ventrally in the median line is a
great bony eel (lophosteon), which, together
with the ventral surface of the sternum proper,
affords an origin for the powerful Bgeca 2 of
flight (64).*

34. The Shoulder Girdle is made up of a coracotd,
clavicle, and scapula on each side.

85. The coracoid is a short bone, having a somewhat
rounded and flattened shaft expanding into a broad,
proximal extremity, which presents a ridge for articu-
‘lation with the groove upon the anterior border of the
sternum (33, @), and sends backward and outward a
large. process beyond it.

86. The distal or glenoidal end of the coracoid is ir-
regular in form. On its anterior surface is a deep
groove leading to a foramen for the tendon of the pec-

* The sternum of the Carinatz is developed from five centres of ossifi-
cation, giving rise to five distinct and separable bones in the young
pigeon, viz.: the 4ze/, called lophosteon, an antero-lateral pair, pleurostea,
and a postero-lateral bifurcated pair, metostea, separated from the pleu-
rostea by a line passing inward just behind the articular surfaces of the
ribs.

120 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

toralis minor (67), which passes through the bone.
Above this foramen is a large process with which the
clavicle is articulated ; below the foramen, on the inner
dorsal aspect of the bone, is a' rough surface to which
the scapula is attached; to its outer side is seen the
dorsal half of the glenoid fossa.

.

37. The scapa anteriorly is expanded laterally and
presents an articular surface which forms the lower
half of the glenoid cavity ; internal to this is the sur-
face by which it meets the coracoid, and which is
continued forward to form a process, which in the re-
cent state is united by ligament to the coracoid behind
the attachment of the clavicle. Posteriorly the scapula
is flattened dorso-ventrally and lies over the ribs.

38. The clavicle is a thin bar of bone attached dor-
sally to the coracoid, and extending thence ventrally
and mesially to meet its fellow on the middle line,
where the two fuse to form the furculum, At their
junction they give origin to a process (hypocleidium) flat-
tened from side to side, and normally united by liga-
ment to the keel of the sternum.

39. The Bones of the Fore Limb, when in a position of
rest, lie in a nearly vertical plane, and are folded in
such a manner that the humerus is parallel to the long
axis of the body; the ulna and radius flexed upon the
humerus in a position midway between pronation and
supination, and the manus upon the bones of the fore-
arm, so that the thumb is directed ventrally.

40. The humerus is a stout bone articulating anter-
iorly with the glenoid cavity by a vertically elongated

BONES OF THE FORE LIMB. I2I

articular surface, ventral and to the inner side of
which is a large process having its posterior aspect
hollowed out to form the fxeumatic cavity, which
receives a prolongation of an air sac (85). On the
dorsal and outer surface of the head of the bone is a
large triangular process (greater turbosity). The shaft is
short, thick, and:somewhat flattened ; it widens out be-
hind, where it passes into the external and internal con-
dyles which bear the articular surfaces for the ulna and
radius.

41, The radius is a long, straight, cylindrical bone,
expanded proximally to form a small head which bears
a cup-shaped cavity for articulation with the humerus:
by its outer posterior margin, it articulates also with
the ulna. Posteriorly, the shaft terminates in a slightly
expanded head which articulates with the ulna and
radial carpal bones.

492. The w/na is a larger and thicker bone than the
radius and considerably bowed outward. Its outer
border exhibits a row of small prominences, which
mark the points of attachment of the secondary rem-
iges (9, 2). Its proximal end articulates with the radius
and humerus, and its distal end with the radius and the
radial and ulnar carpal bones, and metacarpal bone of
the index digit.

43. The carpal bones are two squarish bones, placed
on either side of the head of the metacarpal bone of
the index digit when the hand is extended, but in the
flexed state one lies ventral to the distal end of the ulna,
the other between it and the radius. They articulate

2*

122 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

proximally with the radius and ulna, and distally with —
the three-metacarpal bones.

44. The metacarpal bones are, proximally, firmly an-
chylosed together, and differ much in size and form ;
the first, that of the pollex, is very small and short and
has a large process directed forward; the second is
straight, thick, and much stouter and longer than its
fellows; the third is slender, flattened, and shorter
than the second, to which it is anchylosed at its distal
extremity also, the interval between the shafts of the
second and third metacarpal bones being in the recent
state occupied by membrane.

45. The digits are also peculiar. The pollex has one
phalanx, which is short and pointed at its distal ex-
tremity ; the second digit has two phalanges, and is
much larger than the thumb; the first is expanded into
a broad bone, which thins away to a sharp edge on its
posterior margin ; the third digit has but one phalanx,
irregularly triangular in form.

46. The Pelvic Girdle is composed of the ilium, is-
chium, and os pubis on each side.

47. The cium is greatly elongated antero-posteriorly
and firmly united to the transverse processes of all the
lumbar (29), sacral (30), and anchylosed caudal verte-
bre (31). Anteriorly it overlaps the last rib, with
which it is also anchylosed. It is divided into two
parts—an anterior dorsally concave and posterior dor-
sally convex portion; the former contributes at its
posterior end to form more than half of the acetabulum,

BONES OF THE HIND LIMB. 123

just above which it presents a plane articular surface
(antitrochanter), looking ventrally and forward, against
which the great trochanter of the femur (51) plays.

438. The 7schium is nearly vertically placed beneath
the hinder portion of the ilium. In front it forms
about one-fourth of the acetabulum, and, widening as
it extends backward, is soon united to the ilium dor-
sally, and pubis ventrally, with the former surrounding
the z/io-sciatic foramen, aud with the latter a smaller for-
amen for the passage of the tendon of the obturator
internus muscle. The bone behind the ilium slopes
away ventrally and backward for some distance. A
narrow slit exists between the middle portion of the
ischium and the pubis; this is normally closed by
membrane and constitutes the obturator foramen.

49. The. pubis is a narrow bar of bone forming the
lower fourth of the acetabulum, and arching outward is
united to the ischium in front of and behind the ob-
turator foramen. Its distal end is widely separated
from its fellow of the other side.

50. Note that the inner wall of the acetabulum is
wanting, the opening thus left being filled by mem-
brane during life.

51. The Bones of the Hind Limb. The femur has a
rounded shaft, slightly bowed forward. At its upper
extremity it is laterally expanded and on its inner side
bears a globular head, placed at right angles to its
shaft. Opposite the head it is extended to form the
great trochanter. Its distal extremity widens out to

124 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

form an zzner and outer condyle, which project backward
considerably beyond the line of the shaft and have be-
tween them a deep groove extending from the front to
the back of the bone. Upon the posterior inferior sur-
face of the outer condyle is a sharp ridge which plays
between the heads of the fibula and tibia.

52. In front of the knee-joint a sesamoid bone, the
patella, is developed in the tendon of the extensor mus-
cles. It will probably have been lost in cleaning the
skeleton.

53. The jidula, a slender bone, only imperfectly de-
veloped, does not extend below the middle of the tibia,
along the outer side of which it is placed. Above it is
expanded into a head, which, by its upper surface, ar-
ticulates with the outer condyle of the femur, and by
its inner surface with the head of the tibia. About its
middle for some distance it is anchylosed to the shaft
of the tibia.

54. The tbio-tarsus is remarkably long, and consists
not only of the tibia, but of the proximal bone of the
tarsus, which becomes fused with it at an early period,
being represented by a separate cartilage in the embryo.
Its shaft is long and cylindrical. Above it expands to
form a broad surface with which the greater part of
the outer and all the inner condyles of the femur ar-
ticulate. Projecting from the front of the head is the
cnemial process. The lower extremity is terminated by
an articular surface for the next bone.

55. The ¢arso-metatarsus, which is formed by the fusion
of the second, third, and fourth metatarsal bones with each

GENERAL DISSECTION. 125

other, and with the distal division of the tarsus, which, in
the embryo, is represented by a separate cartilage.
The metatarsal bones do not lie side by side, the third
having its head pushed backward, and its lower ex-
tremity somewhat in advance of its fellows. The prox-
imal end of the third metatarsal is prolonged back-
ward to form a large process, on the inner side of
which is a deep fossa. The distal extremities of the
metatarsals remain distinct and present double articu-
lar surfaces for the proximal phalanges of the digits.
The first metatarsal bone, that of the hallux, is small

and united by ligament to the inner posterior aspect of —

the second metatarsal near its distal end.

D6. The digits of the pes, four in number, are each
terminated by a stout, curved claw. The first (Aal/ux)_
has two phalanges; the second, three; the third, four,
and the fourth, five. The third digit is much longer
than the fourth, and the second and fourth of about
equal length. The hallux is directed backward and
inward, the second, third, and fourth forward.

57. General Dissection.

Carefully divide the skin along the median line from
the lower mandible to the cloacal opening, and reflect
it as far back as the anterior extremity of the sternum.
Before doing this, it is well to pass a glass tube into
the throat of the bird, and blow air down the cesopha-
gus, so as to inflate the crop and get a correct idea of
its situation, as otherwise its delicate walls may be in-
jured in removing the skin. The air may be prevented
from escaping by a string tied around the anterior
portion of the neck.

7

126 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

53. Passing down the /ef¢ side of the neck will be
seen the ¢rachea, which may be traced till it disappears
in the pleuro-peritoneal cavity ; and on the wight side
the esophagus, which is extremely distensible and thin,
its walls being folded longitudinally. At first it is dor-
sal to the trachea, but passes very soon to the right, and
runs backward to end in the middle compartment of
the trilobed crop, at its-entrance into which it is some-
what narrowed.

59. If the bird had been rearing a brood the walls
of the lateral pouches of the crop will be seen to be
thickened, owing to the activity of ¢/ands, which secrete
a fluid to act upon the food and soften it. Carefully
tease away the crop from its attachment to the anterior
border of the pectoralis major and furculum, taking great
care not to injure the ar sacs which lie behind it.

60. Allow the air to escape from the cesophagus and
crop, and inserting the small end of a pipette into the

- larynx, inflate again, when the air sacs will be seen to ~

fill. Above the anterior end of the sternum, and lying
along the limb of the furculum on each side, will be
seen @ sac, and above and between these, ventral to -
the trachea and cesophagus, a third.

Gl. Beginning behind the mandible, open the ceso-
phagus as far as its entrance into the crop, and also the
crop for a short distance. If the organ contains grain
clean it out, so that its interior may be examined, and
the point where the cesophagus begins again beyond it.

62. Observe, attached to the ventral side of the

PECTORAL MUSCLES. 127

trachea and passing outward, backward, and down-
ward, a pair of delicate muscles whose origin will be
seen later (70).

63. Occasionally moistening the neck to prevent
drying, proceed to reflect the skin from one side of the
breast and from one fore limb while it is still fresh ;
hold it up to the light and examine the muscles which
surround. the feather follicles and serve to erect the
feathers. The great pectoral muscle, which forms the
chief bulk of the fleshy breast, will thus be exposed in
part.

64. Make an incision in the left pectoralis major muscle
about an eighth of an inch from the keel of the ster-
num, deepen the cut until the muscle is divided and
the muscles beneath reached, which will be known by
the glistening appearance of the fascia. Reflect the
great pectoral and cut through its origin from the fur-
culum and from the membrane uniting the furculum
to the sternum ; near the shoulder-joint will be seen an
air sac, one of those already noted at the base of the
neck (60). Next, cut away the great pectoral where it
arises from the ribs and outer posterior part of the
‘sternum, noting the distinct bundles which it presents ;
and, raising it, follow it to its insertion on the greater
tuberosity of the humerus, taking care to avoid sever-
ing the artery, vein, and nerves seen entering it on its
upper surface.

65. Follow the nerves until they are seen to be given
off from the drachial plexus and trace the vessels until
they disappear in the pleuro-peritoneal cavity.

128 ANATOMY OF A BIRD. a

66. From its attachment follow back the tendinous
septum (a@poneurosis) of the great pectoral muscle; it
will be seen that it divides the muscle into two por-
tions : an outer, arising from the outer part of the ven-
tral surface of the sternum, and an zzmer, arising from
the keel of the sternum, the furculum, and the mem-
brane joining the furculum to the sternum and cora-
coid. Note that the-outer is turned under the inner
division of the muscle.

67. The pectoralis minor is now exposed in almost its
whole extent. It arises from the sternum between the
two divisions of the pectoralis major and from the
membrane which unites the furculum to the sternum
and coracoid. Raise it and follow it as it runs along
the inner margin of the coracoid until it terminates in
a tendon, which passes through a foramen situated
partly in the distal end of the coracoid and partly be-
tween the scapula and coracoid at their point of meet-
ing ; the tendon then running backward and outward,
is attached to the ridge on the upper and inner aspect
of the greater tuberosity of the humerus. Carefully
clear away the muscles about the shoulder-joint and
dissect out this insertion. After the wing has been
depressed by the great pectoral the pectoralis minor
elevates it; this can be proved by replacing the mus-
cles in their natural position and pulling on them.

68. An opening will now be exposed, bounded by the

sternum ribs, scapula, and coracoid, in which may be —

seen the zznominate artery, giving off, first, the carotid, and
then becoming the swdbclavian, which latter immediately
divides opposite the outer angle of the distal ex-

j

I
ae Ripe
2 "
-

* DISSECTION OF THE NECK. 129

tremity of the coracoid into the drachial (which disap-
pears among the muscles of the arm just posterior to
the shoulder-joint), and the ectoral, which splits into
two branches and supplies the pectoral muscles. Ac-
companying these, and lying beneath them, may be
seen the corresponding zvezzs bringing back blood from
the same parts and uniting to form the /ef/t innominate
VetN..

69. Descending from the region of the neck, and
running outward and backward, the nerves which form
the brachial plexus may be seen sending branches to the
surrounding muscles and terminating finally in two
trunks, the anterior of which (the circumflex) curls
around the shaft of the humerus, the other, the
brachial, passes down the posterior aspect of the arm.

70. If the dissection has been carefully made, a small,
delicate muscle will be exposed within the thoracico-
abdominal cavity, which, arising from the dorsal sur-
face of the sternum close to the articulation of the.
first rib and passing forward, is attached to the trachea,
as already seen (62).

71. Dissection of the Neck.—Note on the side of the
neck the long #4 +erd-dedy extending from behind the
articulation of the mandible with the skull to the root
of the neck. - JN

72. Ventral to this, the jugular vein and pneumogastric
nerve, both of which. should be traced upward. to the
base of the skull (74 ; 145), and down the neck until seen
to enter the thoracico-abdominal cavity. If the vein is

6*

130 ANATOMY OF A BIRD. *

not apparent allow the neck to hang over the edge of |
the table and it will soon become distended with
blood.

73. Internal to the articulation of the jaw will be
seen the ninth nerve (146) giving off a branch (descen-
dens noni), which runs down the neck by the side of the
jugular vein.

74. Divide the cesophagus and-trachea about an inch
posterior to the head, and turn them forward, carefully |
dissecting them away from the parts which lie above ©
them, then proceed to trace the jugular vein; near the
base of the skull will be found an arch formed by the
union of the jugular veins of both sides into which
several vessels enter, bringing blood from the regions
supplied by the carotid arteries. At the base of the
neck they are again united by a large cross-branch,
and receive on either side the vertebral veins and the
veins of the ingluvies.

75. Note the cervical spinal nerves, which supply the
various structures of the neck. There are fifteen pairs

-in all. They pass out from the spinal canal in front of

the bodies of the cervical vertebrz through the fora-
mina beneath their articular processés, with the excep-
tion of the last (fourteenth), which issues posterior to
the thirteenth vertebra of this region.

/
a ’ A 4

76. Divide carefully in the middle line the muscles
on the ventral side of the cervical vertebrz ; the caro-
tid arteries will then be seen running close together on
the ventral sides of the vertebral centra, the downward

pe —

= DISSECTION OF THE NECK. I3I

processes of which (26, @) form a groove in which the
arteries lie. Opposite the fourth cervical vertebra they
diverge, each passing to its own side, and dividing be-
hind and a little to the inside of the articulation of the
lewer mandible into—

a. The external carotid, which supplies the outside
of the head and floor of the mouth.

b. The internal carotid, which enters the skull
through a foramen in its base, anterior to the
foramen of exit of the seventh nerve, and sup-
plies the brain.

Ti. Clear away the muscles on the dorsal surface of
the neck and expose the ligamentum nuche which, pass-
ing from the anterior border of the neural arch of one
cervical vertebra to the posterior border of the vertebra
anterior to it, reaches from the fourteenth to the second
vertebra of this region. It is composed of yellow
elastic tissue, and serves to curve the neck backward
and support, in part, the weight of the head.

78. Examine the intervertebral disks of several of
the movable presacral vertebrez, preferably those of the
cervical region, and, if possible, make out that they
are attached to the vertebrz only at their margins.
Toward the centre they thin away and are perforated
in the middle, a ligament in most birds passing through
the opening to unite the adjoining vertebre; this,
however, is not present in the pigeon.

79. Make an incision in the skin along the inner
aspect of the hind limb, and note, issuing from the
sciatic foramen and passing beneath the adductor

132 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

muscles the sciatic nerve, which, in the lower part of the
thigh, divides into two branches, the a@ztertor and pos-
terior tibial nerves, which supply the muscles of the leg.
Accompanying the sciatic nerve is the femoral artery
and vein, which likewise divide into anterior and pos-
terior tibial branches. o

80. «ising by a flat tendon from the lower margin of
the acetavulum and running down the inside of the thigh
along the anterior edge of the vastus internus is an
exceedingly delicate muscle terminating in a long, slen-
der tendon which passes over and is embedded in the
patella, then over the outside of the knee-joint, and
finally is attached to the aponeurosis of the superficial
flexor of the digits of the foot in the calfregion. This
is the perching muscle, and is so arranged that when
the bird flexes the leg upon the thigh, as it does invol-
untarily when falling asleep, the flexor muscles of the
toes are pulled upon and the foot made to grasp the
perch.

81. Dissection of Pleuro-peritoneal Cavity.—Carefully
cut away the abdominal muscles from the margin of
the sternum, except in the middle line behind, where -
a band must be left a quarter of an inch wide, uniting
the sternum and pubes. From these longitudinal cuts
next make on each side two incisions, one in front and
one behind, and each reaching dorsally to near the
vertebral column. The flaps so made may be turned
back, and a view will be had of the inside of the ab-
dominal cavity without injuring any of the air sacs.

82. Holding the keel of the sternum in one hand,

AIR SACS. 133

with the other insert a glass tube into the cut end of
the trachea and inflate. Behind, in the median line,
an air sac will be seen to fill the abdominal air sac,
and in front and above this, on either side, two
thoracic sacs can be made out by first repeatedly in-
flating-them and allowing them to collapse, and then
carefully making windows in their walls and exploring
their interior.

83. Lying above the thoracic air sacs can be seen
the lungs, with which they communicate at their inner
border. The abdominal air sac communicates with the
lungs at the posterior extremities of the latter. The
anterior thoracic sac sends a prolongation forward and
upward toward the cervical region.

84. Clip the walls of the air sacs, and cut through
the articulations of the vertebral’ and sternal ribs on
both sides, taking great care to preserve the fold of
peritoneum, which, running from the sternum and dor-
sal surface of the heart, passes upward and backward
to meet the abdominal walls, and upward between the
lobes of the liver to be lost among the viscera ; in it will
be seen a vein which, in front, passes into the liver
between its two lobes, and behind dips into the pelvis.

85. Raise the sternum, and at the same time care-
fully detach the heart from it, and a single unpaired air
sac will be seen just beneath the anterior portion of the
sternum ; this sac is partially divided by a partition in
front, and when seen from the outside appears double.
A diverticulum from it extends to the pneumatic
opening on the under surface of the head of the

134 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

humerus, and it communicates with the air cavities
of the sternum by means of the opening on the supe-
rior surface of the latter in the middle line near its
anterior end. External to this air sac on ‘either side
is an air sac already seen on the inner side of the
shoulder-joint and limbs of the furculum (60).

86. Now cut the ligament and membrane, binding
the furculum to the sternum ; disarticulate the inner
ends of the coracoids, severing carefully the ligaments
on their upper surface attaching them to the sternum,
turn the coracoids forward and outward, and study the
relative position of the organs occupying the abdom-
inal cavity.

a. In front, in the median line, the large, muscu-
lar, cone-shaped heart (the apex of the cone
being directed backward), enclosed in a thin,
transparent membrane (pericardium) which
extends for some distance upon the vessels

arising from its base. Prick this, and with a.

pipette inflate it. The right and left auricles
can be easily distinguished from the ventricles
by their dark color, and are marked off by
lines of fat from the ventricles, and from each
other. The line of division between the ven-
tricles is not evident.

6. Behind the heart, the large liver with its rinse
and left lobes, each extending forward some
distance and partly concealing the heart. The
right lobe is much the larger of the two and
extends dorsally far into the abdominal cavity,
and backward almost as far as the posterior
extremity of the sternum, and across the mid-

ae 5

INNOMINATE ARTERIES, 135

dle line. The /eft lode is comparatively small
and extends upward on the left side.

On the left side, behind the left liver lobe and
partly covered by it, the gizzard (gigerzum)
presenting a rounded, pearly-looking surface,
when viewed from the left side. .

Turn forward the liver, and dorsal to it will be
seen the coils of zztestine covered by perito-
neum, and having a general oblique direction
from right to left, and from before back-
ward.

Between two coils of intestine, just behind the
gizzard, a portion of the pancreas appears.

87. Now proceed to study the vessels connected
with the heart. Clean away the pericardium; and
u-ace some to the left ventricle, where they will be
found to arise from a single trunk, the aorta, which,
after leaving the heart, almost immediately gives off the
right and left innominate arteries, and then turning to the
right and passing over the right bronchus continues as
the dorsal aorta.

88. The innominate on either side gives off—

a.

The earotid, which, running forward to the ven-
tral surface of the neck, soon meets its fellow
in the median line and pursues the course
already described (76). Opposite the shoulder-
joint it gives off the vertebral artery, which en-
ters the vertebral canal behind the tenth cervi-
cal vertebra, and immediately afterward the
ascending cervical, which runs forward along
the side of the neck close to the pneumogas-

136 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

tric nerve. In the angle between the latter
branch and the main trunk may be seena
small elongated red body, the thymus=¢land, thug real

6. The subclavian, which soon becomes the éra- |
chial, and crosses the axilla to reach the wing.

c. ‘The residue of the innominate then becomes
the pectoral and almost at once divides into
two branches, which supply the pectoral mus- -
cles (68).

89, Raise the apex of the heart and turn it forward,
remove the peritoneum and pericardium, which con-
ceal the veins entering it, exercising the greatest care
not to tear them, for, if this should happen, it will not
be easy to make out all the following points :

a. — Crossing the dorsal surface of the heart at the
junction of the left auricle with the base ci ©
the left ventricle is the large left superior cava,
which is formed by the junction of the jugular
and subclavian veins, and empties into the right
auricle at its inner side. The vein, as it lies on
the heart, receives two branches from the pro-
ventriculus. Inflate these vessels through the
cut extremities of the pectoral veins or any
other convenient branch.

é. Issuing from the right lobe of the liver, where
it receives the hepatic veins, will be seen the
posterior cava. Make a small opening in this°
and inflate the heart through it, when an ex-
cellent view of all its parts can be obtained.
The inferior cava enters the right auricle on
its dorsal surface.

¢. Entering the right auricle on the right side

THE POSTERIOR CAVA. 137

near its anterior surface will now be seen the
right superior cava, receiving the blood from
vessels similar to those which make up the left.

90. Before making any further dissection, examine
the anterior abdominal vein, which is forried by the
union of two veins in the median line behind, which lie
on the ventral surface of the muscles of the uro-
pygium. It then runs ventrally and forward, and unites
with the portal vein in the neighborhood of the pyloric
portion of the stomach.

91. The portal vein should be traced from its com-
mencement between the folds of the mesentery, near
the gizzard, until it is found to enter the right lobe of
the liver.

92. The Posterior Cava.—The veins which unite to
form the anterior abdominal meet on each side a vein
returning blood from the urepygial region, which passes
ventral to the kidneys, receiving—

a. A branch from the posterior lobe of the kidney.

5. The femoral vetn, which passing between the
middle and anterior lobes receives the blood
from the latter and from the hind limb.

c. A branch from the anterior lobe of the kidney.

It then unites with its fellow to form the posterior
cava, which passing to the right of the proventriculus
enters the right lobe of the liver, and after receiving
the blood from both right and left lobes empties into
the right auricle, as already seen.

93. Cut the innominate arteries and turn them for-
ward ; above them will be seen the dorsal aorta, first

138 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

passing to the right and then curling over the right

bronchus to get to the right side of the vertebral’

column.

94. On the right side of the cesophagus is the right
pneumogastric nerve, which must be cleaned; just in
front of the aortic arch it will be seen to give off the
recurrent laryngeal branch, which, passing behind the arch
of the aorta, runs forward along the right side of the
cesophagus, to which it gives branches. Branches also
run to the right lung and to the heart from the main
trunk, which then runs backward to the stomach, and
must be followed later (98).

95. Cut the aortic arch and follow the pulmonary
artery, which arises from the base of the right -ven-
tricle, and immediately divides into right and left
branches, which passing ventral to the bronchi enter

the lungs about the middle of their ventral surface, ex-_

ternal to the bronchi.

96. On the left side of the trachea will be seen, by
clearing away the connective tissue of the part, the
left pneumogastric nerve, which just in front of the left
pulmonary artery, near the point where it enters the
lung, gives off its recurrent laryngeal branch, which turn-
ing round the innominate artery runs up the neck again
to the inner side of the maintrunk, and is distributed in
the same manner as the right recurrent laryngeal. .The

left pneumogastric gives branches to the lung and to

the heart, and passing to the proventriculus runs along
its under surface to the gizzard (106), upon the left
side of which it is distributed.

Pe ee

DORSAL AORTA. 139

97. Divide the innominate and pulmonary arteries
on each side. Raise the anterior end of the heart and
find the pulmonary veins, which leaving the lungs
internal to the entrance of the bronchi enter the left
auricle on its dorsal side.

98. Cut the right pulmonary vein, turn the heart
over to the left, and note on the ventral surface of the
proventriculus the stomach branch of the right pneume-
gastric, which may now be traced from the point where
the right recurrent branch was given off. It will be
found to pass over the right bronchus dorsal to the
vessels proceeding from and entering the heart, and
passing to the right side of the proventriculus to be
distributed to the right side of the gizzard.

99. Study now the dorsal aorta, It will be found
that it curls around the right bronchus, and passing
along the right side of the cesophagus reaches the right
side of the vertebral column, and then soon passes to
the median line. Its branches are:

a. The bronchial arteries.
6. Several intercostal branches on either side.
c. The celiac axis, which passing along the right
side of the proventriculus gives off—
| a. A large, short trunk, which reaching
the ventral side of that organ divides into
two branches. One passes forward along its
ventral surface and the other supplies the
left side of the gizzard, along which it may
be traced.
B. Several small twigs to the sp/een, which
is an elongated dark red body closely at-
tached to the vessel.

140 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

y. A branch to the right side of the giz-
zard.

0. A small branch to the liver, which en-
ters it with the portal vein.

«. The vessel finally terminates in a branch
which supplies the pancreas lying between
the parallel coils of the duodenum.

@. ‘The superior mesenteric, which passes to the in-
testines between the folds of the mesentery,
there giving off branches to form arches, from
which smaller twigs arise to pass to the gut.

é. The zizac, which runs outward between the an-
terior and middle lobes of the kidney, and
passes over the brim of the pelvis just above
the acetabulum to enter the hind limb on its
inner anterior aspect, where it becomes the
femoral and runs beneath the sartorius muscle.

f. The sciatic, a large branch on either side which
passes outward and backward between the
middle and posterior lobes of the kidneys, to
both of which it gives branches, and issues
from the pelvis through the sacro-sciatic for-
amen. It then pursues its course down the
inner posterior aspect of the hind limb, of
which it is the main artery.

g. The dorsal aorta finally terminates as the zn-
JSerior mesenteric, which runs to the rectum and
anastomoses with the branches of the superior
mesenteric.

100. Note the network of ganglia and nerves (solar
plexus) near the origin of the coeliac axis and superior
mesenteric arteries and the nerves which arise from it

THE VOCAL ORGANS. 141

and accompany the arteries to be distributed to the ab-
dominal organs.

101. The Vocal Organs.—Note at the posterior ex-
tremity of the trachea and the beginning of the bron-
chi, into which it bifurcates posteriorly, the syrinx or
second larynx, in which the voice of the bird is formed.
Its construction is as follows:

a.

b.

The three last tracheal rings are united by
cartilage along the median ventral and dor-
sal lines; the last two rings are widely sepa-
rated ; these form the tympanum of the syrinx.
The bronchial cartilages are wanting on the
inner side of both bronchi, their place being
occupied by a membrane (membrana tympani-
formtis interna) which anteriorly rises up be-
tween the openings of the bronchi into a free
fold (membrana semilunaris).

Arising from the ventro-lateral aspect of the
trachea, two delicate muscles run backward
and outward to be attached to the sides of the
tympanum.

A second pair of muscles arise from the ven-
tral aspect of the trachea between the pair just
described and run backward and downward to,
be attached to the anterior margin of the ster-
num close to the articulation of the first rib

(62; 70).

102. Cut the trachea across just in front of the at-
tachment of the syringeal muscles, slit the tympanum
along one side and also one of the bronchi, and note
through the opening the free fold (membrana semitlu-

ase — 7

142 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

naris), which is considerably thickened along its free
border and which can be best seen by drawing the
trachea forward. ;

/

108. Cut through the bronchi near the lung and re-
move the syrinx. Examine the trachea, noting that its -
cartilaginous rings are continuous around its entire cir-
cumference but much thinned on the dorsal side.

104. The dissection of the Larynx may be made now,
or postponed until the completion of the dissection of
the cranial nerves, which will otherwise require a fresh
bird. Remove about an inch of the trachea and cesoph-
agus, with the hyoid bone, tongue, and larynx, and note—

a. Theattachment of the cesophagus in front to the
horn of the hyoid and sides and posterior mar-
gin of the arytenoid cartilages. Behind, above,
and on the sides it becomes continuous with
the mucous membrane of the buccal cavity.

&. The position of the larynx above the body of
the hyoid (25).

c. Note the shape of the entry to the larynx (ad-
tus laryngis) when its sides are separated, square
in front and tapering away to a point behind.

@d. Bounding this on either side are the arytenord
cartilages, joined behind in the median line
but separated in front, where their free ends
are united by fibrous tissue to the tip of the
thyroid cartilage. |

e. On either side may be seen the muscles, which
arising from the upper edge of the thyroid
cartilage pass outward and forward to be at-
tached to the outer side of the arytenoid car-

ABDOMINAL ORGANS. 143

tilages. When they contract they separate the
arytenoid cartilages anteriorly and open the
aditus of the larynx.

f. Slit open the trachea and larynx along the me-
dian dorsal line, and spreading out the halves
of the larynx note the thin ¢hyrotd cartilage,
which, narrow above, below extends forward
into a point. The arytenoid cartilages are
united to it by a thin membrane.

105. Note the position of the esophagus, which is seen
where it lies dorsal to all the organs in the anterior
portion of the thoracico-abdominal cavity. Entering
the body cavity from the right side of the neck it soon
passes to the median line and then somewhat to the
left, until it enters the gizzard on the anterior portion’
of the dorsal border of the latter. As it approaches the
stomach it enlarges, its last inch, called proventriculus,
having thick vascular walls, readily distinguishable
from the rest. Near the gizzard it is again somewhat
constricted.

106. The Gizzard -(gigerium, or stomach) is a hard
muscular organ, situated on the left side of the ab-
dominal cavity near its posterior end, and may be com-
pared to a Lima bean, much thickened from side to
side, placed on edge with its convex border looking
ventrally.

107. Raise the gizzard, dividing at the same time its
attachment to the abdominal air sac, which lies dorsal
to it; spread out and examine the fold of the perito-
neum which extends backward from its posterior mar-

144 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

gin, and note the fat which it contains ; this is the great
omentum, formed by the continuation of the two layers
of peritoneum investing the sides of the gizzard. Cut
through this and turn the stomach forward.

108. Raise the intestines and observe the delicate
mesentery which slings them, having between its folds
the branches of the mesenteric artery, portal vein, and
the lymphatics.

109. On the right side of the proventriculus near its
opening into the stomach, note a small elongated dark
red body, the spleen.

110. The small intestine leaving the gizzard on its
inner side near the entrance of the proventriculus
forms a long loop (duodenum) which has in it the large
pancreas, part of which has already been seen.

lil. Trace the gall ducts from either lobe of the liver
until they enter the duodenum, one near the pylorus
and the other the opposite limb of the great loop which
contains the pancreas. Observe that there is no gall
bladder. |

112. Unravel the small intestine, cutting it away from
the mesentery, and note that it becomes smaller and
smaller until it enters the colon near the cloaca, the
point of junction being marked by two small ce&co-colic
diverticula directed outward and forward. The whole
intestine is about nine times the length of the trunk of
the pigeon.

113. Remove the whole alimentary canal and the
liver, noting the form of the latter and the bridge of

ABDOMINAL ORGANS. 145

hepatic tissue above the apex of the heart connecting
its two lobes. The dorsal surface of the right lobe is
moulded to fit the depressions between the ribs.

114. Open the esophagus and proventriculus. The
longitudinal folds and muscular bands of the former
are continued to the proventriculus, the interior of
which is highly glandular and presents a tufted,
spongy appearance.

115. Open the stomach along its inferior border and
it will be found to be filled with gravel mixed with
grain, which is changed to bright grass-green. Wash
away the contents and it will be seen to be lined by a
thick, tough membrane presenting numerous folds.

116. Detach the lining membrane and observe that
the powerful muscular walls are composed of fibres
running in different directions, and that the centre of
each wall and the entire inner surface of the organ
beneath its lining membrane is composed of dense
fibrous tissue which gives origin to the muscular fibres
which compose the mass of its anterior and posterior
borders. On either side of the cardiac opening and
on the border opposite it there are small lateral dila-
tations. On the right side, just above the cardiac
opening, is the pylorus, which opens into the duodenum.

17. Slit open the small intestine. Observe the
longitudinal direction of its folds, which will be found
to continue as far as the colon. Find the duct of the
pancreas, through which pass a guarded bristle into the

duodenum.
7

146 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

118. Arising from the inner surface of the vertebral
‘ribs near their articulation with the sternal rib, and
from the inside of the membrane closing in the space
between coracoid scapula and sternum (68), and at-
tached to the bodies of the dorsal vertebrze, is a thin
sheet of muscle which is closely adapted to the con-
cave ventral surface of the lungs. This represents the
diaphragm of mammals.

119. Carefully remove one lung, noting the manner
in which it adapts itself to the bones on its dorsal
side and fills up the spaces between the ribs. Passa
probe into its bronchus, which will be found to pass
through the lung to its posterior border, where it com-
municates with the abdominal air sac. With a scalpel
lay open one lung, following the probe, and note the
numerous openings in the wall of the main bronchus.
Pass a fine probe into several of the larger openings, »
and they will be found to lead toward the surface of
the lung, where some of them communicate with the
air sacs. Pass a fine bristle into the smaller openings
and they will also be found to pass to the surface of
the organ.

120. The only organs now remaining in the abdomi-
nal cavity are the reproductive apparatus and the kidneys,
If it is a cock-bird, note—

a. Two large, rounded, and elongated yellow or-
gans, testes, attached by a fold of the perito-
neum to the ventral.face of the anterior lobes
of the kidneys, and to the centra of the verte-
bree adjoining.

6. The very slender coiled vas deferens leaving

REPRODUCTIVE APPARATUS. 147

the upper surface of each testis near its anterior
portion, and running backward over the ven-
tral surface of the kidney beneath the perito-
neum to enter the cloaca.

121. Remove one testicle ; split it lengthwise, observ-
ing that it ts invested by a fibrous capsule, and that it
presents a uniform white structure, from which a whitish
fluid may be pressed. Place this under the microscope,
and in it will be seen spermatozoa in great numbers.

122. If the bird is a hen, note—

a. On the left side, occupying the same position
as the left testicle in the male, the single
ovary containing eggs in different stages of de-.
velopment.

&. The oviduct, a delicate membranous tube hav-
ing a funnel-shaped dilatation opening into
the abdominal cavity behind and to the outer
side of the ovary, from which point it may be
traced backward to the cloaca.

1238. Lying alongside of the vertebral column will now
be seen the dark red flattened kidneys, unequally di-
vided into three lobes, the posterior being the largest
and the middle the smallest.

124. Running along the surface of the two hinder-
most lobes, a bright orange-colored mass, the adrenal
body.

125. By the side of the vas deferens, and entering
the cloaca, is seen a small tube, the ureter; open this,

148 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

and pass a guarded bristle along it until it enters the
cloaca, and in the opposite direction until it is found
to have its commencement in the kidney.

126. Divide the cloaca along the ventral median line ;
pass a probe into it through the cut end of the rectum ;
find the openings of the ureters and vasa deferentia, or
Fallopian tubes, as the case may be, by passing bristles
through small openings made in their walls where they
are seen in the abdominal cavity and pushing them on
into the cloaca, which they will be found to enter exter-
nal to the opening of the rectum. Note the large glan-
dular body attached to the anterior superior wall of the
cloaca (dursa Fabriciz).

127. Dissection of the Heart.—With a pair of sharp
scissors divide the remaining vessels entering and
leaving the heart, leaving as much as possible of them
attached to that organ. Clean away the connective
tissue which surrounds them; also the fat which fills
up the sulcus between the auricles and ventricles.
Trace the aorta until it is seen to arise from the
left ventricle. Pass one blade of a pair of delicate
straight probe-pointed scissors through the open end
of the aorta into the left ventricle, which lies on the
left side of the heart, and lay it open along its ventral
aspect, keeping the scissors as far to the right as possi-
ble, then note the following :

a. Just where the aorta joins the ventricle there

| are three pouch-like cavities (s¢uses of Valsalva).

b. Tothe edges of these are attached the semilunar
valves—delicate folds of the membrane lining
the heart.

f

THE HEART. 149

Note in each of these a thickened spot (cor-
pus Arantit).
On that portion of the wall of the aorta which
is immediately above or within two of the sin-
uses of Valsalva are the openings of the coro-
nary arteries, which should be traced along
the dividing line between the ventricles; a
bristle being passed into each as a guide.
At the left of the aortic opening the left auri-
culo-ventricular orifice is seen, guarded by two
membranous curtains (décuspid, or mitral valve)
of unequal size, that next the aortic orifice
being the larger. From the edges .of these
tendinous chords (chord@ tendinee) pass to the
muscular pillars (columne papillares) upon the
walls of the ventricle.

: ye
Note the size of the left ventricular cavity and
the great thickness of its walls.

128. Make an opening in the left auricular wall op-
posite the point of entrance of the pulmonary vein, and

note—
a.

S

The thinness of its walls when compared with
the ventricle.

The peculiar arrangement of its muscles (mus-
culi pectinatt).

The pulmonary veins entering it on its inner side.
The musculo-membranous valve, stretching
from one wall of the auricle to the other.

129. Trace the pulmonary arteries until they are found
to enter the right ventricle by a common trunk. Pass
the scissors through this into the right ventricle and
slit it open along the ventral side of theheart a little

150 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

to the right of the incision made in opening the left
ventricle, and note:

a. That the pulmonary orifice is guarded in the
same manner as the aortic, by semzlunar valves,
which, however, are more delicate though
similar in structure and arrangement. Behind
them are also found pouches (sizuses of Val-
salva).

& The right auriculo-ventricular orifice is guarded
by a large fleshy curtain on the side farthest
from the pulmonary opening, and on the side
next it by a small musculo-membranous one.
. They arise from the dorsal wall of the ventricle,
and their edges meeting below have a common
attachment to the ventral wall. Note that the
walls of the right ventricle are much thinner
than those of the left, and not marked by
columne papillares.

c. Open the right auricle and search carefully for
the open mouths of the veins of the heart
which empty into it.

d. Note the entrance of the superior and posterior
cave ; also, on its inner side a valve-like ar-
rangement of the muscles, similar to that seen
on the left side.

130. Dissection of the Brain, Spinal Cord, and Cranial
Nerves.—Cut away with a sharp scalpel the vault of
the cranium from the foramen magnum to the anterior
nares, and observe that the brain, the upper surface of
which is now exposed, fills the skull cavity almost com-
pletely. After removing the pia mater, note from be-
fore, backward, the following :

THE BRAIN. 151

The olfactory lobes (rhinencephalon), two slender
grayish prolongations from the hemispheres,
which, lying at first side by side, pass forward
toward the nares, just above and to the outside
of the septum of the orbits.

. The cerebral hemispheres (proscencephalon), smooth

and joined in front in the median line, but
separated behind by a deep cleft.

Carefully separate the cerebral hemispheres
posteriorly, and lying between them, and in
front of the cerebellum, note the small red
pineal gland, or epiphysis cerebri, which rests on
the roof of the third ventricle.

The cerebellum, longer in its antero-posterior
diameter than in its transverse, convex from
side to side, and from before backward, deeply
convoluted transversely, and having on either
side a process (flocculus) lodged in a cavity of
the skull, which is arched over by the anterior
vertical semi-circular canal.

Outside the cerebellum the optic lobes (corpora
bigemina), two round white bodies which seem
to be pushed aside by the increased develop-
ment of the former. They are lodged in large
cavities in the side of the cranial box, and are
separated from the hemispheres above by a
sort of ¢entorium.

Behind the cerebellum (which must be raised
to see it) the medulla oblongata, having on its
dorsal side the—

Fourth ventricle ; the floor of which is distin-
guished by its gray color. Behind, it is
bounded by two rounded white eminences

152

h.

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

(restiform bodies), which are the continuations
of the postertor columns-of the cord, and pass in
front into the cerebellum, of which they consti-
tute the posterior peduncles.

Note the commencement of the canal (cer
a tertio ad quartum ventriculum, or aqueduct of
Sylvdus) which connects the fourth with the
third ventricle. This may be seen by gently
parting the brain substance in the middle line
at the anterior portion of the fourth ventricle,
and turning the cerebellum forward.

Also the ventricle in the substance of the cere-
bellum which communicates with the fourth
ventricle.

The rounded mass of gray matter which forms
part of the roof of the fourth ventricle.
Observe that the brain is placed at a right
angle to the spinal cord, which is sharply bent
where it joins the medulla. ,

131. Raising the brain a little and pressing it gently
to the right, note—

a.
b.

The large thick optic nerve entering the orbit.
Appearing upon the upper surface of the left
crus of the brain behind the optic lobe, and
passing forward under and a little to the outer
side of the optic nerve to enter the orbit, the
fourth nerve (trochlear). Trace its origin till
it is found to arise from the roof of the fourth
ventricle (valve of Vieussens) in the median line.
Raising the brain still more, the ¢izrd nerve (motor
oculi) will be seen arising from the inner and
under surface of the crus and almost immedi-

THE BRAIN. 153

ately passing out of the skull into the orbit
beneath the optic.

Internal to the third pair of nerves note the
infundibulum, a prolongation of gray matter
from the floor of the third ventricle.

Attached to the ventral end of the infundi-
bulum the Pituitary body, or hypophysis cerebri,
which is lodged in the se//a turcica, and will
probably be torn away when the brain is re-
moved from the skull.

Arising from the side of the medulla the f/tz
nerve, having on it the Gasserian ganglion, lodged
in a hollow of the bone (22, e).

Behind the fifth the seventh nerve leaves the
side of the medulla and enters a foramen seen
in the lateral wall of the skull (22, @).
Posterior and a little dorsal to the seventh
may be seen the ezgf¢h, which, arising from the
medulla, enters the auditory capsule (22, d).
Its origin may readily be traced to the floor
of the fourth ventricle. 2

Arising from the under surface of the anterior
portion of the medulla near the median line
the stxth nerve (abducens), which immediately
enters the floor of the skull (22, /).

Behind the eighth nerve the xinth (glosso-
pharyngeal), tenth ( pneumogastric), and elev-
enth (spinal accessory) nerves arise from the
medulla and pass out of the skull through a
foramen situated beneath the foramen for the
eighth nerve (22, ¢).

Arising: from the under surface of the pos-
terior part of the medulla the ‘we/fth nerve

” iad

182.

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

(Aypoglossal), which leaves the skull by a fora-
men in the exoccipital bone (22, 0).

Between the skull and atlas is seen passing
out the sab-occipital or first cervical nerve, which
is very large. -

Cutting the nerves arising from the brain and

removing the latter from before backward, note on its

base—
a.

b.

In front the olfactory lobes (rhinencephalon).

The optic chiasma, which, if great care is not
taken to cut very close to the anterior wall of
the skull, will be damaged, as the optic nerves
pass out of the brain-case into the orbit as
soon as they: divide.

Behind the chiasma the 7zzfundibulum, a gray
projection which forms part of the floor of
the third ventricle (133, @).

On either side of the infundibulum the crura
of the cerebrum, which are continuous with the
anterior columns of the cord and ventral por-
tion of the medulla.

To the outer side of these the oftic, or mesence-
phalic lobes.

Arising from the inner side of the crura the
third pair of nerves (141, 143, 144).

Behind the crura and continuous with them
the medulla oblongata, which is itself continu-
ous with the cord.
Observe the origin of the s¢xth pair from the

-under surface of the medulla near its anterior

part (142). .
The origin of the twelfth pair (148) will now

J dr,

THE BRAIN. - 155

be more distinctly seen at the posterior por-
tion of the medulla near the median ventral
line.

Note the absence of a pons Varoliz ; this is cor-
related with the absence of the lateral lobes of
the cerebellum.

138. Cut through the spinal cord at the junction of
the skull and atlas, and remove the brain. Place it in
alcohol to harden, and then make a median antero-
posterior vertical section of it with a sharp razor, first
parting the hemispheres, which behind are only united
by connective tissue, and note—

a.

The continuity of the fourth ventricle with
the central canal of the cord.

The cut surface of the cerebellum showing the
ventricle which extends into its substance and
communicates with the fourth ventricle ; and
the arrangement of its convolutions.

The agueduct of Sylvius, which places the fourth
ventricle in communication with the third.
The third ventricle, bounded laterally by the
optic thalami and communicating in front on
either side through an opening, the foramen of
Munroe, with the dateral (first and second) ven-
tricles.

Bounding the third ventricle anteriorly is the
lamina terminalis, a thin sheet of nervous mat-
ter which connects the cerebral hemispheres.
Below, the third ventricle is continued down-
ward into the infundibulum.

By drawing the hemisphere away from the
rest of the brain an excellent view may be

156 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

had of the fibres of the crus of the same side
(134, 2), becoming continuous with the sub-
stance of the cerebral hemisphere.

g- Note that the optic lobes have ventricles and
that there is no corpus callosum. Make sec-
tions of the brain substance in different planes
parallel to the base, beginning on its dorsal
surface, and note the distribution of white and
gray matter.

134. With a pair of curved scissors cut away the neu-
ral arches of all the vertebrze, taking care not to lacer-
ate the spinal cord, and note— |

a. That in the cervical region the cord is of al-
most uniform size until near the base of the
neck, where the cervical enlargement may be
seen, from which the drachial plexuses arise
(69). |

5. That there is a second enlargement, opposite
the sacrum, from which the sacral and lumbar
plexuses arise (153, 154). The posterior col-
umns are here separated, leaving a sort of
ventricle between them (snus rhomboidalis),
which communicates in front and behind with
the central canal of the cord.

¢. Behind the sinus the cord becomes very small
until it is scarcely visible in the posterior
caudal region. There is no cauda equina, the
cord itself being continued to the extreme end
of the spinal column, ‘even into the pygostyle.

135. Examine one of the spinal nerves, and observe
that it is formed by the union of an anterior and

wy ce

—_ =

ae Se as

— — Se

DISTRIBUTION OF THE CRANIAL NERVES. 157 —

posterior root, each of which arises from the spinal
cord. The union of the roots takes place almost as
soon as they leave the cord, and the common trunk
thus formed has on it a ganglion at the point at which
it leaves the spinal canal. If one of the nerves of the
cervical plexus is examined, the ganglion will be found
upon the posterior root.

136. Remove the spinal cord, and note on its ventral
surface the anterior median fissure. Then place it in
alcohol to harden, and make sections of it at various
levels, and note—

a. The central mass of gray matter which, faintly
seen in some parts, becomes quite distinct
in the regions of the cervical and lumbar
enlargements. In the dorsal region it is also
quite distinct.

The distinctly marked anterior fissure.

c. Dorsal to the anterior fissure the canalis cen-
tralis,a minute opening which may be seen on
examining the cut surface of the cord with a
hand lens.

137. Distribution of the Cranial Nerves.—The o/factory
nerve overlies the roof of the nostril, and is distributed
to its mucous membrane (139, @).

138. Chip away the inner wall of the orbit down to
the point at which it is pierced by the fourth nerve (131,
6), which passing over the superior rectus muscle (155,
6) near its origin, runs forward along the inner wall of
the orbit to be distributed to the superior oblique
muscle (155, 2).

158

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

139. The oftic may be seen to enter the inner side of
the eyeball at its posterior internal part, by drawing
the latter outward.

140. Remove the bone so as to expose the Gasse-
rian ganglion of the fifth, a small reddish body which
lies in a cavity in front of the ridge which bounds an-
teriorly the fossa for the medulla oblongata ; it. will be
found to give off three branches, viz.:

a.

The Ophthalmic Nerve, which runs forward
through the floor of the skull, passes beneath
the origin of the superior rectus (155, 4) and
superior oblique (155, 2) muscles, and enters
the nasal cavity, along the inner side of which
it may be traced; and if great care be taken
the branch can be followed to the tip of the
upper mandible, where it is distributed beneath
its horny covering.

The Superior Maxillary Nerve passes outward,
and, after giving branches to the skin of the
eyelids and mucous membrane of the eye
(conjunctiva), runs directly beneath the globe
of the eye, and can be traced to the outer side
of the lachrymal bone, where it breaks up and
is distributed to the skin, etc., in this region.
The Inferior Maxillary Nerve, the largest of the
division of the fifth, passing downward and
then forward beneath the eyeball, divides into
two branches, one of which supplies the mus-
cles of mastication, to which it is distributed ;
the other runs forward and enters the inferior
maxillary bone by a foramen on its inner side,
and then again emerges on its outside beneath
the horny covering, where it is distributed.

pa Te, re

DISTRIBUTION OF THE CRANIAL NERVES. 159

141. Chip away a little more bone so as to reach the
exit of the ¢Aird nerve (131, ¢). Cut through the attach-
ment of the superior rectus muscle (155, 4), and turn it
inward so as to expose its under surface ; it will be seen
to be supplied by branches from the third nerve which
enter it beneath. The nerve then passes beneath the
optic nerve.

142. To the outer side of the main trunk of the
third nerve may be seen the szxth nerve (131, 7), which
is almost immediately distributed to the internal rectus
muscle (155, 7). Trace it back through the floor of the
skull to the point where it was seen to enter the latter
after leaving the brain.

143. Now return to the third nerve, and follow it as
it crosses below the origin of the inferior rectus muscle,
which it supplies (155, 7). It then sends a large branch
to the inferior oblique (155, ¢), and a smaller one to the
internal rectus (155, /), and terminates in the Harderian

gland (155, g).

144. As it passes behind the optic nerve it is in close
relation to a small ganglion (ophthalmic ganglion), which
in turn sends a pair of branches forward which pierce
the sc/erotic on opposite sides of the optic nerve near
its entrance (¢ci/iary nerves).

145. Stuff the mouth and upper portion of the
cesophagus with cotton. Divide the cesophagus and
trachea about an inch below the head, and turn them
forward after carefully dissecting them from the parts
above them; then divide the jugular veins and carotid

160 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

arteries, and turn them forward with their branches,

and note— .
a. The common trunk of the preumogastric and
_ spinal accessory (tenth and eleventh cranial
nerves), which should be traced to the base of
the skull, which it will be found to leave by a
foramen common to it and the glosso-pharyn-

geal.

&. The pneumogastric just behind the articula-
tion of the lower jaw with the skull gives off
the superior laryngeal, which runs forward
along the inner side of the horn of the hyoid
to reach the trachea, upon which it divides
into an anterior and a posterior branch; the
former is distributed to the larynx, the latter
supplies the trachea.

146. Directly in front of the point of exit of the
pneumogastric is a /arge ganglion, situated on the glos-
so-pharyngeal nerve just where it emerges from the
skull. The glosso-pharyngeal or ninth cranial nerve,
after leaving this ganglion, which also sends off the
sympathetic trunk, passes downward and on the inner
side of the posterior portion of the horn of the hyoid,
divides into two branches, one of which, the descendens
nont (73), runs down the neck ; the other, accompanied
by a branch of the carotid artery, runs along the inner
side of the horn of the hyoid, and supplies the pharynx
and tongue. .

147. Immediately outside of the glosso-pharyngeal is
the seventh cranial nerve, which may be seen, by push-
ing its ganglion toward the median line, to pass out

Te."

THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 161

from the skull by a foramen, behind that for the carotid
artery (19, 7).- It then turns outward behind the ar-
ticulation of the lower mandible, and may be followed
as it passes over the muscles of mastication to the side
of the skull.

148. Passing out of the skull by the condyloid fora-
men (19, 7) is the hypoglossal (twelfth cranial) nerve (132,
i), which, lying on the ventral surface of the origin of
the neck muscles, passes outward above the pneumo-
gastric trunk, and then turns forward and runs along
the outer side of the horn of the hyoid until it gets
opposite the larynx, where it divides into two branches,
one of which runs down the trachea; the other passes
forward to the tongue.

149. The Sympathetic Nerve.—Remove one lung, find
the sympathetic nerve in the dorsal region, and from
this point work forward until the base of the skull is
reached, and backward until the nerve is lost upon the
bodies of the movable caudal vertebrz. The nerve will
be found to start from a ganglion (146) at the base of
the skull, and to run backward along the sides of the
centra of the cervical vertebra, passing through the
foramina in their transverse processes, accompanied by
the vertebral artery and vein.

150. After passing ventral to the brachial plexus, it
runs ventral to all the ribs, its ganglia being also con-
nected in the dorsal region by commissures passing be-
tween the necks of the ribs and their tubercular trans-
verse processes. In the lumbar and sacral regions the
cord lies ventral to the sacral and lumbar nerves, and,

162 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

after passing dorsal to the large transverse process of
the first caudal vertebra, continues backward ventral to
the caudal spinal nerves until it meets the sympathetic
chain of the opposite side, beneath the centrum of the
second movable caudal vertebra.

151. In the cervical region the sympathetic is inti-
mately connected with all the spinal ganglia except that
of the suboccipital nerve. In the dorsal region it hasa
ganglion partly fused with that of each dorsal spinal
nerve. In the lumbar and sacral regions the ganglia
are very indistinct, and absent in the caudal region.
Branches are given off from the ganglia between the
first and second, second and third, third and fourth,
fourth and fifth dorsal vertebrze, which unite to form
the splanchnic nerve, and from which branches run to
a plexus on either side of the dorsal aorta (solar plexus)
(100), at the point where the coeliac axis and superior
mesenteric arteries are given off, both of which are
accompanied by trunks from this source.

152. Spinal Nerves.—The cervical nerves and brachial
plexus have been already examined. There are five
dorsal nerves. The last cervical and four of the dorsal
supply the thoracic walls, the last dorsal being dis-
tributed to the abdominal wall.

153. The /umbar nerves, three in number, unite to
form a plexus from which trunks are given off to the
inner and anterior aspect of the thigh (crural and obtu-
vrator nerves).

154. The next four nerves are the sacral, and unite

THE MUSCLES OF THE EVE. 163

to form the sciatic nerve, which, passing backward and
outward, issues from the pelvis by the ilio-sciatic fora-
men (48), and runs down the inner posterior aspect of
the thigh to supply the hind limb (79). Behind, the
caudal vertebrz nerves pass out to supply the various
structures of the pelvis and uropygium.

155. The Muscles of the Eye.—Having cut away the
inner wall of the orbit as in the dissection of the cra-
nial nerves (137), note—

a.

The superior oblique arising from the anterior
inferior portion of the inner wall of the orbit,
and running backward and outward to be at-
tached to the upper and outer portion of the
eyeball.

The superior rectus muscle arises from the
orbital wall behind the optic nerve and runs
outward and a little forward to be attached to
the upper and outer portion of the globe.

The external rectus arises just behind the last
muscle and is attached to the globe posteriorly
near its outer edge.

The zzferior rectus arises from the inner wall
of the orbit just below the entrance of the
optic nerve, and running outward and a little
forward is attached to the outer portion of the
under surface of the eyeball.

The zuferior oblique muscle runs from the an-
terior inferior part of the wall of the orbit,
and passing outward and backward is at-
tached to the eyeball external to the outer
extremity of the inferior rectus.

The znternal rectus arises in front of the optic

164 ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

nerve and runs forward to be attached to the
eyeball at its anterior margin.

g. Just beneath the inferior oblique lies the Har-
derian gland, a flattened, bean-shaped body,
paler in color than the muscles.

A. Arising from the sclerotic in front of the optic

nerve entrance a small muscle (pyramidalis),
running backward and upward and termi-
nating in a tendon which turns around the
optic nerve and runs downward and forward
and then upward to be attached to the free
border of the nictitating membrane which is
drawn forward when the muscle contracts.

z. A broad éursalis muscle, which, arising from
the posterior superior portion of the sclerotic,
runs forward and downward, and terminates
in a fibrous sheath enclosing the tendon of
the pyramidalis. The dursalis contracting at
the same time as the pyramidalis, prevents
the tendon of the latter from exercising in-
jurious pressure upon the optic nerve.

156. The Eyeball—Remove the eyeball, leaving at-
tached to it as much of the optic nerve as possible.
Clear away the pyramidalis muscle, and note the pecu-
liar turnip-shape of the eyeball; the optic nerve entering
the eye on its inner side, below its axis; the opaque
sclerotic ; the cornea, transparent and more sharply
curved than the sclerotic, beyond which it projects
considerably ; the conjunctiva, lining the inner surfaces
of the eyelids and reflected over the front of the eye-
ball ; the zrzs, a gold-colored ring, having a narrow bor-
der internally of black surrounding the circular pupil.

ee

THE EVE, 165

157. Holding the eyeball between the forefinger and
thumb, with a pair of small scissors cut through the
sclerotic along the most prominent part of the ridge,
which marks the union of its flatter and more rounded
parts, and note—

a.

The two ciliary nerves running over the outer
surface of the choroid close together from the
optic nerve region to the iris.

The choroid, dark and deeply pigmented, lining
the sclerotic from the optic nerve entrance to
the outer border of the iris.

Divide the choroid along the same line as the
sclerotic was divided, and note that the cavity
of the globe is filled by the transparent gela-
tinous vitreous humor, which should be re-
moved.

The choroid will now be seen te be lined by a
delicate pearly membrane, the retina, which is
thickest at the inner portion of the eye, thin-
ning away as it approaches the iris.

The pecten, a brown vascular fringe, projects
from the choroid, near the optic nerve en-
trance, into the vitreous.

The Zens closes the opening of the pupil be-
hind and is held in place by its suspensory
ligament, which is attached about the outer
margin of the iris; remove it and observe that
its outer surface is less convex than its deeper.
The zris may now be seen from behind, and
outside of it a great number of fine plaits rad-
lating from its margin ; these are the clzary
processes. Tear away the iris and it will be
seen to separate readily from the choroid

106

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

about opposite the junction of the cornea and
sclerotic.

Scrape away the ciliary processes and a dony
ving will be exposed surrounding the cornea
and forming the boundary of the sclerotic.

158. The Ear.—Carefully cut away the postero-lateral
portion of the outer table of the skull and the cancel-
lated bone tissue beneath it (d@p/oé), and note—

a.

The anterior vertical semi-circular canal (the
longest of the three bony canals forming part
of the /abyrinth), which lies higher on the side
of the cranium and reaches farther back than
the others, and lies in a vertical plane which
is directed backward and inward. Itsanterior
end is dilated, forming the ampulla, which com-
municates with the anterior superior portion
of the vestibule, and its posterior extremity
unites with that of the posterior vertical semt-
circular canal.

The postertor vertical semi-circular canal lies in
a nearly vertical plane directed from without
inward and forward. Its superior end enters
the vestibule above, and its lower extremity is
marked by an ampulla which communicates
with the vestibule below.

The external horizontal canal lies in a horizontal
plane, and communicates in front with the

~ vestibule through the medium of its ampullary

extremity, and behind by its non-ampullary
end.

The vestibule is a small chamber which com-
municates, as just seen, with the five open-

THE EAR. 167

ings of the semi-circular canals, and anterior-
ly communicates with the cochlea, which pre-
sents vo trace of spiral structure.

e. Note the fenestra ovalis, which is filled by the
expanded end of the columella aurts.

f. The columella is a very short minute rod of
bone attached to the inner side of the mem-
brana tympani by its outer end, and having
its inner end expanded and fixed as just seen
in the fenestra ovalis of the vestibule (19, g).

159. Cut away the walls of the external auditory
meatus in a fresh specimen (noticing that it is lined by
a reflection of the skin) and expose the drum mem-
brane, through which may be seen the anterior extrem-
ity of the columella, which is attached to it.

160. Remove the membrana tympani, which divides
the external auditory meatus from the tympanum, tak-
ing care not to displace the columella, which will now be
seen to pass backward through a canal at the posterior
part of the floor of the middle ear. In front of the
canal for the columella is a large cavity communicat-
ing by an opening in the outer part of its floor with
the Eustachian canal (19, z), and internally with the
air spaces in the cancellated structure of the basi-sphe-
noid. Passa bristle to prove this. Behind the canal
for the columella is a second opening communicat-
ing with the diploé of the sides and roof of the cra-
nium. The tympanum, the canal for the columella, and
the Eustachian canal are lined by mucous membrane.

INDEX.

BDUCENS (sixth
nerve, 153, 154, 159 |

cranial) | Auricles of the heart, 134, 136, 148,
149, 150
Auriculo-ventricular orifice, 149, 150

Acetabulum, 122, 123
Axis, II5

Aditus laryngis, Io2, 142

Adrenal bodies, 147 :

Air sacs, 126, 127, 133, 146; ab
dominal, 133, 143; thoracic, 133

Alisphenoids, IIo

Alula, 99

Ampulla, 166

Angulare, 113

Antebrachium, 94, 99, IOI

Anterior -abdominal vein, 137;
nares, 105; tibial arteries, veins,
and nerves, 132; vertical semi-
circular canal, 166

BABBICELS, 97

Barbs, 96

Barbules, 96.

Basi-occipital bone, I10, I1f
Basi-sphenoid bone, 103, 109
Beak, 105

Bicuspid valve, 149

Bill, 93, 105

Bone, alisphenoid, 110; angulare,

Antitrochanter, 123 | 116; articulare, 113; dentary,
Aorta, 135, 148; dorsal, 135, 137,| 113; ethmoid, 107; exoccipitals,

139, 140 110, 111; frontal, 108; hyoid,
Apteria, 98 113; ilium, 122; ischium, 123;
Aqueduct of Sylvius, 152, 155 jugal, 106; lachrymal, 105; max-
Arm, 94 illary, 106; nasal, 107; palatine,

Artery, anterior tibial, 132; ascend- 105; parietal, 109; premaxillary,

ing cervical, 135; brachial, 129,
136; bronchial, 139;° common
carotid, 114, 128, 130, 135; coro-
nary of heart, 149; external caro- |

107; presphenoid, 108 ; pterygoid,
106; quadrate, 106; quadrato-
jugal, 107; splenial, 113; supra-
occipital, 110; surangulare, 112

tid, 131; femoral, 132; iliac,| Bones, carpal, 121; metacarpal,
140; inferior mesenteric, 140;| 122; of fore-limb, 120; of-hind-
innominate, 128, 135; intercos-| limb, 123; of mandible, 112; of

tal, 139; internal carotid, 131; |
pectoral, 129, 136; posterior ti- |
bial, 132; pulmonary, 138; sci-|
atic, 140; subclavian, 128, 136;
superior mesenteric, 140; verte-

pectoral arch, 119; of pelvic arch,
122; of skull, 105; of spinal col-
umn, I13; tarso-metatarsus, 124 5
tibio-tarsus, I24

Bony and cartilaginous skeleton,

bral, 114, 135 . 1o2 ; ring of sclerotic, 165,
Arytenoid cartilages, 142 Brachial arteries, 129; nerve, 129;
Atlas, 115 plexus, 127, 129, 156

Auditory meatus, 94, 103,

167 ;
‘eighth cranial nerve, 153

Brachium, 1or
Brain, 1590

170 | INDEX.

Bronchi, 141 Cornea, 164
Bursa Fabricii, 148 : Coronary arteries, 149
Bursalis muscle, 164 Corpora bigemina, I51

Corpus Arantii, 149; callosum, 156
Coverts, tail, 100; wing, 99

( ‘ALAMUS, 95 Cranial nerves, 150; distribution of,
157
Canalis centralis, 157 Crop, 100, 126

Canals, carotid, 104; Eustachian, | Crura of cerebrum, 154, 155
103; semicircular of ear, 111; | Crural nerves, 162
vertebral, 135 Crus, 94, 101

Capitulum, 118

Cardiac opening of stomach, 145

Carotid arteries, 114, 128, 130, 135 LDENt2s 113

Carpal bones, 121 ‘

Descendens noni nerve, 130, 160

Diaphragm, 146

Digits of manus, Io1, 122; of pes,
125

Diploé, 166

Dissection of brain, spinal cord, and
cranial nerves, 150; of heart, 148 ;
of pleuro-peritoneal cavity, 132

Distribution of cranial nerves, 157

Dorsal aorta, 135, 137, 139; spinal
nerves, 162; vertebrz, 116

Down feathers, 97

Drum membrane, 167

Duct of pancreas, 145

Duodenum, 144

Cartilage, arytenoid, 142 ; Meckel’s,
112; naso-ethmoidal, 108 ; thyroid,
143

Cauda equina, 156

Caudal spinal nerves, 163; verte-
bre, I17

Cava, inferior, 136, 137, I50; pos-
terior, 137; superior, 137

Centra of cervical vertebrz, 113; of
dorsal vertebrz, 116; of lumbar
vertebrz, 116

Cerebellum, 151, 152, 155

Cerebral hemisphere (prosence-
phalon), 111, 151

Cervical enlargement, 156; spinal

salah 130; vertebre, 113
haracters, zodlogical, of Aves, as
distinguished from Reptilia, 90; BA cs
of Sauropsida, 89; of Schizog-
nathz, 92

Chordee tendinez, 149

Choroid, 165

Ciliary process, 165

Circumflex nerve, 129

Clavicle, 120

Claws, 95

Cloaca, 148; opening of, Io

Cnemial process, 124

Cochlea, 167

- Coeco-colic diverticula, 144

Cceliac axis, 139

Colon, 144

Columelila auris, 104, 167

Columne papillares, 149, 150

Condyles of femur, 124; of hume-
rus, 121

Condyloid foramen of skull, 104, 111,
161

Conjunctiva, 164

Contour feathers, 97

Coracoid, 119

Eighth cranial (auditory nerve),

153

Eleventh cranial (spinal accessory)
nerve, I53, 160

Epidermic exoskeleton, 95

Epignathous, 94

Epiphysis cerebri, 151

Ethmoid, 107

Eustachian canal, 103, 104, 109, 167

Exoccipital bones, 110, III

External appearance, 93; auditory
meatus, 94, 103, 167; external
carotid arteries, 131; rectus mus-
cle, 163; syringeal muscles, 126,
129, 141

Eye, 94

Eyeball, 164

Fyelids, 94

Pacis. (seventh cranial) nerve,
153, 160
Fallopian tubes, 148

INDEX. I7I

Feathers, 93, 95; around external | Heart, 134, 148
auditory meatus, 94; arrange-| Hemisphere, cerebral, I11
ment of, 98; contour, 97; down, | Hind-limbs, 94
97; primaries, 98; secondaries, | Humerus, 120; condyles of, 121
98; structure of, 95; tail, 99; | Hyoid bone, 113

wing, 98 Hypocleidium, 120
Femoral artery, 132; vein, 132, 137 | Hypoglossal (twelfth cranial) nerve,
Femur, IoI, 123; condyles, 124 153, 154, 161
Fenestra ovalis, 167 Hypophysis cerebri, 153
Fibula, 124
Fifth cranial (trigeminal) nerve, F
104, 153 | p45 artery, 140

Filo-plumz, 97 ;
First cranial nerve (olfactory), 157 _ | llio-sciatic foramen, 123, 163

Fissure of spinal cord, 157 Ilium, 122
Flocculus, 151 Inferior cava, 136, 137, 150; maxil-
Foot, 94 lary nerve, 158; mesenteric artery,
Foramen, condyloid, 161; ilio-sci- 140; oblique muscle, 159, 163;
atic, 123, 163; magnum, 104; ob- rectus muscle, 159, 163
turator, 123; of Monro, 155; | Infundibuium, 153, 154
ovale, 104 | Innominate artery, 128, 135; vein,
Foramina of exit of cranial nerves, 129
104, III Intercostal arteries, 139
Forearm, 94 Interior of mouth, Ior
Fore-limb, Ior Internal carotid arteries, 131 ; rec-
Fossa for cerebellum, 111; for Gas- tus muscle, 159, 163

serian ganglion, 111; glenoid, 120| Interorbital septum, 105

Fourth cranial (trochlear) nerve, | Intervertebral disks, 131
152, 157; ventricle, 151, 153, 155, | Intestine, small, 135, 144
157 Iris, 94, 164, 165

Frontal bones, 108 Ischium, 123

Furculum, 120

ALL-BLADDER and ducts, | JUGAL bone, 104, 106

144 :

Ganglion of glosso- pharyngeal panies vee
nerve, 160; ophthalmic, 159

Ganglion, spinal, 157 ; sympathetic,
162

Gasserian ganglion, III, 153, 158 oe De SE ee,

Gizzard (gigerium), 135, 139, 140,

| Kidneys, 147

143, 145
Gland, Harderian, 164, 159; pineal,
151; thymus, 136 ACHRYMAL bone, 105

Glenoid fossa, 120 *

Glosso-pharyngeal (ninth cranial) |
nerve, 153, 160; ganglion of, 160 |

Greater tuberosity of humerus, 121

Great omentum, 144

Great trochanter of femur, 123

Lachrymo-nasal opening, 105
Lamina terminalis, 155

Larynx, 142

Lateral (first and second) ventri-

cles, 155
Left pneumogastric nerve, 138 ; su-
HaAttux, 125 perior cava, 136
Lens of the eye, 165
Harderian gland, 159, 164 Ligament, transverse, II5

Head, Ioo Ligamentum nuche, 131

172 INDEX.

Liver, 134, 140, 144

Lobes, olfactory, 151, 154; optic,

I51, 154

Lophosteon, 119

Lumbar plexus, 162; spinal nerves,
162; vertebre, 116

Lungs, 133, 146

oy Bg Se 93; 252

Manus, 94, IOr

Maxilla, 103, 106

Meckel’s cartilage, 112, 113

Medulla oblongata, 151, 154

Membrana, tympani, 141, 167 ; tym-
paniformis interna, 141 ; nictitans,
94; semilunaris, 141

Mesentery, 144

Metacarpal bones, 122

Metatarsal bones, 125

Metostea, I19

Mitral valve, 149

Mobility of upper mandible, 94

Motor oculi (third cranial) nerve,
152, 154

Muscle, bursalis, 164; external rec-
tus, 163; external syringeal, 126,
I29, 141; inferior oblique, 159,
163 ; inferior rectus, 159, 163; in-
ternal rectus, 159, 163; laryngeal,
142; pectoral, 127, 128; perching,
132; pyramidalis, 164 ; superior
oblique, 163; superior rectus, 159,
162

Musculi pectinati, 149

oS Meas bones, 107; cavity, IoI,
I12
Naso-ethmoidal cartilage, 108
Neck, i100
Nerves, anterior tibial, 132; bra-
chial, 129; caudal spinal, 163;
cervical spinal, 130; ciliary, 159,
165; circumflex, I29; crural,
162; descendens noni, 130, 160;
dorsal spinal, 162; eighth cranial
(auditory), 153; eleventh cranial
, (spinal accessory), 153, 160; exit
‘ of cranial, 104, 111; fifth cranial
(trigeminal), 104, 153; first cranial
(olfactory), 157; fourth cranial
(trochlear), 152, 157; inferior
maxillary, 158; lumbar spinal,
162; ninth cranial (glossopharyn-

geal), 153, 160; obturator, 162; of
brachial plexus, 127, 129; oph-
thalmic, 158; posterior tibial, 132 ;
recurrent laryngeal, 138; sacral,
162; sciatic, 132, (163; “second
cranial (optic), 152, 164; seventh
cranial (facial), 153, 154, 160;
sixth cranial (abducens), 153, 154,
159; splanchnic, 162; superior
laryngeal, 160; superior maxil-
lary, 158; sympathetic, 160, 161 ;
tenth cranial (pneumogastric),
129, 138, 139, 153, 160; third cra-
nial (motor oculi), 152, 154, 159;
twelfth cranial (hypoglossal), 153,
I54, 161

Neural arch of cervical vetebre,
TI3 a4

Nictitating membrane, 94, 164

(ied se foramen, 123;
nerves, 162

Occipital condyle, 104

Odontoid process, 115

(Esophagus, 126, 143, 145

Olfactory lobes (rhinencephalon),
I5I,154; nerves (first cranial),
157

Ophthalamic ganglion, 159; nerve,
II2, 158

Optic chiasma, 154; lobes, 151, 154,
156; merve, 152, £545 56,5 20a.
thalami, 155

Orbito-temporal fossa, 104

Os angulare, 113; articulare, 113

Ovary, 147

Oviduct, 147

Pe 135, 140, 144; duct

of, 145

Palatine bones, 105; processes of
maxilla, 103

Parietal bones, I09

Patella, 124 °

Pecten, 165

Pectoral artery, 129, 136

Pectoralis major muscle, 127, 128;
minor musele, 127, 128

Peculiar cervical vertebre, 115 -

Pelvic girdle, 122

Penna, 97

Perching muscie, 132

Pericardium, 134

Periotic capsule, 109

— ee

Vo

INDEX.

Pes, 95, 10

Pineal gland, I51

Pituitary body, 153

Pleurostea, 119

Plumulz, 97

Pneumatic openings in bones, 121,
133

Pneumogastric (tenth cranial nerve),
129, 138, 139, 153, 160

Pollex, 101, 122

Pons Varolii, 155

Portal vein, 137

Posterior cava, 136, 137, 150;.clin-
oid processes, 109; columns of
cord, 152; nostril, 101, 103; pe-
duncles, 152; tibial artery, 132;
tibial nerve, 132; tibial vein, 132

Postzygapophyses, 114

Premaxilla, 107

Presphenoid, 108

Prezygapophyses, 114

Process, cnemial, 124; odontoid,
II5; spinous, 116, 117; trans-
verse, 116, 117 ; tubercular of ver-
tebrz, 114, 116; uncinate, 118;
xiphoid, 118 ;

Proscencephalon (cerebral hemi-
sphere), I51

Proventriculus, 143, 145

Pterygoids, 103, 106

Pterylz, 98

Ptilosis, 98

Pubis, 123

Pulmonary artery, 138, 149; vein,
139, 149

Pygostyle, 117, 156

Pylorus, 145

Pyramidalis muscle, 164

2 RATE bones, 103, 106

Quadrato-jugal, 104, 107

RACHIS, 95

Radius, I2t

Rectrices, 99

Rectum, 148

Recurrent laryngeal nerves, 138

Remiges, 100

Reproductive apparatus in female,
147; in male, 146

Restiform bodies, 152

Retina, 165

173

Rhinencephalon (olfactory lobes),
I5I

Ribs, 117; rudimentary, 114; ver-
tebral, 117; sternal, 118

Right pneumogastric nerve,
139; superior cava, 137

Roots of spinal nerves, 157

Rostrum of sphenoid, Io1, 103; of
sternum, 118

Rudimentary ribs, 114

138,

ACRAL enlargement, 156;
nerves, 162; vertebrez, 116

Scapula, 120

Scapus, 95 :

Sciatic artery, 140; nerve, 132, 163

Sclerotic, 159, 164

Scutella, 95

Second cranial (optic) nerve, 152,
164

Sella turcica, 109, 153

Semicircular canals, 111, 160

Semilunar valves, 148, 150

Semiplume, 97

Seventh cranial (facial) nerve, 153,
160

Shoulder girdle, r19

Sinuses of Valsalva, 148, I50

Sinus rhomboidalis, 156

Sixth cranial (abducens) nerve, 153,
154, 159

Skull, 102

Small intestine, 135, 144

Solar plexus, 140, 162

Spermatozoa, 147

Spinal accessory (eleventh cranial)
nerve, 153, 160; cord, 150, 156,
157; ganglia, 157; nerves, 130,
162

Splanchnic nerve, 162

Spleen, 139, 144

Splenial, 113

Squamosal bone, 108

Sternum, 118

Stomach, 135, 143, 145

Subclavian artery, 128, 136

Suboccipital (first cervical) nerve,

154

Suborbital bony bar, 104, 107

Superior cave, 137, 150; laryngeal
nerve, 160; maxillary nerve, 158 ;
mesenteric artery, 140; oblique
muscle, 163; rectus muscle, 159,
163

Supra-occipital bone, 110

174 INDEX.

Surangulare, 112

Sympathetic nerve, 114, 160, 161
Syringeal muscles, 126, 129, 141
Syrinx, 141

fbr kN Sas! 94, 95,
IOI, 124

Tenth cranial (pneumogastric)
nerve, 129, 153, 160

Tentorium, I51

Testes, 146

Thigh, 94

Third cranial (motor oculi) nerve,
152, 154, 159; ventricle, 155

Thoracic air-sacs, 133

Thymus gland, 136

Thyroid cartilage, 143; gland, 120,
143

Tibio-tarsus, 124

Tongue, 102

Trachea, 126, 142

Transverse ligament, 115; pro-
cesses of vertebrze, 116, 117

Trigeminal (fifth cranial) nerve,
104, 153

Trochlear nerve, 152

Trunk, 100

Tuberculum, 118

Tuberosity, greater, of humerus,
I2I

Twelfth cranial (hypoglossal) nerve,
153, 154, 161

Tympanum of ear, 167; of syrinx,
141

MBILICUS of feather, infe-
rior, 95; superior, 96
Ulna, 12t
Ureter, 147

Uropygial gland, 100
Uropygium, 100, 117

ee bicuspid, 149 ; musculo-

membranous of auricles, 149,
150; of right auriculo-ventricular
orifice, 150; of Vieussens, L523
semilunar, 148-150

Vanes, 96

Vas deferens, 146, 148

Vein, anterior abdominal, 137; an-
terior tibial, 132; femoral, 132,
137; jugular, 129, 130; left in-
nominate, 129 ; left superior cava,
136; portal, 137; posterior cava,
136, 137, 149; posterior tibial,
132; right superior cava, 137

Ventricle, first and second, 155;
fourth, I51, 153, 155, 157.; in sub-
stance of cerebellum, 152; third,

155

Ventricles of heart, 134, 148, 149

Vertebrz, caudal, 117; cervical,
113; dorsal, 116; lumbar, 116;
sacral, 116

Vertebral artery, 114, 135; canal,
II4, 135; vein, 114

Vestibule of ear, 166

Vitreous humor, 165

Vocal organs, 141

Vomer, 109

WINGS, 93, 94
Wing coverts, 99

b Ce processes, 118

— i.

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